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diff --git a/78154-h/78154-h.htm b/78154-h/78154-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b5df447 --- /dev/null +++ b/78154-h/78154-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,2999 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html> +<html lang="en"> +<head> + <meta charset="UTF-8"> + <title> + Art and The Human Spirit | Project Gutenberg + </title> + <link rel="icon" href="images/cover.jpg" type="image/x-cover"> + <style> + +body { + margin-left: 12%; + margin-right: 12%; +} + + h1,h2 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; +} + +h1 {font-weight: normal; + font-size: 250%; + margin-top: 1em; + margin-bottom: 1em; + word-spacing: 0.3em; + } + +h2 {font-weight: normal; + font-size: 130%; + margin-top: 2em; + word-spacing: 0.3em; + } + +p { + margin-top: .51em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .49em; +} + +.p1 {margin-top: 1em;} +.p3 {margin-top: 3em;} + + +hr { + width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: 33.5%; + margin-right: 33.5%; + clear: both; +} + + +hr.full {width: 95%; margin-left: 2.5%; margin-right: 2.5%;} + +hr.r5 {width: 15%; margin-top: 3em; margin-bottom: 3em; margin-left: 42.5%; margin-right: 42.5%;} + + +div.chapter {page-break-before: always;} +h2.nobreak {page-break-before: avoid;} + + +table { + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; +} + + +.tdl {text-align: left;} +.tdr {text-align: right;} + +.pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: small; + text-align: right; + font-style: normal; + font-weight: normal; + font-variant: normal; + text-indent: 0; +} /* page numbers */ + + +.blockquot { + margin-left: 5%; + margin-right: 10%; + font-size: 90%; +} + +.bigger {font-size: 120%;} +.large {font-size: 120%;} +.less {font-size: 90%;} +.more {font-size: 80%;} +.mid {font-size: 60%;} + +.c {text-align: center;} + +.sp {word-spacing: 0.3em;} + +.ph2 {text-align: center; text-indent: 0em; + font-size: 140%; + margin-top: 1em; + word-spacing: 0.3em;} + +.dropcap {float: left; width: auto; padding-right: 1px; font-size: 300%; line-height: 80%;} + + +.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + +/* Images */ + +img { + max-width: 100%; + height: auto; +} +img.w100 {width: 100%;} + + +.figcenter { + margin: auto; + text-align: center; + page-break-inside: avoid; + max-width: 100%; +} + +/* Transcriber's notes */ +.transnote {background-color: #E6E6FA; + color: black; + font-size:small; + padding:0.5em; + margin-bottom:5em; + margin-top:3em; + font-family:sans-serif, serif; + border: .3em double gray; + padding: 1em; +} + + </style> +</head> +<body> +<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 78154 ***</div> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/cover.jpg" alt="cover"> +</div> + + +<div class="bigger"> + +<h1> +ART AND<br> +THE HUMAN SPIRIT</h1> + +<p class="c sp large"><i>The Meaning and Relations of Sculpture,<br> +Painting, Poetry and Music</i></p> + +<p class="c sp p3"><span class="less">A Handbook of Eight Lectures<br> +By</span><br> +<span class="large">EDWARD HOWARD GRIGGS</span></p> + +<hr class="r5"> + +<p class="c sp">NEW YORK<br> +<span class="large">B. W. HUEBSCH</span><br> +1908 +</p> +<hr class="full"> + + +<div class="chapter"> +<p class="c sp less p3"> +<span class="smcap">Copyright, 1908<br> +<span class="mid">BY</span><br> +Edward Howard Griggs</span> +</p> +</div> + +<hr class="full"> + +<p>“I believe in God, Mozart, and Beethoven, and in their disciples and +apostles; I believe in the Holy Ghost and the truth of Art—one and +indivisible; I believe that this art proceeds from God and dwells in the +hearts of all enlightened men; I believe that whoever has revelled in the +glorious joys of this high art must be forever devoted to it and can never +repudiate it; I believe that all may become blessed through this art, and +that therefore it is permitted to any one to die of hunger for its sake; I +believe that I shall become most happy through death; I believe that I +have been on earth a discordant chord, that shall be made harmonious +and clear by death. I believe in a last judgment, that shall fearfully +damn all those who have dared on this earth to make profit out of this +chaste and holy art—who have disgraced it and dishonored it through +badness of heart and the coarse instincts of sensuality; I believe that +such men will be condemned to hear their own music through all eternity. +I believe, on the other hand, that the true disciples of pure art +will be glorified in a divine atmosphere of sun-illumined, fragrant concords, +and united eternally with the divine source of all harmony. And +may a merciful lot be granted me! Amen!”</p> + +<p>—Wagner, in “<i>An End in Paris</i>,” <i>Art Life and Theories</i>, p. 90.</p> + + +<hr class="full"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p class="ph2">INDEX</p> +</div> + +<table> + +<tr> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdl"></td> + <td class="tdr"><span class="more">PAGE</span></td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdl">Note: Spirit of the Course</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#c1">7</a></td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdr">1.</td> + <td class="tdl">The Expression and Interpretation of Human Life in Art</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#c2">9</a></td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdr">2.</td> + <td class="tdl">The Primitive Sources of Art</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#c3">14</a></td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdr">3.</td> + <td class="tdl">The Race, the Epoch and the Individual in Art</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#c4">19</a></td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdr">4.</td> + <td class="tdl">The Meaning and Function of Sculpture and Painting</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#c5">24</a></td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdr">5.</td> + <td class="tdl">The Meaning and Function of Music</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#c6">29</a></td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdr">6.</td> + <td class="tdl">The Meaning and Function of Poetry</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#c7">35</a></td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdr">7.</td> + <td class="tdl">Literature and Liberal Culture</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#c8">40</a></td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdr">8.</td> + <td class="tdl">Beauty and the Culture of the Spirit</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#c9">45</a></td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdl">Suggestions to Students</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#c10">50</a></td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdl">Book List</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#c11">51</a></td></tr> + +</table> + +<hr class="full"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="c1">SPIRIT OF THE COURSE</h2> +</div> + + +<p><span class="dropcap">T</span>HERE is evident in our country to-day a great turning of energy +to the higher interests of human life, especially to the fine arts. +Apparently some part of the enthusiasm and youthful power +that has built so wonderful a material civilization is now set free for +the pursuit of beauty and wisdom. We send our students far and wide +to the schools and galleries of the old world; we build art museums in +all our cities, and cultivate music with a new earnestness. Unfortunately +the noble promise in this awakening is hampered by grave misconceptions +as to the meaning of art in relation to the human spirit. +Widely, among high and low alike, art is regarded as a pleasant adornment +of life, worth seeking after the serious business of our existence is +fulfilled, but quite dispensable meantime. Others—well-meaning people—hold +art to be justified only by some obvious moral teaching it +conveys. In reaction against this view and as a result of the difficult +technical problems art presents, many artists fall into the equally +unfortunate error of regarding art as primarily an exhibition of skill, +interpreting “art for art’s sake” to mean art for technique’s sake.</p> + +<p>There is no hope of giving art the place it should occupy in our +culture until these errors have been overcome. We must learn that +art is serious business, that beauty is the most useful thing we know, +and that art is not for adornment’s sake, or preaching’s sake, or art’s +sake, but that it is for <i>life’s sake</i>.</p> + +<p>The aim of this course is, therefore, to consider as fully and searchingly +as possible the place and meaning of the fine arts in relation to +the spirit of man. We shall study first the unity of the arts, their +expression and interpretation in common of the universal elements of +human experience. Then the historic sources of the arts and the great +forces that determine the specific characteristics of a masterpiece will<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</span> +be studied. The heart of the course will be an effort to define the particular +meaning and function of each of the arts, the way in which it +can express and interpret some phase of the common human life more +effectively than any other. Finally, the work will close with a study +of the ministry of the arts to man’s spirit and their place in culture.</p> + +<p>If art is for life’s sake for the appreciative student, even more is it so +for the creative artist. If often the lesser men have lived to paint, or +carve, or write, or sing, the great masters have ever found art a way of +life, have painted, carved, written, sung, <i>to live</i>,—that through creative +expression in art they might grow up into the fullness of their own potential +humanity. Thus it is necessary that every one should be an +artist in this high sense of the word; and if that is impossible in what +we call the fine arts, it is possible in the finest of all, the one supreme +art of living. The need is, not that beauty should be added artificially +to daily life, but that life itself, in work, relationship and environment, +should be made a fine art. That this study may help a little to that +end and so add something of the joy that comes from supreme beauty, +redeeming the commonplace detail of life by clothing it with a transfiguring +atmosphere and exalting the spirit to a place where a serene +vision of life in relation is possible, is the hope with which the work is +undertaken.</p> +<hr class="full"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="c2">I. THE EXPRESSION AND INTERPRETATION<br> +OF HUMAN LIFE IN ART</h2> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Art is the adequate and harmonious expression and interpretation of +some phase of man’s life in true relation to the whole.</p> + +<p>—Edward Howard Griggs.</p> +</div> + + +<p><b>Purpose of the course.</b>—To consider the whole meaning of the fine +arts; the relations they sustain to each other; the sources from +which they spring; their two-fold relation to the human spirit,—as expressing +and interpreting life and as contributing to the higher culture +of man. The need and value of such study to-day, especially in +America.</p> + +<p><b>Popular superstitions in relation to art.</b>—Misconceptions met on the +threshold of our study: (1) The notion that art is a dispensable luxury, +to be cultivated as an adornment of life after our serious business is +accomplished. Prevalence of this error in the mind of the general +public; among those who regard themselves as polite society. The +artist’s bitter protest against this attitude in all epochs: compare Carlyle; +Goethe.</p> + +<p>(2) The notion prevailing in the minds of many good people that art +is justified only by the moral lessons it teaches. Goethe’s view that this +destroys the artist’s vocation. The ethical significance of true art +organically in it, not tacked on in an Æsop’s fable moral at the end.</p> + +<p>(3) In reaction against the second error, one prevailing in the minds +of many artists below the highest rank: the notion that art is for the +sake merely of exhibiting technical skill in the mastery of difficulties. +Causes of this error.</p> + +<p>Essential that these three misconceptions should be corrected before +art can assume its rightful place in relation to our life. Our first questions +therefore: What is art, and what relation does it sustain to the +spirit of man?</p> + +<p><b>Unity and variety in art.</b>—Bewildering diversity of works of art: +compare in the same art; in different arts. Thus difficulty of gathering +all in a common statement. Yet the fact that we may appreciate all, +indicating a common basis. The arts, moreover, springing from one +historical source; while possible for the most highly developed works<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</span> +of art in different fields to produce the same dominant impression. +Illustrate in the groups of men who are brothers across the centuries. +The source of this unity in all art the expression everywhere of the +same universal basis of human life.</p> + +<p>The simple, generic elements of life as always expressed in art through +the medium of personality. Thus true art ever fresh and vital—a new +equation of old forces. Compare Homer’s <i>Odyssey</i> and Stephen Phillip’s +<i>Ulysses</i>.</p> + +<p>Not all expression art. The conditioning principles of adequacy and +harmony of expression distinguishing true art from what fails to rise to +its plane. The further principle that the part must be treated in sound +relation to the whole of human life. Compare in the portrayal of moral +evil. What distinguishes Dante and Shakespeare from the vicious type +of novel in such portrayal.</p> + +<p><b>Interpretation of life.</b>—All expression involving as well some measure +of interpretation; that is, all art inevitably ideal as well as real in the +presentation of life and nature. Compare even in amateur photography: +how there is inevitably selection of material and point of view. Compare +in the novel that attempts merely a realistic portraiture of life. +How even the selection of the part of the material out of the whole and +the adoption of a view-point in its treatment, bringing certain elements +into the foreground and subordinating others in the background, means +putting life and nature through the transmuting spectrum of the +artist’s spirit in expressing them.</p> + +<p><b>Further elements of idealism.</b>—Raising life to a higher plane of expression +than is usual in the real world: compare the characters of +Shakespeare; the paintings of Corot and Millet.</p> + +<p>The tendency in art to carry the laws of life out full circle, thus giving +an ethical completeness wanting in actual life.</p> + +<p>The addition of a unifying and interpreting atmosphere. Compare +in Titian; Beethoven; Dante.</p> + +<p><b>The definition of art.</b>—Summing up of all the aspects developed in +the relation of art to the human spirit: thus the inclusive definition.</p> + +<p>Hence the serious business of art. The relation of the beautiful to +the useful. The meaning of art in the life of man.</p> + + +<p class="c p1">ILLUSTRATIONS</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“The useful encourages itself; for the multitude produce it, and no +one can dispense with it: the beautiful must be encouraged; for few +can set it forth, and many need it.”</p> + +<p>—Goethe, <i>Wilhelm Meister</i>, translated by Carlyle (A. C. McClurg & +Co., 1890), vol. 2, p. 129.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</span></p> +<p class="p1">“I do not object to a dramatic poet having a moral influence in view; +but when the point is to bring his subject clearly and effectively before +his audience, his moral purpose proves of little use, and he needs much +more a faculty for delineation and a familiarity with the stage to know +what to do and what to leave undone. If there be a moral in the subject, +it will appear, and the poet has nothing to consider but the effective +and artistic treatment of his subject. If the poet has as high a soul as +Sophocles, his influence will always be moral, let him do what he will.”</p> + +<p>—Goethe, <i>Conversations with Eckermann and Soret</i>, p. 228.</p> + +<p class="p1">“The praiseworthy object of pursuing everywhere moral good as the +supreme aim, which has already brought forth in art so much mediocrity, +has caused also in theory a similar prejudice. To assign to the +fine arts a really elevated position, to conciliate for them the favour of +the State, the veneration of all men, they are pushed beyond their true +domain, and a vocation is imposed upon them contrary to their nature. +It is supposed that a great service is awarded them by substituting for a +frivolous aim,—that of charming—a moral aim; and their influence upon +morality, which is so apparent, necessarily militates in favour of this +pretension.”</p> + +<p>—Schiller, <i>Essays Æsthetical and Philosophical</i>, pp. 361, 362.</p> + +<p class="p1">“Just as the sun cannot shed its light but to the eye that sees it, nor +music sound but to the hearing ear, so the value of all masterly work in +art and science is conditioned by the kinship and capacity of the mind +to which it speaks. It is only such a mind as this that possesses the +magic word to stir and call forth the spirits that lie hidden in great work. +To the ordinary mind a masterpiece is a sealed cabinet of mystery,—an +unfamiliar musical instrument from which the player, however much he +may flatter himself, can draw none but confused tones. How different +a painting looks when seen in a good light, instead of in some dark corner! +Just in the same way, the impression made by a masterpiece varies +with the capacity of the mind to understand it.”</p> + +<p>—Schopenhauer, <i>The Art of Literature</i>, p. 94.</p> + +<p class="p1">“From the combined effort of the two schools of criticism, guardians +of public tranquillity, there results a salutary reaction. This reaction +has already produced some specimens of poets,—steady, well-bred, +prudent, whose style always keeps good hours; who never indulge in +an outing with those mad creatures, Ideas; who are never met at the +corner of a wood, <i>solus cum solâ</i>, with Reverie, that gypsy girl; who are +incapable of having relations either with Imagination, dangerous vagabond, +or with the bacchante Inspiration, or with the grisette Fancy; +who have never in their lives given a kiss to that beggarly chit, the Muse; +who never sleep away from home, and who are honored with the esteem +of their door-keeper, Nicholas Boileau. If Polyhymnia goes by with +her hair floating a little, what a scandal! Quick! they call the hairdresser. +M. de la Harpe comes hastily. These two sister schools of +criticism, that of the doctrinaire and that of the sacristan, undertake to +educate. They bring up little writers. They keep a place to wean +them,—a boarding-school for juvenile reputations.”</p> + +<p>—Victor Hugo, <i>William Shakespeare</i>, pp. 208, 209.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</span></p> +<p class="p1">“The passions, whether violent or not, must never be carried in their +expression to the verge of disgust, and music, even in the most awful +situations, must not offend the ear, but always please.”</p> + +<p>—Mozart, in Kerst, <i>Mozart: The Man and the Artist</i>, pp. 34, 35.</p> + +<p class="p1">“He was a good man and on that very account, a great man. For +when a good man is gifted with talent, he always works morally for the +salvation of the world, as poet, philosopher, artist, or in whatever way +it may be.”</p> + +<p>—Goethe, <i>Conversations with Eckermann and Soret</i>, p. 364.</p> + +<p class="p1">“The historical painter also must take good care, if he would not produce +a caricature, even in subjects of an action moved by passion, not to +give every one of his figures the sharply imprinted expression of an emotion. +Thus, Orcagna, in his <i>Last Judgment</i> (in the <i>Campo santo</i> at +Pisa), represents with fearful truthfulness, and in a most startling manner, +on the side of the damned, terrified surprise, horror, lamentation +and despair; but for all that it would be but a crowd of people making +faces if the artist did not contrast it with the uniformly tranquil, +radiant joy on the faces of the saved, and the solemn gravity of the patriarchs +and prophets. In Leonardo da Vinci’s <i>Last Supper</i> is placed +by the side of the violent gesticulations and excited looks of some of the +apostles, in well-calculated contrasting relief, the composed demeanor +of others, especially of the one sitting at the right of the beholder at the +end of the table, but particularly the divinely mild gravity and the sorrowful +resignation of the principal figure in the middle. Even in the +most tumultuous of all historical pictures, the celebrated Pompeian +mosaic picture of Alexander’s battle, the universal horror at the fall of +the commander-in-chief is <i>completely</i> portrayed only in some figures.”</p> + +<p>—Ambros, <i>The Boundaries of Music and Poetry</i>, pp. 56, 57.</p> + +<p class="p1">“Beauty results from the harmony between spirit and sense; it addresses +all the faculties of man, and can only be appreciated if a man +employs fully all his strength. He must bring to it an open sense, a +broad heart, a spirit full of freshness. All a man’s nature must be on +the alert, and this is not the case with those divided by abstraction, narrowed +by formulas, enervated by application.”</p> + +<p>—Schiller, <i>Essays Æsthetical and Philosophical</i>, p. 330.</p> + +<p class="p1">“A masterpiece exists once for all. The first poet who arrives, arrives +at the summit. You shall ascend after him, as high, not higher. Ah! +Your name is Dante? Very well; but he who sits yonder is named +Homer!”</p> + +<p>—Victor Hugo, <i>William Shakespeare</i>, p. 101.</p> + +<p class="p1">“The unpoetical lover of art, ensconced in his burgess-like comfort, is +apt to take offence at any part of a poetical work which entails trouble +on him, such as the solution, colouring or concealment of a problem. +The somnolent reader wants everything to pursue its natural course, +little imagining in his obstinate conceit how the extraordinary may also +be natural.”</p> + +<p>—Goethe, <i>Travels in Italy</i>, p. 466.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</span></p> + + +<p class="c p1 sp">TOPICS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION</p> + +<p>1. What is common and universal in the subject-matter of the fine +arts?</p> + +<p>2. Compare Homer’s <i>Odyssey</i> and the <i>Ulysses</i> of Stephen Phillips as +artistic treatments of the same theme.</p> + +<p>3. Can you discover a musical composition and a work in painting +that produce the same dominant impression with the <i>Agamemnon +Trilogy</i> of Æschylus?</p> + +<p>4. Can you find a type of poetry and of painting akin in impression to +the music of Chopin?</p> + +<p>5. What makes possible our common appreciation of works of art in +widely different fields and coming from remotely separated races +and epochs?</p> + +<p>6. Explain how all the characters of Shakespeare can speak such +beautiful poetry, and yet Shakespeare be regarded as the great +realist in the portrayal of life.</p> + +<p>7. What relation do the paintings of Corot sustain to Nature?</p> + +<p>8. How far may moral disease wisely be portrayed in art?</p> + +<p>9. Show what is necessary to make expression truly artistic.</p> + +<p>10. Formulate your own definition of art.</p> + + +<p class="c p1">REFERENCES</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Note</span>: See Book List, pp. 51-57, for publisher and place and date +of publication of all books referred to.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Ambros, <i>Boundaries of Music and Poetry</i>. Carpenter, <i>Angels’ Wings</i>. +Corson, <i>Aims of Literary Study</i>. Crawshaw, <i>Literary Interpretation of +Life</i>. Emerson, <i>Art</i> (in <i>Essays, first series</i>, pp. 325-343); <i>Art</i> (in +<i>Society and Solitude</i>, pp. 39-59). Hand, <i>Æsthetics of Musical Art</i>. Hugo, +<i>William Shakespeare</i>. Knight, <i>The Philosophy of the Beautiful</i>. Lanier, +<i>Music and Poetry</i>. Leighton, <i>Addresses</i>. Lewes, <i>Principles of Success in +Literature</i>. Mabie, <i>Short Studies in Literature</i>. Parry, <i>The Evolution of +the Art of Music</i>. Partridge, <i>Art for America</i>. Raymond, <i>Art in Theory</i>; +<i>Essentials of Æsthetics</i>. Ruskin, <i>Lectures on Art</i>; <i>Modern Painters</i>; <i>The +Two Paths</i>. Schiller, <i>Essays</i>. Schopenhauer, <i>The Art of Literature</i>. +Shairp, <i>Aspects of Poetry</i>. Stedman, <i>Nature and Elements of Poetry</i>. +Tolstoy, <i>What is Art?</i> Van Dyke, <i>How to Judge of a Picture</i>; <i>Principles +of Art</i>. Wagner, <i>Art Life and Theories of</i>. Wilde, <i>The Critic as Artist</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</span></p> +</div> + + +<hr class="full"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h2 class="nobreak" id="c3">II. THE PRIMITIVE SOURCES OF ART</h2> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“The secret, mysterious relations of the human heart to the strange +nature around it, have not yet come to an end. In its eloquent silence, +this latter still speaks to the heart just as it did a thousand years ago; +and what was told in the very gray of antiquity is understood to-day as +easily as then. For this reason it is that the legend of nature ever remains +the inexhaustible resource of the poet in his intercourse with his +people.”</p> + +<p>—Wagner, in “Der Freischütz in Paris,” <i>Art Life and Theories</i>, p. 99.</p> +</div> + + +<p><b>Evolution of the arts.</b>—The primitive hymns sung in honor of a God +and accompanied by interpretative dancing. How the various fine arts +are differentiated from this historic basis. The same law of evolution +applying to all expressions of life evident in the arts. A generic unity +in the primitive basis, sometimes wanting in the later differentiated +forms.</p> + +<p><b>The original inspiration of art.</b>—Significance in the fact that all art +springs first from religion. Profound seriousness of early art. This +religious earnestness persisting in all great art. Thus deep meaning in +the primitive sources from which art springs.</p> + +<p><b>The character of early art.</b>—Antecedent to written literature a great +storehouse of popular thought, feeling and imagination which we call +mythology. The process by which this is developed, accumulated and +handed down from generation to generation. Value of the product as +a condensed and refined result of long ages of human life. Compare in +value with great literary masterpieces produced by individual geniuses.</p> + +<p>Vitality of mythology, due to the closeness of primitive man to +Nature and the simple things of human life. Evidence in the spontaneous +metaphorical character of all early language: Illustrations.</p> + +<p>The truth in mythology, due to a sound reaction on the world. Contrast +the truth of incident with the truth of character. Aristotle’s view +of poetry as truer than history. The true and the false fairy-tale: a +mere jumble of adventure contrasted with a portrayal of character +naturally unfolding in relation to circumstance and law.</p> + +<p>Universality of mythology. The few, great, simple elements that +make up human life in all times and places. Tendency to hark back +to these from the conventions and artificialities of civilization. Constant +expression of these in primitive art: compare the Brunhild story.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</span> +Thus ethical depth in all the gathered-up result of early life. Simple +but clear recognition of the great laws of life.</p> + +<p>Natural but inevitable art in the great expressions of early life. +Characteristics of that art in comparison with the form of later masterpieces.</p> + +<p><b>The ethical value of mythology.</b>—The moral plane of primitive life +in comparison with later civilization. Thus elements in mythology +below the level of our ethical standards of to-day. Yet moral development +proceeding not only from the lower to the higher, but from the +simple to the complex. Compare the complication of ethical situations +and standards in our life. Difficulty in distinguishing good and evil. +Expression of this in Ibsen and Goethe. Contrasting simplicity of +primitive mythology: its simple and clear opposition of good and evil. +Usual representation of good as conquering. Illustrations in both +Greek and northern legends. Thus mythology presenting the basal +moral principles that should be clearly recognized before the literature +is studied that portrays the ethical subtleties and complications +of modern life.</p> + +<p>A further ethical element in primitive mythology: good not always +conquering; but when defeated, going down with colors flying, thus +making of defeat the noblest of moral victories. Compare in the +Prometheus legend; the story of Beowulf.</p> + +<p><b>The relation of mythology to later art.</b>—The need of the late artist +to saturate himself in the springs of the race life: compare in Tennyson +and Wagner. The use of mythology and religion in Greek sculpture; +Renaissance painting; poetry; music.</p> + +<p><b>Important types of primitive material.</b>—The three sources of early +material drawn from most largely by European art: (1) Hebraic +stories; (2) Greek and Latin mythology; (3) Norse legends. The complementary +character of these three bodies of material. The Hebraic +stories as presenting the deepest recognition of moral law and purpose. +Greek mythology as beautiful and artistic. Norse stories as most +deeply human and at the same time the ethnic background from which +our art springs.</p> + +<p>Thus the value of primitive mythology and religion: (1) as sources of +later art; (2) as inspiration of art to-day; (3) as valuable permanently +in education.</p> + + +<p class="c p1">ILLUSTRATIONS</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“Art rests upon a kind of religious sense: it is deeply and ineradicably +in earnest. Thus it is that Art so willingly goes hand in hand with +Religion.”</p> + +<p>—Goethe, <i>Maxims and Reflections</i>, p. 174.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</span></p> +<p class="p1">“The essence of the Scandinavian, as indeed of all pagan mythologies, +we found to be recognition of the divineness of nature; sincere communion +of man with the mysterious invisible powers visibly seen at work +in the world round him. This, I should say, is more sincerely done in +the Scandinavian than in any mythology I know. Sincerity is the +great character of it. Superior sincerity (far superior) consoles us for +the total want of old Grecian grace. Sincerity, I think, is better than +grace. I feel that these old northmen were looking into nature with +open eye and soul most earnest, honest; childlike, and yet manlike; with +a great-hearted simplicity and depth and freshness, in a true, loving, admiring, +unfearing way.”</p> + +<p>—Carlyle, <i>Heroes and Hero-Worship</i>, p. 30.</p> + +<p class="p1">“When imagination incessantly escapes from reality, and does not +abandon the simplicity of nature in its wanderings: then and then only +the mind and the senses, the receptive force and the plastic force, are +developed in that happy equilibrium which is the soul of the beautiful +and the condition of humanity.”</p> + +<p>—Schiller, <i>Essays Æsthetical and Philosophical</i>, p. 106.</p> + +<p class="p1">“The law of simplicity and naïvety holds good of all fine art; for it is +quite possible to be at once simple and sublime.”</p> + +<p>—Schopenhauer, <i>The Art of Literature</i>, p. 31.</p> + +<p class="p1">“To speak out once for all, man only plays when in the full meaning +of the word he is a man, and <i>he is only completely a man when he plays</i>.”</p> + +<p>—Schiller, <i>Essays Æsthetical and Philosophical</i>, p. 71.</p> + +<p class="p1">“Ah!—if you would and could but hear and see our <i>true</i> Freischütz,—you +might feel the anxiety that now oppresses me, in the form of a +friendly appreciation on your own part of the peculiarity of that spiritual +life, which belongs to the German nation as a birthright; you would +look kindly upon the silent attraction that draws the German away +from the life of his large cities,—wretched and clumsily imitative of +foreign influences, as it is,—and takes him back to nature; attracts him +to the solitude of the forests, that he may there re-awaken those emotions +for which your language has not even a word,—but which those mystic, +clear tones of our Weber explain to us as thoroughly as your exquisite +decorations and enervating music must make them lifeless and irrecognizable +for you.”</p> + +<p>—Wagner, in “Der Freischütz in Paris,” <i>Art Life and Theories</i>, pp. +106, 107.</p> + +<p class="p1">“You remember the fancy of Plato’s, of a man who had grown to +maturity in some dark distance, and was brought on a sudden into the +upper air to see the sun rise. What would his wonder be, his rapt astonishment +at the sight we daily witness with indifference! With the +free open sense of a child, yet with the ripe faculty of a man, his whole +heart would be kindled by that sight, he would discern it well to be godlike, +his soul would fall down in worship before it. Now, just such a +childlike greatness was in the primitive nations. The first pagan +thinker among rude men, the first man that began to think, was precisely<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</span> +this child-man of Plato’s. Simple, open as a child, yet with the +depth and strength of a man. Nature had as yet no name to him; he +had not yet united under a name the infinite variety of sights, sounds, +shapes and motions, which we now collectively name universe, nature, +or the like,—and so with a name dismiss it from us. To the wild deep-hearted +man all was yet new, not veiled under names or formulas; it +stood naked, flashing-in on him there, beautiful, awful, unspeakable. +Nature was to this man, what to the thinker and prophet it forever is, +<i>preter</i>-natural. This green flowery rock-built earth, the trees, the mountains, +rivers, many-sounding seas;—that great deep sea of azure that +swims overhead; the wind sweeping through it; the black cloud fashioning +itself together, now pouring out fire, now hail and rain; what <i>is</i> it? +Ay, what? At bottom we do not yet know; we can never know at all. +It is not by our superior insight that we escape the difficulty; it is by our +superior levity, our inattention, our <i>want</i> of insight. It is by <i>not</i> thinking +that we cease to wonder at it. Hardened round us, encasing wholly +every notion we form, is a wrappage of traditions, hearsays; mere <i>words</i>. +We call that fire of the black thunder cloud “electricity,” and lecture +learnedly about it, and grind the like of it out of glass and silk; but <i>what</i> +is it? What made it? Whence comes it? Whither goes it? Science +has done much for us; but it is a poor science that would hide from us +the great deep sacred infinitude of Nescience, whither we can never +penetrate, on which all science swims as a mere superficial film. This +world, after all our science and sciences, is still a miracle; wonderful, inscrutable, +<i>magical</i> and more, to whosoever will <i>think</i> of it.”</p> + +<p>—Carlyle, <i>Heroes and Hero-Worship</i>, pp. 7, 8.</p> +</div> + + +<p class="c sp p1">TOPICS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION</p> + +<p>1. Compare, in ethical vitality and artistic beauty, primitive mythology +and later masterpieces.</p> + +<p>2. To what extent do the different arts depend upon primitive mythology +and religion as sources for their material?</p> + +<p>3. What is the relative value, for the understanding of European art, +of Greek and Norse mythology?</p> + +<p>4. Compare, in ethical vitality and artistic beauty, Tennyson’s <i>Passing +of Arthur</i> and the concluding portion of <i>Beowulf</i>.</p> + +<p>5. Why is the late artist led so frequently to saturate himself with the +expressions of early life?</p> + +<p>6. What is the relative ethical value of Hebrew stories and Norse +myths?</p> + +<p>7. From what early sources does Renaissance painting chiefly draw?</p> + +<p>8. Compare the ethical plane in Greek and Norse mythology with that +achieved in later civilization.</p> + +<p>9. From what historic sources does English poetry chiefly draw?</p> + +<p>10. What is the value of primitive mythology for the education of +children?</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</span></p> + + +<p class="c p1">REFERENCES</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Anderson, <i>Norse Mythology</i>; <i>The Younger Edda</i>. Brown, <i>The Fine +Arts</i>. Bulfinch, <i>The Age of Chivalry</i>; <i>The Age of Fable</i>. Carlyle, <i>The +Hero as Divinity</i>. Cox, <i>Introduction to the Science of Comparative +Mythology</i>; <i>The Mythology of the Aryan Nations</i>. Donaldson, <i>Theatre of +the Greeks</i>. Fairbanks, <i>The Mythology of Greece and Rome</i>. Gayley, +<i>Classic Myths in English Literature</i>. Goldziher, <i>Mythology among the +Hebrews</i>. Grosse, <i>The Beginnings of Art</i>. Guerber, <i>Myths of Greece +and Rome</i>; <i>Myths of Northern Lands</i>. Gummere, <i>The Beginnings of +Poetry</i>; <i>Handbook of Poetics</i>. Mabie, <i>Short Studies in Literature</i>. +Malory, <i>Le Morte Darthur</i>. Parry, <i>The Evolution of the Art of Music</i>. +Posnett, <i>Comparative Literature</i>. Shairp, <i>Poetic Interpretation of Nature</i>. +Wagner, <i>Art Life and Theories of</i>.</p> +</div> +<hr class="full"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="c4">III. THE RACE, THE EPOCH AND THE<br> +INDIVIDUAL IN ART</h2> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“We live in this world only that we may go onward without ceasing, a +peculiar help in this direction being that one enlightens the other by +communicating his ideas; in the sciences and fine arts there is always +more to learn.”</p> + +<p>—Mozart, in Kerst, <i>Mozart: The Man and the Artist</i>, p. 89.</p> +</div> + + +<p><b>Determining forces behind art.</b>—So far we have considered the great +common sources of art; now to turn to the causes giving unique characteristics +to each work of art.</p> + +<p><b>The personal element.</b>—In art the great common basis of human life +expressed only through the medium of personality; thus the character +and experience of the artist always revealed in the work, and molding +it. Compare Mozart and Beethoven in music; Fra Angelico and Fra +Lippo Lippi in painting.</p> + +<p>Compare Tennyson’s <i>Crossing the Bar</i> and Browning’s <i>Epilogue to +Asolando</i>. Differences in imagery, music, type of thought and feeling, +general view of life. Yet these two poems coming from the same time +and race. Complete revelation of Tennyson and Browning in these +fragments.</p> + +<p>Relation of the material given in biography to the self-confession in +art. Compare the revelation of Andrea del Sarto in the traditional +biography and in his painting. The expression of Chopin’s personality +and experience in his music. Revelation of the artist even when the +work is most objective and dramatic in character. Compare how it is +possible to find Shakespeare behind his dramas.</p> + +<p>The development of the artist revealed where works come from different +periods of his life. Illustrations in Goethe, Wagner, Shakespeare; +in the early and late <i>Pietà</i> of Michael Angelo.</p> + +<p><b>The epoch.</b>—The forces of the time always molding the spirit of the +individual artist. The epoch a complex of many forces, yet out of +them a true “time-spirit” created. Effect of internal changes in a +land; of the reception of foreign stimulus; of the natural growth and +decay of the forces of life.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</span></p> + +<p>Different types of epoch: in production and preparation, faith and +doubt, creation and criticism. The artist inevitably influenced by the +spirit of the age, whether conscious of the fact or not. The two contrasting +types of relation the artist may sustain to his time. Compare +Emerson in relation to America’s civilization; Fra Angelico as an +expression of the Renaissance. So compare Dante as a voice of the +middle ages; Leonardo da Vinci in relation to the Renaissance. The +common spirit in the Elizabethan dramatists. Wagner’s operas as an +embodiment of modern life. Significance of the two dominant motives +in modern painting.</p> + +<p>Possible further to trace the development of an epoch through the +art in which it is expressed. The half-circle through which every productive +epoch tends to pass. This due to the birth, maturing and +decay of the forces influencing life. Contrasting tendencies in the +artists appearing on the upward and on the downward slope. Illustrations +in Elizabethan drama and Renaissance painting.</p> + +<p><b>The race.</b>—The epoch but a moment in the life of a people. As the +time-spirit finds varying expression in the different artists in which it is +clothed, so the deeper, organic life of a race as beneath all the epochs +characterizing its unfolding. Evidence in the fact that each race is +apt to find its highest expression in one art. Compare sculpture in +Greece; painting in Italy; music in Germany; the drama in England. +Similarly every expression of a race revealing its spirit. Compare the +coloring in Dutch and Italian painting; nature-imagery in English and +Italian poetry.</p> + +<p>Possible also to trace the development of a race through its artistic +expression. The life of a race as comparable to a great on-flowing +stream with rise and fall, ever deepening and enlarging as the race +develops. Compare in the development of English literature. Elements +which persist under all the changes. Compare Tennyson’s <i>Passing +of Arthur</i> and the closing portion of <i>Beowulf</i>.</p> + +<p>Thus the least fragment of art embodying the spirit of the artist, the +deeper life of the epoch, the still more fundamental characteristics of +the race, while beneath all are the great, universal tendencies of +humanity.</p> + + +<p class="c p1">ILLUSTRATIONS</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“The most profound erudition is no more akin to genius than a collection +of dried plants is like Nature, with its constant flow of new life, ever +fresh, ever young, ever changing. There are no two things more opposed +than the childish naïvety of an ancient author and the learning of +his commentator.”</p> + +<p>—Schopenhauer, <i>The Art of Literature</i>, p. 52.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</span></p> +<p class="p1">“At a distance we only hear of the first artists, and then we are often +contented with names only; but when we draw nearer to this starry sky, +and the luminaries of the second and third magnitude also begin to +twinkle, each one coming forward and occupying his proper place in the +whole constellation, then the world becomes wide, and art becomes +rich.”</p> + +<p>—Goethe, <i>Travels in Italy</i>, p. 36.</p> + +<p class="p1">“I carry my thoughts about me for a long time, often a very long time, +before I write them down; meanwhile my memory is so faithful that I +am sure never to forget, not even in years, a theme that has once occurred +to me. I change many things, discard, and try again until I am +satisfied. Then, however, there begins in my head the development in +every direction, and, inasmuch as I know exactly what I want, the fundamental +idea never deserts me,—it arises before me, grows,—I see and +hear the picture in all its extent and dimensions stand before my mind +like a cast, and there remains for me nothing but the labor of writing it +down, which is quickly accomplished when I have the time, for I sometimes +take up other work, but never to the confusion of one with the +other. You will ask me where I get my ideas. That I can not tell you +with certainty; they come unsummoned, directly, indirectly,—I could +seize them with my hands,—out in the open air; in the woods; while +walking; in the silence of the nights; early in the morning; incited by +moods, which are translated by the poet into words, by me into tones +that sound, and roar and storm about me until I have set them down in +notes.”</p> + +<p>—Beethoven, in Kerst, <i>Beethoven: The Man and the Artist</i>, p. 29.</p> + +<p class="p1">“Art has to leave reality, it has to raise itself boldly above necessity +and neediness; for art is the daughter of freedom, and it requires its +prescriptions and rules to be furnished by the necessity of spirits and +not by that of matter. But in our day it is necessity, neediness, that +prevails, and bends a degraded humanity under its iron yoke. <i>Utility</i> +is the great idol of the time, to which all powers do homage and all subjects +are subservient. In this great balance of utility, the spiritual +service of art has no weight, and, deprived of all encouragement, it +vanishes from the noisy Vanity Fair of our time. The very spirit of +philosophical inquiry itself robs the imagination of one promise after +another, and the frontiers of art are narrowed, in proportion as the limits +of science are enlarged.”</p> + +<p>—Schiller, <i>Essays Æsthetical and Philosophical</i>, pp. 27, 28.</p> + +<p class="p1">“People always fancy that we must become old to become wise; but, +in truth, as years advance, it is hard to keep ourselves as wise as we were. +Man becomes, indeed, in the different stages of his life, a different being; +but he cannot say that he is a better one, and, in certain matters, he is +as likely to be right in his twentieth, as in his sixtieth year.</p> + +<p>“We see the world one way from a plain, another way from the heights +of a promontory, another from the glacier fields of the primary mountains. +We see, from one of these points, a larger piece of the world than +from the other; but that is all, and we cannot say that we see more +truly from any one than from the rest. When a writer leaves monuments +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</span>on the different steps of his life, it is chiefly important that he +should have an innate foundation and goodwill; that he should, at each +step, have seen and felt clearly, and that, without any secondary aims, +he should have said distinctly and truly what has passed in his mind. +Then will his writings, if they were right at the step where they originated, +remain always right, however the writer may develop or alter +himself in after times.”</p> + +<p>—Goethe, <i>Conversations with Eckermann and Soret</i>, p. 512.</p> + +<p class="p1">“That which distinguishes genius, and should be the standard for +judging it, is the height to which it is able to soar when it is in the proper +mood and finds a fitting occasion—a height always out of the reach of +ordinary talent.”</p> + +<p>—Schopenhauer, <i>The Art of Literature</i>, p. 88.</p> + +<p>“It seems as though purely human feeling, grown stronger by its very +repression on the side of conventional civilization, had sought out a +means of bringing into use some laws of language peculiar to itself, by +means of which it could express itself intelligibly, freed from the trammels +of logical rules of thought. The extraordinary popularity of music +in our age, the ever-increasing participation (extending through all +classes of society) in the production of music of the deepest character, +the growing desire to make of musical culture a necessary part of every +education,—all these things which are certainly obvious and undeniable, +distinctly prove the justice of the assumption that a deep-rooted +and earnest need of humanity finds expression in modern musical development; +and that music, unintelligible as its language is when tried +by the laws of logic, must bear within it a more convincing means of +making itself understood, than even those laws contain.”</p> + +<p>—Wagner, in “The Music of the Future,” <i>Art Life and Theories</i>, +p. 159.</p> +</div> + + +<p class="c p1 sp">TOPICS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION</p> + +<p>1. What different types of relationship may artists sustain to the world +in which they live?</p> + +<p>2. Show how Tennyson and Browning are revealed respectively in +<i>Crossing the Bar</i> and the <i>Epilogue to Asolando</i>.</p> + +<p>3. Compare Michael Angelo’s two interpretations of the same theme +at opposite ends of his artistic career: the <i>Pietà</i> of St. Peter’s in +Rome, and the <i>Pietà</i> of the Cathedral in Florence.</p> + +<p>4. Compare English and Italian poetry in nature-imagery.</p> + +<p>5. What relation does landscape painting sustain to the spirit of our +time?</p> + +<p>6. In what ways are the tendencies of modern civilization expressed +in Wagner’s operas?</p> + +<p>7. Through what type of movement does a creative period tend to +pass, and why?</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</span></p> + +<p>8. What relation does sculpture sustain to the other arts in Greece?</p> + +<p>9. What makes the Elizabethan drama the best expression of Anglo-Saxon +genius?</p> + +<p>10. Show how the development of a race may be traced through its +artistic expressions.</p> + +<p>11. Show the common racial tendencies in Tennyson’s <i>Passing of +Arthur</i> and the closing portion of <i>Beowulf</i>.</p> + + +<p class="c p1">REFERENCES</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Bascom, <i>Philosophy of English Literature</i>. Carlyle, <i>The Hero as +Divinity</i>. Carpenter, <i>Angels’ Wings</i>. Crawshaw, <i>Literary Interpretation +of Life</i>. Engel, <i>Introduction to the Study of National Music</i>. Goethe, +<i>Conversations with Eckermann</i>; <i>Travels in Italy</i>. Hugo, <i>William Shakespeare</i>. +Kerst, <i>Beethoven</i>; <i>Mozart</i>. Lanier, <i>Music and Poetry</i>. Leighton, +<i>Addresses</i>. Mabie, <i>Books and Culture</i>; <i>Short Studies in Literature</i>. Mach, +<i>Greek Sculpture</i>. Morris, <i>Hopes and Fears for Art</i>. Palgrave, <i>Golden +Treasury</i>. Partridge, <i>Art for America</i>. Posnett, <i>Comparative Literature</i>. +Ruskin, <i>The Two Paths</i>. Schiller, <i>Essays</i>. Schopenhauer, <i>The Art of +Literature</i>. Sturgis, <i>The Appreciation of Pictures</i>; <i>The Appreciation of +Sculpture</i>. Taine, <i>Lectures on Art</i>. Van Dyke, <i>The Meaning of Pictures</i>. +Vinci, <i>Leonardo da Vinci’s Note-Books</i>. Wagner, <i>Art Life and Theories +of</i>; <i>Beethoven</i>. Warner, <i>The Relation of Literature to Life</i>. Wilde, <i>The +Soul of Man under Socialism</i>. Witt, <i>How to Look at Pictures</i>.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</span></p> +</div> + + +<hr class="full"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h2 class="nobreak" id="c5">IV. THE MEANING AND FUNCTION OF<br> +SCULPTURE AND PAINTING</h2> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“If you know how to describe and write down the appearance of the +forms, the painter can make them so that they appear enlivened with +lights and shadows which create the very expression of the faces; herein +you cannot attain with the pen where he attains with the brush.”</p> + +<p>—Leonardo da Vinci, <i>Leonardo da Vinci’s Note-Books</i>, arranged by +Edward McCurdy, p. 159.</p> +</div> + + +<p><b>Differences among the arts.</b>—Each fine art possessing its distinctive +line of appeal. This evidenced in the fact that it is rare to find an artist, +practising one, adequately appreciating others. Tendency in artist +and student alike to see the one art from within and appreciate its significance, +the others from without and perceive their limitations. Evil +of this. Great need that the artist should saturate himself with the +material of other arts than his own. Thus need to see broadly and +impersonally the meaning and function of each art in relation to the +spirit of man and in relation to the other arts expressing the same +universal basis.</p> + +<p>The three questions: (1) What of the whole content of the human +spirit does the particular art express? (2) What is the means and +method of its expression? (3) What are its limitations?</p> + +<p>Method of answering: not by philosophic theory, but by an open +study of works of art in each field. A little first-hand study of art +better worth while than much reading of criticism.</p> + +<p>The fact of the permanence of a particular art proving that it expresses +or interprets some aspect of man’s spirit better or more easily +than any other. Compare, otherwise the art would not persist except +as novelty. Note the rise and subsidence of certain arts historically. +The reasons why mosaic work has lost the place it occupied in the days +when Ravenna’s churches were being adorned. Compare changes in +fresco painting. Significance of the permanence of sculpture, painting, +poetry and music.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of sculpture.</b>—The <i>Venus de Milo</i> as a representative +work of ancient art. What is given in this statue? Character of the +conception embodied. Method by which it is expressed. Effect on<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</span> +the beholder of the color of the marble and of the beauty of technical +execution. The deeper feelings one has in the presence of the statue. +Significance that these emotions vary with different individuals; yet, +the conception, if understood, entirely definite and embodied in defined, +permanent form. Thus the conception given, the emotions, relatively +speaking, associated.</p> + +<p>The <i>Hermes</i> of Praxiteles and the three <i>Goddesses</i> of the Parthenon. +What these express in idea and execution. Causes of the feelings they +tend to arouse in the beholder. Difference in the ancient and modern +feeling associated with such a statue as the <i>Amazon</i> of the Villa Mattei.</p> + +<p>Michael Angelo’s statues on the Medicean tombs. Comparison with +Greek sculpture in conception, execution and associated emotions.</p> + +<p>Modern work in the field of sculpture analyzed. The <i>Joan of Arc</i> of +Chapu; other characteristic work in the Luxembourg gallery. Max +Klinger’s <i>Salome</i>.</p> + +<p>Transition from sculpture to painting through relief-work. The +<i>Nymph and Infant Bacchus</i>; the bronze doors of Ghiberti.</p> + +<p><b>Painting.</b>—The Pompeian frescoes as painting in its nearest approach +to sculpture. These as presenting human figures, simply treated, with +slight background. Less complete and realistic form than in sculpture; +but vastly increased scope in both breadth and depth. Effect of the +much greater use of color.</p> + +<p>Michael Angelo’s <i>Creation of Adam</i>; his <i>Last Judgment</i>. Difference +in feelings aroused by the latter work in accordance with the training +and belief of the beholder.</p> + +<p>Raphael’s <i>Sistine Madonna</i>: the conception given; method by which +expressed. Direct emotional effect of the color used and of the grace +and beauty of execution.</p> + +<p>Characteristics of a Corot landscape: what we feel in the presence of +it as compared with what the Greeks might have felt. The interpretation +of humanity in modern art: compare in Millet, Bastien-Lepage, +Cormon. Relation of conception to emotion in such work; contrast +with the painting of the Italian Renaissance.</p> + +<p><b>Summary.</b>—What sculpture and painting are alike capable of giving +definitely. Elements common to both in method. Differences between +them. What neither is capable of achieving. Why sculpture was the +characteristic art of the ancient Greeks, painting of the Renaissance +Italians.</p> + +<p>All art appealing immediately to the senses; danger if it stops there. +The true appeal through the senses to the soul. Thus how art may +degenerate and become dangerous. The problem of Faust’s vision in +the mirror.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</span></p> + + +<p class="c p1">ILLUSTRATIONS</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“The eye, which is called the window of the soul, is the chief means +whereby the understanding may most fully and abundantly appreciate +the infinite works of nature; and the ear is the second inasmuch as it +acquires its importance from the fact that it hears the things which the +eye has seen. If you historians, or poets, or mathematicians had never +seen things with your eyes you would be ill able to describe them in your +writings. And if you, O poet, represent a story by depicting it with your +pen, the painter with his brush will so render it as to be more easily +satisfying and less tedious to understand. If you call painting ‘dumb +poetry,’ then the painter may say of the poet that his art is ‘blind +painting.’ Consider then which is the more grievous affliction, to be +blind or be dumb! Although the poet has as wide a choice of subjects +as the painter, his creations fail to afford as much satisfaction to mankind +as do paintings, for while poetry attempts with words to represent +forms, actions, and scenes, the painter employs the exact images of the +forms in order to reproduce these forms. Consider, then, which is more +fundamental to man, the name of man or his image? The name changes +with change of country; the form is unchanged except by death.”</p> + +<p>—Leonardo da Vinci, <i>Leonardo da Vinci’s Note-Books</i>, arranged by +Edward McCurdy, pp. 156, 157.</p> + +<p class="p1">“If the artist, out of ever-varying nature, can only make use of a +single moment, and the painter especially can only use this moment from +one point of view, whilst their works are intended to stand the test not +only of a passing glance, but of long and repeated contemplation, it is +clear that this moment, and the point from which this moment is +viewed, cannot be chosen with too great a regard to results. Now that +only is a happy choice which allows the imagination free scope. The +longer we gaze, the more must our imagination add; and the more our +imagination adds, the more we must believe we see. In the whole +course of an emotion there is no moment which possesses this advantage +so little as its highest stage. There is nothing beyond this; and the presentation +of extremes to the eye clips the wings of fancy, prevents her +from soaring beyond the impression of the senses, and compels her to +occupy herself with weaker images; further than these she ventures not, +but shrinks from the visible fulness of expression as her limit. Thus, if +Laokoön sighs, the imagination can hear him shriek; but if he shrieks, it +can neither rise a step higher above nor descend a step below this representation, +without seeing him in a condition which, as it will be +more endurable, becomes less interesting. It either hears him merely +moaning, or sees him already dead.</p> + +<p>“Furthermore, this single moment receives through art an unchangeable +duration; therefore it must not express anything, of which we can +think only as transitory. All appearances, to whose very being, according +to our ideas, it is essential that they suddenly break forth and +as suddenly vanish, that they can be what they are but for a moment,—all +such appearances, be they pleasing or be they horrible, receive, +through the prolongation which art gives them, such an unnatural +character, that at every repeated glance the impression they make grows<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</span> +weaker and weaker, and at last fills us with dislike or disgust of the +whole object.”</p> + +<p>—Lessing, <i>Laokoön</i>, pp. 19, 20.</p> + +<p class="p1">“It is neither charm nor is it dignity which speaks from the glorious +face of the Juno Ludovici; it is neither of these, for it is both at once. +While the female god challenges our veneration, the godlike woman at +the same time kindles our love. But while in ecstacy we give ourselves +up to the heavenly beauty, the heavenly self-repose awes us back. The +whole form rests and dwells in itself—a fully complete creation in itself—and +as if she were out of space, without advance or resistance; it shows +no force contending with force, no opening through which time could +break in. Irresistibly carried away and attracted by her womanly +charm, kept off at a distance by her godly dignity, we also find ourselves +at length in the state of the greatest repose, and the result is a wonderful +impression, for which the understanding has no idea and language no +name.”</p> + +<p>—Schiller, <i>Essays Æsthetical and Philosophical</i>, p. 72.</p> + +<p class="p1">“As practising myself the art of sculpture no less than that of painting, +and doing both the one and the other in the same degree, it seems +to me that without suspicion of unfairness I may venture to give an +opinion as to which of the two is the more intellectual, and of the greater +difficulty and perfection. In the first place sculpture is dependent on +certain lights, namely those from above, while a picture carries everywhere +with it its own light and shade; light and shade therefore are +essential to sculpture. In this respect the sculptor is aided by the +nature of the relief which produces these of its own accord, but the +painter artificially creates them by his art in places where nature would +normally do the like. The sculptor cannot render the difference in the +varying natures of the colours of objects; painting does not fail to do so +in any particular. The lines of perspective of sculptors do not seem in +any way true; those of painters may appear to extend a hundred miles +beyond the work itself.”</p> + +<p>—Leonardo da Vinci, <i>Leonardo da Vinci’s Note-Books</i>, arranged by +Edward McCurdy, pp. 160, 161.</p> + +<p class="p1">“What the artist does or has done excites in us the mood in which he +himself was when he did it. A free mood in the artist makes us free; a +constrained one makes us uncomfortable. We usually find this freedom +of the artist where he is fully equal to his subject. It is on this account +we are so pleased with Dutch pictures; the artists painted the life +around them, of which they were perfect masters. If we are to feel this +freedom of mind in an actor, he must, by study, imagination, and natural +disposition, be perfect master of his part, must have all bodily requisites +at his command, and must be upheld by a certain youthful +energy. But study is not enough without imagination, and study and +imagination together are not enough without natural disposition. +Women do the most through imagination and temperament.”</p> + +<p>—Goethe, <i>Conversations with Eckermann and Soret</i>, pp. 417, 418.</p> + +<p class="p1">“If you would have me speak only of panel painting I am content to +give an opinion between it and sculpture by saying that painting is more<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</span> +beautiful, more imaginative, and richer in resource, while sculpture is +more enduring, but excels in nothing else. Sculpture reveals what it is +with little effort; painting seems a thing miraculous, making things intangible +appear tangible, presenting in relief things which are flat, in +distance things near at hand. In fact painting is adorned with infinite +possibilities of which sculpture can make no use.”</p> + +<p>—Leonardo da Vinci, <i>Leonardo da Vinci’s Note-Books</i>, arranged by +Edward McCurdy, p. 162.</p> +</div> + + +<p class="c p1 sp">TOPICS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION</p> + +<p>1. What peculiar excellences has sculpture that are shown by no +other art?</p> + +<p>2. What special excellences has painting that are shown by no other +art?</p> + +<p>3. What cannot be directly or adequately expressed in sculpture? In +painting?</p> + +<p>4. Compare in conception, execution and associated emotions Andrea +del Sarto’s and Leonardo da Vinci’s painting of the <i>Last Supper</i>.</p> + +<p>5. What effect has the color and texture of marble upon the emotions?</p> + +<p>6. Analyze carefully the effect of Michael Angelo’s <i>Last Judgment</i> upon +your senses, intellect and emotions.</p> + +<p>7. Compare carefully, in the effect upon the beholder, the <i>Venus de +Milo</i>, Michael Angelo’s <i>Pietà</i> (in St. Peter’s) and Chapu’s <i>Joan +of Arc</i>.</p> + +<p>8. Study the relation of significance to beauty in Raphael’s <i>Sistine +Madonna</i> and Millet’s <i>Sower</i>.</p> + +<p>9. What is the significance for the function of sculpture and painting +that in both arts form is statical and relatively permanent?</p> + +<p>10. Study the respective effects of form and color in sculpture; in +painting.</p> + + +<p>REFERENCES</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Brown, <i>The Fine Arts</i>. Caffin, <i>How to Study Pictures</i>. Goethe, <i>Travels +in Italy</i>. Holden, <i>Audiences</i>. Knight, <i>The Philosophy of the Beautiful</i>. +LaFarge, <i>Considerations on Painting</i>. Leighton, <i>Addresses</i>. Lessing, +<i>Laokoön</i>. Mach, <i>Greek Sculpture</i>. Noyes, <i>The Enjoyment of Art</i>. Palgrave, +<i>Poetry Compared with the Other Fine Arts</i>. Parry, <i>The Ministry +of Fine Art to the Happiness of Life</i>. Puffer, <i>The Psychology of Beauty</i>, +chapter iv. Raymond, <i>Painting, Sculpture and Architecture as Representative +Arts</i>. Ruskin, <i>Aratra Pentelici</i>; <i>Lectures on Art</i>; <i>Modern +Painters</i>. Sturgis, <i>The Appreciation of Pictures</i>; <i>The Appreciation of +Sculpture</i>. Van Dyke, <i>Art for Art’s Sake</i>; <i>How to Judge of a Picture</i>; +<i>The Meaning of Pictures</i>; <i>Principles of Art</i>. Vinci, <i>Leonardo da Vinci’s +Note-Books</i>; <i>Treatise on Painting</i>. Witt, <i>How to Look at Pictures</i>.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</span></p> +</div> + + +<hr class="full"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h2 class="nobreak" id="c6">V. THE MEANING AND FUNCTION OF<br> +MUSIC</h2> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“Continue to translate yourself to the heaven of art; there is no more +undisturbed, unmixed, purer happiness than may thus be attained.”</p> + +<p>—Beethoven, in Kerst, <i>Beethoven: The Man and the Artist</i>, p. 12.</p> +</div> + + +<p><b>The art of music.</b>—Music the most difficult of the arts to define in +function and meaning, because the most subtle, seeming to produce its +effects as by a miracle.</p> + +<p>The relation of music to Nature. The sounds utilized in music all +found in the natural world. Compare the effect of the wind sighing in +the pine-trees; bird songs; the rhythmic beat of waves upon the shore. +Yet music not often directly imitating nature as do sculpture and +painting. Music resolving natural forms into their elements and then +recombining these independently. Thus music accomplishing in time +relations more what architecture does in space relations. Compare the +use in architecture of forms given by Nature, as in the tree column or +cave roof. Hence deep significance in the oft-repeated comparison of +music and architecture. Architecture as “frozen music”; music as +liquid architecture. Illustrate in <i>Notre Dame de Paris</i>; in Beethoven’s +<i>Moonlight Sonata</i>.</p> + +<p><b>The appeal of architecture.</b>—The effect upon the beholder of the +Greek temple at Pæstum. Sensuous delight in beautiful forms and +colors; conception given; emotion aroused. Contrast a mediæval temple +such as <i>Notre Dame</i> or the cathedral at Milan. What is dominant +and what subordinate in each work.</p> + +<p><b>The effect of music.</b>—The appeal in a relatively slight musical composition +such as Schumann’s <i>Arabesque</i> (Op. 18) or Chopin’s <i>Impromptu</i> +(Op. 29). Type of sensuous pleasure as compared with the other arts. +The dynamic series of forms arousing a series of emotional states. The +reflections associated with these states of feeling. Thus the two-fold +contrast between music and the arts dealing with space relations: (1) +What is dominant in the one, associated or subordinate in the other; +(2) In the one form dynamic and evanescent, in the other statical and +relatively permanent.</p> + +<p>The direct intellectual element in analyzing the composition: compare<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</span> +the study of motives and harmony. Relation of this to the immediate +response to the appeal of art. Intellectual analysis possible in +relation to all the arts; yet while this may lead to deepened appreciation, +standing somewhat aside from the response to the art itself.</p> + +<p>Fuller illustration of the line of appeal of music in the best of Chopin’s +<i>Nocturnes</i> and the <i>Ninth Symphony</i> of Beethoven. What is given in +each of these works. The means by which the effect is attained.</p> + +<p><b>The unique sphere of music.</b>—Significance that music must be recreated +every time it is enjoyed. Forms in music successive in a dynamic +series, each element dying in the same moment in which it is +created. Thus sublimation of form in music and the freeing of the +content from sensuous association.</p> + +<p>Possibility of expressing for the emotions what cannot be represented +for the imagination. Note, possible to conceive God, an immaterial +soul, a transcendent heaven; but impossible to carve or paint these. +Power of music to express or awaken the emotions we associate with +the conceptions of the transcendent, the supernatural and the divine. +True sense in which music is the one art “capable of revealing the +infinite.” Browning’s illustration of this in <i>Abt Vogler</i>.</p> + +<p>Music as the most personal of the fine arts in expressing emotions no +other art can adequately embody; at the same time music the most +social of the fine arts in arousing the feelings that unite men, where +intellectual opinions and convictions tend to separate them. Illustration +in the <i>Ouverture to Tannhäuser</i>.</p> + +<p>The obvious reason why it is so much more difficult to put music into +intellectual terms than is true of the other arts. Various attempts to +associate a definite series of intellectual conceptions with the sensuous +and emotional appeal of music. Compare in naming compositions; in +“program music”; in interpretations. Rigid limits to these attempts.</p> + +<p><b>Composite arts.</b>—The reasons why music lends itself so readily to +combination with other arts. The song: its appeal as compared with +music unassociated with words. Church music and its development.</p> + +<p>The opera as a peculiarly characteristic composite modern art. Elements +composing it; the question as to which should be central. The +value of Wagner’s answer.</p> + +<p><b>The cultural value of music.</b>—Peculiar danger in music since it may +arouse emotional sensibility without directing its expression. Plato’s +view. The effect of merely sensuous music. The need to choose your +companions wisely in hearing even great music.</p> + +<p>Yet the danger in music merely the corollary of its peculiar strength +and power. Supreme value of its refining and exalting influence. Its +high significance for our time, indeed for the human spirit in all time.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</span></p> + + +<p class="c p1">ILLUSTRATIONS</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“And indeed the greatness of the poet may be best measured by that +concerning which he is silent, in order to let the unspeakable itself speak +to us silently. It is only the musician who can bring this that is silent +into clear expression; and the unerring form of <i>his</i> loud-resounding +silence is endless <i>melody</i>!”</p> + +<p>—Wagner, in “The Music of the Future,” <i>Art Life and Theories</i>, p. +180.</p> + +<p class="p1">“The more definitely a composer aims at making his music an expression +of emotion, the more firmly must he fashion it according to the +dictates of intellect, for were he to attempt emotional expression without +preserving the supremacy of the reason in his work, he would speedily +fall into formlessness, and instead of enlightening would merely bewilder +his hearers. In all art creative, or interpretative, the emotion +must be under the dominance of the reason, or else there is no method, +and art without method is inconceivable.”</p> + +<p>—Henderson, <i>What is Good Music</i>, p. 98.</p> + +<p class="p1">“What <i>instrumental music</i> is unable to achieve, lies also beyond the +pale of <i>music proper</i>; for it alone is pure and self-subsistent music. No +matter whether we regard vocal music as superior to, or more effective +than instrumental music—an unscientific proceeding, by the way, which +is generally the upshot of one-sided dilettantism—we can not help admitting +that the term ‘music,’ in its true meaning, must exclude compositions +in which words are set to music. In vocal or operatic music it +is impossible to draw so nice a distinction between the effect of the +music, and that of the words, that an exact definition of the share which +each has had in the production of the whole becomes practicable. An +enquiry into the subject of music must leave out even compositions with +inscriptions, or so-called programme-music. Its union with poetry, +though enhancing the power of music, does not widen its limits.”</p> + +<p>—Hanslick, <i>The Beautiful in Music</i>, pp. 44, 45.</p> + +<p class="p1">“How, ye formal philosophers, ye men of the ‘sounding arabesque,’ +unto whom the spirit shows itself not, because ye do not believe in it, +or search after it in the organic structure with the gross scalpel of the +anatomist—know ye not that Goethe’s ‘disengaging one’s self from a +mood,’ which he found in poetry, also applies to the musician—that +every truly artistic tone-work is also an ‘occasional poem’? Surely, no +musical thought has ever been generated with vital power in your soul, +or, if you had one, it was a greenhouse plant. Otherwise you would +know, that the artist hastens with everything that delights and pains +him to his beloved art, and desires of it that it should preserve each +mood for him in the sacred vessel of its beautiful form for all time.”</p> + +<p>—Ambros, <i>The Boundaries of Music and Poetry</i>, p. 106.</p> + +<p class="p1">“While <i>sound</i> in <i>speech</i> is but a sign, that is, a <i>means</i> for the purpose +of expressing something which is quite distinct from its medium; <i>sound</i> +in <i>music</i> is the <i>end</i>, that is, the ultimate and absolute object in view.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</span> +The intrinsic beauty of the musical forms in the latter case, and the exclusive +dominion of thought over sound as a mere medium of expression, +in the former, are so utterly distinct as to render the union of these +two elements a logical impossibility.”</p> + +<p>—Hanslick, <i>The Beautiful in Music</i>, p. 94.</p> + +<p class="p1">“Let us establish first of all the fact that the <i>one true form of music is +melody</i>; that without melody music is inconceivable, and that music +and melody are inseparable. That a piece of music has <i>no</i> melody, can +therefore only mean that the musician has not attained to the real formation +of an effective form, that can have a decisive influence upon the +feelings; which simply shows the absence of talent in the composer.”</p> + +<p>—Wagner, in “The Music of the Future,” <i>Art Life and Theories</i>, p. 175.</p> + +<p class="p1">“In its <i>ideal</i> feature music keeps within its natural boundaries, so +long as it does not undertake to go beyond its expressional capacity—that +is, so long as the poetical thought of the composer becomes intelligible +from the moods called forth by his work and the train of ideas +stimulated thereby, that is, from the composition itself, and so long as +nothing foreign, not organically connected with the music itself, must +be dragged in, in order to assist comprehension.”</p> + +<p>—Ambros, <i>The Boundaries of Music and Poetry</i>, pp. 181, 182.</p> + +<p class="p1">“It must be in music, that language intelligible to all men, that the +great equalizing power is to be found, which, converting the language +of ideas into the language of the feelings, would bring the deepest secrets +of the artistic conception to general comprehension, especially if this +comprehension can be made distinct through the plastic expression of +dramatic representation,—can be given such a distinctness as up to this +time painting alone has been able to claim as its peculiar influence.”</p> + +<p>—Wagner, in “The Music of the Future,” <i>Art Life and Theories</i>, p. 141.</p> + +<p class="p1">“In opera, willy-nilly, poetry must be the obedient daughter of +music. Why do Italian operas please everywhere, even in Paris, as I +have been a witness, despite the wretchedness of their librettos? Because +in them music rules and compels us to forget everything else. All +the more must an opera please in which the plot is well carried out, and +the words are written simply for the sake of the music and not here and +there to please some miserable rhyme, which, God knows, adds nothing +to a theatrical representation but more often harms it. Verses are the +most indispensable thing in music, but rhymes, for the sake of rhymes, +the most injurious. Those who go to work so pedantically will assuredly +come to grief along with the music. It were best if a good composer, +who understands the stage, and is himself able to suggest something, +and a clever poet could be united in one, like a phœnix.”</p> + +<p>—Mozart, in Kerst, <i>Mozart: The Man and the Artist</i>, p. 28.</p> + +<p class="p1">“That which so strongly attracted our great poets towards music was +the fact that it was at the same time the purest form and the most sensuous +realization of that form. The abstract arithmetical number, the +mathematical figure, meets us here as a creation having an irresistible<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</span> +influence upon the emotions—that is, it appears as <i>melody</i>; and this can +be as unerringly established, so as to produce sensuous effect, as the +poetic diction of written language, on the contrary, is abandoned to +every whim in the personal character of the person reciting it. What +was not practically possible for Shakespeare—to be <i>himself</i> the actor of +each one of his rôles—is practicable for the musical composer, and this +with great definiteness,—since he speaks to us directly through each one +of the musicians who execute his works. In this case the transmigration +of the poet’s soul into the body of the performer takes place according +to the infallible laws of the most positive <i>technique</i>; and the composer +who gives the correct measure for a technically right performance +of his work, becomes completely one with the musician who performs it, +to an extent that can at most only be affirmed of the constructive artist +in regard to a work which he had himself produced in color or stone,—if, +indeed, a transmigration of his soul into lifeless matter is a supposable +case.”</p> + +<p>—Wagner, in “The Purpose of the Opera,” <i>Art Life and Theories</i>, pp. +226, 227.</p> +</div> + + +<p class="c p1 sp">TOPICS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION</p> + +<p>1. What relation has the art of music to the sounds given in the natural +world?</p> + +<p>2. Choose two musical compositions you know well and analyze in +detail the effect they produce upon you and the means by which +the effect is produced.</p> + +<p>3. What element in music corresponds in any degree to color in painting?</p> + +<p>4. Compare carefully the art of music in dealing with time relations +with architecture in dealing with space relations.</p> + +<p>5. Compare what is dominant in the appeal of music with what is +dominant in the appeal of sculpture and painting.</p> + +<p>6. What results from the fact that in music form is dynamic and evanescent, +while in sculpture and painting it is statical and relatively permanent?</p> + +<p>7. What may be said to be the intellectual element in music?</p> + +<p>8. Compare what is given in Gounod’s music to <i>Faust</i> with what is +given in a series of paintings dealing with the Faust story.</p> + +<p>9. Is the effect good or bad of merely sensuously enjoying slight +music?</p> + +<p>10. Compare the cultural value of music with that of sculpture and +painting.</p> + + +<p>REFERENCES</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Ambros, <i>Boundaries of Music and Poetry</i>. Browning, <i>Abt Vogler</i>; +<i>With Charles Avison</i>; <i>Master Hugues of Saxe-Gotha</i>; <i>Saul</i>. Carpenter,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</span> +<i>Angels’ Wings</i>. Davies, <i>The Musical Consciousness</i>. Dwight, <i>Intellectual +Influence of Music</i>; <i>Music as a Means of Culture</i>. Eastman, <i>Musical +Education and Musical Art</i>. Goddard, <i>Reflections upon Musical Art</i>. +Gurney, <i>The Power of Sound</i>. Hanchett, <i>The Art of the Musician</i>. Hand, +<i>Æsthetics of Musical Art</i>. Hanslick, <i>The Beautiful in Music</i>. Helmholtz, +<i>On the Sensations of Tone</i>. Henderson, <i>What is Good Music?</i> Holden, +<i>Audiences</i>. Kerst, <i>Beethoven</i>; <i>Mozart</i>. Knight, <i>The Philosophy of the +Beautiful</i>. Kobbé, <i>How to Appreciate Music</i>. Krehbiel, <i>How to Listen to +Music</i>. Kufferath, <i>Rhythm, Melody and Harmony</i>. Lanier, <i>Music +and Poetry</i>. Mathews, <i>How to Understand Music</i>; <i>Music: Its Ideals and +Methods</i>. Norton, <i>The Intellectual Element in Music</i>. Palgrave, <i>Poetry +Compared with the Other Fine Arts</i>. Parry, <i>The Evolution of the Art of +Music</i>. Plato, <i>Republic</i> (books II and III). Puffer, <i>The Psychology of +Beauty</i>, chapter v. Raymond, <i>Rhythm and Harmony in Poetry and +Music</i>. Ritter, <i>Music in Its Relation to Intellectual Life</i>. Saint-Saëns, +<i>The Nature and Object of Music</i>. Schopenhauer, <i>On the Metaphysics of +Music</i>. Spencer, <i>The Origin and Function of Music</i>. Surette and Mason, +<i>The Appreciation of Music</i>. Wagner, <i>Art Life and Theories of</i>; <i>Beethoven</i>.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</span></p> +</div> + + +<hr class="full"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h2 class="nobreak" id="c7">VI. THE MEANING AND FUNCTION OF<br> +POETRY</h2> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“Form without substance is a shadow of riches, and all possible +cleverness in expression is of no use to him who has nothing to express.”</p> + +<p>—Schiller, <i>Essays Æsthetical and Philosophical</i>, p. 239.</p> +</div> + + +<p><b>The nature of poetry.</b>—Poetry as the highest and most characteristic +form of literature. Bewildering wealth of material in this art and most +many-sided relation to the spirit of man. Hence difficulty in defining +function.</p> + +<p><b>Poetry in relation to sculpture and painting.</b>—Possibility in poetry of +expressing definite conceptions for the intellect and imagination. Compare +Shelley’s <i>Ozymandias of Egypt</i>. What is given in this sonnet: +compare a statue. Less immediate portrayal for the vision in poetry. +Hence less direct power in appeal to the imagination; but conceptions +freed more from sense association. Moreover ideas expressed through +a succession of forms in time relation.</p> + +<p>Power of poetry to paint a picture: compare Wordsworth’s sonnet +<i>Upon Westminster Bridge</i>. Contrast in appeal with a painting of the +same scene. The ways in which each art has its own superiority. +Truth and error in Lessing’s theory of descriptive poetry as developed +in <i>Laokoön</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Poetry in relation to music.</b>—Direct musical appeal in the two sonnets +studied. Direct expression of emotion and appeal to emotion in +poetry. Compare Shelley’s lyric <i>To the Night</i>. Here music dominant, +appealing to the emotions, as in <i>Ozymandias</i> thought and imagination +appealing to inner vision. How all poetry should be read aloud. Even +when read silently, appeal to the ear in music through the imagination. +The effect of poetry read aloud in a language the hearer does not know: +direct appeal of music in poetry even when the ideas are not given at all. +Thus poetry making a direct appeal to the emotions through music, +though with less absoluteness than in music and without in any way +usurping or replacing the functions of the latter art.</p> + +<p>Byron’s stanzas on the sunset hour in <i>Don Juan</i>. What they give +in natural beauty; association of the human past, of religion and of +literature; personal experience. Compare what is given in Millet’s +<i>Angelus</i>; in a musical composition awakening the same emotions.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</span></p> + +<p><b>The two types of poetry.</b>—Poetry that is dominantly musical in +appeal. Compare many lyrics of Shelley; Spenser. The description of +the dwelling of Morpheus in <i>The Faery Queen</i>. Poetry in which the +dominant appeal is through imaginative vision. Compare what is most +characteristic in Dante and Shakespeare.</p> + +<p><b>Relation of poetry to human life.</b>—Poetry combining in a new union +the functions of the other arts without replacing them in their own +fields. Poetry the most complex and universal of the fine arts in +many-sided power to express and interpret all aspects of human experience. +Compare in the lyric; the epic; the drama.</p> + +<p>Prose literature in relation to poetry. The same functions fulfilled +on another plane. The rhythm of prose. The novel as a prose epic +and drama set in a lower key.</p> + +<p><b>The three types of art in relation.</b>—The different functions of the arts +illustrated in great masterpieces. Compare Dante’s <i>Divine Comedy</i> with +the <i>Last Judgment</i> of Michael Angelo and a mediæval cathedral, and +with a fugue of Bach and a symphony of Beethoven.</p> + +<p>Compare Cormon’s <i>Cain</i>, Wagner’s music in <i>The Twilight of the Gods</i>, +and Shakespeare’s <i>King Lear</i>.</p> + +<p>Compare Watts’ painting of <i>Francesca and Paolo</i>, Wagner’s music in +<i>Tristan und Isolde</i>, and the fifth canto of Dante’s <i>Inferno</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Unity in the arts.</b>—The spirit of man a unity, hence also the appeal +of the arts. In all, thought, emotion and imagination; in all, the same +principles of form, of beauty and harmony.</p> + +<p>This evident in efforts to combine the arts in a more composite art. +Compare the union of poetry and music in song; the union of all types +of art in the Wagnerian opera. Inevitable sacrifice of something on the +part of each of the arts so combined; peculiar adaptation of the composite +art to the modern spirit. The question which art should be +central in the composite whole.</p> + +<p><b>The service of poetry.</b>—Danger in poetry as in the other arts. Evil +of seeking merely sensuous beauty; evil of portraying life to satisfy a +morbid and decadent taste. Yet the evil but indicating the correlative +power in the true ministration of art to the human spirit.</p> + + +<p class="c p1">ILLUSTRATIONS</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“Beauty of style and harmony and grace and good rhythm depend +on simplicity,—I mean the true simplicity of a rightly and nobly ordered +mind and character, not that other simplicity which is only an euphemism +for folly.”</p> + +<p>—Plato, <i>Republic</i>, book III, section 400.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</span></p> +<p class="p1">“I believed that I might form the theory that every <i>individual</i> branch +of art follows out a development of its powers that finally leads it to +their limits; and that it cannot pass these limits without the danger of +losing itself in the unintelligible and absolutely fantastic—even in the +absurd. I thought that I saw in this point the necessity for it to join +companionship at this stage with another class of art, related to it, and +the only one capable of going on from this position. And as I was of +necessity keenly interested (having regard to my own ideal) in following +out this tendency in each special kind of art, I finally believed that I +could recognize it most distinctly in the relation of poetry to music,—especially +considering the remarkable importance modern music has +assumed. And as I thus endeavored to imagine that work of art in +which all branches of art could unite in their highest perfection, I came +as a matter of course to the <i>conscious</i> contemplation of that ideal which +had <i>unconsciously</i> gradually formed within me, and had hovered before +the seeking artist.”</p> + +<p>—Wagner, in “The Music of the Future,” <i>Art Life and Theories</i>, p. +147.</p> + +<p class="p1">“If it is true that painting and poetry in their imitations make use of +entirely different means or symbols—the first, namely, of form and +colour in space, the second of articulated sounds in time—if these symbols +indisputably require a suitable relation to the thing symbolized, +then it is clear that symbols arranged in juxtaposition can only express +subjects of which the wholes or parts exist in juxtaposition; while consecutive +symbols can only express subjects of which the wholes or +parts are themselves consecutive.</p> + +<p>“Subjects whose wholes or parts exist in juxtaposition are called +bodies. Consequently, bodies with their visible properties are the peculiar +subjects of painting.</p> + +<p>“Subjects whose wholes or parts are consecutive are called actions. +Consequently, actions are the peculiar subject of poetry.</p> + +<p>“Still, all bodies do not exist in space only, but also in time. They +endure, and in each moment of their duration may assume a different +appearance, or stand in a different combination. Each of these momentary +appearances and combinations is the effect of a preceding one, may +be the cause of a subsequent, one, and is therefore, as it were, the centre +of an action. Consequently, painting too can imitate actions, but only +indicatively, by means of bodies.</p> + +<p>“On the other hand, actions cannot exist by themselves, they must +depend on certain beings. So far, therefore, as these beings are bodies, +or are regarded as such, poetry paints bodies, but only indicatively, by +means of actions.</p> + +<p>“In its coexisting compositions painting can only make use of a single +instant of the action, and must therefore choose the one which is most +pregnant, and from which what precedes and what follows can be most +easily gathered.</p> + +<p>“In like manner, poetry, in its progressive imitations, is confined to +the use of a single property of bodies, and must therefore choose that +which calls up the most sensible image of the body in the aspect in which +she makes use of it.”</p> + +<p>—Lessing, <i>Laokoön</i>, pp. 91, 92.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</span></p> +<p class="p1">“As to Homer, it is as if the scales had fallen from my eyes. The +descriptions, similes and so on appear to us poetical, and are yet unspeakably +natural, though of course drawn with a purity, an inward +truth enough to strike us poor moderns dumb. The very strangest fictions +are characterised by a naturalness I never felt so much as in the +presence of the objects described. To express the antithesis briefly; <i>they</i> +presented the thing, <i>we</i> usually present the effect; <i>they</i> described the +dreadful, <i>we</i> describe dreadfully; <i>they</i> the agreeable, <i>we</i> agreeably, and +so on. This will explain all our extravagance, our affectation, our false +grace, our inflation; for once you elaborate and strain after effect, you +fancy you can never make it strong enough.”</p> + +<p>—Goethe, <i>Travels in Italy</i>, p. 322.</p> + +<p class="p1">“In instruments, the primal organs of creation and nature find their +representation; they cannot be sharply determined and defined, for +they but repeat primal feelings as they came forth from the chaos of +the first creation, when there were perhaps no human beings in existence +to receive them in their hearts. With the genius of the human +voice it is entirely otherwise; this represents the human heart, and its +isolated, individual emotion. Its character is therefore limited, but +fixed and defined. Let these two elements be brought together, then; +let them be united! Let those wild primal emotions that stretch out +into the infinite, that are represented by instruments, be contrasted +with the clear, definite emotions of the human heart, represented by the +human voice. The addition of the second element will work beneficently +and soothingly upon the conflict of the elemental emotions, and +give to their course a well-defined and united channel; and the human +heart itself, in receiving these elemental emotions, will be immeasurably +strengthened and broadened; and made capable of feeling clearly what +was before an uncertain presage of the highest ideal, now changed into +a divine knowledge.”</p> + +<p>—Wagner, in “A Pilgrimage to Beethoven,” <i>Art Life and Theories</i>, +p. 63.</p> + +<p class="p1">“I admit that the exercises of the gymnasium form athletic bodies; +but beauty is only developed by the free and equal play of the limbs. +In the same way the tension of the isolated spiritual forces may make +extraordinary men; but it is only the well-tempered equilibrium of +these forces that can produce happy and accomplished men.”</p> + +<p>—Schiller, <i>Essays Æsthetical and Philosophical</i>, p. 43.</p> + +<p class="p1">“The highest problem of any art is to produce by appearance the +illusion of a higher reality. But it is a false endeavour to realize the +appearance until at last only something commonly real remains.”</p> + +<p>—Goethe, <i>Autobiography</i>, Bohn Library translation (George Bell & +Sons, London, 1891), vol. 1, p. 422.</p> +</div> + + +<p class="c p1 sp">TOPICS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION</p> + +<p>1. What likenesses can you discover between poetry on the one hand +and sculpture and painting on the other?</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</span></p> + +<p>2. What likenesses can you discover between poetry and music?</p> + +<p>3. What poets make the strongest appeal through imaginative vision? +What poets make the dominant appeal through music?</p> + +<p>4. Compare what is given in Shakespeare’s sonnet beginning “That +time of year thou mayst in me behold” with a painting of an +autumn scene.</p> + +<p>5. Compare Shelley’s lyric <i>To the Night</i> with the music of Chopin.</p> + +<p>6. Study carefully what is given in Millet’s <i>Man with the Hoe</i> with what +is given in Markham’s poem on the same subject.</p> + +<p>7. Estimate the value and limitations of Lessing’s theory of the arts +as given in <i>Laokoön</i>.</p> + +<p>8. What elements of content and of form are common to all the arts?</p> + +<p>9. Compare in expression of thought, feeling and imagination and in +type of appeal, the <i>Divine Comedy</i> of Dante, the <i>Last Judgment</i> of +Michael Angelo and the <i>Ninth Symphony</i> of Beethoven.</p> + +<p>10. What powers has poetry that are not present in the other arts?</p> + + +<p class="c p1">REFERENCES</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Ambros, <i>Boundaries of Music and Poetry</i>. Aristotle, <i>Poetic</i>. Beeching, +<i>The Study of Poetry</i>. Bradley, <i>Poetry for Poetry’s Sake</i>. Corson, <i>Aims of +Literary Study</i>. Dabney, <i>Musical Basis of Verse</i>. Goethe, <i>Conversations +with Eckermann</i>; <i>Maxims and Reflections</i>. Gummere, <i>The Beginnings of +Poetry</i>; <i>Handbook of Poetics</i>. Gurney, <i>The Power of Sound</i>. Holden, +<i>Audiences</i>. Holmes, <i>What is Poetry?</i> Hugo, <i>William Shakespeare</i>. +Knight, <i>The Philosophy of the Beautiful</i>. Lanier, <i>Music and Poetry</i>; +<i>Science of English Verse</i>. Lessing, <i>Laokoön</i>. Moyse, <i>Poetry as a Fine +Art</i>. Newman, <i>Poetry, with Reference to Aristotle’s Poetics</i>. Palgrave, +<i>Golden Treasury</i>; <i>Poetry Compared with the Other Fine Arts</i>. Plato, +<i>Republic</i>, books II. and III. Poe, <i>The Rationale of Verse and The Poetic +Principle</i>. Puffer, <i>The Psychology of Beauty</i>, chapters vi.-viii. Raymond, +<i>Poetry as a Representative Art</i>; <i>Rhythm and Harmony in Poetry +and Music</i>. Santayana, <i>Elements and Function of Poetry</i>. Schiller, +<i>Essays</i>. Shairp, <i>Aspects of Poetry</i>. Shelley, <i>A Defence of Poetry</i>. Sidney, +<i>Defense of Poesy</i>. Stedman, <i>Nature and Elements of Poetry</i>. Wagner, <i>Art +Life and Theories of</i>. Wilde, <i>The Critic as Artist</i>. Winchester, <i>Some +Principles of Literary Criticism</i>.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</span></p> +</div> + + +<hr class="full"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h2 class="nobreak" id="c8">VII. LITERATURE AND LIBERAL CULTURE</h2> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“It is precisely minds of the first order that will never be specialists. +For their very nature is to make the whole of existence their problem; +and this is a subject upon which they will every one of them in some +form provide mankind with a new revelation.”</p> + +<p>—Schopenhauer, <i>The Art of Literature</i>, p. 55.</p> +</div> + + +<p><b>Significance of poetry for education.</b>—Each art supreme in its own +field and function. Thus impossibility of classing one as highest. Of +them all, poetry the most universal in function, combining in one something +of each of the great types of art, and broadest in power to express +and interpret human life. Permanence of poetry. Accessibility of +poetry as contrasted with the other arts. Thus whatever art appeals +most powerfully to the individual, poetry having a place in the education +of all. Hence reason for choosing this art for separate discussion.</p> + +<p><b>What is literature?</b>—Relation of poetry to other forms of literature. +Two-fold distinction of artistic literature from other writing: Requirement +that it should be human in appeal, written for the man and not +the specialist, and that it should be adequate and harmonious in expression. +The vast field comprised within these limits.</p> + +<p><b>The study of literature.</b>—Literature many things to many men. Thus +studied for a multitude of special purposes. Compare the use of literature +as a mere text-book for philology, or as an opportunity for expounding +a particular philosophy. Frequent misuse of literature in +education.</p> + +<p>The great value of literature, not in contributing to some phase of +special training, but in developing liberal culture. What such culture +means in the development of intellect, emotions and imagination.</p> + +<p>The reasons for the vast development of specialization in our education +recently. Need that special training should rest always on a basis +of liberal culture. Thus the significance of the study of literature as +the art most broadly expressing human life, and thus contributing to +the liberal cultivation of the man as compared with the training of the +specialist.</p> + +<p><b>The four avenues of approach.</b>—Literature possessing a soul of +thought, feeling and imagination and a body of artistic expression.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</span> +Compare how all true art must be both significant and beautiful. Thus +two great aspects of literature: possible to focus attention on either one. +Which appeals more powerfully to the student as somewhat a matter +of temperament.</p> + +<p>Content and form studied directly with the aim of understanding +significance and appreciating beauty; both aspects of literature studied +as embodying historical forces. Thus the four aspects of the study of +literature, with the aim of liberal culture.</p> + +<p><b>The direct study of the content of literature.</b>—The range of thought +given in literature. The problems constantly treated. Thought never +expressed alone in literature, but always transfused with feeling and +transfigured with imagination. Thus the appeal to the whole man. +Resulting education and its value. Compare in developing appreciation +of the beauty and sublimity of Nature, of the dignity, comedy and +tragedy of human life. Illustrations in the poetry of the sunset hour; +in the poetry of human experience.</p> + +<p><b>The second avenue of approach.</b>—The soul of literature given a further +meaning when studied in relation to the forces behind it. Expression +of the character of the artist in his work: Compare Milton in <i>Paradise +Lost</i>; Carlyle in <i>Sartor Resartus</i>. Embodiment of the spirit of the +epoch and race in literature. Deeper expression of what is common to +humanity in all time: Compare the <i>Antigone</i> of Sophocles.</p> + +<p><b>The study of literary art.</b>—The analytical study of form in literature +as only a means to an end—the end of synthetic appreciation. The +need always to find the relation of the body of art to the soul of thought, +feeling and imagination expressed through it.</p> + +<p>No accidents in art. The melody of a line or word always determined +by law, whether or not the poet was conscious of the law. Possible thus +for the student to discover the laws the art follows. Illustration of +these in the succession of poetic forms from common speech to the most +highly differentiated stanzas. The aim of art never merely to create +the sensuously pleasing, but to give adequate and harmonious expression.</p> + +<p><b>The fourth avenue of approach.</b>—The body of literature as much as +the soul an expression of historical forces. Evidence in the contrasting +imagery of Shelley and Wordsworth. The Elizabethan age naturally +creating the drama, modern life the lyric. Expression of racial characteristics +in the music of words and the stanzas of poetry. Contrast +<i>Beowulf</i> and the <i>Iliad</i>.</p> + +<p><b>The culture given by literature.</b>—Type of education resulting from all +four lines of the study of literature. The widened relation to man and +Nature. The true cosmopolitanism of the spirit. Thus the service of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</span> +literature in making possible the discovery of the divine in the commonplace +and of the ideal in the real.</p> + + +<p class="c p1">ILLUSTRATIONS</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“To use many words to communicate few thoughts is everywhere +the unmistakable sign of mediocrity. To gather much thought into +few words stamps the man of genius.”</p> + +<p>—Schopenhauer, <i>The Art of Literature</i>, p. 30.</p> + +<p class="p1">“We know that the sensibility of the mind depends, as to degree, on +the liveliness, and for extent on the richness, of the imagination. Now +the predominance of the faculty of analysis must necessarily deprive +the imagination of its warmth and energy, and a restricted sphere of +objects must diminish its wealth. It is for this reason that the abstract +thinker has very often a <i>cold</i> heart, because he analyses impressions, +which only move the mind by their combination or totality; on the +other hand, the man of business, the statesman, has very often a <i>narrow</i> +heart, because shut up in the narrow circle of his employment his imagination +can neither expand nor adapt itself to another manner of viewing +things.”</p> + +<p>—Schiller, <i>Essays Æsthetical and Philosophical</i>, pp. 41, 42.</p> + +<p class="p1">“One should not study contemporaries and competitors, but the +great men of antiquity, whose works have, for centuries, received equal +homage and consideration. Indeed, a man of really superior endowments +will feel the necessity of this, and it is just this need for an intercourse +with great predecessors, which is the sign of a higher talent. Let +us study Molière, let us study Shakespeare, but above all things, the +old Greeks, and always the Greeks.”</p> + +<p>—Goethe, <i>Conversations with Eckermann and Soret</i>, p. 236.</p> + +<p class="p1">“There is a fine art of passion, but an impassioned fine art is a contradiction +in terms, for the infallible effect of the beautiful is emancipation +from the passions. The idea of an instructive fine art (didactic +art) or improving (moral) art is no less contradictory, for nothing agrees +less with the idea of the beautiful than to give a determinate tendency +to the mind.”</p> + +<p>—Schiller, <i>Essays Æsthetical and Philosophical</i>, p. 92.</p> + +<p class="p1">“To read a philosopher’s biography, instead of studying his thoughts, +is like neglecting a picture and attending only to the style of its frame, +debating whether it is carved well or ill, and how much it cost to gild it.”</p> + +<p>—Schopenhauer, <i>The Art of Literature</i>, p. 146.</p> + +<p class="p1">“Any one who is sufficiently young, and who is not quite spoiled, +could not easily find any place that would suit him so well as a theatre. +No one asks you any questions: you need not open your mouth unless +you choose; on the contrary, you sit quite at your ease like a king, and +let everything pass before you, and recreate your mind and senses to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</span> +your heart’s content. There is poetry, there is painting, there are singing +and music, there is acting, and what not besides. When all these +arts, and the charm of youth and beauty heightened to an important +degree, work in concert on the same evening, it is a bouquet to which no +other can compare.”</p> + +<p>—Goethe, <i>Conversations with Eckermann and Soret</i>, p. 120.</p> + +<p class="p1">“It is therefore not going far enough to say that the light of the +understanding only deserves respect when it reacts on the character; +to a certain extent it is from the character that this light proceeds; for +the road that terminates in the head must pass through the heart. Accordingly, +the most pressing need of the present time is to educate the +sensibility, because it is the means, not only to render efficacious in practice +the improvement of ideas, but to call this improvement into existence.”</p> + +<p>—Schiller, <i>Essays Æsthetical and Philosophical</i>, p. 48.</p> + +<p class="p1">“A pupil from whom nothing is ever demanded which he cannot do, +never does all he can.”</p> + +<p>—John Stuart Mill, <i>Autobiography</i> (Henry Holt & Co., New York, +1887), p. 32.</p> +</div> + + +<p class="c p1">TOPICS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION</p> + +<p>1. Define artistic literature as distinguished from other writings.</p> + +<p>2. What characteristics give literature an exceptional place and +value as a means of liberal culture?</p> + +<p>3. What education results from the study of thought, feeling and imagination +in literature?</p> + +<p>4. Why is the poetry of sorrow filled with the imagery of the sea?</p> + +<p>5. Is there a “pathetic fallacy” involved in using Nature as a language +for the expression of human emotions?</p> + +<p>6. What place has the education of the emotions and the imagination +in relation to the whole of culture?</p> + +<p>7. Study the imagery of Shelley and Wordsworth as expressing the +character of the two poets.</p> + +<p>8. What is the cultural value of the analytical study of literary style?</p> + +<p>9. Why was Elizabethan poetry characteristically dramatic, where +modern English poetry is predominantly lyrical?</p> + +<p>10. What aspects of the study of literature are most important for +liberal culture, and why?</p> + + +<p class="c p1">REFERENCES</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Arnold, <i>The Study of Poetry</i>. Baldwin, <i>The Book-Lover</i>. Bates, <i>Talks +on the Study of Literature</i>. Beeching, <i>The Study of Poetry</i>. Collins, <i>The</i><span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</span> +<i>True Functions of Poetry</i>. Corson, <i>Aims of Literary Study</i>. Crawshaw, +<i>The Interpretation of Literature; Literary Interpretation of Life</i>. Dabney, +<i>Musical Basis of Verse</i>. Hamerton, <i>The Intellectual Life</i>. Hugo, <i>William +Shakespeare</i>. Lewes, <i>Principles of Success in Literature</i>. Mabie, <i>Books +and Culture</i>. Mathews, <i>Music: Its Ideals and Methods</i>. Morison, <i>The +Great Poets as Religious Teachers</i>. Newman, <i>Poetry, with Reference to +Aristotle’s Poetics</i>. Palgrave, <i>Golden Treasury</i>. Pryde, <i>Highways of +Literature</i>. Santayana, <i>Elements and Function of Poetry</i>. Schiller, +<i>Essays</i>. Shairp, <i>Poetic Interpretation of Nature</i>. Sidney, <i>Defense of +Poesy</i>. Stedman, <i>Nature and Elements of Poetry</i>. Warner, <i>The Relation +of Literature to Life</i>. Winchester, <i>Some Principles of Literary Criticism</i>.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</span></p> +</div> + + +<hr class="full"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h2 class="nobreak" id="c9">VIII. BEAUTY AND THE CULTURE OF<br> +THE SPIRIT</h2> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“It is important, at the present time, to bear in mind that the human +soul has still greater need of the ideal than of the real.</p> + +<p>It is by the real that we exist; it is by the ideal that we live. Would +you realize the difference? Animals exist, man lives.”</p> + +<p>—Victor Hugo, <i>William Shakespeare</i>, p. 295.</p> +</div> + + +<p><b>The life of appreciation.</b>—Art appealing to the whole man—intellect, +emotion, imagination. Hence difficulty in endeavoring to put the +meaning of art into terms of the intellect. How we appreciate much +that we never understand. The joy of life depending largely on appreciation. +Compare how life is always in advance of the theory of life. +The three aspects of the life of appreciation: beauty, love, faith. The +sense in which wisdom also belongs to appreciation.</p> + +<p>Contrasting significance of art and philosophy. The reason for the +permanent value of every great work of art. The test of an artistic +masterpiece its power to grow with our growth, revealing new deeps as +we bring the key of enlarged experience to its interpretation.</p> + +<p><b>The nature of beauty.</b>—The fact that beauty belongs to the life of +appreciation as explaining the difficulty in defining beauty. Possible +to define the relations upon which beauty depends rather than beauty +itself.</p> + +<p>The relation of habit and custom in the appreciation of beauty. Evidence +of a conventional element in changes of taste and standard in +reference both to Nature and the arts.</p> + +<p>The relation of the parts to the whole in Nature or art; and the relation +of an organism or a thing made to the function it is to fulfil. Contrast +deformity and beauty. The sublimity of a great machine.</p> + +<p>The deeper relation of body to soul, of form to content, as a determining +principle of beauty. Beauty depending less upon what is sensuously +pleasing, than upon adequate and harmonious expression, the +perfect marrying of body and soul.</p> + +<p>Still deeper relation behind all appreciation of beauty. The rhythm +or harmony that inevitably exists between man’s sensibilities and the +Nature-world in relation to which these senses have been evolved.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</span> +Since all forms utilized in the arts are drawn finally from Nature, this +principle behind all appreciation of beauty in the arts as well as in +Nature.</p> + +<p>Unity of the life of appreciation. Hence all cultivation of the true +response to beauty deepening and refining the life of love and of religion.</p> + +<p><b>Nature and art.</b>—The two worlds of beauty; each possessing its own +superiority. Identity of form and content in the beauty of Nature; +living and everchanging character of Nature. Hence the healing, resting +and exalting power of Nature in ministering to the spirit of man. +On the other hand, the soul in Nature dumb and brooding; carried to +clear and conscious expression through human art. Art as Nature and +life put through the spectrum of man’s mind and heart. Compare a +Corot painting with a bit of Nature; a portrait by Titian or Rembrandt +with a human face. Thus the ministration of art to the human spirit: +in calming and exalting; in giving widened relation to Nature and life, +developing power to see; in inspiring action.</p> + +<p><b>Opportunities for the appreciation of beauty.</b>—The wealth of natural +beauty poured out abundantly on every hand. Tendency to ignore or +fail to see the beauty of Nature just because it is so universal and +accessible. Need to put oneself in the way of beauty; to leave room +for the heaven of the unexpected.</p> + +<p>If the beauty of art is less accessible, nevertheless far more than is +utilized and enjoyed. Compare in poetry, painting, music. The current +attitude toward museums of art and opportunities in music.</p> + +<p><b>The conscious study of beauty.</b>—Not enough to give oneself opportunities +for enjoying beauty. Compare the people who live close to +Nature without seeing her beauty; who wander aimlessly through art +galleries and sit unappreciatively through an evening of great music +because it is the fashion. Need of conscious study of beauty as a means +toward appreciation.</p> + +<p>The method of the conscious study of beauty in Nature and the arts. +Need to isolate and analyze. The ways by which one may escape convention +and react freshly on the appeal of beauty. The active questioning +which the student should employ. The deepened conscious appreciation +which results from such study. The greater value of a little of +such direct and active study over much reading of art criticism and +theory.</p> + +<p>Some expression necessary to complete such study. Various forms +that may be employed. The value of keeping a book of reflections in +which to formulate and record one’s study and appreciation.</p> + +<p><b>The value of art for the artist.</b>—The ministry of beauty fulfilled in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</span> +the supreme way for the creative artist. Clarifying and exalting influence +of art upon the artist. Development in him of power to see and +to achieve. Illustrations in great masters such as Michael Angelo and +Dante. Thus for the artist supremely as for the student in lesser +degree, <i>art for life’s sake</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Art and daily life.</b>—Need that each human being should be an artist: +this possible in the supreme art of living. Thus need to identify beauty +and use: to make one’s vocation, one’s environment, one’s relationships +art in the highest sense. How then every part and aspect of life would +be the adequate and harmonious expression and interpretation of some +phase of man’s life and experience in true relation to the whole.</p> + + +<p class="c p1">ILLUSTRATIONS</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“Supreme Art is the region of Equals. There is no primacy among +masterpieces.”</p> + +<p>—Victor Hugo, <i>William Shakespeare</i>, p. 40.</p> + +<p class="p1">“The technical work of our time, which is done to an unprecedented +perfection, has, by increasing and multiplying objects of luxury, given +the favourites of fortune a choice between more leisure and culture upon +the one side, and additional luxury and good living, but with increased +activity, upon the other; and, true to their character, they choose the +latter, and prefer champagne to freedom.”</p> + +<p>—Schopenhauer, <i>The Art of Literature</i>, p. 141.</p> + +<p class="p1">“The capacity of the sublime is one of the noblest aptitudes of man. +Beauty is useful, but does not go beyond man. The sublime applies to +the pure spirit. The sublime must be joined to the beautiful to complete +the <i>æsthetic education</i>, and to enlarge man’s heart beyond the +sensuous world.”</p> + +<p>—Schiller, <i>Essays Æsthetical and Philosophical</i>, p. 141.</p> + +<p class="p1">“Let us remember the prompter, very delicately and genially drawn +by Goethe in a few touches, who is so much moved at certain places that +he weeps hot tears; yet ‘it is, strictly speaking, <i>not the so-called moving +places</i> that affect him so, but the <i>beautiful</i> places <i>from which the pure +genius of the poet, so to speak, looks out from bright, open eyes</i>.’ In the +case of persons of a predominantly tender, ardent disposition we not +seldom meet this phenomenon. A beautiful poem, a sublime scene in +nature—nay, the narration of a good deed, moves them to tears. And +history tells us of the noble Saladin, who was a warlike hero, that the +narration of great deeds and simple touching occurrences often moved +him also to tears. It can hardly be assumed that a warlike hero is the +possessor of weak nerves. What have these grayish-white threads to +do at all with the eternal ideas of the Good and the Beautiful? The +emotion of which we have just spoken is something better than mere<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</span> +nervous irritation; it is a higher kind of homesickness, which attacks us +when the ideas of the Good and the Beautiful suddenly appear before us +and remind us of our eternal home.”</p> + +<p>—Ambros, <i>The Boundaries of Music and Poetry</i>, pp. 42, 43.</p> + +<p class="p1">“We leave a grand musical performance with our feelings excited, +the reading of a noble poem with a quickened imagination, a beautiful +statue or building with an awakened understanding; but a man would +not choose an opportune moment who attempted to invite us to abstract +thinking after a high musical enjoyment, or to attend to a prosaic affair +of common life after a high poetical enjoyment, or to kindle our imagination +and astonish our feelings directly after inspecting a fine statue or +edifice. The reason of this is, that music, <i>by its matter</i>, even when most +spiritual, presents a greater affinity with the senses than is permitted by +aesthetic liberty; it is because even the most happy poetry, having <i>for +its medium</i> the arbitrary and contingent play of the imagination, always +shares in it more than the intimate necessity of the really beautiful +allows; it is because the best sculpture touches on severe science <i>by what +is determinate in its conception</i>. However, these particular affinities are +lost in proportion as the works of these three kinds of art rise to a greater +elevation, and it is a natural and necessary consequence of their perfection, +that, without confounding their objective limits, the different +arts come to resemble each other more and more, in the action <i>which +they exercise on the mind</i>. At its highest degree of ennobling, music ought +to become a form, and act on us with the calm power of an antique +statue; in its most elevated perfection, the plastic art ought to become +music and move us by the immediate action exercised on the mind by +the senses; in its most complete development, poetry ought both to stir +us powerfully like music and like plastic art to surround us with a peaceful +light. In each art, the perfect style consists exactly in knowing +how to remove specific limits, while sacrificing at the same time the particular +advantages of the art, and to give it by a wise use of what belongs +to it specially a more general character.”</p> + +<p>—Schiller, <i>Essays Æsthetical and Philosophical</i>, pp. 90, 91.</p> + +<p class="p1">“When a beautiful soul harmonizes with a beautiful form, and the two +are cast in one mold, that will be the fairest of sights to him who has an +eye to see it.”</p> + +<p>—Plato, <i>Republic</i>, book III, section 402.</p> + +<p class="p1">“The amphora which refuses to go to the fountain deserves the hisses +of the water-pots.”</p> + +<p>—Victor Hugo, <i>William Shakespeare</i>, p. 319.</p> + +<p>“The true artist has no pride; unhappily he realizes that art has no +limitations, he feels darkly how far he is from the goal, and while perhaps +he is admired by others, he grieves that he has not yet reached the +point where the better genius shall shine before him like a distant sun.”</p> + +<p>—Beethoven, in Kerst, <i>Beethoven: The Man and the Artist</i>, p. 49.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</span></p> + + +<p class="c p1 sp">TOPICS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION</p> + +<p>1. Define the respective functions of art and philosophy in relation to +the human spirit.</p> + +<p>2. Compare in significance and relative value, beauty in Nature and in +human art.</p> + +<p>3. Can beauty exist without definite and limited form?</p> + +<p>4. What does creative expression in art do for the artist?</p> + +<p>5. Is it possible to define beauty satisfactorily?</p> + +<p>6. Sum up all the elements and relations involved in the appreciation +of beauty.</p> + +<p>7. What end and aim is evident in the creation of all great art?</p> + +<p>8. In what ways does the beauty of Nature and of art minister to the +spirit of man?</p> + +<p>9. What should be the relation of art to daily life?</p> + +<p>10. How can life be made a fine art?</p> + + +<p class="c p1">REFERENCES</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Carpenter, <i>Angels’ Wings</i>. Dwight, <i>Intellectual Influence of Music</i>; +<i>Music as a Means of Culture</i>. Eastman, <i>Musical Education and Musical +Art</i>. Emerson, <i>Art</i> (in <i>Essays, first series</i>, pp. 325-343); <i>Art</i> (in <i>Society +and Solitude</i>, pp. 39-59). Gurney, <i>The Power of Sound</i>. Hamerton, <i>The +Intellectual Life</i>. Hand, <i>Æsthetics of Musical Art</i>. Hanslick, <i>The Beautiful +in Music</i>. Hegel, <i>Introduction to the Philosophy of Fine Art</i>. Holden, +<i>Audiences</i>. Lanier, <i>Music and Poetry</i>. Mabie, <i>Nature and Culture</i>. Morris, +<i>Hopes and Fears for Art</i>. Parry, <i>The Ministry of Fine Art to the Happiness +of Life</i>. Partridge, <i>Art for America</i>. Plato, <i>Republic</i>, books II. and +III. Puffer, <i>The Psychology of Beauty</i>. Raymond, <i>Essentials of Æsthetics</i>. +Schiller, <i>Essays</i>. Surette and Mason, <i>The Appreciation of Music</i>. +Tolstoy, <i>What is Art?</i> Wagner, <i>Art Life and Theories of</i>.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</span></p> +</div> + +<hr class="full"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="c10">SUGGESTIONS TO STUDENTS</h2> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“You do ill if you praise, but worse if you censure, what you do not +rightly understand.”</p> + +<p>—Leonardo da Vinci, <i>Leonardo da Vinci’s Note-Books</i>, arranged by +Edward McCurdy, p. 58.</p> +</div> + +<p>Dealing, as this course does, with the material of four great arts, there +is no limit to the work the student may do in connection with it. The +most significant point is to recognize that a little first-hand study of +works of art is worth more than a vast amount of reading of criticism +and theory of art. The best preparation for the course is to select a +few works of art in each of the four fields and study them carefully; +analyzing rigorously the effect each produces on the student’s senses, +emotions and intellect; seeking to discover the means by which that +effect is produced; and endeavoring to define what part or aspect of +man’s life and reaction on Nature finds expression and interpretation +in each artistic creation studied. The student must formulate his own +questioning and work with a mind consistently active, not passive.</p> + +<p>This is merely demanding in the field of the arts the same direct inductive +study of the material given, that is universally recognized to-day +as the only sound method in every field of science. It is surprising +how a little of such study will clarify the field of art. Works drop +quickly into place, each is understood in relation to others and to the +common background of human experience in both significance and +beauty. This intellectual result is, however, not all; indeed, it is the +less important consequence of the work. The great gain is in deepened +appreciation. The student turns to fresh works of art with a multiplied +power to respond to the appeal of each masterpiece. Thus is his life +widened and deepened in relation to man and Nature, and blessed with +the joy that beauty gives.</p> + +<p>The reading of such books as are given in the following list should be +subordinated to the work above outlined, and should be used to clarify +and stimulate the student’s own thinking, following the direct study of +the works of art themselves.</p> + +<p>The material in Palgrave’s <i>Golden Treasury of Songs and Lyrics</i>, giving +as it does brief but complete works of art selected from widely +different men and epochs should be used throughout the course to +represent the art of poetry. Where a gallery of painting and sculpture +is not accessible to the student, photographic reproductions (obtainable +to-day at insignificant price) of the works mentioned in the outlines +and lists of topics should be obtained and carefully studied. In music +the student should utilize with loving care such opportunities as he can +find or make available.</p> +<hr class="full"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="c11">BOOK LIST</h2> +</div> + + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><b>Ambros, Wilhelm August</b>, <i>The Boundaries of Music and Poetry</i>, translated +by J. H. Cornell. Pp. xiii + 187. G. Schirmer, New York, 1893.</p> + +<p><b>Anderson, Rasmus B.</b>, <i>Norse Mythology</i>. Pp. 473. S. C. Griggs & Co., +Chicago, 1875.</p> + +<p><b>Anderson, Rasmus B.</b> (translator), <i>The Younger Edda</i>. Pp. 302. S. C. +Griggs & Co., Chicago, 1880.</p> + +<p><b>Aristotle</b>, <i>The Poetic</i>, translated by Theodore Buckley, pp. 405-500 in +volume with Aristotle’s <i>Rhetoric</i>. Bohn Library, George Bell & Sons, +London, 1890.</p> + +<p><b>Arnold, Matthew</b>, <i>The Study of Poetry</i>, pp. 1-55 in <i>Essays in Criticism, +second series</i>. The Macmillan Co., New York, 1906.</p> + +<p><b>Baldwin, James</b>, <i>The Book-Lover</i>. Pp. 201. Jansen, McClurg & Co., +Chicago, 1885.</p> + +<p><b>Bascom, John</b>, <i>Philosophy of English Literature</i>. Pp. xii + 318. G. P. +Putnam’s Sons, New York, 1886.</p> + +<p><b>Bates, Arlo</b>, <i>Talks on the Study of Literature</i>. Pp. 260. Houghton, +Mifflin & Co., Boston, 1898.</p> + +<p><b>Beeching, H. C.</b>, <i>The Study of Poetry</i>. Pp. 57. University Press, Cambridge, +1901.</p> + +<p><b>Bradley, A. C.</b>, <i>Poetry for Poetry’s Sake</i>. Pp. 32. Clarendon Press, +Oxford, 1901.</p> + +<p><b>Brown, G. Baldwin</b>, <i>The Fine Arts</i>. Pp. xii + 321. Charles Scribner’s +Sons, New York, 1906.</p> + +<p><b>Browning, Robert</b>, <i>Abt Vogler</i>; <i>With Charles Avison</i> (in <i>Parleyings with +Certain People</i>); <i>Master Hugues of Saxe-Gotha</i>; <i>Saul</i>, in <i>Works</i>. +Camberwell edition, T. Y. Crowell & Co., New York, 1898.</p> + +<p><b>Bulfinch, Thomas</b>, <i>The Age of Chivalry</i>. Pp. viii + 414. Crosby, +Nichols & Co., Boston, 1859.</p> + +<p><b>Bulfinch, Thomas</b>, <i>The Age of Fable</i>, edited by E. E. Hale. New edition. +Pp. xxi + 568. S. W. Tilton & Co., Boston, 1894.</p> + +<p><b>Caffin, Charles H.</b>, <i>How to Study Pictures</i>. Pp. xv + 513. The Century +Co., New York, 1906.</p> + +<p><b>Carlyle, Thomas</b>, <i>The Hero as Divinity</i>, pp. 1-41 in <i>Heroes and Hero-Worship</i>. +Centenary edition. Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York, 1897.</p> + +<p><b>Carpenter, Edward</b>, <i>Angels’ Wings: A Series of Essays on Art and Its +Relation to Life</i>. Pp. 248. Swan Sonnenschein & Co., London, 1898.</p> + +<p><b>Collins, John Churton</b>, <i>The True Functions of Poetry</i>, pp. 263-291 in +<i>Studies in Poetry and Criticism</i>. George Bell & Sons, London, 1905.</p> + +<p><b>Corson, Hiram</b>, <i>The Aims of Literary Study</i>. Pp. 153. The Macmillan +Co., New York, 1895.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</span></p> + +<p><b>Cox, George W.</b>, <i>An Introduction to the Science of Comparative Mythology +and Folk-Lore</i>. Pp. xvi + 380. Henry Holt & Co., New York, 1881.</p> + +<p><b>Cox, George W.</b>, <i>The Mythology of the Aryan Nations</i>. 2 vols., pp. +xx + 460 and xv + 397. Longmans, Green, & Co., London, 1870.</p> + +<p><b>Crawshaw, W. H.</b>, <i>The Interpretation of Literature</i>. Pp. x + 235. The +Macmillan Co., New York, 1902.</p> + +<p><b>Crawshaw, W. H.</b>, <i>Literary Interpretation of Life</i>. Pp. viii + 266. The +Macmillan Co., New York, 1900.</p> + +<p><b>Dabney, J. P.</b>, <i>The Musical Basis of Verse</i>. Pp. x + 269. Longmans, +Green, & Co., London, 1901.</p> + +<p><b>Davies, Henry M.</b>, <i>The Musical Consciousness</i>. (In <i>Music</i>, vol. XII, +pp. 25-38, 171-180, 329-341, 462-472.)</p> + +<p><b>Donaldson, John William</b>, <i>The Theatre of the Greeks</i>. Pp. xii + 435. +George Bell & Sons, London, 1891.</p> + +<p><b>Dwight, John S.</b>, <i>Intellectual Influence of Music</i>. (In <i>The Atlantic +Monthly</i>, vol. XXVI, pp. 614-625.) Boston, Nov., 1870.</p> + +<p><b>Dwight, John S.</b>, <i>Music as a Means of Culture</i>. (In <i>The Atlantic +Monthly</i>, vol. XXVI, pp. 321-331.) Boston, Sept., 1870.</p> + +<p><b>Eastman, Edith V.</b>, <i>Musical Education and Musical Art</i>. Pp. 171. +Damrell & Upham, Boston, 1893.</p> + +<p><b>Emerson, Ralph Waldo</b>, <i>Art</i>, pp. 325-343 in <i>Essays, first series</i>. Houghton, +Mifflin & Co., Boston, 1883.</p> + +<p><b>Emerson, Ralph Waldo</b>, <i>Art</i>, pp. 39-59 in <i>Society and Solitude</i>. +Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston, 1898.</p> + +<p><b>Engel, Carl</b>, <i>Introduction to the Study of National Music</i>. Pp. x + 435. +Longmans, Green, & Co., London, 1886.</p> + +<p><b>Fairbanks, Arthur</b>, <i>The Mythology of Greece and Rome, with Special +Reference to its Influence on Literature</i>. Pp. xvii + 408. D. Appleton +& Co., New York, 1907.</p> + +<p><b>Gayley, C. M.</b> (editor), <i>Classic Myths in English Literature</i>. Pp. xlv + +540. Ginn & Co., Boston, 1894.</p> + +<p><b>Goddard, Joseph</b>, <i>Reflections upon Musical Art Considered in its Wider +Relations</i>. Pp. viii + 87. Goddard & Co., London, 1893.</p> + +<p><b>Goethe</b>, <i>Conversations with Eckermann and Soret</i>, translated by John +Oxenford. Pp. xxvii + 583. Bohn Library, George Bell & Sons, +London, 1901.</p> + +<p><b>Goethe</b>, <i>The Maxims and Reflections of</i>, translated by T. Bailey Saunders. +Pp. 223. The Macmillan Co., New York, 1893.</p> + +<p><b>Goethe</b>, <i>Travels in Italy</i>, translated by A. J. W. Morrison and Charles +Nesbit. Pp. 589. Bohn Library, George Bell & Sons, London, +1892.</p> + +<p><b>Goldziher, Ignaz</b>, <i>Mythology among the Hebrews and its Historical Development</i>, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</span>translated by Russell Martineau. Pp. xxxv + 457. Longmans, +Green, & Co., London, 1877.</p> + +<p><b>Grosse, Ernest</b>, <i>The Beginnings of Art</i>. Pp. xiv + 327. D. Appleton & +Co., New York, 1897.</p> + +<p><b>Guerber, H. A.</b>, <i>Myths of Greece and Rome</i>. Pp. 428. American Book +Co., New York, 1893.</p> + +<p><b>Guerber, H. A.</b>, <i>Myths of Northern Lands</i>. Pp. 319. American Book +Co., New York, 1895.</p> + +<p><b>Gummere, Francis B.</b>, <i>The Beginnings of Poetry</i>. Pp. x + 483. The +Macmillan Co., New York, 1901.</p> + +<p><b>Gummere, Francis B.</b>, <i>A Handbook of Poetics</i>. Pp. vi + 250. Ginn & +Co., Boston, 1885.</p> + +<p><b>Gurney, Edmund</b>, <i>The Power of Sound</i>. Pp. xi + 559. Smith, Elder, & +Co., London, 1880.</p> + +<p><b>Hamerton, Philip Gilbert</b>, <i>The Intellectual Life</i>. Pp. xix + 455. Roberts +Bros., Boston, 1891.</p> + +<p><b>Hamerton, Philip Gilbert</b>, <i>Thoughts About Art</i>. Pp. xxiv + 383. Roberts +Bros., Boston, 1878.</p> + +<p><b>Hanchett, Henry G.</b>, <i>The Art of the Musician: A Guide to the Intellectual +Appreciation of Music</i>. Pp. viii + 327. The Macmillan Co., New +York, 1905.</p> + +<p><b>Hand, Ferdinand</b>, <i>Æsthetics of Musical Art; or, the Beautiful in Music</i>, +translated from the German by Walter E. Lawson. Pp. xviii + 187. +London, 1880.</p> + +<p><b>Hanslick, Dr. Eduard</b>, <i>The Beautiful in Music</i>, translated by Gustav +Cohen. Novello, Ewer & Co., New York, 1891.</p> + +<p><b>Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich</b>, <i>Introduction to the Philosophy of Fine +Art</i>, translated by B. Bosanquet. Pp. xxxiii + 175. Kegan Paul, +Trench & Co., London, 1886.</p> + +<p><b>Helmholtz, Hermann L. F.</b>, <i>On the Sensations of Tone as a Physiological +Basis for the Theory of Music</i>, translated by Alexander J. Ellis. Pp. +xix + 576. Longmans, Green, & Co., London, 1885.</p> + +<p><b>Henderson, W. J.</b>, <i>What is Good Music?</i> Pp. xiii + 205. Charles Scribner’s +Sons, New York, 1905.</p> + +<p><b>Holden, Florence P.</b>, <i>Audiences: A Few Suggestions to Those Who Look +and Listen</i>. A. C. McClurg & Co., Chicago, 1896.</p> + +<p><b>Holmes, Edmond</b>, <i>What is Poetry?</i> Pp. 98. Lane, New York, 1900.</p> + +<p><b>Hugo, Victor</b>, <i>William Shakespeare</i>, translated by Melville B. Anderson. +Pp. 24 + 424. A. C. McClurg & Co., Chicago, 1899.</p> + +<p><b>Kerst, Friedrich</b> (compiler and annotator), <i>Beethoven: The Man and the +Artist, as Revealed in His Own Words</i>, translated and edited by +Henry Edward Krehbiel. Pp. 110. B. W. Huebsch, New York, 1905.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</span></p> + +<p><b>Kerst, Friedrich</b> (compiler and annotator), <i>Mozart: The Man and the +Artist, as Revealed in His Own Words</i>, translated and edited by +Henry Edward Krehbiel. Pp. 143. B. W. Huebsch, New York, +1905.</p> + +<p><b>Knight, William</b>, <i>The Philosophy of the Beautiful</i>. 2 vols. Pp. xv + +288 and xii + 281. John Murray, London, 1891-3.</p> + +<p><b>Kobbé, Gustav</b>, <i>How to Appreciate Music</i>. Pp. 275. Moffat, Yard & +Co., New York, 1906.</p> + +<p><b>Krehbiel, Henry Edward</b>, <i>How to Listen to Music</i>. Pp. xv + 36l. +Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York, 1897.</p> + +<p><b>Kufferath, M.</b>, <i>Rhythm, Melody and Harmony</i>. (In <i>Music</i>, vol. XVII, +pp. 31-39, 155-163.) Chicago, 1899, 1900.</p> + +<p><b>LaFarge, J.</b>, <i>Considerations on Painting</i>. Pp. vi + 270. The Macmillan +Co., New York, 1901.</p> + +<p><b>Lanier, Sidney</b>, <i>Music and Poetry</i>. Pp. viii + 248. Charles Scribner’s +Sons, New York, 1899.</p> + +<p><b>Lanier, Sidney</b>, <i>The Science of English Verse.</i> Pp. 315. Charles Scribner’s +Sons, New York, 1901.</p> + +<p><b>Leighton, Lord</b>, <i>Addresses Delivered to the Students of the Royal Academy</i>. +Pp. 310. Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co., London, 1896.</p> + +<p><b>Lessing, G. E.</b>, <i>Laokoön</i>, pp. 1-169 in <i>Laokoön</i>, etc., translated by E. C. +Beasley and Helen Zimmern. Bohn Library, George Bell & Sons, +London, 1900.</p> + +<p><b>Lewes, George Henry</b>, <i>The Principles of Success in Literature</i>. Pp. +xv + 235. Walter Scott, London, n. d.</p> + +<p><b>Mabie, Hamilton Wright</b>, <i>Books and Culture</i>. Pp. 279. 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Merrill & Baker, New York, +n. d.</p> + +<p><b>Ruskin, John</b>, <i>Modern Painters</i>. 5 vols., pp. lxxiii + 429, xiii + 230, +xii + 341, 403, and xiv + 390. Merrill & Baker, New York, n. d.</p> + +<p><b>Ruskin, John</b>, <i>The Two Paths: Lectures on Art</i>. Pp. xvii + 270. Maynard, +Merrill & Co., New York, 1893.</p> + +<p><b>Saint-Saëns, Camille</b>, <i>The Nature and Object of Music</i>. (In <i>Music</i>, vol. +V, pp. 557-572.) Chicago, March, 1894.</p> + +<p><b>Santayana, George</b>, <i>The Elements and Function of Poetry</i>, pp. 251-290 +in <i>Interpretations of Poetry and Religion</i>. Charles Scribner’s Sons, +New York, 1900.</p> + +<p><b>Schiller, Friedrich</b>, <i>Essays Æsthetical and Philosophical</i>, translated from +the German. Pp. 435. Bohn Library, George Bell & Sons, London, +1905.</p> + +<p><b>Schopenhauer, Arthur</b>, <i>The Art of Literature</i>, translated by T. Bailey +Saunders. Pp. xiv + 149. 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N.</b>, <i>What is Art?</i>, translated by Charles Johnston. Pp. iii + +298. Henry Altemus, Philadelphia, 1898.</p> + +<p><b>Van Dyke, John C.</b>, <i>Art for Art’s Sake</i>. Pp. xii + 249. Charles Scribner’s +Sons, New York, 1893.</p> + +<p><b>Van Dyke, John C.</b>, <i>How to Judge of a Picture</i>. Pp. 168. Chautauqua +Press, Chautauqua, N. Y., 1888.</p> + +<p><b>Van Dyke, John C.</b>, <i>The Meaning of Pictures</i>. Pp. xiv + 161. Charles +Scribner’s Sons, New York, 1903.</p> + +<p><b>Van Dyke, John C.</b>, <i>Principles of Art</i>. Pp. 291. Fords, Howard & +Hulbert, New York, 1887.</p> + +<p><b>Vinci, Leonardo da</b>, <i>Leonardo da Vinci’s Note-Books</i>, arranged and rendered +into English with introductions by Edward McCurdy. Pp. +xiv + 289. Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York, 1908.</p> + +<p><b>Vinci, Leonardo da</b>, <i>A Treatise on Painting</i>, translated by J. F. Rigand. +Pp. lxvii + 238. George Bell & Sons, London, 1906.</p> + +<p><b>Wagner, Richard</b>, <i>Art Life and Theories of</i>, selected from his writings +and translated by Edward L. Burlingame. Pp. xiii + 305. Henry +Holt & Co., New York, 1904.</p> + +<p><b>Wagner, Richard</b>, <i>Beethoven</i>, translated by Edward Dannreuther. Pp. +viii + 177. William Reeves, London, 1880.</p> + +<p><b>Warner, Charles Dudley</b>, <i>The Relation of Literature to Life</i>. Pp. 320. +Harper & Bros., New York, 1897.</p> + +<p><b>Waterhouse, C. H.</b>, <i>The Signification and Principles of Art</i>. Pp. 154. +J. S. Virtue & Co., London, 1886.</p> + +<p><b>Wilde, Oscar</b>, <i>The Critic as Artist</i>, pp. 85-196 in <i>Intentions</i>. Thomas B. +Mosher, Portland, Me., 1904.</p> + +<p><b>Wilde, Oscar</b>, <i>The Soul of Man Under Socialism</i>. Pp. 90. Thomas +B. Mosher, Portland, Me., 1905.</p> + +<p><b>Winchester, C. T.</b>, <i>Some Principles of Literary Criticism</i>. Pp. xii + 352. +The Macmillan Co., New York, 1899.</p> + +<p><b>Witt, Robert Clermont</b>, <i>How to Look at Pictures</i>. Pp. xviii + 173. +George Bell & Sons. London, 1902.</p> +</div></div> + +<hr class="full"> + +<div class="transnote"> + +<p class="c">Transcriber’s Notes:</p> + +<p>Variations in spelling and hyphenation are retained.</p> + +<p>Perceived typographical errors have been changed.</p> + +</div> + +<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 78154 ***</div> +</body> +</html> |