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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 78213 ***
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+                             SHRAPNEL SHELL
+                              MANUFACTURE
+
+                A COMPREHENSIVE TREATISE ON THE FORGING,
+                MACHINING, AND HEAT-TREATMENT OF SHELLS,
+                 AND THE MANUFACTURE OF CARTRIDGE CASES
+                  AND FUSES FOR SHRAPNEL USED IN FIELD
+                AND MOUNTAIN ARTILLERY, GIVING COMPLETE
+                DIRECTION FOR TOOL EQUIPMENT AND METHODS
+                 OF SETTING UP MACHINES, TOGETHER WITH
+                GOVERNMENT SPECIFICATIONS FOR THIS CLASS
+                              OF MUNITIONS
+
+                         By DOUGLAS T. HAMILTON
+
+                      ASSOCIATE EDITOR OF MACHINERY
+                 AUTHOR OF “ADVANCED GRINDING PRACTICE,”
+                   “AUTOMATIC SCREW MACHINE PRACTICE,”
+                         “MACHINE FORGING,” ETC.
+
+                             _FIRST EDITION_
+
+
+                                NEW YORK
+                          THE INDUSTRIAL PRESS
+                                  1915
+
+
+
+
+                             COPYRIGHT, 1915
+                                   BY
+                          THE INDUSTRIAL PRESS
+                                NEW YORK
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+The design of shrapnel and the machining of its component parts
+are matters which, at the present time, are of world-wide interest
+to manufacturers, engineers, toolmakers, and mechanics in general.
+Shrapnel is used in enormous quantities in the great European war,
+and American machine tool builders have been called upon to provide
+machines and tool equipment of the latest and most efficient design to
+meet the demands made upon the manufacturers of shrapnel. Many shops
+are running full force, day and night, and are months behind with their
+orders. The great importance of shrapnel manufacture, at the present
+time, is, therefore, unquestioned.
+
+A small percentage of shrapnel shells are now made from bar stock, but
+most shrapnel bodies are made from forgings, formed hollow in hydraulic
+presses or in forging machines. The forging processes, which are of
+extraordinary interest, especially to those who know something of the
+difficulties attending them, are, however, not finishing processes.
+Whether made from the bar or forged hollow, all shrapnel shells must be
+very accurately finished by machining.
+
+This book has been brought out to meet the demands for a treatise
+dealing comprehensively with the construction, forging and machining
+operations, and the tool equipment used for making the shell, fuse
+parts, and brass cases. In this book are included not only the
+unusually complete articles on shrapnel manufacture contained in the
+April, 1915, number of MACHINERY, of which 5000 extra copies were
+printed and 5000 additional reprints made, all of which have been sold,
+but it also includes all other material that has been published at
+various times in MACHINERY relating to shrapnel manufacture, together
+with a great deal of material obtained by the Editors especially for
+this book; and, in addition to this, it contains abstracts of the
+official specifications, together with line-engravings of the details
+of Russian, British, and American shrapnel shell bodies, fuses, and
+cartridge cases. Hence, it is believed that the book will prove
+the most valuable addition to the literature on the manufacture of
+munitions that has been made since the beginning of the great war.
+
+                                                            D. T. H.
+
+NEW YORK, _October, 1915_.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+  CHAPTER I.
+
+  Shrapnel Shells                                                   1-19
+
+  CHAPTER II.
+
+  Forging Shrapnel Shells                                          20-39
+
+  CHAPTER III.
+
+  Machining and Heat-treatment of Shrapnel Shells                  40-74
+
+  CHAPTER IV.
+
+  Machines and Tools for Shrapnel Manufacture                     75-142
+
+  CHAPTER V.
+
+  Making Fuse Parts                                              143-171
+
+  CHAPTER VI.
+
+  Making Shrapnel Cartridge Cases                                172-193
+
+  CHAPTER VII.
+
+  Specifications for the Manufacture and Inspection of the
+  Russian 3-inch Shrapnel Shell                                  194-212
+
+  CHAPTER VIII.
+
+  Specifications for the Manufacture and Inspection of the
+  Combination Fuse for Russian 3-inch Shrapnel Shells            213-230
+
+  CHAPTER IX.
+
+  Specifications for the Manufacture and Inspection of
+  Russian 3-inch Shrapnel and High-explosive Cartridge Cases     231-250
+
+  CHAPTER X.
+
+  Specifications for British 18-pounder Quick-firing
+  Shrapnel Shell                                                 251-259
+
+  CHAPTER XI.
+
+  Specifications for British Combination Time and Percussion
+  Fuses                                                          260-275
+
+  CHAPTER XII.
+
+  Specifications for British 18-pounder Quick-firing
+  Cartridge Case and Primer                                      276-285
+
+  CHAPTER XIII.
+
+  Specifications for American Shrapnel Shells                    286-292
+
+  INDEX                                                          293-296
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+SHRAPNEL SHELLS
+
+
+In naval, coast defense and artillery operations, several types of
+explosive shells are used; the chief ones are: the armor-piercing
+shell, made to pierce armor-plate before exploding; shells exploded
+by means of a timing fuse; shells exploded by either a timing or
+percussion fuse; and shells exploded by percussion only. Each different
+shell has some definite function to fulfill, and is designed for
+that purpose. For field or artillery operations, the shrapnel and
+lyddite are the two principal types used. Of these, shrapnel is the
+most prominent, because of its destructive power and its interesting
+mechanical construction.
+
+
+=Early Development of Shrapnel.=--The shrapnel shell was invented
+in 1784 by Lieut. Henry Shrapnel, and was adopted by the British
+Government in 1808. As is shown at _A_ in Fig. 2, the first shell was
+spherical in shape, and the powder or explosive charge was mixed with
+the bullets. Although this type of shell was an improvement over the
+grape and canister previously used, its action was not altogether
+satisfactory, as the shell, on bursting, projected the bullets in all
+directions and there was also a liability of premature explosion. In
+order to overcome the defects mentioned, Col. Boxer separated the
+bullets from the bursting charge by a sheet-iron diaphragm, as shown at
+_B_ in Fig. 2. This shell was called a diaphragm shell to differentiate
+it from the first shell of this type.
+
+In the shell made by Col. Boxer, the lead bullets were hardened by the
+addition of antimony, and as the bursting charge was small, the shell
+was weakened by cutting four grooves extending from the fuse hole to
+the opposite side of the shell. Shells of spherical shape were first
+fired out of plain-bored guns, and upon the advent of the rifled gun
+it was necessary to add a circular base, which was made of wood and
+covered with sheet iron or steel to take the rifling grooves. The first
+shrapnel shells were made of cast iron, but a later development was to
+use steel and elongate the body, reducing it in diameter. The diameter
+of the bullets was also reduced so that a greater number could be
+contained in a slightly smaller space. The improved shrapnel was also
+capable of being more accurately directed.
+
+
+=Shrapnel Shells of Present-day Design.=--Shrapnel shells, as used
+at the present time by the different governments, vary slightly in
+construction and general contour as well as in the constituents
+entering into their different members. As shown in Fig. 1, a completed
+shrapnel comprises a brass case carrying a detonating primer and the
+explosive charge for propelling the projectile out of the bore of
+the gun. The projectile itself comprises a forged shell that carries
+the lead bullets and bursting charge. Screwed into the front end is
+the combination timing and percussion fuse which can be set so as to
+explode the shell at any desired point, and from which the flame for
+exploding the bursting charge is conveyed through a powder timing train
+and a tube filled with powder pellets down through the diaphragm to the
+powder pocket.
+
+Of these members of a shrapnel, the shell and timing fuse present the
+most interesting features from a mechanical standpoint. The shell used
+by most governments is made from a forging, machined to the desired
+dimensions in hand and semi-automatic turret lathes as well as in
+ordinary engine lathes. The fuse is an extremely accurate piece of
+mechanism, and is largely produced from screw machine parts, some of
+which, however, are forged previous to machining. The brass cartridge
+case--the next member of importance--is drawn from a brass blank by
+successive operations in drawing presses, and is indented and headed.
+Following this, several machining operations are performed on the head
+and primer pocket.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1. Types of Shrapnel Shells used by the American,
+Russian, German, French, and British Governments]
+
+
+=Types of Shrapnel Shells.=--Shrapnel shells are made in two distinct
+types, one of which is known as the common shell, and the other as
+the high-explosive. The common shell is a base-charged shrapnel,
+fitted with a combination fuse, whereas the high-explosive shell is
+fitted with a combination fuse and, in addition, with a high-explosive
+head, the head also bursting and flying into atoms upon impact. The
+high-explosive shell is not ruptured upon the explosion of the bursting
+charge in the base, but the head is forced out and the bullets are
+shot out of the case with an increased velocity. In the meantime,
+the head continues in its flight and detonates on impact. This type
+of shell is not used as extensively as the common shrapnel, and,
+therefore, the common shrapnel shell alone will be taken up in the
+following.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2. Original Shell designed by Lieut. Henry Shrapnel
+and Col. Boxer’s Improvement]
+
+
+=The Explosive Charge.=--Reference to Fig. 1 will show that as far
+as the construction of the shrapnel shell and case is concerned,
+there is very little difference in those employed by the various
+governments. Starting with the cases, it will be seen that these are
+almost identical, except for length and the arrangement of the head for
+carrying the detonating primer. There is a marked similarity in this
+respect between the Russian, the British, and the German, and between
+the American and the French. The form of the explosive charge held in
+the brass case differs in almost every instance, but without exception
+smokeless powder in some form or other is used. In the American shell,
+nitrocellulose powder composed of multi-perforated cylindrical grains
+each 0.35 inch long and 0.195 inch in diameter are used. In the Russian
+case, smokeless powder of crystalline structure is used. In the German,
+smokeless (nitrocellulose) powder in long sticks and arranged in
+bundles is held in the case. The French use stick smokeless powder
+¹⁄₂ millimeter (0.0195 inch) thick by 12.69 millimeters (¹⁄₂ inch)
+wide. Two lengths or rows of this powder are arranged in the case.
+The British use a smokeless powder of crystalline structure somewhat
+similar to the Russian, but in some cases cordite has also been used,
+although of late this type of powder has not been quite as commonly
+employed.
+
+The detonating agent or primer held in the head of the case varies in
+almost every type of shrapnel. Practically all primers are provided
+with “safety heads,” so that the shrapnel can be handled without danger
+of premature explosion. The object, of course, of the detonating agent
+or primer is to detonate or cause the sudden explosion of the explosive
+charge in the shell for propelling the shrapnel out of the field gun.
+
+
+=The Shrapnel Shell.=--The shell itself, as previously mentioned,
+is made either from a forging or from bar stock. Forgings, however,
+are used to a greater extent than bar stock, because the forged
+shell is more homogeneous in its structure than the bar-stock shell,
+and piping--a serious objection in the bar-stock shell--is entirely
+eliminated. The shells used by the British, Russian, and German
+governments are made almost exclusively from forgings, whereas those
+used by the French and American governments are made both from forgings
+and bar stock. When the French shell is made from bar stock, an
+auxiliary base is screwed into it to eliminate any danger of piping.
+Near the base of all shells is a groove in which a bronze or copper
+band is hydraulically shrunk. This is afterward machined to the desired
+shape and takes the rifling grooves in the gun so as to rotate the
+shell when it is expelled. The body of the shell itself is slightly
+smaller than the bore in the gun, and the rifling band, which is
+larger and which is compressed into the rifling grooves, rotates the
+projectile, thus keeping it in a straight line laterally during flight.
+The bursting charge, which in practically all cases is common black
+powder, is carried in the base of the shell and is usually enclosed
+in a tin cup. Located above this is the diaphragm which is used for
+carrying the lead bullets out of the shell when the bursting charge
+explodes and distributes them in a fan shape. In most shells, upon
+exploding, the nose blows out, stripping the threads that hold the
+members together. It will, therefore, be seen that, in the explosion,
+the entire fuse, fuse base, tube, diaphragm and bullets are all
+ejected, the shell itself acting as a secondary cannon in the air.
+
+The number of lead bullets carried in the 3-inch shrapnel shells ranges
+from 210 to 360. In all cases, the lead bullets are about ¹⁄₂ inch in
+diameter, weigh approximately 167 grains, and are kept from moving in
+the shell by resin or other smoke-producing matrix. The matrix put
+in with the lead bullets, in addition to keeping them from rattling,
+is also used as a “tracer.” It is of importance in firing shrapnel
+that the position of the explosion be plainly seen. With large shells
+this is not difficult, but with shrapnel for field guns at long range
+certain conditions of the atmosphere make it difficult to see when
+the shell actually bursts. Various mixtures are used to overcome this
+difficulty. In some cases, fine-grained black powder is compressed in
+with the bullets in order to give the desired effect. In the German
+shrapnel, a mixture of red amorphous phosphorus and fine-grained
+powder which produces a dense white cloud of smoke is used, and in the
+Russian, a mixture of magnesium antimony sulphide is used. The range of
+a 3-inch shrapnel shell is about 6500 yards, and the muzzle velocity
+of the quick-firing field gun ranges from 1700 on the American to 1930
+feet per second on the Russian field gun. The duration of flight ranges
+from 21 to 25 seconds.
+
+
+=Development of Timing and Percussion Fuses.=--The first fuses used
+in field ammunition were short iron or copper tubes filled with a
+slow-burning composition. These were screwed into a fuse hole provided
+in the shell, but there was no means for regulating the time of
+burning. Later--about the end of the seventeenth century--the fuse
+case was made of paper or wood so that by drilling a hole through into
+the composition the fuse could be made to burn for approximately the
+desired length of time before exploding the shell, or the fuse could be
+cut to the correct length to accomplish the same purpose.
+
+For a considerable time all attempts to produce a percussion fuse were
+unsuccessful. Upon the discovery of fulminate of mercury in 1799,
+the chief requirement of a percussion fuse was obtained. About fifty
+years elapsed, however, before a satisfactory fuse was made. The
+first percussion fuse was known as the Pettman fuse, and comprised a
+roughened ball covered with detonating composition that was released
+upon the discharge of the gun. When the shell hit the desired object,
+the ball struck against the inner walls of the fuse, exploded the
+composition and powder charge, thus bursting the shell. There are at
+the present time three principal types of fuses in use: First, those
+depending on gas pressure in the gun setting the pellet of the fuse
+free--this is a base fuse; second, those relying on the shock of
+discharge or the rotation of the shell to set the pellet free--used in
+nose and base fuses; third, those depending on impact.
+
+In shrapnel shells advantage is taken of two types of fuses, one of
+which is the combination timing and percussion fuse used on common
+shrapnel, and the other the combination timing and percussion fuse of
+the high-explosive type used on high-explosive shrapnel. These types of
+fuses are again sub-divided, but only in the manner of construction.
+The most common fuse is that known as the combination timing and
+percussion fuse of the double-banked type. This is used in practically
+all shrapnel fuses except the French. The advantage of the double ring
+of composition shown at _A_ and _B_ in Fig. 3 is to give a greater
+length of composition and more accurate burning. Triple-banked and
+quadruple-banked fuses on the same principle have been designed, but at
+the present time have not been introduced.
+
+
+=Operation of Combination Timing and Percussion Fuses.=--The manner
+in which the combination timing and percussion fuse is regulated to
+discharge the bursting charge in the shrapnel shell is interesting and
+involves extremely difficult mathematical calculations. Before going
+into the method of setting the fuse, it would probably be advisable
+to describe briefly just how the fuse operates. As an example of the
+double-banked fuse, Fig. 3 shows that adopted by the United States
+government. The following description applies to this type of fuse.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3. American Type of Combination Timing and
+Percussion Fuse used on Shrapnel Shells]
+
+Assume, first, that the timing ring is set at zero. The propelling
+force given to the shrapnel shell in leaving the bore of the gun is
+such as to sever the wire _C_ from plunger _G_. Plunger _G_ carries a
+concussion primer which is discharged by hitting firing pin _D_. The
+flame passes out through vent _E_, igniting the powder pellet _F_ and
+the upper end of train _A_, and then through the vent _H_. From here,
+the flame is transmitted to the lower timing ring _B_ through vent _I_
+and the magazine _J_, and from there through the tube to the bursting
+charge in the base of the shrapnel shell.
+
+Assume any other setting, say 12 seconds. The vent _H_ is now changed
+in position with respect to vent _F_ leading to the upper timing
+train, and the vent _I_ leading to the powder magazine _J_ is also
+changed. The flame, therefore, now passes through vent _E_ and burns
+along the upper time train _A_ in a counterclockwise direction until
+the vent _H_ is reached. It then passes down to the beginning of the
+lower timing train and burns back in a clockwise direction to the
+position of vent _I_, from which it is transmitted by the pellet of
+compressed powder in this vent to the powder magazine _J_. It should be
+understood that the annular grooves in the lower face of each timing
+train do not form complete circles, a solid portion being left between
+the grooves in the ends of each. This solid portion is used to obtain
+a setting at which the fuse cannot be exploded and is known as the
+“safety point.” As shown in Fig. 6, it is marked _S_ on the adjustable
+timing ring.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4. Russian Type of Combination Timing and
+Percussion Fuse used on Shrapnel Shells]
+
+The timing fuse shown in Fig. 3 is of the combination timing and
+percussion type, and if the wire _C_ fails to release percussion
+plunger _G_, the shell is exploded by means of a percussion fuse
+which comes into use when the shell strikes. The percussive mechanism
+consists of a primer _K_ held in an inverted position in the center
+of the fuse body by a cup located beneath the percussive primer.
+Percussion plunger _L_ works in a recess in the base of the fuse body
+and is kept at the bottom of the recess away from contact with the
+primer by a light spring in plunger _M_. The firing pin _N_ is mounted
+on a fulcrumed pin, and is normally kept in the vertical position by
+means of two side spring plungers. When the shell strikes, the impact
+causes the plunger to snap up against the primer after compressing the
+spring in pin _M_. This causes the firing of the primer _K_ and the
+explosive charge passes out through a hole in the percussion plunger
+chamber, not shown, to the magazine _J_ and from there down to the
+powder in the base of the shell
+
+
+=Russian Fuse.=--The Russian fuse shown in Fig. 4 differs only in a few
+minor details from the American fuse, the chief difference being in
+the arrangement of the percussive mechanisms. The percussive plunger
+for the timing arrangement is kept up from the firing pin by means of
+a spring bushing _E_ surrounding the body of the plunger. This bushing
+is expanded by the plunger which is forced through it due to the force
+of the shrapnel in leaving the bore of the gun. The spring _B_ in the
+head of the fuse assists the plunger in expanding bushing _E_ and in
+dropping down onto the firing pin _C_. The flame from the exploded
+primer then travels down to the powder in the shell in practically the
+same way that it does in the American fuse, except that the magazine
+chamber is located at _D_ and explodes through the impact fuse chamber.
+The percussive arrangement for setting the shell off by impact is
+slightly different from that in the American fuse, in that the primer
+and firing pin are held apart by means of springs, the inertia of which
+is overcome when the shell strikes an object.
+
+
+=French Fuse.=--With the exception of a few minor details, the timing
+fuses used in American, Russian, British, German, Japanese, etc.,
+shrapnel shells are the same. The French timing fuse, however, as shown
+by the diagram Fig. 5, operates on an entirely different principle. In
+this fuse, the firing for the timing train is contained in a sealed
+tube of pure tin and is wound spirally around the head of the fuse.
+Inside of the head is the ignition arrangement. To set the timing part
+of this fuse, it is placed in a fuse-setting machine attached to the
+field gun and, by forcing down a handle on this device, a piercing
+point is thrust through the outer cap of the fuse, penetrating to the
+interior space of the head as shown at _A_. Upon the discharge of
+the shell from the gun, the gas pressure forces firing pin _B_ back,
+hitting the percussive primer _C_. This causes a flame which passes out
+through the opening previously punched at _A_ and ignites the “rope”
+powder fuse which is wound around the head of the fuse body. This type
+of fuse is also provided with a fuse which sets off the shell by impact
+should the timing fuse fail to work. The head of the fuse is covered
+with a cap with holes for the piercing point, and the whole cap can
+be shifted around for a short distance and set by the corrector scale
+marked on the body, as shown in Fig. 1. A projection on the cap engages
+a recess in the fuse-setting machine and provides for this movement.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5. French Type of Combination Timing and Percussion
+Fuse]
+
+
+=Firing of Shrapnel.=--The accuracy with which a shrapnel can be
+exploded in the air at any desired point is remarkable, considering
+the number of variable quantities that enter into the construction of
+the timing fuse and powder train, etc. The calculations necessary for
+finding the correct setting on the timing ring involve, however, the
+use of higher mathematics and are consequently not within the scope of
+this treatise.
+
+In Fig. 6, the timing ring used on the American fuse is shown. Here
+it will be seen that the ring is provided with twenty-one graduations
+corresponding to twenty-one seconds in the duration of flight of the
+projectile. It will also be noticed that the spacing of the graduations
+differs. The reason for this is found in the relation of the vents,
+the positions of the lower timing train, the trajectory of the flying
+missile, and the decrease of velocity.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6. Diagram showing how Timing Ring on the American
+Combination Timing and Percussion Fuse is laid out]
+
+Diagram Fig. 7 shows in an interesting manner just how a shrapnel is
+fired. The range is approximately obtained by panoramic sights or
+other means, and a test shell fired, the point of explosion noted, and
+the necessary corrections made. A table which has been worked out for
+different distances is then used. In Fig. 7 the diagram shown pertains
+to the American quick-firing field gun having a muzzle velocity of 1700
+feet per second and the American shrapnel of 3-inch size. It will be
+noted that at 2000 yards the terminal velocity of the shrapnel is 1038
+feet per second and the time of flight for the projectile 4.75 seconds.
+In other words, the timing train to explode the shrapnel at this point
+would be set at _A_ in Fig. 6. The range of a 3-inch American shrapnel
+is 6500 yards and at this point the terminal velocity is approximately
+724 feet per second, the time of flight 21.92 seconds. The shrapnel,
+when exploded, shoots out the bullets at an increased velocity or from
+250 to 300 feet per second, covering an area of about 250 by 30 yards,
+half the bullets falling on the first 50 yards of the beaten zone.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7. Diagram Illustrating Path of a Shrapnel and the
+Time of Explosion at Various Distances]
+
+In manufacturing shrapnel shells, a test shell is taken from every 120
+shells, which is actually fired out of a quick-firing gun into a bank
+of sand. If the contour of the shell in the neighborhood of the powder
+pocket is expanded during this test, the shell is discarded because of
+the liability of tearing out the rifling grooves in the gun
+
+
+=Propellants and Explosives used in Shrapnel and High-explosive
+Shells.=--As has been previously explained, a shrapnel shell contains
+three principal parts, _viz._, the projectile that carries the
+destructive charge of lead bullets, the fuse that carries a detonating
+arrangement for exploding the charge in the base of the projectile,
+and the cartridge case that carries the powder charge used in
+propelling the projectile out of the bore of the gun. A high-explosive
+shell also comprises three principal parts, but the projectile,
+instead of carrying a charge of bullets and black powder, is filled
+with a high-explosive material, which, when detonated, bursts the body
+of the projectile into small pieces that are thrown off with great
+velocity and destructive effect. Shrapnel is used against troops in
+the open field, whereas high-explosive shells, which may be either
+of the ordinary or of the armor-piercing type, are used against
+fortifications, etc
+
+
+=Classification of Explosives.=--The explosives used in shrapnel and
+high-explosive shells may be divided into three general classes: 1.
+Progressive or propelling explosives--known as “low” explosives. 2.
+Detonating or disruptive explosives--known as “high” explosives. 3.
+Detonators--known as “fulminates.” The first of these includes black
+gun powder, smokeless powder, and black blasting powder. The second,
+dynamite, nitroglycerine, gun cotton, etc. The third includes chiefly
+fulminates and chlorates. In all classes of explosives, the effect
+of the explosion is dependent upon the quantity of gas and the heat
+developed per unit of weight and volume of the explosive, the rapidity
+of the reaction, and the character of the confinement, if any, of the
+explosive charge.
+
+_Low Explosives._--For certain explosives, such as smokeless powder,
+the explosive action does not differ in principle from the burning
+of a piece of wood or other combustible material. The combustion is
+very rapid, but is a surface action, progressing from layer to layer
+until the entire grain is consumed. Such materials are known as “low”
+explosives, although the power developed through the combustion of
+a unit weight may be very great. The progressive emission of gas
+from a low explosive, such as burning gun powder, produces a pushing
+effect upon a projectile without unduly straining the gun, whereas
+the sudden conversion of an equal weight of a high explosive, such
+as nitroglycerine, into gas, would develop such high pressures as to
+rupture the gun.
+
+_High Explosives._--In high explosives, such as nitroglycerine, gun
+cotton, picric acid, etc., the progress of the explosive reaction
+is not by burning from layer to layer, but, instead, consists of an
+initial breaking up of the molecules, giving rise to an explosive wave,
+which is transmitted with great velocity in all directions throughout
+the mass, and causes it to be converted almost instantly into a gas.
+The velocity of this explosive wave has been determined, for some
+materials, to be more than 20,000 feet, or approximately four miles,
+per second.
+
+_Detonators or Fulminates._--The action of fulminates is much more
+powerful than either the low or high explosives described. They can
+be readily detonated by slight shock or by the application of heat,
+and are used in primers, for setting off the propelling charge in a
+cartridge case, and in fuses, either of the plain percussion or of
+the combination time and percussion types. The most common fulminate
+is made by dissolving mercury in strong nitric acid and then pouring
+the solution into alcohol. After an apparently violent reaction, a
+mass of fine, gray crystals of fulminate of mercury is produced. The
+crystalline powder thus produced is washed with water to free it from
+acid and is then mixed with glass ground to a fine powder. Because of
+its extreme sensitiveness to heat produced by the slightest friction,
+it is usually kept soaked in water or alcohol until needed
+
+
+=Manufacture of Black Powder.=--Black powder, because of its “pushing”
+effect when exploded, is used extensively as a base charge for shrapnel
+shells in expelling the bullets from the projectile. It comprises
+three principal elements in about the following proportions: 75
+parts of saltpeter, 15 parts of charcoal, and 10 parts of sulphur.
+These ingredients must be absolutely free from impurities and, in
+manufacturing, great care is taken in refining the saltpeter and
+sulphur, and in burning the charcoal, to prevent the introduction
+of any foreign substances. After purification, the ingredients are
+carefully weighed in the proper proportions and mixed for about 5
+minutes in a revolving drum provided with mixing arms. The mixed
+charge is now ground for several hours, the charge being moistened
+occasionally with distilled water, the resulting mixture being what
+is called a “milk cake.” It is then reduced to fine meal in a machine
+having Tobin bronze or gun-metal rollers, after which it is compressed
+under hydraulic pressure.
+
+The next operation comprises the granulating of the powder, which is
+done in a strong Tobin bronze or gun-metal framework carrying two pairs
+of toothed and two pairs of plain Tobin bronze or gun-metal rollers.
+The “cake” is cut into pieces by these rollers and falls on screens
+which sift it into grains of the required size. The grains are then
+separated from the dust in a revolving screen, and the high polish or
+glaze is produced by putting the powder into drums or glazing barrels,
+which revolve constantly for several hours. Graphite is generally used
+to provide the glazing effect. The powder is now dried in a stove
+heated by steam pipes, and is spread upon canvas trays placed on shelves
+
+
+=Manufacture of Smokeless Powder.=--Smokeless powder, which is used
+in various forms in cartridge cases, was discovered in 1846 by a
+German chemist Schoenbein. The chief ingredient of smokeless powder
+is cotton. The portion of cotton used is generally the short fiber.
+The first attempts to produce gun cotton were unsatisfactory, and
+several very serious explosions occurred. Many of the difficulties in
+its manufacture were overcome by an Austrian, von Lenk. Still further
+progress was made by a Swedish engineer, Alfred Nobel, and the improved
+explosive was patented in 1888 under the name of “ballistite.” One of
+the principal smokeless powders is known as “cordite”, this name being
+derived from the cord-like form it assumes in manufacture. The first
+compositions of cordite were: 58 per cent of nitroglycerine; 37 per
+cent of gun cotton; and 5 per cent of mineral jelly. This composition,
+after considerable use, was found to have a slight deteriorating effect
+on the bore of the gun, and after ten years’ use was modified to the
+following proportions: 30 per cent of nitroglycerine; 65 per cent of
+gun cotton; and 5 per cent of mineral jelly.
+
+The brand of smokeless powder used most extensively as a propelling
+charge in shrapnel or high-explosive shells is known as nitrocellulose,
+and, as is common with cordite, the base of this is cotton, as
+previously explained. It is manufactured as follows: After bleaching
+and purifying, the cotton is run through a picker which opens up the
+fibers and breaks up any lumps. It is then thoroughly dried and is
+ready for nitration. The most generally used method of nitration is
+to put the cotton into a large vessel filled with a mixture of nitric
+and sulphuric acids. The sulphuric acid absorbs the water developed
+in the process of nitration, which would otherwise too greatly dilute
+the nitric acid. After a few minutes’ immersion, the pot is rapidly
+rotated by power, and the acid permitted to escape. Following this,
+the nitrated cotton is washed for a short time and then removed from
+the nitrator or pot and repeatedly washed or boiled to remove all
+traces of free acid. As the keeping qualities of the nitrated cotton
+are dependent upon the thoroughness with which it is purified, the
+specifications for powder for the United States army and navy require
+that the nitrocellulose shall be given at least five boilings at this
+stage of the manufacture, with a change of water after each boiling,
+the total time of boiling being forty hours. Following this preliminary
+purification, the nitrocellulose is cut up into shorter lengths, by
+being rapidly run between cylinders carrying revolving knives. This
+operation--known as “pulping”--is necessary because of the difficulty
+experienced in removing the free acid, unless the fibers are cut up
+into short lengths.
+
+After pulping, the nitrocellulose is given six more boilings, with a
+change of water after each, followed by ten cold water washings. The
+material is now known as gun cotton or pyrocellulose. Previous to
+adding the solvent, this must be free from water. This is generally
+accomplished in a circular wringer, and in addition by compressing
+the pyrocellulose into solid blocks. Alcohol is forced through the
+compressed mass. Ether is then added to the pyrocellulose already
+impregnated with alcohol, the relative proportions being two parts,
+by volume, of ether to one part of alcohol. After the ether has been
+thoroughly incorporated in a kneading machine, the material is placed
+in a hydraulic press and formed into cylindrical blocks about 10 inches
+in diameter and 15 inches long. It is then transferred to a finishing
+press where it is again forced through dies and comes out in the form
+of long strips or rods, which are cut into pieces of the length and
+widths required. It is in this finishing process that the various
+governments differ in their methods of manufacture. The United States
+Government uses a short perforated circular block, whereas the French
+use flat sticks about 0.0195 inch thick by ¹⁄₂ inch wide. Two lengths
+or rows of these sticks are arranged in the cartridge case. The cut
+up pieces are subjected to a drying process which removes nearly all
+the solvent and leaves the material in a suitable condition for use.
+The drying process is a lengthy one, amounting to as much as four or
+five months for powder in large pieces. Upon completion, the powder is
+blended and packed in airtight boxes
+
+
+=Manufacture of High Explosives.=--The explosive charges used in
+high-explosive shells are known by various trade names, such as:
+emmensite, lyddite, melinite, maximite, nitrobenzole, nitronaphthalene,
+shimose, trinitrotoluol, turpenite, etc. The base of such explosives as
+emmensite, maximite, lyddite, melinite, and shimose, is picric acid,
+which is secured from coal tar, subjected to fractional distillation.
+The liquid which comes off when this is raised to a temperature of
+150 degrees C. is called “light” oil, and when these light oils
+have been again distilled, the next fraction or “middle” oil yields
+phenol or carbolic acid. This substance when nitrated gives off
+picric acid. Experiments with lyddite shells showed their behavior
+to be very erratic, some exploding with great effect, while others
+gave disappointing results. This was due to the fact that picric
+acid requires a powerful detonator to obtain the highest explosive
+effect. The use of such a detonator, however, is dangerous, and
+extensive experiments have brought forth a new high explosive known as
+trinitrotoluol--generally termed T.N.T. Although the explosive force of
+trinitrotoluol is slightly less than that of picric acid, the pressure
+of the latter being 135,820 pounds per square inch as against 119,000
+pounds for trinitrotoluol, its advantages more than compensate for the
+difference.
+
+Trinitrotoluol is obtained by the nitration of toluene, contained in
+the crude benzol distilled from coal tar and washed out from coal gas.
+The crude benzol contains roughly:
+
+
+                    Per cent
+    Benzine            50
+    Toluene            36
+    Xylene             11
+    Other substances    3
+
+
+Toluene to be used for the manufacture of trinitrotoluol should be a
+clear water-like liquid, free from suspended solid matter, and having a
+specific gravity of not less than 0.868, nor more than 0.870, at 15.5
+degrees C. Trinitrotoluol when pure has no odor and is a yellowish
+crystalline powder which darkens slightly with age. It cannot be
+exploded by flame or strong percussion, and a rifle bullet may be
+fired through it without any effect. When heated to 180 degrees C., it
+ignites and burns with a heavy black smoke; but when detonated by a
+fulminate of mercury detonator, it explodes with great violence, giving
+off a black smoke. Shells containing this explosive, first used on the
+western battle front, were given such names as “coal boxes,” “Jack
+Johnsons,” “Black Marias,” etc., by the allies.
+
+The Russians and Austrians use a high explosive known as ammonal in
+which 12 to 15 per cent of trinitrotoluol is mixed with an oxidizing
+compound, ammonium nitrate, a small amount of aluminum powder, and a
+trace of charcoal. This high explosive gives somewhat better results
+than plain trinitrotoluol, but has the one disadvantage of easily
+collecting moisture, and consequently must be made up in airtight
+cartridges. The British are now using an improved compound of this
+character, which is so prepared that trouble is not experienced with
+the collection of moisture.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+FORGING SHRAPNEL SHELLS
+
+
+Within the last few months, many methods have been suggested for making
+shrapnel forgings, but a comparatively small number have been put into
+use. Practically speaking, no two governments have adopted the same
+method. The Russian government uses double-acting horizontal hydraulic
+forging presses in which two operations are performed at the same time
+on different forgings. For instance, while the punch in one end of
+the machine is piercing a heated billet, the ram on the return stroke
+performs the hot drawing operation on another shell located at the
+opposite end of the machine. In this way a shell is completed at each
+cycle of the machine--forward and return stroke. The French government,
+up to a short time ago, used steam hammers for this purpose, and
+produced shrapnel forgings in practically the same manner as a
+drop-forging is made, the punch being carried in the ram of the press
+and the die held on the bed. This is rather a slow process and requires
+more than one heating to complete the forging. The German government
+uses a horizontal hydraulic forging press for piercing the billet and
+a steam driven machine for drawing the forging, which receives its
+motion from a rack and pinion. This method has the advantage over the
+hydraulic press of being more economical in the consumption of power.
+
+The methods followed by different concerns in this country and Canada,
+at the present time, differ to a large extent. Some manufacturers are
+using a method that dates back as far as 1890, as will be described
+later. Others are using a more improved method developed about 1895,
+whereas about three concerns are using a still more improved method
+developed within the past year
+
+
+=Caley Method of Making Shrapnel Forgings.=--The first method (known
+as the Caley process) of making shrapnel forgings in this country had
+its inception about 1890 and was used almost exclusively until 1895.
+This comprised a slug-forming and billet-piercing operation followed by
+a successive reduction and elongation of the forging through drawing
+dies. The order of these operations is shown diagrammatically in Fig.
+1. The information given herewith pertains to the making of a forging
+for a 3-inch shrapnel shell. As shown at _D_, a billet of steel 3¹⁄₄
+inches in diameter and 6¹⁄₂ inches long was cut off from a bar with
+a cold saw, and formed into a cone shape under a vertical hydraulic
+press having a capacity of 100 tons. The billet was heated in a furnace
+to about 1900 degrees F., dropped into the impression in the die and
+forced into shape by a hydraulic plunger having a depression in the
+lower end which centered the blank. The result of this operation is
+shown at _F_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1. Diagram showing Caley Process of making Shrapnel
+Forgings in Hydraulic Forging Presses]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2. Watson-Stillman Hydraulic Forging Press of the
+Vertical Type used for making Shrapnel Forgings]
+
+The next step was to anneal the billet, after which it was pierced as
+shown at _C_, and at the same time slightly elongated. This operation
+was handled in a hydraulic press of the type shown in Fig. 2. On a 0.70
+per cent carbon steel billet the pressure on the punch in the piercing
+operation was 20,000 pounds per square inch, and the machine used was
+a vertical hydraulic forging press of the type referred to having a
+capacity of 100 tons. From the piercing operation the forging was
+taken direct without annealing to the horizontal hydraulic draw press,
+and, as is shown at _H_, was located on a punch and forced through a
+series of drawing dies which gradually reduced the shell to the correct
+diameter, 3¹⁄₈ inches, and drew it out to the required length, about
+8³⁄₄ inches.
+
+A point worthy of attention is the preparation of the cone-shaped
+billet. The smallest end was made slightly smaller than the smallest
+reduction die in the series. The reason for this was that if any
+drawing were done on the end of the shell the front corner would be
+drawn over and deformed, increasing the amount of machining required.
+The drawing dies in this case were six in number, as shown at _H_,
+and were reduced on a sliding scale of the following proportional
+reductions. First, 0.100 inch; second, 0.080 inch; third, 0.060 inch;
+fourth, 0.040 inch; fifth, 0.030 inch; and sixth, 0.020 inch. This gave
+dies of the following sizes, in inches, starting with the largest in
+the series: 3.355, 3.275, 3.215, 3.175, 3.145, and 3.125.
+
+The shape given to the drawing edges of the dies is of prime
+importance. The mouth or entering side of the hole was beveled to an
+angle of 20 degrees leading to a liberal curve which terminated in
+a land ¹⁄₁₆ inch wide. The shape was finished off with a ¹⁄₄-inch
+radius. These dies were made from chilled cast iron and were held in
+position as shown at _H_, being slipped into a pocket in the frame of
+the machine, as shown at _I_. The punches for the coning, piercing and
+hot drawing operations were made from special hot punching steel. The
+first drawing die in the series lasted the longest because the metal
+was hotter at this point than when it was drawn completely through the
+dies. As a rule, the last drawing die turned out 100 shells before
+being worn or scored. Then it was reground to a larger size and used
+again. The drawing punch was lubricated occasionally with graphite.
+After drawing, the forging is annealed to obtain the proper physical
+qualities. This method of making forgings for a 3-inch shrapnel shell
+is capable of producing 400 in ten hours.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3. Holinger Process of making Shrapnel Forgings]
+
+
+=Holinger Method of Making Shrapnel Forgings.=--About 1895 the
+following method, known as the Holinger process of making shrapnel
+forgings, was devised. Instead of making the billet conical in shape
+before piercing, this preliminary operation was dispensed with, and to
+facilitate the work, as well as to reduce the friction of the flowing
+metal, the arrangement of the piercing punch and die was changed. This
+process is shown in Figs. 3 and 4, and was accomplished in a hydraulic
+press provided with two cylinders, one located at the bottom and the
+other at the top of the press.
+
+The operation was as follows: The die _a_ was held in a movable frame
+_b_ and the piston _c_ acted first. The first position after the billet
+was dropped into the die is shown at _B_. Here the die _a_ and punch
+_d_ remained stationary while the piston _c_ descended, pushing the
+billet through the die and over the punch. When the piston reached
+the end of its stroke, as shown at _C_, the lower cylinder began to
+act and the frame carrying the die was raised. This frame, as shown
+at _D_, carried a stripper plate _e_ which removed the pierced billet
+from the punch and located it so that it could be picked off with a
+pair of tongs. A subsequent operation of hot drawing as shown at _E_,
+Fig. 4, was required, which is similar to that described in the first
+method. The method just described was used chiefly for 6- and 8-inch
+shrapnel and projectile forgings, and at the present time is still used
+for 3- and 6-inch shell forgings. It requires much less power and turns
+out a better and more concentric forging than the method previously
+described. The production on 8-inch shells is about 180 in ten hours,
+and 250 on the 3-inch shell.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4. Holinger Process of making Shrapnel Forgings]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5. Improved Method of making Shrapnel Forgings in
+One Heat and One Operation]
+
+
+=Later Methods of Forging Shrapnel Shells.=--The increased demand for
+shrapnel within the last few months has been instrumental in bringing
+about a radical improvement in the production of forged shells.
+Previously, the aim was to get the internal diameter as close as
+possible to the finished size and to do comparatively little machining
+on it; in fact, this is still, in a great number of cases, one of the
+requirements. While at first glance this would appear to be the logical
+way of handling the work, on further investigation it is found that
+the forging of the shell to the correct size is much more expensive
+than to leave sufficient metal to machine all over. In the first place,
+a hydraulic machine of 100 tons capacity costs considerably more in
+initial outlay than a turret lathe, and in the second place it is more
+expensive to operate. The cheapest method of making a shrapnel forging
+is to rough-forge it to approximately the correct shape and then finish
+to exact shape and diameter in turret lathes or semi-automatic chucking
+machines. This simplifies the forging process and also decreases the
+production costs.
+
+One of the later methods of making shrapnel forgings is shown
+diagrammatically in Fig. 5. A billet of steel 6¹⁄₂ inches long by 3⁵⁄₁₆
+inches in diameter is heated to a temperature of from 1900 to 2100
+degrees F., and then dropped into the impression in the die _a_ held in
+a special cast-steel die-holder _b_. To do this, die _a_ is drawn out
+from beneath the punch, punch guide _c_ removed, and the billet dropped
+in. Then the guide is replaced and the die-holder slid in until it
+contacts with the stop _d_. The press is now operated, and, as shown at
+_B_, advances, piercing the billet and making the metal flow up around
+the walls of the punch.
+
+The punch now retreats, carrying the centralizing guide _c_ with
+it. The die-holder is now drawn out from under the punch onto a
+bracket projecting from the bed of the press. The high-carbon steel,
+hardened block _e_ then drops out of the die, as is also the case
+with the finished forging. This block _e_, of course, is heated up
+to a considerable extent due to the hot metal resting on it so that
+several blocks of this kind are provided. In the illustration, as
+shown at _C_, centralizing guide _c_ is shown attached to the punch.
+In actual operation this is not the case. When the punch rises, guide
+_c_ is stripped from it by stripper plate _f_ so that the guide is
+gripped with tongs and laid down on the bed of the press until a fresh
+heated billet has been placed in the die impression ready for the next
+piercing. The punch is made from special hot punching steel and the die
+from chilled cast iron. The production of forgings by this method for a
+3-inch shrapnel shell is about 600 in ten hours.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6. Producing Shrapnel Forgings in a 750-ton
+Hydraulic Forging Press]
+
+The amount of metal left for machining by this method varies from
+¹⁄₈ to ³⁄₁₆ inch on the internal and external diameters. The forging
+after annealing is then machined inside and out on turret lathes,
+or semi-automatic chucking machines. The accepted method is to first
+machine the internal diameter and then hold the shell on an expanding
+arbor and machine it on the external diameter.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7. Piercing Billets for Shrapnel Forgings In a
+“Wood” 750-ton Hydraulic Forging Press]
+
+
+=Producing Shrapnel Forgings in Hydraulic Presses.=--In the foregoing
+description various principles of making shrapnel forgings were
+described. Owing to the large number of forgings lately required,
+practically all types of forging presses and power forging machines
+have been used. Fig. 6 shows how one manufacturer is solving the
+problem. The machine used is an R. D. Wood Co., 750-ton hydraulic
+forging press; this performs both the billet piercing and drawing
+operations. The forgings turned out on this machine are for the British
+18-pound shell, and the billet is 3¹⁄₂ inches in diameter by 4¹⁄₂
+inches long. The first operation, piercing the billet, is done by the
+punches and dies shown in Fig. 7. The billet is heated in a furnace to
+a temperature of 2000 degrees F., and then quickly removed and placed
+in the dies. The press is now operated, piercing two billets at the
+same time. The pierced billet is 3¹⁄₂ inches in diameter by 7¹⁄₂ inches
+long.
+
+A complete batch of pierced billets is first put through, then the
+pierced billets are taken to the furnace again and heated to 2000
+degrees F. The punches and dies in the center of the illustration Fig.
+8 are used for finish-drawing the forging by drawing it out to 3¹⁄₂
+inches in diameter by 11 inches long. This method is only temporary
+and will be replaced shortly by three R. D. Wood four-post hydraulic
+presses. The piercing operation will be handled on one press of 350
+tons capacity, and the drawing operations on two presses of 200 tons
+capacity.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8. Drawing Shrapnel Forgings in a “Wood” 750-ton
+Hydraulic Forging Press]
+
+
+=Making Shrapnel Forgings in Power Forging Machines.=--One of the
+latest developments in the art of producing forgings for shrapnel
+shells is the adaptation of the power forging machine to this work. As
+has been previously mentioned, there are several methods of producing
+shrapnel shells, and as it has been conclusively proved that the
+forged shell is superior to the shell made from bar stock, it is
+only natural that several methods for making the forgings would be
+developed. In the forging machine method, a bar slightly larger than
+the finished diameter of the forging is cut off, making a billet about
+5¹⁄₂ inches long. This billet, for a 3-inch shell, weighs about 9¹⁄₄ to
+9¹⁄₂ pounds.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9. Examples of Shrapnel Forgings turned out on a
+Power Forging Machine]
+
+The billet is heated to a white heat in a furnace, the temperature
+being about 2000 degrees F., depending on the carbon content and
+other constituents in the steel, and is then placed in the lower
+impression of the forging die. The machine used for this size of
+forging is a standard upsetting and forging machine provided with a
+special crank-shaft. Upon being operated, the lower plunger, which is
+larger than the diameter of the powder pocket in the shell, advances
+and pierces the billet. The pierced billet is then raised to the next
+impression, and the machine again operated. The second punch is longer
+than the first and smaller in diameter. The billet is forced up on this
+punch, which reduces it in diameter and increases its length. After
+the second impression the partially formed shell is then placed in
+the third or final die impression, where it is given two blows, being
+given one-half turn after the first blow to form it more perfectly. The
+operations just enumerated are performed in one heating of the billet,
+and the production of a 3-inch shell ranges from 400 to 450 in ten
+hours.
+
+The dies for this work are, of course, constructed upon a somewhat
+different principle from the ordinary forging die, because in this case
+it is necessary to make the metal flow up on the punches. The dies,
+therefore, are so constructed that they recede as the punch advances,
+which tends to make the metal flow up on the punch. The practicability
+of this method is well illustrated by the samples shown in Fig. 9. Here
+_D_ is the rough forging just as it comes from the machine, with the
+exception that the mouth has been trimmed. _C_ is a section of a shell
+made from low-carbon steel about 0.30 per cent carbon; _B_ is a shell
+made from 0.50 per cent carbon, 3¹⁄₂ per cent nickel steel. This has
+been rough-turned, as the illustration shows. The homogeneity of the
+forgings is clearly indicated. _A_ is a forging made from low-carbon
+steel, finish-turned.
+
+One of the most interesting points about this method is its cost as
+compared with shells made from bar stock. To produce a 3-inch shell
+from bar stock requires about 22 pounds of material, and on metal
+costing 10 cents per pound, a bar shell--exclusive of machining--costs
+$2.20; to produce the same shell on a power forging machine requires
+about 9¹⁄₄ to 9¹⁄₂ pounds, and figuring on 10 cents per pound the
+cost for the material is only $1--a saving of $1.20 on each shell.
+Furthermore, the production of shells from bar stock on automatic
+machines is about twelve to fifteen per day. The number of forgings
+that can be turned out in the same time is 400 to 450, and the number
+that can be machined in this time varies from forty to fifty for two
+operations. It is therefore evident that the production of shells by
+forging is far superior to the bar method, and the forged shell is more
+satisfactory from every standpoint.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10. Diagram Illustrating Method of piercing and
+drawing Shrapnel Forgings in a Bliss Power Press]
+
+
+=Forging Shrapnel in a Power Press.=--Another interesting development
+in the forging line is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 10. This method
+comprises three operations, and is handled in a No. 80¹⁄₂ Bliss press
+capable of exerting a pressure of 1200 tons. A billet 3¹⁄₄ inches in
+diameter by 3³⁄₄ inches long is heated in a furnace to 1976 degrees
+F. and then quickly placed in the die shown at _A_. The press is
+operated, and the punch in descending pierces the billet, being guided
+by the guide _a_, as shown at _B_, which also acts as a stripper. The
+forging retains its heat to a certain extent after this operation, the
+temperature being about from 1380 to 1425 degrees F. This is sufficient
+to perform the second minor operation which, as shown at _C_ and _D_,
+consists in forcing the heated billet into the die-block to reduce the
+diameter of the lower end and facilitate the succeeding operation. This
+reducing operation is performed with the same type of punch as is used
+in the succeeding operation, and the die-block is simply laid on top of
+a bolster while the reducing is being done.
+
+The final forming or drawing of the forging is accomplished as shown at
+_E_ and _F_, the same type of press, _viz._, a Bliss No. 80¹⁄₂ power
+press, being used for this purpose. The pierced billet is now heated
+to 1976 degrees F., and is then forced through the three drawing dies
+_b_, _c_ and _d_, by the punch _e_. The first die is 3⁵⁄₁₆ inches in
+diameter and reduces the forging from 3³⁄₈ inches to this size. The
+second is 3⁷⁄₃₂, and the third, or last, 3¹⁄₈ inches in diameter.
+The forging, after being forced through the dies, is stripped from
+the punch by plates _f_, and as it still retains a temperature of
+1475 degrees F.--sufficient for annealing--is thrown down on the
+sand to cool off. The billet piercing and drawing dies, shown in the
+illustration, were made from 50-point carbon steel, hardened. This gave
+fair results, although chilled cast-iron dies would prove even more
+satisfactory. The punches were made from several different materials
+such as chrome-vanadium, 70-point carbon steel, and unannealed
+malleable casting. Of the three materials, the latter gave the most
+satisfactory results, in that pitting was reduced to a minimum. Of
+course, it was necessary to grind the malleable casting to shape.
+
+
+=Flow of Hot Metal When Pierced.=--In the manufacture of shrapnel shell
+forgings, the first operation is that of piercing, and to accomplish
+this satisfactorily, it is necessary to understand the action of a
+piercing punch on a semi-plastic billet of steel. There are certain
+fundamental laws governing the flow of metals under pressure and a
+study of these is of exceptional interest. An attempt has been made
+in Fig. 11 to illustrate diagrammatically some of the principles
+involved, and in the following discussion it should be understood that
+the billet is made from 50-point carbon, 60-point manganese steel, 6¹⁄₂
+by 3⁵⁄₁₆ inches in diameter.
+
+At _A_ a round-end tapered punch is shown in contact with the heated
+billet, and the lines show the possible flow of the metal, _i.e._, the
+material commences to “pack” at the end of the punch. In this case the
+walls of the die are straight. At _B_ the billet is being pierced,
+and the resultant effect on the flow of the metal is indicated. Here
+it will be seen that the pressure increases as the punch descends,
+because of the wedging action on the metal and the friction between the
+surfaces of the sides of the punch and die. The pressure on the end of
+a punch of this shape is about 20,000 pounds per square inch.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11. Diagram Illustrating Flow of Hot Metal while
+being pierced]
+
+By leaving the sides of the die of the same shape as at _B_, but
+making the end of the punch square instead of round and not tapered,
+different action is caused. When the flat punch, as shown at _C_, first
+contacts with the metal, the pressure required is greater than at _A_,
+but as soon as the metal commences to flow as at _D_, the pressure
+decreases. For instance, suppose the pressure required at _B_ to pierce
+the billet was 100 tons; on the same material at _D_, the required
+pressure would be only 70 tons--a decrease of 30 per cent. The metal,
+however, does not follow the sides of the punch as closely at _D_ as
+at _B_, and this accounts in part for the reduction of power required.
+The action of hot flowing metal on the face of a square punch is just
+the reverse of what would naturally be expected. Instead of the punch
+wearing away at the edge, the center first shows signs of wear as
+indicated at _e_. Seams are opened up in a radial direction caused by
+the hot metal attacking the softest parts in the face of the punch.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 12. Shrapnel Shell Head and Diaphragm produced in a
+Power Forging Machine]
+
+Again, a different condition exists to that shown at _B_ and _D_,
+when both the die and the punch are tapered as shown at _E_. Here the
+friction of the extruded metal on the walls of the die and sides of
+the punch is excessive, and it is practically impossible to produce
+a satisfactorily pierced billet in this manner. From a theoretical
+standpoint, the conditions shown at _F_ are ideal. Here the sides of
+the punch are straight, the end flat, and the walls of the die taper
+or increase in diameter toward the bottom. In this case the friction
+of the flowing metal is greatly reduced because of the lessening of
+the wedging action. Other considerations, however, make this method
+impracticable.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 13. Diagram Illustrating Method of producing
+Shrapnel Shell Heads in a Power Forging Machine without any Waste of
+Stock]
+
+A still greater reduction in the pressure necessary to pierce a billet
+is shown at _G_. Here a square billet instead of a round one is being
+pierced. In the plan view it will be noticed that the friction on the
+walls of the die is greatly reduced, and the pressure continues low
+until the extruded billet contacts all around with the surface of the
+die. The completed product, however, is inferior to that made from a
+round billet. From the previous remarks, it will be seen that a punch
+and die that would best meet the requirements is one having a rounded
+end as at _B_, straight sides as at _D_, and straight walls in the die.
+The most satisfactory punch and die for piercing shrapnel forgings when
+all the variable conditions are considered would be as shown at _H_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14. Diagram Illustrating Method of making Shrapnel
+Shell Diaphragms in a Special Type of Power Forging Machine]
+
+
+=Forging the Shrapnel Head.=--The shrapnel head shown at _A_ in Fig.
+12, that screws into the end of the shell and into which the fuse body
+is screwed, is made from a forging of low-carbon steel for the French
+shell. One method of producing this, which is of unusual interest,
+is shown in Fig. 13. A power-driven forging machine equipped with a
+special set of tools is used for this purpose. A bar of steel of the
+same diameter as the hole in the finished forging, in this case 1¹⁄₂
+inch, is gripped in the dies as shown at _A_, and is upset by means
+of a plunger _a_, forming an upset on the end of the bar shown to
+the right. The upset bar is now placed in the second impression of
+the gripping dies, as shown at _B_. By way of explanation, it should
+be stated that the views of the dies shown at _A_, _B_, and _C_ are
+sections taken in a horizontal plane at each stage or die impression.
+Upon gripping the upset forging in the second impression in the dies,
+the plunger _b_ advances and forms an annular groove in the face of the
+forging, at the same time increasing its width as shown at _c_.
+
+The forging, still integral with the bar, is now quickly removed and
+placed in the last impression of the dies. The diameter of the hole
+in these dies is larger than the bar, allowing it to slip back as
+the punch advances to punch the hole in the forging. When the punch
+moves forward it carries with it the spring-operated sleeve _d_, thus
+finishing the forging in one heat. This method of forging is very
+satisfactory, producing a homogeneous forging at the rate of 1500 in
+ten hours.
+
+
+=Forging the Steel Diaphragm.=--The steel diaphragm shown at _B_ in
+Fig. 12 is made from low-carbon steel in a special type of forging
+machine operated similarly to a hot-pressed nut machine. That is to
+say, the bar, instead of being fed in from the front, as in a regular
+forging machine, is fed in from the side. The manner in which this is
+accomplished is shown in Fig. 14. A flat bar of steel 2³⁄₈ inches wide
+by ³⁄₈ inch thick, heated to the proper temperature for a distance of
+three feet, is fed across the face of the die as at _A_ and located by
+stop _b_. Punch _c_ then advances and cuts out a blank of the required
+diameter, forcing it into the die, as shown at _B_. The metal is now
+confined between the faces of punches _d_ and _c_ and in die _a_, and
+is forged to the required shape. The next step is shown at _C_, where
+punch _d_ advances and forces the formed forging out of the die. The
+production of this diaphragm is in the neighborhood of from 8000 to
+10,000 in ten hours.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+MACHINING AND HEAT-TREATMENT OF SHRAPNEL SHELLS
+
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1. Shrapnel Shells in Various Stages of Manufacture]
+
+Shrapnel shells are manufactured either from bar stock or forgings. The
+bar-stock method, however, is not considered as satisfactory as forging
+because of piping, so that the greater number of shrapnel shells made
+at the present time are turned out from forgings. The first step,
+therefore, in the making of a shrapnel shell is to cut off a billet of
+the required length from a bar of steel of the necessary constituents.
+In the making of an 18-pound shrapnel shell, the billet is cut off
+from a bar of 46-point carbon, 60-point manganese steel in machines of
+different types. One way of doing this, as shown in Fig. 2, is to use a
+Newton cutting-off machine having an air clamp for holding the bar in
+place while it is being cut off. A Hunter duplex saw, as shown in the
+illustration, provided with high-speed steel inserted teeth, performs
+the cutting operation. The billet for an 18-pound shrapnel shell is
+3¹⁄₂ inches in diameter by 4¹⁄₂ inches long. It is then forged to
+shape, as has been previously explained.
+
+Assuming that the forging has been completed, the following is a
+complete summary of the machining operations on the shell up to the
+point of assembling. In one plant where this work is being done, the
+shrapnel shells are put through in lots of 120, each lot being kept
+in three boxes, forty shells to a box. Out of every 120, one shell
+after heat-treatment is tested for tensile strength. The tensile
+strength before heat-treatment must be from 30,000 to 40,000 pounds per
+square inch, and from 80,000 to 90,000 pounds per square inch after
+heat-treatment. For facilitating transportation, trucks of various
+designs are used. One type of truck used for this purpose is shown in
+Fig. 3. This is built by the Chapman Double Ball Bearing Co. of Canada,
+Ltd., Toronto, Ontario, and has some interesting features, the chief of
+which are the ball-bearing swiveling head, ball-bearing wheels, and the
+means of releasing or raising the load with the handle in any position.
+This feature is valuable in using the truck in a crowded space.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2. Cutting off Billets for making Shrapnel Forgings
+in a Newton Cutting-off Machine]
+
+
+=Trimming and Facing the Shell Forging.=--The first machining operation
+on the forged shell is to cut off the ragged end, which is generally
+from ¹⁄₂ to 1¹⁄₂ inch longer than that required for the finished shell.
+This operation is performed in many different ways, but one of the
+most common is to place it in a Hurlbut-Rogers cutting-off machine as
+shown in Fig. 4. For performing the cutting-off operation, two plain
+forged cutting-off tools made from “Sabine” extra high-speed steel are
+used. The forging is located in the proper position in the chuck by
+a plunger or stop _A_, sliding in a fixture _B_ clamped to the base
+of the machine. This plunger locates the shell from the bottom of the
+hole or powder pocket and forces the shell into the chuck against the
+resistance of an open-wound spring. The stop is then located by a gage
+_C_ that forms a member of the fixture and fitting ring _D_ on the
+stop. The chuck jaws are now clamped on the work and the cutting off
+commences. As soon as the excess stock is cut off, the stop is drawn
+back and the pressure of the jaws on the work released; the spring in
+the chuck then ejects the forging. The production of an 18-pound shell
+from one machine is about 140 in eight hours.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3. Truck built by the Chapman Double Ball Bearing
+Co. for transferring Shrapnel Shells about the Shop]
+
+The next roughing operation is to face off the bottom or closed end of
+the forging, bringing the shell to approximately the correct length.
+There are also many ways of performing this operation. One method is to
+grip the forging in a chuck, as shown in Fig. 5, in an ordinary lathe
+and face off the end with a high-speed steel tool held in an Armstrong
+tool-holder. From to ¹⁄₄ to ³⁄₈ inch is faced off from the end.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4. Cutting off Excess Length of Shrapnel Forging in
+a Hurlbut-Rogers Cutting-off Machine]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5. Facing off Closed End of Shell to Length]
+
+
+=Rough-turning Operations on Shrapnel Forging.=--Practically every type
+of engine lathe and turret lathe as well as special machines are used
+for turning and boring shrapnel forgings, and in the following chapter
+each method will be dealt with separately. Before doing this, however,
+a complete summary of the methods of machining employed in a large
+plant turning out shrapnel will be described. In this plant, the first
+rough-turning operation is handled on a flat turret lathe, as shown in
+Fig. 6. For this purpose, the shell forging is held on an expanding
+arbor and is driven by a dog fastened to it and driven by the faceplate
+of the lathe. A multiple tool turner is first brought into position and
+takes a cut of about ¹⁄₈ inch from the diameter for practically the
+entire length of the shell. The next tool then faces off the end of the
+shell to length.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6. First Rough-turning Operation on Shrapnel Shell
+in a Flat Turret Lathe]
+
+The shell forging is now ready for cutting the rifling band groove
+and producing the waves. This is handled in an ordinary engine lathe
+equipped with a special fixture, carrying grooving, waving and
+under-cutting tools. The shell forging, as shown in Fig. 7, is held in
+a chuck at one end and supported by a revolving center at the other.
+One part of the fixture is clamped to the bed of the lathe and the
+other to the carriage. The grooving and ribbing is accomplished with
+a tool held in holder _A_ at the front of the lathe, whereas the two
+under-cutting tools are held in holders _D_ and _E_ at the rear of
+the lathe. In operation the carriage of the lathe is moved toward the
+chuck, carrying the fixture to which are fastened cams _C_, _F_, and
+_G_. Cam _C_ forces in the holder carrying the combination grooving and
+ribbing tool, whereas cams _F_ and _G_ force in the holders carrying
+the two under-cutting tools, these being presented at an angle to the
+work. The required oscillations to the slide carrying the grooving and
+ribbing tool are secured through a face-cam _B_ clamped to a “Whiton”
+chuck. The face-cam operates against the tension of spring _H_ and
+gives the required oscillations to the tool-slide carrying the ribbing
+and grooving tool, shown at _A_.
+
+The third machining operation is accomplished in a flat turret lathe,
+as illustrated in Fig. 8. This consists in facing the open end of the
+shell, boring the powder pocket and facing and boring the diaphragm
+seat, and also turning the angular surface on the external nose of the
+shell. First, a roughing drill is brought in to rough out the powder
+pocket. The turret is then indexed and a tool for turning the angle
+of the nose is brought into position. The machining on the nose is
+then accomplished by operating the cross-sliding head. Then a roughing
+cutter is brought in to rough-bore the powder pocket. The turret is
+again indexed and a finishing tool is brought in to finish the powder
+pocket and face the diaphragm seat. This finishes the machining
+operations on the shell previous to heat-treatment.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7. Cutting the Rifling Band Groove with a Special
+Grooving and Ribbing Attachment on an Engine Lathe]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8. Third Machining Operation on Shrapnel Shell in
+a Flat Turret Lathe, consisting in Facing the Open End of the Shell,
+Boring the Powder Pocket, Facing and Boring the Diaphragm Seat, and
+Turning the Angular Surface on the External Nose of the Shell]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9. Heat-treating Shrapnel Shells, using a Hoskins
+Electric Barium-chloride Bath Furnace]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10. Testing Hardness of Shrapnel Shells with Shore
+Scleroscope]
+
+
+=Heat-treating Shrapnel Shells.=--As was previously stated, the tensile
+strength of a forged shrapnel shell after heat-treatment must be from
+80,000 to 90,000 pounds per square inch, and in order to obtain the
+desired physical qualities, it is necessary that the heat-treating
+operations be properly conducted. Several methods of heat-treating
+employing different cooling solutions are used in the manufacturing
+plants making shrapnel shells. One method, as shown in Fig. 9, is
+to heat the shell in a Hoskins electric furnace that contains a
+barium-chloride bath, heated to a temperature of about 1480 degrees F.
+The shells are left in this furnace for half an hour and are taken out
+and dipped in a bath of cottonseed oil heated to a temperature of 113
+degrees F. The temperature to which the shell is heated varies with the
+different constituents of the steel and practically every different
+batch of 120 shells requires a slightly different temperature.
+The proper temperature is determined by cutting out a section of a
+heat-treated shell and testing it for tensile strength. The next step
+is to draw the temper on the open end of the shell. In this operation
+a muffle gas furnace heated to a temperature of about 1000 degrees F.,
+is used. The temper is drawn for about two-thirds of the length of the
+shrapnel shells.
+
+
+=Testing for Hardness and Tensile Strength.=--One shell from a batch
+of 120 is now cut open in the proximity of the powder pocket and the
+cut-out section sent to the government inspectors to test it for
+tensile strength. Each one of the shells in the batch, in addition, is
+tested for hardness by a Shore scleroscope as shown in Fig. 10. Before
+testing for hardness, the shell near the band groove is polished so
+as to get a true reading, then placed in a fixture, and the hammer of
+the scleroscope allowed to drop on it. The reading should be between
+40 and 50, indicating an elastic limit of from 80,000 to 90,000 pounds
+per square inch. The shell must not be ruptured at the point tested
+when the charge in it is exploded or when the charge in the case is set
+off. Should the shell upset near the rifling band groove when it is
+propelled out of the gun, it would tear out the rifling in the bore of
+the gun.
+
+Experience with the scleroscope has disclosed the existence of a
+fairly definite relation between the hardness and strength of metal.
+In determining the strength of metal, two stages are recognized:
+First, the elastic limit, determined by the load required to produce a
+permanent set; second, the ultimate strength, determined by the load
+required to cause rupture. The hardness indicated by the scleroscope is
+intimately related to the elastic limit. The elastic limit increases
+more rapidly than the hardness from 43 to 45, this being the minimum
+index of the strength value required. As an elongation of 8 per cent in
+2 inches is also required, there must necessarily be an upper limit to
+the hardness. On the steel used for shrapnel, which is generally about
+50-point carbon and 60-point manganese, the maximum hardness should not
+be over 60 on the scleroscope.
+
+
+=Tests relating to Heat-treatment of Shells.=--In the September, 1915,
+number of MACHINERY, Mr. J. M. Wilson, who has been actively engaged in
+heat-treating shells since the beginning of the war, and who has had
+to rely entirely upon his own resources in meeting and overcoming the
+troubles which seemed to arise on all sides, relates the results of his
+experiments.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11. Cross-sectional View of Shrapnel Shell showing
+Points A, B, and C where Tests are made, and one of the Tensile Test
+Samples]
+
+The British government shell specifications call for a yield point
+or elastic limit, after heat-treating, of not less than 36 tons per
+square inch, a breaking point or ultimate strength not less than 56
+tons per square inch, and an elongation not less than 8 per cent in
+⁵⁄₈ inch. Officially there is no maximum specified for either of those
+three physical characteristics; but as a matter of fact any unusual
+condition which is not in conformity with recognized metallurgical
+practice may cause the chief government inspector for the district in
+which the manufacturer is located to reject a shipment. Reference has
+been made to certain points in the shell which must resist the strains
+due to firing. The nature of these strains and condition of the steel
+best suited to meet them will be understood from Fig. 11, which shows a
+cross-section of the British 18-pound shrapnel shell. When a shell is
+fired from a gun, the base _A_ is subjected to a blow, _i.e._, a sudden
+increase of pressure which almost instantly attains a maximum of from
+12 to 14 tons per square inch, and imparts the initial velocity to the
+shell. The shell, being a body at rest, opposes this velocity with its
+own inertia, the result being that both compressive and tensile strains
+are set up in the shell body. The shell body assumes the conditions of
+a column which has a compressive load varying from nothing at the nose
+to a maximum at the base. The tensile load is due to the inertia of the
+bullets inside the shell. These bullets are subject to an increasing
+compressive load from the top down, the resultant strain being a
+bursting effort which attains a maximum in the region of the point _B_,
+known as the “set-up point.”
+
+When the time required for the fuse to act has elapsed, the powder
+charge is exploded, and the contents of the shell are blown forward in
+the usual manner. The contents are released either by the stripping of
+the thread of the brass socket, or else the walls of the shell yield at
+the point _C_, opening the threads sufficiently to free the socket. At
+_A_, (the base) the shell must be perfectly sound and free from flaws
+such as minute cracks, etc., which may allow the flame from the firing
+charge to strike through with disastrous results to the shell and gun.
+The metal in the base must not be too hard or it may fracture under
+the pressure of the explosion, and it must not be too soft or it may
+flatten out and spoil the rifling in the bore. At the point _B_ there
+is no maximum requirement so far as tensile strength is concerned, but
+any abnormal strength is viewed with suspicion unless it is accompanied
+by a generous elongation. At _B_ the metal is particularly liable to
+distension while the shell is acquiring velocity, and unless the shell
+is strong enough to resist the sudden bursting strain, and the amount
+of elongation is sufficient to cushion or absorb this strain at the
+instant of firing, the shell is liable to take a permanent set in the
+region of point _B_, with results mentioned above. The shell must not
+be too hard at the point _C_ as it may burst, thus neutralizing the
+real object of a shrapnel shell which is to project the bullets forward
+with increased velocity at the predetermined instant, being in fact an
+aerial gun arranged to discharge its contents at any desired point of
+its flight.
+
+
+=Uniformity of Steel for Shrapnel.=--Having these requirements firmly
+established in his mind, the heat-treating expert is now confronted
+with a double problem: How is it possible to give steel the suitable
+strength; and having done so, how is it possible to know that the
+desired result has been obtained, without actually making test pieces
+from each shell. The principal condition upon which successful
+heat-treating depends is uniformity of material. Carbon and manganese
+are the principal substances which influence the results. The exact
+composition of steel specified by the government is not given to
+any manufacturers other than steelmakers. It is, however, generally
+understood to be a 0.50 per cent carbon, 0.60 per cent manganese steel.
+Allowing five points variation in carbon and ten points variation
+in manganese, the requirements would be approximately 0.45 to 0.55
+per cent carbon and 0.50 to 0.70 per cent manganese. In one carload
+of forgings, one firm received shells from 23 different heats or
+melts, with carbon varying from 0.60 to 0.47 per cent, and manganese
+varying from 0.63 to 0.49 per cent, with all possible combinations
+and proportions between these limits. The number of forgings supplied
+from each heat varied from one up to 1200 so that the question of
+determining the best temperature for each carbon content was indeed
+quite impracticable. Many manufacturers at the present moment may be
+in a similar position, and the gravity of the situation, both from a
+financial and a military point of view, may justify a somewhat detailed
+description of the method which was followed in treating shells of such
+varying composition.
+
+
+=Results of Tests.=--It is generally known to manufacturers that the
+highest tensile strength of steel is obtained by cooling it rapidly
+from a temperature slightly higher than the decalescent point or
+critical temperature. The degree of hardness resulting from this
+operation can be ascertained quickly, accurately, and repeatedly by
+means of the scleroscope. The degree of hardness thus shown is a
+reliable indication of the probable strength of the material; that is
+to say, after making due allowance for different makes of steel and
+varying proportions of the principal constituents, the scleroscope
+readings are a reliable indication of the results which may be expected
+when a tensile test is made of any given shell. In the opening months
+of the shell business, considerable reliance was placed on the accurate
+determination of the decalescence point. Forgings of varying analysis
+were received; the carbon being from 0.48 to 0.53 per cent, and the
+manganese from 0.54 to 0.69 per cent. All steels whose composition was
+within those limits showed a decalescence point of between 1390 and
+1425 degrees F., and when quenched in water at 50 degrees F. above
+the decalescence point, such steels would have a scleroscope hardness
+number as high as 85; but when quenched in ordinary fish oil the
+hardness was only slightly over 50, the sample being 1 inch square and
+¹⁄₈ inch thick. A complete shell quenched in fish oil would show a
+scleroscope hardness number at the set-up point of from 38 to 40. Test
+pieces from such a shell failed to reach the minimum breaking strength
+of 56 tons by the narrow margin of 0.6 ton, and this failure brought
+up the question of which was the best quenching medium. A series of
+experiments gave the results presented in Table I; all conditions were
+equal in each test, and the test pieces were all made from the same
+forging.
+
+TABLE I. RESULTS OF TESTS TO DETERMINE THE BEST QUENCHING MEDIUM FOR
+SHRAPNEL SHELLS
+
+  +-------------+----------------+--------------------+---------------+
+  | Quenching   |   Quenching    |   Temperature of   |  Scleroscope  |
+  |temperature, |    medium      |     quenching      |  hardness No. |
+  | degrees F.  |                | medium, degrees F. |               |
+  +-------------+----------------+--------------------+---------------+
+  |    1475     | Fish oil       |         90         |   50 to 55    |
+  |    1475     | Coal oil       |         90         |   65 to 70    |
+  |    1475     | Cottonseed oil |         90         |   70 to 75    |
+  |    1475     | Engine oil     |         90         |   75 to 80    |
+  |    1475     | Oil of degras  |         90         |   77 to 85    |
+  |    1475     | Water          |         90         |   82 to 87    |
+  +-------------+----------------+--------------------+---------------+
+                                                             _Machinery_
+
+From the results of the tests presented in Table I, oil of degras,
+commercially known as “No 2 soluble quenching oil,” was selected as the
+quenching medium and operations were commenced on forgings supplied
+from two separate heats. The results were all that could be desired
+until forgings were received from a certain heat, which would not
+respond to treatment based upon the results of preliminary experiments.
+Investigation yielded the results presented in Table II. While
+water-treatment of the forgings from “Heat No. 3” gave satisfactory
+strengths under test, the liability of shells to crack, owing to
+their thin walls contracting more rapidly than the base, was a fatal
+objection to this method. Attention should be called to the fact that
+while the temperature at which quenching should be done is specified by
+the government at 1560 degrees F., manufacturers are not tied down to
+this particular temperature. What is required is that the manufacturers
+shall so treat the material that it will fulfill the requirements
+already stated. If, when fulfilling these requirements, the treatment
+should prove detrimental to the shell in other respects, then it must
+be changed accordingly.
+
+TABLE II. RESULTS OF TESTS CONDUCTED TO SECURE GENERAL DATA ON
+HEAT-TREATMENT
+
+  +------------------------------------+---------+---------+-----------+
+  |              Heat No.              |    1    |    2    |     3     |
+  +------------------------------------+---------+---------+-----------+
+  |Carbon, per cent                    |  0.45   |  0.52   |   0.50    |
+  |Manganese, per cent                 |  0.68   |  0.62   |   0.47    |
+  |Decalescent point, degrees F        |  1400   |  1425   |   1390    |
+  |Quenching temperature, degrees F    |  1450   |  1475   |   1450    |
+  |Temperature of oil, degrees F       |   160   |   160   |    120    |
+  |Resultant hardness, scleroscope No  |65 to 75 |65 to 75 |    *39    |
+  |Temperature of water, degrees F     |         |         |     75    |
+  |Resultant hardness, scleroscope No  |         |         | 55 to 60  |
+  |Tempered until showing a scleroscope|         |         |           |
+  |  hardness of                       |    48   |    48   |     52    |
+  |Yield point, tons                   |  47.8   |  48.6   |   46.5    |
+  |Breaking point, tons                |  67.9   |  65.4   |   66.2    |
+  |Elongation, per cent                |  14.5   |  16.9   |   17.4    |
+  +------------------------------------+---------+---------+-----------+
+                                                             _Machinery_
+
+* Note: This shell was then reheated and quenched in water with results
+shown.
+
+Referring to results presented in Table II, “Heat No. 3,” it will be
+observed that the manganese is only 0.47 per cent with carbon 0.50 per
+cent. Comparing “Heat No. 3” with “Heat No. 1”, it is evident that an
+increase of 5 points carbon is more than offset by a reduction of 21
+points in the manganese. Increase of temperature seemed to offer the
+greatest possibilities and sample shells were drawn every 12¹⁄₂ degrees
+up to 1675 degrees F. The greatest hardness was obtained at 1637¹⁄₂,
+scleroscope readings of from 50 to 55 being the average. This was not
+considered satisfactory, and the oil-circulating pump was speeded
+up. Scleroscope readings as high as 65 were frequently obtained at a
+quenching temperature of approximately 1635 degrees, and when the shell
+was tempered to read 48 to 52 on the scleroscope, three test pieces
+from one shell gave the results presented in Table III. A careful study
+of this data revealed the fact that, while a low-carbon, low-manganese
+steel hardens satisfactorily within a limited range of temperature, a
+medium steel has a wider range, and a high-carbon steel, a still wider
+range of hardening temperature.
+
+
+TABLE III. RESULTS OF TESTS ON SAMPLES TAKEN FROM A SHELL WITH A
+SCLEROSCOPE HARDNESS NUMBER OF FROM 48 TO 52
+
+  +--------+---------------------+-------+---------+-----------+
+  |Heat No.|Scleroscope reading  |Yield  |Breaking |Elongation,|
+  |        |on test piece after  |Point, | point,  | per cent  |
+  |        |     machining       | tons  |  tons   |           |
+  +--------+---------------------+-------+---------+-----------+
+  |        |Outside 52--53--50   |       |         |           |
+  |   1    |Inside  55--55--55   | 55.8  | 73.3    |   14.3    |
+  |        |                     |       |         |           |
+  |        |Outside 52--54--50   |       |         |           |
+  |   2    |Inside  55--57--53   | 53.8  | 72.4    |   17.4    |
+  |        |                     |       |         |           |
+  |        |Outside 57--57--49   |       |         |           |
+  |   3    |Inside  60--62--51   | 52.8  | 77.3    |   12.7    |
+  +--------+---------------------+-------+---------+-----------+
+                                                     _Machinery_
+
+When the shipment of mixed heats previously referred to was treated,
+the method pursued was to take 0.50 per cent carbon and 0.50 per
+cent manganese as a base composition which hardened at 1600 degrees
+F. to show 55 to 65 hardness on the scleroscope. Then: (a) If, for
+every point of carbon below 50, there be present 1 or more points of
+manganese above 50, the steel should harden satisfactorily at 1600
+degrees F. (b) If, for every point of manganese below 50, there be
+present 2 or more points of carbon above 50, the steel should harden
+satisfactorily at 1600 degrees F. (c) If both carbon and manganese be
+below 0.50 per cent, increase the hardening temperature 12¹⁄₂ degrees
+F. for each point of manganese short of 50, and 6¹⁄₄ degrees F. for
+each point of carbon short of 50. (d) If both carbon and manganese
+are above 0.50 per cent, a hardness number above 55 will probably be
+obtained at a quenching temperature of 1600 degrees F., but the maximum
+hardness, _i.e._, from 75 to 80, will be obtained at a somewhat lower
+temperature, the exact temperature being most easily found by starting
+at 1500 degrees F. and trying a couple of sample shells every 25
+degrees F. until a maximum hardness is obtained. Forgings containing
+from 0.50 to 0.55 per cent carbon and from 0.54 to 0.62 per cent
+manganese in any varying proportions may be hardened at 1600 degrees
+F. to show a hardness number of from 55 to 75; and when tempered to
+give a hardness number of from 48 to 52 they will yield the following
+results: yield point, 45 to 50 tons; breaking point, 65 to 70 tons; and
+elongation, 14 to 20 per cent.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 12. Chart showing Hardening Temperatures for
+Various Percentages of Carbon and Manganese in Steel used for Shrapnel
+Shells]
+
+Looking back, (c) offers a basis for charting the hardening points
+in a fairly approximate manner, to form a guide as to where the
+best hardness may be obtained. Such a chart is shown in Fig. 12.
+By following the horizontal and vertical lines from the carbon and
+manganese content until they intersect, a diagonal line will be found
+which will indicate the temperature at or about which the maximum
+hardness will be obtained. This does not prevent the use of 1600
+degrees F. as the average temperature for the majority of shells,
+provided they are strong enough when hardened at that temperature;
+but where shells do not harden satisfactorily at 1600 degrees F., the
+chart offers an alternative method subject to such variation as may
+arise due to the use of steel from different makers, etc. Probably the
+best practice is to make careful scleroscope readings of each piece
+before pulling. Care must be taken to have a uniform surface on both
+sides, all tool marks being removed with fine emery cloth. The points
+tested are shown at _A_, _B_, and _C_ in Fig. 11. After the test piece
+is made, the value of the hardness number increases as a result of the
+piece being solidly supported in the scleroscope, whereas, when the
+reading is made on the shell, the arched form of the wall acts as a
+spring, and absorbs the shock to some extent. Readings thus increase
+from 2 to 10 points after the test piece is finished.
+
+TABLE IV. DATA ON THE HEAT-TREATMENT AND STRENGTH TESTS OF SHRAPNEL
+SHELLS
+
+  +--------+----------+------------+-----------+------------+-------+----------+-------------+
+  |        |          | Quenching  | Tempered, |            |       |          |             |
+  |Carbon, |Manganese,|temperature,|scleroscope|Readings of | Yield | Breaking | Elongation, |
+  |  per   |   per    |  degrees   | hardness  |scleroscope | point,|  point,  |    per      |
+  | cent   |  cent    |     F.     |    No.    |            | tons  |  tons    |    cent     |
+  +--------+----------+------------+-----------+------------+-------+----------+-------------+
+  | 0.50   |   0.47   |    1635    |     51    | 60-57-57   |  48.3 |   69.9   |    16.9     |
+  |        |          |            |           | 47-48-48   |       |          |             |
+  |        |          |            |           |            |       |          |             |
+  | Three pieces from one shell    |           | 60-56-53   |  45.2 |   70.6   |    19.1     |
+  |                                |           | 48-52-58   |       |          |             |
+  |                                |           |            |       |          |             |
+  |                                |           | 63-56-57   |  51.6 |   74.6   |    16.9     |
+  |                                |           | 51-55-54   |       |          |             |
+  |                                |           |            |       |          |             |
+  | 0.48   |   0.65   |    1565    |     49    | 51-54-52   |  47.3 |   67.4   |    15.9     |
+  |                                |           | 48-53-50   |       |          |             |
+  |                                |           |            |       |          |             |
+  | Three pieces from one shell    |           | 51-52-49   |  48.2 |   67.9   |    15.3     |
+  |                                |           | 53-51-51   |       |          |             |
+  |                                |           |            |       |          |             |
+  |                                |           | 52-55-50   |  49.2 |   70.7   |    15.4     |
+  |                                |           | 50-55-47   |       |          |             |
+  |                   |            |           |            |       |          |             |
+  | 0.50   |   0.57   |    1600    |     50    | 50-52-50   |  46.0 |   64.8   |    19.0     |
+  |        |          |            |           | 49-50-49   |       |          |             |
+  |        |          |            |           |            |       |          |             |
+  | 0.50   |   0.57   |    1600    |     50    | 56-60-57   |  55.8 |   77.8   |    14.3     |
+  |        |          |            |           | 54-56-54   |       |          |             |
+  |        |          |            |           |            |       |          |             |
+  | 0.50   |   0.57   |    1600    |     50    | 59-60-56   |  60.7 |   82.2   |    12.7     |
+  |        |          |            |           | 55-59-56   |       |          |             |
+  |        |          |            |           |            |       |          |             |
+  | 0.60   |   0.57   |    1600    |     50    | 60-61-55   |  57.8 |   80.0   |    12.6     |
+  |        |          |            |           | 60-62-57   |       |          |             |
+  |        |          |            |           |            |       |          |             |
+  | 0.60   |   0.57   |    1600    |     52    | 57-57-56   |  48.2 |   69.7   |    17.5     |
+  |        |          |            |           | 54-56-53   |       |          |             |
+  |        |          |            |           |            |       |          |             |
+  | 0.50   |   0.57   |    1600    |     50    | 48-52-50   |  44.2 |   64.3   |    17.4     |
+  |        |          |            |           | 49-52-49   |       |          |             |
+  |        |          |            |           |            |       |          |             |
+  | 0.50   |   0.57   |    1600    |     50    | 52-55-55   |  44.7 |   65.2   |    14.7     |
+  |        |          |            |           | 60-51-52   |       |          |             |
+  +--------+----------+------------+-----------+------------+-------+----------+-------------+
+                                                                                 _Machinery_
+
+A careful study of the data presented in Table IV reveals the
+fact that results are not always consistent. With an increase of
+carbon, one occasionally finds an increase in elongation and _vice
+versa_; and the results due to variations in manganese content are
+similarly unreliable. In order to secure a degree of uniformity in
+hardness, which will be sufficient to insure test pieces standing up
+successfully, it is necessary to have the shell hard inside as well as
+outside, and a method of doing this is referred to later. Assuming now
+that the shell has been tempered, it is rough-polished on a canvas
+buffing wheel around the outside of _B_, Fig. 11, for a width of at
+least 1 inch. Readings by the scleroscope are made on a zone ³⁄₄ inch
+wide, and if they are between 46 and 52 the shell may be relied upon
+to show good results in the tensile test. In making test pieces, it
+is desirable to cut the piece from a spot which reads 48 to 50; and
+in machining the test piece, care should be taken to remove an equal
+quantity of metal from either side of the wall so that the test piece
+is a true specimen of the average wall structure. Where a shell is
+carelessly quenched, and the test piece so machined that the surface
+on one side is practically the same as the inner side of the wall, the
+results would not be a true indication of the real average strength,
+and a lot of shells might possibly be rejected on account of a slight
+oversight in this respect. Reference has been made to the base _A_,
+Fig. 11. Forging defects show up here occasionally and in such cases
+the shell is at once condemned. These flaws take the form of small
+cracks, from the width of a hair up to ¹⁄₁₆ inch. They seldom can be
+detected until after heat-treating, and are most easily observed by
+polishing the base on a disk grinder. Losses in this respect vary, but
+might average about 0.20 per cent. The hardness of the base itself may
+vary from 38 to 50, which insures an ample degree of toughness and
+avoids all possibility of the shell cracking under fire.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 13. Lay-out of Heat-treating Department for a
+Factory Producing from 12,000 to 15,000 Shrapnel Shells a Week]
+
+
+=Heat-treating Department.=--Many methods of heating, quenching,
+annealing, and cleaning are in use by the different firms engaged in
+shell making. For rapidity of output, cleanliness of the resulting
+product, ease and economy of operation, and uniformity and control of
+results, the lead bath seems best for hardening, and the semi-muffle
+furnace for annealing. In one case the use of a lead bath by a skilled
+operator yielded excellent results both as to economy and uniformity,
+but, when the output exceeds 500 shells per 12 hours, a semi-continuous
+furnace meets the requirements to better advantage. The lay-out of a
+hardening room for an output of 12,000 shells per week is given in
+Fig. 13. The lead baths consist of a rectangular pot of suitable
+capacity, resting on a 4¹⁄₂ inch hearth built of common firebrick and
+heated by either oil or gas burners below the hearth. They are built
+in pairs with a common wall between, which is thick enough to provide
+a flue to carry off products of combustion. The quenching tanks are
+rectangular, water-jacketed, and provided with two quenching cradles
+each. These cradles are arranged to swing lengthwise in the tank, and,
+when the carrier holding the shell is lowered into the oil, a pipe is
+automatically extended downward into the shell and introduces cold oil
+in the inside of the shell, while the operator swings the cradle back
+and forth in the tank, thus cooling the outside of the shell at the
+same time. This method of quenching made it possible to harden shells
+which, by reason of low carbon and manganese, defied all conventional
+methods of dipping and swinging back and forth with tongs. The output
+per man with this apparatus is largely in excess of any hand method,
+while the uniformity and degree of hardness is all that could be
+desired.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14. Special Arrangement of Scleroscope for Testing
+Shrapnel Shells]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 15. Closing-in Nose of Shrapnel Shell in Hydraulic
+Press]
+
+The oil pump draws the oil from a depth of 6 inches below the surface
+and pumps it through 100 feet of 1-inch copper pipe arranged in two
+50-foot coils in parallel. The cooled oil is delivered into an overhead
+reservoir, the overflow being connected to both tanks equally. After
+quenching, the shells are set on draining racks, and then washed in
+boiling water and sal-soda, placed on another draining rack and then
+brushed with wire brushes previous to tempering. The tempering furnace
+is of rectangular form, and consists of a long flat hearth with rails
+laid lengthwise on it. At each end a space is partitioned off from the
+body of the furnace, by means of vertical sliding doors; and a rack
+holding a number of shells is deposited on the rails at the front end
+of the hearth, the door is elevated and the rack is slid into the main
+chamber. After a suitable lapse of time another rack is introduced,
+and so on until the first rack is ejected at the rear end of the
+furnace. The shells are now hot enough to loosen all foreign matter on
+the surface, and a few seconds brushing with a wire brush cleans out
+the driving band groove, and leaves the shell with a delicate brown
+oxidized finish. The shell is now spotted on three places with a canvas
+buff and tested for hardness. Fig. 14 shows the arrangement of the
+scleroscope. The shell is supported on a single narrow V-block with
+hardened edges, situated immediately under the set-up point. A narrow
+strip supports the open end of the shell, thus giving a three-point
+support, while a vertical stop at the back of the shell maintains it
+in a position tangential to the radius of the swinging arm. The usual
+rubber bulb was soon dispensed with as being quite unsuited for such
+hard service, and a small pump cylinder substituted. The piston in the
+cylinder is operated by a downward pressure of the heel on the pedal to
+give compression, and a spring inside the cylinder gives the necessary
+pull when the scleroscope hammer is to be raised by suction. After
+being tested the shells are ready for “nosing-in.”
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 16. Third Operation on Nose of Shrapnel
+Shell--Turning, Facing, and Threading]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 17. Grinding Shrapnel Shells in One Operation in a
+Ford-Smith Grinding Machine carrying a Wheel about 8¹⁄₄ Inches Wide by
+20 Inches in Diameter, rotated at 1200 Revolutions per Minute]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 18. Closing-in Copper Band on Shrapnel Shell in a
+Machine provided with Six Dies, as shown in Fig. 20, back of each one
+of which there is a Hydraulic Cylinder]
+
+=Closing-in the End of the Shell.=--On some makes of shells,
+particularly the British, the nose is closed in before performing the
+third series of machining operations. The closing-in is generally
+accomplished in a hydraulic or power press. Fig. 15 shows the
+closing-in operation being performed in a vertical hydraulic press
+capable of exerting a pressure of 800 pounds per square inch. Before
+closing the open end of the shell, it is heated in the lead bath, shown
+to the left of the illustration, which is kept at a temperature between
+1450 and 1500 degrees F. The steel diaphragm, which is larger in
+diameter than the nose of the shell, is first thrown in. Then the shell
+is placed in the press, and a cone-shaped die descends, closing-in the
+nose to the proper shape and diameter. The third machining operation
+consists in finishing the radius on the nose, both inside and outside,
+and cutting the thread. This is done, as shown in Fig. 16, in an
+ordinary engine lathe with a turret on the saddle. The boring is done
+with cutters held in boring-bars and the thread cut with a Geometric
+collapsible tap. The thread on the 18-pounder is 2.94 inches in
+diameter, 14-pitch, Whitworth type.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 19. Special Type of Wheel-truing Device used on
+Ford-Smith Grinding Machine shown in Fig. 17]
+
+
+=Grinding Shrapnel Shells.=--The exterior surface of a shrapnel shell
+is straight for a portion of the length and then curved on the nose.
+While the limits required are not extremely close, it is necessary,
+where large production is required, to accomplish the finishing
+operations on the exterior of the shell in some way by which fairly
+close dimensions can be secured as well as large production. Grinding
+has, therefore, been recommended for finishing the exterior of the
+shell. One method of grinding shrapnel shells, in which a wide-faced
+wheel is used that covers the entire ground surface, is shown in Fig.
+17. This machine is built by the Ford-Smith Machine Co., Hamilton,
+Ont., and carries a wheel about 8¹⁄₄ inches wide by 20 inches in
+diameter. The grinding wheel is rotated at 1200 R. P. M., and the work
+at 50 R. P. M. The depth of the cut is about ¹⁄₃₂ inch, and the time to
+complete one shell varies between two and three minutes. For grinding,
+a plug is screwed into the open end of the shell. This is held on the
+tailstock center and a chuck holds and drives the shell from the other
+end.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 20. Close View showing Closing-in Dies of Banding
+Machine shown in Fig. 18]
+
+It is necessary, of course, that the wheel be kept the correct shape,
+and for this purpose an interesting type of wheel-truing device,
+differing considerably from that shown in Fig. 17, is now used.
+Referring to Fig. 19, it will be seen that this comprises a combination
+wheel guard and bracket, the latter being used as a base for the
+wheel-truing device proper. The diamond _A_ is carried in a holder _B_
+that operates in a slide in the face of the traversing wheel-truing
+slide _C_. The diamond holder carries a cam point _D_ which is kept in
+contact with the guide or former cam _E_ by means of a spring _F_. The
+wheel-truing slide _C_ is traversed by a triple pitch screw _G_ so as
+to give a rapid movement to the slide in order to produce what might be
+termed a “rough-truing” of the wheel. For change in diameter, and also
+for bringing the diamond in contact with the wheel, a vertical slide
+_H_ is provided that is operated by handle _I_. In order to observe the
+diamond when truing the wheel, a trap door _J_ is provided in the wheel
+guard, which can be dropped down into place when the actual grinding of
+the shell is being done.
+
+
+=Pressing on the Rifling Band.=--In order to rotate the shrapnel when
+propelling it out of the howitzer, it is necessary to put on a rifling
+band to take the rifling grooves of the gun bore. As a rule, these
+rifling bands are made from copper tubing and are simply cut off in a
+hand screw machine or turret lathe. The next operation is to close in
+the rifling band on the shrapnel shell. The ring is dropped over the
+shell and a fixture is used to locate it in the correct relation to
+the groove in the circumference of the shell. Then a slight pressure
+is exerted on it to align it properly in the groove. It is now placed
+in the banding machine shown in Fig. 18. This particular machine is
+provided with six dies as shown in Fig. 20, and back of each one is
+a hydraulic cylinder operated by water pressure. Two squeezers are
+necessary to close the rifling band properly into the groove, the shell
+being given a half turn after each squeeze.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 21. Shrapnel Banding Machine built by the West Tire
+Setter Co., having a Capacity for Compressing two Bands per Minute]
+
+There are several different machines on the market for performing this
+closing-in operation on the rifling band. Another machine, built by
+the West Tire Setter Co., Rochester, N. Y., is shown in Fig. 21. The
+principle upon which this machine operates is almost identical with
+that previously described, but in this case oil is used as a pressure
+medium. It is forced into the machine by means of a belt-driven pump
+shown to the left of the illustration, which drives the oil from the
+oil tank and carries it to the center of the base of the press. An
+oil head is located at this point from which the pipes are run to
+each of the six rams or cylinders. The amount of pressure required
+for compressing the copper band depends largely upon the width and
+thickness and the amount that the band must be spread to fill the
+grooves, rather than upon the diameter of the shell. The machine
+shown in Fig. 21 is capable of exerting a pressure of 30 tons on each
+cylinder or a combined pressure of 180 tons on all six cylinders. It
+has a capacity for compressing at least two bands per minute.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 22. Assembling Bullets, Resin, and Fuse Socket in
+Shrapnel Shell]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 23. Finishing Rifling Band on Shrapnel Shell to
+Shape]
+
+
+=Machining the Rifling Band.=--One method of machining the rifling band
+to the correct shape is shown in Fig. 23. Here a Fox lathe is used
+which is provided with a chuck for holding the shell and which carries
+in the turret a revolving center for additionally supporting it. The
+machining is done by form tools which are of the correct shape. Before
+any other machining operations can be accomplished it is necessary
+to put in the tin powder cup, brass fuse tube, bullets, and resin.
+This cup is slipped in past the steel diaphragm, then both parts are
+allowed to drop to the bottom and the fuse tube is screwed into the
+diaphragm. The required number of lead bullets, which for the British
+18-pound shrapnel is about 375 per shell, is then poured in. The
+bullets are held in a tank and are allowed to flow out upon the opening
+of a stopcock. In order to pack the bullets solidly, a compressed air
+ramming device forms the base upon which the shell rests while the
+bullets are being poured in. This is operated three or four times for
+the filling of each shell and arranges the bullets compactly.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 24. Illustration showing some of the Principal
+Gaging Operations on Shrapnel Shells]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 25. 18-pound Shrapnel Shell showing Dimensions and
+Manufacturing Limits]
+
+The resin is now poured in, as shown in the center of Fig. 22. This
+is carried in the tank which is heated by a gas furnace and is poured
+in almost level with the top of the bullets. The shell is then placed
+on the scale in the immediate foreground and weighed. One dram plus
+or minus is allowed as a variation, and in order to not exceed this,
+more or less resin is poured in until the correct weight is obtained.
+The brass fuse socket is now screwed in as shown to the left of the
+illustration, and upon the completion of this operation the shell is
+ready for the fourth and last machining operation. This last operation
+consists in machining the brass socket on the outside diameter to
+conform to the radius on the nose of the shell, and boring on the
+inside and threading to fit the fuse body. These operations are handled
+in a Fox brass working lathe. Upon the completion of the machining
+operations the plug is screwed in, the shell stamped, cleaned, weighed,
+and inspected by government inspectors. After this, the shell is given
+two coats of paint and a red band is painted around the nose. It is now
+packed in boxes holding six shells and is ready for shipment. This
+completes the manufacture of the shrapnel shell.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 26. Group of Gages made by Wells Bros. Co. for
+gaging British Shrapnel Shells and Parts]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 27. Diagram showing Application of Wells Bros.
+Gages]
+
+
+=Gaging Shrapnel Shells.=--The machining operations on shrapnel
+shells are required to be held within certain limits, and government
+inspectors watch these closely. Some of the principal gaging operations
+on the shrapnel shell body are shown in Fig. 24. Fig. 25 shows the
+18-pound shrapnel shell in section, and gives the principal dimensions
+together with the limits; it will be seen from this illustration that
+the range allowable is in most cases large. The Wells Bros. Co.,
+Greenfield, Mass., has made a large number of shrapnel gages, some of
+which are shown in the accompanying illustrations. In the three upper
+views of Fig. 24, the Wells Bros, standard thread gage is illustrated.
+This is used for all diameter measurements by substituting flat gaging
+pins for the V-points used when gaging thread diameters.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 28. Collection of Wells Bros. Co.’s American
+Shrapnel Shell Gages]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 29. Dwight-Slate Hand-operated Marking Machine for
+Shrapnel Shells]
+
+
+=Gages for British Shrapnel Parts.=--Fig. 26 illustrates typical gages
+for gaging such parts of the British shrapnel as body diameters,
+diaphragm seat, powder pocket, fuse socket, thread diameters, and fuse
+parts. Fig. 27 shows the application of several different types of
+shrapnel shell gages. At _A_ is the gage for the over-all length. At
+_B_ is the gage used for measuring the thickness of the closed end.
+The outer arm of this gage can be swung away to allow the placing of
+the gage on the standard. At the extreme lower left-hand corner of the
+gaging arm is a slight shoulder on the rod and the height of this acts
+as the limit. _C_ shows the application of outside diameter and thread
+gages. _D_ shows three form gages for checking the shape and dimensions
+of the wave ribs, the diameter and shape of the undercut in the band
+groove, and the shape of the nose of the shell. _E_ shows the gage
+used for checking the thickness of the wall of the shell at different
+distances from the mouth. _F_ shows the application of a powder pocket
+gage, and also a gage for checking the shape of the finished rifling
+band.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 30. Power-driven Dwight-Slate Marking Machine for
+Shrapnel Shells]
+
+
+=Gages for American Shrapnel Shells.=--Fig. 28 shows a miscellaneous
+collection of gages used in checking the dimensions of the American
+shrapnel shell. Gages, _A_, _B_, _C_, and _D_ are for measuring the
+diameter of the diaphragm seat. _E_ is for checking the distance from
+the diaphragm seat to the mouth end of the shell, and gage _F_ is for
+the outside diameter of the shell. Gage _G_ is used for the rifling
+band groove. Gages _H_ and _I_ are for the thread in the mouth of the
+shell, _H_ being a “not-go” and _I_ a “go” gage.
+
+The gage at _J_ performs several gaging functions on the American
+shell. It consists of a standard having two upright posts across which
+a bar is mounted. The purpose of the bar is to gage the over-all
+length of the shell, and its lower surface is provided with two steps
+giving the limits. This gage is also used for measuring the depth of
+the powder pocket, rod _K_ and block _L_ performing this function. Two
+rings are cut around the rod _K_ registering with the top surface of
+the bar, the purpose being to show the accuracy of the work.
+
+Another interesting gage is shown at _M_. This is for gaging the
+concentricity of the shell and consists of an arbor mounted so that it
+can be swung on a pivot. The arbor carries two collars _N_ and _O_ that
+fit in the shell. Collar _P_ is merely a sizing plug and when the gage
+is in use this plug is removed. A gaging finger _Q_ rests against the
+shell when it is on this arbor, and a standard type of indicator _R_
+shows the variation in concentricity when the gage, collars, and shell
+are rotated on the arbor.
+
+
+=Marking Shrapnel Shells.=--All shrapnel shells are marked on their
+circumference with five or six lines of lettering, as shown in Fig. 29.
+This indicates the size of the shell, the series, muzzle velocity, name
+of the manufacturer, date completed, etc. Two types of machines for
+producing the stamping, built by Noble & Westbrook, Hartford, Conn.,
+are shown in Figs. 29 and 30. The machine shown in Fig. 29 is of the
+hand-operated type. The figure block _A_ is held in a slide that is
+moved longitudinally by pulling down handle _B_, rolling the shell, and
+at the same time stamping it. The shell is located on the table in the
+two positions by gages _C_ and _D_.
+
+The “Dwight-Slate” stamping machine shown in Fig. 30 is power-driven,
+and the work is held on an elevating table. The stamp is held in a
+slide operated by an eccentric and connecting-rod. In this machine the
+shell is not distorted.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+MACHINES AND TOOLS FOR SHRAPNEL MANUFACTURE
+
+
+=Reed-Prentice Co. Equipment for Machining Forged Shrapnel Shells.=--In
+machining the 18-pound British shrapnel shell on the equipment
+furnished by the Reed-Prentice Co., Worcester, Mass., eight distinct
+operations are performed as follows: First, drilling a center hole
+in the closed end of the forging in a Prentice 16-inch ball-bearing
+sensitive drilling machine equipped with a special centering fixture;
+second, rough-turning the outside diameter, grooving, squaring the
+closed end and rounding the corners in a Reed-Prentice 14-inch heavy
+type automatic lathe; third, machining the powder pocket and diaphragm
+seat, as well as the internal and external diameters of the nose in
+a 14-inch Reed extra-heavy turret lathe; fourth, under-cutting band
+grooves and producing wave ribs in a 14-inch Reed engine lathe; fifth,
+boring, reaming, threading and facing the open end in a Reed 14-inch
+extra-heavy turret lathe; sixth, finish-turning outside diameter and
+radius on nose, also form-turning copper band in a Reed 14-inch heavy
+type automatic lathe; seventh, cutting off center projection on closed
+end of shell in a Reed 14-inch engine lathe; eighth, finishing brass
+socket to form, cleaning inside of socket and cutting off excess length
+of tube in a Reed 14-inch extra-heavy turning lathe.
+
+
+=First Operation on Rough Shell Forging.=--The drilling of the center
+hole in the closed end of the forging is a comparatively simple
+operation, and is performed in an interesting fixture held on a 16-inch
+Prentice ball-bearing sensitive drilling machine. This fixture, which
+is designed for handling the work quickly, is shown in Fig. 1, and
+consists of the base casting _A_ clamped to the table of the drilling
+machine. The entire back part of the jig swings on the trunnion _B_ to
+provide a means for quickly removing the forging _C_ from the arbor
+_D_. A locking-pin _E_ is used for locating the fixture in its upright
+position for drilling. Bushing _G_ in the top plate _F_ of the fixture
+guides the combination drill and countersink.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1. Fixtures used for holding Shrapnel Shell
+Forgings when drilling Center Hole in a 16-inch Prentice Ball Bearing
+Sensitive Drilling Machine]
+
+The construction of the work-holding arbor is worthy of special
+attention. This arbor _D_ has a cap _H_ on its top end that acts as a
+stop for the inside of the forging, which, in being placed over the
+arbor, is located centrally and clamped by fingers _N_. To operate
+these fingers, hand lever _I_ is depressed, and as this is fulcrumed
+at the point _J_, it causes collar _K_ to rise on the arbor. Yoke _L_
+forms a connection between the lever and the collar with which the
+sleeve carrying fingers _N_ is integral. Fingers _N_ are fulcrumed in
+arbor _D_ and are thrown outward to grip the forging when sleeve _M_
+is raised. Light springs _O_ tend to keep the gripping fingers in a
+vertical position against the arbor when they are not being forced
+outward by the inclined surfaces on sleeve _M_. Handle _I_ carries a
+spring pawl _P_ that holds the sleeve _M_ stationary while the forging
+is being center-drilled.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2. Tool Lay-out for performing Second Series of
+Operations on Reed-Prentice Heavy Type Automatic Lathe]
+
+
+=Second or Rough-turning and Facing Operations.=--The second operation
+is performed on a Reed-Prentice 14-inch heavy type automatic lathe,
+as shown in Figs. 2 and 3. The forging _A_ is held on an internal
+expanding arbor _B_, the driving part of which is supported by
+the head-center. At the closed end, the shell is steadied by the
+tail-center. The bottom of the shell rests against the end of the
+arbor which acts as a gage. In this setting, the external diameter of
+the forging is rough-turned by four tools _F_, mounted on the carriage
+_G_. This carriage has a travel slightly less than two inches, and an
+automatic throw-off is provided at the end of the cut that disengages
+the tools, draws them back and returns the carriage. At the rear of
+the carriage on this machine a facing arm is mounted on a heavy bar.
+Turning tools are carried on this facing arm, as shown, and when the
+front carriage feeds longitudinally a cam bracket _O_, bolted to the
+carriage, is carried along with it. Clamped on this bracket is an
+adjustable cam _N_ held in place by screws. Cam roll _M_ on the facing
+arm contacts with cam _N_, causing the facing arm to rock forward as
+the carriage travels longitudinally.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3. Section through Reed-Prentice Automatic Lathe,
+showing Tool Arrangement]
+
+Referring to the plan view in Fig. 2, tool _H_, held in the arm, faces
+the end of the forging, tool _I_ chamfers the corner, and tool _J_ cuts
+the depression for the wave ribs, leaving a projection in the center
+from which the ribs are formed. It should be understood that the tools
+on the carriage and facing arm work together. One man can run two of
+these machines without trouble.
+
+
+=Third Series of Machining Operations.=--The third series of operations
+on the shrapnel forging is performed on a 14-inch Reed heavy lathe with
+a specially large turret, as shown in Fig. 4. This lathe is fitted
+with a 12-inch three-jaw chuck, bored out to 3¹⁄₂ inches to permit
+the forging to extend into it. The forging _A_ is put in the chuck
+as shown at _B_, and the jaws grip at _C_. The first operation is
+performed with a bar _D_ carrying a blade cutter _E_ that rough-bores
+the powder pocket, and tool _F_ that rough-bores the mouth. The turret
+is now indexed, and a boring-bar carrying a blade _G_ roughs out the
+diaphragm seat, while an auxiliary tool _H_ faces the shell to length.
+At the next indexing of the turret the boring-bar _I_ that carries the
+finishing tool _J_ finishes the diaphragm seat and powder chamber.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4. Tooling Equipment for performing Third Series of
+Operations on 14-inch Extra-heavy Turret Lathe]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5. Tools used for Under-cutting and Waving Band
+Grooves on Reed 14-inch Engine Lathe]
+
+
+=Fourth Operation--Under-cutting and “Waving” Band Groove.=--For the
+fourth operation, the forging is held in a 14-inch Reed engine lathe
+provided with an automatic attachment for under-cutting and waving the
+ribs for the copper band. The tool equipment used is shown in Fig. 5,
+where _A_ is the forging held by one end in the chuck and supported
+on the opposite end by the tail-center. The tools are all located in
+holders on the heavy base block _B_, and their operation is controlled
+from the carriage _R_ of the lathe. The cutting of the wave ribs is
+done by tool _C_ at the front, held on a slide that operates on the
+top of block _B_. Spring _D_ keeps the roll _E_ on the lower slide of
+the tool-holder in contact with the cam slot in cam-plate _F_ that is
+fastened to carriage _R_. When the carriage is traversed toward the
+chuck, the irregular surface of cam-plate _F_ engages the roll and
+forces the tool-holder forward. Side motion to produce the wave is then
+effected by face-cam _G_, mounted on the chuck and contacting with the
+roll _H_. This roll is supported on a bracket forming an auxiliary
+slide _S_ that carries the waving tool _C_. A stiff barrel spring keeps
+slide _S_ in contact with the cam _G_. Thus, when the machine spindle
+revolves, the auxiliary slide is caused to oscillate back and forth far
+enough to give the desired amount of wave.
+
+The under-cutting in the band groove is accomplished by tools _I_ and
+_J_ which are mounted on separate tool-slides _K_ and _L_. These slides
+are fed in at an angle to the axis of the forging, against the action
+of coil springs _M_ and _N_, by the cam surfaces of plate _Q_ in which
+rolls _O_ and _P_ work. Plate _Q_ is bolted to carriage _R_ which, in
+advancing toward the chuck, forces in the under-cutting tools in the
+manner just described. The tail-center of this machine is fitted with a
+quick-acting mechanism so that it may be withdrawn quickly to insert a
+new piece.
+
+
+=Fifth Series of Operations.=--Before performing the fifth series of
+operations, the forging is heated and closed in on the nose. It is then
+handled in the following manner: A Reed 14-inch heavy lathe, equipped
+with an extra large turret mounted on a special wide-bridge carriage
+carries tools for boring, reaming, threading and final squaring of the
+open end, as shown in Fig. 6. The shell forging for these operations
+is held in a three-jaw chuck provided with special jaws. In the first
+position the rough-boring of the nose and the rough-facing of the
+extreme end is performed with tools _B_ and _C_. The turret is then
+indexed and tools _D_ and _E_ finish-ream the hole in the nose and face
+the end. The tap _F_ is next brought into position, cutting the thread
+in the nose.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6. Turret Tools held on Reed 14-inch Extra-heavy
+Lathe for performing Fifth Series of Operations]
+
+The turret is again indexed, bringing a special form boring tool into
+position. Here the boring tool _G_ is carried in a bar _H_ held in a
+holder of the cross-sliding carriage type that is fastened to two faces
+of the turret. By means of cross-screw _J_, the boring tool _H_ may be
+drawn in or out at will. This tool operates as follows: As the turret
+is advanced, handle _J_ is operated to let tool _G_ enter the nose of
+the shell, and, upon the continued advance of the turret, arrow head
+_M_ is forced in between and gripped by the fingers _N_. The turret is
+now backed away from the chuck, and while receding acts upon slide _P_
+through the medium of roll _L_ and cam groove _R_. The plate containing
+cam groove _R_ is attached to the arrow head _M_ and consequently is
+held stationary while the turret is being withdrawn from the work. This
+backward movement of the turret is continued until the tool _G_ is
+withdrawn from the work and slide _S_ comes in contact with check-nuts
+on rod _O_, withdrawing arrow head _M_ from fingers _N_ and allowing
+the turret to be indexed ready for the first operation on the next
+forging.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7. Reed-Prentice 14-inch Heavy Type Automatic Lathe
+used for performing Sixth Series of Operations]
+
+
+=Sixth or Finish-turning Operations.=--The sixth series of operations
+is performed on a Reed-Prentice 14-inch heavy type automatic lathe,
+similar to that used for the second operation, and the machine is
+also operated in a manner similar to that previously described. The
+operations consist in finish-turning the outside diameter of the shell
+and turning the radius on the nose. In addition, the copper rifling
+band, put on previous to this operation, is turned to shape. Referring
+to Fig. 7, the shrapnel shell _A_ is held by the tail-center at one end
+and is supported and driven from the other end by a plug screwed into
+it. This plug is held on the live center and is driven by an equalizing
+driver, coming in contact with pins in the special faceplate.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8. Tools for machining Brass Fuse Socket on 14-inch
+Heavy Turning Lathe--Eighth Operation]
+
+Two slides _B_ and _C_ are carried on the front of the carriage. Slide
+_C_ carries three tools _D_; two of these start in from the rifling
+band and turn in toward the nose, and the other works up toward the
+rifling band from the closed end. Tool _E_, carried in slide _B_,
+turns the curve on the nose of the shell and is controlled in its
+action by means of a slot in cam _F_ in which a roller held to the
+slide operates. At the rear of the carriage is carried a facing bar
+attachment, as previously described in connection with the second
+operation. This attachment carries three tools, as illustrated,
+for machining the rifling band to shape, facing the closed end and
+chamfering the corner.
+
+
+=Seventh and Eighth Operations.=--After the sixth operation, the fuse
+tube is threaded into the diaphragm, the bullets put in, and the hot
+resin poured in to keep them from rattling. The brass socket is then
+screwed into the nose and the fuse tube soldered to it. The shell is
+now ready for the seventh operation which consists in cutting off the
+center projection. This is accomplished in a Reed 14-inch engine lathe,
+provided with a faceplate chuck for holding and driving the shell at
+the open end, and a steadyrest for supporting it close to the point
+where the cutting is being done. The shell is now ready for the eighth
+operation, which consists in machining the brass socket to shape in an
+extra-heavy lathe as shown in Fig. 8. The tools used for machining are
+retained in a special holder on the carriage. Tool _A_, which is used
+for facing off the fuse tube and the brass socket, is inverted, starts
+at the center and is fed out toward the circumference. The external
+surface of the socket is machined with a circular forming tool _C_ held
+on a stud _D_ located in block _B_. The inward travel of this tool is
+limited by stop _E_ coming in contact with the shell.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9. Shrapnel Case made from Chrome-nickel Steel
+having High Tensile Strength on a Cleveland Automatic Screw Machine
+with Special Tool Equipment]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10. Order of Operations on the Shrapnel Case]
+
+
+=Making Shrapnel Shells on the Cleveland Automatic.=--An unusual
+example of automatic machine work is that of producing the shrapnel
+shell shown in Fig. 9. This shell is made from a bar of 3¹⁄₁₆ inch
+chrome-nickel steel stock. The steel has a tensile strength varying
+from 125,000 to 135,000 pounds per square inch, and is extremely tough.
+The work is accomplished on a 3¹⁄₄-inch Cleveland automatic, and the
+tooling equipment, as shown in Figs. 10, 11, and 12, is interesting.
+While the general operation of the Cleveland automatic is well
+understood by many mechanics, the production of this piece illustrates
+a number of points in the operation of this machine which are not so
+well known. Therefore, it is advisable to explain in detail just how
+this interesting job is handled.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11. Cleveland 3¹⁄₄-inch Automatic Screw Machine set
+up for making a Shrapnel Case in Twenty-five Minutes]
+
+The first operation, as the job was originally laid out, was to feed
+the stock out to the stop _A_, shown in Fig. 11, which is held on the
+cross-slide and operated by a lever on the base of the machine. This
+method has been improved upon since the photograph shown in Fig. 11
+was taken, and the time reduced from twenty-seven and one-half minutes
+to twenty-five minutes (see Fig. 10 for improved method). The second
+operation is to rough-drill the large hole with an inserted bit _B_,
+step the hole for the taper reamer with cutter _C_ and rough-turn the
+external diameter with cutter _D_ held in a special turning attachment.
+This attachment envelops the shanks of all six tools in the turret in
+order to obtain support. The cutters in the attachment shown in Fig.
+11 work in advance of the under-cutting forming tool _E_ shown in Fig.
+12, which is held on the rear cross-slide. The time required for the
+completion of the operations outlined is thirteen minutes.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 12. Showing Tools held on the Front and Rear
+Cross-slides for performing the Knurling, Forming, and Cutting-off
+Operations on the Shrapnel Case]
+
+In the third operation drill _H_ finishes the powder pocket, and two
+cutters _I_ counterbore for the tap--time required three minutes. The
+fourth operation consists in finishing the diaphragm seat with the
+counterbore _J_, finishing the front end with inserted cutter _K_ and
+breaking the corner to facilitate tapping with inserted cutter _L_,
+the time required being forty-five seconds. In the fifth operation the
+thread is cut with a tap _M_ held in the tap-holder _N_ in forty-five
+seconds. Then the turret is indexed and for the sixth operation the
+hole is taper-reamed with reamer _O_, provided with four inserted
+“Novo” steel blades, in ninety seconds. The last and seventh operation
+consists in knurling the band with a knurl _P_ (see Fig. 12) mounted on
+the front cross-slide, and cutting off the shell with a cut-off blade
+_Q_ retained in a holder on the rear cross-slide--time six minutes.
+The total time required to produce this shrapnel case by the improved
+methods illustrated by the diagram in Fig. 10 is twenty-five minutes.
+
+There are several points of unusual interest in the production of this
+shrapnel case. One is the large amount of stock to be removed to form
+the hole; the second is the long taper-reaming operation--difficult
+work to accomplish satisfactorily on an automatic screw machine--and
+the third is the long outside forming operation which must be held to a
+limit of 0.0005 inch on the diameter. In order to accomplish this last
+operation successfully, the external diameter of the piece is first
+turned with a cutter held in a separate turning attachment, leaving
+only 0.010 inch on the diameter to be removed by a wide under-cutting
+or shaving tool _E_ held very rigidly on the rear cross-slide. Not
+only must the case be exact as regards diameter, but it must not vary
+from one end to the other nor at any point throughout its length. The
+large shaving tool held rigidly in the manner illustrated in Fig. 12
+accomplishes this result satisfactorily.
+
+The material from which the case is made is so tough that some
+difficulty was met with in selecting a tool steel that would stand up
+for a reasonable length of time under cut. The drills and counterbores
+are tipped with “Novo” cutters and all the forming tools, including
+the cut-off tool, are also made from the same steel. The only cutting
+tool in the entire tooling equipment not made of this steel is the
+tap. The bar is rotated at sixty-four revolutions per minute, giving a
+surface speed for the external cutting tools of approximately fifty-one
+surface feet per minute.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 13. First Operation on Shrapnel Shell, performed on
+a No. 6A Potter & Johnston Automatic Chucking and Turning Machine]
+
+
+=Machining the British Forged Shell on Potter & Johnston
+Automatics.=--In making the British forged shell on the Potter &
+Johnston automatic chucking and turning machine, three operations
+complete the work. The first operation completes the outside of the
+shell, except for the extreme end which is covered by the gripping
+mechanism of the chuck. The second operation finishes the inside of the
+shell and at the same time finish-turns the extreme open end. After
+the second operation is performed the shell is “nosed,” which consists
+in heating it in a lead bath and then striking it under a light press
+to close in the end. The third operation then follows, and consists in
+taking light cuts from the inside diameter and threading the open end
+of the shell.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14. Expanding Arbor and Chucking Mechanism used
+on Potter & Johnston Automatic Chucking and Turning Machines for
+performing First Operation on Forged Shrapnel Shells]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 15. Set-up on a No. 6A Potter & Johnston Automatic
+Chucking and Turning Machine for First Operation on Forged Shrapnel
+Shells]
+
+
+=Method of Holding Shell for First Operation.=--For the first
+operation, the shell is held on an expanding arbor of the type shown in
+Fig. 14. The arbor _A_ is tapered on its rear end and is held in the
+nose of the spindle of the machine. The shell is pushed onto this
+arbor until the end of the arbor strikes the bottom of the shell. The
+gripping mechanism which comprises six jaws _B_ and a draw-in plunger
+_C_ is contained inside the arbor. The external diameter of the arbor
+is machined to practically the same shape as the internal diameter of
+the shell, but is smaller. The jaws are held in slots which control
+their movement in every direction except radially. They are forced out
+radially by means of the draw-in bar _C_ which is provided with tapered
+seats that engage the inward end of the jaws. The bar _C_ is operated
+by a hand lever _D_ that extends up over the top of the machine, is
+fulcrumed in a bracket on the rear bearing cap, and is connected to a
+sliding sleeve _E_.
+
+In clamping the work on the arbor, lever _D_ is lifted up, this action
+drawing the sliding collar _E_ to the right along the sleeve _F_,
+which, in turn, allows the forward end of the fingers _G_ to close
+in. This releases the pressure of the outer end of the fingers on the
+draw-in bar _C_. When the pressure from bar _C_ is released by means of
+handle _D_, heavy coil springs _H_ then come into action forcing the
+draw-in bar back and expanding the clamping jaws. Additional clamping
+means are provided by three set-screws which are brought to bear on the
+work after it has been clamped in position by the jaws. To release the
+work, the reverse action takes place, that is, lever _D_ is forced down
+which slides the collar _E_ to the left, operating the fingers _G_,
+which, in turn, overcome the pressure of the springs _H_, allowing the
+clamping jaws _B_ to collapse.
+
+
+=First Machining Operation Set-up.=--The order of the first series of
+operations in machining a forged shrapnel shell is as follows: First,
+rough-turn 7 inches along body of shell, face end and chamfer; second,
+finish-turn 2¹⁄₂ inches along shell; third, rough-groove for copper
+band and dovetail; fourth, turn waves in groove.
+
+For the first operation, the work is held on the expanding arbor
+shown in Fig. 14, and the tool equipment, which is of an unusually
+interesting character, is shown in Fig. 15. The first rough-turning
+operation, accomplished by turret tool _A_, which is of the relieving
+type to be described later, is held on the first face of the turret and
+roughs down the body of the shell. On the opposite side of the holder
+is a roller support _B_ which supports the shell while the turning tool
+is in operation. The end of the shell is faced by means of a facing
+tool _C_ which is really a type of facing mill. The end of the shell is
+then chamfered by means of a chamfering tool _D_ that removes the sharp
+corner.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 16. Details of Relieving Turning Tool-holder shown
+in Fig. 15]
+
+After these operations have been performed, the turret is indexed and
+the second face of the turret is brought in line with the chuck. This
+operation is accomplished with a relieving tool-holder _E_ carrying a
+cutter _e_, which takes a cut 2¹⁄₂ inches along the body of the shell.
+An interesting feature of this tool is that on the return stroke of the
+turret it swivels back out of the way so that the shell is not scored
+by the tool dragging over it. The construction of this tool is more
+clearly shown in Fig. 16.
+
+As is clearly shown in this illustration, the turret relieving turning
+tool comprises a shank on which is fulcrumed a tool-holding member _B_.
+This is slotted out to carry the turning tool _C_ which is clamped
+in place by two set-screws _D_ and is adjusted to turn the correct
+diameter by means of an adjusting stud and clamping nut _F_ and
+_G_. The method of operating this tool is as follows: The fulcrumed
+tool-holder _B_ is “held up” by means of a fillister-head screw,
+screwed into a stud _H_ and acted upon by a coil spring _I_. A hole to
+receive the stud is drilled in the tool-holder _B_, allowing about ¹⁄₁₆
+inch clearance. When the tool is in action it has a reverse position
+to that shown in the illustration, that is, the turning tool instead
+of being parallel with the center line is at a slight angle with it.
+In action, as soon as the turret advances, the tool comes into contact
+with the work, and the work, turning around, forces the cutting tool
+down and consequently depresses the spring, at the same time bringing
+the “lower part” of the hole into contact with the extended plug on
+the holder. In this way the tool is held rigidly and in contact with
+the work. As soon as the turret begins to move back, however, and the
+cutting pressure is released, the spring comes into action and throws
+up the tool, bringing it out of contact with the work.
+
+Upon the completion of the operation which is accomplished from the
+second turret face, the turret is again indexed and the next operation
+is performed from the rear cross-slide and the third turret face.
+The third operation consists in cutting the grooves for the rifling
+band, and, on account of the under-cutting necessary, involves some
+interesting points. In order to hold the work rigidly while the
+grooving tools are acting on it, a revolving support _F_ is brought
+in from the turret. The wide tool _G_ for cutting the band grooves
+(this tool removes the greatest amount of the stock) is held on the
+rear cross-slide and is of the under-cutting type; that is to say, it
+operates under the work or tangentially instead of radially. Held on a
+bracket on the third turret face are two tools _H_ and _I_, the purpose
+of which is to dovetail the rifling band grooves. These turret tools
+are held in a holder working in a slide on the bracket fastened to the
+turret face and are operated by a block held on the rear cross-slide.
+The action of these three tools, therefore, is simultaneous. The wide
+grooving tool, however, is slightly ahead of the dovetailing tools.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 17. Type of Draw-In Collet and Chucking Mechanism
+for holding Forged Shrapnel Shell for performing Second Series of
+Operations]
+
+The last operation is accomplished when the turret is indexed to the
+fourth position. Here, again, a roller support _J_ steadies the work
+while the waving tool is in action on it. The two waves that are formed
+are for the purpose of preventing the rifling ring from turning, and
+they deviate about ¹⁄₁₆ inch laterally from being a true annular rib.
+The tool for cutting these ribs is shown at _K_ and is of the forming
+type held in a dovetailed groove in the holder _L_. This also carries
+a roll _M_ which contacts with the waved surface of the face-cam _N_,
+the curve of which gives the correct out-and-in motions to the waving
+tool _K_. The cam face is on a sleeve that is threaded onto the nose of
+the spindle of the machine, as is shown to the left of the illustration
+opposite the first turret face.
+
+
+=Method of Holding Shell for Second Operation.=--The second series of
+operations on the shell is also performed on the Potter & Johnston
+automatic chucking and turning machine. The shell is held at the base
+end by a special collet of the draw-in type, as shown in Fig. 17.
+Fixed in the nose of the spindle is a positive stop _A_ against which
+the shell is held by means of the draw-in collet _B_. This collet
+extends into the draw-in rod _C_, to which it is attached. The method
+of operating this gripping mechanism differs slightly from that shown
+in Fig. 14. In this case the spring collet _B_ is drawn into a tapered
+sleeve to clamp it on the work. This is effected by means of lever _D_
+which is fulcrumed in a bracket extending from the rear bearing cap of
+the machine and operates a sliding cam sleeve _E_. The cam, in turn,
+operates fingers _F_, only one of which is shown, the latter acting
+upon the draw-in rod _C_ to which the collet is attached. By depressing
+lever _D_, the chuck is opened by means of the coil springs _G_ which
+act upon the draw-in rod _C_ when the pressure of the fingers has been
+released. Lifting up handle _D_ closes the chuck, and depressing it
+opens the chuck.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 18. Tooling Equipment used on No. 6A Potter &
+Johnston Automatic Chucking and Turning Machine for performing Second
+Series of Operations on Forged Shrapnel Shell]
+
+
+=Second Series of Machining Operations on Shrapnel Shells.=--The
+operations on the shrapnel shell performed in the second setting are
+shown in Fig. 18. The relieving tool _A_, held on the first face of
+the turret, covers that section of the shell which in the former
+operation was held in the gripping jaws. While this cut is being taken,
+a turret tool _B_ rough-bores the powder pocket and diaphragm seat.
+The relieving tool _A_ is constructed and operated similarly to the
+relieving tool described in connection with Fig. 16. It will be noted
+here that the threads on the spindle nose are protected by a cast-iron
+cap to prevent them from being injured. Upon the completion of the
+operation just described, the turret is indexed, bringing the second
+face in line with the spindle. Here the diaphragm seat is finished
+with a flat cutter _C_, which is held in the boring tool illustrated.
+The turret is again indexed into the third position, where the powder
+pocket is finished by means of the flat cutter _D_.
+
+The turret is now indexed to bring the fourth face in line with the
+spindle where the extreme open end of the shell is turned taper by
+means of a tool _E_ that is carried on the front cross-slide and
+operated by the turret. By referring to this illustration, it will be
+noticed that the taper is turned from the spindle toward the outer
+end of the shell and is, therefore, a reverse turning operation. The
+tool is caused to move toward the turret by using a rack and pinion to
+reverse the movement. On this operation, as well as on the previous
+one, one man takes care of four machines.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 19. Machining Inside of Shrapnel Shell, and
+threading with Automatic Collapsible Tap on Potter & Johnston Automatic
+Chucking and Turning Machine]
+
+
+=Third Machining Operation on Shrapnel Shells.=--Before any other
+machining operations are done on the shell, it is taken to a lead bath
+where it is heated and afterward placed under a press which closes
+in the nose or open end of the shell. For machining in the third
+operation, the shell is held practically in the same manner as for the
+second operation, except that it is gripped farther along the body.
+The machining performed in this operation is as follows: On the first
+turret face, rough-bore and finish-bore for a distance of 1 inch from
+the end of the shell; second turret face, rough-bore the inside of
+the shell for a distance of 1 inch back from the thread; third turret
+face, finish-form on the inside for a distance of 1 inch back of the
+thread; and fourth turret face, thread with a collapsible tap. The
+various machining operations on the 3-inch size of shrapnel shells
+are performed on a standard Potter & Johnston 6A automatic chucking
+and turning lathe. It is recommended that these machines be run in
+batteries or units of seven each, four machines being set up for the
+first operation, two machines for the second operation, and one machine
+for the third operation.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 20. First Series of Operations on “Frankford” Shell
+on a Potter & Johnston 6A Automatic Chucking and Turning Lathe]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 21. Second Series of Operations on “Frankford”
+Shell on Potter & Johnston Automatic Chucking and Turning Lathe]
+
+
+=Machining “Frankford” Forged Shell.=--The machining of the American
+or “Frankford” 3-inch type of high-explosive shrapnel shell is
+comparatively easy, inasmuch as there is no nosing to be done, and the
+entire shell may be machined at two settings. Fig. 20 shows the way
+in which the first operation is taken care of on the No. 6A Potter &
+Johnston automatic chucking and turning lathe. The forged shell is held
+on an expanding arbor of the same type as that shown in Fig. 15. In
+the first turret position, the operations consist in taking a straight
+cut across the diameter and facing off the end. The external turning
+tool _A_ is of the relieving type, and _B_ is a facing tool that works
+on the end. Both of these tools are supported and operated from the
+turret. A roll support, not shown, steadies the work while tool _A_
+is working. The turret now backs out, and a forming tool, held on
+the cross-slide, advances, cuts the rifling band and the semicircular
+grooves in the end of the shell, and at the same time chamfers the
+corner. Knurl _D_, held on the rear of the cross-slide, is then
+advanced. This knurls the bottom of the rifling band groove.
+
+By referring to Fig. 20, it will be seen that the grooves do not
+extend entirely across the face of the knurl, but instead two “knurl”
+ribs similar to a double thread are formed on the periphery. This
+construction makes it possible to sink the knurl into the work to the
+proper depth without exerting excessive pressure on the arbor and
+throwing it out of line.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 22. Three-inch Shrapnel Shell made on a Gridley
+Automatic Turret Lathe]
+
+
+=Second Series of Operations on “Frankford” Forged Shrapnel
+Shell.=--For the second series of operations, the “Frankford” shrapnel
+shell is held in a draw-in collet as shown in Fig. 21. As the shell
+has been completely machined on the outside, it is let into the collet
+for a considerable distance. For machining, it is shown gripped in
+the collet by jaws _A_ and is backed up by positive stop _B_. At the
+first turret face, tool _C_ rough-bores the diaphragm seat, tool _D_
+bores the thread diameter, and tool _E_ faces and chamfers the end.
+The turret is now indexed, and tools _F_, _G_, and _H_ perform similar
+finishing cuts. A holder held on the third turret face carries tool
+_I_ that chamfers the powder pocket, and at the fourth turret face a
+collapsible tap threads the open end.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 23. Tool set up for Producing the Shell shown in
+Fig. 22]
+
+
+=Making Shrapnel Shells on the Gridley Automatic Turret Lathe.=--Figs.
+22 to 25 show a three-inch shrapnel shell made on the 3¹⁄₄-inch Gridley
+single-spindle automatic turret lathe. The steel from which the shell
+is made is very tough. The specifications are from 125,000 to 135,000
+pounds tensile strength, 110,000 pounds elastic limit, a twenty-five
+per cent reduction of area, and a twelve per cent elongation. It will
+be seen from the above specifications that the steel is, of necessity,
+very tough and difficult to work; in addition, a large taper reamer
+must be used, and the outside of the shell must be relieved throughout
+the central portion. It is also necessary to machine the piece to
+extremely accurate dimensions, all of which tends to make the work
+still more difficult. Fig. 22 shows a view of the shrapnel shell.
+It is approximately three inches in diameter and eight inches long,
+and the limits allowed for the sizes are extremely close throughout,
+both inside and outside. Figs. 24 and 25 show the successive steps
+employed in machining the piece complete, the four views presented
+representing the appearance of the work and the operations performed at
+each indexing of the turret. Fig. 23 will enable the operation of the
+different parts to be more clearly understood.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 24. Successive Steps and Operations employed in
+Making the Shell shown in Fig. 22]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 25. Successive Steps and Operations employed in
+Making the Shell shown in Fig. 22]
+
+While the operation of the Gridley automatic turret lathe is generally
+understood by mechanics, it may be well to state briefly the general
+principles upon which work is done in the single-spindle machine. In
+this type of machine, the position of the work does not change as it
+does in the multiple-spindle machine, but the turning is accomplished
+by the operation of tools mounted on tool-slides which, in turn,
+work on a turret that revolves about a horizontal axis, successively
+presenting the tools for operation upon the work. This will be readily
+understood by glancing at the illustration Fig. 23. It will also be
+noticed from this illustration that the forming tools and cutting-off
+tools are operated from a face-cam at the lower part of the machine.
+The forming slide is actuated by a cam groove cut in one side of the
+cam-plate while the cutting-off slide receives its movement from a cam
+groove on the reverse side of this plate.
+
+At the first position of the turret, a large 2¹¹⁄₃₂ inch high-speed oil
+drill is run into the bar to a depth of 6¹⁄₃₂ inches, and, at the same
+time, a knee-turner located on the tool-slide turns the outside of the
+stock, thereby removing the scale from the bar. Referring to Fig. 23,
+which shows the turret in the third position, the end of this large
+drill is shown at _A_, and, of course, when at work, it would be in the
+position of the reamer which is shown at _F_. The time elapsed at the
+completion of this part of the work is eleven minutes, five seconds.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 26. First Chucking on Warner & Swasey Turret Lathe
+for machining British Forged Shrapnel Shells]
+
+At the second position of the turret, a smaller drill, 2¹⁄₁₆ inches
+in diameter, which is shown at _B_, is run in at the bottom of the
+hole previously drilled to a depth of ²⁹⁄₃₂ inch. At the same time a
+counterboring tool, which is located at _C_ and which is attached to
+the drill with a set-screw, is at work counterboring the end of the
+hole in the shell. During the time that this drilling and counterboring
+operation is being performed, the forming tool shown at _D_ is being
+fed into the outside of the head of the shell, finishing the three
+grooves as shown; in addition, a sizing tool _E_, which is at a fixed
+distance from the forming tool, comes in and sizes the work to exactly
+the right length. The time elapsed up to the finishing of this part of
+the work is thirteen minutes, thirty-five seconds.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 27. Diagram Illustrating Position and Relation of
+Tools for First Chucking on British Forged Shell]
+
+At the third position of the turret, which, by the way, is the one
+shown in Fig. 23, the large taper reamer _F_ is run in, which operation
+removes the bulk of the stock for the taper, and a second step at the
+end of this reamer finishes the extreme end of the hole at the bottom
+of the shell. The blades of this reamer are nicked to break the chips
+as they are being formed. Before the reamer begins to cut, the knurling
+tool _H_ is brought against the work (while it is on the high speed)
+by the cutting-off slide, which, of course, results in a better knurled
+section than would result if the knurling of the piece were done at a
+lower speed. During the reaming operation, the cutting-off tool _G_
+is run in part way to facilitate the final severing of the piece. In
+addition, the relieved part of the work is turned by a tool mounted in
+a tool-holder on the slide of the turret. This tool is shown at _I_
+and it is operated by a templet _J_ which has a raised projection that
+throws the tool into the work after it has reached the right position
+with relation to the length of the shell. The total time elapsed up
+to the finishing of this part of the work is twenty-two minutes,
+thirty-five seconds. At the fourth and last position of the turret, a
+finishing reamer sizes the outer end of the interior of the shell and
+is withdrawn but part way, so that, when the cutting-off slide comes in
+and finishes severing the piece, the shell is caught on the reamer and
+not allowed to drop and possibly be injured by so doing.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 28. Set-up on Warner & Swasey Turret Lathe for
+Second Series of Operations on Forged Shrapnel Shell]
+
+The average total time for making this piece complete is twenty-seven
+minutes. On account of the rigidity of the tool support, the tools do
+not require sharpening more often than once for fifty pieces, with the
+possible exception of the cutting-off tool, which must be sharpened
+after about half that number of pieces have been completed.
+
+
+=Using Warner & Swasey Turret Lathe for Machining Forged Shrapnel
+Shells.=--In Fig. 26 is shown a typical set-up on a Warner & Swasey
+No. 2A universal hollow-hexagon turret lathe for machining an 18-pound
+shrapnel shell forging. The arrangement of the various tools for
+performing the first series of operations is more clearly illustrated
+in Fig. 27, to which reference should now be made. The forging is
+located for machining on a special arbor fitted into the spindle and
+carrying two spring-controlled centering bushings _A_. These serve to
+locate the shell, which is then gripped by the floating jaws of the
+chuck on the external diameter, and a stop on the end of the arbor
+locates the shell from the bottom of the powder pocket.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 29. Diagram Illustrating Sequence of Operations
+performed at Second Chucking]
+
+The first operation consists in taking a cut from the external
+diameter with a special box-turner provided with a roll steadyrest
+and carrying two turning tools. The second operation is handled from
+the cross-slide, the shell forging meanwhile being supported by a
+roll steadyrest clamped to the turret. In this operation the closed
+end of the shell is faced with tool _C_, the corner rounded, and the
+band groove formed with forming tool _D_. The third operation--first
+chucking--is performed with tool _F_ which produces the waves in the
+band groove, and is operated in the following manner: Referring to the
+lower left-hand corner of the illustration, it will be seen that a
+roll _G_ is brought in contact with the face-cam _B_, thus giving the
+desired oscillating movement to the waving cutter. The fourth and final
+operation consists in under-cutting the band groove with a tool clamped
+to the turret. This tool gages from the end of the shell by a revolving
+stop _H_, and is provided with two slides, set at the desired angle
+to each other and the work, carrying under-cutting tools _I_ and _J_.
+These slides are operated by handle _K_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 30. Third Chucking Set-up on British Forged
+Shrapnel Shell]
+
+The second chucking on this shell is handled as shown in Figs. 28 and
+29 on the same type of machine. As shown in Fig. 29, the shell for
+this operation is gripped in an automatic chuck, and a stop _A_ for
+locating it is held in the spindle. The first operation consists in
+roughing out the powder pocket and diaphragm seat with a cutter _B_,
+and rough-turning that portion of the shell held in the chuck in the
+previous chucking with a tool _C_. This tool is held in the cross-slide
+toolpost, and is controlled in its movement by a special guide fastened
+to the regular taper-turning attachment. The second operation finishes
+the powder pocket and diaphragm seat with a cutter _D_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 31. Diagram Illustrating Relation of Tools for
+performing Third Series of Operations]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 32. First Chucking on French Shell made from Bar
+Stock on Warner & Swasey Turret Lathe]
+
+After the second chucking, the shell is heated on the nose, closed
+in and is then brought back to the turret lathe, when the operations
+are performed as shown in Figs. 30 and 31. Here, again, the forging
+is held in the automatic chuck and is located by a plug _A_ in the
+spindle. The first series of operations consists in boring, facing
+and chamfering the nose with a counterbore _B_, and at the same time
+turning the external radius on the nose with a tool _C_. Tool _C_ is
+held in the cross-slide square turret and is controlled in its movement
+by a special guide fitting on the regular taper-turning attachment.
+
+The second operation, shown to the left of the illustration, consists
+in machining the radius inside the nose with a tool _E_, controlled
+in its movement by the special guide _D_, as previously mentioned.
+The third and final operation consists in cutting the thread with a
+collapsible tap _F_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 33. Second Chucking on French Shrapnel Shell]
+
+
+=Using Warner & Swasey Turret Lathe for Machining Bar-stock Shrapnel
+Shells.=--The method of machining shrapnel shells from bar stock
+differs somewhat from that used for forgings, and is handled on a
+No. 2A universal hollow-hexagon turret lathe. In this particular
+case, the shell blank, previous to machining in the turret lathe, is
+rough-drilled in a high-powered drilling machine to the bottom of the
+powder pocket. Assuming that this has been accomplished, the operations
+for the first chucking are then carried on as illustrated in Fig. 32.
+Here the shell is held in an automatic chuck and is located by a stop
+_A_. The first operation consists in counterboring the mouth with the
+counterbore _B_, and rough-turning the external diameter with tool _C_;
+second, counterboring with the cutter _D_ and turning further along the
+shell with a tool _E_; third, finishing the bottom with a cutter _F_
+and facing the end of the shell with a tool _G_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 34. Third and Final Chucking on French Shrapnel
+Shell]
+
+In the second chucking, the operations shown in Fig. 33 are performed.
+Here the shell is reversed in the automatic chuck and is located, as
+before, by a stop _A_. The first operation consists in turning that
+portion of the body held in the chuck in the previous chucking with a
+roll-supporting turning tool _B_. Second, supporting the shell with a
+roller support _C_ held on the turret, facing the end with a tool _D_,
+and chamfering the band groove and the end with a cutter _E_ held on
+the cross-slide square turret. The third operation is to support the
+shell from the turret, knurling with a knurl _F_ from the cross-slide
+square turret. Fourth, taper-turn from the end to the band groove with
+a tool _G_, guided by the taper-turning attachment.
+
+For the third chucking, the shell, as indicated in Fig. 34, is held in
+the same manner as for the first chucking. First, it is recessed with
+a tool _A_ and brought into action by operating the special holder
+which has a cross-sliding movement; second, it is bored and faced
+with a counterbore _B_ from the turret, and taper-turned with a tool
+_C_ operated by a special guide from the taper-turning attachment. In
+the third operation, the thread in the nose is rough-chased with a
+tool _D_, controlled in its movement by the chasing attachment of the
+machine; fourth, the thread is finished with a tap and tap-holder _E_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 35. Diagram showing Method of holding and
+performing First Series of Operations on Forged Shells on “Lo-swing”
+Lathe]
+
+
+=Machining Shrapnel Shell Forgings on the “Lo-swing” Lathe.=--By adding
+a simple carriage to its “Lo-swing” lathe, the Fitchburg Machine Works,
+Fitchburg, Mass., has adapted this machine for machining shrapnel
+shells of different types. The following data and illustrations refer
+particularly to tooling used for machining the Russian and French
+shells. On the Russian shell, after centering, the forging _A_ is held
+on a special arbor _B_ shown in Figs. 35 and 36. Placed over this arbor
+is an expanding collar _C_, the inside surface of which is chamfered to
+fit against surface _D_ on the stem of the arbor. The section of the
+arbor next to the spindle is threaded and a large nut and handwheel
+_E_ are turned to pull the sliding sleeve _C_ along the arbor and thus
+expand it to firmly grip the inside of the shell forging. Sleeve _C_ is
+connected to the nut _E_ by a threaded collar _F_. After the forging is
+securely located on the arbor, which it should be understood extends to
+the bottom of the powder pocket to gage it for length, the tail-center
+_G_ is run in to support it.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 36. Set-up for performing First Series of
+Operations on Russian Forged Shell on “Lo-swing” Lathe]
+
+To those familiar with the “Lo-swing” lathe, it will be appreciated
+that its chief efficiency lies in its system of multiple turning
+tools. Thus, on this job, tools _H_, _I_, _J_, _K_, _L_, and _M_ are
+all mounted on one slide, and in the illustration are shown in the
+positions they occupy after taking their respective cuts. At the
+beginning of the cut, turning tools _K_, _L_, and _M_ are drawn back
+clear of the work to allow sufficient clearance for tools _H_ and _I_
+to operate. With the tools drawn back and the carriage at the extreme
+right of the bed, tool _H_ is the first to come in contact with the
+work. This tool takes a roughing cut over the body of the forging,
+finishing at the radius on the nose.
+
+Tool _H_ is controlled in its action by a former pin on the tool-slide,
+held in contact with the face of cam former _O_ by a stiff spring.
+Former slide _O_ takes the place of the regular taper-turning former
+ordinarily used on the “Lo-swing” lathe. When the former pin in the
+slide carrying tool _H_ reaches point _P_ on former _O_, the tool is
+withdrawn to conform with the shape shown at _N_ on the forging. The
+tool is then fed in further toward the axis of the arbor, until the
+former pin reaches point _Q_ on the slide, when the radius on the nose
+is completed. Tool _H_ is the only one mounted on a taper-turning block.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 37. Diagram showing Method of performing Second
+Series of Operations on Forged Shrapnel Shells on “Lo-swing” Lathe]
+
+Just after tool _H_ passes point _N_, tool _I_ commences to cut at
+the end of the forging, taking a finishing cut and ending up in the
+position in which it is shown in the illustration. After tool _I_
+reaches this position, the other tools _J_, _K_, _L_, and _M_ are
+brought into action. Tools _K_, _L_, and _M_ are so situated on the
+carriage that no lateral feeding is required. When these tools are in
+action, the roller support _R_ takes the thrust. Tool _K_ roughs out
+the band groove and is fed into the work by a handwheel. Tool _L_ cuts
+the groove for attaching the brass case to the shell, and tool _M_,
+carried on the same block, faces the end. Tools _K_, _L_, _M_, and _S_
+are located on the same carriage and are fed in together. Tool _S_
+rounds the corner of the shell. The carriage on which tools _K_, _L_,
+_M_, and _S_ are located is now drawn back out of the way, and the
+entire carriage moved over so that tool _J_ can be used to under-cut
+the rifling band groove. After cutting off the center projection, the
+first series of operations on the shell is completed.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 38. Set-up on “Lo-swing” Lathe for performing
+Second Series of Operations on Russian Shell]
+
+
+=Second Series of Operations on the Russian Shell.=--The second series
+of operations is performed on the inside of the shell on the “Lo-swing”
+lathe, which is provided with a special turret for this purpose. As
+is shown in Figs. 37 and 38, the shell _A_ is held in special collet
+jaws _B_ that have a two-point bearing on the shell. Stop _C_ in the
+spindle locates the shell in the chuck. To manipulate the chuck for
+tightening it on the work, handwheel _D_ is turned, carrying with it
+the nut _E_ and ring _F_. Ring _F_ carries pins sliding in slots in
+sleeve _H_ and driven into collet _B_, so that when nut _E_ is drawn
+back it also carries collet _B_ into the taper in sleeve _H_, closing
+the collet on the work. Turning handwheel _D_ in the opposite direction
+releases the grip of the collet _B_ on the work. The first operation is
+performed with tools _I_, _J_, _K_, and _L_. Tool _I_ bores the powder
+pocket, tool _J_ roughs the diaphragm seat, tool _K_ rough-turns the
+thread diameter at the shell mouth, and tool _L_ faces the end. The
+turret is now indexed, and boring-bar carrying tool _M_ is brought
+into operation. This tool turns the curved interior of the shell. To
+accomplish this, the turret locking-pin is removed, allowing the turret
+to float on its central axis. Fastened on the ways of the lathe at the
+rear of the turret by a clamp _O_ is the cam bracket _N_ carrying the
+guiding cam _P_. This cam, through pins _Q_ and _R_ in bracket _S_,
+controls the float of the turret and guides the cutting tool _M_. In
+the illustration, the tool is shown at the end of the cut. It will
+also be noted that one surface of the cam is curved and the other is
+straight; therefore, to compensate for this and also to steady the
+turret, pin _R_ is backed up by a spring. Clamp _O_ is now released and
+bracket _N_ moved back to allow the turret to be indexed. Bracket _N_
+is located, when brought into the operating position, by a stop on the
+bed of the lathe.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 39. Diagram showing Method of machining French
+Shells on “Lo-swing” Lathe--First Series of Operations]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 40. Diagram showing Method of holding and applying
+Tools on “Lo-swing” Lathe for performing Second Series of Operations on
+French Shell]
+
+In the third position, tool _R_ finishes the powder pocket, _S_ the
+diaphragm seat, and _T_ the thread diameter, whereas _U_ acts as an
+adjustable stop for the depth of the various tools. The fourth and last
+operation is tapping with a collapsible tap _V_. This completes the
+machining of the Russian shell on the “Lo-swing” lathe.
+
+
+=Machining French Shrapnel Shell on “Lo-swing” Lathe.=--The machining
+of the French shrapnel shell is well suited to the “Lo-swing” lathe.
+A great many of the French shells are made from solid bar stock, and
+when this is the case, the first operation, performed as shown in Fig.
+39, consists in rough-drilling. If the shell is made from a forging,
+this operation, of course, is dispensed with and the first tool used
+carries boring and facing cutters, as shown at _A_, _B_, _C_, and _D_.
+These rough-bore the three diameters on the inside of the shell and
+face off the end to length. The next operation is accomplished with
+two finishing boring tools _E_ and _F_, the depth of which is obtained
+by an adjustable collar _G_ that comes against the produced with a
+collapsible tap _H_. The turret is then indexed two holes, bringing the
+special recessing tool into position. This tool is of the cross-slide
+type and carries a back recessing cutter _I_. This completes the first
+series of operations on the shell.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 41. Set-up on “Lo-swing” Lathe for performing
+Second Series of Operations on Straight Type of French Shell]
+
+
+=Second Series of Operations on Shell. French=--The second series of
+operations on a French shell is accomplished as shown in Fig. 40. Here
+the shell is held in the same manner as described in connection with
+Fig. 35. The forging is placed on arbor _B_ that has an expanding
+sleeve _C_ operated by the hand-clamping wheel nut _D_. Eight cutting
+tools are located on the carriage. Tool _A_ turns the diameter at the
+open end of the shell, _B_ the central part, _C_ cuts the band groove,
+_D_ chamfers the section adjacent to the band groove, _E_ chamfers
+the end of the shell, and _F_ knurls the band groove. Roll _G_, in
+connection with roll _H_, supports the shell while the knurling is
+being done, whereas tool _I_ faces off the end of the shell. At the
+beginning of the cuts, tools _C_, _D_, _E_, and knurl _F_, also roll
+_G_ and tool _I_, are withdrawn. This permits tool _A_ to cut the front
+end of the shell at the beginning and finish the diameter at the open
+end of the shell. Tool _B_ next comes into action and turns the central
+part of the shell. Tool _C_ is then located in the correct position for
+the band groove and the carriage on which tools _C_, _D_, and _E_ are
+located is fed straight in, cutting the band groove and chamfering.
+Knurl _F_ is then brought into position to knurl the groove, with roll
+_G_ backing up the work against roll _H_. The last operation is to cut
+off the center projection with tool _I_.
+
+Fig. 41 shows the tool set-up on the “Lo-swing” lathe for machining
+the straight type of French shell, in which two tool-blocks are used
+for doing the straight turning. The leading tool turns the end of the
+shell a little larger than the main body. The procedure for grooving,
+knurling, and facing the shell is that previously described for the
+forged shell, which is shown in Fig. 35. On the French shrapnel shell
+the second operation follows directly after the first, whereas on
+the Russian forged shell a nosing-in operation comes between the two
+machining operations.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 42 and 43. Set-up and Tool Equipment on the
+“Libby” Turret Lathe]
+
+=Using the “Libby” Turret Lathe for Machining Shrapnel Shells.=--One of
+the many ways of machining a shrapnel shell is illustrated in Figs. 42
+and 43. This shows the set-up on the “Libby” turret lathe, manufactured
+by the International Machine Tool Co., Indianapolis, Ind. In the first
+chucking, the forging, as shown at _A_, is held on a special solid
+arbor provided with a series of corrugations where it contacts with
+the forging. This, in addition to providing a rigid support, assists
+in gripping, and the shell is also gripped by a pair of chuck jaws
+that act as drivers. First, a gang tool-holder carrying three stellite
+turning tools _o_ is brought into position, and the cutting is
+started, continuing for a distance of one-third of the length turned.
+To provide additional support, a roller back-rest, carrying a facing
+tool, is brought in to steady the work, and, as it is fed forward, the
+end of the forging is faced off and chamfered.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 44. and 45. Machining Shrapnel Shell Forgings on a
+22-inch Extra-heavy Turret Lathe]
+
+The second operation on the first chucking is shown at _B_. Here the
+cutter _a_ is brought in first and starts the band groove, after which
+the under-cutting tool _b_ is brought in to under-cut the edges of
+the groove. In the meantime, roller _c_ supports the work. Upon the
+completion of the groove, the holder carrying cutter _d_ is advanced to
+finish-face the end of the work and chamfer.
+
+The third operation--cutting the waves in the band groove--is of an
+interesting character and is accomplished as shown at _C_. A cam _e_
+which is free to rotate with the work is first brought in contact with
+it; then the cross-slide is advanced, carrying the waving tool _f_ and
+the guide _g_. The guide _g_ fits in the cam groove and controls the
+operation of the waving tool.
+
+In the second chucking on the first operation the shell is reversed
+in the chuck and is held in the manner indicated at _D_, Fig. 43. The
+forging is located in the chuck by a stop-collar _h_, and is gripped on
+the external diameter by the jaws of the chuck. A stepped boring tool
+carrying five inserted blades is brought in to rough-bore the internal
+diameters and machine the shell to the proper thickness at the bottom
+of the powder pocket. This tool also carries a facing cutter that faces
+off the shell to the proper length. While the boring tool is working,
+a broad turning tool, held on the cross-slide, is brought in to bevel
+the nose preparatory to closing-in. The next step is to taper-ream the
+internal diameter, as shown at _E_. This completes the operations for
+the second chucking.
+
+The nose of the shell is now heated and closed in, after which the
+third series of operations is performed. The first step in the third
+chucking is to bore for the thread and face the end of the shell with
+a turret tool, as shown at _F_. The next operation is to machine the
+curved contour of the nose of the shell with a special turret tool
+as shown at _G_. Here a wide forming cutter _i_, held in a turret
+tool-holder, is brought in contact with the work, finishing the nose
+of the shell to the proper form. During this operation, the shell is
+supported by a roller in the holder.
+
+The next operation is to form the inside of the nose of the shell to
+the proper shape, as shown at _H_. This is accomplished with a forming
+blade _j_, held in a holder clamped in the toolpost. Following this, a
+collapsible tap is brought in from the turret to thread the nose of the
+shell, as shown at _I_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 46. Method of holding Shrapnel Shells for First
+Operation on a 22-inch Turret Lathe]
+
+
+=Machining Shrapnel Shells on a Heavy 22-inch Turret Lathe.=--Still
+another method of machining shrapnel shells in a heavy turret lathe
+is shown in Figs. 44 and 45. The shell being machined is an 18-pound
+British shrapnel shell made from a forging. It is held on an expanding
+arbor for the first operation, as shown in Fig. 46. The arbor is of
+the three-point support type and is positive in its grip. Around the
+periphery of the nose-piece are located three pinions _A_ capable of
+being rotated by a square-ended wrench. These mesh with teeth in bevel
+gear _B_ which, in turn, is threaded onto arbor _C_. The forward end of
+this arbor is cone-shaped and operates the three gripping fingers in
+the open end of the shell, whereas another rod passing through arbor
+_C_ and connected to plunger _D_ operates, through the coil spring, the
+three fingers used in gripping the shell by the powder pocket. This
+arbor holds the shell securely while the machining operations are being
+accomplished.
+
+The first operation performed at the first chucking of the work is
+shown at _C_ in Fig. 44. Here a turning tool-holder clamped to the
+turret and carrying two cutters is advanced and takes a roughing cut
+from the exterior diameter of the shell for practically its entire
+length. The shell is supported by three roller supports as illustrated.
+The second operation at the first chucking is performed from the
+cross-slide, as shown at _D_. Here a forming tool of the tangent type
+roughs out the rifling band groove, leaving sufficient metal in the
+center for the production of the wave ribs. The third operation is
+facing off the closed end of the shell from the turret as shown at
+_E_, and the fourth operation consists in machining the waved ribs as
+shown at _F_. The tool for accomplishing this operation is held on the
+cross-slide and is operated from a face-cam on the nose of the spindle.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 47. Cutting Square Thread in Nose of French
+Shrapnel Shell In “Automatic” Threading Lathe]
+
+In the second chucking the shell is held in a three-jaw scroll chuck.
+The first operation is to rough-bore the inside of the shell and powder
+pocket with a tool _G_, Fig. 45, held in the turret; directly after
+this a finishing tool of the same shape is brought in, finishing the
+surfaces previously roughed out. The second operation is to face off
+the open end of the shell and taper-form back of the nose from the
+cross-slide, as shown at _H_, and at the same time turn that portion
+of the exterior surface of the shell not machined in the previous
+operation with a tool clamped to the turret as shown at _I_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 48. Threading Base End of Bar-stock Shrapnel Shells
+in “Automatic” Threading Lathe]
+
+Previous to the third chucking, the nose of the shell is heated and
+closed in. The shell is then held in a three-jaw scroll chuck provided
+with special jaws. The first operation, as shown at _J_, consists
+in boring and turning the nose of the shell with a tool held in the
+turret. Following this, the hole is reamed with a standard reamer and
+tapped with a collapsible tap. Both of these tools are held in the
+turret, but are not shown in the illustration. This completes the
+machining operations on the shell.
+
+
+=Threading Shrapnel Shells on “Automatic” Threading
+Lathes.=--Considerable difficulty has been experienced in cutting the
+square thread in the nose of the French shrapnel shell. One method
+which accomplishes this operation satisfactorily is shown in Fig. 47,
+and is accomplished on a 12-inch “Automatic” threading lathe built by
+the Automatic Machine Co., Bridgeport, Conn., and equipped with special
+tools for this purpose. Referring to this illustration, it will be seen
+that two tools are used--a roughing tool _A_, and a finishing tool _B_.
+Tool _A_ roughs out the thread to a shape similar to the Acme type of
+thread, whereas tool _B_ squares it up. The roughing and finishing
+tools are held on the forward and rear carriages, respectively, and
+are operated simultaneously, being advanced throughout the length of
+the thread, withdrawn and returned to start a new cut. The method of
+operating the tools is one of the chief features of the “Automatic”
+threading lathe.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 49. Turning, facing, and threading Plugs for Closed
+End of Bar-stock Shrapnel Shells in “Automatic” Threading Lathe]
+
+The base end of shrapnel shells when made from bar stock is as a rule
+bored out and a plug inserted to eliminate any piping effect in the
+bar. Fig. 48 shows the method of accomplishing this operation on a
+12-inch “Automatic” threading lathe. The work is held in a three-jaw
+universal chuck and is supported by a roll steadyrest comprising two
+rolls that are located beneath the work. On the extended end of the
+rear roller stud is fastened a swinging stop that is used for locating
+the base of the shell in the correct position ready for threading. The
+base of the shell is counterbored in another machine, previous to the
+threading operation. The threading is done with a circular tool held
+on a special internal threading tool-holder, the latter being retained
+in the toolpost carriage. The threading tool-holder can be moved
+longitudinally to bring it into the proper relation to the work. It is
+also held so that the cutting edge is turned upside down as this action
+forces the work down in contact with the roller supports. By handling
+the work in this manner, a steadyrest of the ordinary type is dispensed
+with and the operation of the attachment facilitated.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 50. Grinding Shrapnel Shells on a Norton
+Special-purpose Grinding Machine]
+
+One method of making plugs for the base end of shrapnel shells when
+made from bar stock is shown in Fig. 49. For this work, a 12 by 4
+“Automatic” threading lathe equipped with special tools designed for
+this purpose is used. The machine is provided with a draw-in collet
+chuck that holds the rough-forged blank. The order of handling the
+operations on this machine is to use the rear tool _A_ for turning
+the external diameter of the plug. This is handled at the same rate of
+feed as that required for threading, so that it is sometimes necessary
+to take more than one cut, depending on the amount of material left on
+the diameter. The vertical slide _B_ is for facing only and carries a
+cutting tool _C_. This is supposed to finish the face in one cut, but
+as the work will spring considerably, a light finishing cut is taken
+when the tool is being drawn back from the center to the circumference
+of the work. The threading tool _D_ is held on the front toolpost
+and is of single-point construction. The feed given to this tool is
+automatically controlled, both as to pitch and depth of cut at each
+traverse.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 51. Diagram showing Scleroscope Hardness Test of
+Heat-treated Shrapnel Shell at Various Points along its Surface]
+
+In actual operation, both the threading and turning tools are in motion
+all the time on the work, but the tools are independently controlled
+so that either one can be operated separately. A stop is provided on
+the back toolpost so as to turn each plug to the same diameter. The
+automatic throw-out for the feed of the threading tool is set from the
+front handle on the ratchet and pawl as regularly furnished on the
+“Automatic” threading lathes.
+
+
+=Grinding Shrapnel Shells.=--An increasingly large number of shrapnel
+shell manufacturers are finishing the steel shell by grinding instead
+of finish-turning. That is, the exterior surface of the shell is
+rough-turned to within from 0.030 to 0.080 inch of the finished size
+and is then finished to the required limits and shape by grinding,
+as shown in Fig. 50. It is claimed by the advocates of grinding that
+the finishing operations are more speedily performed in this manner
+and that a more accurate and concentric shell is produced. They also
+point out the fact that portions of the shell are so hard that it is
+extremely difficult, if not impossible, to turn it in the allowable
+time.
+
+The varied heat-treatment given to the shell on the closed end and nose
+leaves it harder in some sections than others, as indicated in Fig.
+51. The section _E_, 2¹⁄₂ inches from the closed end of the shell,
+must strike from 42 to 50 on the scleroscope, and the section _A_ at
+the nose must strike between 20 and 25. The section marked _D_, or
+that part of it to the left of the line that marks the limit of the
+heat-treating on the closed end, has not been heat-treated at all, and
+partly on this account, and also because of the gradually diminishing
+thickness of the shell along this section, it strikes between 40 and
+45, decreasing as the thickness of the wall diminishes, until at _C_
+the section strikes but 35. Section _B_, adjacent to the annealed nose
+of the shell, strikes about 30 on the scleroscope.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 52. Two-operation Method of grinding Shrapnel
+Shells on Norton Grinding Machines]
+
+On the other hand, some manufacturers are not putting the shell through
+this heat-treating and tempering process, and omit the annealing and
+machining of the nose after the nosing-in operation. This leaves the
+nose with considerable stock to remove and in such a condition as
+regards hardness that the grinding machine becomes a necessity. In
+the face of these varying degrees of hardness of the shrapnel shell,
+it will be seen that it is difficult to secure wheels of the right
+grain and grade to suit all of these conditions. With this information
+in mind, we can more intelligently take up the actual grinding of the
+shell. The Norton Grinding Co., Worcester, Mass., has been actively
+engaged in developing methods of grinding shrapnel shells and the
+following illustrations and descriptions apply to this work.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 53. Three-operation Method of grinding Shrapnel
+Shells on Norton Grinding Machines]
+
+Fig. 52 shows the two-operation method of grinding the shrapnel shell.
+Section _A_ at the open end of the shell is covered by a wide-faced
+wheel formed to shape, that finishes the radius on the nose at one
+in-feeding of the wheel. Sections _B_, _C_, and _D_ are covered by a
+wide-faced wheel, formed to shape so as to finish these three surfaces
+at one in-feeding of the wheel. Section _E_ at the closed end of the
+shell is finished completely by turning.
+
+Some manufacturers use a three-operation method of grinding the
+shrapnel shell as illustrated in Fig. 53. In this case, the sections
+_A_ and _D_ are first ground with the same wheel, as American
+manufacturers deem it advisable to grind surface _A_ rather than
+to finish it by turning. The second stage in this grinding is the
+finishing of the nose _E_ with a formed wheel, and the third stage is
+the finish-grinding of the body at points _B_ and _C_.
+
+
+=Two-operation Method of Grinding Shrapnel Shells.=--The procedure
+followed in grinding shrapnel shells by the two-operation method is
+first to screw plugs into the open end of the shells, as shown in Fig.
+52. The outer ends of these plugs are centered, and the projection
+left on the closed end of the shell with the center intact acts as a
+means of supporting the shell. Some of the Canadian manufacturers vary
+this practice by cutting off the center projection on the closed end
+of the shell and fitting a cap with a center hole over the closed end.
+Others use a ball-bearing cup center to carry the closed end. American
+manufacturers, however, leave the center projection on the shell until
+after the grinding has been finished.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 54. Radius Wheel-truing Device for forming Grinding
+Wheel for grinding Shrapnel Shell Nose]
+
+In grinding the nose end of the shell, the amount of metal removed
+varies from 0.020 to 0.090 inch on the diameter. The grinding wheel
+operates at from 6000 to 6250 surface feet per minute. The speed of the
+work is 75 revolutions per minute, or a surface speed of practically
+75 feet, and the machine used is a Norton 6 by 32 plain grinder. The
+wheel used is generally 14 inches in diameter by 2¹⁄₄-inch face. The
+wheel requires truing for every five to twenty shells, depending upon
+the amount of metal removed and the hardness of the shell. For truing,
+a simple radius fixture carrying a diamond is used. Fig. 54 shows this
+wheel-truing device clamped on the grinding machine bed. It is applied
+in the same manner as the usual steadyrests used for supporting the
+work. The diamond is mounted in a swinging arm that is operated by a
+hand lever as shown. By successive cuts across the wheel, the desired
+shape is attained.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 55. Norton Special Form Wheel-truing Device for
+truing Wheel for grinding Shrapnel Shell Body]
+
+For grinding the body either a 10 by 24 special-purpose or 10 by 36
+Norton grinding machine is employed. The amount of metal removed
+from the body varies from 0.030 to 0.075 inch on the diameter, and
+the limits vary from 0.002 to 0.010 inch, depending largely on the
+requirements of the plant in which the work is being done. The wheel
+used on the body is 20 inches in diameter and is of the ring-wheel
+type. It will be noticed in Fig. 52 that the wheel for grinding the
+body is also formed to shape. The method of truing the wheel for
+shaping the shrapnel shell body is shown in Fig. 55. This attachment
+is clamped to the front of the grinding machine bed and at the top of
+the bracket is fitted a slide _A_ operated by handwheel _B_. Upon the
+face of this slide nearest the grinding wheel is pivoted an angular
+arm _C_ that supports the diamond _D_ at its lower end. Under the end
+of the upper arm is a spiral spring that keeps the diamond normally
+back from the wheel. A plate former _E_ clamped to the bottom face of
+the bracket is shaped to agree with the form to be given the wheel. At
+the lower extremity of the arm and behind the diamond is mounted a roll
+_F_ that bears constantly against form _E_. When the diamond slide is
+reciprocated by turning the handwheel, the diamond is made to traverse
+a path conforming with the cam that guides it. By moving the wheel in
+toward the diamond and making successive traversings of the diamond,
+the wheel is given the desired shape.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 56. Besly No. 14 Ring Wheel Grinder equipped for
+grinding Shrapnel, but shown without Hoods and Water Attachments]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 57. Fixture used on Besly No. 14 Ring Wheel Grinder
+for grinding Center End from Shrapnel Forgings]
+
+
+For grinding the body, the wheel must be trued after every ten to
+twenty-five shells are ground, depending upon the amount of metal
+removed and the hardness of the shell. In grinding shrapnel shells, the
+usual method is to fit a lot of the shells with the driving plugs and
+carry them all through to completion before removing the plugs.
+
+
+=Removing Center End From Shrapnel Forgings.=--For performing
+practically all the machining operations on the shell, a center
+projection is left on the closed end of the shell for supporting it.
+This, of course, must be removed before the shell is completed. One
+method of doing this is to use a Besly No. 14 ring-wheel grinder
+equipped with a special fixture. A Besly grinder fitted up for this
+work is shown in Fig. 56, and the fixture used for holding the shell
+is shown in Fig. 57. The machine, as furnished, is arranged for wet
+grinding, but is not so fitted up in the illustration. The fixture
+is fastened to the geared lever feed table and is of simple design.
+It is provided with a backing-up stop _A_, the work resting in two
+semi-spherical groove projections on the fixture. The operator simply
+holds the shrapnel shell in place by hand and then feeds it in against
+the wheel and traverses it past in the usual manner. The time for
+removing a ⁵⁄₈-inch diameter stub end projecting ³⁄₈ inch from the body
+of the shell is less than a minute.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 58. Tools for making Base of Powder Cup]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 59. Tools for making Top Member of Powder Cup]
+
+
+=Press Tools for Making Powder Cup.=--In the British shrapnel shell,
+the powder in the base of the shell used for exploding it and ejecting
+the lead bullets, etc., is held in a tin-plate powder cup. This is
+completed in the punch press in the manner shown in Figs. 58 and 59,
+and comprises two parts, a base and a top. The base is made from tin
+plate 0.022 inch thick, whereas the top is made from 0.036 inch thick
+tin plate. The bottom of the cup is completed in one operation with
+the punch and die shown in Fig. 58, which is held in a single-action
+press. It is turned out from a blank 3⁷⁄₃₂ inches in diameter and is
+cut out and formed in one operation. The completed size is 2¹⁄₄ inches
+diameter by ⁷⁄₈ inch high. After cupping, the top edge is trimmed in
+a turret lathe. The press operations on the top, as shown in Fig. 59,
+are a little more complex. The first operation consists in cutting
+out a blank 2¹⁹⁄₃₂ inches in diameter. Then the edge is turned up with
+another punch and die shown in the center of the illustration. The next
+operation is piercing the center with the punch and die at the right,
+and the last operation is drawing out a flange around the pierced hole.
+The tools for this operation are shown to the extreme right, as is also
+a completed powder cup. The final operation on the cup consists in
+soldering the top to the base.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 60. Diagram illustrating “Twelve-punch” Method of
+making Shrapnel Bullets from Lead Wire]
+
+
+=Shrapnel Bullets.=--The most deadly and effective parts of a shrapnel
+are the lead bullets which are held in the shell. When the timing fuse
+explodes the powder in the base of the shell, the nose is blown off
+and the bullets are thrown out in a cone shape. The range covered by
+these bullets in the 18-pound shrapnel shell is about 250 square yards.
+The lead bullets, which in most shrapnel are ¹⁄₂ inch in diameter, are
+made from several different compositions, but consist chiefly of 87¹⁄₂
+parts lead and 12¹⁄₂ parts antimony. The number of bullets carried in
+shrapnel shells of the different governments varies. There are 252 in
+the American 15-pound shell, and 235 or 236 in the British 15-pound
+shell. The bullets used by the U. S. government have six flattened
+sides, to facilitate packing, whereas those used by foreign governments
+are spherical.
+
+There are several methods of making shrapnel bullets. One is to cast
+the bullets in iron molds, which are split in the center, so that the
+bullet can be removed when cast. Another is to cut off slugs from lead
+wire and strike these between dies in a heading machine. The bullet
+heading machine takes the wire from a reel, cuts it off, forms it and
+trims off the resultant flash automatically. In making the American
+bullets, a second operation follows, consisting in flattening the
+sides. The Waterbury Farrel Foundry & Machine Co. furnishes unit
+equipments for doing this work. For the flattened bullets, the unit
+consists of one hydraulic wire extruding press and fourteen heading
+machines capable of giving a production of 850 bullets per minute. For
+the spherical bullet, the unit equipment consists of one hydraulic
+extruding press and eight heading machines, giving a production of 950
+bullets per minute.
+
+The method of casting lead bullets in ordinary molds is antiquated, and
+another method somewhat similar to that just described has taken its
+place. The first step is to produce the wire from which the bullets are
+eventually made. This is accomplished in two ways. The first is the hot
+metal process and consists in pouring the molten lead into a cylinder,
+from which it is extruded through a die by a plunger advanced into the
+cylinder. By this method, it is necessary to allow the metal to settle
+before the press can operate. An improvement over this is utilized in
+presses built by a hydraulic lead press manufacturer of Brooklyn, and
+consists in first casting ingots of the required diameter and length
+and then charging the press with these instead of pouring the molten
+lead into the press chamber. Two presses have been designed for this
+process. One has a capacity of 700 tons and is charged with ingots
+weighing 150 pounds, whereas the other has a 900-ton capacity and is
+charged with 200-pound ingots. The product from these two machines is
+1800 pounds of lead wire from the small and 2500 pounds from the large
+press per hour. The wire as it is extruded from the die is wound on a
+reel carrying 2000 pounds of wire.
+
+There are two principal types of swaging machines used for making these
+lead bullets from wire. One carries a single set of dies, whereas the
+other carries twelve sets of tools. The operation of the latter will
+be described. Referring to the diagram, Fig. 60, twelve reels of lead
+wire--not shown--are arranged in tandem on stands behind the press, six
+reels in a row. The wire is conveyed from these reels to the dies by
+a feeding mechanism, being guided to the individual tools by a plate
+_A_, having twelve U-shaped impressions in its top edge. The wire now
+passes over a spring _B_ which serves to lift it up slightly at each
+stroke of the press. The tools _C_ and _D_, as shown, are provided
+with half-spherical depressions in their adjacent faces and are set so
+that they come within ¹⁄₆₄ inch of meeting. The dies are guided and
+controlled in action by a special mechanism, and the press in which
+they are carried operates at 70 revolutions per minute. This gives a
+rated production of 840 bullets per minute. As is clearly indicated in
+the illustration, considerable scrap is formed in making lead bullets
+by this process--in fact the scrap is about 33 per cent of the reel of
+wire; also owing to the setting of the punches a slight fin is formed
+around the periphery of the bullet.
+
+After forming, the bullets are taken to a tumbling machine where
+they are tumbled for one hour. No other material is put into the
+tumbling barrel, but the action of the bullets working on themselves
+satisfactorily removes all the fins. Both the swaging and tumbling
+operations must be carefully watched because of the necessity of having
+the bullets a certain weight. The allowable variation on one pound of
+bullets is one dram, and there are forty-one bullets to the pound. Ten
+pounds of lead rod make 6¹⁄₂ pounds of bullets, and the scrap resulting
+from the swaging operation is remelted and used over again. After
+tumbling, the bullets are inspected and are then ready for use.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+MAKING FUSE PARTS
+
+
+Combination timing and percussion fuses comprise a large number of
+small parts made from different metals and alloys, and are produced in
+various ways. Some of the parts are made from brass rod or alloys of
+copper and aluminum, whereas others are made from hot-pressed forgings
+and are machined after being formed to shape. In the following, a brief
+description of several different methods of making the most important
+fuse parts will be illustrated and described, together with details
+regarding the forging tools used for the socket and plug.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1. Tools used in forging Brass Fuse Socket]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2. Diagram showing Construction of Tools used in
+forging Fuse Socket]
+
+
+=Forging the Fuse Socket.=--The fuse socket, which screws into the nose
+of the shrapnel shell and acts as a base for the fuse, is made from a
+special forgeable alloy casting containing 40 per cent copper, 58 per
+cent zinc, and 2 per cent lead. The first step in this process is to
+melt the above constituents in the usual manner and then to cast the
+slugs in sand molds, six to eight being gated together. These castings
+are made 2¹¹⁄₁₆ inches in diameter by ¹¹⁄₁₆ inch thick, as shown in
+Figs. 1 and 2. There are several methods in use for forging the plugs,
+but the general principle is the same. In this particular case, a No.
+23 Bliss press capable of exerting a pressure of 250 tons is used. The
+castings are placed in the furnace where they are allowed to “soak”
+at a temperature varying from 1200 to 1300 degrees F., or, in other
+words, until they reach a dull red color. One casting at a time is then
+quickly removed and placed in the impression of the die shown to the
+right in Fig. 1 and in detail in Fig. 2. The working parts of these
+dies are made from Jessop’s high-carbon tool steel and one blow of the
+press completes the forging, turning out about 3000 in ten hours. The
+tools used for this purpose are of interesting construction, as shown
+in Fig. 2. They comprise a lower die _A_ machined out to the shape of
+the finished forging and carrying an ejector, and lower former _B_
+operated by plunger _C_ which ejects the forging if it sticks in the
+die. The top member or punch comprises a holder _D_ into which the
+punch _E_ is screwed. This is bored out to fit an ejector _F_ which
+ejects the forging as the ram of the press ascends. Punch _E_ and
+stripper or ejector _F_ are made from high-speed steel, hardened. _G_
+shows the cast blank and _H_ the completed forging.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3. Tools used for forging Brass Plug]
+
+
+=Forging Brass Plugs.=--The brass plug shown in Fig. 3 is used as a
+temporary cap for the shrapnel to protect it during transportation. It
+remains in the fuse socket until the shrapnel shell reaches the field
+of operations, when it is removed and replaced by the timing fuse.
+This member is made from a special forgeable alloy casting 2 inches
+in diameter by ⁷⁄₈ inch thick and is cast in sand molds in a similar
+manner to the fuse socket. It is also composed of the same constituents
+as the socket and is forged in the same type of press. The construction
+of the tools, however, varies somewhat from that of the tools used in
+making the socket, as will be seen upon reference to Figs. 3 and 4. The
+tools for the plug comprise a lower die _A_ carrying a combined ejector
+and forming die _B_. Inserted in this lower forming die is a secondary
+ejector _C_ which is operated by plunger _D_. The upper member of this
+forging tool consists of a punch-holder _E_ carrying forming punch _F_
+which is counterbored to receive an ejector ring _G_. Passing down
+through the center of punch _F_ is a center-punch _H_ that is made
+in two parts. The lower member is made of high-speed steel, hardened,
+whereas the upper portion is ordinary carbon steel. This center-punch
+is operated to eject the forging by a plunger _I_ on the up-stroke
+of the press through the action of three pins _J_ coming in contact
+with the flange on punch _H_. _K_ shows the rough casting and _L_ the
+completed forging.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4. Diagram showing Construction of Tools for
+forging Brass Plug]
+
+
+=Tooling for Machining Brass Socket.=--The New Britain automatic
+chucking machine, referred to in the following, consists essentially of
+a multiple-chuck turret with capacity for holding five or six pieces of
+work, acted upon simultaneously by four or five tool-holding spindles.
+The sequence of operations is similar to that of a multiple-spindle
+screw machine. A finished piece is removed and a rough blank inserted
+at each indexing. The machine is not idle while chucking, there being
+one more chuck than spindles.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5. Diagram showing First Series of Operations on
+Fuse Socket on the New Britain Automatic Chucking Machine]
+
+The shrapnel socket which, as previously explained, is made from a
+brass casting and pressed into rough shape, is machined in two settings
+in the New Britain No. 24 chucking machine. This machine has four
+spindles, and at the first spindle position, as shown in Fig. 5, reamer
+_A_ cleans out the hole in the pressed brass blank, counterbore _B_
+cleans out the inside, and tool _C_ faces the end. At the second
+spindle position, reamer _D_ finishes the central hole, counterbore _E_
+faces the bottom, and tool _F_ chamfers the hole.
+
+The under-cutting preparatory to threading is done at the third spindle
+position. The operation is performed with tool _G_ working on the
+cross-cutting head _H_. When the pressed blank is fed in and reaches
+stop _I_, it commences to push the housing _H_ of the cross-cutting
+head backward. A pair of stationary fingers _J_ operate in oblique
+slots in the housing _H_, and as the housing presses down on these
+fingers, the motion gives a cross movement to the under-cutting tool
+_G_ and its arbor _K_. In this manner, the under-cutting of the piece
+is performed. The fourth spindle operation is simply that of tapping
+the threaded interior with a tap _L_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6. Diagram Illustrating Second Series of Operations
+on Fuse Socket on New Britain Automatic Chucking Machine]
+
+
+=Second Operation on Shrapnel Socket.=--Fig. 6 shows the order of
+operations performed on the shrapnel socket at the second chucking, the
+work being screwed on threaded arbors. At the first spindle position,
+pilot _A_ engages the central hole, while tool _B_ turns the external
+diameter, tool _C_ chamfers the corner, tool _D_ turns the thread
+diameter, tool _E_ faces the shoulder, and counterbore _F_ finish-forms
+the nose of the piece. At the second position, these same surfaces
+are machined with finishing tools of the same design as those just
+described.
+
+At the third spindle position, the shoulder at the end of the threaded
+section is under-cut. This is done by a cross-cutting head, similar to
+that shown in Fig. 5 and carrying the cutter _G_. At the fourth spindle
+position, the final operation--threading--is performed with die _H_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7. First Series of Operations on Fuse Body on No.
+73 Seven-spindle New Britain Automatic Chucking Machine]
+
+
+=Machining Fuse Bodies.=--In Fig. 7 is illustrated an interesting
+tooling set-up for machining a fuse body. This is done on the No. 73
+seven-spindle New Britain automatic chucking machine. The operations in
+this set-up are performed on one end only of the fuse body. Strictly
+speaking, this is a seven-spindle machine, but the first four spindles
+carry internal spindles running at high speed that co-operate with
+the external spindles in machining the work, making this virtually
+an eleven-spindle machine. At the first spindle position, the broad
+face and stem are machined with cutters _A_ of hollow-mill type, and
+centering tool _B_, carried in the inner spindle, centers the work for
+drilling.
+
+In the second spindle position, tools _C_ bevel the external diameter
+of the flange at the same time that drill _D_ is producing the hole
+in the stem. In the third spindle position, roll _D_ supports the
+work against the thrust of beveling tool _E_, and the small drill _F_
+held in the internal spindle deepens the hole. At the fourth spindle
+position, the external spindle carries a hollow-mill _G_ that finishes
+the stem diameter, and a counterbore _H_ is carried in the internal
+spindle to machine the central hole.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8. Machining a Shrapnel Head on the New Britain No.
+24 Automatic Chucking Machine]
+
+A cross-cutting head in the fifth spindle position carries a circular
+tool _I_ that machines on both sides of the section subsequently to be
+threaded, and while this operation is being performed the pilot _J_
+steadies the work as well as the tool-holder. In the sixth spindle
+position, the small hole is threaded with tap _K_, and the exterior
+is threaded with a die, tap and die being of different pitches. In
+the seventh spindle position, a holder carries the forming tool _M_
+for cutting grooves in the face of the flange, and the same spindle
+carries a reamer _N_ that finishes the hole in the stem.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9. First Series of Operations on Shrapnel Head on
+the New Britain Automatic Chucking Machine]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10. Second Series of Operations on Shrapnel Head on
+the New Britain Automatic Chucking Machine]
+
+
+=Machining Steel Shrapnel Heads.=--Heads for shrapnel shells made from
+cold-drawn steel stampings are machined in two settings on a No. 24
+New Britain automatic chucking machine of the four-spindle type, shown
+in Fig. 8. This piece, shown in Fig. 9 in its sequence of operations,
+is especially difficult to machine on account of the stringy nature
+of the metal. The work is held for the first chucking with the small
+end out, and in the first spindle position the facing on the end is
+distributed between tools _A_ and _B_, while counterbore _C_ roughs out
+and chamfers the hole. In the second spindle position, tool _D_ faces
+the end, and counterbore _E_ finishes the hole. A cross-cutting head
+of a type similar to that previously described is carried in the third
+spindle position. This retains a tool _F_ which produces an annular
+groove in the nose of the head, the work being supported with pilot
+_G_. The fourth and last operation consists in threading the hole with
+the tap _H_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11. Diagram showing Tooling Set-up for machining
+Fuse Nose on New Britain Automatic Chucking Machine]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 12. Machining Brass Fuse Socket on 3¹⁄₄-inch
+“Gridley” Automatic Turret Lathe--First and Second Series of Operations]
+
+
+=Second Series of Operations on Shrapnel Heads.=--The set-up for the
+series of operations performed at the second chucking is shown in Fig.
+10, the work being held on threaded arbors. In the first spindle
+position, tools _A_ and _B_ face the shoulder, and counterbore _C_
+machines a seat in the inner flange. In the second spindle position,
+counterbore _D_ finishes the part roughed out by _C_ in the previous
+operation, tool _E_ faces the end, and tool _F_ chamfers the inner
+edge. In the third position, a cross-cutting attachment carrying
+external cutting tool _G_ is utilized for recessing the external
+diameter next to the shoulder. The threading on the external diameter
+is accomplished with the die _H_ in the fourth spindle position.
+
+
+=Machining Shrapnel Fuse Noses.=--The time fuse nose for a shrapnel
+shell, which is made from a brass forging, is machined as shown in Fig.
+11 on a No 33 New Britain automatic chucking machine at one setting. In
+this case, an extra spindle designated as No. 0 is added to the machine
+for equalizing or properly locating the forging in the chuck when it
+is being tightened. At the first spindle position, tool _A_ takes a
+cut from the external diameter, tool _B_ cuts an annular recess in the
+face, and counterbore _C_ roughs out the center portion. In the second
+spindle position, the same operations are performed with finishing
+tools. In the third spindle position, a cross-cutting head carries a
+recessing tool _D_ that forms a recess back of the tapped portion. The
+hole is then tapped in the fourth spindle position, and in the fifth
+spindle position a special counterbore _F_ takes a light finishing cut
+from all the surfaces previously machined. The external surfaces of the
+fuse nose are machined on a turret lathe.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 13. Diagram Illustrating First and Second Series of
+Operations on Fuse Body on “Gridley” Automatic]
+
+
+=Machining Shrapnel Fuse Parts on “Gridley” Automatics.=--The machining
+of fuse parts for the British shrapnel shell on “Gridley” single- and
+multiple-spindle automatics, made by the Windsor Machine Co., Windsor,
+Vt., forms the basis of several interesting tooling equipments. A
+number of the parts are machined from hot-pressed brass forgings, so
+that they must be handled separately. The fuse socket, as has been
+previously described, is made from a brass forging and is machined
+complete in two operations on a 3¹⁄₄-inch “Gridley” automatic turret
+lathe of the single-spindle type. The manner in which the work is
+loaded in the chuck and held for the first series of operations is
+shown at _A_ in Fig. 12. The rough blank _a_ is first placed over the
+spring fingers _b_, which are held in a holder clamped in the turret,
+but are free to rotate. When the work is pushed into the chuck, it
+forces back spring-ejecting stud _c_, which, as soon as the pressure of
+the chuck is released, ejects the work.
+
+As the loading device operates on the first slide of the turret, the
+first machining operation takes place on the second slide. This is
+a comparatively simple operation and consists in boring the central
+recess with a tool _d_ and chamfering with tool _e_. The turret is then
+indexed, bringing the internal necking tool _f_ into position. This is
+held in a holder and is operated by the forward motion of the forming
+slide. Following this, tap _g_ is brought into position to thread
+the recess in the socket. The operation of the turret is now stopped
+automatically until the operator loads a new piece in the chuck. The
+tapping is done with the spindle running in the forward direction on
+slow speed. After the hole has been tapped, the spindle is reversed and
+operated at a higher speed. The spindle continues to run backward for
+loading, and is still running backward, but slowed down, at the time
+of the second operation. It is for this reason that the boring tool
+_d_ operates on the reverse side of the hole, and tool _e_ is mounted
+upside down. At the third operation, the spindle is still running
+backward but is speeded to its highest speed while the internal necking
+is done with the tool on the reverse side of the hole.
+
+
+=Second Operation on Fuse Socket.=--The method of holding the fuse
+socket for performing the second operation on the 3¹⁄₄-inch “Gridley”
+single-spindle automatic turret lathe is shown at _B_ in Fig. 12. The
+socket _h_, which has now been threaded, is screwed onto the body of
+special arbor _i_, fitting in sleeve _j_ that is gripped by the spring
+collet. On the reduced end of arbor _i_ is a nut which serves to clamp
+the work up against the face of sleeve _j_. The method of using this
+arbor is as follows:
+
+To chuck the work, sleeve _j_ and its auxiliary members are removed
+from the spring collet, and the work is screwed onto the nose of
+arbor _i_, the position of which is locked by means of a nut on the
+stem of the arbor. The entire arbor is then replaced in the collet and
+the machining operations performed on the work. This type of arbor is
+necessary because of the heavy cutting with the wide forming tool which
+would tighten the piece on the threaded nose to such an extent that
+it could not be removed when finished. With this device, it is only
+necessary to hold the square end of arbor _i_ in a vise, and loosen
+the work by relieving the nut on the arbor. In order to facilitate the
+work, two arbors of this type are provided with each of the machines
+employed.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14. Section through a “Gridley” 3¹⁄₄-inch Automatic
+Turret Lathe Spindle showing Method of chucking Shrapnel Fuse Body]
+
+The operations performed in the first position consist in forming
+the external diameters with tool _k_, facing with the side tool, and
+drilling with drill _m_. The second turret face is now skipped and the
+third brought into position, presenting self-opening die _n_ which
+threads the work. At the fourth indexing of the turret slide, the hole
+is reamed with reamer _o_ and tool _p_ chamfers the face, completing
+the work. The forming done at the first indexing of the turret slide is
+performed on slow speed; the spindle speed, however, changes to high at
+the third position and back to slow just before the fourth position.
+
+
+=Machining the Fuse Body.=--The fuse body is made from a hot-pressed
+brass blank, and is machined in two chuckings in “Gridley”
+multiple-spindle automatics. The first series of operations is
+performed in a “Gridley” 1¹⁄₄-inch multiple-spindle automatic in the
+order shown to the left in Fig. 13. The work is loaded in the chuck
+by hand. Forming tool _A_ now advances and rough-forms the outer
+diameter, whereas flat drill _B_ and trepanning tool _C_ combine to
+drill the central hole and trepan the narrow channel. At the second
+spindle position, tool _D_ finish-forms and necks the outer surface,
+while tool _E_ counterbores the surfaces of the recess. Die _F_ at the
+third spindle position now threads the body, and at the fourth spindle
+position forming tool _G_ turns down the outer end of the thread while
+a floating trepanning tool _H_ finishes the counterbored and trepanned
+surfaces. It should be mentioned here that the hot-pressing of this
+brass part makes it extremely difficult to machine, so that the edges
+of the tools dull rapidly.
+
+
+=Second Series of Operations on Fuse Body.=--The method of holding the
+fuse body while the second series of operations is being performed
+is shown in Fig. 14. The work-spindles _A_ of the machine are fitted
+with special nose-pieces _B_, the inner surface of which is chamfered
+to receive the spring collet _C_, which is threaded to the end of
+draw-back rod _D_. The work is not gripped directly by the spring
+collet, but is first screwed into a special bushing _E_, having thin
+walls as shown. This bushing is not split but springs sufficiently
+to permit it to be closed in on the work and released when the
+collet pressure is removed. A flange _G_ attached to the end of the
+spindle nose serves as a stop for the work and a gaging point for the
+operations. The regular collet closing mechanism is used, but as may be
+seen in the left-hand end, the finger holders are reversed. When the
+clutch ring _H_ is pushed forward by the chuck-closer gripping fingers
+_I_ swivel and draw rod _D_ backward through contact with flange _J_.
+When the clutch ring _H_ is moved backward, the gripping fingers
+release rod _D_, relieving the pressure of the collet on bushing _E_
+and the work.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 15. Diagram illustrating Set-up for machining
+Timing Train Rings on “Gridley” Automatic]
+
+Referring again to Fig. 13, the second series of operations on the
+fuse body is shown to the right of the illustration. At the first
+spindle position, forming tool _I_ advances and forms the exterior
+diameters, while drill _J_ drills the hole in the end. At the second
+spindle position, the rear part of the work is supported by a roll
+back-rest, while the regular turner _K_ takes a cut across and chamfers
+the shoulder. At the same time counterbore _L_ comes in, cleans up
+the drilled hole and faces the bottom. At the third spindle position,
+the diameter _M_ is threaded with a plain die. At the fourth spindle
+position, a tool _N_ operated from the turret cuts a series of
+concentric grooves in the flange of the fuse body. The grooving tool is
+cut away to clear the forming tool _O_ which takes a light cut over the
+grooved face, finishing the body as illustrated.
+
+
+=Machining the Stationary Timing Train Ring.=--The machining operations
+on the stationary timing train ring are shown to the left in Fig.
+15, and as can be seen are of a comparatively simple nature. This
+fuse part is made from a Tobin bronze bar in a 2³⁄₈-inch “Gridley”
+multiple-spindle automatic. At the first spindle position, a drill held
+on the turret drills the hole, and a forming tool on the cross-slide
+forms it to shape and breaks it down for the cut-off tool. At the
+second spindle position, the piece is reamed, and at the third position
+it is faced off with an under-cutting tool. In the fourth spindle
+position, not shown, the finished piece is cut off, and the stock is
+fed out.
+
+
+=Machining the Graduated Timing Train Ring.=--The machining operations
+on the graduated timing train ring are almost identical with the
+stationary ring and are shown diagrammatically to the right in Fig.
+15. This part is also made from a bar of Tobin bronze in a 2³⁄₈-inch
+“Gridley” multiple-spindle automatic. The only difference in the
+operations on this part is in the use of a combination floating
+counterbore, and facing tool provided with a roller pilot.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 16. Diagram Illustrating Set-ups for machining
+Closing Cap and Bottom Closing Screw on “Gridley” 1³⁄₄-inch
+Multiple-spindle Automatic]
+
+
+=Machining the Closing Cap and Bottom Closing Screw.=--The closing cap
+and bottom closing screw for the shrapnel timing fuse are made from
+brass rod with a comparatively simple tool set-up as shown in Fig. 16.
+The machine used is a 1³⁄₄-inch “Gridley” multiple-spindle automatic.
+The machining operations on the closing cap are shown to the left in
+the illustration, and consist in drilling, counterboring, forming,
+threading, and cutting off. The operations on the bottom closing
+screw, shown to the right of this illustration, are counterboring,
+forming, recessing, threading, and cutting off.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 17. Method of machining Fuse Hammer on a No.
+2 Model G Brown & Sharpe Automatic Screw Machine equipped with an
+Eight-hole Turret]
+
+
+=Making Fuse Parts on Brown & Sharpe Automatic and Hand Screw
+Machines.=--A brief description of two of the many interesting set-ups
+on Brown & Sharpe automatic and hand screw machines for making timing
+fuse parts is given in the following. Timing fuse parts are made from
+several different materials. The screws and other small members as a
+rule are made from brass rod, whereas the parts such as the capsules,
+primer cups, etc., are made from sheet brass. Other members, such as
+the fuse body or stem, are made from different alloys and metals such
+as copper, copper aluminum, aluminum, etc.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 18. Diagram Illustrating Method of Machining a Fuse
+Nut on a No. 6 Brown & Sharpe Hand Screw Machine]
+
+
+=Set-up for Making Fuse Hammers.=--The method of making a fuse hammer
+on a No. 2 Model G Brown & Sharpe automatic screw machine provided
+with a special eight-hole turret is shown diagrammatically in Fig.
+17. This part is made from ⁷⁄₈-inch round brass rod and is finished
+complete in the screw machine. First, the stock is fed out to the stop
+in the turret. Second, the end is centered and faced with tools held
+in tool-holder _A_. The body is then formed with a circular tool _B_
+working from the front cross-slide; at the same time the turret is
+revolved, bringing tap drill _C_ into operation. The forming tool is
+working at the same time as the drills. The turret is again revolved
+and drill _D_ for finishing the middle hole is brought in and completes
+its operation. At the next index of the turret, drill _E_ finishes the
+bottom hole. The turret is now indexed and a recessing tool-holder
+carrying tool _F_ advances and is brought into operation to recess the
+work by a pusher on the cross-slide. The turret is again indexed and
+a reamer _G_ is advanced to bottom and ream the holes. Upon the next
+index of the turret, tap _H_ threads the work, which is finally cut off
+with circular tool _I_. The stock is rotated at 973 R. P. M. forward
+and backward for drilling and turning, and at 421 R. P. M. forward for
+threading. The stock is cut off rotating backward. The surface speed
+for the forming tools is 220 feet per minute and 31 feet per minute for
+the tap.
+
+
+=Tool Set-up for Making Fuse Nut.=--The fuse nut on the Russian timing
+fuse is made from 1⁷⁄₈-inch round brass rod in a No. 6 wire-feed Brown
+& Sharpe hand screw machine as shown in Fig. 18. First the stock is
+fed out to length, being gaged by a stop in a vertical slide, which is
+held in the turret. The turret is then indexed and drill _A_ drills the
+large hole. The turret is now revolved and the combination drill _B_ is
+advanced. The turret is again revolved and counterbore _C_ faces and
+counterbores the work. Upon the next index of the turret, a vertical
+slide tool-holder carrying recessing tool _D_ is advanced. This
+tool-holder is operated by a handle attached to the holder. The turret
+is again indexed and tap _E_ threads the work. After this the turret is
+indexed and the work is recessed with a tool-holder _F_ carrying two
+cutters which balance each other in cutting. The seventh operation is
+performed from both the front and rear cross-slides with tools _G_ and
+_H_. The eighth operation is cutting off. This is performed with a
+special vertical slide tool-holder held in the turret and operated by
+a handle. The stock for these operations is rotated at 352 R. P. M.,
+giving a surface speed for the forming tools of 180 feet per minute and
+66 feet per minute for the tap.
+
+
+=Making Fuse Parts on Hand Screw Machines.=--The demand for shrapnel
+fuse parts has been so great that time has not been taken in all
+cases to tool up automatic screw machines before production has been
+started. In order to get parts out quickly while automatic machines
+are being tooled up, hand screw machines have been made use of. These
+machines are also used to a large extent on small orders and to help
+out production in general. Fig. 19 shows an F. E. Wells & Son Co. hand
+screw machine working on shrapnel fuse parts. The capacity of this
+machine is for ⁷⁄₈-inch diameter rod and it will tap or drill ¹⁄₂ inch
+diameter. Shrapnel fuse parts are produced on this machine at the rate
+of from 25 to 100 pieces per hour.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 19. Machining Fuse Parts on F. E. Wells & Son’s
+Hand Screw Machine]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 20. Drilling Percussion Primers on a Leland-Gifford
+Ball Bearing Sensitive Drilling Machine]
+
+
+=Drilling Percussion Primers for Fuses.=--The percussion primer, used
+in the American combination fuse shown in Fig. 3, Chapter I, is made
+in a Brown & Sharpe automatic screw machine from brass rod in two
+operations. Following the screw machine operations, four holes about
+¹⁄₃₂ inch in diameter are drilled through this bushing, employing a
+special “snap index” jig in a high-speed ball-bearing drilling machine
+made by the Leland-Gifford Co. of Worcester, Mass. (See Fig. 20.) The
+extremely small size of this part makes it difficult to handle, so
+the jig was designed with a special loading arm to facilitate rapid
+handling. The jig consists of a platform base bolted to the table of
+the drilling machine. Upon this is the index ring, which is turned
+by handles _J_ and indexed for the four drilling positions by spring
+plunger _I_. The center of rotation is in the center of the four holes
+in the part. _B_ is the loading lever, with a nest _A_ at the end into
+which the work is slipped. This lever swings on stud _C_. The work is
+located in the swinging arm _B_ when it is in the position shown in the
+illustration, with the arm _B_ resting against stop _D_. The arm is
+then swung under the drill until it reaches stop _E_. It is maintained
+in this position by spring plunger _H_ that bears against lever _F_,
+fulcrumed on stud _G_. The side of this lever bears against the work
+and holds it firmly while the drilling is proceeding. The drill is
+guided by four bushings in plate _L_, mounted on the index ring. The
+operation consists in rotating the index ring to the four stations for
+drilling the respective holes. By means of this quick-indexing ring,
+and the high speed at which the Leland-Gifford drilling machine runs,
+it is possible to drill as many as 6000 pieces, or 24,000 holes in ten
+hours.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 21. Drilling Fuse Plugs on “Avey” Drilling Machine]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 22. Graduating Timing Fuse Rings on Dwight-Slate
+Marking Machine]
+
+
+=Drilling Timing Fuse Plugs.=--An application of a regular No. ¹⁄₂
+“Avey” drilling machine, built by the Cincinnati Pulley Machinery Co.,
+Cincinnati, Ohio, to the drilling of brass timing fuse plugs is shown
+in Fig. 21. The requirements are to drill three No. 55 (0.052 inch)
+holes through the dome of the plug; a number of pieces are shown on
+the table of the machine. These three holes practically run together
+at the inside of the dome, making it necessary to drill one hole at
+a time. The fixture used for this purpose is of unique construction.
+The body _A_ is made of an aluminum casting, whereas the operating
+mechanism is of hardened tool steel. The drill spindle is operated by
+a foot treadle, connection being secured through rod _B_, passing down
+through the fixture and fastened to the spindle sleeve by the L-shaped
+piece and yoke _C_. The work _E_ is held on a special work-spindle
+located inside the fixture that is indexed one-third revolution through
+the medium of rod _B_ upon the raising of the drill spindle sleeve.
+The work holding-down and ejecting mechanism is supported in aluminum
+bracket _F_. Attached to this bracket is a supporting arm for the lower
+crank of lever _G_, which holds a segment gear. Bracket _D_ carries
+the drill bushing.
+
+After drilling the third hole, the operator depresses lever _G_,
+rotating the segment gear meshing in rack teeth in rod _H_, which
+lifts the latter up to eject the work and at the same time through
+a connection, not shown, raises the holding-down rod. The ejector,
+not shown, which is spring-controlled, returns to a neutral position
+immediately upon the ejection of the work, while the holding-down
+rod is still raised. The work, after being discharged, falls into a
+chute and is carried to the rear of the machine. The operation of this
+fixture is rapid, the production being from 9000 to 10,000 pieces in
+ten hours.
+
+
+=Graduating Fuse Timing Ring.=--As has been previously stated, the
+adjustable ring on the timing fuse is graduated in seconds, starting
+at zero and running to twenty-one seconds. As shown in Fig. 22, the
+graduating of this timing ring is performed in the Dwight-Slate marking
+machine built by Noble & Westbrook, Hartford, Conn. The main arbor of
+the machine carries the stamping roll _A_ and is turned by the handle
+shown. The timing ring to be graduated and marked is held at _B_. The
+two gears _C_ prevent the stamp from “creeping” ahead or slipping
+on the work. The work-holding arbor, as shown, is held in a bracket
+and is raised to the stamp roll by pressure on the foot treadle. Two
+operations are required for stamping and graduating the timing ring.
+The first is marking the graduations and the second is putting on the
+figures.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+MAKING SHRAPNEL CARTRIDGE CASES
+
+
+The brass cartridge case that contains the powder charge for propelling
+the shrapnel shell from the bore of the quick-firing gun is drawn up
+from a blank of sheet brass. The number of operations necessary to
+complete the case depends on its size and the method of handling. Some
+shell manufacturers prefer to do more or less drawing at one operation,
+but in all cases the sequence of operations is practically the same.
+The material used for shrapnel cartridge cases generally consists of
+a composition of 2 parts copper and 1 part zinc. This alloy has been
+found to possess the best physical qualities, that is, great tensile
+strength and a high percentage of elongation when properly annealed.
+The drawing operations through which the cartridge case passes increase
+the hardness, and the ductility of the metal is restored by annealing.
+The annealing temperature in most cases is from 1150 to 1200 degrees F.
+On reaching this temperature, the work is either cooled off in water or
+allowed to cool off gradually, as the speed of cooling does not affect
+its physical qualities. In the following, two methods of handling the
+various operations will be described.
+
+
+=Method of Making Cartridge Cases.=--Figs. 1 and 2 show the sequence
+of operations--blanking, cupping, re-drawing, indenting, trimming,
+heading, and tapering, as advocated by the Waterbury Farrel Foundry &
+Machine Co., Waterbury, Conn., for making cartridge cases for 18-pound
+shrapnel. The first operation consists in cutting out a blank from
+³⁄₈-inch sheet brass 6¹⁄₄ inches in diameter. The next operation is
+cupping. This is handled in a short-stroke geared straight-sided press.
+Before re-drawing, the cup is annealed, and the third operation, which
+is handled in a longer stroke press, is then performed. Annealing
+follows this operation, and then the fourth drawing or second
+re-drawing operation is performed. This consists in reducing the
+fillets slightly at the corners, decreasing the diameter of the cup to
+4¹⁄₈ inches and increasing its length to 4¹⁄₂ inches. The dimensions
+given here are approximate.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 1. and 2. Operations in making an “18-pound” Cartridge
+Case]
+
+=Indenting Operations.=--The fifth operation or first indenting
+operation, which consists in indenting the bottom, is handled in a
+press similar to that used for the cupping and re-drawing operations.
+This shortens the length of the case by ¹⁄₄ inch and forces the
+indentation about half way through the thickness of the stock. The
+second indenting is then accomplished. This again shortens the case by
+an additional ¹⁄₄ inch and squares up the corners. The case, without
+annealing, is now passed through the third re-drawing, or seventh,
+operation, reducing its diameter to 4 inches and increasing its length
+to 5¹⁄₂ inches. It is annealed after this operation, and is then drawn
+to a shape 8 inches in length by 3⁷⁄₈ inches in diameter, and the
+wall decreased in thickness to ¹⁄₁₆ inch. The case is then annealed
+and passes through the fifth re-drawing operation. The machine used
+for handling the third, fourth and fifth re-draws is a long-stroke
+straight-sided rack-and-pinion press. After the fifth re-drawing, or
+ninth, operation, the case is trimmed and about two inches cut off
+the end. This leaves the case in better condition for the succeeding
+operations. The trimming machine is of the horizontal type.
+
+
+=Final Re-drawing Operations.=--The sixth re-drawing, or eleventh,
+operation is performed in a horizontal drawing press of the hydraulic
+type provided with automatic reversing valves. This operation increases
+the length of the case to 13¹⁄₄ inches and reduces its diameter to 3³⁄₄
+inches. After this operation, the case is annealed and then 1¹⁄₄ inch
+is trimmed off the open end. The thirteenth and fourteenth operations
+consist in heading the case. These are practically of the same nature,
+and combine to form the head of the case as shown in the illustration.
+The heading operations each reduce the length of the case ¹⁄₄ inch,
+and are performed in a 1000-ton hydraulic heading press operated by a
+geared compound power pump and having a working pressure of 5600 pounds
+per square inch on the ram. After heading, the case is annealed and the
+fifteenth operation, which consists of tapering, is performed. The
+first tapering, or fifteenth, operation reduces the mouth of the case
+to 3⁹⁄₁₆ inches in diameter and gradually tapers it for a distance of
+5⁷⁄₈ inches--half the length. The case is then annealed, pickled and
+washed, and a second tapering operation is performed. This reduces the
+mouth of the case to 3³⁄₈ inches and tapers it completely to the head.
+The case is not annealed after the last tapering operation, but ¹⁄₄
+inch is trimmed off the end.
+
+The various operations through which a cartridge case passes in drawing
+and forming to the correct length having been described, attention will
+now be given to the type of tools used for this purpose. These tools
+have been designed and built by the Ferracute Machine Co., Bridgeton,
+N. J., and are used with its presses for making cases for 3-inch
+projectiles.
+
+
+=Cupping and First Series of Re-drawing Tools.=--The cutting out of
+the blank is frequently omitted because the specified thickness and
+size can be furnished by the mill. Before cupping, the dies and blanks
+are well greased, as this assists in drawing. Olive oil or soapy water
+is used, depending on the stage at which the drawing operations have
+arrived. The first cupping operation is accomplished with a punch and
+die as shown at _A_ in Fig. 3. This operation is accomplished in a
+Ferracute 100-ton ram press equipped with a dial feed. The die consists
+of a hardened ring of tempered steel having an interior shape similar
+to a truncated cone. The punch is slightly tapered on the lower end and
+has an air vent hole drilled up through it to facilitate the drawing
+and produce a cup free from wrinkles.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3. Tools for drawing a 3-inch Shrapnel Cartridge
+Case--Ferracute Machine Co.’s Method]
+
+The second operation, or first re-drawing operation, is shown at _B_.
+Here the type of die used differs somewhat from that shown at _A_, in
+that the drawing angle is 15 instead of 45 degrees. The cup, after this
+operation, is reduced in diameter to 3.877 inches and is 2⁷⁄₈ inches
+long. After the first cupping operation, the case is annealed.
+
+The second re-drawing operation is accomplished as shown at _C_. The
+die in this case is the same as at _B_, as is also the punch, except
+for an increase in the taper and change in shape on the end. The
+object of this, of course, is to keep the case thick at the head but
+reduce the walls further up along the section. The case, after this
+operation, is also drawn out to a length sufficient to necessitate
+using a stripping device for removing it from the punch. This is
+accomplished by six spring-operated stripper pins as shown, which
+slip over the top edge of the case as it is forced through the die,
+stripping it from the punch. The cup now passes through the third
+annealing operation and is ready for the third re-draw, shown at
+_D_. The press used for performing this operation is similar to that
+described, and the die and punch is similar in construction to that
+shown at _C_.
+
+
+=Final Re-drawing Operations.=--For the final re-drawing operations,
+horizontal double-ended screw presses instead of the horizontal
+hydraulic presses formerly used are employed. Horizontal presses are
+used because the length to which the cartridge case is drawn after
+the third re-draw is such that it exceeds the stroke of the vertical
+presses. The cartridge case, after each drawing operation, is annealed;
+_E_ in Fig. 3 shows the fourth re-drawing tools, which are handled in a
+horizontal screw press. The die used is similar in shape to that shown
+at _D_, but the holder in which it is held differs, of course, owing
+to the difference in the type of press used. The stripping arrangement
+for removing the case from the punch is also of a different type. In
+this case five spring-operated stripper pins are held in a holder which
+is free to oscillate within certain limits in the block in which it
+is retained. The reason for having this oscillating stripper is that
+it accommodates itself to the irregular shape on the end of the case
+and gives practically a constant pressure all around the circumference
+of the case, assisting in removing it from the punch. The case is now
+annealed and is finish-drawn as shown at _F_. Here the same type of
+die, stripper arrangement, etc., is used as that shown at _E_. The case
+in the fifth re-drawing operation is 14³⁄₈ inches long by 3.186 inches
+outside diameter.
+
+
+=Annealing and Washing Cartridge Cases.=--As was previously stated,
+the cartridge case, after practically every re-drawing operation,
+is annealed, being subjected to a temperature of about 1150 to 1200
+degrees F. and then allowed to cool off or dipped in water which, of
+course, forms a scale on the surface of the case. This must be removed
+before any subsequent operations can take place. Several different
+solutions are used for this purpose, but a common one comprises the
+following: Sulphuric acid diluted with water to a strength of 1 to 4.
+This pickling solution is held in lead-lined wooden troughs and the
+case is allowed to remain in the bath varying from eight to fifteen
+minutes, according to the strength of the solution. The cases are then
+washed in lead-lined wooden troughs through which a stream of water is
+circulated to remove all traces of the acid.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4. Fixture for testing Hardness of Cartridge Cases
+with Shore Scleroscope]
+
+
+=Testing Hardness of Cartridge Cases.=--The hardness of a cartridge
+case must conform to a certain standard. When too soft, a permanent
+set will occur from the pressure of the firing charge and the case
+will stick in the breech of the gun. When the hardness is too high for
+a given composition of brass, it is too brittle and will split, or
+the head may blow off. There is, therefore, a certain hardness which
+must be adhered to as closely as possible. Some manufacturers hold the
+standard to within 20 to 25 on the body walls and reject cases striking
+15 as being too soft, and 30 to 35 as being too hard.
+
+Owing to the thinness of the walls of the case, it is impossible to
+take a reading without rigidly supporting it, and for this purpose the
+Shore Instrument & Mfg. Co., 551-557 West 22nd St., New York City,
+has devised a special fixture as indicated in Fig. 4. This comprises
+a bracket _A_ held in an ordinary vise, to which is fastened an anvil
+plug _B_, as indicated. In order to hold the case tightly against the
+anvil plug, a spring _C_, fastened to the bracket _A_, is also fastened
+to a yoke _D_ surrounding the case. A rod attached to the yoke and to
+a foot treadle furnishes a means of drawing the yoke down to hold the
+case in contact with the plug. The anvil plug provides the weight or
+inertia to resist the impact of the drop-hammer of the scleroscope, but
+in order to be sure that there is proper contact of the case with the
+plug a rubber cushion _E_ is provided between the pressure ring or yoke
+and the brass case.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5. Special Shrapnel Case Trimming, Facing, and
+Chamfering Machine]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6. Sequence of Operations performed on Cartridge
+Case in Machine shown in Fig. 5]
+
+
+=Machining Shrapnel Cartridge Cases.=--The Bullard Machine Tool Co.,
+Bridgeport, Conn., has designed and built a number of special machines
+for performing the machining work on the head and mouth ends of brass
+cartridge cases. This machine, as will be seen from Fig. 5, is of the
+hand turret machine type, designed to work on the case from both ends.
+In this machine the brass case is chucked in the center of an extremely
+large spindle, and worked on from the head end with four sets of turret
+tools and two sets of cross-slide tools, while the mouth end is bored
+and trimmed with tools held on a carriage located on the back facing
+bar. The drive for the work chuck spindle is over a 16-inch pulley
+with a 3-inch belt. The pull of the belt is not taken directly on
+the spindle, but on a special pulley bearing 7³⁄₈ inches in diameter
+and 5 inches in width. The spindle itself is supported in bearings 9
+inches in length and 5⁷⁄₈ inches in diameter. As previously mentioned,
+the spindle is hollow so that any type of shrapnel cartridge case up
+to 4¹⁄₄ inches in diameter and from 10 to 18 inches in length can be
+machined.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7. Set-up showing First Operation on Cartridge Case
+Head]
+
+From the construction of the machine in Fig. 5 it will be seen that the
+front end of the spindle carries a large three-jaw chuck of special
+design. These jaws catch the cartridge case just under the head and
+revolve it for machining. The case is supported internally by a tubular
+arbor which also acts as a stop and is attached to a rod extending to
+the rear bracket where it is backed up by a spring. The front end of
+this tubular support or stop is provided with a thrust ball-bearing so
+that the case can be loaded in the chuck while the spindle is running.
+When the chuck operating lever is manipulated to close the chuck jaws
+on the work, it first draws back the rod mentioned through the medium
+of a tie-rod and the rear bracket to a positive stop, and then closes
+the jaws on the work. The cartridge case is put in and removed from the
+chuck with the turret indexed between stations to give the required
+space.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8. Set-up showing Fourth Operation on Cartridge
+Case Head]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9. Set-up showing Operations on Mouth End of Case]
+
+The back boring and trimming head is held on a hollow spindle through
+the center of which the rod passes. This spindle is provided with rack
+teeth on its top surface which engage with a pinion located in the
+extension bracket and operated by a handle. The forward position of the
+boring and trimming head is governed by a stop-collar.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10. Set-up showing Sixth Operation on Head End of
+Case]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11. Set-up showing Seventh Operation on Head End of
+Case]
+
+
+=Sequence of Machining Operations on Cartridge Case.=--The sequence
+of machining operations performed on the cartridge case in this
+machine is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 6, and also in Figs. 7 to 11,
+inclusive. Referring to Figs. 6 and 7, the first operation consists
+in rough-drilling and counterboring the hole in the head of the case
+with combination tool _A_. The second operation (see Fig. 6) consists
+in facing, trimming and chamfering the head with tools _B_, _C_, and
+_D_ held on the front of the cross-slide. The third operation is to
+finish chamfering and facing the head of the case with tool _E_ on the
+rear of the cross-slide. The fourth operation consists in under-cutting
+the primer seat with the tool _F_ which works on a turret slide and is
+operated by lever _G_ as shown in Fig. 8.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 12. Diagram showing Method of chucking a French
+75-millimeter Cartridge Case on a Potter & Johnston Chucking Machine]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 13. Diagram illustrating Machining Operations on
+French Cartridge Case on Potter & Johnston Machine]
+
+The following operations are now performed on the mouth or open end of
+the cartridge case as shown in Figs. 6 and 9, with the spindle running
+at the same speed--500 R. P. M.--as that used for the first series of
+operations. Two tools _H_ and _I_ are used. Tool _H_ bores the mouth
+of the case for a distance of 1 inch, whereas tool _I_ trims off the
+open end of the case and rounds the edges. The mouth of the case at the
+rear end of the spindle is supported by a hardened bushing to prevent
+it springing away from the action of the boring tool. The boring and
+trimming tools are mounted in a special head _J_, Fig. 9, that is
+operated back and forth by a handle _K_ through the medium of a rack
+and pinion. The forward movement of this head, as previously explained,
+is controlled by means of an adjustable collar _L_ screwed onto spindle
+_M_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14. Tooling Set-up for Machining 18-pound Cartridge
+Case]
+
+The work-spindle is now slowed down and the following operations,
+shown in Figs. 6, 10, and 11, are performed on the head end of the
+case. The sixth operation is to finish-counterbore and ream the primer
+pocket with tool _O_ held in an adjustable holder, whereas the seventh
+operation is threading the primer pocket with collapsible tap _P_. The
+chuck lever in Fig. 5 is now manipulated, first, releasing the grip of
+the chuck jaws on the case and, second, advancing the rod to eject the
+case sufficiently to enable it to be easily removed from the chuck. The
+spindle is changed to the highest speed after the next case is put in.
+In changing the work, it is not necessary to stop the spindle.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 15. Tool Set-up for Machining 18-pound Cartridge
+Case]
+
+
+=Machining Shrapnel Cartridge Cases on Potter & Johnston
+Automatics.=--The cartridge case is made from sheet brass as previously
+stated. It is practically formed to shape in drawing and heading
+machines, but to secure the desired accuracy on the head and primer
+pocket these surfaces are machined. The method of holding the French
+75-millimeter case on a No. 5A Potter & Johnston automatic chucking and
+turning machine for machining the head and primer pocket is shown in
+Fig. 12. Here it will be seen that the cartridge case butts up against
+a stop _B_ and fits over the tapered plug _C_, which steadies it. It
+is held in place by an ordinary draw-in collet _D_. This is operated
+by means of a lever _E_, fulcrumed to a bracket on the rear end of the
+machine and operating a sliding clutch collar. The chuck is operated
+through fingers which draw back the sliding sleeve to which it is
+attached. These fingers operate against a spring at the rear of the
+spindle which serve to open the collet.
+
+The machining operations on the French shrapnel cartridge case are
+handled in the manner illustrated in Fig. 13. The first operation is to
+rough-drill the hole in the head. The turret is then indexed, bringing
+in a roughing reamer which reams the hole previously drilled, whereas
+the front cross-slide carries tool _B_ that faces the head and a
+circular tool _C_ that rough-forms the external diameters of the head.
+
+Upon the next indexing of the turret, the tool _D_ counterbores the
+powder pocket and the circular forming tool _E_ finish-forms and
+rough-chamfers the head. The last operation consists in finishing the
+primer pocket with a taper reamer _F_.
+
+
+=Machining the British Shrapnel Cartridge Case.=--The brass cartridge
+case for the British shrapnel is more difficult to machine than the
+French case, as reference to Figs. 14 and 15 will clearly show. The
+machining operations are accomplished on a No. 5A Potter & Johnston
+automatic chucking and turning machine having a five-sided turret. The
+first operation is to drill the primer pocket hole with a three-step
+drill _A_. The turret is now indexed and the surfaces previously
+roughed out are finished with inserted-blade counterbore _B_. At the
+same time, the head of the case is faced with a relieving tool _C_ held
+on the cross-slide and rough-formed with circular tool _D_.
+
+The turret, in being indexed to the third position, brings vertical
+recessing tool _E_ into operation. This carries two cutters, one of
+which recesses the primer pocket at the point where the thread is to
+terminate, whereas the other removes the burr and faces the inner boss.
+In the fourth operation, the smallest diameter of the primer pocket
+is reamed and the largest diameter of the hole chamfered by tools
+held in bar _F_. The rear cross-slide is advanced at the same time,
+carrying the circular tool _G_ that finish-forms the head. The final
+operation--threading--is performed with the “Geometric” collapsible tap
+_H_.
+
+DRAWING, HEADING AND MACHINING OPERATIONS ON “18-POUND” BRITISH
+CARTRIDGE CASE
+
+[Illustration]
+
+  +-----------------------+-------+-------+-----------+---------------+
+  |                       |  Dimensions   |           |               |
+  |       Operation*      |    Inches     | Machine   |   Scleroscope |
+  |                       |   A   |   B   | Used      |     Reading   |
+  +-------+---------------+-------+-------+-----------+---------------+
+  | 1     | Blanking      |       |       | Punch     |       15      |
+  |       |               |       |       | Press     |               |
+  |       |               |       |       |           |               |
+  | 2(300)| Cupping       | 4.45  | 2.30  | Bulldozer | _a_, 15;      |
+  |       |               |       |       |           | _b_, 50       |
+  |       |               |       |       |           |               |
+  | 3(300)| Annealing     |       |       |           |       15      |
+  |       |               |       |       |           |               |
+  | 4(300)| 1st Redrawing | 4.232 | 3.45  | Bulldozer | _a_, 15;      |
+  |       |               |       |       |           | _b_, 50       |
+  |       |               |       |       |           |               |
+  | 5(300)| Annealing     |       |       |           |       15      |
+  |       |               |       |       |           |               |
+  | 6(300)| 2nd Redrawing | 4.081 | 4.6   | Bulldozer | _a_, 40;      |
+  |       |               |       |       |           | _b_, 45       |
+  |       |               |       |       |           |               |
+  | 7(300)| Annealing     |       |       |           |       15      |
+  |       |               |       |       |           |               |
+  | 8(300)| 1st Indenting | 4.081 | 4.23  | Bulldozer | _a_, 18;      |
+  |       |               |       |       |           | _b_, 15       |
+  |       |               |       |       |           |               |
+  | 9(300)| 3rd Redrawing | 3.952 | 6.25  | Bulldozer | _a_, 18;      |
+  |       |               |       |       |           | _b_, 45       |
+  |       |               |       |       |           |               |
+  |10(300)| Annealing     |       |       |           | _a_, 13;      |
+  |       |               |       |       |           | _b_, 15       |
+  |       |               |       |       |           |               |
+  |11(300)| 4th Redrawing | 3.844 | 7     | Bulldozer | _a_, 35;      |
+  |       |               |       |       |           | _b_, 45       |
+  |       |               |       |       |           |               |
+  |12(300)| Annealing     |       |       |           |       15      |
+  |       |               |       |       |           |               |
+  |13(300)| 2nd Indenting | 3.844 | 6.875 | Bulldozer | _a_, 18;      |
+  |       |               |       |       |           | _b_, 15       |
+  |       |               |       |       |           |               |
+  |14(175)| Drill Hole in |       |       | Vertical  |               |
+  |       | Primer Pocket |       |       | Drilling  |               |
+  |       |               |       |       | Machine   |               |
+  |       |               |       |       |           |               |
+  |15(200)| Trimming      | 3.844 | 6.25  | Toledo    |               |
+  |       | and Burring   |       |       | Trimmer   |               |
+  |       |               |       |       |           |               |
+  |16(180)| 5th Redrawing | 3.789 | 9.75  | Frog and  | _a_, 20;      |
+  |       |               |       |       | Switch    | _b_, 40       |
+  |       |               |       |       | Planer    |               |
+  |       |               |       |       |           |               |
+  |17(300)| Annealing     |       |       |           | _a_, 20;      |
+  |       |               |       |       |           | _b_, 16       |
+  |       |               |       |       |           |               |
+  |18(180)| 6th Redrawing | 3.738 | 13.35 | Frog and  | _a_, 20;      |
+  |       |               |       |       | Switch    | _b_, 45       |
+  |       |               |       |       | Planer    |               |
+  |       |               |       |       |           |               |
+  |19(200)| Trimming      | 3.738 | 11.875| Toledo    |               |
+  |       |               |       |       | Trimmer   |               |
+  |       |               |       |       |           |               |
+  |20(100)| Heading       | 3.738 | 11.750| 350 ton,  | _a_, 40 to 50;|
+  |       |               |       |       | C. P. R.  | _b_, 50       |
+  |       |               |       |       | Hydr.     |               |
+  |       |               |       |       | Press     |               |
+  |       |               |       |       |           |               |
+  |21(180)| Annealing     |       |       |           | _a_, 40 to 50;|
+  |       | Mouth         |       |       |           | _b_, 25 to 35 |
+  |       |               |       |       |           |               |
+  |22(300)| 1st Tapering  | 3.347 | 11.875| Bulldozer | _a_, 40 to 50;|
+  |       |               |       |       |           | _b_, 35 to 40 |
+  |       |               |       |       |           |               |
+  |23(300)| 2nd Tapering  | 3.328 | 11.95 | Bulldozer | _a_, 40 to 50;|
+  |       |               |       |       |           | _b_, 35 to 45 |
+  |       |               |       |       |           |               |
+  |24(40) | Machining     |       |       | Bullard   |               |
+  |       | Mouth and     |       |       | Case      |               |
+  |       | Head          |       |       | Machine   |               |
+  |       |               |       |       |           |               |
+  |25(80) | Hand Tapping  |       |       | Bench     |               |
+  |       |               |       |       | Fixture   |               |
+  |       |               |       |       |           |               |
+  |26(80) | Reaming       |       |       | Bench     |               |
+  |       |               |       |       | Fixture   |               |
+  |       |               |       |       |           |               |
+  |27(80) | Inspecting    |       |       | Various   |               |
+  |       |               |       |       | Gages     |               |
+  |       |               |       |       |           |               |
+  |28(80) | Stamping      |       |       |           |               |
+  +-------+---------------+-------+-------+-----------+---------------+
+
+  * Number in brackets indicates Production Per Hour.
+
+  Operations: Supplementary Information
+
+  Lubricants   Cupping, Redrawing and Indenting     Viscocity
+               Tapering                             Dry
+               Machining Mouth and Head             Mystic
+
+  Annealing Process (except Mouth)    Oil Furnace--1100 to 1140 °F
+                                      Water Cooling and Acid Wash
+
+  Annealing Process (Mouth)           Oil Burner--800 °F
+                                      Cool in Air
+
+
+=Summary of Operations on Cartridge Cases.=--The accompanying table
+gives a summary of the cupping, drawing, annealing, indenting,
+trimming, heading and machining operations on a British 18-pound
+cartridge case of a composition of 70 parts electrolytic copper and 30
+parts Bertha spelter. In the plant where this information was obtained,
+the cupping, indenting, and first, second, third, and fourth re-drawing
+operations are accomplished on bulldozers, while the fifth and sixth
+re-drawing operations are accomplished on a frog and switch planer from
+which the cross-head has been removed and a special fixture substituted
+in its place. The punch is held rigidly in this fixture and the die on
+another fixture clamped to the table of the planer. Practically the
+same condition prevails on bulldozers. Here the punch is held rigidly,
+whereas the die is held in the traveling slide. As a lubricant for
+drawing a compound known as “viscosity,” manufactured by the Cataract
+Refining Co., is used throughout, except on the fourth and fifth
+re-drawing operations, where ordinary commercial vaseline has been
+found to give the best results.
+
+The annealing is done in a Quigley oil furnace, which is kept at a
+constant temperature of between 1100 and 1140 degrees F. The cups are
+handled in sheet-iron boxes with wire bottoms carrying 140 cups. This
+furnace holds seven of these boxes; it requires 35 minutes for one lot
+of cups to pass completely through the furnace. In other words, a box
+is put in and taken out every five minutes, thus giving an annealing
+time of thirty-five minutes on each batch. After dipping in water, the
+cups are immersed in a weak solution of sulphuric acid to remove all
+scale.
+
+Scleroscope readings are taken before and after each drawing operation,
+so as to ascertain whether the metal is being properly annealed or
+not. The blank also is tested with a scleroscope before any work is
+done on it, and should strike 15. The head of the shell must strike
+between 40 and 50, being softer at the center than at the rim. The
+readings are taken on four radii on the head, and at intervals of ¹⁄₈
+to ³⁄₁₆ inch apart. In heading, considerable difficulty was at first
+experienced in securing the correct scleroscope readings. Instead of
+the head being harder at the rim than at the center, the reverse was
+the case. It was found that the metal in flowing towards the center
+packed up to such an extent that the case was made considerably harder
+at this point. A method which overcame this difficulty consisted in
+drilling a ¹⁄₄-inch hole down through the primer pocket previous to the
+heading operation. This allowed the metal to flow towards the center of
+the head with comparatively little resistance, and hence the correct
+hardness was obtained at the rim, as well as in the center of the head.
+The machining of the head and mouth is accomplished in Bullard special
+cartridge case trimming machines of the double-ended type, that is,
+one set of tools are located in one end for machining the mouth and
+another set of tools held in the turret and on the cross-slide for
+machining the head and primer pocket. Following this, hand-reaming
+and hand-tapping operations are accomplished so as to get the desired
+accuracy and fit in the primer pocket. Inspecting and stamping
+operations finish the principal operations on the cartridge case.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+SPECIFICATIONS FOR THE MANUFACTURE AND INSPECTION OF THE RUSSIAN 3-INCH
+SHRAPNEL SHELL
+
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1. Russian 3-inch Shrapnel Shell and Component
+Parts]
+
+The following specifications relating to the 3-inch Russian shrapnel
+shell are abstracted from the official specifications, and contain
+all the essential points required to be known by the manufacturer or
+the inspector of shrapnel shells. The specifications deal in detail
+with what is known as the “test consignment” of shells, the “proof
+consignment” of shells, and the methods of inspecting.
+
+
+=Clause 1. General Conditions.=--The shrapnel shell consists of the
+following parts: steel body with copper driving band, steel diaphragm,
+steel fuse tube, steel fuse base, brass socket nut, bullets, two steel
+fixing screws, two steel threaded plugs, and a zinc plug. The selection
+of the material to be used for the shell and the parts is left to the
+discretion of the manufacturer, but on the condition that it meets the
+requirements given in the following specifications. Before beginning
+the manufacture of an order, the manufacturer must submit a _test
+consignment_ of shells.
+
+
+=Clause 2. Test Consignment of Shells.=--The selection of shells for
+the test consignment is left to the discretion of the manufacturer. The
+trials of the test consignment are carried out in the presence of the
+inspector appointed by the government for which the shells are made,
+and of the representative of the firm whose shells are tested. The
+methods of manufacture of the test consignment of shells must be known
+to the inspector and must be done in accordance with the requirements
+in the following specifications. All shells forming the test
+consignment must be similar in material and made by the same methods of
+manufacture.
+
+The submission of the test consignment is not required for those firms
+who have already submitted one, and after the completion of an order
+have received a new order for the same shells, provided the mechanical
+conditions for manufacturing the same have not been altered. Firms
+are allowed to begin the manufacture of the shells before delivering
+the test consignment, but on the condition that in the case of
+unsatisfactory results of the trials of the test consignment, all
+shells previously manufactured by the firm must be rejected.
+
+The test consignment consists of fifty shrapnels, out of which
+twenty-five are tested, by firing, with a view to ascertaining their
+accuracy and strength, twenty-two for strength only, and three
+shrapnels are left for mechanical tests by breaking the test pieces
+made from them in a testing machine. In the case of the last three
+shells it is necessary to ascertain before cutting the test pieces
+from them that the driving bands are pressed on correctly, by removing
+them. In addition to this, the strength of the shrapnels is tested
+by exploding them in a pit. For the pit test, those shells are used
+which are found undamaged after being fired. For this trial, ten
+shrapnels are used. Before firing the test consignment of shrapnels
+and before the pit test, the mechanical test must be carried out, and
+the two first mentioned tests may be carried out only if the metal
+shows results answering the conditions mentioned in Clause 3 of these
+specifications.
+
+The test consignment will be considered as passed if the following
+results are obtained:
+
+1. If during the mechanical tests the metal answers to the conditions
+laid down.
+
+2. If during firing no shell is broken in the gun or immediately in
+front of the muzzle.
+
+3. If during firing no socket is separated from the shell in the gun or
+immediately in front of the muzzle.
+
+4. If on cylindrical parts of the bodies of shrapnels recovered after
+firing no signs of the rifling are to be found. The slight impression
+from rifling on the central portion of the shell cannot, however, be
+taken as a reason for the rejection of the shell, provided that it is
+noticed only on one-half of the circumference.
+
+5. If shrapnels recovered after firing do not show any dent in their
+bases or shearing of the socket, or if the increase in the diameter
+of the cylindrical part of the body does not exceed 0.010 inch.
+
+6. If shrapnels recovered after the firing do not show in more than 15
+per cent of the cases the protrusion of the upper end of the central
+tube from the countersink of the brass socket nut. All these shrapnels
+must be dismantled for the inspection of the central tubes; the central
+tubes must not show any considerable sign of buckling, cracks or
+protrusion into the powder chamber.
+
+7. (a) If during pit test, shrapnels do not show any breaking away of
+the bases, if their bodies be found intact, and if the same results be
+found on the shrapnels picked up after firing.
+
+(b) If out of ten shrapnels tested in the pit not more than three show
+broken bodies.
+
+8. If shrapnels do not show the separation of driving bands from the
+shell, nor displacement of same, if loosely fixed, and the accuracy
+of the firing in a vertical plane be not below the requirements given
+in Clause 19. The signs of the rifling on the driving bands of the
+recovered shells should be correct and not enlarged.
+
+If the results of the trial of the test consignment give unsatisfactory
+results with reference to any of the above seven first conditions,
+or to all of them, the firm will be allowed to submit a second test
+consignment. In the case of unsatisfactory results of the test
+consignment with reference to the eighth condition, the firm has the
+right to submit additionally twenty-five shrapnels for accuracy firing
+trials only, but these shrapnels must also answer to the other seven
+conditions. If the trials of the test consignment show satisfactory
+results, the firm may proceed with the manufacture of shrapnels, but
+under the condition that the material and method of manufacture will be
+similar to those used for the manufacture of the test consignment.
+
+In the case of unsatisfactory results of the test of the second test
+consignment, the contracting government has the right to cancel the
+order with the firm for delivery of the shrapnels in question. All
+the test consignments of shrapnels must be at the contracting firm’s
+expense.
+
+
+=Clause 3. Breaking Tests of the Material used for Bodies.=--These
+tests must be carried out at the works where shrapnels are
+manufactured. Three flat test pieces must be cut from the cylindrical
+portion of the body parallel to its axis and immediately above
+the driving band. The dimensions of test pieces are as follows:
+Width, 0.750 inch; thickness, 0.150 inch; distance between marks, 2
+inches. The outline and dimension of the ends must suit the holders
+of the testing machine. The metal of the bodies will be considered
+satisfactory if it shows a breaking strength of 82.7 kilograms per
+square millimeter (52.5 tons per square inch) with a final elongation
+of not less than 8 per cent. In addition to this, the inspector must
+select two bodies from the test consignment before the beginning of
+final machining for cutting from the round test pieces with a diameter
+of 0.3 inch, length 2 inches between marks, three test pieces being cut
+from each shell. The breaking test of these test pieces must be carried
+out on the testing machine, and the elastic limit of the material must
+be ascertained on them.
+
+
+=Clause 4. The Proof Consignment of Shrapnels.=--As mentioned, the
+shrapnels under order must be manufactured from similar material and
+by similar methods to the shrapnels of the test consignment. The
+acceptance of shrapnels for the service, however, can be effected only
+after “proof tests” of the mechanical qualities of the metal used, of
+the accuracy of firing, and of the strength and proper assembling, and
+pit tests.
+
+The whole order is sub-divided into consignments of 5000 shrapnels
+each. The method of manufacture of the shrapnels must be entirely the
+same for the whole consignment.
+
+In the case of the order being placed for a number of shrapnel less
+than 5000, the whole order will be treated as one proof consignment; in
+the case of the order being placed for a larger number of shrapnels,
+the remainder from a full proof consignment must be treated as a part
+of the previous consignment, when it is less than half of the proof
+consignment, and must form a separate proof consignment when it is more
+than half of same.
+
+The choice of shrapnels for proof must be made by the inspector
+personally from the proof consignment submitted by the firm. The choice
+must be made after final inspection of the whole consignment. The works
+have the right to challenge the shrapnels chosen by the inspector
+for the proof, having the right to do it only twice. The shrapnels
+challenged in that manner must be destroyed, so as to prevent any
+further submission of same for proof. The shrapnels challenged must be
+replaced by the firm.
+
+For the mechanical tests of the metal, it is recommended to select
+bodies which were rejected on account of their dimensions, but in the
+case of the absence of any bodies rejected for the dimensions, the
+works must provide good bodies selected by the inspector. Not less than
+ten bodies must be chosen from the proof consignment. The rules and
+requirements for the metal used for the shrapnel bodies were given in
+Clause 3.
+
+In the case of satisfactory results of these mechanical tests, the firm
+must submit from each proof consignment fifty shrapnels for the firing
+trials for their strength. After firing trials, the pit tests must be
+carried out, for which proof recovered shrapnels which do not show any
+damage after firing will be used. Ten shrapnels must be used for pit
+tests.
+
+All proof tests must be carried out in the presence of the inspector
+sent for this purpose to the works, and the mechanical tests of the
+metal must be carried out by the inspector himself. The projectiles
+used for the proof firing must not be painted but only covered with
+machine oil.
+
+The consignment will be accepted if the mechanical or firing proof
+tests fulfill the same requirements as have been laid down in Clause 2,
+Conditions 1 to 8, with the exception that in Condition 6, in the case
+of the proof test, 20 per cent, instead of 15 per cent, as in the case
+of the consignment test, may show protrusion of the upper end of the
+central tube from the countersink of the brass socket nut.
+
+If, during firing, breakages of the shrapnels in the gun or immediately
+in front of the muzzle should occur, the whole consignment must be
+rejected.
+
+In the case of unsatisfactory results with reference to trials
+mentioned in Clause 2, Conditions 3, 4, 5, and 6 (which must not be
+more than one shell with reference to Conditions 3, 4, and 5), the
+firm has the right to submit 100 additional shrapnels chosen by the
+inspector for the firing for recovery proof. If during pit tests more
+than three shrapnel bodies are broken, an additional five shrapnels
+must be subjected to the same test, but for the acceptance of the
+consignment it is required that, in total, no more than five broken
+shrapnel bodies occur.
+
+With reference to damaged or displaced driving bands, or the impression
+of the rifling on them not being clear, or being enlarged, it is left
+to the discretion of the contracting government to demand the changing
+of the driving bands on the whole consignment, after which rebanding
+they must be submitted for second proof, twenty-five shrapnels being
+tested for accuracy: these shrapnels must be chosen by the inspector
+after reviewing the whole consignment. If during the secondary firing
+trials which take place on account of failures with reference to any
+one of the above-mentioned reasons, further failures to the same effect
+take place, the question of the acceptance of the whole consignment
+must be referred to the respective military administration.
+
+In the case of the failures of both trials, first and secondary, the
+permission for the further manufacture of projectiles by the firm in
+question will be left to the discretion of the respective military
+authorities.
+
+In the case of the acceptance of the consignment after the proof,
+the shrapnels used for the proof in question, fifty in number, must
+be taken from the order. Any other shrapnels, used for proof in
+addition to the above-mentioned number, must be at the expense of the
+manufacturer.
+
+
+=Clause 5. The Rights and Duties of the Government Inspector.=--The
+inspector’s duty consists not only in the acceptance of the
+manufactured shrapnels, but also in looking after the methods, etc.,
+used in the manufacture. In order to do this, the inspector must
+be given the right of access to any work and test referring to the
+shrapnel manufacture.
+
+The inspector has the right to inform the manager of the works of all
+defects noticed by him in manufacture of the shrapnels, as well as of
+those which occur in the shrapnels submitted for acceptance, and he
+has the right to suggest improvements to the manufacturer; it is left
+to the discretion of the manager of the works to make use of these
+suggestions, if it is found advisable, but the inspector has not the
+right to interfere with the orders issued in the works.
+
+Before submitting to the inspector the shrapnels manufactured the
+works must pass them by their own examiners; these examiners must work
+to the instructions given to them by the works, and prepared to the
+inspector’s satisfaction. The inspector has to gage shrapnels by the
+gages stated in the following specifications. He also must check them
+with reference to their dimensions, as given on the drawings, before
+beginning inspection.
+
+
+=Clause 6. The Condition in which Shrapnel Bodies are
+Submitted.=--Steel shrapnel bodies are submitted to the first
+inspection without socket, driving band, and inner parts. The outside
+cylindrical portion of the bodies as well as the enlarged centering
+portion must be machined and finished; shrapnel bodies must be
+submitted with grooves for driving bands and with other grooves in the
+base of the shell.
+
+The rounded portion of the bodies above the enlarged centering portion
+must be machined only preliminarily. The inside of the bodies must be
+finish-machined, and the shoulder for the diaphragm as well as the
+cylindrical portion of the body against the diaphragm must be properly
+finished; the upper part of the inside surface must be provided with
+threads for socket. The remaining portion of the inside surface might
+be roughly machined. The base of the shrapnels may be left with a boss
+outside with center marked on it, but the remaining portion of the base
+must be finish-machined. This applies to the first inspection.
+
+
+=Clause 7. The First Inspection of Shrapnel Bodies.=--The surface
+of the enlarged centering portion must be perfectly smooth and the
+cylindrical portion of the bodies must not show any tool marks,
+except slight ones. The outer surfaces of the central portion and
+the enlarged centering portion must be polished. Special care must be
+taken in polishing the enlarged centering portion. The inside surface
+of the bodies must be clean and smooth. The outer and inner surfaces
+of shrapnels must not show any cracks, fissures, or black lines (not
+even the very slightest of these), nor burrs. The inner surface of the
+bodies may show separate dents due to slag, but these dents must be of
+a very slight nature. The thread in the upper end of the bodies for the
+socket must have at least five full turns.
+
+
+=Clause 8. The Checking of the Weight of Shrapnel Bodies.=--Out of
+each one hundred bodies submitted to the inspector, at least ten
+bodies must be weighed. These weights will assist the inspector with
+reference to the dimensions of the bodies, and might draw his attention
+to the dimensions of those parts for measuring of which there are no
+gages provided. In addition to this, during the manufacture of the
+test consignment, the inspector must ascertain the mean weight of the
+shrapnel bodies in this consignment, as well as any possible variation
+in any direction.
+
+
+=Clause 9. Inspection and Test of Copper for Driving Bands.=--Pure
+copper is used for the driving bands. It must be of the best quality,
+and hard drawn; ordinary copper, not drawn, must not be used for
+driving bands. The copper strips must be cut into pieces of the lengths
+required for their placing on the shrapnels. The copper strips must be
+submitted to the inspector for acceptance and for the following tests:
+
+1. The strips must be bent double in cold condition until the ends
+meet; when the ends meet, the strip is hammered until both halves
+are flat; if during this test the strip does not show any cracks or
+breakages, the metal will be considered as accepted.
+
+2. The strip is hammered in cold condition until its thickness is
+reduced one-half; after this trial it must not show any fissures or
+cracks.
+
+Not more than 1 per cent of the strips submitted must be subjected to
+the above tests.
+
+If it is found that any of the strips tested will not stand the tests,
+the whole consignment of strips is rejected, or is returned to the firm
+for reviewing, so as to give the firm the possibility to submit again
+that part of the consignment which might be considered good. During
+secondary test another 1 per cent of strips will be chosen, and in the
+case of any failures the whole consignment will be finally rejected.
+
+In case of satisfactory results in the tests mentioned, the inspector
+examines the copper strips so as to ascertain that they are of proper
+cross-section; special notice must be taken with reference to fissures.
+Fissures exceeding one-tenth of the strip in length are not allowed.
+The inspector must examine 20 per cent of all strips, and, during this
+examination, if even one strip be found with fissures longer than
+mentioned, the whole consignment of strips will be returned to the firm
+for reviewing. If during secondary examination the inspector finds even
+one fissure exceeding the mentioned length, the whole consignment of
+copper will be rejected.
+
+
+=Clause 10. Fixing of Driving Bands.=--To prevent cracks in shrapnel
+bodies during the fixing of the driving bands, a mandrel must be
+placed inside the bodies, and this mandrel must fit the inside surface
+of the bodies tightly. The inspection of the grooves must be carried
+out by means of the gages made by the firm to suit the inspector’s
+requirements. To facilitate the fixing of the driving bands on the
+shrapnel bodies, the bottom of the grooves may be provided with waved
+ribs. The depth of these grooves must not exceed 0.005 inch. The width
+of the surface with the waved ribs is left to the decision of the firm
+and inspector.
+
+The method of fixing the driving bands is left to the discretion of the
+firm, the only requirement being that the order must be manufactured
+by the same methods as used for the manufacture of test consignment,
+provided that the firing trial of that consignment was satisfactory.
+The number of shrapnels supplied by the firm for this firing and for
+the inspection of the driving bands is mentioned in Clause 2. If the
+firm is proposing to alter the method of the fixing of the driving
+bands, it must submit, at its own expense, a test consignment of 25
+shrapnels for firing trials.
+
+During the manufacture of the order for shrapnels the inspector has
+the right to choose, if he thinks it necessary, from each consignment
+submitted to him, not more than 1 per cent of the projectiles for the
+removal of their driving bands, in order to ascertain how close they
+are to the shrapnel bodies. The inspector also has the right to demand
+an accuracy trial with some of the above-mentioned shrapnel, but in
+this case he must give detailed reasons for doing so. If the results of
+this firing are unsatisfactory, the military authorities have the right
+to demand the replacement of driving bands on the whole order.
+
+
+=Clause 11. Secondary Inspection of Shrapnel Bodies after the Firing
+of Driving Bands.=--The shrapnels are submitted for the secondary
+inspection with fixed driving bands, finished sockets, steel diaphragms
+in place, central tubes and socket nut, but without socket fixing
+screws, as well as fuse fixing screws. The central bosses on the base
+must be cut away in cases where the shrapnels were submitted with them
+for the first inspection. The powder chamber, lower portion of steel
+diaphragms, and inner surface of central tube must be covered with
+durable varnish.
+
+During this inspection special care must be taken to ascertain the
+proper fixing of the driving band. The proper fixing of the driving
+bands is ascertained by (1) sounding them with small hammers, and
+(2) removal of driving bands from some shrapnels, preferably those
+rejected. The driving bands when being sounded with hammer must not
+make any jarring sound. The jarring sound is only allowed at the joint
+of the driving band, for not more than one-tenth of its length; the
+bands not answering to these conditions must be replaced by new ones.
+The driving bands, after being removed from the shrapnel, must have
+impressions of the waved grooves on the bottom of the groove; the
+inside surface must not show the pink color of the unused copper, but
+must be smooth and give a slight reflection.
+
+When removing the driving band, special attention must be paid to the
+fact that the bands fit properly into the sides of the groove, and
+that they are close to the shrapnel bodies. In the case of copper
+strips being too wide, the shrapnel bodies show cracks, sometimes on
+account of the method of fixing and sometimes on account of too high
+a pressure. These cracks can be ascertained by sounding the shrapnels
+with a hammer; the cracked shrapnels will make a dull sound. Such
+shrapnels must be rejected.
+
+During secondary inspection, the inspector must ascertain the following
+facts:
+
+1. If the powder chamber, lower surface of steel diaphragms, and inner
+surface of the central tube are varnished; if steel diaphragms fit
+properly in the corresponding place of the shrapnel bodies; steel
+diaphragms must bear on the lower surface of the shoulder and must
+be in close contact with the inside surface of the shrapnel bodies.
+Special care must be taken with reference to the tight fitting of the
+steel diaphragms.
+
+2. The base of shrapnel bodies must be absolutely smooth; attention
+must be paid to the presence of rough surfaces; black spots, cracks,
+or any damages, which are not allowed on the site of the central boss;
+shrapnel bodies with such defects are not allowed.
+
+The final finishing of the driving band may be done after the shrapnels
+are nickel-plated, at the discretion of the inspector.
+
+
+=Clause 12. Inspection of Steel Diaphragms.=--Diaphragms are made from
+steel stampings under the hammer or press. The metal, with reference to
+the mechanical qualities, must meet the requirements set forth for the
+shrapnel bodies (see Clause 3). The holes for the central tubes must be
+drilled; these holes must be made with a shoulder for the central tube;
+the outer surface of the diaphragm, as well as the shoulder of the hole
+for the central tube, must be accurately machined. The diaphragms must
+not show any cracks or other defects.
+
+The test of the metal for the diaphragms consists of hammering them by
+the dropping of a weight from a certain height. The number of blows
+which the diaphragms can stand without any cracks must be ascertained
+by the inspector during the manufacture of the test consignment of
+shrapnels. In addition to this, the quality of the metal must be
+ascertained by the Brinell test. During firing, the diaphragms must
+not show any dents; this fact must be ascertained on some shrapnels
+recovered after the firing.
+
+The manufacturer must supply the inspector with ten diaphragms for
+the mechanical tests of material. These diaphragms will be chosen
+by the inspector from the total number of diaphragms for the whole
+consignment. For the hammering tests, not more than one per cent of the
+total diaphragms must be chosen, and the Brinell test must be carried
+out on not less than one per cent of the whole number of diaphragms. In
+the case of satisfactory results, the whole consignment is accepted;
+otherwise, additional tests on two per cent of the diaphragms must be
+carried out, and in the case of unsatisfactory results, even on one
+diaphragm, the whole consignment will be rejected. Diaphragms must be
+submitted for inspection in quantities not less than 200. The lower
+surface of the diaphragm must be varnished after inspection.
+
+In the case of the manufacturer being allowed to make shrapnels without
+submission to test consignment, as per Clause 3, the inspector must
+test the diaphragms as usual.
+
+
+=Clause 13. Inspection of Central Tube.=--The central tubes must be
+made of steel, must not show any cracks, must be properly welded, and
+must be of similar thickness on the whole length. For the purpose
+of ascertaining the mechanical qualities of the metal used for the
+central tubes, small cylinders ⁵⁄₈ inch in length (1¹⁄₂ times the
+diameter of the tube) must be cut from some of the tubes which have
+been previously properly measured; these cylinders must be subjected
+to a compression test under the press. The minimum resistance shown by
+these cylinders under compression, before the beginning of buckling,
+must be not less than 14.45 tons per square inch. The outer as well as
+the inner surfaces of tubes must be smooth and their ends must be cut
+perpendicular to their axes. The length of the tube is ascertained
+during the assembling of the shrapnel. In the assembled shrapnel, the
+upper end of the central tube must be inside of the countersunk hole
+provided for in the socket nut.
+
+
+=Clause 14. Inspection of Sockets.=--Sockets must be manufactured from
+steel. The breaking strength of steel used for sockets must be of about
+60 kilograms per square millimeter (38.1 tons per square inch), with an
+elongation not less than 16 per cent (the distance between marks being
+2 inches). Sockets are submitted for inspection in quantities of not
+less than 100; they must be tapped with thread on the inside as well
+as on the outside surfaces; the conical portion of the surface must be
+machined; the upper surface must be machined, but this machining may be
+left rough at this stage; those parts of the sockets by which they are
+fixed to the shrapnel bodies must be accurately machined; the sockets
+must be accurately cut. The sockets must be provided with two holes,
+one for filling with resin, and another one for the escape of gases. If
+sockets are stamped, the outer surface of the stem can be left without
+machining, but it must be very smooth. The upper surface of the sockets
+may be submitted to the inspector without being finish-machined. The
+sockets must not show any signs of cracks, fissures or any rough
+surface. Chipping in the thread of the hole or on the conical fuse seat
+may be allowed, but of a very slight nature.
+
+To ascertain the mechanical qualities of the metal used for sockets,
+the inspector has the right to carry out the tests on one per cent of
+the sockets from each consignment. For this purpose, rings must be cut
+from the upper portion of the sockets, and these rings are subjected
+to the hammering test by a weight dropped from a certain height. In
+addition, the sockets must be tested with the Brinell test, and for
+this purpose not less than 1 per cent of the sockets must be used.
+
+
+=Clause 15. Inspection of Brass Socket Nuts.=--The socket nuts must
+be cast of an alloy consisting of 2 parts of copper and 1 part of
+zinc, taken by weight. The socket nuts are submitted to the inspector
+after being finally machined, threaded, with finished upper and lower
+surfaces, with central hole made to the drawing, and with slot for the
+key. Socket nuts must not show any defects.
+
+
+=Clause 16. Bullets and Smoke Compositions.=--Bullets must be of a
+true spherical shape; they must be cast of an alloy consisting of 4
+parts of lead and 1 part of antimony, taken by weight; sprues must be
+cut off, and the surface of the bullets must be smooth. The diameter
+of the bullets is 0.5 inch; mean weight, 0.376 ounce. Separate bullets
+may differ from the mean weight, but they must not be less than 0.373
+ounce, and not more than 0.381 ounce. Under slight hammering the
+bullets must not show any cracks. The force of the blow must be decided
+by the inspector, the reason for this test being to ascertain if the
+bullets can be used in shrapnels where they are slightly compressed,
+as after this pressure they must not show any cracks. Shrapnel must
+contain from about 256 to 265 bullets.
+
+The bullets must be placed in proper layers, and each layer must be
+slightly pressed in, but after this pressure bullets must not be
+deformed to any noticeable extent, except those in the bottom layer.
+Layers consist of 17 or 18 bullets, except the top layers, which have
+about 20 bullets each. The five bottom layers of bullets must be
+covered with smoke composition made of metallic antimony and magnesium
+in the following proportions, by weight: 55 parts of antimony and 45
+parts of magnesium; 0.75 ounce of smoke composition must be put in each
+shrapnel. This composition must be put in after the first five layers
+of bullets are in place, and the shrapnel must be shaken in order to
+settle the powder. The smoke composition must ignite very quickly. The
+inspector must see that the composition is made from the magnesium and
+antimony as stated above. With bullets in place, and with socket in
+proper position, the shell must be filled with melted resin.
+
+
+=Clause 17. The Third Inspection of Shrapnels and Checking of Their
+Weight.=--The shrapnels for the third inspection are submitted
+after being fully assembled and charged with the bullets and smoke
+composition, and after being filled with resin; the holes in the
+sockets used for filling with resin and for the escape of gases must
+be stopped with threaded steel plugs. These plugs must be riveted over
+and polished flush with the surface of the socket.
+
+During the third inspection, the shrapnel is gaged with special gages
+to check shape; the hole for the fuse is tested by a special screw
+gage; copper driving bands must be inspected and gaged. After this
+inspection the shrapnels are weighed. The shells which show the ends of
+the driving bands not completely touching each other, may be accepted
+if the distance between them is very small.
+
+The outer surface of the socket must be finish-machined and must be
+smooth and perpendicular to the center line of the fuse socket. The
+socket must be fixed by means of steel screws, the outer ends of which
+must be cut flush with the surface of the shrapnel, and polished over.
+
+During this inspection, the inspector must ascertain that the head
+portion of the shrapnels does not show any cracks due to the drilling
+and tapping of the holes for the screws. The head of the shrapnel must
+be provided with a tapped hole for the fuse securing screw. The head
+of this screw must be flush with the shrapnel bodies. The upper end of
+the central tube must fill completely the countersunk part provided for
+it in the socket nut, if it is in proper position. The steel gage rod
+dropped into the opening of the central tube must reach the base of the
+shrapnel.
+
+To ascertain the proper assembling of the inner part of the shrapnels,
+the inspector has the right to demand dismantling of not more than 0.5
+per cent of the shrapnels submitted. While inspecting the dismantled
+shrapnels, the inspector must ascertain the following points:
+
+1. If the thread of fixing screws for socket and fuse, as well as the
+threads in holes for them, are cleanly cut, and if the length of these
+screws is sufficient.
+
+2. If the socket remains steady when screwed into the shrapnel bodies,
+before being fixed with screws.
+
+3. If the end of the central tube remains clean and the central tube
+itself is not damaged by the bullets.
+
+4. If the bullets are covered with resin and if the shrapnels are
+filled with smoke composition.
+
+5. If the number of bullets is correct, and also that they are not
+appreciably damaged after pressing.
+
+6. If the steel diaphragm is in the right position in the shrapnel.
+
+After the third inspection the shrapnels must be weighed; the normal
+weight of the assembled shrapnels, without zinc plugs, must be 13
+pounds 7.33 ounces ± 1.053 ounce. All shrapnels passed by the inspector
+must be stamped on the base.
+
+
+=Clause 18. Nickel-plating, Varnishing and Oiling.=--All the outside
+surfaces of the shrapnel with the exception of the copper driving
+bands must be nickel-plated and varnished. This nickel-plating and
+varnishing must be durable. The manufacturer must take steps to
+prevent the passage of the liquid inside of the shrapnels during
+nickel-plating. The shrapnels must be inspected by the manufacturer
+after being nickel-plated so as to ascertain that no liquid passed
+inside the powder chamber, and, if necessary, the chamber must be
+cleaned. The shrapnels must be submitted for final inspection after
+being nickel-plated and varnished.
+
+The socket in the front portion of the shrapnel must be oiled and
+covered with the zinc plug shown in Fig. 1; the socket must be fitted
+with fixing screws for the fuse; the screws must be oiled with naphtha
+grease. The copper driving bands must be gaged during this inspection.
+While inspecting the shrapnels, the inspector must see to the following
+points:
+
+1. That the driving bands are not damaged; shrapnels with damaged bands
+must be returned to the works for new bands.
+
+2. That the nickel-plating of the shrapnels is sound and that the
+nickel-plated surfaces do not show any signs of rust.
+
+3. That the fixing screw for the fuse is properly cut; the top of this
+screw, when screwed completely down, must slightly protrude over the
+surface of the shrapnel. The threads must be Whitworth, 24 threads per
+inch. A plug and ring gage must be provided for gaging this thread.
+
+4. That the socket is free from rust.
+
+5. That the powder chamber, as well as the inside of the central tube,
+is clean.
+
+The zinc plug must fit properly to the upper surface of the fuse
+socket. The copper driving bands must be oiled with naphtha grease
+to prevent them from corroding. The shrapnel, before shipping from
+the works, must be packed in strong wooden boxes. The details of the
+packing is left to the discretion of the manufacturer, provided that
+it is approved by the inspector. While packing, care must be taken to
+place driving bands in guards to prevent their being damaged by knocks
+from the outside, or from rattling one against the other, or against
+the packing during transport.
+
+The number of shrapnels packed in one box must not exceed, in weight
+(box included), 253 pounds.
+
+When shipping the manufactured shrapnels from the works, two spare fuse
+fixing screws must be put in every box. Spare zinc plugs, 5 per cent of
+the total number supplied, must be delivered together with order and
+packed in separate wooden boxes, 50 in each box.
+
+
+=Clause 19. Firing Tests.=--The works must deliver the required number
+of shrapnels to the place where they will be tested. The proof by
+firing will be carried out with a 3-inch quick-firing gun with a charge
+of smokeless powder, and with chamber pressure of 2400 atmospheres
+(15.75 tons per square inch).
+
+The recovery proof must be carried out without bursting charge, but
+the shrapnels must be fitted with time fuses. When time fuses are not
+available, the proof must be carried out with steel or brass dummy
+fuses similar to those used for accuracy trials. These dummy fuses must
+be supplied at the expense of the firm. Every shrapnel must be weighed
+and the weights taken down.
+
+The time fuse must be set a distance of from 1400 to 1635 yards. It
+must be noticed whether or not the fuse explodes. To obtain the best
+conditions for observation, the firing must take place with sight set
+up 10 divisions higher than is required by the range. Up to one-third
+of the shrapnels proved for recovery must be fired with bursting
+charge, so as to ascertain that they are properly assembled. The fuse
+socket in the last mentioned cases must be plugged with dummy fuses.
+
+The firing must be carried out at such a range as to enable the
+recovery of the shrapnels for inspection and measuring of same; all
+shrapnels, before firing, must be measured on their cylindrical
+portion and the accuracy of the base must be ascertained, in order to
+facilitate notice being taken with reference to the bulging of the
+bodies and bases of the shrapnels. The diameters of the cylindrical
+portion must be taken in sections two inches apart. Marks must be made
+on the copper driving bands and on the cylindrical part of the shrapnel
+bodies adjacent, to facilitate notice being taken of the displacement
+of the driving band, if such takes place.
+
+For accuracy trials, shrapnels without time fuse must be used, and
+special steel or brass dummy fuses must be screwed in; the outline
+and weight of this dummy must be similar to that of the fuse, and the
+weight of the shrapnel with such dummy must be 14 pounds 5.33 ounces.
+These dummy fuses must be made by the manufacturer at his expense. The
+accuracy trials must be carried out by aiming the gun at a vertical
+target at a range of 2335 yards.
+
+After the firing trial for recovery and for accuracy, the maximum
+possible number of shrapnels must be recovered and inspected, as to any
+marks from the rifling on the shrapnel bodies, any dents or damages on
+bases or heads, any displacement of the driving bands or any shrapnels
+with broken off bases. To ascertain the accuracy of fitting of the
+steel diaphragms, and the condition of the bullets, two shrapnels must
+be dismantled. In addition, all those shrapnels which have displaced
+central tubes must be dismantled. The shrapnels must be measured on
+their diameter in order to ascertain the deformations. A pit test must
+also be carried out. The shrapnels must be fully loaded for the pit
+test and must be fitted with ordinary zinc plugs screwed into the fuse
+sockets.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+SPECIFICATIONS FOR THE MANUFACTURE AND INSPECTION OF THE COMBINATION
+FUSE FOR RUSSIAN 3-INCH SHRAPNEL SHELLS
+
+
+The following specifications contain all the essential information
+relating to the Russian aluminum 22-second combination or double-acting
+fuse for shrapnel shells used in 3-inch quick-firing field and mountain
+guns, as given in the official specifications. This chapter, therefore,
+contains a complete description of every part used in the fuse,
+together with complete details relating to the manufacture, inspection,
+and tests.
+
+
+=Component Parts of Fuse.=--The fuse consists of over thirty separate
+parts, the names of each of which are specified in the table below,
+together with their weights.
+
+                 FUSE PART                              Weight in Ounces,
+                                                             Avoirdupois
+  Stem (with cloth)                                            3.7166
+
+  Chamber bushing with needle for percussion detonator
+    cap (without powder)                                       0.1971
+
+  Bushing with needle for time detonator cap                   0.0331
+
+  Plug (brass) in the flange of the stem                       0.0150
+
+  Upper time ring (complete with powder; for filling in
+    both upper and lower time ring 0.24075 ounce avoirdupois
+    of powder (fuse) are required; for 1000
+    fuses, the following quantities of fuse powder are
+    required: for pressing into the time rings, approximately
+    16.25 pounds avoirdupois; for powder pellets
+    in the vents of the lower time ring, approximately
+    3.912 ounces avoirdupois) with powder and parchment        1.1586
+
+  Lower time ring (see note in parenthesis on upper time
+    ring) with powder, asbestos, pins, and tin disk            1.1496
+
+  Nut                                                          3.6278
+
+  Two set-screws for nut                                       0.0361
+
+  Tightening ring (split)                                      0.5492
+
+  Time detonator (assembled)                                   0.2632
+
+  _Time detonator parts_:
+    Pellet                                                     0.1429
+    Rod                                                        0.1023
+    Spiral brass spring                                        0.0030
+    Cap                                                        0.0150
+
+  Safety bushing for the time detonator (the bushing for
+    the time detonator for mountain guns weighs 0.0677
+    ounce avoirdupois)                                         0.1128
+
+  Percussion detonator (assembled)                             0.4514
+
+  _Percussion detonator parts_:
+    Pellet                                                     0.3671
+    Brass bushing                                              0.0451
+    Lead disk (washer on flange)                               0.0226
+    Cap                                                        0.0166
+
+  _Safety arrangement for percussion detonator_:
+  Brass safety stirrup with brass control spring               0.0481
+
+  Steel spiral spring                                          0.1655
+
+  Lock bushing for the safety stirrup for percussion
+    detonator                                                  0.5597
+
+  Base plug with counter safety lug and brass disk             0.5718
+
+  Lead disk                                                    0.1520
+
+  Powder for the chamber bushing and transmitting duct
+    of stem                                                    0.0572
+
+  Mean weight of complete and ready-for-firing fuse for
+    3-inch field gun                                           2.8628
+
+  Mean weight of complete and ready-for-firing fuse for
+    3-inch mountain gun                                        2.8177
+
+  The weights of the additional parts not included in
+    above list are:
+
+  Tin protecting cover with tape                               1.0533
+
+  Copper wire for removing the cover                           0.1053
+
+  Shell grease for lubricating grooves of stem                 0.0196
+
+
+=Design and Construction of Stem.=--The stem is to be cast of aluminum
+(or an alloy of aluminum and copper) and pressed. The top of the stem
+is to be turned on the outside into three cylindrical shoulders, the
+upper one being threaded for receiving the nut; on the surface of the
+two upper shoulders, parallel to the axis of the stem, three guiding
+grooves are milled. The base of the stem top serves as a turning axis
+for the lower time ring. The interior of the top of the stem is to be
+bored out to form three cylindrical chambers, the lower of which is
+threaded to receive the brass bushing with the conical steel needle;
+the latter is lacquered and inserted into the bushing from the bottom,
+its head being riveted. To prevent the unscrewing of the bushing, the
+latter is nipped in two places. A vent is drilled through the wall at
+the top of the stem.
+
+The upper face of the flange of the stem has a rim on its
+circumference, and on a radius located in a vertical plane with the
+vent of the stem top, a transmitting duct is drilled, reaching from
+the lateral surface of the flange to the powder chamber of the fuse;
+the upper face of the flange communicates with this duct through an
+ignition hole pasted onto the top with a muslin disk. The transmitting
+duct (covered with a neutral varnish) is filled, in the assembled fuse,
+with grain powder (for 100 fuses, about 3.84 pounds avoirdupois of
+unpolished rifle powder is required) and closed with a brass plug. On
+the lateral surface of the flange two annular grooves are milled out,
+the lower of which has four recesses for staking in the tin cover.
+
+On the lower face of the flange (two marks shall be placed on this
+face, one giving the last two digits of the year of manufacture of the
+fuses, and the other the number of the control consignment of the same
+year), at the ends of a diameter, two slanting cuts are milled for the
+wrench which screws the fuse into the shrapnel. On the same lateral
+surface a conical mark is cut, colored red, for the setting of the
+graduations of the fuse; on the top face of the flange a cloth washer
+is pasted, with a hole punched in it over the ignition hole. The cloth
+is pasted with a special thick varnish which is also used for pasting
+the twilled tape to the cover. The varnish consists of white resin,
+shellac and turpentine soluble in alcohol. Through the lateral surface
+of the flange a hole is drilled, leading to the lower face of the
+flange and intended for fastening the copper wire for tearing off the
+cover.
+
+The _tail of the stem_ is shaped with a smooth cone on the top and a
+threaded cylinder at the bottom; the interior of the tail is to be
+bored out to form three cylindrical chambers, the upper and lower of
+which are threaded to receive the chamber and the base plugs, and the
+smooth, middle one, is intended for the percussion arrangement.
+
+
+=The Chamber Bushing.=--The chamber bushing (brass) has four holes in
+its bottom for transmitting the flame into the interior of the shrapnel
+shell, and one central hole into which the varnished steel needle is
+screwed from the top. The lower face of the bottom of the bushing
+is recessed for locating the compressed brass counter spring of the
+percussion safety stirrup. The inside surface of the bushing is covered
+with neutral varnish, and, before filling it with powder, a muslin and
+wax paper disk are deposited at the bottom. The powder in the bushing
+is compressed slightly, to prevent its scattering in handling, before
+screwing the bushings in their places. The screwed-in bushing is nipped
+in two places and its wall is drilled through the transmitting duct,
+before charging the latter, for exposing the powder in the bushing.
+
+
+=The Time Rings.=--Both time rings are cast from an aluminum-copper
+alloy (copper from 2¹⁄₂ to 3 per cent) and stamped in a die; on the
+under side of each ring a groove with an intervening bridge and
+semicircular arch is formed by first stamping it in a die and then
+milling it. The grooves are coated on the inside with Ossovetski’s
+neutral varnish, and fuse powder pressed into them. The portions
+filled with powder are then turned off and a thin, parchment washer
+pasted on their under surface with a neutral varnish. The parchment of
+each time ring is punctured over the transmitting hole, to hasten the
+transmission of the flame in grape-shot firing.
+
+The _upper time ring_ is turned on the inside to form two cones
+connected by a circular section; the lower cone also terminates into a
+circular section having three protruding lugs fitting into the three
+slots of the stem top, thus allowing the time ring to slide vertically
+only along the axis of the fuse. On the upper side of the time ring an
+annular groove is to be turned for the reception of a soaked leather
+washer. From the lower cone of the time ring an oblique hole is to
+be bored, near one end of the bridge (left end in looking at the
+lower end of the time ring) communicating with the transmitting hole
+drilled through the composition groove. Through this oblique hole
+the composition is ignited from the time detonator cap of the fuse,
+assisted by the powder preparation pasted by means of alcohol varnish
+on the side wall of the hole next to the bridge. From the circular
+section connecting both cones of the time ring to the under side of the
+same, four gas escape holes are provided, facilitating the escape of
+the gases from the burning lower time composition.
+
+The _lower time ring_ is turned on the inside, providing a slight
+cylindrical shoulder fitting on the base of the stem top and turning
+freely around same. At one end of the intervening bridge (opposite
+the one in the upper ring) a transmitting hole is drilled through the
+bottom of the composition groove of the time ring, transmitting the
+flame from the upper to the lower composition. To insure the ignition
+of the composition, a powder pellet with a central hole is inserted
+into the transmitting hole. From this transmitting hole, a gas escape
+hole, located on a radius of the time ring is provided, which at its
+base has a bursting charge of powder (varnished) pressed into it,
+plugged up with asbestos, and covered with a foil ring pasted with
+varnish. This hole facilitates the escape of gases from the burning
+composition of the lower time ring. The asbestos plug prevents the
+possibility of a premature ignition of the lower composition from the
+upper one, and the powder charge is intended for an immediate clearing
+of the plugging at the gas escape hole soon after the ignition of the
+lower composition through the transmitting hole. The lateral surface of
+the lower time ring is provided with:
+
+1. Four pairs of pins inserted into corresponding holes for the setting
+of the fuse by hand.
+
+2. Two holes for a wrench, if same should be required for setting the
+fuses.
+
+3. Graduation from 10 to 130.
+
+4. Separate graduation marked with the digit “5.”
+
+5. One notch marked in red and one notch marked in black with letters
+as directed by the contracting government.
+
+The upper side of the lower time ring is covered with a cloth washer
+having an opening opposite the transmitting hole.
+
+
+=The Brass Nut.=--From the outside, the nut presents a rounded surface
+terminating into an umbrella. Inside the nut a thread is cut for
+screwing onto the top of the stem; the threaded hole opens into an
+oval cylindrical cavity communicating with the outside atmosphere by
+means of four openings in the neck of the umbrella. The edges of these
+four openings are milled out on a side opposite to the direction of
+the rotation of the shell to facilitate the escape of gases. At the
+bottom of the nut an arch-like annular recess is milled out for the
+accumulation of gases from the burning compositions of the time rings,
+whence they escape into the above-mentioned oval cylindrical cavity
+through four inclined channels, and then out of the fuse through the
+openings in the neck of the umbrella. The nut is provided with two
+brass screws for securing it in place, after being screwed home on the
+top of the stem.
+
+
+=Upper Percussion Arrangement.=--The upper percussion arrangement
+consists of a brass time pellet and safety ferrule; the time detonating
+cap is inserted into the pellet and is held in place by means of a
+brass rod and brass spiral spring wound on the head of the latter.
+The safety ferrule is a hollow cylinder with a side slot, resting on
+the shoulder between the upper and lower chambers of the stem top. In
+its outside appearance the time pellet represents a cylinder of two
+different diameters connected with a conical slope; with the latter,
+the pellet resting on the conical enlargement of the ferrule. The lower
+cylindrical part of the pellet slides into the inside of the ferrule,
+and the upper, together with the projecting part of the rod, is located
+above the top of the stem in the cavity of the nut leaning with its
+steel spring against the arch of the cavity. The rod is kept firmly in
+place, being staked in on the circumference of the joint in two places.
+
+On the top of the stem, embracing the middle smooth cylindrical
+portion, the brass conical tightening ring is put on, fitting into the
+conical seat of the upper time ring. The ring is provided with a pin,
+which is guided in its movements by one of the three grooves in the
+top of the stem, opposite the vent. In order not to cover up the vent
+in the stem top, a longitudinal slot is cut in the ring opposite the
+former; the eight other grooves on the outside of the ring facilitate
+the tightening of the ring.
+
+
+=Lower Percussion Arrangement.=--The lower percussion arrangement
+is located in the tail of the stem between the chamber and the base
+bushing and consists of a percussion pellet, lock bushing, brass safety
+stirrup with counter spring, steel spiral spring, and lead washer. The
+brass percussion pellet, turned all over, is provided with: 1. Bottom
+shoulder resting on lead washer in base plug; the top of this shoulder
+is turned off and the strips of the counter safety catch hold onto
+it. 2. Cylindrical shoulder with lower turn of steel spiral spring
+embracing same and guiding the compression of the spring when the lock
+bushing is settling down. 3. Lead washer with rectangular opening,
+coated with varnish, and placed on the upper face of the shoulder. 4.
+Parallel faces along which are placed the leaves of the safety stirrup.
+On the upper part of the two opposite faces of the percussion pellet
+transverse cuts are milled out into which special tongues of the leaves
+of the safety stirrup fit. The safety stirrup with the counter spring
+soldered to it has four leaves, two of which (opposite ones) are bent
+in the middle outwardly and two of which are straight, with only a
+slight outward bend at their ends; the latter leaves have tongues for
+fitting into the cuts of the pellets, as shown in Fig. 4, Chapter I.
+
+The lock bushing is a hollow brass cylinder, the outer upper portion of
+which is rounded off and made wider than the lower one; the interior is
+bored out cylindrically and then widened into a cone, which catches the
+straight leaves of the safety stirrup when the lock bushing is settling
+down, thus preventing the latter from moving upwards. The steel spiral
+spring in conjunction with the bent leaves of the stirrup hold the lock
+bushing over the percussion pellet. The percussion cap is kept in place
+by means of a brass bushing which is staked in from below in two places.
+
+
+=Base Plug.=--The base plug, which is made of brass, has an annular
+groove formed at the bottom near the wall, which serves for fastening
+the counter safety lugs made of two strips of copper. At one end, the
+lugs are inserted in the groove (at the opposite ends of a diameter),
+and at this place the metal is jammed; with their other ends the lugs
+catch onto the shoulder of the bottom flange of the percussion pellet,
+inserted in the base plug together with the lead washer. The base plug
+has a flat bottom with a central opening covered with a brass disk; in
+order not to leave any space between this disk and its seat, the former
+is covered with varnish from below; two other holes at the bottom of
+the bushing, not drilled through, serve for the insertion of a wrench.
+
+
+=Testing Fuses and Their Component Parts.=--These tests are carried out
+as follows:
+
+1. The brass safety stirrups and bushings (time and percussion) are
+divided into lots of 500 each. Five per cent of each lot shall be
+tested for bending in a hydraulic testing press. The resisting force
+of the percussion safety stirrups must be within the limits of 58.68
+to 85.77 pounds avoirdupois, that of the brass counter springs between
+2.71 to 3.16 pounds avoirdupois, and that of the time safety bushing
+between 72.23 to 99.31 pounds avoirdupois. (For fuses for mountain
+artillery, from 40.63 to 54.17 pounds avoirdupois.) All the time safety
+bushings shall also be subjected on the same press to a compression
+test of 72.23 pounds (for fuses for mountain guns, 45.14 pounds
+avoirdupois), and only those which have stood this test are finally
+considered suitable for the assembly of the fuses.
+
+2. The steel spiral springs shall have no more than 2³⁄₄ turns, and the
+upper and lower one must lie in a horizontal plane and approach the
+nearest turn. In compressing the springs to 0.33 inch, the springs must
+withstand a pressure of from 20.76 to 47.08 pounds avoirdupois, and
+after removing the compressive load must resume the dimensions within
+the given limits.
+
+3. One-quarter per cent of the completely assembled percussion
+arrangement must be tested for determining the correctness of the
+locking of the lock bushing with the safety stirrup, with the former in
+its settling down position.
+
+4. The counter safety lugs with the base plugs are made up into lots
+of 500 each; 5 per cent of each lot, with the inserted percussion
+arrangement held in place by bending the lugs on the shoulder of the
+lower flange, are tested under load for unbending the catches of the
+counter safety lugs. At a load of from 3.61 to 5.42 pounds avoirdupois,
+the lugs must release the pellet. The percussion and time safety
+bushings and stirrups should be numbered with the number of the lot, in
+the order of their manufacture.
+
+5. In order to secure easy turning of the lower time ring by hand, in
+setting the fuse, the pressure on the nut in screwing it home should
+be determined by readings of an automatic control wrench and should be
+between 6.32 and 8.12 pounds avoirdupois.
+
+6. For testing the degree of uniformity of the fuses, they are divided
+into lots of not more than 500 each. The testing for the full burning
+time of the fuse is to take place on a special apparatus and shall be
+determined by a stop-watch; the mean arithmetical difference from the
+mean time of burning shall be determined from six tested fuses and
+shall not exceed 0.13 second. If a greater difference is obtained, nine
+more fuses shall be burned and the mean difference determined from
+fifteen separate readings. If the result is more than 0.13 second, ten
+more fuses shall be burned and the mean difference determined from all
+the twenty-five fuses. If a lot does not fulfill the required test, all
+the time rings shall be rejected and the powder in same burned out.
+
+7. In order to determine whether all the component parts of a fuse are
+properly assembled and kept firmly in place without moving, each fuse
+is shaken by hand and weighed; if the smallest weight of a fuse is not
+less than 12.862 ounces avoirdupois (for a mountain fuse, not less than
+12.81 ounces avoirdupois) and no displacement of any of its component
+parts ascertained, the fuse is set on “grape-shot” and provided with
+a protective tin cover; otherwise the fuse shall be taken apart to
+determine whether all the parts are inserted in the fuse.
+
+8. The percussion and time detonator caps shall be tested for their
+sensitiveness to ignition by being thrown from a height of two feet for
+the former, and 1.5 feet for the latter, on the same apparatus as caps
+for other fuses. For testing the percussion caps, the lower percussion
+arrangement is set, _i.e._, the lock bushing is set until locked with
+the percussion pellet by means of the leaves of the safety stirrup, and
+then carefully thrust onto the needle of the tail of the stem.
+
+For testing the time detonator caps, the time pellet is first inserted
+into the safety bushing; this is done in order to increase the weight
+of the pellet, as its own weight is too small and would necessitate
+a considerable lifting of the rod of the testing apparatus. In order
+to conveniently insert the time pellet within the safety bushing, the
+chamber in the top of the stem (the middle one) is bored out, and the
+percussion pellet is carefully thrust onto the needle. In testing the
+percussion detonator caps, the tail of the stem is screwed into the end
+sleeve of the rod of the testing apparatus, and in testing the time
+detonator caps the top of the stem is treated in the same manner; in
+the latter test, the time rings are first put on the flange of the stem.
+
+For testing the caps delivered to the works manufacturing the fuses in
+hermetically sealed boxes (1500 percussion and 2500 time detonator caps
+in each lot), ¹⁄₂ per cent of the percussion caps and 1 per cent of
+the time caps are selected for this purpose. The caps are regarded as
+satisfactory if, in testing the percussion caps, there will not be more
+than 1 per cent of cases missing fire or failing to knock out the brass
+disk from the base plug; in testing the time caps the number of cases
+of non-ignition of the time rings shall not exceed ¹⁄₂ per cent. The
+ignited percussion caps must burn the muslin and paper disks placed at
+the bottom of the chamber bushing and ignite its powder.
+
+9. Out of a control consignment of 25,000 fuses, 25 shall be selected
+for shaking tests on a testing machine during 1¹⁄₂ hour (10 fuses will
+be shaken in a horizontal position and 15 in a vertical), in order to
+determine the serviceability of the fuses under the most unfavorable
+conditions which can be encountered in transporting the shells.
+
+
+=Equipment of Fuses with Protective Covers.=--The tin cap covering the
+fuse is pressed into both grooves on the lateral surface of the flange
+of the stem; opposite the holes in the lower groove the cover is staked
+in; for waterproofing the fuse, the grooves should be filled with
+grease (consisting of 58¹⁄₂ parts of beeswax, 29¹⁄₂ parts of naphtha
+grease, and 12 parts of white resin). To conveniently throw off the
+cover, a copper wire, stranded of four separate thin wires to preserve
+its flexibility, is inserted in the upper groove before putting on
+the cover. One end of the wire is slipped through the opening in the
+flange and fastened at the bottom; the wire then runs around almost
+the whole circumference of the groove, is bent in a right angle in the
+direction of the markings on the flange to the top of the cover, where
+it is knotted and kept in place by a protruding button pressed out of
+the cover. A piece of twilled tape is fastened to the wire, which tape,
+in turn, is pasted to the body of the cover.
+
+
+=Boxing of Fuses.=--Each fuse with cover, after being examined and the
+varnish of the tape being found perfectly dry, is carefully wrapped in
+wrapping paper; 15 fuses are placed in a zinc box padded at the bottom
+with perfectly dry felt, and the spaces between the fuses filled in
+with felt or cloth cuttings. The fuses are covered with felt padding
+and the cover is soldered to the box. A paper ticket, pasted on the top
+of the box, should contain the following information: The number of the
+box in the order of manufacture of the fuses in the current year, the
+year of their manufacture, the name of the fuses and the quantity per
+box, the number of the control consignment and of the daily output, the
+time of pressing in the composition, and the time of the ignition test.
+The dimensions of the box are: length, 12.15 to 12.20 inches, width,
+7.25 to 7.30 inches, and height, 3.11 to 3.16 inches. Four zinc boxes
+are put into a wooden box.
+
+The following information should be given on the tag pasted on the
+lower side of the wooden box cover: The number of the box in the order
+of their manufacture in the current year, the year of the manufacture
+of the fuses, the kind of fuses, and the quantity in the box. On the
+top of the box a stenciled inscription should be made giving the
+number of the box, the quantity and kind of fuses, and the year of
+their manufacture. On the side of the box the number of the control
+consignment and the year of manufacture should be marked. On boxes
+containing fuses with alloy time rings, the number of the box and the
+year of manufacture on the cover of the box, as well as the number of
+the lot and the year of manufacture on the side of the box, should
+be colored red. The weight of one zinc box containing fifteen fuses
+should be approximately 16.7 pounds avoirdupois, and the weight of one
+wooden box containing four zinc boxes be approximately 90.3 pounds
+avoirdupois.
+
+
+=Instructions for Conducting Firing Tests.=--The following instructions
+for conducting firing tests are given in the official specifications:
+
+1. For firing tests, fifty-five fuses should be tested out of a lot of
+25,000 fuses or less.
+
+2. The fuses are to be subjected to the following firing tests, using
+cast-iron experimental shells: Field fuses will be fired from a 3-inch
+quick-firing field gun at a muzzle velocity of 1930 feet per second
+and mean pressure of not more than 2400 atmospheres (35,500 pounds per
+square inch), and a maximum pressure of not more than 2550 atmospheres
+(37,500 pounds per square inch). Fuses from a 3-inch quick-firing
+mountain gun, model 1904, are fired at a muzzle velocity of 950 feet
+per second and a mean pressure of about 1250 atmospheres (18,400 pounds
+per square inch), or from a 3-inch quick-firing gun, model 1909,
+at a muzzle velocity of 1250 feet per second and mean pressure of
+approximately 1700 atmospheres (25,000 pounds per square inch).
+
+(a) 25 fuses should be tested by firing for percussion action at a
+distance of about 4900 feet.
+
+(b) 25 fuses should be tested for firing for time action by setting the
+fuse at 52 (mountain guns at 66), or at any other graduation depending
+on the atmospheric conditions of the day, in order to obtain a mean
+bursting distance of 7000 feet, whereby the mean height of the bursting
+should amount to approximately 0.012 of the distance.
+
+(c) 5 fuses should be tested for “grape shot” action without removing
+the protecting cover.
+
+(d) Mountain fuses are also tested with 25 shots for time action from a
+counter-storming gun at a distance of 3500 feet and a mean pressure of
+approximately 1100 atmospheres (16,200 pounds per square inch).
+
+3. A lot of fuses is considered satisfactory if:
+
+(a) In firing for percussion action not more than 2 failures shall take
+place, whereby the bursting on ricocheting at the second or further
+falls is considered as a failure.
+
+(b) In firing with the fuse set at 52 or at any other graduation,
+depending on the atmospheric conditions of the day, in order to obtain
+a mean exploding distance of 7000 feet, not more than one failure shall
+result, and the probable deflection determined from not less than 20
+shots will not exceed 84 feet. In case no failures should occur, it
+is permissible in figuring the probable deflection not to take into
+consideration one of the shots deflected not more than 420 feet from
+the mean point of explosion on the smaller side, or one deflected on
+the larger side.
+
+(c) In firing “grape shot,” the mean point of explosion shall not be
+farther than 42 feet, and any individual explosion not farther than 140
+feet.
+
+(d) In firing for time and percussion action not a single premature
+explosion shall take place.
+
+4. A lot which did not satisfy these conditions is accepted for a
+second test, if at the first test the following conditions prevailed:
+
+(a) Not more than 3 failures were obtained in firing for percussion
+action.
+
+(b) In firing for time action not more than two failures took place,
+and the probable deflection did not exceed 98 feet.
+
+(c) In testing for “grape shot” action not more than one failure took
+place, the mean point of bursting being not farther than 56 feet and
+any individual explosion not more than 175 feet.
+
+(d) In firing for time and percussion action not a single premature
+explosion took place.
+
+5. A lot which failed in the first test, but which satisfied the
+requirements of Paragraph 4 shall be tested over again, according to
+Paragraph 3, on that point only in which the lot failed in testing.
+
+6. In order to be accepted for service, a lot must, at the second
+test, give such results that the percentage of failures on time and
+percussion action obtained at the first and second firing shall
+not exceed in its entirety the percentage which was determined in
+Paragraph 3 for corresponding tests. The probable deflections and mean
+distances of explosion obtained at the second test for time action,
+and in testing for “grape shot” action must satisfy respectively the
+requirements as laid down in Paragraph 3.
+
+7. A lot which did not satisfy both tests will not be subjected to
+any more tests, and any further action will depend upon the military
+authorities.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1. Russian Combination Time and Percussion Fuse
+(Vickers Type)]
+
+
+=Action of Fuses at Firing.=--In setting the fuses it is necessary to
+bear in mind that each of the 130 graduations of the fuse corresponds
+to approximately 140 feet (in fuses for mountain artillery of the
+Russian 1904 model to 104 feet) in the change of the firing distance,
+the same as the graduations on the sight of the gun. In firing, the
+time pellet passes through the safety bushing, expanding the latter,
+and falling with the cap on the needle. The detonator cap ignites the
+composition of the copper time ring through the vent in stem top and
+the hole in upper time ring.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2. Body of Russian Combination Time and Percussion
+Fuse (Vickers Type)]
+
+When the fuse is set on “percussion”, the transmitting opening of the
+lower time ring and the ignition of the flange of the stem are located
+opposite the intervening bridges, and the burning of the upper time
+composition is not transmitted into the chamber of the fuse. In such a
+case the shrapnel continues its movement until striking an obstacle.
+At this instant the lower percussion arrangement, releasing itself
+from the grip of the lugs of the counter safety catch and compressing
+the counter safety spring, approaches the needle, which punctures the
+detonating cap; the flame from the latter together with the flame from
+the powder of the chamber bushing are transmitted to the bursting
+charge in the shrapnel shell. When the fuse is set for “grape shot,”
+the transmitting openings in the time rings and the ignition openings
+in the flange of the stem are brought so close to one another that the
+bursting of the shrapnel must take place on the average not farther
+than 42 feet in front of the muzzle of the gun.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3. Top and Bottom Time Rings on Russian Combination
+Time and Percussion Fuse (Vickers Type)]
+
+
+=Russian Combination Time and Percussion Fuse--Vickers Type.=--Since
+the outbreak of the present war, various fuses have been used on
+Russian shrapnel shells. One of the principal of these fuses is the
+Vickers type of combination time and percussion fuse shown assembled
+in Fig. 1, and in detail in Figs. 2, 3, 4, and 5. While the original
+Russian fuse shown in Fig. 4, Chapter I, and described in the preceding
+pages, has, up to the present war, been the only fuse used in this
+shell, it has largely been replaced by other fuses, because of the
+difficulties experienced in manufacturing it. The Vickers type of
+fuse is somewhat easier to manufacture and, therefore, has been used
+to some extent on Russian shrapnel shells. Another fuse that is now
+being adapted to the Russian shrapnel shell is the American combination
+time and percussion fuse, Fig. 3, Chapter I, which is also of the
+same type as the British fuse described in Chapter XI. The chief
+difference in design between the standard Russian and the Vickers
+type of combination time and percussion fuse is in the percussion and
+concussion arrangements. It will be noticed in Figs. 1 to 5, inclusive,
+that the details of the Vickers fuse are much simpler to manufacture.
+There is also an absence of the numerous springs in the original
+Russian fuse.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4. Details of Russian Combination Fuse (Vickers
+Type)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5. Details of Russian Combination Time and
+Percussion Fuse (Vickers Type)]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+SPECIFICATIONS FOR THE MANUFACTURE AND INSPECTION OF RUSSIAN 3-INCH
+SHRAPNEL AND HIGH-EXPLOSIVE CARTRIDGE CASES
+
+
+The following specifications are abstracted from the official
+specifications for the Russian brass cartridge cases for 3-inch
+shrapnel and high-explosive shells, and contain all the essential
+information relating to the requirements in the manufacture and
+inspection of these cartridge cases.
+
+
+=Clause 1. The Rights and Duties of the Inspector.=--The inspector’s
+duty consists not only in acceptance of the cartridge cases
+manufactured, but also in looking after the methods used in the
+manufacture of the cartridge cases, and the brass used for them. In
+order to do this, the inspector must have the right of access to any
+work and tests referring to the cartridge cases; he must have the
+right to enter any shop during any time of the day or night, where the
+manufacture of the cartridge cases ordered may take place, _i.e._, the
+casting and rolling of the brass, drawing, annealing, finishing, etc.
+
+If the firm with whom the order for the cartridge cases is placed does
+not cast brass, but obtains it from other works, the inspector has the
+right to visit these latter works in order to ascertain the quality
+of the casting (and qualities of copper and zinc), method of cutting
+the top and bottom parts of castings, method of rolling, etc. The
+inspector’s expenses with reference to his journey to the brass works
+in such case must be borne by the firm with which the order for the
+cartridge cases has been placed. The minimum number of the necessary
+journeys must be determined before the placing of the order.
+
+The firm, which is manufacturing the cartridge cases, must have a
+testing machine for the mechanical tests of the metal used for the
+cartridge cases; it must also possess a microphotographical laboratory
+for the brass (the power of the microscope must be at least 100). The
+firm must furnish the inspector with the results of all the chemical,
+microscopical, thermal, mechanical and any other tests carried out
+on the brass used for the manufacture of cartridge cases, as well as
+on cartridge cases themselves. In addition to this, the inspector
+must be given the right to use all the firm’s testing plant for the
+above-mentioned tests. The inspector must carry out the specified tests
+mentioned in the following for the acceptance of the cartridge cases.
+
+Independently of the above, if the inspector thinks it necessary,
+for the purpose of ascertaining the qualities and evenness of the
+material used for the cartridge cases, as well as the cartridge cases
+themselves, to carry out in addition some other trials, the firm must
+provide him with all necessary assistance.
+
+[Illustration: Russian 3-inch Cartridge Case]
+
+The firm must place at the sole disposal of the inspector sufficiently
+large dry and heated accommodations for carrying out his inspection,
+provided with cupboards for his gages; scales must also be provided;
+the place must be lighted by electricity, and all necessary power for
+the inspection must be provided; gages; and a microscope of from 40 to
+50 power.
+
+All gages used for the gaging of cartridge cases must be checked by the
+inspector before the beginning of the inspection, as well as during the
+inspection. Before submitting the cartridge cases manufactured to the
+inspector, the works must submit them to their own examiners. These
+examiners must work according to the rules given them by the works, and
+prepared in conjunction with the inspector. The firm must provide their
+examiners with a separate set of gages manufactured similarly to those
+supplied to the inspector.
+
+The inspector has the right to inform the management of the works
+of all defects noticed by him in the manufacture of the cartridge
+cases, as well as of those defects which occur in the cartridge cases
+submitted for acceptance. Finally, he has the right to suggest some
+improvements in the manufacture of the cartridge cases; it is left
+to the discretion of the management of the works to make use of the
+above suggestions, if it is found advisable by them to do so, but the
+inspector has no right whatever to interfere with the orders issued by
+the management of the works.
+
+
+=Clause 2. Test Consignment.=--Before beginning the manufacture of the
+order, the works must submit a test consignment. The cartridge cases
+for test consignment must be manufactured to the approved drawings, and
+made of brass according to these specifications. During the manufacture
+of the cartridge cases, it is required:
+
+1. That the annealing of the cartridge cases shall be regulated to
+prevent any over-heating of the metal.
+
+2. That after the cartridge case is properly formed, the upper half of
+the case shall be definitely annealed at a temperature not less than
+400 degrees C.
+
+3. That the mechanical quality of the metal in the manufactured
+cartridge case shall be in accordance with these specifications.
+The method of manufacturing the cartridge cases, as well as the
+regulation of the annealing before drawing, is left to the discretion
+of the works. The test consignment must be inspected and gaged by the
+inspector, and then sent for firing tests. The inspector must measure,
+on all cartridge cases in the test consignment, the diameter of the
+case near the bottom next to the flange, at a distance of ¹⁄₂ and 1¹⁄₂
+inch from the flange.
+
+After firing the first round, all cartridge cases must be inspected
+and measured on the same diameters on which they were measured before
+firing. The cartridge cases showing the maximum increase of diameter
+are to be resized after each round, together with those that are
+doubtful with regard to strength, if such re-sizing is allowed by these
+specifications. The cartridge cases spoiled during re-sizing must be
+replaced by new ones from the same consignment, but these new cases
+must be fired the same number of rounds as the old spoilt cases.
+
+The consignment will be accepted:
+
+1. If all cartridge cases after firing are extracted without any
+difficulty.
+
+2. If no case shows longitudinal or transverse cracks (or any other
+cracks).
+
+The cartridge cases which are supplied together with shell must be
+checked and examined in order to ascertain whether the shells are
+sufficiently secured in the case.
+
+The test consignment of cartridges must be manufactured at the expense
+of the works, but the tests are carried out at the expense of the
+government.
+
+In the case of an unsatisfactory test of the first consignment, the
+works have the right to submit a second test consignment. In the case
+of unsatisfactory results of the tests of the second consignment, the
+military administration has the right to cancel the contract.
+
+The inspector has to weigh all cartridge cases of the test consignment,
+ascertaining thus the mean weight. In addition, the inspector must
+carry out the following test on the cartridge cases of the test
+consignment:
+
+1. Chemical composition of brass.
+
+2. Mechanical and microphotographical qualities of metal in the
+manufactured cartridge cases.
+
+3. The temperature of the last annealing, _i.e._, the temperature of
+annealing before last drawing, temperature before compressing, and
+temperature of the final annealing of the finished cartridge case.
+
+The temperatures of annealing must be ascertained by pyrometers.
+For this purpose such pyrometers as Ferry may be used, in which the
+temperature is ascertained by the color of the object heated.
+
+The methods of manufacture of the order of cartridge cases must be
+similar to those used for the manufacture of test consignment. In
+case of any alterations in the method of manufacture, the works must
+inform the inspector to that effect, and he must report the matter
+to the military administration with his opinion on the value of such
+alteration in manufacture. It is left to the discretion of the military
+administration to allow such alteration or to demand from the works
+the delivery of a new test consignment. A firm which has already
+manufactured cartridge cases of certain type may be released from the
+delivery of a test consignment, provided the methods of manufacture
+have not been altered.
+
+
+=Clause 3. The Acceptance of the Brass.=--The brass used in the
+manufacture of cartridge cases must be of the following composition:
+
+  Copper        from 67 to 72 per cent.
+  Zinc          from 33 to 28 per cent.
+
+The proportion of other metals must not exceed 0.5 per cent, except
+tin, which must not exceed 0.3 per cent.
+
+During the manufacture of cartridge cases in the same consignment, the
+variation of copper in the brass must not exceed + 1 per cent, or - 0.5
+per cent compared with the usual composition used by the works which
+composition must be given to the inspector before the manufacture of
+the test consignment. The method of manufacture of brass is left to the
+discretion of the works. The only requirements are as follows:
+
+1. The cast ingots must be annealed before first rolling.
+
+2. All rolling must be carried out in the same direction, thus allowing
+the top end of the casting always to be distinguishable.
+
+The top or bottom portion of the castings must not be used for the
+manufacture of cartridge cases. They must be cut from the ingots by
+the works manufacturing the brass, or the blanks for the cartridge
+cases must be cut at a certain distance from both ends of the
+ingots. On receipt of the brass ingots, the works manufacturing the
+cartridge cases must inform the inspector to that effect, giving
+him the chemical analysis and the composition of the casting. The
+consignment of the brass must be sufficient for the manufacture from
+it of the whole consignment of the cartridge cases. At the works which
+manufacture the brass, test bars must be cast from the same furnace
+and from material of the same quality, melted in a similar manner,
+and stamped with the same number as the castings. This number must be
+stamped at the bottom of the cartridge case.
+
+The brass used for tests must be submitted to the inspector in bars,
+and the cutting of the test disks from the bars must be carried out
+under the inspector’s supervision. A few bars are to be used for the
+microscopical analysis. The bars of each consignment must be stamped
+with a number, which number must be stamped afterwards on the blanks
+during all the drawings. This number must also be stamped on the bottom
+of the case, as mentioned. These numbers must be put by the inspector
+in the report together with chemical analysis of metal, composition
+of casting, number of rods delivered, time of delivery, name of brass
+foundry by which the brass has been supplied (if the manufacturers do
+not manufacture brass themselves), and the number of test disks cut.
+For each consignment of cartridge cases manufactured from brass bearing
+a certain number, at least one chemical analysis must be made. The
+brass not answering to the requirements of the chemical analysis will
+be returned to the manufacturer for re-casting.
+
+To insure that the amount cut off from the top and bottom of the rods
+is sufficient, the inspector must ascertain from the first consignment
+the number of cartridges manufactured, with defects inside as well as
+outside, from (1) disks cut from upper end of rod, (2) disks cut from
+roller end of rod, and (3) disks cut from the remaining part of rod.
+The percentage of cartridge cases with defects, in the above-mentioned
+three groups, must not differ materially from each other. The
+above-mentioned tests must be carried out from time to time during the
+manufacture of the cartridge cases.
+
+The following methods can be used to ascertain that the ends of any rod
+are cut off sufficiently:
+
+1. At the center of the rod, cut a piece from the top of the upper
+blank; the transverse surface of the piece must be polished and etched
+with a weak solution of nitric acid; if the piece cut off from the
+top end was not sufficient, the test piece will show, in the middle,
+more or less solid black lines, inside of which, under the microscope,
+it will be possible to see small microscopical flaws and foreign
+substances.
+
+2. The transverse test piece cut in the above-mentioned manner must be
+broken in a testing machine; if the top portion was not sufficiently
+cut off, the middle of the piece will show ruptures in the metal.
+
+
+=Clause 4. The Arrangement of the Cartridge Cases in Lots.=--The
+cartridge cases for delivery must be arranged in lots. It is desirable
+that the cartridge cases in each lot should be manufactured from one
+casting of brass metal. If the lots are compiled from the cartridge
+cases of different castings, it will be necessary to select cartridge
+cases for the control test from all the castings, and the cases left
+over from the lots already tested and accepted may be placed in the new
+lots without repeated tests.
+
+The dimensions of punch and die for the last drawing must be verified
+from time to time. The control of the annealing must be carried out by
+means of a pyrometer. The cartridge cases in each lot must be inspected
+as follows: 1. Outside inspection. 2. Inspection of dimensions and
+weight. 3. Mechanical test of the metal. 4. Firing test.
+
+
+=Clause 5. Outside Inspection.=--The cartridge cases, before submission
+for inspection, must be cleaned inside and outside with sawdust and
+sand, or with brushes. The following defects usually occur in the cases.
+
+1. _Cracks._ Longitudinal cracks chiefly occur at a distance of
+two or three inches from the flange, and, generally speaking, form
+two parallel lines very slightly noticeable on the inner surface.
+Transversal cracks, slightly noticeable, generally occur above the
+flange at the bottom; they are always on the outside surface and very
+seldom penetrate through. Cases with such defects must be rejected.
+
+2. _Ruptures._ These defects usually are on the outer or inner surface
+of the cases and show that something is wrong with the metal; cartridge
+cases with ruptures are rejected without further consideration. Slight
+ruptures found in the corner of the socket for the primer do not affect
+the strength of the case and are, therefore, allowed.
+
+3. _Flaws and Fissures._ Cases submitted to the inspector after being
+filed and cleaned on the inner surface are rejected. Cases with flaws
+and fissures on the inside surface must be submitted to the inspector
+separately from the others and the filing of them must be carried out
+under the inspector’s supervision. The inspector has to determine to
+what extent the flaws are vital. Special attention must be paid to the
+flaws on the rim and on the tapered portion.
+
+4. _Scratches._ These are usually due to the punch, or to dirt which
+may have been in the punch. Small scratches do not vitally affect
+the strength of the cases. Cases with deep scratches are rejected,
+especially if on the inner side of the case a very noticeable mark is
+seen, extending to the lower part of the case.
+
+5. _Scars._ Small scars which make the surface of the case dull are
+allowed. Large scars on the surface giving the appearance of a grained
+surface indicate too high a temperature in annealing, and cases with
+such scars must be rejected.
+
+6. _Dents._ Dents, if rectified, are allowed on cases if they are not
+important; they are not allowed on the conical portion or at the end of
+the case.
+
+7. _Goffering._ Goffering on the inner surface of the case is usually
+due to the uneven drawing of the metal in the case of very rigid
+material; it is due to defects in the uniformity of the material.
+Goffering does not appreciably affect the strength of the cases, and
+therefore cannot generally be taken as a reason for rejection. A large
+amount of goffered cases shows that there are some abnormal conditions
+in the manufacturing of the brass or the cases themselves. In such
+cases the inspector must point this out to the works, and if the works
+will not take measures to remove these defects the goffered cases must
+be rejected.
+
+8. _Folds._ Folds of metal are sometimes noticed inside the case at the
+bottom and show bad manufacture. Cases with such defects are rejected.
+
+9. _Other Small Defects._ Dents at the bottom, inside, and other small
+defects are allowed at the discretion of the inspector.
+
+
+=Clause 6. Gaging.=--Cases which pass satisfactory outside inspection
+must be gaged by means of gages for maximum and minimum allowances. The
+dimensions gaged are as follows:
+
+1. All outside diameters of the cases must be gaged with ring gages or
+half ring gages.
+
+2. The inner diameter of the end of the case is gaged with calipers.
+
+3. All outside dimensions of the bottom of the case are gaged as
+follows:
+
+  (a) Diameters of flanges by half ring gages.
+
+  (b) Thickness of flanges with snap gages.
+
+  (c) Concentricity of the bottom of the case by ring gage.
+
+4. The thickness of the bottom by special gage.
+
+5. Concentricity of the hole for the primer, by special gage.
+
+6. All dimensions of the hole for the primer must be gaged with a set
+of corresponding gages.
+
+7. The flatness of the surface, the absence of cuts and hammering of
+the metal around the hole for the primer with a straightedge.
+
+8. The outline and the length by a special gage.
+
+9. The thickness of the walls is gaged by means of a snap gage with cut
+corresponding to the thickness of the cartridge case at the end, by a
+small special gage with pointer for ascertaining the thickness of the
+walls as well as the depth of the cleaning away in places near the end
+of the case, and by a special gage with pointer for ascertaining the
+thickness of the walls along the whole length of the case.
+
+For the purpose of ascertaining that the outline of the cases is
+correct, the inspector has the right to select 0.2 per cent of the
+cases from the lot, choosing preferably from the rejected cases;
+special attention must be paid to the difference in thickness of the
+walls at the lower end of the cases. To ascertain the similarity in
+weight, all cases must be weighed; the difference from mean weight must
+not exceed the limits fixed for each caliber of the cases.
+
+If during the preliminary examination of the cases more than 15 per
+cent are found defective, as regards the metal or dimensions, the
+inspector has the right to stop the further examination of the cases
+submitted, and to ask the firm to re-submit them again. If, after
+re-submitting, and during the second examination of the cases, more
+than 5 per cent are found unsatisfactory, the whole lot will be
+rejected.
+
+
+=Clause 7. Mechanical Tests.=--In the following paragraphs are given
+special conditions for the acceptance of cartridge cases for the guns
+of different calibers. As a general rule, the mechanical qualities
+of the metal used for cartridge cases must comply with the following
+conditions:
+
+1. The rigidity of the bottom and the lower end of the cases must be
+sufficient to insure the proper extraction of the cases.
+
+2. The rigidity of the end of the cartridge must insure the proper grip
+of the shell, and for the howitzer cases must not show any dents on the
+metal.
+
+3. The rigidity of the metal along the whole length of the case must
+change evenly, without sudden changes.
+
+During the manufacture of the cases, care should be taken to work the
+metal as near as possible to the lower limits of the rigidity of the
+metal, as any extra rigidity affects the strength of the case during
+firing and in storage.
+
+The mechanical qualities of the cases must, as far as possible, be
+alike; they are tested (a) by a breaking test of the metal used for
+the cases; (b) by ascertaining that the shell is fixed properly in
+the case (a casting may be used for this purpose manufactured to the
+dimensions and the weight of the proper shell); (c) microscopical
+analysis of the metal; and (d) any other methods at the discretion of
+the inspector, as, for instance, by ascertaining the hardness of the
+metal, compression of the mouth of the case, etc.
+
+For the tensile test the inspector selects from each lot about five
+cases rejected on account of the dimensions; these are cut in halves
+for the purpose of ascertaining the thickness of the walls. The number
+of cases used for mechanical tests may be increased by the inspector if
+it is required by the quality of the material. From each case selected
+for the mechanical test, three rings must be cut, one inch wide; one
+next to the flange, 1¹⁄₂ inch above it; one from the middle of the
+mouth; and one immediately under the conical portion, if such portion
+exists; otherwise from the middle of the case. The rings cut in the
+above manner must be cut longitudinally and straightened by delicate
+hammering with a wooden mallet or by rolling between wooden rollers.
+From each strip obtained in such manner two test pieces must be cut
+with a distance between marks of 1.97 inch (50 millimeters). The width
+of the test pieces must be the same. Ten division marks must be made on
+the test pieces, each division being 0.197 inch (5 millimeters). During
+the mechanical test, the following data must be ascertained: Breaking
+stress, total elongation, and local elongation between all division
+marks.
+
+
+=Clause 8. Firing Proof.=--After the examination of the whole
+consignment, the inspector selects some cases for proof by firing. The
+inspector chooses for the firing trials those cases which he considers
+the least satisfactory. The works have the right to re-examine the
+cases selected by the inspector for firing, and remove any case
+selected by the inspector; but, in such an instance, all cases with
+similar defects are to be rejected, and the inspector replaces the
+cases removed by the firm. The works have not the right to remove
+the cases selected in the above manner more than twice for each
+consignment. The firing proof of the cases must be carried out at any
+place selected by the artillery administration, where the cases must be
+delivered by the works.
+
+The firing proof must be carried out in a similar manner to the test
+consignment, and the submitted consignment is accepted:
+
+1. If all cartridge cases after firing are extracted without any
+difficulty.
+
+2. If no case shows longitudinal, transversal or any other cracks, or
+ruptures of metal.
+
+If during the firing trials one case shows a crack or is difficult
+to extract, the works have the right to review the consignment and
+submit for the firing trials a second set chosen by the inspector. In
+such instances, the works have no right to remove any case selected by
+the inspector for secondary proof; the number of cases selected for
+secondary proof as well as the number of proof rounds fired may be
+increased. For the acceptance of the consignment, all cases must give
+satisfactory results in the second firing test. If the two consecutive
+firing proofs will give unsatisfactory results, the artillery
+administration has the right to cancel the contract. The firing proof
+is carried out at the expense of the government, and the cases normally
+used are counted as part of the consignment. The fired cases, after
+re-sizing, annealing and inspection, are submitted by the works to the
+inspector, and afterwards they must be packed in separate boxes.
+
+The cases required for secondary proof must be at the expense of the
+manufacturer.
+
+
+=Clause 9. Varnishing.=--In case of satisfactory results of firing
+proof, the works varnish the cases inside as well as outside. The
+varnish must be used evenly. When scratched with a wooden point or with
+the finger nail, the varnished surface must not show any impression;
+when scratched with a metallic point the varnish must not crumple, and
+must not show any cross cracks. The varnish on the cases must not alter
+its appearance if placed for twenty-four hours in water, and after
+removal from the water and again dry, it must adhere so firmly as not
+to be removable under pressure of the finger.
+
+The specific gravity of the varnish must be from 0.9 to 0.94. Brass
+strips covered with the varnish must not show any oxidizing action.
+After the heating of the varnished strips during 24 hours in the water
+bath at a temperature of 167 degrees F., the varnish, when heated, must
+not peel off. For the purpose of ascertaining the character of the
+reaction of the varnish, 10 cubic centimeters (0.61 cubic inches) of
+solvent must be distilled from 100 cubic centimeters (6.1 cubic inches)
+of the varnish, and the solvent obtained in this manner, when mixed
+with a weak solution of litmus, must not give an acid reaction.
+
+
+=Clause 10. Stamping.=--The cases must be stamped as follows: On the
+top, the number of the consignment of brass; at the left, number of the
+consignment of the cases and the year of manufacture; on the right,
+the firm’s initials; at the bottom, the inspector’s stamp, which must
+be placed after the inspection, and the stamp which means accepted and
+which must be placed after the firing proof. The letters and figures
+must not exceed ¹⁄₈ inch in height.
+
+
+=Clause 11. Packing.=--The cases, after being wrapped in paper, are
+covered with straw caps and packed in strong wooden boxes. These must
+be dovetailed from pine or fir wood, with rope handles and iron bands.
+The lids must be fixed with screws. The works have to pack the cases
+to the satisfaction of the inspector. To ascertain the accuracy of
+packing, the inspector turns over one of the boxes chosen, and after
+that the case must not show any dents or any noticeable damage to the
+varnish on the cases. Fifty cases are packed in each box.
+
+The boxes must have the following marking:
+
+    Accepted Cases:
+
+  Caliber of Cases
+  Name of Works
+  Year of Manufacture
+  Number of Cases in Lot
+  Number of Consignment
+
+    Fired Cases:
+
+  Caliber of Cases
+  Name of Works
+  Year of Manufacture
+  Number of Cases in Lot Fired, but Good for Use
+  Number of Consignment
+
+
+=Condition for Acceptance of Cartridge Cases for 3-inch Field
+Guns.=--The test consignment must consist of fifty cartridge cases.
+The proof must be carried out from the gun with pressure of about
+15.75 tons per square inch (2400 atmospheres). Ten cases are selected
+from those showing the maximum increase of diameter and are used for
+re-charging; they must be re-annealed after each round; all doubtful
+cases must be added to the above-mentioned cases. Each of these cases
+must stand eight rounds.
+
+The gaging must be carried out as follows:
+
+                                                    Dimensions in Inches
+                                                       Normal    Reject
+
+  1.   Diameter of the case near bottom, gaged with
+       half ring gages                                 3.294      3.286
+
+  2.   Diameter of flange, gaged with half ring gages  3.547      3.539
+
+  3.   The outside diameter of the end, gaged with
+       half ring gages, and with gage inserted in
+       the case                                        3.004      3.000
+
+  4.   The inner diameter of the case                  2.923      2.927
+
+  5.   The thickness of the flange                     0.142      0.134
+
+  6.   The thickness of the bottom, gaged with
+       special gage                                    0.157    + 0.030
+                                                                - 0.010
+
+  7. The concentricity of the hole for the primer must be gaged with
+  special gage.
+
+  8. The concentricity of the flange with reference to the body must be
+  gaged with half ring gage, the dimensions of which must be as follows:
+
+    (a) Maximum diameter of flange.
+
+    (b) Maximum diameter of the case at bottom.
+
+    (c) Maximum thickness of the flange.
+
+  9. The outline and the length of the case must be checked by special
+  chamber gage. The allowance for length must be ± 0.010 inch.
+
+  10. The gaging of the hole for the primer is carried out by the
+  following gages:
+
+    (a) Screw gages, normal and reject.
+
+    (b) Normal gage which is used for the gaging of the whole diameter
+    and the depth of the hole for the primer, normal and reject.
+
+    (c) Reject gage for the flange of the primer.
+
+    (d) Reject gage for the thread.
+
+    (e) Reject gage for the plain surface of the hole.
+
+    (f) Normal and reject gages for the thickness of the hole for the
+    flange of the primer.
+
+    (g) Normal and reject gage for the depth of the plain portion of
+    the hole.
+
+    (h) Gage for the ignition hole.
+
+  11. Normal and reject gage for the height of the boss for the primer.
+
+  12. Gages, compasses and special gages for the thickness of the
+  walls and for the depth of filing of the inner as well as the outer
+  surfaces.
+
+  13. Straightedge for gaging the bottom surface of the case.
+
+The difference in the weight of cases from mean weight must not exceed
+± 3 ounces.
+
+The test pieces subjected to the tensile test must show the following
+breaking stress:
+
+(a) At the ends, 48,000 to 57,000 pounds per square inch, with local
+elongation not less than 60 per cent.
+
+(b) Next to the flange, from 64,000 to 85,000 pounds per square inch.
+
+(c) Next to the conical portion, not less than 52,500 pounds per square
+inch.
+
+
+=Firing Trial.=--For the firing trials, thirty cartridge cases must be
+selected. These cases must be measured and must pass a similar test to
+that of the test consignment, with the following exceptions.
+
+1. Only five cases are taken for re-proving, including cases showing
+the maximum expansion, and those doubtful with reference to their
+strength.
+
+2. The cases are to be fired five times.
+
+During the firing of the secondary proofs, as well as during the
+firing of the cases selected from the lots entirely consisting of the
+defective cases, the number of cases as well as the number of re-tests
+may be increased to the number fixed for the test consignment.
+
+
+=Specifications for Primers.=--The charge primer consists of brass
+body, detonator, bush, brass anvil, a charge of gun powder (not
+polished with graphite), a disk of saltpeter-soaked tissue paper, four
+powder cakes, disk of saltpeter-soaked muslin, disk of parchment, and
+a brass disk bored in the center and coated outside with thick shellac
+varnish mixed with cinnabar.
+
+
+=Detonator.=--The detonator consists of a small copper cap containing a
+charge of 0.275 grain of the detonator composition, covered by a thin
+paper parchment disk and compressed with a pressure of 125 pounds.
+The thickness of the parchment is between 0.002 and 0.0025 inch. The
+surface of the parchment facing the composition is coated by a thin
+layer of fluid shellac varnish composed as follows: 15.12 gallons of 95
+per cent alcohol and 20 pounds of shellac.
+
+The detonator composition contains 50 per cent fulminate of mercury, 20
+per cent chlorate of potassium and 30 per cent glass ground to dust and
+sifted through a sieve No. 100 (100 meshes to 1 inch). To this mixture
+is added 0.25 per cent of tragacanth gum and a trace of gum arabic.
+The composition is placed in the cap while moist. After compression
+the detonator is dried for ten days at a temperature of 88 degrees F.,
+and twenty days at 111 degrees F. Then the exterior surface of the
+parchment disks is coated with a thick varnish composed of 0.891 gallon
+of 95 per cent alcohol, 2.75 pounds of shellac, and 0.5 pound of resin.
+The varnished detonators are dried at room temperature for five or
+six days, and then undergo a final examination, in which the defective
+caps will be rejected. The caps, when ready, must have even wedges, no
+rents, cracks, dents or such like defects, and the parchment disks must
+be placed concentric with the edges of the caps.
+
+Out of a lot representing a day’s output (about from 10,000 to 15,000)
+of detonators, twenty-five are set aside without selection, for
+testing under a drop weight of 13.65 ounces, falling from a height of
+3.94 inches. These must not show a single failure. If a day’s output
+of detonators does not answer that condition, it undergoes, after a
+supplementary drying, a second test in double quantity. Any lot of
+detonators that does not stand this test will be rejected and burnt out.
+
+The tissue paper and muslin disks are soaked with a 10 per cent
+solution of saltpeter. The powder cakes are compressed gun powder, not
+polished with graphite, and have a diameter of 0.748 inch, a height of
+about 0.120 inch, and weigh from 21.95 to 23.32 grains each.
+
+
+=Charging Primers.=--The charging of primers is preceded by the
+examination of their bodies and other parts. The charging is done in
+the following order: The detonator is placed in the bush which is
+screwed onto the end into its seat and then nipped in two places in
+order to prevent its becoming unscrewed. The anvil is then screwed into
+its seat, so as to press tightly on the detonator composition, without,
+however, cutting the parchment disk. To inspect the proper screwing
+in of the anvils, 30 primers are set aside out of every 300, and from
+those the anvils are screwed out and the detonators examined. The
+parchment disks must bear clear marks of the anvils, without being cut
+through.
+
+In properly fitted primers the anvils are prevented from becoming
+unscrewed by nipping them in two places. A charge of from 10.286 to
+10.972 grains of powder is placed in the groove between the hose and
+the internal surface of the body of the primer. This charge must
+fill the groove to the brim. The powder is now covered with the
+disk of tissue paper soaked in saltpeter. On the top of it will be
+placed four powder cakes, which will be covered first with a disk of
+saltpeter-soaked muslin, then with a parchment disk and lastly with
+a brass disk bored in the center, after which the upper edge of the
+primer is closed in, this operation being carried out in three stages.
+After the first pressing, a proper position is given to the disks
+inside the primer; after the third (final) pressing the primer is to
+be gaged. The upper side of the brass and parchment disks is varnished
+with thick shellac mixed with cinnabar.
+
+After having been dried in the shop for 24 hours, the primers are
+packed in cardboard boxes. Two such boxes, (50 primers in each) are
+sealed hermetically in zinc boxes. The proper hermetic soldering of
+some boxes chosen at random will be tested. Eight zinc boxes are packed
+in one wooden box, which will thus contain 400 primers.
+
+
+=Inspection of Primers.=--Bodies and other details will be manufactured
+of brass, the composition of which will be left to the discretion of
+the works, but on the express condition that the primers will comply
+with all requirements stipulated. The best results have been obtained
+when the metal contained from 67 to 74 per cent of copper, and from 33
+to 26 per cent of zinc.
+
+Before beginning the manufacture of the order, the works with which the
+order will be placed must deliver a test consignment consisting of 100
+primers. The test consignment of primers after being charged must be
+subjected to a firing trial. The conditions of this trial are similar
+to those used for the trials of the complete order. The order must be
+submitted in lots of 25,000 each.
+
+The gaging of dimensions at the works manufacturing the primers must
+be carried out after each separate operation of manufacture, for which
+approved gages and control gages must be used. All the gages must be
+manufactured by the works, with which the order for the primers is
+placed, with the exception of the gage nut used for the gaging of the
+outer thread and the check screw for same. The last mentioned gages
+must be handed over to the primer works by the proper authorities.
+
+The primers, before being charged, will be assembled at the works which
+manufacture them, _i.e._, bushes and anvils are screwed in, and the
+primers are delivered to the explosive works in such condition. After
+the completion of the manufacture of a lot of 25,000 primers, 1000 of
+them, chosen at random during the manufacture, will be sent to the
+explosive works for inspection, for testing the rigidity of the metal,
+and for preliminary tests of the metal by firing.
+
+If, during the trial for the rigidity of the metal carried out by the
+compression of 50 primers chosen at random, more than 5 per cent show
+ruptures, the complete lot of 1000 primers will be returned to the
+manufacturers.
+
+In the case of satisfactory results of firing trials, the remaining
+24,000 primers will be delivered to the works intrusted with the
+charging.
+
+If, after partial examination of a lot (not less than 1000 primers),
+more than 10 per cent of primers will be rejected in accordance with
+the following two paragraphs, the further inspection will be stopped at
+the charging works, and the whole lot will be returned for resorting.
+
+When inspecting primers, the following defects are not allowed:
+ruptures, blow-holes, fissures, flaws, sandy surface, dirt, oil, dust,
+shavings, dents on the bottom surface of the flange, dents at the
+bottom of the charge chamber, and considerable crumbling of threads
+(more than one-fourth of a thread). The examination of the bottom
+surface for evenness must be carried out by spinning the primers on a
+polished steel plate. The primers which will not spin must be rejected.
+
+The primer chambers must be varnished. The anvils must not show any
+flaws and fissures at their striking edge and at the threads. The
+striking edge must not be sharp, to prevent the cutting through of the
+parchment disks of the detonator; generally speaking, the anvil and the
+bush must also answer all the requirements of the preceding paragraph.
+
+
+=Gaging.=--One hundred primers complete from each lot must be gaged.
+Special attention must be paid to the following points:
+
+(a) All primers to be screwed into gage without being specially loose.
+
+(b) The thickness and the outer diameter of the primer head must not
+exceed the specified maximum dimensions, thus securing the proper fit
+of the primer flange in its seat in the cartridge case.
+
+(c) The height of the boss inside the primer must be strictly in
+accordance with the allowance given.
+
+(d) The inner thread of the boss must be strictly in accordance with
+the gage.
+
+(e) The seat for the detonator and the hole in the bush must be correct
+and in accordance with the gage.
+
+(f) The thickness of the bottom of primer (0.067 to 0.077 inch) must be
+in accordance with the gage.
+
+The anvils and bushes must screw and unscrew easily, without being
+loose and must be interchangeable. After charging, all primers will
+be inspected with regard to their height, and gaged outside. In case
+of unsatisfactory results in gaging (rejected primers exceeding 3 per
+cent) an additional 100 primers must be chosen for the same purpose,
+and in case the results are the same, the whole lot will be returned to
+the works manufacturing the primers for resorting.
+
+
+=Firing Trials.=--Fifty primers out of 1000 delivered from a lot of
+25,000, after being charged, are tested with reference to the quality
+of the metal, by firing with increased charge at a pressure of 2400
+atmospheres (15.75 tons per square inch). These primers, after the
+test, should not show any breakage (after being unscrewed) through
+cracks and flaws, the presence of which would mean that the gas escaped
+through the base of the primers. The escape of gases leaving a residue
+between the side surfaces of the primer flanges and their seating is
+allowed on not more than 30 per cent of the primers subjected to firing
+test from new cartridge cases; in the case of using fired cartridge
+cases, no attention must be paid to the presence of the above-mentioned
+residue.
+
+Non-through cracks are allowed on not more than 2 per cent of tested
+primers; in the case of a larger percentage, but not exceeding 4 per
+cent, the whole lot must be resorted and retested. The recurrence of 2
+per cent of non-through cracks in the second test may not be taken as a
+reason for the rejection of the whole lot; 50 primers must be used for
+the second test. In the case of the absence of above-mentioned defects,
+only those primers will be considered satisfactory which, after firing,
+can be removed from the cartridge case by hand or by an ordinary
+spanner.
+
+The serviceableness of the primers is determined by firing 50 primers
+chosen at random from the complete lot of 25,000 charged primers. The
+conditions just laid down hold good for this trial also. In addition
+to this, no complete misfire must occur; not more than two primers
+may misfire once each, with lock in proper order. (Before firing, the
+tension of the main spring and the protrusion of the firing pin must be
+verified.) A second test may be carried out if during the preliminary
+test defects occur. The second test must be carried out on double the
+number of primers taken at random, _i.e._, on 100 primers. During
+second test the same conditions as laid down for the first test hold
+good. Primers passing successfully the first or second firing tests are
+accepted for the service. A lot of charged rejected primers must be
+destroyed and the metal scrapped.
+
+In addition to the firing tests, the following test must be carried
+out by the works intrusted with the charging of primers to determine
+the correctness of charging: 1. One per cent of a day’s output must be
+tested under a drop weight of five pounds falling from a height of 0.39
+inch with flat firing pin 0.25 inch in diameter; during this test no
+primer must detonate. Primers having passed this test and not showing
+any noticeable mark on the base must be recharged and added to the lot.
+2. When testing 0.5 per cent of each day’s output under a drop weight
+of five pounds, falling from a height of 5.9 inches, with firing pin of
+an approved pattern, no primer must fail to explode.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+SPECIFICATIONS FOR BRITISH 18-POUNDER QUICK-FIRING SHRAPNEL SHELL
+
+
+The following paragraphs, abstracted from the official specifications,
+give all the information contained in these specifications relating to
+the manufacture and inspection of the British 18-pounder, quick-firing
+shrapnel shell.
+
+
+=Body.=--The body of the shell is made of cast or forged steel of
+the best quality for the purpose, turned or ground to the form and
+dimensions, and having the edge of the base rounded. If made of cast
+steel, the casting must be clean, of uniform transverse thickness,
+free from flaws, blow-holes, and other defects. The use of chaplets is
+prohibited. If made of forged steel, the body must be forged hollow,
+and free from forging marks and flaws. Should the shells be subjected
+to heat-treatment, this must be carried out in batches consisting of
+shells of the same cast. An undercut groove, with two projecting waved
+ribs, will be turned on the body. Three chisel cuts may be made across
+the waved ribs in the groove for the driving band, at an angle to the
+longitudinal axis of the projectile to allow the air in the channels
+between the ribs to escape when the band is being pressed on. The top
+is threaded to receive the socket, and a groove for the fuse cover
+provided. The steel body alone must weigh 6 pounds 5 ounces 12 drams,
+plus or minus 2 ounces.
+
+
+=Driving Band.=--The driving band is made from a ring of drawn or
+electro-deposited copper, pressed into, and in contact with, the bottom
+and undercut of the groove in the shell all around, and accurately
+turned to the form required. The weight must be 4 ounces 12 drams, plus
+or minus 2 ounces.
+
+
+=Socket.=--The socket is made of composition metal, known as Class “C,”
+threaded externally below the shoulder to fit the body, and internally
+to receive the fuse, the bottom being bored to receive the top of the
+central tube. The junction of the socket and central tube is soldered
+to prevent the resin getting into the tube and socket. A hole is to be
+bored in the side, threaded and fitted with a steel fixing screw. The
+weight must be 8 ounces 8 drams.
+
+
+=Central Tube.=--The central tube may be made of brass, copper, delta
+metal, or gun metal. The lower end is to have a shoulder to rest on,
+and to be threaded to enter the steel disk, the bottom being reduced in
+diameter to fit the neck of the cup. Weight, 2 ounces 12 drams.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1. Construction of British 18-pounder Quick-firing
+Shrapnel Shell]
+
+
+=Steel Disk.=--A steel disk, of the form shown in Fig. 2, will rest
+on the shoulder in the bottom of the body, a hole being bored and
+threaded through the center of the disk to receive the central tube.
+Weight, 9 ounces 8 drams.
+
+
+=Tin Cup.=--The cup in the base of the shell to contain the bursting
+charge will be made of tinned plate to the form and dimensions shown in
+Fig. 2, the parts being soldered together. Weight, 1 ounce 12 drams.
+
+
+=Gages.=--Contractors may send their gages at any time to the chief
+inspector, Woolwich Arsenal, London, England, to be checked and
+compared with the standard gages.
+
+
+=Screw Threads.=--The screw threads must, unless otherwise stated, be
+of the British standard fine screw thread, and conform to the chief
+inspector’s standard gages.
+
+
+=Preliminary Examination of Contractor’s Work.=--The bodies, after
+completion of machining, will be submitted at the contractor’s works,
+to an inspector, for preliminary examination. Bodies made of cast steel
+must also be submitted for a hydraulic test under a pressure of 100
+pounds per square inch. Any shell which shows the slightest leak, or
+fails to satisfy the conditions, will be rejected.
+
+
+=Assembling.=--The tin cup, steel disk, and central tube are to be
+placed in position and the shell filled with mixed metal bullets, 41
+per pound (composed of seven parts of lead and one of antimony), the
+interstices between the bullets being filled with resin, which must be
+perfectly pure, and filtered when in a liquid state through a sieve
+having 32 meshes per inch. The socket is then screwed onto the body as
+tightly as possible, the threads having been previously coated with
+Pettman’s cement or red lead.
+
+
+=Marking and Plugs.=--The shells are to be marked on the side, above
+the driving band. Plugs for the protection of the fuse holes in transit
+will be supplied, free of charge, on demand, by the ordnance officer to
+whom delivery is to be made.
+
+
+=Delivery.=--(a). The shells will be covered with a thin coating of
+vaseline or other similar anti-corrosive grease, which must be of
+such a nature as not to interfere with the gaging, and they will
+then be delivered unpainted, for inspection and proof. The shells
+must be perfectly cleaned out, empty, complete in every respect, and
+dry internally. (b). Such marking as may be necessary to identify
+the steelmaker’s cast number, and, in case of heat-treatment, the
+batch number, must be maintained by the contractor upon every shell
+throughout manufacture. (c). The shell must be delivered in lots for
+purposes of proof. A lot for this purpose will consist, as far as
+possible, of shells of the same cast, and, when heat-treatment is
+employed, of shells of the same batch number, and must not contain more
+than 121 shells. (d). When the number of shells in a cast or batch is
+less than 100, two casts or batches may be grouped together for this
+purpose.
+
+
+=Main Examination after Delivery.=--(a). Any shell of a lot which fails
+to pass the chief inspector’s gages, or fails to satisfy the chief
+inspector of its serviceability, will be rejected. (b). If at any time
+during the examination it is found that defects of any nature, other
+than errors of machining, which involve rejection of defective shells,
+amount to 5 per cent of the number of the shells in the lot, the “lot”
+will be rejected, (c). One or more shells selected from the lot will
+be taken to pieces, and the body broken, if necessary, to ascertain
+that the details of manufacture and component parts are correct, and
+that the material is sound. Should they be incorrect, or the material
+unsound, in any particular, the lot will be rejected. The driving
+band will be cut out, and should it appear not to have been pressed
+thoroughly home into the undercut and groove throughout, the lot will
+be rejected. (d). If, at any time during the examination of a lot,
+it is found that 5 per cent of the shells in the lot depart from the
+approved design, further examination of the lot will be suspended. The
+whole of the lot must be re-examined by the firm and those shells which
+are incorrect eliminated. Those shells in which the departure can be
+rectified may be brought to the approved design by the firm. The lot
+may then be re-submitted.
+
+
+=Tests.=--At least 1 per cent of the shells of every cast will be
+subjected to tensile tests. Test pieces will be cut from the shell
+blank, or from the finished shell at the option of the chief inspector,
+and must be capable of standing the following minimum tests:
+
+  +-------------------+-------------------------------------+
+  |Tenacity, Tons per | Elongation in a Test Piece 2 Inches |
+  |   Square Inch     | in Length, or such Piece as can be  |
+  + -------+----------+ cut from the Shell, provided that   |
+  | Yield  | Breaking |                                     |
+  | Point  | Stress   |      Length / √Area = 4             |
+  +--------+----------+-------------------------------------+
+  |   36   |    56    |           8 per cent                |
+  +--------+----------+-------------------------------------+
+
+If any one or more of the conditions in this clause are not complied
+with, the lot, or lots, of shell affected, will be rejected, and must
+not be re-submitted. The contractor will supply, free of charge, the
+necessary “Class C” metal for testing, if requested by the chief
+inspector to do so. The pieces should not be less than 7 inches in
+length, nor less than 1 inch in diameter, and will be required to stand
+the following test:
+
+  +-------------------+-------------------------------------+
+  |Tenacity, Tons per |                                     |
+  |   Square Inch     |                                     |
+  +--------+----------+ Elongation in a Test Piece 2 Inches |
+  |Yield   | Breaking | long and 0.564 Inch in Diameter     |
+  |Point   | Stress   |                                     |
+  +--------+----------+-------------------------------------+
+  |   6    |    12    |          10 per cent                |
+  +--------+----------+-------------------------------------+
+
+
+=Proof.=--(a). A percentage of the shell will be fired for recovery
+from an 18-pounder Q. F. gun, with such a charge as will give a chamber
+pressure not less than 15 tons per square inch. Should the shell so
+fired set up above the high diameter of body, or break up in the gun,
+or should any portion of the driving band separate from the shell
+before first graze or impact, or should the recovered shell show that
+the shock of discharge had distorted the disk supporting the bullets,
+or cause such alteration of the internal parts as would interfere with
+the correct action of the shell, or should any of the components be
+incorrect, the lot will be rejected, provided always that the pressure
+did not exceed the specification proof pressure by 0.5 ton. If the
+pressure did exceed this limit, a second proof must be taken at the
+government’s expense before the lot is rejected. The pressure of the
+round, if not taken, will be assumed to be that of the last round fired
+with the same charge in which pressure was taken. Further, should the
+shell be reported unsteady in flight, and be found on recovery to be
+without its driving band, or with the driving band loose or slipped in
+its seating, then the driving band of a similar number of shells to
+that taken for firing proof may be cut out to ascertain whether they
+have been properly pressed on; if they have not been pressed down to
+the satisfaction of the chief inspector, the lot will be rejected. If
+found correct, such shells will be rebanded by the contractor free of
+charge.
+
+(b). The shells fired for proof may, after recovery, be broken to
+ascertain the soundness of their material. Should any of the material
+be unsound in any respect, the lot will be rejected.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2. Details of British 18-pounder Shrapnel Shell]
+
+
+
+=Re-submission.=--(a). A rejected lot must not be re-submitted unless
+the rejection is due to failure of the driving band, or to rectifiable
+gaging defects. (b). Shells put out at any period of inspection
+for remediable defects may be re-submitted for further examination
+after the defects have been rectified. It is to be understood that
+the examination of such shells at that time will be incomplete, and
+that they are liable to rejection after rectification. (c). If the
+contractor wishes to re-invoice a lot rejected for failure of driving
+bands, he must remove the shells and re-band them before they are
+again submitted, (d). Rejected shells will, if considered necessary,
+be marked with a small rejection mark, so that they can be readily
+identified if redelivered.
+
+
+=Replacement of Proof.=--The contractor will be required to replace,
+free of charge, all shells expended in proof and examination, which,
+whether fired or otherwise tested, will be the property of the
+government.
+
+
+=Packing.=--All packages are to be so marked that the goods contained
+therein may be readily identified with the invoice. Unless it is
+specified in the contract that the packing cases or other packing
+material are to become the property of the war department, they will
+remain the property of the contractor, who is responsible for their
+removal.
+
+Should they not be removed within two months of the acceptance at the
+stores, they will be disposed of, and under such circumstances the
+contractor will not be entitled to make any claim for compensation. The
+packing cases must be marked “Returnable” or “Non-returnable.”
+
+
+=Inspection.=--The shells may be inspected at any time during
+manufacture by, and after delivery will be subject to testing by, and
+to the final approval of, the chief inspector, Royal Arsenal, Woolwich,
+England, or an officer deputed by him. In cases of defects occurring in
+manufacture which necessitate repairs, the contractor shall bring the
+same to the notice of the inspecting officer, and shall obtain from him
+written authority to proceed with such repairs as may entail patching,
+burning, electric welding, or other similar processes.
+
+WEIGHT OF 18-POUNDER SHRAPNEL SHELL PARTS
+
+                                       Weights (avoirdupois)
+    Part                               Pounds  Ounces  Drams
+  Steel body                             6       5      12 }
+  Driving band                                   4      12 } ± 2 oz.
+  Metal socket                                   8       8
+  Steel disk                                     9       8
+  Brass tube                                     2      12
+  Tin cup                                        1      12
+  Bullets, about 327 of alloyed metal,
+   41 per pound                          7      14      13¹⁄₂
+  Resin                                         13      11
+  Total weight empty (unpainted)*       16      13       8¹⁄₂ ± 11 drams
+  Bursting charge                                2       8
+  Paint                                                  5¹⁄₂
+  Fuse                                   1       7      10
+                                       --------------------------------
+  Total weight                                  18       8 ± 5 drams
+
+  * To regulate weight of shell, a few buckshot may be used.
+
+
+=Plug for Fuse Hole.=--The plug is to be made of a copper alloy, and to
+the form and dimensions shown on the drawing, threaded externally on
+the body, and a square recess, tapered, is to be formed in the top. The
+screw threads must, unless otherwise stated, be of the British standard
+fine screw thread, and conform to the standard gages of the chief
+inspector, Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, England. Contractors may send their
+screw gages to the chief inspector, to be compared with the standard
+gages.
+
+Any plug of a delivery which fails to pass the inspecting officers’
+gages, or shows flaws or sponginess on the surface, or fails to
+satisfy the chief inspector, Woolwich, as to its serviceability, will
+be rejected. If at any time during the examination it is found that
+defects of any nature, other than errors of machining, which involve
+rejection of the defective plugs, amount to 5 per cent of the number of
+plugs in the delivery, the whole order will be rejected. If at any time
+during the examination of a delivery it is found that 5 per cent of the
+plugs in the delivery will depart from the approved design, further
+examination of the plugs will be suspended; the whole of the delivery
+must be re-examined by the firm, and those plugs which are incorrect to
+design eliminated. Those plugs in which the departure can be rectified
+may be brought to the approved design by the firm. The delivery may
+then be re-submitted for examination. The contractor will be required
+to replace free of charge all plugs expended in test and examination,
+which will become the property of the government.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+SPECIFICATIONS FOR BRITISH COMBINATION TIME AND PERCUSSION FUSES
+
+
+The following specifications, abstracted from the official requirements
+relating to British “Mark I” (No. 85) combination time and percussion
+fuses, give the general information required in the manufacturing and
+inspection of these fuses. These specifications, in conjunction with
+the very complete illustrations, Figs. 1 to 6, inclusive, of the design
+and details of the British fuse, give all the essential data required.
+
+
+=Components.=--The fuse consists of the following parts: Body, top and
+bottom composition rings; cap with set-screw; base plug with screw
+plug; time detonator pellet in two parts; percussion pellet with sleeve
+and firing pin; detonators; four spiral springs; brass and steel pins;
+onion skin paper; unbleached muslin; felt cloth and brass washers;
+brass and tin-foil disks; suspending ring for time pellet; and onion
+skin paper patches.
+
+
+=Metals.=--The body and composition rings are to be made of bronze or
+metal known as “Class B;” the time detonator pellet and percussion
+pellet to be of hard-rolled brass; the percussion firing pin pivot,
+of steel, phosphorized or blued; the time and percussion firing pins,
+of bronze or “Class B” metal; all other parts of the fuse, except
+where otherwise stated, of metal “Class C,” or hard-rolled brass. The
+contractor must supply the necessary metal for testing, free of charge.
+
+Metals designated by “classes” are copper alloys, the compositions of
+which are left to the discretion of the makers providing the metals
+conform to the above tests.
+
+Before proceeding to manufacture, the material must be submitted to the
+inspecting officer for mechanical test. When practicable, test pieces
+should not be less than 7 inches in length nor less than 1 inch in
+diameter, and will be required to stand the following minimum tests:
+
+  +------------------+--------------------+-----------------------------+
+  |                  | Tenacity, Tons per | Elongation in Per Cent in   |
+  |                  |    Square Inch     |   such a Test Piece as can  |
+  |      Metal       +---------+----------+   be furnished, provided    |
+  |                  |  Yield  | Breaking |   that                      |
+  |                  |  Point  | Stress   |   Length / √Area = 4        |
+  +------------------+---------+----------+-----------------------------+
+  |Bronze            |   13.5  |    27    |             20              |
+  |Class “B”         |   12    |    20    |             30              |
+  |Class “C”         |    6    |    12    |             10              |
+  |Hard-rolled Brass |    6    |    12    |             10              |
+  +------------------+---------+----------+-----------------------------+
+
+
+=Body.=--The body is to be turned all over, and threaded externally at
+the upper and lower ends, a bevel being formed at the junction of the
+stem and the flange. The stem is to be bored, and a hole drilled at the
+bottom of the bore to receive the time firing pin. The upper surface of
+the flange is to be grooved. The interior is to be bored out to form a
+chamber for the reception of the percussion arrangement and threaded
+for the base plug; a hole is to be bored and threaded at the bottom of
+the bore to receive the percussion detonator holder. An annular recess
+is to be made for the magazine. Communicating holes are to be drilled
+as follows:
+
+  (a) At an angle to the top surface of the flange.
+  (b) Vertically from the magazine recess.
+  (c) Horizontally at the top of the detonator recess.
+  (d) At an angle to join (b) and (c).
+  (e) At an angle from outside to bottom of recess in stem.
+
+Holes (c) and (d) are to be closed by plugs driven in and secured by
+punch stabs. Two slots are to be cut in the flange as shown in Fig.
+2, and an elongated hole made to receive a stop pin, which is to be
+secured by a small pin, driven in. A setting mark is to be cut on the
+edge of the flange.
+
+
+=Top Composition Ring.=--The ring is to be turned all over, and bored
+to fit the stem of the body. A groove is to be formed in the under
+side for the composition, and a recess made as shown in Fig. 2, three
+holes being drilled from the upper surface into the recess. A hole is
+to be drilled through the ring between the ends of the composition
+channel, and recessed. A recess is to be formed in the bore, from which
+a flash hole is to be drilled at an angle communicating with one end
+of the composition channel, a vertical escape hole being made from the
+top surface to the flash hole. An indicating mark is to be made on the
+outside of the ring. Two holes are to be bored between the ring and
+the stem of the body, into which pins are to be inserted to retain the
+ring in position. The ring is to be made 0.020 inch thicker than the
+dimension given on the drawing, and faced off to thickness after powder
+is pressed into the groove.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1. British “Mark I” (No. 85) Combination Time and
+Percussion Fuse--Modified Form of American 21-second Fuse]
+
+
+=Bottom Composition Ring.=--The ring is to be turned all over and
+bored to fit the stem of the body, the upper surface being grooved. A
+groove is to be formed in the under side for the composition, and an
+annular recess made, three holes being drilled from the upper face into
+the recess. A hole is to be drilled in the ring from the under side
+between the ends of the composition channel. An escape hole is to be
+drilled, at an angle, from the end of the composition channel to the
+annular recess, and a recess made to receive the closing disk. A hole
+communicating with the groove and the escape hole is to be drilled at
+an angle to the top surface to receive a powder pellet. A hole is to
+be drilled and recessed for a setting pin, which is to be secured by a
+small pin driven in. The ring is to be graduated from “0” to “21.2;”
+each division, after the first, is to be sub-divided into five parts.
+A line to denote safety position is to be marked. The marking is to be
+blackened with japan black thinned with spirits of turpentine, except
+the mark denoting the safety point, which is to be colored red.
+
+
+=Cap with Set-screw.=--The cap is to be machined all over, and recessed
+internally to receive the time detonator pellet. The lower part of the
+recess is to be threaded to screw over the stem of the body. Two slots
+are to be made in the cap to receive a key, and a hole is to be drilled
+through the side and tapped to take a brass set-screw. A groove is to
+be made near the top, which is to be partially closed by spinning over
+the edge. Four escape holes are to be drilled at an angle from the
+recess on the under side, into the groove.
+
+
+=Base Plug.=--The base plug is to be threaded externally to fit the
+bottom of the body. Two holes are to be drilled in the under side to
+facilitate assembling, and a central recess formed with a seating to
+receive a brass washer with a muslin disk. Six holes are to be drilled
+at an angle from the upper surface into the lower recess, and a hole
+drilled and tapped in the bottom to take a screw plug. This plug is to
+be threaded externally to fit into the bottom of the base plug.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2. Details of British Combination Fuse]
+
+
+=Time Pellet and Detonator.=--The pellet is to consist of two parts,
+which are to be turned and bored, the parts being screwed together
+to secure the detonator. A screwdriver slot is to be made in the top
+surface, and a seating formed on the outer surface for the suspension
+ring. The detonator is to be turned all over and recessed, four fire
+holes being drilled through into the recess. The recess is to be
+coated with non-acid paint and charged with 0.45 grain of the following
+composition (giving parts by weight):
+
+  Glass                  50
+  Fulminate of Mercury   40
+  Chlorate of Potash     20
+  Sulphide of Antimony   30
+  Shellac (dry)           2.8
+
+The ingredients are to be thoroughly pulverized, excepting the
+fulminate, mixed dry, and then covered with alcohol. The fulminate will
+then be added and the whole thoroughly mixed. The composition is to be
+covered with a brass disk secured by shellac. The recess in the plug is
+to be coated with a composition of shellac and rosaniline and filled
+with 1¹⁄₂ grain of shrapnel powder compressed with a total pressure of
+60 pounds. The detonator is to be inserted in the holder, and secured
+in place by the screw plug, the two being locked together by a small
+brass pin.
+
+
+=Percussion Pellet.=--The percussion pellet is to be machined all over,
+two holes being bored in the upper surface and a slot cut to receive
+the firing pin. Two holes are to be drilled at right angles to the slot
+and parallel to the flat surfaces, one to receive the pivot for the
+firing pin and the other for the centrifugal bolts. The sleeve is to be
+machined all over, and is to be a driving fit on the pellet. Two spiral
+springs and two small pellets, and a pivot pin for the firing pin, are
+to be provided. All parts, except the pivot pin, are to be tinned all
+over. The parts are to be assembled, and a hole drilled into the sleeve
+and pellet, and a small brass pin driven in.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3. Details of British Combination Fuse]
+
+
+=Percussion Detonator and Holder.=--The percussion detonator is to
+be turned and recessed on both sides, two flash holes being drilled
+between the two recesses. The smaller recess is to be charged with 0.45
+grain of the following composition (the figures giving parts by weight):
+
+  Chlorate of Potash     43.19
+  Sulphide of Antimony   21.5
+  Sulphur                 7.5
+  Glass                  10.5
+  Shellac                 1.7
+
+The ingredients are to be thoroughly pulverized and mixed dry. Alcohol
+will be added to dissolve the shellac. The detonator will be formed by
+pressing the mixture, while in a plastic state, into the recess. On
+the evaporation of the alcohol the composition should adhere strongly
+to the metal. A brass disk, 34 in Fig. 5, is to be secured over the
+composition with shellac. The larger recess is to be varnished with
+a composition of shellac and rosaniline, and 4 grains of shrapnel
+powder compressed into it with a pressure of 127 pounds and covered
+with a disk of tin foil, shellacked on. The holder is to be threaded
+externally to fit in the body, and recessed to receive the detonator, a
+central hole and two key-holes being made.
+
+
+=Pellets.=--The powder pellets are to be made to the shapes shown in
+Fig. 5. Pellets 33 and 35 are to be made from compressed unglazed black
+powder, with clearance holes as shown; pellets 32 and 36 are to have
+the clearance holes filled with 0.05 and 0.02 grains, respectively, of
+gun cotton.
+
+
+=Percussion Springs.=--The springs used in the percussion plunger
+must be made to the form and size shown in Fig. 5, and tinned. The
+percussion safety pin spring (21) is to be made from 0.012 inch
+diameter brass wire, tinned, and wound so as to give a free height of
+0.150 inch ± 0.030 inch, and at such a spacing as to give 44 coils per
+inch. The percussion restraining spring (30) is to be made from 0.015
+inch diameter brass wire, tinned, and wound so as to give a free height
+of 0.500 inch ± 0.050 inch, and at such a spacing as to give 36 coils
+per inch. This spring is to have a maximum resistance of 1.65 and a
+minimum of 1.5 ounce at an assembled height of 0.370 inch.
+
+
+=Suspending Ring.=--The suspending ring for time detonator pellet is
+to be made of brass wire. The ring is to be of such strength that when
+tested with steel counterparts of the stem and pellet, the latter is
+forced through the ring with a deadweight load of from 69 to 77 pounds.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4. Details of British Combination Fuse]
+
+
+=Cloth Washers.=--The cloth washers are to be made from waterproofed
+felt cloth, with holes cut in them. The body and graduated time train
+washers 16 and 17, respectively, which are shown in Fig. 5, are to be
+subjected to a pressure of approximately 10,000 pounds per square inch
+after assembling, before closing cap is screwed on and adjusted.
+
+
+=Lacquering and Polishing.=--The exterior surfaces of the fuse are
+to be polished and lacquered with a lacquer consisting of 1 pound of
+seedlac, 8 ounces of turmeric, and 8 pounds (1 gallon) of methylated
+spirits. The groove in the top and bottom composition rings, the
+magazine recess in the body, the powder channels and groove in the
+base plug, and the powder chambers of time detonator and percussion
+detonator holder, are to be lacquered with a lacquer consisting of 10
+grains of rosaniline, 1¹⁄₂ pound of powdered shellac, and 1 quart of
+methylated spirits.
+
+
+=Screw Threads.=--The screw threads must, unless otherwise stated on
+the drawing, be of the British standard fine screw thread, and conform
+to the standard gages of the government inspector. For fuses not made
+in England, the British standard threads will not be insisted upon,
+except for the large thread on the body.
+
+
+=Time Arrangement.=--The grooves on the under side of the composition
+rings are to be charged with 56 grains of No. 22 meal powder compressed
+at 68,000 pounds per square inch; the rings are then to be faced off,
+and the holes at the ends of the channels drilled. The onion skin
+paper washers are to be secured to the surfaces by shellac. Perforated
+pellets of black powder are to be inserted in the flash hole in the top
+ring, escape hole and flash hole in bottom ring, and flash hole in the
+body, the pellets for escape hole in bottom ring and flash hole having
+the perforation filled with loose gun cotton. The space at the end of
+the channel in the bottom ring is to be filled with loose meal powder.
+An onion skin paper patch is to be secured over the flash hole in top
+ring, and the escape hole in bottom ring closed by a brass disk secured
+by two center-punch holes, and coated with shellac. The cloth washers
+are to be secured on the upper faces of the body and the lower time
+ring with fish glue, and subjected to a pressure of 10,000 pounds per
+square inch.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5. Details of British Combination Fuse]
+
+
+=Assembling and Closing.=--The different parts of the fuse are to be
+put together as in the assembly view, Fig. 1. The cap is to be screwed
+down so that a turning moment of 325 ± 25 inch-ounces will just turn
+the ring, the cap being secured by means of a set-screw. The bench or
+table upon which the tensioning apparatus is fixed is to be jarred by
+tapping with a mallet to assist the turning of the ring. The base plug
+is to be screwed into the body, and the magazine filled with fine-grain
+powder through the filling hole. The bottom of the fuse is to be coated
+with shellac varnish.
+
+
+=Delivery.=--The fuses are to be delivered in lots of 2000, an
+additional 40 being supplied free, for purposes of proof. In the event
+of further proof being required, the fuses will be taken from the lot.
+
+
+=Proof.=--The fuses selected for proof will be tested as follows:
+
+(a) Ten will have the percussion arrangement removed, and will be
+tested to determine the mean time of burning at rest. The time train
+will be set at the highest graduation mark. The mean time of burning,
+set full when corrected for barometer, will be 22.9 seconds ± 0.4
+second. The constant to be used, when correcting for barometer, is
+0.023 of the mean time of burning, for every inch the barometer reads
+above or below 30 inches, being plus when above and minus when below.
+The difference between the shortest and longest time of burning is
+not to be more than 0.5 second. If the lot fails to pass this test,
+a further proof will be taken; the fuse must burn within the limits
+specified above, otherwise the lot will be rejected. Should the
+detonator fail to ignite the time ring, a second proof will be taken;
+should a similar failure occur at second proof, or should there be more
+than one such failure at first proof, the lot will be rejected.
+
+(b) Twenty fuses will be fired, at the same elevation, in any of the
+following guns, with full charges, and the time of burning noted. The
+requirements as to the result of the firing with the fuses set at
+different graduations are as given in detail in the following:
+
+1. The mean difference from the mean time of burning of the 20 fuses is
+not to exceed:
+
+  In 18-pounder guns    if set full            0.14 second
+                        if set 16              0.11 second
+
+  In 13-pounder guns    if set full            0.2 second
+                        if set 14              0.13 second
+
+The difference between the longest and shortest fuse is not to exceed:
+
+                        if set full            0.75 second
+  In 18-pounder guns    or omitting one fuse   0.6 second
+                        if set 16              0.6 second
+                        or omitting one fuse   0.5 second
+
+                        if set full            0.9 second
+  In 13-pounder guns    or omitting one fuse   0.7 second
+                        if set 14              0.7 second
+                        or omitting one fuse   0.5 second
+
+2. If there is one blind fuse, a second proof will be taken. If there
+is a blind at second proof, or more than one such failure at first
+proof, the lot will be rejected.
+
+(c) Five fuses from a lot will be tested, in shrapnel shells, by firing
+them set at “0” from a gun with a muzzle velocity of 1500 to 1800 feet
+per second. The fuses should burst the shells at from 5 to 50 yards
+from the muzzle of the gun. Should there be a burst in the gun, the lot
+will be rejected. Should any fuse fail to act within 50 yards, second
+proof will be taken; should a similar failure occur in the second
+proof, or should there be more than one such failure at first proof,
+the lot will be rejected.
+
+(d) Five fuses from a lot will be tested in common shells by firing
+them over sand, at such an elevation that the angle of descent will not
+be more than 4 degrees. When one only of a set of fuses so fired fails
+to burst on first graze the lot will be accepted without further proof;
+if there be more than one failure to burst on graze in the second
+proof, the lot will be rejected. The fuses must burst at the point of
+impact. For percussion proof the time ring is to be set on the bridge.
+
+(e) A premature explosion due to the fuse in any of the foregoing
+proofs will cause the rejection of the lot.
+
+(f) Should any other gun be introduced for proof of this fuse, which
+differs from the above guns in either muzzle velocity or twist of
+rifling at muzzle, the above conditions will be subject to modification.
+
+(g) If, in the proof of any delivery, defects are found involving the
+serviceability of fuses, additional proof may be taken from any other
+delivery not finally closed, to ascertain if the defect is general.
+Should the fuses fail at this further proof, the delivery will be
+rejected without reference to the original proof. The total proof of
+any delivery shall not exceed 5 per cent of the lot. The contractor
+will be required to replace all fuses expended in further proof or
+examination free of charge, which, whether fired or otherwise tested,
+will become the property of the government.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6. Details of British Combination Fuse Cover and
+Case]
+
+
+=Inspection.=--(a) The components of the fuses, during manufacture and
+assembling, and the completed fuses after delivery, will be subject to
+examination and gaging by, and to the final approval of, the chief
+inspector or an officer deputed by him. Any component or fuse, which
+is not finished to the satisfaction of the chief inspector, or his
+representative, or which has any flaw or imperfection, will be rejected.
+
+(b) If, at any time during examination, it is found that defects of any
+nature which involve rejection of the defective components, or fuses,
+amount to 5 per cent of the number in the lot, the lot will be rejected.
+
+GRADUATION TABLE FOR TIME RING ON BRITISH COMBINATION TIME AND
+PERCUSSION FUSE
+
+[Illustration]
+
+  +--------------+------------+
+  |              |    Angle   |
+  | Graduation   +------+-----+
+  |              | Deg. | Min.|
+  +--------------+------+-----+
+  | 0 to 5       | 26   | 0   |
+  | 0 to 1       | 16   | 45  |
+  | 1 to 2       | 15   | 15  |
+  | 2 to 3       | 15   | 30  |
+  | 3 to 4       | 16   | 30  |
+  | 4 to 5       | 14   | 40  |
+  | 5 to 6       | 14   | 35  |
+  | 6 to 7       | 14   | 15  |
+  | 7 to 8       | 13   | 55  |
+  | 8 to 11 each | 13   | 35  |
+  | 11 to 12     | 13   | 20  |
+  | 12 to 13     | 13   | 10  |
+  | 13 to 14     | 13   | 0   |
+  | 14 to 15     | 12   | 50  |
+  | 15 to 16     | 12   | 30  |
+  | 16 to 17     | 12   | 0   |
+  | 17 to 18     | 11   | 30  |
+  | 18 to 19     | 13   | 10  |
+  | 19 to 20     | 14   | 30  |
+  | 20 to 21     | 16   | 20  |
+  | 21 to 21.2   | 3    | 30  |
+  +--------------+------+-----+
+
+(c) If, at any time during examination of the lot, it is found that 5
+per cent of fuses in the lot depart from the approved design, further
+examination will be suspended. The whole of the lot must be re-examined
+by the contractor and those fuses which are incorrect to design
+eliminated. Those fuses in which the departure can be rectified may be
+changed to the approved design by the contractor. The lot may then be
+re-submitted for examination.
+
+
+=Tests for Safety in Transportation.=--From each lot, 20 time and 20
+percussion plungers are to be tested to ascertain the correctness of
+their weights and static resistances. Lots of plungers not correct
+within the tolerence allowed will be rejected. At the commencement of
+manufacture, 6 time and 6 percussion plungers from each lot will be
+subjected to a drop test against a steel block 11.5 inches in diameter,
+4.5 inches thick, resting on a concrete pier, to determine the limit in
+heights at which the same will arm when carried in standard dropping
+pieces. One of the pieces weighs 15 pounds and has the form of a 3-inch
+shell; the two other pieces are lighter and smaller. No concussion
+plunger is to begin to arm when falling in the lighter piece from a
+height of 4 feet 6 inches; all shall fully arm in the shell with 14
+feet 8 inches drop. No percussion plunger is to begin to arm in the
+special piece falling with 6 feet 2 inches drop; all shall fully arm in
+the shell with a 17 feet 6 inches drop.
+
+
+=Jumbling and Jolting Test.=--Ten fuses will be placed, one at a time,
+in a wooden box approximately 16 inches by 11 inches by 5 inches inside
+dimensions, revolving at thirty revolutions per minute, about one of
+its diagonals, for four hours. The fuses will then be placed in an
+adjustable fuse-holder on the end of a hinged lever 16 inches long,
+which, by the motion of a cam, is raised 4 inches, thirty-five times
+per minute, and allowed to drop on an iron anvil. The fuses are thus
+dropped for an hour, point downward, base downward, and side downward,
+respectively. The primer shields must not be marked, and the time
+trains, powder pellets, etc., must be intact.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+SPECIFICATIONS FOR BRITISH 18-POUNDER QUICK-FIRING CARTRIDGE CASE AND
+PRIMER
+
+
+The following specifications of the British 18-pounder quick-firing
+cartridge case and primer govern the manufacture and inspection
+of these cases and primers. They are abstracted from the official
+specifications and give the most important information required by the
+manufacturer and inspector.
+
+
+=Construction.=--The cartridge may be either solid drawn brass or built
+up, the nature of the alloy and the thickness and distribution of the
+metal being left to the contractor, except that the dimensions must
+agree with those in Fig. 1. The maximum weight is to be 3 pounds 1
+ounce. If electrolytic copper is used, it must be melted and run into
+ingots before use. In manufacture the number of drawings and the number
+of annealings must not be less than six. Should any folds or rings
+exist in the metal of the base, they must not be removed; any marks of
+cutting or turning of the metal of the inside of the base will cause
+the rejection of the cartridge. In the center of the base a hole is to
+be bored and threaded to receive the primer. The cartridges are to be
+marked on the base with the numeral and the contractor’s initials or
+recognized trade-mark.
+
+
+=Screw Threads.=--The screw threads must, unless otherwise stated,
+be of the standard Whitworth thread, be cut full, and conform to the
+government inspector’s standard gages. Contractors may send their gages
+at any time to the chief inspector to be checked and compared with the
+standard gages.
+
+
+=General Conditions.=--The contractor is to supply, with the first
+delivery, a full-sized tracing, on tracing cloth, of the cartridge he
+is delivering. The contractor will also supply, free of charge, samples
+of the metal from which the cases are to be made, if requested by the
+chief inspector to do so. The samples should not be less than 6 by 2
+inches. Cases in stock, that is, cases made before the date of the
+contract, must not be submitted for acceptance under a given contract.
+
+The cartridges should be delivered in lots of not less than 400. If
+less than 400 are delivered, the number of rounds to be fired in
+proof will be the same as if the delivery were the full 400. If, on
+examination of twenty per cent of a lot, it is found that departures
+from approved design, or defects of any nature, which involve rejection
+of the cases, average twenty-five per cent of the number examined, the
+whole of the lot will rejected.
+
+
+=Proof.=--(a) Not less than one-half per cent will be fired in proof.
+At least one cartridge from each 400 delivered will be fired three
+times, one round being with a proof charge, and the cartridge being (if
+necessary) reformed after each round. In each remaining cartridge, one
+proof and one service round will be fired.
+
+(b) The cartridge must load and extract easily, and must not split or
+develop any flaw or crack on firing.
+
+(c) The cartridge may be sectioned after firing; the section must show
+no cracks.
+
+(d) The maximum pressure is not to be more than 19 tons per square inch.
+
+(e) If, in the proof of any delivery, defects appear which involve
+the serviceability of the article, additional proof may be taken from
+any other delivery not finally closed, to ascertain if the defect
+is general or not. Should the cases fail at this further proof, the
+delivery will be rejected without reference to the original proof.
+The total proof of any delivery shall not exceed five per cent of the
+number delivered.
+
+
+=Replacement of Proof.=--The contractor will be required to replace
+all cartridges expended in proof free of charge, and when the order is
+approaching completion, he will be informed by the inspector how many
+are required to complete the number on the order, exclusive of the
+cartridges so expended, which, whether fired or otherwise tested, will
+become the property of the government.
+
+
+=Packing.=--All packages will be so marked that the goods contained
+therein may be readily identified with the invoice. Unless specified
+herein that the packing cases or other packing material will become
+the property of the war department, they will remain the property of
+the contractor, who is responsible for their removal. Should they not
+be removed within two months of the acceptance of the cartridge cases,
+they will be disposed of, and in such circumstances the contractor will
+not be entitled to make any claim for compensation. The packing cases
+must be marked “Returnable” or “Non-returnable.”
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1. British 18-pounder Quick-firing Cartridge Case,
+giving Complete Dimensions, and Bore of Quick-firing Field Gun]
+
+
+=Spontaneous Cracking.=--Any cartridge found to be cracked before or
+after filling, but before firing, is to be replaced by the contractor
+if such crack is discovered within six months of the date of acceptance
+of the cartridge in question, which date is stamped on it.
+
+The cartridges may be inspected during manufacture by, and after
+delivery will be subjected to testing by, and to the final approval
+of, the chief inspector, Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, England, or an
+officer deputed by him.
+
+
+=Primer.=--The primer is to consist of the following parts (see Fig.
+2): body _A_; closing disk _B_; anvil _C_; plug _D_; cap _E_; tin foil
+_F_; ball _G_; paper disk _H_; gun powder _I_; and Pettman cement. The
+body is to be made of composition metal known as Class “A” or “B.” All
+other metal parts of the primer, except where otherwise specified, are
+to be made of brass. The brass is not to contain more than 0.3 per
+cent of lead, nor to have more than one per cent of total metallic
+impurities. The Class “A” or “B” metal is to be in accordance with
+the following requirements: It must be perfectly straight, uniform
+in diameter, and free from cracks or flaws, and must be capable of
+standing the following minimum tests:
+
+  +---------------------------------+----------------------------------+
+  |     Tenacity, Tons per          |Elongation in Per Cent in such a  |
+  |       Square Inch               |  Test Piece as can be furnished, |
+  |                                 |  provided that                   |
+  +---------------+-----------------+                                  |
+  |    Yield      |   Breaking      |     Length / √Area = 4           |
+  |    Point      |    Stress       |                                  |
+  +---------------+-----------------+----------------------------------+
+  | Class “A”, 20 |  Class “A”, 30  |      Class “A”, 20 per cent      |
+  | Class “B”, 12 |  Class “B”, 20  |      Class “B”, 30 per cent      |
+  +---------------+-----------------+----------------------------------+
+
+Pieces of the metals it is proposed to use in the manufacture must be
+submitted free of charge by the contractor, for testing, when requested
+by the chief inspector.
+
+
+=Body.=--The exterior of the body is to be turned and threaded and a
+flange formed. Two slots are to be cut in the head for the key. The
+interior is to be bored, cupped, and threaded. The exterior of the body
+is to be lacquered with a lacquer consisting of:
+
+  Seedlac              1 pound.
+  Turmeric             8 ounces.
+  Spirit, Methylated   8 pounds.
+
+
+=Screw, Plugs and Copper Ball.=--A plug having one end turned to form
+an anvil, which is to be free from burrs, is to be threaded to suit
+the body. The interior is to be turned out to receive the soft copper
+ball, and three fire holes bored. A plug is also to be threaded to suit
+the body, having an annular recess turned on the inner side, and three
+fire holes bored.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2. Primer for British Quick-firing Shrapnel and
+High-explosive Shell Cartridge Cases]
+
+
+=Cap.=--The cap is to be made of copper and the interior is to be
+varnished with varnish composed of:
+
+  Finest orange shellac   2 pounds 2 ounces.
+  Spirit, Methylated      8 pounds.
+
+The specific gravity of the varnish is to be 0.885. It is then to be
+charged with 1.2 grain of the following composition (figures give parts
+by weight):
+
+  Sulphide of antimony   18
+  Chlorate of potash     12
+  Ground glass            1
+  Meal powder             1
+  Sulphur                 1
+
+The composition is to be pressed into the cap with a pressure of 800
+pounds. A tin-foil disk, lacquered on one side, is then to be placed
+on the composition with the lacquered side outwards, and placed under
+a pressure of 400 pounds. It is then to be varnished with a varnish
+composed of:
+
+  Finest orange shellac   2 pounds 2 ounces.
+  Seedlac                 1 pound.
+  Turmeric                8 ounces.
+  Spirit, Methylated     16 pounds.
+
+The specific gravity of this varnish is to be 0.865.
+
+The lacquer for the tin-foil disk before insertion is composed of:
+
+  Seedlac              2 pounds.
+  Turmeric             1 pound.
+  Spirit, Methylated  16 pounds.
+
+The specific gravity of this lacquer is 0.85.
+
+The cap is to be externally coated with Pettman cement before inserting
+in the body, and then a fillet of Pettman cement is formed between the
+body and cap; Pettman cement is made from the following ingredients:
+
+  Gum shellac          7 pounds 8 ounces.
+  Spirit, Methylated   8 pounds.
+  Tar, Stockholm       5 pounds.
+  Red, Venetian       20 pounds 12 ounces
+
+
+=Gun Powder.=--The primer is to be filled with R. F. G.^2 powder, the
+screw plug being first screwed in and fixed by three small punch blows,
+and the fire holes covered by a disk of paper secured with Pettman
+cement.
+
+
+=Closing Disk.=--A brass disk having a paper disk secured to it on the
+inner side by Pettman cement is to be placed on the top of the powder,
+and a ring of Pettman cement painted round the edge of the disk where
+the metal will be burred over onto it. After the primer is burred over,
+the whole of the exterior of the disk will also be coated with a thin
+layer of the cement.
+
+
+=Marking and Delivery.=--The primers will be marked with the numeral,
+serial number, contractor’s initials or recognized trade-mark, and
+date of manufacture. The primers will be delivered in lots of 1000,
+an additional 20 being supplied for proof with each 1000, or any less
+number supplied. In the event of further proof being required, the
+primers will be taken from the lot.
+
+
+=Proof.=--A percentage of the primers will be selected indiscriminately
+for proof.
+
+(a) The primer when screwed into a steel block must fire correctly with
+a 1-pound weight falling 25 inches, and ignite a puff consisting of 4
+drams of R. F. G.^2 powder enclosed in one thickness of shalloon, in a
+12-inch vent with special receiver, or when proved in any gun for which
+approved, it must ignite the charge without hang-fire.
+
+(b) A miss-fire, hang-fire, pierced cap, or serious escape of gas
+through or around the primer will cause rejection.
+
+(c) The falling weight is to have a point of the same shape as the
+service striker.
+
+(d) Should the firing proof or examination of any delivery bring to
+notice any defect or defects which, in the opinion of the chief
+inspector, affect the serviceability of the primers, the delivery in
+question may be rejected, or further proof taken at his discretion,
+not only from the particular delivery, but from any others made by the
+contractor which may be under inspection, to ascertain whether the
+defect is general. Should any primers fail at these further proofs,
+the delivery or deliveries will be rejected without reference to any
+previous proof.
+
+If, on examination of twenty per cent of a lot, it is found that
+departures from approved design or defects of any nature which involve
+rejection of the defective primers average 25 per cent of the number
+examined, the whole of the lot will be rejected. The contractor will be
+required to replace free of charge all primers expended in proof and
+examination, which, whether fired or otherwise tested, will become the
+property of the government.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3. British Cartridge Clip]
+
+
+=Specifications for Cartridge Clip.=--The general dimensions for the
+cartridge clip are given in Fig. 3. The clip is made from hard-rolled
+sheet brass in one piece. Four projecting arms are to be formed; the
+ends of each are bent over as indicated. The clip is sand-blasted, and
+lacquered with a lacquer composed of:
+
+  Vegetable black                 1 pound.
+  Seedlac                         1¹⁄₂ pound.
+  Turpentine (1 quart)            2 pounds.
+  Methylated spirits (6 quarts)  12 pounds.
+
+One arm is coated with paint consisting of:
+
+  Vermillion, dry                 2 ounces.
+  Shellac, dry                    1 ounce.
+  White hard varnish              ³⁄₄ ounce.
+  Spirits, Methylated             1¹⁄₂ ounce.
+
+
+=Loop.=--The loop is to consist of 13 inches of “webbing, cotton, ¹⁄₂
+inch,” threaded through the clip and sewed. Three yards of webbing,
+selected from the bulk, are to be submitted to the chief inspector
+before being used. The webbing submitted will be cut into lengths of 11
+inches and the ends of each length securely fixed in the clamps of a
+testing machine, the clamps being 7 inches apart. The strain will be
+gradually increased until the sample breaks. The breaking strain must
+not be less than 200 pounds.
+
+
+=Delivery.=--The clips will be delivered in lots of 1000. If, on
+examination of 20 per cent of a lot, it is found that departures from
+approved design, or defects of any nature, which involve rejection of
+the clips average 25 per cent of the number examined, the whole of the
+lot will be rejected.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+SPECIFICATIONS FOR AMERICAN SHRAPNEL SHELLS
+
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1. Assembly and Details of American Shrapnel Shell]
+
+The American shrapnel shells comprise the following parts: forged shell
+body, copper driving band, head, washer, tubes, bullets, matrix, head
+filler, diaphragm, base charge, and fuse. In some cases a Semple tracer
+is used, and, when this is the case, the base of the shrapnel must be
+machined to accommodate it.
+
+
+=Shell.=--The shell is to be made of forged alloy steel or bar stock
+having the properties outlined in Table I. The forgings must be
+annealed so that they can be machined with reasonable ease. The maximum
+elastic limit for the 2.95-inch and 3-inch shell forgings must not
+exceed 115,000 pounds per square inch, and in case of the 3.8-inch,
+4.7-inch, and 6-inch must not exceed 110,000 pounds per square inch.
+All shrapnel shells must be subjected to an exterior hydraulic pressure
+of 20,000 pounds per square inch up to the rotating band, and to an
+interior hydraulic pressure of 1000 pounds per square inch. A certain
+number from each 1000 shells are also subjected to a ballistic test by
+firing completed shrapnels from a gun with a maximum pressure of 37,000
+pounds, except for the 6-inch, which will be fired under a pressure of
+22,500 pounds per square inch.
+
+The shell is to be finished outside and inside except at points
+otherwise indicated, where it is to be left in the rough-forged state.
+The inside of the shell is to be coated with non-acid paint, except
+where machined, and the powder chamber is to be given a heavy coat.
+Great care should be taken to remove all burrs, scale, and sharp
+corners. The outline of the shell after the first operation, when made
+from bar stock, is shown by dotted lines in Fig. 1. The base of the
+shell is to be machined as illustrated to the right at _A_ in Fig. 1,
+when a Semple tracer is used.
+
+
+=Copper Driving Band.=--The copper driving band is to be cut from
+tubing of pure electrolytic copper, and machined to the dimensions
+shown. It is to be heated and expanded to 2.985 inch inside
+diameter--for the 3-inch shell--and is to be shrunk into the seat, then
+forced into the scores by passing through a die and afterwards turned
+to size.
+
+
+=Washer and Head.=--The washer--for the 3-inch shell--is to be made
+from steel 0.031 inch thick and formed to shape by punching. The head
+is to be made from cold-drawn steel, finished all over, and coated
+inside with a non-acid paint. The crimping wall is to be turned down
+over the washer after machining, and a hole drilled after the head
+is assembled to the shell. Five notches equally spaced are to be cut
+around the head, and a crimping groove cut for putting on the fuse
+protecting cap.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2. Details of American Shrapnel Shell]
+
+
+=Tube.=--The tube is to be made from seamless drawn brass tubing, and
+is to be coated inside with shellac. An additional short tube is to
+be inserted at the nose or mouth of this tube, next to the fuse; this
+latter is to be made from seamless drawn copper, and is to be forced
+into the tube under pressure and crimped over.
+
+
+=Bullets.=--The bullets used in the shrapnel are to be made from 12.5
+per cent antimony to 87.5 per cent lead, and are to be flattened with
+six faces as shown in the illustration; 252 bullets are used in the
+3-inch shrapnel.
+
+
+=Matrix and Head Filler.=--The matrix is to consist of resin and
+mono-nitronaphthalene, poured into the shell, as will be described in
+connection with loading. The head is to be filled with melted resin,
+poured in.
+
+
+=Diaphragm.=--The diaphragm is to be made of forged steel to the
+dimension shown. It is to be drilled and counterbored, and great care
+should be taken to remove all burrs, sharp corners, and scale. The
+bottom of the diaphragm is also to be given a heavy coat of non-acid
+paint.
+
+TABLE I. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL FOR VARIOUS SIZES OF SHRAPNEL
+SHELLS
+
+  +--------+-----------------+---------------+------------+------------+
+  |Caliber,|Tensile Strength,|Elastic Limit, |Elongation  |Contraction,|
+  |Inches  |Pounds           |Pounds         |in 2 inches,|Per Cent    |
+  |        |Per Square Inch  |Per Square Inch|Per Cent    |            |
+  +--------+-----------------+---------------+------------+------------+
+  |  2.95  |     120,000     |     90,000    |     16     |    45      |
+  |  3.0   |     120,000     |     90,000    |     16     |    45      |
+  |  3.8   |     110,000     |     80,000    |     15     |    40      |
+  |  4.7   |     110,000     |     80,000    |     15     |    40      |
+  |  6.0   |     110,000     |     80,000    |     15     |    40      |
+  +--------+-----------------+---------------+------------+------------+
+
+
+=Fuse-hole Plug.=--There are two types of fuse-hole plugs; one is to
+be made from die-cast white metal, of non-corrosive properties, and
+machined to dimensions given in drawing, and the other of wrought
+iron or bronze. The weight of the wrought-iron plug--for the 3-inch
+shell--is to be 0.97 pound, and the weight of the bronze plug, 1.03
+pound. Either type of fuse-hole plug may be used.
+
+
+=Locking-Pin.=--Two steel locking-pins are required which must be
+finished to limits of ± 0.005 inch, driven in and peened over after the
+head is assembled in the shell.
+
+TABLE II. PRINCIPAL DIMENSIONS OF AMERICAN SHRAPNEL SHELLS, HEADS AND
+DIAPHRAGMS
+
+[Illustration]
+
+  +--------+----------+--------------------------+-------------+---------+
+  |        | Shrapnel |      Shrapnel Shell      |Shrapnel Head|Diaphragm|
+  |        | Forging  |                          |             |         |
+  |Caliber,+-----+----+-----+---+-----+----+-----+----+---+----+----+----+
+  |Inches  |  A  | B  |  C  | D |  E  |  F |  G  | H  | I | J  | K  | L  |
+  +--------+-----+----+-----+---+-----+----+-----+----+---+----+----+----+
+  |2.95    | 7.25|3.0 |0.30 |2.2|2.5  |2.95| 7.2 |2.85|1.7|1.05|2.5 |0.45|
+  |3.0     | 8.66|3.05|0.375|2.1|2.375|3.0 | 8.5 |2.73|1.7|0.87|2.36|0.45|
+  |3.8     |10.3 |3.85|0.50 |2.5|2.9  |3.8 |10.12|3.51|1.7|1.4 |2.89|0.55|
+  |4.7     |13.2 |4.75|0.60 |3.0|3.5  |4.7 |13.00|4.25|1.7|2.3 |3.52|0.70|
+  |6.0     |16.6 |6.05|0.80 |3.9|4.6  |6.0 |16.45|5.33|1.7|3.35|4.6 |0.80|
+  +--------+-----+----+-----+---+-----+----+-----+----+---+----+----+----+
+
+
+=Directions for Loading American 3-inch Shrapnel Shell.=--In loading,
+make sure that the diaphragm seats firmly on the shoulder in the shell,
+then pour in 0.25 ounce of powdered resin to seal the joints, and shake
+down well to fill all cracks. The powdered resin becomes plastic when
+the melted resin is poured in. Next put in one layer of bullets (18)
+and pour in 0.4 ounce of melted resin; then put in 108 bullets and
+pack by a pressure of six tons. Then pour in 3.75 ounces of melted
+mono-nitronaphthalene; put in 126 bullets; drive down with mallet below
+end of tube; and pour in 4 ounces of melted resin. After the mass has
+thoroughly cooled, face off matrix so that the depth from the end of
+the shell shall be 0.27 inch to allow for screwing in head, which
+should bear down hard on matrix. Next place washer in head and secure
+it by turning down crimping wall. Then fill annular space in lower
+face of head with melted resin, and after this is thoroughly cooled,
+face off flush with lower end of head. Screw head in place and secure
+with pins; then insert inner tube, pour in the base charge through the
+tube, and insert stopper. After the shell has been loaded, the shell
+and head should be painted from the rotating bands to the rear edge of
+the groove. For waterproofing, coat with a pure raw linseed oil black
+paint. Coat the remainder of the head with bitumastic solution, and
+crimp the waterproof cover in place while the solution is plastic.
+In the lower end of the inner tube should be placed a stopper of dry
+fibrous gun cotton rolled tightly into a cylinder and pressed down
+until it rests on the shoulder of the diaphragm and is about one inch
+long.
+
+TABLE III. WEIGHTS AND MATERIALS USED IN AMERICAN 3-INCH SHRAPNEL SHELLS
+
+  +---------------+-------------------------------+----------------+
+  |     Part      |           Material            |Weight in Pounds|
+  +---------------+-------------------------------+----------------+
+  |     Shell     |             Steel             |     5.80       |
+  |  Driving Band |             Copper            |     0.15       |
+  |     Washer    |             Steel             |     0.02       |
+  |      Head     |             Steel             |     0.45       |
+  |Tube (including|       Brass and Copper        |     0.09       |
+  |  inner tube)  |                               |                |
+  | Bullets (252) |      Lead-antimony Alloy      |     6.05       |
+  |     Matrix    |Resin and Mono-nitronaphthalene|     0.52       |
+  |  Head Filler  |             Resin             |     0.03       |
+  |   Diaphragm   |             Steel             |     0.47       |
+  |  Base Charge  |        Shrapnel Powder        |     0.17       |
+  |      Fuse     |                               |     1.25       |
+  | Semple Tracer |                               |     0.20       |
+  |Tracer Support |                               |     0.17       |
+  |  Total Weight |                               | 15.37 ± 0.15   |
+  +---------------+-------------------------------+----------------+
+
+The case is to be stamped as follows with letters ¹⁄₁₆ inch high: Lot
+number of shrapnel shell, purchase order, date of issue of purchase
+order, fiscal year, and initials of manufacturer.
+
+
+TABLE IV. PRINCIPAL DIMENSIONS OF VARIOUS SIZES OF CARTRIDGE CASES USED
+ON AMERICAN SHRAPNEL SHELLS
+
+[Illustration]
+
+  +----------+-----------------------------------------+
+  |          |           Dimensions in Inches          |
+  | Caliber  +------+------+------+------+------+------+
+  |in Inches |  A   |  B   |  C   |  D   |  E   |   F  |
+  +----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+  |   3.0    | 3.5  | 3.2  | 0.06 | 0.04 | 3.05 | 10.8 |
+  |   3.8    | 4.3  | 4.05 | 0.07 | 0.04 | 3.75 | 14.4 |
+  |   4.7    | 5.25 | 5.00 | 0.10 | 0.05 | 4.75 | 16.8 |
+  |   6.0    | 6.75 | 6.50 | 0.08 | 0.04 | 6.25 | 10.0 |
+  +----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+
+
+=Cartridge Case.=--The various sizes of American cartridge cases for
+shrapnel shells are drawn from a blank of brass, known as “cartridge
+brass.” The principal dimensions of the various sizes of cases are
+given in Table IV.
+
+The specifications covering the time and percussion fuse used in
+American shrapnel shells are the same as for the British “No. 85,”
+given in Chapter XI, with the one exception that the base of the fuse
+body is shaped to suit the American shell, and the thread is the U. S.
+standard, instead of Whitworth standard.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+  American shrapnel shell, section of, 3
+    specifications, 286
+
+  American type of fuse, 8
+
+  Annealing and washing cartridge cases, 178
+
+  Automatic Machine Co.’s threading lathe used for threading shells, 129
+
+
+  Band, machining rifling, 68
+    pressing on rifling, 66
+
+  Besly grinder equipped for grinding shrapnel, 137
+
+  Brass for cartridge cases, 235
+
+  Brass plugs for fuse, forging, 145
+
+  Brass socket, machining, 146
+
+  British cartridge cases, specifications, 276
+
+  British fuses, specifications, 260
+
+  British primers, specifications, 279
+
+  British shrapnel shell, section of, 3
+    specifications, 251
+
+  Brown & Sharpe machines used for making fuse parts, 164
+
+  Bullets, shrapnel, 140
+
+
+  Caley method of making shrapnel forgings, 20
+
+  Cartridge cases, annealing and washing, 178
+    cupping, 176
+    drawing, 172
+    list of operations, 190
+    machining, 180
+    specifications for British, 276
+    specifications for Russian, 231
+    summary of operations, 192
+    testing hardness of, 179
+
+  Cartridge clip, British, 284
+
+  Cleveland “Automatic” used for making shrapnel shells, 85
+
+  Clip, British cartridge, 284
+
+  Closing cap, machining, 162
+
+  Closing screw, machining, 162
+
+  Copper rifling band, machining, 68
+    pressing on, 66
+
+  Cupping cartridge cases, 176
+
+
+  Detonators, 15
+    specifications for Russian, 245
+
+  Diaphragm forging, 39
+
+  Drawing operations on cartridge cases, 172
+    table of operations, 190
+
+  Drilling percussion primers, 167
+
+  Drilling timing fuse plugs, 170
+
+
+  Explosives, classification of, 14
+    in shrapnel shells, 4
+    manufacture of high, 18
+
+
+  Forging brass plugs for fuse, 145
+
+  Forging diaphragms, 39
+
+  Forging fuse sockets, 143
+
+  Forging shrapnel heads, 38
+
+  Forging shrapnel shells, 20
+
+  French shrapnel shell, section of, 3
+
+  French type of fuse, 11
+
+  Fulminates, 15
+
+  Fuse, American type, 8
+    French type, 11
+    Russian type, 9
+    specifications for British, 260
+    specifications for Russian, 213
+    time and percussion, 6
+    Vickers’ type, 228
+
+  Fuse bodies, machining, 150
+
+  Fuse hammers, making, 165
+
+  Fuse nose, machining, 156
+
+  Fuse nut, making, 166
+
+  Fuse parts, making, 143
+
+  Fuse plugs, drilling, 170
+
+  Fuse sockets, forging, 143
+
+  Fuse timing ring, graduating, 171
+
+
+  Gages for shrapnel parts, 72, 73
+
+  Gaging shrapnel shells, 71
+
+  German shrapnel shell, section of, 3
+
+  Graduating fuse timing ring, 171
+
+  Gridley “Automatics,” used for making fuse parts, 156
+    used for making shrapnel shells, 103
+
+  Grinding shrapnel shells, 64, 132
+
+
+  Hardness testing, of cartridge cases, 179
+    of shrapnel shells, 48
+
+  Head, machining shrapnel, 152
+
+  Heading operations on cartridge cases, table, 190
+
+  Heat-treating department, lay-out of, 58, 59
+
+  Heat-treatment of shrapnel shells, 47
+
+  Holinger method of making shrapnel forgings, 25
+
+  Hydraulic press method of forging shrapnel, 29
+
+
+  Libby turret lathe used for machining shrapnel shells, 122
+
+  Lo-swing lathe used for machining shells, 114
+
+
+  Machines for shrapnel manufacture, 75
+
+  Machining shrapnel shells, 40
+
+  Marking shrapnel shells, 74
+
+
+  New Britain “Automatics” used for making fuse parts, 146
+
+  Norton method of grinding shrapnel shells, 133
+
+
+  Percussion primers, drilling, 167
+
+  Potter & Johnston “Automatics” used for machining forged shells, 90
+
+  Powder, black, 15
+    smokeless, 16
+
+  Powder cups, press tools for, 139
+
+  Press tools for powder cup, 139
+
+  Primers, charging, 246
+    for fuses, drilling, 167
+    specifications for British, 279
+
+
+  Reed-Prentice equipment for machining shrapnel shells, 75
+
+  Rifling band, machining, 68
+    pressing on, 66
+
+  Rough-turning operations on shrapnel forgings, 43
+
+  Russian cartridge cases, specifications for, 231
+
+  Russian combination fuse, Vickers’ type, 228
+
+  Russian shrapnel shell fuses, specifications, 213
+
+  Russian shrapnel shell, section of, 3
+    specifications, 194
+
+  Russian type of fuse, 9
+
+
+  Shrapnel bullets, 140
+
+  Shrapnel cartridge cases, 172
+
+  Shrapnel head, forging, 38
+    machining, 152
+
+  Shrapnel shells, forging, 20
+    grinding, 64, 132
+    heat-treatment, 47
+    history, 1
+    machines and tools for manufacture, 75
+    machining, 40
+    present design, 2
+    specifications for American, 286
+    specifications for British, 251
+    specifications for Russian, 194
+    steel for, 51
+    types, 3
+
+  Smokeless powder, 16
+
+  Socket, machining, 146, 150
+
+  Specifications, for American shrapnel shells, 286
+    for British cartridge cases, 276
+    for British fuses, 260
+    for British primers, 279
+    for British shrapnel shells, 251
+    for Russian cartridge cases, 231
+    for Russian shrapnel shells, 194
+    for Russian shrapnel shell fuses, 213
+
+  Steel for shrapnel, 51
+
+
+  Tensile strength, testing, 48
+
+  Testing hardness of cartridge cases, 179
+
+  Testing shell body for hardness and tensile strength, 48
+
+  Threading shells, 129
+
+  Timing fuse plugs, drilling, 170
+
+  Timing ring, graduating, 171
+    machining, 162
+
+  Tools for shrapnel manufacture, 75
+
+
+  Varnish for cartridge cases, 242
+
+  Vickers’ type of fuse, 228
+
+
+  Warner & Swasey turret lathe, used for machining bar-stock shells, 112
+    used for machining forged shells, 109
+
+Transcriber’s Notes.
+
+Italic text is indicated with _underscores_, bold text with =equals=.
+Small/mixed capitals have been replaced with ALL CAPITALS.
+
+Evident typographical and punctuation errors have been corrected
+silently. Inconsistent spelling/hyphenation has been normalised.
+
+The word ‘gaged’ has been inserted at page 239; “3. All outside
+dimensions of the bottom of the case are gaged as follows:”
+
+A half-title page has been discarded.
+
+Some illustrations and tables have been relocated to improve text flow.
+
+New original cover art included with this eBook is granted to the
+public domain.
+
+
+
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 78213 ***
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+    </style>
+</head>
+<body>
+<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 78213 ***</div>
+
+
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_i"></a><a id="Page_ii"></a>[ii]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowe10">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f002.jpg" alt="">
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_iii">[iii]</span></p>
+
+
+<h1>
+SHRAPNEL SHELL<br>
+MANUFACTURE
+</h1>
+
+<div style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto; max-width:400px;">
+<p class="sm">A COMPREHENSIVE TREATISE ON THE FORGING,
+MACHINING, AND HEAT-TREATMENT OF SHELLS,
+AND THE MANUFACTURE OF CARTRIDGE CASES
+AND FUSES FOR SHRAPNEL USED IN FIELD
+AND MOUNTAIN ARTILLERY, GIVING COMPLETE
+DIRECTION FOR TOOL EQUIPMENT AND METHODS
+OF SETTING UP MACHINES, TOGETHER WITH
+GOVERNMENT SPECIFICATIONS FOR THIS CLASS
+OF MUNITIONS</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+<p class="center">
+By DOUGLAS T. HAMILTON<br>
+<br>
+<span class="smcap">Associate Editor of MACHINERY</span><br>
+<span class="smcap">Author of “Advanced Grinding Practice,”</span><br>
+<span class="smcap">“Automatic Screw Machine Practice,”</span><br>
+<span class="smcap">“Machine Forging,” Etc.</span><br>
+<br>
+<i>FIRST EDITION</i><br>
+<br>
+<br>
+NEW YORK<br>
+THE INDUSTRIAL PRESS<br>
+1915
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_iv">[iv]</span></p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p class="center">
+<span class="smcap">Copyright, 1915</span><br>
+BY<br>
+THE INDUSTRIAL PRESS<br>
+NEW YORK
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_v">[v]</span></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="PREFACE">
+    PREFACE
+  </h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>The design of shrapnel and the machining of its component
+parts are matters which, at the present time, are of
+world-wide interest to manufacturers, engineers, toolmakers,
+and mechanics in general. Shrapnel is used in enormous
+quantities in the great European war, and American
+machine tool builders have been called upon to provide
+machines and tool equipment of the latest and most efficient
+design to meet the demands made upon the manufacturers
+of shrapnel. Many shops are running full force,
+day and night, and are months behind with their orders.
+The great importance of shrapnel manufacture, at the present
+time, is, therefore, unquestioned.</p>
+
+<p>A small percentage of shrapnel shells are now made
+from bar stock, but most shrapnel bodies are made from
+forgings, formed hollow in hydraulic presses or in forging
+machines. The forging processes, which are of extraordinary
+interest, especially to those who know something of
+the difficulties attending them, are, however, not finishing
+processes. Whether made from the bar or forged hollow, all
+shrapnel shells must be very accurately finished by machining.</p>
+
+<p>This book has been brought out to meet the demands for
+a treatise dealing comprehensively with the construction,
+forging and machining operations, and the tool equipment
+used for making the shell, fuse parts, and brass cases.
+In this book are included not only the unusually complete articles
+on shrapnel manufacture contained in the April, 1915,
+number of <span class="smcap">Machinery</span>, of which 5000 extra copies were
+printed and 5000 additional reprints made, all of which
+have been sold, but it also includes all other material that
+has been published at various times in <span class="smcap">Machinery</span> relating
+to shrapnel manufacture, together with a great deal of
+material obtained by the Editors especially for this book;
+and, in addition to this, it contains abstracts of the official
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_vi">[vi]</span>specifications, together with line-engravings of the details
+of Russian, British, and American shrapnel shell bodies,
+fuses, and cartridge cases. Hence, it is believed that the
+book will prove the most valuable addition to the literature
+on the manufacture of munitions that has been made since
+the beginning of the great war.</p>
+
+<p class="right">
+  D. T. H.
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">New York</span>, <i>October, 1915</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">[vii]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CONTENTS">
+    CONTENTS
+  </h2>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<table class="autotable3 tighten" style="font-size:100%">
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">
+<span class="smcap">Chapter I.</span>
+</td>
+<td class="tdr">
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang1">
+Shrapnel Shells
+</td>
+<td class="tdrvb">
+<a href="#Page_1">1-19</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">
+<span class="smcap">Chapter II.</span>
+</td>
+<td class="tdrvb">
+
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang1">
+Forging Shrapnel Shells
+</td>
+<td class="tdrvb">
+<a href="#Page_20">20-39</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">
+<span class="smcap">Chapter III.</span>
+</td>
+<td class="tdrvb">
+
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang1">
+Machining and Heat-treatment of Shrapnel Shells
+</td>
+<td class="tdrvb">
+<a href="#Page_40">40-74</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">
+<span class="smcap">Chapter IV.</span>
+</td>
+<td class="tdrvb">
+
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang1">
+Machines and Tools for Shrapnel Manufacture
+</td>
+<td class="tdrvb">
+<a href="#Page_75">75-142</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">
+<span class="smcap">Chapter V.</span>
+</td>
+<td class="tdrvb">
+
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang1">
+Making Fuse Parts
+</td>
+<td class="tdrvb">
+<a href="#Page_143">143-171</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">
+<span class="smcap">Chapter VI.</span>
+</td>
+<td class="tdrvb">
+
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang1">
+Making Shrapnel Cartridge Cases
+</td>
+<td class="tdrvb">
+<a href="#Page_172">172-193</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">
+<span class="smcap">Chapter VII.</span>
+</td>
+<td class="tdrvb">
+
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang1">
+Specifications for the Manufacture and Inspection of the
+Russian 3-inch Shrapnel Shell
+</td>
+<td class="tdrvb">
+<a href="#Page_194">194-212</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">
+<span class="smcap">Chapter VIII.</span>
+</td>
+<td class="tdrvb">
+
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang1">
+Specifications for the Manufacture and Inspection of the
+Combination Fuse for Russian 3-inch Shrapnel Shells
+</td>
+<td class="tdrvb">
+<a href="#Page_213">213-230</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">
+<span class="smcap">Chapter IX.</span>
+</td>
+<td class="tdrvb">
+
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang1">
+Specifications for the Manufacture and Inspection of
+Russian 3-inch Shrapnel and High-explosive Cartridge Cases
+</td>
+<td class="tdrvb">
+<a href="#Page_231">231-250</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">
+<span class="smcap">Chapter X.</span>
+</td>
+<td class="tdrvb">
+
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang1">
+Specifications for British 18-pounder Quick-firing
+Shrapnel Shell
+</td>
+<td class="tdrvb">
+<a href="#Page_251">251-259</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang1">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_viii">[viii]</span></p>
+</td>
+<td class="tdrvb">
+
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">
+<span class="smcap">Chapter XI.</span>
+</td>
+<td class="tdrvb">
+
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang1">
+Specifications for British Combination Time and Percussion
+Fuses
+</td>
+<td class="tdrvb">
+<a href="#Page_260">260-275</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">
+<span class="smcap">Chapter XII.</span>
+</td>
+<td class="tdrvb">
+
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang1">
+Specifications for British 18-pounder Quick-firing
+Cartridge Case and Primer
+</td>
+<td class="tdrvb">
+<a href="#Page_276">276-285</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">
+<span class="smcap">Chapter XIII.</span>
+</td>
+<td class="tdrvb">
+
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang1">
+Specifications for American Shrapnel Shells
+</td>
+<td class="tdrvb">
+<a href="#Page_286">286-292</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang1">
+<span class="smcap">Index</span>
+</td>
+<td class="tdrvb">
+<a href="#Page_293">293-296</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">[1]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_I">
+    CHAPTER I
+    <br>
+    <span class="sm">SHRAPNEL SHELLS</span>
+  </h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>In naval, coast defense and artillery operations, several
+types of explosive shells are used; the chief ones are:
+the armor-piercing shell, made to pierce armor-plate before
+exploding; shells exploded by means of a timing fuse;
+shells exploded by either a timing or percussion fuse; and
+shells exploded by percussion only. Each different shell
+has some definite function to fulfill, and is designed for
+that purpose. For field or artillery operations, the shrapnel
+and lyddite are the two principal types used. Of these,
+shrapnel is the most prominent, because of its destructive
+power and its interesting mechanical construction.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Early Development of Shrapnel.</b>—The shrapnel shell
+was invented in 1784 by Lieut. Henry Shrapnel, and was
+adopted by the British Government in 1808. As is shown at
+<i>A</i> in <a href="#p004_fig02">Fig. 2</a>, the first shell was spherical in shape, and the
+powder or explosive charge was mixed with the bullets. Although
+this type of shell was an improvement over the
+grape and canister previously used, its action was not altogether
+satisfactory, as the shell, on bursting, projected the
+bullets in all directions and there was also a liability of premature
+explosion. In order to overcome the defects mentioned,
+Col. Boxer separated the bullets from the bursting
+charge by a sheet-iron diaphragm, as shown at <i>B</i> in <a href="#p004_fig02">Fig. 2</a>.
+This shell was called a diaphragm shell to differentiate it
+from the first shell of this type.</p>
+
+<p>In the shell made by Col. Boxer, the lead bullets were
+hardened by the addition of antimony, and as the bursting
+charge was small, the shell was weakened by cutting four
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">[2]</span>grooves extending from the fuse hole to the opposite side of
+the shell. Shells of spherical shape were first fired out of
+plain-bored guns, and upon the advent of the rifled gun it
+was necessary to add a circular base, which was made of
+wood and covered with sheet iron or steel to take the rifling
+grooves. The first shrapnel shells were made of cast iron,
+but a later development was to use steel and elongate the
+body, reducing it in diameter. The diameter of the bullets
+was also reduced so that a greater number could be contained
+in a slightly smaller space. The improved shrapnel
+was also capable of being more accurately directed.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Shrapnel Shells of Present-day Design.</b>—Shrapnel shells,
+as used at the present time by the different governments,
+vary slightly in construction and general contour as well
+as in the constituents entering into their different members.
+As shown in <a href="#p003_fig01">Fig. 1</a>, a completed shrapnel comprises
+a brass case carrying a detonating primer and the explosive
+charge for propelling the projectile out of the bore of the
+gun. The projectile itself comprises a forged shell that
+carries the lead bullets and bursting charge. Screwed into
+the front end is the combination timing and percussion fuse
+which can be set so as to explode the shell at any desired
+point, and from which the flame for exploding the bursting
+charge is conveyed through a powder timing train and a
+tube filled with powder pellets down through the diaphragm
+to the powder pocket.</p>
+
+<p>Of these members of a shrapnel, the shell and timing fuse
+present the most interesting features from a mechanical
+standpoint. The shell used by most governments is made
+from a forging, machined to the desired dimensions in hand
+and semi-automatic turret lathes as well as in ordinary engine
+lathes. The fuse is an extremely accurate piece of
+mechanism, and is largely produced from screw machine
+parts, some of which, however, are forged previous to machining.
+The brass cartridge case—the next member of importance—is
+drawn from a brass blank by successive operations
+in drawing presses, and is indented and headed. Following
+this, several machining operations are performed on
+the head and primer pocket.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">[3]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp65" id="p003_fig01" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p003_fig01.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 1. Types of Shrapnel Shells used by the American, Russian,
+    German, French, and British Governments
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><b>Types of Shrapnel Shells.</b>—Shrapnel shells are made in
+two distinct types, one of which is known as the common
+shell, and the other as the high-explosive. The common shell
+is a base-charged shrapnel, fitted with a combination fuse,
+whereas the high-explosive shell is fitted with a combination
+fuse and, in addition, with a high-explosive head, the head
+also bursting and flying into atoms upon impact. The high-explosive
+shell is not ruptured upon the explosion of the
+bursting charge in the base, but the head is forced out and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">[4]</span>the bullets are shot out of the case with an increased
+velocity. In the meantime, the head continues in its flight
+and detonates on impact. This type of shell is not used as
+extensively as the common shrapnel, and, therefore, the
+common shrapnel shell alone will be taken up in the
+following.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p004_fig02" style="max-width: 30em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p004_fig02.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 2. Original Shell designed by Lieut. Henry Shrapnel and
+    Col. Boxer’s Improvement
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><b>The Explosive Charge.</b>—Reference to <a href="#p003_fig01">Fig. 1</a> will show
+that as far as the construction of the shrapnel shell and case
+is concerned, there is very little difference in those employed
+by the various governments. Starting with the cases, it
+will be seen that these are almost identical, except for length
+and the arrangement of the head for carrying the detonating
+primer. There is a marked similarity in this respect
+between the Russian, the British, and the German, and between
+the American and the French. The form of the explosive
+charge held in the brass case differs in almost every
+instance, but without exception smokeless powder in some
+form or other is used. In the American shell, nitrocellulose
+powder composed of multi-perforated cylindrical grains
+each 0.35 inch long and 0.195 inch in diameter are used. In
+the Russian case, smokeless powder of crystalline structure
+is used. In the German, smokeless (nitrocellulose) powder
+in long sticks and arranged in bundles is held in the case.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">[5]</span>The French use stick smokeless powder ¹⁄₂ millimeter (0.0195
+inch) thick by 12.69 millimeters (¹⁄₂ inch) wide. Two
+lengths or rows of this powder are arranged in the case.
+The British use a smokeless powder of crystalline structure
+somewhat similar to the Russian, but in some cases cordite
+has also been used, although of late this type of powder has
+not been quite as commonly employed.</p>
+
+<p>The detonating agent or primer held in the head of the
+case varies in almost every type of shrapnel. Practically all
+primers are provided with “safety heads,” so that the shrapnel
+can be handled without danger of premature explosion.
+The object, of course, of the detonating agent or primer is
+to detonate or cause the sudden explosion of the explosive
+charge in the shell for propelling the shrapnel out of the
+field gun.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>The Shrapnel Shell.</b>—The shell itself, as previously
+mentioned, is made either from a forging or from bar stock.
+Forgings, however, are used to a greater extent than bar
+stock, because the forged shell is more homogeneous in its
+structure than the bar-stock shell, and piping—a serious
+objection in the bar-stock shell—is entirely eliminated. The
+shells used by the British, Russian, and German governments
+are made almost exclusively from forgings, whereas
+those used by the French and American governments are
+made both from forgings and bar stock. When the French
+shell is made from bar stock, an auxiliary base is screwed
+into it to eliminate any danger of piping. Near the base of
+all shells is a groove in which a bronze or copper band is
+hydraulically shrunk. This is afterward machined to the
+desired shape and takes the rifling grooves in the gun so as
+to rotate the shell when it is expelled. The body of the shell
+itself is slightly smaller than the bore in the gun, and the
+rifling band, which is larger and which is compressed into
+the rifling grooves, rotates the projectile, thus keeping it in
+a straight line laterally during flight. The bursting charge,
+which in practically all cases is common black powder, is
+carried in the base of the shell and is usually enclosed in a
+tin cup. Located above this is the diaphragm which is used
+for carrying the lead bullets out of the shell when the bursting
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">[6]</span>charge explodes and distributes them in a fan shape. In
+most shells, upon exploding, the nose blows out, stripping
+the threads that hold the members together. It will, therefore,
+be seen that, in the explosion, the entire fuse, fuse base,
+tube, diaphragm and bullets are all ejected, the shell itself
+acting as a secondary cannon in the air.</p>
+
+<p>The number of lead bullets carried in the 3-inch shrapnel
+shells ranges from 210 to 360. In all cases, the lead bullets
+are about ¹⁄₂ inch in diameter, weigh approximately 167
+grains, and are kept from moving in the shell by resin or
+other smoke-producing matrix. The matrix put in with the
+lead bullets, in addition to keeping them from rattling, is
+also used as a “tracer.” It is of importance in firing shrapnel
+that the position of the explosion be plainly seen. With
+large shells this is not difficult, but with shrapnel for field
+guns at long range certain conditions of the atmosphere
+make it difficult to see when the shell actually bursts. Various
+mixtures are used to overcome this difficulty. In some
+cases, fine-grained black powder is compressed in with the
+bullets in order to give the desired effect. In the German
+shrapnel, a mixture of red amorphous phosphorus and fine-grained
+powder which produces a dense white cloud of
+smoke is used, and in the Russian, a mixture of magnesium
+antimony sulphide is used. The range of a 3-inch shrapnel
+shell is about 6500 yards, and the muzzle velocity of the
+quick-firing field gun ranges from 1700 on the American to
+1930 feet per second on the Russian field gun. The duration
+of flight ranges from 21 to 25 seconds.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Development of Timing and Percussion Fuses.</b>—The
+first fuses used in field ammunition were short iron or copper
+tubes filled with a slow-burning composition. These
+were screwed into a fuse hole provided in the shell, but
+there was no means for regulating the time of burning.
+Later—about the end of the seventeenth century—the fuse
+case was made of paper or wood so that by drilling a hole
+through into the composition the fuse could be made to
+burn for approximately the desired length of time before
+exploding the shell, or the fuse could be cut to the correct
+length to accomplish the same purpose.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">[7]</span></p>
+
+<p>For a considerable time all attempts to produce a percussion
+fuse were unsuccessful. Upon the discovery of fulminate
+of mercury in 1799, the chief requirement of a percussion
+fuse was obtained. About fifty years elapsed, however,
+before a satisfactory fuse was made. The first percussion
+fuse was known as the Pettman fuse, and comprised
+a roughened ball covered with detonating composition that
+was released upon the discharge of the gun. When the shell
+hit the desired object, the ball struck against the inner walls
+of the fuse, exploded the composition and powder charge,
+thus bursting the shell. There are at the present time three
+principal types of fuses in use: First, those depending on
+gas pressure in the gun setting the pellet of the fuse free—this
+is a base fuse; second, those relying on the shock of discharge
+or the rotation of the shell to set the pellet free—used
+in nose and base fuses; third, those depending on
+impact.</p>
+
+<p>In shrapnel shells advantage is taken of two types of
+fuses, one of which is the combination timing and percussion
+fuse used on common shrapnel, and the other the combination
+timing and percussion fuse of the high-explosive
+type used on high-explosive shrapnel. These types of fuses
+are again sub-divided, but only in the manner of construction.
+The most common fuse is that known as the combination
+timing and percussion fuse of the double-banked
+type. This is used in practically all shrapnel fuses except
+the French. The advantage of the double ring of composition
+shown at <i>A</i> and <i>B</i> in <a href="#p008_fig03">Fig. 3</a> is to give a greater
+length of composition and more accurate burning. Triple-banked
+and quadruple-banked fuses on the same principle
+have been designed, but at the present time have not been
+introduced.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Operation of Combination Timing and Percussion Fuses.</b>—The
+manner in which the combination timing and percussion
+fuse is regulated to discharge the bursting charge in
+the shrapnel shell is interesting and involves extremely difficult
+mathematical calculations. Before going into the
+method of setting the fuse, it would probably be advisable
+to describe briefly just how the fuse operates. As an example
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">[8]</span>of the double-banked fuse, <a href="#p008_fig03">Fig. 3</a> shows that adopted
+by the United States government. The following description
+applies to this type of fuse.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp68" id="p008_fig03" style="max-width: 20em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p008_fig03.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 3. American Type of Combination Timing and Percussion
+    Fuse used on Shrapnel Shells
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Assume, first, that the timing ring is set at zero. The
+propelling force given to the shrapnel shell in leaving the
+bore of the gun is such as to sever the wire <i>C</i> from plunger
+<i>G</i>. Plunger <i>G</i> carries a concussion primer which is discharged
+by hitting firing pin <i>D</i>. The flame passes out
+through vent <i>E</i>, igniting the powder pellet <i>F</i> and the upper
+end of train <i>A</i>, and then through the vent <i>H</i>. From here,
+the flame is transmitted to the lower timing ring <i>B</i> through
+vent <i>I</i> and the magazine <i>J</i>, and from there through the tube
+to the bursting charge in the base of the shrapnel shell.</p>
+
+<p>Assume any other setting, say 12 seconds. The vent <i>H</i> is
+now changed in position with respect to vent <i>F</i> leading to
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">[9]</span>the upper timing train, and the vent <i>I</i> leading to the powder
+magazine <i>J</i> is also changed. The flame, therefore, now
+passes through vent <i>E</i> and burns along the upper time train
+<i>A</i> in a counterclockwise direction until the vent <i>H</i> is
+reached. It then passes down to the beginning of the lower
+timing train and burns back in a clockwise direction to the
+position of vent <i>I</i>, from which it is transmitted by the pellet
+of compressed powder in this vent to the powder magazine
+<i>J</i>. It should be understood that the annular grooves in the
+lower face of each timing train do not form complete circles,
+a solid portion being left between the grooves in the ends
+of each. This solid portion is used to obtain a setting at
+which the fuse cannot be exploded and is known as the
+“safety point.” As shown in <a href="#p012_fig06">Fig. 6</a>, it is marked <i>S</i> on the
+adjustable timing ring.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp71" id="p009_fig04" style="max-width: 20em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p009_fig04.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 4. Russian Type of Combination Timing and Percussion Fuse
+    used on Shrapnel Shells
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[10]</span></p>
+
+<p>The timing fuse shown in <a href="#p008_fig03">Fig. 3</a> is of the combination
+timing and percussion type, and if the wire <i>C</i> fails to release
+percussion plunger <i>G</i>, the shell is exploded by means
+of a percussion fuse which comes into use when the shell
+strikes. The percussive mechanism consists of a primer <i>K</i>
+held in an inverted position in the center of the fuse body
+by a cup located beneath the percussive primer. Percussion
+plunger <i>L</i> works in a recess in the base of the fuse
+body and is kept at the bottom of the recess away from contact
+with the primer by a light spring in plunger <i>M</i>. The
+firing pin <i>N</i> is mounted on a fulcrumed pin, and is normally
+kept in the vertical position by means of two side spring
+plungers. When the shell strikes, the impact causes the
+plunger to snap up against the primer after compressing
+the spring in pin <i>M</i>. This causes the firing of the primer
+<i>K</i> and the explosive charge passes out through a hole in the
+percussion plunger chamber, not shown, to the magazine <i>J</i>
+and from there down to the powder in the base of the shell</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Russian Fuse.</b>—The Russian fuse shown in <a href="#p009_fig04">Fig. 4</a> differs
+only in a few minor details from the American fuse, the
+chief difference being in the arrangement of the percussive
+mechanisms. The percussive plunger for the timing arrangement
+is kept up from the firing pin by means of a
+spring bushing <i>E</i> surrounding the body of the plunger.
+This bushing is expanded by the plunger which is forced
+through it due to the force of the shrapnel in leaving the
+bore of the gun. The spring <i>B</i> in the head of the fuse
+assists the plunger in expanding bushing <i>E</i> and in dropping
+down onto the firing pin <i>C</i>. The flame from the exploded
+primer then travels down to the powder in the shell in
+practically the same way that it does in the American fuse,
+except that the magazine chamber is located at <i>D</i> and explodes
+through the impact fuse chamber. The percussive
+arrangement for setting the shell off by impact is slightly
+different from that in the American fuse, in that the primer
+and firing pin are held apart by means of springs, the
+inertia of which is overcome when the shell strikes an
+object.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[11]</span></p>
+
+
+<p><b>French Fuse.</b>—With the exception of a few minor details,
+the timing fuses used in American, Russian, British,
+German, Japanese, etc., shrapnel shells are the same. The
+French timing fuse, however, as shown by the diagram
+<a href="#p011_fig05">Fig. 5</a>, operates on an entirely different principle. In this
+fuse, the firing for the timing train is contained in a sealed
+tube of pure tin and is wound spirally around the head of
+the fuse. Inside of the head is the ignition arrangement.
+To set the timing part of this fuse, it is placed in a fuse-setting
+machine attached to the field gun and, by forcing
+down a handle on this device, a piercing point is thrust
+through the outer cap of the fuse, penetrating to the interior
+space of the
+head as shown at <i>A</i>.
+Upon the discharge of
+the shell from the gun,
+the gas pressure forces
+firing pin <i>B</i> back, hitting
+the percussive
+primer <i>C</i>. This causes
+a flame which passes
+out through the opening
+previously punched
+at <i>A</i> and ignites the
+“rope” powder fuse
+which is wound around
+the head of the fuse
+body. This type of
+fuse is also provided with a fuse which sets off the shell
+by impact should the timing fuse fail to work. The head
+of the fuse is covered with a cap with holes for the piercing
+point, and the whole cap can be shifted around for
+a short distance and set by the corrector scale marked
+on the body, as shown in <a href="#p003_fig01">Fig. 1</a>. A projection on the cap
+engages a recess in the fuse-setting machine and provides
+for this movement.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp81" id="p011_fig05" style="max-width: 20em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p011_fig05.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 5. French Type of Combination
+    Timing and Percussion Fuse
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><b>Firing of Shrapnel.</b>—The accuracy with which a shrapnel
+can be exploded in the air at any desired point is remarkable,
+considering the number of variable quantities
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">[12]</span>that enter into the construction of the timing fuse and
+powder train, etc. The calculations necessary for finding
+the correct setting on the timing ring involve, however, the
+use of higher mathematics and are consequently not within
+the scope of this treatise.</p>
+
+<p>In <a href="#p012_fig06">Fig. 6</a>, the timing ring used on the American fuse is
+shown. Here it will be seen that the ring is provided with
+twenty-one graduations corresponding to twenty-one
+seconds in the duration of flight of the projectile. It will
+also be noticed that
+the spacing of the
+graduations differs.
+The reason for this
+is found in the relation
+of the vents,
+the positions of the
+lower timing train,
+the trajectory of the
+flying missile, and
+the decrease of velocity.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp62" id="p012_fig06" style="max-width: 20em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p012_fig06.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 6. Diagram showing how Timing Ring
+    on the American Combination Timing
+    and Percussion Fuse is laid out
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Diagram <a href="#p013_fig07">Fig. 7</a>
+shows in an interesting
+manner just
+how a shrapnel is
+fired. The range is
+approximately obtained
+by panoramic
+sights or other
+means, and a test
+shell fired, the point of explosion noted, and the necessary
+corrections made. A table which has been worked out for
+different distances is then used. In <a href="#p013_fig07">Fig. 7</a> the diagram
+shown pertains to the American quick-firing field gun having
+a muzzle velocity of 1700 feet per second and the American
+shrapnel of 3-inch size. It will be noted that at 2000
+yards the terminal velocity of the shrapnel is 1038 feet per
+second and the time of flight for the projectile 4.75 seconds.
+In other words, the timing train to explode the shrapnel at
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">[13]</span>this point would be set at <i>A</i> in <a href="#p012_fig06">Fig. 6</a>. The range
+of a 3-inch American shrapnel is 6500 yards and
+at this point the terminal velocity is approximately
+724 feet per second, the time of flight 21.92 seconds.
+The shrapnel, when exploded, shoots out
+the bullets at an increased velocity or from 250 to
+300 feet per second, covering an area of about 250
+by 30 yards, half the bullets falling on the first 50
+yards of the beaten zone.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p013_fig07" style="max-width: 93.8125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p013_fig07.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 7. Diagram Illustrating Path of a Shrapnel and the Time of Explosion at Various Distances
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In manufacturing shrapnel shells, a test shell
+is taken from every 120 shells, which is actually
+fired out of a quick-firing gun into a bank of sand.
+If the contour of the shell in the neighborhood
+of the powder pocket is expanded during this test,
+the shell is discarded because of the liability of
+tearing out the rifling grooves in the gun</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Propellants and Explosives used in Shrapnel and
+High-explosive Shells.</b>—As has been previously
+explained, a shrapnel shell contains three principal
+parts, <i>viz.</i>, the projectile that carries the destructive
+charge of lead bullets, the fuse that carries a
+detonating arrangement for exploding the charge
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">[14]</span>in the base of the projectile, and the cartridge case that carries
+the powder charge used in propelling the projectile out
+of the bore of the gun. A high-explosive shell also comprises
+three principal parts, but the projectile, instead of
+carrying a charge of bullets and black powder, is filled with
+a high-explosive material, which, when detonated, bursts the
+body of the projectile into small pieces that are thrown off
+with great velocity and destructive effect. Shrapnel is
+used against troops in the open field, whereas high-explosive
+shells, which may be either of the ordinary or of the armor-piercing
+type, are used against fortifications, etc</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Classification of Explosives.</b>—The explosives used in
+shrapnel and high-explosive shells may be divided into three
+general classes: 1. Progressive or propelling explosives—known
+as “low” explosives. 2. Detonating or disruptive
+explosives—known as “high” explosives. 3. Detonators—known
+as “fulminates.” The first of these includes
+black gun powder, smokeless powder, and black blasting
+powder. The second, dynamite, nitroglycerine, gun cotton,
+etc. The third includes chiefly fulminates and chlorates.
+In all classes of explosives, the effect of the explosion is
+dependent upon the quantity of gas and the heat developed
+per unit of weight and volume of the explosive, the rapidity
+of the reaction, and the character of the confinement, if any,
+of the explosive charge.</p>
+
+<p><i>Low Explosives.</i>—For certain explosives, such as smokeless
+powder, the explosive action does not differ in principle
+from the burning of a piece of wood or other combustible
+material. The combustion is very rapid, but is a surface
+action, progressing from layer to layer until the entire
+grain is consumed. Such materials are known as “low”
+explosives, although the power developed through the combustion
+of a unit weight may be very great. The progressive
+emission of gas from a low explosive, such as burning
+gun powder, produces a pushing effect upon a projectile
+without unduly straining the gun, whereas the sudden
+conversion of an equal weight of a high explosive, such as
+nitroglycerine, into gas, would develop such high pressures
+as to rupture the gun.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">[15]</span></p>
+
+<p><i>High Explosives.</i>—In high explosives, such as nitroglycerine,
+gun cotton, picric acid, etc., the progress of the explosive
+reaction is not by burning from layer to layer, but,
+instead, consists of an initial breaking up of the molecules,
+giving rise to an explosive wave, which is transmitted with
+great velocity in all directions throughout the mass, and
+causes it to be converted almost instantly into a gas. The
+velocity of this explosive wave has been determined, for
+some materials, to be more than 20,000 feet, or approximately
+four miles, per second.</p>
+
+<p><i>Detonators or Fulminates.</i>—The action of fulminates is
+much more powerful than either the low or high explosives
+described. They can be readily detonated by slight shock
+or by the application of heat, and are used in primers, for
+setting off the propelling charge in a cartridge case, and in
+fuses, either of the plain percussion or of the combination
+time and percussion types. The most common fulminate
+is made by dissolving mercury in strong nitric acid and then
+pouring the solution into alcohol. After an apparently violent
+reaction, a mass of fine, gray crystals of fulminate of
+mercury is produced. The crystalline powder thus produced
+is washed with water to free it from acid and is then
+mixed with glass ground to a fine powder. Because of its
+extreme sensitiveness to heat produced by the slightest
+friction, it is usually kept soaked in water or alcohol until
+needed</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Manufacture of Black Powder.</b>—Black powder, because
+of its “pushing” effect when exploded, is used extensively
+as a base charge for shrapnel shells in expelling the bullets
+from the projectile. It comprises three principal elements
+in about the following proportions: 75 parts of saltpeter,
+15 parts of charcoal, and 10 parts of sulphur. These ingredients
+must be absolutely free from impurities and, in
+manufacturing, great care is taken in refining the saltpeter
+and sulphur, and in burning the charcoal, to prevent the
+introduction of any foreign substances. After purification,
+the ingredients are carefully weighed in the proper proportions
+and mixed for about 5 minutes in a revolving drum
+provided with mixing arms. The mixed charge is now ground
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">[16]</span>for several hours, the charge being moistened occasionally
+with distilled water, the resulting mixture being what is
+called a “milk cake.” It is then reduced to fine meal in a
+machine having Tobin bronze or gun-metal rollers, after
+which it is compressed under hydraulic pressure.</p>
+
+<p>The next operation comprises the granulating of the powder,
+which is done in a strong Tobin bronze or gun-metal
+framework carrying two pairs of toothed and two pairs of
+plain Tobin bronze or gun-metal rollers. The “cake” is cut
+into pieces by these rollers and falls on screens which sift
+it into grains of the required size. The grains are then
+separated from the dust in a revolving screen, and the high
+polish or glaze is produced by putting the powder into
+drums or glazing barrels, which revolve constantly for
+several hours. Graphite is generally used to provide the
+glazing effect. The powder is now dried in a stove heated
+by steam pipes, and is spread upon canvas trays placed
+on shelves</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Manufacture of Smokeless Powder.</b>—Smokeless powder,
+which is used in various forms in cartridge cases, was
+discovered in 1846 by a German chemist Schoenbein. The
+chief ingredient of smokeless powder is cotton. The portion
+of cotton used is generally the short fiber. The
+first attempts to produce gun cotton were unsatisfactory,
+and several very serious explosions occurred. Many of the
+difficulties in its manufacture were overcome by an Austrian,
+von Lenk. Still further progress was made by a
+Swedish engineer, Alfred Nobel, and the improved explosive
+was patented in 1888 under the name of “ballistite.”
+One of the principal smokeless powders is known as “cordite”,
+this name being derived from the cord-like form it
+assumes in manufacture. The first compositions of cordite
+were: 58 per cent of nitroglycerine; 37 per cent of gun
+cotton; and 5 per cent of mineral jelly. This composition,
+after considerable use, was found to have a slight deteriorating
+effect on the bore of the gun, and after ten years’
+use was modified to the following proportions: 30 per cent
+of nitroglycerine; 65 per cent of gun cotton; and 5 per cent
+of mineral jelly.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">[17]</span></p>
+
+<p>The brand of smokeless powder used most extensively as
+a propelling charge in shrapnel or high-explosive shells is
+known as nitrocellulose, and, as is common with cordite, the
+base of this is cotton, as previously explained. It is manufactured
+as follows: After bleaching and purifying, the
+cotton is run through a picker which opens up the fibers
+and breaks up any lumps. It is then thoroughly dried and
+is ready for nitration. The most generally used method of
+nitration is to put the cotton into a large vessel filled with
+a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids. The sulphuric
+acid absorbs the water developed in the process of nitration,
+which would otherwise too greatly dilute the nitric acid.
+After a few minutes’ immersion, the pot is rapidly rotated
+by power, and the acid permitted to escape. Following
+this, the nitrated cotton is washed for a short time and then
+removed from the nitrator or pot and repeatedly washed or
+boiled to remove all traces of free acid. As the keeping
+qualities of the nitrated cotton are dependent upon the thoroughness
+with which it is purified, the specifications for
+powder for the United States army and navy require that
+the nitrocellulose shall be given at least five boilings at this
+stage of the manufacture, with a change of water after
+each boiling, the total time of boiling being forty hours.
+Following this preliminary purification, the nitrocellulose
+is cut up into shorter lengths, by being rapidly run between
+cylinders carrying revolving knives. This operation—known
+as “pulping”—is necessary because of the difficulty
+experienced in removing the free acid, unless the fibers
+are cut up into short lengths.</p>
+
+<p>After pulping, the nitrocellulose is given six more boilings,
+with a change of water after each, followed by ten
+cold water washings. The material is now known as gun
+cotton or pyrocellulose. Previous to adding the solvent,
+this must be free from water. This is generally accomplished
+in a circular wringer, and in addition by compressing
+the pyrocellulose into solid blocks. Alcohol is forced
+through the compressed mass. Ether is then added to the
+pyrocellulose already impregnated with alcohol, the relative
+proportions being two parts, by volume, of ether to one
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[18]</span>part of alcohol. After the ether has been thoroughly incorporated
+in a kneading machine, the material is placed
+in a hydraulic press and formed into cylindrical blocks
+about 10 inches in diameter and 15 inches long. It is then
+transferred to a finishing press where it is again forced
+through dies and comes out in the form of long strips or
+rods, which are cut into pieces of the length and widths
+required. It is in this finishing process that the various
+governments differ in their methods of manufacture. The
+United States Government uses a short perforated circular
+block, whereas the French use flat sticks about 0.0195 inch
+thick by ¹⁄₂ inch wide. Two lengths or rows of these sticks
+are arranged in the cartridge case. The cut up pieces are
+subjected to a drying process which removes nearly all the
+solvent and leaves the material in a suitable condition for
+use. The drying process is a lengthy one, amounting to as
+much as four or five months for powder in large pieces.
+Upon completion, the powder is blended and packed in airtight
+boxes</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Manufacture of High Explosives.</b>—The explosive charges
+used in high-explosive shells are known by various trade
+names, such as: emmensite, lyddite, melinite, maximite,
+nitrobenzole, nitronaphthalene, shimose, trinitrotoluol, turpenite,
+etc. The base of such explosives as emmensite, maximite,
+lyddite, melinite, and shimose, is picric acid, which
+is secured from coal tar, subjected to fractional distillation.
+The liquid which comes off when this is raised to a temperature
+of 150 degrees C. is called “light” oil, and when
+these light oils have been again distilled, the next fraction
+or “middle” oil yields phenol or carbolic acid. This substance
+when nitrated gives off picric acid. Experiments
+with lyddite shells showed their behavior to be very erratic,
+some exploding with great effect, while others gave disappointing
+results. This was due to the fact that picric acid
+requires a powerful detonator to obtain the highest explosive
+effect. The use of such a detonator, however, is dangerous,
+and extensive experiments have brought forth a new high
+explosive known as trinitrotoluol—generally termed T.N.T.
+Although the explosive force of trinitrotoluol is slightly
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">[19]</span>less than that of picric acid, the pressure of the latter being
+135,820 pounds per square inch as against 119,000 pounds
+for trinitrotoluol, its advantages more than compensate for
+the difference.</p>
+
+<p>Trinitrotoluol is obtained by the nitration of toluene,
+contained in the crude benzol distilled from coal tar and
+washed out from coal gas. The crude benzol contains
+roughly:</p>
+
+
+
+<table class="autotable3 normal" >
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">
+</td>
+<td class="tdr">
+Per cent
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">
+Benzine<br>
+Toluene<br>
+Xylene<br>
+Other substances
+</td>
+<td class="tdrpad">
+50<br>
+36<br>
+11<br>
+3
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>Toluene to be used for the manufacture of trinitrotoluol
+should be a clear water-like liquid, free from suspended
+solid matter, and having a specific gravity of not less than
+0.868, nor more than 0.870, at 15.5 degrees C. Trinitrotoluol
+when pure has no odor and is a yellowish crystalline
+powder which darkens slightly with age. It cannot be
+exploded by flame or strong percussion, and a rifle bullet
+may be fired through it without any effect. When heated
+to 180 degrees C., it ignites and burns with a heavy black
+smoke; but when detonated by a fulminate of mercury
+detonator, it explodes with great violence, giving off a black
+smoke. Shells containing this explosive, first used on the
+western battle front, were given such names as “coal boxes,”
+“Jack Johnsons,” “Black Marias,” etc., by the allies.</p>
+
+<p>The Russians and Austrians use a high explosive known
+as ammonal in which 12 to 15 per cent of trinitrotoluol is
+mixed with an oxidizing compound, ammonium nitrate, a
+small amount of aluminum powder, and a trace of charcoal.
+This high explosive gives somewhat better results than
+plain trinitrotoluol, but has the one disadvantage of easily
+collecting moisture, and consequently must be made up in
+airtight cartridges. The British are now using an improved
+compound of this character, which is so prepared
+that trouble is not experienced with the collection of
+moisture.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[20]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_II">
+    CHAPTER II
+    <br>
+    <span class="sm">FORGING SHRAPNEL SHELLS</span>
+  </h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>Within the last few months, many methods have been
+suggested for making shrapnel forgings, but a comparatively
+small number have been put into use. Practically
+speaking, no two governments have adopted the same
+method. The Russian government uses double-acting horizontal
+hydraulic forging presses in which two operations
+are performed at the same time on different forgings. For
+instance, while the punch in one end of the machine is
+piercing a heated billet, the ram on the return stroke performs
+the hot drawing operation on another shell located
+at the opposite end of the machine. In this way a shell is
+completed at each cycle of the machine—forward and return
+stroke. The French government, up to a short time
+ago, used steam hammers for this purpose, and produced
+shrapnel forgings in practically the same manner as a drop-forging
+is made, the punch being carried in the ram of the
+press and the die held on the bed. This is rather a slow
+process and requires more than one heating to complete
+the forging. The German government uses a horizontal
+hydraulic forging press for piercing the billet and a steam
+driven machine for drawing the forging, which receives its
+motion from a rack and pinion. This method has the advantage
+over the hydraulic press of being more economical
+in the consumption of power.</p>
+
+<p>The methods followed by different concerns in this country
+and Canada, at the present time, differ to a large extent.
+Some manufacturers are using a method that dates
+back as far as 1890, as will be described later. Others are
+using a more improved method developed about 1895,
+whereas about three concerns are using a still more improved
+method developed within the past year</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Caley Method of Making Shrapnel Forgings.</b>—The first
+method (known as the Caley process) of making shrapnel
+forgings in this country had its inception about 1890 and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[21]</span>was used almost exclusively until 1895. This comprised
+a slug-forming and billet-piercing operation followed by a
+successive reduction and elongation of the forging through
+drawing dies. The order of these operations is shown diagrammatically
+in <a href="#p021_fig01">Fig. 1</a>. The information given herewith
+pertains to the making of a forging for a 3-inch shrapnel
+shell. As shown at <i>D</i>, a billet of steel 3¹⁄₄ inches in diameter
+and 6¹⁄₂ inches long was cut off from a bar with a cold
+saw, and formed into a cone shape under a vertical hydraulic
+press having a capacity of 100 tons. The billet was
+heated in a furnace to about 1900 degrees F., dropped into
+the impression in the die and forced into shape by a hydraulic
+plunger having a depression in the lower end which
+centered the blank. The result of this operation is shown
+at <i>F</i>.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp73" id="p021_fig01" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p021_fig01.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 1. Diagram showing Caley Process of making Shrapnel
+    Forgings in Hydraulic Forging Presses
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">[22]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp37" id="p022_fig02" style="max-width: 15em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p022_fig02.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 2. Watson-Stillman Hydraulic Forging Press of the Vertical
+    Type used for making Shrapnel Forgings
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[23]</span></p>
+
+<p>The next step was to anneal the billet, after which it
+was pierced as shown at <i>C</i>, and at the same time slightly
+elongated. This operation was handled in a hydraulic
+press of the type shown in <a href="#p022_fig02">Fig. 2</a>. On a 0.70 per cent
+carbon steel billet the pressure on the punch in the piercing
+operation was 20,000 pounds per square inch, and the
+machine used was a vertical hydraulic forging press of the
+type referred to having a capacity of 100 tons. From the
+piercing operation the forging was taken direct without
+annealing to the horizontal hydraulic draw press, and, as
+is shown at <i>H</i>, was located on a punch and forced through
+a series of drawing dies which gradually reduced the shell
+to the correct diameter, 3¹⁄₈ inches, and drew it out to
+the required length, about 8³⁄₄ inches.</p>
+
+<p>A point worthy of attention is the preparation of the
+cone-shaped billet. The smallest end was made slightly
+smaller than the smallest reduction die in the series. The
+reason for this was that if any drawing were done on the
+end of the shell the front corner would be drawn over and
+deformed, increasing the amount of machining required.
+The drawing dies in this case were six in number, as shown
+at <i>H</i>, and were reduced on a sliding scale of the following
+proportional reductions. First, 0.100 inch; second, 0.080
+inch; third, 0.060 inch; fourth, 0.040 inch; fifth, 0.030
+inch; and sixth, 0.020 inch. This gave dies of the following
+sizes, in inches, starting with the largest in the series: 3.355,
+3.275, 3.215, 3.175, 3.145, and 3.125.</p>
+
+<p>The shape given to the drawing edges of the dies is of
+prime importance. The mouth or entering side of the hole
+was beveled to an angle of 20 degrees leading to a liberal
+curve which terminated in a land ¹⁄₁₆ inch wide. The
+shape was finished off with a ¹⁄₄-inch radius. These dies
+were made from chilled cast iron and were held in position
+as shown at <i>H</i>, being slipped into a pocket in the frame of
+the machine, as shown at <i>I</i>. The punches for the coning,
+piercing and hot drawing operations were made from special
+hot punching steel. The first drawing die in the series
+lasted the longest because the metal was hotter at this point
+than when it was drawn completely through the dies. As
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">[25]</span>
+a rule, the last drawing die turned out 100 shells before
+being worn or scored. Then it was reground to a larger
+size and used again. The drawing punch was lubricated
+occasionally with graphite. After drawing, the forging is
+annealed to obtain the proper physical qualities. This
+method of making forgings for a 3-inch shrapnel shell is
+capable of producing 400 in ten hours.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p024_fig03" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p024_fig03.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 3. Holinger Process of making Shrapnel Forgings
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><b>Holinger Method of Making Shrapnel Forgings.</b>—About
+1895 the following method, known as the Holinger process
+of making shrapnel forgings, was devised. Instead of
+making the billet conical in shape before piercing, this preliminary
+operation was dispensed with, and to facilitate the
+work, as well as to reduce the friction of the flowing metal,
+the arrangement of the piercing punch and die was changed.
+This process is shown in Figs. <a href="#p024_fig03">3</a> and <a href="#p026_fig04">4</a>, and was accomplished
+in a hydraulic press provided with two cylinders,
+one located at the bottom and the other at the top of the
+press.</p>
+
+<p>The operation was as follows: The die <i>a</i> was held in a
+movable frame <i>b</i> and the piston <i>c</i> acted first. The first
+position after the billet was dropped into the die is shown
+at <i>B</i>. Here the die <i>a</i> and punch <i>d</i> remained stationary
+while the piston <i>c</i> descended, pushing the billet through
+the die and over the punch. When the piston reached the
+end of its stroke, as shown at <i>C</i>, the lower cylinder began to
+act and the frame carrying the die was raised. This frame,
+as shown at <i>D</i>, carried a stripper plate <i>e</i> which removed the
+pierced billet from the punch and located it so that it could
+be picked off with a pair of tongs. A subsequent operation
+of hot drawing as shown at <i>E</i>, <a href="#p026_fig04">Fig. 4</a>, was required, which
+is similar to that described in the first method. The method
+just described was used chiefly for 6- and 8-inch shrapnel
+and projectile forgings, and at the present time is still used
+for 3- and 6-inch shell forgings. It requires much less
+power and turns out a better and more concentric forging
+than the method previously described. The production on
+8-inch shells is about 180 in ten hours, and 250 on the
+3-inch shell.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">[26]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p026_fig04" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p026_fig04.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 4. Holinger Process of making Shrapnel Forgings
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p026_fig05" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p026_fig05.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 5. Improved Method of making Shrapnel Forgings in One Heat and One Operation
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[27]</span></p>
+
+
+<p><b>Later Methods of Forging Shrapnel Shells.</b>—The increased
+demand for shrapnel within the last few months
+has been instrumental in bringing about a radical improvement
+in the production of forged shells. Previously, the
+aim was to get the internal diameter as close as possible to
+the finished size and to do comparatively little machining
+on it; in fact, this is still, in a great number of cases, one
+of the requirements. While at first glance this would appear
+to be the logical way of handling the work, on further
+investigation it is found that the forging of the shell to
+the correct size is much more expensive than to leave sufficient
+metal to machine all over. In the first place, a hydraulic
+machine of 100 tons capacity costs considerably
+more in initial outlay than a turret lathe, and in the second
+place it is more expensive to operate. The cheapest method
+of making a shrapnel forging is to rough-forge it to approximately
+the correct shape and then finish to exact shape
+and diameter in turret lathes or semi-automatic chucking
+machines. This simplifies the forging process and also decreases
+the production costs.</p>
+
+<p>One of the later methods of making shrapnel forgings
+is shown diagrammatically in <a href="#p026_fig05">Fig. 5</a>. A billet of steel
+6¹⁄₂ inches long by 3⁵⁄₁₆ inches in diameter is heated to a
+temperature of from 1900 to 2100 degrees F., and then
+dropped into the impression in the die <i>a</i> held in a special
+cast-steel die-holder <i>b</i>. To do this, die <i>a</i> is drawn out from
+beneath the punch, punch guide <i>c</i> removed, and the billet
+dropped in. Then the guide is replaced and the die-holder
+slid in until it contacts with the stop <i>d</i>. The press is now
+operated, and, as shown at <i>B</i>, advances, piercing the billet
+and making the metal flow up around the walls of the
+punch.</p>
+
+<p>The punch now retreats, carrying the centralizing guide <i>c</i>
+with it. The die-holder is now drawn out from under the
+punch onto a bracket projecting from the bed of the press.
+The high-carbon steel, hardened block <i>e</i> then drops out of
+the die, as is also the case with the finished forging. This
+block <i>e</i>, of course, is heated up to a considerable extent due
+to the hot metal resting on it so that several blocks of this
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[28]</span>kind are provided. In the illustration, as shown at <i>C</i>, centralizing
+guide <i>c</i> is shown attached to the punch. In actual
+operation this is not the case. When the punch rises, guide
+<i>c</i> is stripped from it by stripper plate <i>f</i> so that the guide
+is gripped with tongs and laid down on the bed of
+the press until a fresh heated billet has been placed in the
+die impression ready for the next piercing. The punch is
+made from special hot punching steel and the die from
+chilled cast iron. The production of forgings by this
+method for a 3-inch shrapnel shell is about 600 in ten
+hours.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp76" id="p028_fig06" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p028_fig06.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 6. Producing Shrapnel Forgings in a 750-ton Hydraulic
+    Forging Press
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The amount of metal left for machining by this method
+varies from ¹⁄₈ to ³⁄₁₆ inch on the internal and external
+diameters. The forging after annealing is then machined
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[29]</span>inside and out on turret lathes, or semi-automatic chucking
+machines. The accepted method is to first machine the internal
+diameter and then hold the shell on an expanding
+arbor and machine it on the external diameter.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp82" id="p029_fig07" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p029_fig07.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 7. Piercing Billets for Shrapnel Forgings In a “Wood”
+    750-ton Hydraulic Forging Press
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><b>Producing Shrapnel Forgings in Hydraulic Presses.</b>—In
+the foregoing description various principles of making
+shrapnel forgings were described. Owing to the large number
+of forgings lately required, practically all types of forging
+presses and power forging machines have been used.
+<a href="#p028_fig06">Fig. 6</a> shows how one manufacturer is solving the problem.
+The machine used is an R. D. Wood Co., 750-ton hydraulic
+forging press; this performs both the billet piercing and
+drawing operations. The forgings turned out on this machine
+are for the British 18-pound shell, and the billet is
+3¹⁄₂ inches in diameter by 4¹⁄₂ inches long. The first operation,
+piercing the billet, is done by the punches and dies
+shown in <a href="#p029_fig07">Fig. 7</a>. The billet is heated in a furnace to a
+temperature of 2000 degrees F., and then quickly removed
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[30]</span>and placed in the dies. The press is now operated, piercing
+two billets at the same time. The pierced billet is 3¹⁄₂
+inches in diameter by 7¹⁄₂ inches long.</p>
+
+<p>A complete batch of pierced billets is first put through,
+then the pierced billets are taken to the furnace again and
+heated to 2000 degrees F. The punches and dies in the center
+of the illustration <a href="#p030_fig08">Fig. 8</a> are used for finish-drawing the
+forging by drawing it out to 3¹⁄₂ inches in diameter by 11
+inches long. This method is only temporary and will be
+replaced shortly by three R. D. Wood four-post hydraulic
+presses. The piercing operation will be handled on one
+press of 350 tons capacity, and the drawing operations on
+two presses of 200 tons capacity.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="p030_fig08" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p030_fig08.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 8. Drawing Shrapnel Forgings in a “Wood” 750-ton
+    Hydraulic Forging Press
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><b>Making Shrapnel Forgings in Power Forging Machines.</b>—One
+of the latest developments in the art of producing
+forgings for shrapnel shells is the adaptation of the power
+forging machine to this work. As has been previously mentioned,
+there are several methods of producing shrapnel
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[31]</span>shells, and as it has been conclusively proved that the forged
+shell is superior to the shell made from bar stock, it is only
+natural that several methods for making the forgings would
+be developed. In the forging machine method, a bar slightly
+larger than the finished diameter of the forging is cut off,
+making a billet about 5¹⁄₂ inches long. This billet, for a 3-inch
+shell, weighs about 9¹⁄₄ to 9¹⁄₂ pounds.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p031_fig09" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p031_fig09.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 9. Examples of Shrapnel Forgings turned out on a Power
+    Forging Machine
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The billet is heated to a white heat in a furnace, the temperature
+being about 2000 degrees F., depending on the carbon
+content and other constituents in the steel, and is then
+placed in the lower impression of the forging die. The
+machine used for this size of forging is a standard upsetting
+and forging machine provided with a special crank-shaft.
+Upon being operated, the lower plunger, which is
+larger than the diameter of the powder pocket in the shell,
+advances and pierces the billet. The pierced billet is then
+raised to the next impression, and the machine again operated.
+The second punch is longer than the first and smaller
+in diameter. The billet is forced up on this punch, which
+reduces it in diameter and increases its length. After the
+second impression the partially formed shell is then placed
+in the third or final die impression, where it is given two
+blows, being given one-half turn after the first blow to
+form it more perfectly. The operations just enumerated
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[32]</span>are performed in one heating of the billet, and the production
+of a 3-inch shell ranges from 400 to 450 in ten hours.</p>
+
+<p>The dies for this work are, of course, constructed upon a
+somewhat different principle from the ordinary forging
+die, because in this case it is necessary to make the metal
+flow up on the punches. The dies, therefore, are so constructed
+that they recede as the punch advances, which
+tends to make the metal flow up on the punch. The practicability
+of this method is well illustrated by the samples
+shown in <a href="#p031_fig09">Fig. 9</a>. Here <i>D</i> is the rough forging just as it
+comes from the machine, with the exception that the mouth
+has been trimmed. <i>C</i> is a section of a shell made from
+low-carbon steel about 0.30 per cent carbon; <i>B</i> is a shell
+made from 0.50 per cent carbon, 3¹⁄₂ per cent nickel steel.
+This has been rough-turned, as the illustration shows. The
+homogeneity of the forgings is clearly indicated. <i>A</i> is a
+forging made from low-carbon steel, finish-turned.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most interesting points about this method is
+its cost as compared with shells made from bar stock. To
+produce a 3-inch shell from bar stock requires about 22
+pounds of material, and on metal costing 10 cents per
+pound, a bar shell—exclusive of machining—costs $2.20;
+to produce the same shell on a power forging machine requires
+about 9¹⁄₄ to 9¹⁄₂ pounds, and figuring on 10 cents
+per pound the cost for the material is only $1—a saving of
+$1.20 on each shell. Furthermore, the production of shells
+from bar stock on automatic machines is about twelve to
+fifteen per day. The number of forgings that can be
+turned out in the same time is 400 to 450, and the number
+that can be machined in this time varies from forty to
+fifty for two operations. It is therefore evident that the
+production of shells by forging is far superior to the bar
+method, and the forged shell is more satisfactory from
+every standpoint.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp44" id="p033_fig10" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p033_fig10.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 10. Diagram Illustrating Method of piercing and drawing
+    Shrapnel Forgings in a Bliss Power Press
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><b>Forging Shrapnel in a Power Press.</b>—Another interesting
+development in the forging line is shown diagrammatically
+in <a href="#p033_fig10">Fig. 10</a>. This method comprises three operations,
+and is handled in a No. 80¹⁄₂ Bliss press capable of exerting
+a pressure of 1200 tons. A billet 3¹⁄₄ inches in diameter
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">[33]</span>by 3³⁄₄ inches long is heated in a furnace to 1976 degrees
+F. and then quickly placed in the die shown at <i>A</i>. The
+press is operated, and the punch in descending pierces the
+billet, being guided by the guide <i>a</i>, as shown at <i>B</i>, which
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[34]</span>also acts as a stripper. The forging retains its heat to a
+certain extent after this operation, the temperature being
+about from 1380 to 1425 degrees F. This is sufficient to
+perform the second minor operation which, as shown at <i>C</i>
+and <i>D</i>, consists in forcing the heated billet into the die-block
+to reduce the diameter of the lower end and facilitate
+the succeeding operation. This reducing operation is performed
+with the same type of punch as is used in the succeeding
+operation, and the die-block is simply laid on top
+of a bolster while the reducing is being done.</p>
+
+<p>The final forming or drawing of the forging is accomplished
+as shown at <i>E</i> and <i>F</i>, the same type of press, <i>viz.</i>,
+a Bliss No. 80¹⁄₂ power press, being used for this purpose.
+The pierced billet is now heated to 1976 degrees F., and
+is then forced through the three drawing dies <i>b</i>, <i>c</i> and <i>d</i>,
+by the punch <i>e</i>. The first die is 3⁵⁄₁₆ inches in diameter
+and reduces the forging from 3³⁄₈ inches to this size. The
+second is 3⁷⁄₃₂, and the third, or last, 3¹⁄₈ inches in diameter.
+The forging, after being forced through the dies, is
+stripped from the punch by plates <i>f</i>, and as it still retains
+a temperature of 1475 degrees F.—sufficient for annealing—is
+thrown down on the sand to cool off. The billet piercing
+and drawing dies, shown in the illustration, were made
+from 50-point carbon steel, hardened. This gave fair results,
+although chilled cast-iron dies would prove even more
+satisfactory. The punches were made from several different
+materials such as chrome-vanadium, 70-point carbon
+steel, and unannealed malleable casting. Of the three materials,
+the latter gave the most satisfactory results, in that
+pitting was reduced to a minimum. Of course, it was necessary
+to grind the malleable casting to shape.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Flow of Hot Metal When Pierced.</b>—In the manufacture
+of shrapnel shell forgings, the first operation is that of
+piercing, and to accomplish this satisfactorily, it is necessary
+to understand the action of a piercing punch on a
+semi-plastic billet of steel. There are certain fundamental
+laws governing the flow of metals under pressure and a
+study of these is of exceptional interest. An attempt has
+been made in <a href="#p035_fig11">Fig. 11</a> to illustrate diagrammatically some of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[35]</span>the principles involved, and in the following discussion it
+should be understood that the billet is made from 50-point
+carbon, 60-point manganese steel, 6¹⁄₂ by 3⁵⁄₁₆ inches in
+diameter.</p>
+
+<p>At <i>A</i> a round-end tapered punch is shown in contact
+with the heated billet, and the lines show the possible flow
+of the metal, <i>i.e.</i>, the material commences to “pack” at
+the end of the punch. In this case the walls of the die are
+straight. At <i>B</i> the billet is being pierced, and the resultant
+effect on the flow of the metal is indicated. Here it
+will be seen that the pressure increases as the punch descends,
+because of the wedging action on the metal and
+the friction between the surfaces of the sides of the punch
+and die. The pressure on the end of a punch of this shape
+is about 20,000 pounds per square inch.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="p035_fig11" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p035_fig11.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 11. Diagram Illustrating Flow of Hot Metal while being pierced
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>By leaving the sides of the die of the same shape as at <i>B</i>,
+but making the end of the punch square instead of round
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">[36]</span>and not tapered, different action is caused. When the flat
+punch, as shown at <i>C</i>, first contacts with the metal, the
+pressure required is greater than at <i>A</i>, but as soon as the
+metal commences to flow as at <i>D</i>, the pressure decreases.
+For instance, suppose the pressure required at <i>B</i> to pierce
+the billet was 100 tons; on the same material at <i>D</i>, the required
+pressure would be only 70 tons—a decrease of 30
+per cent. The metal, however, does not follow the sides
+of the punch as closely at <i>D</i> as at <i>B</i>, and this accounts in
+part for the reduction of power required. The action of
+hot flowing metal on the face of a square punch is just the
+reverse of what would naturally be expected. Instead of
+the punch wearing away at the edge, the center first shows
+signs of wear as indicated at <i>e</i>. Seams are opened up in
+a radial direction caused by the hot metal attacking the
+softest parts in the face of the punch.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p036_fig12" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p036_fig12.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 12. Shrapnel Shell Head and Diaphragm produced in
+    a Power Forging Machine
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Again, a different condition exists to that shown at <i>B</i>
+and <i>D</i>, when both the die and the punch are tapered as
+shown at <i>E</i>. Here the friction of the extruded metal on the
+walls of the die and sides of the punch is excessive, and it
+is practically impossible to produce a satisfactorily pierced
+billet in this manner. From a theoretical standpoint, the
+conditions shown at <i>F</i> are ideal. Here the sides of the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">[37]</span>punch are straight, the end flat, and the walls of the die
+taper or increase in diameter toward the bottom. In this
+case the friction of the flowing metal is greatly reduced
+because of the lessening of the wedging action. Other considerations,
+however, make this method impracticable.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp71" id="p037_fig13" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p037_fig13.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 13. Diagram Illustrating Method of producing Shrapnel Shell
+    Heads in a Power Forging Machine without any
+    Waste of Stock
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>A still greater reduction in the pressure necessary to
+pierce a billet is shown at <i>G</i>. Here a square billet instead
+of a round one is being pierced. In the plan view it will
+be noticed that the friction on the walls of the die is greatly
+reduced, and the pressure continues low until the extruded
+billet contacts all around with the surface of the die. The
+completed product, however, is inferior to that made from
+a round billet. From the previous remarks, it will be seen
+that a punch and die that would best meet the requirements
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">[38]</span>is one having a rounded end as at <i>B</i>, straight sides as at <i>D</i>,
+and straight walls in the die. The most satisfactory punch
+and die for piercing shrapnel forgings when all the variable
+conditions are considered would be as shown at <i>H</i>.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp62" id="p038_fig14" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p038_fig14.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 14. Diagram Illustrating Method of making Shrapnel Shell
+    Diaphragms in a Special Type of Power Forging Machine
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><b>Forging the Shrapnel Head.</b>—The shrapnel head shown
+at <i>A</i> in <a href="#p036_fig12">Fig. 12</a>, that screws into the end of the shell and into
+which the fuse body is screwed, is made from a forging
+of low-carbon steel for the French shell. One method of
+producing this, which is of unusual interest, is shown in
+<a href="#p037_fig13">Fig. 13</a>. A power-driven forging machine equipped with a
+special set of tools is used for this purpose. A bar of steel
+of the same diameter as the hole in the finished forging,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[39]</span>in this case 1¹⁄₂ inch, is gripped in the dies as shown at <i>A</i>,
+and is upset by means of a plunger <i>a</i>, forming an upset on
+the end of the bar shown to the right. The upset bar is
+now placed in the second impression of the gripping dies,
+as shown at <i>B</i>. By way of explanation, it should be stated
+that the views of the dies shown at <i>A</i>, <i>B</i>, and <i>C</i> are sections
+taken in a horizontal plane at each stage or die impression.
+Upon gripping the upset forging in the second
+impression in the dies, the plunger <i>b</i> advances and forms
+an annular groove in the face of the forging, at the same
+time increasing its width as shown at <i>c</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The forging, still integral with the bar, is now quickly
+removed and placed in the last impression of the dies.
+The diameter of the hole in these dies is larger than the bar,
+allowing it to slip back as the punch advances to punch
+the hole in the forging. When the punch moves forward
+it carries with it the spring-operated sleeve <i>d</i>, thus finishing
+the forging in one heat. This method of forging is
+very satisfactory, producing a homogeneous forging at the
+rate of 1500 in ten hours.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Forging the Steel Diaphragm.</b>—The steel diaphragm
+shown at <i>B</i> in <a href="#p036_fig12">Fig. 12</a> is made from low-carbon steel in a
+special type of forging machine operated similarly to a
+hot-pressed nut machine. That is to say, the bar, instead
+of being fed in from the front, as in a regular forging machine,
+is fed in from the side. The manner in which this
+is accomplished is shown in <a href="#p038_fig14">Fig. 14</a>. A flat bar of steel
+2³⁄₈ inches wide by ³⁄₈ inch thick, heated to the proper temperature
+for a distance of three feet, is fed across the face
+of the die as at <i>A</i> and located by stop <i>b</i>. Punch <i>c</i> then
+advances and cuts out a blank of the required diameter,
+forcing it into the die, as shown at <i>B</i>. The metal is now
+confined between the faces of punches <i>d</i> and <i>c</i> and in die <i>a</i>,
+and is forged to the required shape. The next step is shown
+at <i>C</i>, where punch <i>d</i> advances and forces the formed forging
+out of the die. The production of this diaphragm is
+in the neighborhood of from 8000 to 10,000 in ten hours.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[40]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_III">
+    CHAPTER III
+    <br>
+    <span class="sm">MACHINING AND HEAT-TREATMENT OF SHRAPNEL
+    SHELLS</span>
+  </h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p040_fig01" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p040_fig01.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 1. Shrapnel Shells in Various Stages of Manufacture
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Shrapnel shells are manufactured either from bar
+stock or forgings. The bar-stock method, however, is not
+considered as satisfactory as forging because of piping, so
+that the greater number of shrapnel shells made at the
+present time are turned out from forgings. The first step,
+therefore, in the making of a shrapnel shell is to cut off a
+billet of the required length from a bar of steel of the necessary
+constituents. In the making of an 18-pound shrapnel
+shell, the billet is cut off from a bar of 46-point carbon,
+60-point manganese steel in machines of different types.
+One way of doing this, as shown in <a href="#p041_fig02">Fig. 2</a>, is to use a Newton
+cutting-off machine having an air clamp for holding
+the bar in place while it is being cut off. A Hunter duplex
+saw, as shown in the illustration, provided with high-speed
+steel inserted teeth, performs the cutting operation. The
+billet for an 18-pound shrapnel shell is 3¹⁄₂ inches in diameter
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">[41]</span>by 4¹⁄₂ inches long. It is then forged to shape, as has
+been previously explained.</p>
+
+<p>Assuming that the forging has been completed, the following
+is a complete summary of the machining operations
+on the shell up to the point of assembling. In one plant
+where this work is being done, the shrapnel shells are
+put through in lots of 120, each lot being kept in three
+boxes, forty shells to a box. Out of every 120, one shell
+after heat-treatment is tested for tensile strength. The
+tensile strength before heat-treatment must be from 30,000
+to 40,000 pounds per square inch, and from 80,000 to 90,000
+pounds per square inch after heat-treatment. For facilitating
+transportation, trucks of various designs are used.
+One type of truck used for this purpose is shown in <a href="#p042_fig03">Fig. 3</a>.
+This is built by the Chapman Double Ball Bearing Co. of
+Canada, Ltd., Toronto, Ontario, and has some interesting
+features, the chief of which are the ball-bearing swiveling
+head, ball-bearing wheels, and the means of releasing or
+raising the load with the handle in any position. This
+feature is valuable in using the truck in a crowded space.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p041_fig02" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p041_fig02.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 2. Cutting off Billets for making Shrapnel Forgings in a
+    Newton Cutting-off Machine
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><b>Trimming and Facing the Shell Forging.</b>—The first machining
+operation on the forged shell is to cut off the ragged
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">[42]</span>end, which is generally from ¹⁄₂ to 1¹⁄₂ inch longer
+than that required for the finished shell. This operation
+is performed in many different ways, but one of the most
+common is to place it in a Hurlbut-Rogers cutting-off
+machine as shown in <a href="#p043_fig04">Fig. 4</a>. For performing the cutting-off
+operation, two plain forged cutting-off tools made from
+“Sabine” extra high-speed steel are used. The forging is
+located in the proper position in the chuck by a plunger or
+stop <i>A</i>, sliding in a fixture <i>B</i> clamped to the base of the
+machine. This plunger locates the shell from the bottom
+of the hole or powder pocket and forces the shell into the
+chuck against the resistance of an open-wound spring. The
+stop is then located by a gage <i>C</i> that forms a member of
+the fixture and fitting ring <i>D</i> on the stop. The chuck jaws
+are now clamped on the work and the cutting off commences.
+As soon as the excess stock is cut off, the stop
+is drawn back and the pressure of the jaws on the work
+released; the spring in the chuck then ejects the forging.
+The production of an 18-pound shell from one machine is
+about 140 in eight hours.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p042_fig03" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p042_fig03.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 3. Truck built by the Chapman Double Ball Bearing Co.
+    for transferring Shrapnel Shells about the Shop
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The next roughing operation is to face off the bottom or
+closed end of the forging, bringing the shell to approximately
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[43]</span>the correct length. There are also many ways of
+performing this operation. One method is to grip the forging
+in a chuck, as shown in <a href="#p043_fig05">Fig. 5</a>, in an ordinary lathe
+and face off the end with a high-speed steel tool held in an
+Armstrong tool-holder. From to ¹⁄₄ to ³⁄₈ inch is faced off
+from the end.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p043_fig04" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p043_fig04.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 4. Cutting off Excess Length of Shrapnel Forging in a
+    Hurlbut-Rogers Cutting-off Machine
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p043_fig05" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p043_fig05.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 5. Facing off Closed End of Shell to Length
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><b>Rough-turning Operations on Shrapnel Forging.</b>—Practically
+every type of engine lathe and turret lathe as well
+as special machines are used for turning and boring shrapnel
+forgings, and in the following chapter each method
+will be dealt with separately. Before doing this, however,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">[44]</span>a complete summary of the methods of machining employed
+in a large plant turning out shrapnel will be described.
+In this plant, the first rough-turning operation is handled
+on a flat turret lathe, as shown in <a href="#p044_fig06">Fig. 6</a>. For this purpose,
+the shell forging is held on an expanding arbor and is
+driven by a dog fastened to it and driven by the faceplate
+of the lathe. A multiple tool turner is first brought into
+position and takes a cut of about ¹⁄₈ inch from the diameter
+for practically the entire length of the shell. The next
+tool then faces off the end of the shell to length.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p044_fig06" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p044_fig06.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 6. First Rough-turning Operation on Shrapnel Shell
+    in a Flat Turret Lathe
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The shell forging is now ready for cutting the rifling
+band groove and producing the waves. This is handled in
+an ordinary engine lathe equipped with a special fixture,
+carrying grooving, waving and under-cutting tools. The
+shell forging, as shown in <a href="#p045_fig07">Fig. 7</a>, is held in a chuck at
+one end and supported by a revolving center at the other.
+One part of the fixture is clamped to the bed of the lathe
+and the other to the carriage. The grooving and ribbing
+is accomplished with a tool held in holder <i>A</i> at the front
+of the lathe, whereas the two under-cutting tools are held in
+holders <i>D</i> and <i>E</i> at the rear of the lathe. In operation
+the carriage of the lathe is moved toward the chuck, carrying
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[45]</span>the fixture to which are fastened cams <i>C</i>, <i>F</i>, and <i>G</i>.
+Cam <i>C</i> forces in the holder carrying the combination grooving
+and ribbing tool, whereas cams <i>F</i> and <i>G</i> force in the
+holders carrying the two under-cutting tools, these being
+presented at an angle to the work. The required oscillations
+to the slide carrying the grooving and ribbing tool
+are secured through a face-cam <i>B</i> clamped to a “Whiton”
+chuck. The face-cam operates against the tension of
+spring <i>H</i> and gives the required oscillations to the tool-slide
+carrying the ribbing and grooving tool, shown at <i>A</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The third machining operation is accomplished in a flat
+turret lathe, as illustrated in <a href="#p046_fig08">Fig. 8</a>. This consists in facing
+the open end of the shell, boring the powder pocket and
+facing and boring the diaphragm seat, and also turning
+the angular surface on the external nose of the shell. First,
+a roughing drill is brought in to rough out the powder
+pocket. The turret is then indexed and a tool for turning
+the angle of the nose is brought into position. The machining
+on the nose is then accomplished by operating the cross-sliding
+head. Then a roughing cutter is brought in to
+rough-bore the powder pocket. The turret is again indexed
+and a finishing tool is brought in to finish the powder pocket
+and face the diaphragm seat. This finishes the machining
+operations on the shell previous to heat-treatment.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p045_fig07" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p045_fig07.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 7. Cutting the Rifling Band Groove with a Special
+    Grooving and Ribbing Attachment on an Engine Lathe
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">[46]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p046_fig08" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p046_fig08.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 8. Third Machining Operation on Shrapnel Shell in a Flat Turret Lathe,
+    consisting in Facing the Open End of the Shell, Boring the Powder
+    Pocket, Facing and Boring the Diaphragm Seat, and Turning
+    the Angular Surface on the External Nose of the Shell
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p046_fig09" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p046_fig09.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 9. Heat-treating Shrapnel Shells, using a Hoskins Electric
+    Barium-chloride Bath Furnace
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[47]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp69" id="p047_fig10" style="max-width: 30em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p047_fig10.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 10. Testing Hardness of Shrapnel Shells with
+    Shore Scleroscope
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><b>Heat-treating Shrapnel Shells.</b>—As was previously stated,
+the tensile strength of a forged shrapnel shell after
+heat-treatment must be from 80,000 to 90,000 pounds per
+square inch, and in order to obtain the desired physical
+qualities, it is necessary that the heat-treating operations
+be properly conducted. Several methods of heat-treating
+employing different cooling solutions are used in the manufacturing
+plants making shrapnel shells. One method, as
+shown in <a href="#p046_fig09">Fig. 9</a>, is to heat the shell in a Hoskins electric
+furnace that contains a barium-chloride bath, heated to a
+temperature of about 1480 degrees F. The shells are left
+in this furnace for half an hour and are taken out and
+dipped in a bath of cottonseed oil heated to a temperature
+of 113 degrees F. The temperature to which the shell is
+heated varies with the different constituents of the steel
+and practically every different batch of 120 shells requires
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[48]</span>a slightly different temperature. The proper temperature
+is determined by cutting out a section of a heat-treated
+shell and testing it for tensile strength. The next step is
+to draw the temper on the open end of the shell. In this
+operation a muffle gas furnace heated to a temperature of
+about 1000 degrees F., is used. The temper is drawn for
+about two-thirds of the length of the shrapnel shells.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Testing for Hardness and Tensile Strength.</b>—One shell
+from a batch of 120 is now cut open in the proximity of
+the powder pocket and the cut-out section sent to the government
+inspectors to test it for tensile strength. Each
+one of the shells in the batch, in addition, is tested for
+hardness by a Shore scleroscope as shown in <a href="#p047_fig10">Fig. 10</a>. Before
+testing for hardness, the shell near the band groove is
+polished so as to get a true reading, then placed in a fixture,
+and the hammer of the scleroscope allowed to drop on it.
+The reading should be between 40 and 50, indicating an
+elastic limit of from 80,000 to 90,000 pounds per square
+inch. The shell must not be ruptured at the point tested
+when the charge in it is exploded or when the charge in the
+case is set off. Should the shell upset near the rifling band
+groove when it is propelled out of the gun, it would tear
+out the rifling in the bore of the gun.</p>
+
+<p>Experience with the scleroscope has disclosed the existence
+of a fairly definite relation between the hardness and
+strength of metal. In determining the strength of metal,
+two stages are recognized: First, the elastic limit, determined
+by the load required to produce a permanent set;
+second, the ultimate strength, determined by the load required
+to cause rupture. The hardness indicated by the
+scleroscope is intimately related to the elastic limit. The
+elastic limit increases more rapidly than the hardness from
+43 to 45, this being the minimum index of the strength value
+required. As an elongation of 8 per cent in 2 inches is
+also required, there must necessarily be an upper limit to
+the hardness. On the steel used for shrapnel, which is
+generally about 50-point carbon and 60-point manganese,
+the maximum hardness should not be over 60 on the
+scleroscope.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">[49]</span></p>
+
+
+<p><b>Tests relating to Heat-treatment of Shells.</b>—In the
+September, 1915, number of <span class="smcap">Machinery</span>, Mr. J. M. Wilson,
+who has been actively engaged in heat-treating shells since
+the beginning of the war, and who has had to rely entirely
+upon his own resources in meeting and overcoming the
+troubles which seemed to arise on all sides, relates the
+results of his experiments.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p049_fig11" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p049_fig11.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 11. Cross-sectional View of Shrapnel Shell showing Points
+    A, B, and C where Tests are made, and one of the
+    Tensile Test Samples
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The British government shell specifications call for a
+yield point or elastic limit, after heat-treating, of not less
+than 36 tons per square inch, a breaking point or ultimate
+strength not less than 56 tons per square inch, and an
+elongation not less than 8 per cent in ⁵⁄₈ inch. Officially
+there is no maximum specified for either of those three
+physical characteristics; but as a matter of fact any unusual
+condition which is not in conformity with recognized
+metallurgical practice may cause the chief government inspector
+for the district in which the manufacturer is located
+to reject a shipment. Reference has been made to certain
+points in the shell which must resist the strains due to
+firing. The nature of these strains and condition of the
+steel best suited to meet them will be understood from
+<a href="#p049_fig11">Fig. 11</a>, which shows a cross-section of the British 18-pound
+shrapnel shell. When a shell is fired from a gun,
+the base <i>A</i> is subjected to a blow, <i>i.e.</i>, a sudden increase
+of pressure which almost instantly attains a maximum of
+from 12 to 14 tons per square inch, and imparts the initial
+velocity to the shell. The shell, being a body at rest, opposes
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">[50]</span>this velocity with its own inertia, the result being
+that both compressive and tensile strains are set up in the
+shell body. The shell body assumes the conditions of a
+column which has a compressive load varying from nothing
+at the nose to a maximum at the base. The tensile
+load is due to the inertia of the bullets inside the shell.
+These bullets are subject to an increasing compressive load
+from the top down, the resultant strain being a bursting
+effort which attains a maximum in the region of the point
+<i>B</i>, known as the “set-up point.”</p>
+
+<p>When the time required for the fuse to act has elapsed,
+the powder charge is exploded, and the contents of the shell
+are blown forward in the usual manner. The contents are
+released either by the stripping of the thread of the brass
+socket, or else the walls of the shell yield at the point <i>C</i>,
+opening the threads sufficiently to free the socket. At <i>A</i>,
+(the base) the shell must be perfectly sound and free from
+flaws such as minute cracks, etc., which may allow the
+flame from the firing charge to strike through with disastrous
+results to the shell and gun. The metal in the base
+must not be too hard or it may fracture under the pressure
+of the explosion, and it must not be too soft or it may
+flatten out and spoil the rifling in the bore. At the point <i>B</i>
+there is no maximum requirement so far as tensile strength
+is concerned, but any abnormal strength is viewed with
+suspicion unless it is accompanied by a generous elongation.
+At <i>B</i> the metal is particularly liable to distension while the
+shell is acquiring velocity, and unless the shell is strong
+enough to resist the sudden bursting strain, and the amount
+of elongation is sufficient to cushion or absorb this strain at
+the instant of firing, the shell is liable to take a permanent
+set in the region of point <i>B</i>, with results mentioned above.
+The shell must not be too hard at the point <i>C</i> as it may
+burst, thus neutralizing the real object of a shrapnel shell
+which is to project the bullets forward with increased
+velocity at the predetermined instant, being in fact an aerial
+gun arranged to discharge its contents at any desired point
+of its flight.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">[51]</span></p>
+
+
+<p><b>Uniformity of Steel for Shrapnel.</b>—Having these requirements
+firmly established in his mind, the heat-treating
+expert is now confronted with a double problem: How
+is it possible to give steel the suitable strength; and having
+done so, how is it possible to know that the desired result
+has been obtained, without actually making test pieces from
+each shell. The principal condition upon which successful
+heat-treating depends is uniformity of material. Carbon
+and manganese are the principal substances which influence
+the results. The exact composition of steel specified by
+the government is not given to any manufacturers other
+than steelmakers. It is, however, generally understood to
+be a 0.50 per cent carbon, 0.60 per cent manganese steel.
+Allowing five points variation in carbon and ten points
+variation in manganese, the requirements would be approximately
+0.45 to 0.55 per cent carbon and 0.50 to 0.70
+per cent manganese. In one carload of forgings, one firm
+received shells from 23 different heats or melts, with carbon
+varying from 0.60 to 0.47 per cent, and manganese varying
+from 0.63 to 0.49 per cent, with all possible combinations
+and proportions between these limits. The number of
+forgings supplied from each heat varied from one up to
+1200 so that the question of determining the best temperature
+for each carbon content was indeed quite impracticable.
+Many manufacturers at the present moment may be in a
+similar position, and the gravity of the situation, both from
+a financial and a military point of view, may justify a
+somewhat detailed description of the method which was
+followed in treating shells of such varying composition.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Results of Tests.</b>—It is generally known to manufacturers
+that the highest tensile strength of steel is obtained
+by cooling it rapidly from a temperature slightly higher
+than the decalescent point or critical temperature. The
+degree of hardness resulting from this operation can be
+ascertained quickly, accurately, and repeatedly by means
+of the scleroscope. The degree of hardness thus shown is
+a reliable indication of the probable strength of the material;
+that is to say, after making due allowance for different
+makes of steel and varying proportions of the principal
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">[52]</span>constituents, the scleroscope readings are a reliable indication
+of the results which may be expected when a tensile
+test is made of any given shell. In the opening months of
+the shell business, considerable reliance was placed on the
+accurate determination of the decalescence point. Forgings
+of varying analysis were received; the carbon being
+from 0.48 to 0.53 per cent, and the manganese from 0.54 to
+0.69 per cent. All steels whose composition was within
+those limits showed a decalescence point of between 1390
+and 1425 degrees F., and when quenched in water at 50
+degrees F. above the decalescence point, such steels would
+have a scleroscope hardness number as high as 85; but
+when quenched in ordinary fish oil the hardness was only
+slightly over 50, the sample being 1 inch square and ¹⁄₈
+inch thick. A complete shell quenched in fish oil would
+show a scleroscope hardness number at the set-up point of
+from 38 to 40. Test pieces from such a shell failed to reach
+the minimum breaking strength of 56 tons by the narrow
+margin of 0.6 ton, and this failure brought up the question
+of which was the best quenching medium. A series
+of experiments gave the results presented in <a href="#TABLE_I">Table I</a>; all
+conditions were equal in each test, and the test pieces were
+all made from the same forging.</p>
+
+<p class="center "><a id="TABLE_I"></a>TABLE I.<br><span class="sm">RESULTS OF TESTS TO DETERMINE THE BEST QUENCHING MEDIUM
+FOR SHRAPNEL SHELLS</span></p>
+
+<table class="autotable2">
+<tr class="bb">
+<th>
+Quenching<br>
+temperature,<br>
+degrees F.
+</th>
+<th>
+Quenching<br>
+medium
+</th>
+<th>
+Temperature of<br>
+quenching
+medium,<br> degrees F.
+</th>
+<th>
+Scleroscope<br>
+hardness No.
+</th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">
+1475
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Fish oil
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+90
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+50 to 55
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">
+1475
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Coal oil
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+90
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+65 to 70
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">
+1475
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Cottonseed oil
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+90
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+70 to 75
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">
+1475
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Engine oil
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+90
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+75 to 80
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">
+1475
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Oil of degras
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+90
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+77 to 85
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">
+1475
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Water
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+90
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+82 to 87
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdr">
+<i>Machinery</i>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>From the results of the tests presented in <a href="#TABLE_I">Table I</a>, oil of
+degras, commercially known as “No 2 soluble quenching
+oil,” was selected as the quenching medium and operations
+were commenced on forgings supplied from two separate
+heats. The results were all that could be desired until
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">[53]</span>forgings were received from a certain heat, which would
+not respond to treatment based upon the results of preliminary
+experiments. Investigation yielded the results
+presented in <a href="#TABLE_II">Table II</a>. While water-treatment of the forgings
+from “Heat No. 3” gave satisfactory strengths under
+test, the liability of shells to crack, owing to their thin
+walls contracting more rapidly than the base, was a fatal
+objection to this method. Attention should be called to the
+fact that while the temperature at which quenching should
+be done is specified by the government at 1560 degrees F.,
+manufacturers are not tied down to this particular temperature.
+What is required is that the manufacturers shall
+so treat the material that it will fulfill the requirements
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">[54]</span>already stated. If, when fulfilling these requirements, the
+treatment should prove detrimental to the shell in other respects,
+then it must be changed accordingly.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><a id="TABLE_II"></a>TABLE II.<br><span class="sm">RESULTS OF TESTS CONDUCTED TO SECURE GENERAL DATA
+ON HEAT-TREATMENT</span></p>
+
+
+<table class="autotable2">
+<tr class="bb">
+<td class="tdc">
+Heat No.
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+1
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+2
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+3
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">
+Carbon, per cent
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+0.45
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+0.52
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+0.50
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">
+Manganese, per cent
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+0.68
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+0.62
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+0.47
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">
+Decalescent point, degrees F
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+1400
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+1425
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+1390
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">
+Quenching temperature, degrees F
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+1450
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+1475
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+1450
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">
+Temperature of oil, degrees F
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+160
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+160
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+120
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">
+Resultant hardness, scleroscope No
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+65 to 75
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+65 to 75
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+*39
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">
+Temperature of water, degrees F
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+75
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">
+Resultant hardness, scleroscope No
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+55 to 60
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">
+Tempered until showing a scleroscope hardness of
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+48
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+48
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+52
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">
+Yield point, tons
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+47.8
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+48.6
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+46.5
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">
+Breaking point, tons
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+67.9
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+65.4
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+66.2
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">
+Elongation, per cent
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+14.5
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+16.9
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+17.4
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+</td>
+<td class="tdr">
+<i>Machinery</i>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="bnote"><td class="tdc" colspan="4">
+* Note: This shell was then reheated and quenched in water with results shown.
+</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>Referring to results presented in <a href="#TABLE_II">Table II</a>, “Heat No. 3,”
+it will be observed that the manganese is only 0.47 per
+cent with carbon 0.50 per cent. Comparing “Heat No. 3”
+with “Heat No. 1”, it is evident that an increase of 5 points
+carbon is more than offset by a reduction of 21 points in
+the manganese. Increase of temperature seemed to offer
+the greatest possibilities and sample shells were drawn
+every 12¹⁄₂ degrees up to 1675 degrees F. The greatest
+hardness was obtained at 1637¹⁄₂, scleroscope readings of
+from 50 to 55 being the average. This was not considered
+satisfactory, and the oil-circulating pump was speeded up.
+Scleroscope readings as high as 65 were frequently obtained
+at a quenching temperature of approximately 1635 degrees,
+and when the shell was tempered to read 48 to 52 on the
+scleroscope, three test pieces from one shell gave the results
+presented in <a href="#TABLE_III">Table III</a>. A careful study of this data revealed
+the fact that, while a low-carbon, low-manganese
+steel hardens satisfactorily within a limited range of temperature,
+a medium steel has a wider range, and a high-carbon
+steel, a still wider range of hardening temperature.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><a id="TABLE_III"></a>TABLE III.<br><span class="sm">RESULTS OF TESTS ON SAMPLES TAKEN FROM A SHELL WITH A
+SCLEROSCOPE HARDNESS NUMBER OF FROM 48 TO 52</span></p>
+
+
+<table class="autotable2">
+<tr class="bb">
+<th>
+Heat<br>No.
+</th>
+<th>
+Scleroscope reading<br>
+on test piece<br>after
+machining
+</th>
+<th>
+Yield<br>
+Point,<br>
+tons
+</th>
+<th>
+Breaking<br>
+point,<br>
+tons
+</th>
+<th>
+Elongation,<br>
+per cent
+</th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">
+1
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+Outside 52-53-50<br>
+Inside&nbsp;&nbsp; 55-55-55
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+55.8
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+73.3
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+14.3
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">
+2
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+Outside 52-54-50<br>
+Inside&nbsp;&nbsp; 55-57-53
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+53.8
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+72.4
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+17.4
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">
+3
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+Outside 57-57-49<br>
+Inside&nbsp;&nbsp; 60-62-51
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+52.8
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+77.3
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+12.7
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+</td>
+<td class="tdr">
+<i>Machinery</i>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<p>When the shipment of mixed heats previously referred
+to was treated, the method pursued was to take 0.50 per
+cent carbon and 0.50 per cent manganese as a base composition
+which hardened at 1600 degrees F. to show 55 to 65
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">[55]</span>hardness on the scleroscope. Then: (a) If, for every point
+of carbon below 50, there be present 1 or more points of
+manganese above 50, the steel should harden satisfactorily
+at 1600 degrees F. (b) If, for every point of manganese
+below 50, there be present 2 or more points of carbon above
+50, the steel should harden satisfactorily at 1600 degrees
+F. (c) If both carbon and manganese be below 0.50 per
+cent, increase the hardening temperature 12¹⁄₂ degrees F.
+for each point of manganese short of 50, and 6¹⁄₄ degrees
+F. for each point of carbon short of 50. (d) If both carbon
+and manganese are above 0.50 per cent, a hardness number
+above 55 will probably be obtained at a quenching temperature
+of 1600 degrees F., but the maximum hardness,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">[56]</span><i>i.e.</i>, from 75 to 80, will be obtained at a somewhat lower
+temperature, the exact temperature being most easily found
+by starting at 1500 degrees F. and trying a couple of sample
+shells every 25 degrees F. until a maximum hardness
+is obtained. Forgings containing from 0.50 to 0.55 per
+cent carbon and from 0.54 to 0.62 per cent manganese in
+any varying proportions may be hardened at 1600 degrees
+F. to show a hardness number of from 55 to 75; and when
+tempered to give a hardness number of from 48 to 52 they
+will yield the following results: yield point, 45 to 50 tons;
+breaking point, 65 to 70 tons; and elongation, 14 to 20 per
+cent.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp68" id="p055_fig12" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p055_fig12.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 12. Chart showing Hardening Temperatures for Various
+    Percentages of Carbon and Manganese in Steel used for
+    Shrapnel Shells
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Looking back, (c) offers a basis for charting the hardening
+points in a fairly approximate manner, to form a guide
+as to where the best hardness may be obtained. Such a
+chart is shown in <a href="#p055_fig12">Fig. 12</a>. By following the horizontal
+and vertical lines from the carbon and manganese content
+until they intersect, a diagonal line will be found which
+will indicate the temperature at or about which the maximum
+hardness will be obtained. This does not prevent the
+use of 1600 degrees F. as the average temperature for the
+majority of shells, provided they are strong enough when
+hardened at that temperature; but where shells do not
+harden satisfactorily at 1600 degrees F., the chart offers
+an alternative method subject to such variation as may
+arise due to the use of steel from different makers, etc.
+Probably the best practice is to make careful scleroscope
+readings of each piece before pulling. Care must be taken
+to have a uniform surface on both sides, all tool marks being
+removed with fine emery cloth. The points tested are
+shown at <i>A</i>, <i>B</i>, and <i>C</i> in <a href="#p049_fig11">Fig. 11</a>. After the test piece is
+made, the value of the hardness number increases as a
+result of the piece being solidly supported in the scleroscope,
+whereas, when the reading is made on the shell, the arched
+form of the wall acts as a spring, and absorbs the shock
+to some extent. Readings thus increase from 2 to 10
+points after the test piece is finished.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><a id="TABLE_IV"></a>TABLE IV.<br><span class="sm">DATA ON THE HEAT-TREATMENT AND STRENGTH TESTS
+OF SHRAPNEL SHELLS</span></p>
+
+<div class=tablediv>
+<table class="autotable2">
+<tr class="bb sm">
+<th>
+Carbon,<br>
+per
+cent
+</th>
+<th>
+Manganese,<br>
+per
+cent
+</th>
+<th>
+Quenching<br>
+temperature,<br>
+degrees
+F.
+</th>
+<th>
+Tempered,<br>
+scleroscope<br>
+hardness
+No.
+</th>
+<th>
+Readings of<br>
+scleroscope
+</th>
+<th>
+Yield
+point,<br>
+tons
+</th>
+<th>
+Breaking
+point,<br>
+tons
+</th>
+<th>
+Elongation,<br>
+per
+cent
+</th></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">
+0.50
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+0.47
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+1635
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+51
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+60-57-57<br>
+47-48-48
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+48.3
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+69.9
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+16.9
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc" colspan="4">
+Three pieces from one shell
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+60-56-53<br>
+48-52-58
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+45.2
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+70.6
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+19.1
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4">
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+63-56-57<br>
+51-55-54
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+51.6
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+74.6
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+16.9
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">
+0.48
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+0.65
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+1565
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+49
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+51-54-52<br>
+48-53-50
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+47.3
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+67.4
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+15.9
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc" colspan="4">
+Three pieces from one shell
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+51-52-49<br>
+53-51-51
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+48.2
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+67.9
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+15.3
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4">
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+52-55-50<br>
+50-55-47
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+49.2
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+70.7
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+15.4
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">
+0.50
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+0.57
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+1600
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+50
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+50-52-50<br>
+49-50-49
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+46.0
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+64.8
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+19.0
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">
+0.50
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+0.57
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+1600
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+50
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+56-60-57<br>
+54-56-54
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+55.8
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+77.8
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+14.3
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">
+0.50
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+0.57
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+1600
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+50
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+59-60-56<br>
+55-59-56
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+60.7
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+82.2
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+12.7
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">
+0.60
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+0.57
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+1600
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+50
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+60-61-55<br>
+60-62-57
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+57.8
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+80.0
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+12.6
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">
+0.60
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+0.57
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+1600
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+52
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+57-57-56<br>
+54-56-53
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+48.2
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+69.7
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+17.5
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">
+0.50
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+0.57
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+1600
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+50
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+48-52-50<br>
+49-52-49
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+44.2
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+64.3
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+17.4
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">
+0.50
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+0.57
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+1600
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+50
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+52-55-55<br>
+60-51-52
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+44.7
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+65.2
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+14.7
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr bt sm" colspan="8">
+<i>Machinery</i>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>A careful study of the data presented in <a href="#TABLE_IV">Table IV</a> reveals
+the fact that results are not always consistent. With
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">[57]</span>an increase of carbon, one occasionally finds an increase in
+elongation and <i>vice versa</i>; and the results due to variations
+in manganese content are similarly unreliable. In order
+to secure a degree of uniformity in hardness, which will be
+sufficient to insure test pieces standing up successfully, it
+is necessary to have the shell hard inside as well as outside,
+and a method of doing this is referred to later. Assuming
+now that the shell has been tempered, it is rough-polished
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">[59]</span>on a canvas buffing wheel around the outside of <i>B</i>,
+<a href="#p049_fig11">Fig. 11</a>, for a width of at least 1 inch. Readings by the scleroscope
+are made on a zone ³⁄₄ inch wide, and if they are
+between 46 and 52 the shell may be relied upon to show
+good results in the tensile test. In making test pieces, it
+is desirable to cut the piece from a spot which reads 48
+to 50; and in machining the test piece, care should be taken
+to remove an equal quantity of metal from either side of
+the wall so that the test piece is a true specimen of the
+average wall structure. Where a shell is carelessly
+quenched, and the test piece so machined that the surface
+on one side is practically the same as the inner side of
+the wall, the results would not be a true indication of the
+real average strength, and a lot of shells might possibly
+be rejected on account of a slight oversight in this respect.
+Reference has been made to the base <i>A</i>, <a href="#p049_fig11">Fig. 11</a>. Forging
+defects show up here occasionally and in such cases the
+shell is at once condemned. These flaws take the form of
+small cracks, from the width of a hair up to ¹⁄₁₆ inch.
+They seldom can be detected until after heat-treating, and
+are most easily observed by polishing the base on a disk
+grinder. Losses in this respect vary, but might average
+about 0.20 per cent. The hardness of the base itself may
+vary from 38 to 50, which insures an ample degree of
+toughness and avoids all possibility of the shell cracking
+under fire.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p058_fig13" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p058_fig13.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 13. Lay-out of Heat-treating Department for a
+    Factory Producing from 12,000 to 15,000 Shrapnel Shells a Week
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><b>Heat-treating Department.</b>—Many methods of heating,
+quenching, annealing, and cleaning are in use by the
+different firms engaged in shell making. For rapidity of
+output, cleanliness of the resulting product, ease and economy
+of operation, and uniformity and control of results,
+the lead bath seems best for hardening, and the semi-muffle
+furnace for annealing. In one case the use of a lead bath
+by a skilled operator yielded excellent results both as to
+economy and uniformity, but, when the output exceeds
+500 shells per 12 hours, a semi-continuous furnace meets
+the requirements to better advantage. The lay-out of a
+hardening room for an output of 12,000 shells per week
+is given in <a href="#p058_fig13">Fig. 13</a>. The lead baths consist of a rectangular
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">[60]</span>pot of suitable capacity, resting on a 4¹⁄₂ inch hearth
+built of common firebrick and heated by either oil or gas
+burners below the hearth. They are built in pairs with
+a common wall between, which is thick enough to provide
+a flue to carry off products of combustion. The quenching
+tanks are rectangular, water-jacketed, and provided with
+two quenching cradles each. These cradles are arranged
+to swing lengthwise in the tank, and, when the carrier holding
+the shell is lowered into the oil, a pipe is automatically
+extended downward into the shell and introduces cold oil
+in the inside of the shell, while the operator swings the
+cradle back and forth in the tank, thus cooling the outside
+of the shell at the same time. This method of quenching
+made it possible to harden shells which, by reason of low
+carbon and manganese, defied all conventional methods of
+dipping and swinging back and forth with tongs. The
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">[61]</span>output per man with this apparatus is largely in excess of
+any hand method, while the uniformity and degree of
+hardness is all that could be desired.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="p060_fig14" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p060_fig14.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 14. Special Arrangement of Scleroscope for Testing
+    Shrapnel Shells
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p061_fig15" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p061_fig15.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 15. Closing-in Nose of Shrapnel Shell in Hydraulic Press
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The oil pump draws the oil from a depth of 6 inches
+below the surface and pumps it through 100 feet of 1-inch
+copper pipe arranged in two 50-foot coils in parallel. The
+cooled oil is delivered into an overhead reservoir, the overflow
+being connected to both tanks equally. After quenching,
+the shells are set on draining racks, and then washed
+in boiling water and sal-soda, placed on another draining
+rack and then brushed with wire brushes previous to
+tempering. The tempering furnace is of rectangular form,
+and consists of a long flat hearth with rails laid lengthwise
+on it. At each end a space is partitioned off from the
+body of the furnace, by means of vertical sliding doors;
+and a rack holding a number of shells is deposited on the
+rails at the front end of the hearth, the door is elevated
+and the rack is slid into the main chamber. After a suitable
+lapse of time another rack is introduced, and so on until
+the first rack is ejected at the rear end of the furnace. The
+shells are now hot enough to loosen all foreign matter on
+the surface, and a few seconds brushing with a wire brush
+cleans out the driving band groove, and leaves the shell
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[62]</span>with a delicate brown oxidized finish. The shell is now
+spotted on three places with a canvas buff and tested for
+hardness. <a href="#p060_fig14">Fig. 14</a> shows the arrangement of the scleroscope.
+The shell is supported on a single narrow
+V-block with hardened edges, situated immediately under
+the set-up point. A narrow strip supports the open end
+of the shell, thus giving a three-point support, while a vertical
+stop at the back of the shell maintains it in a position
+tangential to the radius of the swinging arm. The usual
+rubber bulb was soon dispensed with as being quite unsuited
+for such hard service, and a small pump cylinder substituted.
+The piston in the cylinder is operated by a downward
+pressure of the heel on the pedal to give compression,
+and a spring inside the cylinder gives the necessary pull
+when the scleroscope hammer is to be raised by suction.
+After being tested the shells are ready for “nosing-in.”</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p062_fig16" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p062_fig16.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 16. Third Operation on Nose of Shrapnel Shell—Turning, Facing,
+    and Threading
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp97" id="p063_fig17" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p063_fig17.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 17. Grinding Shrapnel Shells in One Operation in a Ford-Smith Grinding
+    Machine carrying a Wheel about 8¹⁄₄ Inches Wide by 20 Inches in
+    Diameter, rotated at 1200 Revolutions per Minute
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p063_fig18" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p063_fig18.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 18. Closing-in Copper Band on Shrapnel Shell in a Machine provided
+    with Six Dies, as shown in <a href="#p065_fig20">Fig. 20</a>, back of each one of which
+    there is a Hydraulic Cylinder
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><b>Closing-in the End of the Shell.</b>—On some makes of
+shells, particularly the British, the nose is closed in before
+performing the third series of machining operations. The
+closing-in is generally accomplished in a hydraulic or power
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">[64]</span>press. <a href="#p061_fig15">Fig. 15</a> shows the closing-in operation being performed
+in a vertical hydraulic press capable of exerting a
+pressure of 800 pounds per square inch. Before closing
+the open end of the shell, it is heated in the lead bath,
+shown to the left of the illustration, which is kept at a
+temperature between 1450 and 1500 degrees F. The steel
+diaphragm, which is larger in diameter than the nose of
+the shell, is first thrown in. Then the shell is placed in
+the press, and a cone-shaped die descends, closing-in the
+nose to the proper shape and diameter. The third machining
+operation consists in finishing the radius on the nose,
+both inside and outside, and cutting the thread. This is
+done, as shown in <a href="#p062_fig16">Fig. 16</a>, in an ordinary engine lathe with
+a turret on the saddle. The boring is done with cutters
+held in boring-bars and the thread cut with a Geometric
+collapsible tap. The thread on the 18-pounder is 2.94
+inches in diameter, 14-pitch, Whitworth type.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p064_fig19" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p064_fig19.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 19. Special Type of Wheel-truing Device used on Ford-Smith
+    Grinding Machine shown in <a href="#p063_fig17">Fig. 17</a>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><b>Grinding Shrapnel Shells.</b>—The exterior surface of a
+shrapnel shell is straight for a portion of the length and
+then curved on the nose. While the limits required are
+not extremely close, it is necessary, where large production
+is required, to accomplish the finishing operations on the
+exterior of the shell in some way by which fairly close
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">[65]</span>dimensions can be secured as well as large production.
+Grinding has, therefore, been recommended for finishing
+the exterior of the shell. One method of grinding shrapnel
+shells, in which a wide-faced wheel is used that covers the
+entire ground surface, is shown in <a href="#p063_fig17">Fig. 17</a>. This machine
+is built by the Ford-Smith Machine Co., Hamilton, Ont.,
+and carries a wheel about 8¹⁄₄ inches wide by 20 inches in
+diameter. The grinding wheel is rotated at 1200 R. P. M.,
+and the work at 50 R. P. M. The depth of the cut is
+about ¹⁄₃₂ inch, and the time to complete one shell varies
+between two and three minutes. For grinding, a plug is
+screwed into the open end of the shell. This is held on
+the tailstock center and a chuck holds and drives the shell
+from the other end.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p065_fig20" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p065_fig20.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 20. Close View showing Closing-in Dies of Banding
+    Machine shown in <a href="#p063_fig18">Fig. 18</a>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>It is necessary, of course, that the wheel be kept the
+correct shape, and for this purpose an interesting type of
+wheel-truing device, differing considerably from that shown
+in <a href="#p063_fig17">Fig. 17</a>, is now used. Referring to <a href="#p064_fig19">Fig. 19</a>, it will be
+seen that this comprises a combination wheel guard and
+bracket, the latter being used as a base for the wheel-truing
+device proper. The diamond <i>A</i> is carried in a holder <i>B</i>
+that operates in a slide in the face of the traversing wheel-truing
+slide <i>C</i>. The diamond holder carries a cam point
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">[66]</span><i>D</i> which is kept in contact with the guide or former cam <i>E</i>
+by means of a spring <i>F</i>. The wheel-truing slide <i>C</i> is traversed
+by a triple pitch screw <i>G</i> so as to give a rapid movement
+to the slide in order to produce what might be termed
+a “rough-truing” of the wheel. For change in diameter,
+and also for bringing the diamond in contact with the wheel,
+a vertical slide <i>H</i> is provided that is operated by handle <i>I</i>.
+In order to observe the diamond when truing the wheel, a
+trap door <i>J</i> is provided in the wheel guard, which can be
+dropped down into place when the actual grinding of the
+shell is being done.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Pressing on the Rifling Band.</b>—In order to rotate the
+shrapnel when propelling it out of the howitzer, it is necessary
+to put on a rifling band to take the rifling grooves
+of the gun bore. As a rule, these rifling bands are made
+from copper tubing and are simply cut off in a hand screw
+machine or turret lathe. The next operation is to close in
+the rifling band on the shrapnel shell. The ring is dropped
+over the shell and a fixture is used to locate it in the correct
+relation to the groove in the circumference of the shell.
+Then a slight pressure is exerted on it to align it properly
+in the groove. It is now placed in the banding machine
+shown in <a href="#p063_fig18">Fig. 18</a>. This particular machine is provided
+with six dies as shown in <a href="#p065_fig20">Fig. 20</a>, and back of each one is
+a hydraulic cylinder operated by water pressure. Two
+squeezers are necessary to close the rifling band properly
+into the groove, the shell being given a half turn after each
+squeeze.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p067_fig21" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p067_fig21.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 21. Shrapnel Banding Machine built by the West Tire Setter Co.,
+    having a Capacity for Compressing two Bands per Minute
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>There are several different machines on the market for
+performing this closing-in operation on the rifling band.
+Another machine, built by the West Tire Setter Co., Rochester,
+N. Y., is shown in <a href="#p067_fig21">Fig. 21</a>. The principle upon which
+this machine operates is almost identical with that previously
+described, but in this case oil is used as a pressure
+medium. It is forced into the machine by means of a belt-driven
+pump shown to the left of the illustration, which
+drives the oil from the oil tank and carries it to the center
+of the base of the press. An oil head is located at this
+point from which the pipes are run to each of the six rams
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">[68]</span>or cylinders. The amount of pressure required for compressing
+the copper band depends largely upon the width
+and thickness and the amount that the band must be spread
+to fill the grooves, rather than upon the diameter of the
+shell. The machine shown in <a href="#p067_fig21">Fig. 21</a> is capable of exerting
+a pressure of 30 tons on each cylinder or a combined pressure
+of 180 tons on all six cylinders. It has a capacity
+for compressing at least two bands per minute.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p067_fig22" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p067_fig22.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 22. Assembling Bullets, Resin, and Fuse Socket in Shrapnel Shell
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp87" id="p068_fig23" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p068_fig23.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 23. Finishing Rifling Band on Shrapnel Shell to Shape
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><b>Machining the Rifling Band.</b>—One method of machining
+the rifling band to the correct shape is shown in
+<a href="#p068_fig23">Fig. 23</a>. Here a Fox lathe is used which is provided with a
+chuck for holding the shell and which carries in the turret
+a revolving center for additionally supporting it. The machining
+is done by form tools which are of the correct
+shape. Before any other machining operations can be accomplished
+it is necessary to put in the tin powder cup,
+brass fuse tube, bullets, and resin. This cup is slipped
+in past the steel diaphragm, then both parts are allowed
+to drop to the bottom and the fuse tube is screwed into
+the diaphragm. The required number of lead bullets, which
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">[70]</span>for the British 18-pound shrapnel is about 375 per shell,
+is then poured in. The bullets are held in a tank and are
+allowed to flow out upon the opening of a stopcock. In
+order to pack the bullets solidly, a compressed air ramming
+device forms the base upon which the shell rests while the
+bullets are being poured in. This is operated three or four
+times for the filling of each shell and arranges the bullets
+compactly.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p069_fig24" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p069_fig24.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 24. Illustration showing some of the Principal Gaging Operations on Shrapnel Shells
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p070_fig25" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p070_fig25.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 25. 18-pound Shrapnel Shell showing Dimensions and
+    Manufacturing Limits
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The resin is now poured in, as shown in the center of
+<a href="#p067_fig22">Fig. 22</a>. This is carried in the tank which is heated by
+a gas furnace and is poured in almost level with the top of
+the bullets. The shell is then placed on the scale in the immediate
+foreground and weighed. One dram plus or minus
+is allowed as a variation, and in order to not exceed this,
+more or less resin is poured in until the correct weight is
+obtained. The brass fuse socket is now screwed in as
+shown to the left of the illustration, and upon the completion
+of this operation the shell is ready for the fourth and
+last machining operation. This last operation consists in
+machining the brass socket on the outside diameter to conform
+to the radius on the nose of the shell, and boring on
+the inside and threading to fit the fuse body. These operations
+are handled in a Fox brass working lathe. Upon
+the completion of the machining operations the plug is
+screwed in, the shell stamped, cleaned, weighed, and inspected
+by government inspectors. After this, the shell is
+given two coats of paint and a red band is painted around
+the nose. It is now packed in boxes holding six shells
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">[71]</span>and is ready for shipment. This completes the manufacture
+of the shrapnel shell.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p071_fig26" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p071_fig26.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 26. Group of Gages made by Wells Bros. Co. for gaging
+    British Shrapnel Shells and Parts
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp92" id="p071_fig27" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p071_fig27.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 27. Diagram showing Application of Wells Bros. Gages
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><b>Gaging Shrapnel Shells.</b>—The machining operations on
+shrapnel shells are required to be held within certain limits,
+and government inspectors watch these closely. Some of
+the principal gaging operations on the shrapnel shell body
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">[72]</span>are shown in <a href="#p069_fig24">Fig. 24</a>. <a href="#p070_fig25">Fig. 25</a> shows the 18-pound shrapnel
+shell in section, and gives the principal dimensions together
+with the limits; it will be seen from this illustration that the
+range allowable is in most cases large. The Wells Bros.
+Co., Greenfield, Mass., has made a large number of shrapnel
+gages, some of which are shown in the accompanying illustrations.
+In the three upper views of <a href="#p069_fig24">Fig. 24</a>, the Wells
+Bros, standard thread gage is illustrated. This is used
+for all diameter measurements by substituting flat gaging
+pins for the V-points used when gaging thread diameters.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p072_fig28" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p072_fig28.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 28. Collection of Wells Bros. Co.’s American Shrapnel Shell Gages
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p072_fig29" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p072_fig29.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 29. Dwight-Slate Hand-operated Marking Machine
+    for Shrapnel Shells
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><b>Gages for British Shrapnel Parts.</b>—<a href="#p071_fig26">Fig. 26</a> illustrates
+typical gages for gaging such parts of the British shrapnel
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">[73]</span>as body diameters, diaphragm seat, powder pocket, fuse
+socket, thread diameters, and fuse parts. <a href="#p071_fig27">Fig. 27</a> shows
+the application of several different types of shrapnel shell
+gages. At <i>A</i> is the gage for the over-all length. At <i>B</i> is
+the gage used for measuring the thickness of the closed
+end. The outer arm of this gage can be swung away to
+allow the placing of the gage on the standard. At the
+extreme lower left-hand
+corner of the
+gaging arm is a slight
+shoulder on the rod
+and the height of this
+acts as the limit. <i>C</i>
+shows the application
+of outside diameter
+and thread gages. <i>D</i>
+shows three form
+gages for checking the
+shape and dimensions
+of the wave ribs, the
+diameter and shape of
+the undercut in the
+band groove, and the
+shape of the nose of
+the shell. <i>E</i> shows
+the gage used for
+checking the thickness
+of the wall of the shell
+at different distances
+from the mouth. <i>F</i>
+shows the application
+of a powder pocket gage, and also a gage for checking the
+shape of the finished rifling band.</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp45" id="p073_fig30" style="max-width: 20em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p073_fig30.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 30. Power-driven Dwight-Slate Marking
+    Machine for Shrapnel Shells
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><b>Gages for American Shrapnel Shells.</b>—<a href="#p072_fig28">Fig. 28</a> shows a
+miscellaneous collection of gages used in checking the dimensions
+of the American shrapnel shell. Gages, <i>A</i>, <i>B</i>, <i>C</i>,
+and <i>D</i> are for measuring the diameter of the diaphragm
+seat. <i>E</i> is for checking the distance from the diaphragm
+seat to the mouth end of the shell, and gage <i>F</i> is for the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">[74]</span>outside diameter of the shell. Gage <i>G</i> is used for the
+rifling band groove. Gages <i>H</i> and <i>I</i> are for the thread in
+the mouth of the shell, <i>H</i> being a “not-go” and <i>I</i> a “go”
+gage.</p>
+
+<p>The gage at <i>J</i> performs several gaging functions on the
+American shell. It consists of a standard having two upright
+posts across which a bar is mounted. The purpose
+of the bar is to gage the over-all length of the shell, and its
+lower surface is provided with two steps giving the limits.
+This gage is also used for measuring the depth of the powder
+pocket, rod <i>K</i> and block <i>L</i> performing this function.
+Two rings are cut around the rod <i>K</i> registering with the
+top surface of the bar, the purpose being to show the accuracy
+of the work.</p>
+
+<p>Another interesting gage is shown at <i>M</i>. This is for
+gaging the concentricity of the shell and consists of an
+arbor mounted so that it can be swung on a pivot. The
+arbor carries two collars <i>N</i> and <i>O</i> that fit in the shell.
+Collar <i>P</i> is merely a sizing plug and when the gage is in
+use this plug is removed. A gaging finger <i>Q</i> rests against
+the shell when it is on this arbor, and a standard type of
+indicator <i>R</i> shows the variation in concentricity when the
+gage, collars, and shell are rotated on the arbor.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Marking Shrapnel Shells.</b>—All shrapnel shells are
+marked on their circumference with five or six lines of
+lettering, as shown in <a href="#p072_fig29">Fig. 29</a>. This indicates the size of
+the shell, the series, muzzle velocity, name of the manufacturer,
+date completed, etc. Two types of machines for
+producing the stamping, built by Noble &amp; Westbrook, Hartford,
+Conn., are shown in Figs. 29 and 30. The machine
+shown in <a href="#p072_fig29">Fig. 29</a> is of the hand-operated type. The figure
+block <i>A</i> is held in a slide that is moved longitudinally by
+pulling down handle <i>B</i>, rolling the shell, and at the same
+time stamping it. The shell is located on the table in the
+two positions by gages <i>C</i> and <i>D</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The “Dwight-Slate” stamping machine shown in <a href="#p073_fig30">Fig. 30</a>
+is power-driven, and the work is held on an elevating table.
+The stamp is held in a slide operated by an eccentric and
+connecting-rod. In this machine the shell is not distorted.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">[75]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IV">
+    CHAPTER IV
+    <br>
+    <span class="sm">MACHINES AND TOOLS FOR SHRAPNEL MANUFACTURE</span>
+  </h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><b>Reed-Prentice Co. Equipment for Machining Forged
+Shrapnel Shells.</b>—In machining the 18-pound British
+shrapnel shell on the equipment furnished by the Reed-Prentice
+Co., Worcester, Mass., eight distinct operations
+are performed as follows: First, drilling a center hole in
+the closed end of the forging in a Prentice 16-inch ball-bearing
+sensitive drilling machine equipped with a special
+centering fixture; second, rough-turning the outside diameter,
+grooving, squaring the closed end and rounding the
+corners in a Reed-Prentice 14-inch heavy type automatic
+lathe; third, machining the powder pocket and diaphragm
+seat, as well as the internal and external diameters of the
+nose in a 14-inch Reed extra-heavy turret lathe; fourth,
+under-cutting band grooves and producing wave ribs in a
+14-inch Reed engine lathe; fifth, boring, reaming, threading
+and facing the open end in a Reed 14-inch extra-heavy
+turret lathe; sixth, finish-turning outside diameter and
+radius on nose, also form-turning copper band in a Reed
+14-inch heavy type automatic lathe; seventh, cutting off
+center projection on closed end of shell in a Reed 14-inch
+engine lathe; eighth, finishing brass socket to form, cleaning
+inside of socket and cutting off excess length of tube
+in a Reed 14-inch extra-heavy turning lathe.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>First Operation on Rough Shell Forging.</b>—The drilling
+of the center hole in the closed end of the forging is a
+comparatively simple operation, and is performed in an interesting
+fixture held on a 16-inch Prentice ball-bearing
+sensitive drilling machine. This fixture, which is designed
+for handling the work quickly, is shown in <a href="#p076_fig01">Fig. 1</a>, and consists
+of the base casting <i>A</i> clamped to the table of the drilling
+machine. The entire back part of the jig swings on
+the trunnion <i>B</i> to provide a means for quickly removing
+the forging <i>C</i> from the arbor <i>D</i>. A locking-pin <i>E</i> is used
+for locating the fixture in its upright position for drilling.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">[76]</span>Bushing <i>G</i> in the top plate <i>F</i> of the fixture guides the
+combination drill and countersink.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp49" id="p076_fig01" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p076_fig01.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 1. Fixtures used for holding Shrapnel Shell Forgings when
+    drilling Center Hole in a 16-inch Prentice Ball Bearing
+    Sensitive Drilling Machine
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The construction of the work-holding arbor is worthy
+of special attention. This arbor <i>D</i> has a cap <i>H</i> on its top
+end that acts as a stop for the inside of the forging, which,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">[77]</span>in being placed over the arbor, is located centrally and
+clamped by fingers <i>N</i>. To operate these fingers, hand lever
+<i>I</i> is depressed, and as this is fulcrumed at the point <i>J</i>, it
+causes collar <i>K</i> to rise on the arbor. Yoke <i>L</i> forms a connection
+between the lever and the collar with which the
+sleeve carrying fingers <i>N</i> is integral. Fingers <i>N</i> are fulcrumed
+in arbor <i>D</i> and are thrown outward to grip the
+forging when sleeve <i>M</i> is raised. Light springs <i>O</i> tend
+to keep the gripping fingers in a vertical position against
+the arbor when they are not being forced outward by the
+inclined surfaces on sleeve <i>M</i>. Handle <i>I</i> carries a spring
+pawl <i>P</i> that holds the sleeve <i>M</i> stationary while the forging
+is being center-drilled.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp98" id="p077_fig02" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p077_fig02.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 2. Tool Lay-out for performing Second Series of
+    Operations on Reed-Prentice Heavy Type
+    Automatic Lathe
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><b>Second or Rough-turning and Facing Operations.</b>—The
+second operation is performed on a Reed-Prentice
+14-inch heavy type automatic lathe, as shown in Figs. <a href="#p077_fig02">2</a>
+and <a href="#p078_fig03">3</a>. The forging <i>A</i> is held on an internal expanding
+arbor <i>B</i>, the driving part of which is supported by the
+head-center. At the closed end, the shell is steadied by the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">[78]</span>tail-center. The bottom of the shell rests against the end
+of the arbor which acts as a gage. In this setting, the
+external diameter of the forging is rough-turned by four
+tools <i>F</i>, mounted on the carriage <i>G</i>. This carriage has a
+travel slightly less than two inches, and an automatic throw-off
+is provided at the end of the cut that disengages the
+tools, draws them back and returns the carriage. At the
+rear of the carriage on this machine a facing arm is
+mounted on a heavy bar. Turning tools are carried on
+this facing arm, as shown, and when the front carriage
+feeds longitudinally a cam bracket <i>O</i>, bolted to the carriage,
+is carried along with it. Clamped on this bracket is an
+adjustable cam <i>N</i> held in place by screws. Cam roll <i>M</i> on
+the facing arm contacts with cam <i>N</i>, causing the facing
+arm to rock forward as the carriage travels longitudinally.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p078_fig03" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p078_fig03.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 3. Section through Reed-Prentice Automatic Lathe, showing
+    Tool Arrangement
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Referring to the plan view in <a href="#p077_fig02">Fig. 2</a>, tool <i>H</i>, held in the
+arm, faces the end of the forging, tool <i>I</i> chamfers the corner,
+and tool <i>J</i> cuts the depression for the wave ribs, leaving
+a projection in the center from which the ribs are
+formed. It should be understood that the tools on the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">[79]</span>carriage and facing arm work together. One man can run
+two of these machines without trouble.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Third Series of Machining Operations.</b>—The third series
+of operations on the shrapnel forging is performed
+on a 14-inch Reed heavy lathe with a specially large turret,
+as shown in <a href="#p079_fig04">Fig. 4</a>. This lathe is fitted with a 12-inch
+three-jaw chuck, bored out to 3¹⁄₂ inches to permit the
+forging to extend into it. The forging <i>A</i> is put in the
+chuck as shown at <i>B</i>, and the jaws grip at <i>C</i>. The first
+operation is performed with a bar <i>D</i> carrying a blade cutter
+<i>E</i> that rough-bores the powder pocket, and tool <i>F</i> that
+rough-bores the mouth. The turret is now indexed, and a
+boring-bar carrying a blade <i>G</i> roughs out the diaphragm
+seat, while an auxiliary tool <i>H</i> faces the shell to length.
+At the next indexing of the turret the boring-bar <i>I</i> that
+carries the finishing tool <i>J</i> finishes the diaphragm seat and
+powder chamber.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p079_fig04" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p079_fig04.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 4. Tooling Equipment for performing Third Series of
+    Operations on 14-inch Extra-heavy Turret Lathe
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p080_fig05" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p080_fig05.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 5. Tools used for Under-cutting and Waving Band Grooves on Reed 14-inch Engine Lathe
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><b>Fourth Operation—Under-cutting and “Waving” Band
+Groove.</b>—For the fourth operation, the forging is held in
+a 14-inch Reed engine lathe provided with an automatic
+attachment for under-cutting and waving the ribs for the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">[80]</span>copper band. The tool equipment used is shown
+in <a href="#p080_fig05">Fig. 5</a>, where <i>A</i> is the forging held by one end in
+the chuck and supported on the opposite end by the
+tail-center. The tools are all located in holders on
+the heavy base block <i>B</i>, and their operation is controlled
+from the carriage <i>R</i> of the lathe. The cutting
+of the wave ribs is done by tool <i>C</i> at the front,
+held on a slide that operates on the top of block
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">[81]</span><i>B</i>. Spring <i>D</i> keeps the roll <i>E</i> on the lower slide of the
+tool-holder in contact with the cam slot in cam-plate <i>F</i> that
+is fastened to carriage <i>R</i>. When the carriage is traversed
+toward the chuck, the irregular surface of cam-plate <i>F</i>
+engages the roll and forces the tool-holder forward. Side
+motion to produce the wave is then effected by face-cam <i>G</i>,
+mounted on the chuck and contacting with the roll <i>H</i>. This
+roll is supported on a bracket forming an auxiliary slide
+<i>S</i> that carries the waving tool <i>C</i>. A stiff barrel spring
+keeps slide <i>S</i> in contact with the cam <i>G</i>. Thus, when the
+machine spindle revolves, the auxiliary slide is caused to
+oscillate back and forth far enough to give the desired
+amount of wave.</p>
+
+<p>The under-cutting in the band groove is accomplished by
+tools <i>I</i> and <i>J</i> which are mounted on separate tool-slides <i>K</i>
+and <i>L</i>. These slides are fed in at an angle to the axis of
+the forging, against the action of coil springs <i>M</i> and <i>N</i>,
+by the cam surfaces of plate <i>Q</i> in which rolls <i>O</i> and <i>P</i> work.
+Plate <i>Q</i> is bolted to carriage <i>R</i> which, in advancing toward
+the chuck, forces in the under-cutting tools in the manner
+just described. The tail-center of this machine is fitted
+with a quick-acting mechanism so that it may be withdrawn
+quickly to insert a new piece.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Fifth Series of Operations.</b>—Before performing the fifth
+series of operations, the forging is heated and closed in on
+the nose. It is then handled in the following manner: A
+Reed 14-inch heavy lathe, equipped with an extra large
+turret mounted on a special wide-bridge carriage carries
+tools for boring, reaming, threading and final squaring
+of the open end, as shown in <a href="#p082_fig06">Fig. 6</a>. The shell forging
+for these operations is held in a three-jaw chuck provided
+with special jaws. In the first position the rough-boring
+of the nose and the rough-facing of the extreme end is
+performed with tools <i>B</i> and <i>C</i>. The turret is then indexed
+and tools <i>D</i> and <i>E</i> finish-ream the hole in the nose and
+face the end. The tap <i>F</i> is next brought into position, cutting
+the thread in the nose.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p082_fig06" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p082_fig06.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 6. Turret Tools held on Reed 14-inch Extra-heavy Lathe for performing Fifth Series of Operations
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The turret is again indexed, bringing a special form boring
+tool into position. Here the boring tool <i>G</i> is carried in
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">[83]</span>a bar <i>H</i> held in a holder of the cross-sliding carriage type
+that is fastened to two faces of the turret. By means of
+cross-screw <i>J</i>, the boring tool <i>H</i> may be drawn in or out at
+will. This tool operates as follows: As the turret is advanced,
+handle <i>J</i> is operated to let tool <i>G</i> enter the nose of
+the shell, and, upon the continued advance of the turret,
+arrow head <i>M</i> is forced in between and gripped by the fingers
+<i>N</i>. The turret is now backed away from the chuck,
+and while receding acts upon slide <i>P</i> through the medium
+of roll <i>L</i> and cam groove <i>R</i>. The plate containing cam
+groove <i>R</i> is attached to the arrow head <i>M</i> and consequently
+is held stationary while the turret is being withdrawn
+from the work. This backward movement of the turret
+is continued until the tool <i>G</i> is withdrawn from the work
+and slide <i>S</i> comes in contact with check-nuts on rod <i>O</i>,
+withdrawing arrow head <i>M</i> from fingers <i>N</i> and allowing
+the turret to be indexed ready for the first operation on
+the next forging.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp94" id="p083_fig07" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p083_fig07.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 7. Reed-Prentice 14-inch Heavy Type Automatic Lathe
+    used for performing Sixth Series of Operations
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><b>Sixth or Finish-turning Operations.</b>—The sixth series of
+operations is performed on a Reed-Prentice 14-inch heavy
+type automatic lathe, similar to that used for the second
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">[84]</span>operation, and the machine is also operated in a manner
+similar to that previously described. The operations consist
+in finish-turning the outside diameter of the shell and
+turning the radius on the nose. In addition, the copper
+rifling band, put on previous to this operation, is turned
+to shape. Referring to <a href="#p083_fig07">Fig. 7</a>, the shrapnel shell <i>A</i> is
+held by the tail-center at one end and is supported and
+driven from the other end by a plug screwed into it. This
+plug is held on the live center and is driven by an equalizing
+driver, coming in contact with pins in the special faceplate.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p084_fig08" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p084_fig08.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 8. Tools for machining Brass Fuse Socket on 14-inch Heavy
+    Turning Lathe—Eighth Operation
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Two slides <i>B</i> and <i>C</i> are carried on the front of the carriage.
+Slide <i>C</i> carries three tools <i>D</i>; two of these start in
+from the rifling band and turn in toward the nose, and the
+other works up toward the rifling band from the closed
+end. Tool <i>E</i>, carried in slide <i>B</i>, turns the curve on the
+nose of the shell and is controlled in its action by means
+of a slot in cam <i>F</i> in which a roller held to the slide operates.
+At the rear of the carriage is carried a facing bar
+attachment, as previously described in connection with the
+second operation. This attachment carries three tools, as
+illustrated, for machining the rifling band to shape, facing
+the closed end and chamfering the corner.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">[85]</span></p>
+
+
+<p><b>Seventh and Eighth Operations.</b>—After the sixth operation,
+the fuse tube is threaded into the diaphragm, the
+bullets put in, and the hot resin poured in to keep them
+from rattling. The brass socket is then screwed into the
+nose and the fuse tube soldered to it. The shell is now
+ready for the seventh operation which consists in cutting off
+the center projection. This is accomplished in a Reed
+14-inch engine lathe, provided with a faceplate chuck for
+holding and driving the shell at the open end, and a steadyrest
+for supporting it close to the point where the cutting is
+being done. The shell is now ready for the eighth operation,
+which consists in machining the brass socket to shape
+in an extra-heavy lathe as shown in <a href="#p084_fig08">Fig. 8</a>. The tools
+used for machining are retained in a special holder on the
+carriage. Tool <i>A</i>, which is used for facing off the fuse
+tube and the brass socket, is inverted, starts at the center
+and is fed out toward the circumference. The external
+surface of the socket is machined with a circular forming
+tool <i>C</i> held on a stud <i>D</i> located in block <i>B</i>. The inward
+travel of this tool is limited by stop <i>E</i> coming in contact
+with the shell.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p085_fig09" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p085_fig09.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 9. Shrapnel Case made from Chrome-nickel Steel having High
+    Tensile Strength on a Cleveland Automatic Screw Machine
+    with Special Tool Equipment
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp51" id="p086_fig10" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p086_fig10.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 10. Order of Operations on the Shrapnel Case
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><b>Making Shrapnel Shells on the Cleveland Automatic.</b>—An
+unusual example of automatic machine work is that of
+producing the shrapnel shell shown in <a href="#p085_fig09">Fig. 9</a>. This shell
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">[86]</span>is made from a bar of 3¹⁄₁₆ inch chrome-nickel steel stock.
+The steel has a tensile strength varying from 125,000 to
+135,000 pounds per square inch, and is extremely tough.
+The work is accomplished on a 3¹⁄₄-inch Cleveland automatic,
+and the tooling equipment, as shown in Figs. 10, 11,
+and 12, is interesting. While the general operation of the
+Cleveland automatic is well understood by many mechanics,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">[87]</span>the production of this piece illustrates a number of points in
+the operation of this machine which are not so well known.
+Therefore, it is advisable to explain in detail just how this
+interesting job is handled.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p087_fig11" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p087_fig11.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 11. Cleveland 3¹⁄₄-inch Automatic Screw Machine set up for
+    making a Shrapnel Case in Twenty-five Minutes
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The first operation, as the job was originally laid out,
+was to feed the stock out to the stop <i>A</i>, shown in <a href="#p087_fig11">Fig. 11</a>,
+which is held on the cross-slide and operated by a lever
+on the base of the machine. This method has been improved
+upon since the photograph shown in <a href="#p087_fig11">Fig. 11</a> was
+taken, and the time reduced from twenty-seven and one-half
+minutes to twenty-five minutes (see <a href="#p086_fig10">Fig. 10</a> for improved
+method). The second operation is to rough-drill
+the large hole with an inserted bit <i>B</i>, step the hole for the
+taper reamer with cutter <i>C</i> and rough-turn the external
+diameter with cutter <i>D</i> held in a special turning attachment.
+This attachment envelops the shanks of all six
+tools in the turret in order to obtain support. The cutters
+in the attachment shown in <a href="#p087_fig11">Fig. 11</a> work in advance of the
+under-cutting forming tool <i>E</i> shown in <a href="#p088_fig12">Fig. 12</a>, which is
+held on the rear cross-slide. The time required for the
+completion of the operations outlined is thirteen minutes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">[88]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p088_fig12" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p088_fig12.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 12. Showing Tools held on the Front and Rear Cross-slides for performing the Knurling, Forming, and Cutting-off
+    Operations on the Shrapnel Case
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">[89]</span></p>
+
+<p>In the third operation drill <i>H</i> finishes the powder pocket,
+and two cutters <i>I</i> counterbore for the tap—time required
+three minutes. The fourth operation consists in finishing
+the diaphragm seat with the counterbore <i>J</i>, finishing the
+front end with inserted cutter <i>K</i> and breaking the corner
+to facilitate tapping with inserted cutter <i>L</i>, the time required
+being forty-five seconds. In the fifth operation the
+thread is cut with a tap <i>M</i> held in the tap-holder <i>N</i> in forty-five
+seconds. Then the turret is indexed and for the sixth
+operation the hole is taper-reamed with reamer <i>O</i>, provided
+with four inserted “Novo” steel blades, in ninety seconds.
+The last and seventh operation consists in knurling the
+band with a knurl <i>P</i> (see <a href="#p088_fig12">Fig. 12</a>) mounted on the front
+cross-slide, and cutting off the shell with a cut-off blade <i>Q</i>
+retained in a holder on the rear cross-slide—time six minutes.
+The total time required to produce this shrapnel
+case by the improved methods illustrated by the diagram
+in <a href="#p086_fig10">Fig. 10</a> is twenty-five minutes.</p>
+
+<p>There are several points of unusual interest in the production
+of this shrapnel case. One is the large amount of
+stock to be removed to form the hole; the second is the long
+taper-reaming operation—difficult work to accomplish satisfactorily
+on an automatic screw machine—and the third
+is the long outside forming operation which must be held
+to a limit of 0.0005 inch on the diameter. In order to accomplish
+this last operation successfully, the external diameter
+of the piece is first turned with a cutter held in a
+separate turning attachment, leaving only 0.010 inch on the
+diameter to be removed by a wide under-cutting or shaving
+tool <i>E</i> held very rigidly on the rear cross-slide. Not only
+must the case be exact as regards diameter, but it must
+not vary from one end to the other nor at any point throughout
+its length. The large shaving tool held rigidly in the
+manner illustrated in <a href="#p088_fig12">Fig. 12</a> accomplishes this result satisfactorily.</p>
+
+<p>The material from which the case is made is so tough
+that some difficulty was met with in selecting a tool steel
+that would stand up for a reasonable length of time under
+cut. The drills and counterbores are tipped with “Novo”
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">[90]</span>cutters and all the forming tools, including the cut-off tool,
+are also made from the same steel. The only cutting tool
+in the entire tooling equipment not made of this steel is
+the tap. The bar is rotated at sixty-four revolutions per
+minute, giving a surface speed for the external cutting
+tools of approximately fifty-one surface feet per minute.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp87" id="p090_fig13" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p090_fig13.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 13. First Operation on Shrapnel Shell, performed on a No. 6A
+    Potter &amp; Johnston Automatic Chucking and Turning Machine
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><b>Machining the British Forged Shell on Potter &amp; Johnston
+Automatics.</b>—In making the British forged shell on
+the Potter &amp; Johnston automatic chucking and turning
+machine, three operations complete the work. The first
+operation completes the outside of the shell, except for the
+extreme end which is covered by the gripping mechanism
+of the chuck. The second operation finishes the inside of
+the shell and at the same time finish-turns the extreme
+open end. After the second operation is performed the
+shell is “nosed,” which consists in heating it in a lead
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">[91]</span>bath and then striking it under a light press to
+close in the end. The third operation then follows,
+and consists in taking light cuts from the inside
+diameter and threading the open end of the shell.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p091_fig14" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p091_fig14.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 14. Expanding Arbor and Chucking Mechanism used on Potter &amp; Johnston Automatic Chucking and Turning Machines for
+    performing First Operation on Forged Shrapnel Shells
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p092_fig15" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p092_fig15.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 15. Set-up on a No. 6A Potter &amp; Johnston Automatic Chucking and Turning Machine for First Operation
+    on Forged Shrapnel Shells
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><b>Method of Holding Shell for First Operation.</b>—For
+the first operation, the shell is held on an
+expanding arbor of the type shown in <a href="#p091_fig14">Fig. 14</a>. The
+arbor <i>A</i> is tapered on its rear end and is held in the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">[93]</span>nose of the spindle of the machine. The shell is pushed onto
+this arbor until the end of the arbor strikes the bottom of
+the shell. The gripping mechanism which comprises six
+jaws <i>B</i> and a draw-in plunger <i>C</i> is contained inside the
+arbor. The external diameter of the arbor is machined to
+practically the same shape as the internal diameter of the
+shell, but is smaller. The jaws are held in slots which control
+their movement in every direction except radially. They
+are forced out radially by means of the draw-in bar <i>C</i> which
+is provided with tapered seats that engage the inward end
+of the jaws. The bar <i>C</i> is operated by a hand lever <i>D</i> that
+extends up over the top of the machine, is fulcrumed in a
+bracket on the rear bearing cap, and is connected to a sliding
+sleeve <i>E</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In clamping the work on the arbor, lever <i>D</i> is lifted up,
+this action drawing the sliding collar <i>E</i> to the right along
+the sleeve <i>F</i>, which, in turn, allows the forward end of the
+fingers <i>G</i> to close in. This releases the pressure of the
+outer end of the fingers on the draw-in bar <i>C</i>. When the
+pressure from bar <i>C</i> is released by means of handle <i>D</i>,
+heavy coil springs <i>H</i> then come into action forcing the
+draw-in bar back and expanding the clamping jaws. Additional
+clamping means are provided by three set-screws
+which are brought to bear on the work after it has been
+clamped in position by the jaws. To release the work, the
+reverse action takes place, that is, lever <i>D</i> is forced down
+which slides the collar <i>E</i> to the left, operating the fingers <i>G</i>,
+which, in turn, overcome the pressure of the springs <i>H</i>,
+allowing the clamping jaws <i>B</i> to collapse.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>First Machining Operation Set-up.</b>—The order of the first
+series of operations in machining a forged shrapnel shell
+is as follows: First, rough-turn 7 inches along body of
+shell, face end and chamfer; second, finish-turn 2¹⁄₂ inches
+along shell; third, rough-groove for copper band and dovetail;
+fourth, turn waves in groove.</p>
+
+<p>For the first operation, the work is held on the expanding
+arbor shown in <a href="#p091_fig14">Fig. 14</a>, and the tool equipment, which
+is of an unusually interesting character, is shown in
+<a href="#p092_fig15">Fig. 15</a>. The first rough-turning operation, accomplished by
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">[94]</span>turret tool <i>A</i>, which is of the relieving type to be described
+later, is held on the first face of the turret and roughs down
+the body of the shell. On the opposite side of the holder
+is a roller support <i>B</i> which supports the shell while the
+turning tool is in operation. The end of the shell is faced
+by means of a facing tool <i>C</i> which is really a type of facing
+mill. The end of the shell is then chamfered by means
+of a chamfering tool <i>D</i> that removes the sharp corner.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p094_fig16" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p094_fig16.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 16. Details of Relieving Turning Tool-holder shown in <a href="#p092_fig15">Fig. 15</a>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>After these operations have been performed, the turret
+is indexed and the second face of the turret is brought in
+line with the chuck. This operation is accomplished with
+a relieving tool-holder <i>E</i> carrying a cutter <i>e</i>, which takes a
+cut 2¹⁄₂ inches along the body of the shell. An interesting
+feature of this tool is that on the return stroke of the
+turret it swivels back out of the way so that the shell is
+not scored by the tool dragging over it. The construction
+of this tool is more clearly shown in <a href="#p094_fig16">Fig. 16</a>.</p>
+
+<p>As is clearly shown in this illustration, the turret relieving
+turning tool comprises a shank on which is fulcrumed
+a tool-holding member <i>B</i>. This is slotted out to carry the
+turning tool <i>C</i> which is clamped in place by two set-screws
+<i>D</i> and is adjusted to turn the correct diameter by means
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">[95]</span>of an adjusting stud and clamping nut <i>F</i> and <i>G</i>. The
+method of operating this tool is as follows: The fulcrumed
+tool-holder <i>B</i> is “held up” by means of a fillister-head screw,
+screwed into a stud <i>H</i> and acted upon by a coil spring <i>I</i>.
+A hole to receive the stud is drilled in the tool-holder <i>B</i>,
+allowing about ¹⁄₁₆ inch clearance. When the tool is in
+action it has a reverse position to that shown in the illustration,
+that is, the turning tool instead of being parallel
+with the center line is at a slight angle with it. In action,
+as soon as the turret advances, the tool comes into contact
+with the work, and the work, turning around, forces the
+cutting tool down and consequently depresses the spring,
+at the same time bringing the “lower part” of the hole
+into contact with the extended plug on the holder. In this
+way the tool is held rigidly and in contact with the work.
+As soon as the turret begins to move back, however, and
+the cutting pressure is released, the spring comes into
+action and throws up the tool, bringing it out of contact
+with the work.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the completion of the operation which is accomplished
+from the second turret face, the turret is again indexed
+and the next operation is performed from the rear
+cross-slide and the third turret face. The third operation
+consists in cutting the grooves for the rifling band, and,
+on account of the under-cutting necessary, involves some
+interesting points. In order to hold the work rigidly while
+the grooving tools are acting on it, a revolving support <i>F</i>
+is brought in from the turret. The wide tool <i>G</i> for cutting
+the band grooves (this tool removes the greatest amount
+of the stock) is held on the rear cross-slide and is of the
+under-cutting type; that is to say, it operates under the
+work or tangentially instead of radially. Held on a bracket
+on the third turret face are two tools <i>H</i> and <i>I</i>, the purpose
+of which is to dovetail the rifling band grooves. These
+turret tools are held in a holder working in a slide on the
+bracket fastened to the turret face and are operated by a
+block held on the rear cross-slide. The action of these
+three tools, therefore, is simultaneous. The wide grooving
+tool, however, is slightly ahead of the dovetailing tools.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">[96]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p096_fig17" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p096_fig17.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 17. Type of Draw-In Collet and Chucking Mechanism for holding Forged Shrapnel Shell for performing
+    Second Series of Operations
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">[97]</span></p>
+
+<p>The last operation is accomplished when the turret is indexed
+to the fourth position. Here, again, a roller support
+<i>J</i> steadies the work while the waving tool is in action on it.
+The two waves that are formed are for the purpose of preventing
+the rifling ring from turning, and they deviate
+about ¹⁄₁₆ inch laterally from being a true annular rib.
+The tool for cutting these ribs is shown at <i>K</i> and is of
+the forming type held in a dovetailed groove in the holder <i>L</i>.
+This also carries a roll <i>M</i> which contacts with the waved
+surface of the face-cam <i>N</i>, the curve of which gives the
+correct out-and-in motions to the waving tool <i>K</i>. The cam
+face is on a sleeve that is threaded onto the nose of the
+spindle of the machine, as is shown to the left of the
+illustration opposite the first turret face.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Method of Holding Shell for Second Operation.</b>—The
+second series of operations on the shell is also performed
+on the Potter &amp; Johnston automatic chucking and turning
+machine. The shell is held at the base end by a special
+collet of the draw-in type, as shown in <a href="#p096_fig17">Fig. 17</a>. Fixed
+in the nose of the spindle is a positive stop <i>A</i> against which
+the shell is held by means of the draw-in collet <i>B</i>. This
+collet extends into the draw-in rod <i>C</i>, to which it is attached.
+The method of operating this gripping mechanism
+differs slightly from that shown in <a href="#p091_fig14">Fig. 14</a>. In this case
+the spring collet <i>B</i> is drawn into a tapered sleeve to clamp
+it on the work. This is effected by means of lever <i>D</i> which
+is fulcrumed in a bracket extending from the rear bearing
+cap of the machine and operates a sliding cam sleeve <i>E</i>.
+The cam, in turn, operates fingers <i>F</i>, only one of which is
+shown, the latter acting upon the draw-in rod <i>C</i> to which
+the collet is attached. By depressing lever <i>D</i>, the chuck is
+opened by means of the coil springs <i>G</i> which act upon the
+draw-in rod <i>C</i> when the pressure of the fingers has been
+released. Lifting up handle <i>D</i> closes the chuck, and depressing
+it opens the chuck.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp82" id="p098_fig18" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p098_fig18.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 18. Tooling Equipment used on No. 6A Potter &amp; Johnston Automatic
+    Chucking and Turning Machine for performing Second Series
+    of Operations on Forged Shrapnel Shell
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><b>Second Series of Machining Operations on Shrapnel Shells.</b>—The
+operations on the shrapnel shell performed in the
+second setting are shown in <a href="#p098_fig18">Fig. 18</a>. The relieving tool <i>A</i>,
+held on the first face of the turret, covers that section of the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">[98]</span>shell which in the former operation was held in the gripping
+jaws. While this cut is being taken, a turret tool <i>B</i> rough-bores
+the powder pocket and diaphragm seat. The relieving
+tool <i>A</i> is constructed and operated similarly to the
+relieving tool described in connection with <a href="#p094_fig16">Fig. 16</a>. It will
+be noted here that the threads on the spindle nose are protected
+by a cast-iron cap to prevent them from being injured.
+Upon the completion of the operation just described,
+the turret is indexed, bringing the second face in line with
+the spindle. Here the diaphragm seat is finished with a
+flat cutter <i>C</i>, which is held in the boring tool illustrated.
+The turret is again indexed into the third position, where
+the powder pocket is finished by means of the flat cutter <i>D</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">[99]</span></p>
+
+<p>The turret is now indexed to bring the fourth face in
+line with the spindle where the extreme open end of the
+shell is turned taper by means of a tool <i>E</i> that is carried
+on the front cross-slide and operated by the turret. By
+referring to this illustration, it will be noticed that the
+taper is turned from the spindle toward the outer end
+of the shell and is, therefore, a reverse turning operation.
+The tool is caused to move toward the turret by using a
+rack and pinion to reverse the movement. On this operation,
+as well as on the previous one, one man takes care of
+four machines.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p099_fig19" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p099_fig19.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 19. Machining Inside of Shrapnel Shell, and threading with
+    Automatic Collapsible Tap on Potter &amp; Johnston
+    Automatic Chucking and Turning Machine
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><b>Third Machining Operation on Shrapnel Shells.</b>—Before
+any other machining operations are done on the shell, it
+is taken to a lead bath where it is heated and afterward
+placed under a press which closes in the nose or open end
+of the shell. For machining in the third operation, the
+shell is held practically in the same manner as for the second
+operation, except that it is gripped farther along the
+body. The machining performed in this operation is as
+follows: On the first turret face, rough-bore and finish-bore
+for a distance of 1 inch from the end of the shell;
+second turret face, rough-bore the inside of the shell for a
+distance of 1 inch back from the thread; third turret face,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">[100]</span>finish-form on the inside for a distance of 1 inch back of
+the thread; and fourth turret face, thread with a collapsible
+tap. The various machining operations on the 3-inch
+size of shrapnel shells are performed on a standard Potter
+&amp; Johnston 6A automatic chucking and turning lathe. It
+is recommended that these machines be run in batteries or
+units of seven each, four machines being set up for the
+first operation, two machines for the second operation, and
+one machine for the third operation.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp77" id="p100_fig20" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p100_fig20.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 20. First Series of Operations on “Frankford” Shell on a Potter &amp;
+    Johnston 6A Automatic Chucking and Turning Lathe
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp68" id="p101_fig21" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p101_fig21.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 21. Second Series of Operations on “Frankford” Shell on Potter &amp;
+    Johnston Automatic Chucking and Turning Lathe
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><b>Machining “Frankford” Forged Shell.</b>—The machining
+of the American or “Frankford” 3-inch type of high-explosive
+shrapnel shell is comparatively easy, inasmuch as there
+is no nosing to be done, and the entire shell may be machined
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">[101]</span>at two settings. <a href="#p100_fig20">Fig. 20</a> shows the way in which the first
+operation is taken care of on the No. 6A Potter &amp; Johnston
+automatic chucking and turning lathe. The forged shell is
+held on an expanding arbor of the same type as that shown
+in <a href="#p092_fig15">Fig. 15</a>. In the first turret position, the operations consist
+in taking a straight cut across the diameter and facing
+off the end. The external turning tool <i>A</i> is of the relieving
+type, and <i>B</i> is a facing tool that works on the end. Both
+of these tools are supported and operated from the turret.
+A roll support, not shown, steadies the work while tool <i>A</i> is
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">[102]</span>working. The turret now backs out, and a forming tool,
+held on the cross-slide, advances, cuts the rifling band and
+the semicircular grooves in the end of the shell, and at the
+same time chamfers the corner. Knurl <i>D</i>, held on the rear
+of the cross-slide, is then advanced. This knurls the bottom
+of the rifling band groove.</p>
+
+<p>By referring to <a href="#p100_fig20">Fig. 20</a>, it will be seen that the grooves
+do not extend entirely across the face of the knurl, but
+instead two “knurl” ribs similar to a double thread are
+formed on the periphery. This construction makes it possible
+to sink the knurl into the work to the proper depth
+without exerting excessive pressure on the arbor and throwing
+it out of line.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p102_fig22" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p102_fig22.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 22. Three-inch Shrapnel Shell made on a Gridley
+    Automatic Turret Lathe
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><b>Second Series of Operations on “Frankford” Forged
+Shrapnel Shell.</b>—For the second series of operations, the
+“Frankford” shrapnel shell is held in a draw-in collet as
+shown in <a href="#p101_fig21">Fig. 21</a>. As the shell has been completely machined
+on the outside, it is let into the collet for a considerable
+distance. For machining, it is shown gripped in
+the collet by jaws <i>A</i> and is backed up by positive stop <i>B</i>. At
+the first turret face, tool <i>C</i> rough-bores the diaphragm
+seat, tool <i>D</i> bores the thread diameter, and tool <i>E</i> faces
+and chamfers the end. The turret is now indexed, and
+tools <i>F</i>, <i>G</i>, and <i>H</i> perform similar finishing cuts. A holder
+held on the third turret face carries tool <i>I</i> that chamfers
+the powder pocket, and at the fourth turret face a collapsible
+tap threads the open end.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">[103]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp78" id="p103_fig23" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p103_fig23.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 23. Tool set up for Producing the Shell shown in <a href="#p102_fig22">Fig. 22</a>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><b>Making Shrapnel Shells on the Gridley Automatic Turret
+Lathe.</b>—Figs. 22 to 25 show a three-inch shrapnel shell
+made on the 3¹⁄₄-inch Gridley single-spindle automatic turret
+lathe. The steel from which the shell is made is very
+tough. The specifications are from 125,000 to 135,000
+pounds tensile strength, 110,000 pounds elastic limit,
+a twenty-five per cent reduction of area, and a twelve per
+cent elongation. It will be seen from the above specifications
+that the steel is, of necessity, very tough and difficult
+to work; in addition, a large taper reamer must be used,
+and the outside of the shell must be relieved throughout the
+central portion. It is also necessary to machine the piece
+to extremely accurate dimensions, all of which tends to
+make the work still more difficult. <a href="#p102_fig22">Fig. 22</a> shows a view of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">[104]</span>the shrapnel shell. It is approximately three inches in
+diameter and eight inches long, and the limits allowed for
+the sizes are extremely close throughout, both inside and
+outside. Figs. <a href="#p104_fig24">24</a> and <a href="#p105_fig25">25</a> show the successive steps employed
+in machining the piece complete, the four views
+presented representing the appearance of the work and
+the operations performed at each indexing of the turret.
+<a href="#p103_fig23">Fig. 23</a> will enable the operation of the different parts to be
+more clearly understood.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp61" id="p104_fig24" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p104_fig24.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 24. Successive Steps and Operations employed in Making the
+    Shell shown in <a href="#p102_fig22">Fig. 22</a>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">[105]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp60" id="p105_fig25" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p105_fig25.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 25. Successive Steps and Operations employed in Making the
+    Shell shown in <a href="#p102_fig22">Fig. 22</a>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>While the operation of the Gridley automatic turret lathe
+is generally understood by mechanics, it may be well to
+state briefly the general principles upon which work is
+done in the single-spindle machine. In this type of machine,
+the position of the work does not change as it does
+in the multiple-spindle machine, but the turning is accomplished
+by the operation of tools mounted on tool-slides
+which, in turn, work on a turret that revolves about a horizontal
+axis, successively presenting the tools for operation
+upon the work. This will be readily understood by glancing
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">[106]</span>at the illustration <a href="#p103_fig23">Fig. 23</a>. It will also be noticed from
+this illustration that the forming tools and cutting-off tools
+are operated from a face-cam at the lower part of the machine.
+The forming slide is actuated by a cam groove cut
+in one side of the cam-plate while the cutting-off slide receives
+its movement from a cam groove on the reverse side
+of this plate.</p>
+
+<p>At the first position of the turret, a large 2¹¹⁄₃₂ inch
+high-speed oil drill is run into the bar to a depth of 6¹⁄₃₂
+inches, and, at the same time, a knee-turner located on the
+tool-slide turns the outside of the stock, thereby removing
+the scale from the bar. Referring to <a href="#p103_fig23">Fig. 23</a>, which shows
+the turret in the third position, the end of this large drill
+is shown at <i>A</i>, and, of course, when at work, it would be
+in the position of the reamer which is shown at <i>F</i>. The
+time elapsed at the completion of this part of the work is
+eleven minutes, five seconds.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp97" id="p106_fig26" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p106_fig26.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 26. First Chucking on Warner &amp; Swasey Turret Lathe for
+    machining British Forged Shrapnel Shells
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>At the second position of the turret, a smaller drill, 2¹⁄₁₆
+inches in diameter, which is shown at <i>B</i>, is run in at the
+bottom of the hole previously drilled to a depth of ²⁹⁄₃₂
+inch. At the same time a counterboring tool, which is located
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">[107]</span>at <i>C</i> and which is attached to the drill with a set-screw,
+is at work counterboring the end of the hole in the
+shell. During the time that this drilling and counterboring
+operation is being performed, the forming tool shown
+at <i>D</i> is being fed into the outside of the head of the shell,
+finishing the three grooves as shown; in addition, a sizing
+tool <i>E</i>, which is at a fixed distance from the forming tool,
+comes in and sizes the work to exactly the right length.
+The time elapsed up to the finishing of this part of the work
+is thirteen minutes, thirty-five seconds.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp84" id="p107_fig27" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p107_fig27.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 27. Diagram Illustrating Position and Relation of Tools for
+    First Chucking on British Forged Shell
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>At the third position of the turret, which, by the way, is
+the one shown in <a href="#p103_fig23">Fig. 23</a>, the large taper reamer <i>F</i> is run
+in, which operation removes the bulk of the stock for the
+taper, and a second step at the end of this reamer finishes
+the extreme end of the hole at the bottom of the shell. The
+blades of this reamer are nicked to break the chips as they
+are being formed. Before the reamer begins to cut, the
+knurling tool <i>H</i> is brought against the work (while it is on
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">[108]</span>the high speed) by the cutting-off slide, which, of course,
+results in a better knurled section than would result if the
+knurling of the piece were done at a lower speed. During
+the reaming operation, the cutting-off tool <i>G</i> is run in part
+way to facilitate the final severing of the piece. In addition,
+the relieved part of the work is turned by a tool
+mounted in a tool-holder on the slide of the turret. This
+tool is shown at <i>I</i> and it is operated by a templet <i>J</i> which
+has a raised projection that throws the tool into the work
+after it has reached the right position with relation to the
+length of the shell. The total time elapsed up to the finishing
+of this part of the work is twenty-two minutes, thirty-five
+seconds. At the fourth and last position of the turret,
+a finishing reamer sizes the outer end of the interior of the
+shell and is withdrawn but part way, so that, when the cutting-off
+slide comes in and finishes severing the piece, the
+shell is caught on the reamer and not allowed to drop and
+possibly be injured by so doing.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p108_fig28" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p108_fig28.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 28. Set-up on Warner &amp; Swasey Turret Lathe for Second
+    Series of Operations on Forged Shrapnel Shell
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The average total time for making this piece complete is
+twenty-seven minutes. On account of the rigidity of the
+tool support, the tools do not require sharpening more
+often than once for fifty pieces, with the possible exception
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">[109]</span>of the cutting-off tool, which must be sharpened after about
+half that number of pieces have been completed.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Using Warner &amp; Swasey Turret Lathe for Machining
+Forged Shrapnel Shells.</b>—In <a href="#p106_fig26">Fig. 26</a> is shown a typical
+set-up on a Warner &amp; Swasey No. 2A universal hollow-hexagon
+turret lathe for machining an 18-pound shrapnel
+shell forging. The arrangement of the various tools for
+performing the first series of operations is more clearly
+illustrated in <a href="#p107_fig27">Fig. 27</a>, to which reference should now be
+made. The forging is located for machining on a special
+arbor fitted into the spindle and carrying two spring-controlled
+centering bushings <i>A</i>. These serve to locate the
+shell, which is then gripped by the floating jaws of the
+chuck on the external diameter, and a stop on the end of
+the arbor locates the shell from the bottom of the powder
+pocket.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p109_fig29" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p109_fig29.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 29. Diagram Illustrating Sequence of Operations performed
+    at Second Chucking
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The first operation consists in taking a cut from the external
+diameter with a special box-turner provided with a
+roll steadyrest and carrying two turning tools. The second
+operation is handled from the cross-slide, the shell forging
+meanwhile being supported by a roll steadyrest clamped to
+the turret. In this operation the closed end of the shell is
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">[110]</span>faced with tool <i>C</i>, the corner rounded, and the band groove
+formed with forming tool <i>D</i>. The third operation—first
+chucking—is performed with tool <i>F</i> which produces the
+waves in the band groove, and is operated in the following
+manner: Referring to the lower left-hand corner of the
+illustration, it will be seen that a roll <i>G</i> is brought in contact
+with the face-cam <i>B</i>, thus giving the desired oscillating
+movement to the waving cutter. The fourth and final operation
+consists in under-cutting the band groove with a tool
+clamped to the turret. This tool gages from the end of the
+shell by a revolving stop <i>H</i>, and is provided with two slides,
+set at the desired angle to each other and the work, carrying
+under-cutting tools <i>I</i> and <i>J</i>. These slides are operated
+by handle <i>K</i>.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp98" id="p110_fig30" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p110_fig30.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 30. Third Chucking Set-up on British Forged Shrapnel Shell
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The second chucking on this shell is handled as shown in
+Figs. <a href="#p108_fig28">28</a> and <a href="#p109_fig29">29</a> on the same type of machine. As shown in
+<a href="#p109_fig29">Fig. 29</a>, the shell for this operation is gripped in an automatic
+chuck, and a stop <i>A</i> for locating it is held in the
+spindle. The first operation consists in roughing out the
+powder pocket and diaphragm seat with a cutter <i>B</i>, and
+rough-turning that portion of the shell held in the chuck
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">[111]</span>in the previous chucking with a tool <i>C</i>. This tool is held
+in the cross-slide toolpost, and is controlled in its movement
+by a special guide fastened to the regular taper-turning
+attachment. The second operation finishes the powder
+pocket and diaphragm seat with a cutter <i>D</i>.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p111_fig31" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p111_fig31.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 31. Diagram Illustrating Relation of Tools for performing
+    Third Series of Operations
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p111_fig32" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p111_fig32.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 32. First Chucking on French Shell made from Bar Stock
+    on Warner &amp; Swasey Turret Lathe
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>After the second chucking, the shell is heated on the nose,
+closed in and is then brought back to the turret lathe, when
+the operations are performed as shown in Figs. <a href="#p110_fig30">30</a> and <a href="#p111_fig31">31</a>.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">[112]</span>Here, again, the forging is held in the automatic chuck and
+is located by a plug <i>A</i> in the spindle. The first series of
+operations consists in boring, facing and chamfering the
+nose with a counterbore <i>B</i>, and at the same time turning the
+external radius on the nose with a tool <i>C</i>. Tool <i>C</i> is held
+in the cross-slide square turret and is controlled in its
+movement by a special guide fitting on the regular taper-turning
+attachment.</p>
+
+<p>The second operation, shown to the left of the illustration,
+consists in machining the radius inside the nose with
+a tool <i>E</i>, controlled in its movement by the special guide <i>D</i>,
+as previously mentioned. The third and final operation
+consists in cutting the thread with a collapsible tap <i>F</i>.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp78" id="p112_fig33" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p112_fig33.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 33. Second Chucking on French Shrapnel Shell
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><b>Using Warner &amp; Swasey Turret Lathe for Machining
+Bar-stock Shrapnel Shells.</b>—The method of machining
+shrapnel shells from bar stock differs somewhat from that
+used for forgings, and is handled on a No. 2A universal
+hollow-hexagon turret lathe. In this particular case, the
+shell blank, previous to machining in the turret lathe, is
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">[113]</span>rough-drilled in a high-powered drilling machine to the bottom
+of the powder pocket. Assuming that this has been accomplished,
+the operations for the first chucking are then
+carried on as illustrated in <a href="#p111_fig32">Fig. 32</a>. Here the shell is held
+in an automatic chuck and is located by a stop <i>A</i>. The first
+operation consists in counterboring the mouth with the
+counterbore <i>B</i>, and rough-turning the external diameter
+with tool <i>C</i>; second, counterboring with the cutter <i>D</i> and
+turning further along the shell with a tool <i>E</i>; third, finishing
+the bottom with a cutter <i>F</i> and facing the end of the
+shell with a tool <i>G</i>.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp94" id="p113_fig34" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p113_fig34.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 34. Third and Final Chucking on French Shrapnel Shell
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In the second chucking, the operations shown in <a href="#p112_fig33">Fig. 33</a>
+are performed. Here the shell is reversed in the automatic
+chuck and is located, as before, by a stop <i>A</i>. The first
+operation consists in turning that portion of the body held
+in the chuck in the previous chucking with a roll-supporting
+turning tool <i>B</i>. Second, supporting the shell with a roller
+support <i>C</i> held on the turret, facing the end with a tool <i>D</i>,
+and chamfering the band groove and the end with a cutter <i>E</i>
+held on the cross-slide square turret. The third operation
+is to support the shell from the turret, knurling with a
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">[114]</span>knurl <i>F</i> from the cross-slide square turret. Fourth, taper-turn
+from the end to the band groove with a tool <i>G</i>, guided
+by the taper-turning attachment.</p>
+
+<p>For the third chucking, the shell, as indicated in <a href="#p113_fig34">Fig. 34</a>,
+is held in the same manner as for the first chucking. First,
+it is recessed with a tool <i>A</i> and brought into action by operating
+the special holder which has a cross-sliding movement;
+second, it is bored and faced with a counterbore <i>B</i> from the
+turret, and taper-turned with a tool <i>C</i> operated by a special
+guide from the taper-turning attachment. In the third
+operation, the thread in the nose is rough-chased with a
+tool <i>D</i>, controlled in its movement by the chasing attachment
+of the machine; fourth, the thread is finished with a
+tap and tap-holder <i>E</i>.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp95" id="p114_fig35" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p114_fig35.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 35. Diagram showing Method of holding and performing First
+    Series of Operations on Forged Shells on “Lo-swing” Lathe
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><b>Machining Shrapnel Shell Forgings on the “Lo-swing”
+Lathe.</b>—By adding a simple carriage to its “Lo-swing”
+lathe, the Fitchburg Machine Works, Fitchburg, Mass., has
+adapted this machine for machining shrapnel shells of different
+types. The following data and illustrations refer
+particularly to tooling used for machining the Russian and
+French shells. On the Russian shell, after centering, the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">[115]</span>forging <i>A</i> is held on a special arbor <i>B</i> shown in Figs. <a href="#p114_fig35">35</a>
+and <a href="#p115_fig36">36</a>. Placed over this arbor is an expanding collar <i>C</i>,
+the inside surface of which is chamfered to fit against surface
+<i>D</i> on the stem of the arbor. The section of the arbor
+next to the spindle is threaded and a large nut and handwheel
+<i>E</i> are turned to pull the sliding sleeve <i>C</i> along the
+arbor and thus expand it to firmly grip the inside of the
+shell forging. Sleeve <i>C</i> is connected to the nut <i>E</i> by a
+threaded collar <i>F</i>. After the forging is securely located on
+the arbor, which it should be understood extends to the
+bottom of the powder pocket to gage it for length, the tail-center
+<i>G</i> is run in to support it.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p115_fig36" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p115_fig36.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 36. Set-up for performing First Series of Operations on
+    Russian Forged Shell on “Lo-swing” Lathe
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>To those familiar with the “Lo-swing” lathe, it will be appreciated
+that its chief efficiency lies in its system of multiple
+turning tools. Thus, on this job, tools <i>H</i>, <i>I</i>, <i>J</i>, <i>K</i>, <i>L</i>, and
+<i>M</i> are all mounted on one slide, and in the illustration are
+shown in the positions they occupy after taking their respective
+cuts. At the beginning of the cut, turning tools <i>K</i>,
+<i>L</i>, and <i>M</i> are drawn back clear of the work to allow sufficient
+clearance for tools <i>H</i> and <i>I</i> to operate. With the
+tools drawn back and the carriage at the extreme right of
+the bed, tool <i>H</i> is the first to come in contact with the work.
+This tool takes a roughing cut over the body of the forging,
+finishing at the radius on the nose.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">[116]</span></p>
+
+<p>Tool <i>H</i> is controlled in its action by a former pin on the
+tool-slide, held in contact with the face of cam former <i>O</i> by
+a stiff spring. Former slide <i>O</i> takes the place of the regular
+taper-turning former ordinarily used on the “Lo-swing”
+lathe. When the former pin in the slide carrying tool <i>H</i>
+reaches point <i>P</i> on former <i>O</i>, the tool is withdrawn to conform
+with the shape shown at <i>N</i> on the forging. The tool
+is then fed in further toward the axis of the arbor, until
+the former pin reaches point <i>Q</i> on the slide, when the radius
+on the nose is completed. Tool <i>H</i> is the only one mounted
+on a taper-turning block.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p116_fig37" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p116_fig37.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 37. Diagram showing Method of performing Second Series of
+    Operations on Forged Shrapnel Shells on “Lo-swing” Lathe
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Just after tool <i>H</i> passes point <i>N</i>, tool <i>I</i> commences to cut
+at the end of the forging, taking a finishing cut and ending
+up in the position in which it is shown in the illustration.
+After tool <i>I</i> reaches this position, the other tools <i>J</i>, <i>K</i>, <i>L</i>, and
+<i>M</i> are brought into action. Tools <i>K</i>, <i>L</i>, and <i>M</i> are so situated
+on the carriage that no lateral feeding is required.
+When these tools are in action, the roller support <i>R</i> takes
+the thrust. Tool <i>K</i> roughs out the band groove and is fed
+into the work by a handwheel. Tool <i>L</i> cuts the groove for
+attaching the brass case to the shell, and tool <i>M</i>, carried on
+the same block, faces the end. Tools <i>K</i>, <i>L</i>, <i>M</i>, and <i>S</i> are
+located on the same carriage and are fed in together. Tool
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">[117]</span><i>S</i> rounds the corner of the shell. The carriage on which
+tools <i>K</i>, <i>L</i>, <i>M</i>, and <i>S</i> are located is now drawn back out of
+the way, and the entire carriage moved over so that tool <i>J</i>
+can be used to under-cut the rifling band groove. After
+cutting off the center projection, the first series of operations
+on the shell is completed.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p117_fig38" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p117_fig38.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 38. Set-up on “Lo-swing” Lathe for performing Second
+    Series of Operations on Russian Shell
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><b>Second Series of Operations on the Russian Shell.</b>—The
+second series of operations is performed on the inside
+of the shell on the “Lo-swing” lathe, which is provided with
+a special turret for this purpose. As is shown in Figs. <a href="#p116_fig37">37</a>
+and <a href="#p117_fig38">38</a>, the shell <i>A</i> is held in special collet jaws <i>B</i> that have
+a two-point bearing on the shell. Stop <i>C</i> in the spindle
+locates the shell in the chuck. To manipulate the chuck for
+tightening it on the work, handwheel <i>D</i> is turned, carrying
+with it the nut <i>E</i> and ring <i>F</i>. Ring <i>F</i> carries pins sliding
+in slots in sleeve <i>H</i> and driven into collet <i>B</i>, so that when
+nut <i>E</i> is drawn back it also carries collet <i>B</i> into the taper
+in sleeve <i>H</i>, closing the collet on the work. Turning handwheel
+<i>D</i> in the opposite direction releases the grip of the
+collet <i>B</i> on the work. The first operation is performed
+with tools <i>I</i>, <i>J</i>, <i>K</i>, and <i>L</i>. Tool <i>I</i> bores the powder pocket,
+tool <i>J</i> roughs the diaphragm seat, tool <i>K</i> rough-turns the
+thread diameter at the shell mouth, and tool <i>L</i> faces the
+end. The turret is now indexed, and boring-bar carrying
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">[118]</span>tool <i>M</i> is brought into operation. This tool turns the curved
+interior of the shell. To accomplish this, the turret locking-pin
+is removed, allowing the turret to float on its central
+axis. Fastened on the ways of the lathe at the rear
+of the turret by a clamp <i>O</i> is the cam bracket <i>N</i> carrying
+the guiding cam <i>P</i>. This cam, through pins <i>Q</i> and <i>R</i> in
+bracket <i>S</i>, controls the float of the turret and guides the
+cutting tool <i>M</i>. In the illustration, the tool is shown at the
+end of the cut. It will also be noted that one surface of
+the cam is curved and the other is straight; therefore, to
+compensate for this and also to steady the turret, pin <i>R</i>
+is backed up by a spring. Clamp <i>O</i> is now released and
+bracket <i>N</i> moved back to allow the turret to be indexed.
+Bracket <i>N</i> is located, when brought into the operating position,
+by a stop on the bed of the lathe.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp74" id="p118_fig39" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p118_fig39.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 39. Diagram showing Method of machining French Shells on
+    “Lo-swing” Lathe—First Series of Operations
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">[119]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p119_fig40" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p119_fig40.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 40. Diagram showing Method of holding and applying Tools on “Lo-swing” Lathe for performing Second Series
+    of Operations on French Shell
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In the third position, tool <i>R</i> finishes the powder
+pocket, <i>S</i> the diaphragm seat, and <i>T</i> the thread
+diameter, whereas <i>U</i> acts as an adjustable stop for
+the depth of the various tools. The fourth and last
+operation is tapping with a collapsible tap <i>V</i>. This
+completes the machining of the Russian shell on the
+“Lo-swing” lathe.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Machining French Shrapnel Shell on “Lo-swing”
+Lathe.</b>—The machining of the French shrapnel
+shell is well suited to the “Lo-swing” lathe. A
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">[120]</span>great many of the French shells are made from solid bar
+stock, and when this is the case, the first operation, performed
+as shown in <a href="#p118_fig39">Fig. 39</a>, consists in rough-drilling. If
+the shell is made from a forging, this operation, of course,
+is dispensed with and the first tool used carries boring and
+facing cutters, as shown at <i>A</i>, <i>B</i>, <i>C</i>, and <i>D</i>. These rough-bore
+the three diameters on the inside of the shell and face
+off the end to length. The next operation is accomplished
+with two finishing boring tools <i>E</i> and <i>F</i>, the depth of which
+is obtained by an adjustable collar <i>G</i> that comes against the
+produced with a collapsible tap <i>H</i>. The turret is then indexed
+two holes, bringing the special recessing tool into
+position. This tool is of the cross-slide type and carries a
+back recessing cutter <i>I</i>. This completes the first series of
+operations on the shell.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p120_fig41" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p120_fig41.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 41. Set-up on “Lo-swing” Lathe for performing Second
+    Series of Operations on Straight Type of French Shell
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><b>Second Series of Operations on Shell. French</b>—The second
+series of operations on a French shell is accomplished
+as shown in <a href="#p119_fig40">Fig. 40</a>. Here the shell is held in the same
+manner as described in connection with <a href="#p114_fig35">Fig. 35</a>. The forging
+is placed on arbor <i>B</i> that has an expanding sleeve <i>C</i>
+operated by the hand-clamping wheel nut <i>D</i>. Eight cutting
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">[122]</span>tools are located on the carriage. Tool <i>A</i> turns the diameter
+at the open end of the shell, <i>B</i> the central part, <i>C</i> cuts
+the band groove, <i>D</i> chamfers the section adjacent to the
+band groove, <i>E</i> chamfers the end of the shell, and <i>F</i> knurls
+the band groove. Roll <i>G</i>, in connection with roll <i>H</i>, supports
+the shell while the knurling is being done, whereas
+tool <i>I</i> faces off the end of the shell. At the beginning of
+the cuts, tools <i>C</i>, <i>D</i>, <i>E</i>, and knurl <i>F</i>, also roll <i>G</i> and tool <i>I</i>,
+are withdrawn. This permits tool <i>A</i> to cut the front end
+of the shell at the beginning and finish the diameter at the
+open end of the shell. Tool <i>B</i> next comes into action and
+turns the central part of the shell. Tool <i>C</i> is then located
+in the correct position for the band groove and the carriage
+on which tools <i>C</i>, <i>D</i>, and <i>E</i> are located is fed straight in,
+cutting the band groove and chamfering. Knurl <i>F</i> is then
+brought into position to knurl the groove, with roll <i>G</i>
+backing up the work against roll <i>H</i>. The last operation
+is to cut off the center projection with tool <i>I</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#p120_fig41">Fig. 41</a> shows the tool set-up on the “Lo-swing” lathe for
+machining the straight type of French shell, in which two
+tool-blocks are used for doing the straight turning. The
+leading tool turns the end of the shell a little larger than
+the main body. The procedure for grooving, knurling, and
+facing the shell is that previously described for the forged
+shell, which is shown in <a href="#p114_fig35">Fig. 35</a>. On the French shrapnel
+shell the second operation follows directly after the first,
+whereas on the Russian forged shell a nosing-in operation
+comes between the two machining operations.</p>
+
+
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp73" id="p121_3_fig42_43" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p121_3_fig42_43.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Figs. 42 and 43. Set-up and Tool Equipment on the
+    “Libby” Turret Lathe
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><b>Using the “Libby” Turret Lathe for Machining Shrapnel
+Shells.</b>—One of the many ways of machining a shrapnel
+shell is illustrated in <a href="#p121_3_fig42_43">Figs. 42 and 43.</a> This shows the set-up
+on the “Libby” turret lathe, manufactured by the International
+Machine Tool Co., Indianapolis, Ind. In the first
+chucking, the forging, as shown at <i>A</i>, is held on a special
+solid arbor provided with a series of corrugations where it
+contacts with the forging. This, in addition to providing
+a rigid support, assists in gripping, and the shell is also
+gripped by a pair of chuck jaws that act as drivers. First,
+a gang tool-holder carrying three stellite turning tools <i>o</i> is
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">[125]</span>brought into position, and the cutting is started, continuing
+for a distance of one-third of the length turned. To
+provide additional support, a roller back-rest, carrying a
+facing tool, is brought in to steady the work, and, as it is
+fed forward, the end of the forging is faced off and
+chamfered.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp70" id="p124_6_fig44_45" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p124_6_fig44_45.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Figs. 44. and 45. Machining Shrapnel Shell Forgings on a 22-inch
+    Extra-heavy Turret Lathe
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The second operation on the first chucking is shown at <i>B</i>.
+Here the cutter <i>a</i> is brought in first and starts the band
+groove, after which the under-cutting tool <i>b</i> is brought in
+to under-cut the edges of the groove. In the meantime,
+roller <i>c</i> supports the work. Upon the completion of the
+groove, the holder carrying cutter <i>d</i> is advanced to finish-face
+the end of the work and chamfer.</p>
+
+<p>The third operation—cutting the waves in the band
+groove—is of an interesting character and is accomplished
+as shown at <i>C</i>. A cam <i>e</i> which is free to rotate with the
+work is first brought in contact with it; then the cross-slide
+is advanced, carrying the waving tool <i>f</i> and the guide <i>g</i>.
+The guide <i>g</i> fits in the cam groove and controls the operation
+of the waving tool.</p>
+
+<p>In the second chucking on the first operation the shell is
+reversed in the chuck and is held in the manner indicated at
+<i>D</i>, <a href="#p121_3_fig42_43">Fig. 43.</a> The forging is located in the chuck by a stop-collar
+<i>h</i>, and is gripped on the external diameter by the
+jaws of the chuck. A stepped boring tool carrying five
+inserted blades is brought in to rough-bore the internal
+diameters and machine the shell to the proper thickness at
+the bottom of the powder pocket. This tool also carries a
+facing cutter that faces off the shell to the proper length.
+While the boring tool is working, a broad turning tool, held
+on the cross-slide, is brought in to bevel the nose preparatory
+to closing-in. The next step is to taper-ream the internal
+diameter, as shown at <i>E</i>. This completes the operations
+for the second chucking.</p>
+
+<p>The nose of the shell is now heated and closed in, after
+which the third series of operations is performed. The
+first step in the third chucking is to bore for the thread
+and face the end of the shell with a turret tool, as shown
+at <i>F</i>. The next operation is to machine the curved contour
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">[127]</span>of the nose of the shell with a special turret tool as
+shown at <i>G</i>. Here a wide forming cutter <i>i</i>, held in a turret
+tool-holder, is brought in contact with the work, finishing
+the nose of the shell to the proper form. During this
+operation, the shell is supported by a roller in the holder.</p>
+
+<p>The next operation is to form the inside of the nose of
+the shell to the proper shape, as shown at <i>H</i>. This is accomplished
+with a forming blade <i>j</i>, held in a holder clamped
+in the toolpost. Following this, a collapsible tap is brought
+in from the turret to thread the nose of the shell, as shown
+at <i>I</i>.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p127_fig46" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p127_fig46.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 46. Method of holding Shrapnel Shells for First Operation
+    on a 22-inch Turret Lathe
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><b>Machining Shrapnel Shells on a Heavy 22-inch Turret
+Lathe.</b>—Still another method of machining shrapnel shells
+in a heavy turret lathe is shown in <a href="#p124_6_fig44_45">Figs. 44 and 45.</a> The
+shell being machined is an 18-pound British shrapnel shell
+made from a forging. It is held on an expanding arbor
+for the first operation, as shown in <a href="#p127_fig46">Fig. 46</a>. The arbor is
+of the three-point support type and is positive in its grip.
+Around the periphery of the nose-piece are located three
+pinions <i>A</i> capable of being rotated by a square-ended
+wrench. These mesh with teeth in bevel gear <i>B</i> which, in
+turn, is threaded onto arbor <i>C</i>. The forward end of this
+arbor is cone-shaped and operates the three gripping fingers
+in the open end of the shell, whereas another rod passing
+through arbor <i>C</i> and connected to plunger <i>D</i> operates,
+through the coil spring, the three fingers used in gripping
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">[128]</span>the shell by the powder pocket. This arbor holds the shell
+securely while the machining operations are being accomplished.</p>
+
+<p>The first operation performed at the first chucking of the
+work is shown at <i>C</i> in <a href="#p124_6_fig44_45">Fig. 44.</a> Here a turning tool-holder
+clamped to the turret and carrying two cutters is advanced
+and takes a roughing cut from the exterior diameter of
+the shell for practically its entire length. The shell is
+supported by three roller supports as illustrated. The second
+operation at the first chucking is performed from the
+cross-slide, as shown at <i>D</i>. Here a forming tool of the
+tangent type roughs out the rifling band groove, leaving
+sufficient metal in the center for the production of the wave
+ribs. The third operation is facing off the closed end of the
+shell from the turret as shown at <i>E</i>, and the fourth operation
+consists in machining the waved ribs as shown at <i>F</i>.
+The tool for accomplishing this operation is held on the
+cross-slide and is operated from a face-cam on the nose of
+the spindle.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p128_fig47" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p128_fig47.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 47. Cutting Square Thread in Nose of French Shrapnel
+    Shell In “Automatic” Threading Lathe
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In the second chucking the shell is held in a three-jaw
+scroll chuck. The first operation is to rough-bore the inside
+of the shell and powder pocket with a tool <i>G</i>, <a href="#p124_6_fig44_45">Fig. 45</a>,
+held in the turret; directly after this a finishing tool of the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">[129]</span>same shape is brought in, finishing the surfaces previously
+roughed out. The second operation is to face off the open
+end of the shell and taper-form back of the nose from the
+cross-slide, as shown at <i>H</i>, and at the same time turn that
+portion of the exterior surface of the shell not machined
+in the previous operation with a tool clamped to the turret
+as shown at <i>I</i>.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp85" id="p129_fig48" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p129_fig48.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 48. Threading Base End of Bar-stock Shrapnel Shells in
+    “Automatic” Threading Lathe
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Previous to the third chucking, the nose of the shell is
+heated and closed in. The shell is then held in a three-jaw
+scroll chuck provided with special jaws. The first operation,
+as shown at <i>J</i>, consists in boring and turning the nose
+of the shell with a tool held in the turret. Following this,
+the hole is reamed with a standard reamer and tapped with
+a collapsible tap. Both of these tools are held in the turret,
+but are not shown in the illustration. This completes the
+machining operations on the shell.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Threading Shrapnel Shells on “Automatic” Threading
+Lathes.</b>—Considerable difficulty has been experienced in
+cutting the square thread in the nose of the French shrapnel
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">[130]</span>shell. One method which accomplishes this operation satisfactorily
+is shown in <a href="#p128_fig47">Fig. 47</a>, and is accomplished on a
+12-inch “Automatic” threading lathe built by the Automatic
+Machine Co., Bridgeport, Conn., and equipped with special
+tools for this purpose. Referring to this illustration, it
+will be seen that two tools are used—a roughing tool <i>A</i>,
+and a finishing tool <i>B</i>. Tool <i>A</i> roughs out the thread to a
+shape similar to the Acme type of thread, whereas tool <i>B</i>
+squares it up. The roughing and finishing tools are held
+on the forward and rear carriages, respectively, and are
+operated simultaneously, being advanced throughout the
+length of the thread, withdrawn and returned to start a
+new cut. The method of operating the tools is one of the
+chief features of the “Automatic” threading lathe.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p130_fig49" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p130_fig49.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 49. Turning, facing, and threading Plugs for Closed End of Bar-stock
+    Shrapnel Shells in “Automatic” Threading Lathe
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The base end of shrapnel shells when made from bar
+stock is as a rule bored out and a plug inserted to eliminate
+any piping effect in the bar. <a href="#p129_fig48">Fig. 48</a> shows the method of
+accomplishing this operation on a 12-inch “Automatic”
+threading lathe. The work is held in a three-jaw universal
+chuck and is supported by a roll steadyrest comprising two
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">[131]</span>rolls that are located beneath the work. On the extended
+end of the rear roller stud is fastened a swinging stop that
+is used for locating the base of the shell in the correct
+position ready for threading. The base of the shell is counterbored
+in another machine, previous to the threading operation.
+The threading is done with a circular tool held
+on a special internal threading tool-holder, the latter being
+retained in the toolpost carriage. The threading tool-holder
+can be moved longitudinally to bring it into the proper
+relation to the work. It is also held so that the cutting
+edge is turned upside down as this action forces the work
+down in contact with the roller supports. By handling
+the work in this manner, a steadyrest of the ordinary type
+is dispensed with and the operation of the attachment
+facilitated.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p131_fig50" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p131_fig50.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 50. Grinding Shrapnel Shells on a Norton Special-purpose Grinding
+    Machine
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>One method of making plugs for the base end of shrapnel
+shells when made from bar stock is shown in <a href="#p130_fig49">Fig. 49</a>. For
+this work, a 12 by 4 “Automatic” threading lathe equipped
+with special tools designed for this purpose is used. The
+machine is provided with a draw-in collet chuck that holds
+the rough-forged blank. The order of handling the operations
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">[132]</span>on this machine is to use the rear tool <i>A</i> for turning
+the external diameter of the plug. This is handled at the
+same rate of feed as that required for threading, so that it
+is sometimes necessary to take more than one cut, depending
+on the amount of material left on the diameter. The
+vertical slide <i>B</i> is for facing only and carries a cutting tool
+<i>C</i>. This is supposed to finish the face in one cut, but as
+the work will spring considerably, a light finishing cut is
+taken when the tool is being drawn back from the center to
+the circumference of the work. The threading tool <i>D</i> is
+held on the front toolpost and is of single-point construction.
+The feed given to this tool is automatically controlled,
+both as to pitch and depth of cut at each traverse.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p132_fig51" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p132_fig51.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 51. Diagram showing Scleroscope Hardness Test of Heat-treated
+    Shrapnel Shell at Various Points along its Surface
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In actual operation, both the threading and turning tools
+are in motion all the time on the work, but the tools are independently
+controlled so that either one can be operated
+separately. A stop is provided on the back toolpost so as
+to turn each plug to the same diameter. The automatic
+throw-out for the feed of the threading tool is set from the
+front handle on the ratchet and pawl as regularly furnished
+on the “Automatic” threading lathes.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Grinding Shrapnel Shells.</b>—An increasingly large number
+of shrapnel shell manufacturers are finishing the steel
+shell by grinding instead of finish-turning. That is, the
+exterior surface of the shell is rough-turned to within from
+0.030 to 0.080 inch of the finished size and is then finished
+to the required limits and shape by grinding, as shown in
+<a href="#p131_fig50">Fig. 50</a>. It is claimed by the advocates of grinding that
+the finishing operations are more speedily performed in this
+manner and that a more accurate and concentric shell is
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">[133]</span>produced. They also point out the fact that portions of the
+shell are so hard that it is extremely difficult, if not impossible,
+to turn it in the allowable time.</p>
+
+<p>The varied heat-treatment given to the shell on the closed
+end and nose leaves it harder in some sections than others,
+as indicated in <a href="#p132_fig51">Fig. 51</a>. The section <i>E</i>, 2¹⁄₂ inches from the
+closed end of the shell, must strike from 42 to 50 on the
+scleroscope, and the section <i>A</i> at the nose must strike between
+20 and 25. The section marked <i>D</i>, or that part of it
+to the left of the line that marks the limit of the heat-treating
+on the closed end, has not been heat-treated at all,
+and partly on this account, and also because of the gradually
+diminishing thickness of the shell along this section,
+it strikes between 40 and 45, decreasing as the thickness of
+the wall diminishes, until at <i>C</i> the section strikes but 35.
+Section <i>B</i>, adjacent to the annealed nose of the shell, strikes
+about 30 on the scleroscope.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p133_fig52" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p133_fig52.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 52. Two-operation Method of grinding Shrapnel Shells on
+    Norton Grinding Machines
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>On the other hand, some manufacturers are not putting
+the shell through this heat-treating and tempering process,
+and omit the annealing and machining of the nose after the
+nosing-in operation. This leaves the nose with considerable
+stock to remove and in such a condition as regards hardness
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">[134]</span>that the grinding machine becomes a necessity. In
+the face of these varying degrees of hardness of the shrapnel
+shell, it will be seen that it is difficult to secure wheels
+of the right grain and grade to suit all of these conditions.
+With this information in mind, we can more intelligently
+take up the actual grinding of the shell. The Norton Grinding
+Co., Worcester, Mass., has been actively engaged in
+developing methods of grinding shrapnel shells and the following
+illustrations and descriptions apply to this work.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp79" id="p134_fig53" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p134_fig53.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 53. Three-operation Method of grinding Shrapnel Shells on
+    Norton Grinding Machines
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><a href="#p133_fig52">Fig. 52</a> shows the two-operation method of grinding the
+shrapnel shell. Section <i>A</i> at the open end of the shell is
+covered by a wide-faced wheel formed to shape, that finishes
+the radius on the nose at one in-feeding of the wheel.
+Sections <i>B</i>, <i>C</i>, and <i>D</i> are covered by a wide-faced wheel,
+formed to shape so as to finish these three surfaces at one
+in-feeding of the wheel. Section <i>E</i> at the closed end of the
+shell is finished completely by turning.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">[135]</span></p>
+
+<p>Some manufacturers use a three-operation method of
+grinding the shrapnel shell as illustrated in <a href="#p134_fig53">Fig. 53</a>. In
+this case, the sections <i>A</i> and <i>D</i> are first ground with the
+same wheel, as American manufacturers deem it advisable
+to grind surface <i>A</i> rather than to finish it by turning. The
+second stage in this grinding is the finishing of the nose <i>E</i>
+with a formed wheel, and the third stage is the finish-grinding
+of the body at points <i>B</i> and <i>C</i>.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Two-operation Method of Grinding Shrapnel Shells.</b>—The
+procedure followed in grinding shrapnel shells by the
+two-operation method is first to screw plugs into the open
+end of the shells, as shown in <a href="#p133_fig52">Fig. 52</a>. The outer ends of
+these plugs are centered, and the projection left on the
+closed end of the shell with the center intact acts as a means
+of supporting the shell. Some of the Canadian manufacturers
+vary this practice by cutting off the center projection
+on the closed end of the shell and fitting a cap with a
+center hole over the closed end. Others use a ball-bearing
+cup center to carry the closed end. American manufacturers,
+however, leave the center projection on the shell
+until after the grinding has been finished.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p135_fig54" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p135_fig54.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 54. Radius Wheel-truing Device for forming Grinding
+    Wheel for grinding Shrapnel Shell Nose
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In grinding the nose end of the shell, the amount of metal
+removed varies from 0.020 to 0.090 inch on the diameter.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">[136]</span>The grinding wheel operates at from 6000 to 6250 surface
+feet per minute. The speed of the work is 75 revolutions
+per minute, or a surface speed of practically 75 feet, and
+the machine used is a Norton 6 by 32 plain grinder. The
+wheel used is generally 14 inches in diameter by 2¹⁄₄-inch
+face. The wheel requires truing for every five to twenty
+shells, depending upon the amount of metal removed and
+the hardness of the shell. For truing, a simple radius fixture
+carrying a diamond is used. <a href="#p135_fig54">Fig. 54</a> shows this wheel-truing
+device clamped on the grinding machine bed. It is
+applied in the same manner as the usual steadyrests used
+for supporting the work. The diamond is mounted in a
+swinging arm that is operated by a hand lever as shown.
+By successive cuts across the wheel, the desired shape is
+attained.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p136_fig55" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p136_fig55.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 55. Norton Special Form Wheel-truing Device for truing
+    Wheel for grinding Shrapnel Shell Body
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>For grinding the body either a 10 by 24 special-purpose
+or 10 by 36 Norton grinding machine is employed. The
+amount of metal removed from the body varies from 0.030
+to 0.075 inch on the diameter, and the limits vary from 0.002
+to 0.010 inch, depending largely on the requirements of the
+plant in which the work is being done. The wheel used on
+the body is 20 inches in diameter and is of the ring-wheel
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">[137]</span>type. It will be noticed in <a href="#p133_fig52">Fig. 52</a> that the wheel for grinding
+the body is also formed to shape. The method of truing
+the wheel for shaping the shrapnel shell body is shown in
+<a href="#p136_fig55">Fig. 55</a>. This attachment is clamped to the front of the
+grinding machine bed and at the top of the bracket is fitted
+a slide <i>A</i> operated by handwheel <i>B</i>. Upon the face of this
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">[138]</span>slide nearest the grinding wheel is pivoted an angular arm
+<i>C</i> that supports the diamond <i>D</i> at its lower end. Under the
+end of the upper arm is a spiral spring that keeps the
+diamond normally back from the wheel. A plate former <i>E</i>
+clamped to the bottom face of the bracket is shaped to agree
+with the form to be given the wheel. At the lower extremity
+of the arm and behind the diamond is mounted a
+roll <i>F</i> that bears constantly against form <i>E</i>. When the
+diamond slide is reciprocated by turning the handwheel, the
+diamond is made to traverse a path conforming with the
+cam that guides it. By moving the wheel in toward the
+diamond and making successive traversings of the diamond,
+the wheel is given the desired shape.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp85" id="p137_fig56" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p137_fig56.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 56. Besly No. 14 Ring Wheel Grinder equipped for grinding
+    Shrapnel, but shown without Hoods and Water Attachments
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p137_fig57" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p137_fig57.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 57. Fixture used on Besly No. 14 Ring Wheel Grinder for
+    grinding Center End from Shrapnel Forgings
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p>For grinding the body, the wheel must be trued after
+every ten to twenty-five shells are ground, depending upon
+the amount of metal removed and the hardness of the shell.
+In grinding shrapnel shells, the usual method is to fit a lot of
+the shells with the driving plugs and carry them all through
+to completion before removing the plugs.</p>
+
+<p><b>Removing Center End From Shrapnel Forgings.</b>—For
+performing practically all the machining operations on the
+shell, a center projection is left on the closed end of the
+shell for supporting it. This, of course, must be removed
+before the shell is completed. One method of doing this is
+to use a Besly No. 14 ring-wheel grinder equipped with a
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">[139]</span>special fixture. A Besly grinder fitted up for this work is
+shown in <a href="#p137_fig56">Fig. 56</a>, and the fixture used for holding the shell
+is shown in <a href="#p137_fig57">Fig. 57</a>. The machine, as furnished, is arranged
+for wet grinding, but is not so fitted up in the illustration.
+The fixture is fastened to the geared lever feed table and is
+of simple design. It is provided with a backing-up stop <i>A</i>,
+the work resting in two semi-spherical groove projections
+on the fixture. The operator simply holds the shrapnel shell
+in place by hand and then feeds it in against the wheel and
+traverses it past in the usual manner. The time for removing
+a ⁵⁄₈-inch diameter stub end projecting ³⁄₈ inch from the
+body of the shell is less than a minute.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p138_fig58" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p138_fig58.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 58. Tools for making Base of Powder Cup
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p139_fig59" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p139_fig59.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 59. Tools for making Top Member of Powder Cup
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><b>Press Tools for Making Powder Cup.</b>—In the British
+shrapnel shell, the powder in the base of the shell used for
+exploding it and ejecting the lead bullets, etc., is held in a
+tin-plate powder cup. This is completed in the punch press
+in the manner shown in Figs. 58 and 59, and comprises two
+parts, a base and a top. The base is made from tin plate
+0.022 inch thick, whereas the top is made from 0.036 inch
+thick tin plate. The bottom of the cup is completed in one
+operation with the punch and die shown in <a href="#p138_fig58">Fig. 58</a>, which is
+held in a single-action press. It is turned out from a blank
+3⁷⁄₃₂ inches in diameter and is cut out and formed in one
+operation. The completed size is 2¹⁄₄ inches diameter by ⁷⁄₈
+inch high. After cupping, the top edge is trimmed in a
+turret lathe. The press operations on the top, as shown in
+<a href="#p139_fig59">Fig. 59</a>, are a little more complex. The first operation consists
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">[140]</span>in cutting out a blank 2¹⁹⁄₃₂ inches in diameter.
+Then the edge is turned up with another
+punch and die shown in the center of the illustration.
+The next operation is piercing the center
+with the punch and die at the right, and the last
+operation is drawing out a flange around the
+pierced hole. The tools for this operation are
+shown to the extreme right, as is also a completed
+powder cup. The final operation on the cup consists
+in soldering the top to the base.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p140_fig60" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p140_fig60.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 60. Diagram illustrating “Twelve-punch” Method of making Shrapnel Bullets from Lead Wire
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><b>Shrapnel Bullets.</b>—The most deadly and effective
+parts of a shrapnel are the lead bullets which
+are held in the shell. When the timing fuse explodes
+the powder in the base of the shell, the nose
+is blown off and the bullets are thrown out in a
+cone shape. The range covered by these bullets
+in the 18-pound shrapnel shell is about 250 square
+yards. The lead bullets, which in most shrapnel
+are ¹⁄₂ inch in diameter, are made from several
+different compositions, but consist chiefly of 87¹⁄₂
+parts lead and 12¹⁄₂ parts antimony. The number
+of bullets carried in shrapnel shells of the different
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">[141]</span>governments varies. There are 252 in the American
+15-pound shell, and 235 or 236 in the British 15-pound
+shell. The bullets used by the U. S. government have six
+flattened sides, to facilitate packing, whereas those used
+by foreign governments are spherical.</p>
+
+<p>There are several methods of making shrapnel bullets.
+One is to cast the bullets in iron molds, which are split in
+the center, so that the bullet can be removed when cast.
+Another is to cut off slugs from lead wire and strike these
+between dies in a heading machine. The bullet heading
+machine takes the wire from a reel, cuts it off, forms it and
+trims off the resultant flash automatically. In making the
+American bullets, a second operation follows, consisting in
+flattening the sides. The Waterbury Farrel Foundry &amp;
+Machine Co. furnishes unit equipments for doing this work.
+For the flattened bullets, the unit consists of one hydraulic
+wire extruding press and fourteen heading machines capable
+of giving a production of 850 bullets per minute. For
+the spherical bullet, the unit equipment consists of one
+hydraulic extruding press and eight heading machines, giving
+a production of 950 bullets per minute.</p>
+
+<p>The method of casting lead bullets in ordinary molds is
+antiquated, and another method somewhat similar to that
+just described has taken its place. The first step is to produce
+the wire from which the bullets are eventually made.
+This is accomplished in two ways. The first is the hot metal
+process and consists in pouring the molten lead into a
+cylinder, from which it is extruded through a die by a
+plunger advanced into the cylinder. By this method, it is
+necessary to allow the metal to settle before the press can
+operate. An improvement over this is utilized in presses
+built by a hydraulic lead press manufacturer of Brooklyn,
+and consists in first casting ingots of the required diameter
+and length and then charging the press with these instead
+of pouring the molten lead into the press chamber. Two
+presses have been designed for this process. One has a
+capacity of 700 tons and is charged with ingots weighing
+150 pounds, whereas the other has a 900-ton capacity and
+is charged with 200-pound ingots. The product from these
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">[142]</span>two machines is 1800 pounds of lead wire from the small
+and 2500 pounds from the large press per hour. The wire
+as it is extruded from the die is wound on a reel carrying
+2000 pounds of wire.</p>
+
+<p>There are two principal types of swaging machines used
+for making these lead bullets from wire. One carries a
+single set of dies, whereas the other carries twelve sets of
+tools. The operation of the latter will be described. Referring
+to the diagram, <a href="#p140_fig60">Fig. 60</a>, twelve reels of lead wire—not
+shown—are arranged in tandem on stands behind the
+press, six reels in a row. The wire is conveyed from these
+reels to the dies by a feeding mechanism, being guided to
+the individual tools by a plate <i>A</i>, having twelve U-shaped
+impressions in its top edge. The wire now passes over a
+spring <i>B</i> which serves to lift it up slightly at each stroke
+of the press. The tools <i>C</i> and <i>D</i>, as shown, are provided
+with half-spherical depressions in their adjacent faces and
+are set so that they come within ¹⁄₆₄ inch of meeting. The
+dies are guided and controlled in action by a special mechanism,
+and the press in which they are carried operates at 70
+revolutions per minute. This gives a rated production of
+840 bullets per minute. As is clearly indicated in the illustration,
+considerable scrap is formed in making lead bullets
+by this process—in fact the scrap is about 33 per cent of
+the reel of wire; also owing to the setting of the punches
+a slight fin is formed around the periphery of the bullet.</p>
+
+<p>After forming, the bullets are taken to a tumbling machine
+where they are tumbled for one hour. No other material
+is put into the tumbling barrel, but the action of the
+bullets working on themselves satisfactorily removes all the
+fins. Both the swaging and tumbling operations must be
+carefully watched because of the necessity of having the
+bullets a certain weight. The allowable variation on one
+pound of bullets is one dram, and there are forty-one bullets
+to the pound. Ten pounds of lead rod make 6¹⁄₂ pounds
+of bullets, and the scrap resulting from the swaging operation
+is remelted and used over again. After tumbling, the
+bullets are inspected and are then ready for use.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">[143]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_V">
+    CHAPTER V
+    <br>
+    <span class="sm">MAKING FUSE PARTS</span>
+  </h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>Combination timing and percussion fuses comprise
+a large number of small parts made from different metals
+and alloys, and are produced in various ways. Some of the
+parts are made from brass rod or alloys of copper and
+aluminum, whereas others are made from hot-pressed forgings
+and are machined after being formed to shape. In
+the following, a brief description of several different
+methods of making the most important fuse parts will be
+illustrated and described, together with details regarding
+the forging tools used for the socket and plug.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p143_fig01" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p143_fig01.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 1. Tools used in forging Brass Fuse Socket
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp63" id="p144_fig02" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p144_fig02.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 2. Diagram showing Construction of Tools used in
+    forging Fuse Socket
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><b>Forging the Fuse Socket.</b>—The fuse socket, which
+screws into the nose of the shrapnel shell and acts as a
+base for the fuse, is made from a special forgeable alloy
+casting containing 40 per cent copper, 58 per cent zinc, and
+2 per cent lead. The first step in this process is to melt
+the above constituents in the usual manner and then to cast
+the slugs in sand molds, six to eight being gated together.
+These castings are made 2¹¹⁄₁₆ inches in diameter by
+¹¹⁄₁₆ inch thick, as shown in Figs. 1 and 2. There are
+several methods in use for forging the plugs, but the general
+principle is the same. In this particular case, a No. 23
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">[144]</span>Bliss press capable of exerting a pressure of 250 tons is
+used. The castings are placed in the furnace where they
+are allowed to “soak” at a temperature varying from 1200
+to 1300 degrees F., or, in other words, until they reach a
+dull red color. One casting at a time is then quickly removed
+and placed in the impression of the die shown to
+the right in <a href="#p143_fig01">Fig. 1</a> and in detail in <a href="#p144_fig02">Fig. 2</a>. The working
+parts of these dies are made from Jessop’s high-carbon
+tool steel and one blow of the press completes the forging,
+turning out about 3000 in ten hours. The tools used for
+this purpose are of interesting construction, as shown in
+<a href="#p144_fig02">Fig. 2</a>. They comprise a lower die <i>A</i> machined out to the
+shape of the finished forging and carrying an ejector, and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">[145]</span>lower former <i>B</i> operated by plunger <i>C</i> which ejects the forging
+if it sticks in the die. The top member or punch comprises
+a holder <i>D</i> into which the punch <i>E</i> is screwed. This
+is bored out to fit an ejector <i>F</i> which ejects the forging as
+the ram of the press ascends. Punch <i>E</i> and stripper or
+ejector <i>F</i> are made from high-speed steel, hardened. <i>G</i>
+shows the cast blank and <i>H</i> the completed forging.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p145_fig03" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p145_fig03.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 3. Tools used for forging Brass Plug
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><b>Forging Brass Plugs.</b>—The brass plug shown in <a href="#p145_fig03">Fig. 3</a>
+is used as a temporary cap for the shrapnel to protect it
+during transportation. It remains in the fuse socket until
+the shrapnel shell reaches the field of operations, when it
+is removed and replaced by the timing fuse. This member
+is made from a special forgeable alloy casting 2 inches in
+diameter by ⁷⁄₈ inch thick and is cast in sand molds in a
+similar manner to the fuse socket. It is also composed of
+the same constituents as the socket and is forged in the
+same type of press. The construction of the tools,
+however, varies somewhat from that of the tools used in
+making the socket, as will be seen upon reference to Figs.
+<a href="#p145_fig03">3</a> and <a href="#p146_fig04">4</a>. The tools for the plug comprise a lower die <i>A</i>
+carrying a combined ejector and forming die <i>B</i>. Inserted
+in this lower forming die is a secondary ejector <i>C</i> which is
+operated by plunger <i>D</i>. The upper member of this forging
+tool consists of a punch-holder <i>E</i> carrying forming punch <i>F</i>
+which is counterbored to receive an ejector ring <i>G</i>. Passing
+down through the center of punch <i>F</i> is a center-punch <i>H</i>
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">[146]</span>that is made in two parts. The lower member is made of
+high-speed steel, hardened, whereas the upper portion is
+ordinary carbon steel. This center-punch is operated to
+eject the forging by a plunger <i>I</i> on the up-stroke of the
+press through the action of three pins <i>J</i> coming in contact
+with the flange on punch <i>H</i>. <i>K</i> shows the rough casting
+and <i>L</i> the completed forging.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp64" id="p146_fig04" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p146_fig04.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 4. Diagram showing Construction of Tools for
+    forging Brass Plug
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><b>Tooling for Machining Brass Socket.</b>—The New Britain
+automatic chucking machine, referred to in the following,
+consists essentially of a multiple-chuck turret with capacity
+for holding five or six pieces of work, acted upon simultaneously
+by four or five tool-holding spindles. The sequence
+of operations is similar to that of a multiple-spindle screw
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">[147]</span>machine. A finished piece is removed and a rough blank
+inserted at each indexing. The machine is not idle while
+chucking, there being one more chuck than spindles.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp50" id="p147_fig05" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p147_fig05.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 5. Diagram showing First Series of Operations on Fuse
+    Socket on the New Britain Automatic Chucking Machine
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The shrapnel socket which, as previously explained, is
+made from a brass casting and pressed into rough shape, is
+machined in two settings in the New Britain No. 24 chucking
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">[148]</span>machine. This machine has four spindles, and at the
+first spindle position, as shown in <a href="#p147_fig05">Fig. 5</a>, reamer <i>A</i> cleans
+out the hole in the pressed brass blank, counterbore <i>B</i>
+cleans out the inside, and tool <i>C</i> faces the end. At the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">[149]</span>second spindle position, reamer <i>D</i> finishes the central hole,
+counterbore <i>E</i> faces the bottom, and tool <i>F</i> chamfers the
+hole.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">[150]</span></p>
+
+<p>The under-cutting preparatory to threading is done at the
+third spindle position. The operation is performed with
+tool <i>G</i> working on the cross-cutting head <i>H</i>. When the
+pressed blank is fed in and reaches stop <i>I</i>, it commences to
+push the housing <i>H</i> of the cross-cutting head backward.
+A pair of stationary fingers <i>J</i> operate in oblique slots in
+the housing <i>H</i>, and as the housing presses down on these
+fingers, the motion gives a cross movement to the under-cutting
+tool <i>G</i> and its arbor <i>K</i>. In this manner, the under-cutting
+of the piece is performed. The fourth spindle
+operation is simply that of tapping the threaded interior
+with a tap <i>L</i>.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp44" id="p148_fig06" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p148_fig06.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 6. Diagram Illustrating Second Series of Operations on Fuse
+    Socket on New Britain Automatic Chucking Machine
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><b>Second Operation on Shrapnel Socket.</b>—<a href="#p148_fig06">Fig. 6</a> shows
+the order of operations performed on the shrapnel socket
+at the second chucking, the work being screwed on threaded
+arbors. At the first spindle position, pilot <i>A</i> engages the
+central hole, while tool <i>B</i> turns the external diameter, tool
+<i>C</i> chamfers the corner, tool <i>D</i> turns the thread diameter,
+tool <i>E</i> faces the shoulder, and counterbore <i>F</i> finish-forms
+the nose of the piece. At the second position, these same
+surfaces are machined with finishing tools of the same
+design as those just described.</p>
+
+<p>At the third spindle position, the shoulder at the end of
+the threaded section is under-cut. This is done by a cross-cutting
+head, similar to that shown in <a href="#p147_fig05">Fig. 5</a> and carrying
+the cutter <i>G</i>. At the fourth spindle position, the final operation—threading—is
+performed with die <i>H</i>.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp45" id="p149_fig07" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p149_fig07.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 7. First Series of Operations on Fuse Body on No. 73
+    Seven-spindle New Britain Automatic Chucking Machine
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><b>Machining Fuse Bodies.</b>—In <a href="#p149_fig07">Fig. 7</a> is illustrated an interesting
+tooling set-up for machining a fuse body. This
+is done on the No. 73 seven-spindle New Britain automatic
+chucking machine. The operations in this set-up are performed
+on one end only of the fuse body. Strictly speaking,
+this is a seven-spindle machine, but the first four spindles
+carry internal spindles running at high speed that co-operate
+with the external spindles in machining the work,
+making this virtually an eleven-spindle machine. At the
+first spindle position, the broad face and stem are machined
+with cutters <i>A</i> of hollow-mill type, and centering tool <i>B</i>, carried
+in the inner spindle, centers the work for drilling.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">[151]</span></p>
+
+<p>In the second spindle position, tools <i>C</i> bevel the external
+diameter of the flange at the same time that drill <i>D</i> is producing
+the hole in the stem. In the third spindle position,
+roll <i>D</i> supports the work against the thrust of beveling tool
+<i>E</i>, and the small drill <i>F</i> held in the internal spindle deepens
+the hole. At the fourth spindle position, the external spindle
+carries a hollow-mill <i>G</i> that finishes the stem diameter,
+and a counterbore <i>H</i> is carried in the internal spindle to
+machine the central hole.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp92" id="p151_fig08" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p151_fig08.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 8. Machining a Shrapnel Head on the New Britain
+    No. 24 Automatic Chucking Machine
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>A cross-cutting head in the fifth spindle position carries
+a circular tool <i>I</i> that machines on both sides of the section
+subsequently to be threaded, and while this operation is
+being performed the pilot <i>J</i> steadies the work as well as the
+tool-holder. In the sixth spindle position, the small hole is
+threaded with tap <i>K</i>, and the exterior is threaded with a
+die, tap and die being of different pitches. In the seventh
+spindle position, a holder carries the forming tool <i>M</i> for
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">[152]</span>cutting grooves in the face of the flange, and the same spindle
+carries a reamer <i>N</i> that finishes the hole in the stem.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp54" id="p152_fig09" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p152_fig09.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 9. First Series of Operations on Shrapnel Head on the
+    New Britain Automatic Chucking Machine
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp48" id="p153_fig10" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p153_fig10.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 10. Second Series of Operations on Shrapnel Head on the
+    New Britain Automatic Chucking Machine
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><b>Machining Steel Shrapnel Heads.</b>—Heads for shrapnel
+shells made from cold-drawn steel stampings are machined
+in two settings on a No. 24 New Britain automatic chucking
+machine of the four-spindle type, shown in <a href="#p151_fig08">Fig. 8</a>. This
+piece, shown in <a href="#p152_fig09">Fig. 9</a> in its sequence of operations, is especially
+difficult to machine on account of the stringy nature
+of the metal. The work is held for the first chucking with
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">[153]</span>the small end out, and in the first spindle position the facing
+on the end is distributed between tools <i>A</i> and <i>B</i>, while
+counterbore <i>C</i> roughs out and chamfers the hole. In the
+second spindle position, tool <i>D</i> faces the end, and counterbore
+<i>E</i> finishes the hole. A cross-cutting head of a type
+similar to that previously described is carried in the third
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">[154]</span>spindle position. This retains a tool <i>F</i> which produces an
+annular groove in the nose of the head, the work being supported
+with pilot <i>G</i>. The fourth and last operation consists
+in threading the hole with the tap <i>H</i>.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp46" id="p154_fig11" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p154_fig11.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 11. Diagram showing Tooling Set-up for machining Fuse Nose
+    on New Britain Automatic Chucking Machine
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">[155]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp44" id="p155_fig12" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p155_fig12.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 12. Machining Brass Fuse Socket on 3¹⁄₄-inch “Gridley”
+    Automatic Turret Lathe—First and Second Series of Operations
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><b>Second Series of Operations on Shrapnel Heads.</b>—The
+set-up for the series of operations performed at the
+second chucking is shown in <a href="#p153_fig10">Fig. 10</a>, the work being held
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">[156]</span>on threaded arbors. In the first spindle position, tools <i>A</i>
+and <i>B</i> face the shoulder, and counterbore <i>C</i> machines a
+seat in the inner flange. In the second spindle position,
+counterbore <i>D</i> finishes the part roughed out by <i>C</i> in the
+previous operation, tool <i>E</i> faces the end, and tool <i>F</i> chamfers
+the inner edge. In the third position, a cross-cutting
+attachment carrying external cutting tool <i>G</i> is utilized for
+recessing the external diameter next to the shoulder. The
+threading on the external diameter is accomplished with
+the die <i>H</i> in the fourth spindle position.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Machining Shrapnel Fuse Noses.</b>—The time fuse nose
+for a shrapnel shell, which is made from a brass forging, is
+machined as shown in <a href="#p154_fig11">Fig. 11</a> on a No 33 New Britain
+automatic chucking machine at one setting. In this case,
+an extra spindle designated as No. 0 is added to the machine
+for equalizing or properly locating the forging in the chuck
+when it is being tightened. At the first spindle position,
+tool <i>A</i> takes a cut from the external diameter, tool <i>B</i> cuts
+an annular recess in the face, and counterbore <i>C</i> roughs out
+the center portion. In the second spindle position, the same
+operations are performed with finishing tools. In the third
+spindle position, a cross-cutting head carries a recessing
+tool <i>D</i> that forms a recess back of the tapped portion. The
+hole is then tapped in the fourth spindle position, and in the
+fifth spindle position a special counterbore <i>F</i> takes a light
+finishing cut from all the surfaces previously machined.
+The external surfaces of the fuse nose are machined on a
+turret lathe.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp39" id="p157_fig13" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p157_fig13.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 13. Diagram Illustrating First and Second Series of Operations
+    on Fuse Body on “Gridley” Automatic
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><b>Machining Shrapnel Fuse Parts on “Gridley” Automatics.</b>—The
+machining of fuse parts for the British shrapnel
+shell on “Gridley” single- and multiple-spindle automatics,
+made by the Windsor Machine Co., Windsor, Vt., forms the
+basis of several interesting tooling equipments. A number
+of the parts are machined from hot-pressed brass forgings,
+so that they must be handled separately. The fuse
+socket, as has been previously described, is made from a
+brass forging and is machined complete in two operations
+on a 3¹⁄₄-inch “Gridley” automatic turret lathe of the single-spindle
+type. The manner in which the work is loaded in
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">[158]</span>the chuck and held for the first series of operations is
+shown at <i>A</i> in <a href="#p155_fig12">Fig. 12</a>. The rough blank <i>a</i> is first placed
+over the spring fingers <i>b</i>, which are held in a holder clamped
+in the turret, but are free to rotate. When the work is
+pushed into the chuck, it forces back spring-ejecting stud
+<i>c</i>, which, as soon as the pressure of the chuck is released,
+ejects the work.</p>
+
+<p>As the loading device operates on the first slide of the
+turret, the first machining operation takes place on the
+second slide. This is a comparatively simple operation and
+consists in boring the central recess with a tool <i>d</i> and chamfering
+with tool <i>e</i>. The turret is then indexed, bringing the
+internal necking tool <i>f</i> into position. This is held in a
+holder and is operated by the forward motion of the forming
+slide. Following this, tap <i>g</i> is brought into position to
+thread the recess in the socket. The operation of the turret
+is now stopped automatically until the operator loads a
+new piece in the chuck. The tapping is done with the spindle
+running in the forward direction on slow speed. After
+the hole has been tapped, the spindle is reversed and operated
+at a higher speed. The spindle continues to run backward
+for loading, and is still running backward, but slowed
+down, at the time of the second operation. It is for this
+reason that the boring tool <i>d</i> operates on the reverse side
+of the hole, and tool <i>e</i> is mounted upside down. At the
+third operation, the spindle is still running backward but
+is speeded to its highest speed while the internal necking
+is done with the tool on the reverse side of the hole.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Second Operation on Fuse Socket.</b>—The method of holding
+the fuse socket for performing the second operation on
+the 3¹⁄₄-inch “Gridley” single-spindle automatic turret lathe
+is shown at <i>B</i> in <a href="#p155_fig12">Fig. 12</a>. The socket <i>h</i>, which has now
+been threaded, is screwed onto the body of special arbor <i>i</i>,
+fitting in sleeve <i>j</i> that is gripped by the spring collet. On
+the reduced end of arbor <i>i</i> is a nut which serves to clamp
+the work up against the face of sleeve <i>j</i>. The method of
+using this arbor is as follows:</p>
+
+<p>To chuck the work, sleeve <i>j</i> and its auxiliary members are
+removed from the spring collet, and the work is screwed
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">[159]</span>onto the nose of arbor <i>i</i>, the position of which is
+locked by means of a nut on the stem of the arbor.
+The entire arbor is then replaced in the collet and
+the machining operations performed on the work.
+This type of arbor is necessary because of the
+heavy cutting with the wide forming tool which
+would tighten the piece on the threaded nose to
+such an extent that it could not be removed when
+finished. With this device, it is only necessary to
+hold the square end of arbor <i>i</i> in a vise, and loosen
+the work by relieving the nut on the arbor. In
+order to facilitate the work, two arbors of this type
+are provided with each of the machines employed.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p159_fig14" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p159_fig14.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 14. Section through a “Gridley” 3¹⁄₄-inch Automatic Turret Lathe Spindle showing Method of chucking Shrapnel Fuse Body
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The operations performed in the first position
+consist in forming the external diameters with tool
+<i>k</i>, facing with the side tool, and drilling with drill
+<i>m</i>. The second turret face is now skipped and the
+third brought into position, presenting self-opening
+die <i>n</i> which threads the work. At the fourth
+indexing of the turret slide, the hole is reamed with
+reamer <i>o</i> and tool <i>p</i> chamfers the face, completing
+the work. The forming done at the first indexing
+of the turret slide is performed on slow speed; the
+spindle speed, however, changes to high at the third
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">[160]</span>position and back to slow just before the fourth position.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Machining the Fuse Body.</b>—The fuse body is made
+from a hot-pressed brass blank, and is machined in
+two chuckings in “Gridley” multiple-spindle automatics.
+The first series of operations is performed in a “Gridley”
+1¹⁄₄-inch multiple-spindle automatic in the order shown to
+the left in <a href="#p157_fig13">Fig. 13</a>. The work is loaded in the chuck by
+hand. Forming tool <i>A</i> now advances and rough-forms the
+outer diameter, whereas flat drill <i>B</i> and trepanning tool <i>C</i>
+combine to drill the central hole and trepan the narrow
+channel. At the second spindle position, tool <i>D</i> finish-forms
+and necks the outer surface, while tool <i>E</i> counterbores
+the surfaces of the recess. Die <i>F</i> at the third spindle
+position now threads the body, and at the fourth spindle
+position forming tool <i>G</i> turns down the outer end of the
+thread while a floating trepanning tool <i>H</i> finishes the counterbored
+and trepanned surfaces. It should be mentioned
+here that the hot-pressing of this brass part makes it extremely
+difficult to machine, so that the edges of the tools
+dull rapidly.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Second Series of Operations on Fuse Body.</b>—The method
+of holding the fuse body while the second series of operations
+is being performed is shown in <a href="#p159_fig14">Fig. 14</a>. The work-spindles
+<i>A</i> of the machine are fitted with special nose-pieces
+<i>B</i>, the inner surface of which is chamfered to receive the
+spring collet <i>C</i>, which is threaded to the end of draw-back
+rod <i>D</i>. The work is not gripped directly by the spring
+collet, but is first screwed into a special bushing <i>E</i>, having
+thin walls as shown. This bushing is not split but springs
+sufficiently to permit it to be closed in on the work and
+released when the collet pressure is removed. A flange <i>G</i>
+attached to the end of the spindle nose serves as a stop for
+the work and a gaging point for the operations. The
+regular collet closing mechanism is used, but as may be seen
+in the left-hand end, the finger holders are reversed. When
+the clutch ring <i>H</i> is pushed forward by the chuck-closer
+gripping fingers <i>I</i> swivel and draw rod <i>D</i> backward through
+contact with flange <i>J</i>. When the clutch ring <i>H</i> is moved
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">[161]</span>backward, the gripping fingers release rod <i>D</i>, relieving the
+pressure of the collet on bushing <i>E</i> and the work.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp46" id="p161_fig15" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p161_fig15.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 15. Diagram illustrating Set-up for machining Timing
+    Train Rings on “Gridley” Automatic
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Referring again to <a href="#p157_fig13">Fig. 13</a>, the second series of operations
+on the fuse body is shown to the right of the illustration.
+At the first spindle position, forming tool <i>I</i> advances and
+forms the exterior diameters, while drill <i>J</i> drills the hole
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">[162]</span>in the end. At the second spindle position, the rear part of
+the work is supported by a roll back-rest, while the regular
+turner <i>K</i> takes a cut across and chamfers the shoulder. At
+the same time counterbore <i>L</i> comes in, cleans up the drilled
+hole and faces the bottom. At the third spindle position,
+the diameter <i>M</i> is threaded with a plain die. At the fourth
+spindle position, a tool <i>N</i> operated from the turret cuts a
+series of concentric grooves in the flange of the fuse body.
+The grooving tool is cut away to clear the forming tool <i>O</i>
+which takes a light cut over the grooved face, finishing the
+body as illustrated.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Machining the Stationary Timing Train Ring.</b>—The
+machining operations on the stationary timing train ring
+are shown to the left in <a href="#p161_fig15">Fig. 15</a>, and as can be seen are of
+a comparatively simple nature. This fuse part is made
+from a Tobin bronze bar in a 2³⁄₈-inch “Gridley” multiple-spindle
+automatic. At the first spindle position, a drill
+held on the turret drills the hole, and a forming tool on the
+cross-slide forms it to shape and breaks it down for the
+cut-off tool. At the second spindle position, the piece is
+reamed, and at the third position it is faced off with an
+under-cutting tool. In the fourth spindle position, not
+shown, the finished piece is cut off, and the stock is fed out.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Machining the Graduated Timing Train Ring.</b>—The
+machining operations on the graduated timing train ring
+are almost identical with the stationary ring and are shown
+diagrammatically to the right in <a href="#p161_fig15">Fig. 15</a>. This part is also
+made from a bar of Tobin bronze in a 2³⁄₈-inch “Gridley”
+multiple-spindle automatic. The only difference in the operations
+on this part is in the use of a combination floating
+counterbore, and facing tool provided with a roller pilot.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp41" id="p163_fig16" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p163_fig16.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 16. Diagram Illustrating Set-ups for machining Closing Cap
+    and Bottom Closing Screw on “Gridley” 1³⁄₄-inch
+    Multiple-spindle Automatic
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><b>Machining the Closing Cap and Bottom Closing Screw.</b>—The
+closing cap and bottom closing screw for the shrapnel
+timing fuse are made from brass rod with a comparatively
+simple tool set-up as shown in <a href="#p163_fig16">Fig. 16</a>. The machine
+used is a 1³⁄₄-inch “Gridley” multiple-spindle automatic.
+The machining operations on the closing cap are shown to
+the left in the illustration, and consist in drilling, counterboring,
+forming, threading, and cutting off. The operations
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">[164]</span>on the bottom closing screw, shown to the right of
+this illustration, are counterboring, forming, recessing,
+threading, and cutting off.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp52" id="p164_fig17" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p164_fig17.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 17. Method of machining Fuse Hammer on a No. 2 Model G
+    Brown &amp; Sharpe Automatic Screw Machine equipped with
+    an Eight-hole Turret
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><b>Making Fuse Parts on Brown &amp; Sharpe Automatic and
+Hand Screw Machines.</b>—A brief description of two of the
+many interesting set-ups on Brown &amp; Sharpe automatic
+and hand screw machines for making timing fuse parts
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">[165]</span>is given in the following. Timing fuse parts are made
+from several different materials. The screws and other
+small members as a rule are made from brass rod, whereas
+the parts such as the capsules, primer cups, etc., are made
+from sheet brass. Other members, such as the fuse body
+or stem, are made from different alloys and metals such as
+copper, copper aluminum, aluminum, etc.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp60" id="p165_fig18" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p165_fig18.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 18. Diagram Illustrating Method of Machining a Fuse Nut on a
+    No. 6 Brown &amp; Sharpe Hand Screw Machine
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><b>Set-up for Making Fuse Hammers.</b>—The method of
+making a fuse hammer on a No. 2 Model G Brown &amp; Sharpe
+automatic screw machine provided with a special eight-hole
+turret is shown diagrammatically in <a href="#p164_fig17">Fig. 17</a>. This part is
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">[166]</span>made from ⁷⁄₈-inch round brass rod and is finished complete
+in the screw machine. First, the stock is fed out to
+the stop in the turret. Second, the end is centered and
+faced with tools held in tool-holder <i>A</i>. The body is then
+formed with a circular tool <i>B</i> working from the front cross-slide;
+at the same time the turret is revolved, bringing tap
+drill <i>C</i> into operation. The forming tool is working at the
+same time as the drills. The turret is again revolved and
+drill <i>D</i> for finishing the middle hole is brought in and completes
+its operation. At the next index of the turret, drill <i>E</i>
+finishes the bottom hole. The turret is now indexed and a
+recessing tool-holder carrying tool <i>F</i> advances and is
+brought into operation to recess the work by a pusher on
+the cross-slide. The turret is again indexed and a reamer
+<i>G</i> is advanced to bottom and ream the holes. Upon the
+next index of the turret, tap <i>H</i> threads the work, which is
+finally cut off with circular tool <i>I</i>. The stock is rotated at
+973 R. P. M. forward and backward for drilling and turning,
+and at 421 R. P. M. forward for threading. The stock
+is cut off rotating backward. The surface speed for the
+forming tools is 220 feet per minute and 31 feet per minute
+for the tap.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Tool Set-up for Making Fuse Nut.</b>—The fuse nut on
+the Russian timing fuse is made from 1⁷⁄₈-inch round
+brass rod in a No. 6 wire-feed Brown &amp; Sharpe hand screw
+machine as shown in <a href="#p165_fig18">Fig. 18</a>. First the stock is fed out
+to length, being gaged by a stop in a vertical slide, which
+is held in the turret. The turret is then indexed and drill
+<i>A</i> drills the large hole. The turret is now revolved and the
+combination drill <i>B</i> is advanced. The turret is again revolved
+and counterbore <i>C</i> faces and counterbores the work.
+Upon the next index of the turret, a vertical slide tool-holder
+carrying recessing tool <i>D</i> is advanced. This tool-holder is
+operated by a handle attached to the holder. The turret is
+again indexed and tap <i>E</i> threads the work. After this the
+turret is indexed and the work is recessed with a tool-holder
+<i>F</i> carrying two cutters which balance each other in cutting.
+The seventh operation is performed from both the front
+and rear cross-slides with tools <i>G</i> and <i>H</i>. The eighth operation
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">[167]</span>is cutting off. This is performed with a special vertical
+slide tool-holder held in the turret and operated by a
+handle. The stock for these operations is rotated at 352
+R. P. M., giving a surface speed for the forming tools of
+180 feet per minute and 66 feet per minute for the tap.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Making Fuse Parts on Hand Screw Machines.</b>—The demand
+for shrapnel fuse parts has been so great that time
+has not been taken in all cases to tool up automatic screw
+machines before production has been started. In order to
+get parts out quickly while automatic machines are being
+tooled up, hand screw machines have been made use of.
+These machines are also used to a large extent on small
+orders and to help out production in general. <a href="#p167_fig19">Fig. 19</a>
+shows an F. E. Wells &amp; Son Co. hand screw machine working
+on shrapnel fuse parts. The capacity of this machine
+is for ⁷⁄₈-inch diameter rod and it will tap or drill ¹⁄₂ inch
+diameter. Shrapnel fuse parts are produced on this machine
+at the rate of from 25 to 100 pieces per hour.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p167_fig19" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p167_fig19.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 19. Machining Fuse Parts on F. E. Wells &amp; Son’s
+    Hand Screw Machine
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp61" id="p168_fig20" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p168_fig20.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 20. Drilling Percussion Primers on a Leland-Gifford Ball
+    Bearing Sensitive Drilling Machine
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><b>Drilling Percussion Primers for Fuses.</b>—The percussion
+primer, used in the American combination fuse shown in
+<a href="#p008_fig03">Fig. 3</a>, Chapter I, is made in a Brown &amp; Sharpe automatic
+screw machine from brass rod in two operations. Following
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">[168]</span>the screw machine operations, four holes about ¹⁄₃₂
+inch in diameter are drilled through this bushing, employing
+a special “snap index” jig in a high-speed ball-bearing
+drilling machine made by the Leland-Gifford Co. of Worcester,
+Mass. (See <a href="#p168_fig20">Fig. 20</a>.) The extremely small size of
+this part makes it difficult to handle, so the jig was designed
+with a special loading arm to facilitate rapid handling.
+The jig consists of a platform base bolted to the table of
+the drilling machine. Upon this is the index ring, which is
+turned by handles <i>J</i> and indexed for the four drilling positions
+by spring plunger <i>I</i>. The center of rotation is in
+the center of the four holes in the part. <i>B</i> is the loading
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">[169]</span>lever, with a nest <i>A</i> at the end into which the work is slipped.
+This lever swings on stud <i>C</i>. The work is located
+in the swinging arm <i>B</i> when it is in the position shown in
+the illustration, with the arm <i>B</i> resting against stop <i>D</i>.
+The arm is then swung under the drill until it reaches stop
+<i>E</i>. It is maintained in this position by spring plunger <i>H</i>
+that bears against lever <i>F</i>, fulcrumed on stud <i>G</i>. The side
+of this lever bears against the work and holds it firmly
+while the drilling is proceeding. The drill is guided by
+four bushings in plate <i>L</i>, mounted on the index ring. The
+operation consists in rotating the index ring to the four
+stations for drilling the respective holes. By means of this
+quick-indexing ring, and the high speed at which the Leland-Gifford
+drilling machine runs, it is possible to drill as many
+as 6000 pieces, or 24,000 holes in ten hours.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp56" id="p169_fig21" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p169_fig21.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 21. Drilling Fuse Plugs on “Avey” Drilling Machine
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">[170]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp40" id="p170_fig22" style="max-width: 20em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p170_fig22.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 22. Graduating Timing Fuse Rings
+    on Dwight-Slate Marking Machine
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><b>Drilling Timing Fuse Plugs.</b>—An application of a regular
+No. ¹⁄₂ “Avey” drilling machine, built by the Cincinnati
+Pulley Machinery Co., Cincinnati, Ohio, to the drilling of
+brass timing fuse plugs is shown in <a href="#p169_fig21">Fig. 21</a>. The requirements
+are to drill three No. 55 (0.052 inch) holes through
+the dome of the plug; a number of pieces are shown on the
+table of the machine.
+These three holes
+practically run together
+at the inside
+of the dome, making
+it necessary to drill
+one hole at a time.
+The fixture used for
+this purpose is of
+unique construction.
+The body <i>A</i> is made
+of an aluminum casting,
+whereas the
+operating mechanism
+is of hardened tool
+steel. The drill spindle
+is operated by a
+foot treadle, connection
+being secured
+through rod <i>B</i>, passing
+down through
+the fixture and fastened
+to the spindle
+sleeve by the L-shaped
+piece and
+yoke <i>C</i>. The work <i>E</i>
+is held on a special
+work-spindle located
+inside the fixture that is indexed one-third revolution
+through the medium of rod <i>B</i> upon the raising of the drill
+spindle sleeve. The work holding-down and ejecting
+mechanism is supported in aluminum bracket <i>F</i>. Attached
+to this bracket is a supporting arm for the lower crank of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">[171]</span>lever <i>G</i>, which holds a segment gear. Bracket <i>D</i> carries
+the drill bushing.</p>
+
+<p>After drilling the third hole, the operator depresses lever
+<i>G</i>, rotating the segment gear meshing in rack teeth in rod
+<i>H</i>, which lifts the latter up to eject the work and at the
+same time through a connection, not shown, raises the
+holding-down rod. The ejector, not shown, which is spring-controlled, returns to a neutral position immediately upon
+the ejection of the work, while the holding-down rod is still
+raised. The work, after being discharged, falls into a chute
+and is carried to the rear of the machine. The operation
+of this fixture is rapid, the production being from 9000 to
+10,000 pieces in ten hours.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Graduating Fuse Timing Ring.</b>—As has been previously
+stated, the adjustable ring on the timing fuse is graduated
+in seconds, starting at zero and running to twenty-one seconds.
+As shown in <a href="#p170_fig22">Fig. 22</a>, the graduating of this timing
+ring is performed in the Dwight-Slate marking machine
+built by Noble &amp; Westbrook, Hartford, Conn. The main
+arbor of the machine carries the stamping roll <i>A</i> and is
+turned by the handle shown. The timing ring to be graduated
+and marked is held at <i>B</i>. The two gears <i>C</i> prevent
+the stamp from “creeping” ahead or slipping on the work.
+The work-holding arbor, as shown, is held in a bracket and
+is raised to the stamp roll by pressure on the foot treadle.
+Two operations are required for stamping and graduating
+the timing ring. The first is marking the graduations and
+the second is putting on the figures.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">[172]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VI">
+    CHAPTER VI
+    <br>
+    <span class="sm">MAKING SHRAPNEL CARTRIDGE CASES</span>
+  </h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>The brass cartridge case that contains the powder
+charge for propelling the shrapnel shell from the bore of
+the quick-firing gun is drawn up from a blank of sheet
+brass. The number of operations necessary to complete the
+case depends on its size and the method of handling. Some
+shell manufacturers prefer to do more or less drawing at
+one operation, but in all cases the sequence of operations
+is practically the same. The material used for shrapnel
+cartridge cases generally consists of a composition of 2
+parts copper and 1 part zinc. This alloy has been found to
+possess the best physical qualities, that is, great tensile
+strength and a high percentage of elongation when properly
+annealed. The drawing operations through which the cartridge
+case passes increase the hardness, and the ductility of
+the metal is restored by annealing. The annealing temperature
+in most cases is from 1150 to 1200 degrees F. On
+reaching this temperature, the work is either cooled off in
+water or allowed to cool off gradually, as the speed of cooling
+does not affect its physical qualities. In the following,
+two methods of handling the various operations will be described.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Method of Making Cartridge Cases.</b>—<a href="#p173_5_fig01_02">Figs. 1 and 2</a>
+show the sequence of operations—blanking, cupping, re-drawing,
+indenting, trimming, heading, and tapering, as
+advocated by the Waterbury Farrel Foundry &amp; Machine
+Co., Waterbury, Conn., for making cartridge cases for 18-pound
+shrapnel. The first operation consists in cutting out
+a blank from ³⁄₈-inch sheet brass 6¹⁄₄ inches in diameter.
+The next operation is cupping. This is handled in a short-stroke
+geared straight-sided press. Before re-drawing, the
+cup is annealed, and the third operation, which is handled
+in a longer stroke press, is then performed. Annealing follows
+this operation, and then the fourth drawing or second
+re-drawing operation is performed. This consists in reducing
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">[174]</span>the fillets slightly at the corners, decreasing the
+diameter of the cup to 4¹⁄₈ inches and increasing its length
+to 4¹⁄₂ inches. The dimensions given here are approximate.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp65" id="p173_5_fig01_02" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p173_5_fig01_02.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Figs. 1. and 2. Operations in making an “18-pound” Cartridge Case
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p class="clear"><b>Indenting Operations.</b>—The fifth operation or first indenting
+operation, which consists in indenting the bottom,
+is handled in a press similar to that used for the cupping
+and re-drawing operations. This shortens the length of
+the case by ¹⁄₄ inch and forces the indentation about half
+way through the thickness of the stock. The second indenting
+is then accomplished. This again shortens the
+case by an additional ¹⁄₄ inch and squares up the corners.
+The case, without annealing, is now passed through the
+third re-drawing, or seventh, operation, reducing its diameter
+to 4 inches and increasing its length to 5¹⁄₂ inches. It
+is annealed after this operation, and is then drawn to a
+shape 8 inches in length by 3⁷⁄₈ inches in diameter, and the
+wall decreased in thickness to ¹⁄₁₆ inch. The case is then
+annealed and passes through the fifth re-drawing operation.
+The machine used for handling the third, fourth and fifth
+re-draws is a long-stroke straight-sided rack-and-pinion
+press. After the fifth re-drawing, or ninth, operation, the
+case is trimmed and about two inches cut off the end. This
+leaves the case in better condition for the succeeding operations.
+The trimming machine is of the horizontal type.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Final Re-drawing Operations.</b>—The sixth re-drawing,
+or eleventh, operation is performed in a horizontal drawing
+press of the hydraulic type provided with automatic reversing
+valves. This operation increases the length of the case
+to 13¹⁄₄ inches and reduces its diameter to 3³⁄₄ inches.
+After this operation, the case is annealed and then 1¹⁄₄ inch
+is trimmed off the open end. The thirteenth and fourteenth
+operations consist in heading the case. These are practically
+of the same nature, and combine to form the head of
+the case as shown in the illustration. The heading operations
+each reduce the length of the case ¹⁄₄ inch, and are
+performed in a 1000-ton hydraulic heading press operated
+by a geared compound power pump and having a working
+pressure of 5600 pounds per square inch on the ram. After
+heading, the case is annealed and the fifteenth operation,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">[176]</span>which consists of tapering, is performed. The first tapering,
+or fifteenth, operation reduces the mouth of the case
+to 3⁹⁄₁₆ inches in diameter and gradually tapers it for a
+distance of 5⁷⁄₈ inches—half the length. The case is then
+annealed, pickled and washed, and a second tapering operation
+is performed. This reduces the mouth of the case to
+3³⁄₈ inches and tapers it completely to the head. The case
+is not annealed after the last tapering operation, but ¹⁄₄
+inch is trimmed off the end.</p>
+
+<p>The various operations through which a cartridge case
+passes in drawing and forming to the correct length having
+been described, attention will now be given to the type of
+tools used for this purpose. These tools have been designed
+and built by the Ferracute Machine Co., Bridgeton, N. J.,
+and are used with its presses for making cases for 3-inch
+projectiles.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Cupping and First Series of Re-drawing Tools.</b>—The
+cutting out of the blank is frequently omitted because the
+specified thickness and size can be furnished by the mill.
+Before cupping, the dies and blanks are well greased, as this
+assists in drawing. Olive oil or soapy water is used, depending
+on the stage at which the drawing operations have
+arrived. The first cupping operation is accomplished with
+a punch and die as shown at <i>A</i> in <a href="#p177_fig03">Fig. 3</a>. This operation
+is accomplished in a Ferracute 100-ton ram press equipped
+with a dial feed. The die consists of a hardened ring of
+tempered steel having an interior shape similar to a truncated
+cone. The punch is slightly tapered on the lower end
+and has an air vent hole drilled up through it to facilitate
+the drawing and produce a cup free from wrinkles.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp45" id="p177_fig03" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p177_fig03.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 3. Tools for drawing a 3-inch Shrapnel Cartridge Case—Ferracute
+    Machine Co.’s Method
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The second operation, or first re-drawing operation, is
+shown at <i>B</i>. Here the type of die used differs somewhat
+from that shown at <i>A</i>, in that the drawing angle is 15 instead
+of 45 degrees. The cup, after this operation, is reduced
+in diameter to 3.877 inches and is 2⁷⁄₈ inches long.
+After the first cupping operation, the case is annealed.</p>
+
+<p>The second re-drawing operation is accomplished as shown
+at <i>C</i>. The die in this case is the same as at <i>B</i>, as is also
+the punch, except for an increase in the taper and change
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">[177]</span>in shape on the end. The object of this, of course, is to
+keep the case thick at the head but reduce the walls further
+up along the section. The case, after this operation, is also
+drawn out to a length sufficient to necessitate using a stripping
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">[178]</span>device for removing it from the punch. This is accomplished
+by six spring-operated stripper pins as shown, which
+slip over the top edge of the case as it is forced through the
+die, stripping it from the punch. The cup now passes
+through the third annealing operation and is ready for the
+third re-draw, shown at <i>D</i>. The press used for performing
+this operation is similar to that described, and the die and
+punch is similar in construction to that shown at <i>C</i>.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Final Re-drawing Operations.</b>—For the final re-drawing
+operations, horizontal double-ended screw presses instead of
+the horizontal hydraulic presses formerly used are employed.
+Horizontal presses are used because the length to
+which the cartridge case is drawn after the third re-draw
+is such that it exceeds the stroke of the vertical presses.
+The cartridge case, after each drawing operation, is annealed;
+<i>E</i> in <a href="#p177_fig03">Fig. 3</a> shows the fourth re-drawing tools,
+which are handled in a horizontal screw press. The die
+used is similar in shape to that shown at <i>D</i>, but the holder
+in which it is held differs, of course, owing to the difference
+in the type of press used. The stripping arrangement for
+removing the case from the punch is also of a different type.
+In this case five spring-operated stripper pins are held in a
+holder which is free to oscillate within certain limits in
+the block in which it is retained. The reason for having
+this oscillating stripper is that it accommodates itself to the
+irregular shape on the end of the case and gives practically
+a constant pressure all around the circumference of the
+case, assisting in removing it from the punch. The case
+is now annealed and is finish-drawn as shown at <i>F</i>. Here
+the same type of die, stripper arrangement, etc., is used as
+that shown at <i>E</i>. The case in the fifth re-drawing operation
+is 14³⁄₈ inches long by 3.186 inches outside diameter.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Annealing and Washing Cartridge Cases.</b>—As was previously
+stated, the cartridge case, after practically every
+re-drawing operation, is annealed, being subjected to a temperature
+of about 1150 to 1200 degrees F. and then allowed
+to cool off or dipped in water which, of course, forms a scale
+on the surface of the case. This must be removed before
+any subsequent operations can take place. Several different
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">[179]</span>solutions are used for this purpose, but a common one
+comprises the following: Sulphuric acid diluted with water
+to a strength of 1 to 4. This pickling solution is held in
+lead-lined wooden troughs and the case is allowed to remain
+in the bath varying from eight to fifteen minutes, according
+to the strength of the solution. The cases are then
+washed in lead-lined wooden troughs through which a stream
+of water is circulated to remove all traces of the acid.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p179_fig04" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p179_fig04.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 4. Fixture for testing Hardness of Cartridge Cases with
+    Shore Scleroscope
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><b>Testing Hardness of Cartridge Cases.</b>—The hardness of
+a cartridge case must conform to a certain standard. When
+too soft, a permanent set will occur from the pressure of
+the firing charge and the case will stick in the breech of
+the gun. When the hardness is too high for a given composition
+of brass, it is too brittle and will split, or the
+head may blow off. There is, therefore, a certain hardness
+which must be adhered to as closely as possible. Some
+manufacturers hold the standard to within 20 to 25 on the
+body walls and reject cases striking 15 as being too soft,
+and 30 to 35 as being too hard.</p>
+
+<p>Owing to the thinness of the walls of the case, it is impossible
+to take a reading without rigidly supporting it,
+and for this purpose the Shore Instrument &amp; Mfg. Co.,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">[180]</span>551-557 West 22nd St., New York City, has devised a special
+fixture as indicated in <a href="#p179_fig04">Fig. 4</a>. This comprises a bracket
+<i>A</i> held in an ordinary vise, to which is fastened an anvil
+plug <i>B</i>, as indicated. In order to hold the case tightly
+against the anvil plug, a spring <i>C</i>, fastened to the bracket <i>A</i>,
+is also fastened to a yoke <i>D</i> surrounding the case. A rod
+attached to the yoke and to a foot treadle furnishes a means
+of drawing the yoke down to hold the case in contact with
+the plug. The anvil plug provides the weight or inertia to
+resist the impact of the drop-hammer of the scleroscope,
+but in order to be sure that there is proper contact of the
+case with the plug a rubber cushion <i>E</i> is provided between
+the pressure ring or yoke and the brass case.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp90" id="p180_fig05" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p180_fig05.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 5. Special Shrapnel Case Trimming, Facing, and
+    Chamfering Machine
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp58" id="p181_fig06" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p181_fig06.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 6. Sequence of Operations performed on Cartridge Case in
+    Machine shown in <a href="#p180_fig05">Fig. 5</a>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><b>Machining Shrapnel Cartridge Cases.</b>—The Bullard Machine
+Tool Co., Bridgeport, Conn., has designed and built
+a number of special machines for performing the machining
+work on the head and mouth ends of brass cartridge
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">[181]</span>cases. This machine, as will be seen from <a href="#p180_fig05">Fig. 5</a>, is of the
+hand turret machine type, designed to work on the case
+from both ends. In this machine the brass case is chucked
+in the center of an extremely large spindle, and worked
+on from the head end with four sets of turret tools and two
+sets of cross-slide tools, while the mouth end is bored and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">[182]</span>trimmed with tools held on a carriage located on the back
+facing bar. The drive for the work chuck spindle is over
+a 16-inch pulley with a 3-inch belt. The pull of the belt is
+not taken directly on the spindle, but on a special pulley
+bearing 7³⁄₈ inches in diameter and 5 inches in width. The
+spindle itself is supported in bearings 9 inches in length
+and 5⁷⁄₈ inches in diameter. As previously mentioned, the
+spindle is hollow so that any type of shrapnel cartridge case
+up to 4¹⁄₄ inches in diameter and from 10 to 18 inches in
+length can be machined.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p182_fig07" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p182_fig07.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 7. Set-up showing First Operation on Cartridge
+    Case Head
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>From the construction of the machine in <a href="#p180_fig05">Fig. 5</a> it will
+be seen that the front end of the spindle carries a large
+three-jaw chuck of special design. These jaws catch the
+cartridge case just under the head and revolve it for machining.
+The case is supported internally by a tubular
+arbor which also acts as a stop and is attached to a rod
+extending to the rear bracket where it is backed up by a
+spring. The front end of this tubular support or stop
+is provided with a thrust ball-bearing so that the case can
+be loaded in the chuck while the spindle is running. When
+the chuck operating lever is manipulated to close the chuck
+jaws on the work, it first draws back the rod mentioned
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">[183]</span>through the medium of a tie-rod and the rear bracket to a
+positive stop, and then closes the jaws on the work. The
+cartridge case is put in and removed from the chuck with
+the turret indexed between stations to give the required
+space.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p183_fig08" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p183_fig08.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 8. Set-up showing Fourth Operation on Cartridge
+    Case Head
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p183_fig09" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p183_fig09.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 9. Set-up showing Operations on Mouth End of Case
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The back boring and trimming head is held on a hollow
+spindle through the center of which the rod passes. This
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">[184]</span>spindle is provided with rack teeth on its top surface
+which engage with a pinion located in the extension bracket
+and operated by a handle. The forward position of the
+boring and trimming head is governed by a stop-collar.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p184_fig10" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p184_fig10.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 10. Set-up showing Sixth Operation on Head End of Case
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp98" id="p184_fig11" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p184_fig11.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 11. Set-up showing Seventh Operation on Head
+    End of Case
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><b>Sequence of Machining Operations on Cartridge Case.</b>—The
+sequence of machining operations performed on the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">[185]</span>cartridge case in this machine is shown diagrammatically
+in <a href="#p181_fig06">Fig. 6</a>, and also in Figs. 7 to 11, inclusive.
+Referring to Figs. <a href="#p181_fig06">6</a> and <a href="#p182_fig07">7</a>, the first operation
+consists in rough-drilling and counterboring
+the hole in the head of the case with combination
+tool <i>A</i>. The second operation (see <a href="#p181_fig06">Fig. 6</a>) consists
+in facing, trimming and chamfering the head
+with tools <i>B</i>, <i>C</i>, and <i>D</i> held on the front of the
+cross-slide. The third operation is to finish chamfering
+and facing the head of the case with tool <i>E</i>
+on the rear of the cross-slide. The fourth operation
+consists in under-cutting the primer seat with
+the tool <i>F</i> which works on a turret slide and is operated
+by lever <i>G</i> as shown in <a href="#p183_fig08">Fig. 8</a>.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p185_fig12" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p185_fig12.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 12. Diagram showing Method of chucking a French 75-millimeter Cartridge Case on a Potter &amp; Johnston Chucking Machine
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">[186]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp68" id="p186_fig13" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p186_fig13.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 13. Diagram illustrating Machining Operations on French
+    Cartridge Case on Potter &amp; Johnston Machine
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The following operations are now performed on the mouth
+or open end of the cartridge case as shown in Figs. <a href="#p181_fig06">6</a> and <a href="#p183_fig09">9</a>,
+with the spindle running at the same speed—500 R. P. M.—as
+that used for the first series of operations. Two tools
+<i>H</i> and <i>I</i> are used. Tool <i>H</i> bores the mouth of the case for
+a distance of 1 inch, whereas tool <i>I</i> trims off the open end
+of the case and rounds the edges. The mouth of the case
+at the rear end of the spindle is supported by a hardened
+bushing to prevent it springing away from the action of
+the boring tool. The boring and trimming tools are
+mounted in a special head <i>J</i>, <a href="#p183_fig09">Fig. 9</a>, that is operated back
+and forth by a handle <i>K</i> through the medium of a rack
+and pinion. The forward movement of this head, as
+previously explained, is controlled by means of an adjustable
+collar <i>L</i> screwed onto spindle <i>M</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">[187]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp50" id="p187_fig14" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p187_fig14.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 14. Tooling Set-up for Machining 18-pound
+    Cartridge Case
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The work-spindle is now slowed down and the following
+operations, shown in Figs. <a href="#p181_fig06">6</a>, <a href="#p184_fig10">10</a>, and <a href="#p184_fig11">11</a>, are performed on
+the head end of the case. The sixth operation is to finish-counterbore
+and ream the primer pocket with tool <i>O</i> held
+in an adjustable holder, whereas the seventh operation is
+threading the primer pocket with collapsible tap <i>P</i>. The
+chuck lever in <a href="#p180_fig05">Fig. 5</a> is now manipulated, first, releasing
+the grip of the chuck jaws on the case and, second, advancing
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">[188]</span>the rod to eject the case sufficiently to enable it to be
+easily removed from the chuck. The spindle is changed
+to the highest speed after the next case is put in. In
+changing the work, it is not necessary to stop the spindle.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp73" id="p188_fig15" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p188_fig15.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 15. Tool Set-up for Machining 18-pound Cartridge Case
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><b>Machining Shrapnel Cartridge Cases on Potter &amp; Johnston
+Automatics.</b>—The cartridge case is made from sheet brass
+as previously stated. It is practically formed to shape in
+drawing and heading machines, but to secure the desired
+accuracy on the head and primer pocket these surfaces are
+machined. The method of holding the French 75-millimeter
+case on a No. 5A Potter &amp; Johnston automatic chucking
+and turning machine for machining the head and primer
+pocket is shown in <a href="#p185_fig12">Fig. 12</a>. Here it will be seen that the
+cartridge case butts up against a stop <i>B</i> and fits over the
+tapered plug <i>C</i>, which steadies it. It is held in place by an
+ordinary draw-in collet <i>D</i>. This is operated by means of
+a lever <i>E</i>, fulcrumed to a bracket on the rear end of the
+machine and operating a sliding clutch collar. The chuck
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">[189]</span>is operated through fingers which draw back the sliding
+sleeve to which it is attached. These fingers operate
+against a spring at the rear of the spindle which serve to
+open the collet.</p>
+
+<p>The machining operations on the French shrapnel cartridge
+case are handled in the manner illustrated in <a href="#p186_fig13">Fig. 13</a>.
+The first operation is to rough-drill the hole in the head.
+The turret is then indexed, bringing in a roughing reamer
+which reams the hole previously drilled, whereas the front
+cross-slide carries tool <i>B</i> that faces the head and a circular
+tool <i>C</i> that rough-forms the external diameters of the head.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the next indexing of the turret, the tool <i>D</i> counterbores
+the powder pocket and the circular forming tool <i>E</i>
+finish-forms and rough-chamfers the head. The last operation
+consists in finishing the primer pocket with a taper
+reamer <i>F</i>.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Machining the British Shrapnel Cartridge Case.</b>—The
+brass cartridge case for the British shrapnel is more
+difficult to machine than the French case, as reference
+to Figs. <a href="#p187_fig14">14</a> and <a href="#p188_fig15">15</a> will clearly show. The machining
+operations are accomplished on a No. 5A Potter &amp; Johnston
+automatic chucking and turning machine having a five-sided
+turret. The first operation is to drill the primer
+pocket hole with a three-step drill <i>A</i>. The turret is now
+indexed and the surfaces previously roughed out are finished
+with inserted-blade counterbore <i>B</i>. At the same time,
+the head of the case is faced with a relieving tool <i>C</i> held on
+the cross-slide and rough-formed with circular tool <i>D</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The turret, in being indexed to the third position, brings
+vertical recessing tool <i>E</i> into operation. This carries two
+cutters, one of which recesses the primer pocket at the
+point where the thread is to terminate, whereas the other
+removes the burr and faces the inner boss. In the fourth
+operation, the smallest diameter of the primer pocket is
+reamed and the largest diameter of the hole chamfered by
+tools held in bar <i>F</i>. The rear cross-slide is advanced at
+the same time, carrying the circular tool <i>G</i> that finish-forms
+the head. The final operation—threading—is performed
+with the “Geometric” collapsible tap <i>H</i>.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">[190]</span>
+
+<p class="center">DRAWING, HEADING AND MACHINING OPERATIONS ON “18-POUND” BRITISH CARTRIDGE CASE</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowe35" id="p190">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p190.jpg" alt="">
+</figure>
+
+
+
+<table class="autotable">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="3">
+Operation
+</td>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">
+Dimensions<br>
+Inches
+</td>
+    <td class="tdc">
+Machine Used
+</td>
+    <td class="tdc">
+Scleroscope<br>
+Reading
+</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">
+</td>
+    <td class="tdc">
+*
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+</td>
+    <td class="tdc">
+A
+</td>
+    <td class="tdc">
+B
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+</td>
+    <td class="tdc">
+</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">
+1
+</td>
+    <td class="tdc">
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+Blanking
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+Punch Press
+</td>
+    <td class="tdc">
+15
+</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">
+2
+</td>
+    <td class="tdr">
+(300)
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+Cupping
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+4.45
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+2.30
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+Bulldozer
+</td>
+    <td class="tdc">
+    <i>a</i>, 15; <i>b</i>, 50
+</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">
+3
+</td>
+    <td class="tdr">
+(300)
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+Annealing
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+</td>
+    <td class="tdc">
+15
+</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">
+4
+</td>
+    <td class="tdr">
+(300)
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+1st Redrawing
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+4.232
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+3.45
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+Bulldozer
+</td>
+    <td class="tdc">
+    <i>a</i>, 15; <i>b</i>, 50
+</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">
+5
+</td>
+    <td class="tdr">
+(300)
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+Annealing
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+</td>
+    <td class="tdc">
+15
+</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">
+6
+</td>
+    <td class="tdr">
+(300)
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+2nd Redrawing
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+4.081
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+4.6
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+Bulldozer
+</td>
+    <td class="tdc">
+    <i>a</i>, 40; <i>b</i>, 45
+</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">
+7
+</td>
+    <td class="tdr">
+(300)
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+Annealing
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+</td>
+    <td class="tdc">
+15
+</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">
+8
+</td>
+    <td class="tdr">
+(300)
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+1st Indenting
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+4.081
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+4.23
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+Bulldozer
+</td>
+    <td class="tdc">
+    <i>a</i>, 18; <i>b</i>, 15
+</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">
+9
+</td>
+    <td class="tdr">
+(300)
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+3rd Redrawing
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+3.952
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+6.25
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+Bulldozer
+</td>
+    <td class="tdc">
+    <i>a</i>, 18; <i>b</i>, 45
+</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">
+10
+</td>
+    <td class="tdr">
+(300)
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+Annealing
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+</td>
+    <td class="tdc">
+    <i>a</i>, 13; <i>b</i>, 15
+</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">
+11
+</td>
+    <td class="tdr">
+(300)
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+4th Redrawing
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+3.844
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+7
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+Bulldozer
+</td>
+    <td class="tdc">
+    <i>a</i>, 35; <i>b</i>, 45
+</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">
+12
+</td>
+    <td class="tdr">
+(300)
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+Annealing
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+</td>
+    <td class="tdc">
+15
+</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">
+13
+</td>
+    <td class="tdr">
+(300)
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+2nd Indenting
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+3.844
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+6.875
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+Bulldozer
+</td>
+    <td class="tdc">
+    <i>a</i>, 18; <i>b</i>, 15
+</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">
+14
+</td>
+    <td class="tdr">
+(175)
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+Drill Hole in Primer Pocket
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+Vertical Drilling Machine
+</td>
+    <td class="tdc">
+</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">
+15
+</td>
+    <td class="tdr">
+(200)
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+Trimming and Burring
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+3.844
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+6.25
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+Toledo Trimmer
+</td>
+    <td class="tdc">
+</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">
+16
+</td>
+    <td class="tdr">
+(180)
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+5th Redrawing
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+3.789
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+9.75
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+Frog and Switch Planer
+</td>
+    <td class="tdc">
+    <i>a</i>, 20; <i>b</i>, 40
+</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">
+17
+</td>
+    <td class="tdr">
+(300)
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+Annealing
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+</td>
+    <td class="tdc">
+    <i>a</i>, 20; <i>b</i>, 16
+</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">
+18
+</td>
+    <td class="tdr">
+(180)
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+6th Redrawing
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+3.738
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+13.35
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+Frog and Switch Planer
+</td>
+    <td class="tdc">
+    <i>a</i>, 20; <i>b</i>, 45
+</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">
+19
+</td>
+    <td class="tdr">
+(200)
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+Trimming
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+3.738
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+11.875
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+Toledo Trimmer
+</td>
+    <td class="tdc">
+</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">
+20
+</td>
+    <td class="tdr">
+(100)
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+Heading
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+3.738
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+11.750
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+350 ton, C. P. R. Hydr. Press
+</td>
+    <td class="tdc">
+    <i>a</i>, 40 to 50;
+<i>b</i>, 50
+</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">
+21
+</td>
+    <td class="tdr">
+(180)
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+Annealing Mouth
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+</td>
+    <td class="tdc">
+    <i>a</i>, 40 to 50;
+<i>b</i>, 25 to 35
+</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">
+22
+</td>
+    <td class="tdr">
+(300)
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+1st Tapering
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+3.347
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+11.875
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+Bulldozer
+</td>
+    <td class="tdc">
+    <i>a</i>, 40 to 50;
+<i>b</i>, 35 to 40
+</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">
+23
+</td>
+    <td class="tdr">
+(300)
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+2nd Tapering
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+3.328
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+11.95
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+Bulldozer
+</td>
+    <td class="tdc">
+    <i>a</i>, 40 to 50;
+<i>b</i>, 35 to 45
+</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">
+24
+</td>
+    <td class="tdr">
+(40)
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+Machining Mouth and Head
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+Bullard Case Machine
+</td>
+    <td class="tdc">
+</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">
+25
+</td>
+    <td class="tdr">
+(80)
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+Hand Tapping
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+Bench Fixture
+</td>
+    <td class="tdc">
+</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">
+26
+</td>
+    <td class="tdr">
+(80)
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+Reaming
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+Bench Fixture
+</td>
+    <td class="tdc">
+</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">
+27
+</td>
+    <td class="tdr">
+(80)
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+Inspecting
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+Various Gages
+</td>
+    <td class="tdc">
+</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">
+28
+</td>
+    <td class="tdr">
+(80)
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+Stamping
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+</td>
+    <td class="tdc">
+</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="7">* Number in brackets indicates Production Per Hour.</td>
+    </tr>
+    </table>
+
+    <table class="autotable3">
+    <tr>
+    <th colspan="3">Operations: Supplementary Information</th>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+    <td class="tdl top">
+Lubricants
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+Cupping, Redrawing and Indenting<br>
+Tapering<br>
+Machining Mouth and Head
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl">
+Viscocity<br>
+Dry<br>
+Mystic
+</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+    <td class="tdl top">
+Annealing Process (except Mouth)
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">
+Oil Furnace—1100 to 1140 °F<br>
+Water Cooling and Acid Wash
+</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+    <td class="tdl top">
+Annealing Process (Mouth)
+</td>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">
+Oil Burner—800 °F<br>
+Cool in Air
+</td>
+    </tr>
+    </table>
+
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">[192]</span></p>
+<p><b>Summary of Operations on Cartridge Cases.</b>—The accompanying
+table gives a summary of the cupping, drawing,
+annealing, indenting, trimming, heading and machining operations
+on a British 18-pound cartridge case of a composition
+of 70 parts electrolytic copper and 30 parts Bertha
+spelter. In the plant where this information was obtained,
+the cupping, indenting, and first, second, third, and fourth
+re-drawing operations are accomplished on bulldozers, while
+the fifth and sixth re-drawing operations are accomplished
+on a frog and switch planer from which the cross-head has
+been removed and a special fixture substituted in its place.
+The punch is held rigidly in this fixture and the die on another
+fixture clamped to the table of the planer. Practically
+the same condition prevails on bulldozers. Here the
+punch is held rigidly, whereas the die is held in the traveling
+slide. As a lubricant for drawing a compound known
+as “viscosity,” manufactured by the Cataract Refining Co.,
+is used throughout, except on the fourth and fifth re-drawing
+operations, where ordinary commercial vaseline has been
+found to give the best results.</p>
+
+<p>The annealing is done in a Quigley oil furnace, which
+is kept at a constant temperature of between 1100 and 1140
+degrees F. The cups are handled in sheet-iron boxes with
+wire bottoms carrying 140 cups. This furnace holds seven
+of these boxes; it requires 35 minutes for one lot of cups to
+pass completely through the furnace. In other words, a
+box is put in and taken out every five minutes, thus giving
+an annealing time of thirty-five minutes on each batch.
+After dipping in water, the cups are immersed in a weak
+solution of sulphuric acid to remove all scale.</p>
+
+<p>Scleroscope readings are taken before and after each
+drawing operation, so as to ascertain whether the metal is
+being properly annealed or not. The blank also is tested
+with a scleroscope before any work is done on it, and should
+strike 15. The head of the shell must strike between 40
+and 50, being softer at the center than at the rim. The
+readings are taken on four radii on the head, and at intervals
+of ¹⁄₈ to ³⁄₁₆ inch apart. In heading, considerable difficulty
+was at first experienced in securing the correct scleroscope
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">[193]</span>readings. Instead of the head being harder at the
+rim than at the center, the reverse was the case. It was
+found that the metal in flowing towards the center packed
+up to such an extent that the case was made considerably
+harder at this point. A method which overcame this difficulty
+consisted in drilling a ¹⁄₄-inch hole down through the
+primer pocket previous to the heading operation. This allowed
+the metal to flow towards the center of the head with
+comparatively little resistance, and hence the correct hardness
+was obtained at the rim, as well as in the center of
+the head. The machining of the head and mouth is accomplished
+in Bullard special cartridge case trimming machines
+of the double-ended type, that is, one set of tools are located
+in one end for machining the mouth and another set of tools
+held in the turret and on the cross-slide for machining the
+head and primer pocket. Following this, hand-reaming and
+hand-tapping operations are accomplished so as to get the
+desired accuracy and fit in the primer pocket. Inspecting
+and stamping operations finish the principal operations on
+the cartridge case.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">[194]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VII">
+    CHAPTER VII
+    <br>
+    <span class="sm">SPECIFICATIONS FOR THE MANUFACTURE AND
+    INSPECTION OF THE RUSSIAN
+    3-INCH SHRAPNEL SHELL</span>
+  </h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp46" id="p196_fig01" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p196_fig01.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 1. Russian 3-inch Shrapnel Shell and Component Parts
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The following specifications relating to the 3-inch Russian
+shrapnel shell are abstracted from the official specifications,
+and contain all the essential points required to be known by
+the manufacturer or the inspector of shrapnel shells. The
+specifications deal in detail with what is known as the “test
+consignment” of shells, the “proof consignment” of shells,
+and the methods of inspecting.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Clause 1. General Conditions.</b>—The shrapnel shell consists
+of the following parts: steel body with copper driving
+band, steel diaphragm, steel fuse tube, steel fuse base, brass
+socket nut, bullets, two steel fixing screws, two steel threaded
+plugs, and a zinc plug. The selection of the material to be
+used for the shell and the parts is left to the discretion of
+the manufacturer, but on the condition that it meets the
+requirements given in the following specifications. Before
+beginning the manufacture of an order, the manufacturer
+must submit a <i>test consignment</i> of shells.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Clause 2. Test Consignment of Shells.</b>—The selection
+of shells for the test consignment is left to the discretion of
+the manufacturer. The trials of the test consignment are
+carried out in the presence of the inspector appointed by
+the government for which the shells are made, and of the
+representative of the firm whose shells are tested. The
+methods of manufacture of the test consignment of shells
+must be known to the inspector and must be done in accordance
+with the requirements in the following specifications.
+All shells forming the test consignment must be similar in
+material and made by the same methods of manufacture.</p>
+
+<p>The submission of the test consignment is not required
+for those firms who have already submitted one, and after
+the completion of an order have received a new order for
+the same shells, provided the mechanical conditions for
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">[195]</span>manufacturing the same have not been altered. Firms are
+allowed to begin the manufacture of the shells before delivering
+the test consignment, but on the condition that in the
+case of unsatisfactory results of the trials of the test consignment,
+all shells previously manufactured by the firm
+must be rejected.</p>
+
+<p>The test consignment consists of fifty shrapnels, out of
+which twenty-five are tested, by firing, with a view to ascertaining
+their accuracy and strength, twenty-two for
+strength only, and three shrapnels are left for mechanical
+tests by breaking the test pieces made from them in a testing
+machine. In the case of the last three shells it is necessary
+to ascertain before cutting the test pieces from them
+that the driving bands are pressed on correctly, by removing
+them. In addition to this, the strength of the shrapnels
+is tested by exploding them in a pit. For the pit test, those
+shells are used which are found undamaged after being fired.
+For this trial, ten shrapnels are used. Before firing the
+test consignment of shrapnels and before the pit test, the
+mechanical test must be carried out, and the two first mentioned
+tests may be carried out only if the metal shows results
+answering the conditions mentioned in Clause 3 of
+these specifications.</p>
+
+<p>The test consignment will be considered as passed if the
+following results are obtained:</p>
+
+<p>1. If during the mechanical tests the metal answers to
+the conditions laid down.</p>
+
+<p>2. If during firing no shell is broken in the gun or immediately
+in front of the muzzle.</p>
+
+<p>3. If during firing no socket is separated from the shell
+in the gun or immediately in front of the muzzle.</p>
+
+<p>4. If on cylindrical parts of the bodies of shrapnels recovered
+after firing no signs of the rifling are to be found.
+The slight impression from rifling on the central portion of
+the shell cannot, however, be taken as a reason for the rejection
+of the shell, provided that it is noticed only on one-half
+of the circumference.</p>
+
+<p>5. If shrapnels recovered after firing do not show any
+dent in their bases or shearing of the socket, or if the increase
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">[197]</span>in the diameter of the cylindrical part of the body
+does not exceed 0.010 inch.</p>
+
+<p>6. If shrapnels recovered after the firing do not show in
+more than 15 per cent of the cases the protrusion of the
+upper end of the central tube from the countersink of the
+brass socket nut. All these shrapnels must be dismantled
+for the inspection of the central tubes; the central tubes
+must not show any considerable sign of buckling, cracks or
+protrusion into the powder chamber.</p>
+
+<p>7. (a) If during pit test, shrapnels do not show any
+breaking away of the bases, if their bodies be found intact,
+and if the same results be found on the shrapnels picked
+up after firing.</p>
+
+<p>(b) If out of ten shrapnels tested in the pit not more
+than three show broken bodies.</p>
+
+<p>8. If shrapnels do not show the separation of driving
+bands from the shell, nor displacement of same, if loosely
+fixed, and the accuracy of the firing in a vertical plane be
+not below the requirements given in Clause 19. The signs
+of the rifling on the driving bands of the recovered shells
+should be correct and not enlarged.</p>
+
+<p>If the results of the trial of the test consignment give
+unsatisfactory results with reference to any of the above
+seven first conditions, or to all of them, the firm will be allowed
+to submit a second test consignment. In the case of
+unsatisfactory results of the test consignment with reference
+to the eighth condition, the firm has the right to submit
+additionally twenty-five shrapnels for accuracy firing trials
+only, but these shrapnels must also answer to the other seven
+conditions. If the trials of the test consignment show satisfactory
+results, the firm may proceed with the manufacture
+of shrapnels, but under the condition that the material and
+method of manufacture will be similar to those used for the
+manufacture of the test consignment.</p>
+
+<p>In the case of unsatisfactory results of the test of the
+second test consignment, the contracting government has
+the right to cancel the order with the firm for delivery of
+the shrapnels in question. All the test consignments of
+shrapnels must be at the contracting firm’s expense.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">[198]</span></p>
+
+
+<p><b>Clause 3. Breaking Tests of the Material used for Bodies.</b>—These
+tests must be carried out at the works where shrapnels
+are manufactured. Three flat test pieces must be cut
+from the cylindrical portion of the body parallel to its axis
+and immediately above the driving band. The dimensions
+of test pieces are as follows: Width, 0.750 inch; thickness,
+0.150 inch; distance between marks, 2 inches. The outline
+and dimension of the ends must suit the holders of the
+testing machine. The metal of the bodies will be considered
+satisfactory if it shows a breaking strength of 82.7
+kilograms per square millimeter (52.5 tons per square inch)
+with a final elongation of not less than 8 per cent. In addition
+to this, the inspector must select two bodies from the
+test consignment before the beginning of final machining
+for cutting from the round test pieces with a diameter of 0.3
+inch, length 2 inches between marks, three test pieces being
+cut from each shell. The breaking test of these test pieces
+must be carried out on the testing machine, and the elastic
+limit of the material must be ascertained on them.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Clause 4. The Proof Consignment of Shrapnels.</b>—As
+mentioned, the shrapnels under order must be manufactured
+from similar material and by similar methods to the shrapnels
+of the test consignment. The acceptance of shrapnels
+for the service, however, can be effected only after “proof
+tests” of the mechanical qualities of the metal used, of the
+accuracy of firing, and of the strength and proper assembling,
+and pit tests.</p>
+
+<p>The whole order is sub-divided into consignments of 5000
+shrapnels each. The method of manufacture of the shrapnels
+must be entirely the same for the whole consignment.</p>
+
+<p>In the case of the order being placed for a number of
+shrapnel less than 5000, the whole order will be treated as
+one proof consignment; in the case of the order being placed
+for a larger number of shrapnels, the remainder from a full
+proof consignment must be treated as a part of the previous
+consignment, when it is less than half of the proof consignment,
+and must form a separate proof consignment when
+it is more than half of same.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">[199]</span></p>
+
+<p>The choice of shrapnels for proof must be made by the
+inspector personally from the proof consignment submitted
+by the firm. The choice must be made after final inspection
+of the whole consignment. The works have the right to
+challenge the shrapnels chosen by the inspector for the
+proof, having the right to do it only twice. The shrapnels
+challenged in that manner must be destroyed, so as to prevent
+any further submission of same for proof. The shrapnels
+challenged must be replaced by the firm.</p>
+
+<p>For the mechanical tests of the metal, it is recommended
+to select bodies which were rejected on account of their
+dimensions, but in the case of the absence of any bodies rejected
+for the dimensions, the works must provide good
+bodies selected by the inspector. Not less than ten bodies
+must be chosen from the proof consignment. The rules
+and requirements for the metal used for the shrapnel bodies
+were given in Clause 3.</p>
+
+<p>In the case of satisfactory results of these mechanical
+tests, the firm must submit from each proof consignment
+fifty shrapnels for the firing trials for their strength. After
+firing trials, the pit tests must be carried out, for which
+proof recovered shrapnels which do not show any damage
+after firing will be used. Ten shrapnels must be used for
+pit tests.</p>
+
+<p>All proof tests must be carried out in the presence of the
+inspector sent for this purpose to the works, and the mechanical
+tests of the metal must be carried out by the inspector
+himself. The projectiles used for the proof firing
+must not be painted but only covered with machine oil.</p>
+
+<p>The consignment will be accepted if the mechanical or
+firing proof tests fulfill the same requirements as have been
+laid down in Clause 2, Conditions 1 to 8, with the exception
+that in Condition 6, in the case of the proof test, 20
+per cent, instead of 15 per cent, as in the case of the consignment
+test, may show protrusion of the upper end of the
+central tube from the countersink of the brass socket nut.</p>
+
+<p>If, during firing, breakages of the shrapnels in the gun or
+immediately in front of the muzzle should occur, the whole
+consignment must be rejected.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">[200]</span></p>
+
+<p>In the case of unsatisfactory results with reference to
+trials mentioned in Clause 2, Conditions 3, 4, 5, and 6
+(which must not be more than one shell with reference to
+Conditions 3, 4, and 5), the firm has the right to submit
+100 additional shrapnels chosen by the inspector for the
+firing for recovery proof. If during pit tests more than
+three shrapnel bodies are broken, an additional five shrapnels
+must be subjected to the same test, but for the acceptance
+of the consignment it is required that, in total, no
+more than five broken shrapnel bodies occur.</p>
+
+<p>With reference to damaged or displaced driving bands,
+or the impression of the rifling on them not being clear, or
+being enlarged, it is left to the discretion of the contracting
+government to demand the changing of the driving bands
+on the whole consignment, after which rebanding they must
+be submitted for second proof, twenty-five shrapnels being
+tested for accuracy: these shrapnels must be chosen by the
+inspector after reviewing the whole consignment. If during
+the secondary firing trials which take place on account
+of failures with reference to any one of the above-mentioned
+reasons, further failures to the same effect take place, the
+question of the acceptance of the whole consignment must
+be referred to the respective military administration.</p>
+
+<p>In the case of the failures of both trials, first and secondary,
+the permission for the further manufacture of projectiles
+by the firm in question will be left to the discretion
+of the respective military authorities.</p>
+
+<p>In the case of the acceptance of the consignment after the
+proof, the shrapnels used for the proof in question, fifty
+in number, must be taken from the order. Any other
+shrapnels, used for proof in addition to the above-mentioned
+number, must be at the expense of the manufacturer.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Clause 5. The Rights and Duties of the Government
+Inspector.</b>—The inspector’s duty consists not only in the
+acceptance of the manufactured shrapnels, but also in looking
+after the methods, etc., used in the manufacture. In
+order to do this, the inspector must be given the right of
+access to any work and test referring to the shrapnel
+manufacture.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">[201]</span></p>
+
+<p>The inspector has the right to inform the manager of
+the works of all defects noticed by him in manufacture of
+the shrapnels, as well as of those which occur in the shrapnels
+submitted for acceptance, and he has the right to suggest
+improvements to the manufacturer; it is left to the discretion
+of the manager of the works to make use of these
+suggestions, if it is found advisable, but the inspector has
+not the right to interfere with the orders issued in the
+works.</p>
+
+<p>Before submitting to the inspector the shrapnels manufactured
+the works must pass them by their own examiners;
+these examiners must work to the instructions given to
+them by the works, and prepared to the inspector’s satisfaction.
+The inspector has to gage shrapnels by the gages
+stated in the following specifications. He also must check
+them with reference to their dimensions, as given on the
+drawings, before beginning inspection.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Clause 6. The Condition in which Shrapnel Bodies are
+Submitted.</b>—Steel shrapnel bodies are submitted to the
+first inspection without socket, driving band, and inner
+parts. The outside cylindrical portion of the bodies as well
+as the enlarged centering portion must be machined and finished;
+shrapnel bodies must be submitted with grooves for
+driving bands and with other grooves in the base of the shell.</p>
+
+<p>The rounded portion of the bodies above the enlarged centering
+portion must be machined only preliminarily. The
+inside of the bodies must be finish-machined, and the
+shoulder for the diaphragm as well as the cylindrical portion
+of the body against the diaphragm must be properly
+finished; the upper part of the inside surface must be provided
+with threads for socket. The remaining portion of
+the inside surface might be roughly machined. The base
+of the shrapnels may be left with a boss outside with center
+marked on it, but the remaining portion of the base must
+be finish-machined. This applies to the first inspection.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Clause 7. The First Inspection of Shrapnel Bodies.</b>—The
+surface of the enlarged centering portion must be
+perfectly smooth and the cylindrical portion of the bodies
+must not show any tool marks, except slight ones. The
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">[202]</span>outer surfaces of the central portion and the enlarged centering
+portion must be polished. Special care must be taken
+in polishing the enlarged centering portion. The inside
+surface of the bodies must be clean and smooth. The outer
+and inner surfaces of shrapnels must not show any cracks,
+fissures, or black lines (not even the very slightest of
+these), nor burrs. The inner surface of the bodies may
+show separate dents due to slag, but these dents must be
+of a very slight nature. The thread in the upper end of the
+bodies for the socket must have at least five full turns.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Clause 8. The Checking of the Weight of Shrapnel
+Bodies.</b>—Out of each one hundred bodies submitted to the
+inspector, at least ten bodies must be weighed. These
+weights will assist the inspector with reference to the dimensions
+of the bodies, and might draw his attention to the
+dimensions of those parts for measuring of which there
+are no gages provided. In addition to this, during the
+manufacture of the test consignment, the inspector must
+ascertain the mean weight of the shrapnel bodies in this consignment,
+as well as any possible variation in any direction.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Clause 9. Inspection and Test of Copper for Driving
+Bands.</b>—Pure copper is used for the driving bands. It
+must be of the best quality, and hard drawn; ordinary copper,
+not drawn, must not be used for driving bands. The
+copper strips must be cut into pieces of the lengths required
+for their placing on the shrapnels. The copper
+strips must be submitted to the inspector for acceptance
+and for the following tests:</p>
+
+<p>1. The strips must be bent double in cold condition until
+the ends meet; when the ends meet, the strip is hammered
+until both halves are flat; if during this test the strip
+does not show any cracks or breakages, the metal will be
+considered as accepted.</p>
+
+<p>2. The strip is hammered in cold condition until its
+thickness is reduced one-half; after this trial it must not
+show any fissures or cracks.</p>
+
+<p>Not more than 1 per cent of the strips submitted must
+be subjected to the above tests.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">[203]</span></p>
+
+<p>If it is found that any of the strips tested will not stand
+the tests, the whole consignment of strips is rejected, or is
+returned to the firm for reviewing, so as to give the firm
+the possibility to submit again that part of the consignment
+which might be considered good. During secondary test
+another 1 per cent of strips will be chosen, and in the
+case of any failures the whole consignment will be finally
+rejected.</p>
+
+<p>In case of satisfactory results in the tests mentioned,
+the inspector examines the copper strips so as to ascertain
+that they are of proper cross-section; special notice must
+be taken with reference to fissures. Fissures exceeding one-tenth
+of the strip in length are not allowed. The inspector
+must examine 20 per cent of all strips, and, during this
+examination, if even one strip be found with fissures longer
+than mentioned, the whole consignment of strips will be returned
+to the firm for reviewing. If during secondary examination
+the inspector finds even one fissure exceeding the
+mentioned length, the whole consignment of copper will be
+rejected.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Clause 10. Fixing of Driving Bands.</b>—To prevent cracks
+in shrapnel bodies during the fixing of the driving bands,
+a mandrel must be placed inside the bodies, and this mandrel
+must fit the inside surface of the bodies tightly. The
+inspection of the grooves must be carried out by means of
+the gages made by the firm to suit the inspector’s requirements.
+To facilitate the fixing of the driving bands on the
+shrapnel bodies, the bottom of the grooves may be provided
+with waved ribs. The depth of these grooves must not
+exceed 0.005 inch. The width of the surface with the waved
+ribs is left to the decision of the firm and inspector.</p>
+
+<p>The method of fixing the driving bands is left to the
+discretion of the firm, the only requirement being that the
+order must be manufactured by the same methods as used
+for the manufacture of test consignment, provided that the
+firing trial of that consignment was satisfactory. The
+number of shrapnels supplied by the firm for this firing and
+for the inspection of the driving bands is mentioned in
+Clause 2. If the firm is proposing to alter the method of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">[204]</span>the fixing of the driving bands, it must submit, at its own
+expense, a test consignment of 25 shrapnels for firing
+trials.</p>
+
+<p>During the manufacture of the order for shrapnels the
+inspector has the right to choose, if he thinks it necessary,
+from each consignment submitted to him, not more than
+1 per cent of the projectiles for the removal of their driving
+bands, in order to ascertain how close they are to the
+shrapnel bodies. The inspector also has the right to demand
+an accuracy trial with some of the above-mentioned
+shrapnel, but in this case he must give detailed reasons
+for doing so. If the results of this firing are unsatisfactory,
+the military authorities have the right to demand the
+replacement of driving bands on the whole order.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Clause 11. Secondary Inspection of Shrapnel Bodies
+after the Firing of Driving Bands.</b>—The shrapnels are submitted
+for the secondary inspection with fixed driving
+bands, finished sockets, steel diaphragms in place, central
+tubes and socket nut, but without socket fixing screws, as
+well as fuse fixing screws. The central bosses on the base
+must be cut away in cases where the shrapnels were submitted
+with them for the first inspection. The powder
+chamber, lower portion of steel diaphragms, and inner surface
+of central tube must be covered with durable varnish.</p>
+
+<p>During this inspection special care must be taken to
+ascertain the proper fixing of the driving band. The proper
+fixing of the driving bands is ascertained by (1) sounding
+them with small hammers, and (2) removal of driving
+bands from some shrapnels, preferably those rejected. The
+driving bands when being sounded with hammer must not
+make any jarring sound. The jarring sound is only allowed
+at the joint of the driving band, for not more than
+one-tenth of its length; the bands not answering to these
+conditions must be replaced by new ones. The driving
+bands, after being removed from the shrapnel, must have
+impressions of the waved grooves on the bottom of the
+groove; the inside surface must not show the pink color of
+the unused copper, but must be smooth and give a slight
+reflection.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">[205]</span></p>
+
+<p>When removing the driving band, special attention must
+be paid to the fact that the bands fit properly into the
+sides of the groove, and that they are close to the shrapnel
+bodies. In the case of copper strips being too wide, the
+shrapnel bodies show cracks, sometimes on account of the
+method of fixing and sometimes on account of too high a
+pressure. These cracks can be ascertained by sounding the
+shrapnels with a hammer; the cracked shrapnels will make
+a dull sound. Such shrapnels must be rejected.</p>
+
+<p>During secondary inspection, the inspector must ascertain
+the following facts:</p>
+
+<p>1. If the powder chamber, lower surface of steel diaphragms,
+and inner surface of the central tube are varnished;
+if steel diaphragms fit properly in the corresponding
+place of the shrapnel bodies; steel diaphragms must bear on
+the lower surface of the shoulder and must be in close contact
+with the inside surface of the shrapnel bodies. Special
+care must be taken with reference to the tight fitting of
+the steel diaphragms.</p>
+
+<p>2. The base of shrapnel bodies must be absolutely
+smooth; attention must be paid to the presence of rough
+surfaces; black spots, cracks, or any damages, which are
+not allowed on the site of the central boss; shrapnel bodies
+with such defects are not allowed.</p>
+
+<p>The final finishing of the driving band may be done after
+the shrapnels are nickel-plated, at the discretion of the
+inspector.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Clause 12. Inspection of Steel Diaphragms.</b>—Diaphragms
+are made from steel stampings under the hammer
+or press. The metal, with reference to the mechanical
+qualities, must meet the requirements set forth for the
+shrapnel bodies (see Clause 3). The holes for the central
+tubes must be drilled; these holes must be made with a
+shoulder for the central tube; the outer surface of the diaphragm,
+as well as the shoulder of the hole for the central
+tube, must be accurately machined. The diaphragms must
+not show any cracks or other defects.</p>
+
+<p>The test of the metal for the diaphragms consists of hammering
+them by the dropping of a weight from a certain
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">[206]</span>height. The number of blows which the diaphragms can
+stand without any cracks must be ascertained by the inspector
+during the manufacture of the test consignment of
+shrapnels. In addition to this, the quality of the metal
+must be ascertained by the Brinell test. During firing, the
+diaphragms must not show any dents; this fact must be
+ascertained on some shrapnels recovered after the firing.</p>
+
+<p>The manufacturer must supply the inspector with ten
+diaphragms for the mechanical tests of material. These diaphragms
+will be chosen by the inspector from the total number
+of diaphragms for the whole consignment. For the
+hammering tests, not more than one per cent of the total
+diaphragms must be chosen, and the Brinell test must be
+carried out on not less than one per cent of the whole number
+of diaphragms. In the case of satisfactory results, the
+whole consignment is accepted; otherwise, additional tests
+on two per cent of the diaphragms must be carried out, and
+in the case of unsatisfactory results, even on one diaphragm,
+the whole consignment will be rejected. Diaphragms must
+be submitted for inspection in quantities not less than 200.
+The lower surface of the diaphragm must be varnished after
+inspection.</p>
+
+<p>In the case of the manufacturer being allowed to make
+shrapnels without submission to test consignment, as per
+Clause 3, the inspector must test the diaphragms as usual.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Clause 13. Inspection of Central Tube.</b>—The central
+tubes must be made of steel, must not show any cracks,
+must be properly welded, and must be of similar thickness
+on the whole length. For the purpose of ascertaining the
+mechanical qualities of the metal used for the central tubes,
+small cylinders ⁵⁄₈ inch in length (1¹⁄₂ times the diameter
+of the tube) must be cut from some of the tubes which
+have been previously properly measured; these cylinders
+must be subjected to a compression test under the press.
+The minimum resistance shown by these cylinders under
+compression, before the beginning of buckling, must be not
+less than 14.45 tons per square inch. The outer as well as
+the inner surfaces of tubes must be smooth and their ends
+must be cut perpendicular to their axes. The length of the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">[207]</span>tube is ascertained during the assembling of the shrapnel.
+In the assembled shrapnel, the upper end of the central
+tube must be inside of the countersunk hole provided for in
+the socket nut.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Clause 14. Inspection of Sockets.</b>—Sockets must be
+manufactured from steel. The breaking strength of steel
+used for sockets must be of about 60 kilograms per square
+millimeter (38.1 tons per square inch), with an elongation
+not less than 16 per cent (the distance between marks being
+2 inches). Sockets are submitted for inspection in
+quantities of not less than 100; they must be tapped with
+thread on the inside as well as on the outside surfaces;
+the conical portion of the surface must be machined; the
+upper surface must be machined, but this machining may
+be left rough at this stage; those parts of the sockets by
+which they are fixed to the shrapnel bodies must be accurately
+machined; the sockets must be accurately cut. The
+sockets must be provided with two holes, one for filling with
+resin, and another one for the escape of gases. If sockets
+are stamped, the outer surface of the stem can be left
+without machining, but it must be very smooth. The upper
+surface of the sockets may be submitted to the inspector
+without being finish-machined. The sockets must not
+show any signs of cracks, fissures or any rough surface.
+Chipping in the thread of the hole or on the conical fuse
+seat may be allowed, but of a very slight nature.</p>
+
+<p>To ascertain the mechanical qualities of the metal used
+for sockets, the inspector has the right to carry out the
+tests on one per cent of the sockets from each consignment.
+For this purpose, rings must be cut from the upper portion
+of the sockets, and these rings are subjected to the hammering
+test by a weight dropped from a certain height.
+In addition, the sockets must be tested with the Brinell
+test, and for this purpose not less than 1 per cent of the
+sockets must be used.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Clause 15. Inspection of Brass Socket Nuts.</b>—The
+socket nuts must be cast of an alloy consisting of 2 parts
+of copper and 1 part of zinc, taken by weight. The socket
+nuts are submitted to the inspector after being finally machined,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">[208]</span>threaded, with finished upper and lower surfaces,
+with central hole made to the drawing, and with slot for the
+key. Socket nuts must not show any defects.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Clause 16. Bullets and Smoke Compositions.</b>—Bullets
+must be of a true spherical shape; they must be cast of an
+alloy consisting of 4 parts of lead and 1 part of antimony,
+taken by weight; sprues must be cut off, and the surface of
+the bullets must be smooth. The diameter of the bullets
+is 0.5 inch; mean weight, 0.376 ounce. Separate bullets
+may differ from the mean weight, but they must not be less
+than 0.373 ounce, and not more than 0.381 ounce. Under
+slight hammering the bullets must not show any cracks.
+The force of the blow must be decided by the inspector, the
+reason for this test being to ascertain if the bullets can be
+used in shrapnels where they are slightly compressed, as
+after this pressure they must not show any cracks. Shrapnel
+must contain from about 256 to 265 bullets.</p>
+
+<p>The bullets must be placed in proper layers, and each
+layer must be slightly pressed in, but after this pressure
+bullets must not be deformed to any noticeable extent, except
+those in the bottom layer. Layers consist of 17 or 18
+bullets, except the top layers, which have about 20 bullets
+each. The five bottom layers of bullets must be covered
+with smoke composition made of metallic antimony and
+magnesium in the following proportions, by weight: 55 parts
+of antimony and 45 parts of magnesium; 0.75 ounce of
+smoke composition must be put in each shrapnel. This
+composition must be put in after the first five layers of bullets
+are in place, and the shrapnel must be shaken in order
+to settle the powder. The smoke composition must ignite
+very quickly. The inspector must see that the composition
+is made from the magnesium and antimony as stated above.
+With bullets in place, and with socket in proper position, the
+shell must be filled with melted resin.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Clause 17. The Third Inspection of Shrapnels and
+Checking of Their Weight.</b>—The shrapnels for the third
+inspection are submitted after being fully assembled and
+charged with the bullets and smoke composition, and after
+being filled with resin; the holes in the sockets used for
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">[209]</span>filling with resin and for the escape of gases must be stopped
+with threaded steel plugs. These plugs must be riveted
+over and polished flush with the surface of the socket.</p>
+
+<p>During the third inspection, the shrapnel is gaged with
+special gages to check shape; the hole for the fuse is tested
+by a special screw gage; copper driving bands must be inspected
+and gaged. After this inspection the shrapnels
+are weighed. The shells which show the ends of the driving
+bands not completely touching each other, may be accepted
+if the distance between them is very small.</p>
+
+<p>The outer surface of the socket must be finish-machined
+and must be smooth and perpendicular to the center line of
+the fuse socket. The socket must be fixed by means of
+steel screws, the outer ends of which must be cut flush
+with the surface of the shrapnel, and polished over.</p>
+
+<p>During this inspection, the inspector must ascertain that
+the head portion of the shrapnels does not show any cracks
+due to the drilling and tapping of the holes for the screws.
+The head of the shrapnel must be provided with a tapped
+hole for the fuse securing screw. The head of this screw
+must be flush with the shrapnel bodies. The upper end of
+the central tube must fill completely the countersunk part
+provided for it in the socket nut, if it is in proper position.
+The steel gage rod dropped into the opening of the central
+tube must reach the base of the shrapnel.</p>
+
+<p>To ascertain the proper assembling of the inner part of
+the shrapnels, the inspector has the right to demand dismantling
+of not more than 0.5 per cent of the shrapnels
+submitted. While inspecting the dismantled shrapnels, the
+inspector must ascertain the following points:</p>
+
+<p>1. If the thread of fixing screws for socket and fuse, as
+well as the threads in holes for them, are cleanly cut, and
+if the length of these screws is sufficient.</p>
+
+<p>2. If the socket remains steady when screwed into the
+shrapnel bodies, before being fixed with screws.</p>
+
+<p>3. If the end of the central tube remains clean and the
+central tube itself is not damaged by the bullets.</p>
+
+<p>4. If the bullets are covered with resin and if the shrapnels
+are filled with smoke composition.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">[210]</span></p>
+
+<p>5. If the number of bullets is correct, and also that they
+are not appreciably damaged after pressing.</p>
+
+<p>6. If the steel diaphragm is in the right position in the
+shrapnel.</p>
+
+<p>After the third inspection the shrapnels must be weighed;
+the normal weight of the assembled shrapnels, without zinc
+plugs, must be 13 pounds 7.33 ounces ± 1.053 ounce. All
+shrapnels passed by the inspector must be stamped on the
+base.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Clause 18. Nickel-plating, Varnishing and Oiling.</b>—All
+the outside surfaces of the shrapnel with the exception of
+the copper driving bands must be nickel-plated and varnished.
+This nickel-plating and varnishing must be durable.
+The manufacturer must take steps to prevent the
+passage of the liquid inside of the shrapnels during nickel-plating.
+The shrapnels must be inspected by the manufacturer
+after being nickel-plated so as to ascertain that
+no liquid passed inside the powder chamber, and, if necessary,
+the chamber must be cleaned. The shrapnels must
+be submitted for final inspection after being nickel-plated
+and varnished.</p>
+
+<p>The socket in the front portion of the shrapnel must be
+oiled and covered with the zinc plug shown in <a href="#p196_fig01">Fig. 1</a>; the
+socket must be fitted with fixing screws for the fuse; the
+screws must be oiled with naphtha grease. The copper driving
+bands must be gaged during this inspection. While inspecting
+the shrapnels, the inspector must see to the following
+points:</p>
+
+<p>1. That the driving bands are not damaged; shrapnels
+with damaged bands must be returned to the works for new
+bands.</p>
+
+<p>2. That the nickel-plating of the shrapnels is sound and
+that the nickel-plated surfaces do not show any signs of
+rust.</p>
+
+<p>3. That the fixing screw for the fuse is properly cut; the
+top of this screw, when screwed completely down, must
+slightly protrude over the surface of the shrapnel. The
+threads must be Whitworth, 24 threads per inch. A plug
+and ring gage must be provided for gaging this thread.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">[211]</span></p>
+
+<p>4. That the socket is free from rust.</p>
+
+<p>5. That the powder chamber, as well as the inside of the
+central tube, is clean.</p>
+
+<p>The zinc plug must fit properly to the upper surface of
+the fuse socket. The copper driving bands must be oiled
+with naphtha grease to prevent them from corroding. The
+shrapnel, before shipping from the works, must be packed
+in strong wooden boxes. The details of the packing is left
+to the discretion of the manufacturer, provided that it is
+approved by the inspector. While packing, care must be
+taken to place driving bands in guards to prevent their being
+damaged by knocks from the outside, or from rattling
+one against the other, or against the packing during transport.</p>
+
+<p>The number of shrapnels packed in one box must not
+exceed, in weight (box included), 253 pounds.</p>
+
+<p>When shipping the manufactured shrapnels from the
+works, two spare fuse fixing screws must be put in every
+box. Spare zinc plugs, 5 per cent of the total number supplied,
+must be delivered together with order and packed in
+separate wooden boxes, 50 in each box.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Clause 19. Firing Tests.</b>—The works must deliver the
+required number of shrapnels to the place where they will
+be tested. The proof by firing will be carried out with a
+3-inch quick-firing gun with a charge of smokeless powder,
+and with chamber pressure of 2400 atmospheres (15.75
+tons per square inch).</p>
+
+<p>The recovery proof must be carried out without bursting
+charge, but the shrapnels must be fitted with time fuses.
+When time fuses are not available, the proof must be carried
+out with steel or brass dummy fuses similar to those
+used for accuracy trials. These dummy fuses must be supplied
+at the expense of the firm. Every shrapnel must be
+weighed and the weights taken down.</p>
+
+<p>The time fuse must be set a distance of from 1400 to 1635
+yards. It must be noticed whether or not the fuse explodes.
+To obtain the best conditions for observation,
+the firing must take place with sight set up 10 divisions
+higher than is required by the range. Up to one-third of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">[212]</span>the shrapnels proved for recovery must be fired with bursting
+charge, so as to ascertain that they are properly assembled.
+The fuse socket in the last mentioned cases must be
+plugged with dummy fuses.</p>
+
+<p>The firing must be carried out at such a range as to enable
+the recovery of the shrapnels for inspection and measuring
+of same; all shrapnels, before firing, must be measured
+on their cylindrical portion and the accuracy of the base
+must be ascertained, in order to facilitate notice being taken
+with reference to the bulging of the bodies and bases of the
+shrapnels. The diameters of the cylindrical portion must
+be taken in sections two inches apart. Marks must be made
+on the copper driving bands and on the cylindrical part of
+the shrapnel bodies adjacent, to facilitate notice being taken
+of the displacement of the driving band, if such takes
+place.</p>
+
+<p>For accuracy trials, shrapnels without time fuse must
+be used, and special steel or brass dummy fuses must be
+screwed in; the outline and weight of this dummy must
+be similar to that of the fuse, and the weight of the shrapnel
+with such dummy must be 14 pounds 5.33 ounces. These
+dummy fuses must be made by the manufacturer at his expense.
+The accuracy trials must be carried out by aiming
+the gun at a vertical target at a range of 2335 yards.</p>
+
+<p>After the firing trial for recovery and for accuracy, the
+maximum possible number of shrapnels must be recovered
+and inspected, as to any marks from the rifling on the
+shrapnel bodies, any dents or damages on bases or heads,
+any displacement of the driving bands or any shrapnels with
+broken off bases. To ascertain the accuracy of fitting of
+the steel diaphragms, and the condition of the bullets, two
+shrapnels must be dismantled. In addition, all those shrapnels
+which have displaced central tubes must be dismantled.
+The shrapnels must be measured on their diameter in order
+to ascertain the deformations. A pit test must also be
+carried out. The shrapnels must be fully loaded for the
+pit test and must be fitted with ordinary zinc plugs screwed
+into the fuse sockets.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">[213]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VIII">
+    CHAPTER VIII
+    <br>
+    <span class="sm">SPECIFICATIONS FOR THE MANUFACTURE AND INSPECTION
+    OF THE COMBINATION FUSE FOR
+    RUSSIAN 3-INCH SHRAPNEL SHELLS</span>
+  </h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>The following specifications contain all the essential information
+relating to the Russian aluminum 22-second combination
+or double-acting fuse for shrapnel shells used in
+3-inch quick-firing field and mountain guns, as given in
+the official specifications. This chapter, therefore, contains
+a complete description of every part used in the fuse, together
+with complete details relating to the manufacture,
+inspection, and tests.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Component Parts of Fuse.</b>—The fuse consists of over
+thirty separate parts, the names of each of which are specified
+in the table below, together with their weights.</p>
+
+<div class="tighten10">
+<table class="autotable3">
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">
+FUSE PART
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+Weight in Ounces,<br>
+Avoirdupois
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">
+Stem (with cloth)
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+3.7166
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="hang2">
+Chamber bushing with needle for percussion detonator cap (without powder)
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+0.1971
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="hang2">
+Bushing with needle for time detonator cap
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+0.0331
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang2">
+Plug (brass) in the flange of the stem
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+0.0150
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang2">
+Upper time ring (complete with powder; for filling in
+both upper and lower time ring 0.24075 ounce avoirdupois
+of powder (fuse) are required; for 1000
+fuses, the following quantities of fuse powder are
+required: for pressing into the time rings, approximately
+16.25 pounds avoirdupois; for powder pellets
+in the vents of the lower time ring, approximately
+3.912 ounces avoirdupois) with powder and parchment
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1" style="vertical-align:bottom">
+1.1586
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang2">
+Lower time ring (see note in parenthesis on upper time
+ring) with powder, asbestos, pins, and tin disk
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+1.1496
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">
+Nut
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+3.6278
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">
+Two set-screws for nut
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+0.0361
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">
+Tightening ring (split)
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+0.5492
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">
+Time detonator (assembled)
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+0.2632
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">
+<i>Time detonator parts</i>:
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">
+Pellet<br>
+Rod<br>
+Spiral brass spring<br>
+Cap
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+0.1429<br>
+0.1023<br>
+0.0030<br>
+0.0150<br>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang2">
+Safety bushing for the time detonator (the bushing for
+the time detonator for mountain guns weighs 0.0677
+ounce avoirdupois)
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+0.1128
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">[214]</span></p>
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">
+Percussion detonator (assembled)
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+0.4514
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">
+<i>Percussion detonator parts</i>:
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">
+Pellet<br>
+Brass bushing<br>
+Lead disk (washer on flange)<br>
+Cap
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+0.3671<br>
+0.0451<br>
+0.0226<br>
+0.0166
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">
+<i>Safety arrangement for percussion detonator</i>:
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang2">
+Brass safety stirrup with brass control spring
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+0.0481
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">
+Steel spiral spring
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+0.1655
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang2">
+Lock bushing for the safety stirrup for percussion detonator
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+0.5597
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang2">
+Base plug with counter safety lug and brass disk
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+0.5718
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">
+Lead disk
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+0.1520
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang2">
+Powder for the chamber bushing and transmitting duct of stem
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+0.0572
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang2">
+Mean weight of complete and ready-for-firing fuse for 3-inch field gun
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+2.8628
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang2">
+Mean weight of complete and ready-for-firing fuse for 3-inch mountain gun
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+2.8177
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang2">
+The weights of the additional parts not included in above list are:
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">
+Tin protecting cover with tape
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+1.0533
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">
+Copper wire for removing the cover
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+0.1053
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang2">
+Shell grease for lubricating grooves of stem
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+0.0196
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<p><b>Design and Construction of Stem.</b>—The stem is to be
+cast of aluminum (or an alloy of aluminum and copper)
+and pressed. The top of the stem is to be turned on the
+outside into three cylindrical shoulders, the upper one being
+threaded for receiving the nut; on the surface of the
+two upper shoulders, parallel to the axis of the stem, three
+guiding grooves are milled. The base of the stem top
+serves as a turning axis for the lower time ring. The
+interior of the top of the stem is to be bored out to form
+three cylindrical chambers, the lower of which is threaded
+to receive the brass bushing with the conical steel needle;
+the latter is lacquered and inserted into the bushing from
+the bottom, its head being riveted. To prevent the unscrewing
+of the bushing, the latter is nipped in two places.
+A vent is drilled through the wall at the top of the stem.</p>
+
+<p>The upper face of the flange of the stem has a rim on its
+circumference, and on a radius located in a vertical plane
+with the vent of the stem top, a transmitting duct is drilled,
+reaching from the lateral surface of the flange to the powder
+chamber of the fuse; the upper face of the flange communicates
+with this duct through an ignition hole pasted
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">[215]</span>onto the top with a muslin disk. The transmitting duct
+(covered with a neutral varnish) is filled, in the assembled
+fuse, with grain powder (for 100 fuses, about 3.84 pounds
+avoirdupois of unpolished rifle powder is required) and
+closed with a brass plug. On the lateral surface of the
+flange two annular grooves are milled out, the lower of
+which has four recesses for staking in the tin cover.</p>
+
+<p>On the lower face of the flange (two marks shall be
+placed on this face, one giving the last two digits of the
+year of manufacture of the fuses, and the other the number
+of the control consignment of the same year), at the ends
+of a diameter, two slanting cuts are milled for the wrench
+which screws the fuse into the shrapnel. On the same
+lateral surface a conical mark is cut, colored red, for the
+setting of the graduations of the fuse; on the top face of
+the flange a cloth washer is pasted, with a hole punched in
+it over the ignition hole. The cloth is pasted with a special
+thick varnish which is also used for pasting the twilled tape
+to the cover. The varnish consists of white resin, shellac
+and turpentine soluble in alcohol. Through the lateral surface
+of the flange a hole is drilled, leading to the lower face
+of the flange and intended for fastening the copper wire for
+tearing off the cover.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>tail of the stem</i> is shaped with a smooth cone on the
+top and a threaded cylinder at the bottom; the interior of
+the tail is to be bored out to form three cylindrical chambers,
+the upper and lower of which are threaded to receive
+the chamber and the base plugs, and the smooth, middle
+one, is intended for the percussion arrangement.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>The Chamber Bushing.</b>—The chamber bushing (brass)
+has four holes in its bottom for transmitting the flame into
+the interior of the shrapnel shell, and one central hole into
+which the varnished steel needle is screwed from the top.
+The lower face of the bottom of the bushing is recessed for
+locating the compressed brass counter spring of the percussion
+safety stirrup. The inside surface of the bushing is
+covered with neutral varnish, and, before filling it with
+powder, a muslin and wax paper disk are deposited at the
+bottom. The powder in the bushing is compressed slightly,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">[216]</span>to prevent its scattering in handling, before screwing the
+bushings in their places. The screwed-in bushing is nipped
+in two places and its wall is drilled through the transmitting
+duct, before charging the latter, for exposing the powder
+in the bushing.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>The Time Rings.</b>—Both time rings are cast from an
+aluminum-copper alloy (copper from 2¹⁄₂ to 3 per cent) and
+stamped in a die; on the under side of each ring a groove
+with an intervening bridge and semicircular arch is formed
+by first stamping it in a die and then milling it. The grooves
+are coated on the inside with Ossovetski’s neutral varnish,
+and fuse powder pressed into them. The portions filled with
+powder are then turned off and a thin, parchment washer
+pasted on their under surface with a neutral varnish. The
+parchment of each time ring is punctured over the transmitting
+hole, to hasten the transmission of the flame in
+grape-shot firing.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>upper time ring</i> is turned on the inside to form two
+cones connected by a circular section; the lower cone also
+terminates into a circular section having three protruding
+lugs fitting into the three slots of the stem top, thus allowing
+the time ring to slide vertically only along the axis of the
+fuse. On the upper side of the time ring an annular groove
+is to be turned for the reception of a soaked leather washer.
+From the lower cone of the time ring an oblique hole is to be
+bored, near one end of the bridge (left end in looking at the
+lower end of the time ring) communicating with the transmitting
+hole drilled through the composition groove.
+Through this oblique hole the composition is ignited from
+the time detonator cap of the fuse, assisted by the powder
+preparation pasted by means of alcohol varnish on the side
+wall of the hole next to the bridge. From the circular section
+connecting both cones of the time ring to the under side
+of the same, four gas escape holes are provided, facilitating
+the escape of the gases from the burning lower time composition.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>lower time ring</i> is turned on the inside, providing a
+slight cylindrical shoulder fitting on the base of the stem
+top and turning freely around same. At one end of the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">[217]</span>intervening bridge (opposite the one in the upper ring) a
+transmitting hole is drilled through the bottom of the composition
+groove of the time ring, transmitting the flame
+from the upper to the lower composition. To insure the
+ignition of the composition, a powder pellet with a central
+hole is inserted into the transmitting hole. From this transmitting
+hole, a gas escape hole, located on a radius of the
+time ring is provided, which at its base has a bursting
+charge of powder (varnished) pressed into it, plugged up
+with asbestos, and covered with a foil ring pasted with
+varnish. This hole facilitates the escape of gases from the
+burning composition of the lower time ring. The asbestos
+plug prevents the possibility of a premature ignition of the
+lower composition from the upper one, and the powder
+charge is intended for an immediate clearing of the plugging
+at the gas escape hole soon after the ignition of the
+lower composition through the transmitting hole. The lateral
+surface of the lower time ring is provided with:</p>
+
+<p>1. Four pairs of pins inserted into corresponding holes
+for the setting of the fuse by hand.</p>
+
+<p>2. Two holes for a wrench, if same should be required
+for setting the fuses.</p>
+
+<p>3. Graduation from 10 to 130.</p>
+
+<p>4. Separate graduation marked with the digit “5.”</p>
+
+<p>5. One notch marked in red and one notch marked in
+black with letters as directed by the contracting government.</p>
+
+<p>The upper side of the lower time ring is covered with a
+cloth washer having an opening opposite the transmitting
+hole.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>The Brass Nut.</b>—From the outside, the nut presents a
+rounded surface terminating into an umbrella. Inside the
+nut a thread is cut for screwing onto the top of the stem;
+the threaded hole opens into an oval cylindrical cavity communicating
+with the outside atmosphere by means of four
+openings in the neck of the umbrella. The edges of these
+four openings are milled out on a side opposite to the direction
+of the rotation of the shell to facilitate the escape of
+gases. At the bottom of the nut an arch-like annular recess
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_218">[218]</span>is milled out for the accumulation of gases from the burning
+compositions of the time rings, whence they escape into
+the above-mentioned oval cylindrical cavity through four
+inclined channels, and then out of the fuse through the openings
+in the neck of the umbrella. The nut is provided with
+two brass screws for securing it in place, after being
+screwed home on the top of the stem.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Upper Percussion Arrangement.</b>—The upper percussion
+arrangement consists of a brass time pellet and safety ferrule;
+the time detonating cap is inserted into the pellet and
+is held in place by means of a brass rod and brass spiral
+spring wound on the head of the latter. The safety ferrule
+is a hollow cylinder with a side slot, resting on the shoulder
+between the upper and lower chambers of the stem top. In
+its outside appearance the time pellet represents a cylinder
+of two different diameters connected with a conical
+slope; with the latter, the pellet resting on the conical enlargement
+of the ferrule. The lower cylindrical part of the
+pellet slides into the inside of the ferrule, and the upper, together
+with the projecting part of the rod, is located above
+the top of the stem in the cavity of the nut leaning with
+its steel spring against the arch of the cavity. The rod is
+kept firmly in place, being staked in on the circumference
+of the joint in two places.</p>
+
+<p>On the top of the stem, embracing the middle smooth
+cylindrical portion, the brass conical tightening ring is put
+on, fitting into the conical seat of the upper time ring. The
+ring is provided with a pin, which is guided in its movements
+by one of the three grooves in the top of the stem,
+opposite the vent. In order not to cover up the vent in the
+stem top, a longitudinal slot is cut in the ring opposite the
+former; the eight other grooves on the outside of the ring
+facilitate the tightening of the ring.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Lower Percussion Arrangement.</b>—The lower percussion
+arrangement is located in the tail of the stem between the
+chamber and the base bushing and consists of a percussion
+pellet, lock bushing, brass safety stirrup with counter
+spring, steel spiral spring, and lead washer. The brass percussion
+pellet, turned all over, is provided with: 1. Bottom
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">[219]</span>shoulder resting on lead washer in base plug; the top of
+this shoulder is turned off and the strips of the counter
+safety catch hold onto it. 2. Cylindrical shoulder with
+lower turn of steel spiral spring embracing same and guiding
+the compression of the spring when the lock bushing
+is settling down. 3. Lead washer with rectangular opening,
+coated with varnish, and placed on the upper face of
+the shoulder. 4. Parallel faces along which are placed
+the leaves of the safety stirrup. On the upper part of the
+two opposite faces of the percussion pellet transverse cuts
+are milled out into which special tongues of the leaves of
+the safety stirrup fit. The safety stirrup with the counter
+spring soldered to it has four leaves, two of which (opposite
+ones) are bent in the middle outwardly and two of
+which are straight, with only a slight outward bend at
+their ends; the latter leaves have tongues for fitting into
+the cuts of the pellets, as shown in <a href="#p009_fig04">Fig. 4</a>, Chapter I.</p>
+
+<p>The lock bushing is a hollow brass cylinder, the outer
+upper portion of which is rounded off and made wider than
+the lower one; the interior is bored out cylindrically and
+then widened into a cone, which catches the straight leaves
+of the safety stirrup when the lock bushing is settling down,
+thus preventing the latter from moving upwards. The
+steel spiral spring in conjunction with the bent leaves of
+the stirrup hold the lock bushing over the percussion pellet.
+The percussion cap is kept in place by means of a brass
+bushing which is staked in from below in two places.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Base Plug.</b>—The base plug, which is made of brass, has
+an annular groove formed at the bottom near the wall,
+which serves for fastening the counter safety lugs made of
+two strips of copper. At one end, the lugs are inserted in
+the groove (at the opposite ends of a diameter), and at
+this place the metal is jammed; with their other ends the
+lugs catch onto the shoulder of the bottom flange of the
+percussion pellet, inserted in the base plug together with
+the lead washer. The base plug has a flat bottom with a
+central opening covered with a brass disk; in order not to
+leave any space between this disk and its seat, the former
+is covered with varnish from below; two other holes at
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">[220]</span>the bottom of the bushing, not drilled through, serve for
+the insertion of a wrench.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Testing Fuses and Their Component Parts.</b>—These tests
+are carried out as follows:</p>
+
+<p>1. The brass safety stirrups and bushings (time and
+percussion) are divided into lots of 500 each. Five per cent
+of each lot shall be tested for bending in a hydraulic testing
+press. The resisting force of the percussion safety stirrups
+must be within the limits of 58.68 to 85.77 pounds
+avoirdupois, that of the brass counter springs between 2.71
+to 3.16 pounds avoirdupois, and that of the time safety
+bushing between 72.23 to 99.31 pounds avoirdupois. (For
+fuses for mountain artillery, from 40.63 to 54.17 pounds
+avoirdupois.) All the time safety bushings shall also be
+subjected on the same press to a compression test of 72.23
+pounds (for fuses for mountain guns, 45.14 pounds avoirdupois),
+and only those which have stood this test are
+finally considered suitable for the assembly of the fuses.</p>
+
+<p>2. The steel spiral springs shall have no more than 2³⁄₄
+turns, and the upper and lower one must lie in a horizontal
+plane and approach the nearest turn. In compressing the
+springs to 0.33 inch, the springs must withstand a pressure
+of from 20.76 to 47.08 pounds avoirdupois, and after removing
+the compressive load must resume the dimensions within
+the given limits.</p>
+
+<p>3. One-quarter per cent of the completely assembled
+percussion arrangement must be tested for determining the
+correctness of the locking of the lock bushing with the
+safety stirrup, with the former in its settling down position.</p>
+
+<p>4. The counter safety lugs with the base plugs are made
+up into lots of 500 each; 5 per cent of each lot, with the
+inserted percussion arrangement held in place by bending
+the lugs on the shoulder of the lower flange, are tested
+under load for unbending the catches of the counter safety
+lugs. At a load of from 3.61 to 5.42 pounds avoirdupois,
+the lugs must release the pellet. The percussion and time
+safety bushings and stirrups should be numbered with the
+number of the lot, in the order of their manufacture.</p>
+
+<p>5. In order to secure easy turning of the lower time
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_221">[221]</span>ring by hand, in setting the fuse, the pressure on the nut
+in screwing it home should be determined by readings of an
+automatic control wrench and should be between 6.32 and
+8.12 pounds avoirdupois.</p>
+
+<p>6. For testing the degree of uniformity of the fuses,
+they are divided into lots of not more than 500 each. The
+testing for the full burning time of the fuse is to take place
+on a special apparatus and shall be determined by a stop-watch;
+the mean arithmetical difference from the mean
+time of burning shall be determined from six tested fuses
+and shall not exceed 0.13 second. If a greater difference is
+obtained, nine more fuses shall be burned and the mean
+difference determined from fifteen separate readings. If
+the result is more than 0.13 second, ten more fuses shall be
+burned and the mean difference determined from all the
+twenty-five fuses. If a lot does not fulfill the required test,
+all the time rings shall be rejected and the powder in same
+burned out.</p>
+
+<p>7. In order to determine whether all the component parts
+of a fuse are properly assembled and kept firmly in place
+without moving, each fuse is shaken by hand and weighed;
+if the smallest weight of a fuse is not less than 12.862
+ounces avoirdupois (for a mountain fuse, not less than 12.81
+ounces avoirdupois) and no displacement of any of its component
+parts ascertained, the fuse is set on “grape-shot”
+and provided with a protective tin cover; otherwise the
+fuse shall be taken apart to determine whether all the parts
+are inserted in the fuse.</p>
+
+<p>8. The percussion and time detonator caps shall be
+tested for their sensitiveness to ignition by being thrown
+from a height of two feet for the former, and 1.5 feet for
+the latter, on the same apparatus as caps for other fuses.
+For testing the percussion caps, the lower percussion arrangement
+is set, <i>i.e.</i>, the lock bushing is set until locked
+with the percussion pellet by means of the leaves of the
+safety stirrup, and then carefully thrust onto the needle of
+the tail of the stem.</p>
+
+<p>For testing the time detonator caps, the time pellet is
+first inserted into the safety bushing; this is done in order
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_222">[222]</span>to increase the weight of the pellet, as its own weight is
+too small and would necessitate a considerable lifting of
+the rod of the testing apparatus. In order to conveniently
+insert the time pellet within the safety bushing, the chamber
+in the top of the stem (the middle one) is bored out,
+and the percussion pellet is carefully thrust onto the needle.
+In testing the percussion detonator caps, the tail of the
+stem is screwed into the end sleeve of the rod of the testing
+apparatus, and in testing the time detonator caps the top
+of the stem is treated in the same manner; in the latter
+test, the time rings are first put on the flange of the stem.</p>
+
+<p>For testing the caps delivered to the works manufacturing
+the fuses in hermetically sealed boxes (1500 percussion
+and 2500 time detonator caps in each lot), ¹⁄₂ per cent of
+the percussion caps and 1 per cent of the time caps are
+selected for this purpose. The caps are regarded as satisfactory
+if, in testing the percussion caps, there will not be
+more than 1 per cent of cases missing fire or failing to
+knock out the brass disk from the base plug; in testing the
+time caps the number of cases of non-ignition of the time
+rings shall not exceed ¹⁄₂ per cent. The ignited percussion
+caps must burn the muslin and paper disks placed at the
+bottom of the chamber bushing and ignite its powder.</p>
+
+<p>9. Out of a control consignment of 25,000 fuses, 25 shall
+be selected for shaking tests on a testing machine during
+1¹⁄₂ hour (10 fuses will be shaken in a horizontal position
+and 15 in a vertical), in order to determine the serviceability
+of the fuses under the most unfavorable conditions
+which can be encountered in transporting the shells.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Equipment of Fuses with Protective Covers.</b>—The tin cap
+covering the fuse is pressed into both grooves on the lateral
+surface of the flange of the stem; opposite the holes in the
+lower groove the cover is staked in; for waterproofing the
+fuse, the grooves should be filled with grease (consisting
+of 58¹⁄₂ parts of beeswax, 29¹⁄₂ parts of naphtha grease, and
+12 parts of white resin). To conveniently throw off the
+cover, a copper wire, stranded of four separate thin wires
+to preserve its flexibility, is inserted in the upper groove
+before putting on the cover. One end of the wire is slipped
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">[223]</span>through the opening in the flange and fastened at the
+bottom; the wire then runs around almost the whole circumference
+of the groove, is bent in a right angle in the
+direction of the markings on the flange to the top of the
+cover, where it is knotted and kept in place by a protruding
+button pressed out of the cover. A piece of twilled tape is
+fastened to the wire, which tape, in turn, is pasted to the
+body of the cover.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Boxing of Fuses.</b>—Each fuse with cover, after being
+examined and the varnish of the tape being found perfectly
+dry, is carefully wrapped in wrapping paper; 15 fuses are
+placed in a zinc box padded at the bottom with perfectly
+dry felt, and the spaces between the fuses filled in with felt
+or cloth cuttings. The fuses are covered with felt padding
+and the cover is soldered to the box. A paper ticket, pasted
+on the top of the box, should contain the following information:
+The number of the box in the order of manufacture
+of the fuses in the current year, the year of their
+manufacture, the name of the fuses and the quantity per
+box, the number of the control consignment and of the daily
+output, the time of pressing in the composition, and the
+time of the ignition test. The dimensions of the box are:
+length, 12.15 to 12.20 inches, width, 7.25 to 7.30 inches, and
+height, 3.11 to 3.16 inches. Four zinc boxes are put into a
+wooden box.</p>
+
+<p>The following information should be given on the tag
+pasted on the lower side of the wooden box cover: The
+number of the box in the order of their manufacture in the
+current year, the year of the manufacture of the fuses, the
+kind of fuses, and the quantity in the box. On the top of
+the box a stenciled inscription should be made giving the
+number of the box, the quantity and kind of fuses, and the
+year of their manufacture. On the side of the box the
+number of the control consignment and the year of manufacture
+should be marked. On boxes containing fuses with
+alloy time rings, the number of the box and the year of
+manufacture on the cover of the box, as well as the number
+of the lot and the year of manufacture on the side of the
+box, should be colored red. The weight of one zinc box containing
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">[224]</span>fifteen fuses should be approximately 16.7 pounds
+avoirdupois, and the weight of one wooden box containing
+four zinc boxes be approximately 90.3 pounds avoirdupois.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Instructions for Conducting Firing Tests.</b>—The following
+instructions for conducting firing tests are given in the
+official specifications:</p>
+
+<p>1. For firing tests, fifty-five fuses should be tested out
+of a lot of 25,000 fuses or less.</p>
+
+<p>2. The fuses are to be subjected to the following firing
+tests, using cast-iron experimental shells: Field fuses will
+be fired from a 3-inch quick-firing field gun at a muzzle
+velocity of 1930 feet per second and mean pressure of not
+more than 2400 atmospheres (35,500 pounds per square
+inch), and a maximum pressure of not more than 2550
+atmospheres (37,500 pounds per square inch). Fuses from
+a 3-inch quick-firing mountain gun, model 1904, are fired at
+a muzzle velocity of 950 feet per second and a mean pressure
+of about 1250 atmospheres (18,400 pounds per square inch),
+or from a 3-inch quick-firing gun, model 1909, at a muzzle
+velocity of 1250 feet per second and mean pressure of approximately
+1700 atmospheres (25,000 pounds per square
+inch).</p>
+
+<p>(a) 25 fuses should be tested by firing for percussion
+action at a distance of about 4900 feet.</p>
+
+<p>(b) 25 fuses should be tested for firing for time action
+by setting the fuse at 52 (mountain guns at 66), or at any
+other graduation depending on the atmospheric conditions
+of the day, in order to obtain a mean bursting distance of
+7000 feet, whereby the mean height of the bursting should
+amount to approximately 0.012 of the distance.</p>
+
+<p>(c) 5 fuses should be tested for “grape shot” action
+without removing the protecting cover.</p>
+
+<p>(d) Mountain fuses are also tested with 25 shots for
+time action from a counter-storming gun at a distance of
+3500 feet and a mean pressure of approximately 1100 atmospheres
+(16,200 pounds per square inch).</p>
+
+<p>3. A lot of fuses is considered satisfactory if:</p>
+
+<p>(a) In firing for percussion action not more than 2 failures
+shall take place, whereby the bursting on ricocheting at
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_225">[225]</span>the second or further falls is considered as a failure.</p>
+
+<p>(b) In firing with the fuse set at 52 or at any other
+graduation, depending on the atmospheric conditions of the
+day, in order to obtain a mean exploding distance of 7000
+feet, not more than one failure shall result, and the probable
+deflection determined from not less than 20 shots will not
+exceed 84 feet. In case no failures should occur, it is
+permissible in figuring the probable deflection not to take
+into consideration one of the shots deflected not more than
+420 feet from the mean point of explosion on the smaller
+side, or one deflected on the larger side.</p>
+
+<p>(c) In firing “grape shot,” the mean point of explosion
+shall not be farther than 42 feet, and any individual explosion
+not farther than 140 feet.</p>
+
+<p>(d) In firing for time and percussion action not a single
+premature explosion shall take place.</p>
+
+<p>4. A lot which did not satisfy these conditions is accepted
+for a second test, if at the first test the following
+conditions prevailed:</p>
+
+<p>(a) Not more than 3 failures were obtained in firing for
+percussion action.</p>
+
+<p>(b) In firing for time action not more than two failures
+took place, and the probable deflection did not exceed 98
+feet.</p>
+
+<p>(c) In testing for “grape shot” action not more than one
+failure took place, the mean point of bursting being not
+farther than 56 feet and any individual explosion not more
+than 175 feet.</p>
+
+<p>(d) In firing for time and percussion action not a single
+premature explosion took place.</p>
+
+<p>5. A lot which failed in the first test, but which satisfied
+the requirements of Paragraph 4 shall be tested over
+again, according to Paragraph 3, on that point only in
+which the lot failed in testing.</p>
+
+<p>6. In order to be accepted for service, a lot must, at the
+second test, give such results that the percentage of failures
+on time and percussion action obtained at the first
+and second firing shall not exceed in its entirety the percentage
+which was determined in Paragraph 3 for corresponding
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_226">[226]</span>tests. The probable deflections and mean distances
+of explosion obtained at the second test for time
+action, and in testing for “grape shot” action must satisfy
+respectively the requirements as laid down in Paragraph 3.</p>
+
+<p>7. A lot which did not satisfy both tests will not be subjected
+to any more tests, and any further action will depend
+upon the military authorities.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp81" id="p226_fig01" style="max-width: 30em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p226_fig01.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 1. Russian Combination Time and Percussion Fuse
+    (Vickers Type)
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><b>Action of Fuses at Firing.</b>—In setting the fuses it is
+necessary to bear in mind that each of the 130 graduations
+of the fuse corresponds to approximately 140 feet (in fuses
+for mountain artillery of the Russian 1904 model to 104
+feet) in the change of the firing distance, the same as the
+graduations on the sight of the gun. In firing, the time
+pellet passes through the safety bushing, expanding the latter,
+and falling with the cap on the needle. The detonator
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">[227]</span>cap ignites the composition of the copper time ring through
+the vent in stem top and the hole in upper time ring.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp88" id="p227_fig02" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p227_fig02.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 2. Body of Russian Combination Time and Percussion Fuse
+    (Vickers Type)
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>When the fuse is set on “percussion”, the transmitting
+opening of the lower time ring and the ignition of the
+flange of the stem are located opposite the intervening
+bridges, and the burning of the upper time composition is
+not transmitted into the chamber of the fuse. In such a
+case the shrapnel continues its movement until striking an
+obstacle. At this instant the lower percussion arrangement,
+releasing itself from the grip of the lugs of the counter
+safety catch and compressing the counter safety spring,
+approaches the needle, which punctures the detonating cap;
+the flame from the latter together with the flame from the
+powder of the chamber bushing are transmitted to the
+bursting charge in the shrapnel shell. When the fuse is
+set for “grape shot,” the transmitting openings in the time
+rings and the ignition openings in the flange of the stem
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">[228]</span>are brought so close to one another that the bursting of
+the shrapnel must take place on the average not farther
+than 42 feet in front of the muzzle of the gun.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p228_fig03" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p228_fig03.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 3. Top and Bottom Time Rings on Russian Combination Time
+    and Percussion Fuse (Vickers Type)
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><b>Russian Combination Time and Percussion Fuse—Vickers
+Type.</b>—Since the outbreak of the present war, various
+fuses have been used on Russian shrapnel shells. One of
+the principal of these fuses is the Vickers type of combination
+time and percussion fuse shown assembled in <a href="#p226_fig01">Fig. 1</a>,
+and in detail in Figs. <a href="#p227_fig02">2</a>, <a href="#p228_fig03">3</a>, <a href="#p229_fig04">4</a>, and <a href="#p230_fig05">5</a>. While the original
+Russian fuse shown in <a href="#p009_fig04">Fig. 4</a>, Chapter I, and described in
+the preceding pages, has, up to the present war, been the
+only fuse used in this shell, it has largely been replaced by
+other fuses, because of the difficulties experienced in manufacturing
+it. The Vickers type of fuse is somewhat easier
+to manufacture and, therefore, has been used to some extent
+on Russian shrapnel shells. Another fuse that is now being
+adapted to the Russian shrapnel shell is the American
+combination time and percussion fuse, <a href="#p008_fig03">Fig. 3</a>, Chapter I,
+which is also of the same type as the British fuse described
+in Chapter XI. The chief difference in design between the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_230">[230]</span>standard Russian and the Vickers type of combination time
+and percussion fuse is in the percussion and concussion arrangements.
+It will be noticed in Figs. 1 to 5, inclusive, that
+the details of the Vickers fuse are much simpler to manufacture.
+There is also an absence of the numerous springs
+in the original Russian fuse.</p>
+
+
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp45" id="p229_fig04" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p229_fig04.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 4. Details of Russian Combination Fuse (Vickers Type)
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp55" id="p230_fig05" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p230_fig05.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 5. Details of Russian Combination Time and Percussion Fuse
+    (Vickers Type)
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_231">[231]</span></p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IX">
+    CHAPTER IX
+    <br>
+    <span class="sm">SPECIFICATIONS FOR THE MANUFACTURE AND INSPECTION
+    OF RUSSIAN 3-INCH SHRAPNEL AND
+    HIGH-EXPLOSIVE CARTRIDGE CASES</span>
+  </h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>The following specifications are abstracted from the official
+specifications for the Russian brass cartridge cases for
+3-inch shrapnel and high-explosive shells, and contain all
+the essential information relating to the requirements in
+the manufacture and inspection of these cartridge cases.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Clause 1. The Rights and Duties of the Inspector.</b>—The
+inspector’s duty consists not only in acceptance of the cartridge
+cases manufactured, but also in looking after the
+methods used in the manufacture of the cartridge cases,
+and the brass used for them. In order to do this, the inspector
+must have the right of access to any work and tests
+referring to the cartridge cases; he must have the right to
+enter any shop during any time of the day or night, where
+the manufacture of the cartridge cases ordered may take
+place, <i>i.e.</i>, the casting and rolling of the brass, drawing,
+annealing, finishing, etc.</p>
+
+<p>If the firm with whom the order for the cartridge cases
+is placed does not cast brass, but obtains it from other
+works, the inspector has the right to visit these latter works
+in order to ascertain the quality of the casting (and qualities
+of copper and zinc), method of cutting the top and bottom
+parts of castings, method of rolling, etc. The inspector’s
+expenses with reference to his journey to the brass works
+in such case must be borne by the firm with which the order
+for the cartridge cases has been placed. The minimum
+number of the necessary journeys must be determined before
+the placing of the order.</p>
+
+<p>The firm, which is manufacturing the cartridge cases,
+must have a testing machine for the mechanical tests of the
+metal used for the cartridge cases; it must also possess a
+microphotographical laboratory for the brass (the power
+of the microscope must be at least 100). The firm must
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_232">[232]</span>furnish the inspector with the results of all the chemical,
+microscopical, thermal, mechanical and any other tests carried
+out on the brass used for the manufacture of cartridge
+cases, as well as on cartridge cases themselves. In addition
+to this, the inspector must be given the right to use all
+the firm’s testing plant for the above-mentioned tests. The
+inspector must carry out the specified tests mentioned in
+the following for the acceptance of the cartridge cases.</p>
+
+<p>Independently of the above, if the inspector thinks it
+necessary, for the purpose of ascertaining the qualities and
+evenness of the material used for the cartridge cases, as
+well as the cartridge cases themselves, to carry out in addition
+some other trials, the firm must provide him with all
+necessary assistance.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p232" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p232.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Russian 3-inch Cartridge Case
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The firm must place at the sole disposal of the inspector
+sufficiently large dry and heated accommodations for carrying
+out his inspection, provided with cupboards for his
+gages; scales must also be provided; the place must be
+lighted by electricity, and all necessary power for the inspection
+must be provided; gages; and a microscope of from
+40 to 50 power.</p>
+
+<p>All gages used for the gaging of cartridge cases must be
+checked by the inspector before the beginning of the inspection,
+as well as during the inspection. Before submitting
+the cartridge cases manufactured to the inspector, the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_233">[233]</span>works must submit them to their own examiners. These
+examiners must work according to the rules given them by
+the works, and prepared in conjunction with the inspector.
+The firm must provide their examiners with a separate set
+of gages manufactured similarly to those supplied to the
+inspector.</p>
+
+<p>The inspector has the right to inform the management
+of the works of all defects noticed by him in the manufacture
+of the cartridge cases, as well as of those defects which
+occur in the cartridge cases submitted for acceptance. Finally,
+he has the right to suggest some improvements in the
+manufacture of the cartridge cases; it is left to the discretion
+of the management of the works to make use of the
+above suggestions, if it is found advisable by them to do so,
+but the inspector has no right whatever to interfere with
+the orders issued by the management of the works.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Clause 2. Test Consignment.</b>—Before beginning the
+manufacture of the order, the works must submit a test
+consignment. The cartridge cases for test consignment
+must be manufactured to the approved drawings, and made
+of brass according to these specifications. During the manufacture
+of the cartridge cases, it is required:</p>
+
+<p>1. That the annealing of the cartridge cases shall be
+regulated to prevent any over-heating of the metal.</p>
+
+<p>2. That after the cartridge case is properly formed,
+the upper half of the case shall be definitely annealed at a
+temperature not less than 400 degrees C.</p>
+
+<p>3. That the mechanical quality of the metal in the manufactured
+cartridge case shall be in accordance with these
+specifications. The method of manufacturing the cartridge
+cases, as well as the regulation of the annealing before
+drawing, is left to the discretion of the works. The test
+consignment must be inspected and gaged by the inspector,
+and then sent for firing tests. The inspector must measure,
+on all cartridge cases in the test consignment, the diameter
+of the case near the bottom next to the flange, at a distance
+of ¹⁄₂ and 1¹⁄₂ inch from the flange.</p>
+
+<p>After firing the first round, all cartridge cases must be
+inspected and measured on the same diameters on which
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_234">[234]</span>they were measured before firing. The cartridge cases
+showing the maximum increase of diameter are to be resized
+after each round, together with those that are doubtful
+with regard to strength, if such re-sizing is allowed
+by these specifications. The cartridge cases spoiled during
+re-sizing must be replaced by new ones from the same consignment,
+but these new cases must be fired the same number
+of rounds as the old spoilt cases.</p>
+
+<p>The consignment will be accepted:</p>
+
+<p>1. If all cartridge cases after firing are extracted without
+any difficulty.</p>
+
+<p>2. If no case shows longitudinal or transverse cracks
+(or any other cracks).</p>
+
+<p>The cartridge cases which are supplied together with shell
+must be checked and examined in order to ascertain whether
+the shells are sufficiently secured in the case.</p>
+
+<p>The test consignment of cartridges must be manufactured
+at the expense of the works, but the tests are carried
+out at the expense of the government.</p>
+
+<p>In the case of an unsatisfactory test of the first consignment,
+the works have the right to submit a second test
+consignment. In the case of unsatisfactory results of the
+tests of the second consignment, the military administration
+has the right to cancel the contract.</p>
+
+<p>The inspector has to weigh all cartridge cases of the test
+consignment, ascertaining thus the mean weight. In addition,
+the inspector must carry out the following test on the
+cartridge cases of the test consignment:</p>
+
+<p>1. Chemical composition of brass.</p>
+
+<p>2. Mechanical and microphotographical qualities of
+metal in the manufactured cartridge cases.</p>
+
+<p>3. The temperature of the last annealing, <i>i.e.</i>, the temperature
+of annealing before last drawing, temperature before
+compressing, and temperature of the final annealing
+of the finished cartridge case.</p>
+
+<p>The temperatures of annealing must be ascertained by
+pyrometers. For this purpose such pyrometers as Ferry
+may be used, in which the temperature is ascertained by
+the color of the object heated.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_235">[235]</span></p>
+
+<p>The methods of manufacture of the order of cartridge
+cases must be similar to those used for the manufacture of
+test consignment. In case of any alterations in the method
+of manufacture, the works must inform the inspector to
+that effect, and he must report the matter to the military
+administration with his opinion on the value of such alteration
+in manufacture. It is left to the discretion of the military
+administration to allow such alteration or to demand
+from the works the delivery of a new test consignment.
+A firm which has already manufactured cartridge cases of
+certain type may be released from the delivery of a test
+consignment, provided the methods of manufacture have
+not been altered.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Clause 3. The Acceptance of the Brass.</b>—The brass
+used in the manufacture of cartridge cases must be of the
+following composition:</p>
+
+<p>
+  Copper        from 67 to 72 per cent.<br>
+  Zinc          from 33 to 28 per cent.
+</p>
+
+<p>The proportion of other metals must not exceed 0.5 per
+cent, except tin, which must not exceed 0.3 per cent.</p>
+
+<p>During the manufacture of cartridge cases in the same
+consignment, the variation of copper in the brass must
+not exceed + 1 per cent, or - 0.5 per cent compared with
+the usual composition used by the works which composition
+must be given to the inspector before the manufacture of
+the test consignment. The method of manufacture of brass
+is left to the discretion of the works. The only requirements
+are as follows:</p>
+
+<p>1. The cast ingots must be annealed before first rolling.</p>
+
+<p>2. All rolling must be carried out in the same direction,
+thus allowing the top end of the casting always to be distinguishable.</p>
+
+<p>The top or bottom portion of the castings must not be
+used for the manufacture of cartridge cases. They must
+be cut from the ingots by the works manufacturing the
+brass, or the blanks for the cartridge cases must be cut at
+a certain distance from both ends of the ingots. On receipt
+of the brass ingots, the works manufacturing the cartridge
+cases must inform the inspector to that effect, giving him
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_236">[236]</span>the chemical analysis and the composition of the casting.
+The consignment of the brass must be sufficient for the
+manufacture from it of the whole consignment of the cartridge
+cases. At the works which manufacture the brass,
+test bars must be cast from the same furnace and from
+material of the same quality, melted in a similar manner,
+and stamped with the same number as the castings. This
+number must be stamped at the bottom of the cartridge
+case.</p>
+
+<p>The brass used for tests must be submitted to the inspector
+in bars, and the cutting of the test disks from the bars
+must be carried out under the inspector’s supervision. A
+few bars are to be used for the microscopical analysis. The
+bars of each consignment must be stamped with a number,
+which number must be stamped afterwards on the blanks
+during all the drawings. This number must also be stamped
+on the bottom of the case, as mentioned. These numbers
+must be put by the inspector in the report together with
+chemical analysis of metal, composition of casting, number
+of rods delivered, time of delivery, name of brass foundry
+by which the brass has been supplied (if the manufacturers
+do not manufacture brass themselves), and the number
+of test disks cut. For each consignment of cartridge
+cases manufactured from brass bearing a certain number,
+at least one chemical analysis must be made. The brass
+not answering to the requirements of the chemical analysis
+will be returned to the manufacturer for re-casting.</p>
+
+<p>To insure that the amount cut off from the top and bottom
+of the rods is sufficient, the inspector must ascertain
+from the first consignment the number of cartridges manufactured,
+with defects inside as well as outside, from (1)
+disks cut from upper end of rod, (2) disks cut from roller
+end of rod, and (3) disks cut from the remaining part of
+rod. The percentage of cartridge cases with defects, in the
+above-mentioned three groups, must not differ materially
+from each other. The above-mentioned tests must be carried
+out from time to time during the manufacture of the
+cartridge cases.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_237">[237]</span></p>
+
+<p>The following methods can be used to ascertain that the
+ends of any rod are cut off sufficiently:</p>
+
+<p>1. At the center of the rod, cut a piece from the top of
+the upper blank; the transverse surface of the piece must
+be polished and etched with a weak solution of nitric acid;
+if the piece cut off from the top end was not sufficient, the
+test piece will show, in the middle, more or less solid black
+lines, inside of which, under the microscope, it will be possible
+to see small microscopical flaws and foreign substances.</p>
+
+<p>2. The transverse test piece cut in the above-mentioned
+manner must be broken in a testing machine; if the top
+portion was not sufficiently cut off, the middle of the piece
+will show ruptures in the metal.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Clause 4. The Arrangement of the Cartridge Cases in
+Lots.</b>—The cartridge cases for delivery must be arranged
+in lots. It is desirable that the cartridge cases in each lot
+should be manufactured from one casting of brass metal.
+If the lots are compiled from the cartridge cases of different
+castings, it will be necessary to select cartridge cases for
+the control test from all the castings, and the cases left
+over from the lots already tested and accepted may be
+placed in the new lots without repeated tests.</p>
+
+<p>The dimensions of punch and die for the last drawing
+must be verified from time to time. The control of the annealing
+must be carried out by means of a pyrometer. The
+cartridge cases in each lot must be inspected as follows: 1.
+Outside inspection. 2. Inspection of dimensions and
+weight. 3. Mechanical test of the metal. 4. Firing test.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Clause 5. Outside Inspection.</b>—The cartridge cases,
+before submission for inspection, must be cleaned inside and
+outside with sawdust and sand, or with brushes. The following
+defects usually occur in the cases.</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Cracks.</i> Longitudinal cracks chiefly occur at a distance
+of two or three inches from the flange, and, generally
+speaking, form two parallel lines very slightly noticeable
+on the inner surface. Transversal cracks, slightly noticeable,
+generally occur above the flange at the bottom; they
+are always on the outside surface and very seldom penetrate
+through. Cases with such defects must be rejected.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_238">[238]</span></p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Ruptures.</i> These defects usually are on the outer or
+inner surface of the cases and show that something is
+wrong with the metal; cartridge cases with ruptures are rejected
+without further consideration. Slight ruptures
+found in the corner of the socket for the primer do not affect
+the strength of the case and are, therefore, allowed.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Flaws and Fissures.</i> Cases submitted to the inspector
+after being filed and cleaned on the inner surface are rejected.
+Cases with flaws and fissures on the inside surface
+must be submitted to the inspector separately from the
+others and the filing of them must be carried out under the
+inspector’s supervision. The inspector has to determine to
+what extent the flaws are vital. Special attention must be
+paid to the flaws on the rim and on the tapered portion.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>Scratches.</i> These are usually due to the punch, or to
+dirt which may have been in the punch. Small scratches
+do not vitally affect the strength of the cases. Cases with
+deep scratches are rejected, especially if on the inner side
+of the case a very noticeable mark is seen, extending to the
+lower part of the case.</p>
+
+<p>5. <i>Scars.</i> Small scars which make the surface of the
+case dull are allowed. Large scars on the surface giving the
+appearance of a grained surface indicate too high a temperature
+in annealing, and cases with such scars must be
+rejected.</p>
+
+<p>6. <i>Dents.</i> Dents, if rectified, are allowed on cases if
+they are not important; they are not allowed on the conical
+portion or at the end of the case.</p>
+
+<p>7. <i>Goffering.</i> Goffering on the inner surface of the case
+is usually due to the uneven drawing of the metal in the
+case of very rigid material; it is due to defects in the uniformity
+of the material. Goffering does not appreciably
+affect the strength of the cases, and therefore cannot generally
+be taken as a reason for rejection. A large amount of
+goffered cases shows that there are some abnormal conditions
+in the manufacturing of the brass or the cases themselves.
+In such cases the inspector must point this out to
+the works, and if the works will not take measures to remove
+these defects the goffered cases must be rejected.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_239">[239]</span></p>
+
+<p>8. <i>Folds.</i> Folds of metal are sometimes noticed inside
+the case at the bottom and show bad manufacture. Cases
+with such defects are rejected.</p>
+
+<p>9. <i>Other Small Defects.</i> Dents at the bottom, inside,
+and other small defects are allowed at the discretion of the
+inspector.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Clause 6. Gaging.</b>—Cases which pass satisfactory outside
+inspection must be gaged by means of gages for maximum
+and minimum allowances. The dimensions gaged are
+as follows:</p>
+
+<p>1. All outside diameters of the cases must be gaged with
+ring gages or half ring gages.</p>
+
+<p>2. The inner diameter of the end of the case is gaged
+with calipers.</p>
+
+<p>3. All outside dimensions of the bottom of the case are
+<ins title="inserted by transcriber">gaged</ins> as follows:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>(a) Diameters of flanges by half ring gages.</p>
+
+<p>(b) Thickness of flanges with snap gages.</p>
+
+<p>(c) Concentricity of the bottom of the case by ring
+gage.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>4. The thickness of the bottom by special gage.</p>
+
+<p>5. Concentricity of the hole for the primer, by special
+gage.</p>
+
+<p>6. All dimensions of the hole for the primer must be
+gaged with a set of corresponding gages.</p>
+
+<p>7. The flatness of the surface, the absence of cuts and
+hammering of the metal around the hole for the primer with
+a straightedge.</p>
+
+<p>8. The outline and the length by a special gage.</p>
+
+<p>9. The thickness of the walls is gaged by means of a
+snap gage with cut corresponding to the thickness of the
+cartridge case at the end, by a small special gage with
+pointer for ascertaining the thickness of the walls as well
+as the depth of the cleaning away in places near the end
+of the case, and by a special gage with pointer for ascertaining
+the thickness of the walls along the whole length of
+the case.</p>
+
+<p>For the purpose of ascertaining that the outline of the
+cases is correct, the inspector has the right to select 0.2 per
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_240">[240]</span>cent of the cases from the lot, choosing preferably from the
+rejected cases; special attention must be paid to the difference
+in thickness of the walls at the lower end of the cases.
+To ascertain the similarity in weight, all cases must be
+weighed; the difference from mean weight must not exceed
+the limits fixed for each caliber of the cases.</p>
+
+<p>If during the preliminary examination of the cases more
+than 15 per cent are found defective, as regards the metal
+or dimensions, the inspector has the right to stop the further
+examination of the cases submitted, and to ask the firm to
+re-submit them again. If, after re-submitting, and during
+the second examination of the cases, more than 5 per cent
+are found unsatisfactory, the whole lot will be rejected.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Clause 7. Mechanical Tests.</b>—In the following paragraphs
+are given special conditions for the acceptance of
+cartridge cases for the guns of different calibers. As a
+general rule, the mechanical qualities of the metal used for
+cartridge cases must comply with the following conditions:</p>
+
+<p>1. The rigidity of the bottom and the lower end of the
+cases must be sufficient to insure the proper extraction of
+the cases.</p>
+
+<p>2. The rigidity of the end of the cartridge must insure
+the proper grip of the shell, and for the howitzer cases must
+not show any dents on the metal.</p>
+
+<p>3. The rigidity of the metal along the whole length of
+the case must change evenly, without sudden changes.</p>
+
+<p>During the manufacture of the cases, care should be taken
+to work the metal as near as possible to the lower limits of
+the rigidity of the metal, as any extra rigidity affects the
+strength of the case during firing and in storage.</p>
+
+<p>The mechanical qualities of the cases must, as far as possible,
+be alike; they are tested (a) by a breaking test of the
+metal used for the cases; (b) by ascertaining that the shell
+is fixed properly in the case (a casting may be used for
+this purpose manufactured to the dimensions and the weight
+of the proper shell); (c) microscopical analysis of the
+metal; and (d) any other methods at the discretion of the
+inspector, as, for instance, by ascertaining the hardness of
+the metal, compression of the mouth of the case, etc.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_241">[241]</span></p>
+
+<p>For the tensile test the inspector selects from each lot
+about five cases rejected on account of the dimensions; these
+are cut in halves for the purpose of ascertaining the thickness
+of the walls. The number of cases used for mechanical
+tests may be increased by the inspector if it is required by
+the quality of the material. From each case selected for
+the mechanical test, three rings must be cut, one inch wide;
+one next to the flange, 1¹⁄₂ inch above it; one from the middle
+of the mouth; and one immediately under the conical
+portion, if such portion exists; otherwise from the middle of
+the case. The rings cut in the above manner must be cut
+longitudinally and straightened by delicate hammering with
+a wooden mallet or by rolling between wooden rollers. From
+each strip obtained in such manner two test pieces must be
+cut with a distance between marks of 1.97 inch (50 millimeters).
+The width of the test pieces must be the same.
+Ten division marks must be made on the test pieces, each
+division being 0.197 inch (5 millimeters). During the
+mechanical test, the following data must be ascertained:
+Breaking stress, total elongation, and local elongation between
+all division marks.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Clause 8. Firing Proof.</b>—After the examination of the
+whole consignment, the inspector selects some cases for
+proof by firing. The inspector chooses for the firing trials
+those cases which he considers the least satisfactory. The
+works have the right to re-examine the cases selected by the
+inspector for firing, and remove any case selected by the
+inspector; but, in such an instance, all cases with similar defects
+are to be rejected, and the inspector replaces the cases
+removed by the firm. The works have not the right to remove
+the cases selected in the above manner more than twice
+for each consignment. The firing proof of the cases must be
+carried out at any place selected by the artillery administration,
+where the cases must be delivered by the works.</p>
+
+<p>The firing proof must be carried out in a similar manner
+to the test consignment, and the submitted consignment is
+accepted:</p>
+
+<p>1. If all cartridge cases after firing are extracted without
+any difficulty.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_242">[242]</span></p>
+
+<p>2. If no case shows longitudinal, transversal or any
+other cracks, or ruptures of metal.</p>
+
+<p>If during the firing trials one case shows a crack or is
+difficult to extract, the works have the right to review the
+consignment and submit for the firing trials a second set
+chosen by the inspector. In such instances, the works have
+no right to remove any case selected by the inspector for
+secondary proof; the number of cases selected for secondary
+proof as well as the number of proof rounds fired may be
+increased. For the acceptance of the consignment, all cases
+must give satisfactory results in the second firing test. If
+the two consecutive firing proofs will give unsatisfactory
+results, the artillery administration has the right to cancel
+the contract. The firing proof is carried out at the expense
+of the government, and the cases normally used are counted
+as part of the consignment. The fired cases, after re-sizing,
+annealing and inspection, are submitted by the works to the
+inspector, and afterwards they must be packed in separate
+boxes.</p>
+
+<p>The cases required for secondary proof must be at the
+expense of the manufacturer.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Clause 9. Varnishing.</b>—In case of satisfactory results
+of firing proof, the works varnish the cases inside as well
+as outside. The varnish must be used evenly. When
+scratched with a wooden point or with the finger nail, the
+varnished surface must not show any impression; when
+scratched with a metallic point the varnish must not crumple,
+and must not show any cross cracks. The varnish on
+the cases must not alter its appearance if placed for twenty-four
+hours in water, and after removal from the water and
+again dry, it must adhere so firmly as not to be removable
+under pressure of the finger.</p>
+
+<p>The specific gravity of the varnish must be from 0.9 to
+0.94. Brass strips covered with the varnish must not show
+any oxidizing action. After the heating of the varnished
+strips during 24 hours in the water bath at a temperature
+of 167 degrees F., the varnish, when heated, must not peel
+off. For the purpose of ascertaining the character of the
+reaction of the varnish, 10 cubic centimeters (0.61 cubic
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_243">[243]</span>inches) of solvent must be distilled from 100 cubic centimeters
+(6.1 cubic inches) of the varnish, and the solvent
+obtained in this manner, when mixed with a weak solution
+of litmus, must not give an acid reaction.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Clause 10. Stamping.</b>—The cases must be stamped as
+follows: On the top, the number of the consignment of
+brass; at the left, number of the consignment of the cases
+and the year of manufacture; on the right, the firm’s initials;
+at the bottom, the inspector’s stamp, which must be
+placed after the inspection, and the stamp which means accepted
+and which must be placed after the firing proof. The
+letters and figures must not exceed ¹⁄₈ inch in height.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Clause 11. Packing.</b>—The cases, after being wrapped
+in paper, are covered with straw caps and packed in strong
+wooden boxes. These must be dovetailed from pine or fir
+wood, with rope handles and iron bands. The lids must be
+fixed with screws. The works have to pack the cases to
+the satisfaction of the inspector. To ascertain the accuracy
+of packing, the inspector turns over one of the boxes
+chosen, and after that the case must not show any dents
+or any noticeable damage to the varnish on the cases. Fifty
+cases are packed in each box.</p>
+
+<p>The boxes must have the following marking:</p>
+
+<p>
+  <span style="margin-left: 1.0em;font-size:80%">Accepted Cases:</span><br>
+  Caliber of Cases<br>
+  Name of Works<br>
+  Year of Manufacture<br>
+  Number of Cases in Lot<br>
+  Number of Consignment<br>
+  <br>
+  <span style="margin-left: 1.0em;font-size:80%">Fired Cases:</span><br>
+  Caliber of Cases<br>
+  Name of Works<br>
+  Year of Manufacture<br>
+  Number of Cases in Lot Fired, but Good for Use<br>
+  Number of Consignment
+</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Condition for Acceptance of Cartridge Cases for 3-inch
+Field Guns.</b>—The test consignment must consist of fifty
+cartridge cases. The proof must be carried out from the
+gun with pressure of about 15.75 tons per square inch (2400
+atmospheres). Ten cases are selected from those showing
+the maximum increase of diameter and are used for re-charging;
+they must be re-annealed after each round; all
+doubtful cases must be added to the above-mentioned cases.
+Each of these cases must stand eight rounds.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_244">[244]</span></p>
+
+<p>The gaging must be carried out as follows:</p>
+
+
+<table class="autotable3 sm" style="margin-right:auto;margin-left:0px">
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">
+</td>
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2">
+Dimensions in Inches
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdc">
+Normal
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+Reject
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="hang2" style="padding-left:2em;">
+1. Diameter of the case near bottom, gaged with half ring gages
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+3.294
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+3.286
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="hang2">
+2. Diameter of flange, gaged with half ring gages
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+3.547
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+3.539
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="hang2">
+3. The outside diameter of the end, gaged with
+half ring gages, and with gage inserted in the case
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+3.004
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+3.000
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="hang2">
+4. The inner diameter of the case
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+2.923
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+2.927
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="hang2">
+5. The thickness of the flange
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+0.142
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+0.134
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="hang2">
+6. The thickness of the bottom, gaged with special gage
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+0.157
+</td>
+<td class="tdc nw" style="width: auto">
++ 0.030<br>
+- 0.010
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<div class="sm hang2">
+<p>7. The concentricity of the hole for the primer must be gaged with
+special gage.</p>
+
+<p>8. The concentricity of the flange with reference to the body must
+be gaged with half ring gage, the dimensions of which must be
+as follows:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>(a) Maximum diameter of flange.</p>
+
+<p>(b) Maximum diameter of the case at bottom.</p>
+
+<p>(c) Maximum thickness of the flange.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>9. The outline and the length of the case must be checked by special
+chamber gage. The allowance for length must be ± 0.010 inch.</p>
+
+<p>10. The gaging of the hole for the primer is carried out by the following
+gages:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>(a) Screw gages, normal and reject.</p>
+
+<p>(b) Normal gage which is used for the gaging of the whole
+diameter and the depth of the hole for the primer, normal
+and reject.</p>
+
+<p>(c) Reject gage for the flange of the primer.</p>
+
+<p>(d) Reject gage for the thread.</p>
+
+<p>(e) Reject gage for the plain surface of the hole.</p>
+
+<p>(f) Normal and reject gages for the thickness of the hole for the
+flange of the primer.</p>
+
+<p>(g) Normal and reject gage for the depth of the plain portion of
+the hole.</p>
+
+<p>(h) Gage for the ignition hole.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>11. Normal and reject gage for the height of the boss for the primer.</p>
+
+<p>12. Gages, compasses and special gages for the thickness of the walls
+and for the depth of filing of the inner as well as the outer
+surfaces.</p>
+
+<p>13. Straightedge for gaging the bottom surface of the case.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The difference in the weight of cases from mean weight
+must not exceed ± 3 ounces.</p>
+
+<p>The test pieces subjected to the tensile test must show
+the following breaking stress:</p>
+
+<p>(a) At the ends, 48,000 to 57,000 pounds per square
+inch, with local elongation not less than 60 per cent.</p>
+
+<p>(b) Next to the flange, from 64,000 to 85,000 pounds
+per square inch.</p>
+
+<p>(c) Next to the conical portion, not less than 52,500
+pounds per square inch.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_245">[245]</span></p>
+
+
+<p><b>Firing Trial.</b>—For the firing trials, thirty cartridge
+cases must be selected. These cases must be measured and
+must pass a similar test to that of the test consignment,
+with the following exceptions.</p>
+
+<p>1. Only five cases are taken for re-proving, including
+cases showing the maximum expansion, and those doubtful
+with reference to their strength.</p>
+
+<p>2. The cases are to be fired five times.</p>
+
+<p>During the firing of the secondary proofs, as well as during
+the firing of the cases selected from the lots entirely
+consisting of the defective cases, the number of cases as
+well as the number of re-tests may be increased to the number
+fixed for the test consignment.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Specifications for Primers.</b>—The charge primer consists
+of brass body, detonator, bush, brass anvil, a charge of
+gun powder (not polished with graphite), a disk of saltpeter-soaked
+tissue paper, four powder cakes, disk of saltpeter-soaked
+muslin, disk of parchment, and a brass disk
+bored in the center and coated outside with thick shellac
+varnish mixed with cinnabar.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Detonator.</b>—The detonator consists of a small copper
+cap containing a charge of 0.275 grain of the detonator
+composition, covered by a thin paper parchment disk and
+compressed with a pressure of 125 pounds. The thickness of
+the parchment is between 0.002 and 0.0025 inch. The surface
+of the parchment facing the composition is coated by
+a thin layer of fluid shellac varnish composed as follows:
+15.12 gallons of 95 per cent alcohol and 20 pounds of shellac.</p>
+
+<p>The detonator composition contains 50 per cent fulminate
+of mercury, 20 per cent chlorate of potassium and 30 per
+cent glass ground to dust and sifted through a sieve No. 100
+(100 meshes to 1 inch). To this mixture is added 0.25 per
+cent of tragacanth gum and a trace of gum arabic. The composition
+is placed in the cap while moist. After compression
+the detonator is dried for ten days at a temperature of
+88 degrees F., and twenty days at 111 degrees F. Then the
+exterior surface of the parchment disks is coated with a
+thick varnish composed of 0.891 gallon of 95 per cent alcohol,
+2.75 pounds of shellac, and 0.5 pound of resin. The
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_246">[246]</span>varnished detonators are dried at room temperature for five
+or six days, and then undergo a final examination, in which
+the defective caps will be rejected. The caps, when ready,
+must have even wedges, no rents, cracks, dents or such like
+defects, and the parchment disks must be placed concentric
+with the edges of the caps.</p>
+
+<p>Out of a lot representing a day’s output (about from
+10,000 to 15,000) of detonators, twenty-five are set aside
+without selection, for testing under a drop weight of 13.65
+ounces, falling from a height of 3.94 inches. These must
+not show a single failure. If a day’s output of detonators
+does not answer that condition, it undergoes, after a supplementary
+drying, a second test in double quantity. Any
+lot of detonators that does not stand this test will be rejected
+and burnt out.</p>
+
+<p>The tissue paper and muslin disks are soaked with a 10
+per cent solution of saltpeter. The powder cakes are compressed
+gun powder, not polished with graphite, and have a
+diameter of 0.748 inch, a height of about 0.120 inch, and
+weigh from 21.95 to 23.32 grains each.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Charging Primers.</b>—The charging of primers is preceded
+by the examination of their bodies and other parts. The
+charging is done in the following order: The detonator is
+placed in the bush which is screwed onto the end into its
+seat and then nipped in two places in order to prevent its
+becoming unscrewed. The anvil is then screwed into its
+seat, so as to press tightly on the detonator composition,
+without, however, cutting the parchment disk. To inspect
+the proper screwing in of the anvils, 30 primers are set
+aside out of every 300, and from those the anvils are screwed
+out and the detonators examined. The parchment disks
+must bear clear marks of the anvils, without being cut
+through.</p>
+
+<p>In properly fitted primers the anvils are prevented from
+becoming unscrewed by nipping them in two places. A
+charge of from 10.286 to 10.972 grains of powder is placed
+in the groove between the hose and the internal surface of
+the body of the primer. This charge must fill the groove
+to the brim. The powder is now covered with the disk of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_247">[247]</span>tissue paper soaked in saltpeter. On the top of it will be
+placed four powder cakes, which will be covered first with
+a disk of saltpeter-soaked muslin, then with a parchment
+disk and lastly with a brass disk bored in the center, after
+which the upper edge of the primer is closed in, this operation
+being carried out in three stages. After the first pressing,
+a proper position is given to the disks inside the primer;
+after the third (final) pressing the primer is to be gaged.
+The upper side of the brass and parchment disks is varnished
+with thick shellac mixed with cinnabar.</p>
+
+<p>After having been dried in the shop for 24 hours, the
+primers are packed in cardboard boxes. Two such boxes,
+(50 primers in each) are sealed hermetically in zinc boxes.
+The proper hermetic soldering of some boxes chosen at
+random will be tested. Eight zinc boxes are packed in
+one wooden box, which will thus contain 400 primers.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Inspection of Primers.</b>—Bodies and other details will be
+manufactured of brass, the composition of which will be
+left to the discretion of the works, but on the express condition
+that the primers will comply with all requirements
+stipulated. The best results have been obtained when the
+metal contained from 67 to 74 per cent of copper, and from
+33 to 26 per cent of zinc.</p>
+
+<p>Before beginning the manufacture of the order, the
+works with which the order will be placed must deliver
+a test consignment consisting of 100 primers. The test
+consignment of primers after being charged must be subjected
+to a firing trial. The conditions of this trial are
+similar to those used for the trials of the complete order.
+The order must be submitted in lots of 25,000 each.</p>
+
+<p>The gaging of dimensions at the works manufacturing
+the primers must be carried out after each separate operation
+of manufacture, for which approved gages and control
+gages must be used. All the gages must be manufactured
+by the works, with which the order for the primers is
+placed, with the exception of the gage nut used for the gaging
+of the outer thread and the check screw for same. The
+last mentioned gages must be handed over to the primer
+works by the proper authorities.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_248">[248]</span></p>
+
+<p>The primers, before being charged, will be assembled at
+the works which manufacture them, <i>i.e.</i>, bushes and anvils
+are screwed in, and the primers are delivered to the explosive
+works in such condition. After the completion of the
+manufacture of a lot of 25,000 primers, 1000 of them, chosen
+at random during the manufacture, will be sent to the explosive
+works for inspection, for testing the rigidity of the
+metal, and for preliminary tests of the metal by firing.</p>
+
+<p>If, during the trial for the rigidity of the metal carried
+out by the compression of 50 primers chosen at random,
+more than 5 per cent show ruptures, the complete lot of 1000
+primers will be returned to the manufacturers.</p>
+
+<p>In the case of satisfactory results of firing trials, the
+remaining 24,000 primers will be delivered to the works
+intrusted with the charging.</p>
+
+<p>If, after partial examination of a lot (not less than 1000
+primers), more than 10 per cent of primers will be rejected
+in accordance with the following two paragraphs, the
+further inspection will be stopped at the charging works,
+and the whole lot will be returned for resorting.</p>
+
+<p>When inspecting primers, the following defects are not
+allowed: ruptures, blow-holes, fissures, flaws, sandy surface,
+dirt, oil, dust, shavings, dents on the bottom surface of the
+flange, dents at the bottom of the charge chamber, and considerable
+crumbling of threads (more than one-fourth of a
+thread). The examination of the bottom surface for evenness
+must be carried out by spinning the primers on a polished
+steel plate. The primers which will not spin must be
+rejected.</p>
+
+<p>The primer chambers must be varnished. The anvils
+must not show any flaws and fissures at their striking edge
+and at the threads. The striking edge must not be sharp,
+to prevent the cutting through of the parchment disks of
+the detonator; generally speaking, the anvil and the bush
+must also answer all the requirements of the preceding
+paragraph.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Gaging.</b>—One hundred primers complete from each lot
+must be gaged. Special attention must be paid to the following
+points:</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_249">[249]</span></p>
+
+<p>(a) All primers to be screwed into gage without being
+specially loose.</p>
+
+<p>(b) The thickness and the outer diameter of the primer
+head must not exceed the specified maximum dimensions,
+thus securing the proper fit of the primer flange in its seat
+in the cartridge case.</p>
+
+<p>(c) The height of the boss inside the primer must be
+strictly in accordance with the allowance given.</p>
+
+<p>(d) The inner thread of the boss must be strictly in
+accordance with the gage.</p>
+
+<p>(e) The seat for the detonator and the hole in the bush
+must be correct and in accordance with the gage.</p>
+
+<p>(f) The thickness of the bottom of primer (0.067 to
+0.077 inch) must be in accordance with the gage.</p>
+
+<p>The anvils and bushes must screw and unscrew easily,
+without being loose and must be interchangeable. After
+charging, all primers will be inspected with regard to their
+height, and gaged outside. In case of unsatisfactory results
+in gaging (rejected primers exceeding 3 per cent) an additional
+100 primers must be chosen for the same purpose, and
+in case the results are the same, the whole lot will be returned
+to the works manufacturing the primers for resorting.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Firing Trials.</b>—Fifty primers out of 1000 delivered from
+a lot of 25,000, after being charged, are tested with reference
+to the quality of the metal, by firing with increased
+charge at a pressure of 2400 atmospheres (15.75 tons per
+square inch). These primers, after the test, should not
+show any breakage (after being unscrewed) through cracks
+and flaws, the presence of which would mean that the gas
+escaped through the base of the primers. The escape of
+gases leaving a residue between the side surfaces of the
+primer flanges and their seating is allowed on not more
+than 30 per cent of the primers subjected to firing test
+from new cartridge cases; in the case of using fired cartridge
+cases, no attention must be paid to the presence of the
+above-mentioned residue.</p>
+
+<p>Non-through cracks are allowed on not more than 2 per
+cent of tested primers; in the case of a larger percentage,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_250">[250]</span>but not exceeding 4 per cent, the whole lot must be resorted
+and retested. The recurrence of 2 per cent of non-through
+cracks in the second test may not be taken as a reason for
+the rejection of the whole lot; 50 primers must be used for
+the second test. In the case of the absence of above-mentioned
+defects, only those primers will be considered satisfactory
+which, after firing, can be removed from the cartridge
+case by hand or by an ordinary spanner.</p>
+
+<p>The serviceableness of the primers is determined by firing
+50 primers chosen at random from the complete lot of
+25,000 charged primers. The conditions just laid down
+hold good for this trial also. In addition to this, no complete
+misfire must occur; not more than two primers may
+misfire once each, with lock in proper order. (Before firing,
+the tension of the main spring and the protrusion of the
+firing pin must be verified.) A second test may be carried
+out if during the preliminary test defects occur. The second
+test must be carried out on double the number of
+primers taken at random, <i>i.e.</i>, on 100 primers. During
+second test the same conditions as laid down for the first
+test hold good. Primers passing successfully the first or
+second firing tests are accepted for the service. A lot of
+charged rejected primers must be destroyed and the metal
+scrapped.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the firing tests, the following test must
+be carried out by the works intrusted with the charging
+of primers to determine the correctness of charging:
+1. One per cent of a day’s output must be tested under a
+drop weight of five pounds falling from a height of 0.39
+inch with flat firing pin 0.25 inch in diameter; during this
+test no primer must detonate. Primers having passed this
+test and not showing any noticeable mark on the base must
+be recharged and added to the lot. 2. When testing 0.5
+per cent of each day’s output under a drop weight of five
+pounds, falling from a height of 5.9 inches, with firing pin
+of an approved pattern, no primer must fail to explode.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_251">[251]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_X">
+    CHAPTER X
+    <br>
+    <span class="sm">SPECIFICATIONS FOR BRITISH 18-POUNDER
+    QUICK-FIRING SHRAPNEL SHELL</span>
+  </h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>The following paragraphs, abstracted from the official
+specifications, give all the information contained in these
+specifications relating to the manufacture and inspection of
+the British 18-pounder, quick-firing shrapnel shell.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Body.</b>—The body of the shell is made of cast or forged
+steel of the best quality for the purpose, turned or ground
+to the form and dimensions, and having the edge of the
+base rounded. If made of cast steel, the casting must be
+clean, of uniform transverse thickness, free from flaws,
+blow-holes, and other defects. The use of chaplets is prohibited.
+If made of forged steel, the body must be forged
+hollow, and free from forging marks and flaws. Should the
+shells be subjected to heat-treatment, this must be carried
+out in batches consisting of shells of the same cast. An
+undercut groove, with two projecting waved ribs, will be
+turned on the body. Three chisel cuts may be made across
+the waved ribs in the groove for the driving band, at an
+angle to the longitudinal axis of the projectile to allow the
+air in the channels between the ribs to escape when the band
+is being pressed on. The top is threaded to receive the
+socket, and a groove for the fuse cover provided. The steel
+body alone must weigh 6 pounds 5 ounces 12 drams, plus or
+minus 2 ounces.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Driving Band.</b>—The driving band is made from a ring
+of drawn or electro-deposited copper, pressed into, and in
+contact with, the bottom and undercut of the groove in the
+shell all around, and accurately turned to the form required.
+The weight must be 4 ounces 12 drams, plus or minus 2
+ounces.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Socket.</b>—The socket is made of composition metal,
+known as Class “C,” threaded externally below the shoulder
+to fit the body, and internally to receive the fuse, the bottom
+being bored to receive the top of the central tube. The
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_252">[252]</span>junction of the socket and central tube is soldered to prevent
+the resin getting into the tube and socket. A hole is to
+be bored in the side, threaded and fitted with a steel fixing
+screw. The weight must be 8 ounces 8 drams.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Central Tube.</b>—The central tube may be made of brass,
+copper, delta metal, or gun metal. The lower end is to have
+a shoulder to rest on, and to be threaded to enter the steel
+disk, the bottom being reduced in diameter to fit the neck
+of the cup. Weight, 2 ounces 12 drams.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp71" id="p252_fig01" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p252_fig01.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 1. Construction of British 18-pounder Quick-firing
+    Shrapnel Shell
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><b>Steel Disk.</b>—A steel disk, of the form shown in <a href="#p256_fig02">Fig. 2</a>,
+will rest on the shoulder in the bottom of the body, a hole
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_253">[253]</span>being bored and threaded through the center of the disk
+to receive the central tube. Weight, 9 ounces 8 drams.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Tin Cup.</b>—The cup in the base of the shell to contain
+the bursting charge will be made of tinned plate to the form
+and dimensions shown in <a href="#p256_fig02">Fig. 2</a>, the parts being soldered
+together. Weight, 1 ounce 12 drams.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Gages.</b>—Contractors may send their gages at any time
+to the chief inspector, Woolwich Arsenal, London, England,
+to be checked and compared with the standard gages.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Screw Threads.</b>—The screw threads must, unless otherwise
+stated, be of the British standard fine screw thread,
+and conform to the chief inspector’s standard gages.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Preliminary Examination of Contractor’s Work.</b>—The
+bodies, after completion of machining, will be submitted at
+the contractor’s works, to an inspector, for preliminary examination.
+Bodies made of cast steel must also be submitted
+for a hydraulic test under a pressure of 100 pounds per
+square inch. Any shell which shows the slightest leak, or
+fails to satisfy the conditions, will be rejected.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Assembling.</b>—The tin cup, steel disk, and central tube
+are to be placed in position and the shell filled with mixed
+metal bullets, 41 per pound (composed of seven parts of lead
+and one of antimony), the interstices between the bullets
+being filled with resin, which must be perfectly pure, and
+filtered when in a liquid state through a sieve having 32
+meshes per inch. The socket is then screwed onto the body
+as tightly as possible, the threads having been previously
+coated with Pettman’s cement or red lead.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Marking and Plugs.</b>—The shells are to be marked on the
+side, above the driving band. Plugs for the protection of
+the fuse holes in transit will be supplied, free of charge,
+on demand, by the ordnance officer to whom delivery is to
+be made.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Delivery.</b>—(a). The shells will be covered with a thin
+coating of vaseline or other similar anti-corrosive grease,
+which must be of such a nature as not to interfere with the
+gaging, and they will then be delivered unpainted, for inspection
+and proof. The shells must be perfectly cleaned
+out, empty, complete in every respect, and dry internally.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_254">[254]</span>(b). Such marking as may be necessary to identify the
+steelmaker’s cast number, and, in case of heat-treatment,
+the batch number, must be maintained by the contractor
+upon every shell throughout manufacture. (c). The shell
+must be delivered in lots for purposes of proof. A lot for
+this purpose will consist, as far as possible, of shells of
+the same cast, and, when heat-treatment is employed, of
+shells of the same batch number, and must not contain
+more than 121 shells. (d). When the number of shells in
+a cast or batch is less than 100, two casts or batches may be
+grouped together for this purpose.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Main Examination after Delivery.</b>—(a). Any shell of a
+lot which fails to pass the chief inspector’s gages, or fails to
+satisfy the chief inspector of its serviceability, will be rejected.
+(b). If at any time during the examination it is
+found that defects of any nature, other than errors of machining,
+which involve rejection of defective shells, amount
+to 5 per cent of the number of the shells in the lot, the “lot”
+will be rejected, (c). One or more shells selected from
+the lot will be taken to pieces, and the body broken, if necessary,
+to ascertain that the details of manufacture and
+component parts are correct, and that the material is sound.
+Should they be incorrect, or the material unsound, in any
+particular, the lot will be rejected. The driving band will
+be cut out, and should it appear not to have been pressed
+thoroughly home into the undercut and groove throughout,
+the lot will be rejected. (d). If, at any time during the
+examination of a lot, it is found that 5 per cent of the shells
+in the lot depart from the approved design, further examination
+of the lot will be suspended. The whole of the lot
+must be re-examined by the firm and those shells which are
+incorrect eliminated. Those shells in which the departure
+can be rectified may be brought to the approved design by
+the firm. The lot may then be re-submitted.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Tests.</b>—At least 1 per cent of the shells of every cast
+will be subjected to tensile tests. Test pieces will be cut
+from the shell blank, or from the finished shell at the option
+of the chief inspector, and must be capable of standing the
+following minimum tests:</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_255">[255]</span></p>
+
+
+<table class="autotable" style="font-size:80%; min-width:80%">
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc bboxthin" colspan="2">
+Tenacity, Tons per<br>
+Square Inch
+</td>
+
+<td class="tdc" style="border-bottom:none;">
+Elongation in a Test Piece 2 Inches
+in Length,<br> or such Piece as can be
+cut from the Shell,<br> provided that
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">
+Yield<br>
+Point
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+Breaking<br>
+Stress
+</td>
+<td class="tdc" style="border-top:none;">
+Length / √Area = 4
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">
+36
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+56
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+8 per cent
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>If any one or more of the conditions in this clause are not
+complied with, the lot, or lots, of shell affected, will be rejected,
+and must not be re-submitted. The contractor will
+supply, free of charge, the necessary “Class C” metal for
+testing, if requested by the chief inspector to do so. The
+pieces should not be less than 7 inches in length, nor less
+than 1 inch in diameter, and will be required to stand the
+following test:</p>
+
+<table class="autotable" style="font-size:80%; min-width:80%">
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc bboxthin" colspan="2">
+Tenacity, Tons per<br>
+Square Inch
+</td>
+
+<td class="tdc" style="border-bottom:none;" rowspan="2">
+Elongation in a Test Piece 2 Inches
+long<br> and 0.564 Inch in Diameter
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">
+Yield<br>
+Point
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+Breaking<br>
+Stress
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">
+6
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+12
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+10 per cent
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+    <b>Proof.</b>—(a). A percentage of the shell will be fired for
+    recovery from an 18-pounder Q. F. gun, with such a charge
+    as will give a chamber pressure not less than 15 tons per
+    square inch. Should the shell so fired set up above the high
+    diameter of body, or break up in the gun, or should any
+    portion of the driving band separate from the shell before
+    first graze or impact, or should the recovered shell show
+    that the shock of discharge had distorted the disk supporting
+    the bullets, or cause such alteration of the internal parts
+    as would interfere with the correct action of the shell, or
+    should any of the components be incorrect, the lot will be
+    rejected, provided always that the pressure did not exceed
+    the specification proof pressure by 0.5 ton. If the pressure
+    did exceed this limit, a second proof must be taken at the
+    government’s expense before the lot is rejected. The pressure
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_257">[257]</span>
+    of the round, if not taken, will be assumed to be that
+    of the last round fired with the same charge in which pressure
+    was taken. Further, should the shell be reported unsteady
+    in flight, and be found on recovery to be without
+    its driving band, or with the driving band loose or slipped
+    in its seating, then the driving band of a similar number
+    of shells to that taken for firing proof may be cut out to
+    ascertain whether they have been properly pressed on; if
+    they have not been pressed down to the satisfaction of the
+    chief inspector, the lot will be rejected. If found correct,
+    such shells will be rebanded by the contractor free of charge.
+</p>
+<p>
+    (b). The shells fired for proof may, after recovery, be
+    broken to ascertain the soundness of their material. Should
+    any of the material be unsound in any respect, the lot will
+    be rejected.</p>
+
+    <figure class="figcenter illowp46" id="p256_fig02" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p256_fig02.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 2. Details of British 18-pounder Shrapnel Shell
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+
+<p><b>Re-submission.</b>—(a). A rejected lot must not be re-submitted
+unless the rejection is due to failure of the driving
+band, or to rectifiable gaging defects. (b). Shells
+put out at any period of inspection for remediable defects
+may be re-submitted for further examination after the defects
+have been rectified. It is to be understood that the
+examination of such shells at that time will be incomplete,
+and that they are liable to rejection after rectification. (c).
+If the contractor wishes to re-invoice a lot rejected for failure
+of driving bands, he must remove the shells and re-band
+them before they are again submitted, (d). Rejected
+shells will, if considered necessary, be marked with a small
+rejection mark, so that they can be readily identified if redelivered.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Replacement of Proof.</b>—The contractor will be required
+to replace, free of charge, all shells expended in proof and
+examination, which, whether fired or otherwise tested, will
+be the property of the government.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Packing.</b>—All packages are to be so marked that the
+goods contained therein may be readily identified with the
+invoice. Unless it is specified in the contract that the packing
+cases or other packing material are to become the property
+of the war department, they will remain the property
+of the contractor, who is responsible for their removal.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_258">[258]</span></p>
+
+<p>Should they not be removed within two months of the acceptance
+at the stores, they will be disposed of, and under
+such circumstances the contractor will not be entitled to
+make any claim for compensation. The packing cases must
+be marked “Returnable” or “Non-returnable.”</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Inspection.</b>—The shells may be inspected at any time
+during manufacture by, and after delivery will be subject
+to testing by, and to the final approval of, the chief inspector,
+Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, England, or an officer deputed
+by him. In cases of defects occurring in manufacture
+which necessitate repairs, the contractor shall bring the
+same to the notice of the inspecting officer, and shall obtain
+from him written authority to proceed with such repairs as
+may entail patching, burning, electric welding, or other
+similar processes.</p>
+
+<p class="center">WEIGHT OF 18-POUNDER SHRAPNEL SHELL PARTS</p>
+
+
+<table class="autotable3">
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">
+</td>
+<td class="tdc" colspan="3">
+Weights (avoirdupois)
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl" style="padding-left:4em">
+Part
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+Pounds
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+Ounces
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+Drams
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">
+Steel body
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+6
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+5
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+12
+</td>
+<td class="tdl" rowspan="2">
+± 2 oz.
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">
+Driving band
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+4
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+12
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">
+Metal socket
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+8
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+8
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">
+Steel disk
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+9
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+8
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">
+Brass tube
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+2
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+12
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">
+Tin cup
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+1
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+12
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">
+Bullets, about 327 of alloyed metal, 41 per pound
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+7
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+14
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+13¹⁄₂
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">
+Resin
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+13
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+11
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">
+Total weight empty (unpainted)*
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+16
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+13
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+8¹⁄₂
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+± 11 drams
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">
+Bursting charge
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+2
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+8
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">
+Paint
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+5¹⁄₂
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">
+Fuse
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+1
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+7
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+10
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">
+
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">
+Total weight
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+18
+</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad1">
+8
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+± 5 drams
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="5">
+* To regulate weight of shell, a few buckshot may be used.
+</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<p><b>Plug for Fuse Hole.</b>—The plug is to be made of a copper
+alloy, and to the form and dimensions shown on the
+drawing, threaded externally on the body, and a square recess,
+tapered, is to be formed in the top. The screw
+threads must, unless otherwise stated, be of the British
+standard fine screw thread, and conform to the standard
+gages of the chief inspector, Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, England.
+Contractors may send their screw gages to the chief
+inspector, to be compared with the standard gages.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_259">[259]</span></p>
+
+<p>Any plug of a delivery which fails to pass the inspecting
+officers’ gages, or shows flaws or sponginess on the surface,
+or fails to satisfy the chief inspector, Woolwich, as to its
+serviceability, will be rejected. If at any time during the
+examination it is found that defects of any nature, other
+than errors of machining, which involve rejection of the
+defective plugs, amount to 5 per cent of the number of plugs
+in the delivery, the whole order will be rejected. If at any
+time during the examination of a delivery it is found that
+5 per cent of the plugs in the delivery will depart from the
+approved design, further examination of the plugs will be
+suspended; the whole of the delivery must be re-examined
+by the firm, and those plugs which are incorrect to design
+eliminated. Those plugs in which the departure can be rectified
+may be brought to the approved design by the firm.
+The delivery may then be re-submitted for examination.
+The contractor will be required to replace free of charge all
+plugs expended in test and examination, which will become
+the property of the government.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_260">[260]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XI">
+    CHAPTER XI
+    <br>
+    <span class="sm">SPECIFICATIONS FOR BRITISH COMBINATION TIME
+    AND PERCUSSION FUSES</span>
+  </h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>The following specifications, abstracted from the official
+requirements relating to British “Mark I” (No. 85) combination
+time and percussion fuses, give the general information
+required in the manufacturing and inspection of
+these fuses. These specifications, in conjunction with the
+very complete illustrations, Figs. 1 to 6, inclusive, of the design
+and details of the British fuse, give all the essential
+data required.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Components.</b>—The fuse consists of the following parts:
+Body, top and bottom composition rings; cap with set-screw;
+base plug with screw plug; time detonator pellet in two
+parts; percussion pellet with sleeve and firing pin; detonators;
+four spiral springs; brass and steel pins; onion skin
+paper; unbleached muslin; felt cloth and brass washers;
+brass and tin-foil disks; suspending ring for time pellet; and
+onion skin paper patches.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Metals.</b>—The body and composition rings are to be made
+of bronze or metal known as “Class B;” the time detonator
+pellet and percussion pellet to be of hard-rolled brass; the
+percussion firing pin pivot, of steel, phosphorized or blued;
+the time and percussion firing pins, of bronze or “Class B”
+metal; all other parts of the fuse, except where otherwise
+stated, of metal “Class C,” or hard-rolled brass. The contractor
+must supply the necessary metal for testing, free
+of charge.</p>
+
+<p>Metals designated by “classes” are copper alloys, the
+compositions of which are left to the discretion of the makers
+providing the metals conform to the above tests.</p>
+
+<p>Before proceeding to manufacture, the material must be
+submitted to the inspecting officer for mechanical test.
+When practicable, test pieces should not be less than 7 inches
+in length nor less than 1 inch in diameter, and will be required
+to stand the following minimum tests:</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_261">[261]</span></p>
+
+
+
+<table class="autotable">
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc" rowspan="2">
+Metal
+</td>
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2">
+Tenacity, Tons per
+Square Inch
+</td>
+
+<td class="tdc" style="border-bottom:none;">
+Elongation in Per Cent in such
+a Test Piece as can be
+furnished, provided that
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">
+Yield
+Point
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+Breaking
+Stress
+</td>
+<td class="tdc" style="border-top:none;">
+Length / √Area = 4
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl nw">
+Bronze<br>
+Class “B”<br>
+Class “C”<br>
+Hard-rolled Brass
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+13.5<br>
+12<br>
+6<br>
+6<br>
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+27<br>
+20<br>
+12<br>
+12<br>
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+20<br>
+30<br>
+10<br>
+10<br>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+
+<p><b>Body.</b>—The body is to be turned all over, and threaded
+externally at the upper and lower ends, a bevel being formed
+at the junction of the stem and the flange. The stem is
+to be bored, and a hole drilled at the bottom of the bore
+to receive the time firing pin. The upper surface of the
+flange is to be grooved. The interior is to be bored out to
+form a chamber for the reception of the percussion arrangement
+and threaded for the base plug; a hole is to be bored
+and threaded at the bottom of the bore to receive the percussion
+detonator holder. An annular recess is to be made
+for the magazine. Communicating holes are to be drilled
+as follows:</p>
+
+<p>
+  (a) At an angle to the top surface of the flange.<br>
+  (b) Vertically from the magazine recess.<br>
+  (c) Horizontally at the top of the detonator recess.<br>
+  (d) At an angle to join (b) and (c).<br>
+  (e) At an angle from outside to bottom of recess in stem.
+</p>
+
+<p>Holes (c) and (d) are to be closed by plugs driven in
+and secured by punch stabs. Two slots are to be cut in the
+flange as shown in <a href="#p264_fig02">Fig. 2</a>, and an elongated hole made to
+receive a stop pin, which is to be secured by a small pin,
+driven in. A setting mark is to be cut on the edge of the
+flange.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Top Composition Ring.</b>—The ring is to be turned all
+over, and bored to fit the stem of the body. A groove is to
+be formed in the under side for the composition, and a recess
+made as shown in <a href="#p264_fig02">Fig. 2</a>, three holes being drilled from
+the upper surface into the recess. A hole is to be drilled
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_262">[262]</span>through the ring between the ends of the composition channel,
+and recessed. A recess is to be formed in the bore,
+from which a flash hole is to be drilled at an angle communicating
+with one end of the composition channel, a vertical
+escape hole being made from the top surface to the flash
+hole. An indicating mark is to be made on the outside of
+the ring. Two holes are to be bored between the ring and
+the stem of the body, into which pins are to be inserted to
+retain the ring in position. The ring is to be made 0.020
+inch thicker than the dimension given on the drawing, and
+faced off to thickness after powder is pressed into the
+groove.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp72" id="p262_fig01" style="max-width: 30em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p262_fig01.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 1. British “Mark I” (No. 85) Combination Time and Percussion
+    Fuse—Modified Form of American 21-second Fuse
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><b>Bottom Composition Ring.</b>—The ring is to be turned all
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_263">[263]</span>over and bored to fit the stem of the body, the upper surface
+being grooved. A groove is to be formed in the under side
+for the composition, and an annular recess made, three holes
+being drilled from the upper face into the recess. A hole
+is to be drilled in the ring from the under side between the
+ends of the composition channel. An escape hole is to be
+drilled, at an angle, from the end of the composition channel
+to the annular recess, and a recess made to receive the closing
+disk. A hole communicating with the groove and the escape
+hole is to be drilled at an angle to the top surface to
+receive a powder pellet. A hole is to be drilled and recessed
+for a setting pin, which is to be secured by a small pin
+driven in. The ring is to be graduated from “0” to “21.2;”
+each division, after the first, is to be sub-divided into five
+parts. A line to denote safety position is to be marked.
+The marking is to be blackened with japan black thinned
+with spirits of turpentine, except the mark denoting the
+safety point, which is to be colored red.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Cap with Set-screw.</b>—The cap is to be machined all
+over, and recessed internally to receive the time detonator
+pellet. The lower part of the recess is to be threaded to
+screw over the stem of the body. Two slots are to be made
+in the cap to receive a key, and a hole is to be drilled through
+the side and tapped to take a brass set-screw. A groove is
+to be made near the top, which is to be partially closed by
+spinning over the edge. Four escape holes are to be drilled
+at an angle from the recess on the under side, into the
+groove.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Base Plug.</b>—The base plug is to be threaded externally
+to fit the bottom of the body. Two holes are to be drilled
+in the under side to facilitate assembling, and a central
+recess formed with a seating to receive a brass washer with
+a muslin disk. Six holes are to be drilled at an angle from
+the upper surface into the lower recess, and a hole drilled
+and tapped in the bottom to take a screw plug. This plug
+is to be threaded externally to fit into the bottom of the
+base plug.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp55" id="p264_fig02" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p264_fig02.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 2. Details of British Combination Fuse
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><b>Time Pellet and Detonator.</b>—The pellet is to consist of
+two parts, which are to be turned and bored, the parts being
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_264">[264]</span>screwed together to secure the detonator. A screwdriver
+slot is to be made in the top surface, and a seating
+formed on the outer surface for the suspension ring. The
+detonator is to be turned all over and recessed, four fire
+holes being drilled through into the recess. The recess
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_265">[265]</span>is to be coated with non-acid paint and charged with 0.45
+grain of the following composition (giving parts by weight):</p>
+
+
+<table class="autotable3" style="font-size:100%">
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">
+Glass<br>
+Fulminate of Mercury<br>
+Chlorate of Potash<br>
+Sulphide of Antimony<br>
+Shellac (dry)
+</td>
+<td class="tdl padboth">
+50<br>
+40<br>
+20<br>
+30<br>
+<span style="visibility:hidden">0</span>2.8
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>The ingredients are to be thoroughly pulverized, excepting
+the fulminate, mixed dry, and then covered with alcohol.
+The fulminate will then be added and the whole thoroughly
+mixed. The composition is to be covered with a
+brass disk secured by shellac. The recess in the plug is to
+be coated with a composition of shellac and rosaniline and
+filled with 1¹⁄₂ grain of shrapnel powder compressed with
+a total pressure of 60 pounds. The detonator is to be inserted
+in the holder, and secured in place by the screw plug,
+the two being locked together by a small brass pin.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Percussion Pellet.</b>—The percussion pellet is to be machined
+all over, two holes being bored in the upper surface
+and a slot cut to receive the firing pin. Two holes are to
+be drilled at right angles to the slot and parallel to the flat
+surfaces, one to receive the pivot for the firing pin and the
+other for the centrifugal bolts. The sleeve is to be machined
+all over, and is to be a driving fit on the pellet. Two
+spiral springs and two small pellets, and a pivot pin for the
+firing pin, are to be provided. All parts, except the pivot
+pin, are to be tinned all over. The parts are to be assembled,
+and a hole drilled into the sleeve and pellet, and a
+small brass pin driven in.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_266"></a>[266]</span></p>
+<figure class="figcenter illowp46" id="p266_fig03" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p266_fig03.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 3. Details of British Combination Fuse
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><b>Percussion Detonator and Holder.</b>—The percussion detonator
+is to be turned and recessed on both sides, two flash
+holes being drilled between the two recesses. The smaller
+recess is to be charged with 0.45 grain of the following
+composition (the figures giving parts by weight):</p>
+
+
+<table class="autotable3" style="font-size:100%">
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">
+Chlorate of Potash<br>
+Sulphide of Antimony<br>
+Sulphur<br>
+Glass<br>
+Shellac
+</td>
+<td class="tdr padboth">
+43.19<br>
+21.5<span style="visibility:hidden">0</span><br>
+7.5<span style="visibility:hidden">0</span><br>
+10.5<span style="visibility:hidden">0</span><br>
+1.7<span style="visibility:hidden">0</span>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_267"></a>[267]</span></p>
+
+<p>The ingredients are to be thoroughly pulverized and
+mixed dry. Alcohol will be added to dissolve the shellac.
+The detonator will be formed by pressing the mixture, while
+in a plastic state, into the recess. On the evaporation of
+the alcohol the composition should adhere strongly to the
+metal. A brass disk, 34 in <a href="#p270_fig05">Fig. 5</a>, is to be secured over
+the composition with shellac. The larger recess is to be
+varnished with a composition of shellac and rosaniline, and
+4 grains of shrapnel powder compressed into it with a pressure
+of 127 pounds and covered with a disk of tin foil, shellacked
+on. The holder is to be threaded externally to fit in
+the body, and recessed to receive the detonator, a central
+hole and two key-holes being made.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Pellets.</b>—The powder pellets are to be made to the
+shapes shown in <a href="#p270_fig05">Fig. 5</a>. Pellets 33 and 35 are to be made
+from compressed unglazed black powder, with clearance
+holes as shown; pellets 32 and 36 are to have the clearance
+holes filled with 0.05 and 0.02 grains, respectively, of gun cotton.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Percussion Springs.</b>—The springs used in the percussion
+plunger must be made to the form and size shown in
+<a href="#p270_fig05">Fig. 5</a>, and tinned. The percussion safety pin spring (21)
+is to be made from 0.012 inch diameter brass wire, tinned,
+and wound so as to give a free height of 0.150 inch ± 0.030
+inch, and at such a spacing as to give 44 coils per inch.
+The percussion restraining spring (30) is to be made from
+0.015 inch diameter brass wire, tinned, and wound so as to
+give a free height of 0.500 inch ± 0.050 inch, and at such a
+spacing as to give 36 coils per inch. This spring is to have
+a maximum resistance of 1.65 and a minimum of 1.5 ounce
+at an assembled height of 0.370 inch.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Suspending Ring.</b>—The suspending ring for time detonator
+pellet is to be made of brass wire. The ring is to be of
+such strength that when tested with steel counterparts of
+the stem and pellet, the latter is forced through the ring
+with a deadweight load of from 69 to 77 pounds.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_268"></a>[268]</span></p>
+<figure class="figcenter illowp46" id="p268_fig04" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p268_fig04.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 4. Details of British Combination Fuse
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><b>Cloth Washers.</b>—The cloth washers are to be made from
+waterproofed felt cloth, with holes cut in them. The body
+and graduated time train washers 16 and 17, respectively,
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_269"></a>[269]</span>which are shown in <a href="#p270_fig05">Fig. 5</a>, are to be subjected to a pressure
+of approximately 10,000 pounds per square inch after assembling,
+before closing cap is screwed on and adjusted.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Lacquering and Polishing.</b>—The exterior surfaces of
+the fuse are to be polished and lacquered with a lacquer
+consisting of 1 pound of seedlac, 8 ounces of turmeric, and
+8 pounds (1 gallon) of methylated spirits. The groove in
+the top and bottom composition rings, the magazine recess
+in the body, the powder channels and groove in the base
+plug, and the powder chambers of time detonator and percussion
+detonator holder, are to be lacquered with a lacquer
+consisting of 10 grains of rosaniline, 1¹⁄₂ pound of powdered
+shellac, and 1 quart of methylated spirits.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Screw Threads.</b>—The screw threads must, unless otherwise
+stated on the drawing, be of the British standard fine
+screw thread, and conform to the standard gages of the
+government inspector. For fuses not made in England,
+the British standard threads will not be insisted upon, except
+for the large thread on the body.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Time Arrangement.</b>—The grooves on the under side of
+the composition rings are to be charged with 56 grains of
+No. 22 meal powder compressed at 68,000 pounds per square
+inch; the rings are then to be faced off, and the holes at the
+ends of the channels drilled. The onion skin paper washers
+are to be secured to the surfaces by shellac. Perforated
+pellets of black powder are to be inserted in the flash hole
+in the top ring, escape hole and flash hole in bottom ring,
+and flash hole in the body, the pellets for escape hole in bottom
+ring and flash hole having the perforation filled with
+loose gun cotton. The space at the end of the channel in
+the bottom ring is to be filled with loose meal powder.
+An onion skin paper patch is to be secured over the flash
+hole in top ring, and the escape hole in bottom ring closed
+by a brass disk secured by two center-punch holes, and
+coated with shellac. The cloth washers are to be secured
+on the upper faces of the body and the lower time ring with
+fish glue, and subjected to a pressure of 10,000 pounds per
+square inch.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_270">[270]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp46" id="p270_fig05" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p270_fig05.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 5. Details of British Combination Fuse
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_271">[271]</span></p>
+
+
+<p><b>Assembling and Closing.</b>—The different parts of the
+fuse are to be put together as in the assembly view, <a href="#p262_fig01">Fig. 1</a>.
+The cap is to be screwed down so that a turning moment of
+325 ± 25 inch-ounces will just turn the ring, the cap being
+secured by means of a set-screw. The bench or table upon
+which the tensioning apparatus is fixed is to be jarred by
+tapping with a mallet to assist the turning of the ring. The
+base plug is to be screwed into the body, and the magazine
+filled with fine-grain powder through the filling hole. The
+bottom of the fuse is to be coated with shellac varnish.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Delivery.</b>—The fuses are to be delivered in lots of 2000,
+an additional 40 being supplied free, for purposes of proof.
+In the event of further proof being required, the fuses will
+be taken from the lot.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Proof.</b>—The fuses selected for proof will be tested as
+follows:</p>
+
+<p>(a) Ten will have the percussion arrangement removed,
+and will be tested to determine the mean time of burning
+at rest. The time train will be set at the highest graduation
+mark. The mean time of burning, set full when corrected
+for barometer, will be 22.9 seconds ± 0.4 second.
+The constant to be used, when correcting for barometer, is
+0.023 of the mean time of burning, for every inch the
+barometer reads above or below 30 inches, being plus when
+above and minus when below. The difference between the
+shortest and longest time of burning is not to be more than
+0.5 second. If the lot fails to pass this test, a further proof
+will be taken; the fuse must burn within the limits specified
+above, otherwise the lot will be rejected. Should the
+detonator fail to ignite the time ring, a second proof will
+be taken; should a similar failure occur at second proof, or
+should there be more than one such failure at first proof,
+the lot will be rejected.</p>
+
+<p>(b) Twenty fuses will be fired, at the same elevation, in
+any of the following guns, with full charges, and the time
+of burning noted. The requirements as to the result of the
+firing with the fuses set at different graduations are as
+given in detail in the following:</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_272">[272]</span></p>
+
+<p>1. The mean difference from the mean time of burning
+of the 20 fuses is not to exceed:</p>
+
+
+<table class="autotable3" style="font-size:100%">
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">
+In 18-pounder guns
+</td>
+<td class="tdl nw" style="padding-left:1em; padding-right:1em;">
+if set full<br>
+if set 16
+</td>
+<td class="tdl nw">
+0.14<br>
+0.11
+</td>
+<td class="tdl nw">
+second<br>
+second
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr style="height:1em">
+<td class="tdl" colspan="4">
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">
+In 13-pounder guns
+</td>
+<td class="tdl nw" style="padding-left:1em; padding-right:1em;">
+if set full<br>
+if set 14
+</td>
+<td class="tdl nw">
+0.2<br>
+0.13
+</td>
+<td class="tdl nw">
+second<br>
+second
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>The difference between the longest and shortest fuse is
+not to exceed:</p>
+
+
+<table class="autotable3" style="font-size:100%">
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">
+In 18-pounder guns
+</td>
+<td class="tdl nw" style="padding-left:1em; padding-right:1em;">
+if set full<br>
+or omitting one fuse<br>
+if set 16<br>
+or omitting one fuse
+</td>
+<td class="tdl nw">
+0.75<br>
+0.6<br>
+0.6<br>
+0.5
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+second<br>
+second<br>
+second<br>
+second
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr style="height:1em">
+<td class="tdl" colspan="4">
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">
+In 13-pounder guns
+</td>
+<td class="tdl nw" style="padding-left:1em; padding-right:1em;">
+if set full<br>
+or omitting one fuse<br>
+if set 14<br>
+or omitting one fuse
+</td>
+<td class="tdl nw">
+0.9<br>
+0.7<br>
+0.7<br>
+0.5
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+second<br>
+second<br>
+second<br>
+second
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>2. If there is one blind fuse, a second proof will be taken.
+If there is a blind at second proof, or more than one such
+failure at first proof, the lot will be rejected.</p>
+
+<p>(c) Five fuses from a lot will be tested, in shrapnel
+shells, by firing them set at “0” from a gun with a muzzle
+velocity of 1500 to 1800 feet per second. The fuses should
+burst the shells at from 5 to 50 yards from the muzzle of
+the gun. Should there be a burst in the gun, the lot will
+be rejected. Should any fuse fail to act within 50 yards,
+second proof will be taken; should a similar failure occur
+in the second proof, or should there be more than one such
+failure at first proof, the lot will be rejected.</p>
+
+<p>(d) Five fuses from a lot will be tested in common
+shells by firing them over sand, at such an elevation that
+the angle of descent will not be more than 4 degrees. When
+one only of a set of fuses so fired fails to burst on first graze
+the lot will be accepted without further proof; if there be
+more than one failure to burst on graze in the second proof,
+the lot will be rejected. The fuses must burst at the point
+of impact. For percussion proof the time ring is to be set
+on the bridge.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_273">[273]</span></p>
+
+<p>(e) A premature explosion due to the fuse in any of
+the foregoing proofs will cause the rejection of the lot.</p>
+
+<p>(f) Should any other gun be introduced for proof of
+this fuse, which differs from the above guns in either
+muzzle velocity or twist of rifling at muzzle, the above conditions
+will be subject to modification.</p>
+
+<p>(g) If, in the proof of any delivery, defects are found
+involving the serviceability of fuses, additional proof may
+be taken from any other delivery not finally closed, to ascertain
+if the defect is general. Should the fuses fail at this
+further proof, the delivery will be rejected without reference
+to the original proof. The total proof of any delivery
+shall not exceed 5 per cent of the lot. The contractor will
+be required to replace all fuses expended in further proof or
+examination free of charge, which, whether fired or otherwise
+tested, will become the property of the government.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p273_fig06" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p273_fig06.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 6. Details of British Combination Fuse Cover and Case
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><b>Inspection.</b>—(a) The components of the fuses, during
+manufacture and assembling, and the completed fuses after
+delivery, will be subject to examination and gaging by, and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_274">[274]</span>to the final approval of, the chief inspector or an officer
+deputed by him. Any component or fuse, which is not
+finished to the satisfaction of the chief inspector, or his representative,
+or which has any flaw or imperfection, will be
+rejected.</p>
+
+<p>(b) If, at any time during examination, it is found that
+defects of any nature which involve rejection of the defective
+components, or fuses, amount to 5 per cent of the number
+in the lot, the lot will be rejected.</p>
+
+<p class="center sm">GRADUATION TABLE FOR TIME RING ON BRITISH COMBINATION
+TIME AND PERCUSSION FUSE</p>
+
+<table class="autotable">
+<tr><td colspan="3">
+<figure class="figcenter illowe25" id="p274">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p274.jpg" alt="">
+</figure>
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc" rowspan="2">
+Graduation
+</td>
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2">
+Angle
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">
+Deg.
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+Min.
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc padboth">
+0 to 5<br>
+0 to 1<br>
+1 to 2<br>
+2 to 3<br>
+3 to 4<br>
+4 to 5<br>
+5 to 6<br>
+6 to 7<br>
+7 to 8<br>
+8 to 11 each<br>
+11 to 12<br>
+12 to 13<br>
+13 to 14<br>
+14 to 15<br>
+15 to 16<br>
+16 to 17<br>
+17 to 18<br>
+18 to 19<br>
+19 to 20<br>
+20 to 21<br>
+21 to 21.2<br>
+</td>
+<td class="tdr  rpad2">
+26<br>
+16<br>
+15<br>
+15<br>
+16<br>
+14<br>
+14<br>
+14<br>
+13<br>
+13<br>
+13<br>
+13<br>
+13<br>
+12<br>
+12<br>
+12<br>
+11<br>
+13<br>
+14<br>
+16<br>
+3<br>
+</td>
+<td class="tdr  rpad2">
+0<br>
+45<br>
+15<br>
+30<br>
+30<br>
+40<br>
+35<br>
+15<br>
+55<br>
+35<br>
+20<br>
+10<br>
+0<br>
+50<br>
+30<br>
+0<br>
+30<br>
+10<br>
+30<br>
+20<br>
+30<br>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>(c) If, at any time during examination of the lot, it is
+found that 5 per cent of fuses in the lot depart from the
+approved design, further examination will be suspended.
+The whole of the lot must be re-examined by the contractor
+and those fuses which are incorrect to design eliminated.
+Those fuses in which the departure can be rectified may
+be changed to the approved design by the contractor. The
+lot may then be re-submitted for examination.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_275">[275]</span></p>
+
+
+<p><b>Tests for Safety in Transportation.</b>—From each lot, 20
+time and 20 percussion plungers are to be tested to ascertain
+the correctness of their weights and static resistances.
+Lots of plungers not correct within the tolerence allowed
+will be rejected. At the commencement of manufacture, 6
+time and 6 percussion plungers from each lot will be subjected
+to a drop test against a steel block 11.5 inches in
+diameter, 4.5 inches thick, resting on a concrete pier, to
+determine the limit in heights at which the same will arm
+when carried in standard dropping pieces. One of the
+pieces weighs 15 pounds and has the form of a 3-inch shell;
+the two other pieces are lighter and smaller. No concussion
+plunger is to begin to arm when falling in the lighter
+piece from a height of 4 feet 6 inches; all shall fully arm
+in the shell with 14 feet 8 inches drop. No percussion
+plunger is to begin to arm in the special piece falling with
+6 feet 2 inches drop; all shall fully arm in the shell with a
+17 feet 6 inches drop.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Jumbling and Jolting Test.</b>—Ten fuses will be placed,
+one at a time, in a wooden box approximately 16 inches by
+11 inches by 5 inches inside dimensions, revolving at thirty
+revolutions per minute, about one of its diagonals, for four
+hours. The fuses will then be placed in an adjustable fuse-holder
+on the end of a hinged lever 16 inches long, which,
+by the motion of a cam, is raised 4 inches, thirty-five times
+per minute, and allowed to drop on an iron anvil. The
+fuses are thus dropped for an hour, point downward, base
+downward, and side downward, respectively. The primer
+shields must not be marked, and the time trains, powder pellets,
+etc., must be intact.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_276">[276]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XII">
+    CHAPTER XII
+    <br>
+    <span class="sm">SPECIFICATIONS FOR BRITISH 18-POUNDER QUICK-FIRING
+    CARTRIDGE CASE AND PRIMER</span>
+  </h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>The following specifications of the British 18-pounder
+quick-firing cartridge case and primer govern the manufacture
+and inspection of these cases and primers. They
+are abstracted from the official specifications and give the
+most important information required by the manufacturer
+and inspector.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Construction.</b>—The cartridge may be either solid drawn
+brass or built up, the nature of the alloy and the thickness
+and distribution of the metal being left to the contractor,
+except that the dimensions must agree with those in <a href="#p278_fig01">Fig. 1</a>.
+The maximum weight is to be 3 pounds 1 ounce. If electrolytic
+copper is used, it must be melted and run into
+ingots before use. In manufacture the number of drawings
+and the number of annealings must not be less than six.
+Should any folds or rings exist in the metal of the base,
+they must not be removed; any marks of cutting or turning
+of the metal of the inside of the base will cause the rejection
+of the cartridge. In the center of the base a hole is
+to be bored and threaded to receive the primer. The cartridges
+are to be marked on the base with the numeral and
+the contractor’s initials or recognized trade-mark.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Screw Threads.</b>—The screw threads must, unless otherwise
+stated, be of the standard Whitworth thread, be cut
+full, and conform to the government inspector’s standard
+gages. Contractors may send their gages at any time to
+the chief inspector to be checked and compared with the
+standard gages.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>General Conditions.</b>—The contractor is to supply, with
+the first delivery, a full-sized tracing, on tracing cloth, of
+the cartridge he is delivering. The contractor will also
+supply, free of charge, samples of the metal from which the
+cases are to be made, if requested by the chief inspector to
+do so. The samples should not be less than 6 by 2 inches.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_277">[277]</span>Cases in stock, that is, cases made before the date of the
+contract, must not be submitted for acceptance under a
+given contract.</p>
+
+<p>The cartridges should be delivered in lots of not less than
+400. If less than 400 are delivered, the number of rounds
+to be fired in proof will be the same as if the delivery were
+the full 400. If, on examination of twenty per cent of a
+lot, it is found that departures from approved design, or
+defects of any nature, which involve rejection of the cases,
+average twenty-five per cent of the number examined, the
+whole of the lot will rejected.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Proof.</b>—(a) Not less than one-half per cent will be
+fired in proof. At least one cartridge from each 400 delivered
+will be fired three times, one round being with a
+proof charge, and the cartridge being (if necessary) reformed
+after each round. In each remaining cartridge, one
+proof and one service round will be fired.</p>
+
+<p>(b) The cartridge must load and extract easily, and
+must not split or develop any flaw or crack on firing.</p>
+
+<p>(c) The cartridge may be sectioned after firing; the
+section must show no cracks.</p>
+
+<p>(d) The maximum pressure is not to be more than 19
+tons per square inch.</p>
+
+<p>(e) If, in the proof of any delivery, defects appear
+which involve the serviceability of the article, additional
+proof may be taken from any other delivery not finally
+closed, to ascertain if the defect is general or not. Should
+the cases fail at this further proof, the delivery will be rejected
+without reference to the original proof. The total
+proof of any delivery shall not exceed five per cent of the
+number delivered.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Replacement of Proof.</b>—The contractor will be required
+to replace all cartridges expended in proof free of charge,
+and when the order is approaching completion, he will be
+informed by the inspector how many are required to complete
+the number on the order, exclusive of the cartridges
+so expended, which, whether fired or otherwise tested, will
+become the property of the government.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_278">[278]</span></p>
+
+
+<p><b>Packing.</b>—All packages will be so marked that the goods
+contained therein may be readily identified with the invoice.
+Unless specified herein that the packing cases or
+other packing material will become the property of the war
+department, they will remain the property of the contractor,
+who is responsible for their removal. Should they not
+be removed within two months of the acceptance of the cartridge
+cases, they will be disposed of, and in such circumstances
+the contractor will not be entitled to make any claim
+for compensation. The packing cases must be marked “Returnable”
+or “Non-returnable.”</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp99" id="p278_fig01" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p278_fig01.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 1. British 18-pounder Quick-firing Cartridge Case, giving Complete
+    Dimensions, and Bore of Quick-firing Field Gun
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><b>Spontaneous Cracking.</b>—Any cartridge found to be
+cracked before or after filling, but before firing, is to be
+replaced by the contractor if such crack is discovered within
+six months of the date of acceptance of the cartridge in
+question, which date is stamped on it.</p>
+
+<p>The cartridges may be inspected during manufacture by,
+and after delivery will be subjected to testing by, and to the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_279">[279]</span>final approval of, the chief inspector, Royal Arsenal, Woolwich,
+England, or an officer deputed by him.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Primer.</b>—The primer is to consist of the following parts
+(see <a href="#p280_fig02">Fig. 2</a>): body <i>A</i>; closing disk <i>B</i>; anvil <i>C</i>; plug <i>D</i>; cap
+<i>E</i>; tin foil <i>F</i>; ball <i>G</i>; paper disk <i>H</i>; gun powder <i>I</i>; and
+Pettman cement. The body is to be made of composition
+metal known as Class “A” or “B.” All other metal parts
+of the primer, except where otherwise specified, are to be
+made of brass. The brass is not to contain more than 0.3
+per cent of lead, nor to have more than one per cent of
+total metallic impurities. The Class “A” or “B” metal is
+to be in accordance with the following requirements: It
+must be perfectly straight, uniform in diameter, and free
+from cracks or flaws, and must be capable of standing the
+following minimum tests:</p>
+
+
+
+
+<table class="autotable">
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2">
+Tenacity,<br>Tons per
+Square Inch
+</td>
+<td class="tdc" style="border-bottom:none">
+Elongation in Per Cent in such a Test
+Piece as can be furnished, provided that
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">
+Yield
+Point
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+Breaking
+Stress
+</td>
+<td class="tdc" style="border-top:none">
+Length / √Area = 4
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc nw">
+Class “A”, 20<br>
+Class “B”, 12
+</td>
+<td class="tdc nw">
+Class “A”, 30<br>
+Class “B”, 20
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+Class “A”, 20 per cent<br>
+Class “B”, 30 per cent
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<p>Pieces of the metals it is proposed to use in the manufacture
+must be submitted free of charge by the contractor,
+for testing, when requested by the chief inspector.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Body.</b>—The exterior of the body is to be turned and
+threaded and a flange formed. Two slots are to be cut in
+the head for the key. The interior is to be bored, cupped,
+and threaded. The exterior of the body is to be lacquered
+with a lacquer consisting of:</p>
+
+
+<table class="autotable3" style="font-size:100%">
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl" style="padding-right:3em">
+Seedlac<br>
+Turmeric<br>
+Spirit, Methylated
+</td>
+<td class="tdr">
+1 <br>
+8 <br>
+8
+</td>
+<td>
+pound.<br>
+ounces.<br>
+pounds.
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<p><b>Screw, Plugs and Copper Ball.</b>—A plug having one end
+turned to form an anvil, which is to be free from burrs, is
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_281">[281]</span>to be threaded to suit the body. The interior is to be turned
+out to receive the soft copper ball, and three fire holes bored.
+A plug is also to be threaded to suit the body, having an annular
+recess turned on the inner side, and three fire holes
+bored.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp47" id="p280_fig02" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p280_fig02.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 2. Primer for British Quick-firing Shrapnel and High-explosive
+    Shell Cartridge Cases
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><b>Cap.</b>—The cap is to be made of copper and the interior
+is to be varnished with varnish composed of:</p>
+
+
+<table class="autotable3" style="font-size:100%">
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl" style="padding-right:3em">
+Finest orange shellac<br>
+Spirit, Methylated
+</td>
+<td class="tdr">
+2 pounds 2<br>
+8
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+ounces.<br>
+pounds.
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>The specific gravity of the varnish is to be 0.885. It is
+then to be charged with 1.2 grain of the following composition
+(figures give parts by weight):</p>
+
+
+<table class="autotable3" style="font-size:100%">
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl" style="padding-right:3em">
+Sulphide of antimony<br>
+Chlorate of potash<br>
+Ground glass<br>
+Meal powder<br>
+Sulphur
+</td>
+<td class="tdr">
+18<br>
+12<br>
+1<br>
+1<br>
+1
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The composition is to be pressed into the cap with a
+pressure of 800 pounds. A tin-foil disk, lacquered on one
+side, is then to be placed on the composition with the lacquered
+side outwards, and placed under a pressure of 400
+pounds. It is then to be varnished with a varnish composed
+of:</p>
+
+
+<table class="autotable3" style="font-size:100%">
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl" style="padding-right:3em">
+Finest orange shellac<br>
+Seedlac<br>
+Turmeric<br>
+Spirit, Methylated
+</td>
+<td class="tdr">
+2 pounds 2<br>
+1<br>
+8<br>
+16
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+ounces.<br>
+pound.<br>
+ounces.<br>
+pounds.
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>The specific gravity of this varnish is to be 0.865.</p>
+
+<p>The lacquer for the tin-foil disk before insertion is composed
+of:</p>
+
+
+<table class="autotable3" style="font-size:100%">
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl" style="padding-right:3em">
+Seedlac<br>
+Turmeric<br>
+Spirit, Methylated
+</td>
+<td class="tdr">
+2<br>
+1<br>
+16
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+pounds.<br>
+pound.<br>
+pounds.
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>The specific gravity of this lacquer is 0.85.</p>
+
+<p>The cap is to be externally coated with Pettman cement
+before inserting in the body, and then a fillet of Pettman
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_282">[282]</span>cement is formed between the body and cap; Pettman
+cement is made from the following ingredients:</p>
+
+
+<table class="autotable3" style="font-size:100%">
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl" style="padding-right:3em">
+Gum shellac<br>
+Spirit, Methylated<br>
+Tar, Stockholm<br>
+Red, Venetian
+</td>
+<td class="tdr">
+7 pounds 8<br>
+8<br>
+5<br>
+20 pounds 12
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+ounces.<br>
+pounds.<br>
+pounds.<br>
+ounces
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<p><b>Gun Powder.</b>—The primer is to be filled with R. F. G.<sup>2</sup>
+powder, the screw plug being first screwed in and fixed
+by three small punch blows, and the fire holes covered by a
+disk of paper secured with Pettman cement.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Closing Disk.</b>—A brass disk having a paper disk secured
+to it on the inner side by Pettman cement is to be
+placed on the top of the powder, and a ring of Pettman
+cement painted round the edge of the disk where the metal
+will be burred over onto it. After the primer is burred over,
+the whole of the exterior of the disk will also be coated with
+a thin layer of the cement.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Marking and Delivery.</b>—The primers will be marked
+with the numeral, serial number, contractor’s initials or
+recognized trade-mark, and date of manufacture. The
+primers will be delivered in lots of 1000, an additional 20
+being supplied for proof with each 1000, or any less number
+supplied. In the event of further proof being required,
+the primers will be taken from the lot.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Proof.</b>—A percentage of the primers will be selected indiscriminately
+for proof.</p>
+
+<p>(a) The primer when screwed into a steel block must
+fire correctly with a 1-pound weight falling 25 inches, and
+ignite a puff consisting of 4 drams of R. F. G.<sup>2</sup> powder
+enclosed in one thickness of shalloon, in a 12-inch vent
+with special receiver, or when proved in any gun for which
+approved, it must ignite the charge without hang-fire.</p>
+
+<p>(b) A miss-fire, hang-fire, pierced cap, or serious escape
+of gas through or around the primer will cause rejection.</p>
+
+<p>(c) The falling weight is to have a point of the same
+shape as the service striker.</p>
+
+<p>(d) Should the firing proof or examination of any delivery
+bring to notice any defect or defects which, in the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_284">[284]</span>opinion of the chief inspector, affect the serviceability of
+the primers, the delivery in question may be rejected, or
+further proof taken at his discretion, not only from the
+particular delivery, but from any others made by the contractor
+which may be under inspection, to ascertain whether
+the defect is general. Should any primers fail at these further
+proofs, the delivery or deliveries will be rejected without
+reference to any previous proof.</p>
+
+<p>If, on examination of twenty per cent of a lot, it is found
+that departures from approved design or defects of any
+nature which involve rejection of the defective primers
+average 25 per cent of the number examined, the whole
+of the lot will be rejected. The contractor will be required
+to replace free of charge all primers expended in proof and
+examination, which, whether fired or otherwise tested, will
+become the property of the government.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p283_fig03" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p283_fig03.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 3. British Cartridge Clip
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><b>Specifications for Cartridge Clip.</b>—The general dimensions
+for the cartridge clip are given in <a href="#p283_fig03">Fig. 3</a>. The clip
+is made from hard-rolled sheet brass in one piece. Four
+projecting arms are to be formed; the ends of each are bent
+over as indicated. The clip is sand-blasted, and lacquered
+with a lacquer composed of:</p>
+
+
+<table class="autotable3" style="font-size:100%">
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl" style="padding-right:3em">
+Vegetable black<br>
+Seedlac<br>
+Turpentine (1 quart)<br>
+Methylated spirits (6 quarts)
+</td>
+<td class="tdr">
+1<br>
+1¹⁄₂<br>
+2<br>
+12
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+pound.<br>
+pound.<br>
+pounds.<br>
+pounds.
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>One arm is coated with paint consisting of:</p>
+
+
+<table class="autotable3" style="font-size:100%">
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl" style="padding-right:3em">
+Vermillion, dry<br>
+Shellac, dry<br>
+White hard varnish<br>
+Spirits, Methylated
+</td>
+<td class="tdr">
+2<br>
+1<br>
+³⁄₄<br>
+1¹⁄₂
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+ounces.<br>
+ounce.<br>
+ounce.<br>
+ounce.
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<p><b>Loop.</b>—The loop is to consist of 13 inches of “webbing,
+cotton, ¹⁄₂ inch,” threaded through the clip and sewed.
+Three yards of webbing, selected from the bulk, are to be
+submitted to the chief inspector before being used. The
+webbing submitted will be cut into lengths of 11 inches and
+the ends of each length securely fixed in the clamps of a
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_285">[285]</span>testing machine, the clamps being 7 inches apart. The
+strain will be gradually increased until the sample breaks.
+The breaking strain must not be less than 200 pounds.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Delivery.</b>—The clips will be delivered in lots of 1000.
+If, on examination of 20 per cent of a lot, it is found that
+departures from approved design, or defects of any nature,
+which involve rejection of the clips average 25 per cent of
+the number examined, the whole of the lot will be rejected.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_286">[286]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIII">
+    CHAPTER XIII
+    <br>
+    <span class="sm">SPECIFICATIONS FOR AMERICAN SHRAPNEL SHELLS</span>
+  </h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp47" id="p287_fig01" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p287_fig01.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 1. Assembly and Details of American Shrapnel Shell
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The American shrapnel shells comprise the following
+parts: forged shell body, copper driving band, head, washer,
+tubes, bullets, matrix, head filler, diaphragm, base charge,
+and fuse. In some cases a Semple tracer is used, and, when
+this is the case, the base of the shrapnel must be machined
+to accommodate it.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Shell.</b>—The shell is to be made of forged alloy steel or
+bar stock having the properties outlined in <a href="#TABLE_I_1">Table I</a>. The
+forgings must be annealed so that they can be machined
+with reasonable ease. The maximum elastic limit for the
+2.95-inch and 3-inch shell forgings must not exceed 115,000
+pounds per square inch, and in case of the 3.8-inch, 4.7-inch,
+and 6-inch must not exceed 110,000 pounds per square inch.
+All shrapnel shells must be subjected to an exterior hydraulic
+pressure of 20,000 pounds per square inch up to the
+rotating band, and to an interior hydraulic pressure of 1000
+pounds per square inch. A certain number from each 1000
+shells are also subjected to a ballistic test by firing completed
+shrapnels from a gun with a maximum pressure of
+37,000 pounds, except for the 6-inch, which will be fired
+under a pressure of 22,500 pounds per square inch.</p>
+
+<p>The shell is to be finished outside and inside except at
+points otherwise indicated, where it is to be left in the
+rough-forged state. The inside of the shell is to be coated
+with non-acid paint, except where machined, and the powder
+chamber is to be given a heavy coat. Great care should
+be taken to remove all burrs, scale, and sharp corners. The
+outline of the shell after the first operation, when made
+from bar stock, is shown by dotted lines in <a href="#p287_fig01">Fig. 1</a>. The
+base of the shell is to be machined as illustrated to the
+right at <i>A</i> in <a href="#p287_fig01">Fig. 1</a>, when a Semple tracer is used.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Copper Driving Band.</b>—The copper driving band is to be
+cut from tubing of pure electrolytic copper, and machined
+to the dimensions shown. It is to be heated and expanded
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_288">[288]</span>to 2.985 inch inside diameter—for the 3-inch shell—and is
+to be shrunk into the seat, then forced into the scores by
+passing through a die and afterwards turned to size.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Washer and Head.</b>—The washer—for the 3-inch shell—is
+to be made from steel 0.031 inch thick and formed to
+shape by punching. The head is to be made from cold-drawn
+steel, finished all over, and coated inside with a non-acid
+paint. The crimping wall is to be turned down over
+the washer after machining, and a hole drilled after the
+head is assembled to the shell. Five notches equally spaced
+are to be cut around the head, and a crimping groove cut
+for putting on the fuse protecting cap.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp93" id="p288_fig02" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p288_fig02.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 2. Details of American Shrapnel Shell
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><b>Tube.</b>—The tube is to be made from seamless drawn
+brass tubing, and is to be coated inside with shellac. An
+additional short tube is to be inserted at the nose or mouth
+of this tube, next to the fuse; this latter is to be made
+from seamless drawn copper, and is to be forced into the
+tube under pressure and crimped over.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_289">[289]</span></p>
+
+
+<p><b>Bullets.</b>—The bullets used in the shrapnel are to be
+made from 12.5 per cent antimony to 87.5 per cent lead,
+and are to be flattened with six faces as shown in the illustration;
+252 bullets are used in the 3-inch shrapnel.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Matrix and Head Filler.</b>—The matrix is to consist of
+resin and mono-nitronaphthalene, poured into the shell, as
+will be described in connection with loading. The head is
+to be filled with melted resin, poured in.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Diaphragm.</b>—The diaphragm is to be made of forged
+steel to the dimension shown. It is to be drilled and counterbored,
+and great care should be taken to remove all burrs,
+sharp corners, and scale. The bottom of the diaphragm is
+also to be given a heavy coat of non-acid paint.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><a id="TABLE_I_1"></a>TABLE I.<br><span class="sm">PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL FOR VARIOUS
+SIZES OF SHRAPNEL SHELLS</span></p>
+
+
+
+<table class="autotable" style="font-size:80%">
+<tr class="bb">
+<td class="center">
+Caliber,
+Inches
+</td>
+<td class="center">
+Tensile Strength,
+Pounds
+Per Square Inch
+</td>
+<td class="center">
+Elastic Limit,
+Pounds
+Per Square Inch
+</td>
+<td class="center">
+Elongation
+in 2 inches,
+Per Cent
+</td>
+<td class="center">
+Contraction,
+Per Cent
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl" style="padding-left:1.5em">
+2.95<br>
+3.0<span style="visibility:hidden">0</span><br>
+3.8<span style="visibility:hidden">0</span><br>
+4.7<span style="visibility:hidden">0</span><br>
+6.0<span style="visibility:hidden">0</span>
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+120,000<br>
+120,000<br>
+110,000<br>
+110,000<br>
+110,000
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+90,000<br>
+90,000<br>
+80,000<br>
+80,000<br>
+80,000
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+16<br>
+16<br>
+15<br>
+15<br>
+15
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+45<br>
+45<br>
+40<br>
+40<br>
+40
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+
+<p><b>Fuse-hole Plug.</b>—There are two types of fuse-hole plugs;
+one is to be made from die-cast white metal, of non-corrosive
+properties, and machined to dimensions given in drawing,
+and the other of wrought iron or bronze. The weight
+of the wrought-iron plug—for the 3-inch shell—is to be
+0.97 pound, and the weight of the bronze plug, 1.03 pound.
+Either type of fuse-hole plug may be used.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Locking-Pin.</b>—Two steel locking-pins are required which
+must be finished to limits of ± 0.005 inch, driven in and
+peened over after the head is assembled in the shell.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_290">[290]</span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><a id="TABLE_II_1"></a>TABLE II.<br><span class="sm">PRINCIPAL DIMENSIONS OF AMERICAN SHRAPNEL SHELLS, HEADS
+AND DIAPHRAGMS</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowe40" id="p290">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p290.jpg" alt="">
+</figure>
+
+
+<div class="scroll">
+<table class="autotable">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center" rowspan="2">
+Caliber,
+Inches
+</td>
+<td class="center" colspan="2">
+Shrapnel
+Forging
+</td>
+<td class="center" colspan="5">
+Shrapnel Shell
+</td>
+<td class="center" colspan="3">
+Shrapnel Head
+</td>
+<td class="center" colspan="2">
+Diaphragm
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc padboth">
+A
+</td>
+<td class="tdc padboth">
+B
+</td>
+<td class="tdc padboth">
+C
+</td>
+<td class="tdc padboth">
+D
+</td>
+<td class="tdc padboth">
+E
+</td>
+<td class="tdc padboth">
+F
+</td>
+<td class="tdc padboth">
+G
+</td>
+<td class="tdc padboth">
+H
+</td>
+<td class="tdc padboth">
+I
+</td>
+<td class="tdc padboth">
+J
+</td>
+<td class="tdc padboth">
+K
+</td>
+<td class="tdc padboth">
+L
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">
+2.95<br>
+3.0<span style="visibility:hidden">0</span><br>
+3.8<span style="visibility:hidden">0</span><br>
+4.7<span style="visibility:hidden">0</span><br>
+6.0<span style="visibility:hidden">0</span>
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+<span style="visibility:hidden">0</span>7.25<br>
+<span style="visibility:hidden">0</span>8.66<br>
+10.3<span style="visibility:hidden">0</span><br>
+13.2<span style="visibility:hidden">0</span><br>
+16.6<span style="visibility:hidden">0</span>
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+3.0<span style="visibility:hidden">0</span><br>
+3.05<br>
+3.85<br>
+4.75<br>
+6.05
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+0.30<span style="visibility:hidden">0</span><br>
+0.375<br>
+0.50<span style="visibility:hidden">0</span><br>
+0.60<span style="visibility:hidden">0</span><br>
+0.80<span style="visibility:hidden">0</span>
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+2.2<br>
+2.1<br>
+2.5<br>
+3.0<br>
+3.9
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+2.5<span style="visibility:hidden">00</span><br>
+2.375<br>
+2.9<span style="visibility:hidden">00</span><br>
+3.5<span style="visibility:hidden">00</span><br>
+4.6<span style="visibility:hidden">00</span>
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+2.95<br>
+3.0<span style="visibility:hidden">0</span><br>
+3.8<span style="visibility:hidden">0</span><br>
+4.7<span style="visibility:hidden">0</span><br>
+6.0<span style="visibility:hidden">0</span>
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+<span style="visibility:hidden">0</span>7.2<span style="visibility:hidden">0</span><br>
+<span style="visibility:hidden">0</span>8.5<span style="visibility:hidden">0</span><br>
+10.12<br>
+13.00<br>
+16.45
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+2.85<br>
+2.73<br>
+3.51<br>
+4.25<br>
+5.33
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+1.7<br>
+1.7<br>
+1.7<br>
+1.7<br>
+1.7
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+1.05<br>
+0.87<br>
+1.4<span style="visibility:hidden">0</span><br>
+2.3<span style="visibility:hidden">0</span><br>
+3.35
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+2.5<span style="visibility:hidden">0</span><br>
+2.36<br>
+2.89<br>
+3.52<br>
+4.6<span style="visibility:hidden">0</span>
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+0.45<br>
+0.45<br>
+0.55<br>
+0.70<br>
+0.80
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<p><b>Directions for Loading American 3-inch Shrapnel Shell.</b>—In
+loading, make sure that the diaphragm seats firmly
+on the shoulder in the shell, then pour in 0.25 ounce of powdered
+resin to seal the joints, and shake down well to fill
+all cracks. The powdered resin becomes plastic when the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_291">[291]</span> melted resin is poured in. Next put in one layer of bullets
+(18) and pour in 0.4 ounce of melted resin; then put in 108
+bullets and pack by a pressure of six tons. Then pour in
+3.75 ounces of melted mono-nitronaphthalene; put in 126
+bullets; drive down with mallet below end of tube; and pour
+in 4 ounces of melted resin. After the mass has thoroughly
+cooled, face off matrix so that the depth from the end of
+the shell shall be 0.27 inch to allow for screwing in head,
+which should bear down hard on matrix. Next place washer
+in head and secure it by turning down crimping wall. Then
+fill annular space in lower face of head with melted resin,
+and after this is thoroughly cooled, face off flush with lower
+end of head. Screw head in place and secure with pins;
+then insert inner tube, pour in the base charge through the
+tube, and insert stopper. After the shell has been loaded,
+the shell and head should be painted from the rotating bands
+to the rear edge of the groove. For waterproofing, coat
+with a pure raw linseed oil black paint. Coat the remainder
+of the head with bitumastic solution, and crimp the
+waterproof cover in place while the solution is plastic. In
+the lower end of the inner tube should be placed a stopper
+of dry fibrous gun cotton rolled tightly into a cylinder and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_292">[292]</span>pressed down until it rests on the shoulder of the diaphragm
+and is about one inch long.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><a id="TABLE_III_1"></a>TABLE III.<br><span class="sm">WEIGHTS AND MATERIALS USED IN AMERICAN
+3-INCH SHRAPNEL SHELLS</span></p>
+
+
+<table class="autotable2">
+<tr class="bb">
+<td class="center">
+Part
+</td>
+<td class="center">
+Material
+</td>
+<td class="center">
+Weight in Pounds
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">
+Shell
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+Steel
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+5.80
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">
+Driving Band
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+Copper
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+0.15
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">
+Washer
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+Steel
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+0.02
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">
+Head
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+Steel
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+0.45
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">
+Tube (including
+inner tube)
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+Brass and Copper
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+0.09
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">
+Bullets (252)
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+Lead-antimony Alloy
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+6.05
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">
+Matrix
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+Resin and Mono-nitronaphthalene
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+0.52
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">
+Head Filler
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+Resin
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+0.03
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">
+Diaphragm
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+Steel
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+0.47
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">
+Base Charge
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+Shrapnel Powder
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+0.17
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">
+Fuse
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+1.25
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">
+Semple Tracer
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+0.20
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">
+Tracer Support
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+0.17
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">
+Total Weight
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+</td>
+<td class="tdc">
+15.37 ± 0.15
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>The case is to be stamped as follows with letters ¹⁄₁₆
+inch high: Lot number of shrapnel shell, purchase order,
+date of issue of purchase order, fiscal year, and initials of
+manufacturer.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><a id="TABLE_IV_1"></a>TABLE IV.<br><span class="sm">PRINCIPAL DIMENSIONS OF VARIOUS SIZES OF CARTRIDGE
+CASES USED ON AMERICAN SHRAPNEL SHELLS</span></p>
+
+
+<table class="autotable">
+
+<tr class="bb"><td colspan="7">
+<figure class="figcenter illowe20" id="p292">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p292.jpg" alt="">
+</figure>
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc" rowspan="2">
+Caliber<br> in Inches
+</td>
+<td class="tdc" colspan="6">
+Dimensions in Inches
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc padboth">
+A
+</td>
+<td class="tdc padboth">
+B
+</td>
+<td class="tdc padboth">
+C
+</td>
+<td class="tdc padboth">
+D
+</td>
+<td class="tdc padboth">
+E
+</td>
+<td class="tdc padboth">
+F
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl" style="padding-left:1.5em">
+3.0<br>
+3.8<br>
+4.7<br>
+6.0
+</td>
+<td class="tdc" style="padding-left:.5em">
+3.5<span style="visibility:hidden">0</span><br>
+4.3<span style="visibility:hidden">0</span><br>
+5.25<br>
+6.75
+</td>
+<td class="tdc" style="padding-left:.5em">
+3.2<span style="visibility:hidden">0</span><br>
+4.05<br>
+5.00<br>
+6.50
+</td>
+<td class="tdc" style="padding-left:.5em">
+0.06<br>
+0.07<br>
+0.10<br>
+0.08
+</td>
+<td class="tdc" style="padding-left:.5em">
+0.04<br>
+0.04<br>
+0.05<br>
+0.04
+</td>
+<td class="tdc" style="padding-left:.5em">
+3.05<br>
+3.75<br>
+4.75<br>
+6.25
+</td>
+<td class="tdc" style="padding-left:.5em">
+10.8<br>
+14.4<br>
+16.8<br>
+10.0
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p><b>Cartridge Case.</b>—The various sizes of American cartridge
+cases for shrapnel shells are drawn from a blank of
+brass, known as “cartridge brass.” The principal dimensions
+of the various sizes of cases are given in <a href="#TABLE_IV_1">Table IV</a>.</p>
+
+<p>The specifications covering the time and percussion fuse
+used in American shrapnel shells are the same as for the
+British “No. 85,” given in Chapter XI, with the one exception
+that the base of the fuse body is shaped to suit the
+American shell, and the thread is the U. S. standard, instead
+of Whitworth standard.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_293">[293]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="INDEX">
+    INDEX
+  </h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<ul class="index">
+  <li class="ifrst">American shrapnel shell, section of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">specifications, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">American type of fuse, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Annealing and washing cartridge cases, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Automatic Machine Co.’s threading lathe used for threading shells, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
+
+
+  <li class="ifrst">Band, machining rifling, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">pressing on rifling, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Besly grinder equipped for grinding shrapnel, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Brass for cartridge cases, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Brass plugs for fuse, forging, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Brass socket, machining, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">British cartridge cases, specifications, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">British fuses, specifications, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">British primers, specifications, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">British shrapnel shell, section of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">specifications, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Brown &amp; Sharpe machines used for making fuse parts, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Bullets, shrapnel, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
+
+
+  <li class="ifrst">Caley method of making shrapnel forgings, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Cartridge cases, annealing and washing, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">cupping, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">drawing, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">list of operations, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">machining, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">specifications for British, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">specifications for Russian, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">summary of operations, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">testing hardness of, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Cartridge clip, British, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Cleveland “Automatic” used for making shrapnel shells, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Clip, British cartridge, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Closing cap, machining, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Closing screw, machining, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Copper rifling band, machining, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">pressing on, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Cupping cartridge cases, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li>
+
+
+  <li class="ifrst"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_294">[294]</span>Detonators, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">specifications for Russian, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Diaphragm forging, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Drawing operations on cartridge cases, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">table of operations, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Drilling percussion primers, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Drilling timing fuse plugs, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
+
+
+  <li class="ifrst">Explosives, classification of, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">in shrapnel shells, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">manufacture of high, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li>
+
+
+  <li class="ifrst">Forging brass plugs for fuse, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Forging diaphragms, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Forging fuse sockets, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Forging shrapnel heads, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Forging shrapnel shells, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">French shrapnel shell, section of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">French type of fuse, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Fulminates, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Fuse, American type, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">French type, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">Russian type, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">specifications for British, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">specifications for Russian, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">time and percussion, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">Vickers’ type, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Fuse bodies, machining, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Fuse hammers, making, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Fuse nose, machining, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Fuse nut, making, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Fuse parts, making, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Fuse plugs, drilling, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Fuse sockets, forging, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Fuse timing ring, graduating, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li>
+
+
+  <li class="ifrst">Gages for shrapnel parts, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Gaging shrapnel shells, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">German shrapnel shell, section of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Graduating fuse timing ring, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Gridley “Automatics,” used for making fuse parts, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">used for making shrapnel shells, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Grinding shrapnel shells, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
+
+
+  <li class="ifrst">Hardness testing, of cartridge cases, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">of shrapnel shells, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_295">[295]</span>Head, machining shrapnel, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Heading operations on cartridge cases, table, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Heat-treating department, lay-out of, <a href="#p058_fig13">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Heat-treatment of shrapnel shells, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Holinger method of making shrapnel forgings, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Hydraulic press method of forging shrapnel, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li>
+
+
+  <li class="ifrst">Libby turret lathe used for machining shrapnel shells, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Lo-swing lathe used for machining shells, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
+
+
+  <li class="ifrst">Machines for shrapnel manufacture, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Machining shrapnel shells, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Marking shrapnel shells, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li>
+
+
+  <li class="ifrst">New Britain “Automatics” used for making fuse parts, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Norton method of grinding shrapnel shells, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
+
+
+  <li class="ifrst">Percussion primers, drilling, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Potter &amp; Johnston “Automatics” used for machining forged shells, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Powder, black, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">smokeless, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Powder cups, press tools for, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Press tools for powder cup, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Primers, charging, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">for fuses, drilling, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">specifications for British, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></li>
+
+
+  <li class="ifrst">Reed-Prentice equipment for machining shrapnel shells, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Rifling band, machining, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">pressing on, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Rough-turning operations on shrapnel forgings, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Russian cartridge cases, specifications for, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Russian combination fuse, Vickers’ type, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Russian shrapnel shell fuses, specifications, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Russian shrapnel shell, section of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">specifications, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Russian type of fuse, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+
+
+  <li class="ifrst">Shrapnel bullets, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Shrapnel cartridge cases, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Shrapnel head, forging, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">machining, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Shrapnel shells, forging, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">grinding, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">heat-treatment, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_296">[296]</span>history, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">machines and tools for manufacture, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">machining, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">present design, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">specifications for American, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">specifications for British, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">specifications for Russian, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">steel for, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">types, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Smokeless powder, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Socket, machining, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Specifications, for American shrapnel shells, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">for British cartridge cases, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">for British fuses, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">for British primers, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">for British shrapnel shells, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">for Russian cartridge cases, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">for Russian shrapnel shells, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">for Russian shrapnel shell fuses, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Steel for shrapnel, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
+
+
+  <li class="ifrst">Tensile strength, testing, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Testing hardness of cartridge cases, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Testing shell body for hardness and tensile strength, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Threading shells, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Timing fuse plugs, drilling, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Timing ring, graduating, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">machining, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Tools for shrapnel manufacture, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
+
+
+  <li class="ifrst">Varnish for cartridge cases, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Vickers’ type of fuse, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li>
+
+
+  <li class="ifrst">Warner &amp; Swasey turret lathe, used for machining bar-stock shells, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">used for machining forged shells, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter transnote">
+<p class="center"> Transcriber’s Notes.</p>
+
+<p>
+Evident typographical and punctuation errors have been corrected silently.  Inconsistent spelling/hyphenation has been normalised.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The word ‘gaged’ has been inserted at page 239; “3. All outside dimensions of the bottom of the case are gaged as
+follows:”
+</p>
+
+<p> A half-title page has been discarded.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Some illustrations and tables have been relocated to improve text flow.
+</p>
+
+<p>New original cover art included with this eBook is granted to the public domain.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+
+<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 78213 ***</div>
+</body>
+</html>
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diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt
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@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+This book, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
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@@ -0,0 +1,2 @@
+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for eBook #78213
+(https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/78213)