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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/7787-0.txt b/7787-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..34b7014 --- /dev/null +++ b/7787-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,14965 @@ +The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Complete Grammar of Esperanto, by Ivy Kellerman Reed + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and +most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions +whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms +of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at +www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you +will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before +using this eBook. + +Title: A Complete Grammar of Esperanto + +Author: Ivy Kellerman Reed + +Release Date: May 25, 2003 [eBook #7787] +[Most recently updated: December 4, 2022] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +Produced by: William W. Patterson, Carlo Traverso, Charles Franks and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team. + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO *** + + + + +TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE: + +The Esperanto alphabet contains 28 characters. These are the +characters of English, but with "q", "w", "x", and "y" removed, and +six diacritical letters added. The diacritical letters are "c", +"g", "h", "j" and "s" with circumflexes (or "hats", as Esperantists +fondly call them), and "u" with a breve. Zamenhof himself suggested +that where the diacritical letters caused difficulty, one could +instead use "ch", "gh", "hh", "jh", "sh" and "u". A plain ASCII +file is one such place; there are no ASCII codes for Esperanto's +special letters. + +However, there are two problems with Zamenhof's "h-method". There +is no difference between "u" and "u" with a breve, and there is no +way to determine (without prior knowledge of the word(s) involved, +and sometimes a bit of context) whether an "h" following one of +those other five letters is really the second half of a diacritical +pair, or just an "h" that happened to find itself next to one of +them. Consequently other, unambiguous, methods have been used over +the years. One is the "x-method", which uses the digraphs "cx", +"gx", "hx", "jx", "sx" and "ux" to represent the special letters. +There is no ambiguity because the letter "x" is not an Esperanto +letter, and each diacritical letter has a unique transliteration. +This is the method used in this Project Gutenberg e-text. + + + + + + + + + A COMPLETE + GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO + + THE INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE + + WITH + GRADED EXERCISES FOR READING AND TRANSLATION + TOGETHER WITH FULL VOCABULARIES + + BY + IVY KELLERMAN, A.M., Ph.D. + + MEMBER OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE AND CHAIRMAN OF EXAMINATIONS + FOR THE ESPERANTO ASSOCIATION OF NORTH AMERICA, MEMBER + OF THE INTERNATIONAL "LINGVA KOMITATO" + + + * * * * * + + + TO + + DR. L. L. ZAMENHOF + + THE AUTHOR OF + ESPERANTO + + + * * * * * + + + PREFACE. + +This volume has been prepared to meet a twofold need. An adequate +presentation of the International Language has become an imperative +necessity. Such presentation, including full and accurate grammatical +explanations, suitably graded reading lessons, and similarly graded +material for translation from English, has not heretofore been +accessible within the compass of a single volume, or in fact within the +compass of any two or three volumes. + +The combination of grammar and reader here offered is therefore +unique. It is to furnish not merely an introduction to Esperanto, or +a superficial acquaintance with it, but a genuine understanding of +the language and mastery of its use without recourse to additional +textbooks, readers, etc. In other words, this one volume affords +as complete a knowledge of Esperanto as several years' study of a +grammar and various readers will accomplish for any national language. +Inflection, word-formation and syntax are presented clearly and +concisely, yet with a degree of completeness and in a systematic order +that constitute a new feature. Other points worthy of note are the +following: + +The reasons for syntactical usages are given, instead of mere statements +that such usages exist. For example, clauses of purpose and of result +are really explained, instead of being dismissed with the unsatisfactory +remark that "the imperative follows 'por ke,'" or the "use of 'tiel ... +ke' and 'tia ... ke' must be distinguished from that of 'tiel ... kiel' +and 'tia ... kia,'" etc., with but little intimation of when and why +"por ke", "tiel ... ke" and "tia ... ke" are likely to occur. + +Affixes are not mentioned until some familiarity with the general +character of the language is assured, as well as the possession of +a fair vocabulary. They are introduced gradually, with adequate +explanation and illustration. Of importance in connection with +word-formation is an element distinctly new--the explanation and +classification of compound words. Such words, like affixes, are +withheld until the use of simple words is familiar. + +Another new feature is the gradual introduction of correlative words in +their logical order, and in their proper grammatical categories, before +they are called "correlatives," or tabulated. The tabulation finally +presented is a real classification, with regard to the meaning and +grammatical character of the words, not merely an arbitrary alphabetical +arrangement. The use of primary adverbs precedes the explanation of +adverb derivation; prepositions, especially "de", "da", "je", etc., +receive careful attention, also the verb system, and the differentiation +of words whose English equivalents are ambiguous. + +A general characteristic of obvious advantage is that almost without +exception new forms and constructions are illustrated by means of +words or roots already familiar. Likewise, the new words or roots of +each lesson recur at least once in the next lesson, and usually in +some lesson thereafter as well. Each reading exercise gives not only a +thorough application of the grammatical principles of the lesson, but a +review of those in the preceding lesson, and no use is made of words or +constructions not yet explained. The comparative ease of the language, +and the lack of necessity for reciting paradigms, permit the reading +exercises to be long enough for the student to feel that he has really +mastered something. These exercises are further unique, in that each +after the fifth is a coherent narrative, and nearly every one is a story +of genuine interest in itself. These stories, if bound separately, would +alone constitute a reader equivalent to those used in first and second +year work in national languages. (For list of titles, see Table of +Contents.) + +The second element of the twofold need which this volume meets is the +necessity for a presentation of Esperanto, not as a thing apart, but +in that form which will make it most serviceable as an introduction to +national tongues. A stepping-stone to both ancient and modern languages, +Esperanto may render invaluable aid, and pave the way for surmounting +the many difficulties confronting both student and teacher. Through +Esperanto, the labor in the acquirement of these languages may be +reduced in the same proportion in which the pleasure and thoroughness +of such acquirement are increased. For this reason, the grammatical +constructions of Esperanto are here explained as consistently as +possible in accordance with the usage of national languages, especially +those in the school curriculum, and precise names are assigned to them. +Such matters as "contrary to fact conditions", "indirect quotations", +"clauses of purpose" and "of result", "accusatives of time" and +"measure", "expressions of separation", "reference", etc., thus +become familiar to the student, long before he meets them in the more +difficult garb of a national tongue, whose exceptions seem to outnumber +its rules, and whose idioms prove more puzzling than its exceptions, +unless approached by the smooth and gradual ascent of the International +Language, Esperanto. + + Ivy Kellerman. + +Washington, D. C., +August 3, 1910. + + + * * * * * + + + TABLE OF CONTENTS. + + LESSON + I. Alphabet.--Vowels.--Consonants.--Names of the Letters.-- + Diphthongs.--Combinations of Consonants.--Syllables.--Accent. + II. Nouns.--The Article.--Adjectives.--Attributive Adjectives.-- + Present Tense of the Verb + III. The Plural Number.--Predicate Adjective and Noun + IV. Transitive Verbs.--The Accusative Case.--The Conjunction + "Kaj".--The Negative "Ne". + V. The Complementary Infinitive.--Interrogation.--The + Conjunction "Nek". + VI. Personal Pronouns.--Agreement with Pronouns.--Conjugation of + the Verb. + VII. The Past Tense.--Prepositions.--Accusative Case of Personal + Pronouns. + VIII. Reflexive Pronouns.--Reflexive Verbs. + IX. Limitation of the Third Personal Pronoun.--Possessive + Adjectives.--Pronominal Use of Possessive Adjectives.--"La + Kato kaj la Pasero". + X. The Accusative of Direction.--The Article for the Possessive + Adjective.--Apposition.--"La Arabo kaj la Kamelo". + XI. Possessive Case of Nouns.--Impersonal Verbs.--Verbs + Preceding their Subjects.--Coordinating Conjunctions.--"La + Arabo en la Dezerto". + XII. Indirect Statements.--The Indefinite Personal Pronoun + "Oni".--The Future Tense.--"La Ventoflago". + XIII. The Demonstrative "Pronoun Tiu".--Tenses in Indirect + Quotations.--Formation of Feminine Nouns.--"En la + Parko". + XIV. The Demonstrative Pronoun "Cxi tiu".--Possessive Form of + the Demonstrative Pronoun.--The Suffix "-Il-".--The + Expression of Means or Instrumentality.--"La Mangxo". + XV. The Demonstrative Adjective.--Adverbs Defined and + Classified.--Formation of Opposites.--"La Ruza Juna + Viro". + XVI. The Demonstrative Adverb of Place.--Accompaniment.--The + Adverb "For".--The Meaning of "Povi".--"Malamikoj en la + Dezerto". + XVII. The Demonstrative Temporal Adverb.--Comparison of + Adjectives.--Manner and Characteristic.--"Diri", + "Paroli" and "Rakonti".--"Frederiko Granda kaj la + Juna Servisto". + XVIII. The Demonstrative Adverb of Motive or Reason.--Derivation + of Adverbs.--Comparison of Words Expressing Quantity.-- + Comparisons Containing "Ol".--Causal Clauses.--"Pri la + Sezonoj". + XIX. "Ju" and "Des" in Comparisons.--The Preposition "Inter".-- + The Preposition "Pro".--Prepositions with Adverbs and Other + Prepositions.--"La Auxtuno kaj la Vintro". + XX. The Demonstrative Adverb of Manner and Degree.--Prepositions + Expressing Time-Relations.--"En Septembro". + XXI. The Accusative of Time.--Adverbs and the Accusative of + Time.--The Preposition "Por".--"La Sezonoj kaj la + Mondo". + XXII. Clauses Expressing Duration of Time.--Clauses Expressing + Anticipation.--The Infinitive with "Anstataux", "Por", + "Antaux ol".--The Expression of a Part of the Whole.-- + "Diogeno kaj Aleksandro Granda". + XXIII. Adverbs Expressing a Part of the Whole.--The Demonstrative + Adverb of Quantity.--Result Clauses.--"En la Butiko". + XXIV. The Interrogative Pronoun.--The Present Active + Participle.--Compound Tenses.--The Progressive Present + Tense.--The Suffix "-Ej-".--"En Nia Domo". + XXV. The Interrogative Adjective.--The Imperfect Tense.-- + Salutations and Exclamations.--Word Formation.--"Koni" and + "Scii".--"La Nepo Vizitas la Avinon". + XXVI. The Interrogative Adverb of Place.--The Past Active + Participle.--Adverb Derivation from Prepositions.--Adverbs + Expressing Direction of Motion.--The Suffix + "-Eg-".--"La Pluvego". + XXVII. The Interrogative Temporal Adverb.--The Perfect Tense.--The + Preposition "Cxe".--The Suffix "-Ar-".--"Tempo" and "Fojo".-- + The Orthography of Proper Names.--"Roberto Bruce kaj la + Araneo". + XXVIII. The Interrogative Adverb of Motive or Reason.-- The + Infinitive as Subject.--Present Action with Past + Inception.--The Suffix "-Ul-".--"Logxi" and "Vivi".--"Pri + la Avo kaj la Avino". + XXIX. The Interrogative Adverb of Manner and Degree.--The + Pluperfect Tense.--Cardinal Numbers.--The Accusative of + Measure.--"Nia Familio". + XXX. The Interrogative Adverb of Quantity.--Modifiers of + Impersonally Used Verbs.--Formation of Cardinal + Numerals.--The Suffix "-An-".--"Leciono Pri Aritmetiko". + XXXI. The Relative Pronoun.--The Future Perfect Tense.--Ordinal + Numerals.--"Alfredo Granda kaj la Libro". + XXXII. "Kia" as a Relative Adjective.--"Kie" as a Relative + Adverb.--The Future Active Participle.--The Periphrastic + Future Tenses.--The Suffix "-Ind-".--"Alfredo Granda + kaj la Kukoj". + XXXIII. "Kiam" as a Relative Adverb.--"Kiel" as a Relative + Adverb.--Numeral Nouns and Adverbs.--Word Derivation from + Prepositions.--"La Invito". + XXXIV. Prepositions as Prefixes.--The Suffix "-Ebl-".--Expression + of the Highest Degree Possible.--Titles and Terms of + Address.--"Cxe la Festo". + XXXV. "Kiom" as a Relative Adverb.--The Present Passive + Participle.--Fractions.--Descriptive Compounds.--"La Hxinoj". + XXXVI. The Present Passive Tense.--The Use of "De" to Express + Agency.--The General Meaning of "De".--Word Derivation + from Primary Adverbs.--The Suffix "-Ist-".--"Antikva + Respubliko". + XXXVII. The Distributive Pronoun.--The Preposition "Po".-- + Dependent Compounds.--"La Cxapelo sur la Stango". + XXXVIII. The Distributive Adjective.--The Imperfect Passive Tense.-- + Compound Tenses of Impersonal Verbs.--Reciprocal + Expressions.--The Suffix "-Uj-".--"Vilhelmo Tell kaj + la Pomo". + XXXIX. The Distributive Adverb of Place.--The Future Passive + Tense.--Possessive Compounds.--The Time of Day.--The + Suffix "-Obl-".--"En la Stacidomo". + XL. The Distributive Temporal Adverb.--The Distributive Adverb + "Cxial".--The Past Passive Participle.--The Perfect + Passive Tense.--The Preposition "Laux".--The Suffix + "-Em-".--"La Perdita Infano". + XLI. The Distributive Adverb "Cxiel".--The Distributive + Adverb "Cxiom".--The Pluperfect Passive Tense.--The + Future Perfect Passive Tense.--The Expression of + Material.--The Suffix "-Et-".--"La Donaco". + XLII. The Future Passive Participle.--The Passive Periphrastic + Future Tenses.--The Generic Article.--The Suffix + "-Ec-".--"Sur la Vaporsxipo". + XLIII. The Indefinite Pronoun.--Participial Nouns.--The Prefix + "Ek-".--The Suffix "-Id-".--"La Nesto sur la + Tendo". + XLIV. The Indefinite Adjective.--The Indefinite Adverb of Place.-- + Predicate Nominatives.--"La Cxevalo kaj la Sonorilo". + XLV. The Indefinite Temporal Adverb.--The Indefinite Adverb + "Ial".--Causative Verbs.--Emphasis by Means of "Ja".-- + "Cxe la Malnova Ponto". + XLVI. The Indefinite Adverb "Iel".--The Indefinite Adverb "Iom".-- + The Suffix "-Ad-".--The Use of "Mem".--"Arhximedo kaj la + Kronoj". + XLVII. The Negative Pronoun.--The Adverbial Participle.--The Prefix + "Re-".--"La Filozofo Arhximedo". + XLVIII. The Negative Adjective.--The Negative Adverb of Place.--The + Negative Temporal Adverb.--The Suffix "-Ajx-".--The Adverb + "Jen".--"Du Artkonkursoj". + XLIX. The Negative Adverbs "Nenial", "Neniel", "Neniom".--The + Suffix "-Igx-".--"La Krepusko". + L. The Pronouns ending in "-O".--Correlative Words.--The Use of + "Ajn".--The Suffix "-Ing-".--"La Gordia Ligajxo". + LI. The Pronoun "Ambaux".--Formations with "-Ig-" and "-Igx-".-- + Factual Conditions.--"La Monahxoj kaj la Azeno". + LII. The Conditional Mood.--Compound Tenses of the Conditional + Mood.--Less Vivid Conditions.--Independent Use of the + Conditional Mood.--The Prefix "Dis-".--"Pri la + Gravitado". + LIII. Conditions Contrary to Fact.--The Verb "Devi".--The + Preposition "Sen".--"La Filozofo Sokrato". + LIV. Summary of Conditions.--Clauses of Imaginative + Comparison.--The Use of "Al" to Express Reference.--The + Suffix "-Estr-".--"La Ostracismo de Aristejdo". + LV. The Imperative Mood.--Resolve and Exhortation.--Commands and + Prohibitions.--Less Peremptory Uses of the Imperative.--The + Use of "Mosxto".--"La Glavo de Damoklo". + LVI. The Imperative in Subordinate Clauses.--The Preposition + "Je".--The Suffix "-Op-".--"La Marsxado de la Dekmil Grekoj". + LVII. Clauses Expressing Purpose.--Further Uses of the + Accusative.--Synopsis of the Conjugation of the Verb.--The + Suffix "-Um-".--"La Reirado de la Dekmilo". + LVIII. Permission and Possibility.--The Prefix "Ge-".--The + Suffix "-Acx-".--Interjections.--"Aleksandro Granda". + LIX. The Position of Unemphatic Pronouns.--Some Intransitive + Verbs.--The Suffix "-Er-".--The Prefixes "Bo-" and + "Duon-".--Correspondence.--"Kelkaj Leteroj". + LX. Some Transitive Verbs.--Elision.--The Prefix "Eks-".--The + Prefix "Pra-".--The Suffixes "-Cxj-" and "-Nj-".--Weights and + Measures.--The International Money System.--Abbreviations.-- + "Pri La Kamero". + + ESPERANTO-ENGLISH VOCABULARY. + + ENGLISH-ESPERANTO VOCABULARY. + + INDEX. + + + * * * * * + + + A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF + ESPERANTO. + + + * * * * * + + + + LESSON I. + + + ALPHABET. + +1. The Esperanto alphabet contains the following letters: a, b, c, cx, +d, e, f, g, gx, h, hx, i, j, jx, k, l, m, n, o, p, r, s, sx, t, u, ux, +v, z. + + + VOWELS. + +2. The vowels of the alphabet are pronounced as follows: + +"a" as in "far". + +"e" as in "fiance", like "a" in "fate". + +[Footnote: This "long a" sound in English frequently ends with a +vanish,--a brief terminal sound of "short i" which makes the vowel +slightly diphthongal, as in "day", "aye". Such a vanish must +not be given to any of the Esperanto vowels.] + +"i" as in "machine". + +"o" as in "toll", "for". + +"u" as in "rude", "rural". + + + CONSONANTS. + +3. The consonants "b", "d", "f", "h", "k", "l", "m", "n", "p", "t", +"v", "z", are pronounced as in English, and the remaining eleven as +follows: + +"c" like "ts" in "hats", "tsetse". + +"cx" like "ch" in "chin", "much". + +"g" like "g" in "go", "big". + +"gx" like "g" in "gem", "j" in "jar". + +"hx" is produced by expelling the breath forcibly, with the throat only +partially open. + +[Footnote: As in pronouncing German and Scotch "ch", Spanish "j", Irish +"gh", Russian "x", Classical Greek Greek: "chi" etc. There are only a +few words containing this consonant.] + +"j" like "y" in "yes", "beyond". + +"jx" like "z" in "azure", "s" in "visual". + +"r" is slightly trilled or rolled. + +"s" like "s" in "see", "basis". + +"sx" like "sh" in "shine", "rash", "ch" in machine". + +"ux" like "w" or consonantal "u". See Diphthongs, 5. + + + NAMES OF THE LETTERS. + +4. The vowels are named by their sounds, as given in (2). The names +of the consonants are "bo", "co", "cxo", "do", "fo", "go", "gxo", +"ho", "hxo", "jo", "jxo", "ko", "lo", "mo", "no", "po", "ro", "so", +"sxo", "to", "uxo", "vo", "zo". These are used in speaking of the +letters, in pronouncing them in abbreviations, as "ko to po" for +"k. t. p." (= etc.), and in spelling words, as "bo, i, ro, do, o, +birdo". + + + DIPHTHONGS. + +5. Diphthongs are combinations of two vowels uttered as a single +sound, by one breath-impulse. The diphthongs in Esperanto contain an +i or u sound as the second element, but in order to avoid confusion +with combinations of vowels not forming diphthongs (as in "naiva", like +English "naive", etc.), they are written with "j" and "ux" instead. +Their pronunciation is as follows: + +"aj" like "ai" in "aisle". + +"ej" like "ei" in "vein", "ey" in "they". + +"oj" like "oi" in "coin", "oy" in "boy". + +"uj" like "ui" in "ruin", "u(e)y" in "gluey". + +"eux" like "ayw" in "wayward", or like E(h)oo" pronounced together. + +"aux" like "ou" in "out", "ow" in "owl". + + + COMBINATIONS OF CONSONANTS. + +6. Each consonant, in a combination of two or more consonants, is +pronounced with its full value, whether within a word or at its +beginning. There are no silent letters. + +a. Thus, both consonants are clearly sounded in the groups "kn", "kv", +"gv", "sv", in such words as "knabo", "kvin", "gvidi", "sviso". + +b. The combination "kz", as in "ekzisti", "ekzameno", must not be +modified to the "gs" or "ks" represented by "x" in "exist", "execute". + +c. The combination "sc", as in "escepte", "scias", is equivalent to the +combination "sts" in "laST Said", "firST Song", pronounced together +rapidly. The "s" in a word beginning with "sc" may be sounded with the +end of the preceding word, if that word ends in a vowel, as "mis-cias" +for "mi scias". + +d. The "n" and "g" are pronounced separately in the combination "ng", in +such words as "lingvo", "angulo", producing the sound of "ng" heard in +"linger", not that in "singer". + +e. Each of two similar letters is clearly sounded, as "interrilato", +"ellasi", like "inter-relate", "well-laid". + + + SYLLABLES. + +7. Each word contains as many syllables as it has vowels and diphthongs. +The division of syllables within a word is as follows: + +a. A single consonant goes with the following vowel, as "pa-no", +"be-la", "a-e-ro". + +b. A consonant followed by "l" or "r" (which are liquids) goes with the +"l" or "r", as in "ta-blo", "a-kra", "a-gra-bla". + +c. Otherwise, the syllable division is made before the last consonant of +the group, as "sus-pek-ti", "sank-ta", "deks-tra". + +d. Prefixes are separated from the words to which they are attached, +as "dis-meti", "mal-akra", and compound words are divided into their +component parts, as "cxef-urbo", "sun-ombrelo". + + + ACCENT. + +8. Words of more than one syllable are accented upon the syllable before +the last, as "TA-blo", "a-GRA-bla", "sus-PEK-ti". + + + WORDS FOR PRACTICE. + +9. (To be pronounced aloud, and correctly accented) Afero, trairi, +najbaro, aero, hodiaux, pacienco, centono, cxielo, ecx, samideano, +treege, obei, obeu, Euxropo, gvidi, gxojo, cxiujn, justa, gxuste, jugxi, +jxauxdo, lingvo, knabo, largxa, pagi, kvieteco, ekzemplo, ellerni, fojo, +krajono, forrajdi, kuirejo, cxevalejo, sankteco, scio, nescio, edzo, +meze, duobla, sxipo, sxargxi, posxo, svingi, sklavo, palaj, sxafajxo, +atmosfero, monahxo, geometrio, lauxdi, vasta, eksplodi, sencxesa, +sensencajxo, malluma, arbaranoj, mangxo, fresxa, auxskulti, dauxri. + + + + LESSON II. + + + NOUNS. + +10. Words which are the names of persons or things are called nouns. +The ending, or final letter, of nouns in Esperanto is "o": + + knabo = boy. pomo = apple. + cxevalo = horse. tablo = table. + + + THE ARTICLE. + +11. The definite article is "la", the, as "la knabo", the boy, "la +cxevalo", the horse, "la tablo", the table, "la pomo", the apple. In +English there is an indefinite article "a, an" for the singular, but +none for the plural. Esperanto has no indefinite article for either +singular or plural. Therefore "knabo" may mean "boy", or "a boy", "pomo" +may mean "apple" or "an apple". + + + ADJECTIVES + +12. A word used with a noun (expressed or understood) to express +a quality or characteristic is called an adjective. The ending of +adjectives in Esperanto is "a": + + bela = beautiful. granda = large. + flava = yellow. forta = strong. + + + ATTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVES. + +13. An adjective is said to modify a noun whose quality it expresses. +When directly preceding or following its noun, it is called an +attributive adjective: + + la granda cxevalo = the large horse. + bela birdo = a beautiful bird. + floro flava = a yellow flower. + forta knabo = a strong boy. + + + PRESENT TENSE OF THE VERB. + +14. Words which express action or condition are called verbs. When +representing an act or condition as a fact, and dealing with the present +time, they are said to be in the present tense. The ending of all +Esperanto verbs in the present tense is "-as": + + kuras = runs, is running. brilas = shines, is shining. + flugas = flies, is flying. dormas = sleeps, is sleeping. + +15. The person or thing whose action or condition the verb expresses is +called the subject of the verb: + + La suno brilas, the sun shines (is shining), subject: suno. + Knabo kuras, a boy runs (is running), subject: knabo. + + + VOCABULARY. + + (To be memorized in this and in all following lessons.) + + bela = beautiful. kaj = and. + birdo = bird. kantas = sings, is singing. + blanka = white. knabo = boy. + bona = good. kuras = runs, is running. + brilas = shines, is shining. la = the. + cxevalo = horse. luno = moon. + dormas = sleeps, is sleeping. marsxas = walks, is walking. + flava = yellow. pomo = apple. + floro = flower. suno = sun. + flugas = flies, is flying. tablo = table. + forta = strong, violo = violet. + granda = large. viro = man. + + + READING LESSON. + +1. Bona viro. 2. La granda tablo. 3. Blanka floro. 4. Flava birdo. 5. La +bela birdo kantas. 6. Forta knabo kuras. 7. La bona viro marsxas. 8. La +bela cxevalo kuras. 9. La suno brilas. 10. Birdo flugas kaj knabo kuras. +11. Cxevalo blanka marsxas. 12. La bela luno brilas. 13. La knabo kantas +kaj la viro dormas. 14. Bela granda pomo. 15. La bona knabo kantas. 16. +La granda cxevalo dormas. 17. La suno brilas kaj la luno brilas. 18. +Granda forta tablo. 19. Violo flava. 20. La bona flava pomo. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. A beautiful flower. 2. A good large table. 3. A yellow violet and +a white violet. 4. The moon is-shining (shines). 5. The good boy +is-walking (walks). 6. The beautiful yellow bird is-flying (flies). +7. The strong man is-sleeping (sleeps). 8. The white bird is-singing +(sings). 9. A strong horse runs, and a man walks. 10. The sun shines, +and the boy is-singing (sings). 11. The large yellow apple. 12. An apple +large and good. + + + + LESSON III. + + + THE PLURAL NUMBER. + +16. The plural number of nouns, that is, the form which indicates +more than one person or thing, is made by adding "-j" to the noun, as +"viroj", men, from "viro", man; "tabloj", tables, from "tablo", table. + +[Footnote: "-oj" is pronounced like "oy" in "boy". See 5.] + +17. An adjective modifying a plural noun agrees with it in number, being +given the plural form by the addition of the ending -j. An adjective +modifying two or more nouns used together is of course given the plural +form: + + bonaj viroj, good men. + grandaj cxevaloj, large horses. + belaj birdo kaj floro (bela birdo kaj bela floro), + beautiful bird and (beautiful) flower. + +[Footnote: "-aj" is pronounced like "ai" in "aisle". See 5.] + +18. The article is invariable, that is, does not change in form when +used with plural nouns, as "la viro", the man, "la viroj", the men. The +verb is also invariable in form: + + La viroj marsxas, the men walk, the men are walking. + La suno kaj la luno brilas, the sun and the moon are shining. + La viro estas, the man is. + La viroj estas, the men are. + + + PREDICATE ADJECTIVE AND NOUN. + +19. When the adjective is a part of that which is told or predicated of +the subject of the verb, as when used with the verbs "to be," "to seem," +etc., it is called a "predicate adjective": + + La birdo estas bela, the bird is beautiful. + La knabo sxajnas bona, the boy seems good. + La viroj estas fortaj, the men are strong. + +20. A noun may also be used as part of the predicate, and is then called +a "predicate noun": + + Violoj estas floroj, violets are flowers. + La kolombo estas birdo, the dove is a bird. + +21. Predicate nouns and adjectives agree in number with the word +or words with which they are in predicate relation: + + Rozoj estas belaj, roses are beautiful. + La knabo kaj la viro sxajnas fortaj, the boy and the man seem strong. + + + VOCABULARY + + alta = high, tall. kolombo = dove. + arbo = tree. kusxas = lies, is lying, lie. + cxambro = room. longa = long. + domo = house. rozo = rose. + en = in. rugxa = red. + estas = is, are. segxo = chair. + folio = leaf. sidas = sits, sit, is sitting. + fresxa = fresh. sur = on. + gxardeno = garden. sxajnas = seems, seem. + kampo = field. verda = green. + + + READING LESSON. + +1. La alta viro estas en la gxardeno. 2. Blanka cxevalo estas en la +kampo. 3. Belaj birdoj sidas sur la verda arbo. 4. La bonaj knaboj estas +en la domo. 5. La cxambroj en la bela domo estas grandaj. 6. Fresxaj +floroj kusxas sur la tablo. 7. La violoj en la kampo estas belaj. 8. La +luno kaj la suno sxajnas grandaj. 9. La kolomboj estas belaj birdoj. +10. La knaboj sxajnas fortaj. 11. Rugxaj pomoj estas sur la tablo en la +cxambro. 12. La fortaj viroj sidas sur segxoj en la longa cxambro. 13. +La arboj estas altaj kaj verdaj. 14. La kolomboj sur la arboj kantas. +15. Fortaj cxevaloj marsxas kaj kuras en la verdaj kampoj. 16. La knaboj +dormas en la granda domo. 17. Rugxaj, flavaj, kaj verdaj folioj estas en +la gxardeno. 18. Longa tablo estas en la domo. 19. Belaj birdoj flugas +kaj kantas en la kampo. 20. Fresxaj rozoj sxajnas belaj. 21. La folioj +estas verdaj kaj rugxaj. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. The trees in the garden are tall and green. 2. The rooms in the house +are long. 3. The flowers on the table are red, yellow and white. 4. The +leaves are long and green. 5. The men are-sitting (sit) on chairs in the +garden. 6. In the garden are yellow roses. 7. The birds in the field are +doves. 8. The boys in the room in the house seem tall. 9. Fresh violets +are beautiful flowers. 10. The horses in the green fields seem strong. +11. Doves are-singing (sing) in the garden. 12. The men in the large +house sleep. 13. The house is long and high, and the rooms in the house +are large. 14. Red and yellow apples lie on the big table. 15. Green +leaves are on the trees in the large garden. + + + + LESSON IV. + + + TRANSITIVE VERBS. + +22. The verbs so far given have been "intransitive verbs", expressing a +state or an action limited to the subject, and not immediately affecting +any other person or thing, as "la knabo kuras", the boy runs. On the +other hand a "transitive verb" expresses an act of the subject upon some +person or thing; as, "la knabo trovas -- --", the boy finds -- --. + + + THE ACCUSATIVE CASE. + +23. The person or thing acted upon is called the "direct object" of +a transitive verb, and is given the ending "-n". This is called the +accusative ending; and the word to which it is attached is said to be +in the "accusative case": + + La viro havas segxon, the man has a chair. + La knabo trovas florojn, the boy finds flowers. + +[Footnote: The ending "-n" follows the ending "-j", if the word to be +put in the accusative case is in the plural number.] + +24. An attributive adjective modifying a noun in the accusative case is +made to agree in case, by addition of the same accusative ending "-n". +This prevents any doubt as to which of two or more nouns in a sentence +is modified by the adjective, and permits of variation in the order of +the words: + + La knabo trovas belan floron, the boy finds a beautiful flower. + Florojn belajn la viro havas, the man has beautiful flowers. + La viro havas grandan segxon, the man has a large chair. + Rugxan rozon la knabo havas, the boy has a red rose. + +25. A predicate adjective or noun (19) is never in the accusative case, +nor is the accusative ending ever attached to the article, which is +invariable as stated in 18. + + + THE CONJUNCTION "KAJ". + +26. In the expression "both ... and ...", the conjunction "kaj" is used +for both words, being merely repeated: + + La viro kaj marsxas kaj kuras, the man both walks and runs. + La cxevalo estas kaj granda kaj forta, + the horse is both large and strong. + La knabo havas kaj rozojn kaj violojn, + the boy has both roses and violets. + Kaj la knabo kaj la viro estas altaj, + both the boy and the man are tall. + + + THE NEGATIVE "NE". + +27. The negative word meaning "not" when forming part of a sentence, +and "no" when used as an answer to a question, is "ne". When used as +a sentence-negative, it usually immediately precedes the verb. For +emphatic negation of some other word than the verb, "ne" may precede +that word: + + Violoj ne estas rugxaj, violets are not red. + La viroj ne sidas sur segxoj, the men are-not-sitting on chairs. + La kolombo kantas, ne flugas, the dove is-singing, not flying. + La domo estas blanka, ne verda, the house is white, not green. + + + VOCABULARY + + apud = near, in the vicinity of. koloro = color. + benko = bench. largxa = wide, broad. + brancxo = branch. mangxas = eat, eats. + diversa = various. mola = soft. + felicxa = happy. nigra = black. + frukto = fruit. ne = not, no. + havas = have, has. rompas = break, breaks. + herbo = grass. sed = but. + ili = they. trovas = find, finds. + kolektas = gather, collect. vidas = see, sees. + + + READING LESSON. + +1. La knaboj ne estas en la cxambro en la blanka domo. 2. Ili estas +en la granda gxardeno. 3. La gxardeno sxajnas kaj longa kaj largxa. +4. La felicxaj knaboj vidas la belan gxardenon. 5. Ili vidas florojn +apud alta arbo. 6. La floroj havas diversajn kolorojn. 7. La knaboj +kolektas kaj rugxajn kaj flavajn florojn. 8. Sed ili ne trovas fruktojn +en la gxardeno. 9. Florojn blankajn ili ne vidas. 10. La alta arbo +havas verdajn foliojn sur la brancxoj. 11. La knaboj rompas brancxon, +kaj kolektas la fruktojn. 12. Ili vidas florojn sur la brancxoj, sed +la florojn ili ne kolektas. 13. La knaboj ne sidas sur benkoj en la +gxardeno, sed kusxas sur la mola herbo. 14. La kolomboj sidas sur la +arboj, kaj ili estas felicxaj. 15. La knaboj vidas la belajn birdojn. +16. Fortaj nigraj cxevaloj mangxas la herbon en la kampo. 17. La knaboj +vidas la cxevalojn, sed la cxevaloj ne vidas la knabojn. 18. La cxevaloj +ne dormas, ili mangxas. 19. La fresxa herbo estas verda kaj mola. 20. +Felicxaj estas kaj la knaboj kaj la cxevaloj. 21. La pomo estas bona +frukto. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Green leaves are on the trees. 2. The boys break branches and gather +the apples. 3. They are near the tall tree in the garden. 4. They find +leaves on the tree, but they do not see the fruit. 5. The house is long, +broad and high. 6. The rooms in the house are both long and wide. 7. The +men have strong black horses. 8. The horses eat the fresh green grass in +the field. 9. The men sit on benches in the garden. 10. The boys do not +sleep, but they lie on the soft grass. 11. They see both the birds and +the flowers, and they seem happy. 12. The flowers have various colors, +but the grass is green. 13. The doves are not sitting on the tree, they +are flying near the trees. 14. Beautiful red roses are lying on the +table in the house. 15. The large red apples are near the yellow roses. + + + + LESSON V. + + + THE COMPLEMENTARY INFINITIVE. + +28. The infinitive is a form of the verb which expresses merely the +general idea of the action or condition indicated, and has some of the +characteristics of a noun. The ending of the infinitive is "-i", as +"kuri", to run, "esti", to be, "havi", to have. + +29. An infinitive used to complete the meaning of another verb, serving +as a direct object to a transitive verb, is called a "complementary +infinitive". If the complementary infinitive is from a transitive verb, +it may itself have a direct object: + + La knabo volas kuri, the boy wishes to run. + Birdoj sxatas kanti, birds like to sing. + La knabo volas havi cxevalon, the boy wishes to have a horse. + Ili volas trovi florojn, they wish to find flowers. + + + INTERROGATION. + +30. An interrogative sentence is one which asks a question. Unless some +directly interrogative word (as "who," "when," "why," etc.) is used, +the sentence is rendered interrogative by use of the word "cxu". This +interrogative particle is placed at the beginning of a sentence, the +words of which are left in the same order as for a statement. Since +there is no inversion of order, there is no necessity for a word like +English "do" or "does," to introduce the verb: + + Cxu la knabo estas bona? Is the boy good? + Cxu ili havas florojn? Have they flowers? + Cxu la kolomboj kantas? Do the doves sing? (Are the doves singing?) + + + THE CONJUNCTION "NEK". + +31. In the expression "neither ... nor ...", the conjunction "nek" +is used for both words. Since an adjective modifier of two or more +words connected by "nek" must necessarily modify them separately, +the adjective remains in the singular number: + + Ili nek marsxas nek kuras, they neither walk nor run. + La viro havas nek domon nek gxardenon, + the man has neither a house nor a garden. + Nek la rozo nek la violo estas verda, + neither the rose nor the violet is green. + + + VOCABULARY + + (Verbs will hereafter be quoted in the infinitive form.) + + bruna = brown. matura = ripe. + cxerizo = cherry. Mario = Mary. + cxu = (30). nek = neither, nor. + dolcxa = sweet. persiko = peach. + gusto = taste. jes = yes. + gxi = it. preferi = to prefer. + Gertrude = Gertrude. sxati = to like. + knabino = girl. voli = to wish. + + + READING LESSON. + +1. Cxu persiko estas rugxa? 2. Jes, gxi estas kaj rugxa kaj dolcxa. 3. +Cxu cxerizoj estas brunaj? 4. Ne, ili estas nek brunaj nek nigraj, sed +flavaj. 5. Cxu la pomo estas frukto? Jes, gxi estas bona frukto. 6. +Cxu la viro kaj la knabo havas pomojn? 7. Ne, ili havas nek pomojn nek +persikojn. 8. Cxu Mario havas la maturan frukton? 9. Mario kaj Gertrudo +havas la frukton. 10. Ili estas en la domo, kaj mangxas la maturan +frukton. 11. La persikoj havas dolcxan guston. 12. La knabinoj volas +havi florojn, sed la knaboj preferas kolekti diversajn fruktojn. 13. Ili +volas trovi maturajn cxerizojn kaj flavajn persikojn. 14. La cxerizoj +havas belan rugxan koloron. 15. La persikoj sxajnas molaj kaj bonaj. 16. +Mario rompas brancxon, kaj vidas cxerizojn sur la brancxoj. 17. Gertrudo +estas felicxa, kaj volas havi la belan frukton. 18. Gertrudo estas alta, +bela knabino. 19. Mario sxatas cxerizojn. 20. La knaboj kaj knabinoj +sidas sur la verda herbo, kaj mangxas la cxerizojn. 21. Ili ne volas +mangxi pomojn, ili preferas la dolcxajn cxerizojn. 22. La folioj apud la +cxerizoj estas nek largxaj nek longaj. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Have the girls beautiful flowers? 2. No, they have fresh fruit. 3. +The boys do not wish to gather flowers. 4. They prefer to break the +branches, and find the sweet cherries. 5. Gertrude wishes to eat apples, +but Mary has neither apples nor peaches. 6. Do the girls like to sit in +the house and eat fruit? 7. Yes, they like to sit in the house, but they +prefer to walk in the field. 8. Are ripe peaches brown? 9. No, they are +red and yellow. 10. Has the peach a sweet taste? 11. Do the girls see +the beautiful black horses in the fields? 12. Yes, they see the horses, +but the horses seem not to see the girls. 13. Mary sits on the soft +green grass, and eats ripe fruit. + + + + LESSON VI. + + + PERSONAL PRONOUNS. + +32. Words which stand in the place of nouns, as "you," "he," "who," +"which," are called "pronouns". Pronouns referring to the person +speaking ("I", "we"), the person addressed ("you", "thou"), or the +person or thing spoken of ("he", "she", "it", "they"), are called +"personal pronouns". They are considered singular or plural, according +to whether they refer to one or more persons. Since the meaning of such +pronouns indicates the number, no plural ending is ever attached to +them. The personal pronouns are: + + Singular. Plural. + + First person: mi, I (me). ni, we (us). + + Second person: vi, you. vi, you. + + li, he (him). + Third person: sxi, she (her). ili, they (them). + gxi, it. + +[Footnote: There is another pronoun "ci" (thou), for the second person +singular, used in solemn style, as in the Bible, in poetry, and also +for intimate or familiar address when desired, like German "du", French +"tu", etc.] + + + AGREEMENT WITH PRONOUNS. + +33. Nouns in predicate relation with pronouns, or adjectives modifying +such pronouns, are made to agree with them in number: + + Ni estas bonaj kaj felicxaj, we are good and happy. + Rozoj estas floroj, ill ne estas fruktoj, + roses are flowers, they are not fruits. + Gertrudo, vi estas bona, Gertrude, you are good. + Knabinoj, cxu vi estas felicxaj? Girls, are you happy? + + + CONJUGATION OF THE VERB. + +34. Any pronoun may serve as the subject of a verb. The combination +of the verb with each of the personal pronouns in succession for its +subject, is called the "conjugation" of the verb. Following is the +conjugation of the present tense of "esti", and of "vidi": + + mi estas = I am. mi vidas = I see. + vi estas = you are. vi vidas = you see. + li (sxi, gxi) estas = li (sxi, gxi) vidas : + he (she, it) is. he (she, it) sees. + ni estas = we are. ni vidas = we see. + vi estas = you (plural) are. vi vidas = you (plural) see. + ili estas = they are. ili vidas = they see. + + + VOCABULARY + + al = to, toward. hodiaux = today. + Arturo = Arthur. kudri = to sew. + aux = or (aux ... aux ..., either ... or ...) Roberto = Robert. + cxar = because. skui = to shake. + doni = to give. stari = to stand. + fali = to fall. sub = under, beneath. + fenestro = window. virino = woman. + + + READING LESSON. + +1. Knaboj, cxu vi volas sidi en la domo, aux en la gxardeno? 2. Ni +preferas sidi hodiaux en la gxardeno, sub la granda arbo. 3. Cxu vi +havas pomojn, aux cxerizojn? 4. Ni havas nek pomojn nek cxerizojn, +sed ni havas dolcxajn persikojn. 5. Arturo donas al vi la maturajn +persikojn, cxar li sxatas kolekti frukton. 6. Arturo, cxu vi rompas la +brancxojn? 7. Ne, sed mi skuas brancxon, kaj la persikoj falas. 8. Mi +staras sub la arbo, kaj kolektas la dolcxan frukton. 9. La frukton mi +donas al Mario kaj Gertrudo. 10. Mi volas doni persikon al Heleno, sed +hodiaux sxi estas en la domo. 11. Sxi sidas apud la fenestro kaj kudras. +12. Sxi preferas kudri, kaj volas nek marsxi nek sidi en la gxardeno. +13. Kaj sxi kaj la virino apud sxi volas kudri hodiaux. 14. Ili estas +felicxaj, cxar ili vidas la birdojn en la arbo apud la fenestro. 15. La +birdoj estas kolomboj, kaj sidas sur la arbo. 16. Sub la arboj en la +kampo staras cxevaloj, kaj ili mangxas la verdan molan herbon. 17. Ni +donas pomojn al ili, cxar ili sxatas pomojn. 18. Ni estas felicxaj, cxar +ni havas belajn persikojn maturajn kaj bonajn. 19. Roberto, vi estas +alta, sed vi, knabinoj, ne estas altaj. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Does Arthur break the branch and gather the apples? 2. No, he shakes +the branch, and the apples fall. 3. They are ripe and sweet. 4. Robert, +do you wish to stand beneath the tree? 5. No, I do not wish to stand +under it, but near it. 6. I wish to give both the peaches and the apples +to the woman. 7. She is sitting in the house, near the window. 8. Mary +is sitting in (on) a chair near her. 9. Both Mary and the woman are +sewing. 10. They prefer to sew, and do not wish to walk in the garden +to-day. 11. They are happy because they like to sew. 12. They do not +wish to gather flowers, or walk, or see the birds. 13. They have neither +apples nor peaches, but they do not wish to eat. 14. They give the fruit +to the boys and girls. + + + + LESSON VII. + + + THE PAST TENSE. + +35. The past tense of the verb expresses an action which took place in +past time, or a condition which existed in past time. The ending of +this tense is "-is", as "kuris", ran, "flugis", flew, "brilis", shone. +The conjugation of "esti" and also of "vidi" in the past tense is as +follows: + + mi estis = I was. mi vidis = I saw. + vi estis = you were. vi vidis = you saw. + li (sxi, gxi) estis = li (sxi, gxi) vidis : + he (she, it) was. he (she, it) saw. + ni estis = we were. ni vidis = we saw. + vi estis = you (plural) were. vi vidis = you (plural) saw. + ili estis = they were. ili vidis = they saw. + + + PREPOSITIONS. + +36. A preposition is a word like "in," "on," placed before a noun or +pronoun to indicate some relation between this and another word. The +preposition is said to "govern" the noun or pronoun, which is called its +"complement". In English, the complement of a preposition seems to be +put in the accusative case if it is a pronoun, but to remain unchanged +in form if it is a noun. In Esperanto the preposition does not affect +the form of the word governed, which remains in the nominative case: + + La arbo estas en la gxardeno, the tree is in the garden. + Bonaj pomoj estas sur gxi, good apples are on it. + Mi donis cxerizojn al li, I gave cherries to him. + La knabo estas apud mi, the boy is near me. + Sub la arbo staris cxevalo, under the tree stood a horse. + + + ACCUSATIVE CASE OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. + +37. For use as the object of a verb, any pronoun may be put in the +accusative case by addition of the accusative ending "-n" (23): + + La viro vidis vin kaj min, the man saw you and me. + Li vidis ilin kaj nin, he saw them and us. + Mi vidis nek lin nek sxin, I saw neither him nor her. + Ni volas havi gxin, we wish to have it. + + + VOCABULARY + + agrabla = pleasant, agreeable. luma = light (not dark). + bildo = picture. muro = wall. + blua = blue. nun = now. + danki = to thank. planko = floor. + de = from. pordo = door. + diri = to say. rigardi = to look (at). + infano = child. tapisxo = carpet. + interesa = interesting. tra = through. + + + READING LESSON. + +1. Hodiaux la knaboj kaj knabinoj estas en la granda domo. 2. Ili staras +apud la tablo, en agrabla luma cxambro. 3. Gxi havas altajn largxajn +fenestrojn. 4. Sub la tablo kaj segxoj, mola tapisxo kusxas sur la +planko. 5. La tapisxo havas belajn kolorojn, rugxan, bluan, flavan, kaj +verdan. 6. Virino marsxis tra la pordo, kaj staris apud la tablo. 7. Sxi +havis interesajn bildojn, kaj donis ilin al la knaboj kaj la knabinoj. +8. Sxi diris "Cxu vi volas rigardi la bildojn?" 9. "Jes, ni dankas +vin," diris la infanoj, kaj sxi donis al ili la bildojn. 10. Granda +bildo falis de la tablo, sed Arturo nun havas gxin. 11. Li donas gxin +al Mario, sxi dankas lin, kaj donas gxin al Roberto. 12. Ili volis doni +gxin al Gertrudo, sed sxi diris "Ne, mi dankas vin, mi ne sxatas rigardi +bildojn." 13. Sxi marsxis de la tablo al la fenestro kaj diris "Mi +preferas kudri." 14. Sxi volis sidi en granda segxo apud la fenestro. +15. La virino rigardis sxin kaj diris "Mi donis la bildojn al vi, knaboj +kaj knabinoj," cxar ili estas interesaj bildoj. 16. Gertrudo diris "Vi +estas bona al ni, sed mi volas sidi apud la pordo aux la fenestro. 17. +Mi kolektis dolcxajn violojn en la gxardeno, kaj nun mi volas rigardi la +dolcxajn florojn, kaj kudri." + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Do the boys and girls wish to be good? 2. They gathered fresh flowers +and gave them to the woman. 3. The happy children were in the garden, +but now they are in the house. 4. The rooms in the house are light, +because they have large wide windows. 5. The doors in the room are +wide and high. 6. The carpets on the floor seem soft, and have various +beautiful colors. 7. A large strong table stands near the door. 8. +We can sit near the table and look through the windows. 9. Gertrude +is-looking-at the various pictures. 10. She looks-at them, and seems +to be happy. 11. She gave a picture to me and I thanked her. 12. Helen +walked near the table and shook it. 13. Arthur did not see the pictures +because they were lying on the floor. 14. He looked-at the pictures on +the wall, but they are neither interesting nor beautiful. 15. Robert +looked through the window, and saw us in the pleasant garden. + + + + LESSON VIII. + + + REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS. + +38. A pronoun which refers to the same person or thing as the subject +of the verb in the sentence, but is used in some other relation than +subject of that verb, is said to be used "reflexively", or to be a +"reflexive pronoun". + + +39. The first and second personal pronouns, "mi", "ni", and "vi", +("ci") are used for the reflexive pronouns of the first and second +persons. There can be no ambiguity, since words such as "me, myself, +us, ourselves," can refer to no one else than the person or persons +speaking; while words such as "you, yourself, yourselves (thee, +thyself)," can refer to no one else than the person or persons +addressed: + + Mi vidas min, I see myself. + Mi diris al mi, I said to myself. + Ni havas tapisxon sub ni, we have a carpet under us. + Ni amuzis nin, we amused ourselves. + (Ci trovas domon apud ci, thou findest a house near thee.) + Vi diras al vi, you say to yourself (yourselves). + Vi amuzas vin, you amuse yourself (yourselves). + +40. When the verb is in the third person, a pronoun of the third person, +used otherwise than as the subject, might or might not refer to the +subject of that verb. For example, "He sees a bird near him," may mean +that the subject sees a bird near himself, or near another person. +If such a pronoun of the third person is intended to refer to the +subject of the verb, Esperanto uses a special reflexive pronoun "si" +(accusative "sin"), which means "him(self)", "her(self)", "it(self)", +"them(selves)", according to the gender and number of the verb: + + Li amuzas sin, he amuses himself. + Arturo vidis birdon apud si, Arthur saw a bird near him(self). + Sxi trovas floron apud si, she finds a flower near her(self). + Mario trovis sin sur blua tapisxo, + Mary found herself on a blue carpet. + La tapisxo havas diversajn kolorojn en si, + the carpet has various colors in it(self). + La birdo kasxas sin sub la folioj, + the bird hides itself under the leaves. + Ili amuzas sin, they amuse themselves. + La viroj havas segxojn apud si, + the men have chairs near them(selves). + La virinoj trovas florojn apud si, + the women find flowers near them(selves). + La arboj havas cxerizojn sur si, + the trees have cherries on them(selves). + Sub si la infanoj trovis molan tapisxon, + under them(selves) the children found a soft carpet. + +[Footnote: From the very fact that "si" always refers to the subject of +the verb, it is evident that "si" can never itself be used as subject or +part of the subject of the verb.] + + + REFLEXIVE VERBS. + +41. A verb having a reflexive pronoun for its direct object is sometimes +called a "reflexive verb", from the fact that some languages have had or +still have a special reflexive or middle form of the verb, to express an +act of the subject on or for itself, or they have certain verbs whose +use is chiefly or exclusively reflexive. The conjugation of a verb +reflexively is therefore as follows: + + mi amuzas min (mi min amuzas), I amuse myself. + vi amuzas vin (vi vin amuzas), you amuse yourself. + li (sxi, gxi) amuzas sin (sin amuzas), + he (she, it) amuses him (her, it)self. + ni amuzas nin (ni nin amuzas), we amuse ourselves. + vi amuzas vin (vi vin amuzas), you amuse yourselves. + ili amuzas sin (ili sin amuzas), they amuse themselves. + +[Footnote: As Greek "etraponto", they turned themselves; Latin +"exerceor", I exercise myself, "vescor", I eat (I feed myself); German +"ich huete mich", I beware (I guard myself); Spanish "me alegro", or +"alegrome", I rejoice (I gladden myself); French "il s'arrete", he halts +(he stops himself).] + + + VOCABULARY + + Alfredo = Alfred. komenci = to begin. + amuzi = to amuse. lauxdi = to praise. + antaux = before, in front of. legi = to read. + aparteni = to belong. libro = book. + griza = gray. perdi = to lose. + iri = to go. skatolo = small box or case. + Johano = John. strato = street. + kasxi = to hide, to conceal. si = himself, etc. (40). + + + READING LESSON. + +1. Johano kaj Alfredo amuzis sin en la gxardeno. 2. Johano kasxis sin, +kaj Alfredo trovis Johanon. 3. Alfredo sin kasxis en alta arbo, kaj +Johano trovis Alberton. 4. Mario kaj Gertrudo sin kasxis apud la floroj, +kaj la knaboj trovis la knabinojn. 5. La knabinoj ne volas perdi sin en +la agrabla kampo. 6. Johano komencis amuzi sin en luma cxambro en la +domo. 7. La muro havas interesajn bildojn sur si. 8. Tra la fenestro +antaux si Johano rigardas la virojn kaj la virinojn sur la strato. 9. +Li havas molan grizan tapisxon sub si, kaj ne volas segxon. 10. Li kaj +Alfredo volis iri al la strato kaj amuzi sin. 11. Ili marsxis al la +pordo, kaj trovis rugxan skatolon antaux si. 12. En la skatolo estis +libro, kaj Johano diris al si "La libro ne apartenas al mi." 13. Li +diris al Alfredo "Cxar ni trovis gxin, mi volas legi la libron." 14. +Virino antaux pordo komencis rigardi la knabojn, kaj ili diris al sxi +"Cxu la libro apartenas al vi? Ni trovis gxin en skatolo." 15. La virino +diris "Jes, ni perdis gxin, kaj mi dankas vin, cxar vi donas al mi la +skatolon kaj la libron." 16. Sxi iris al la strato, kaj la knaboj iris +al la domo. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. The book in the gray box does not belong to me. 2. I found it in +front of me, near the door. 3. You began to praise yourselves, but I do +not praise myself. 4. They hid themselves, and I stood near them. 5. The +birds sit on the tree, because it has ripe cherries on it. 6. Alfred +amused himself on the street, but we like to amuse ourselves in the +house. 7. The trees have good fruit on them. 8. She found herself in a +beautiful light room. 9. The carpet on the floor had various colors in +it, and the high wall had pictures on it. 10. The pictures had boys and +girls in them. 11. The book belongs to her, but it fell from the box. +12. The table has red and blue and yellow flowers on it. 13. Did you see +the doves near the flowers in front of (before) you? 14. The birds saw +the fruit on the tree in front of them, and flew to the branches. 15. I +sat on the bench in the garden, and began to read an interesting book. +16. They hid themselves in the leaves and began to sing. 17. The child +is in a pleasant room. + + + + LESSON IX. + + + LIMITATION OF THE THIRD PERSONAL PRONOUN. + +42. Since there is a special reflexive pronoun of the third person, the +third personal pronouns, "li", "sxi", "gxi", "ili", when used otherwise +than as subjects, never refer to the subject of the verb, but always to +some other person or thing: + + La knabo lauxdas lin, the boy praises him (another person). + Sxi donas pomojn al sxi, she gives apples to her (to another person). + La birdo vidis gxin, the bird saw it (something else than the bird). + La knaboj kasxis ilin, the boys hid them (other persons or things). + Ili trovis ilin apud si, + they found them (other persons or things) near them(selves). + La birdoj flugis al ili, the birds flew to them. + + + POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES. + +43. Words like "my," "his," "your," which indicate ownership or some +possessive relation, are called "possessive adjectives". Possessive +adjectives are formed from the personal pronouns by adding the adjective +ending "-a", as "mia", my, "via", your ("cia", thy), "lia", his, "sxia", +her, "gxia", its, "nia", our, "via", your (plural), "ilia", their. The +limitation in the use of the third personal pronouns ("42") is also true +of the adjectives derived from them: + + Mia domo kaj miaj gxardenoj estas grandaj, + my house and my gardens are large. + Johano sidas sur via segxo, John is sitting in your chair. + Li havas lian cxevalon, he has his (another person's) horse. + Cxu vi legis sxiajn librojn? Did you read her books? + +[Footnote: Sometimes these words are called possessive pronouns, +although really they are not pronouns at all, but pronominal adjectives +with a possessive meaning.] + +44. Reflexive possessive adjectives, like the reflexive pronoun, refer +to the subject of the verb in the sentence. For the first and second +persons, they are the same as the personal possessive adjectives. The +reflexive possessive adjective of the third person is "sia", his, her, +its, their, formed by adding the ending "-a" to the reflexive pronoun +"si": + + Mi havas miajn librojn sur mia tablo, I have my books on my table. + Johano perdis siajn librojn, John lost his (John's) books. + Mario estas en sia cxambro, Mary is in her room. + La birdoj flugis al sia arbo, the birds flew to their tree. + + + PRONOMINAL USE OF POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES. + +45. Possessive adjectives may be used predicatively, as "the book is +mine," or may modify some word or words not expressed, as "mine are +large." Instead of having special forms, like English "mine", "yours", +"hers", etc., Esperanto uses the regular possessive adjectives preceded +by the article: + + La granda libro estas la mia, the large book is mine. + La via estas granda, la miaj estas belaj, + yours is large, mine are beautiful. + Ili havas la sian, sed ne la lian, they have theirs, but not his. + La iliaj sxajnas esti bonaj, theirs seem to be good. + + + + VOCABULARY + + diro = saying, remark. mangxo = meal. + gxis = as far as, up to, down to. nesto = nest. + hieraux = yesterday. pasero = sparrow. + juna = young. patro = father. + kapti = to catch, to seize. post, after, behind. + kato = cat. surprizi = to surprise. + kolera = angry. teni = to hold, to keep. + lavi = to wash. vizagxo = face. + + + READING LESSON. + +1. Hieraux mi perdis mian grizan katon. 2. Ilia kato kaptis nian +birdon. 3. Via kolera diro surprizis mian patron. 4. Cxu la granda +kampo apartenas al sxia patro? 5. Ne, gxi ne estas la lia. 6. La lia +estas bela, sed mi preferas la mian. 7. Cxu vi sxatas vian libron aux +la ilian? 8. Li havas nek siajn cxevalojn nek la iliajn. 9. La knabinoj +sxajnas esti koleraj. 10. Ili komencis legi siajn librojn. 11. La viro +kaptis kaj tenis siajn cxevalojn, sed li ne trovis iliajn cxevalojn. +12. Sxia libro kusxas sur la planko, post sxia segxo. 13. Sxi ne trovis +ilian libron, sed la junaj infanoj trovis la nian. + + + LA KATO KAJ LA PASERO. + +Griza kato iris de la domo gxis la strato. Gxi vidis paseron antaux si, +kaj volis mangxi gxin. La kato staris post granda arbo, kaj kaptis la +paseron. La pasero diris "Bona kato lavas sin antaux sia mangxo, sed vi +ne lavis vian vizagxon." La interesa diro surprizis la katon. La kato +ne tenis la paseron, sed komencis lavi sian vizagxon. La pasero flugis +de la kato gxis la arbo. La kolera kato diris "Mi perdis mian mangxon, +cxar mi komencis lavi min antaux la mangxo!" Nun la katoj ne lavas sin +antaux la mangxoj. Ili havas siajn mangxojn, kaj post la mangxoj ili +lavas la vizagxojn. La paseroj ne surprizas ilin nun, sed ili tenas la +paserojn. La katoj estas felicxaj, sed la paseroj ne estas felicxaj. La +junaj paseroj volas flugi al la nestoj en la arboj. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. The boys are not in their (own) house, but they are in his. 2 Is the +large beautiful house yours? 3. The woman walked through the door of +their house, as far as her room. 4. The room has interesting pictures on +its walls. 5. We praised their flowers yesterday, and they gave them to +us. 6. Their books are in their (the books') box. 7. They are on their +(the boys') table. 8. The gray cat was angry because it did not hold the +bird. 9. The sparrow surprised it, and it commenced to wash its face. +10. The sparrow wished to fly as far as the tall tree, but the cat held +it. 11. The sparrow said "A good cat washes its face, but you are not a +good cat." 12. The sparrow was angry because the cat seized it and held +it. 13. The bird did not lose its meal, but the angry cat lost its meal. +14. Do you see his cat or hers? 15. I see both his and hers, but ours +is not in our garden. 16. My father is a tall strong man. 17. I like to +look at him. 18. The children saw the young birds in the nest. + + + + LESSON X. + + + THE ACCUSATIVE OF DIRECTION. + +46. When the verb in a sentence expresses motion, the word indicating +the place, person or thing toward which the motion is directed is given +the accusative ending. This is also true if the word is the complement +of any preposition which does not itself sufficiently indicate motion +in a certain direction. (The prepositions "al", to, toward, "gxis", +as far as, "tra", through, express motion in the direction of their +complements, and could not well be used except in a sentence whose verb +expresses motion. Consequently the accusative is not used after any of +these three): + + Li iris gxardenon, he went to the garden ("gardenward"). + La viro iros Bostonon, the man will go to Boston ("Bostonward"). + +[Footnote: Cf. English "he went home," "he went homeward," etc.] + + Li estis en la gxardeno, kaj kuris en la domon, + he was in the garden and ran into the house. + Gxi ne estas sur la tablo, gxi falis sur la plankon, + it is not on the table, it fell upon the floor. + Ili falis sub la tablon gxis la planko, + they fell under the table as far as the floor + (direction expressed by whole prepositional phrase). + Mi iris tra la domo en mian cxambron, + I went through the house into my room. + + + THE ARTICLE FOR THE POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE. + +47. In many sentences where the possessor is already sufficiently +indicated, English nevertheless uses a possessive adjective, as in "I +wash my face," "he shakes his head," but on the other hand omits it +entirely with certain words indicating relationship, as in "Brother gave +it to me," etc. In both cases Esperanto uses the article instead of the +possessive adjective, unless the fact of possession is to be emphasized: + + Mi lavas la vizagxon, I wash my face. + Li skuas la kapon, he shakes his head. + La patro estas alta, Father is tall. + Mi donis gxin al la patro, I gave it to Father. + + + APPOSITION. + +48. English often uses the preposition "of" between two words where +no idea of possession really exists, as "the city of Boston." Since +nouns used in apposition refer to the same thing, and are in the same +grammatical construction, Esperanto does not use a preposition: + + La urbo Bostono estas granda, the city (of) Boston is large. + Mia amiko Johano estas alta, my friend John is tall. + Cxu vi ne konas min, vian amikon? do you not know me, your friend? + + + VOCABULARY + + arabo = arab. meti = to put, to place. + baldaux = soon. nazo = nose. + Bostono = Boston. nur = only, merely. + frato = brother. pusxi = to push. + kamelo = camel. trans = across. + kapo = head. tuta = whole, entire, all. + kolo = neck. urbo = city. + korpo = body. varma = warm. + + + LA ARABO KAJ LA KAMELO. + +Arabo sidis en sia domo en la urbo. Apud domo trans la strato li vidis +kamelon. La kamelo iris trans la straton gxis la pordo, kaj diris al la +arabo, "Frato, mi ne estas varma, mi volas meti nur la nazon en vian +varman domon." La arabo skuis la kapon, sed la kamelo metis la nazon tra +la pordo en la cxambron. La kamelo komencis pusxi sian tutan vizagxon +en la domon. Baldaux li havis la kapon gxis la kolo en la domo. Post la +kapo iris la kolo en gxin, kaj baldaux la tuta korpo estis en la domo. +La arabo estis kolera, cxar li ne volis havi tutan kamelon en sia domo. +Li kuris al la kamelo, kaptis lin, tenis lin, kaj diris, "Frato, vi +volis meti nur la nazon en mian domon. La cxambro ne estas granda sed +gxi estas la mia, kaj mi preferas sidi en gxi." "Via diro estas bona," +diris la kamelo, "via domo ne estas granda, sed gxi estas varma, kaj mi +sxatas stari en gxi. Mi preferas stari kaj kusxi en gxi, kaj mi donos +al vi mian arbon trans la strato. Cxu vi ne volas iri sub la arbon?" +Kaj la kamelo pusxis la arabon de lia domo en la straton de la urbo. La +kamelo nun trovis sin en varma cxambro, sed la juna arabo staris trans +la strato kaj ne estis varma. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. The cat ran across the street. 2. Across the street it found a +sparrow. 3. It caught the bird, but began to wash its face, and the +sparrow flew to the nest. 4. I went into the garden as far as the large +tree. 5. I did not hold my book, and it fell upon the floor. 6. It began +to fall under the table, but I seized it. 7. My brother pushed the +books into their box, and put it on the table. 8. We went to the city +of Boston yesterday and into a beautiful house. 9. The arab shook his +head and said, "No." 10. But the camel commenced to go through the door. +11. His remark did not seem to surprise the camel. 12. The camel pushed +its head and neck, and soon its whole body into the warm house. 13. It +wished to put merely its nose into it. 14. The arab was angry, because +it pushed itself into his house. 15. He said, "Brother, the house is +mine, and I do not wish to have you in it." 16. But soon after the +remark, the whole camel was in the house. 17. He pushed the young arab +into the street. 18. He went across the street and stood upon the grass +under a tree. + + + + LESSON XI. + + + POSSESSIVE CASE OF NOUNS. + +49. The preposition "de" is used to express possession or connection: + + La muroj de la domo, the walls of the house. + La koloroj de la floroj, the colors of the flowers. + La libro de la knabo, the book of the boy (the boy's book). + Brancxo de la arbo, a branch of the tree. + La gxardeno de la viroj, the garden of the men (the men's garden). + + + IMPERSONAL VERBS. + +50. Verbs with an impersonal or indeterminate subject, as "it rains," +"it is snowing," are called impersonal, because there is no actual +subject, the word "it" serving merely as an introductory particle. No +such particle is used with impersonal verbs in Esperanto: + + Pluvas, it rains, it is raining. + Negxis hieraux, it snowed yesterday. + + + VERBS PRECEDING THEIR SUBJECTS. + +51. When the verb in a sentence precedes its subject, English often uses +an introductory particle, such as "there," "it." In Esperanto no such +particles are needed: + + Estas floroj sur la tablo, there are flowers on the table. + Estis Johano, ne Alfredo, en la gxardeno, + it was John, not Alfred, in the garden. + Estas domo en la kampo, there is a house in the field. + Estis mi, it was I. + + + COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS. + +52. Words like "aux", "kaj", "nek", "sed", which join words, +word-groups, or sentences together are conjunctions. All the +conjunctions given so far connect words, phrases, or sentences of +similar rank or kind. These are called coordinating conjunctions, +and the words, phrases, or sentences connected by them are said +to be coordinate: + + Cxu vi marsxas aux kuras? + ("Aux" connects the verbs.) + + Sxi iris, kaj ni estis felicxaj. + ("Kaj" connects the sentences.) + + Nek vi nek mi vidis gxin. + (The second "nek" connects the pronouns, + the first being introductory and adverbial.) + + Aux li aux sxi perdis la libron. + (The second "aux" connects the pronouns, + the first being introductory and adverbial.) + + Gxi falis sur la segxon, sed ne sur la plankon. + ("Sed" connects the phrases.) + + Li ne sxatis gxin. Tamen li tenis gxin. + ("Tamen" connects the sentences.) + +[Footnote: A phrase is a word-group forming an expression, but not +containing a verb, as "through the house," "of the man," "before me," +etc.] + +[Footnote: Coordinating conjunctions may be further classified according +to their meaning: "Aux" is disjunctive, connecting alternates, and +expressing separation. "Kaj" is copulative, expressing union. "Nek" +is disjunctive, expressing separation and also negation. "Sed" is +adversative, expressing opposition, contrast, or modification of a +previous statement. "Tamen" is adversative, affirming something in spite +of a previous objection or concession. "Do," "so, then, consequently," +is argumentative, expressing a logical inference or result in a somewhat +conversational manner.] + + + VOCABULARY + + akvo = water. porti = to carry. + amiko = friend. ricxa = rich, wealthy. + ankaux = also. sablo = sand. + bezoni = to need. sako = sack, bag. + dezerto = desert. seka = dry. + fidela = faithful. tamen = nevertheless. + mono = money. trinki = to drink. + negxi = to snow. veni = to come. + pluvi = to rain. vojo = road, way. + + + LA ARABO EN LA DEZERTO. + +Arabo iris trans grandan sekan dezerton. Kamelo, lia fidela amiko, +portis lin. La kamelo ankaux portis belajn tapisxojn, cxar la arabo +estis ricxa viro. La arabo havis ne nur tapisxojn, sed ankaux sakojn. En +la sakoj estis akvo, cxar en la dezerto nek pluvas nek negxas. La viro +trinkis akvon, kaj ankaux donis akvon al sia kamelo. La kamelo marsxis +kaj marsxis, sed ne venis al la domo de la arabo, cxar ili perdis la +vojon. La suno brilis, kaj la sablo de la dezerto sxajnis varma. La +arabo ne trovis la vojon, kaj baldaux li ne havis akvon. Tamen la kamelo +marsxis kaj marsxis, kaj baldaux la arabo vidis sakon antaux si, sur la +seka sablo. Li estis felicxa kaj diris al si "Cxu estas akvo en gxi? +Mi volas trinki, kaj volas doni akvon al mia fidela kamelo." Li ankaux +volis lavi la tutan vizagxon en la akvo, cxar li estis varma. Post sia +diro li kaptis la sakon, kaj komencis rigardi en gxin. Li metis la nazon +en gxin, sed ne trovis akvon en la sako. Nek li nek lia fidela kamelo +havis akvon, cxar estis nur mono en la sako. La arabo estis kolera, cxar +li ne volis monon, li bezonis akvon. Li havis monon en sia domo en la +urbo, kaj volis trovi akvon. Cxu li tamen metis la sakon trans la kolon +de sia kamelo? Ne, li ne volis meti gxin sur sian kamelon, cxar li estis +kolera. Li ne tenis la sakon, sed gxi falis sur la sablon, kaj kusxis +apud li. La sako nun kusxas sur la sablo de la granda dezerto, kaj la +mono estas en gxi. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Today it is raining, but yesterday it was snowing. 2. Did your friend +John carry his chair into the house? 3. I saw your good friends on the +way to the city. 4. Is the large sack behind the door theirs? 5. Neither +she nor her brother saw the whole city. 6. They went to the city of +Boston and lost their way. 7. There are interesting houses across the +street. 8. The body of a camel is large, and its neck is long. 9. The +camel pushed its head into the house of the arab, and he was angry. 10. +On the sand in the desert there lies a sack. 11. In the sack there is +money. 12. The arab was warm, and wished to drink water. 13. He also +wished to give water to the faithful camel. 14. Nevertheless, he found +only money in the sack. 15. He was angry, and did not keep the sack. +16. Yesterday he wished to find money, but today he prefers water. 17. +Nevertheless there is only sand in the desert. 18. He wished to come +from the dry desert to the house of a faithful friend. 19. Both he and +his friends are rich. 20. They went to his house yesterday, and came to +theirs today. 21. They do not need money. + + + + LESSON XII. + + + INDIRECT STATEMENTS. + +53. A statement made indirectly by means of a clause dependent upon a +verb meaning "say," "think," "know," "believe," or a similar expression, +as in "I know that he came," "I hear that he is good," is called an +"indirect statement." (The "direct" statement is "he came," "he is +good.") An indirect statement is joined to the main verb or sentence by +the subordinating conjunction "ke," that. + + Johano diras ke vi venis hieraux, + John says that you came yesterday. + Sxi opinias ke estas mono en la sako, + she thinks that there is money in the bag. + +[Footnote: A clause is a group of words including a verb, which is +dependent upon or subordinate to a main verb or sentence, as "--that he +came," "--when he went," "--that he is good," etc.] + +[Footnote: In English the subordinating conjunction may sometimes be +omitted, either "I think that he is good," or "I think he is good," +being usually permissible. But in Esperanto there is no variation, and +the conjunction "ke" is never omitted.] + + + THE INDEFINITE PERSONAL PRONOUN "ONI". + +54. When an indefinite personal pronoun is desired, as in the +expressions "one knows," "they say," "people say," "you can see," etc., +the indefinite personal pronoun "oni" is used. This pronoun may also be +used in translating such expressions as "it is said," "I am told," etc.: + + Oni diras ke li estas ricxa, they say (one says) that he is rich. + Oni vidas ke ili estas amikoj, one sees that they are friends. + Mi opinias ke oni sxatas lin, + I think that people like him (that he is liked). + Oni diris al mi ke estas sablo en la dezerto, + I was told (people said to me) that there is sand in the desert. + Oni opinias ke sxi estas felicxa, + it is thought (one thinks) that she is happy. + Cxu oni vidis nin en la gxardeno? + Were we seen (did people see us) in the garden? + Oni sxatas agrablajn infanojn, + people like agreeable children (agreeable children are liked). + + + THE FUTURE TENSE. + +55. The future tense of the verb expresses an act or state as about to +take place, or as one that will take place in future time. The ending of +this tense is "-os," as "kuros," will run, "flugos," will fly, "brilos," +will shine. The conjugation of "esti" and also of "vidi" in the future +tense is as follows: + + mi estos = I shall be. mi vidos = I shall see. + vi estos = you will be. vi vidos = you will see. + li (sxi, gxi) estos = li (sxi, gxi) vidos : + he (she, it) will be. he (she, it) will see. + ni estos = we shall be. ni vidos = we shall see. + vi estos = you (plural) will be. vi vidos = you (plural) will see. + ili estos = they will be. ili vidos = they will see. + + + VOCABULARY + + auxdi = to hear. oni = (see 54). + blovi = to blow. opinii = to think, to opine. + greno = grain (wheat, corn, etc.). orienta = east, eastern. + ke = that (conjunction). pluvo = rain. + kontraux = against. suda = south, southern. + montri = to show, to point out. velki = to wilt, to wither. + norda = north, northern. vento = wind. + nova = new. ventoflago = weathercock. + okcidenta = west, western. vetero = weather. + + + LA VENTOFLAGO. + +Estis varma vetero, la suno brilis, kaj suda vento blovis. Tamen la +nova ventoflago sur la domo diris al si, "La sudan venton mi ne sxatas. +Mi preferas orientan venton." La vento orienta auxdis la diron kaj gxi +venis kontraux la ventoflagon. Pluvis kaj pluvis, kaj oni estis kolera +kontraux la ventoflago, cxar gxi montras orientan venton. Gxi diris, +"Pluvas nun, sed la greno en la kampoj bezonos sekan veteron. Oni estos +kolera kontraux mi, cxar mi montras orientan venton." La okcidenta vento +auxdis la ventoflagon, kaj baldaux venis. Gxi ne estis forta, sed gxi +estis seka kaj agrabla vento, kaj ne portis pluvon. La viroj, virinoj, +kaj junaj infanoj volis trinki, sed ili ne havis akvon. La greno kaj la +floroj velkis, kaj la frukto ankaux falis. La nova ventoflago diris, +"Oni estos kolera kontraux mi, cxar ne pluvas. Oni opinios ke, cxar mi +montras okcidentan venton, la frukto falas, kaj la greno kaj floroj +velkas. Mi sxatas montri nek okcidentan nek orientan venton!" Norda +vento auxdis kaj venis al la ventoflago. La vetero ne estis agrabla, +kaj la virinoj kaj la junaj infanoj ne estis varmaj. Negxis, kaj oni +estis kolera. Oni diris "La greno kaj la frukto bezonas varman veteron, +sed hodiaux negxas. Ni preferas la sudan venton. Ni havis gxin, antaux +la orienta, la okcidenta, kaj la norda ventoj. La ventoflago ne estas +fidela amiko al ni. Gxi ne montras bonajn ventojn, kaj ni volas rompi +gxin!" Oni kuris al la domo, kaptis la novan ventoflagon, kaj ankaux +rompis gxin. Gxi falis, kaj kusxis sur la vojo antaux la domo. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. One can see that the weathercock points-out the winds. 2. They say +that the west wind will be a dry wind. 3. The weathercock now shows that +an agreeable south wind blows. 4. People will be angry with (against) +the weathercock, because it points-out a north wind. 5. A north wind is +not warm, and the grain and fruit will need a warm wind. 6. It snowed, +and the young children were not warm, because the north wind blew. 7. +People will like a south wind, but an east wind will carry rain. 8. +Can one find money in the desert? 9. Do you think (that) he is in the +house? 10. He is said to be (they say that he is) on the street. 11. +It is thought (people think) that the camel is a faithful friend. 12. +I am told (people tell me) that the camel has a large body, and a long +neck. 13. One can see that it is not beautiful. 14. People do not like +to drink warm water. 15. Nevertheless we shall drink warm water in the +city. 16. It was beautiful weather yesterday, but today we shall have +good weather also. 17. I think that a warm wind will blow soon. 18. My +friend has a beautiful new house. + + + + LESSON XIII. + + + THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN "TIU". + +56. The demonstrative pronoun "tiu", that, is used to indicate a person +or a definitely specified thing. The plural is "tiuj", those: + + Tiu estas la via, kaj mi volas tiun, + that is yours, and I wish that one. + Tiuj estos koleraj kontraux vi, those will be angry with you. + Li auxdis tiujn, he heard those (persons, or things). + +57. The demonstrative pronoun "tiu" is also used as a "pronominal +adjective", in agreement with a noun: + + Tiu vento estos varma, that wind will be warm. + Mi vidas tiun ventoflagon, I see that weathercock. + Tiuj infanoj estas junaj, those children are young. + Mi trovos tiujn librojn, I shall find those books. + + + TENSES IN INDIRECT QUOTATIONS. + +58. The verb in an indirect statement (53) or an indirect question +remains in the same tense in which it would be if the statement or +question were direct. (In English this is true only if the introductory +verb is present or future, since after an introductory past tense the +tense of the indirect quotation is changed, and "am, is, are, have, +will" become "was, were, had, would," etc.) + + Mi diras ke li estas bona, I say that he is good. + " diris " " " " , I said that he was good. + " diros " " " " , I shall say that he is good. + Li miras cxu mi auxdas, he wonders whether I hear. + " miris " " " , he wondered whether I heard. + " miros " " " , he will wonder whether I hear. + Mi opiniis ke gxi estas bona, I thought that it was good + (I thought "it is good"). + Oni miris cxu li venos, they wondered whether he would come + (they wondered "will he come?"). + +[Footnote: An indirect question is introduced by "cxu", whether, after +verbs meaning "ask," "wonder," "know," etc.: "Mi miras cxu li venis", I +wonder whether he came. "Oni demandas cxu li estas ricxa", people ask +whether he is rich.] + + + FORMATION OF FEMININE NOUNS. + +59. Feminine nouns corresponding to distinctly masculine nouns such as +"frato", "knabo", "viro", may be formed from these by inserting the +suffix "-in-" just before the noun-ending "-o": + + fratino = sister patrino = mother + (from frato, brother). (from patro, father). + knabino = girl virino = woman + (from knabo, boy). (from viro, man). + + +[Footnote: Cf. English names similarly formed from masculine names, +as "Pauline, Josephine, Ernestine, Geraldine," etc., also German +"Koenigin", queen, from "Koenig", king; "Loewin", lioness, from "Loewe", +lion, etc.] + + + VOCABULARY + + almenaux = at least. paroli = to talk, to speak. + cxapelo = hat. parko = park. + cxielo = sky, heaven. preskaux = almost. + filo = son. pri = concerning, about. + konstrui = to build. promeni = to take a walk. + miri = to wonder. super = above. + morgaux = tomorrow. timi = to fear, to be afraid (of). + nubo = cloud. tiu = that (56). + ombrelo = umbrella. zorga = careful. + + + EN LA PARKO. + +Miaj junaj amiko kaj amikino, kaj ankaux ilia patrino, iris hieraux al +la parko. La infanoj diris al la patrino ke la parko estas agrabla, +kaj ke ili volas promeni en gxi. La knabino parolis al sia frato pri +la belaj floroj. Sxi diris al li ke la floroj velkas, kaj ke la herbo +en preskaux la tuta parko bezonas pluvon. La knabo diris hodiaux al +mi ke hieraux li kaj lia fratino auxdis la birdojn en la arboj super +siaj kapoj. Li diris ke li miris pri tiuj birdoj, tamen li opinias ke +la birdoj baldaux konstruos siajn nestojn en tiuj arboj. La infanoj +promenis, kaj baldaux ili vidis ke grizaj nuboj venas sur la cxielon, +kaj mia juna amikino timis ke pluvos. Sxi parolis al la patrino pri la +nuboj kaj la pluvo, montris al sxi la grizajn nubojn, kaj diris ke si +volas iri al la domo. Ili komencis marsxi al la strato, kaj preskaux +kuris, cxar ili ne havis ombrelon. Tra la fenestroj de la domoj oni +rigardis ilin, kaj la knabo miris cxu li kaj liaj patrino kaj fratino +amuzas tiujn virojn kaj virinojn. Tamen la patrino diris ke sxi ne timas +ke sxi amuzos tiujn, sed ke sxi timas la pluvon. Sxi kaj la filino volas +esti zorgaj pri almenaux la novaj cxapeloj. La filo diris al sxi ke li +ankaux estas zorga, sed ke li opinias ke ne pluvos. Baldaux la patro +venis al ili, kaj portis ombrelojn, cxar li ankaux timis la pluvon. +Li miris cxu la infanoj kaj ilia patrino havas ombrelojn. Baldaux +pluvis, sed ili estis sekaj, cxar ili havis la ombrelojn. Morgaux ili ne +promenos en la parko, sed iros al la urbo. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. The east wind is dry and the south wind will be too warm. 2. A +west wind blew against the weathercock, but the grain needed a south +wind. 3 A north wind is blowing and I think that it will soon snow. 4. +It (51) will be beautiful weather tomorrow, because a pleasant wind +is now blowing. 5. The flowers will wither because those children +gathered them. 6. They are talking about that park, but I do not wish to +take-a-walk, because there are clouds in (on) the sky. 7. At least we +shall take an umbrella, and my brother will hold it over our heads. 8. +My sister said "Mother and I are-afraid that it will rain." 9. My young +sister will be careful about that new umbrella. 10. I wonder whether +she will take-a-walk tomorrow. 11. That park is pleasant and the grass +is soft and green. 12. The birds are building their nests now, in those +branches above our heads. 13. The sky above us is blue, and a west wind +is beginning to blow. 14. I can see that weathercock, on that large +house near the park. 15. Mother says that my sister will have a new hat +tomorrow. 16. She will be careful of (about) that hat. 17. My father's +friend is very careful of his son. 18. One sees that he is not a strong +boy. + + + LESSON XIV. + + + THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN "CXI TIU". + +60. The demonstrative pronoun (and pronominal adjective) meaning "this" +is formed by using with "tiu" (56) the word "cxi", which expresses the +general idea of nearness or proximity. (Consequently the literal meaning +of "cxi tiu" is "that one nearby", "that one here".) The word "cxi" may +either precede or follow the pronoun: + + Cxi tiu estas la mia, this is mine. + Mi vidis cxi tiun, I saw this one. + Cxu vi volas tiujn cxi? Do you wish these? + Cxi tiu knabino estas mia fratino, this girl is my sister. + Mi vidis cxi tiujn cxapelojn, I saw these hats. + Cxi tiuj amikoj promenos, these friends will take a walk. + +61. The words "tiu" and "cxi tiu" may be used to distinguish between +persons or things "previously" mentioned and "just" mentioned: + + Gertrude kaj Mario estas en la parko. + Tiu rigardas la florojn, cxi tiu kolektas ilin. + + Gertrude and Mary are in the park. + The former (that one) looks at the flowers, + the latter (this one) gathers them. + + + POSSESSIVE FORM OF THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN. + +62. To express possession, the demonstrative pronouns "tiu" and "cxi +tiu" have the special possessive or genitive forms "ties", that one's, +and "cxi ties", this one's. The use of "ties" and "cxi ties" to mean +"the former" and "the latter" is similar to the use of "tiu" and "cxi +tiu" shown in 61: + + + Mi iris al ties domo, I went to that one's house. + Cxi ties filoj estas junaj, + this person's (this one's) sons are young. + Mi sxatas ties koloron, sed preferas cxi tiun floron, + I like that one's color, but prefer this flower. + La patro kaj lia amiko parolas pri siaj domoj. + Ties estas nova, sed cxi ties sxajnas bela. + Father and his friend are talking about their houses. + The former's is new, but the latter's seems beautiful. + + + THE SUFFIX "-IL-". + +63. Names of instruments, tools or utensils may be formed by adding +the suffix "-il-" (followed by the ending "-o") to roots whose meaning +permits: + + flugilo, wing (from flugi, to fly). + kaptilo, snare, trap (from kapti, to catch). + kudrilo, needle (from kudri, to sew). + montrilo, indicator, (clock) hand (from montri, to point out, show). + tenilo, handle (from teni, to hold). + +[Footnote: The root of a word is that part of it which contains the +essential meaning, and to which the verb endings "-i", "-as", "-is", +"-os", the noun ending "-o", the adjective ending "-a", etc., are +attached, when no suffix intervenes. Thus, "vir-" is the root of "viro" +and of "virino"; "kur-" is the root of "kuri", etc.] + + + THE EXPRESSION OF MEANS OR INSTRUMENTALITY. + +64. The means or instrumentality through which an act is accomplished is +expressed by use of the preposition "per": + + Oni kudras per kudrilo, one sews by means of (with) a needle. + La birdoj flugas per flugiloj, the birds fly by (with) wings. + Li amuzas sin per tiuj bildoj, + he amuses himself with (by) those pictures. + Mi trovis gxin per via helpo, I found it by (through) your help. + + + VOCABULARY + + akra = sharp najbaro = neighbor. + busxo = mouth. per = by means of (64). + dekstra = right (not left). supo = soup. + cxi (see 60). telero = plate. + forko = fork. terpomo = potato. + helpo = help. ties = that one's (62). + kafo = coffee. trancxi = to cut. + kulero = spoon. tre = very, exceedingly. + mano = hand. viando = meat. + + + LA MANGXO. + +Hieraux mi miris cxu mi havos bonan mangxon en la domo de mia amiko. Sed +mi opiniis ke mi havos tre bonan mangxon, cxar mia amiko sxatas doni +bonajn mangxojn al siaj amikoj. Oni metis tre bonan supon antaux mi, +kaj mi mangxis tiun per granda kulero. Post la supo mi havis viandon. +Cxi tiun mi tenis per forko, kaj trancxis per akra trancxilo. La forko, +trancxilo kaj kulero estas mangxiloj. Mi havis ne nur viandon, sed +ankaux novajn terpomojn. Mi trancxis tiujn cxi per la trancxilo, sed +mi metis ilin en la busxon per forko. Mi tenis la forkon en la dekstra +mano, kaj metis la trancxilon trans mian teleron. Oni bezonas akran +trancxilon, sed oni ne bezonas tre akran forkon. Post la viando kaj la +terpomoj, oni donis al mi fresxajn maturajn cxerizojn. Ili kusxis sur +granda telero, kaj havis belan koloron. Ilia gusto estis ankaux bona. +Mi preskaux ne diris ke mi ankaux havis kafon. Mi parolos morgaux al +mia amiko pri lia kafo, kaj lauxdos gxin. Post la mangxo, najbaro de +mia amiko venis en cxi ties domon, kaj ili parolis al mi pri siaj novaj +domoj. Per la helpo de sia patro, mia amiko konstruos grandan domon. +Lia najbaro volas konstrui belan sed ne tre grandan domon. Ties nova +domo estos bela, sed mi opinias ke mi preferos cxi ties domon. Mia amiko +volis doni almenaux kafon al sia najbaro, sed li diris ke li ne volas +trinki kafon. Tamen li volis persikon. Li tenis tiun en la mano, kaj +mangxis tiun. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. The birds have very strong wings on their bodies, but they do not +have hands. 2. They will build their nests, and sing about the young +birds. 3. Those children were talking to me yesterday about their cat. +4. They said that it likes to catch and eat sparrows. 5. Tomorrow it +will hide (itself) behind a tree, and will catch a young sparrow. 6. The +children will gather peaches in that-person's garden, and will put them +upon a plate. 7. They will shake the whole tree by means of a branch. 8. +The sweet fruit above them will fall upon the soft green grass. 9. The +children wondered whether the cherries were ripe. 10. They seem almost +ripe, and tomorrow the children will pick (gather) them, with the help +of their father. 11. It is said (54) that the grain in that-man's field +very [much] needs rain. 12. People also think that the flowers will +wither, for (because) it did not rain yesterday or today. 13. My careful +young friend will carry an umbrella in his hand tomorrow, because he +fears the rain. 14. He sees those gray clouds in (on) the sky. 15. He +holds the umbrella by its handle. 16. The weathercock is an indicator +concerning the weather. 17. One eats meat with a fork, and soup with a +spoon. 18. One holds the spoon in the right hand. 19. A knife is sharp, +but one does not need a sharp fork. 20. We shall have a very good meal, +and also very good coffee. + + + + LESSON XV. + + + THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVE. + +65. The demonstrative adjective related to the demonstrative pronoun +"tiu" (56) is "tia", that kind of, that sort of, such: + + Tia floro estas bela, that kind of a flower is beautiful. + Mi sxatas tian viandon, I like that sort of meat. + Tiaj najbaroj estas agrablaj, + such (that kind of) neighbors are pleasant. + Mi volas auxdi tiajn birdojn, I wish to hear such birds. + + + ADVERBS DEFINED AND CLASSIFIED. + +66. An adverb is a word which modifies the meaning of a verb, adjective, +another adverb, or phrase. It may express manner, time, degree, +negation, etc. Adverbs are either primary, as "now," "almost," or +derived, as "glad-ly," "sweet-ly," The Esperanto primary adverbs given +in this and in preceding lessons may be classified as follows: + + (a) Temporal Adverbs (expressing time). + + baldaux = soon. morgaux = tomorrow. + hieraux = yesterday. nun = now. + hodiaux = today. tuj = immediately. + + (b) Adverbs of Degree. + + almenaux = at least. preskaux = almost. + nur = merely. tre = very, much. + + (c) Adverbs Expressing Other Ideas. + + addition: ankaux = also. emphasis: ecx = even. + interrogation: cxu, (30). affirmation: jes = yes. + proximity: cxi, (60). negation: ne = not, no, (27). + +a. An adverb usually precedes, but may also follow, the word or words +which it modifies. It must be so placed as to leave no doubt about which +of two words or word-groups it is intended to modify. Thus, "mi preskaux +volis havi tiun" clearly means "I almost wished to have that"; but "mi +volis preskaux havi tiun" might mean either "I almost wished to have +that," or more probably "I wished almost to have that." An example of +permissible variation in the position of adverbs is shown in questions +to which an affirmative answer is expected. Such questions may be put in +the form of a statement, followed by "cxu ne" (instead of having "cxu" +introduce the sentence, with "ne" in its normal position): + + Li venos, cxu ne? He will come, will he not? + La vetero estas bela, cxu ne? The weather is beautiful, is it not? + Vi auxdis tiun diron, cxu ne? You heard that remark, did you not? + + + FORMATION OF OPPOSITES. + +67. If the meaning of a word is such that it can have a direct opposite, +such opposite may be formed from it by use of the prefix "mal-": + + malalta = low, short (from "alta", high, tall). + malamiko = enemy (from "amiko", friend). + maldekstra = left (from "dekstra", right). + malhelpi = to hinder (from "helpi", to help). + maljuna = aged, old (from "juna", young). + malnova = old, not new (from "nova", new). + +[Footnote: Cf. English "malcontent", "discontented," "maladroit", +"clumsy."] + + + VOCABULARY + + dum = during. povi = to be able. + ecx = even. preni = to take. + gardi = to guard. propono = proposal. + helpi = to help, to aid. respondi = to answer. + honti = to be ashamed. ruza = sly, cunning. + kara = dear. sxteli = to steal. + kontenta = satisfied. tia = that kind of (65). + kuragxa = courageous. tuj = immediately. + nokto = night. vocxo = voice. + + + LA RUZA JUNA VIRO. + +Ruza juna viro kaj bona maljuna viro iris trans dezerton. Tiu havis +nigran cxevalon, cxi tiu havis blankan cxevalon. "Vi gardos niajn +cxevalojn dum la nokto, cxu ne?" diris la juna viro per dolcxa vocxo al +sia amiko, "Cxar dum la nokto oni ne povos vidi mian nigran cxevalon, +sed malamikoj povos tuj vidi vian blankan cxevalon. Oni povos sxteli +tian cxevalon, cxar vi estas maljuna kaj malforta, kaj ne povos malhelpi +malamikojn." Tia propono ne sxajnis agrabla al la maljuna viro. Li ne +estis kontenta, tamen li ne volis perdi sian cxevalon, cxar li estis +malricxa. Li diris al si ke li donos sian blankan cxevalon al la juna +viro, kaj prenos ties nigran cxevalon. Tuj li diris al cxi tiu "Sed per +via helpo mi ne perdos mian cxevalon: mi donos la mian al vi, kaj prenos +vian cxevalon. La via estas malbela, sed gxi estas almenaux nigra; vi +donos gxin al mi, cxu ne?" "Jes," respondis la ruza juna viro, kaj li +donis sian nigran cxevalon al tiu, kaj prenis la blankan cxevalon. +"Nun," diris la maljuna viro, "Vi estas kuragxa kaj forta, kaj vi gardos +la cxevalojn, cxu ne? Vi povos malhelpi malamikojn per tiu granda akra +trancxilo, kaj oni ne povos sxteli vian blankan cxevalon." La ruza juna +viro ne hontis. Li respondis "Mia kara amiko, mi nun dormos, cxar oni +ne sxtelos blankan cxevalon. Mi povos vidi tian cxevalon dum la nokto, +kaj malhelpi malamikojn. Sed tiu cxevalo via ("that horse of yours") +havas la koloron de la nokto, kaj ecx nun oni povas sxteli gxin." La +malkontenta maljuna viro diris per kolera vocxo "Cxu vi ne hontas pri +tia propono?" Tamen la ruza juna viro tuj komencis dormi, kaj la maljuna +viro gardis la cxevalojn dum la tuta nokto. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + (Words to be formed with the prefix "mal-" are quoted.) + +1. Does one eat potatoes and meat with a fork or a spoon? 2. One puts +soup into the mouth by means of a spoon. 3. One cuts fruit with a knife, +and puts the fruit upon a plate. 4. The coffee was "cold", and I was +much "dissatisfied". 5. My knife was "dull", nevertheless I almost +immediately cut my (the) "left" hand. 6. I was ashamed, but I think +that the handle of that knife was very "short". 7. The grass is "wet" +today, and I fear that we shall not be able to take a walk, even in that +"small" park. 8. I "dislike" to go-walking upon the "hard" streets. +9. The courageous young man and his "aged" friend talked about their +"enemies". 10. They wished to be careful about their horses. 11. The +young man was very sly, and wished to sleep during the night. 12. He +said that one can steal a black horse during the "dark" night. 13. He +said that either (aux) he or the "old" man would guard the horses. 14. +The "old" man answered that he would give to him his [own] white horse. +15. He took that one's black horse. 16. He was ashamed, and was very +angry at his "faithless" friend. 17. But he "stayed-awake", and guarded +the horses. + + + + LESSON XVI. + + + THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADVERB OF PLACE. + +68. The demonstrative adverbs of place related to the pronouns "tiu" and +"cxi tiu" are "tie", there, in (at) that place, and "cxi tie", here, in +(at) this place: + + La telero estas tie, the plate is there (in that place). + La libroj kusxas cxi tie, the books lie here (in this place). + Mi trovis vin tie kaj lin tie cxi, I found you there and him here. + Tie la vetero sxajnas tre agrabla, + there the weather seems very pleasant. + +69. If the verb in the sentence expresses motion toward the place +indicated by "tie" or "cxi tie", the ending "-n" is added to the adverb +(46), forming "tien", thither, there, and "cxi tien", hither, here: + + Li iros tien, he will go there (thither). + Mi venis cxi tien, I came here (hither). + Ni estis tie, kaj venis cxi tien, + we were there and came here (hither). + + + ACCOMPANIMENT. + +70. Accompaniment or association is expressed by the preposition "kun", +with, along with: + + La viro venis kun sia amiko, the man came with his friend. + Mi promenos kun vi, I shall go walking with you. + La knabo kun tiu viro estas lia frato, + the boy with that man is his brother. + +[Footnote: "Kun" must not be confused with "per" (64), which expresses +instrumentality, although per may often be translated by English "with." +The English preposition "with" may be said to have three rather clearly +defined different meanings. In the linguistic history of this word, +the original meaning was "against," still shown in "fight with, strive +with, contend with, withstand", etc. (Cf. German "widerstreiten", to +strive with, "widerhalten", to resist, etc.) Gradually this word "with" +usurped the meaning of the original preposition "mid," expressing +association or accompaniment (cf. German "mit", with, which it crowded +out of the language except in one unimportant compound). The word +"by" was also encroaching upon "mid" from another direction, and so +"mid's" successor "with" came to be interchangeable with "by" in +expressing instrumentality. Thus, English "with" indicates opposition, +accompaniment, or instrumentality, for which three senses Esperanto has +the three prepositions "kontraux", "kun", and "per", respectively.] + + + THE ADVERB "FOR". + +71. The adverb "for", away, may be used independently, as "Li iris +for de mi", he went away from me, but it is more frequently used as a +prefix to give a sense of departure, loss or somewhat forcible removal: + + foriri = to go away, to depart. + forkuri = to run away, to escape. + forlasi = to leave alone, to abandon, to desert. + formangxi = to eat away, to eat up. + forpreni = to take away, to remove. + fortrinki = to drink away, to drink up. + +[Footnote: Cf. the prefix "for-" in English "forfend," to keep away, +to avert, "forbid," to exclude from, to command against, "forbear," to +refrain from, etc.] + + + THE MEANING OF "POVI". + +72. The verb "povi", to be able, is used to translate English "can", +which is defective, that is, does not occur in all of the forms a verb +may have: + + Mi povas paroli, I am able to talk, I can talk. + Mi povis paroli, I was able to talk, I could talk. + Mi povos paroli, I shall be able to talk, ------. + Mi volas povi paroli, I wish to be able to talk, ------. + + + VOCABULARY + + el = out of, out. peli = to drive, to chase. + cxirkaux = around, roundabout. posxo = pocket. + for = away (71). rajdi = to ride. + frua = early. rapidi = to hasten. + glavo = sword. resti = to remain, to stay. + horo = hour. sagxa = wise. + kun = with (70). tie = there (68). + lasi = to leave. voki = to call. + + + MALAMIKOJ EN LA DEZERTO. + +Juna viro kaj lia sagxa patro volis iri trans la dezerton, kun siaj +amikoj. La amikoj estis fortaj, kaj la juna viro estis tre kuragxa. Ili +restis en malgranda urbo dum la nokto, kaj forrajdis kun tiuj amikoj. +La patro kaj la filo opiniis ke la amikoj kun ili povos helpi per siaj +akraj glavoj. Ili opiniis ke ili povos forpeli la malamikojn. Ecx en +la dezerto oni trovas malamikojn. Tiaj malamikoj forprenas la monon de +bonaj viroj. La juna viro estis kontenta, cxar li estis kun la amikoj. +La maljuna viro estis kontenta cxar li estis kun sia filo. Baldaux la +nokto venis. Estis tre malluma tie en la dezerto, kaj ili preskaux ne +povis vidi. Dum la fruaj horoj de la nokto la patro auxdis vocxojn, kaj +preskaux tuj li vidis la malamikojn. La ruzaj malbonaj viroj rapidis +tien, kaj vokis la maljunan viron. La malkuragxaj amikoj de la patro kaj +filo nek restis tie, nek helpis forpeli la malamikojn. Ili tuj forkuris. +La malamikoj staris cxirkaux la patro, kaj forpusxis lin de lia cxevalo. +La filo volis malhelpi ilin, sed li ne povis. Li povis nur resti kun la +patro, kaj gardi lin tie kontraux la glavoj de la malamikoj. Baldaux la +malamikoj komencis forpreni la monon el la posxoj de la sagxa maljuna +viro. La kolera filo diris per maldolcxa ("bitter") vocxo "Cxu vi ne +hontas? Cxu vi lasos al ni nek la cxevalojn nek nian monon?" Sed la +malamikoj respondis "Ne, ni lasos al vi nek la cxevalojn nek la monon. +Ni ne estas malsagxaj." Post tiu diro ili tuj forrapidis, kaj prenis kun +si la cxevalojn. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. The foolish friends of the young man and his aged father did not stay +with them. 2. They did not help them with their swords, but ran away at +once ("tuj"), and were not ashamed. 3. The old man heard disagreeable +voices behind him, and soon he saw the enemy. 4. The enemy called them, +and hastened there (69). 5. Those sly bad men took the money out of +the pockets of the courageous young man. 6. They stood around him, and +also around his father. 7. The father and son could not even guard +their horses. 8. The enemy did not leave (to) these their horses, but +took both the horses and the money. 9. Soon the enemy rode away, during +the late hours of the night. 10. The father and son were angry and +dissatisfied. 11. They said "We fear and dislike such men." 12. The +father said "By the help of our neighbors we can ("povos") find those +bad men, and drive them away, out of the desert." 13. The son replied, +"Dear Father, such a proposal seems good, and I will help with my long +sharp sword. 14. But we are now in the desert, and the road to the city +is long. 15. We cannot ride thither, but we can walk thither. 16. Can +you not hasten, with ("per") my help?" 17. The wise old man answered, +"Yes, my son, with such help I can walk thither." + + + + LESSON XVII. + + THE DEMONSTRATIVE TEMPORAL ADVERB. + +73. The demonstrative temporal adverb related to the demonstrative +pronoun "tiu" is "tiam", then, at that time: + + Tiam li rajdos al la urbo, then he will ride to the city. + Nun ili estas sagxaj, sed tiam ili estis malsagxaj, + now they are wise, but at that time they were foolish. + + + COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. + +74. An adjective may have three degrees, "positive", "comparative" and +"superlative." English has various ways of forming the comparative +and superlative degrees (as by the suffixes "-er, -est," the adverbs +"more, most," and irregular methods as in "good, better, best," etc.). +Esperanto has only one method, using the adverbs "pli", more, and +"plej", most: + + POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE. + --------------- ------------------------ -------------------------- + bela, beautiful pli bela, more beautiful plej bela, most beautiful + bona, good pli bona, better plej bona, best + malbona, bad pli malbona, worse plej malbona, worst + sagxa, wise pli sagxa, wiser plej sagxa, wisest + +75. The preposition "el" is used with words expressing the group or +class out of which a superlative is selected and mentioned: + + Li estas la plej juna el tiuj, he is the youngest of (out of) those. + Vi estas la plej felicxa el ni, you are the happiest of us. + Tiu estis la plej ruza el la viroj, + that one was the craftiest of the men. + + + MANNER AND CHARACTERISTIC. + +76. The actions or feelings which accompany an act or state, or the +characteristic which permanently accompanies a person or thing, may be +expressed by a substantive with the preposition "kun": + + Li prenis gxin kun la plej granda zorgo, + he took it with the greatest care. + Mi auxdis lin kun intereso kaj plezuro, + I heard him with interest and pleasure. + Sxi estas virino kun bona gusto, + she is a woman with (of) good taste. + Mi havas cxevalon kun forta korpo, + I have a horse with a strong body. + +[Footnote: Sometimes the manner of an action may be expressed by the +instrument of it, expressed by the preposition "per" with a substantive +modified by an adjective: "Li kantis per dolcxa vocxo", he sang with (by +means of) a sweet voice. "Vi pusxis min per forta mano", you pushed me +with a strong hand.] + + + "DIRI", "PAROLI" AND "RAKONTI". + +77. The verbs "diri", to say, "paroli", to talk, to speak, and +"rakonti", to relate, having in common the general idea of speech or +expression, must not be confused in use: + + Mi diris al vi ke pluvas, I said to (told) you that it was raining. + Mi diris gxin al vi, I said it to you (I told you). + Mi parolis al vi pri gxi, I talked (spoke) to you about it. + Mi rakontis gxin al vi, I related (told) it to you. + + + VOCABULARY + + ami = to love. pli = more (74). + ekster = outside (of). plumo = pen. + Frederiko = Frederick. rakonti = to relate (77). + gratuli = to congratulate. regxo = king. + intereso = interest. servisto = servant. + letero = letter. skribi = to write. + plej = most (74). tiam = then (73). + plezuro = pleasure. zorgo = care. + + + FREDERIKO GRANDA KAJ LA JUNA SERVISTO. + +Hieraux mi legis interesan libron pri Frederiko Granda ("the Great"). +En gxi oni rakontas ke la regxo kun plezuro legis aux skribis per sia +plumo, dum malfruaj horoj de la nokto. Agrabla juna knabo, la plej juna +el la servistoj, tiam restis ekster la pordo. Cxar la regxo legis plej +interesan novan libron, li ne opiniis ke la horo estas malfrua. Li vokis +sian malgrandan serviston, sed la knabo, nek venis nek respondis. La +regxo iris tien, kaj trovis la knabon ekster la pordo. Li vidis ke la +knabo dormas sur malalta segxo. Tiam Frederiko Granda ne estis kolera, +sed hontis cxar li vokis la infanon. La regxo Frederiko vidis leteron +en la posxo de la knabo. Tuj li prenis la leteron el lia posxo, kaj +rigardis gxin. Gxi estis letero al la servisto, de lia patrino. Sxi ne +estis ricxa virino, sxi sxajnis esti tre malricxa. En cxi tiu letero la +patrino diris per la plumo ke sxi amas la filon. Sxi dankis lin cxar +li skribis al sxi longan leteron. Sxi ankaux dankis lin cxar li donis +al sxi monon. La regxo volis esti tre bona al tia filo. Kun la plej +granda zorgo li metis monon el sia posxo kun la letero kaj tiam lasis la +leteron en ties posxo. Tiam li formarsxis al sia cxambro, kaj vokis la +malgrandan serviston. La knabo tuj auxdis, kaj rapidis tra la pordo. Li +kuris trans la cxambron, kaj staris antaux la regxo. "Cxu vi dormis?" +diris Frederiko Granda. "Jes, mi timas ke mi preskaux dormis," respondis +la knabo, "kaj mi tre hontas." Tiam li metis la manon en la posxon, +kaj trovis la monon. Li sxajnis pli malfelicxa kaj diris kun granda +timo "Malamiko metis cxi tiun monon en mian posxon! Oni opinios ke mi +sxtelis gxin! Oni malamos min, kaj forpelos min!" Frederiko respondis, +"Ne, mi donis gxin al vi, cxar mi amas bonajn knabojn. Mi gratulas vian +patrinon, cxar sxi havas tian filon." + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. An interesting story is related (54) about Frederick the Great. 2. +His youngest servant stayed outside of the door. 3. The king called him, +and he hastened thither and stood before him. 4. Yesterday he did not +hear the king. 5. The king called him, but he did not answer. 6. The +king thought that the boy had gone away with the older servants, and he +was angry. 7. He left his book on the table, and went to the door. 8. +Then he saw that the little boy was sleeping there. 9. He looked at him +with greater interest, and saw a letter in his pocket. 10. The letter +was from the boy's mother. 11. He had written a letter to her, with his +pen, and had given (to) her money, because she was poor. 12. He wrote +longer letters with pleasure, because he was a most faithful son. 13. +The king congratulated the mother of the boy, concerning such a son. 14. +(The) king Frederick wished to be kinder ("pli bona") to the boy. 15. He +placed his book upon the table, near his sword, and talked to the little +servant. 16. Then the older servants came, and stood around the king. +17. They walked with great care, and the younger servant did not hear +them. 18. They loved the little boy, and wished to help him. + + + + LESSON XVIII. + + + THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADVERB OF MOTIVE OR REASON. + +78. The demonstrative adverb of motive or reason, related to the +demonstrative pronoun "tiu", is "tial", therefore, for that reason, +so: + + Tial la servisto foriris, therefore the servant went away. + Tial mi gratulis lin, for that reason I congratulated him. + Tial oni forpelis lin, so they drove him away. + + + DERIVATION OF ADVERBS. + +79. Adverbs may be derived from roots whose meaning permits, by addition +of the adverb-ending "-e", as "felicxe", happily, "kolere", angrily. The +comparison of adverbs is similar to that of adjectives: + + POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE. + ------------- ---------------------- ----------------------- + sagxe, wisely pli sagxe, more wisely plej sagxe, most wisely + bone, well pli bone, better plej bone, best + malbone, badly pli malbone, worse plej malbone, worst + ruze, slyly pli ruze, more slyly plej ruze, most slyly + + + "MALPLI" AND "MALPLEJ". + +80. The opposites (67) of "pli" and "plej" are "malpli", less, and +"malplej", least. Their use is similar to that of "pli" and "plej". +(These adverbs may also modify verbs): + + Li estas malpli kuragxa, he is less courageous. + Tiuj estis malplej akraj, those were least sharp. + La vento blovis malpli forte, the wind blew less strongly. + Li skribis malplej zorge, he wrote least carefully. + Mi malpli timas ilin, I fear them less. + Vi malplej bezonos helpon, you will need help least. + + + COMPARISON OF WORDS EXPRESSING QUANTITY. + +81. Since in their precise sense the words "pli", "malpli", "plej", +"malplej", express degree, a quantitative meaning is given by "multe", +"much", in the desired degree of comparison: + + multe, much pli multe, more (in amount) plej multe, most + + malpli multe, less " malplej multe, least + + malmulte, little pli malmulte, less " plej malmulte, least + + + COMPARISONS CONTAINING "OL". + +82. In a comparison made by the use of "pli" or "malpli", the case used +after "ol", than, must indicate clearly the sense intended: + + Mi amas ilin pli multe ol sxin, I love them more than (I love) her. + Mi amas ilin pli multe ol sxi, + I love them more than she (loves them). + Vi helpis la viron malpli multe ol la knabo, + you helped the man less than the boy (helped him). + Vi helpis la viron malpli multe ol la knabon, + you helped the man less than (you helped) the boy. + + + CAUSAL CLAUSES. + +83. A clause giving a cause or reason is introduced by "cxar", because, +for, or by the combination "tial ke", for this reason that, because, +for: + + Mi venis frue, cxar mi volis vidi vin, + I came early, for I wished to see you. + La floroj velkis tial, ke ne pluvis, + the flowers wilted for this reason, that it did not rain. + + + VOCABULARY + + anstataux = instead of. multa = much (multaj, many). + aprilo = April. ofta = frequent (ofte, often). + auxgusto = August. ol = than (82). + jaro = year. printempo = spring (season). + junio = June. tago = day. + julio = July. sezono = season. + majo = May. somero = summer. + marto = March. tial = therefore (78). + monato = month. vintro = winter. + + + PRI LA SEZONOJ. + +La vintro estas la malplej agrabla sezono el la tuta jaro. Negxas tre +multe, kaj tial oni nur malofte promenas, cxar la stratoj estas tro +malsekaj. Oni marsxas kun granda zorgo, kaj malrapide ("slowly"), tial +ke oni ne volas fali kaj preskaux rompi la kolon. Oni zorge gardas sin +tiam kontraux la malvarmaj nordaj ventoj. La manojn oni metas en la +posxojn, sed la vizagxon oni ne povas bone gardi. Mi ne sxatas resti +ekster la domo dum tia vetero. Mi multe preferas sidi en varma luma +cxambro, kaj skribi leterojn per bona plumo. La monatoj de la printempo +estas marto, aprilo kaj majo. La bela printempo sxajnas pli agrabla ol +la vintro. Gxiaj tagoj estas pli longaj kaj pli varmaj, gxiaj ventoj +blovas malpli forte. En cxi tiu sezono la kampoj kaj arboj frue komencas +montri plej belajn kolorojn. La birdoj konstruas siajn nestojn, kaj +dolcxe kantas. Oni povas promeni sur la mola herbo, anstataux sur +malsekaj malagrablaj stratoj. Pluvas pli multe en aprilo, tamen post +la pluvo la herbo sxajnas pli verda, kaj la nuboj baldaux forflugas de +la blua cxielo. Dum majo oni trovas violojn, kaj en junio oni vidas +tre multajn rozojn. Sed la plej agrabla el la sezonoj estas la somero. +Anstataux malvarmaj ventoj la somero havas la plej belan veteron, kun +suda aux okcidenta ventoj. La longaj tagoj estas varmaj, sed la noktoj +estas tute agrablaj. Tiam oni havas pli bonajn fruktojn ol dum la +printempo. La monatoj de la somero estas junio, julio kaj auxgusto. Mi +plej sxatas junion. Cxu vi sxatas gxin pli multe ol mi? Cxu vi sxatas +auxguston pli multe ol julion? + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. I read a most interesting book about Frederick the Great. 2. It +relates that he often stayed-awake and read with great interest during +the later hours of the night. 3. His youngest servant was a small boy. +4. The king loved this boy more than [he loved] the older servants. 5. +The winter is a less pleasant season than the spring, but the summer is +more pleasant than that [season]. 6. During March the east winds blow +most strongly, and shake the trees very much. 7. In April one needs his +umbrella, for (the reason that) there are often clouds in the sky and +it rains a great deal (very much). 8. The streets are very wet, but the +water does not seem to wash them. 9. In May one begins to find sweet +violets, and the birds in the trees above our heads sing very sweetly. +10. In June the most beautiful roses are seen (54). 11. July and August +are the warmest months of the whole year. 12. The days are longer than +the nights, and the weathercock shows west and south winds, instead of +those disagreeable north and east winds. 13. One stays outside [of] the +house then with greater pleasure, and goes walking in the parks. 14. +I think that I like the summer better than you [do]. 15. Therefore I +praise the summer more than you [do]. 16. However, I praise you more +than [I praise] your younger brother. 17. He is less wise than you. + + + + LESSON XIX. + + + "JU" AND "DES" IN COMPARISONS. + +84. In clauses expressing a comparison between two objects, acts or +states, the adverbial use of English "the ... the ..." (meaning "by how +much ... by that much ...") is rendered by the adverbs "ju" and "des", +respectively: + + + Ju pli bona li estas, des pli felicxa li estos, + the better he is, the happier he will be. + Ju pli ofte mi rigardas, des pli mi volas rigardi, + the oftener I look, the more I wish to look. + Ju pli bele la luno brilas, des pli oni sxatas la nokton, + the more beautifully the moon shines, the more one likes the night. + Ju malpli pluvas, des pli la floroj velkas, + the less it rains, the more the flowers wither. + Ju malpli multe vi helpas, des malpli multe mi lauxdos vin, + the less you help, the less I shall praise you. + Cxar vi helpis, mi des pli multe lauxdos vin, + because you helped, I shall praise you the (that much) more. + +[Footnote: Cf. Shakespeare, As You Like It, V, II, 49, "By so much the +more shall I tomorrow be at the height of heart-heaviness, by how much I +shall think my brother happy in having what he wishes for."] + + + THE PREPOSITION "INTER". + +85. In English, the preposition "between" is used in reference to two +persons or things, and "among" in reference to three or more. As the +difference in meaning is not essential, Esperanto has but the one +preposition inter to express both "between" and "among": + + Li sidas inter vi kaj mi, he is sitting between you and me. + Li sidas inter siaj amikoj, he is sitting among his friends. + La monato majo estas inter aprilo kaj junio, + the month of May is between April and June. + Inter tiuj libroj estas tre interesa libro, + among those books there is a very interesting book. + + + THE PREPOSITION "PRO". + +86. Cause or reason may be expressed not only by an adverb (78) or a +clause (83), but also by use of the preposition "pro", because of, on +account of, for the sake of, for. It directs the thought away from the +complement toward the action, feeling or state caused by it, or done in +its interest or behalf: + + La floroj velkas pro la seka vetero, + the flowers wilt because of the dry weather. + Mi skribis la leteron pro vi, + I wrote the letter for you (for your sake). + Pro tiuj nuboj mi timas ke pluvos, + on account of those clouds I fear that it will rain. + Oni sxatas cxerizojn pro la dolcxa gusto, + people like cherries because of the sweet taste. + + + PREPOSITIONS WITH ADVERBS AND OTHER PREPOSITIONS. + +87. Prepositions may be used with adverbs or with prepositional phrases +when the meaning permits: + + La kato kuris el sub la tablo, the cat ran out-from under the table. + Li venos el tie, he will come out of there. + De nun li estos zorga, from now he will be careful. + Li staris dekstre de la vojo, he stood on the right of the road. + Mi iros for de cxi tie, I shall go away from here. + + + VOCABULARY + + auxtuno = autumn, fall. negxo = snow. + decembro = December. novembro = November. + des = (see 84). nuda = bare, naked. + februaro = February. oktobro = October. + glacio = ice. pro = because of (86). + inter = between, among (85). rikolti = to harvest. + januaro = January. rivero = river. + ju = (see 84). septembro = September. + kovri = to cover. tero = ground, earth. + + + LA AUXTUNO KAJ LA VINTRO. + +La sezonoj de la jaro estas la vintro, la printempo, la somero, kaj la +auxtuno. La auxtuno estas inter la somero kaj la vintro. Gxiaj monatoj +estas septembro, oktobro kaj novembro. En septembro oni povas kolekti +maturajn fruktojn. Tiam ankaux oni rikoltas la flavan grenon de la +kampoj. Dum cxi tiu monato kaj dum oktobro la folioj sur la brancxoj +komencas esti rugxaj kaj flavaj, anstataux verdaj. La herbo velkas, kaj +bruna tapisxo sxajnas kovri la teron. Baldaux la folioj falas al la +tero, kaj en novembro la arboj estas tute nudaj. Pli aux malpli frue +negxas. La glacio ofte kovras la akvon en la riveroj, kaj restas sur la +stratoj kaj la vojoj. La mola blanka negxo kovras la teron, kaj kusxas +sur la brancxoj de la arboj. Tiam, pro la fortaj ventoj, gxi falas de +la brancxoj al la tero. La birdoj frue lasas tian veteron, kaj flugas +de cxi tie al pli sudaj kampoj kaj arboj. Ili ne povas resti, pro la +malvarmaj tagoj kaj noktoj. Ili malsxatas la negxon kaj la glacion pli +multe ol ni. Ju pli multe negxas; des pli malofte ni volas promeni. Ni +preferas resti en la domo, anstataux ekster gxi. Ju pli ni rigardas la +nudajn brancxojn de la arboj, des pli malagrabla sxajnas la vintro. +Tamen la junaj infanoj tre sxatas tian veteron, kaj ju pli negxas, kaj +ju pli forte la norda vento blovas, des malpli ili estas kontentaj en +la domo. Ili volas kuri sur la negxo, cxirkaux la arboj kaj inter ili, +kun siaj junaj amikoj. Ili povas bone amuzi sin per la negxo. La monatoj +de la vintro estas decembro, januaro kaj februaro. Gxi estas la plej +malvarma sezono. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. September, October and November are the months of autumn. 2. In these +months, people harvest the yellow grain and gather various fruits. 3. +The leaves on the trees around us begin to have red and yellow colors. +4. They begin to fall from the branches and lie upon the ground. 5. The +more strongly the cold north wind blows through the branches, the sooner +the leaves fall from there. 6. They lie under the bare trees, with the +brown grass. 7. The sooner it snows, the sooner the ground will seem +to have a white carpet. 8. The snow will completely ("tute") cover the +grass during the months of the winter. 9. These months are December, +January and February. 10. From that time ("de tiam") the ice and snow +will cover the roads, and altogether ("tute") hide them. 11. There will +often be ice on the water of the river. 12. We like this season of the +year more than March, April and May. 13. We like it even more than the +summer. 14. The months of the latter (62) are June, July and August. 15. +The summer is the warmest season of the entire year. 16. Therefore we +often say that the summer is the pleasantest season. 17. Because of its +many pleasures, the summer is dear to me. 18. It is between the spring +and the autumn. + + + + LESSON XX. + + + THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADVERB OF MANNER AND DEGREE. + +88. The demonstrative adverb of manner and degree, related to the +demonstrative pronoun "tiu", is "tiel", in that (this) manner, in +such a way, thus, so. Like English "thus," "so," "tiel" may modify +adjectives and other adverbs, by indicating degree: + + Cxu oni tiel helpas amikon? + Does one help a friend in that (this) way? + Mi gxin skribis tiel, I wrote it thus (in such a way). + La vetero estas tiel bela, the weather is so beautiful. + Tiel mallonge li parolis, thus briefly he spoke. + Mi trovis tiel belan floron, I found such a beautiful flower. + Li prenis tiel multe, he took that much (so much). + + + PREPOSITIONS EXPRESSING TIME-RELATIONS. + +89. The relations which prepositions express may be of various kinds. +As in English, a certain number of prepositions primarily expressing +place may also express time-relations. Such prepositions are "antaux", +"cxirkaux", "de", "en", "gxis", "inter", "post", and "je" (whose use in +other than time-relations will be explained later): + + Mi foriros cxirkaux junio, I shall depart about June. + De tiu horo mi estis via amiko, from that hour I was your friend. + Li ne parolis al mi de tiu semajno, + he did not speak to me since from) that week. + En la tuta monato ne negxis, + it did not snow in (at any time within) the entire month. + Mi dormis gxis malfrua horo, I slept until (up to) a late hour. + Gxis nun li ne vidis vin, until now he did not see you. + Inter marto kaj junio mi iros tien, + between March and June I shall go there. + Je malfrua horo li foriris, at a late hour he went away. + Mi iros tien je dimancxo, I shall go there on Sunday. + Je tiu horo li vokis min, at that hour he called me. + Sxi ne restis tie post julio, she did not stay there after July. + Post ne longe mi vokos vin, + soon (after not long) I shall call you. + +90. When a definite date or point in time is expressed, "antaux" means +"before." When used with an expression of an "amount" of time, it is +to be translated by "ago" following the expression (not by "before" +preceding it): + + Antaux dimancxo mi foriros, before Sunday I shall go away. + Mi vidis lin antaux tiu horo, I saw him before that hour. + Li skribos gxin antaux la nova jaro, + he will write it before New Year. + Antaux multaj jaroj mi trovis gxin, many years ago I found it. + Mi rompis gxin antaux longa tempo, I broke it a long time ago. + Antaux tre longe vi legis tiun libron, + you read that book very long ago. + Li venis antaux ne longe, he came recently (not long ago). + Antaux malmultaj jaroj li forkuris, a few years ago he escaped. + +[Footnote: As already shown, "kun" expresses accompaniment, "per" +expresses instrumentality, "pro" expresses cause, "kontraux" expresses +opposition, "anstataux" expresses substitution, "sur", "apud", "sub", +etc., express place, "dum" expresses time, etc.] + + + VOCABULARY + + dimancxo = Sunday. mateno = morning. + energia = energetic. promeno = walk, promenade. + frosto = frost. rakonto = story, narrative. + je = at, on (89). ripozi = to rest, to repose. + kota = muddy. semajno = week. + labori = to work, to labor. tempo = time. + laca = tired, weary. tiel = thus, so (88) + lundo = Monday. tro = too, too much. + mardo = Tuesday. vespero = evening. + + + EN SEPTEMBRO. + +Antaux multaj jaroj ni preferis resti en nia malgranda domo trans la +rivero, dum la tuta auxtuno. Sed nun ni restas tie nur gxis oktobro. +De auxgusto gxis oktobro la vetero estas tre agrabla tie, sed baldaux +post tiu monato la fortaj ventoj blovas, kaj la folioj komencas fali. La +frosto kovras la teron, kaj baldaux negxas tre ofte. Ju pli nudaj estas +la arboj, des pli malbelaj ili sxajnas. La vetero antaux novembro ne +estas tro malvarma, sed post tiu monato ni opinias ke la urbo estas pli +agrabla ol domo inter kampoj kaj arboj, trans largxa rivero. La frosto, +negxo kaj glacio kovras la teron en decembro, januaro kaj februaro. Sed +la monato septembro sxajnas tre agrabla, pro siaj multaj plezuroj. La +viroj laboras energie en la kampoj, de la mateno gxis la vespero. Ili +rikoltas la flavan grenon, kaj kolektas la fruktojn. Sed je dimancxo oni +ne laboras tiel energie, sed dormas gxis malfrua horo, tial ke je tiu +tago oni ripozas. Je lundo oni komencas labori tre frue, kaj je mardo +oni ankaux laboras energie. En septembro la vojoj ne estas tro kotaj, +kaj longaj promenoj estas ofte agrablaj. Ju pli ofte mi promenas kun +miaj amikoj, des pli multe mi sxatas tiajn promenojn. Sed hieraux mi +estis tre laca post la promeno, tial mi ripozis sur granda mola segxo. +Antaux ne longe la patro promenis kun mi, sed ni ne estis tiel lacaj je +tiu tago. Sxajnas ke ju pli ofte ni promenas, des malpli lacaj ni estas +post la promenoj. Post ne longe mi estos pli forta. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Many years ago we had a small house across the river. 2. We did not +remain there during the entire year, but only in the warmer months of +the summer. 3. Often we stayed until September or even until October. 4. +My younger brothers and sisters amused themselves very well there from +(the) morning until (the) evening. 5. They amused themselves among the +flowers and trees, or went from there into the large fields. 6. Here the +men work energetically, and harvest the ripe yellow grain. 7. Only on +Sunday do they rest, because on that day one does not work. 8. Between +August and November the men work more than in the winter. 9. In December +and after that month they rest, for (83) from that time the frost, ice +and snow cover the ground. 10. Because of the snow on the ground, long +walks are not pleasant in the winter. 11. Recently (90) we went walking +in the park across the river, but we were so tired after that walk! 12. +The longer the walk is, the sooner one wishes to rest. 13. On Monday it +rained, so (78) we read stories and wrote letters, in a pleasant light +room in our house. 14. Before evening, however, the sun shone, and the +streets were not so muddy. 15. On Tuesday these streets were almost dry, +and soon the roads near the river and between the fields will also be +dry. 16. A few years ago those roads were very good. + + + + LESSON XXI. + + + THE ACCUSATIVE OF TIME. + +91. Duration of time and a date or point in time may be expressed +not only by use of the prepositions "dum", during, and "je", at, on, +but also (as in English) without the use of any preposition. When no +preposition is used, the word or words indicating time are put in the +accusative case: + + Li restis tie la tutan semajnon (dum la tuta semajno), + he stayed there the whole week (during the whole week). + Sxi estis felicxa longan tempon (dum longa tempo), + she was happy a long time (during a long time; for a long time). + Ni rajdos tagon kaj nokton (dum tago kaj nokto), + we shall ride a day and a night (during a day and a night; + for a day and a night). + Mi venis dimancxon (je dimancxo), I came Sunday (on Sunday). + Tiun horon (je tiu horo), li forkuris, + that hour (at that hour) he escaped. + +92. Although generally preferable, an accusative construction must +be carefully placed, or avoided altogether, if confusion with other +accusatives (expressing direction of motion, direct object, etc.) might +result: + + Mi volas iri Bostonon je lundo, I wish to go to Boston on Monday. + Mi volas iri al Bostono lundon, I wish to go to Boston Monday. + Lundon mi volas iri Bostonon, Monday I wish to go to Boston. + + + ADVERBS AND THE ACCUSATIVE OF TIME. + +93. An accusative of time, as well as a temporal adverb, may further +define or be defined by another expression of time: + + Li venis longan tempon antaux tiu horo, + he came a long time before that hour. + Jaron post jaro ili restis tie, + year after year they stayed there. + hodiaux matene, this morning. + hodiaux vespere, this evening. + hodiaux nokte, tonight. + hieraux vespere, last evening. + hieraux nokte, last night. + dimancxon matene, Sunday morning. + lundon vespere, Monday evening. + mardon nokte, Tuesday night. + +94. An accusative of time does not necessarily imply that the act or +state mentioned occurs oftener than the instance cited. An adverb from +the same root usually gives an idea of frequency or repetition: + + Li iros al ilia domo dimancxon, he will go to their house Sunday. + Li iras al ilia domo dimancxe, he goes to their house Sundays. + Li laboris tagon kaj nokton, he worked a day and a night. + Li laboras tage kaj nokte, + he works day and night (by day and by night). + + + THE PREPOSITION "POR". + +95. The object or purpose with reference to which an act is performed +or a condition exists is expressed by the preposition "por", for. It +directs the thought toward its complement, contrasting thus with "pro" +(86): + + Mi havas libron por vi, I have a book for you. + Mi ne havas la tempon por tiel longa promeno, + I have not the time for so long a (such a long) walk. + Ili faris gxin por via plezuro, they did it for your pleasure. + + + VOCABULARY + + brila = brilliant. merkredo = Wednesday. + Dio = God. mezo = middle. + dividi = to divide. mondo = world. + fari = to make. paci = to be at peace. + forgesi = to forget. por = for (95). + gxojo = joy. plori = to weep. + konstanta = constant. preta = ready. + kvieta = quiet, calm. ridi = to laugh. + lando = land, country. riprocxi = to reproach. + + + LA SEZONOJ KAJ LA MONDO. + +Antaux tre longa tempo Dio faris la mondon. Li vidis ke la floroj +havas belajn kolorojn, ke la arboj estas altaj kaj verdaj. Tiam li +vokis la sezonojn kaj diris "Belan mondon mi faris por vi. Cxu vi +gardos gxin tage kaj nokte, kaj estos tre zorgaj pri gxi?" La sezonoj +respondis "Jes," kaj ridis pro gxojo. Mallongan tempon ili sxajnis +esti tre felicxaj inter la arboj kaj floroj de la nova mondo. Sed ne +multajn semajnojn ili tiel zorge gardis la mondon. Ili komencis malpaci +("quarrel") inter si, de la mateno gxis la vespero, kaj ofte forgesis +la arbojn kaj florojn. Ju pli ili malpacis, des malpli zorge ili gardis +la mondon. La malkonstanta printempo ne sxatis la kvietan vintron, kaj +ploris pri la malvarma negxo. La varma brila somero diris ke la auxtuno +estas tro malbrila. La laca auxtuno volis ripozi, kaj riprocxis la +malkonstantan printempon pri cxi ties kota vetero. Pli kaj pli multe ili +malpacis, kaj post ne longe ili tute ne restis amikoj. Tiam la auxtuno +diris "Mi ne povas pli longan tempon labori kun vi pro la mondo. Niaj +gustoj estas tro diversaj. Tial hodiaux matene ni dividos la mondon +inter ni." La vintro respondis "Bone! Mi estas preta," kaj la somero kaj +la printempo ridis pro gxojo. Tiun tagon ili dividis la mondon inter si. +La vintro konstruis sian domon en la plej nordaj kaj sudaj landoj. Tie +la frosto, negxo kaj glacio kovras la tutan landon, dum la tuta jaro. La +brila energia somero prenis por si la mezon de la mondo. Tial la vetero +tie estas plej varma kaj brila. La auxtuno kaj la printempo prenis por +si la landojn inter la vintro kaj la somero. Tial la vetero estas nek +tro varma nek tro malvarma en cxi tiuj landoj. Tiam la sezonoj rakontis +al Dio ke ili tiel dividis la mondon inter si. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Tuesday my brother heard an interesting story, and Wednesday evening +after a pleasant walk he related it to me. 2. The story is, that many +years ago God made the beautiful new world, and gave it to the seasons. +3. They laughed for joy, and said that they would guard it well. 4. +They were ready for pleasure, and also were willing ("volis") to work +energetically for-the-sake-of the new young world. 5. Almost a year +they were happy, but these seasons were too diverse, and could not long +remain friends. 6. The brilliant summer wept and reproached the tired +autumn. 7. The autumn preferred to rest, and disliked the muddy weather +of the inconstant spring. 8. The quiet winter concealed itself beneath +the frost and soft white snow, and wished to sleep. 9. The longer they +kept the world among them, the more they quarreled. 10. Soon the autumn +made the proposition, "We will divide the world." 11. Immediately that +morning the seasons divided the world among themselves. 12. The northern +and southern lands now belong to the winter, and the middle of the world +belongs to the summer. 13. The spring and autumn took for themselves +those lands between the winter and summer. + + + + LESSON XXII. + + + CLAUSES EXPRESSING DURATION OF TIME. + +96. The time during which an act takes place or a condition exists may +be expressed not only by an adverb or accusative of time (91), or by use +of the preposition "dum", but also by a clause introduced by "dum": + + Li venis dum vi forestis, + he came while (during-the-time-that) you were away. + Dum la sezonoj malpacis, ili forgesis pri la mondo, + while the seasons quarreled, they forgot about the world. + Ni ridas pro gxojo dum negxas, + we laugh for joy while it is snowing. + + + CLAUSES EXPRESSING ANTICIPATION. + +97. A clause expressing an action or condition as preceding or +anticipating that of the main verb is introduced by "antaux ol": + + Mi foriros antaux ol vi venos, I shall depart before you (will) come. + Antaux ol vi riprocxis lin, li ne ploris, + before you reproached him, he did not weep. + Vi ploris antaux ol vi ridis, + you wept before (sooner than) you laughed. + + + THE INFINITIVE WITH "ANSTATAUX", "POR", "ANTAUX OL". + +98. An infinitive may be substantively used with "anstataux" to express +substitution, with "por" to express purpose (Cf. Old English "But what +went ye out for to see," Matt. xi, 8), and with "antaux ol" to express +anticipation. It is usually translated by the English infinitive in +"-ing": + + Anstataux resti li foriris, instead of staying he went away. + Vi malhelpas anstataux helpi min, you hinder instead of helping me. + Ni venis por helpi vin, we came to help (in order to help) you. + Mi estas preta por iri merkredon, + I am ready to go (for going) Wednesday. + Li havos tro multe por fari, he will have too much to do. + Mi laboros antaux ol ripozi, I shall work before resting. + Antaux ol foriri, li dankis min, before going away, he thanked me. + Dio faris la mondon antaux ol doni gxin al la sezonoj, + God made the world before giving it to the seasons. + +[Footnote: "Substantive" is the general name for nouns and pronouns, +that is, for words which indicate persons, things, etc., and may be used +as subject or object of a verb, complement of a preposition, etc.] + +[Footnote: The infinitive may be used with "antaux ol" if its subject +is the same as the subject of the main verb. Otherwise the construction +explained in (97) must be used.] + + + THE EXPRESSION OF A PART OF THE WHOLE. + +99. After nouns indicating a quantity or portion of some indefinite +whole, the substantive expressing that indefinite whole is preceded by +the preposition "da", of: + + Estas skatolo da cxerizoj tie, there is a box of cherries there. + Mi trovis grandan sakon da mono, I found a large bag of money. + Li havas teleron da viando, he has a plate of meat. + Post horoj da gxojo ofte venas horoj da malgxojo, + after hours of joy there often come hours of sorrow. + +100. The preposition "da" must not be used if a quantity or portion of a +"definite" or "limited" whole is expressed. If the word indicating the +whole is limited by "la", it is thereby made definite: + + Telero de la maturaj pomoj, a plate of the ripe apples. + Sako de la bona kafo, a sack of the good coffee. + + + VOCABULARY + + Aleksandro = Alexander. koni = to be acquainted with. + barelo = barrel. lauxta = loud. + bruo = noise. lito = bed. + da = of (99). logxi = to dwell, to reside. + demandi = to inquire, to ask. nombro = number (quantity). + Diogeno = Diogenes. pura = clean. + greka = Greek. suficxa = sufficient, enough. + kelkaj = several, some. veki = to wake. + kvankam = although. viziti = to visit. + cxifono = rag. vesto = garment, clothes. + + + DIOGENO KAJ ALEKSANDRO GRANDA. + +Antaux multaj jaroj sagxa greka viro, Diogeno, logxis en granda urbo. Li +opiniis ke ju pli malmulte oni bezonas, des pli felicxa oni estas. Por +montri al la mondo ke li ne bezonas multe, kaj ke tial li havas suficxe +por esti felicxa, li logxis en granda malnova barelo, anstataux havi +domon. Anstataux kusxi nokte sur lito aux almenaux sur mola tapisxo, li +ecx dormis en tiu barelo. Oni multe parolis pri Diogeno en la urbo, ne +nur cxar li tiel logxis, sed ankaux pro liaj sagxaj diroj. Post kelke +da tempo ("some time") la regxo Aleksandro Granda venis tien por viziti +la urbon. Dum li estis tie li auxdis pri Diogeno, kaj demandis pri li. +"Cxu li logxas en la urbo?" Aleksandro diris. "Kvankam vi ne konas lin, +mi opinias ke mi volas vidi tian viron." Oni respondis "Diogeno estas +sagxa viro, sed anstataux logxi en domo, li preferas sidi la tutan +tempon en malnova barelo. Anstataux porti ("wearing") purajn vestojn, li +portas nur malpurajn cxifonojn, cxar li opinias ke ju pli malmulte li +bezonas, des pli felicxa li estos." Aleksandro diris "Antaux ol foriri +de via lando mi vizitos tiun viron." Antaux ol li foriris de la urbo, +Aleksandro iris kun nombro da amikoj por viziti Diogenon, kaj trovis lin +en lia barelo. "Cxu tiu viro volas paroli al mi?" demandis Diogeno per +lauxta vocxo. Aleksandro Granda respondis "Mi estas la regxo Aleksandro, +kaj mi volas koni vin. Mi vidas ke kvankam vi estas sagxa vi estas tre +malricxa. Cxu vi ne volas kelkajn novajn vestojn anstataux tiuj malpuraj +cxifonoj?" Diogeno tuj diris "Antaux ol vi venis kaj staris inter mi kaj +la suno, cxi tiu tre varme brilis sur min. Cxu vi venis por fari bruon +kaj por veki min?" Aleksandro ridis kaj diris "Mi vidas ke vi havas +suficxe por esti felicxa. Tial mi estas preta por foriri." + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Diogenes was a wise man who dwelt in a Greek city, many years ago. 2. +In order to show to the inconstant world that one does not need much in +order to be happy, he did not have even a house or a bed. 3. He stayed +day and night in a big barrel, instead of residing in a house. 4. He +preferred to wear old rags, instead of good clean clothes. 5. He said +"The less one needs, the happier he will be." 6. While Alexander the +Great was visiting that city, people talked to him about Diogenes. 7. +They asked "Are you acquainted-with that wise man?" 8. Soon the king +went with a number of his friends to that-man's big barrel, in the +middle of the city. 9. Diogenes was asleep, but the noise of the loud +voices waked him, and he said angrily "You are standing between me and +the sun! Will you not go away at once?" 10. Although several of the men +laughed, Alexander said "We did not come to quarrel with you. 11. I see +that you have enough to be happy, so instead of talking and making a +noise we shall leave (go away from) you at once." 12. Before Diogenes +could answer, Alexander had quietly walked away. + + + + LESSON XXIII. + + + ADVERBS EXPRESSING A PART OF THE WHOLE. + +101. After adverbs used to indicate a quantity or portion of some +indefinite whole, as well as after nouns of such meaning (99), the +substantive expressing the indefinite whole is preceded by the +preposition "da": + + Multe da bruo, much (a quantity of) noise. + Tiel malmulte da tempo, so little (such a small quantity of) time. + Kelke da pomoj, some (an indefinite number of) apples. + +102. Verbs may be modified by an adverb and prepositional phrase +containing "da": + + Li trinkis malmulte da akvo, he drank little (not much) water. + Estas multe da sablo en la dezerto, there is much sand in the desert. + Ju pli negxas, des pli multe da negxo kusxas sur la vojoj, + the more it snows, the more snow lies on the roads. + +[Footnote: A prepositional phrase containing "da", whether following a +noun or an adverb, is sometimes called a "partitive" construction.] + +103. It is evident from the above examples that an adverb followed +by "da" has a somewhat collective sense, indicating a general sum, +mass, or portion of the whole, without distinction of particulars. +An "adjective" of quantitative meaning, on the other hand, usually +indicates consideration of the individuals composing the sum or mass +named: + + En urbo oni havas multe da bruo, in a city one has much noise. + Ni auxdis multajn bruojn, we heard many (different) noises. + Tie oni havas multe da plezuro, there one has much pleasure. + Oni havas multajn plezurojn tie, + people have many (different) pleasures there. + + + THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADVERB OF QUANTITY. + +104. The demonstrative adverb of quantity related to the demonstrative +pronoun "tiu" is "tiom", that (this) much, that many, that quantity, so +much, etc.:-- + + Mi donis tiom da mono al vi, + I gave that much (that amount of) money to you. + Mi acxetis tiom da viando, I bought that much meat. + Tiom de la libroj mi legis, that many of the books I read. + + RESULT CLAUSES. + +105. A clause of result (also called a consecutive clause) expresses an +action or condition as due to, or resulting from, something indicated +in the main sentence, as "he is so strong that he can do it," "I had so +much pleasure that I laughed heartily." In Esperanto a result clause is +introduced by "ke", preceded (directly or in the main sentence) by an +adverb or adjective of manner, degree, or quantity: + + Diogeno estis tiel sagxa greka viro ke Aleksandro lauxdis lin, + Diogenes was such a wise Greek man that Alexander praised him. + Mi havis tiom da plezuro ke mi tre ridis, + I had so much pleasure that I laughed very much. + Gxi estas tia vilagxo ke mi sxatas logxi tie, + it is such (that sort of) a village that I like to live there. + + + VOCABULARY + + acxeti = to buy. kontuzo = bruise. + asparago = asparagus. lakto = milk. + brasiko = cabbage. legomo = vegetable. + butiko = store, shop. ovo = egg. + frago = strawberry. pizo = pea. + funto = pound. sabato = Saturday. + glaso = glass, tumbler. tiom = that much (104). + jxauxdo = Thursday. vendredo = Friday. + kremo = cream. vilagxo = village. + + + EN LA BUTIKO. + +Hodiaux matene mi iris kun la patrino al la plej granda butiko en nia +vilagxo. Tie sxi acxetis tiom da legomoj kaj fruktoj ke ni tute ne povis +porti ilin. Tial juna knabo venis kun ni, kaj portis kelke da ili por +ni. La patrino ne acxetis tiel multe je vendredo, sed hodiaux estas +sabato, kaj sxi volis acxeti legomojn por dimancxo, cxar dimancxe oni +ne povas iri en la butikojn. Tial sabate oni kutime acxetas suficxe +por la mangxoj de sabato kaj dimancxo. Meze de la butiko staras multe +da bareloj. En cxi tiuj oni trovas grandan nombron da fresxaj puraj +legomoj. La patrino acxetis tiel multe da asparago kaj novaj pizoj, kaj +tiel grandan sakon da terpomoj, ke la tablo restis preskaux nuda. Mi +vidis brasikon tie, sed tiun legomon mi malsxatas, kvankam oni diras +ke gxi estas tre bona legomo. Antaux ol foriri de la butiko la patrino +acxetis kelke da ovoj, kaj rigardis la fruktojn en bareloj apud la +pordo. Ili sxajnis tiel bonaj ke sxi acxetis kelkajn maturajn pomojn +kaj skatolon da fragoj. Dum oni donis al sxi la fruktojn, mi acxetis +kelkajn funtojn da sukero. Tiam ni estis pretaj por foriri el la butiko. +Sur la vojo ni auxdis tiel grandan bruon ke mi lasis la patrinon kaj +kuris trans la straton. Mi trovis tie infanon,la filon de nia najbaro. +Li faris la bruon, cxar li falis de la arbo antaux sia domo, kaj tre +lauxte ploris. Li diris al mi ke li havas multajn kontuzojn sur la kapo. +Cxar mi bone konas la infanon, mi demandis "Cxu vi volas grandan rugxan +pomon? Mi havas tian pomon por vi." Li tuj kaptis la pomon, kaj mi +foriris. Tiam la patrino kaj mi iris al la domo. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. I shall go to the village today with my younger sister. 2. We wish +to buy some eggs, vegetables and fruit for Mother. 3. Mother prefers to +remain in the house, because it is raining. 4. It rained on Thursday and +Friday, but today it is not raining very much. 5. The air is warm and +pleasant, and we shall carry umbrellas with us. 6. We shall buy some +new peas, a box of strawberries and several pounds of sugar. 7. Thus +we shall have enough for the meals of Saturday and Sunday. 8. I wonder +whether we shall see such asparagus and such cabbage on the tables or in +the barrels. 9. Although I do not often eat such vegetables, Father and +Mother are very fond of ("multe sxatas") both cabbage and asparagus. 10. +We shall also buy enough milk for several glasses of milk, and we shall +need much cream for the strawberries. 11. It seems that we shall buy +such a number of vegetables that we cannot carry them. 12. While we were +standing near the door, ready to go toward the village (46), we heard a +loud voice. 13. A child was standing in the street, and crying. 14. He +wished to go with his mother to visit some friends. 15. I suppose that a +noise on the street waked him, and he did not wish to remain in his bed. + + + + LESSON XXIV. + + + THE INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN. + +106. The interrogative pronoun (and pronominal adjective) is "kiu", +who, which. Since the use of this pronoun indicates a question, the +sentence containing it does not need the interrogative adverb "cxu" +(30): + + + Kiu vokas vin? Who calls you? + Kiun vi vokas? Whom do you call? + Kiuj el vi vokis nin? Which (ones) of you called us? + Kiujn li helpis? Whom (which ones) did he help? + Kiun tagon vi venos? What day will you come? + Kiujn legomojn vi preferas? What vegetables do you prefer? + Mi miras kiun libron vi acxetis? I wonder which book you bought? + +107. The interrogative pronoun "kiu" has a possessive or genitive form +"kies", whose: + + En kies domo vi logxas? In whose house do you reside? + Kies amikojn vi vizitis? Whose friends did you visit? + + + THE PRESENT ACTIVE PARTICIPLE. + +108. A participle is a "verbal adjective", as in "a "crying" child." +It agrees like other adjectives with the word modified (19, 24). The +participle from a transitive verb (22) may take a direct object, and a +participle expressing motion may be followed by an accusative indicating +direction of motion (46). The present active participle, expressing what +the word modified "is doing", ends in "-anta," as "vidanta", seeing, +"iranta", going: + + La ploranta infano volas dormi. The crying child wishes to sleep. + Mi vidas la falantajn foliojn, I see the falling leaves. + Kiu estas la virino acxetanta ovojn? Who is the woman buying eggs? + Mi parolis al la viroj irantaj vilagxon. + I talked to the men (who were) going toward the village. + + + COMPOUND TENSES. + +109. A participle may be used predicatively with a form of "esti", as +"Mi estas demandanta", I am asking, "La viro estas acxetanta", the man +is buying. Such combinations are called "compound tenses", in contrast +to the "simple" or "aoristic" tenses. + +[Footnote: An aoristic tense consists of but one word (ending in +"-as", "-os", etc.) and expresses an act or state as a whole, without +specifying whether it is finished, still in progress, or yet begun.] + +Compound tenses occur less often in Esperanto than in English, and an +aoristic Esperanto tense may often be translated by an English compound +tense, as "La birdoj flugas", the birds are flying. When used to +form a compound tense, the verb "esti" is called the "auxiliary verb". +No other verb is ever used as an auxiliary (a simpler method than in +English, which uses "be", "have", "do", "will", "shall", "would", etc.). + + + THE PROGRESSIVE PRESENT TENSE. + +110. The compound tense formed by using the present active participle +with the present tense of "esti" is called the "progressive present +tense". It differs from the aoristic present by expressing an action +as definitely in progress, or a condition as continuously existing, at +the moment of speaking. The conjugation of "vidi" in this tense is as +follows: + + mi estas vidanta, I am seeing. + vi estas vidanta, you are seeing. + li (sxi, gxi) estas vidanta, he (she, it) is seeing. + ni estas vidantaj, we are seeing. + vi estas vidantaj, you (plural) are seeing. + ili estas vidantaj, they are seeing. + + + THE SUFFIX "-EJ-". + +111. Words expressing the place where the action indicated by the root +occurs, or where the object indicated by the root may be found, are +formed by inserting the suffix "-ej-" before the noun-ending: + + cxevalejo, stable (from "cxevalo", horse). + dormejo, dormitory (from "dormi", to sleep). + herbejo, meadow (from "herbo", grass). + logxejo, lodging-place, dwelling (from "logxi", to dwell, to lodge). + +[Footnote: Similar formations are made in English with the suffix "-y", +as "bakery", "bindery", "grocery", etc. This suffix is equivalent to the +"-ei" in German "Baeckerei", bakery, "Druckerei", printing-office, etc., +and to the "-ie" in French "patisserie", pastry-shop, "imprimerie", +printing-shop, etc.] + + + VOCABULARY + + alia = other, another. kuiri = to cook. + baki = to bake. kurteno = curtain. + dika = thick. kutimo = custom. + facila = easy. leciono = lesson. + familio = family. lerni = to learn. + kanapo = sofa. pano = bread. + kies = whose (107). persono = person. + kiu = who (106). salono = parlor. + + + EN NIA DOMO. + +Oni ofte miras kies domo en nia vilagxo estas plej bela, kaj kiu domo +estas la plej agrabla logxejo. Nia domo ne estas tre granda, sed gxi +estas nova kaj ni multe sxatas gxin. Gxia salono estas granda, kun belaj +puraj kurtenoj kovrantaj la fenestrojn, kaj mola dika tapisxo kovranta +la plankon. Cxi tie estas kelkaj segxoj, malgranda tablo, kaj longa +kanapo. Personoj vizitantaj nin kutime sidas en cxi tiu cxambro, kaj +dum ni estas sidantaj tie ni nur parolas, anstataux skribi aux legi. +Alia cxambro en la domo estas tre luma kaj agrabla, sed malpli granda. +Cxi tie staras tablo suficxe granda por nia tuta familio, kaj en tiu +cxambro oni mangxas. Ofte ni restas tie longan tempon post la mangxo, +cxar la patro rakontas interesajn rakontojn al ni, kaj ni multe ridas, +kaj demandas pri tiuj rakontoj, kaj tiel bone amuzas nin ke mi preskaux +forgesas pri miaj lecionoj. Tamen mi havas multe da lecionoj por lerni, +kaj ili tute ne estas facilaj. Je tre frua horo matene mi iras al la +lernejo, kun miaj fratoj kaj fratinoj. Nur sabate kaj dimancxe ni ne +iras tien. La lernejo estas malnova kaj malgranda, sed oni estas nun +konstruanta novan pli grandan lernejon apud nia domo. Dum la infanoj +estas lernantaj siajn lecionojn tie, la patrino kutime iras al la +bakejon, por acxeti suficxe da pano, por la mangxoj de la tago. Ofte +sxi iras ankaux al aliaj butikoj. Jxauxdon sxi acxetis kelke da novaj +pizoj, kaj da asparago. Vendredon sxi acxetis kelkajn funtojn da sukero, +skatolon da fragoj, kaj suficxe da kremo kaj lakto. Hodiaux sxi estas +acxetanta brasikon kaj sakon da terpomoj. Sxi volas kuiri tre bonan +mangxon, tamen sxi havas tro multe por fari en la kuirejo, cxar sxi ne +havas servistinon. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Who is the woman sitting on the sofa in the parlor? 2. I can not +easily see her, but I hear her voice. 3. I wonder whose voice that is. +4. However, I think that it is the voice of a friend of Mother's. 5. Now +I can see her, although she does not see me. 6. I am well acquainted +with her. 7. She is a friend of our whole family, and is visiting a +neighbor of ours ("najbaron nian") in this city. 8. My sister is sitting +on the sofa in another room, and learning her lessons. 9. Soon she +will go to school. 10. Whose book is she reading? 11. That thick book +is mine, but the other books on the table near her are hers. 12. She +prefers to sit in the sewing-room (111) to read or write (98), because +the curtains in front of the windows are not too thick, and so (78) +that room is very light and pleasant. 13. She also likes to look at the +falling snow, and the men and women walking on the muddy streets. 14. On +account of the cold weather, people are wearing thick clothes. 15. The +men and boys are keeping their hands in their pockets while they walk. +16. The girls walking toward the school are friends of my sister's. 17. +In that school they learn to cook. Soon they will be able to bake bread, +and even to cook a whole meal. 18. I think such a custom is very good. +19. Many persons can not cook well enough ("suficxe bone"). + + + + LESSON XXV. + + + THE INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVE. + +112. The interrogative adjective related to the interrogative pronoun +"kiu", is "kia", what kind of, what sort of: + + Kiajn vestojn li portis? What sort of clothes did he wear? + Kian panon vi preferas? What kind of bread do you prefer? + Mi miras kia persono li estas. I wonder what sort of a person he is. + Kia vetero estas? What sort of weather is it? + Kia plezuro! What a pleasure! + + + THE IMPERFECT TENSE. + +113. The compound tense formed by using the present active participle +with the past tense of "esti" represents an act or condition as in +progress in past time, but not perfected, and is called the "imperfect +tense". The conjugation of "vidi" in this tense is as follows: + + mi estis vidanta. I was seeing. + vi estis vidanta. you were seeing. + li (sxi, gxi) estis vidanta. he (she, it) was seeing. + ni estis vidantaj. we were seeing. + vi estis vidantaj. you were seeing. + ili estis vidantaj. they were seeing. + + + THE PROGRESSIVE FUTURE TENSE. + +114. The compound tense formed by using the present active participle +with the future tense of "esti" represents an act or condition as in +progress--or a condition as existing continuously--at a future time, and +is called the "progressive future" tense. The conjugation of "vidi" in +this tense is as follows: + + mi estos vidanta. I shall be seeing. + vi estos vidanta. you will be seeing. + li (sxi, gxi) estos vidanta. he (she, it) will be seeing. + ni estos vidantaj. we shall be seeing. + vi estos vidantaj. you will be seeing. + ili estos vidantaj. they will be seeing. + + + SALUTATIONS AND EXCLAMATIONS. + +exclamation may be regarded as the direct object of a verb which is not +expressed; these words are put in the accusative + + Bonan matenon! Good morning! (I wish you "good morning.") + Bonan nokton! Good night! (I wish you a "good night.") + Multajn salutojn al via patro! + (I send) many greetings to your father! + Dankon! Thanks! (I give to you "thanks.") + Cxielon! Heavens! (I invoke the "heavens.") + + + WORD FORMATION. + +116. The majority of roots have such a meaning that at least two kinds +of words, and often three or four, may be formed from them by use of +the general endings for verbs, nouns, adjectives and adverbs. (Each +root will hereafter be quoted but once in the vocabularies, with a +hyphen separating it from the ending with which it appears first in the +reading lesson, or with which it is most frequently used.) Following are +examples of word formation from roots already familiar: + +VERB. NOUN. ADJECTIVE. ADVERB. + +brili brilo brila brile + to shine shine, brilliance shining, brilliant brilliantly + +flori floro flora flore + to bloom flower, blossom floral florally + +gxoji gxojo gxoja gxoje + to rejoice joy, gladness joyful, glad gladly + +kontuzi kontuzo + to bruise bruise, contusion + + tuto tuta tute + whole entire, whole, all entirely + + + "KONI" AND "SCII". + +117. The verb "koni", which means "to know" in the sense of "to be +acquainted with" is used in speaking of persons, languages, places, etc. +"Koni" always has a direct object. It is never followed by "ke", "cxu", +"kiu", or any other interrogative word. "Scii" means "to know" in the +sense of "to be aware," "to have knowledge." It is not used in speaking +of persons. + +[Footnote: "Koni" is equivalent to German "kennen", French "connaitre", +Spanish "conocer", while "scii" is equivalent to German "wissen", French +"savoir", Spanish "saber".] + + Cxu vi konas tiun personon? Do you know that person? + Mi scias ke li estas nia najbaro. I know that he is our neighbor. + Mi bone konas Bostonon. I am well acquainted with Boston. + Mi ne scias cxu li konas ilin. I do not know whether he knows them. + + + VOCABULARY + + av-o = grandfather. kia = what kind of (112). + buked-o = bouquet. lingv-o = language. + ekzamen-o = examination. nep-o = grandson. + ferm-i = to close. nu! Well! + frap-i = to strike, to knock. paper-o = paper. + geometri-o = geometry. salut-i = to greet. + german-a = German. sci-i = to know (117). + hejm-o = home. stud-i = to study. + + + LA NEPO VIZITAS LA AVINON. + +Hieraux matene mi vizitis la avinon. Sxia hejmo estas apud la granda +nova bakejo. Mi vidis sxin tra la fenestro, cxar la kurtenoj kovrantaj +gxin estas tre maldikaj. Sxi estis sidanta sur la kanapo, kaj skribanta +per plumo sur granda papero. Antaux ol frapi sur la pordo mi vokis sxin +kaj diris "Bonan matenon, kara avino!" Tuj sxi demandis "Kiu estas tie? +Kies vocxon mi auxdas?" Mi respondis "Estas via nepo. Cxu vi ne konas +mian vocxon?" Antaux ol sxi povis veni al la pordo mi estis malfermanta +gxin. Mi iris en la salonon kaj donis al la avino bukedon da floroj. +"La patrino donas cxi tiujn al vi, kun siaj plej bonaj salutoj," mi +diris. La avino respondis "Nu, kia plezuro! Multan dankon al sxi pro la +bela bukedo, kaj ankaux al vi, cxar vi portis gxin cxi tien por mi!" +Dum sxi estis metanta la florojn en glason da akvo la avino diris "Nu, +kiajn lecionojn vi havis hodiaux en la lernejo?" Mi respondis ke mi +bone konis la lecionojn, cxar mi zorge studis ilin. "Ni estas lernantaj +la germanan lingvon," mi diris, "kaj ju pli longe ni studas gxin, des +pli multe mi gxin sxatas, kvankam gxi estas tre malfacila." Mi rakontis +ankaux pri la lecionoj de geometrio, kaj aliaj lecionoj, sed diris ke la +ekzamenoj estos baldaux komencantaj. "Je tiu tempo," mi diris, "mi estos +skribanta la respondojn al la ekzamenoj, preskaux la tutan semajnon." +La avino demandis kun intereso "Cxu la demandoj de la ekzamenoj estos +malfacilaj?" Mi respondis "Mi ne scias, sed mi timas ke ni estos tre +lacaj post tiom da laboro." Post kelke da aliaj demandoj kaj respondoj, +mi opiniis ke estas la horo por foriri. Dum mi estis foriranta, la avino +diris "Multajn salutojn al la tuta familio!" Mi dankis sxin, diris +"Bonan tagon!" kaj tiam foriris. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. What sort of noise do I hear outside the door? 2. Are some of my +friends knocking? 3. We were talking yesterday about the examinations in +our school, and these boys came home to study with me. 4. I shall go to +the door to open it and to greet my friends. 5. Good morning! Did you +come to study geometry, or the German language? 6. Which of these is +usually more difficult, and in which will the examination be the longer? +7. Well, we brought our German books, because we prefer to study these. +8. We wish to know this language thoroughly. 9. We shall go into the +writing-room (111), for (83) some friends of my grandmother are in the +parlor. 10. We can hear their voices here, and we can not study very +well while they are talking. 11. They were carrying many flowers, and +gave a beautiful bouquet to my grandmother. 12. She said "Many thanks +for (86) the sweet violets! In whose garden did they bloom?" 13. Her +friend's granddaughter is a friend of my youngest sister. 14. Well, +shall we begin to study? Have you enough paper, and have you a good pen? +15. I shall close this other door, because they are baking bread in the +kitchen, and cooking meat. 16. We shall be hearing the voices of so many +persons that I know that we can not study. + + + + LESSON XXVI. + + + THE INTERROGATIVE ADVERB OF PLACE. + +118. The interrogative adverb of place, related to the interrogative +pronoun "kiu" is "kie", where, in (at) what place. If the verb in the +sentence expresses motion toward the place indicated by "kie", the +ending "-n" is added, forming "kien", whither (where): + + Kie li estis kaj kien oni forpelis lin? + Where was he and whither did they drive him (away)? + Li miros kie lia nepo estas. He will wonder where his grandson is. + Mi ne scias kien li kuris. I do not know where (whither) he ran. + + + THE PAST ACTIVE PARTICIPLE. + +119. The past active participle, (for the characteristics of a +participle see 108) expressing what the word modified "did" or "has +done", ends in "-inta", as "vidinta", having seen, "irinta", gone, +having gone: + + La falintaj folioj estas brunaj. The fallen leaves are brown. + Kiu estas la viro salutinta nin? + Who is the man having greeted (who greeted) us? + Oni forgesas la foririntajn personojn. + One forgets the departed persons (the persons who have gone away). + + + ADVERB DERIVATION FROM PREPOSITIONS. + +120. Adverbs may be derived from prepositions whose sense permits, by +use of the adverb ending "-e": + + Antauxe li studis la geometrion, previously he studied geometry. + Poste li studis la germanan, afterwards he studied German. + Li marsxis antauxe, ne malantauxe, he walked in front, not behind. + Dume la viroj staris cxirkauxe, meanwhile the men stood roundabout. + Ili venis kune kaj sidis apude, they came together and sat near by. + + + ADVERBS EXPRESSING DIRECTION OF MOTION. + +121. An adverb expressing place or direction is given the ending "-n" +when used with a verb expressing motion toward that place or direction +(69, 118, etc.): + + Cxu li rajdis norden aux suden? Did he ride north or south(ward)? + Ni kuris antauxen, ne malantauxen, we ran forward, not back. + La bukedo falis eksteren kaj suben, + the bouquet fell out and underneath. + Li estis marsxanta hejmen, he was walking home (homeward). + +[Footnote: The adverb may precede the verb and be united with it by +simple juxtaposition, if the resulting word is not too long: "Li +hejmeniris", he went home (he "home-went"). "Ni antauxeniros", we +shall advance (go forward). "La bukedo subenfalis", the bouquet fell +underneath.] + + + THE SUFFIX "-EG-". + +122. The suffix "-eg-" may be added to a root to augment or intensify +its meaning, thus forming an "augmentative" of the root: + + barelego, hogshead (from "barelo", barrel). + bonega, excellent (from "bona", good). + malbonege, wickedly, wretchedly (from "malbone", badly, poorly). + domego, mansion (from "domo", house). + ploregi, to sob, to wail (from "plori", to weep). + treege, exceedingly (from "tre", very). + + + VOCABULARY + + aer-o = air. pez-a = heavy. + danc-i = to dance. polv-o = dust. + fulm-o = lightning. sekv-i = to follow. + gut-o = drop (of water, etc.). sercx-i = to hunt for, to search. + kie = where (118). silent-a = still, silent. + okaz-i = to happen, to occur. subit-a = sudden. + okul-o = eye. tegment-o = roof. + pec-o = piece. tondr-o = thunder. + + + LA PLUVEGO. + +Nu, kia pluvego okazis hieraux vespere! Post kvieta varmega mateno, +subite multaj nuboj kovris la cxielon. La aero sxajnis peza, kaj estis +tute silenta kelkan tempon. Tiam forte blovanta vento frapegis la +arbojn, kaj komencis fortege skui la brancxojn. Multege da polvo kaj +malgrandaj pecoj da papero dancis kaj flugis cxirkauxen en la aero, kaj +ankaux cxielen. Falis tiam kelkaj grandaj gutoj da pluvo, kaj ni sciis +ke la pluvego estas venanta. Ni malfermis niajn ombrelojn, kaj kuris +antauxen, por iri hejmen antaux ol falos multe da pluvo. La fulmo tiel +ofte brilis ke ni fermis la okulojn pro gxi, kaj treege gxin timis. +Preskaux tuj la tondro sekvis gxin. Tondris tiom kaj tiel lauxtege ke la +bruo sxajnis frapi kontraux niajn kapojn. Tiam komencis subite pluvegi, +sed je tiu tempo ni estis preskaux sub la tegmento de nia domo. Dume la +vento pli kaj pli blovegis, kaj ju pli forte gxi blovis, des pli peze +la gutoj da pluvo falis teren, kun multege da bruo. Mi opinias ke mi +malofte antauxe vidis tian pluvegon. La sekvintan tagon mi promenis tre +frue, kaj vidis ke la pordego al la gxardeno de mia avo estas kusxanta +sur la tero. Apude mi vidis ventoflagon falintan de la tegmento de tiu +granda cxevalejo. Velkintaj floroj kusxis sur la tero cxirkaux mi, kaj +inter ili estis brancxoj falintaj de la arboj, cxar la grandega forto +de la vento forrompis ecx cxi tiujn. Sur malgranda brancxo restis +nesto, sed kie estis la birdoj! Mi sercxis la junajn birdojn sed tute +ne povis trovi ilin, tial mi opinias ke ili forflugis antaux ol la +ventoj forrompis de la arbo ilian malgrandan hejmon. Mi ne scias kien +ili flugis, sed mi opinias ke ili flugis suden al la arboj en tiu granda +kampo trans la rivero. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. While we were walking home (121) from school yesterday, it rained +very suddenly. 2. What a storm it was! 3. We were talking about the +lessons in geometry, and were looking at these books about the German +language. 4. So we did not see the clouds in (on) the sky. 5. Well, we +forgot about examinations and began to wonder where to go. 6. We did +not know whether we had enough time to run even to Grandfather's house +before it would rain. 7. Many papers fell out of our books, and the +wind caught them. 8. The wind chased them away from us, and they seemed +to dance around in the air. 9. However, we easily caught and gathered +them, and then we ran forward. 10. Suddenly it thundered very loudly, +and we saw the brilliant lightning in the sky. 11. We almost closed our +eyes for the lightning. 12. Big drops of rain fell heavily and struck +the dust violently. 13. The air was heavy and still then, and the storm +immediately followed the few drops of rain. 14. We hastened across the +street, and ran faster and faster. 15. We were exhausted (122) and our +clothes were exceedingly wet before we were in the house. 16. The rain +was dropping from the roof, but we ran through it, and knocked on the +door. 17. We rested some time here, before going home. + + + + LESSON XXVII. + + + THE INTERROGATIVE TEMPORAL ADVERB + +123. The interrogative temporal adverb, related to the interrogative +pronoun "kiu", is "kiam", when, at what time? + + Kiam li sercxos min? When will he look for me? + Oni miras kiam li venos, they wonder when he is coming (will come). + Kiam falis tiuj gutoj da pluvo? When did those drops of rain fall? + + + THE PERFECT TENSE. + +124. The compound tense formed by using the past active participle +with the present tense of "esti" is called the "perfect tense". It +differs from the aoristic past tense (35) and from the imperfect (113) +by expressing an act or condition as definitely completed or perfected. +The conjugation of "vidi" in the perfect tense is as follows: + + mi estas vidinta, I have seen (I am having-seen). + vi estas vidinta, you have seen (you are having-seen). + li (sxi, gxi) estas vidinta, he (she, it) has seen (is having-seen). + ni estas vidintaj, we have seen (we are having-seen). + vi estas vidintaj, you have seen (you are having-seen). + ili estas vidintaj, they have seen (they are having-seen). + + + THE PREPOSITION "CXE". + +125. The general situation of a person, object or action is expressed by +the use of the preposition "cxe", at, at the house of, in the region or +land of, among, with, etc.: + + Li staris silente cxe la pordego, he stood silently at the gate. + Li logxas cxe mia avo, he lives (dwells) at my grandfather's. + Ili estas cxe la lernejo, they are at the school. + Li restos cxe amikoj, he will stay with (at the house of) friends. + Li vizitos cxe ni morgaux, he will visit at-our-house tomorrow. + + + THE SUFFIX "-AR-". + +126. Words expressing a collection, group or assemblage of similar +persons or things, as "forest" (collection of trees), "army" (assemblage +of soldiers), etc., may be formed by the use of the suffix "-ar-". This +suffix may itself be used as a root to form "aro", "group, flock", etc., +"are", in a group, by throngs, etc. Words formed with the suffix "-ar-" +are called collectives: + + arbaro, forest (from arbo, tree). + cxevalaro, herd of horses (from cxevalo, horse). + kamparo, country (from kampo, field). + libraro, collection of books, library (from libro, book). + amikaro, circle of friends (from amiko, friend). + + "TEMPO" AND "FOJO". + +127. The general word for "time" in the sense of duration, or +suitability (as "the proper time"), is "tempo". The word "fojo", +time, occasion, refers to the performance or occurrence of an +act or event, in repetition or series: + + Mi ne havas multe da tempo, I have not much time. + Li venis multajn fojojn, kaj la lastan fojon li restis longan tempon, + he came many times, and the last time he remained a long time. + Kelkajn fojojn lauxte tondris, several times it thundered loudly. + Multe da fojoj ni fermis la okulojn pro la fulmo, + many times we closed our eyes on account of the lightning. + + THE ORTHOGRAPHY OF PROPER NOUNS. + +128. Proper nouns, that is, nouns which are names of persons, cities, +countries, etc., are given Esperanto spelling if they are names of +continents, countries, large or very well-known cities, or if they +are first (Christian) names of persons, as "Azio", Asia, "Skotlando", +Scotland, "Bostono", Boston, "Johano", John, "Mario", Mary. Surnames +and names of places which are small or not well known are more often +quoted in the national spelling. The pronunciation may be indicated +in parentheses, as "Mt. Vernon" ("Mauxnt Vernon"), "Roberto Bruce" +("Brus"), "Martinique" ("Martinik'"), etc. + + + VOCABULARY + + arane-o = spider. ramp-i = to crawl. + Azi-o = Asia. rekt-a = direct, straight. + cxe = at (125). rimark-i = to notice. + fin-o = end, ending. send-i = to send. + foj-o = time, instance (127). Skotland-o = Scotland. + kiam = when (123). soldat-o = soldier. + pacienc-o = patience. sukces-i = to succeed. + pied-o = foot. supr-e = above. + plafon-o = ceiling. venk-i = to conquer. + + + ROBERTO BRUCE KAJ LA ARANEO. + +Oni rakontas la sekvantan interesan rakonton pri Roberto Bruce, regxo +antaux multaj jaroj en Skotlando. Okazis ke li estis rigardanta la +soldataron de siaj malamikoj, de la fenestro de granda cxevalejo. +Por povi rigardi plej facile, kaj ankaux por sin kasxi, li forsendis +siajn soldatojn kaj restis la tutan tagon sub tiu tegmento. Kvankam la +cxevalejo estis granda gxi estis malnova, kaj li opiniis ke la malamikoj +ne sercxos lin tie. Je la fino de la tago li subite rimarkis araneon +sur la muro apud si. La araneo estis rampanta supren, sed baldaux gxi +falis en la polvon cxe liaj piedoj. Tuj la falinta araneo komencis +alian fojon supren rampi. Alian fojon gxi falis teren, sed post ne +longe gxi komencis rampi alian fojon. "Kia pacienco!" diris la regxo al +si. "Mi ne sciis ke la araneo havas tiel multe da pacienco! Sed kien +gxi nun estas falinta?" Li rigardis cxirkauxen kaj fine ("finally") +li vidis la falintan araneon. Kun granda surprizo li rimarkis ke gxi +estas komencanta supren rampi. Multajn fojojn gxi supren rampis, kaj +tiom da fojoj gxi falis malsupren. Fine, tamen, gxi sukcese rampis +gxis la plafono. La regxo malfermis la busxon pro surprizo, kaj diris +al si "Kiam antauxe mi vidis tiom da pacienco! Mi opinias ke la fina +sukceso de tiu malgranda araneo donas al mi bonegan lecionon. Mi estas +ofte malsukcesinta, sed malpli ofte ol tiu araneo sur la muro. Mi estas +perdinta multe da soldatoj, kaj la malamikoj estas venkintaj multajn +fojojn, cxar ili havas multe pli grandan nombron da soldatoj. Tamen, mi +estos pacienca, cxar oni ne scias kiam li fine sukcesos." La sekvintan +tagon, la regxo Roberto Bruce komencis treege labori kontraux siaj +malamikoj. Post mallonga tempo li bone sukcesis, kaj tute venkis la +malamikoj en granda venko cxe Bannockburn (Banokb'rn). + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Although the enemies of Robert Bruce conquered him many times, he +finally conquered them in Scotland, because he was patient and very +courageous. 2. He was sitting in a large stable, to hide (himself), and +also in order to (98) look directly from its roof (at) the soldiery +(126) of the enemy. 3. At the end of the day he noticed a spider +crawling up (ward) on the wall. 4. The spider fell suddenly into the +dust and lay at the king's feet, but soon began to crawl up. 5. "Where +does it wish to go?" said the king to himself. 6. "What patience it +shows! It has crawled up and fallen down a great many times." 7. Finally +however the spider succeeded, and crawled up to the ceiling. 8. The +king said that he had learned a lesson from the patient spider. 9. He +said "Although the enemy have conquered many times, because they have a +larger number of soldiers, I shall finally succeed against them." 10. +Soon it happened that the wind blew violently, and a rainstorm occurred. +11. The blast shook the foliage (126) on the trees, and broke away many +small branches. 12. A group of soldiers ran right ("rekte") toward the +stable, and Robert Bruce was much afraid that they would find him. 13. +But they merely stole the horses there, and rode away. + + + + LESSON XXVIII. + + + THE INTERROGATIVE ADVERB OF MOTIVE OR REASON. + +129. The interrogative adverb of motive or reason related to the +interrogative pronoun "kiu" is "kial", why, wherefore, for what +reason: + + Kial la araneo supren rampis? why did the spider crawl up? + Mi demandos kial li rimarkis gxin, I will ask why he noticed it. + + + THE INFINITIVE AS SUBJECT. + +130. The infinitive may be used as the subject of a verb. + +[Footnote: Cf. the complementary infinitive (28), equivalent to the +object of a verb, and the use of the infinitive after the prepositions +"por", "anstataux", "antaux ol" (98).] + + +Any modifier of the infinitive is necessarily adverbial. An indefinite +personal object (or pronominal complement of a preposition) after an +infinitive used as subject is expressed by the reflexive pronoun "si": + + Promeni estas granda plezuro, to go walking is a great pleasure. + Promeni estas agrable, to go walking is pleasant. + Cxu estas facile rigardi la plafonon? + Is it easy to look at the ceiling? + Estas bone sin helpi, it is well to help oneself. + Paroli al si estas malsagxe, to talk to oneself is silly. + + + PRESENT ACTION WITH PAST INCEPTION. + +131. A present act or state which began in the past is expressed by the +present tense (instead of by the past as in English): + + Mi estas cxi tie de lundo, I have been (I am) here since Monday. + De Marto mi studas tiun lingvon, + since March I have been (I am) studying that language. + Ili estas amikoj de tiu tago, + they have been (they are) friends from that day. + Ni logxas tie de antaux kelkaj monatoj, + we have been living (we are living) here since some months ago. + +[Footnote: Cf. German "er ist schon lange hier", he has already been +here a long time, French "je suis ici depuis deux ans", I have been here +two years, etc.] + + + THE SUFFIX "-UL-". + +132. The suffix "-ul-" is used to form nouns indicating a person +characterized by or possessing the distinguishing trait, character or +quality in the root: + + junulo, a youth, a young man (from "juna", young). + belulino, a beauty, a belle (from "bela", beautiful). + maljunulo, an old man (from "maljuna", old). + sagxulo, a sage, a wise man (from "saga", wise). + malricxulino, a poor woman (from "malricxa", poor). + +[Footnote: Cf. the English adjectives "quer-ul-ous", "cred-ul-ous", +"garr-ul-ous", etc., and the Latin nouns "fam-ul-us", a servant, +"fig-ul-us", a potter, and "leg-ul-us", a gatherer.] + + + "LOGXI" AND "VIVI". + +133. The verb "logxi", "to reside, to dwell, to lodge", must not be +confused with "vivi", which means "to live" in the sense of "to be +alive": + + Li logxas apude, he lives near by. + Li vivis longan tempon, he lived a long time. + Vivi felicxe estas pli bone ol logxi ricxe, + to live happily is better than to live (lodge) richly. + + + VOCABULARY + + afabl-a = amiable, affable. kial = why (129). + afer-o = thing, matter, affair. mejl-o = mile. + balanc-i = to balance, to nod. okulhar-o = eyelash. + barb-o = beard. okulvitr-oj = spectacles. + batal-o = battle. pens-i = to think, to ponder. + brov-o = eyebrow. vang-o = cheek. + bukl-o = curl (of hair). verand-o = porch, veranda. + har-o = hair. viv-i = to live (133). + + + PRI LA AVO KAJ LA AVINO. + +Mia avo estas tre afabla persono. Li estas maljunulo kun blankaj haroj +kaj blanka barbo. Li havas bluajn okulojn, kaj la brovoj super ili estas +ecx pli blankaj ol liaj haroj. Kvankam li logxas en nia vilagxo de +antaux kelkaj jaroj, li antauxe logxis en Skotlando. Antaux multaj jaroj +li estis soldato, kaj li ofte parolas al mi pri la bataloj kaj venkoj +de tiu tempo. Sidi kviete sur la verando kaj rakonti tiajn rakontojn al +la nepo sxajne donas al li multe da plezuro. Multajn fojojn je la fino +de la tago li sidas tie, kaj parolas pri tiaj aferoj gxis malfrua horo +de la vespero. Sidi cxe liaj piedoj kaj auxdi liajn rakontojn estas +tre interese al mi. Komence, dum mi estas cxe li, mi kutime demandas +"Cxu oni sukcesis en tiu batalo?" Tuj li balancas la kapon kaj komencas +pacience rakonti pri la venkoj kaj malvenkoj ("defeats"). Li malofte +respondas "Mi ne scias," al miaj demandoj "Kiam," kaj "Kial." Kelkajn +fojojn li diras "Mi havas tiun opinion, sed mi ne bone scias pri la +tuta afero, kaj mi miras cxu aliaj personoj scias pli bone." Cxar li +estas multe studinta kaj pensinta, liaj opinioj estas treege interesaj. +Li gxojas tial ke mi demandas pri aferoj okazintaj ("things that have +happened"), cxar tiaj demandoj montras ke mi ankaux pensas pri ili. +Mia avino estas malgranda, kun belaj bukloj da tute blankaj haroj. Sxi +havas belajn brunajn okulojn, kun longaj nigraj okulharoj. Oni diras ke +antaux multaj jaroj sxi estis belulino. Ecx nun estas plezure rigardi +sxin, kaj vidi sxiajn rugxajn vangojn. De antaux kelkaj jaroj sxi portas +okulvitrojn por legi aux skribi aux kudri, kaj sxi bezonas ripozon post +malmulte da laboro. Promeno de ecx mejlo estas tro longa nun por la +avino. Oni diras ke sxi ne vivos tre longan tempon, kaj tia penso donas +malgxojon al ni, cxar ni treege amas la afablan paciencan avinon. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Our grandfather is an old man, and they say that he will not live +much longer. 2. He is not very strong, and can not take ("fari") long +walks. 3. The mile between his house and ours now seems long to him. 4. +He prefers to sit quietly in the house or on the veranda, and think, +nearly all day long (the whole day). 5. He is very amiable, and can tell +exceedingly interesting stories, about the victories and defeats which +happened (119) many years ago. 6. Such things are wicked I think, and I +am very glad that (83) such battles do not happen now. 7. Grandfather +has a long white beard and much white hair. 8. It is very interesting to +hear his stories, and also to look directly at him while he is telling +them. 9. He tells such stories with great pleasure. 10. Although he +has lived with (125) us since February (131), he does not know (117) a +great many of the neighbors, or of the other persons living (133) near. +11. Grandmother has blue eyes, red cheeks, and soft white curls. 12. +She speaks slowly, with a sweet voice, and is very patient. 13. Today +she said to me "Good morning, my dear (132), I have lost my spectacles. +Will you look-for them for me?" I nodded (the head) and soon found the +spectacles. + + + + LESSON XXIX. + + + THE INTERROGATIVE ADVERB OF MANNER AND DEGREE. + +134. The interrogative adverb of manner or degree, related to the +interrogative pronoun "kiu", is "kiel", how, in what way, to what +degree: + + Kiel oni vivas en tia aero? How do people live in such air? + Kiel afabla sxi estas! How amiable she is! + Mi miras kiel la batalo okazis, I wonder how the battle happened. + Kiel longe li pensis pri gxi? How long did he think about it? + + THE PLUPERFECT TENSE. + +135. The compound tense formed by combining the past active participle +with the past tense of "esti" represents an act or condition as having +been completed at some time in the past, and is called the "pluperfect +tense". The conjugation of "vidi" in this tense is as follows: + + mi estis vidinta, I had seen (I was having-seen). + vi estis vidinta, you had seen (you were having-seen). + li (sxi, gxi) estis vidinta, he (she, it) had seen (was having-seen). + ni estis vidintaj, we had seen (we were having-seen). + vi estis vidintaj, you had seen (you were having-seen). + ili estis vidintaj, they had seen (they were having-seen). + + + CARDINAL NUMERALS. + +136. Cardinals are numeral adjectives which answer the question "How +many?" The cardinals from one to twelve are as follows: + + unu = one. sep = seven. + du = two. ok = eight. + tri = three. naux = nine. + kvar = four. dek = ten. + kvin = five. dek unu = eleven. + ses = six. dek du = twelve. + +137. With the exception of "unu", none of the cardinals may receive the +plural ending "-j" or the accusative ending "-n". That is, they are +invariable in form. "Unuj" may be used to mean "some" in contrast to +"aliaj", others: + + Unuj marsxis, aliaj kuris, some walked, others ran. + Mi prenis unujn kaj lasis la aliajn, I took some and left the others. + +138. The preposition "el" is used after numeral adjectives expressing a +number "out of" some larger number or quantity: + + Ses el la knaboj venis, six of the boys came. + Ok el tiuj libroj estas la miaj, eight of those books are mine. + El tiuj cxapeloj mi sxatas nur unu, of those hats I like only one. + +[Footnote: The cardinal "unu" must not be used in the sense of the +English pronominal "one," as in "I am searching for a book, but not the +one on the table", which should be translated "Mi sercxas libron, sed ne +tiun sur la tablo."] + + + THE ACCUSATIVE OF MEASURE. + +139. A substantive in the accusative case may be used, instead of +a prepositional phrase or an adverb, not only to express measure +(duration) of time (91), but also to express measure of weight, price, +length, etc.: + + Li marsxis dek unu mejlojn, he walked eleven miles. + La parko estas largxa tri mejlojn, kaj longa kvar mejlojn, + the park is three miles wide and four miles long. + La tablo pezas dek du funtojn, + the table weighs (is heavy) twelve pounds. + + + NIA FAMILIO. + +Mi rakontos al vi kian familion ni havas. Ni estas ses personoj kaj ni +logxas en cxi tiu domo de antaux preskaux kvar jaroj. Antaux ol veni +cxi tien al la urbo, ni estis logxintaj tri jarojn en kvieta vilagxo +en la kamparo. Mia patro estas alta, kun grizaj haroj kaj griza barbo. +Kvankam li ne estas ricxulo, li tamen havas suficxe da mono por vivi +kontente kaj felicxe. Li sxatas marsxi, kaj ofte li estas marsxinta +kvin aux ses mejlojn por unu promeno. Unu fojon mi demandis "Kiel vi +povas marsxi tiel multe?" Li respondis "Dum mi estis junulo mi estis +soldato, kaj tiam mi estis tre multe marsxanta. Tial mi ne forgesas la +plezurojn de longaj promenoj." La patrino estas malpli alta ol mi, kaj +kiel bluajn okulojn sxi havas, sub nigraj okulharoj kaj nigraj brovoj! +Sxiaj haroj estas nigraj kaj buklaj, kaj sxiaj vangoj estas rugxaj. Sxi +havas dolcxan vocxon, kaj estas plezuro auxdi sxiajn kantojn. Por legi +aux skribi sxi kutime portas okulvitrojn. Mi havas du fratojn kaj unu +fratinon. La fratino havas dek unu jarojn. + +[Footnote: Like French and some other languages, Esperanto commonly uses +the verb "to have" rather than the verb "to be", in expressing age: Li +havas sep jarojn, he is seven years old (he has seven years). Mi havis +dek jarojn tiam, I was ten years old (I had ten years) then.] + +Unu el la fratoj havas ok jarojn, la alia havas dek du jarojn. Ili povas +bonege kuri, rajdi, kaj fari aliajn interesajn aferojn. Ili lernis +siajn lecionojn en la lernejo tiel bone ke ses fojojn en unu monato +oni lauxdis ilin. Ni multe gxojis pri tiom da lauxdo por la fratoj. La +fratino estas malpli forta, tamen sxi ofte promenas kun ni ecx du aux +tri mejlojn. La avino ankaux logxas cxe ni de antaux sep aux ok jaroj. +Unu el ni kutime restas cxe la hejmo kun sxi, dum la aliaj promenas, +cxar sxi ne estas suficxe forta por marsxi ecx unu mejlon. Mi ofte miras +kial sxi preferas sidi sur la verando, kaj mi demandas al sxi "Cxu vi +estas tro laca por marsxi?" Sxi kutime balancas la kapon kaj diras "Jes, +mia nepo, mi estas tro laca." + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Three and four make seven. 2. Two and six make eight. Five and six +make eleven. 3. Seven and five make twelve. 4. I have been studying +geometry since five months ago, and German since January. 5. I have read +three German books, but I shall not be able to talk in this language +until after August. 6. To learn how to speak such a language is a +difficult matter. 7. Nine of the children in our school are now studying +German with me. 8. Some learn it easily, others do not like it. 9. Three +of the boys and two of the girls in that school are German. 10. They +had resided four years in a large city, but I think (that) they live +more contentedly in our quiet village. 11. They can not talk with us +very well, but merely nod their heads when we talk to them. 12. I had +not seen them before they came to school, although they are neighbors +of ours. 13. They are amiable children, with blue eyes, red cheeks, and +yellow hair. 14. They can ride very well, and often ride eight or ten +miles in one day. 15. They usually ride in a park three miles wide and +four miles long, where there is but little ("nur malmulte da") dust. + + + + LESSON XXX. + + + THE INTERROGATIVE ADVERB OF QUANTITY. + +140. The interrogative adverb of quantity related to the interrogative +pronoun "kiu" is "kiom", how much, how many: + + Kiom da tempo vi ripozis? How much time did you rest? + Kiom da sukero kaj kiom da fragoj vi acxetis? + How much sugar and how many strawberries did you buy? + Ni miras kiom da mono li havos, + we wonder how much money he will have. + Kiom de la leciono vi lernis? How much of the lesson did you learn? + + + MODIFIERS OF IMPERSONALLY USED VERBS. + +141. Any modifier of an impersonal verb (50) or of a verb used +impersonally, that is, with an infinitive or clause for its subject, +or without any definitely expressed or personal subject (as in "it is +cold," "it seems too early"), must necessarily be adverbial: + + Estas varme en la domo, it is warm in the house. + Estos malvarme morgaux, it will be cold tomorrow. + Estas bone ke li venis, it is well that he came. + Estas amuze ke ni forgesis lin, it is amusing that we forgot him. + Ke vi venis estis tre sagxe, that you came was very wise. + Estos pli agrable en la salono, it will be pleasanter in the parlor. + + + FORMATION OF CARDINAL NUMERALS. + +142. The cardinal numerals for the tens, hundreds and thousands are +formed by prefixing "du", "tri", "kvar", etc., to "dek", ten, "cent", +hundred, and "mil", thousand, respectively. + + Tens. + --------------------------------------------- + dudek, twenty. sesdek, sixty. + tridek, thirty. sepdek, seventy. + kvardek, forty. okdek, eighty. + kvindek, fifty. nauxdek, ninety. + + Hundreds. Thousands. + ---------------------------- ------------------------- + ducent, two hundred. trimil, three thousand. + kvincent, five hundred. kvarmil, four thousand. + sepcent, seven hundred, etc. sesmil, six thousand, etc. + +143. The cardinals between ten and twenty, twenty and thirty, etc., are +formed by placing "unu, du, tri", etc., after "dek, dudek, tridek", etc. +(Cf. "dek unu", eleven, "dek du", twelve, 136): + + dek kvar = fourteen. tridek kvin = thirty-five. + dek naux = nineteen. sepdek ok = seventy-eight. + dudek tri = twenty-three. nauxdek ses = ninety-six, etc. + +144. Cardinals containing more than two figures begin with the largest +number and descend regularly, as in English: + + cent tridek kvin, one hundred and thirty-five. + kvarcent nauxdek sep, four hundred and ninety-seven. + sescent du, six hundred and two. + mil okdek, one thousand and eighty. + mil naucent dek du, + one thousand nine hundred and twelve + (nineteen hundred and twelve). + + + THE SUFFIX "-AN-". + +145. The suffix "-an-" is used to form words indicating an inhabitant or +resident of the place denoted by the root, or a member or adherent of +the party, organization, etc., denoted by the root. The suffix "-an-" +may itself be used as a root, forming "ano", member, etc. + + bostonano = Bostonian. domano = inmate of a house. + kamparano = countryman, peasant. vilagxano = villager. + +[Footnote: Cf. English "urb-an", "suburb-an", "Rom-an", "republic-an", +"Mohammed-an", etc.] + + + VOCABULARY + + aritmetik-o = arithmetic. memor-i = to remember. + cent = hundred (142). mil = thousand (142). + erar-o = error, mistake. minut-o = minute. + grad-o = grade, degree. ricev-i = to receive. + kalkul-i = to calculate, to reckon. sekund-o = second. + kiom = how much (140). superjar-o = leap-year. + + + LECIONO PRI ARITMETIKO. + +Estas malvarme hodiaux, kaj tute ne agrable ekster la domo. La urbanoj +ne estas promenantaj en la parko, cxar ili preferas resti en la domoj. +Mi ankaux restis en la domo, kaj parolis al mia juna frato. Mi helpis +lin pri la leciono en aritmetiko, tial ke li baldaux havos ekzamenojn, +kaj li volas esti preta por skribi tre bonajn respondojn. Mi demandis +al li "Kiom faras dek tri kaj dek kvar?" Li respondis ke tiuj faras +dudek sep. Tiam mi demandis kiom faras dudek unu kaj tridek kvar. Li +kalkulis kvin aux ses sekundojn, per mallauxta vocxo, kaj diris "Ili +faras kvindek kvin." Mi demandis kiom faras ducent tri kaj sepcent +ok, kaj li respondis ke ili faras nauxcent dek unu. Li tute ne faris +erarojn al mi, kaj fine mi diris al li ke li povas bonege kalkuli. Mi +opinias ke li ricevos bonan gradon en la ekzamenoj. Post kelkaj minutoj +ni komencis paroli pri aliaj aferoj. Mi demandis "Kiom da tagoj en la +monato septembro?" La frato respondis "Septembro, novembro, aprilo kaj +junio havas tridek tagojn. Kvankam tiuj monatoj havas tiom da tagoj, la +aliaj monatoj havas tridek unu tagojn. Sed la monato februaro havas nur +dudek ok tagojn." Estas interese lerni pri cxi tiu monato februaro. Dum +tri jaroj gxi havas dudek ok tagojn, sed en la sekvanta jaro gxi havas +dudek naux tagojn. La jaro havanta tian februaron estas la "superjaro." +Mi rakontis tiun interesan aferon al la frato, kaj li diris ke li bone +memoros gxin. Li diris ke li ne antauxe sciis pri la superjaro. Li +ne sciis ke la superjaro havas tricent sesdek ses tagojn, kvankam la +aliaj jaroj havas nur tricent sesdek kvin tagojn. Li diris ke li ankaux +memoros pri la nombro da tagoj en la superjaro, kaj ke li rakontos la +aferon al la aliaj knaboj. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. (To be written out in full): 14, 18, 42, 86, 79, 236, 431, 687, 788, +1240, 1885, 9872, 4500, 1912. 2. There are twelve months in a year, and +in most of the months of the year there are thirty-one days. 3. There +are only thirty days in the months April, June, September and November. +4. There are seven days in a week, and twenty-four hours in a day. 5. +Twelve of these hours make the day, and the others make the night. 6. +There are sixty minutes in one hour, and sixty seconds in one minute. +7. There are four weeks and also two or three days in one month. 8. +In the year there are fifty-two weeks. 9. How many weeks are there in +ten years? 10. At least one year in ten years is a leap-year. 11. In a +leap-year there are three hundred and sixty-six days, instead of three +hundred and sixty-five. 12. Wise men calculated about this matter, many +years ago. 13. It is well for us that they liked to study arithmetic. +15. I have often received good grades in this study. 16. I remember it +easily, and seldom make mistakes. + + + + LESSON XXXI. + + + THE RELATIVE PRONOUN. + +146. A connecting pronoun referring to something which precedes (or +follows) is called a "relative pronoun". The person or thing to which +it refers is called its "antecedent." The relative pronoun, identical +in form with the interrogative pronoun (106), as in English, is "kiu", +which, who. + +[Footnote: Sometimes English uses "that" for a relative pronoun, as +"I saw the book that you have." This must always be translated by +"kiu". Likewise, English sometimes omits the relative pronoun, as "I +saw the book you have." The relative pronoun is never thus omitted in +Esperanto.] + +The relative pronoun agrees in number with its antecedent. Whether it +is in the accusative case or not depends upon its relation to its own +verb or to other words in its own clause (called the relative clause): + + La junuloj, kiuj venis, estas afablaj, + the youths who came are amiable. + La personoj, kiujn li vidos, estas amikoj miaj, + the persons (whom) he will see are friends of mine. + Mi kalkulis la gradon, kiun li ricevos, + I calculated the grade (which) he will receive. + Mi memoras tiun aferon, pri kiu vi parolas, + I remember that matter about which you speak. + +147. Like English "whose" the genitive form "kies" of the interrogative +pronoun (107) is also used as a relative, referring to a substantive +(singular or plural) for its antecedent: + + Li estas la viro, kies libron vi trovis, + he is the man whose book you found. + Mi konas la infanojn, kies patro estas amiko via, + I know the children whose father is a friend of yours. + + + THE FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. + +148. The compound tense formed by combining the past participle with the +future tense of the auxiliary verb "esti" represents an act or condition +as having been already completed or perfected at a future time, and is +called the "future perfect tense." The conjugation of "vidi" in this +tense is as follows: + + + mi estos vidinta, I shall have seen (I shall be having-seen). + vi estos vidinta, you will have seen (you will be having-seen). + li (sxi, gxi) estos vidinta, + he (she, it) will have seen (will be having-seen). + ni estos vidintaj, we shall have seen (shall be having-seen). + vi estos vidintaj, you will have seen (will be having-seen). + ili estos vidintaj, they will have seen (will be having-seen). + + + ORDINAL NUMERALS. + +149. Ordinal numerals are adjectives which answer the question "Which +in order?" as "first", "third", etc. They are formed by adding the +adjectival suffix "-a" to the cardinals. The various parts of an ordinal +must be connected by hyphens, since it is to the entire cardinal, and +not any part of it, that the adjective ending "-a" is attached: + + unua = first. kvardek-sesa = forty-sixth. + dua = second. cent-okdek-kvina : + tria = third. hundred and eighty-fifth. + oka = eighth. mil-okcent-kvara : + dek-unua = eleventh. one thousand eight hundred and + dek-nauxa = nineteenth. fourth. + dudek-sepa = twenty-seventh. sesmil-sepa : + six thousand and seventh. + +[Footnote: Ordinal numerals may be abbreviated thus: "la", "1st", "2a", +"2nd", "3a", "3rd", "5a", "5th", "1912a", "1912th", "233a", "233rd", +etc. If the ordinal number is used in an accusative construction, the +abbreviation is given the accusative ending, as "lan", "2an", "3an", +"1912an", etc.] + + + VOCABULARY + + angl-a = English. neces-a = necessary. + dezir-i = to desire. paf-i = to shoot. + dolar-o = dollar. pafark-o = bow (for shooting). + gajn-i = to win, to gain. part-o = part, share. + kost-i = to cost. pen-i = to strive, to try. + last-a = last. traduk-i = to translate. + latin-a = Latin. sag-o = arrow. + mar-o = sea. sam-a = same. + + + ALFREDO GRANDA KAJ LA LIBRO. + +Antaux pli multe ol mil jaroj vivis Alfredo Granda, unu el la plej +interesaj personoj pri kiuj ni estas auxdintaj. Li estis la unua angla +regxo, kiu deziris legi librojn. Li estis ankaux la lasta, kiu povis +legi ilin, gxis post multaj jaroj. Unu tagon, dum li estis malgranda +knabo kun flavaj buklaj haroj, lia patrino, tre sagxa regxino, montris +al li kaj al liaj fratoj belegan libron. Sxi diris ke la libro kostis +multe da mono en lando trans la maro, kaj ke gxi nun apartenas al +sxi. Si diris "Miaj filoj, mi donos cxi tiun libron al tiu el vi, kiu +lernos legi gxin. Kiu el vi estos la unua, kiu povos legi? Tiu ricevos +la libron." Nu, Alfredo komencis studi, kaj post ne longe li gajnis +la belegan libron. Liaj fratoj ecx ne penis gajni gxin. Tiam oni tre +malmulte pensis pri libroj. La regxoj kaj iliaj filoj nur malofte povis +legi, kaj treege malofte povis skribi. Oni lauxdis nur personojn, +kiuj bone rajdis kaj batalis per sagoj kaj pafarkoj. Sed oni opiniis +ke tute ne estis necese scii pri la aferoj, kiujn la libroj rakontas. +Tial Alfredo ne ricevis lauxdon pro sia deziro por legi. La sesan +aux sepan jaron post sia ricevo de la libro, Alfredo volis lerni la +latinan lingvon, cxar tiam oni skribis latine ("in Latin") la librojn, +kiuj estis plej bonaj. Oni sercxis gxis la finoj de la lando, kaj iris +multajn mejlojn, sed preskaux ne povis trovi personon, kiu ecx estis +auxdinta pri tia lingvo. Fine oni trovis personon por helpi Alfredon, +kiu tiam lernis la latinan lingvon. Tiu sama Alfredo estis regxo multajn +jarojn, kaj estis unu el la plej bonaj regxoj, kiujn la angla lando +estas havinta. Alfredo skribis librojn en la latina lingvo, kaj ankaux +tradukis latinajn librojn en la anglan lingvon. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. (To be written out in full): 37th, 59th, 73rd, 92nd, 846th, 119th, +1274th, 1910th, 14235th. 2. Before my friend will have finished that +mansion (122), it will have cost twenty thousand dollars. 3. Before +coming to visit you, I shall have ridden twelve miles on my horse. 4. +The grade which you will have received in arithmetic soon after the +first of March will be excellent. 5. You do not make mistakes very often +in the lessons. 6. I shall try after a few minutes to translate that +Latin book, for ("cxar") it seems interesting. 7. It is necessary to +study Latin, for I desire to read the stories which are in my Latin +book. 8. The one thousand nine hundred and fourth year was a leap-year. +9. The fourth year after that year was also a leap-year. 10. The 1912th +year will be a leap-year. There are three hundred and sixty-six days in +such a year. 12. Alfred won the book which his mother had bought. 13. +Such a book now costs four or five hundred dollars. 14. Alfred the Great +was the last king until many years afterward (until after many years) +who could read or write. 15. He was the first king in that land who even +wished to be able to read books. 16. We often talk about this same King +Alfred, and say that he was the father of the English language. 17. +People say so ("diras tiel") because he translated Latin books into the +language of his land, and because he also wrote books in that language. + + + + LESSON XXXII. + + + "KIA" AS A RELATIVE ADJECTIVE. + +150. The interrogative adjective "kia" (112) is also used as a relative +adjective, referring back to "tia," or to some equivalent phrase or word +indicating quality, such as "sama", etc. In this use it may often be +translated "as", or "which": + + Mi havas tian libron, kian mi volas, + I have such a (that kind of) book as (which kind) I wish. + Tiaj amikoj, kiajn vi havas, estas afablaj, + such friends as (of which kind) you have are amiable. + Li deziras tian cxapelon, kia kostas ses dolarojn, + he desires that kind of hat which (kind) costs six dollars. + Mi havas la saman deziron, kian vi, + I have the same desire as you (same kind which you have). + + + "KIE" AS A RELATIVE ADVERB. + +151. The interrogative adverb "kie", "kien" (118) is also used as a +relative adverb of place with "tie", "tien", or some other expression of +place for its antecedent. + +[Footnote: Any interrogative adverb may also be used to introduce an +indirect question, thus serving as a subordinating conjunction (cf. +"cxu").] + +"Kien" is used when the verb in the relative clause expresses motion +toward the place indicated, whether or not its antecedent has this +ending. Similarly, "kie" may refer to "tie" or to "tien": + + Mi iros tien, kie vi estas, + I shall go there where you are. + Mi estis tie, kien vi iros, + I was there (at that place) where you will go. + Mi iros tien, kien vi iris, + I shall go to that place to which you went + (I shall go where you went). + Mi trovis lin en la urbo, kie li logxas, + I found him in the city where he lives. + Cxu vi venos cxi tien, kie ni estas? + Are you coming here where we are? + + + THE FUTURE ACTIVE PARTICIPLE. + +152. The future active participle, expressing what the word modified +will do or is about to do, ends in "-onta," as "vidonta", about to +see, "ironta", about to go: + + + La forironta viro vokis sian serviston, + the man going to depart (the about-to-depart man) + called his servant. + La virino salutonta vin estas tre afabla, + the woman about to greet you is very affable. + La venonta monato estas marto, + the coming month is March. + La venontan semajnon mi foriros, + the coming (next) week I shall depart. + + + THE PERIPHRASTIC FUTURE TENSES. + +153. The compound tenses formed by combining the future active +participle with each of the three aoristic tenses of "esti" represent +an act or state as about to occur in the present, past, or future, +respectively, and are called "periphrastic future tenses." Except when +great accuracy is desired, these tenses are not often used. A synopsis +of "vidi" in the first person singular and plural of these tenses is as +follows: + + Present Periphrastic Future. + + mi estas vidonta, ni estas vidontaj, + I am about to (going we are about to (going + to) see. to) see. + + Past Periphrastic Future. + + mi estis vidonta, ni estis vidontaj, + I was about to (going we were about to (going + to) see. to) see. + + Future Periphrastic Future. + + mi estos vidonta, ni estos vidontaj, + I shall be about to (going we shall be about to (going + to) see. to) see. + + + THE SUFFIX "-IND-". + +154. The suffix "-ind-" is used to form words expressing "worthy of, +deserving of," that which is indicated in the root. It may also be used +as a root, to form "inda", worthy, "malinda", unworthy, "indo", worth, +merit, etc.: + + dezirinda = desirable. rimarkinda = noteworthy, remarkable. + lauxdinda = praiseworthy. ridinde = ridiculously, laughably. + mallauxdinda = blameworthy. tradukinda = worth translating. + + + VOCABULARY + + ankoraux = still, yet. flar-i = to smell. + atak-i = to attack. gast-o = guest. + bat-i = to beat. ho! = Oh! + cert-a = sure, certain. kri-i = to exclaim, to cry. + defend-i = to defend. kruel-a = cruel. + difekt-i = to spoil. kuk-o = cake. + edz-o = husband. lign-o = wood. + fajr-o = fire. suspekt-i = to suspect. + +[Footnote: The adverb "ankoraux" expresses the ideas "until and during +the present time", "in the future as now and before", "in constant or +uniform succession", "in an increasing or additional degree", given +sometimes by English "yet", sometimes by "still": Mi estas ankoraux +sidanta cxi tie, "I am still sitting here." Li ankoraux ne venis, "still +he has not come (he has not come yet)." Li ankoraux restos tie, "he +will still stay there." Ankoraux ili venas, "still they come." Li estos +ankoraux pli ruza, "he will be still (yet) more crafty."] + + + ALFREDO GRANDA KAJ LA KUKOJ. + +Unu fojon antaux pli multe ol mil jaroj, soldatoj venis de trans la maro +por ataki la anglan regxon Alfredon Grandan. Ili nek konis nek malamis +lin, sed ili sciis ke li estas persono kies landon ili deziras gajni. +Cxi tiuj malamikoj estis venintaj tiel subite ke Alfredo ne estis preta +por defendi sian landon kontraux ili. Tial li forkuris kelkajn mejlojn +de la urbo, kaj sin kasxis en granda arbaro malantaux vilagxo. Anstataux +porti regxajn vestojn li acxetis tiajn cxifonojn kiajn kamparanoj kaj +malricxuloj portas. Li logxis cxe malricxa sed lauxdinda kamparano, +kiu ne konis la regxon, kaj tute ne suspektis kia persono lia gasto +estas. Unu memorindan tagon Alfredo estis sidanta apud la fajro, kaj +estis rigardanta siajn sagojn kaj pafarkon dum li pensis malgxoje pri +sia lando. La edzino de la arbarano demandis "Cxu vi ankoraux sidos tie +dekkvin aux dudek minutojn?" "Jes," respondis la regxo. Sxi diris "Nu, +estos necese fari pli varmegan fajron por tiaj kukoj kiajn mi nun estas +bakonta. Cxu vi gardos tiujn kukojn kiuj nun estas super la fajro, dum +mi kolektos pli multe da ligno?" Alfredo respondis "Certe mi gardos ilin +kontraux la fajro." La virino sercxonta lignon foriris en alian parton +de la arbaro, kie estis multe da ligno, kaj la regxo penis zorgi pri la +kukoj. Sed baldaux li forgesis ilin, kaj la fajro ilin difektis. Kiam la +virino venis kaj flaris la kukojn sxi kriis "ho, vi riprocxinda viro! +Kvankam vi ankoraux sidas tie, vi ne pensas pri la kukoj, kaj la fajro +estas difektinta ilin!" Sxi estis kruele batonta la regxon, kiam li +diris al sxi kiu li estas, kaj kial li forgesis la kukojn. Tiam sxi tre +hontis, kaj anstataux mallauxdi lin sxi volis esti ankoraux pli bona al +li. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Alfred the Great was a praiseworthy king who lived more than a +thousand years ago. 2. People still talk about him because he not only +translated many Latin books into the English language, but also wrote in +English. 3. He wished to help the peasants still more. 4. But enemies +often attacked him, and finally they conquered his soldiers. 5. Then +they hastened to where (151) Alfred was. 6. They were about to attack +him, when he rode away secretly ("kasxe") into a large forest. 7. There +he dwelt some time in the house of a poor forester. 8. He wore such +rags as a peasant usually wears, and did not tell the forester who he +was. 9. One day he was sitting near the fire and wondering, "Will the +enemy have conquered my soldiers next week?" 10. The forester's wife +said, "Will you sit there yet a while and take-care of those cakes? I am +about to gather more wood." 11. He replied, "Certainly, I will try to +help you." 12. But when after a few minutes the woman smelled the cakes, +she knew that the fire had spoiled them. 13. She exclaimed "Oh, what a +blame-worthy man!" 14. She commenced to beat the king cruelly, but he +did not defend himself. 15. Instead (120), he told her who he was. + + + + LESSON XXXIII. + + + "KIAM" AS A RELATIVE ADVERB. + +155. The interrogative temporal adverb "kiam" (123) is also used as a +relative temporal adverb, with "tiam" or an equivalent word or phrase +for its antecedent. (It may not be omitted as in English "at the time he +came"): + + Mi suspektis lin je la tempo kiam li venis, + I suspected him at the time when he came (the time that he came). + Li defendis sin tiam, kiam oni atakis lin, + he defended himself then, when he was attacked. + Mi ankoraux sidos tie gxis kiam vi venos, + I shall still sit there until when you come (until you come). + Post kiam li tiel lauxte kriis, li komencis plori, + after he shouted so loudly, he began to cry. + + + "KIEL" AS A RELATIVE ADVERB. + +156. The interrogative adverb "kiel" (134) is also used as a relative +adverb of manner and degree, with "tiel", or "same", or an equivalent +adverb or phrase for its antecedent. It may often be translated "as": + + Mi defendis min tiel, kiel li defendis sin, + I defended myself in that way in which (way) he defended himself. + Vi ne estas tiel kruela kiel li, + you are not so cruel as he (is). + Ili batis lin same kiel vi, + they beat him in the same way as you (did). + Ili batis lin same kiel vin, + they beat him the same as (they did) you. + Kiel mi diris al li, mi estas felicxa, + as I told him, I am happy (antecedent not expressed). + Li parolis tiel mallauxte kiel antauxe, + he spoke as softly as before. + Sxi estas tiel bona kiel sxi estas bela, + she is as good as she is fair. + + + NUMERAL NOUNS AND ADVERBS. + +157. Nouns may be formed from the cardinals by addition of the ending +"-o." After such nouns the preposition "da" or "de" is used: + + dekduo = a dozen. milo = a thousand. + dudeko = a score. unuo = a unit. + deko = a ten, half a score. kvaro = a four, a quartette. + cento = a hundred. trio = a three, a trio. + +[Footnote: The prepositions "da" and "de" follow nouns (99, 100) or +adverbs (101), while "el" follows adjectives in the superlative degree +(75), cardinal numerals (138), and the pronouns tiu, kiu (106), etc.: +"dekduo da ovoj", a dozen (of) eggs. "dekduo de la ovoj", a dozen of the +eggs. "dek du el tiuj ovoj", twelve of those eggs. "kiu el la ovoj?" +which one of the eggs? "tiu el la ovoj", that one of the eggs. "la plej +fresxa el la ovoj", the freshest of the eggs.] + +158. Adverbs may be formed from the cardinals by addition of the ending +"-e": + + unue = firstly, at first. deke = tenthly. + due = secondly, in the second place. sesdeke = sixtiethly. + kvine = fifthly, in the fifth place. okdek-kvare = eighty-fourthly. + + + WORD DERIVATION FROM PREPOSITIONS. + +159. Adjectives, verbs and nouns, as well as adverbs (120), may be +derived from prepositions by addition of the formative endings (116), +with sometimes a special suffix also: + + + anstatauxi = to replace, to take the place of. + anstatauxulo = a substitute. + antauxa = previous, preceding. + apuda = near, contiguous, adjacent. + cxirkauxi = to surround, to encircle. + cxirkauxo = a circuit, a circumference. + kontrauxa = adverse, opposite, contrary. + kontrauxulo = adversary, opponent. + kunulo = comrade, companion. + superi = to surpass, to exceed, to be above. + superege = surpassingly, exceedingly. + + + VOCABULARY + + adiaux = farewell, goodbye. kuz-o = cousin. + akcept-i = to accept, to receive. malgraux = notwithstanding. + elekt-i = to choose, to select. par-o = pair. + fest-i = to celebrate, to entertain. pend-i = to hang. + gant-o = glove. prez-o = price. + gxentil-a = courteous. renkont-i = to meet. + invit-i = to invite. sxu-o = shoe. + jxus = just, at the moment. uz-i = to use. + +[Footnote: The adverb "jxus" indicates the elapsing of the least +possible time since the act or condition indicated, or between the two +acts or conditions indicated. "Ni jxus venis", we just came (we came but +a moment ago). "Mi havas la saman opinion kian vi jxus diris", I have +the same opinion as you just gave (said). "Mi vidis lin jxus kiam li +estis forironta", I saw him just when he was about to depart. "Jxus kiam +vi venis li foriris", just as you came he went away.] + + + LA INVITO. + +Hieraux matene mia kuzo vizitis cxe ni, kaj invitis min al malgranda +festo kiu okazos morgaux vespere. Tiam li festos la lastan tagon de +la jaro. Li diris ke la gastoj sidos cxirkaux la fajrejo kaj rakontos +rakontojn gxis malfrua horo. Mi akceptis lian gxentilan inviton, kaj +diris ke mi certe venos. Mia kuzo logxas en la sama urbo kie nia familio +logxas, sed en alia parto. Lia hejmo estas preskaux du mejlojn de la +nia. Tamen, ni estas bonaj kunuloj, kaj ofte promenas kune. Jxus kiam li +estis elironta el la pordo hieraux, mi uzis la okazon ("opportunity") +por proponi mallongan promenon. Li respondis ke li gxoje promenos kun +mi, malgraux la negxa vetero. Tial ni formarsxis tien, kie la stratoj +estis malplej kotaj. La kuzo havas dek ok jarojn, sed mi estas preskaux +tiel alta kiel li. Mi estas certa ke mi estas ankaux tiel forta kiel li. +Ni parolis pri multaj interesaj aferoj, kaj bonege nin amuzis, gxis kiam +estis necese hejmen iri. La kuzo diris "adiaux," kaj iris rekte hejmen, +sed mi iris al granda butiko. Unue, mi volis acxeti paron da novaj +gantoj, por anstatauxi la malnovajn gantojn kiujn mi ankoraux estis +portanta, kvankam mi acxetis ilin antaux tri monatoj. Due, mi bezonis +paron da novaj sxuoj. Mi iris en la butikon kie pendis tiaj gantoj, +kiajn mi sxatas, kaj oni tuj venis por renkonti min, kaj demandis "Kiajn +vestojn vi volas acxeti?" Oni montris al mi preskaux dudekon da paroj +da gantoj. Mi elektis tre bonan paron, kaj estis jxus acxetonta ilin, +malgraux la tro granda prezo, kiam mi vidis alian pli belan paron. +Tial mi acxetis cxi tiun, kaj poste mi rigardis la sxuojn. Mi trovis +rimarkinde bonan paron, cxar estas centoj da sxuoj en tiu butiko. Mi tuj +acxetis tiun paron, kaj tiam hejmen iris. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. My friend likes to live in the city, but his wife prefers to live in +their little wooden house in the country. 2. There she can see and smell +the flowers, and can take ("fari") long walks in the adjacent fields +and forest. 3. There are often hundreds of persons in a village, but +there are thousands of persons in a city. 4. The larger a city is, the +larger and better its stores are. 5. In the second place, one can buy +better bread, vegetables and cake in the city. 6. Thirdly, one can also +find better gloves, hats and shoes there, and the price is often less. +7. Therefore I make use of the opportunity when I go to the city, and +usually buy a pair of new gloves. 8. I am still wearing a pair of gloves +which the rain spoiled. 9. Notwithstanding their ugly color, they are +still thick and good. 10. But soon I shall buy such a pair as (150) is +hanging in the window of that store. 11. The price is low, and I need a +new pair now, for my cousin has invited me to a small party ("festo") +at his house. 12. I accepted his invitation courteously, and said that +I would gladly be his guest. 13. We are good comrades, although he is +younger than I am. 14. My (girl) cousin, his sister, is older than he +is, but he is as tall as she. 15. I was just about to send a letter to +him at the minute that (155) he knocked on our door. 16. His visit will +take the place of (159) my letter. 17. Just as (just when) he was going +away, I said goodbye to him, and said that I would meet him in the park +tomorrow. 18. I think that we shall have a pleasant walk, although the +weather is still remarkably cold, the same as (156) it was two or three +months ago. + + + + LESSON XXXIV. + + + PREPOSITIONS AS PREFIXES. + +160. Any preposition may be used as a prefix to a verb, provided the +resulting compound is intelligible. A few prepositional compounds are +given below, only verbs being shown, although nouns, adjectives and +adverbs may be formed from these (116): + + alveni = to arrive. interparoli = to converse. + aldoni = to add. kontrauxdiri = to contradict. + antauxdiri = to predict. kunlabori = to collaborate. + cxirkauxpreni = to embrace. kunveni = to assemble. + cxeesti = to be present. priskribi = to describe. + dependi = to hang from, to depend. subteni = to support. + demeti = to lay aside. surmeti = to put on. + depreni = to subtract. traguti = to percolate. + enhavi = to contain. travidi = to see through + eliri = to go out. transiri = to cross. + +[Footnote: Like English "out" the preposition "el" often develops in +composition a secondary sense of "thoroughly" or "completely" (cf. "I am +tired out"): "eltrovi", to find out, to discover. "elpensi", to think +out, to invent. "ellabori", to work out, to elaborate. "ellerni", to +learn thoroughly, to master. "eluzi", to use completely, to wear out +(transitive).] + + + THE SUFFIX "-EBL-". + +161. The suffix "-ebl-" is used to form adjectives, adverbs, etc., +expressing the likelihood or possibility of that which is indicated by +the root. It may be used as a root, to form "ebla", possible, etc. + + eltrovebla = discoverable. rompebla = breakable. + legebla = legible. videbla = visible. + mangxebla = edible. travidebla = transparent. + +[Footnote: The suffix "-ebl-" is often equivalent to the English +suffixes "-able", "-ible", but these suffixes have other meanings also, +as in "readable," "worth reading" (leginda), "lovable," "deserving of +love" (aminda), etc.] + + + EXPRESSION OF THE HIGHEST DEGREE POSSIBLE. + +162. The adverb "plej", "most" (74), modified by "kiel eble" (as +possible), is used to express the highest degree possible: + + Gxi estas kiel eble plej bona, it is the best possible. + Ni estos kiel eble plej sagxaj, we shall be as wise as possible. + Li uzis kiel eble plej malmulte, he used the least possible. + Mi skribis kiel eble plej legeble, I wrote as legibly as possible. + + + TITLES AND TERMS OF ADDRESS. + +163. The words "sinjoro," gentleman, "sinjorino," lady, "frauxlino," +miss, are used like English "Mr., Mrs., Miss," before proper names, +and are also used as terms of address, without being followed by the +name: "Adiaux, Sinjoro. Adiaux, Sinjorino," Goodbye (Sir). Goodbye, +Madam. + + Frauxlino B----, cxu vi konas tiun sinjoron kun Sinjorino C----? + Miss B----, do you know that gentleman with Mrs. C----? + Mi ne konas tiun frauxlinon, I do not know that young lady. + Kien vi volas iri, Frauxlino? Where do you wish to go (Miss)? + Sinjoro A---- estas tre afabla, Mr. A---- is very amiable. + +[Footnote: Cf. English "Doctor, Professor, Madam," as terms of address, +and also German "Mein Herr, gnaedige Frau, gnaediges Fraeulein," French +"Monsieur, Mademoiselle," Spanish, "Senor, Senora," Italian "Signore," +etc.] + + + VOCABULARY + + atent-a = attentive. onkl-o = uncle. + auxskult-i = to listen. san-a = in good health. + babil-i = to chatter. sent-i = to feel. + doktor-o = doctor. sinjor-o = gentleman. + frauxl-o = bachelor. sxtup-o = step (of stairs). + gaj-a = merry, gay. tas-o = cup. + grup-o = group. vojagx-o = voyage, journey. + + + CXE LA FESTO. + +Hieraux vespere mi iris al la hejmo de mia kuzo, kiu estis invitinta +min al malgranda festo cxe li. Cxar mi deziris alveni kiel eble plej +frue, mi foriris de mia logxejo kiel eble plej baldaux, malgraux la +negxa vetero. Mi estis surmetinta paron da dikaj gantoj, kaj mi portis +dikajn sxuojn. Mi ankaux havis mian ombrelon, kvankam pro la vento mi ne +povis uzi tiun. Tuj kiam mi supreniris la sxtuparon cxe la hejmo de la +kuzo, li auxdis min, kaj venis por malfermi la pordon kaj akcepti min. +"Bonan vesperon, kia estas via sano?" li diris. Mi respondis "Mi sanas +bonege, dankon," kaj eniris la domon kun li. Ni supren iris per granda +sxtuparo al cxambro kie mi lasis la cxapelon, gantojn kaj ombrelon, tiam +ni malsupren venis kaj eniris la salonon. Mi salutis la onklinon, kiu +afable parolis al mi, kaj ankaux la du kuzinojn. Unu kuzino estis jxus +priskribonta interesan libron, kiun sxi antaux ne longe tralegis, kiam +la aliaj gastoj komencis alveni. Sinjoro B---- cxeestis, kaj Doktoro +C----, kun sia filino Frauxlino Mario, kaj multe da aliaj sinjoroj +kaj sinjorinoj. La gastoj sidis aux staris en malgrandaj grupoj, kaj +interparolis kun videbla plezuro. Unu rakontis pri vojagxo, kaj tiam +oni komencis priparoli la prezojn de aferoj en aliaj landoj. Mi atente +auxskultis kelkajn minutojn, kaj tiam foriris al alia grupo, kie oni +gaje babilis pri estontaj ("future") promenoj kaj festoj. Post unu aux +du horoj, la servistinoj alportis al ni bonan malgrandan mangxon, kune +kun tasoj da bonega kafo. Fine, je malfrua horo ni gxentile dankis la +familion de mia kuzo, kaj diris adiaux. Tiam ni foriris hejmen, kun +sentoj da granda plezuro pro la agrabla festo. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. There are dozens of edible fruits, but the fruits of hundreds of +trees are not at all ("tute ne estas") edible. 2. The transparent cup +and plate upon the table are very breakable. 3. I predict that you will +break them as soon as you seize them. 4. That letter is worth reading. +5. But it is difficult to read it, for it is not very legible. 6. It is +from my uncle, who wishes to arrive at-our-house as early as possible. +7. He is still in the city, but soon he will be here, and will go up the +steps ("sxtuparon") of our porch and knock on the door. 8. There are +very few persons who contradict his opinions. 9. His opinions, however, +are worthy of attention (154) and usually I listen courteously while he +is talking. 10. Now, however, I prefer to listen to the group of ladies +in the adjacent room. 11. They are chattering gaily, and listening +to the young lady who is about to sing. 12. Madam, do you feel the +wind? I notice that it is blowing the curtains which hang before that +window. 13. I will close the window, because I am not very well ("sana") +today. 14. Is that gentleman across the room a bachelor? 15. Yes. He is +describing a voyage and the people whom he met. + + + + LESSON XXXV. + + + "KIOM" AS A RELATIVE ADVERB. + +164. The interrogative adverb "kiom" (140) is used as a relative adverb +of quantity, with "tiom" or some equivalent word or phrase for its +antecedent. In this use it is commonly translated "as": + + La taso enhavis tiom da kafo, kiom mi povis trinki, + the cup contained as much coffee as I could drink. + Mi havos tiom da tempo, kiom mi bezonos, + I shall have as much time as I shall need. + Li sendis tiom, kiom vi volis, he sent as much as you wished. + + + THE PRESENT PASSIVE PARTICIPLE. + +165. The present passive participle (for the present active participle +see 108), expressing that which is "undergone by" the person or thing +indicated by the word modified, ends in "-ata", as "vidata", being +seen: + +[Footnote: The verb "iri", to go, used to illustrate the active +participles (108, 119, 152), cannot be used to illustrate a passive +participle, since passive participles can be made from transitive verbs +(22) only.] + + La lauxdata knabo estas felicxa, the boy being praised is happy. + Mi sercxos la deziratan libron, I shall look for the desired book. + La vestoj farataj por vi estas belaj, + the clothes being made for you are beautiful. + + + FRACTIONS. + +166. Fractions are formed from the cardinals by the use of the suffix +"-on-" followed by the ending "-o". Adjectives and adverbs may be +derived from these by use of the endings "-a" or "-e": + + La duono de ses estas tri, the half of six is three. + Li estis nur duone atenta, he was only half attentive. + La triona parto de ses estas du, the third part of six is two. + Dek unu dekduonoj, eleven twelfths. + Mi dudekone finis la laboron, I one-twentieth finished the work. + + + DESCRIPTIVE COMPOUNDS. + +167. A compound word whose first element modifies the second in an +adjectival or adverbial relation is called a "descriptive compound". +The final "-a" or "-e" of the first element may be omitted, unless the +resulting combination would be ambiguous or harsh-sounding. + +a. When the first element is adverbial (an adverb or preposition), the +second element may be either an adverb or adjective: + + multekosta, expensive. + duonkolere, half angrily. + nevidebla, invisible. + nevole, involuntarily. + rugxflava (rugxeflava), reddish yellow. + survoje, on the way, en route. + antauxhieraux, day before yesterday. + postmorgaux, day after tomorrow. + +b. An adjective may be used for the first element, if the second is an +adverb or adjective "derived from a noun-root": + + samtempa, contemporaneous. + unufoje, once, one time. + trifoje, thrice, three times. + unutaga, one day's, of one day. + unuataga, the first day's. + frutempe, at an early time. + +c. A noun may be used for the second element, if the resulting word +has not merely unity of form, but also unity of meaning with a +slightly different sense from that expressed by the noun and adjective +uncombined: + +[Footnote: In national languages a change of accent often accompanies +such change in meaning, as "BLACKberry" (not "black BERry"), "BLUEbird" +(not "blue BIRD"), "SWEETheart" (not "sweet HEART"), German "JUNGfrau", +"virgin" (not "jung FRAU", young woman), etc.] + + bonveno, a welcome (not "bona veno", a good coming). + libertempo, a vacation, leisure (not "libera tempo", free time). + superjaro, leap-year (not "super jaro", above a year). + bondeziroj, good wishes, felicitations + (not "bonaj deziroj", good desires). + plimulto, a majority (adverb and noun combined). + + + VOCABULARY + + hxin-o = Chinaman. naci-o = nation. + jam = already. pagx-o = page. + kler-a = enlightened, learned. pres-i = to print. + komerc-o = trade, commerce. pulv-o = gunpowder. + lanc-o = spear, lance. sxangx-i = to change. + liber-a = free. te-o = tea. + metod-o = method, way. ted-a = tiresome, tedious. + +[Footnote: The adverb "jam" indicates a change from some preceding +action or state to the different one expressed in the sentence, clause +or phrase containing "jam". It may often be translated "yet," "now," +etc. "Mi jam vidis lin", I already saw (have already seen) him. "Cxu vi +jam trovis gxin? Ne, mi ankoraux ne trovis gxin". Have you yet (have you +already) found it? No, I have not yet (still not) found it. "Li jam ne +vivas", he no longer lives (he already is-not-alive). "Jam ne negxas", +it is not snowing now (already not snowing).] + + + LA HXINOJ. + +Antaux miloj da jaroj la hxinoj estis la plej klera nacio en la mondo. +Dum aliaj nacioj ankoraux ne konis metodojn por presi librojn, kaj +ankoraux faris ilin skribe, la samtempaj hxinoj jam estis forlasintaj +tiun multekostan kaj tedan metodon. Ili jam estis presantaj la pagxojn +de miloj da libroj. Aliaj nacioj tiam estis batalantaj kiel eble plej +kruele, per sago kaj pafarko, kaj per lanco. Sed ili ankoraux ne havis +pafilojn, cxar pulvo estis tute nekonata al ili. Tamen la hxinoj jam +bone konis metodojn por fari kaj por uzi pulvon, kaj faris tiajn amuzajn +flavrugxajn fajrojn, kiajn ni ankoraux hodiaux acxetas de ili, por uzi +je festaj tagoj. Sed la hxinoj ne multe sxatis la komercon, kaj ne +deziris acxeti aux lerni de aliaj nacioj. Ili ankoraux nun havas la +samajn metodojn por presi librojn kaj por fari pulvon, kiajn ili havis +antaux mil jaroj. Ili malofte sxangxas siajn kutimojn. Tial la aliaj +nacioj, kiuj antauxe ne estis tiel kleraj, antauxeniras pli rapide ol +la hxinoj. La lando de la hxinoj enhavas tiom da personoj, kiom tri aux +kvar aliaj nacioj. Granda parto de tiu lando estas ankoraux nekonata al +okcidentaj nacioj, kvankam plej multe da nia teo elvenas el la hxina +lando. Oni diras ke la parolata lingvo kaj la skribata lingvo de la +hxinoj estas du tre malsamaj aferoj. La lingvo estas almenaux treege +malfacila, kaj post kiam oni estas longe studinta gxin, oni tamen estas +nur duone lerninta gxin. Mi gxojas tial ke la lingvoj studataj en la +lernejoj de nia lando ne estas tiel malfacilaj kiel la hxina lingvo. La +latina kaj germana lingvoj estas suficxe malfacilaj, kvankam ili estas +tre interesaj kaj ankaux konataj de la kleruloj en multaj landoj. La +latina lingvo jam ne estas parolata lingvo. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Why are the persons in that merry group laughing and chattering +instead of listening to Mr. B----? 2. I think that the doctor is telling +stories about a bachelor who was once a good friend of his. 3. The +gentleman being talked about (160, 165) will visit us this evening, +possibly. 4. My aunt and cousin will come down stairs and converse with +him. 5. We shall drink as many cups of tea or of coffee as we wish. 6. +He will say "How is your health, Madam?" My aunt will reply half-angrily +that she is seldom ill. 7. We shall sit on the veranda, for the sun is +still shining, although it is already setting. 8. That young lady who +came with Mrs. C---- relates the best possible stories. 9. She says +that the Chinese were already an enlightened nation hundreds of years +ago, while other nations were still cruelly fighting. 10. A method for +printing the pages of books, instead of writing them, was a discovery +of the Chinese. They printed books in their printing-shops, a thousand +years ago. 12. They also were-acquainted-with gunpowder, which they made +and used for such fires as we use on national days of-celebration, when +we have leisure and wish to enjoy (to amuse) ourselves. 13. But the +Chinese have not changed these methods. 14. Their ways of commerce, work +and pleasure are the same as they were long ago. 15. Such a nation does +not progress rapidly, even though its life is very long. + + + + LESSON XXXVI. + + + THE PRESENT PASSIVE TENSE. + +168. The compound tense formed by combining the present passive +participle with the present tense of the auxiliary verb "esti" expresses +an act or condition as "being undergone" by the subject of the verb, and +is called the "present passive tense". The conjugation of "vidi" in this +tense is as follows: + + mi estas vidata, I am (being) seen. + vi estas vidata, you are (being) seen. + li (sxi, gxi) estas vidata, he (she, it) is (being) seen. + ni estas vidataj, we are (being) seen. + vi estas vidataj, you are (being) seen. + ili estas vidataj, they are (being) seen. + + + THE USE OF "DE" TO EXPRESS AGENCY. + +169. The person by whom (or the thing by which) an act, indicated by a +passive verb or participle, is performed is called the "agent" of the +passive voice, and is expressed by a substantive preceded by "de": + + La lanco estas portata de mi, the spear is carried by me. + La libroj estas jam presataj de li, + the books are already being printed by him. + La vojoj estas kovrataj de negxo, + the roads are being covered by snow. + Sxi estas lauxdata de la sinjoro, + she is being praised by the gentleman. + + + THE GENERAL MEANING OF "DE". + +170. The preposition "de" conveys the general idea of separation from a +source or starting point, in space (literal or figurative), or in time +(89, 131). This meaning develops into that of the source from which +connection or ownership arises (49), and also into that of the agency +from which an act is done or a condition caused (169). The prepositional +phrase containing "de" must be so placed as to avoid ambiguity in its +meaning, or must be reinforced by an adverb or other word: + + La arbo estas malproksima de la domo, the tree is far from the house. + Gxi estas proksima de la gxardeno, it is near to (from) the garden. + Mi prenas la libron for de la knabo, + I take the book away from the boy. + Mi prenas la libron de la knabo, I take the book of the boy. + La afero dependas de vi, the matter depends upon (from) you. + + + WORD DERIVATION FROM PRIMARY ADVERBS. + +171. Adjectives, verbs, and nouns may be derived from primary adverbs +(66), as well as from prepositions (120, 159): + + La nunaj metodoj, the present methods (methods of-now). + Mi adiauxis lin per adiauxa saluto, + I bade farewell to him by a farewell salute (see also 273). + Ni faris tujan intersxangxon, we made an immediate exchange. + Cxu li skribis jesan aux nean respondon? + Did he write an affirmative or a negative answer? + Anstataux nei, li respondis jese, + instead of denying, he answered affirmatively. + La morgauxa festo estos pli agrabla ol la hierauxa, + tomorrow's (the morrow's) celebration will be more pleasant + than that of yesterday. + La tiamaj personoj estis liaj samtempuloj, + the persons of-that-time were his contemporaries. + + + THE SUFFIX "-IST-". + +172. The suffix "-ist-" is added to roots to express the profession, +trade or occupation connected with the idea in the root: + + floristo = florist. okulisto = oculist. + komercisto = trader, merchant. presisto = printer. + servisto = servant. sxtelisto = thief. + + + VOCABULARY + + administr-i = to manage. mont-o = mountain. + antikv-a = ancient nom-o = name. + Euxrop-o = Europe. proksim-a = near. + grav-a = important, serious. reprezent-i = to represent. + ital-a = Italian. respublik-o = republic. + kvadrat-a = square. tiran-o = tyrant. + +[Footnote: The words "antikva", "maljuna", "malnova", all of which may +at times be translated "old," must not be confused in use: Mi havas +malnovan cxapelon, "I have an old hat (a hat which is not new)". Li +estas maljuna sinjoro, "he is an old (aged) gentleman". Li estas malnova +amiko mia, "he is an old friend of mine (a friend of long standing)". La +hxinoj estis kleraj ecx en la antikva tempo, "the Chinese were learned +even in the olden time (in ancient time)". La antikvaj kleruloj jam +sciis tre multe, "the ancient learned (enlightened) men already knew a +great deal". La maljuna sinjoro en la malnovaj vestoj estas antikvisto, +"the old gentleman with the old clothes is an antiquary".] + + + ANTIKVA RESPUBLIKO. + +La plej antikva respubliko en Euxropo kusxas en la norda parto de la +bela itala lando, inter la maro kaj la rivero, proksime de la montoj. +Gxia nomo estas San Marino, kaj gxi estas respubliko de antaux mil +kvarcent jaroj. Kvankam la cxirkauxaj landoj kaj nacioj apartenis en +antikva tempo al la tiamaj regxoj, San Marino jam estis libera. Gxiaj +aferoj estas ankoraux administrataj tiel, kiel la anoj (145) volas, +ne kiel unu aux alia regxo aux tirano deziras. Dufoje en la jaro la +anoj elektas personojn, kiuj administros la gravajn aferojn de la +respubliko dum la sekvontaj ses monatoj. Kvardek ses el tiuj personoj +reprezentas la anojn, kaj unu alia estas regxo tiun duonon da jaro. +Per tia metodo, la anoj estas bone reprezentataj, kaj la aferoj estas +administrataj kiel eble plej sagxe. La tuta respubliko enhavas nur +dudek du kvadratajn mejlojn da tero. En la respubliko kaj la tiea (171) +urbo kiu havas la saman nomon, ne estas tiom da personoj kiom en multaj +italaj urboj. Tamen cxi tiu respubliko estas pli granda ol multaj +antikvaj grekaj respublikoj. La grekaj respublikoj estis bonekonataj, +kaj enhavis multe da kleruloj inter siaj anoj. Sed en la nuna tempo la +grekoj havas regxon. Oni ne trovas tre klerajn personojn en San Marino, +tamen la laboristoj estas energiaj, kaj laboras kiel eble plej multe. +La rikoltistoj plej ofte havas bonajn rikoltojn, kaj la plimulto da +personoj estas treege kontenta kaj felicxa. Oni ne pensas pri komerco +aux eksterlandaj (167, a) aferoj kaj ne volas vojagxi malproksimen de la +bone amata hejmo. Oni preferas gaje amuzi sin cxehejme (167, a), en la +libertempo inter la rikoltoj, kaj la vivo tute ne sxajnas malfacila aux +teda. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. The serious affairs of a republic are managed by persons representing +the persons who live there. 2. The inhabitants are well represented, and +as free as possible. 3. Enlightened persons often prefer to live in a +republic. 4. Persons who have a good king are very happy, but those who +have a bad king are as unhappy as possible. 5. Nowadays ("nuntempe") +there are very few tyrants. 6. The majority of the kings of Europe are +praiseworthy. 7. That nation which was most enlightened a thousand years +ago was the Chinese nation. 8. The Chinese of-that-time already had +good printers among them. 9. It is said (54) that the Chinese drink as +much tea as two or three contemporary nations. 10. The oldest republic +in Europe is named San Marino. 11. It is near the mountains, in the +northern part of the much praised Italian land. 12. It contains only +twenty-two square miles, and is therefore one of the smallest republics +in the world. 13. Fourteen hundred years ago it was already a republic, +and it is still that same republic. 14. The inhabitants are energetic +and patient, and have as much to eat as they need. 15. There are bakers +and shopkeepers (172) and many laborers among them. 16. They do not +think about commerce, or greatly ("multe") change their customs. 17. +They seldom take ("faras") tiresome journeys, but remain peacefully +("pace") at home. + + + + LESSON XXXVII. + + + THE DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUN. + +173. The distributive pronoun (and pronominal adjective) is "cxiu", each +(one), every (one). Sometimes it is equivalent to English "any", as in +"Any one who studies can learn," etc. The plural is "cxiuj", every, all. +The article is never interposed between "cxiuj" and the noun modified +(as in English "all the men"), and is used only if "cxiuj" is pronominal +and followed by "el": + +[Footnote: The use of "cxiu" and "cxiuj" must be distinguished from that +of the adjective "tuta", which means "all" in the sense of "entire": +"Cxiuj viroj laboras la tutan tagon", all men work all (the whole) day. +"Mi vidis cxiun vizagxon, + sed mi ne vidis la tutan vizagxon de cxiu viro", +I saw every face, + but I did not see all the face of each man.] + + Cxiu, kiu studos, lernos, every one who studies will learn. + Mi vidis cxiun el ili, kaj parolis al cxiu knabo, + I saw each of them, and talked to every boy. + Mi dankas vin cxiujn, I thank you all (I thank all of you). + Ni cxiuj estas reprezentataj, we are all (all of us are) represented. + Cxiuj el la maristoj alvenis, all (every one) of the sailors arrived. + +174. The distributive pronoun has a possessive or genitive form "cxies", +every-one's, every-body's: + + Li konas cxies nomon, he knows every-one's name. + Cxies opinio estis diversa, every-body's opinion was different. + Kies vocxojn mi auxdas? Cxies, whose voices do I hear? Everybody's. + + + THE PREPOSITION "PO". + +175. The preposition "po", at the rate of, at, is used chiefly before +cardinals and has a distributive sense: + + Li marsxas po kvar mejloj cxiutage, + he walks at the rate of four miles daily (every-day). + Mi acxetis kafon po malalta prezo, I bought coffee at a low price. + Mi acxetis viandon po kvarono da dolaro por funto, + I bought meat at a quarter of a dollar for (per) pound. + La cxapelisto acxetas cxapelojn pogrande, + the hatter buys hats wholesale. + + + DEPENDENT COMPOUNDS. + +176. A compound word whose first element is a substantive, dependent +upon the second element in some prepositional relation, is called a +"dependent compound". (If the two words were not united into one, the +first element would be preceded by a preposition, or would be in the +accusative case.) The ending "-o" may be omitted from the first element +of a dependent compound: + +[Footnote: A personal pronoun serving as the first element of a +dependent compound may keep the accusative ending, to indicate its +construction: "sinlauxdo", self-praise. "sinekzameno", self-examination. +"sindefendo", self-defence. "sinkontrauxdira", self-contradictory.] + + jarcento, century (cento da jaroj). + mangxocxambro, dining-room (cxambro por mangxoj). + noktomezo, midnight (mezo de la nokto). + paperfaristo, papermaker (faristo de papero). + sunbrilo, sunshine (brilo de la suno). + tagmezo, noon (mezo de la tago). + vespermangxo, supper (mangxo je la vespero). + ventoflago, weathercock (flago por la vento). + + + VOCABULARY + + cxies = every body's (174). lag-o = lake. + cxiu = every-body (173). po = at the rate of (175). + decid-i = to decide. sever-a = severe. + dev-o = duty. stang-o = pole. + fleks-i = to bend. svis-o = Swiss. + genu-o = knee. vend-i = to sell. + intenc-i = to intend. Vilhelm-o = William. + jugx-i = to judge. vort-o = word. + + + LA CXAPELO SUR LA STANGO. + +Antaux ol Svislando estis tiel libera kiel la nuna svisa respubliko, +gxiaj aferoj estis administrataj de personoj kiuj reprezentis aliajn +naciojn. Ofte tiuj personoj estis kiel eble plej severaj jugxistoj al la +svisoj. Unufoje plej kruela tirano estis administranta aferojn svisajn. +Li elpensis rimarkindan metodon por montri sian povon ("power"), kaj por +esti malagrabla al la svisoj. Li decidis meti sian cxapelon sur altan +stangon en la vendejo ("market-place"), en malgranda vilagxo apud bela +lago inter la altaj montoj. Li diris ke de nun tiu cxapelo reprezentas +lin, kaj portos lian nomon. Saluti la cxapelon estos la grava devo de +cxiu persono en la vilagxo. Estos cxies devo ne nur saluti la cxapelon, +sed ankaux genufleksi ("kneel") antaux la stango. La tirano diris ke +li forprenos la domon, la kampojn kaj tiom da mono, kiom li povos, de +cxiu vilagxano aux kamparano kiu forgesos genufleksi. "Mi intencas sendi +gardistojn," li diris, "kiuj rimarkos cxu vi cxiuj genufleksos kiam +vi estas proksimaj de la stango." Je tagmezo alvenis gardistoj, por +rimarki cxu la necesaj salutoj estos farataj de cxiuj, kaj por kapti +cxiujn svisojn kiuj ne genufleksis. Baldaux la kamparanoj komencis eniri +la vendejon, por vendi legomojn po kiel eble altaj prezoj, kaj por +acxeti vestojn kaj aliajn aferojn po treege plej malaltaj prezoj. Cxiu, +kiu iris proksimen de la stango, zorge genufleksis antaux la cxapelo +de la malamata tirano, pro timo pri la hejmoj kaj la familioj. Fine, +kamparano, kies nomo estis Vilhelmo Tell, eniris la vendejon, kaj staris +du aux tri minutojn proksime de la stango, dum li diris kelkajn vortojn +al amiko. Sed anstataux fari tujan saluton, aux genufleksi, li tute ne +rigardis la stangon. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. The day before yesterday my youngest cousin was sitting on my knee, +and I told him that a rainbow ("cxielarko") is made by the sunshine and +the rain. 2. My cousin goes to school every day, after he has breakfast +in the dining-room. 3. A new school is being built, not far from the +home of the judge. 4. It is my cousin's duty to study those books at +the rate of ten pages a day. 5. My cousin and I decided last night +(93) to buy new hats for ourselves. 6. We intend to go to the hatter's +early tomorrow morning. 7. I think that all clothes are being sold +at a low price at-the-present-time. 8. During a visit at a friend's, +I read an interesting book about ancient Europe. 9. It relates that +several centuries ago a severe and cruel tyrant was managing affairs +in Switzerland. 10. Once he put his hat on a pole in the market-place, +and said that it was the duty of-every-one to kneel before it. 11. This +serious affair happened in a village one or two miles square, on ("cxe") +the lake not far from the mountains through which one goes on the way +(167, a) to the Italian land. 12. William Tell did not kneel or even +look at the hat representing the tyrant. + + + + LESSON XXXVIII. + + THE DISTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVE. + +177. The distributive adjective related to the distributive pronoun +"cxiu", giving a comprehensive idea of the quality of some person or +thing, is "cxia", every kind of, every sort of: + + Oni vendas cxiajn fruktojn tie, + they sell every sort of fruit there. + Estas cxiaj personoj en la mondo, + there are all sorts of persons in the world. + + THE IMPERFECT PASSIVE TENSE. + +178. The compound tense formed by combining the present passive +participle with the past tense of the auxiliary verb "esti" expresses +an act or condition as being undergone by the subject of the verb "at +some time in the past". It is called the "imperfect passive tense". The +conjugation of "vidi" in this tense is as follows: + + mi estis vidata, I was (being) seen. + vi estis vidata, you were (being) seen. + li (sxi, gxi) estis vidata, he (she, it) was (being) seen. + ni estis vidataj, we were (being) seen. + vi estis vidataj, you were (being) seen. + ili estis vidataj, they were (being) seen. + + + COMPOUND TENSES OF IMPERSONAL VERBS. + +179. When impersonal verbs, or other verbs used impersonally, are in +compound tenses, the participial element is given the ending "-e", like +other modifiers of impersonally used verbs (141): + + Estis pluvante antaux unu minuto, it was raining a minute ago. + Estis multe negxinte, it had snowed a great deal. + Estis vidate ke cxiu ploras, it was seen that every one wept. + + + RECIPROCAL EXPRESSIONS. + +180. To give a reciprocal sense, when there are two or more subjects and +the action goes from one to the other (expressed in English by "each +other," "one another," "mutually," "reciprocally"), the phrases "unu la +alian", "unu al la alia", etc., or the adverb "reciproke", is used: + + Estas nia devo helpi unu la alian, + it is our duty to help one another. + Ili parolas unu al la alia, + they are talking to each other. + La viroj reciproke uzis siajn pafilojn, + the men used each other's guns. + Ili falis unu sur la alian, + they fell upon each other. + + THE SUFFIX "-UJ-". + +181. The suffix "-uj-" may be used to form words indicating "that which +contains, bears, or is a receptacle for", some number or quantity of +that which is expressed by the root. It may be used instead of "-lando" +to form the name of a region containing any one race or tribe, and +instead of "-arbo" to form the names of fruit trees: + + ujo = a receptacle. patrujo (patrolando) = fatherland. + monujo = purse. sukerujo = sugar-bowl. + supujo = soup-tureen. pomujo (pomarbo) = apple-tree. + leterujo = letter-case. sagujo = quiver. + + + VOCABULARY + + ag-i = to act. mort-i = to die. + ceter-a = remaining. pet-i = to plead, to request. + cxia = of every kind (177). prepar-i = to prepare. + fier-a = proud. pun-i = to punish. + imag-i = to imagine. reciprok-a = reciprocal, mutual. + konduk-i = to lead. simil-a = like, similar. + kor-o = heart. tusx-i = to touch. + + + VILHELMO TELL KAJ LA POMO. + +Tuj kiam la gardistoj rimarkis ke la cxapelo sur la stango ne estis +salutata de Vilhelmo Tell, ili kaptis lin, kaj kondukis lin al la +tirano, por esti jugxata. La tirano demandis de Tell kial li ne +genufleksis antaux la cxapelo, simile al la aliaj vilagxanoj. Tell +respondis fiere ke li ne sciis pri la cxiutagaj genufleksoj de la aliaj +personoj. Li diris ke li tute ne intencis agi kontraux la deziroj de +la jugxistoj. Sed la tirano malamis la altan fortan svison, tial li +decidis puni lin per severa puno, kaj demandis "Kiun el viaj infanoj +vi plej amas?" Vilhelmo Tell ne povis imagi kial la demando estas +farata al li, kaj respondis "Mi amas cxiujn el ili, sinjoro." La tirano +diris "Nu, estas rakontate inter la vilagxanoj ke vi estas rimarkinda +arkpafisto ("archer"). Ni eltrovos kia arkpafisto vi estas. Ni vidos +cxu vi povos forpafi pomon de sur la kapo de via plej juna filo. Aldone +("in addition"), estos via devo forpafi la pomon per la unua sago, alie +("otherwise") mi punos vin kaj vian filon per tuja morto." Tell diris +ke li estas preta por ricevi cxian alian punon, anstataux tia puno, +sed malgraux cxies petoj la tirano estis jam elektanta pomon de apuda +pomarbo. Li kondukis la knabon malproksimen de la ceteraj personoj, kaj +metis la pomon sur lian kapon. Tell kaj la filo reciproke rigardis sin, +dum la patro diris ke li ne tusxos haron de lia kapo. Tiam li elprenis +sagon el la sagujo, faris la necesajn preparojn, kaj rapide pafis. Tuj +la pomo forfalis de la kapo de la infano, kaj cxiu havis felicxan koron. +Dum Tell cxirkauxprenis la filon, la tirano demandis "Kial vi havas tiun +ceteran sagon en la mano." Tell lauxte respondis "Por mortpafi vin, tuj +post la infano, cxar mi treege timis pro la vivo de mia kara filo." + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. William Tell had a strong flexible (161) bow. 2. He could +shoot-with-a-bow ("arkpafi") excellently, therefore he was a well-known +archer. 3. He put six or eight arrows into his quiver, and went with his +sons to the village. 4. Possibly he saw the hat upon the pole, but he +did not kneel before it. 5. It was being noticed already in the village +that Tell hated the tyrant very much. 6. When the guards seized him +for that act, and led him before the tyrant, who was also the judge, +Tell said "I did not know about this new duty, and could not imagine +why the hat was on the pole there." 7. The tyrant replied with ("per") +angry words, for he hated the proud Swiss whom every one else loved. +8. He said severely "It is said that you are a praiseworthy archer. 9. +Therefore I was wondering whether you could shoot an apple from your +son's head. 10. Now we shall see whether you can shoot off the apple, or +whether you will touch the child's head." 11. Amid the pleadings of all, +Tell successfully shot off the apple. 12. A similar second arrow was +ready in his hand. 13. The tyrant saw the remaining arrow, and prepared +to punish Tell by death. 14. But he escaped, and the Swiss congratulated +each other heartily ("kore"). 15. After some time they followed him, at +the rate of six miles an hour. + + + + LESSON XXXIX. + + + THE DISTRIBUTIVE ADVERB OF PLACE. + +182. The distributive adverb of place, related to the distributive +pronoun "cxiu", is "cxie", everywhere. The ending "-n" may be added to +"cxie" to show direction of motion (121): + + Oni trovas tiajn virojn cxie, + such men are found everywhere. + Li iris cxien, kie mi estis estinta, + he went everywhere where I had been. + Mi vidas lin cxie, kien mi iras, + I see him everywhere I go. + + + THE FUTURE PASSIVE TENSE. + +183. The compound tense formed by combining the present passive +participle with the future tense of "esti" indicates that an act or +condition "will be undergone" by the subject of the verb. It is called +the "future passive tense". The conjugation of "vidi" in this tense is +as follows: + + mi estos vidata, I shall be seen. + vi estos vidata, you will be seen. + li (sxi, gxi) estos vidata, he (she, it) will be seen. + ni estos vidataj, we shall be seen. + vi estos vidataj, you will be seen. + ili estos vidataj, they will be seen. + + + POSSESSIVE COMPOUNDS. + +184. Compound adjectives may be formed with an adjectival root for the +first element, and a noun-root for the second element. Such adjectives +have the meaning "possessed of" that which is indicated in the compound. +(Similar adjectives are formed in English, with "-ed" as the final +syllable): + + belbrova = beautiful-browed. longnaza = long-nosed. + bonintenca = good-intentioned. kvarpieda = four-footed. + dumana = two-handed. rugxhara = red-haired. + + + THE TIME OF DAY. + +185. The ordinals are used in expressing the hour of the day, with +"horo" expressed or understood. The minutes are expressed by the +cardinals. In questions the adjective "kioma" (from "kiom", how much) +is used: + + Kioma horo estas? What hour (what o'clock, what time) is it? + Je kioma horo vi venos? At what time (what o'clock) will you come? + Estas la dua horo, it is two o'clock (it is the second hour). + Estas la tria kaj kvin minutoj, it is five minutes past three. + Ni iris je la sesa kaj duono, we went at half past six. + Estas la oka kaj kvardek kvin + (or: estas unu kvarono antaux la nauxa), + it is eight forty-five (a quarter of nine). + + + THE SUFFIX "-OBL-". + +186. The suffix "-obl-" is used to form multiples indicating how many +fold, as "two fold," "double," "triple," etc.: + + duoblo, a double. + duobla, double. + duoble, doubly. + kvarobla, quadruple. + kvindekobla, fifty-fold. + multobla, manifold. + Trioble du estas ses, three times two is six. + + + VOCABULARY + + bilet-o = ticket. pag-i = to pay. + cend-o = cent. preter = beyond, past. + cxie = everywhere (182). staci-o = station. + esprim-o = expression. telefon-i = to telephone. + gicxet-o = wicket, ticket-window. vagon-o = car. + horlogx-o = clock. valiz-o = valise. + +[Footnote: The preposition "preter" indicates the movement of something +alongside of and passing beyond something else. Since it does not +express motion "toward" its complement, it cannot be followed by the +accusative.] + + + EN LA STACIDOMO. + +Du bonkoraj (184) amikoj miaj logxas en la urbo B----. Ni reciproke +konas nin de antaux ses jaroj. Mi estis duoble gxoja hieraux kiam mi +ricevis leteron de ili, cxar en tiu ili petis de mi baldauxan viziton. +Tial mi telefonis hieraux posttagmeze al la stacidomo, por demandi +je kioma horo foriros la vagonaro ("train") al B----. Oni respondis +per la telefono ke la vagonaro foriros je la tria kaj tridek kvin. +Tuj poste mi enmetis kelkajn vestojn en mian jam preskaux eluzitan +valizon, kaj faris cxiujn preparojn por la mallonga vojagxo. Je la dua +horo, tuj post la tagmangxo ("midday meal"), mi marsxis stacidomon. +Survoje mi eniris butikon kaj acxetis paron da novaj gantoj. Kiam mi +eniris la stacidomon, mi kuris preter la aliaj personoj al la gicxeto +kie biletoj estas vendataj. Mi diris al la sinjoro cxe la gicxeto "Mi +deziras bileton al B----. Kiom estos necese pagi?" La brunokula sinjoro +respondis "Tia bileto kostos dolaron dudek cendojn." Mi pusxis tiom da +mono tra la gicxeto, kaj tuj ricevis la bileton, kiun la sinjoro jam +havis en la mano. Tiam mi iris proksimen de la pordego tra kiu oni estos +enlasata al la vagonaro. "Kiom da tempo antaux la foriro de la vagonaro +al B----?" mi demandis al la gardisto. Li lauxtvocxe respondis "Nur sep +minutojn. Cxu vi ne vidas tiun horlogxon?" Mi ne estis rimarkinta la +horlogxon, tial mi almetis la montrilojn de mia posxhorlogxo ("watch") +por montri la saman horon. Mi estis multe tusxata de cxiaj bonintencaj +personoj kurantaj cxien preter mi, kaj pusxantaj unu la alian. Fine oni +malfermis la pordegon. Mi kaj la ceteraj personoj rapidis al la vagonaro +kaj kiel eble plej baldaux eniris gxin. + +[Footnote: "Posttagmezo", afternoon, is a descriptive compound (167, a) +whose second element "tagmezo" is a dependent compound (176).] + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Because of the request of my friend whose brother died recently, I +went last ("la antauxan") week to visit him. 2. The remaining persons of +his family were not at home. 3. I telephoned to find out at what time +the train would depart. 4. I was told (54) that it would leave at four +twenty-seven. 5. I put enough money into my purse, and carried along +("kunportis") a valise into which I had put some clothes. 6. When I +entered the station, I hurried past the other people to the wicket, and +asked for ("petis") a ticket to B----. 7. The ticket seller said "Two +dollars and forty cents." 8. I could not imagine why it was necessary to +pay so much, but I at once pushed that much money through the window, +and received the ticket. 9. Then I looked at my watch and went near the +gate, but the yellowhaired guard who conducts persons to the trains +said "Persons who go through that gate before the train arrives will be +severely punished." 10. So all of us stood near the double gate. 11. The +trains are much like each other, and it is better to act as the guards +request, and not express impatience. + + + + LESSON XL. + + + THE DISTRIBUTIVE TEMPORAL ADVERB. + +187. The distributive adverb of time, related to the distributive +pronoun "cxiu", is "cxiam", always, at all times: + + Vi cxiam pagas tro multe, you always pay too much. + Mi estas cxiam preta por helpi vin, I am always ready to help you. + + + THE DISTRIBUTIVE ADVERB "CXIAL". + +188. The distributive adverb of motive or reason, related to the pronoun +"cxiu", is "cxial", for every reason, for all reasons: + + Cxial li estas felicxa hodiaux, for every reason he is happy today. + La mia cxial estas la plej bona, mine is for all reasons the best. + + + THE PAST PASSIVE PARTICIPLE. + +189. The past passive participle expresses an act or condition as +"having been undergone" by the person or thing indicated by the word +modified. This participle ends in "-ita", as "vidita", having been +seen: + + La prezo pagita de vi estis tro granda, + the price paid by you was too great. + La punita infano ploras, + the (having-been) punished child is crying. + Mi acxetos bonefaritajn gantojn, + I shall buy well-made gloves. + Li sercxis la forgesitan bileton, + he looked for the forgotten ticket. + + + THE PERFECT PASSIVE TENSE. + +190. The compound tense formed by combining the past passive participle +with the present tense of the verb "esti" expresses an act or condition +which "has been undergone" by the subject of the verb. It is called the +"perfect passive tense". The conjugation of the verb "vidi" in this +tense is as follows: + + mi estas vidita, I have been seen (I am having-been-seen). + vi estas vidita, you have been seen. + li (sxi, gxi) estas vidita, he (she, it) has been seen. + ni estas viditaj, we have been seen. + vi estas viditaj, you have been seen. + ili estas viditaj, they have been seen. + + + THE PREPOSITION "LAUX". + +191. In expressing that "in accordance with which" something is done, +takes place, moves, etc., the preposition "laux" is used: + + + Li agis laux sia opinio, + he acted in accordance with his own opinion. + Mi faros gxin laux bona metodo, + I shall do it according to a good method. + Laux kia maniero li agis? + In what manner did he act? + Mi marsxis laux la strato, + I walked down (or up) the street. + Li iris laux la rivero per tiu vojo, + he went along the river by that road. + Nuboj nigraj kuris laux la cxielo, + black clouds raced along the sky. + Gxi kusxas lauxlonge de la domo, + it lies lengthwise of the house. + + + THE SUFFIX "-EM-". + +192. The suffix "-em-" indicates a "tendency" or "inclination" toward +that which is expressed in the root: + + agema = active. pacema = peaceful, pacific. + mallaborema = lazy. pensema = pensive, thoughtful. + + + VOCABULARY + + atend-i = to wait (for), to expect. laux = according to (191). + cxial = for every reason (188). manier-o = manner, way. + cxiam = always (187). mov-i = to move (transitive) + gazet-o = magazine, gazette. okup-i = to occupy. + jxurnal-o = journal, paper. pal-a = pale. + kompat-i = to pity. polic-o = police. + larm-o = tear. trankvil-a = calm, tranquil. + + + LA PERDITA INFANO. + +Dum mi estis atendanta hieraux posttagmeze en la stacidomo, mi subite +rimarkis palan sinjorinon kun larmoj en sxiaj okuloj. Sxi rigardis +cxien kun esprimo de nekasxebla timo, kaj estis videble maltrankvila. +Sxi sercxis du aux tri minutojn inter la personoj cxirkaux si, kaj fine +sxi vidis bluevestitan policanon, kiu estis parolanta al unu el la +gardistoj. Sxi rapide diris kelkajn vortojn al li, kaj tuj li ankaux +komencis sercxi cie. Mi tre kompatis la ploreman sinjorinon, kaj kiam la +policano preteriris, mi demandis cxu mi ne povas helpi. Mi diris ke mi +ne estos okupata ("busy") gxis la alveno de la vagonaro. Li respondis +ke la filo de tiu virino estas perdita, kaj li donis al mi la sekvantan +priskribon de la infano, laux la vortoj de la patrino: la knabo estas +agema brunhara sesjarulo, kun bluaj okuloj, kaj li estas rugxe vestita +("dressed in red"). Lia patrino estis jxus acxetinta sian bileton cxe +la gicxeto, kaj post kiam sxi pagis la nauxdek cendojn por gxi, subite +sxi rimarkis ke la infano ne estis kun sxi. Kvankam sxi jam sercxis +cxie, la filo sxajnas ankoraux netrovebla. Sxi multe timas pro li, +kvankam li cxiam estas bona knabo. Mi tuj komencis marsxi cxien inter +la personoj cxirkaux mi, kaj fine eniris malgrandan cxambron apud la +horlogxo cxe la fino de la stacidomo, kie estas vendataj tagjxurnaloj +("newspapers"), gazetoj kaj libroj. Tie antaux nemovebla tablo kovrita +de brile koloritaj jxurnaloj staris malgranda rugxevestita knabo. Mi +diris al li "Mia studema juna amiko, oni ne vojagxas laux tiu metodo. +Via patrino jam de longe atendas vin. Mi montros al vi kie sxi estas." +Li venis kun mi, kaj proksime de la pordo kie mi estis lasinta mian +valizon staris la sinjorino. Sxi estis cxial gxoja kiam sxi vidis nin, +kaj dankeme cxirkauxprenis la infanon. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +lost in the station yesterday afternoon was very uneasy about him for +every reason. 2. She was pale and tearful ("plorema") when I saw her, +and looked in every direction in a most impatient manner. 3. There was +an expression of fear upon her face and she went as quickly as possible +to a nearby policeman, and said a few ("kelkajn") words to him. 4. I +heard the last words, and at once said to myself "It is now only ten +minutes past two. 5. My train will leave ("foriros") at half-past two, +so I have time to help." 6. I said to the blue-garbed policeman "During +the next ("sekvontajn") twenty minutes I shall not be busy. Do you +desire my help?" 7. He answered "Yes, you are very kind ("gxentila"). +The son of that lady has been lost. 8. According to her description, he +is a yellow-haired blue-eyed five-year-old, and apparently ("sxajne") +too restless ("movema"). 9. I shall find him as soon as possible, +nevertheless I shall gladly accept your help. 10. The child is dressed +in white and wears a red hat." 11. As ("cxar") I am not at all lazy +("mallaborema"), I went along the stationary ("nemoveblaj") tables +as-far-as the end of the station, and there I saw that-sort-of child, +looking at the magazines and newspapers. 12. I led him to the lady, who +with tears in + + + + LESSON XLI. + + + THE DISTRIBUTIVE ADVERB "CXIEL". + +193. The distributive adverb of manner, related to the distributive +pronoun "cxiu", is "cxiel", in every way, in every manner: + + Li povas cxiel prepari gxin, he can prepare it in every manner. + Li estos cxiel helpata, he will be helped in every way. + + + THE DISTRIBUTIVE ADVERB "CXIOM". + +194. The distributive adverb of quantity, related to the distributive +pronoun "cxiu", is "cxiom", every quantity, the whole, all: + + Li prenis multe da sukero, sed ne cxiom da gxi, + he took a great deal of sugar, but not all of it. + Li elprenis cxiom de la teo el la teujo, + he took all of the tea out of the tea caddy. + + + THE PLUPERFECT PASSIVE TENSE. + +195. The compound tense made by combining the past passive participle +with the past tense of the verb "esti" expresses an act or condition +which "had been undergone" by the subject of the verb at some point in +past time. It is called the "pluperfect passive tense". The conjugation +of "vidi" in this tense is as follows: + + mi estis vidita, I had been seen (I was having-been-seen). + vi estis vidita, you had been seen. + li (sxi, gxi) estis vidita, he (she, it) had been seen. + ni estis viditaj, we had been seen. + vi estis viditaj, you had been seen. + ili estis viditaj, they had been seen. + + + THE FUTURE PERFECT PASSIVE TENSE. + +196. The compound tense made by combining the past passive participle +with the future tense of the verb "esti" expresses an act or condition +which "will have been undergone" by the subject of the verb at some +point in future time. It is called the "future perfect passive tense". +The conjugation of "vidi" in this tense is as follows: + + mi estos vidita, I shall have been seen (shall be having-been-seen). + vi estos vidita, you will have been seen. + li (sxi, gxi) estos vidita, he (she, it) will have been seen. + ni estos viditaj, we shall have been seen. + vi estos viditaj, you will have been seen. + ili estos viditaj, they will have been seen. + + + THE EXPRESSION OF MATERIAL. + +197. The material "out of which" something is made or constructed is +expressed by use of the preposition "el". As in English, an adjective +may be used instead of the prepositional phrase unless a verb or +participle lays stress upon the fact of construction: + + La tablo estas farita el ligno, the table is made out of wood. + La tablo estas ligna (el ligno), the table is wooden (of wood). + La infanoj konstruis domon el negxo, + the children built a house of (out of) snow. + Oni faras supon el asparago, they make soup out of asparagus. + + + THE SUFFIX "-ET-". + +198. The suffix "-et-" indicates diminution of degree in that which is +expressed by the root. It is thus in contrast to the augmentative suffix +"-eg-" (122). Sometimes an affectionate significance is given: + + beleta = pretty. libreto = booklet. + dormeti = to doze. monteto = hill. + floreto = floweret, floret. rideti = to smile. + lageto = pond, small lake. vojeto = path. + + + VOCABULARY + + best-o = animal. leon-o = lion. + cxiel = in every way (193). lud-i = to play. + cxiom = the whole, all (194). material-o = material. + donac-o = gift, present. posed-i = to own, to possess. + drap-o = cloth. pup-o = doll. + hund-o = dog. rost-i = to roast. + konsist-i = to consist. versx-i = to pour. + + + LA DONACO. + +Mi volas doni beletan donacon al mia plej juna fratino morgaux, sed ju +pli mi pensas pri gxi, des pli malfacile estas decidi pri la afero. +Estas duoble malfacile, cxar sxi jam posedas cxiun ludilon ("toy") kiun +oni povas imagi. Cxiu el sxiaj amikoj gxoje donacas ("make presents") al +tiel afabla knabino. Tamen mi iris hieraux matene al ludilobutiko, kaj +rigardis la ludilojn tie. Multaj konsistis el diversaj pupoj, grandaj +kaj malgrandaj, kaj belege vestitaj. Sed mi estas certa ke la fratineto +jam posedas suficxe da pupoj--tial mi ne acxetis tian ludilon, kvankam +ili estas cxiam interesaj al knabinetoj. Sur unu tablo kusxis cxiaj +malgrandaj bestoj, faritaj el ligno, drapo, kaj diversaj materialoj. +Estis cxevaletoj, hundetoj, katetoj, kaj flavaj leonetoj. Proksime +de tiuj staris malgrandaj brile koloritaj vagonaroj, kiujn oni povis +rapide movi, laux la maniero de grandaj vagonaroj. Etaj policanoj staris +apude, kaj estis cxial malfacile elekti la plej interesan el tiom da +interesaj ludiloj. Baldaux mi rimarkis knabineton apud mi. Cxiel sxi tre +similis al mia fratino, kaj tial mi decidis elekti tian ludilon, kia +estos elektita plej frue de la nekonata knabineto. Mi atendis trankvile, +kaj ecx legis unu aux du pagxojn de miaj jxus acxetitaj gazetoj kaj +tagjxurnaloj. Fine la beleta infano estis rigardinta preskaux cxiom +de la ludiloj kiuj okupis la tablojn, dum la kompatinda servistino +lace sxin sekvis. Tiam la knabineto kriis "Ho, kiel beleta pupodomo! +Estas litoj en la dormocxambroj; legomoj kaj rostita viando, faritaj +el papero, kusxas sur la tablo en la mangxo-cxambro; kaj mi vidas tie +pupon, kiu certe jxus faris la teon, kaj estas elversxonta gxin en tiujn +tasetojn!" Tuj mi faris decidon laux la plezuro de la knabineto, kaj +baldaux la pupodomo estis acxetita por mia fratineto. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. My pale delicate ("malsanema") little sister is always happy when +she has a new toy. 2. Her dolls were made out of cloth when she was a +very little girl, because otherwise she could too easily break them. +3. But yesterday my grandmother made a present of a doll (presented a +doll) to her, and since that moment she has been as happy as possible. +4. I have not seen tears in her eyes, or heard a cross ("koleretan") +word. 5. This new doll is made out of cloth, and its dress consists of +very pretty material. 6. My sister decided that she likes it better +than her other playthings, and I think that those poor ("kompatindaj") +other dolls will soon have been forgotten. 7. The doll seems in every +way more interesting than the little animals made out of cloth or wood, +which are on the table with her dolls. 8. She possesses a little dog and +a little cat, and a little lion, and until yesterday she had a wooden +pony. 9. The pony is already broken, and has been given away to a poor +("malricxa") child, the daughter of our laundress ("lavistino"). 10. My +sister possesses a small train of cars which she can move everywhere, +and she is very fond of ("ametas") this toy. 11. There are small sacks +of sand in the cars, and usually she is happy when she is pouring the +sand out of one of these into another, or putting all of the sand into +a box, by means of a small spoon. 12. For every reason I am doubly glad +today that she is busied in this manner ("tiamaniere"). 13. I wish to +take a walk along that pleasant path toward the hill, instead of waiting +for my little sister. 14. I must buy the meat to roast for supper, +before I come home from my walk. + + + + LESSON XLII. + + + THE FUTURE PASSIVE PARTICIPLE. + +199. The future passive participle, expressing that which "will be or +is about to be undergone" by the person or thing indicated by the word +modified, ends in "-ota", as "vidota", about to be seen: + + La punota infano mallauxte ploretas, + the child about to be punished whimpers softly. + La formovota tablo estas peza, + the table about to be moved away is heavy. + La domo konstruota de li estos bela, + the house going to be built by him will be beautiful. + + + THE PASSIVE PERIPHRASTIC FUTURE TENSES. + +200. The compound tenses formed by combining the future passive +participle with each of the three aoristic tenses of "esti" represent +an act or condition as "about to be undergone" in the present, past, +or future, respectively. These are called "passive periphrastic future +tenses". Except when great accuracy is desired, these tenses, like those +of the active voice (153) are not often used. A synopsis of "vidi" in +the first person singular of these tenses is as follows: + + Present Periphrastic Future. + mi estas vidota, I am about to be (going to be) seen. + + Past Periphrastic Future. + mi estis vidota, I was about to be (going to be) seen. + + Future Periphrastic Future. + mi estos vidota, I shall be about to be (going to be) seen. + + + THE GENERIC ARTICLE. + +201. The article is placed before nouns used in a comprehensive or +universal sense, indicating a whole class, kind, substance, or abstract +quality. In such use it is called the "generic article": + + La pacienco estas lauxdinda, patience is praiseworthy. + La vivo surtera estas nur parto de la vivo cxiama, + life on earth is merely a part of the life eternal. + La viro estas pli forta ol la virino, + man is stronger than woman. + +[Footnote: Cf. French "La patience est amere, mais son fruit est doux, +patience is bitter, but its fruit is sweet", German "Das Leben ist +kurtz, life is short", Italian "La speranza e il pan de miseri, hope is +the poor man's bread", Spanish "Las riquezas son bagajes de la fortuna, +riches are the baggage of fortune", etc. In English the generic article +(as in "the life eternal" above) may often be replaced by omission of +both "a" and "the."] + + + THE SUFFIX "-EC-". + +202. The suffix "-ec-" is used to form words indicating the "abstract +quality" of that which is expressed in the root, or formation, to which +it is attached: + + amikeco = friendship. fleksebleco = flexibility. + ofteco = frequency. patreco = fatherhood. + indeco = worthiness. patrineco = motherhood. + dankemeco = thankfulness. maltrankvileco = uneasiness. + + + VOCABULARY + + bord-o = bank, shore. pont-o = bridge. + brak-o = arm. sonor-i = to ring (intrans.). + fabrik-i = to manufacture. surtut-o = overcoat. + krut-a = steep. sving-i = to swing, to brandish. + lan-o = wool. sxip-o = ship. + mebl-o = piece of furniture. sxton-o = stone. + pas-i = to pass (intrans.). vapor-o = steam. + pitoresk-a = picturesque. vetur-i = to travel (in a vehicle). + + + SUR LA VAPORSXIPO. + +Unu el la plezuroj de la kampara vivo konsistas el la multenombraj +("numerous") okazoj por veturi cxien, kien oni volas iri, per kvietaj +pitoreskaj vojoj. Ni havas ankoraux unu ("still one, yet another") +okazon por plezuro en nia vilagxo, cxar ni povas veturi per vaporsxipo +sur la bela lago cxe kies bordo kusxas la vilagxo. Hieraux du kuzinoj +venis por viziti cxe ni, kaj tuj post la tagmangxo ni decidis promeni +laux tiu pitoreska vojeto al la lago. Kiam ni alvenis al la lago, +ni rimarkis ke beleta vaporsxipeto estis jxus forironta. Tial mi +acxetis tri biletojn, kaj kiel eble plej rapide ni suriris la sxipeton. +La sonoriloj ("bells") estis jam sonorintaj, kaj tuj post kiam ni +transmarsxis la ponteton, de la tero al la planko de la sxipeto, oni +forprenis la ponteton. Kelkaj personoj kiuj estis ankoraux sur la tero +kuris kun granda rapideco al la ponteto. Ili svingis la brakojn kaj la +ombrelojn tre energie, sed la sxipeto ne atendis ecx unu minuton. La +personoj sxajnis tre koleraj pro sia malfrueco, kaj ankoraux pli koleraj +pro la trankvila foriro de la sxipeto. Cxiu sur la sxipeto ridetis, cxar +la koleremo ("irascibility") estas cxiam amuza. Tiam cxiu komencis sin +amuzi tiel, kiel li deziris. Mi estis kunportinta dikan lanan surtuton, +sed pro la varmeco de la vetero mi ne bezonis gxin, kaj lasis gxin +sur apuda segxo. Ni atendis kun plezuro por vidi la krutajn montetojn +kiuj estos videblaj tuj kiam la sxipeto estos pasinta preter malgranda +arbaro. La pitoreskeco de la belaj montetoj estas difektota, cxar +grandaj fabrikejoj estas jam konstruataj cxe la montpiedoj. La sxtonoj +por la muroj jam kusxas pretaj apude, kune kun grandaj stangoj kaj aliaj +pecoj da ligno. Tie oni fabrikos tablojn, segxojn, kaj aliajn meblojn el +zorge elektita ligno. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. It is difficult in every way to select a present for a child who +already possesses enough toys. 2. In a toy-shop yesterday I examined +the dolls made out of woolen cloth and other material, and also looked +at the various little animals. 3. There were ponies, little dogs and +little lions and camels. 4. There were also little sets of furniture +(126), which consisted of tables, sofas and chairs. 5. On the tables +were small plates containing vegetables, fruits and roast (189) meat, +entirely made out of colored paper. 6. There were also little cups and +tumblers of thin glass, into which one could pour water or milk. 7. As +(cxar) one dollar was all (194) of the money which I had in my purse, +I left the shop. 8. I walked along a stony picturesque path toward the +lake, swinging my overcoat on my arm, while I thought over ("pripensis") +the difficulty, and tried to decide what sort of present to choose. 9. +The steamboat to B---- was just leaving, so I went across the footbridge +("ponteto") on to the pretty little ship, while its bells were ringing, +and rode an hour in the open ("libera") air. 10. The shore which we +passed is very picturesque, but its beauty is about to be spoiled, for a +large furniture factory is going to be built between that steep hill and +the lake. 11. Its proximity to the water is necessary, for water-power +("akvoforto") will be used. + + + + LESSON XLIII. + + + THE INDEFINITE PRONOUN. + +203. The indefinite pronoun (and pronominal adjective) "iu", any one, +a certain one, presents the idea of some person or thing, without +definitely characterizing it: + + Mi parolas pri iu, kiun vi konas, + I am talking about a certain one whom you know. + Mi vizitis iujn el viaj amikoj, + I visited some of your friends. + Mi havas kelkajn pomojn, sed iuj ne estas bonaj, + I have several apples, but certain ones are not good. + Iuj pontoj estas bone faritaj, + some bridges are well made. + +204. The indefinite pronoun "iu" has a possessive or genitive form +"ies", somebody's, someone's, a certain one's: + + Mi tusxis ies brakon, I touched someone's arm. + Cxu ies surtuto kusxas sur la tablo? + Is anybody's overcoat lying on the table? + Ies ludiloj estas rompitaj, someone's playthings are broken. + + + PARTICIPIAL NOUNS. + +205. Nouns may be formed from participles, by substituting the noun +ending "-o" for the adjectival ending "-a". Such participial nouns +indicate persons temporarily or non-professionally performing or +undergoing that which is expressed by the root: + + helpanto, one who is helping, an assistant. + elpensinto, one who has thought out something, an inventor. + legonto, one who is about to read. + vidato, one (being) seen. + sendito, one (having been) sent, an envoy. + la jugxoto, the one about to be judged, the accused. + +[Footnote: Participial nouns must not be confused with nouns formed +by the suffix "-ist-" (172) expressing professional or permanent +occupation: "rajdanto", a rider, "rajdisto", jockey, horseman, +"jugxanto", a judge (of something), "jugxisto", judge (professional), +"laboranto", a person working, "laboristo", laborer.] + + + THE PREFIX "EK-". + +206. Sudden or momentary action, or the beginning of an action or state, +is indicated by the prefix "ek-": + + ekdormi, to fall asleep. + ekkanti, to burst into song. + ekiri, to set out, to start. + ekridi, to burst into a laugh + ekrigardi, to glance at. + + + THE SUFFIX "-ID-". + +207. Words indicating the "young of, the child of, the descendant of," +are formed by use of the suffix "-id-": + + cxevalido, colt (from "cxevalo", horse). + hundido, puppy (from "hundo", dog). + katido, kitten (from "kato", cat). + leonido, a lion's whelp (from "leono", lion). + regxidino, a king's daughter, a princess (from "regxo", king). + + + VOCABULARY + + amas-o = heap, throng. kugl-o = bullet. + dauxr-i = to continue. milit-i = to fight, to make war. + hirund-o = swallow. (bird). ost-o = bone. + hom-o = human being. renvers-i = to upset, to overturn. + humor-o = temper, humor. sign-o = sign, mark. + ies = some one's (204). tend-o = tent. + iu = some one (203). tru-o = hole. + +[Footnote: Cf. the difference between "viro", man (in contrast to +"virino", woman), and "homo", man in the generic sense, including both +men and women.] + + + LA NESTO SUR LA TENDO. + +Unufoje iu regxo estis farinta militon kontraux la homoj de lando cxe la +bordo de pitoreska rivero. La soldatoj ne venis tien per vaporsxipoj, +sed estis konstruintaj ponton trans la rivero, por la veturiloj +("vehicles"). Estis necese resti kelkan tempon apud urbo kiun la regxo +volis ekataki, kaj li havis grandan tendaron ("encampment") antaux tiu +urbo. Unu tagon en la dauxro ("course") de la milito, iuj el la soldatoj +pasis preter la tendo de la regxo, laux la sxtona vojeto laux kiu ili +cxiutage marsxis por gardi la tendaron. Unu el cxi tiuj ekrimarkis ke +hirundo estas konstruinta sian neston sur la regxa tendo. Sur la nesto, +kiu estis bone konstruita el koto, sidis trankvile la hirundo. Dum la +soldatoj svingis la brakojn kaj ekridis unu post la alia, pri la kuragxa +birdo, la regxo auxdis ies vocxon. Li elvenis el sia tendo por eltrovi +kial la parolantoj faras tiom da bruo, kaj kial ili tiel ekkriis kaj +ekridis. Kiam la viroj montris al li la birdon, li diris kun bonhumora +rideto, "Tiu hirundo estos mia gasto. Cxiuj el la militistoj certe +zorgos de nun pri la hirundo kaj la hirundidoj." Tial la nesto restis +netusxata en la dauxro de cxiu batalo. Kelkaj kugloj pasis preter gxi, +sed la trankvileco de la birdo dauxris same kiel antauxe. Fine la regxo +venkis, per kruelega batalo. Tuj la venkintoj forportis la tendojn, kune +kun multaj militkaptitoj ("prisoners of war"). Nur la tendon de la regxo +oni lasis tie, cxar la regxo diris ke gxi nun apartenas al la hirundo. +Gxi jam estis malnova kaj eluzita, tra kiu la pluvo eniris per multe da +truoj. Sed gxi ankoraux staris, gxis iu tago somera kiam la hirundidoj +povis jam bone flugi. Tiam la vento subite renversis gxin, kaj gxi +ekfalis, kaj kusxis, amaso da cxifonoj, inter multe da kugloj, homaj +ostoj, kaj la ceteraj malgajaj postsignoj ("traces") de ies venko sur la +batalejo. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. There is a pretty story about a swallow which built its nest for its +young ("idoj") on the king's tent. 2. The soldiers who were walking +along the steep path past the tent glanced at it, and caught sight +of (206) the bird. 3. Some of them burst into a laugh, and gestured +("svingis la brakon") toward the bird, to point it out to their +comrades. 4. The good-humored king put on a thick woolen overcoat, and +came out of his tent, to inquire why his soldiers were conversing so +noisily there. 5. The tent was an expensive one, and contained handsome +furniture, as well as ("kaj ankau") a bell which always rang as soon +as ("tuj kiam") one touched it. 6. The king immediately noticed the +swallow's nest, and said with an amiable smile "Surely such a courageous +bird is a worthy (154) guest for a king." 7. The warriors (172) cared +for the swallow as much as possible during the course of the war. 8. +When the victors departed, they left that tent there. 9. Finally the +wind upset it, and it fell to the ground. 10. The young swallows already +could fly, by ("je") that time. 11. The battleground is covered with +bullets, piles of human bones, and similar melancholy signs of war. 12. +War (201) is wicked and shameful (154). 13. Why do kings and princes +wish to make war upon each other (180)? 14. When their sons have gone +away to (make) war, the mothers of the soldiers are very uneasy. 15. +Perhaps those sons will be prisoners of war. + + + + LESSON XLIV. + + + THE INDEFINITE ADJECTIVE. + +208. The indefinite adjective, related to the indefinite pronoun "iu", +is "ia", of any kind, some kind of, a certain kind of, expressing +indefinitely the quality of a person or thing: + + Estas ia birdo sur tiu arbo, + there is a bird of some sort on that tree. + Mi vidis iajn ostojn sur la tero, + I saw some kind of bones on the ground. + Estas ia homo en tiu tendo, + there is some sort of human being in that tent. + + + THE INDEFINITE ADVERB OF PLACE. + +209. The indefinite adverb of place, related to the indefinite pronoun +"iu", is "ie", anywhere, somewhere, in (at) a certain place. If the +verb in the sentence expresses motion toward the place indicated by +"ie", the ending "-n" is added (121): + + Ie en tiu arbaro estas leono, + somewhere in that forest is a lion. + Ie malantaux la soldatoj vi trovos amason da kugloj, + somewhere behind the soldiers you will find a heap of bullets. + La hirundo flugis ien, + the swallow flew somewhere (in some direction). + Mi iros ien, sed mi ankoraux ne scias kien, + I am going somewhere, but I do not yet know where. + + + PREDICATE NOMINATIVES. + +210. An adjective may stand in predicate relation to the direct object +of a transitive verb, as well as to the subject of an intransitive verb +(19). Such a predicate adjective, agreeing in number (21) with the +object of the verb, but remaining in the nominative case, indicates the +result produced by the verb upon the object, or the condition, quality +or temporary state in which this object is found: + + Li faris la mondon felicxa, + he made the world happy (made-happy the world). + Mi lasis la knabon trankvila, I left the boy calm (undisturbed). + Mi trovis la truon jam farita, I found the hole already made. + Mi lasis ilin bone punitaj, I left them well punished. + +[Footnote: Cf. the difference between the examples given and sentences +with the same words in an attributive (13) use: +Dio faris la mondon felicxan, + God made the happy world. +Mi lasis la knabon trankvilan, + I left the calm boy. +Mi trovis la jam faritan truon, + I found the already made hole. +Mi lasis ilin bone punitajn, + I left those who had been well punished.] + +211. A noun may be used similarly in predicate relation after a +transitive verb, as well as after an intransitive verb (20): + + Sxi nomis sian filinon Mario, she named her daughter Mary. + Oni elektis tiun reprezentanto, + they elected that one representative. + Mi vidos lin venkinto, I shall see him a conqueror. + Mi trovis lin sxtelisto, I found him a thief. + +[Footnote: Cf. the examples given and the following sentences using the +same words in apposition (48) or attributive relation (13): +Sxi nomis sian filinon Marion, + she named (mentioned) her daughter Mary. +Oni elektis tiun reprezentanton, + they elected that representative.] + + + VOCABULARY + + anonc-i = to announce. pasxt-i = to feed (flocks, etc.). + ia = some kind of (208). plend-i = to complain. + ie = somewhere (209). proces-o = legal process. + just-a = upright, just. rajt-o = right, privilege. + klar-a = distinct, clear. ripar-i = to mend, to repair. + kresk-i = to grow. sufer-i = to suffer. + oportun-a = convenient. sxnur-o = string. + + + LA CXEVALO KAJ LA SONORILO. + +Unufoje en malgranda urbeto ("town") en Italujo, la regxo, kiun oni +estis nominta Johano, metis grandan sonorilon en la vendejon. Li anoncis +ke cxiu plendanto pri maljusteco havos la rajton alvoki ("to summon") +jugxiston per tiu sonorilo. Tiam la jugxisto faros proceson en la +jugxejo pro tiaj plendantoj. Oni multe uzis la sonorilon, laux la anonco +de la regxo, kaj multe da plendantoj ricevis justecon. Sammaniere, +granda nombro da maljustuloj estis punata per gxia helpo. Kiam okazis +ke iu homo montris sin maljusta al alia, cxi tiu anoncis la aferon per +la oportuna sonorilo. Kiam iu faris la edzinon malfelicxa, la sonorilo +tuj sonoris por anonci sxiajn suferojn, kaj por alvoki la jugxiston. +Fine, oni tiom uzis la sonorilon justecan, ke la sxnurego ("rope") +estis tute eluzita, kaj gxia lasta uzinto okaze forrompis gxin. Sed +iu preterpasinto vidis la duonon de la sxnurego kusxanta sur la tero, +kaj riparis gxin per kelkaj brancxetoj de apuda arbo. Li pensis en si +"Iu plendonto nun trovos gxin preta por esti uzata." Rimarkinde, la +brancxetoj ne velkis, sed restis verdaj, kaj kreskis kiel antauxe. + +En la sama urbo logxis ricxulo kiu estis forvendinta preskaux cxiom de +siaj domoj, cxevaloj, cxevaletoj, cxevalidoj, hundoj kaj multekostaj +vestoj, cxar en sia maljuneco li amis nur la monon, kaj tiun li amegis. +Li ankoraux posedis nur unu maljunan cxevalon, kaj fine li forsendis +ecx tiun, por sin pasxti laux la vojo. En la dauxro de la tago, la +cxevalo ekrimarkis la brancxetojn kreskantajn sur la sxnurego de la +sonorilo. Tuj gxi kaptis la brancxetojn, por mangxi ilin, kaj tuj la +jugxisto auxdis la sonorilon klare sonoranta. Li rapidis al la vendejo, +kaj lauxte ekridis kiam li vidis ies cxevalon tie. Li decidis puni +la ricxulon cxar tiu cxi ne donis suficxe por mangxi al la maljuna +militcxevalo. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. The horse caught sight of the twigs with which a passer-by had mended +the bellrope. 2. Because it wished to eat the green leaves, it seized +the rope, and the bell immediately rang loudly and clearly. 3. The horse +almost upset the poles which supported (160) the roof over the bell +of-justice. 4. Any one (173) had the right to use this bell, to announce +any kind of injustice. 5. The judge burst into a laugh as soon as he saw +that sort of plaintiff standing there. 6. More often he saw human beings +as plaintiffs, instead of animals. 7. When a laborer showed himself +unkind to his wife and children, they could announce their sufferings by +means of the convenient bell. 8. People called it the bell of justice. +9. According to everyone's opinion, it is the duty of a just judge +to punish evildoers and unjust persons. 10. He decided that he would +institute proceedings ("faros proceson") against the owner (205) of the +horse. 11. The man had driven away the horse, and it was grazing ("sin +pasxtanta") along the road. 12. It was some one's duty to give some sort +of home to his horse. 13. The judge said, "I will find out whose horse +that poor beast is, and will put a mark opposite the name of that man. +I will not leave him alone ("trankvila"), but will show myself very +severe." + + + + LESSON XLV. + + + THE INDEFINITE TEMPORAL ADVERB. + +212. The indefinite temporal adverb, related to the indefinite pronoun +"iu", is "iam", sometime, any time, ever, once upon a time: + + Iam mi rakontos la aferon al vi, + sometime I will tell you the affair. + Regxo iam logxis tie, + a king once (upon a time) dwelt there. + Cxu vi iam faris proceson kontraux li? + Did you ever go to law against him? + + + THE INDEFINITE ADVERB "IAL". + +213. The indefinite adverb of motive or reason, related to the +indefinite pronoun "iu", is "ial", for any reason, for some reason, +for certain reasons: + + Ial li ne riparis la tendon, + for some reason he did not repair the tent. + Cxu vi opinias ke ial li maljuste suferas? + Do you think that for any reason he is suffering unjustly? + + + CAUSATIVE VERBS. + +214. The suffix "-ig-" is used to form verbs indicating the "causing, +rendering or bringing about" of that which is expressed in the root or +formation to which it is attached. Verbs containing the suffix "-ig-" +are called "causative verbs" and are always transitive (22). + +a. Causative verbs from adjectival roots indicate that the quality or +condition expressed in the root is produced in the object of the verb: + + dolcxigi, to sweeten, to assuage (from "dolcxa", sweet). + moligi, to soften (from "mola", soft). + plilongigi, to lengthen, to make longer (from "pli longa", longer). + faciligi, to facilitate (from "facila", easy). + beligi, to beautify (from "bela", beautiful). + +[Footnote: The meaning often resembles that of the predicate nominative +(210), as: +Li faris la mondon gxoja, + he made the world glad. +Li gxojigis la mondon, + he gladdened the world.] + +b. Causative verbs from verbal roots indicate that the action expressed +in the root is made to take place: + + dormigi, to put to sleep (from dormi, to sleep). + konigi, to make acquainted with (from koni, to know). + mirigi, to astonish (from miri, to wonder). + mortigi, to kill (from morti, to die). + + +c. Causative verbs may be formed from noun-roots, prepositions, adverbs, +prefixes and suffixes whose meaning permits: + + amasigi, to amass, to heap up (from amaso, pile). + kunigi, to unite, to bring together (from kun, with). + forigi, to do away with (from for, away). + ebligi, to render possible (-ebl-, 161). + + + EMPHASIS BY MEANS OF "JA". + +215. The emphatic form of the verb, expressed in English by "do", "did", +as in "I do study", "I did find it", "Do tell me", and by adverbs such +as "certainly", "indeed", etc., is expressed in Esperanto by placing the +adverb "ja", indeed, before the verb: + + Vi ja mirigas min! You do astonish me! + Li ja estas justa jugxisto, he is indeed an upright judge. + Li ja havis tiun rajton, he did have that right. + + + VOCABULARY + + akompan-i = to accompany. indiferent-a = indifferent. + dangxer-o = danger. ja = indeed (215). + gvid-i = to guide. kred-i = to believe. + ial = for some reason (213). salt-i = to leap, to jump. + iam = sometimes (212). tir-i = to draw, to pull. + +[Cf. the difference in meaning and use between "esti indiferenta", to be +indifferent, and "ne esti zorga", not to be careful, both of which may +be translated "not to care for": +Li estas indiferenta al la libro, + he does not care about (is indifferent to) the book. +Li ne zorgas pri la libro, + he does not care for (take care of) the book. +Estas indiferente al mi cxu li venos, aux ne, + I do not care whether he is coming or not.] + + + CXE LA MALNOVA PONTO. + +Iam logxis en nia urbeto junulo kiu havis afablan pli junan fratinon. +Unu tagon en la dauxro de la bela printempa vetero la junulo invitis +la fratinon veturi ien en veturilo tirata de du cxevaloj. La invito +gxojigis la knabinon, kaj sxi respondis ke sxi kun plezuro akompanos +la fraton. Tuj sxi pretigis sin por iri, kaj ili ekveturis. Ili pasis +preter pitoreskaj kampoj kaj arbaretoj, kaj fine alvenis al ponto trans +la rivero. Ili kredis gxin malnova kaj ne tre forta, kaj ial la junulino +estis treege timigita ("frightened"). "Ho, kara frato," sxi ekkriis, +kun eksalteto pro timo, "tiu ponto ja estas dangxera! Mi deziras marsxi +trans gxin, cxar iam la pezeco de unu persono estos tiom tro multe +por veturilo sur malforta ponto!" Sed la timemaj petoj de lia fratino +sxajne kolerigis la junulon, kaj li respondis malafable, "Nu, vi ja +mirigas min! Vi montras vin tre malsagxa, cxar la konstruintoj de tiu +ponto certe faris gxin suficxe forta por tia veturilo kia la nia. Ne +estos necese eksalti de gxi, kaj piede transiri la ponton." Tiamaniere +li penis trankviligi la kompatindan knabinon, sed tiaj vortoj nur +silentigis sxin, kaj sxi komencis mallauxte ploreti. Tamen la frato +montris sin indiferenta al sxiaj timemaj sentoj, kaj tute malatentis +sxiajn larmojn. Li gvidis la cxevalojn rekte trans la ponton, dum la +fratino atendis la bruegon de rompigita ligno, kaj imagis ke sxi estas +tuj mortigota. Tamen, la ponto estis tiel forta kiel la junulo estis +klariginta, kaj tute ne estis dangxera. Sed pro la malafableco de la +frato al la fratino, ili tute ne agrable pasigis la ceterajn horojn de +la posttagmezo, malgraux la beleco de la vetero kaj de la kamparo. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Somewhere in that same town, there lived another youth, who also had +an amiable sister. 2. One convenient day, she accompanied him for a +ride in a vehicle drawn by a fast horse. 3. When they reached ("alvenis +al") the bridge, this girl also was frightened for some reason, the +same as the girl in the other story. 4. She said "I do not intend to +complain, but the carriage will certainly be too heavy while we are +in it. I am afraid that that bridge is dangerous, so I will jump out +and walk. I will also pick ("kolektos") some sort of flowers, among +the flowers growing there, near where someone's horses are grazing. +I will not delay ("atendigi") you long." He replied, "That bridge is +entirely safe ("nedangxera") but instead of explaining ("making-clear") +to you about it, I will lead the horse across the bridge, while you +walk across, for I am not indifferent to your fear." Then he helped his +sister get out ("eliri") of the carriage, and guided the horse across. +Then he said with a pleasant smile, "It was not necessary to cross on +foot." She replied, "No, but you showed yourself a courteous brother, +and were very patient." Then they rode on ("antauxen"), and talked to +each other very amiably. + + + + LESSON XLVI. + + + THE INDEFINITE ADVERB "IEL". + +216. The indefinite adverb of manner, related to the indefinite pronoun +"iu", is "iel", somehow, in any way, in some (any) manner: + + Mi penis vin iel gvidi tien, + I tried somehow to guide you thither. + Iel ni anoncos la decidon, + we shall announce the decision in some way. + + + THE INDEFINITE ADVERB "IOM". + +217. The indefinite adverb of quantity, related to the indefinite +pronoun "iu", is "iom", some, any quantity, a certain amount: + + Cxu vi havas iom da tempo? Have you some time? + Sxi varmigos iom da akvo, she will heat some water. + Tiu metodo estas iomete dangxera, + that way is a little dangerous (198). + La sxnuro estas iom tro longa, the string is somewhat too long. + + + THE SUFFIX "-AD-". + +218. The suffix "-ad-" is used to form words indicating that the action +expressed in the root is continuous, habitual or repeated. + +a. Verbs formed with the suffix "-ad-" are called "frequentative +verbs", and may often be translated by the root meaning, preceded by +"keep (on)", "used to", etc.: + + frapadi, to keep knocking, to knock repeatedly. + rigardadi, to keep on looking, to gaze. + vizitadi, to keep visiting, visit repeatedly, frequent, haunt. + Antaux du jaroj sxi tre dolcxe kantadis, + two years ago she used to sing very sweetly. + +b. Nouns formed with the suffix "-ad-" are often equivalent to English +verbal nouns ending in "-ing", and (with the generic article, 201) may +replace the infinitive as subject (130) and sometimes as object (29): + + kriado, crying, shouting (from krio, cry, shout). + movado, motion, movement in general (from movo, a movement). + pafado, shooting, fusillade (from pafo, a shot). + parolado, a speech, address (from parolo, a word spoken). + pensado, thought, contemplation (from penso, a thought). + La promenado donas plezuron, the taking of walks gives pleasure. + Mi preferas la legadon de tiaj libroj, + I prefer the reading of (to read) such books. + + + THE USE OF "MEM". + +219. The invariable pronoun "mem", self, selves, is intensive, and lays +stress upon the substantive which immediately precedes it, or which it +obviously modifies. (The combination of "mem" with personal pronouns +must not be confused with reflexive pronouns, 39, 40): + + Mi mem akompanos vin, I myself shall accompany you. + La gvidisto mem perdis la vojon, the guide himself lost the way. + Mi kredos al la viro mem, I shall give credence to the man himself. + La viroj mem defendis sin, the men themselves defended themselves. + Gxi pendas sur la muro mem, + it hangs on the very wall (the wall itself). + Sxi venis mem por vidi vin, she came herself to see you. + Mi ekvidis la sxteliston mem, + I caught a glimpse of the thief himself. + + + VOCABULARY + + Arhximed-o = Archimedes. jxet-i = to throw, to cast. + ban-i = to bathe (trans.). kompren-i = to understand. + fals-i = to debase, to forge. kron-o = crown. + Hieron-o = Hiero. lev-i = to lift, to raise. + honest-a = honest. lok-o = place. + ide-o = idea. mem = self, selves (219). + iel = somehow (216). or-o = gold. + iom = some (217). Sikeli-o = Sicily. + + + ARHXIMEDO KAJ LA KRONOJ. + +Iam bonekonata regxo, nomita Hierono, vivadis en granda urbo en Sikelio, +kiu estas sudokcidenta de Italujo. Li suspektis ke iam la kronfaristoj, +kiuj fabrikadis kronojn por li, ne uzis cxiom de la oro donita al ili de +la regxo, sed falsadis gxin per la uzado de iu alia materialo. Tamen, +Hierono ne povis per si mem eltrovi cxu oni falsadas la oron. Tial li +venigis grekan klerulon, kies nomo estis Arhximedo, kaj rakontis al +li sian timon pri la falsita oro. Arhximedo certigis lin ke iel li ja +eltrovos pri la falsado, kaj helpos la regxon kontraux la falsintoj, +kiuj estis tiel indiferentaj al la honesteco. Cxiutage li multe pensadis +pri la afero, sed ju pli longe li pensadis, des malpli sukcesaj estis +liaj penoj, gxis iu tago, kiam li okaze faris interesan eltrovon. Li +estis jxus baninta sin, kaj subite ekrimarkis ke dum li mem restis en la +akvo, ial sxajnis esti iomete pli multe da akvo en la banujo ol antauxe. +Tuj li komprenis ke lia korpo estas forpusxinta iom de la akvo el gxia +loko. Li komprenis ke tiom da akvo estas elpusxita, kiom antauxe estis +en tiu loko kie li mem estas. Tia levado de la akvo per lia korpo donis +al li sagxan ideon, kaj li prenis en la mano du aux tri orajn kronojn. +Li jxetis ilin unu post la alia en la banujon, kaj zorge rimarkis al kiu +alteco cxiu el ili levis la akvon. Tiam li eltiris ilin, kaj enmetis la +kronon pri kiu Hierono estis plej suspektema. Li rimarkis ke cxi tiu ne +tiel alten levis la akvon, tial li estis certa ke la oro en gxi estas +multe falsita. Oni diras ke kiam li eltrovis cxi tiun metodon por montri +la falsadon de la malhonestaj kronfaristoj, li eksaltetis pro gxojo kaj +ekkriis "euxreka," kiu estas la greka vorto por "mi estas trovinta." +Tiun saman vorton oni ankoraux nun uzadas en la angla lingvo. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Several centuries ago, a rich and powerful ("multepova") king, +named Hiero, lived in Sicily. 2. Sometimes he was suspicious about the +crown-makers who wrought ("faris") crowns for him, out of the gold which +he himself gave them. 3. He wondered whether these men were honest. 4. +He suspected that perhaps ("eble") they did not use all of the gold +which was given them, but kept some of it for themselves. 5. He could +not of himself ("per si mem") discover whether they were debasing the +gold in his crowns, so he summoned a wise man from ("el") Greece. 6. To +this well-informed man, whose name was Archimedes, he made clear his +fears. 7. Archimedes assured the king that he would find out somehow +about the matter. 8. He meditated several hours every day, and tried to +discover a satisfactory ("kontentiga") method, but for some reason he +did not succeed. 9. One day, however, when he was bathing (himself), he +noticed that there seemed to be a little more water in the bathtub when +he himself was in it, than before. 10. The rising of the water gave him +an idea. 11. He threw the crowns one after another into the water, and +noticed how much water each displaced. 12. In this manner ("tiamaniere") +he understood how much each had been alloyed by the local ("lokaj") +crown-makers, whom Hiero soon threw into prison ("la malliberejon"). + + + + LESSON XLVII. + + + THE NEGATIVE PRONOUN. + +220. The negative pronoun (and pronominal adjective) is "neniu", no one, +nobody, no (formed of "ne" and "iu", with a medial "n" inserted for the +sake of euphony): + + Neniu el vi komprenas min, no one of you understands me. + Mi trovis neniun preta por iri, I found nobody ready to go. + Li havis neniun honestan serviston, he had no honest servant. + +221. The negative pronoun "neniu" has a possessive or genitive form, +"nenies", nobody's, no one's: + + Cxies afero estas nenies afero, + everybody's affair is nobody's affair. + Li lauxdos nenies ideojn, + he will praise no one's ideas. + + + THE ADVERBIAL PARTICIPLE. + +222. A participle may be equivalent not only to a clause describing or +determining the substantive modified, as in "la parolanta viro", the +man who-is-talking, "la sendota knabo", the boy who-will-be-sent, but +also to an "adverbial" clause. + +[Footnote: An adverbial clause modifies a verb, as in "dum vi atendis, +li foriris", while you waited, he went away; "cxar mi gxojis, mi ridis", +because I was happy, I laughed.] + +Such a participle has for its subject the subject of the verb in the +sentence (though not in attributive or predicate relation with it), and +indicates some relation of time, cause, manner, situation, etc., between +the action of the participle and that of the main verb in the sentence. +An adverbial participle is given the ending "-e": + + Gxojante, mi ridis, + rejoicing, I laughed. + Forironte, ni adiauxis lin, + being about to depart, we bade him farewell. + Baninte la infaneton, sxi dormigis gxin, + after bathing (having bathed) the baby, she put it to sleep. + Estante ruzaj, ili falsis la oron, + being sly, they debased the gold. + Tiel helpate de vi, mi sukcesos, + thus helped by you, I shall succeed. + Silentigite de li, ili ne plendis, + (having been) silenced by him, they did not complain. + Punote, li ekkriis, + being about to be punished, he gave a cry. + Ne parolinte, li foriris, + without speaking (not having spoken), he left. + Li venis, ne vokite, + he came without being (came not-having-been) called. + +[Footnote: The adverbial participle must not be used in rendering the +English "nominative absolute" construction of a participial clause +referring to something else than the subject. In such a sentence a +clause must be used: "The youth being young, everyone watched him", cxar +la junulo estis juna, cxiu rigardadis lin; "the work being finished, he +went away", kiam la lahoro estis finita, li foriris.] + + + THE PREFIX "RE-". + +223. The prefix "re-" indicates the repetition of an action or state, or +the "return" of a person or thing to its original place or state. (Cf. +English prefix "re-"; meaning either "again" or "back.") + + rekapti = to recapture. rebrili = to shine back, to reflect. + renovigi = to renew. reteni = to hold back, to retain. + rekoni = to recognize. reveni = to come back, to return. + gxis la revido = au revoir. reiri = to go back, to return. + ree = again, anew. rejxeti = to throw back, to reject. + + + VOCABULARY + + brul-i = to be in flames, to burn. masxin-o = machine. + cilindr-o = cylinder. nenies = nobody's (221). + detru-i = to destroy. neniu = no one (220). + fam-a = famous. problem-o = problem. + filozof-o = philosopher. Sirakuz-o = Syracuse. + fizik-o = physics. spegul-o = mirror. + insul-o = island. sxrauxb-o = screw. + + + LA FILOZOFO ARHXIMEDO. + +Eble neniu greka klerulo estis pli fama ol la filozofo Arhximedo. Longe +studadinte la problemojn de la geometrio kaj de la fiziko, li faris +multe da eltrovoj. Li tiel multe komprenis pri la uzado de la levilo +("lever") ke oni rakontas la sekvantan rakonteton pri li: Li diris al +la regxo Hierono "Kiam oni donos al mi lokon sur kiu mi povos stari, mi +mem ekmovos la mondon per mia levilo!" Zorge ekzameninte la ecojn (202) +de la sxrauxbo kaj de la cilindro, li elpensis diversajn masxinojn en +kiuj sxrauxboj kaj cilindroj estas iamaniere kunigitaj. Uzante unu el +tiuj masxinoj, oni povis facile pusxi al la akvo la sxipojn (necese +konstruitajn sur la tero); kiujn antauxe la viroj mem enpusxis en la +akvon, kun multe da laboro, aux tiris tien per cxevaloj. Uzante alian +masxinon elpensitan de tiu greko, oni povis levi akvon de unu loko al +alia. Ankoraux nun oni nomas tian masxinon la "sxrauxbo de Arhximedo." +En la dauxro de granda militado kontraux la urbo Sirakuzo, sur la +insulo Sikelio, Arhximedo elpensis diversajn masxinojn por helpi la +Sirakuzanojn. Vidinte ke la sunlumo rebrilas de spegulo, li faris el +speguloj masxinon per kiu li ekbruligis ("set on fire") la sxipojn de +la malamikoj. Cxi tiuj, ne komprenante kiamaniere* la sxipoj ekbrulis, +estis multe timigitaj. Sed ecx helpite de Arhximedo la Sirakuzanoj ne +venkis. Post iom da tempo, la malamikoj kaptis kaj tute detruis la urbon +Sirakuzon. Nenies domo restis netusxita, kaj centoj da personoj estis +mortigataj. Oni ne scias per kia morto Arhximedo mortis, sed eble la +malamikoj, iel rekoninte la elpensinton de la spegulmasxino, jxetis lin +en la maron aux alimaniere lin mortigis. + +[Footnote: The use of "kiamaniere" (in what manner, how) is preferable +to that of "kiel" in indirect questions, as the latter might be confused +with the use of "kiel", meaning "as" (156).] + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. The Greek philosopher Archimedes was not only famous long ago, among +his contemporaries (167, b, 132), but even today his name is well known +everywhere. 2. No one's knowledge about the problems of geometry and +physics was greater. 3. No one understood better the properties of the +cylinder and the screw. 4. Having studied these properties a long time, +and having meditated a great deal about them, he understood them a +little (217) better than any one else ("iu alia"). 5. The story about +the debasing of the gold crowns has already been told. 6. There is +another anecdote, namely ("nome"), that he remarked to Hiero, king of +Syracuse, that with a lever he would move the world, as soon as he +had a place on which he himself could stand. 7. Having discovered how +("kiamaniere") the sunlight is reflected by a mirror, and heats the +wood upon which it shines, he invented a machine made out of mirrors. +8. Aided by this machine, the Syracusans were able to set on fire the +wooden ships of the enemy. 9. The enemy, however, were not repulsed +from the island, but at once rebuilt and repaired their ships, and sent +them back to attack the city again. 10. Finally, having captured the +city, they destroyed it, and killed a large number of the inhabitants +("logxantoj"), also Archimedes himself. + + + + LESSON XLVIII. + + + THE NEGATIVE ADJECTIVE. + +224. The negative adjective, related to the negative pronoun "neniu," is +"nenia", no kind of, no sort of, expressing a negative idea concerning +the quality of a person or thing: + + Mi havas nenian spegulon, I have no sort of mirror. + Nenia problemo estas tro malfacila por li, + no sort of problem is too difficult for him. + + + THE NEGATIVE ADVERB OF PLACE. + +225. The negative adverb of place is "nenie", nowhere. The ending "-n" +may be added, as to other adverbs (121), to indicate direction: + + Nenie estas pli bona masxino, nowhere is there a better machine. + Mi iros nenien morgaux, I shall go nowhere tomorrow. + + + THE NEGATIVE TEMPORAL ADVERB. + +226. The negative adverb of time is "neniam", never, at no time: + + Neniam vivis pli fama filozofo, + there never lived a more famous philosopher. + Vi neniam trovos tiajn sxrauxbojn aux cilindrojn, + you will never find that kind of screws or cylinders. + + + THE SUFFIX "-AJX-". + +227. The suffix "-ajx-" is used to form "concrete" words. It is thus in +contrast to the abstract-forming suffix "-ec-" (202). + + +a. A word formed from a verbal root by means of the suffix "-ajx-" +expresses a concrete example of "a thing which undergoes" (or, in the +case of intransitives, "results from") the action indicated in the root: + + konstruajxo = a building. kreskajxo = a plant, a growth. + sendajxo = consignment, thing sent. rebrilajxo = a reflection. + mangxajxo = food. restajxo = remainder. + +b. A word formed from an adjectival root or formation by means of the +suffix "-ajx-" indicates "a thing characterized by" or "possessing the +quality" expressed in the root or formation to which it is attached: + + belajxo = a thing of beauty. mirindajxo = a marvel. + maljustajxo = an injustice. okazintajxo = an occurrence. + +c. A word formed from a noun-root by means of the suffix "-ajx-" +indicates "a thing made" or "derived from" that which is expressed in +the root: + + sukerajxo = a sweet, confection. orajxo = a gold object. + ovajxo = an omelet. araneajxo = a spider-web. + + + THE ADVERB "JEN". + +228. The adverb "jen", behold, here, there, is used to point out or +call attention to something: + + Jen estas la problemo! There is the problem! + Jen la filozofo! Behold the philosopher! + Jen sxi ludas, jen sxi studas, now she plays, now she studies. + Mi faris gxin jene, I did it as follows. + Mi agis laux la jena metodo, I acted in the following way. + Li diris la jenajn vortojn, he spoke the following words. + + + VOCABULARY + + arangx-i = to arrange. neniam = never (226). + art-o = art. nenie = nowhere (225). + ber-o = berry. pentr-i = to paint. + jen = there, behold (228). postul-i = to demand. + jxaluz-a = jealous. precip-a = principal, chief. + konkurs-o = competition. regul-o = rule. + lert-a = skilled, clever. tromp-i = to deceive. + nenia = no kind of (224). vin-o = wine. + + + DU ARTKONKURSOJ. + +Vivadis en Grekujo antaux multaj jarcentoj du lertaj famaj pentristoj. +Ili estis reciproke jxaluzaj, kaj neniam povis interparoli paceme. +Ne povinte decidi la problemon, kaj eltrovi kiu el ili estas la plej +lerta, ili fine arangxis konkurson pri la pentrado. Laux gxiaj reguloj, +cxiu el ili pentris pentrajxon, por montri sian lertecon. Unu pentris +teleron da vinberoj ("grapes"). Gxi estis tiel mirinde kolorigita ke ecx +la birdoj venis kaj penis gxin mangxi, pensinte gxin ne nur pentrajxo, +sed la vinberoj mem. "Nenia pentrajxo povos superi la mian," gxojege +ekkriis la pentristo, "jen, la birdoj mem rekonas mian lertecon!" Tiam +li diris al la alia artisto, "Nu, kial vi ne fortiras tiun kurtenon? +Mi volas rigardi vian pentrajxon." La dua pentristo respondis kun +rideto, "Jen estas mia pentrajxo. Nenie apud vi estas kurteno, sed vi +vidas nur pentrajxon de kurteno antaux tiu konstruajxo." Tre mirigite, +la pentrinto de la vinberoj diris "Vi ja superas min en la pentrado. +Mi trompis la birdojn per mia pentrajxo, sed vi trompas ecx aliajn +artistojn! Tia lerteco estas ja mirindajxo!" + +Oni rakontas similan okazintajxon pri fama artisto kiu pentris multe +da pentrajxoj por Aleksandro Granda. Malgajninte en konkurso kontraux +iuj aliaj artistoj, li opiniis ke la jugxintoj estas maljustaj al +li, precipe pro la jxaluzeco. Li ekkriis "Cxar niaj pentrajxoj estas +bildoj de cxevaloj, ili certe postulas cxevalajn jugxantojn!" Tial oni +enkondukis du aux tri cxevalojn. La cxevaloj, tute ne rigardinte la +pentrajxojn de la aliaj artistoj, kuris rekte al tiu de la plendinta +artisto, kaj klare montris sian rekonadon de la tie pentritaj cxevaloj. +Surprizite, oni diris "Jen estas justaj jugxantoj!" Tuj oni lauxdis la +pentriston kaj severe punis la malhonestajn homajn jugxintojn. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION + +1. Syracuse was the largest city on the island of Sicily. 2. The famous +philosopher and physicist Archimedes lost his life when that city was +destroyed and entirely burned. 3. At least, no sort of trace of him +seems to have been found after that occurrence. 4. Never, perhaps, was +there a more learned man in Syracuse. 5. Greece was also famous for +its skilled painters, and there are many anecdotes about them. 6. A +painter who failed in a certain competition believed that none of the +judges had been just to him. 7. He exclaimed "Behold this iniquity +(injustice)! Nowhere can I find a human being who is not jealous. 8. +Since the paintings are chiefly of horses, do they not require horses +for judges?" 9. His proposal was accepted (54), and some horses were led +in. 10. Without noticing (222) the other paintings, the horses walked +at once to the picture of the unsuccessful artist, and showed immediate +recognition of the horses painted there. 11. This act showed which +competitor ("konkursinto") was the most skilful. 12. The painter, having +deceived the horses, as another artist had once deceived birds by a +picture of grapes, said "Animals decide not by rules, but by feelings." + + + + LESSON XLIX. + + + THE NEGATIVE ADVERBS "NENIAL", "NENIEL", "NENIOM". + +229. The negative adverb of motive or reason, related to the negative +pronoun "neniu", is "nenial", for no reason: + + Li estas nenial jxaluza, he is jealous for no reason. + Nenial li trompis vin, for no reason he deceived you. + +230. The negative adverb of manner is "neniel", in no way. + + Mi povos neniel arangxi konkurson, + I can in no way arrange a competition. + Tiu ago estas neniel lauxregula, + That act is in no way regular. + +231. The negative adverb of quantity is "neniom", no amount of, not +any, none, no: + + Tiu pentrajxo postulas neniom da lerteco, + such a painting requires no skill. + Estas neniom da vino en lia glaso, + there is no wine in his glass. + + + THE SUFFIX "-IGX-". + +232. The suffix "-igx-" is used to form intransitive verbs of an +"inchoative" nature. + +a. Inchoative verbs from the roots of "intransitive verbs" indicate +the "beginning" or "coming into existence" of the act or condition +expressed in the root: + + sidigxi, to become sitting, to sit down, to take a seat. + starigxi, to become standing, to stand up. + +b. Intransitive verbs may be similarly formed from the roots of +"transitive" verbs, and indicate an action of the verb not immediately +due to the subject's acting upon itself (as in the case of reflexive +verbs, 41) and not caused by any direct agency (as in the case of the +passive voice, 169): + + La pordo fermigxas, the door closes (goes shut). + La veturilo movigxas, the vehicle moves. + La brancxo rompigxas, the branch breaks. + Grupo da personoj kolektigxis, a group of persons gathered. + +[Footnote: Cf. the examples given and the following sentences in which +the same verbal roots are used in the simple form and in the passive +voice: + + Ni fermas la pordon, La pordo estas fermita, + we close the door. the door is (has been) closed. + + Oni movas la veturilon, La veturilo estas movata, + they move the vehicle. the vehicle is being moved. + + Mi rompas la brancxon, La brancxo estas rompita, + I break the branch. the branch is (has been) broken. + + Li kolektis florojn, Floroj estas kolektitaj, + he gathered flowers. flowers have been gathered.] + +c. Intransitive verbs may similarly be formed from "adjectival" roots, +and indicate the acquiring of the characteristic or quality expressed in +the root: + + lacigxi, to become tired, to get tired. + varmigxi, to become warm, to get warm. + maljunigxi, to become old, to age. + +d. Verbs may similarly be formed from noun-roots, adverbs, +prepositions, prefixes and suffixes whose meaning permits: + + amikigxi, to become a friend. kunigxi, to become joined. + forigxi, to go away, to disappear. ebligxi, to become possible. + + + VOCABULARY + + apenaux = hardly, scarcely. nenial = for no reason (229). + atmosfer-o = atmosphere. neniel = in no way (230). + dub-i = to doubt. neniom = none, no (231). + efektiv-a = effective, real. ombr-o = shadow. + hel-a = clear, bright. pejzagx-o = landscape. + horizont-o = horizon. radi-o = ray. + krepusk-o = twilight. tropik-a = tropical. + + + LA KREPUSKO. + +Estas tre agrable sidigxi sur la herbon, kaj rigardi la plilongigxantajn +ombrojn, en la dauxro de bela somera vespero. La suno grade mallevigxas +post la montetoj, la nuboj farigxas ("become") bele kolorigitaj, kaj la +tuta pejzagxo pli kaj pli beligxas. Malrapide la krepusko anstatauxas la +helan sunlumon, kaj fine cxie noktigxas. La krepusko estas la rebrilado +de la sunlumo tra la atmosfero, post la mallevigxo de la suno mem, laux +la jena maniero: la radioj suprenbriladas, en la aeron super niaj kapoj, +en la okcidenta parto de la cxielo. De tie ili rebriladas tiamaniere ke +la cxielo lumigxas. Kiam estas iom da nuboj sur la cxielo okcidenta, +la sunradioj briladas rekte kontraux ilin, belege kolorigante tiujn +nubojn. En tropikaj landoj la krepuskigxo okazas tre rapide. Gxi ne +nur komencigxas subite, sed ankaux dauxras tre mallongan tempon. La +noktigxo preskaux tuj sekvas la taglumon, kun rimarkinda subiteco. +Apenaux komencigxas la krepusko, kiam la subiranta suno sxajnas fali +preter la horizonto. Tute male ("quite on the contrary"), en landoj +treege nordaj, krepuskigxas tre frue en la tago, kaj la krepusko dauxras +longan tempon antaux ol la nokto venas. Efektive ("really"), en tiuj +landoj la krepusko tute anstatauxas la nokton, dum ses monatoj de la +jaro. Tie oni havas krepuskon dum la unua duonjaro, kaj la taglumon +dum la sekvinta duonjaro. Krepusko dauxranta tiom da tempo estas tiel +rimarkinda kiel tago de tia sama longeco. Mi dubas cxu tia dividado +de la tempo inter tago kaj malhela nokto estas agrabla, sed oni povas +neniel malhelpi gxin. Cxiu tre norda lando havas la saman travivajxon +("experience"), cxiujare, kaj efektive oni apenaux rimarkas gxin. Pri +cxiu plendanto oni nur diras "Li estas nenial malkontenta." + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +of ("pri") the two painters who, being mutually (180) jealous, arranged +a competition. 2. One painted a cluster (126) of grapes, so excellently +that the birds flew to it. 3. The other deceived his rival (competitor) +himself, by a painting of a curtain. 4. The most famous artists, +however, often show their skill by painting (222) pictures of the +sunset, chiefly, I think, because of the brilliant colors. 5. In fact +("efektive"), I doubt whether there is a more beautiful sight (227, +b) than the sunset. 6. It is made by the bright rays of the sun, +which shine back through the atmosphere, long after the sun itself +has passed below the horizon. 7. The more moisture ("malsekajxo") +there is in the air, the more brilliant the colors are, and the more +beautiful the entire landscape becomes. 8. In tropical lands, night +falls very suddenly, and there is almost no sort of twilight. 9. In +fact, a twilight scarcely occurs there. 10. In the lands far north, on +the contrary, the twilight lasts six months, and the remainder of the +year is the day. 11. To dwell in such a land is surely a remarkable +experience. 12. It can in no way be understood by persons who have never +lived there. 13. Such things increase (make greater) my desire to visit +those northern lands. 14. For no reason, however, do I + + + + LESSON L. + + + THE PRONOUNS ENDING IN "-O". + +233. In contrast to the pronouns ending in "-u" ("tiu", "kiu", "cxiu", +"iu", "neniu"), a similar series ending in "-o" refers to an object, +fact or action not definitely specified (but never to a person), like +English "what, anything, something, nothing," etc. Because of their +somewhat vague meaning, these pronouns do not occur in the plural, nor +are they ever used as pronominal adjectives: + +Demonstrative: tio = that (thing, fact or action). + cxi tio = this (thing, fact or action). + +Interrogative and Relative: kio = what. + +Distributive: cxio = everything. + cxio cxi = all this. + +Indefinite: io = anything, something. + +Negative: nenio = nothing. + +234. A pronoun (not personal) in predicate or relative relation to a +pronoun ending in "-o" must itself be of the same series: + + Kio estas cxi tio, kion vi diras? What is this, which you say? + Sxi vidis tion, kio jxus okazis, she saw that which just occurred. + Cxio cxi, kion vi vidas, estas farita de ili, + everything here (all this), which you see, was done by them. + Li havas ion por vi, sed nenion por mi, + he has something for you, but nothing for me. + + + CORRELATIVE WORDS. + +235. Pronouns, adjectives and adverbs, which are related to each other +as corresponding demonstratives, interrogatives, relatives, etc., are +called "correlatives". In Esperanto the correlative system is more +complete than in any other language, and may be summarized as follows: + + Demonstrative Interrogative Distributive Indefinite Negative + and Relative + + tio (233) kio (233) cxio (233) io (233) nenio (233) + that (thing) what, which everything anything nothing + + tiu (56) kiu (146) cxiu (173) iu (203) neniu (220) + that (one) who, which every, each any (one) no (one) + + ties (62) kies (147) cxies (174) ies (204) nenies(221) + that one's whose every one's any one's no one's + + tia (65) kia (150) cxia (177) ia (208) nenia (224) + that kind of what kind of every kind any kind no kind of + + tie (68) kie (151) cxie (182) ie (209) nenie (225) + there where everywhere anywhere nowhere + + tiam (73) kiam (155) cxiam (187) iam (212) neniam (226) + then when always any time never + + tial (78) kial (129) cxial (188) ial (213) nenial (229) + therefore, wherefore, for every for any for no + so why reason reason reason + + tiel (88), kiel (156) cxiel (193) iel (216) neniel (230) + (156) thus, so how, as every way any way in no way + + tiom (104) kiom (164) cxiom (194) iom (217) neniom (231) + that much, how much, all, the some, any none, no + so much as whole of amount quantity + + + THE USE OF "AJN". + +236. The word "ajn" may be placed after any interrogative-relative or +indefinite correlative word, to give a generalizing sense. In order +to avoid confusion with the accusative plural ending, "ajn" is "never +attached" to the correlative which it follows: + + kio ajn = whatever. kiam ajn = whenever. + kies ajn = whosesoever. kiom ajn = however much. + kie ajn = wherever. ia ajn = any kind whatever. + + + THE SUFFIX "-ING-". + +237. The suffix "-ing-" is used to form words indicating that which +holds "one" specimen of what is expressed in the root: + + glavingo = scabbard. plumingo = pen-holder. + lumingo = torch-holder. ingo = sheath, case, socket. + + + VOCABULARY + + cxio = everything (233). nenio = nothing (233). + Gordio = Gordius. ofer-o = offering. + io = anything (233). reg-i = to rule, to govern. + jug-o = yoke. sankt-a = sacred, holy. + klin-i = to bend, incline (trans). templ-o = temple. + kio = what (233). tio = that (thing) (233). + lig-i = to tie, to bind. util-a = useful. + + + LA GORDIA LIGAJXO. + +Unufoje en antikva tempo la regatoj de iu regxolando en Azio ne +havis regxon. Ne sciante kion fari, ili demandis de la dioj. La dioj +respondis, "Kiu ajn venos unue en nian sanktan templon hodiaux, por fari +oferojn, estos via regxo." Okaze kamparano nomita Gordio venis al la +templo, jxus post la tagigxo. La regatoj tuj rekonis la estontan regxon, +kvankam li veturis sur peza malbela veturilo. Salutinte la surprizitan +kamparanon, oni nomis lin regxo. Decidinte fari dankoferon al la dioj, +Gordio metis en la templon la veturilon mem sur kiu li tien veturis, +antaux ol li komencis regi kiel la nova regxo. La jugo estis alligita +("tied fast") per granda ligajxo el sxnurego. Post la morto de Gordio +oni grade komencis kredi ion tre interesan pri tio. Oni diris ke tiu, +kiu povos iel ajn malligi tiun ligajxon, farigxos reganto super cxiuj +regxoj de Azio. + +Post kelkaj jaroj Aleksandro Granda decidis fari grandan militadon +kontraux Azio, kaj alproksimigxis al la lando kie estis reginta Gordio. +Kiam li demandis, "Kio estas cxi tie la plej interesa vidindajxo?" +oni rakontis al li tion, kion oni diras pri la sxnurega ligajxo sur +la veturilo de Gordio. Kompreneble ("of course") Aleksandro deziris +fari ion ajn utilan por venki Azion, tial li tuj venigis gvidiston +por konduki lin al la templo. Alveninte tien, li zorge rigardadis la +ligajxon, kaj ekzamenis la sxnuregon el kiu gxi estis farita. Tiam, +elpreninte sian glavon el la glavingo, subite klinigxante li rekte +tratrancxis la tutan ligajxon. "Nenio estas pli facila ol tio," li +diris, "kaj nun mi ne dubas cxu mi certe regos super cxiuj regxoj de +Azio." Pro tio, kion faris Aleksandro Granda, oni ankoraux nuntempe +diras, kiam iu ajn superas malfacilajxon per kia ajn subita metodo, "Li +trancxis la gordian ligajxon." + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. One often hears the remark "I will cut the Gordian knot." 2. There +is an interesting story about this. 3. A wagon whose yoke was tied to +the pole by a large knot had been put in the middle of the temple. +4. It was a thank-offering to the sacred gods, by whose help Gordius +had in olden time become king. 5. It was said that whoever would be +able to untie that rope would no doubt become ruler over the whole of +Asia. 6. Alexander the Great, having begun a campaign against Asia, +approached the city where this temple was. 7. Having heard the story, +he at once had a guide come, and went thither, guided by him. 8. He +desired to do everything which was useful to the conquering of Asia. 9. +Having examined the knot carefully, he bent over and tried for a few +minutes to untie it. 10. Then he chose another method. 11. He seized +his sword, and suddenly cut through the whole knot. 12. Having done +this, he put the sword back into the scabbard. 13. This he did, instead +of continuing ("dauxrigi") his efforts to untie the knot. 14. In fact, +having no patience, he had become tired. 15. Perhaps the conquering +of Asia did not in any way become possible on account of this, but +at least the story is interesting, whatever actually ("efektive") +happened. 16. Nothing is impossible, whenever one tries enough. 17. In a +tropical country, such as part of Asia is, the landscapes are beautiful. +18. A tropical twilight is very short, however, and the shadows have +scarcely become long when the sun seems to sink suddenly below the +horizon, although the last bright rays continue to shine back through +the atmosphere for a few minutes. + + + + LESSON LI. + + + THE PRONOUN "AMBAUX". + +238. The pronoun (and pronominal adjective) "ambaux", both, indicates +two persons or things considered together. It is invariable in form: + + Ili ambaux venis al la templo, + they both came to the temple. + Ambaux faris oferojn al la dioj, + both made offerings to the gods. + Vidante kaj la plumon kaj la plumingon, mi prenis la ambaux, + seeing both the pen and the penholder, I took both. + +[Footnote: This pronoun must not be confused with the use of "kaj", +translated "both" in the combination "kaj ... kaj ...", "both ... and +..." (26).] + + + FORMATIONS WITH "-IG-" AND "-IGX-". + +239. Some verbs may be used in the simple form, and also with both the +suffix "-ig-" and the suffix "-igx-". Thus from one verb-root three +verbs of distinct meaning may be made, and the formation with "-ig-", +being transitive, may also be used in the passive: + + sidi = to sit, to be sitting. + sidigxi = to become sitting, to take a seat. + sidigi = to cause to sit, to seat. + esti sidigata = to be caused to sit. + silenti = to be silent. + silentigxi = to become silent. + silentigi = to cause to be silent, to silence. + esti silentigita = to be silenced. + kusxi = to lie, to be lying. + kusxigxi = to lie down, to go to bed. + kusxigi = to cause to lie, to lay. + esti kusxigita = to be laid. + stari = to stand, to be standing. + starigxi = to rise, to stand up, to become erect. + starigi = to raise, to cause to stand up, to erect. + esti starigita = to be raised, to be erected. + + + FACTUAL CONDITIONS. + +240. A conditional sentence consists of two parts, an "assumption" and +a "conclusion". The assumption is a clause (introduced usually by the +conjunction "se", "if") which assumes something as true or realized. The +conclusion is a statement whose truth or realization depends upon the +truth or realization of the assumption. "Factual conditions" (conditions +of fact) may deal with the present, past or future time: + + Se li vidas tion, li ploras, + if he sees that, he weeps (is weeping). + Se li vidis tion, li ploris, + if he saw that, he wept. + Li ploros, se li vidos tion, + he will weep, if he sees that. + Se li venis hieraux, li foriros morgaux, + if he came yesterday, he will go away tomorrow. + Se li estas vidinta tion, li nun ploras, + if he has seen that, he now is weeping. + Se tio estas vidota, li estas punota, + if that is going to be seen, he is going to be punished. + Se li estas kaptita, li estos jam punita, + if he has been captured, he will already have been punished. + + + VOCABULARY + + ambaux = both (238). mut-a = dumb, mute. + azen-o = ass, donkey. orel-o = ear. + ben-i = to bless. petol-a = mischievous. + dors-o = back. propr-a = own, one's own. + form-o = form. se = if. + halt-i = to stop (intrans.). spir-i = to breathe. + monahx-o = monk. turment-i = to torment. + + + LA MONAHXOJ KAJ LA AZENO. + +Iam du monahxoj reiris tra la arbaro al la monahxejo, dum grade +krepuskigxis. Ambaux portis pezajn sakojn da terpomoj, kaj baldaux +lacigxis, sed ne sciis kion fari. Okaze ili ekvidis azenon ligitan +al arbo, kaj unu monahxo, haltinte, diris petole al la alia "Se vi +anstatauxos la beston, mi havos portanton por miaj propraj sakoj, kaj +ankaux por la viaj." Lia kunulo respondis "Nu, se la azeno portos miajn +sakojn, mi mem gxoje restos en gxia loko." Jxus dirite, tuj farite ("no +sooner said than done"). Malliginte la ligajxojn kiuj tenis la azenon, +ili jxetis la sakojn trans la dorson de la utila besto. Unu monahxo tuj +forkondukis la azenon, dum ambaux viroj lauxte ridis. Post tio, la dua +monahxo sin ligis per la sama sxnurego kiu antauxe tenis la azenon. +Kiam revenis la kamparano, kies azeno estis jxus sxtelita, li ekhaltis, +multe mirigite, vidante homon tie ligita. La monahxo anoncis al li, +"Cxar mi estis tro mangxema, Dio faris azenon el mi, antaux du jaroj. Mi +jxus rericevis mian propran formon." Tuj la kredema kamparano invitis +la petolan monahxon al sia hejmo. La monahxo restis tiun nokton cxe la +kamparano, kaj la sekvintan tagon li foriris, beninte la kamparanon, sed +kasxe ridante pri la afero. Tiam la kamparano iris vendejon, por acxeti +alian azenon. Li ekvidis sian propran azenon, kiun la unua monahxo estis +sendinta tien, post sia reveno al la monahxejo. La malsagxa kamparano, +klinigxinte al la besto, diris "Ho, bona monahxo, mi vidas ke duan fojon +vi jam estis tro mangxema!" La muta besto forte svingis la orelojn kaj +skuis la kapon, pro la varma elspirajxo apud sia orelo. Tio sxajne +estis respondo al la jxus diritaj vortoj, tial la malsagxa kamparano +ree acxetis sian propran azenon. Cxiam poste li nek turmentis nek ecx +laborigis gxin, kredante la azenon la sankta monahxo mem. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +ancient times, they usually asked the sacred gods about it. 2. If the +gods informed ("sciigis") them that whatever man would come to the +temple first would become their king, they immediately chose the first +comer ("la unuan veninton") king. 3. Whoever was chosen king made the +blessed gods a thank-offering, which consisted of something out of his +own possessions (227, a). 4. Gordius did not offer to the gods merely +the yoke of his wagon, but the whole wagon. 5. A knot of rope was tied +between the yoke and the pole. 6. People soon began to say, "If any one +soever can untie that knot, he will become ruler of Asia." 7. If any +other men tried to untie that rope, they failed. 8. Alexander, though +("tamen"), had scarcely arrived when he drew (out) his sword from the +scabbard, and cut the knot. 9. If you will take-a-seat, I will tell you +about the two mischievous monks, returning to the monastery. 10. Both +were breathing with difficulty, and stopped to rest. 11. Having noticed +a donkey near by, they untied it. 12. One led the long-eared dumb animal +away, while the other tied himself in its own place. 13. The credulous +(192) peasant believed everything which was told (54) him, + + + + LESSON LII. + + + THE CONDITIONAL MOOD. + +241. That indication of the speaker's frame of mind which is given by +the form of the verb is called the "mood" of the verb. All verbs given +so far have been in the "indicative mood", which represents an act or +state as a reality or fact, or in the "infinitive mood", which expresses +the verbal idea in a general way, resembling that of a substantive. +The "conditional mood" does not indicate whether or not the act or +state mentioned is a fact, but merely expresses the speaker's idea of +its likelihood or certainty, or is used in an assumption or conclusion +dealing with suppositions, not with actual facts. The ending of the +conditional mood is "-us". The conjugation of "vidi" in the aoristic +tense of the conditional mood is as follows: + + mi vidus, I should see. + vi vidus, you would see. + li (sxi, gxi) vidus, he (she, it) would see. + ni vidus, we should see. + vi vidus, you would see. + ili vidus, they would see. + + + COMPOUND TENSES OF THE CONDITIONAL MOOD. + +242. In addition to the aoristic tense, the conditional mood has three +active and three passive compound tenses, formed by combining the +participles with the aoristic tense of "esti" in the conditional mood. A +synopsis of "vidi" in these compound tenses is as follows: + + Active Voice. + + Present: mi estus vidanta, I should be seeing. + Past: mi estus vidinta, I should have seen. + Future: mi estus vidonta, I should be about to see. + + Passive Voice. + + Present: mi estus vidata, I should be seen. + Past: mi estus vidita, I should have been seen. + Future: mi estus vidota, I should be about to be seen. + + + LESS VIVID CONDITIONS. + +243. A conditional sentence dealing with "suppositions" concerning +events in present or future time is called a "less vivid condition" +("Less vivid", in contrast to factual conditions (240), which are +"vivid", because they deal with facts.), and the conditional mood +is used in both the assumption and the conclusion: + + Se li vidus tion, li plorus, + if he should see that, he would weep. + Mi gxoje helpus vin, se mi povus, + I would gladly help you, if I could. + Se vi metus ilin sur la dorson de la azeno, gxi portus ilin, + if you should put them on the donkey's back, it would carry them. + La petola junulo turmentus la monahxon, se li revenus, + the mischievous youth would torment the monk, if he should return. + Se li estus kaptata, li estus punata, + if he should be caught, he would be punished. + + + INDEPENDENT USE OF THE CONDITIONAL MOOD. + +244. The conditional mood may be used in a conclusion whose assumption +is merely implied, serving thus to soften or make vague the statement or +question in which it is used: + + Mi gxoje helpus vin, I would gladly help you. + Cxu vi bonvole dirus al mi? Would you kindly tell me? + Kiu volus enspiri tian aeron? Who would wish to inhale such air? + Estus bone reteni vian propran, it would be well to keep your own. + La cxielo vin benus pro tio, Heaven would bless you for that. + + + THE PREFIX "DIS-". + +245. The prefix "dis-" indicates separation or movement in several +different directions at once: + + disdoni = to distribute. disigxi = to separate (intrans.). + dispeli = to dispel. disigxo = separation, schism. + disigi = to separate (trans.). dissendi = to send around. + +[Footnote: Cf. the English prefix "dis-" in "disperse", "disseminate", +"distribute," etc.] + + + VOCABULARY + + cxes-i = to cease, to leave off. kauxz-i = to cause. + dens-a = dense. legx-o = law. + difin-i = to define. natur-o = nature. + ekzist-i = to exist. objekt-o = object. + flu-i = to flow. plu = further, more. + gravit-i = to gravitate. turn-i = to turn (trans.). + +[Footnote: The adverb "plu" gives an idea of continuance to the word +which it modifies. When used with "ne", the two together give an idea of +cessation concerning a previous continuous act or state: "Ambaux parolos +plu morgaux", both will talk further tomorrow. "Mi ne plu haltos", I +shall not stop (any) more. "Li ne plu sxajnis muta", he no longer seemed +mute.] + + + PRI LA GRAVITADO. + +1. Ofte oni parolas pri la pezeco de diversaj objektoj. Tia pezeco estas +kauxzata de la forto kiun oni nomas la gravitado. Pro tiu forto ne nur +objektoj sur la tero, sed ankaux la tero mem, havas konatan pezecon, +kiun la kleruloj jam antaux longe kalkulis. La suno kaj la luno simile +havas pezecon, cxar ili ambaux, same kiel la tero, movigxas laux tiu +sama gravitado kiu efektive regas cxiujn el la cxielaj korpoj. Se la +gravitado cxesus ekzisti, la riveroj ne plu fluus antauxen en siaj +fluejoj ("beds"). Ne fluante de altaj gxis malaltaj lokoj, la akvo +disfluus, aux restus tie, kie ajn gxi okaze estus. Neniom da pluvo +falus; kontrauxe, la malsekajxo en la aero ankoraux restus tie, en la +formo de densaj mallumaj cxiamaj nuboj. Cxiuj vivaj estajxoj ("beings"), +cxiuj konstruajxoj, efektive cxio, baldaux disflugus de la rapide +turnigxanta mondo. Cxiuj cxi ("all these") nun devas resti sur la tero, +tial ke la gravitado restigas ilin cxi tie. Se la gravitado ne plu +ekzistus, nenio restus plu sur la tero. La aero mem ne plu cxirkauxus +nin, sed gxi ankaux forlasus la mondon, tuj maldensigxinte ("having +become rarefied"). La fama angla filozofo Newton estis la unua, kiu +studadis la kialon ("reason") de la falado de objektoj. Li komencis, +laux la rakonto, per okaza ekrigardo al falantaj pomoj en sia propra +pomarbejo. Antaux tri jarcentoj, li eltrovis ke estas tia forto kia la +gravitado, kaj difinis la naturajn legxojn laux kiuj la gravitado sin +montras. Cxi tiu forto, kiu restigas cxion sur la tero, estas tamen +la kauxzo de nia lacigxado, kiam ni marsxas aux kuras, cxar gxi faras +nin pezaj, kaj tial ni ofte deziras halti kaj ripozi. Estas ankaux la +malfacileco en la superado de tiu sama forto, kiu faras tiel malfacila +la konstruadon de utilaj aersxipoj. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Newton was an Englishman who lived three centuries ago. 2. One day he +was walking in his orchard, and, noticing the falling apples, he stood +still ("ekhaltis") and began to wonder why they fall. 3. He studied the +cause of their falling, wishing to discover whatever laws of nature he +could. 4. He watched various falling objects, and tried to calculate +their velocity ("rapideco"). 5. Finally he recognized that force which +is called gravitation. 6. Of course ("kompreneble") gravitation had +always existed, but its laws were not noticed or clearly defined until +Newton studied the matter. 7. If gravitation should not exist any more, +no rain would fall, but instead of condensing, the moisture would remain +above our heads in eternal clouds. 8. But gradually the moisture and +the air itself, becoming rarefied, would fly away from the earth, being +held no longer by the force of gravitation. 9. The water in the rivers +would leave off flowing (cease to flow) on toward the sea, because now +the water flows from high to low places only on account of gravitation. +10. Instead of gravitating toward the sea, in fact, the water would flow +in every direction (245) out of the riverbeds, or would remain there, +without moving at all ("tute ne movante"). 11. Nothing on earth would +remain here very long, but everything would fly off the quickly moving +world, and leave it entirely bare. Soon, also, the earth itself would +break-into-pieces (245). + + + + LESSON LIII. + + + CONDITIONS CONTRARY TO FACT. + +246. A "condition contrary to fact" indicates that the opposite of what +is mentioned has really taken place or is taking place. It expresses the +speaker's certainty that an act or state would have been realized, if +some other act or state were also realized. Such conditions cannot refer +to the future, but only to present or past time. The conditional mood is +used: + + Se vi estus turninta vin, vi estus vidinta tion, + if you had turned, you would have seen that. + Se la malsekajxo ne estus densigxinta, ne estus pluvinte, + if the moisture had not condensed, it would not have rained. + Se li estus kaptita, li estus punita, + if he had been caught, he would have been punished. + Se li estus sidanta tie, mi vidus lin, + if he were (if he should be) sitting there, I should see him. + Se la gravitado ne ekzistus, tiu pluvo ne estus falanta, + if gravitation did not (should not) exist, + that rain would not be falling. + + + THE VERB "DEVI". + +247. The verb "devi" (cf. "devo", duty) is equivalent to the verb "must" +(which in English has no future, past, infinitive, etc.), and to "to +have to", "to be obliged to", etc., carrying the idea of "must" into all +tenses and moods. In the conditional mood its meaning is softened into a +vaguer sense (of "moral" obligation), and carries the idea of "ought": + + Objektoj en la aero devas fali, objects in the air have to fall. + Ni devis agi laux la legxoj, we had to act according to the laws. + Vi devos iri, you must (will have to) go. + Sxi ne volas devi fari tion, she does not wish to have to do that. + Ili devigis min iri, they compelled me to go. + Vi devus iri, you should go (you ought to go). + Oni devus pensi antaux ol paroli, one ought to think before speaking. + Li estus devinta veni, he ought to have come. + Tio devus esti farita, that ought to have been done. + + + THE PREPOSITION "SEN". + +248. The preposition "sen", without, indicates the omission, absence or +exclusion of that which is expressed by its complement. It may be used +as a prefix (160), giving a sense of deprivation or exclusion (like that +given by the English suffix "-less"): + + Li difinis la vorton sen eraro, he defined the word without an error. + La rivero sencxese fluas, the river flows without ceasing. + Tio estas ne nur senutila sed ecx malutila, + that is not only useless but even harmful. + Li ne plu estas senmona, he is no longer penniless. + Li sentime alproksimigxis al gxi, he fearlessly approached it. + +[Footnote: English phrases containing "without" as in "without reading," +must be changed to phrases clearly containing verbal nouns, as "without +the reading of," before translating into an Esperanto phrase with "sen". +Otherwise a participle with "ne" should replace the phrase ("222"): "Sen +la legado de tio, mi ne komprenus", without (the) reading (of) that, +I should not understand. "Ne leginte tion, mi ne komprenus", without +reading (not having read) that, I should not understand.] + + + VOCABULARY + + akuz-i = to accuse. nobl-a = noble. + instru-i = to teach. pardon-i = to pardon. + kondamn-i = to condemn. pek-i = to sin. + konfes-i = to confess, to admit. prav-a = right, correct. + konscienc-o = conscience. sen = without (248). + kulp-o = guilt. So-krato = Socrates. + merit-i = to deserve. venen-o = poison. + + + LA FILOZOFO SOKRATO. + +Unu el la plej famaj grekaj filozofoj estis nomita Sokrato. Li +estis malbela malalta persono, kun senhara kapo kaj dika korpo, sed +malgraux tio li estis treege bona, nobla kaj sagxa. Li instruadis per +interparolado kun la lernantoj. Kutime li komencis per demando pri +io ajn, pri kio la auxskultanto respondos. Fine, la lernanto grade +komprenis cxu liaj propraj opinioj pri la afero estas pravaj. Ankoraux +nun oni nomas tiun metodon de instruado per la interparolado "la Sokrata +metodo." Sokrato diradis tute sen timo cxion, kion li pensis, ecx pri +la dioj kaj pri la nekredeblaj rakontoj pri la dioj. Se li ne estus +tiel multe klariginta, eble li estus vivinta pli longan tempon. Sed +multaj personoj malamis lin, precipe cxar li donis novajn ideojn al +la junuloj, kiuj sekve komencis pensi por si mem, anstataux fari tion +kion faras cxiu alia. Tial oni akuzis Sokraton en la jugxejo, nomante +lin pekanto kaj malbonfaranto, unue, cxar li ne disdonas oferojn al la +dioj, due, cxar li enkondukas novajn diojn (cxar li diris ke supernatura +vocxo, kiu sendube estis lia nomo por la konscienco, parolis mallauxte +cxe lia orelo), trie, cxar li malbonigas la junularon de la urbo. Se +li estus konfesinte la kulpon kaj petinte pardonon, tiam la jugxistoj +eble estus punintaj lin per nura ("mere") monpago ("fine"). Sed li fiere +respondis ke efektive li multe plibonigas la junularon, kaj anstataux +esti malutila, aux ecx neutila, li treege utilas al la urbo. Li diris +ke oni havas nenian rajton puni lin, sed ke, kauxze de sia bonfarado al +la urbo, li efektive meritas cxiutagan mangxon senpagan. Tamen, tute ne +kompreninte kiel prava Sokrato estas, la jugxistoj mortkondamnis lin. +Oni devigis lin trinki la venenon. Iom poste, en la malliberejo, li +trankvile adiauxis siajn plorantajn amikojn, kaj akceptinte la venenan +trinkajxon, sentime gxin trinkis. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Socrates believed that if one knows about good and evil (201) he will +do good, but will not do evil. 2. Therefore he wished to help mankind +("la homaron"), teaching them what the good is. 3. He also wished to +discover for himself what is right and what is wrong. 4. So he asked +every one whom he met (about) his opinions, and the one-talking-with +[him] would also notice whether his own ideas were right or not. 5. But +the fellow-citizens of Socrates were jealous, and hated him, because +they did not understand him. 6. Therefore they accused him, called him a +sinner, and sent around (245) false reports ("falsajn sciigojn") about +him. 7. Because he said that conscience guided him (in the form of a +soft voice at his ear), they accused him of ("pri") introducing (218, +b) new gods. 8. They also said that he was corrupting the youth of the +city. 9. If Socrates had pleaded guilty, and begged for a fine instead +of the death-punishment, without doubt he would have been pardoned and +fined ("monpunita"). 10. But he said "I have never in my life sinned in +any way, and I do not deserve any sort of punishment." So the judges +condemned him to death by the drinking of poison. + + + + LESSON LIV. + + + SUMMARY OF CONDITIONS + +249. The three kinds of conditional sentences, together with the moods +and tenses used in them, may be tabulated as follows: + + Name: Factual Less Vivid Contrary to Fact + + Subject Matter: facts suppositions opposite of facts + + Time: any (usually) future present or past + + Mood: indicative conditional conditional + + Tense: any (usually) aoristic (usually) compound + + + CLAUSES OF IMAGINATIVE COMPARISON. + +250. Clauses of imaginative comparison are introduced by the conjunction +"kvazaux", as though, as if. Sometimes the verb in the comparison may be +left unexpressed or merely implied: + + Li trinkas la venenon kvazaux gxi estus vino, + he drinks the poison as though it were wine. + La kondamnito marsxis kvazaux kun malfacileco, + the condemned man walked as if with difficulty. + Li konfesis kvazaux kulpulo, + he confessed like a culprit. + + + THE USE OF "AL" TO EXPRESS REFERENCE. + +251. Personal pronouns, and less frequently nouns, may be used with the +preposition "al" to express "concern" or "interest" on the part of the +person indicated by the complement of this preposition: + + Li bruligis al si la manon, he burned his hand. + Hi trancxis al li la barbon, they cut his beard (the beard for him). + Sxi preparas al ni bonan mangxon, she is preparing us a good meal. + Cxu vi faros servon al mi? Will you do me a service? + +[Footnote: The use of "al" in this sense, approaching that of "por" but +less purposeful and definite, resembles the "dative of reference" and +"ethical dative" of other languages, as in French "je me suis brule la +langue", I have burned my tongue, German "ich wasche mir die Haende", +I wash my hands, Latin "sese Caesari ad pedes proicerunt", they threw +themselves at the feet of Caesar, Greek "ti soi mathesomai", what am I +to learn for you? etc.] + +252. By an extension of its use in expressing reference, "al" may often +be used in the place of "de" expressing separation (170), when the use +of "de" might seem to indicate agency (169) or possession (49): + + La luno estas kasxata al ni de la nuboj, + the moon is hidden from us (to us) by the clouds. + Gxi estas stelita al mi de li, + it has been stolen from me by him. + +[Footnote: This use resembles the "dative of separation" of other +languages, as in German "es stahl mir das Leben", it stole the life from +me, French "il me prend la vie", it takes my life, Latin "hunc mihi +timorem eripe", remove this fear from me, Greek "dexato oi skaeptron", +he took his sceptre from him, etc.] + + + THE SUFFIX "-ESTR-". + +253. The suffix "-estr-" is used to indicate the "chief", "head", or +"one in control" of that which is expressed in the root: + + lernejestro = (school) principal. urbestro = mayor. + monahxestro = abbot. estraro = governing body. + policestro = chief of police. sxipestro = ship-captain. + + + VOCABULARY + + Aristejd-o = Aristeides. popol-o = a people. + ekzil-i = to exile. pot-o = pot. + enu-i = to be wearied, bored. senc-o = meaning, sense. + gxust-a = exact. signif-i = to signify. + kvazaux = as though, as if (250). son-i = to sound. + ostr-o = oyster. strang-a = strange. + ostracism-o = ostracism. sxel-o = shell, bark, peel. + +[Footnote: Care must be taken to distinguish "gxusta", exact, "gxuste", +exactly, just, from "justa", upright, just, "juste", justly, and also +from the adverb "jxus" just.] + + + LA OSTRACISMO DE ARISTEJDO. + +La vorto ostracismo havas interesan devenon ("origin"). En gxia komenco +oni rekonas la grekan vorton kiu signifas "sxelon de la ostro." En gxia +fino oni vidas la saman "-ismon " kiu, deveninte de la greka, ankoraux +estas uzata kiel vortfino en multaj diversaj lingvoj. La nuna senco de +la vorto, facile trovebla en anglaj vortaroj ("dictionaries"), devenas +de la jena greka kutimo: + +Sepdek jarojn antaux ol vivadis Sokrato, oni faris strangan legxon en +lia urbo. Laux tiu, oni povis ekzili iun ajn estron kies ideoj pri la +administrado de la urbo ne sxajnis pravaj. Cxi tion oni povis fari, +tute sen jugxado aux ecx akuzado, cxar oni havis la jenan metodon: se +cxe popola kunveno ses mil urbanoj vocxdonis ("vote") kontraux iun +ajn, tiu estis devigata foriri de la urbo, kaj forresti dek jarojn. +Li povis neniel havigi ("get") al si pardonon, sed devis tuj foriri +kvazaux konfesinta kulpulo. Por vocxdonoj, oni skribis la nomon de la +kondamnoto sur peco da potajxo ("pottery"), aux pli ofte sur ostrosxelo. +Gxuste tial oni nomas la kutimon ostracismo. Unufoje, kelkaj malamikoj +proponis vocxdonadon pri la ostracismo de tre bona kaj nobla viro, +nomita Aristejdo, kiu tute ne meritis tian punadon. + +Antaux ol la kunveno disigxis, kamparano alproksimigxis al Aristejdo +(kiu mem cxeestis), petante lian helpon, cxar la neinstruita kamparano +ne povis skribi. La sagxulo diris "Kion vi volas skribi sur la sxelo?" +La kamparano, ne sciante ke li parolas al la viro mem, respondis +"Aristejdon." Skribinte gxin, Aristejdo demandis kun trankvila +konscienco "Pro gxuste kiaj pekoj vi malamas Aristejdon?" La kamparano +respondis, "Ho, mi ne kasxos al vi ke mi ecx ne konas lin! Sed mi +deziras ekzili lin nur cxar min enuigas la sono de lia nomo. Mi tre +enuas cxiam auxdante lin nomata Aristejdo la justa!" + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Aristeides had just arrived at the popular assembly when a peasant +approached him. 2. If Aristeides had not had a pleasant countenance +and musical ("belsonan") voice, doubtless the peasant would not have +asked his help. 3. Ought Aristeides to have written his own name on the +oyster-shell or piece of pottery which was going to be used as a vote +against him? 4. Without just (exactly) this help, the peasant could +not have voted. 5. Doing him the service requested, Aristeides said, +as if ("250") he himself were not the man under-discussion ("205"), +"Why do you hate Aristeides? 6. Could you tell me how he has sinned +against the city?" 7. The silly-creature ("132") replied, "Oh, I know +nothing about him, but I am weary [of] always hearing him called the +just." 8. Ought such persons as that ignorant peasant have-the-right +to vote about important affairs? 9. The ancient law about ostracism +was a strange [one]. 10. The name of the person to-be-exiled ("199") +was usually written upon an oyster-shell, and the meaning of the word +signifying the custom comes from that. 11. Through ("per") ostracism, +any leader could be banished, justly or unjustly, without trial of any +kind, or explanation of the reasons. + + + + LESSON LV. + + + THE IMPERATIVE MOOD. + +254. For expressions of command, exhortation, entreaty, etc., there +is an "imperative mood", as in English. The ending of the imperative +mood is "-u". Beside the aoristic tense, six compound tenses are formed +by combining the participles with the imperative mood "estu" of the +auxiliary verb, but these tenses are seldom used. The conjugation of +"vidi" in the aoristic tense of this mood, together with a synopsis in +the compound tenses, is as follows: + + Aoristic Tense. + + mi vidu! = let me see! ni vidu! = let us see! + (vi) vidu! = (you) see! (vi) vidu! = (you) see! + li (sxi, gxi) vidu! = ili vidu! = let them see! + let him (her, it) see! + + Compound Tenses. + + Active. Passive. + + Present: mi estu vidanta Present: mi estu vidata + Past: mi estu vidinta Past: mi estu vidita + Future: mi estu vidonta Future: mi estu vidota + + + RESOLVE AND EXHORTATION. + +255. The "first person singular" of the imperative mood is used +to express the speaker's resolve concerning his own action, or an +exhortation to himself concerning such action. The "first person plural" +is used to express resolve or exhortation concerning the joint action of +the speaker and the person or persons addressed: + + Mi pensu pri tio! Let me think about that! + Mi ne forgesu tion! I must not (do not let me) forget that! + Ni ekzilu lin! Let us exile him! + Ni ne sidigxu tie! Let us not sit down there! + Ni estu grize vestitaj! Let us be dressed in gray! + +[Footnote: This force is usually expressed in English by "let" with an +accusative and infinitive construction.] + + + COMMANDS AND PROHIBITIONS. + +256. The "second" and "third" persons of the imperative are used to +express peremptory commands and prohibitions. + +a. In the second person the pronoun is usually omitted, as in English, +unless special emphasis is placed upon it: + + Estu trankvila! Be calm! (One person is addressed.) + Estu pretaj por akompani min! + Be ready to accompany me! (Two or more persons are addressed.) + Parolu kvazaux vi komprenus! Talk as though you understood! + Ne fermu tiun pordon! Do not shut that door! + Ne estu vidata tie! Do not be seen there! + +b. In the third person a circumlocution in English is necessary in +translation (as "let", "must", "are to", "is to", etc.): + + Li estu zorga! Let him be careful (he must be careful)! + Sxi ne faru tion! Do not let her do that (she is not to do that)! + Cxio estu pardonata! Let everything be forgiven! + Oni lasu min trankvila! People are to let me alone! + Ili neniam revenu! Let them never (do not let them ever) return! + La kulpuloj estu punataj! Let the culprits be punished! + + + LESS PEREMPTORY USES OF THE IMPERATIVE. + +257. By an extension of its use in resolve, exhortation, command +and prohibition, the imperative mood may be employed for less +peremptory expressions, such as "request", "wish", "advice", etc., +and in "questions of deliberation or perplexity", or "requests for +instruction": + +Request: Cxesu tiun bruon, mi petas! Stop that noise, I beg! + Bonvolu fari tion! Please do that! + Pardonu al ni niajn pekojn! Forgive us our sins! +Wish: Ili estu felicxaj! May they be happy! + Dio vin benu! God bless you! + Vivu la regxo! (Long) live the king! +Advice: Pensu antaux ol agi! Think before acting! + Foriru, se vi ne estas kontenta! + Go away, if you are not satisfied! +Consent: Nu, parolu, sed mi ne auxskultos! + Well, talk, but I shall not listen! + Iru tuj, se vi volas. Go at once, if you like. +Question: Cxu mi faru tion aux ne? Am I to do that or not? + Cxu ni disdonu la librojn? Shall we distribute the books? + Cxu li estu kondamnita? Shall he be condemned? + Cxu ili venu cxi tien? Are they to (shall they) come here? + + + THE USE OF "MOSXTO". + +258. The word "mosxto" may be used alone, or after a title, to denote +respect. When used after a title, the title becomes an adjective: + + Lia regxa mosxto, his majesty. + Lia jugxista mosxto, his honor the judge. + Sxia regxina mosxto, her majesty. + Lia urbestra mosxto, his honor the mayor. + Cxu via mosxto lin auxdis? + Did your honor (excellency, etc.) hear him? + + + VOCABULARY + + Afrik-o = Africa. mosxt-o = a title (see 258). + barbar-o = barbarian. ordon-i = to order, to bid. + Damokl-o = Damocles. permes-i = to permit. + flank-o = side. placx-i = to please. + imperi-o = empire. sklav-o = slave. + konsent-i = to consent. sol-a = sole, only. + konsil-i = to advise. volont-e = willingly. + + + LA GLAVO DE DAMOKLO. + +Antaux pli multe ol dumil jaroj vivis en Sirakuzo, sur la insulo +Sikelio, tre kruela tirano. Li diris al si "Mi estu cxiopova +("all-powerful")!" Tial li faris multe da militadoj, kaj venkis ne nur +barbarajn popolojn, sed ankaux multajn urbojn en Italujo kaj norda +Afriko. Detruinte cxion sen kompato, li ordonis "La logxantoj estu +vendataj por sklavoj!" Li deziris fari por si, el la venkitaj kaj +sklavigitaj popoloj, unu grandan imperion. Sed la urboj cxie, ecx en +Grekujo, ne kasxis al li sian grandan malamon al tia tirano. Tial li +cxiam timis pri sia vivo, timante ke iu subite mortigos lin. Unufoje +Damoklo, amiko de la tirano, diris al li, "Se mi estus tiel ricxa +kaj pova kiel via regxa mosxto, mi estus treege felicxa!" La tirano +respondis, "Venu al festo cxe mi, se tio placxas al vi, kaj eltrovu cxu +mi devus esti felicxa aux ne." "Mi venos tre volonte," ekkriis Damoklo, +"kaj mi dankas vian mosxton pro tia afableco!" La tirano gxentile +respondis "Ho, estas nenio (="you are welcome")! Nur ne forgesu la +deciditan horon!" Je la gxusta horo Damoklo iris al la festo, kie oni +donis al li segxon flanke de la tirano mem. "Mangxu kaj trinku kiom ajn +vi volas," konsilis la tirano, "kaj poste ni parolos pri la felicxeco." +Damoklo tuj konsentis al tia propono, kaj agis laux la permeso tiel +afable donita al li. Mangxante bonegan mangxajxon, kaj trinkante dolcxan +vinon, li tute ne enuis cxe la festo. Baldaux la tirano diris "Rigardu +supren, kaj vidu gxuste kian felicxecon mi havas!" Supren rigardinte, +Damoklo ekvidis akran glavon, antauxe kasxitan al li de kurteno. +Subtenate de unu sola haro, la glavo sxajnis kvazaux tuj falonta sur la +kapon de Damoklo. "La dioj min helpu!" li ekkriis, forsaltinte de la +tablo. Pro la jxus dirita stranga rakonto, oni ankoraux nun nomas la +atendadon por io timeginda, kio sxajnas cxiam okazonta sed efektive ne +okazas, "la glavo de Damoklo." + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. The word ostracism comes from the Greek word signifying +"oyster-shell." 2. It has its present meaning because oyster-shells +or pieces of pottery were used for the voting. 3. The story about +Aristeides is interesting, but that about the sword of Damocles is also +interesting. 4. His friend, the Syracusan tyrant, had permitted all +sorts of injustices, against not only barbarians but even Greeks. 5. +His only bidding usually was "Let every inhabitant be sold as a slave!" +6. He thought "Let me make one sole empire out of Africa, Italy and +Sicily!" 7. Damocles said to him "Your royal highness ought to be very +happy!" 8. The tyrant answered, "Come to a feast tomorrow, and find +out. I will give you a seat (214, b) beside me." 9. Damocles willingly +consented, and went thither. 10. The tyrant advised "Let us eat and +drink until midnight, if that would be-pleasing to you. Then let us +discuss the problem about happiness." 11. After a few hours Damocles +heard a slight sound over his head, and the tyrant said to him, "Look +up and you will see what kind of happiness mine is." 12. "Heaven defend +me!" exclaimed Damocles, catching sight of a sharp sword hanging by a +single (sole) hair. + + + + LESSON LVI. + + + THE IMPERATIVE IN SUBORDINATE CLAUSES. + +259. The imperative mood is used in a subordinate clause, with a meaning +similar to that in its independent use, after a main verb expressing +"command", "exhortation", "resolve", "consent", "wish", etc., or after +any word or general expression of "command", "intention", "necessity", +"expedience", etc. Such clauses are introduced by the conjunction ke: + + Command and Prohibition. + + Li diras ke vi iru, he says that you are to go. + Sxi skribis al li ke li venu, she wrote him to come. + Mi malpermesas ke vi restu, I forbid you to remain. + Ni ordonos ke li estu punata, we shall order that he be punished. + + Request and Wish. + + Mi petas ke vi ne lasu min, I beg that you do not leave me. + Mi petegas ke vi estu trankvilaj, I implore you to be calm. + Li deziras ke ili estu sklavigitaj, he desires that they be enslaved. + Ni volis ke li ne forgesu tion, we wished him not to forget that. + + Advice, Consent, Permission. + + Mi konsilis al li ke li iru, I advised him to go. + Mi konsentis ke li restu, I consented that he remain. + Ili permesos ke la barbaroj forkuru, + they will permit the barbarians to escape + (that the barbarians escape). + + Questions. + + Li demandas cxu ili foriru, he inquires whether they are to go away. + Oni demandis cxu lia mosxto eniru, + they asked whether his honor was to enter. + Mi miras cxu mi faru tion, I wonder whether I am to do that. + + Intention, Expedience, Necessity, etc. + + Ni intencas ke vi estu helpata, + we intend that you shall be helped. + Lia propono estas ke ni ricevu la duonon, + his proposal is, that we receive the half. + Lia lasta ordono estis, ke vi venu, + his last order was that you come. + Estos bone ke vi ne plu nomu lin, + it will be well for you not to (that you do not) + mention him any more. + Estas dezirinde ke ni havu bonan imperiestron, + it is desirable that we have a good emperor. + Estis necese ke cxiu starigxu, + it was necessary for everyone to rise. + Placxos al li ke vi iru, + he will be pleased to have you go. + +[Footnote: In English and some other languages an imperative idea may +often be expressed by the infinitive, as "I wish you to go," but in +Esperanto this must be expressed by the equivalent of "I wish that you +go." The infinitive may not be used except when it can itself be the +subject of the verb in such general statements as "it is necessary to +go."] + + + THE PREPOSITION "JE". + +260. Since prepositional uses are not exactly alike in any two +languages, it is not always possible to translate a preposition of +one language by what is its equivalent in some senses in another. In +order to insure some means of translating correctly into Esperanto any +prepositional phrase of the national languages, the preposition "je" +is regarded as of rather indefinite meaning. In addition to its use in +dates and allusions to time (89, 185), it may be employed when no other +preposition gives the exact sense required, especially in protestations +and exclamations, expressions of measure (see also 139), and of +indefinite connection: + + Je la nomo de cxielo! In the name of Heaven! + Je mia honoro mi ja elfaros tion! + On my honor I will accomplish that! + Gxi estas longa je du mejloj, + it is two miles long (long by two miles). + Ili venis je grandaj nombroj, they came in great numbers. + Li estas tenata de la policano, je la brako, per forta sxnurego, + he is held by the policemen, by the arm, with (by) a strong rope. + +The preposition "je" is used to express indefinite connection after +the following words (other prepositions sometimes used are given in +parentheses): + + ekkrii je (pro), to cry out at. (sin) okupi je, busy (oneself) at. + enui je, to be bored with. plena je (de), full of. + fiera je (pri), proud of. preni je, to take by. + fidi je (al), to rely upon. provizi je (per), to provide with. + gxoji je (pri), to rejoice at. ricxigi je (per), to enrich with. + gratuli je (pri), congratulate on. ridi je, to laugh at. + honti je (pri), to be ashamed of. satigxi je, to be sated with. + inda je, worthy of. senigi je, to deprive of. + interesigxi je, take interest in. simila je (al), similar to. + kapti je, to seize by. sopiri je (al), to yearn for. + kontenta je (kun), content with. sxargxi je, to load with. + kredi je, to believe in. teni je, to hold by. + +[Footnote: The translation given for a preposition in any dictionary is +the general one which serves in the majority of cases. The finer shades +of meaning and real or apparent exceptions can merely be touched upon if +mentioned at all.] + + THE SUFFIX "-OP-". + +261. The suffix "-op-" is used to form "collective" numerals: + + duope = by twos, in pairs. milope = by thousands. + kvarope = by fours. sesopigi = to form into groups of six. + + + VOCABULARY + + cel-i = to aim. prokrast-i = to delay (trans.). + Cirus-o = Cyrus. proviz-i = to provide. + fidi = to rely. rezult-i = to result. + gxu-i = to enjoy. sopir-i = to yearn, to sigh. + honor-o = honor. spac-o = space. + krom = beside, save, but. terur-a = terrible. + plen-a = full. ver-o = truth. + + + LA MARSXADO DE LA DEKMIL GREKOJ. + +Iam Ciruso, nepo de Ciruso Granda, sopiris je la imperio de sia pli +maljunafrato, kiu sekvis la patron de ambaux fratoj kiel regxo, aux +pli gxuste imperiestro. Decidinte forigi de la regxeco ("to dethrone") +sian fraton, Ciruso petis la grekojn ke ili partoprenu ("take part") en +kelkaj negravaj militadoj. Multaj tiamaj grekoj tre volonte sin okupis +je la batalado, pro la granda pago ricevata. La venditaj sklavoj kaj la +detruitaj konstruajxoj cxiam provizis ilin je multe da ricxajxo, kaj +krom tio la militistoj sxajnis gxui ecx la militadon mem. Estis tute +indiferente al ili cxu la kauxzo de la militado estas prava kaj justa +aux ne. Unue Ciruso nur petis ke ili helpu liajn proprajn soldatojn +kontraux iuj najbaroj. Li kasxis al ili sian veran celon, cxar se la +grekoj estus suspektintaj tion, kion li intencis fari, ili neniam estus +akompanintaj lin tiel malproksimen de sia patrolando. Grade li kondukis +ilin trans tutan Azion, kaj fine la dekmil grekoj komprenis cxion, kaj +treege kolerigxis. Paroladante al ili, Ciruso tuj diris "Mi ne permesas +ke vi reiru, kaj mi petegas ke vi antauxen marsxadu kun mi, sen plua +("further") prokrasto! Se mi sukcesos kontraux mia frato, mi certigas +vin je mia honoro ke cxiu el vi revenos havante sakojn plenajn je +ricxajxo! Estas nur necese ke vi fidu je mi, kaj cxio estos bona!" Tiam +la soldatoj hontis je sia antauxa timo, kaj kuragxe antauxen marsxadis. +Fine, apud granda urbo, la frato de Ciruso elvenis havante okcentmil +soldatojn, por batali kontraux la centmil de Ciruso. Per la helpo de +siaj grekoj, Ciruso estis preskaux venkinta en terura batalo, kiam +subite li ekvidis sian fraton, je malgranda interspaco. Ekkriante "Mi +vidas la viron!" li rajdis rekte al la regxo, jxetante sian pezan lancon +al li. La sola rezulto estis la morto de Ciruso mem, cxar la amikoj de +la regxo, kvinope kaj sesope atakinte Ciruson, lin tuj mortigis. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Cyrus did not desire that his brother should remain king. 2. He +decided, "Let me myself become ("farigxi") king! I should much enjoy +that!" 3. So he asked the Greeks to help him in some battles against +nearby enemies. 4. Gradually an army (126) of a hundred thousand men, +ten thousand of whom were Greeks, gathered (232, b) around him. 5. He +led them farther and farther, into the middle of Asia, until finally the +Greeks suspected his true aim. 6. They said to each other in terror, "He +did not at first propose that we fight against the Great King. Let us +return home without delay!" 7. Cyrus addressed (218) them as follows: +"Must I permit you to go back? I implore you to be courageous, and I +do advise you not to forget your longing for (260) honor! 8. Only be +worthy of your leader, and rely upon me! Do you not wish to return home +provided with wealth, beside the money which I shall pay to you?" 9. +Immediately the soldiers were ashamed of their fear, and advanced by +hundreds, full of courage. 10. Soon the brother of Cyrus approached, +with ("havante") eight hundred thousand men. 11. By the aid of the +Greeks, Cyrus won the battle, but he himself lost his life. 12. So +neither he nor the Greeks could enjoy the result of their efforts. + + + + LESSON LVII. + + + CLAUSES EXPRESSING PURPOSE. + +262. Purpose may be expressed by a subordinate imperative clause, +introduced by "por ke": + + Mi faras gxin por ke li helpu vin, + I do it in order that he may help you. + Mi ekkriis por ke vi auxdu, + I cried out in order that you should hear. + Li venos por ke ni estu felicxaj, + he will come that we may be happy. + Mi studas por ke mi lernu, + I study that I may learn. + Ili restu por ke ni punu ilin, + let them stay for us to punish them. + +[Footnote: Cf. the expression of purpose by the infinitive with "por" +(98), which however cannot be used except when the subject of the main +verb is the subject of the subordinate verb, or when the object of the +main verb is the subject of the subordinate verb.] + + + FURTHER USES OF THE ACCUSATIVE. + +[Footnote: Cf. the accusative of direct object (23), direction of motion +(46, 121), time (91), and measure (139).] + +263. The accusative of direction of motion is used after nouns from +roots expressing motion: + + Lia eniro en la urbon estis subita, + his entrance into the city was sudden. + La irado tien estos plezuro, + (the) going thither will be a pleasure. + Gxia falado teren timigis min, + its falling earthward terrified me. + +264. a. An intransitive verb may be followed by a noun in the accusative +case, if the meaning of the noun is related to that of the verb: + + Li vivas agrablan vivon, he lives an agreeable life. + Sxi dancis belan dancon, she danced a beautiful dance. + Ili ploris maldolcxajn larmojn, they wept bitter tears. + +b. Verbs of motion ("iri", "veni", "pasi", "marsxi", "veturi", etc.) +compounded with prepositions or adverbs (121) indicating direction, +also compounds of such verbs as "esti" and "stari" with prepositions +expressing situation, may be followed by the accusative, instead of by +a prepositional phrase in which the preposition is repeated: + + La viro preterpasis la domon, + the man passed (by) the house. + Lin antauxvenis du sklavoj, + there preceded (came before) him two slaves. + Ni supreniru la sxtuparon, + let us go up the stairs. + Mi cxeestis la feston, + I attended (was present at) the entertainment. + Mi kontrauxstaras vian opinion, + I oppose (withstand) your opinion. + +c. The slight change in meaning given by "pri" used as a prefix may +render intransitive verbs transitive. The same is true of "el" prefixed +to intransitive verbs not expressing motion: + + Sxi priploris la mortintan birdon, she mourned the dead bird. + Mi pripensos la aferon, I shall consider (think over) the matter. + Ni gxin priparolos, we shall talk it over. + Li klare elparolas la vortojn, he pronounces the words clearly. + +[Footnote: In this use "pri" resembles the English and German +inseparable prefix "be-", as in English "bemoan", "bewail", "bethink", +"bespeak", German "beklagen", "besprechen", "sich" , etc.] + +265. The accusative may be used after verbs of such meaning that either +a prepositional phrase or an accusative would seem correct: + + Mi pardonas lin (al li), I pardon (grant pardon to) him. + Mi helpis lin (al li), I helped (gave aid to) him. + Gxi placxas min (al mi), it pleases (is pleasing to) me. + Li obeis nin (al ni), he obeyed (was obedient to) us. + Sxi ridis mian timon (je mia timo), + she ridiculed (laughed at) my fear. + +[Footnote: When ambiguity would be caused, as by the presence of another +accusative, this construction may not be employed. One may say "pardonu +nin", but must say "pardonu al ni niajn pekojn".] + +266. The accusative may be used after certain adverbs which are normally +followed by a prepositional phrase: + + Rilate tion (rilate al tio), in regard to that. + Escepte tion (escepte de tio), with the exception of that. + Koncerne la aferon (koncerne je la afero), concerning the affair. + Kompare la alian (kompare kun la alia), in comparison with the other. + Konforme la legxon (konforme al la legxo), in conformity to the law. + + + SYNOPSIS OF THE CONJUGATION OF THE VERB. + +267. vidi, to see. + + ACTIVE. PASSIVE. + + INDICATIVE. + + Present. + (Aoristic) mi vidas mi estas vidata + (Progressive) mi estas vidanta + + Past. + (Aoristic) mi vidis mi estis vidata + (Imperfect) mi estis vidanta + + Future. + (Aoristic) mi vidos mi estos vidata + (Progressive) mi estos vidanta + + Perfect. + mi estas vidinta mi estas vidita + + Pluperfect. + mi estis vidinta mi estis vidita + + Future Perfect. + mi estos vidinta mi estos vidita + + Periphrastic Futures. + + (Present). + mi estas vidonta mi estas vidota + + (Past). + mi estis vidonta mi estis vidota + + (Future). + mi estos vidonta mi estos vidota + + CONDITIONAL. + + Present. + (Aoristic) mi vidus mi estus vidata + (Progressive) mi estus vidanta + + Past. + mi estus vidinta mi estus vidita + + Future. + mi estus vidonta mi estus vidota + + IMPERATIVE. + + Present. + (Aoristic) mi vidu mi estu vidata + (Progressive) mi estu vidanta + + Past. + mi estu vidinta mi estu vidita + + Future. + mi estu vidonta mi estu vidota + + INFINITIVE. + + Present. + (Aoristic) vidi esti vidata + (Progressive) esti vidanta + + Perfect. + esti vidinta esti vidita + + Future. + esti vidonta esti vidota + + + THE SUFFIX "-UM-". + +268. The indefinite suffix "-um-" serves the same general purpose in +word formation which "je" serves as an indefinite preposition (260): + + aerumi = to air. kolumo = collar. + busxumo = muzzle. plenumi = to fulfil. + gustumi = to taste. proksimume = approximately. + + + VOCABULARY + + eben-a = level, even. nepr-e = inevitably, certainly. + escept-o = exception. obe-i = to obey. + esper-i = to hope. obstin-a = obstinate. + fremd-a = foreign. promes-i = to promise. + histori-o = history. rilat-o = relation. + kompar-i = to compare. sat-a = satiated. + koncern-i = to concern. sav-i = to save. + konform-i = to conform. verk-i = to compose (books or music). + + + LA REIRADO DE LA DEKMILO. + +La grekaj militistoj sentis grandan teruron kiam Ciruso ne plu vivis. La +celo de la longa marsxado ne povis esti plenumata, pro la morto de la +obstina trokuragxa militestro mem. Kvankam la grekoj estis venkintoj, +ili estis tute solaj en fremda lando, cxirkauxitaj de barbaroj kiuj, +per trompemaj proponoj kaj falsaj promesoj pri amikaj interrilatoj, +tuj okazigis la morton de la grekaj estroj. Senigite je siaj estroj, +la kompatindaj viroj tute malesperis. Sed kelkaj subestroj, rapide +kunveniginte la soldatojn, diris, "Ni mem kondukos vin per kiel eble +plej rekta vojo hejmen! Ni faros nian eblon ("utmost") por ke ni +cxiuj estu savitaj!" Cxar restis nenio alia por fari, la malfacila +malgaja reirado de la grekoj komencigxis sen prokrasto. Ili transiris +varmegajn ebenajxojn ("plains"), supreniris kaj malsupreniris krutajn +negxkovritajn montojn, meze de la vintro, kaj sen pontoj transiris +largxajn riverojn. Cxie la malfidindaj barbaroj atakis ilin, kvazaux +por ke neniu greko restu viva. Krom tio, la grekoj mortis dekope kaj +dudekope cxiutage, pro varmegeco, malvarmegeco, laceco kaj malsateco +("hunger"). Fine, post nekredeblaj suferoj, la restajxo de la dekmil +soldatoj alvenis sur monton, kaj ekvidis la maron. Lauxta ekkriego "La +maro! La maro!" eksonis inter la lacaj viroj, el kiuj multaj ploris +larmojn de gxojo. De infaneco ili alkutimis al la vojagxado per akvo, +kaj post iom da ripozo ili sin provizis je sxipoj, por transiri la maron +al la patrujo je kiu ili estis tiel longe sopirintaj. Treege interesa +historio koncerne la tutan aferon estas verkita de fama greka verkisto +("writer"), kiu estis akompaninta Ciruson por ke li povu gxui kaj studi +cxion interesan sur la vojo. Tiu azia militado de Ciruso nepre estas unu +el la plej rimarkindaj okazintajxoj iam priskribitaj, ecx sen escepto de +la posta irado tien de Aleksandro Granda. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. After the death of Cyrus, the leaders of the Greek warriors did not +know what to do. 2. In the course of the following day, one of the +leaders of the enemy sent a messenger (205) with deceitful promises +about help. 2. He said "Assemble in our leader's tent, in order that +you may all discuss the matter." 3. The Greek leaders went, although +they suspected danger, because they did not know how else to save +their men. 4. But they never returned, and soon the Greeks understood +that the barbarians had killed them. 5. They wept tears of despair, +and said "The barbarians will inevitably destroy us, for we are in +a foreign land, where we know neither the languages nor the roads, +and the peoples are without exception hostile to us." 6. But the +leaders-of-lesser-rank said "Obey us and follow us, and we shall do our +best to save you!" 7. Their return, across hot plains and snow-covered +mountains, made-more-difficult by hunger and by the unceasing attacks +of the barbarians, is related in the history written by a famous Greek +historian. 8. One can still read this interesting narrative, in Greek or +in a translation. + + + + LESSON LVIII. + + + PERMISSION AND POSSIBILITY. + +269. Permission is usually expressed by the use of "permesi", "lasi", or +the imperative mood: + + Cxu vi permesas ke mi restu? May I (do you permit me to) stay? + Jes, mi permesas (jes, restu), yes, you may (yes, stay). + Ne estas permesate eniri tien, it is not allowed to enter there. + Lasu lin veni, let him come. + +270. The idea of possibility or probability is given by the use of some +such adverb as "eble", "kredeble", "versxajne", etc.: + + Eble li obeos al vi, he may (perhaps he will) obey you. + Kredeble li sukcesos, probably he will succeed. + Versxajne vi estas prava, you are probably right. + Eble oni lin savus, they might (possibly they would) save him. + Ili nepre ne batis lin, + they could not have (surely did not) beat him. + Tio estas neebla! That can not be (that is impossible)! + + + THE PREFIX "GE-". + +271. Words formed with the prefix "ge-" indicate the two sexes together: + + gepatroj = parents. gefiloj = son(s) and daughter(s). + geavoj = grandparents. gefratoj = brother(s) and sister(s). + genepoj = grandchildren. geedzoj = husband(s) and wife (wives). + gesinjoroj = Mr. and Mrs., lady (ladies) and gentleman (gentlemen). + + + THE SUFFIX "-ACX-". + +272. The suffix "-acx-" has a disparaging significance: + + domacxo = a hovel. pentracxi = to daub. + hundacxo = a cur. popolacxo = rabble, mob. + obstinacxa = obstinate. ridacxi = to guffaw. + + + INTERJECTIONS. + +273. Interjections are words used to express feeling or call attention. +Among the more common interjections are: + + Adiaux! Farewell! (171). Hura! Hurrah! + Fi! Fie! Nu! Well! + Ho! Oh! Ho! Ve! Woe! (Ho ve! Alas!). + +[Footnote: Verbs in the imperative, and adverbs, are frequently used as +interjections, as "Atentu!", Look out!, "Auxskultu!", Hark!, "Bonvenu!", +Welcome!, "Antauxen!", Forward!, "Bone!", Good!, "For!", Away!, "Ja!", +Indeed!, "Jen!", There!, Behold!] + +[Footnote: The interjection "fi" is sometimes used as a disparaging +prefix, like "-acx-" (272), as "fibirdo", ugly bird, "ficxevalo", a +sorry nag.] + + + VOCABULARY + + Aleksandri-o = Alexandria. fond-i = to found, establish. + Amerik-o = America. hispan-o = Spaniard. + Aristotel-o = Aristotle. kapabl-a = capable. + Auxstrali-o = Australia. komun-a = common, mutual. + bibliotek-o = library. kontinent-o = continent. + eduk-i = to bring up, educate. Krist-o = Christ. + Egipt-o = Egypt. milion-o = million. + estim-i = to esteem. spite = in spite of. + firm-a = firm. vast-a = vast, extensive. + + + ALEKSANDRO GRANDA. + +Permesu ke mi diru kelkajn vortojn pri la vivo de Aleksandro Granda, +kiu ne estis matura viro sed havis nur dudek jarojn kiam li farigxis +regxo. Liaj gepatroj estis tre zorge edukintaj lin, kaj la filozofo +Aristotelo, kiun li tre alte estimis, estis unu el liaj instruistoj. +Aleksandro firme tenadis sian propran regxolandon, kaj ankaux Grekujon, +kiun lia patro estis venkinta; krom tio, li faris militadojn kontraux +diversaj fremdaj landoj, unue en Azio, tiam en Afriko, kie li fondis +urbon, kaj gxin nomis Aleksandrio. Aleksandrio nepre estis belega ricxa +urbo. Tie trovigxis* poste la fama Aleksandria biblioteko. Se gxi ne +estus detruita de fajro, en la dauxro de iuj militadoj, ni sendube konus +multe pli bone la sciadon de la antikvaj grekoj, kiuj versxajne estis la +plej klera popolo iam vivinta en Euxropo. Venkinte Egipton, Aleksandro +reiris en Azion, gxis tre orienta kaj suda partoj, venkante cxiujn cxie, +kvazaux ili estus la plej malkuragxaj popolacxoj en la mondo. Sed spite +cxies petoj li estis obstinacxe nezorgema pri sia sano, kaj subite, +ho ve, li mortis pro febro, tricent dektri jarojn antaux Kristo. Se +li ne estus tiel frue mortinta, kiel multe li estus eble elfarinta! +Li esperis venki Hispanujon, Italujon, kaj, mallongavorte, tiom de la +okcidenta mondo kiom li jam posedis de la orienta. Tiam li celis kunigi +cxion en unu vastan imperion, kvazaux por fari el la mondo unu grandan +familion. Li intencis ke la milionoj da enlogxantoj akceptu komunajn +legxojn kaj kutimojn, ecx komunan lingvon, -- kredeble la grekan. Eble +li ja havis la kapablecon por fari cxion cxi. Estas pro tio ke oni ofte +auxdas la diron "Aleksandro sopiris je aliaj mondoj por venki." Tamen, +kiel malgranda estis tiu mondo kiun li konis! La tiamuloj konis nur +malgrandan parton de Afriko, de Azio, ecx de Euxropo. Ili sciis nenion +pri Anglujo, aux pri la vastaj kontinentoj Auxstralio, norda kaj suda +Amerikoj. + +[Footnote: The use of "trovigxi", and also of "sin trovi", "kusxi", +"stari" and "sidi", in a sense not greatly differing from that of +"esti", avoids the monotonous repetition of forms of "esti", just as +English uses "lie", "sit", "perch", etc., in narration for similar +reasons: +Multaj vilagxoj trovigxas tie, + many villages are (situated) there. +Egipto trovigxas en la nordorienta parto de Afriko, + Egypt is (found) in the northeastern part of Africa. +Li sin trovis sola en la dezerto, + he found himself (he was) alone in the desert. +La urbo kusxis inter du lagoj, + the city lay between two lakes. +Sur la montflanko sidis vilagxeto, + on the mountainside perched a tiny village.] + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Alexander the Great wished to unite the whole world into one vast +empire. 2. He intended that all the different peoples should conform to +common laws and that their sons-and-daughters should speak one common +language, and in spite of their love for their national languages, +should leave-off speaking them. 3. Possibly he might have accomplished +his object to some extent (217), if he had not died suddenly when he +was only thirty-two years old. 4. His soldiers marched weeping past his +tent, to bid farewell to their dying leader. 5. They must have esteemed +him very highly! 6. It was Alexander who founded the city of Alexandria, +in Egypt, where approximately three hundred years before Christ the +famous Alexandrian library was located. 7. It contained an enormous +collection-of-books -- almost seven hundred thousand. 8. Alas, this +extensive library was destroyed by fire! 9. Alexander, who "sighed for +other worlds to conquer," did not even know of the existence of North +and South America, Australia, or even of England and Northern Europe. +10. Beside his Asiatic empire, he knew very little of Asia, even of +China, with its millions of inhabitants. 11. How small the world was in +those days! + + + + LESSON LIX. + + + THE POSITION OF UNEMPHATIC PRONOUNS. + +274. An unemphatic personal, indefinite or demonstrative pronoun +very frequently precedes the verb of which it is the object. This is +especially true if the verb in question is an infinitive: + + Mi volas lin vidi, I wish to see him. + Li povos tion fari, he will be able to do that. + Vi devus ion mangxi, you ought to eat something. + Cxu vi gxin kredis? Did you believe it? + Se li min vidus, li min savus, if he should see me, he would save me. + +[Footnote: Cf. in other languages, as in German "ich moechte ihn +sehen", French "je veux le voir", Latin "se alunt, me defendi", etc. +That such pronouns "are" unemphatic can be seen from English "let +her come" (= "let'er come"), "make him stop" (= "make'im stop"), +etc., in which the unemphatic forms "er, im", replace "him, her", in +pronunciation (cf. the Greek enclitic pronouns "mou, moi, me, son, +soi, se, ou, oi, e,", the Sanskrit enclitic forms "ma, me, tva, te, +nas, vas, enam, enat, enam," also "sim", and the Avestan "i, im"). +The same phenomenon is indicated in "prithee" (= "pray thee"), and in +the spellings "gimme" (= "give me"), "lemme" (= "let me"), in dialect +stories.] + + + SOME INTRANSITIVE VERBS. + +275. Some intransitive verbs have English meanings which do not differ +in form from the transitive English verbs to which they are related. +In Esperanto the suffix "-ig-" (214) must be used when the transitive +meaning is desired. Some examples are given in the following table: + + Verb. Intransitive Use. Transitive Use. + + Boli . . . . La akvo bolas Li boligas la akvon + The water boils He boils the water + + Bruli. . . . La fajro brulas Li bruligis la paperon + The fire burns He burned the paper + + Cxesi. . . . La bruo cxesas Li cxesigas la bruon + The noise stops He stops the noise + + Dauxri . . . La bruo dauxras Li dauxrigas la bruon + The noise continues He continues the noise + + Degeli . . . La glacio degelas Li gxin degeligas per fajro + The ice thaws He thaws it with fire + + Droni. . . . La knabino dronis La viro sxin dronigis + The girl drowned The man drowned her + + Eksplodi . . Pulvo eksplodas Li gxin eksplodigos + Gunpowder explodes He will explode it + + Halti. . . . Li haltis timigite Li haltigis la soldatojn + He halted in alarm He halted the soldiers + + Lumi . . . . La suno lumas Li lumigis la lampon + The sun shines He lighted the lamp + + Pasi . . . . La tempo pasas Tiel li pasigis la tagon + Time passes Thus he passed the day + + Pendi. . . . Gxi pendas de brancxo Li gxin pendigis de brancxo + It hangs on a branch He hung it on a branch + + Soni . . . . La saluta pafo sonis Oni sonigis la salutan pafon + The salute sounded They sounded the salute + + Sonori . . . La sonorilo sonoris Oni sonorigis la sonorilon + The bell rang They rang the bell + +[Footnote: A transitive use of such intransitive verbs would be like +using the English intransitive verb "learn" for the transitive verb +"teach," as in the "I'll learn you" (for "I'll teach you") of illiterate +speech.] + + + THE SUFFIX "-ER-". + +276. The suffix "-er-" is used to form words expressing units or +component parts of that which is indicated in the root: + + fajrero = spark (of fire). negxero = snowflake. + monero = coin. sablero = grain of sand. + + + THE PREFIXES "BO-" AND "DUON-". + +277. The prefix "bo-" indicates relationship by marriage. To indicate +half-blood relationship, or step-relationship, "duon-" (166) is used: + + bopatro = father-in-law. duonpatro = stepfather. + bofratino = sister-in-law. duonfrato = half-brother. + + + CORRESPONDENCE. + +278. a. Letters should be dated as indicated in the following: + + Bostono, je la 24a de decembro, 1912a. + Nov-Jorko, la 24an decembro, 1912a. + Sirakuzo, 24/XII/1912. + +b. The usual methods of address are (to strangers and in business +letters): "Sinjoro, Sinjorino, Estimata Sinjoro, Karaj Sinjoroj, Tre +estimata Frauxlino," etc.; (to friends and relatives) "Kara Frauxlino, +Karaj Gefratoj, Kara Amiko, Kara Mario, Patrino mia," (placing the +possessive adjective after the noun in this way gives an affectionate +sense, as in English "Mother mine," etc) etc.; (to persons whose +opinions on some subject are known to agree with those of the writer) +"Estimata (Kara) Samideano" ("follower of the same idea"). + +c. Among the more usual forms of conclusion are (to strangers and in +business letters): "Tre fidele la via, Tre vere, Kun granda estimo, Kun +plej alta estimo," etc., (to friends): "Kun amika saluto, Kun cxiuj +bondeziroj, Kun samideanaj salutoj, Frate la via," etc. + + + VOCABULARY + + adres-o = address. krajon-o = pencil. + apart-a = separate. mend-i = to order (of stores, etc). + bedaur-i = to regret. Nov-Jorko = New York. + cxef-a = chief. numer-o = number (numeral). + do = so, then. ofic-o = office, employment. + fontan-o = fountain. posxt-o = post (letters, etc.). + hotel-o = hotel. respekt-o = respect. + ink-o = ink. special-a = special. + konven-a = suitable. stat-o = state (political body) + kovert-o = envelope (for letters) tram-o = tram. + +[Footnote: "Cxef-" is often used in descriptive compounds (167, b), +as "cxefkuiristo", chief (head) cook, chef, "cxefurbo", chief city, +capital, "cxefangxelo", archangel.] + + + * * * * * + + + KELKAJ LETEROJ. + + + * * * * * + + + Sirakuzo, la 2an de marto, 1911. + +Kara Amiko, + + Sendube vin surprizos ricevi leteron skribitan de mi cxe hotelo en +cxi tiu urbo, ne tre malproksime de via propra oficejo! Via bofrato, +kiun mi okaze renkontis hieraux en la posxtoficejo, donis al mi vian +adreson. Gxis nun, mi estas tiel okupata ke mi ne havis la tempon ecx +por telefoni al vi. Sed nun mi havas du aux tri minutojn da libera +tempo, kaj mi tuj ekkaptas la okazon por skribi letereton, petante ke +vi vespermangxu kun mi hodiaux vespere, cxe la hotelo kie, kiel vi +vidas, mi logxas de antaux unu tago. (Pardonu, mi petas, "ke" mi finas +cxi tiun leteron per krajono, sed mi jxus eltrovis ke restas neniom +plu da inko en mia fontanplumo.) Venu je la sesa, se tiu horo estas +konvena. Bedauxrinde ("unfortunately"), mi devos forresti de la hotelo +la tutan posttagmezon, pri komercaj aferoj, alie mi vin renkontus cxe +la tramvojo, kie haltas la tramveturiloj ("streetcars"). Estos plej +bone, mi opinias, ke vi iru rekte al mia cxambro, numero 26, kie mi +senprokraste vin renkontos, se mi ne estos efektive jam vin atendanta. +Ni esperu ke la cxefkuiristo preparos al ni bonan mangxon! Mi esperas +ke vi malatentos la falantajn negxerojn, kaj nepre venos, responde al +mia iomete subita invito, cxar ni ja havos multe da komunaj travivajxoj +por priparoli. Do gxis la baldauxa revido je la vespermangxo! + + Kun plej amikaj salutoj, + + Roberto. + + +[Footnote: The word "tial" may be omitted from the combination "tial ke" +(83), if the meaning is obvious.] + + + * * * * * + + + Boston, 13/VII/1911. + +Wilson kaj Jones, + Nov-Jorko. +Estimataj Sinjoroj:-- + Bonvolu sendi al mi per revenanta posxto vian plej novan prezaron +("price-list"). Ni baldaux bezonos iujn novajn meblojn por niaj +oficejoj, precipe skribtablojn, tablojn konvenajn por skribmasxinoj +("typewriters"), kaj specialajn librujojn, farotajn laux niaj bezonoj. +Se viaj prezoj estas konvenaj, ni sendube volos mendi de vi tian +meblaron. Kun respekto, + J. F. Smith, + cxe Brown kaj Brown. + + + * * * * * + + + Nov-Jorko, 17/VII/1911. + +Sinjoro J. F. Smith, + cxe Brown kaj Brown, + Nov-Jorko. +Estimata Sinjoro:-- + Ni havas la honoron sendi al vi en aparta koverto nian plej novan +prezaron, al kiu ni petas ke vi donu vian atenton, precipe al pagxoj +15-29. Tie vi trovos priskribitaj niajn plej bonajn oficejajn meblarojn. +Ni senpage metos cxiujn acxetitajn meblojn sur la vagonaron, sed +kompreneble ni ne pagos la koston de la sendado. + Ni plezure fabrikos specialajn librujojn laux viaj bezonoj, kaj +volonte ricevos viajn ordonojn pri tio. Niaj prezoj estos kiel eble plej +malaltaj. + Esperante ke la meblaroj priskribitaj en nia prezaro, kune kun la +tie-presitaj prezoj, estos plene kontentigaj, kaj certigante al vi ke ni +zorge plenumos cxiun mendon, ni restas, + Tre respekte la viaj, + Wilson kaj Jones. + + + * * * * * + + + Bostono, la 27an Majo. + +Sinjoro B. F. Brown, + Sirakuzo, Nov-Jorka Sxtato. +Kara Sinjoro:-- + Vian adreson ni dankas al niaj komunaj amikoj Sinjoroj Miller kaj +White, kaj per cxi tio ni permesas al ni proponi al vi niajn servojn por +la vendado de tiaj infanludiloj, kiajn vi fabrikas. Ni havas bonegajn +montrajn fenestrojn ("show-windows"), en nia butiko, preskaux meze de la +cxefstrato en la urbo, kaj en nia butiko trovigxas suficxe da grandaj +vitramebloj ("show-cases"). Tial ni povus tre oportune administri +tian aferon. Ni multe gxojos se vi respondos kiel eble plej baldaux, +sciigante al ni kiom da procento vi donos, kaj kiajn arangxojn vi volus +fari. Ni certigas al vi ke en cxiu okazo ni penos fari nian eblon por +via plej bona intereso. + Kun alta estimo, + D. Rose. + + + + LESSON LX. + + + SOME TRANSITIVE VERBS. + +279. Some transitive verbs have English meanings which do not differ in +form from the "intransitive" English verbs to which they are related +(conversely to the use explained in 275). In Esperanto the suffix +"-igx-" (232), or a different root, must be used when an intransitive +meaning is desired. Following are the more common verbs of this +character, together with examples of the intransitive use of several of +them: + + balanci = to balance. renversi = to upset, to overturn. + etendi = to extend, to expand. rompi = to break. + fermi = to close, to shut. ruli = to roll, (wheel, ball, etc.). + fini = to end, to finish. skui = to shake. + fleksi = to bend, to flex. strecxi = to stretch. + hejti = to heat. svingi = to swing. + klini = to incline, to bend. sxanceli = to cause to vacillate. + kolekti = to gather, to collect. sxangxi = to change. + komenci = to begin, to commence. sxiri = to tear. + mezuri = to measure. turni = to turn. + montri = to show. veki = to wake. + movi = to move. versxi = to pour. + pasxti = to pasture, to feed. volvi = to roll (around something). + + La laboro nun finigxas, the work is now coming to an end. + La glavo fleksigxis, the sword bent. + La folioj disvolvigxas, the leaves unroll (develop). + Cxiu kutimo sxangxigxos, every custom will change. + La vintro jam komencigxas, the winter is already beginning. + Mi vekigxos je la sesa, I shall awake at six (o'clock). + La montrilo sxanceligxis, the indicator trembled (vacillated). + Vasta ebenajxo etendigxis antaux li, + a vast plain extended before him. + + + ELISION. + +280. Elision is not common, and its use in writing as well as in +speaking is best avoided. It occurs most frequently in poetry. + +a. The "-a" of the article may be elided before a word beginning with +avowel, or after a preposition ending in a vowel: + + L' espero, l' obstino kaj la pacienco. + De l' montoj riveretoj fluas. + Kaj kantas tra l' pura aero. + +b. The final "-o" of a noun may be elided in poetry. The original accent +of the noun remains unchanged: + + Ho, mia kor', ne batu maltrankvile. + Sur la kampo la rozet'. + +c. The final "-e" of an adverb is very rarely elided (except in the +expression "dank' al", which occurs in prose as well as in poetry): + + Ke povu mi foj' je eterno ekdormi! + Dank' al vi, mi sukcesis. (Thanks to you, I succeeded.) + + + THE PREFIX "EKS-". + +281. The prefix "eks-" is used to form words expressing a previous +incumbent of a position, or removal from such position: + + eksprezidanto, ex-president. + eksregxo, ex-king. + eksigi, to put out of office, to discharge. + eksigxi, to withdraw from one's office, to resign. + + + THE PREFIX "PRA-". + +282. The prefix "pra-" is used to form words expressing precedence in +the line of descent, or general remoteness in past time: + + praavo = great grandfather. prapatroj = forefathers, ancestors. + pranepo = great grandson. pratempa = primeval. + + + THE SUFFIXES "-CXJ-" AND "-NJ-". + +283. The suffix "-cxj-" is used to form affectionate diminutives, from +the first syllable or syllables of masculine names or terms of address. +The suffix "-nj-" forms similar feminine diminutives: + + Jocxjo = Johnnie, Joe. Manjo = May, Mamie. + Pacxjo = Papa. Panjo = Mamma. + + + WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. + +284. National systems of weights and measures translated into +international form (as "mejlo", mile, "funto", pound) cannot convey a +very definite meaning to one not familiar with the particular system +used. Consequently the metric system (already used by scientists +everywhere and by the general public in many countries) is adopted for +the international system of weights and measures: + + Length and Surface. + + milimetro = millimeter (.0394 inch). + centimetro = centimeter (.3937 inch). + decimetro = decimeter (3.937 inches). + metro = meter (39.37 inches). + dekametro = dekameter (393.7 inches). + hektometro = hektometer (328 feet 1 inch). + kilometro = kilometer (3280 feet 10 inches; .62137 mile). + kvadrata metro = square meter (1550 square inches). + hektaro = hektare (2.471 acres). + + Weight. + + gramo = gram (15.432 grains avoirdupois). + dekagramo = dekagram (.3527 ounce avoirdupois). + hektogramo = hektogram (3.5274 ounce avoirdupois). + kilogramo = kilogram (2.2046 pounds avoirdupois). + + Capacity. + + decilitro = deciliter (6.1022 cubic inches; .845 gill). + litro = liter (.908 quart, dry measure; 1.0567 quart, liquid). + dekalitro = dekaliter (9.08 quart, dry measure; 2.6417 gallons). + hektolitro = hektoliter (2 bushels 3.35 pecks; 26.417 gallons). + kilolitro = kiloliter (1.308 cubic yards; 264.17 gallons). + + + THE INTERNATIONAL MONEY SYSTEM. + +285. Names of national coins translated into international form (as +"dolaro", dollar, "cendo", cent) cannot convey a very definite meaning +to persons not familiar with these coins. Consequently the system +devised for international use (not for actual coins, but for calculation +and price quotations) is based upon a unit called the "speso". The +multiples of this unit are the "spesdeko" (10 spesoj), "spescento" (100 +spesoj), and "spesmilo" (1000 spesoj). Ten spesmiloj have approximately +the value of a five-dollar gold piece, twenty marks, twenty-five francs, +one pound sterling, etc. The spesmilo, equivalent to about $0.4875 in +the money of the United States and Canada, is the unit commonly used. +(To reduce dollars to spesmiloj, multiply by 2.051.) + + + ABBREVIATIONS. + +286. The following abbreviations are often used (for those of the metric +system see any English dictionary): + + Dro. = Doktoro, [Dr.] Sm. = spesmilo(j). + Fino. = Frauxlino, [Miss]. Sd. = spesdeko(j). + Pro. = Profesoro, [Prof.] k.t.p. = kaj tiel plu, [and so forth]. + Sro. = Sinjoro, [Mr.] k.c. = kaj ceteraj, [etc.] + Sino. = Sinjorino, [Mrs.] k.sim. = kaj simila(j), [et. sim.] + Ko. = K-io., Kompanio, [Co.] t.e. = tio estas, [i.e.] + No. = N-ro., Numero, [No.] e. = ekzemple, [e.g.] + & = kaj, &. p.s. = postskribajxo, [P.S.] + + + VOCABULARY. + + abon-i = to subscribe to, take. led-o = leather. + aparat-o = apparatus. metal-o = metal. + auxtomat-a = automatic. moment-o = moment. + bov-o = ox. negativ-o = negative. + dimensi-o = dimension. objektiv-o = lens, objective. + ekzempl-o = example. original-o = original. + fokus-o = focus. plat-o = plate (photographic,etc) + fotograf-i = to photograph. prov-i = to try. + funkci-i = to function, work. reklam-i = to advertise. + kamer-o = camera. strecx-i = to stretch (trans.). + +[Footnote: Cf. the difference between "provi", to try, in the sense of +testing, making an essay or endeavor, "peni", to try, in the sense of +taking pains or making an effort, and "jugxi", to try, in a judicial +sense.] + + + * * * * * + + + PRI LA KAMERO. + + Bostono, 12/XI/1910. + +Brown kaj Ko., + Nov-Jorko. +Sinjoroj:-- + Vidinte vian reklamon en gazeto al kiu mi abonas, mi skribas por +peti ke vi sendu al mi priskribajxon de via kamero nomita "La Infaneto," +kiun eble mi deziros provi. + Bonvolu ankaux sendi dekduonon da platoj, 6 x 9 centimetrojn, por kiu +mi cxi* kune sendas spesmilon kaj duonon. + Kun respekto, + J. C. Smith. + +[Footnote: The particle "cxi" (used with "tiu, tio, ties, cxiu, cxio") +may also be used with certain adverbs, as "cxi sube", "here below", "cxi +supre", "here above", "cxi kune", "herewith", etc.] + + + * * * * * + + + Nov-Jorko, 18an novembro, 1910. + +Kara Sinjoro:-- + Respondante al via estimata letero de la 12a, ni donas cxi sube +mallongan priskribajxon de nia bonega fotografilo nomita "La Infaneto." + "La Infaneto" kamero havis neesperitan sukceson, kaj estas vendita +po miloj da ekzempleroj. Cxie oni unuvocxe lauxdas gxian malgrandan +kaj tamen bonegan konstruon, kaj ankaux gxian firman samtempe facilan +funkciadon. Gxi ne estas pli granda ol monujo, tial gxi ne bezonas pli +multe da spaco ol tiu, kaj povas esti portata kaj uzata treege konvene. + La dimensioj de la fermita kamero estas 8 x 5 x 6.5 centimetroj. La +pezo, kun objektivo, tri platingoj, kaj malbrila ("ground") vitro, estas +365 gramoj. "La Infaneto" estas konstruita tute el metalo, kaj kovrita +de bonega bovledo. Kiam oni malfermas la aparaton, la objektivo samtempe +enfokusigxas, tiamaniere ke la kamero estas preta por uzado post unu +sekundo, cxar la objektivfermilo ("shutter") estas cxiam strecxita. +Sekve: neniaj preparadoj, nenia prokrasto je la ekfotografado. + La negativoj estas klaraj gxis la bordo, kaj tial konvenaj por +pligrandigo. Cetere, oni scias ke bona pligrandigo ofte pli kontentigas +ol malgranda originalo. Precipe cxe promenoj kaj vojagxoj oni tial +volonte preferas la malgrandan "Infaneton," por poste pligrandigi la +negativojn. + Por la pligrandigo ni fabrikas specialajn taglum-pligrandigajn +aparatojn, kies prezoj estas malaltaj (vidu en nia prezaro). + Ni ne sxangxis la konstruon de "La Infaneto" de post 1909, cxar +gxis nun gxi estas cxiurilate kontentiga. Sole la rapideca reguligo +de la momenta ("instantaneous") fermilo estas plibonigita, cxar ni +gxin fabrikas kun speciala auxtomata fermilo, kiu estas arangxita por +malfermoj dauxraj ("time exposures"), kaj momentaj, je unu sekundo +gxis unu centono da sekundo. + Esperante ke ni baldaux ricevos mendon de vi, kaj certigante al vi +ke ni tre zorge plenumos iun ajn mendon, ni restas. + Tre respekte la viaj, + Brown & Ko. + Per C. + + + + * * * * * + + + + ESPERANTO-ENGLISH VOCABULARY. + +The following vocabulary includes all roots used in the preceding +Lessons, all primary words of the language, and a large number of +additional roots (to facilitate original composition). No attempt has +been made, however, to include all of the roots in the language, for +which an Esperanto-English Dictionary should be consulted. + +References are to sections, unless the page (p.) is given. For other +parts of speech than those indicated under each root or primary word, +see Word Formation, 116, 120, 159, 171. See also the references given +under each prefix and suffix. For formation of compound words, see 160, +167, 176, 184. The following abbreviations are used: adj. = adjective; +adv. = adverb; conj. = conjunction; intrans. = intransitive; prep. = +preposition; trans. = transitive; -- = repetition of the word. + + A. + +abel-o = bee. +abi-o = fir. +abiturient-o = bachelor of arts (A.B.). +abomen-a = abominable. +abon-i = to subscribe to, take (magazine, etc.). +abrikot-o = apricot. +acer-o = maple (tree). +acid-a = acid, sour. +-acx- = derogatory suffix (272). +acxet-i = to buy. +-ad- = suffix indicating duration (218). +adiaux = (adv. and interjection), farewell, good-bye (171, 273). +adjektiv-o = adjective. +administr-i = to administer, to manage. +admir-i = to admire. +admon-i = to exhort, admonish. +ador-i = to worship, adore. +adres-o = address (on letters, etc.). +adverb-o = adverb. +advokat-o = lawyer, barrister. +aer-o = air. +afabl-a = affable, amiable. +afer-o = affair, matter, thing, cause. +afisx-o = handbill, placard, poster. +afrank-i = to frank (letters), prepay; --ite, post-paid. +Afrik-o = Africa. +ag-i = to act, perform action. +agac-i = to set on edge (of teeth). +agent-o = agent. +agit-i = to agitate. +agl-o = eagle. +agoni-o = agony. +agrabl-a = agreeable, pleasant. +agx-o = age. +ajn = (adv.), ever (236). +-ajx- = (suffix forming concrete words) (227). +akademi-o = academy. +akcel-i = (trans.), to accelerate, hasten. +akcent-o = accent, stress. +akcept-i = to accept, receive, welcome. +akcident-o = accident. +akir-i = to acquire. +akompan-i = to accompany. +akr-a = sharp, acute, shrill. +akrid-o = grasshopper. +aks-o = axis, axle. +akt-o = act (of a play). +aktiv-a = active (grammatical). +aktor-o = actor (player). +akurat-a = accurate, exact. +akuz-i = to accuse. +akuzativ-o = accusative. +akv-o = water. +akvarel-o = water-color painting. +akvari-o = aquarium. +al = (prep.), to, toward (46, 160, 251, 252). +alauxd-o = lark (bird). +ale-o = avenue, walk, path (of garden, park, etc.). +Aleksandri-o = Alexandria. +Aleksandr-o = Alexander. +alfabet-o = alphabet. +Alfred-o = Alfred. +algebr-o = algebra. +ali-a = other. +alk-o = elk. +alkohol-o = alcohol. +alkov-o = alcove, recess. +almanak-o = almanac. +almenaux = (adv.), at least (66). +almoz-o = alms; --ulo, beggar. +alt-a = high, tall. +altar-o = altar. +alud-i = to allude to. +alumet-o = match (for fire). +am-i = to love. +amas-o = crowd, throng, mass. +ambaux = (pronoun), both (of two objects naturally in pairs,or of + persons or things assumed or already known to be thus grouped) (238). +ambos-o = anvil. +amel-o = starch. +Amerik-o = America. +amfibi-a = amphibious. +amfiteatr-o = amphitheatre. +amik-o = friend. +amindum-i = to woo, make love. +ampleks-o = extent, dimension. +amuz-i = to amuse. +-an- = suffix denoting membership, etc. (145). +analiz-i = to analyse. +ananas-o = pineapple. +anas-o = duck. +anekdot-o = anecdote. +Angl-o = Englishman. +angul-o = angle, corner. +angxel-o = angel. +anim-o = soul. +ankaux = (adv.), also. +ankoraux = (adv), still, yet. +ankr-o = anchor. +anonc-i = to announce. +ans-o = latch, door-handle. +anser-o = goose. +anstataux = (prep.), instead of (98, 159). +antaux = (prep.), before (89, 90, 120, 159, 160), + "antaux ol" (conj.), 97, 98. +antikv-a = ancient, antique. +antilop-o = antelope. +antipati-o = antipathy. +aparat-o = apparatus. +apart-a = separate. +apartament-o = apartment, suite (of rooms). +aparten-i = to belong. +apati-o = apathy. +apenaux = (adv.), scarcely, hardly. +aper-i = to appear. +apetit-o = appetite. +aplauxd-i = to applaud. +aplomb-o = assurance, self-command. +apog-i = to lean, to rest (upon). +apologi-o = apology, vindication. +apotek-o = pharmacy, drugstore, chemist's shop. +april-o = April. +aprob-i = to approve. +apud = (prep.), near to, close by (120, 159). +-ar- = suffix forming collectives (126). +Arab-o = Arab. +arane-o = spider. +arangx-i = to arrange. +arb-o = tree. +arbitraci-i = to arbitrate. +ardez-o = slate (stone). +aren-o = arena. +arest-i = to arrest. +argil-o = clay. +argument-i = to argue. +argxent-o = silver (metal). +arhxitektur-o = architecture. +Arhximed-o = Archimedes. +ari-o = tune, air (music). +Aristejd-o = Aristeides. +aristokrat-o = aristocrat. +Aristotel-o = Aristotle. +aritmetik-o = arithmetic. +ark-o = arc. +arkad-o = arcade. +arm-i = to arm. +arme-o = army. +armoraci-o = horse-radish. +arogant-a = arrogant. +arom-o = aroma, fragrance. +art-o = art. +artik-o = joint. +artikol-o = article (grammatical or literary). +Artur-o = Arthur. +asekur-i = to insure (with a company). +asoci-o = association (organization). +asparag-o = asparagus. +aspekt-o = aspect, appearance. +astr-o = heavenly body, star. +atak-i = to attack. +atend-i = to wait, wait for, expect. +atent-a = attentive. +atest-i = to attest, give witness, certify. +ating-i = to attain, reach. +atlas-o = satin. +atlet-o = athlete. +atmosfer-o = atmosphere. +atribut-o = attribute. +aux = (conj.), or, either. +auxd-i = to hear. +auxgust-o = August. +auxskult-i = to listen. +Auxstrali-o = Australia. +auxtomat-a = automatic. +auxtor-o = author. +auxtun-o = autumn. +av-o = grandfather. +avar-a = avaricious, miserly. +avel-o = hazel-nut. +aven-o = oats. +avert-i = to warn, caution. +avid-a = eager. +aviz-i = to give notice. +azen-o = ass, donkey. +Azi-o = Asia. +azot-o = nitrogen. + + B. + +babil-i = to chatter, babble. +bagatel-o = trifle, bagatelle. +bal-o = ball (dance). +bak-i = to bake. +bala-i = to sweep (a floor, etc.). +balanc-i = (trans.), to balance, poise; --i la kapon, to nod the head. +baldaux = (adv.), soon. +balen-o = whale. +ban-i = (trans.), to bathe. +banan-o = banana. +bandagx-i = to bandage. +bank-o = bank (financial). +bankrot-i = to become bankrupt, fail. +bant-o = bow (of ribbon). +bar-i = (trans.), to bar, to obstruct. +barakt-i = to wrestle, struggle. +barb-o = beard. +barbar-o = barbarian. +barel-o = barrel. +bariton-o = barytone. +bas-o = bass (voice). +baston-o = stick. +bat-i = to beat. +batal-i = to fight, battle. +batat-o = sweet potato. +bedauxr-i = to regret. +bek-o = beak, bill. +bel-a = beautiful, handsome. +belg-o = Belgian. +ben-i = to bless. +benk-o = bench. +ber-o = berry. +best-o = animal, beast. +bet-o = beet. +bezon-i = to need, want. +bibliotek-o = library. +bicikl-o = bicycle. +bien-o = land, property, estate. +bier-o = beer. +bifstek-o = beefsteak. +bild-o = picture, image. +bilet-o = ticket, note; bank--, bank-note, bill. +bird-o = bird. +bis = (adv.), once more, a second time, encore. +biskvit-o = biscuit. +blank-a = white. +blek-i = to neigh, bleat, give its cry (of any animal). +blind-a = blind. +blov-i = to blow. +blu-a = blue (color). +bluz-o = blouse. +bo- = prefix expressing relationship by marriage (277). +boat-o = boat. +boj-i = to bark (of dogs). +bol-i = (intrans.), to boil. +bombon-o = bonbon, sweet. +bon-a = good; --veni, to welcome. +bor-i = to bore (holes). +bord-o = shore, bank, edge (of rivers, etc.). +Boston-o = Boston. +bot-o = boot. +botel-o = bottle. +bov-o = ox; --ajxo, beef; --idajxo, veal; --viro, bull. +brak-o = arm (of the body). +brancx-o = branch, bough. +brand-o = brandy. +brasik-o = cabbage; (florbrasiko), cauliflower. +brav-a = brave. +bret-o = shelf, bracket. +brid-o = bridle (of harness). +brik-o = brick, tile. +bril-i = to shine (116). +Brit-o = Briton. +brod-i = to embroider. +bronz-o = bronze. +bros-i = to brush. +brosxur-o = pamphlet, brochure. +brov-o = eyebrow. +bru-o = noise. +brul-i = (intrans.), to burn (275). +brun-a = brown. +brut-o = cattle, dumb animal. +bub-o = street arab, gamin. +bucx-i = to slaughter, butcher. +buf-o = toad. +buk-o = buckle (metal). +buked-o = bouquet. +bukl-o = curl, ringlet (of hair). +bulb-o = onion, bulb. +bulgar-o = Bulgarian. +bulk-o = roll (bread). +bulvard-o = boulevard. +burgxon-o = bud, young shoot. +busx-o = mouth. +buter-o = butter. +butik-o = shop, store. +buton-o = button. + + C. + +cel-i = to aim, have as purpose or goal. +celeri-o = celery. +cend-o = cent (coin). +cent = hundred (142). +centigram-o = centigram (284). +centilitr-o = centiliter (284). +centimetr-o = centimeter (284). +centr-o = center. +cerb-o = brain. +cert-a = certain, sure. +cerv-o = stag, deer. +ceter-a = remaining. +ci = (pronoun), thou (40). +cidoni-o = quince. +cifer-o = cipher. +cigar-o = cigar. +cigared-o = cigarette. +cign-o = swan. +cilindr-o = cylinder. +cinam-o = cinnamon. +cindr-o = ashes. +cir-o = blacking (for shoes). +cirkonstanc-o = circumstance. +cirkuler-o = circular (letter). +Cirus-o = Cyrus. +cit-i = to quote. +citron-o = lemon. +civiliz-i = to civilize. +col-o = inch (measure). + + CX. + +cxagren-i = (trans.), to grieve, vex, annoy. +cxambr-o = room. +cxap-o = cap. +cxapel-o = hat. +cxapitr-o = chapter (of book). +cxar = (conj.), because, since (83). +cxarm-a = charming, delightful. +cxarnir-o = hinge. +cxas-i = to hunt (game or wild animals). +cxe = (prep.), at, in the house or presence of (125, 160). +cxef-a = chief, principal, head. +cxek-o = cheque. +cxemiz-o = shirt, chemise. +cxen-o = chain (for watch, etc.). +cxeriz-o = cherry. +cxes-i = (intrans.), to cease, leave off (275). +cxeval-o = horse; --viro, stallion. +cxi = (adv.), expresses proximity (60, 66). +cxia = of every kind (177). +cxial = (adv.), for every reason (188). +cxiam = (adv.), always (187). +cxie = (adv.), everywhere (182). +cxiel = (adv.), in every way (193). +cxiel-o = heaven, sky. +cxies = (pronoun, possessive), everybody's (174). +cxifon-o = rag. +cxio = (pronoun), everything, all (233). +cxiom = (adv.), all (194). +cxirkaux = (prep.), around, roundabout (89, 120, 159, 160). +cxiu = (pronoun and adj.), every one, each (173). +-cxj- = suffix forming affectionate diminutives (283). +cxokolad-o = chocolate. +cxu = (adv.), whether (when translated) (30, 66). + + D. + +da = (prep.), of (after quantitative noun or adv.) (99, 101, 103). +daktil-o = date (fruit). +Damokl-o = Damocles. +dan-o = Dane. +danc-i = to dance. +dangxer-o = danger. +dank-i = to thank. +dat-o = date (chronological). +dauxr-i = (intrans.), to continue, last. +de = (prep.), of, from, by (49, 89, l00, 160, 169, 170). +dec-i = to be proper, decent; "ne decas ke vi iru", it is not proper + for you to go. +decembr-o = December. +decid-i = to decide. +decigram-o = decigram (284). +decilitr-o = deciliter (284). +decimetr-o = decimeter (284). +defend-i = to defend. +degel-i = (intrans.), to thaw (275). +dejxor-i = to be on duty (of officer, attendant, etc.). +dek = (adj.), ten (136). +dekagram-o = dekagram (284). +dekalitr-o = dekaliter (284). +dekametr-o = dekameter (284). +deklam-i = to declaim, recite. +dekstr-a = right (not left). +deleg-i = to delegate. +delikat-a = delicate, dainty, nice. +demand-i = to ask, inquire. +dens-a = dense, thick, close. +dent-o = tooth. +depesx-o = a dispatch. +des = (adv.), the more (used with "pli", 84). +desert-o = dessert. +detal-o = detail. +detru-i = to destroy. +dev-i = to have to, must (247). +dezert-o = desert, waste. +dezir-i = to desire. +Di-o = God. +diamant-o = diamond. +difekt-i = to damage, spoil. +diferenc-a = different. +difin-i = to define, to destine. +dik-a = thick, corpulent. +dikt-i = to dictate (letters, etc.) +diligent-a = diligent. +dimancx-o = Sunday. +dimensi-o = dimension. +Diogen-o = Diogenes. +diplom-o = diploma. +diplomat-o = diplomat. +dir-i = to say (77). +direkt-i = to direct, guide, manage. +dis- = prefix expressing separation (245). +diskut-i = to discuss. +distanc-o = distance. +disting-i = to distinguish. +distr-i = to distract, take away the attention. +diven-i = to guess. +divers-a = varied, diverse, different. +divid-i = (trans.), to divide. +do = consequently, then, so. +doktor-o = doctor. +dolar-o = dollar. +dolcx-a = sweet, pleasant. +dolor-o = pain, ache. +dom-o = house. +domagx-o = pity, regrettable affair. +don-i = to give. +donac-i = to make a gift, present. +dorlot-i = to caress, fondle, pet. +dorm-i = to sleep. +dorn-o = thorn. +dors-o = back (of the body). +dot-i = to endow. +drap-o = cloth. +drog-o = drug. +dron-i = (intrans.), to drown (275). +du = (adj.), two (136) +dub-i = to doubt. +dum = (prep and conj.), during, while (96, 120, 159). +dung-i = (trans.), to hire (persons). + + E. + +eben-a = even, flat, level. +-ebl- = suffix expressing possibility (161, 162). +ebri-a = inebriate, intoxicated. +-ec- = suffix forming abstracts (202). +ecx = (adv.), even. +eduk-i = to bring up, educate. +edz-o = husband, married man. +efekt-o = effect. +efektiv-a = real, actual. +efik-i = to be efficacious, act (on), produce a result. +-eg- = suffix forming augmentatives (122). +egal-a = equal. +Egipt-o = Egypt. +ehx-o = echo. +-ej- = suffix forming words indicating place (III). +ek- = prefix expressing suddenness or beginning (206). +eks- = prefix expressing former incumbency (281). +ekscit-i = to excite. +eksperiment-i = to experiment. +eksplod-i = (intrans.), to explode. +ekster = (prep.), outside of (120, 121). +ekzamen-i = to examine, test. +ekzempl-o = example. +ekzempler-o = copy (of book or magazine). +ekzerc-i = (trans.), to exercise. +ekzil-i = to exile, banish +ekzist-i = to exist. +el = (prep.), out of, of, out (75, 106, 138, 197, 264, c). +elekt-i = to choose. +elektr-a = electric. +elokvent-a = eloquent. +-em- = suffix expressing propensity or inclination (192). +eminent-a = eminent. +en = (prep.), in (89,160), into (46). +energi-o = energy. +entrepren-i = to undertake. +entuziasm-o = enthusiasm. +enu-i = to be wearied, be bored. +envi-i = to envy. +epok-o = epoch, period, time. +-er- = suffix expressing a component part (276). +erar-i = to err, make a mistake. +escept-i = to except (266). +esper-i = to hope. +esplor-i = to investigate, explore. +esprim-i = to express. +est-i = to be (109). +establ-i = to establish. +estim-i = to esteem. +esting-i = to extinguish. +-estr- = suffix expressing leadership or authority (253). +-et- = suffix forming diminutives (198). +etagx-o = story (of a house); teretagxo, ground floor; + unua etagxo, second story. +etend-i = (trans.), to extend, lengthen, widen. +etern-a = eternal. +Euxrop-o = Europe. +evangeli-o = gospel, evangel. +evit-i = to avoid, shun. +evoluci-o = evolution. + + F. + +fab-o = bean (leguminous fruit). +fabel-o = story, tale. +fabl-o = fable. +fabrik-i = to manufacture. +facil-a = easy. +faden-o = thread. +fajf-i = to whistle. +fajr-o = fire. +fak-o = department, specialty. +fakt-o = fact. +fal-i = to fall. +fald-i = to fold. +fals-i = to falsify, forge, debase. +fam-o = fame, renown, rumor. +famili-o = family. +familiar-a = familiar, accustomed. +fand-i = (trans.), to smelt, fuse (metals, etc.). +fanfaron-i = to boast, vaunt oneself, brag. +fantom-o = phantom, ghost. +far-i = to make, do, render. +faraon-o = pharaoh (Egyptian ruler). +farm-i = to farm (as a tenant). +farmaci-o = pharmacy (knowledge of the use of drugs). +fart-i = to be in (good or bad) health. +farun-o = flour. +fask-o = bundle, bunch. +fason-o = cut, mode, fashion. +fatal-a = fatal, predestined. +fauxk-o = jaw (literal and figurative). +favor-a = favorable. +fazeol-o = bean (garden bean). +fe-o = fairy, fay; --ino, fairy. +febr-o = fever. +februar-o = February. +fel-o = skin, hide (of animals). +felicx-a = happy. +femur-o = thigh. +fend-i = (trans.), to split. +fenestr-o = window. +fer-o = iron; --vojo, railway. +ferdek-o = deck (of ship). +ferm-i = (trans.), to close, shut. +fervor-o = zeal, fervor. +fest-i = to celebrate. +festen-o = banquet. +fi = (interjection), fie! (273). +fiakr-o = cab. +fiancx-o = betrothed man, fiance. +fid-i = to rely upon, trust. +fidel-a = faithful, loyal. +fier-a = proud, haughty. +fil-o = son. +filozof-o = philosopher. +fin-i = (trans.), to finish, end. +fingr-o = finger; "dika fingro", thumb; "montra fingro", index finger; + "longa fingro", middle finger; "ringa fingro", ring-finger; + "malgranda fingro", little finger. +firm-a = firm, steady. +fisx-o = fish. +fizik-o = physics, physical science. +flag-o = flag, banner, small standard. +flank-o = side. +flar-i = (trans.), to smell, scent. +flav-a = yellow. +fleks-i = (trans.), to bend, flex. +flik-i = to patch. +flor-o = flower (116). +flu-i = to flow. +flug-i = to fly. +fluid-a = fluid, liquid. +foj-o = time, occasion (127). +fojn-o = hay. +fokus-o = focus. +foli-o = leaf. +fond-i = to found, establish. +font-o = spring (of water), fount. +fontan-o = fountain (artificial). +for = (adv.), away (71). +forges-i = to forget. +fork-o = fork. +form-o = shape, form. +formik-o = ant. +forn-o = stove. +fort-a = strong. +fos-i = to dig. +fotograf-i = to photograph +frag-o = strawberry. +frak-o = evening dress (for men). +frakas-i = to shatter, break to pieces. +framb-o = raspberry. +franc-o = Frenchman. +frand-i = to be fond of sweets, be an epicure. +frangx-o = fringe. +frap-i = to knock, strike. +frat-o = brother. +frauxl-o = bachelor, unmarried man. +fraz-o = sentence, phrase. +Frederik-o = Frederick. +fremd-a = foreign. +frenez-a = crazy, mad. +fresx-a = fresh, new. +fripon-o = rogue, rascal, knave. +frit-i = (trans.), to fry. +fromagx-o = cheese. +frost-o = frost. +frot-i = to rub. +fru-a = early. +frukt-o = fruit. +frunt-o = forehead. +fulm-o = lightning. +fum-i = to smoke. +fund-o = bottom. +fundament-o = foundation, base. +funebr-o = mourning. +fung-o = mushroom. +funkci-i = to function, work. +funt-o = pound. +furioz-a = furious, raging. +fusx-i = to bungle. +fut-o = foot (measure). + + G. + +gaj-a = gay, merry. +gajn-i = to gain. +galeri-o = gallery. +galop-i = to gallop. +gant-o = glove. +gard-i = to guard, watch over. +gas-o = gas. +gast-o = guest. +gazet-o = gazette, magazine. +ge- = prefix indicating both sexes together (271). +general-o = general (military). +genu-o = knee; --fleksi, to kneel. +geometri-o = geometry. +german-o = German. +Gertrud-o = Gertrude. +gicxet-o = wicket, ticket-window, turnstile. +girland-o = garland, wreath. +glaci-o = ice; --ajxo, an ice (food). +glad-i = to iron (linen, etc.). +glas-o = tumbler, glass. +glat-a = smooth, polished, flat. +glav-o = sword. +glit-i = to glide, slide. +glob-o = globe. +glor-o = glory. +glu-o = glue. +glut-i = to swallow. +gorgx-o = throat. +graci-a = graceful. +grad-o = grade, degree. +graf-o = count; --lando, county. +gram-o = gram (284). +gramatik-o = grammar. +grand-a = great, large, big. +gras-o = fat. +gratul-i = to congratulate. +grav-a = important, serious, grave. +gravit-i = to gravitate. +grek-o = Greek. +gren-o = grain (wheat, corn, etc.). +grimp-i = to climb up, creep up. +grinc-i = to grind, gnash. +griz-a = gray. +grup-o = group. +gurd-o = hurdy-gurdy, barrel organ. +gust-o = taste. +gut-i = to drip. +gvid-i = to guide. + + GX. + +gxarden-o = garden. +gxem-i = to groan. +gxen-i = to disturb, incommode. +gxeneral-a = general, common. +gxentil-a = courteous, polite. +gxi = (pronoun), it (32, 37, 42, 274). +gxis = (prep.), as far as, until (46, 89). +gxoj-i = to rejoice, be glad (116). +gxu-i = to enjoy, find pleasure in. +gxust-a = exact, just. + + H. + +hajl-o = hail (frozen rain). +hak-i = to chop, hack; --ilo, axe. +halt-i = (intrans.), to halt, stop. +har-o = a hair. +hauxt-o = skin (human). +hav-i = to have. +haven-o = harbor, port. +hazard-o = chance, hazard. +hebre-o = Hebrew. +hejm-o = home. +hejt-i = (trans.), to heat (a place). +hektar-o = hektare (284). +hektogram-o = hektogram (284). +hektolitr-o = hektoliter (284). +hektometr-o = hektometer (284). +hel-a = bright, clear. +help-i = to help, aid, assist. +herb-o = grass, herb. +hero-o = hero. +hezit-i = to hesitate. +hieraux = (adv.), yesterday (93, 171). +Hieron-o = Hiero. +hipokrit-i = to play the hypocrite. +hirund-o = swallow (bird). +hispan-o = Spaniard. +histori-o = history. +ho = (interjection), ho, oh (273). +hodiaux = (adv.), today (93, 171). +Holand-o = Holland. +hom-o = human being. +honest-a = honest. +honor-i = to honor. +hont-i = to be ashamed. +hor-o = hour (185). +horizont-o = horizon. +horizontal-a = horizontal. +horlogx-o = clock; posxhorlogxo, watch. +hotel-o = hotel. +humil-a = humble. +humor-o = humor, temper. +hund-o = dog. +hura! = (interjection), hurrah! + + HX. + +hxemi-o = chemistry. +hxin-o = Chinaman. +hxor-o = choir. + + I. + +ia = any kind of (208). +ial = (adv.), for any reason (213). +iam = (adv.), ever, at any time, once (212). +-id- = suffix indicating descendant or young of (207). +ide-o = idea. +ideal-o = ideal. +ident-a = identical. +idiom-o = idiom. +idiot-o = idiot. +ie = (adv.), somewhere (209). +iel = (adv.), somehow (216). +ies = (pronoun, possessive), somebody's (204). +-ig- = suffix forming causative verbs (214, 239, 275). +ignor-i = to ignore. +-igx- = suffix forming inchoative and intransitive verbs + (232, 239, 279). +-il- = suffix forming names of instruments (63). +ili = (pronoun) they (32, 37, 42). +ilustr-i = to illustrate. +iluzi-o = illusion, delusion. +imag-i = to imagine, fancy. +imit-i = to imitate. +imperi-o = empire. +implik-i = to implicate. +impost-o = tax, impost. +impres-i = to impress. +impuls-o = impulse. +-in- = suffix forming feminines (59). +incit-i = to incite, arouse, provoke. +-ind- = suffix expressing worth or merit (154). +indian-o = Indian (American). +indiferent-a = indifferent, unconcerned, unimportant. +industri-o = industry (trade, business). +infan-o = child. +infekt-i = to infect, contaminate. +influ-i = to influence. +inform-i = to give information. +-ing- = suffix expressing a holder or container (237). +ingxenier-o = engineer. +ink-o = ink. +insekt-o = insect. +insist-i = to insist. +inspir-i = to inspire. +instru-i = to instruct, teach. +insul-o = island. +insult-i = to insult. +inteligent-a = intelligent. +intend-i = to intend. +inter = (prep.), between, among (85, 89, 160). +interes-i = (trans.), to interest. +intermit-i = to be intermittent. +intern-a = internal; --e, inside. +interpret-i = to interpret. +intim-a = intimate. +invit-i = to invite. +io = (pronoun), something (233). +iom = (adv.), some, a certain amount; + iom post iom, little by little (217). +ir-i = to go. +-ist- = suffix indicating profession, etc. (172). +ital-o = Italian. +iu = (pronoun), some one, a certain (one) (203). + + J. + +ja = (adv.), indeed, in fact (215). +jak-o = jacket, short coat. +jam = (adv.), already. +januar-o = January. +jar-o = year. +je = prep. of indefinite meaning (89, 185, 260). +jen = (adv.), there, behold (228). +jes = (adv.), yes (171). +Jesu-o = Jesus. +Johano = John. +ju = (adv.), the more (used with "pli", 84). +jug-o = yoke. +jugx-i = to judge. +juli-o = July. +jun-a = young. +jung-i = to harness. +juni-o = June. +jup-o = skirt. +jurist-o = jurist. +just-a = just, upright. +juvel-o = jewel. + + JX. + +jxaluz-a = jealous. +jxauxd-o = Thursday. +jxet-i = to throw, cast, hurl. +jxongl-i = to juggle. +jxur-i = to take oath, swear. +jxurnal-o = newspaper, journal. +jxus = (adv.), a moment before, just. + + K. + +kadavr-o = corpse. +kadr-o = frame (of pictures). +kaduk-a = decaying, in ruin. +kaf-o = coffee. +kagx-o = cage. +kahel-o = tile (for paving). +kaj = (conj.), and; kaj..kaj.., both..and.. (26). +kajer-o = notebook. +kaldron-o = caldron. +kalendar-o = calendar. +kalesx-o = carriage. +kalkan-o = heel (of the foot); --umo, heel of a shoe. +kalkul-i = to calculate, reckon. +kamel-o = camel. +kamen-o = chimney. +kamer-o = camera. +kamp-o = field. +kanajl-o = scoundrel, rascal. +kanap-o = sofa. +kand-o = candy. +kandel-o = candle. +kanot-o = canoe. +kant-i = to sing. +kap-o = head. +kapabl-a = capable. +kapel-o = chapel (for prayer). +kapital-o = capital (money). +kapitol-o = capitol. +kapt-i = to catch, seize. +kar-a = dear, prized. +karakter-o = character. +karb-o = coal. +karcer-o = jail. +kares-i = to caress. +karn-o = flesh. +karot-o = carrot. +kart-o = card; posxtkarto, postcard; vizitkarto, visiting card. +karton-o = pasteboard. +karusel-o = merry-go-round. +kas-o = money-box, treasury; --isto, cashier, treasurer. +kaskad-o = waterfall, cascade. +kastel-o = castle. +kasx-i = to hide, conceal (252). +kasxtan-o = chestnut. +kat-o = cat. +katen-o = fetter, chain. +kauxz-o = cause. +kav-o = cavity, hole. +kaz-o = case (grammatical). +ke = (conj.), that (53, 83, 105, 259, 262). +kel-o = cellar. +kelk-a = some; --aj, several, more than one or two. +kelner-o = waiter (in hotel or restaurant). +kest-o = chest; tirkesto, drawer. +kia = what kind of (112, 150); kiamanier-e, how. +kial = (adv.), why (129). +kiam = (adv.), when (123, 155). +kie = (adv.), where (118, 151). +kiel = (adv.), how, in which way, as (134, 156). +kies = (pronoun, possessive), whose (107, 147). +kilogram-o = kilogram (284). +kilolitr-o = kiloliter (284). +kilometr-o = kilometer (284). +kio = (pronoun), what (233). +kiom = (adv.), how much (140, 164, 185). +kis-i = to kiss. +kiu = (pronoun), who (106, 146). +klak-i = (trans.), to clap, clatter. +klar-a = clear, distinct. +klav-o = key (of piano, etc.). +klas-o = class. +kler-a = enlightened, well-in-formed. +klimat-o = climate. +klin-i = (trans.), to incline, bend. +kling-o = blade (of knife, etc.). +klopod-i = to undertake initiative work, take steps toward, + labor for the success or completion of something. +klub-o = club (organization) +knab-o = boy. +kobold-o = sprite, kobold, brownie. +kofr-o = trunk, chest with a lid. +kok-o = cock (domestic fowl). +koket-a = coquettish. +koks-o = hip. +kol-o = neck. +kolbas-o = sausage. +kolegi-o = college. +kolekt-i = (trans.), to collect, gather. +koler-i = to be angry, lose the temper. +kolomb-o = pigeon, dove. +kolon-o = column, pillar. +kolonel-o = colonel. +kolor-o = color. +kolport-i = to peddle. +komand-i = to command (military and naval). +komb-i = to comb. +komedi-o = comedy. +komenc-i = (trans.), to begin, commence. +komerc-i = to trade, engage in commerce. +komfort-o = comfort (freedom from pain, want, etc.). +komisi-i = to entrust with, put in charge of, give the agency for. +komitat-o = committee. +komiz-o = clerk, employee, assistant. +kompani-o = company (commercial organization). +kompar-i = (trans.) to compare, (266). +kompat-i = to pity, have compassion for. +komplet-o = suit (of clothes). +komplez-o = kindness, courtesy, disposition to oblige. +komplik-i = to complicate. +kompost-i = to compose, set (type); --isto, compositor. +kompot-o = jam, preserve, +kompren-i = to understand. +komun-a = common, mutual. +komunik-i = to communicate. +kon-i = to be acquainted with, know; --atigxi kun, to become acquainted + with (117). +koncern-i = to concern (266). +koncert-o = concert (musical). +kondamn-i = to condemn. +kondicx-o = terms specified, stipulation, condition. +konduk-i = to conduct, lead. +konduktor-o = conductor (of car, train, etc.). +kondut-i = to behave, conduct oneself. +konfes-i = to confess, admit. +konfid-i = to trust, have confidence in. +konfit-i = to preserve, pickle (fruits, etc.). +konform-i = to be in conformity with (266). +konfuz-i = to confuse, confound. +kongres-o = congress (assembly). +konk-o = shell (of mollusk, etc.). +konkur-i = to vie, compete. +konkurenc-o = competition (in business, etc.). +konkurs-o = prearranged trial of skill, formal competition (for + prizes, etc.). +konsci-i = to be conscious. +konscienc-o = conscience. +konsent-i = to consent, agree. +konserv-i = to keep, preserve, save. +konservativ-a = conservative. +konsil-i = to advise, counsel. +konsist-i = to consist. +konsol-i = to console, comfort. +konsonant-o = consonant. +konspir-i = to conspire, plot. +konstant-a = constant. +konstat-i = to verify, ascertain the truth of, certify. +konstituci-o = constitution. +konstru-i = to build. +konsul-o = consul. +konsult-i = to seek advice of, consult. +kont-o = account (book-keeping, commercial). +kontent-a = content, satisfied. +kontinent-o = continent (geographical). +kontrakt-i = to contract, agree. +kontralt-o = contralto. +kontraux = (prep.), against, opposite, opposed to (159, 160). +kontrol-i = to control, inspect, examine and check. +kontur-o = outline, contour. +kontuz-i = to bruise. +konven-i = to be suitable, be fitting or convenient. +konvink-i = to convince, persuade. +kopi-i = to copy. +kor-o = heart (of the body). +korb-o = basket. +korekt-i = to correct. +korespond-i = to exchange letters, correspond. +koridor-o = corridor, passage. +kork-o = cork (bark). +korn-o = horn. +korp-o = body, --a, corporeal. +korpus-o = corps (military). +kort-o = courtyard, court. +kortego = court (royal, etc.). +korv-o = raven. +kost-i = to cost. +kostum-o = costume. +kot-o = mud. +kotiz-i = to pay dues, pay one's share of an assessment. +kotlet-o = cutlet, chop. +koton-o = cotton. +kov-i = to brood (of birds). +kovert-o = envelope +kovr-i = to cover. +krab-o = crab. +krad-o = grating, grate, lattice. +krajon-o = pencil. +krak-i = to clack, crackle. +kran-o = faucet, tap. +kravat-o = cravat. +kre-i = to create. +kred-i = to believe (265). +krem-o = cream. +krepusk-o = twilight, half-light of dawn or evening. +kresk-i = to grow. +krestomati-o = chrestomathy, collection of selected passages. +kret-o = chalk. +krev-i = (intrans.), to burst, crack open (suddenly and with noise). +kri-i = to cry out. +kribr-i = to sift (with a sieve). +krim-o = crime. +kring-o = ring-shaped biscuit. +kripl-a = crippled. +Krist-o = Christ. +kritik-i = to criticise. +krocx-i = to hook. +krom = (prep.), beside, aside from, except, save, but. +kron-o = crown. +kruc-o = cross; --umi, to crucify. +krucx-o = pitcher, jug; tekrucxo, tea-pot. +kruel-a = cruel. +krur-o = leg. +krust-o = crust. +krut-a = steep. +kubut-o = elbow. +kudr-i = to sew. +kugl-o = bullet. +kuir-i = to cook. +kuk-o = cake; --ajxo, pastry. +kukum-o = cucumber. +kukurb-o = pumpkin. +kuler-o = spoon. +kulp-a = guilty. +kultur-i = to cultivate; terkulturi, to till the soil, farm. +kun = (prep.), with (70, 76, 120, 160, 159). +kunikl-o = rabbit. +kupon-o = coupon. +kupr-o = copper (metal). +kur-i = to run. +kurac-i = to treat for illness, cure; --ato, a patient; + --isto, a physician, medical man. +kuragx-o = courage. +kurb-o = curve. +kurioz-a = uncommon, curious. +kurs-o = course (of lessons). +kurten-o = curtain. +kusen-o = cushion. +kusx-i = to lie, recline (239). +kutim-o = custom, habit. +kuv-o = tub, large basin. +kuz-o = cousin. +kvadrat-o = square (equilateral rectangle). +kvalit-o = quality, texture. +kvankam = (conj.), though, although, while (concessive). +kvant-o = quantity, amount. +kvar = (adj.), four (136). +kvartal-o = quarter (of a city). +kvazaux = (conj.), as though, as if (250). +kverk-o = oak. +kviet-a = calm, quiet. +kvin = (adj.), five (136). +kvitanc-o = receipt (for payment). + + L. + +la = (article), the (II, 47, 201, 280, a). +labor-i = to work, labor. +lac-a = tired, weary. +lacx-o = string, lace (of shoe, etc.). +lad-o = tin plate (sheet iron covered with tin). +lag-o = lake. +lakt-o = milk. +laktuk-o = lettuce. +lam-a = lame. +lamp-o = lamp. +lan-o = wool. +lanc-o = lance, spear. +land-o = land, country. +lang-o = tongue (of the body). +lantern-o = lantern. +lanug-o = down (hairs, feathers). +lard-o = bacon. +largx-a = wide, broad. +larm-o = tear (of the eye). +las-i = (trans.), to leave, let, permit. +last-a = last (in a series). +latin-a = Latin. +laux = (prep.), in accordance with, along, by (191). +lauxb-o = arbor, summer-house. +lauxd-i = to praise. +lauxt-a = loud. +lav-i = to wash. +lecion-o = lesson. +led-o = leather. +leg-i = to read. +legom-o = vegetable. +legx-o = law. +lek-i = to lick. +leon-o = lion. +lepor-o = hare. +lern-i = to learn. +lert-a = clever, skilful. +leter-o = letter (epistle). +lev-i = to raise, lift. +li = (pronoun), he, him (32, 37, 42). +liber-a = free. +libr-o = book. +lig-i = to tie, bind, fasten; --ilo, bond; that which ties or fastens; + --ajxo, knot; --o, league, alliance. +lign-o = wood. +lim-o = limit, boundary. +limonad-o = lemonade. +lingv-o = language. +lini-o = line; --ilo, ruler. +lip-o = lip; --haroj, moustache. +lit-o = bed (for sleeping). +liter-o = letter of the alphabet; lauxlitera, literal. +literatur-o = literature. +litr-o = liter (284). +liver-i = to deliver, supply, furnish. +log-i = to allure. +logx-i = to dwell, reside (133). +lok-o = place; --a, local. +lokomotiv-o = locomotive. +long-a = long. +lonicer-o = honeysuckle. +lorn-o = telescope, spyglass; --eto, opera-glasses. +lu-i = to hire, rent (engage and pay rent for). +lud-i = to play. +luks-o = luxury. +lul-i = to lull to sleep; --ilo, cradle. +lum-i = to shine (275). +lun-o = moon. +lunatik-o = lunatic. +lund-o = Monday. +lup-o = wolf. + + M. + +macx-i = to chew, masticate. +magazen-o = warehouse. +magi-o = magic. +magistr-o = master of arts (A.M.). +maiz-o = maize, Indian corn. +maj-o = May. +majest-a = majestic. +majones-a = mayonnaise. +majstr-o = master (of his art or profession). +makaroni-o = macaroni. +maksimum-o = maximum. +makul-o = spot, stain. +makzel-o = jaw; --osto, jawbone. +mal- = prefix forming opposites (67). +maleol-o = ankle. +malgraux = (prep.), notwithstanding. +malic-a = malicious. +man-o = hand. +mandat-o = money-order. +mangx-i = to eat. +manier-o = manner, way. +manik-o = sleeve. +mank-i = (intrans.), to be lacking, wanting. +mantel-o = cloak, mantle. +manuskript-o = manuscript. +mar-o = sea. +marcx-o = swamp, marsh. +mard-o = Tuesday. +Mari-o = Mary. +mark-o = mark. +marmelad-o = marmalade. +marmor-o = marble (stone), +marsx-i = to walk. +mart-o = March. +martel-o = hammer. +mastr-o = master (of a house, etc.) +masxin-o = machine. +maten-o = morning (93). +material-o = material. +matur-a = ripe, mature. +mebl-o = piece of furniture. +medicin-o = medicine (the science). +mehxanik-o = mechanics. +mejl-o = mile. +meleagr-o = turkey. +melk-i = to milk. +melodi-o = melody. +melon-o = melon. +mem = (pronoun), self, selves (219). +membr-o = limb, member. +memor-i = to remember, keep in mind; rememori, to recall to memory. +mend-i = to order (of a store, etc.). +mensog-i = to lie, tell lies. +menton-o = chin. +menu-o = menu. +merit-i = to deserve, merit. +merkred-o = Wednesday. +merl-o = blackbird. +met-i = to put, place. +metal-o = metal. +meti-o = trade, handicraft. +metod-o = method, way. +metr-o = meter (284). +mez-o = middle. +mezur-i = to measure. +mi = (pronoun), I, me (32, 37). +miel-o = honey. +mien-o = appearance, mien. +miks-i = (trans.), to mix. +mil = (adj.), thousand (142). +mild-a = mild. +milimetr-o = millimeter (284). +milion-o = million. +milit-i = to fight, wage war. +min-o = mine (of coal, silver, etc.). +minac-i = to threaten. +mineral-o = mineral. +minimum-o = minimum. +ministr-o = minister (political). +minut-o = minute. +miop-a = shortsighted. +mir-i = to wonder. +mister-o = mystery. +mizer-o = misery. +mod-o = mode, fashion. +model-o = model. +moder-a = moderate. +modest-a = modest. +mok-i = to mock. +mol-a = soft. +moment-o = moment; --a, momentary, instantaneous. +mon-o = money. +monahx-o = monk. +monarhxi-o = monarch. +monat-o = month. +mond-o = world. +mont-o = mountain. +montr-i = (trans.), to show. +mor-o = conduct (in regard to right or wrong); --oj, morals. +moral-a = moral; --eco, morality. +mord-i = to bite. +morgaux = (adv.), tomorrow (171). +mort-i = to die; --igi, to kill. +mosxt-o = title of respect (258). +mov-i = (trans.), to move, put in motion. +muel-o = mill (for grinding). +mugx-i = to roar, bellow. +mult-a = much (81). +mur-o = wall. +murmur-i = to murmur. +mus-o = mouse. +mustard-o = mustard. +musx-o = fly. +mut-a = dumb, mute. +muze-o = museum. +muzik-o = music. + + N. + +naci-o = nation. +nagx-i = to swim. +naiv-a = artless, naive, ingenuous. +najbar-o = neighbor. +najl-o = nail (of metal). +nap-o = turnip. +nask-i = to produce, bring forth, give birth to. +natur-o = nature. +naux = (adj.), nine (136). +naz-o = nose. +ne = (adv.), no, not (27, 66, a, 171). +nebul-o = fog, mist. +neces-a = necessary. +negativ-o = negative (photographic). +negx-o = snow. +nek = (negative conj.), neither, nor (31). +nenia = no kind of (224). +nenial = (adv.), for no reason (229). +neniam = (adv.), never (226). +nenie = (adv.), nowhere (225). +neniel = (adv.), in no way (230). +nenies = (pronoun, possessive), nobody's (221). +nenio = (pronoun), nothing (233). +neniom = (adv.), none, not any (231). +neniu = (pronoun), no one, nobody, no (220). +nep-o = grandson. +nepr-e = inevitably, certainly, unfailingly. +nerv-o = nerve. +nest-o = nest. +neuxtral-a = neutral, non-partisan. +nev-o = nephew. +ni = (pronoun), we, us (32, 37). +nigr-a = black. +nivel-o = level. +-nj- = suffix forming affectionate diminutives (283). +nobel-o = nobleman. +nobl-a = noble (in character). +nokt-o = night. +nom-o = name; --i, to name, mention. +nombr-o = number (quantity). +nord-o = north. +norveg-o = Norwegian. +nostalgi-o = homesickness. +not-o = note. +nov-a = new, recent, novel; denove, anew, again. +novembr-o = November. +nu = (interjection), well! (273). +nuanc-o = shade, tint, hue. +nub-o = cloud. +nud-a = bare, naked, nude. +nuks-o = nut. +nul-o = zero, naught. +numer-o = number, numeral (No.). +nun = (adv.), now (171). +nur = (adv.), merely, only. +nutr-i = to nourish, to feed. + + O. + +obe-i = to obey (265). +objekt-o = object, thing. +objektiv-o = lens, objective. +-obl- = suffix forming multiples (186). +oblikv-a = oblique, slanting. +observ-i = to observe, take note of. +obstin-a = obstinate. +ocean-o = ocean. +odor-i = to smell (good or bad). +ofend-i = to offend. +ofer-i = to sacrifice, offer. +ofic-o = office, employment; --isto, officer (of firm or organization); + --ejo, office (the place). +oficial-a = official. +oficir-o = officer (military or naval). +oft-a = frequent. +ok = (adj.), eight (136). +okaz-i = to happen, occur, take place. +okcident-o = west. +oktobr-o = October. +okul-o = eye. +okup-i = to occupy. +ol = (conj.), than (82, 97, 98). +ole-o = oil. +oliv-o = olive. +ombr-o = shadow, shade. +ombrel-o = umbrella. +-on- = suffix forming fractions (166). +ond-o = wave. +oni = (pronoun), one, they (54). +onkl-o = uncle. +-op- = suffix forming collective numerals (261). +oper-o = opera. +opini-i = to have the opinion, think. +oportun-a = handy, convenient, opportune. +or-o = gold. +orangx-o = orange (fruit). +ord-o = order (methodical or proper arrangement). +ordinar-a = ordinary; eksterordinara, extraordinary. +ordon-i = to order, bid, command. +orel-o = ear (of the body). +orf-o = orphan. +organ-o = organ (physical). +organiz-i = to organize. +orgen-o = organ, (musical instrument). +orient-o = east. +original-o = original. +orkestr-o = orchestra. +ornam-i = to ornament, adorn. +ort-a = right-angled. +osced-i = to gape, yawn. +ost-o = bone. +ostr-o = oyster. +ostracism-o = ostracism. +ov-o = egg. + + P. + +pac-o = peace. +pacienc-o = patience. +padel-i = to paddle. +paf-i = to shoot (with gun, etc.). +pag-i = to pay. +pagx-o = page (of a book, etc.). +pajl-o = straw. +pak-i = to pack. +pal-a = pale. +palac-o = palace. +palis-o = stake; --aro, palisade. +palp-i = to feel (with the fingers, etc.); --ado, touch (the sense). +palpebr-o = eyelid. +pan-o = bread. +pantalon-o = trousers. +pantofl-o = slipper. +paper-o = paper (material). +papili-o = butterfly. +par-o = pair. +paradiz-o = paradise. +paragraf-o = paragraph. +paralel-a = parallel. +pardon-i = to forgive, pardon (265). +parenc-o = relative (person). +parfum-o = perfume. +park-o = park. +parker-e = by rote, by heart, from memory. +parol-i = to speak (77). +part-o = part, share. +particip-o = participle. +pas-i = (intrans.), to pass. +pasagxer-o = passenger. +paser-o = sparrow. +pasi-o = passion. +pasiv-a = passive. +Pask-o = Easter. +pastecx-o = patty, small pie. +pastinak-o = parsnip. +pastr-o = pastor, clergyman, priest. +pasx-i = to step. +pasxt-i = (trans.), to pasture, feed; --isto, shepherd. +pat-o = pan, frying-pan. +patr-o = father. +pauxz-o = pause. +pavim-o = pavement. +pec-o = piece, morsel. +pejzagx-o = landscape. +pek-i = to sin. +pekl-i = to pickle (meat, etc.). +pel-i = to chase away, drive off. +pelt-o = coat or wrap of fur. +pen-i = to strive, try. +pend-i = (intrans.), to hang. +penetr-i = to penetrate. +penik-o = paintbrush, hair pencil. +pens-i = to think. +pent-i = to repent. +pentr-i = to paint. +pep-i = to chirp, twitter. +per = (prep.), by means of, with, by (64). +perd-i = to lose. +pere-i = to perish. +perfekt-a = perfect. +perfid-i = to betray; --a, perfidious, treacherous. +period-a = periodic. +perl-o = pearl. +permes-i = to permit, allow, let. +peron-o = platform (railway), stoop (entrance porch). +persekut-i = to persecute, prosecute. +persik-o = peach. +persist-i = to persist, persevere. +person-o = person. +peruk-o = wig. +pes-i = (trans.), to ascertain the weight of; --ilo, scales, balance. +pet-i = to request, beg, ask. +petol-i = to be mischievous, saucy, roguish. +petrol-o = petroleum, kerosene. +petrosel-o = parsley. +pez-i = (intrans.), to be heavy, weigh. +pi-a = pious. +pice-o = spruce (tree). +pied-o = foot; --iranto, pedestrian. +piedestal-o = pedestal. +pik-i = to prick, sting. +pilgrim-i = to go on a pilgrimage. +pilk-o = ball (to play with). +pin-o = pine (tree). +pinakotek-o = picture gallery. +pincx-i = to pinch. +pingl-o = pin. +pint-o = point, pinnacle, summit. +pionir-o = pioneer. +pip-o = pipe (for smoking). +pipr-o = pepper. +pir-o = pear. +pist-i = to crush, mash; --ajxo, puree. +pitoresk-a = picturesque. +piz-o = pea. +plac-o = public square, place (broad, short street or open space). +placx-i = to please, to be pleasing (265). +plad-o = flat dish. +plafon-o = ceiling. +plan-o = plan, scheme. +pland-o = sole (of the foot). +planed-o = planet. +plank-o = floor. +plant-i = to plant. +plat-a = flat, plane. +plauxd-i = (trans.), to splash, dabble (a liquid). +plej = (adv.), most (74, 79, 81, 162); malplej, least (80). +plekt-i = to weave, plait, braid. +plen-a = full; plenum-i, to fulfil. +plend-i = to complain. +plet-o = tray. +plezur-o = pleasure. +pli = (adv.), more (74, 79, 81); malpli, less (80). +plor-i = to weep, cry. +plu = (adv.), further, more, any more. +plug-i = to plow. +plum-o = pen, feather. +plumb-o = lead (metal); --isto, plumber. +pluv-o = rain. +pneuxmatik-o = pneumatic tire. +po = (prep.), at the rate of (175). +poem-o = poem. +poet-o = poet. +poezi-o = poetry, poesy. +pokal-o = goblet, cup. +pol-o = Pole. +polic-o = police (force). +politik-o = politics. +polm-o = palm (of the hand). +polur-i = to polish, make smooth and glossy. +polus-o = pole (geographical). +polv-o = dust. +pom-o = apple. +pomp-o = pomp, splendor. +pont-o = bridge. +popol-o = a people, folk. +popular-a = popular. +por = (prep.), for (95, 98, 262). +porcelan-o = porcelain, china. +porci-o = portion, share. +pord-o = door. +pork-o = swine, pig, hog. +port-i = to carry, bear. +portret-o = portrait. +posed-i = to possess, own. +post = (prep.), after, behind (89, 120). +postul-i = to require, demand. +posx-o = pocket. +posxt-o = post (mail); --kesto, mailbox; --marko, postage stamp; + --mandato, postal money order. +pot-o = pot. +potenc-a = powerful, mighty. +pov-i = to be able, can (72). +pra- = prefix indicating remoteness in line of descent (282). +praktik-o = practice. +prav-a = right, in the right. +precip-a = principal, chief. +preciz-a = precise. +predik-i = to preach. +prefer-i = to prefer. +prefiks-o = prefix. +pregx-i = to pray; --ejo, church. +prem-i = to press. +premi-o = premium, prize. +pren-i = to take. +prepar-i = to prepare. +pres-i = to print. +preskaux = (adv.), almost. +pret-a = ready. +pretekst-i = to make pretext of, pretend, sham. +pretend-i = to make pretension to, lay claim to. +preter = (prep.), beyond, past, by. +prez-o = price. +prezent-i = to present, offer. +prezid-i = to preside; --anto, presiding officer, president, chairman. +pri = (prep.), concerning, about, of (160, 264, c). +princ-o = prince. +princip-o = principle. +printemp-o = spring (season). +pro = (prep.), on account of, because of, for (86). +problem-o = problem. +procent-o = interest, percentage. +proces-o = lawsuit, legal process. +produkt-i = to produce. +profesi-o = profession, occupation, calling. +profesor-o = professor. +profil-o = profile. +profit-o = profit; --i, to profit (by). +profund-a = deep, profound. +progres-i = to progress. +projekt-o = project. +proklam-i = to proclaim. +prokrast-i = to delay, procrastinate. +proksim-a = near. +promen-i = to go walking, promenade. +promes-i = to promise. +propon-i = to propose, offer. +proporci-o = proportion. +propr-a = own (one's own); malpropra, other people's; + --igi al si, to appropriate, make one's own. +prosper-i = to have success, prosper. +protekt-i = to protect. +protest-i = to protest. +protokol-o = minutes (of a meeting). +prov-i = to try, attempt, test. +proviz-i = to provide. +proz-o = prose; --ajxo, prose composition, piece of prose. +prudent-a = reasonable, sensible, rational. +prujn-o = hoar frost. +prun-o = plum. +prunt-o = loan; --i, --e doni, to lend; --e preni, to borrow. +pruv-i = to prove, give proof of. +psalm-o = psalm. +publik-o = public (the); --igi, to publish. +puding-o = pudding. +pudr-i = to powder. +pugn-o = fist. +pulm-o = lung. +pulv-o = gunpowder. +pump-i = to pump. +pun-i = to punish. +punt-o = lace (point, etc.). +pup-o = doll. +pupitr-o = desk. +pur-a = clean, pure. +purpur-a = purple. +pusx-i = to push; repusxi, to repulse. +put-o = well (for water). + + R. + +rabarb-o = rhubarb. +rab-i = to pillage, plunder; --isto, robber. +rabat-i = to rebate, give a reduction, discount or rebate. +rad-o = wheel. +radi-o = ray (of light), spoke (of wheel), radius. +radik-o = root. +rafan-o = radish. +rafin-i = to refine; --ejo, refinery. +rajd-i = to ride (horse, etc.). +rajt-o = right (to something). +rakont-i = to relate, narrate (77). +ramp-i = to creep, crawl, clamber. +ran-o = frog. +rand-o = edge, border. +rang-o = rank, grade, dignity. +rapid-a = rapid, quick; --o, speed; --emo, haste. +raport-i = to report, give a report. +ras-o = race (tribe, people, nation). +rasp-i = to rasp, grate; --ilo, grater. +rat-o = rat. +rauxk-a = hoarse, raucous. +rav-i = to enchant. +raz-i = to shave. +re- = prefix indicating repetition or return (223). +real-a = real. +reciprok-a = reciprocal, mutual (180). +redakci-o = editorial department. +redakt-i = to edit. +redaktor-o = editor. +redingot-o = frock coat. +refut-i = to refute. +reg-i = to rule, govern, reign. +regal-i = (trans.), to regale, treat (to food or drink). +region-o = region. +registr-i = (trans.), to register, enroll. +regn-o = state, governed body; --ano, citizen, subject. +regul-o = rule, regulation. +regx-o = king. +reklam-i = to advertise. +rekomend-i = to recommend, register (a letter). +rekompenc-i = to recompense, reward. +rekt-a = straight, undeviating, direct. +rel-o = rail. +religi-o = religion. +rem-i = to row. +rembur-i = to upholster, stuff, pad. +renkont-i = (trans.), to meet. +renvers-i = (trans.), to upset. +reprezent-i = to represent. +respekt-i = to respect. +respond-i = to answer. +respublik-o = republic. +rest-i = to remain, stay. +restoraci-o = restaurant. +resum-i = to summarize, give in resume. +ret-o = net, netting. +rev-i = to indulge in revery, dream, fancy. +revu-o = journal, review, magazine. +rezon-i = to reason (exert the power of reasoning). +rezult-i = to result. +ricev-i = to receive. +ricx-a = rich. +rid-i = to laugh (265). +rifuz-i = to refuse. +rigard-i = to look. +rigl-i = to bolt (fasten). +rikolt-i = to harvest, reap. +rilat-i = to have relation (to) (266). +rimark-i = to notice, note. +rimed-o = means, way; vivrimedoj, means of livelihood. +rimen-o = thong, strap. +ring-o = ring. +rip-o = rib. +ripar-i = to mend, repair. +ripet-i = to repeat. +ripoz-i = to repose, rest. +riprocx-i = to reproach. +river-o = river. +riz-o = rice. +rob-o = dress, robe. +Robert-o = Robert. +romp-i = (trans.), to break. +rond-o = circle, ring, round. +ros-o = dew. +rost-i = to roast. +roz-o = rose (flower). +ruband-o = ribbon. +rubus-o = blackberry. +rugx-a = red. +ruin-o = ruin. +rul-i = (trans.), to roll (ball, etc.). +rus-o = Russian. +rust-i = to rust. +rutin-o = routine. +ruz-a = crafty, cunning, sly. + + S. + +sabat-o = Saturday. +sabl-o = sand. +sag-o = arrow. +sagx-a = wise. +sak-o = sack, bag. +sal-o = salt. +salajr-o = salary, wages. +salat-o = salad. +salon-o = parlor, drawing-room. +salt-i = to jump, leap. +salut-i = to salute, greet. +sam-a = same. +san-a = healthy, well. +sang-o = blood. +sankt-a = sacred, holy. +sap-o = soap. +sarden-o = sardine. +sat-a = sated; malsata, hungry. +sauxc-o = sauce, gravy, dressing. +sav-i = to save; rescue. +sci-i = to know (117). +scienc-o = science. +se = (conj.), if (240). +sed = (conj.), but. +seg-i = to saw. +segx-o = chair. +sek-a = dry. +sekret-o = secret. +sekretari-o = secretary. +sekund-o = second (of time). +sekv-i = to follow. +sel-o = saddle. +sem-o = seed; --i, to sow. +semajn-o = week. +sen = (prep.), without (248). +senat-o = senate; --ano, senator. +senc-o = sense, meaning. +send-i = to send. +sent-i = to feel, perceive. +sep = (adj.), seven (136). +septembr-o = September. +sercx-i = to seek, hunt, look for. +serur-o = lock. +serv-i = to serve. +servic-o = course (of a meal). +ses = (adj.), six (136). +sever-a = severe, stern. +sezon-o = season. +si = (pronoun, reflexive), himself, herself, etc. (40, 44, 274). +sibl-i = to hiss, whistle (wind, etc.). +sid-i = to sit (239). +sigel-i = to seal. +sign-o = sign, trace, mark. +signif-i = to signify, mean. +silab-o = syllable. +silent-i = to be silent (239). +silk-o = silk. +simi-o = monkey. +simil-a = like, similar. +simpl-a = simple. +sinjor-o = gentleman, Mr. (163). +Sirakuz-o = Syracuse. +sitel-o = pail, bucket. +skatol-o = small box or case. +skiz-i = to sketch. +sklav-o = slave. +skot-o = Scot, Scotchman. +skrap-i = to scrape. +skrib-i = to write. +sku-i = (trans.), to shake. +skulpt-i = to carve, sculpture. +societ-o = society. +soif-i = to be thirsty. +sojl-o = threshold. +Sokrat-o = Socrates. +sol-a = alone, sole, only. +soldat-o = soldier. +solen-a = formal, solemn. +somer-o = summer. +son-i = (intrans.), to sound. +songx-i = to dream (in sleep). +sonor-i = (intrans.), to ring, sound; --ilo, bell. +sopir-i = to yearn, long, sigh. +sorb-i = to absorb; --papero, blotting-paper. +sorcx-o = witchcraft; ensorcxi, to bewitch; --isto, sorcerer. +sort-o = destiny, fate, lot. +sovagx-a = wild, savage. +spac-o = space. +spec-o = kind, sort, species. +special-a = special. +specimen-o = specimen, sample. +spegul-o = mirror. +spert-a = experienced, expert. +spes-o = speso (international unit of money, 284). +spez-o = clearing (financial); elspezi, to disburse, expend, spend; + enspezi, to take in, receive (funds). +spinac-o = spinach. +spir-i = to breathe; elspiri, to exhale. +spite = (prep.), in spite of. +sprit-a = witty. +staci-o = station (railway, boat, etc.). +stamp-i = to mark officially, stamp. +standard-o = standard, flag. +stan-o = tin (metal). +stang-o = pole. +star-i = to stand (239). +stat-o = state (of being), condition. +stel-o = star. +stenografi-o = shorthand, stenography. +stil-o = style. +stimul-i = to stimulate. +stomak-o = stomach. +strang-a = strange, peculiar. +strat-o = street. +strecx-i = (trans.), to stretch. +strek-i = to make a streak, or line; substreki, to underline; + surstreki, trastreki, to cross off, strike out. +stri-o = streak, stripe, band. +strik-o = strike (of labor). +stud-i = to study. +student-o = student (college, etc.). +stuf-i = (trans.), to stew. +stump-o = stump (of tree, etc.). +sub = (prep.), under, beneath (121, 160). +subit-a = sudden, abrupt. +substanc-o = substance. +sud-o = south. +sufer-i = to suffer, endure. +suficx-i = to suffice; --ega, abundant. +sufiks-o = suffix. +sufok-i = (trans.), to suffocate. +sugesti-i = to suggest. +suk-o = sap, juice (of plants, etc.); --a, succulent. +sukces-i = to succeed. +suker-o = sugar. +sulfur-o = sulphur. +sulk-o = furrow, wrinkle. +sum-o = sum, amount. +sun-o = sun. +sup-o = soup. +super = (prep.), above, over (159); --a, superior. +supersticx-o = superstition. +supoz-i = to suppose. +supr-e = (adv.), above; --a, upper, above; --ajxo, surface. +sur = (prep.), on, upon (160). +surd-a = deaf. +surpriz-i = to surprise. +surtut-o = overcoat. +suspekt-i = to suspect. +sved-o = Swede. +sven-i = to faint, swoon. +sving-i = (trans.), swing, brandish. +svis-o = Swiss. + + SX. + +sxaf-o = sheep; --ajxo, mutton; --ido, lamb; --idajxo, lamb (meat); + --viro, ram. +sxajn-i = to seem, appear. +sxal-o = shawl. +sxanc-o = luck, chance; bonsxance, luckily. +sxancel-i = (trans.), to oscillate, vacillate, make tremble. +sxangx-i = (trans.), to change, alter. +sxargx-i = to burden, load. +sxat-i = to like, prize. +sxauxm-o = foam, froth. +sxel-o = shell, peeling, bark. +sxelk-o = suspender, supporter. +sxerc-i = to joke, jest. +sxi = (pronoun), she, her (32, 37, 42). +sxild-o = shield. +sxink-o = ham. +sxip-o = ship. +sxir-i = to tear. +sxirm-i = to shelter, shield; --ilo, screen. +sxlim-o = slime. +sxlos-i = to lock; --ilo, key. +sxmir-i = to anoint, smear. +sxnur-o = string. +sxose-o = broad roadway, drive. +sxov-i = to shove, push. +sxovel-i = to shovel. +sxpar-i = to spare, be economical of. +sxpin-i = to spin. +sxpruc-i = to gush, spout, spurt (of liquids). +sxrank-o = cupboard, wardrobe. +sxrauxb-o = screw. +sxtal-o = steel. +sxtat-o = state (political). +sxtel-i = to steal (252). +sxtip-o = log, block of wood. +sxtof-o = cloth, stuff. +sxton-o = stone. +sxtop-i = to stop up, cork; --ilo, stopper. +sxtrump-o = stocking. +sxtup-o = step, round; --aro, stair-case. +sxu-o = shoe; supersxuo, overshoe. +sxuld-i = to owe, be indebted. +sxultr-o = shoulder. +sxut-o = chute; --i, to pour (as in a chute). +sxvel-i = to swell, become swollen. +sxvit-i = to perspire. + + T. + +tabak-o = tobacco. +tabel-o = table, index, tabulation. +tabl-o = table (furniture). +tabul-o = board, plank. +tag-o = day; --igxo, dawn; --mezo, noon. +tajlor-o = tailor. +taks-i = to estimate, value, rate. +talent-o = talent. +tali-o = waist; beltalia, shapely, having a good figure. +tambur-o = drum. +tamen = (conj.), nevertheless, however, yet, still. +tantiem-o = percentage of profit, royalty. +tapisx-o = carpet. +tarif-o = tariff, schedule of rates. +tas-o = cup; subtaso, saucer. +task-o = task. +tauxg-i = to be fit for, good for. +tavol-o = layer. +te-o = tea. +teatr-o = theatre; --ajxo, play. +ted-i = to be tedious. +teg-i = to cover, put a covering upon. +tegment-o = roof. +teks-i = to weave. +telefon-i = to telephone. +telegraf-i = to telegraph. +teler-o = plate; --meblo, sideboard. +tem-o = theme, subject. +temp-o = time. +tempi-o = temple (of the head). +templ-o = temple (building). +ten-i = to hold, keep. +tend-o = tent. +tenor-o = tenor (voice). +tent-i = to tempt. +teori-o = theory. +ter-o = earth, soil; enterigi, to inter. +teras-o = terrace. +teritori-o = territory. +termin-o = term, definition (word). +tern-i = to sneeze. +terpom-o = potato. +terur-o = terror. +tia = that kind of, such (65). +tial = (adv.), therefore (78, 83). +tiam = (adv.), then, at that time (73). +tibi-o = shin bone, tibia; --karno, calf (of the leg). +tie = (adv.), there (68). +tiel = (adv.), thus, so (88, 156). +tigr-o = tiger. +tikl-i = to tickle. +tili-o = linden. +tim-i = to fear, be afraid of. +timon-o = pole, tongue, shaft. +tint-i = to jingle, tinkle. +tio = (pronoun), that (233, 234). +tiom = (adv.), that much, so much (104, 164). +tir-i = to pull, draw. +tiran-o = tyrant. +titol-o = title. +tiu = (pronoun), that one, that (56); tiu cxi, this one, this (60). +tost-o = toast (sentiment). +tol-o = linen. +toler-i = to tolerate. +tomat-o = tomato. +tomb-o = tomb, grave. +ton-o = tone. +tond-i = to shear; --ilo, shears, scissors. +tondr-i = to thunder. +tord-i = to twist; --a, crooked, winding. +tra = (prep.), through (46, 160). +trab-o = beam (wooden). +traduk-i = to translate. +traf-i = to reach, attain (that which was aimed at or sought); + maltrafi, to miss. +trajt-o = feature. +trakt-i = to treat of (in essay, speech, etc.); --ato, treatise. +tram-o = tram; --vojo, tramway, street-car line; --veturilo, street-car. +trancx-i = to cut, sever. +trankvil-a = serene, tranquil, calm. +trans = (prep.), across, the other side of (160). +tre = (adv.), very, very much. +trem-i = to tremble. +tremp-i = to drench, dip. +tren-i = to drag, haul, draw; --ajxo, train (of a dress). +trezor-o = treasure. +tri = (adj.), three (136). +trik-i = to knit. +trink-i = to drink. +tritik-o = wheat. +triumf-o = triumph. +tro = (adv.), too, too much. +tromp-i = to deceive. +tron-o = throne. +tropik-o = tropic. +trot-i = to trot. +trotuar-o = sidewalk, pavement. +trov-i = to find. +tru-o = hole. +trud-i = to force upon, impose; altrudema, importunate. +trunk-o = trunk (of tree or body). +tualet-o = toilet. +tub-o = tube, pipe. +tuber-o = bulb, knot, tuber. +tuj = (adv.), at once, immediately +tuk-o = piece of cloth. +tur-o = tower. +turk-o = Turk. +turment-i = to torment. +turn-i = (trans.), to turn. +tus-i = to cough. +tusx-i = to touch; kortusxi, to touch (the heart of). +tut-a = entire, whole, all. + + U. + +-uj- = suffix indicating receptacle, that which bears or contains (181). +-ul- = suffix indicating person characterized by that in the root (132). +ulm-o = elm. +-um- = indefinite suffix (268). +ung-o = nail (of finger); --ego, claw, talon. +univers-o = universe. +universitat-o = university. +unu = (adj.), one (136, 137, 180); unuigxo, union. +uragan-o = hurricane. +urb-o = city; cxefurbo, capital. +urgx-i = to be urgent or pressing. +urs-o = bear. +Uson-o = United States of America. +util-a = useful. +uz-i = to use; trouzi, to abuse. + + V. + +vad-i = to wade. +vafl-o = waffle. +vag-i = to wander, to roam; --isto, vagabond. +vagon-o = car, railway carriage. +vak-i = to be vacant. +vaks-o = wax. +val-o = valley. +valiz-o = valise, satchel, bag. +valor-i = to be worth. +vals-i = to waltz. +van-a = vain, fruitless. +vang-o = cheek. +vant-a = vain, conceited. +vapor-o = steam, vapor. +varb-i = (trans.), to enlist, recruit. +varm-a = warm. +vast-a = vast, spacious, extensive. +vaz-o = vase, basin. +ve! = (interjection), woe! ho ve! alas! (273). +veget-i = to vegetate, grow (as plants). +vegetar-a = vegetarian. +vejn-o = vein. +vek-i = (trans.), to wake, awake. +vel-o = sail. +velk-i = to fade, wither, wilt. +velur-o = velvet. +ven-i = to come. +vend-i = to sell. +vendred-o = Friday. +venen-o = poison. +vengx-i = to avenge. +venk-i = to conquer, vanquish. +vent-o = wind. +ver-o = truth. +verand-o = veranda, porch. +verd-a = green. +verk-i = to compose (music or literature). +verm-o = worm. +vermicxel-o = vermicelli. +vers-o = verse. +versx-i = to pour (a liquid). +vertikal-a = vertical. +vesper-o = evening (93). +vest-i = to clothe, dress. +vesxt-o = vest, waistcoat. +vet-i = to wager, bet. +veter-o = weather. +vetur-i = to ride, go (in vehicle, boat, etc.). +vi = (pronoun), you (32, 37, 274). +viand-o = meat. +vibr-i = to vibrate. +vic-o = turn, place in a series; lauxvice, in turn; siavice, + in his (her, its, their) turn; vicprezidanto, vice-president. +vid-i = to see. +vidv-o = widower; --ino, widow. +vigl-a = alert, brisk. +vilagx-o = village. +vin-o = wine. +vinagr-o = vinegar. +vinber-o = grape; sekvinbero, raisin. +vintr-o = winter. +viol-o = violet. +violon-o = violin. +vip-i = to whip. +vir-o = man +virt-o = virtue. +visx-i = to wipe. +vitr-o = glass (material). +viv-i = to live (133). +vizagx-o = face, visage. +vizit-i = to visit. +vocx-o = voice; --doni, to vote. +voj-o = road, way. +vojagx-i = to journey, travel, voyage. +vok-i = to call. +vokal-o = vowel. +vol-i = to be willing, will, wish. +volont-e = willingly. +volum-o = volume (book). +volumen-o = volume (of a body). +volv-i = to roll (something around something). +vort-o = word; --aro, dictionary. +vost-o = tail. +vual-o = veil. +vulgar-a = common, vulgar. +vulp-o = fox. +vund-i = to wound. + + Z. + +zenit-o = zenith. +zigzag-o = zigzag. +zingibr-o = ginger. +zink-o = zinc. +zon-o = girdle, belt, zone. +zoologi-o = zoology. +zorg-i = to care (for), be anxious (about). +zum-i = to hum, buzz. + + + + * * * * * + + + + ENGLISH-ESPERANTO VOCABULARY. + +The following vocabulary includes all Esperanto roots used in the +preceding lessons, all primary words of the language, and a large number +of additional roots (to facilitate original composition). No attempt +has been made, however, to include all of the roots of the language, +or their various English meanings, for which an English-Esperanto +Dictionary should be consulted. + +References are to sections, unless the page (p.) is given. [Since page +numbers have no relevance in this etext version, such references were +deleted.] For other parts of speech than those indicated, see Word +Formation, 116, 120, 159, 171, also the references under Prefixes and +Suffixes in the Index. For formation of compound words other than +those given, see 160, 167, 176, 184. The following abbreviations are +used: adj. = adjective; adv. = adverb; conj. = conjunction; intrans. = +intransitive; prep. = preposition; trans. = transitive; -- = repetition +of the English word. + + A + +abandon = forlas-i. +abash = hontig-i. +(be) able = pov-i (72). +abominable = abomen-a. +about = (prep.), cxirkaux; (concerning) pri; (adv.), + (approximately, proksimum-e. +above = (prep.), super (159); (adv.), supr-e; cxi supre. +abrupt = subit-a. +absorb = sorb-i. +abundant = suficxeg-a. +academy = akademi-o. +accelerate = (trans.), akcel-i. +accent = akcent-o. +accept = akcept-i. +accident = akcident-o; (chance) okaz-o. +accompany = akompan-i. +(in) accordance with = (prep.), laux (191). +account = kont-o; (bill) kalkul-o; (story) rakont-o. +(on) account of = (prep.), pro (86). +accurate = akurat-a. +accusative = akuzativ-o. +accuse = akuz-i, kulpig-i. +accustomed = familiar-a, kutimit-a. +ache = dolor-o. +acid = acid-o. +(be) acquainted with = kon-i (117); become --, konatigx-i. + acquire, akir-i. +across = (prep.), trans. +act = ag-i; --on, efik-i; (behave) kondut-i; (of play) akt-o. +active = agema; (grammatical), aktiv-a. +actor = aktor-o. +actual = efektiv-a, ver-a. +acute = akr-a. +add = aldon-i (160). +address = (on letters, etc.) adres-o; (lecture) parolad-o. +adequate = suficx-a. +adjacent = apud-a (159). +adjective = adjektiv-o. +administer = (manage), administr-i. +admire = admir-i. +admit = konfes-i; (let in) allas-i. +admonish = admon-i. +adore = ador-i. +adorn = ornam-i. +adverb = adverb-o. +advantage = util-o, profit-o. +advertise = reklam-i. +advise = konsil-i. +affable = afabl-a. +affair = afer-o; regrettable --, domagx-o. +affirmative = jes-a (171). +(be) afraid = tim-i. +Africa = Afrik-o. +after = (prep.), post (89). +afternoon = posttagmez-o. +again = denov-e, re-e (223). +against = (prep.), kontraux. +age = agx-o; of --, plenagx-a; old --, maljunec-o. +(give an) agency = komisi-i. +agent = agent-o. +agitate = agit-i. +agony = agoni-o. +agree = konsent-i; (contract) kontrakt-i. +agreeable = agrabl-a. +aid = help-i. +aim at = cel-i. +air = aer-o; to --, aerum-i; (music) ari-o. +alas! = ho ve (273). +alcohol = alkohol-o. +alcove = alkov-o. +alert = vigl-a. +Alexander = Aleksandr-o. +Alexandria = Aleksandri-o. +Alfred = Alfred-o. +algebra = algebr-o. +alive = viv-a. +all = (pronoun and adj.), cxiuj (173); (indefinite pronoun) cxio (233); + (adv. of quantity) cxiom (194); (whole, entire) tut-a. +alliance = lig-o. +allow = permes-i. +allude = alud-i. +allure = log-i. +almanac = almanak-o. +almost = (adv.), preskaux. +alms = almoz-o. +alone = sol-a. +along = (prep.), laux (191); -- with, kune kun. +aloud = lauxt-e. +alphabet = alfabet-o. +already = (adv.), jam. +also = (adv.), ankaux. +altar = altar-o. +alter = (trans.), sxangx-i, aliig-i. +although = (conj.), kvankam. +always = (adv.), cxiam (187). +America = Amerik-o. +amiable = afabl-a, amind-a. +amid = meze de, inter (85). +among = (prep.), inter (85). +amount = sum-o, kvant-o; a certain --, iom (217). +amphibious = amfibi-a. +amphitheatre = amfiteatr-o. +amuse = amuz-i. +analyse = analiz-i. +ancestor = prapatr-o (282). +anchor = ankr-o. +ancient = antikv-a. +and = (conj.), kaj (26). +anecdote = anekdot-o. +anew = denov-e. +angel = angxel-o. +angle = angul-o. +angry = koler-a. +animal = best-o. +ankle = maleol-o. +announce = anonc-i. +annoy = cxagren-i. +anoint = sxmir-i. +answer = respond-i. +ant = formik-o. +antelope = antilop-o. +antipathy = antipati-o. +antique = antikv-a. +anvil = ambos-o. +anxious = maltrankvil-a. +any = (pronoun and adj.), iu (203); (adv. of quantity) iom (217); + --kind, --time, --thing, etc., see table, 235. +any more = (adv.), plu. +apartment = apartament-o. +apathy = apati-o. +apologise = pardonon pet-i. +apology = (defence), apologi-o. +apparatus = aparat-o. +appear = (come in sight), aper-i; (seem) sxajn-i. +appearance = (aspect), aspekt-o, mien-o, vidigx-o. +appetite = apetit-o. +applaud = aplauxd-i. +apple = pom-o. +apply = (put on), almet-i; -- to (for information, etc.), sin turni al. +approach = alproksimigx-i al. +appropriate = proprigi al si; (suitable), konven-a, dec-a. +approve = aprob-i. +approximate = proksimum-a. +apricot = abrikot-o. +April = april-o. +apron = antauxtuk-o. +aquarium = akvari-o. +Arab = arab-o; street --, bub-o. +arbitrate = arbitraci-i. +arbor = lauxb-o. +arc = ark-o. +arcade = arkad-o. +archer = pafarkist-o. +Archimedes = Arhximed-o. +architecture = arhxitektur-o. +arena = aren-o. +argue = argument-i. +Aristeides = Aristejd-o. +aristocrat = aristokrat-o. +Aristotle = Aristotel-o. +arithmetic = aritmetik-o. +arm = (of the body), brak-o; (weapon) armil-o. +army = arme-o. +aroma = arom-o. +around = (prep.), cxirkaux (89, 160). +arouse = incit-i, vek-i. +arrange = arangx-i. +arrest = arest-i. +arrive = alven-i. +arrogant = arogant-a. +arrow = sag-o. +art = art-o. +Arthur = Artur-o. +article = (grammatical, literary) artikol-o. +artificial = artefarit-a. +artless = naiv-a. +as = (adv.) kiel; as ... as ... tiel ... kiel ... (156); + -- if, -- though, kvazaux (250); -- far as, gxis (prep., 46); + -- much ... as ..., tiom ... kiom (164). +ascertain = certigx-i; -- the truth of, konstat-i. +(be) ashamed = hont-i. +ashes = cindr-o. +Asia = Azi-o. +aside from = (prep.), krom. +ask = (inquire), demand-i; (request), pet-i. +asparagus = asparag-o. +aspect = aspekt-o, mien-o. +ass = azen-o. +assemble = kunven-i, kunvok-i. +assist = help-i. +association = (organization), asoci-o. +assurance = aplomb-o, certigo. +at = (prep.), cxe (125, 160), je (260); -- the rate of, po (175). +athlete = atlet-o. +atmosphere = atmosfer-o. +attack = atak-i. +attain = ating-i, traf-i. +attempt = prov-i. +attentive = atent-a. +attest = atest-i. +attribute = atribut-o. +August = auxgust-o. +Australia = Auxstrali-o. +author = auxtor-o, verkist-o. +automatic = auxtomat-a. +autumn = auxtun-o. +avaricious = avar-a. +avenge = vengx-i. +avenue = ale-o, bulvard-o. +avoid = evit-i. +awake = (trans.), vek-i. +away = (adv.), for (71); (distant), malproksim-e (170). +axe = hakil-o. +axis = (axle), aks-o. + + B. + +babble = babil-i. +baby = infanet-o. +bachelor = frauxl-o; -- of arts (A.B.), abiturient-o. +back = (of the body), dors-o; to the rear (adv.), malantauxen (121). +bacon = lard-o. +bag = sak-o, valiz-o. +bagatelle = bagatel-o. +bake = (trans.), bak-i. +balance = (trans.), balanc-i; (scales), pesil-o. +ball = (to play with), pilk-o; (dance), bal-o; (globe), glob-o. +banana = banan-o. +band = (stripe), stri-o; (music), orkestr-o; (group), ar-o (126). +bandage = bandagx-i. +banish = ekzil-i. +bank = (financial), bank-o; (shore), bord-o. +(become) bankrupt = bankrot-i +banner = flag-o, standard-o. +banquet = festen-o. +bar = bar-i. +barbarian = barbar-o. +bare = nud-a. +bark = (of trees), sxel-o; (of dogs), boj-i. +barrel = barel-o; -- organ, gurd-o. +barren = senfrukt-a. +barrister = advokat-o. +barytone = bariton-o. +base = (foundation), fundament-o, baz-o; (ignoble), malnobl-a. +basin = vaz-o, kuv-o. +basket = korb-o. +bass = (voice), bas-o. +bathe = (trans.), ban-i. +battle = batal-i. +be = est-i (109). +beak = bek-o. +beam = (wooden), trab-o; (light), radi-o. +bean = (leguminous fruit), fab-o; (garden bean), fazeol-o. +bear = (animal), urs-o; (carry), port-i; (endure), elport-i, sufer-i; + (produce, give birth to), nask-i. +beard = barb-o. +beast = best-o. +beat = bat-i; (surpass), super-i, venk-i. +beautiful = bel-a. +because = (conj.), cxar (83), tial ke (83); -- of (prep.), pro (86). +become = igx-i, farigx-i (232); (be suitable), konven-i, dec-i. +bed = lit-o. +bee = abel-o. +beef = bovajx-o (227, c). +beefsteak = bifstek-o. +beet = bet-o. +before = (prep.), antaux (89, 90, 120, 159, 160); (conj.), + antaux ol (97, 98); (adv.), antauxe, jxus antauxe. +beg = (request), pet-i; (ask alms), almozon pet-i. +beggar = almozul-o. +begin = (trans.), komenc-i (see also prefix "ek-", 206). +behave = kondut-i. +behind = (prep.), post. +behold = rigard-i, vid-i; (adv.), jen (228). +Belgian = belg-o. +believe = kred-i (265). +bell = sonoril-o. +belong = aparten-i. +below = (prep.), sub; (adv.), sub-e, malsupr-e. +belt = zon-o. +bench = benk-o. +bend = (trans.), klin-i, fleks-i. +benevolence = bonfar-o. +berry = ber-o. +beside = (prep.), krom; (near), apud; (at the side of), flanke de. +bet = vet-i. +betray = perfid-i. +betrothed = (man), fiancx-o. +between = (prep.), inter (85, 89). +bewitch = ensorcx-i. +beyond = (prep.), preter. +bicycle = bicikl-o. +bid = (order), ordon-i; -- farewell, adiaux-i. +big = grand-a. +bill = (of bird), bek-o; bank --, bankbilet-o; hand--, afisx-o; + (reckoning), kalkul-o. +bind = (fasten), lig-i; (wounds), bandagx-i. +bird = bird-o. +biscuit = biskvit-o; (ring-shaped), kring-o. +bit = (piece), pec-o; (adv.), iom (217). +bite = mord-i. +black = nigr-a; to -- (shoes, etc.), cir-i. +blackberry = rubus-o. +blackbird = merl-o. +blacking = cir-o. +blade = (of knife, etc.), kling-o. +bleat = blek-i. +bless = ben-i. +blind = blind-a. +block = (of wood), stip-o. +blood = sang-o. +bloom = flor-i (116). +blot = (spot), makul-o. +blotter = sorbil-o, sorbpaper-o. +blouse = bluz-o, kitel-o. +blow = blov-i; (stroke), bat-o. +blue = blu-a; --ish, dubeblu-a. +blush = rugxigx-i. +board = (plank), tabul-o; (food), nutrad-o. +boast = fanfaron-i. +boat = boat-o, sxipet-o. +body = korp-o. +boil = (intrans.), bol-i (275). +bolt = (fasten), rigl-i. +bonbon = bombon-o. +bond = (fastening), ligil-o. +bone = ost-o. +book = libr-o; note--, copy--, kajer-o. +boot = bot-o. +border = (edge), rand-o. +bore = (holes), bor-i; (weary), enuig-i. +(be) born = naskigx-i. +borrow = pruntepren-i. +Boston = Boston-o. +both = (pronoun and adj.), ambaux (238); (adv.), kaj (26). +bottle = botel-o. +bottom = fund-o, malsupr-o. +bough = brancx-o. +boulevard = bulvard-o. +boundary = lim-o. +bouquet = buked-o. +bow = (of ribbon), bant-o; (for shooting), pafark-o. +bow = (bend), klinigx-i, salut-i. +box = kest-o; small --, skatol-o. +boy = knab-o. +bracket = (shelf), bret-o. +brag = fanfaron-i. +braid = plekt-i. +brain = cerb-o. +branch = (of tree), brancx-o; (of work or study), fak-o. +brandish = sving-i. +brandy = brand-o. +brave = brav-o. +bread = pan-o. +break = (trans)., romp-i; -- to pieces, frakas-i. +breakfast = matenmangx-o. +breathe = spir-i. +brick = brik-o. +bridge = pont-o. +bridle = brid-o. +bright = (clear), hel-a. +bring = alport-i; -- forth (produce), nask-i; -- up (educate), eduk-i. +brisk = vigl-a. +Briton = Brit-o. +broad = largx-a. +brochure = brosxur-o. +bronze = bronz-o. +brood = (birds), kov-i. +brother = frat-o. +brown = brun-a. +brownie = kobold-o. +bruise = kontuz-i. +brush = bros-i. +brute = brut-o. +bucket = sitel-o. +buckle = buk-o. +bud = burgxon-o. +build = konstru-i. +bulb = tuber-o, bulb-o. +Bulgarian = Bulgar-o. +bull = bovvir-o. +bullet = kugl-o. +bunch = fask-o. +bundle = fask-o, pakajx-o. +bungle = fusx-i. +burden = sxargx-i. +burn = (intrans.), brul-i (275). +burst = (intrans.), krev-i. +bury = enterig-i. +but = (conj.), sed; (prep.), krom. +butcher = bucx-i. +butter = buter-o. +butterfly = papili-o. +button = buton-o; to --, butonum-i. +buy = acxet-i. +buzz = zum-i. +by = (prep.), per (64); de (169, 170); (past), preter; (according to), + laux (191). + + C. + +cab = fiakr-o. +cabbage = brasik-o. +cage = kagx-o. +cake = kuk-o. +calculate = kalkul-i. +caldron = kaldron-o. +calendar = kalendar-o. +calf = bovid-o; (of the leg), tibikarn-o. +call = vok-i; (visit), vizit-i. +calling = (profession), profesi-o. +calm = kviet-a, trankvil-a. +camel = kamel-o. +camera = kamer-o. +can = (be able), pov-i (72); (preserve fruit, etc.), konfit-i. +candle = kandel-o. +candy = kand-o. +canoe = kanot-o. +cap = cxap-o. +capable = kapabl-a. +capital = (money), kapital-o; (excellent), boneg-a; (city), cxefurb-o. +capitol = kapitol-o. +car = vagon-o. +card = kart-o; visiting --, vizitkart-o. +care = (for), zorg-i (pri). +caress = dorlot-i, kares-i. +carpet = tapisx-o. +carriage = kalesx-o, veturil-o. +carrot = karot-o. +carry = port-i. +carve = skulpt-i. +case = (small box), skatol-o; (chest), kest-o; (legal), proces-o; + (holder), uj-o (181), ing-o (237); (occasion), okaz-o; + (grammatical), kaz-o. +cashier = kasist-o. +cascade = kaskad-o. +cast = jxet-i. +castle = kastel-o. +cat = kat-o. +catch = kapt-i. +cattle = brut-o, brutar-o. +cauliflower = florbrasik-o. +cause = ig-i (214); (produce a result), kauxz-i; (motive), kial-o; + tial-o; (espoused or advocated), afer-o; (legal), proces-o. +caution = avert-i. +cavity = kav-o. +cease = (intrans.), cxes-i. +ceiling = plafon-o. +celebrate = fest-i, solenig-i; --ed, fama. +celery = celeri-o. +cellar = kel-o. +cent = cend-o. +center = centr-o. +centigram = centigram-o (284). +centiliter = centilitr-o (284). +centimeter = centimetr-o (284). +certain = cert-a; a -- (one), iu (pronoun and adj., 203); + -- amount, etc., see table, 235. +certainly = nepr-e, cert-e, ja (215). +certify = atest-i, certig-i, konstat-i. +chain = cxen-o; (fetter), katen-o; (of mountains), montar-o. +chair = segx-o. +(be) chairman = prezid-i. +chalk = kret-o. +chance = sxanc-o; (hazard), hazard-o; (opportunity), okazo. +change = (trans.), sxangx-i; (coins), moner-oj. +chapel = kapel-o. +chapter = cxapitr-o. +character = karakter-o. +charge = (commission), komisi-o; (burden), sxargx-o; (price, cost), + prez-o, kost-o. +charm = cxarm-i. +chase = (game, etc.), cxas-i; (drive off), forpel-i. +chatter = babil-i. +check = (on bank), cxek-o. +cheek = vang-o. +cheese = fromagx-o. +chemise = cxemiz-o. +chemistry = hxemi-o. +chemist's shop = apotek-o. +cheque = cxek-o. +cherry = cxeriz-o. +chest = (box), kest-o; (with a lid), kofr-o. +chestnut = kasxtan-o. +chew = macx-i. +chief = cxef-a, precip-a; (leader), estr-o (253). +child = infan-o, id-o (207). +chimney = kamen-o. +chin = menton-o. +china = (porcelain), porcelan-o; (country), Hxinuj-o. +Chinaman = hxin-o. +chirp = pep-i. +chocolate = cxokolad-o. +choir = hxor-o. +choose = elekt-i. +chop = hak-i; (cutlet), kotlet-o. +chrestomathy = krestomati-o. +Christ = Krist-o. +church = (building), pregxej-o. +chute = sxut-o. +cigar = cigar-o. +cigarette = cigared-o. +cinnamon = cinam-o. +cipher = cifer-o. +circle = cirkl-o, rond-o. +circular = (letter, etc.), cirkuler-o. +circumstance = okaz-o, detal-o, cirkonstanc-o. +citizen = regnan-o, urban-o. +city = urb-o. +civilise = civiliz-i. +clack = krak-i. +claim = pretend-i. +clamber = ramp-i. +clap = (trans.), klak-i. +class = klas-o. +clatter = (trans.), klak-i. +claw = ungeg-o. +clay = argil-o. +clean = pur-a. +clear = (bright), hela; (distinct), klar-a. +clearing = (financial), spez-o. +clergyman = pastr-o. +clerk = komiz-o. +clever = lert-a. +climate = klimat-o. +climb up = grimp-i, supren ramp-i. +cloak = mantel-o. +clock = horlogx-o. +close = (trans.), ferm-i; (dense), dens-a; -- to (prep.), apud; + proksim-e de (170). +cloth = (in general), sxtof-o; (woollen, etc.), drap-o; + (piece of), tuk-o; table--, tablotuk-o. +clothe = vest-i. +cloud = nub-o. +club = (organization), klub-o; (weapon), bastoneg-o. +coal = karb-o. +coat = vest-o; (short), jak-o; (frock), redingot-o; over--, surtut-o. +cock = (fowl), kok-o. +coffee = kaf-o. +collect = (trans.), kolekt-i. +college = kolegi-o. +colonel = kolonel-o. +color = kolor-o. +column = kolon-o. +comb = komb-i. +come = ven-i. +comedy = komedi-o. +comfort = (console), konsol-i; (freedom from pain, etc.), komfort-o. +command = ordon-i; (military and naval), komand-i. +commerce = komerc-o. +commission = (entrusted), komisi-o; (percentage of profit), tantiem-o, + komisipag-o. +committee = komitat-o. +common = (general), gxeneral-a; (mutual), komun-a; (vulgar), vulgar-a. +communicate = komunik-i. +company = (commercial), kompanio; (guests), gastar-o; + (presence), cxeest-o. +compare = (trans.), kompar-i (266). +compassion = kompat-o. +compete = konkur-i. +competition = konkurad-o; (for prizes), konkurs-o; + (in business), konkurenc-o. +complain = plend-i. +complicate = komplik-i. +compose = (music or literature), verk-i. +compositor = (of type), kompostist-o. +conceal = kasx-i (252). +concern = koncern-i (266); (anxiety), maltrankvilec-o. +concerning = (prep.), pri. (264, c). +concert = (musical), koncert-o. +condemn = kondamn-i. +condition = cirkonstanc-o; (stipulation), kondicx-o; (state), stat-o. +conduct = (lead), konduk-i; -- oneself (behave), kondut-i. +conduct = (behavior), kondut-o; (in regard to right or wrong), mor-o. +conductor = (of car, etc.), konduktor-o. +confess = konfes-i. +confide = konfid-i. +conform = konform-i (266). +confound = (confuse), konfuz-i. +congratulate = gratul-i. +congress = kongres-o. +conquer = venk-i. +conscience = konscienc-o. +(be) conscious = konsci-i. +consent = konsent-i. +consequently = sekv-e, do; tial (78). +(be) conservative = konservativ-a. +consist = konsist-i. +console = konsol-i. +consonant = (letter), konsonant-o. +conspire = konspir-i. +constant = konstant-a. +constitution = konstituci-o. +consul = konsul-o. +consult = konsult-i, pet-i konsilon de. +contaminate = infekt-i. +content = kontent-a. +continent = (land), kontinent-o. +continue = dauxr-i, dauxrig-i. +contour = kontur-o. +contract = (commercial and legal), kontrakt-i. +contralto = kontralt-o. +contrary = mal-o (67); kontrauxstarem-a. +control = kontrol-i; (govern), reg-i. +convenient = konven-a, oportun-a. +convince = konvink-i. +cook = kuir-i. +copper = kupr-o. +copy = kopi-i; (of a book, etc.), ekzempler-o. +coquettish = koket-a. +cork = sxtop-i; (bark of cork tree), kork-o. +corner = angul-o. +corporal = corporeal, korp-a. +corps = (military), korpus-o. +corpse = kadavr-o. +correct = korekt-i; (right), prav-a. +correspond = korespond-i. +corridor = koridor-o. +cost = kost-i. +costume = kostum-o. +cotton = koton-o. +cough = tus-i. +counsel = konsil-i. +count = kalkul-i, sum-i, nombr-i; (person), graf-o. +county = grafland-o. +country = land-o; (as opposed to city), kampar-o. +coupon = kupon-o. +(be) courageous = kuragx-i. +course = (of lessons), kurs-o; (of a meal), servic-o; + of --, kompreneble; in the -- of, en la dauxro de. +court = kort-o, korteg-o, jugxej-o. +courteous = gxentil-a. +courtesy = gxentilec-o; (kindness), komplez-o. +cousin = kuz-o. +cover = kovr-i; (put covering upon), teg-i. +crab = krab-o. +crack = (split) (trans.), fend-i; (crackle), krak-i; + (burst open) (intrans.), krev-i. +cradle = lulil-o. +crafty = ruz-a. +cravat = kravat-o. +crawl = ramp-i. +crazy = frenez-a. +cream = krem-o. +create = kre-i. +creep = ramp-i; -- up, grimp-i. +crime = krim-o. +crippled = kripl-a. +criticise = kritik-i. +crooked = tord-a, malrekt-a, kurb-a. +cross = kruc-o; (angry), koler-a; -- off, trastrek-i. +crowd = amas-o, anar-o (145, 126). +crown = kron-o. +crucify = krucum-i. +cruel = kruel-a. +crush = pist-i, premeg-i. +crust = krust-o. +cry = (weep), plor-i; (shout), kri-i; (of animals), blek-i. +cucumber = kukum-o. +cultivate = kultur-i; -- the soil, terkultur-i. +cunning = ruz-a. +cup = tas-o; (goblet), pokal-o. +cupboard = sxrank-o. +curious = (odd), kurioz-a; (inquisitive), scivol-a. +curl = (of hair), bukl-o. +curtain = kurten-o. +curve = kurb-o. +cushion = kusen-o. +custom = kutim-o; (tax), impost-o. +cut = trancx-i; (of a garment), fason-o. +cutlet = kotlet-o. +cylinder = cilindr-o. +Cyrus = Cirus-o. + + D. + +dabble = (a liquid), plauxd-i. +dainty = delikat-a. +damage = difekt-i. +Damocles = Damokl-o. +Dane = dan-o. +danger = dangxer-o. +dance = danc-i. +date = (fruit), daktil-o; (time), dat-o. +dawn = tagigx-o. +day = tag-o. +deaf = surd-a. +dear = (prized), kar-a; (expensive), multekost-a. +debase = (adulterate), fals-i; (make bad), malbonig-i. +decay = (mould), sxim-o; (in health), kaduk-i. +deceive = tromp-i. +December = decembr-o. +decide = decid-i. +decigram = decigram-o (284). +deciliter = decilitr-o (284). +decimeter = decimetr-o (284). +deck (of ship) = ferdek-o; (adorn), ornam-i. +declaim = deklam-i. +deep = profund-a. +deer = cerv-o. +defend = defend-i. +define = defin-i, priskrib-i. +degree = grad-o. +dekagram = dekagram-o (284). +dekaliter = dekalitr-o (284). +dekameter = dekametr-o (284). +delay = prokrast-i. +delegate = deleg-i. +delicate = delikat-a. +delightful = cxarm-a, placxeg-a. +deliver (supply) = liver-i; (set free), liberig-i. +delusion = iluzi-o. +demand = postul-i. +dense = dens-a. +deny = ne-i (171). +department (of work, etc.) = fak-o. +desert = dezert-o; (just reward), merit-o. +deserve = merit-i. +desire = dezir-i. +desk = pupitr-o, skribtabl-o. +dessert = desert-o. +destine = destin-i; difin-i. +destiny = destin-o; (lot), sort-o. +destroy = detru-i, neniig-i. +detail = detal-o. +dew = ros-o. +diamond = diamant-o. +dictionary = vortar-o. +dictate (letters) = dikt-i. +die = mort-i. +different = divers-a, malsam-a, diferenc-a. +differentiate = diferencig-i. +dig = fos-i. +dignity (rank) = rang-o. +diligent = diligent-a. +dimension = dimensio; (size), ampleks-o. +Diogenes = Diogen-o. +dip (in liquid) = tremp-i. +diploma = diplom-o; holder of --, diplomit-o. +diplomat = diplomat-o. +direct (guide) = direkt-i; (undeviating), rekt-a. +disburse = elspez-i, elpag-i. +discount = rabat-i. +discuss = diskut-i, priparol-i. +disdain = malsxat-i, malestim-i. +dish (flat) = plad-o. +dispatch (letter) = depesx-o. +distance = distanc-o. +distinct = klar-a. +distinguish = disting-i. +distract (the attention) = distr-i; (confuse), konfuz-i. +disturb = gxen-i, maltrankvilig-i. +diverse = divers-a. +divide = (trans.), divid-i. +do = far-i; (suffice), suficx-i. +doctor = doktor-o; (medical), kuracist-o. +dog = hund-o. +doll = pup-o. +dollar = dolar-o. +donkey = azen-o. +door = pord-o; --handle, ans-o. +doubt = dub-i. +down (hair or feathers) = lanug-o; (downward) (adv.), malsupren. +dove = kolomb-o. +drag = (trans.), tren-i. +draw (pull) = tir-i; (sketch), skiz-i. +drawer = tirkest-o. +drawing-room = salon-o. +dream (in sleep) = songx-i; (fancy), rev-i. +drench = tremp-i. +dress = vest-i (sin); (frock), rob-o; --suit, frak-o. +dressing (sauce) = sauxc-o. +drink = trink-i. +drip = gut-i. +drive (off) = pel-i; (vehicle), veturig-i; (roadway), sxose-o. +drown = (intrans.), dron-i. +drug = drog-o; --store, apotek-o. +drum = tambur-o. +dry = sek-a. +duck = anas-o. +dues = kotizajx-o; pay --, kotiz-i. +dumb = mut-a; -- animal, brut-o. +during = (prep.), dum (96); en la dauxro de-. +dusk = krepusk-o. +dust = polv-o; remove the --, senpolvig-i. +duty = dev-o; be on --, dejxor-i. +dwell = logx-i. + + E. + +each = (adj. and pronoun), cxiu (173). +eager = avid-a. +eagle = agl-o. +ear (of the body) = orel-o. +early = fru-a. +earth = ter-o; (the planet), terglob-o. +east = orient-o. +Easter = Pask-o. +easy = facil-a. +eat = mangx-i. +echo = ehx-o. +economical = sxparem-a. +edge = rand-o; (of rivers, etc.), bord-o. +edit = redakt-i. +editor = redaktor-o. +editorial body = redakci-o. +educate = (rear), eduk-i; (teach), instru-i. +effect = efekt-o. +effective = efektiv-a. +(be) efficacious = efik-i. +egg = ov-o. +Egypt = Egipt-o. +eight = (adj.), ok (136). +either = (pronoun and adj.), iu (203); cxiu (173); unu aux la alia; + (adv.), aux; on -- side (adv.), ambauxflanke (238). +elbow = kubut-o. +electric = elektr-a. +elk = alk-o. +elm = ulm-o. +eloquent = elokvent-a. +embroider = brod-i. +eminent = eminent-a. +empire = imperi-o. +employ = (hire), dung-i; -- oneself, sin okupi; (use), uz-i. +employee = komiz-o, dungit-o, oficist-o. +employment = ofic-o, okupad-o. +enchant = ensorcx-i, rav-i. +encore = (adv.), bis. +end = (trans.), fin-i. +endow = dot-i. +endure = sufer-i, elport-i. +engineer = ingxenier-o. +Englishman = angl-o. +enjoy = gxu-i; -- oneself, sin amuz-i. +enlightened = kler-a. +enlist = (trans.), varb-i. +enroll = (trans.), registr-i, varb-i. +enthusiasm = entuziasm-o. +entire = tut-a. +entrust = komisii, alkonfid-i. +envelope = (of letter), kovert-o. +envy = envi-i. +(be an) epicure = frand-i. +epoch = epok-o. +equal = egal-a. +err = erar-i. +establish = establ-i, fond-i; (prove, etc.), konstat-i. +estate = bien-o. +esteem = estim-i. +estimate = taks-i. +eternal = etern-a, cxiam-a. +Europe = Euxrop-o. +evangel = evangeli-o. +even = (level), eben-a; -- number, parnombro; (actually) (adv.), ecx. +evening = vesper-o (93); -- dress (of man), frak-o. +ever = (adv.), iam (212); (indefinite adv.), ajn (236); + (always), cxiam (187). +every = (one), (pronoun and adv.), cxiu (173); --thing, -- way, etc., + see table, 235. +evolution = evoluci-o. +exact = akurat-a, gxust-a; (demand), postul-i. +examine = ekzamen-i; -- and check, kontrol-i. +example = ekzempl-o; (model), model-o. +Excellency = (title), mosxt-o (258). +except = escept-i (266); (prep.), krom. +excite = ekscit-i. +exercise = (trans.), ekzerc-i. +exhale = elspir-i. +exhort = admon-i. +exile = ekzil-i. +exist = ekzist-i. +expect = atend-i. +expend = (money), elspez-i; (energy, etc.), uz-i, eluz-i. +experienced = spert-a. +experiment = eksperiment-i. +expert = spert-a, lert-a. +explode = (intrans.), eksplod-i (275). +explore = esplor-i. +express = esprim-i; (train), rapida vagonaro. +extend = (trans.), etend-i, pligrandig-i, plilongig-i. +extensive = vast-a, vastampleks-a. +extent = (size), ampleks-o. +extinguish = esting-i. +extraordinary = eksterordinar-a. +eye = okul-o; --brow, brov-o; --lid, palpebr-o. + + F. + +fable = fabel-o. +face = vizagx-o. +fact = fakt-o; in --, fakt-e, efektiv-e, ja (215). +fade = velk-i. +fair = (just), just-a; (beautiful), bel-a. +fairy = fe-o, fein-o. +faint = sven-i. +faithful = fidel-a. +fall = fal-i; (autumn), auxtun-o. +false = fals-a; (treacherous), perfid-a. +fame = fam-o. +familiar = familiar-a, kutim-a. +family = famili-o. +fancy = imag-i, rev-i. +far = malproksim-e; as -- as (prep.), gxis (46). +farm = (as a tenant), farm-i; (till the soil), terkultur-i. +farewell = (adv. and interjection), adiaux (171, 273). +fashion = fason-o, mod-o. +fasten = lig-i. +fat = gras-o; (corpulent), dik-a. +fatal = fatal-a. +fate = sort-o, fatal-o, destin-o. +father = patr-o. +faucet = kran-o. +favor = favor-i; a --, komplezo. +favorable = favor-a. +fay = fe-o, fein-o. +fear = tim-i. +feather = plum-o. +feature = trajt-o. +feed = nutr-i; -- flocks, pasxt-i. +feel = sent-i; (with fingers, etc.), palp-i. +female = in-o (59). +fervor = fervor-o. +fetter = (chain, etc.), katen-o. +fever = febr-o. +fiance = fiancx-o. +fie = (interjection), fi (273). +field = kamp-o. +fight = batal-i, milit-i. +fill = plenig-i. +find = trov-i. +fine = bel-a, delikat-a; (of money), monpun-o. +finger = fingr-o; index --, montra fingro; little --, malgranda fingro; + middle --, longa fingro; ring --, ringa fingro. +finish = (trans.), fin-i. +fir = abi-o. +fire = fajr-o; set -- to, ekbrulig-i. +firm = firm-a. +fish = fisx-o; (catch fish), fisxkapt-i. +fist = pugn-o. +fit = almezur-i; (be) --, tauxg-i. +(be) fitting = konven-i; (decent), dec-i. +five = (adj.), kvin (136). +flag = flag-o; standard-o. +flat = glat-a, eben-a; plat-a. +flesh = karn-o. +flex = (trans.), fleks-i. +floor = plank-o. +flour = farun-o. +flow = flu-i. +flower = flor-o (116). +fluid = fluid-a. +fly = flug-i; (insect), musx-o. +foam = sxauxm-o. +focus = fokus-o. +fog = nebul-o. +fold = fald-i. +folk = popol-o. +follow = sekv-i, postven-i, postir-i. +(be) fond of sweets = frand-i. +fondle = dorlot-i. +foot = (of the body), pied-o; (measure), fut-o. +for = (prep.), por (95, 98, 262); pro (86); (conj.), cxar (83). +force = fort-o; (compel), devig-i; -- (upon), altrud-i (al). +fore- = pra- (282). +forehead = frunt-o. +foreign = fremd-a. +forge = (falsify), fals-i. +forget = forges-i. +forgive = pardon-i. +fork = fork-o. +form = form-i, alform-i, model-i. +formal = solen-a. +found = fond-i. +foundation = fundament-o. +four = (adj.), kvar (136). +fount = font-o. +fountain = fontan-o. +fox = vulp-o. +fragrance = arom-o, bonodor-o. +frame = (of picture), kadr-o. +frank = afrank-i. +Frederick = Frederik-o. +free = liber-a. +Frenchman = franc-o. +frequent = oft-a; (visit often), vizitad-i. +fresh = fresx-a, nov-a. +Friday = vendred-o. +friend = amik-o. +fringe = frangx-o. +frivolous = malserioz-a. +frock coat = redingot-o. +frog = ran-o. +from = (prep.), de (89, 170); el; (cause), pro (86). +frost = frost-o; (hoar), prujn-o. +froth = sxauxm-o. +fruit = frukt-o. +fruitless = (vain), van-a. +fry = (trans.), frit-i. +function = (of machinery, etc.), funkci-i. +funereal = funebr-a. +fulfil = plenum-i. +full = plen-a. +fur = fel-o; (coat or wrap), pelt-o. +furious = furioz-a. +furnish = (supply), liver-i; (provide), proviz-i; (a house), mebl-i. +furniture = (piece of), mebl-o. +furrow = sulk-o. +further = (adv.), plu. +fuse = (trans.), fand-i. +futile = van-a. +future = estontec-o; (grammatical), estont-o; (adj.), estont-a. + + G. + +gain = gajn-i, obten-i. +gallery = galeri-o; (for pictures), pinakotek-o. +gallop = galop-i. +gamin = bub-o. +gape = (yawn), osced-i. +garden = gxarden-o. +garland = girland-o. +gas = gas-o. +gather = (trans.), kolekt-i. +gay = gaj-a. +gaze = fikse rigard-i. +gazette = gazet-o. +general = gxeneral-a, komun-a; (military), general-o. +gentleman = sinjor-o. +geometry = geometri-o. +German = german-o. +Gertrude = Gertrud-o. +ghost = fantom-o. +gift = donac-o. +ginger = zingibr-o. +girdle = zon-o. +give = don-i; (as a gift), donac-i; -- information, inform-i; + -- notice, aviz-i; -- witness, atest-i; -- birth to, nask-i. +(be) glad = gxoj-i (116). +glass = (material), vitr-o; (tumbler), glas-o. +glide = glit-i. +globe = glob-o. +glory = glor-o. +glossy = (polished), polurit-a. +glove = gant-o. +glue = glu-i. +gnash = grinc-i. +go = ir-i; (in vehicle, boat, etc.), vetur-i; + -- on a pilgrimage, pilgrim-i. +goal = cel-o. +goblet = pokal-o. +God = Di-o. +good = bon-a; be -- for, tauxg-i por. +good-bye = (adv. and interjection), adiaux (171, 273). +goose = anser-o. +gospel = evangeli-o. +govern = reg-i. +graceful = graci-a. +grade = grad-o; (rank), rang-o. +grain = (wheat, etc.), gren-o; (unit) er-o (276). +gram = gram-o (284). +grammar = gramatik-o. +grandfather = av-o. +grandson = nep-o. +grape = vinber-o. +grass = herb-o. +grasshopper = akrid-o. +grate = rasp-i; grater, raspil-o. +grating = (bar or lattice), krad-o. +grave = tomb-o; (serious), grav-a. +gravitate = gravit-i. +gravy = sauxc-o. +gray = griz-a. +grieve = (trans.), cxagren-i, malgxojig-i; (intrans.) malgxoj-i. +grind = grinc-i. +great = grand-a; (remote in ancestry), pra- (282). +Greek = grek-o. +green = verd-a; --ish, dubeverd-a. +greet = salut-i. +groan = gxem-i. +group = grup-o, ar-o (126). +ground = ter-o; -- floor, teretagx-o. +grow = kresk-i, veget-i. +guard = gard-i. +guess = diven-i. +guest = gast-o. +guide = gvid-i, direkt-i. +guilty = kulp-a. +gunpowder = pulv-o. +gush = (of liquids), sxpruc-i. + + H. + +habit = kutim-o. +hack = hak-i; (carriage), fiakr-o. +hail = (frozen rain), hajl-o. +(a) hair = har-o; -- pencil, penik-o. +half = duon-o (166, 277). +halt = (intrans.), halt-i. +ham = sxink-o. +hammer = martel-o. +hand = man-o; (of clock), montril-o. +handbill = afisx-o. +handicraft = meti-o. +handsome = bel-a. +hang = (intrans.), pend-i. +handy = oportun-a. +happen = okaz-i. +happy = felicx-a. +harbor = haven-o. +hardly = (adv.), apenaux. +hare = lepor-o. +haricot = (bean), fazeol-o. +harness = jung-i. +harvest = rikolt-i. +hasten = (trans.), akcel-i; (intrans.) rapid-i. +hat = cxapel-o. +haughty = fier-a. +haul = tren-i. +have = hav-i; -- to, dev-i. +hay = fojn-o. +hazard = hazard-o. +hazel-nut = avel-o. +he = (pronoun), li (32, 37, 42). +head = kap-o; (adj.), cxef-a. +health = san-o; state of (good or bad) --, fart-o. +hear = auxd-i. +heart = kor-o; by --, (by rote), parker-e. +heat = (trans.), hejt-i, varmig-i. +heaven = cxiel-o; heavenly body, astr-o. +heavy = pez-a. +Hebrew = hebre-o. +heel = (of foot), kalkan-o; (of shoe), kalkanum-o. +hektare = hektar-o (284). +hektogram = hektogram-o (284). +hektoliter = hektolitr-o (284). +hektometer = hektometr-o (284). +help = help-i (265). +hen = kokin-o. +herb = herb-o. +hero = hero-o. +hesitate = hezit-i. +hide = kasx-i (252); (skin of animals), fel-o. +Hiero = Hieron-o. +high = alt-a. +hinge = cxarnir-o. +hip = koks-o. +hire = (persons), dung-i; (houses, etc.), lu-i. +hiss = sibl-i. +history = histori-o. +ho = (interjection), ho (273). +hoar = (frost), prujn-o. +hoarse = rauxk-a. +hog = pork-o. +hold = ten-i. +holder = (handle), tenil-o, ans-o; (receptacle), uj-o (181); + ing-o (237). +hole = tru-o; (cavity), kav-o. +Holland = Holand-o. +holy = sankt-a. +home = hejm-o; at --, cxehejme. +homesickness = nostalgi-o. +honest = honest-a. +honey = miel-o. +honeysuckle = lonicer-o. +honor = honor-i; (as term of address), mosxt-o (258). +hook = krocx-i. +hope = esper-i. +horizon = horizont-o. +horizontal = horizontal-a. +horn = korn-o. +horse = cxeval-o. +horse-radish = armoraci-o. +hose = sxtrump-oj; -- supporter, sxelk-o. +hotel = hotel-o. +hour = hor-o (185). +house = dom-o; at the -- of (prep.), cxe (125, 160). +how = (adv.), kiel (134); kiamanier-e; -- much, kiom (140, 185). +however = (conj.), tamen; (adv.), ajn (236). +hue = nuanc-o. +hum = zum-i. +human being = hom-o. +humble = humil-a. +humor = humor-o. +hundred = (adj.), cent (142). +hungry = malsat-a. +hunt = sercx-i; (game or wild animals), cxas-i. +hurdy-gurdy = gurd-o. +hurl = jxet-i. +hurrah = (interjection), hura (273). +hurricane = uragan-o. +hurry = rapid-i. +husband = edz-o. +hypocrite = hipokrit-o. + + I. + +I = (pronoun), mi (32, 37, 274). +ice = glaci-o; (food), glaciajx-o. +idea = ide-o. +ideal = ideal-o. +identical = ident-a. +idiom = idiom-o. +idiot = idiot-o. +if = (conj.), se (240); as --, kvazaux (250); (whether), cxu. +ignore = ignor-i. +illusion = iluzi-o. +illustrate = ilustr-i. +image = bild-o. +imagine = imag-i. +imitate = imit-i. +immediate = tuj-a (171). +implicate = implik-i. +important = grav-a, serioz-a. +importunate = altrudem-a. +impose = trud-i. +impost = impost-o. +impress = impres-i. +impulse = impuls-o. +in = (prep.), en (46, 89, 160); -- the presence of, cxe (125, 160). +inch = col-o. +incite = incit-i. +incline = (trans.), klin-i. +incommode = gxen-i. +(be) indebted = sxuld-i. +indeed = (adv.), ja (215); do; efektiv-e. +index = tabel-o. +Indian = (American), indian-o, rugxhauxtul-o; -- corn, maiz-o. +indifferent = indiferent-a. +industry = (trade), industri-o. +inebriate = ebri-a. +inevitable = nepr-a, neevitebl-a. +infect = infekt-i. +influence = influ-i. +inform = inform-i, sciig-i. +ingenuous = naiv-a. +inhabitant = logxant-o, an-o (145). +inhale = enspir-i. +ink = ink-o. +inquire = demand-i. +insect = insekt-o. +inside = (adv.), intern-e; (prep.), en. +insist = insist-i. +inspect = inspekt-i, ekzamen-i, rigard-i, kontrol-i. +inspire = inspir-i. +instantaneous = moment-a. +instead of = (prep.), anstataux (98, 159). +instruct = instru-i; (order), ordon-i. +insult = insult-i. +insure = (with a company), asekur-i; (make certain), certig-i. +intelligent = inteligent-a. +intend = intenc-i. +interest = interes-i; (of money), procent-o. +(be) intermittent = intermit-i. +internal = intern-a. +interpret = interpret-i. +intimate = intim-a. +intoxicated = ebri-a. +investigate = esplor-i, ekzamen-i, elsercx-i. +invite = invit-i. +iron = (metal), fer-o; (linen), glad-i. +island = insul-o. +it = (pronoun), gxi (32, 37, 42, 274); see also 50, 51. +Italian = ital-o. + + J. + +jacket = jak-o. +jail = karcer-o. +jam = kompot-o, fruktajx-o. +January = januar-o. +jaw = (orifice, opening), fauxk-o; (of the skull), makzel-o; + --bone, makzelost-o. +jealous = jxaluz-a. +jest = sxerc-i. +Jesus = Jesu-o. +Jew = hebre-o. +jewel = juvel-o. +jingle = (intrans.), tint-i. +John = Johan-o. +joint = artik-o. +joke = sxerc-i. +journal = jxurnal-o, revu-o. +journey = vojagx-i. +judge = jugx-i. +jug = krucx-o. +juggle = jxongl-i. +July = juli-o. +jump = salt-i. +June = juni-o. +jurist = jurist-o. +just = (upright), just-a; (exact), gxust-a; (adv.), gxust-e, jxus. + + K. + +keep = ten-i, gard-i; (preserve), konserv-i; -- in mind, memor-i. +kerosene = petrol-o. +key = sxlosil-o; (of piano, etc.), klav-o. +kill = mortig-i. +kilogram = kilogram-o (284). +kiloliter = kilolitr-o (284). +kilometer = kilometr-o (284). +kind = (species), spec-o; (good), bon-a, bonkor-a; that --, what --, + etc., see table, 235. +kindness = komplez-o, bonkorec-o. +king = regx-o; --dom, regxolando. +kiss = kis-i. +knave = fripon-o. +knee = genu-o. +kneel = genufleks-i. +knit = trik-i. +knock = frap-i. +knot = tuber-o; (tied), ligajx-o; (of ribbon), bant-o. +know = sci-i; (be acquainted with), kon-i (117). +kobold = kobold-o. + + L. + +labor = labor-i; -- for the success or completion of something, + klopod-i. +lace = punt-o; (of a shoe), lacx-o. +(be) lacking = (intrans.) mank-i. +lake = lag-o. +lamb = sxafid-o; (meat), sxafidajx-o. +lame = lam-a. +lamp = lamp-o. +lance = lanc-o. +land = land-o; (estate), bien-o; (soil), ter-o. +landscape = pejzagx-o. +language = lingv-o. +lantern = lantern-o. +large = grand-a. +lark = (bird), alauxd-o. +last = (intrans.), dauxr-i; (in a series), last-a; (previous) pasint-a, + antaux-a. +latch = ans-o. +late = malfru-a. +Latin = latin-a. +latter = cxi-tiu (61, 62). +lattice = krad-o. +laugh = rid-i (265). +law = legx-o; --suit, proces-o; (rule), regul-o. +lawyer = advokat-o, legxist-o. +lay = meti, kusxig-i; -- aside, demet-i; -- claim, pretend-i. +layer = tavol-o. +lead = konduk-i. +lead = (metal), plumb-o. +leaf = foli-o. +league = (alliance), lig-o. +lean = (trans.), apog-i, klin-i; (not fat), malgras-a. +leap = salt-i; --year, superjar-o. +learn = lern-i; (news, etc.), sciigx-i. +learned = kler-a. +least = (adv.), malplej (80), malpli multe (81); at --, almenaux. +leather = led-o. +leave = (trans.), las-i; -- off (intrans.), cxes-i. +leg = krur-o. +legal = legx-a; -- process, proces-o. +lemon = citron-o. +lemonade = citronajx-o, limonad-o. +lend = prunt-i, pruntedon-i. +lens = objektiv-o. +lengthen = (trans.), etend-i, plilongig-i. +less = (adv.), malpli (80); malpli multe (81). +lesson = lecion-o. +let = (trans.), las-i; (rent), luig-i; (permit), permes-i. +letter = (epistle), leter-o; (of the alphabet), liter-o. +lettuce = laktuk-o. +level = nivel-o; (flat), eben-a. +library = bibliotek-o; (collection of books), librar-o. +lick = lek-i. +lie = (recline), kusx-i (239); (tell falsehoods), mensog-i. +lift = lev-i. +light = lum-a, hel-a; (not heavy), malpez-a. +lightning = fulm-o. +like = sxat-i; (similar), simil-a; see also 250. +limb = membro; (of a tree), brancx-o. +limit = lim-i. +linden = tili-o. +line = lini-o, vic-o, strek-o. +linen = tol-o. +lion = leon-o. +lip = lip-o. +liquid = fluid-a. +listen = auxskult-i. +liter = litr-o (284). +literal = lauxliter-a. +literature = literatur-o. +little = malgrand-a; (with slightly affectionate sense), et-a (198); + (adv.), malmulte, iom (217); -- by --, iom post iom. +live = viv-i; (dwell), logx-i (133). +load = sxargx-i. +loan = prunt-i, pruntedon-i. +local = lok-a. +lock = sxlos-i; (fastening), serur-o. +locomotive = lokomotiv-o. +lodge = logx-i. +log = sxtip-o. +long = long-a; -- for, sopir-i je. +look = rigard-i; -- for, sercx-i. +lose = perd-i; (fail to profit), malgajn-i; -- time, malfru-i. +lot = (fate), sort-o. +loud = lauxt-a. +love = am-i; make --, amindum-i. +loyal = fidel-a, lojal-a. +luck = sxanc-o; lucky, bonsxanc-a. +lull = kvietig-i; (to sleep), lul-i. +lunatic = lunatik-o. +lung = pulm-o. +luxury = luks-o. + + M. + +macaroni = makaroni-o. +machine = masxin-o. +mad = frenez-a. +magazine = gazet-o, jxurnal-o, revu-o. +magic = magi-o. +mail = posxt-o, enposxtig-i; -- box, posxtkest-o. +maize = maiz-o. +majestic = majest-a. +majesty = (term of address), mosxt-o (258). +make = far-i (see also 214); -- mistakes, erar-i; -- love, amindum-i. +malicious = malic-a. +man = vir-o. +manage = administr-i, direkt-i; (a household), mastrum-i. +manner = manier-o; (right or wrong), mor-o; in that --, in every --, + etc., see table, 235. +mantle = mantel-o. +manufacture = fabrik-i. +manuscript = manuskript-o. +maple = acer-o. +marble = (stone), marmor-o. +march = marsxad-i. +March = mart-o. +mark = mark-o, sign-o; (official), stamp-o. +marmalade = marmelad-o. +marry = (become married), edzigx-i. +master = mastr-o; (of his profession or art), majstr-o; + -- of Arts (A.M.), magistr-o. +match = (for fire), alumet-o. +material = material-o; (cloth), sxtof-o. +matter = afer-o. +mature = matur-a. +maximum = maksimum-o. +May = maj-o; (auxiliary verb), see 269, 270. +mayonnaise = majones-a. +mean = signif-i, intenc-i, malnobl-a. +meaning = senc-o. +means = rimed-o; by -- of (prep.), per (64). +measure = (trans.), mezur-i. +meat = viand-o. +mechanics = mehxanik-o. +medical = medicin-a, kuracist-a. +medicine = (drug, etc.), kuracil-o; (science), medicin-o, kuracart-o. +meet = (trans.), renkont-i, traf-i; (assemble), kunven-i. +melody = melodi-o. +melon = melon-o. +melt = fluidig-i, fluidigx-i, degel-i. +member = membr-o, an-o (145). +memory = memor-o; by --, parker-e, memor-e. +mend = ripar-i; (patch), flik-i. +mention = nom-i; cit-i. +menu = menu-o. +merely = (adv.), nur. +merit = merit-i. +merry = gaj-a; make --, festen-i. +merry-go-round = karusel-o. +metal = metal-o. +meter = metr-o (284). +method = metod-o. +middle = mez-o, centr-o. +mien = mien-o. +mild = mild-a. +mile = mejl-o. +milk = lakt-o; (draw the milk of), melk-i. +mill = muel-o. +millimeter = milimetr-o (284). +million = milion-o. +mine = (coal, etc), min-o; (possessive adj.), mi-a (43). +mineral = mineral-o. +minimum = minimum-o. +minister = (political), ministr-o; (clergyman), pastr-o. +minute = (time), minut-o; (adj.), detal-a, malgrand-a. +minutes = (of a meeting), protokol-o. +mirror = spegul-o. +miserly = avar-a. +misery = mizer-o. +miss = (fail to reach), maltraf-i; (be missing), mank-i; + (notice the absence of), senti la foreston de; + (young lady), frauxlin-o (163). +mist = nebul-o. +mistake = erar-o. +Mister = Sinjor-o (163, 286). +mix = (trans.), miks-i. +mock = mok-i. +mode = fason-o, mod-o. +model = model-o. +moderate = moder-a. +modest = modest-a. +moment = moment-o; a -- ago, (adv.), jxus. +monarch = monarhx-o. +Monday = lund-o. +money = mon-o; -- box, kas-o; -- order, mandat-o. +monk = monahx-o. +monkey = simi-o. +month = monat-o. +moon = lun-o. +moral = moral-a, bonmor-a; morals, moroj. +more = (adv.), pli (74, 79); (quantity), pli multe (81); + (further), plu; the --, ju pli, des pli (84). +morning = maten-o (93). +morsel = pec-o. +most = (adv.), plej (74, 79); (quantity), plej multe (81). +mould = sxim-o. +mountain = mont-o. +mourning = funebr-o. +mouse = mus-o. +moustache = lipharoj. +mouth = busx-o; (of river), enflu-o, elflu-o. +move = (trans.), mov-i; (change residence) translogx-i. +much = mult-a (81); (very), tre. +mud = kot-o. +murmur = murmur-i. +museum = muze-o. +mushroom = fung-o. +music = muzik-o. +must = dev-i (247). +mute = mut-a. +mutton = sxafajx-o. +mutual = reciprok-a (180), komun-a. +myopic = miop-a. +mystery = mister-o. + + N. + +nail = (metal), najl-o; (of the finger or toe), ung-o. +naive = naiv-a. +naked = nud-a. +name = nom-o. +narrate = rakont-i. +nation = naci-o. +nature = natur-o. +naught = nul-o; (none), neniom (231). +near = proksim-a (170); (prep.), apud (120, 159). +necessary = neces-a. +neck = kol-o. +need = bezon-i. +needle = kudril-o. +negative = ne-a (171); (photographic), negativ-o. +neighbor = najbar-o. +neither = (conj.), nek (31); (pronoun and adj.), neniu (220). +nephew = nev-o. +nerve = nerv-o. +nest = nest-o. +net = ret-o. +neutral = neuxtral-a. +never = (adv.), neniam (226). +nevertheless = (conj.), tamen. +new = nov-a, fresx-a; news, novajx-o. +newspaper = jxurnal-o, tagjxurnal-o. +nice = delikat-a. +night = nokt-o. +nine = (adj.), naux (136). +nitrogen = azot-o. +no = (adv.), ne (27, 66, a); (adj.), neniu (220); -- one, --where, + etc., see table, 235. +noble = nobl-a, +nobleman = nobel-o. +nobody = (pronoun), neniu (220). +nod = (the head), balanc-i (la kapon). +noise = bru-o. +none = (adj. and pronoun), neniu (220); (adv.), neniom (231). +non-partisan = neuxtral-a. +noon = tagmez-o. +nor = (conj.), nek (31). +north = nord-o. +Norwegian = norveg-o. +not = (adv.), ne (27, 66, a). +note = not-o, bilet-o; --book, kajer-o; (notice), rimark-i, not-i. +nothing = nenio (233). +notice = rimark-i; not-i; give --, aviz-i. +notwithstanding = (prep.), malgraux; (conj.), tamen. +nourish = nutr-i. +novel = nov-a; (book), roman-o. +November = novembr-o. +now = (adv.), nun. +nude = nud-a. +nullify = nulig-i, neniig-i. +number = (quantity), nombr-o; (numeral), numer-o. +nut = nuks-o. + + O. + +oak = kverk-o. +(make) oath = jxur-i. +oats = aven-o. +obey = obe-i (265). +object = objekt-o; (aim), cel-o; (oppose), kontrauxparol-i, + kontrauxstar-i, protest-i. +objective = objektiv-o. +obligation = (financial), sxuld-o; (moral), dev-o. +oblige = (compel), devig-i; (render service), far-i komplezon, serv-i. +oblique = oblikv-a. +observe = observ-i, rimark-i, not-i. +obstinate = obstin-a. +obstruct = bar-i. +occasion = foj-o (127); okaz-o. +occupation = profesi-o, okup-o, meti-o. +occupy = okup-i. +occur = okaz-i. +ocean = ocean-o. +October = oktobr-o. +odor = odor-o. +of = (prep.), de (49, 100, 160, 170); da (99, 101, 103); el; + (concerning), pri (160, 264, c). +offend = ofend-i. +offer = propon-i, prezent-i, ofer-i. +office = ofic-o; (place), oficej-o. +officer = (of organization or firm), oficist-o; + (military or naval), oficir-o. +official = oficial-a. +often = (adv.), oft-e, multfoj-e. +oh = (interjection), ho (273). +oil = ole-o. +olive = oliv-o. +on = (prep.), sur; -- account of, pro (86). +once = (adv.), unufoj-e; -- on a time, iam (212); at --, tuj; + -- more, bis. +one = (adj.), unu (136, 137, 180); (pronoun), oni (54). See 235. +onion = bulb-o. +only = sol-a; (mere), nur-a. +opera = oper-o; -- glasses, lornet-o. +opinion = opini-o. +opportune = oportun-a. +opposed to = (prep.), kontraux. +opposite = (converse), mal-o (67); (prep.), kontraux. +or = (conj.), aux. +orange = (fruit), orangx-o. +orchestra = orkestr-o. +order = ordon-i; (of store, etc.), mend-i; (methodical or proper + arrangement), ord-o; money --, mandat-o. +ordinary = ordinar-a. +organ = (physical), organ-o; (musical), orgen-o. +organize = organiz-i. +original = original-o. +ornament = ornam-i. +orphan = orf-o. +oscillate = (intrans.), balancigx-i. +ostracism = ostracism-o. +other = ali-a; (remaining), ceter-a; -- people's, malpropr-a; + --wise, ali-e. +out of = el. +outline = kontur-o; (profile), profil-o; (sketch), skiz-o. +outside = (prep.), ekster (120, 121). +over = (prep.), super; (across), trans; (concerning), pri; + --coat, surtut-o; --shoe, supersxu-o; (adv.), (too), tro. +owe = sxuld-i. +own = posed-i, propr-a. +ox = bov-o. +oyster = ostr-o. + + P. + +pack = pak-i. +pad = rembur-i. +paddle = padel-i. +page = (of book, etc.), pagx-o. +pail = sitel-o. +pain = dolor-o; (effort), pen-o; take pains, pen-i. +paint = pentr-i; (material), kolorigil-o; --brush, penik-o. +pair = par-o. +palace = palac-o. +pale = pal-a. +palisade = palisar-o. +palm = (of the hand), polm-o. +pamphlet = brosxur-o. +pan = pat-o. +paper = (material), paper-o; news--, jxurnal-o. +paradise = paradiz-o. +paragraph = paragraf-o. +pardon = pardon-i (265). +parallel = paralel-a. +park = park-o. +parlor = salon-o. +parsley = petrosel-o. +parsnip = pastinak-o. +part = part-o; of a work or book, kajer-o; + separate (trans.), disir-i, apartig-i, disdivid-i. +participle = particip-o. +pass = (intrans.), pas-i. +passage = koridor-o. +passenger = pasagxer-o. +passion = pasi-o. +passive = pasiv-a. +past = (prep.), preter; (time), estintec-o; + (grammatical), estint-o; (bygone), estint-a. +paste = (glue), glu-i. +pasteboard = karton-o. +pastor = pastr-o. +pastry = kukajx-o. +pasture = (trans.), pasxt-i. +patch = flik-i. +path = vojet-o. +patience = pacienc-o. +patient = (ill person), kuracat-o. +patty = pastecx-o. +pause = pauxz-i. +pavement = pavim-o; (sidewalk), trotuar-o. +pay = pag-i; -- dues, kotiz-i. +pea = piz-o. +peace = pac-o. +peach = persik-o. +pear = pir-o. +pearl = perl-o. +peculiar = strang-a, kurioz-a. +peddle = kolport-i. +pedestal = piedestal-o. +pedestrian = piedirant-o. +peeling = sxel-o. +pen = plum-o; (enclosure), ej-o (III). +pencil = krajon-o; hair--, penik-o. +penetrate = penetr-i. +people = popol-o; (indefinite pronoun), oni (54). +pepper = pipr-o. +perceive = sent-i; (see), vid-i. +percentage = procent-o; (of profit), tantiem-o. +perfect = perfekt-a. +perfidious = perfid-a. +perform = (act), ag-i; (fulfil), plenum-i; (do), far-i. +perfume = parfum-o; (odor), bonodor-o. +period = period-o; (of time), epok-o; (punctuation), punkt-o. +perish = pere-i. +permit = permes-i. +persecute = persekut-i; (worry), turment-i, gxen-i. +persevere = persist-i. +person = person-o. +perspire = sxvit-i. +persuade = konvink-i. +pet = dorlot-i. +petroleum = petrol-o. +phantom = fantom-o. +Pharaoh = faraon-o. +pharmacy = farmaci-o; (shop), apotek-o. +philosopher = filozof-o. +photograph = fotograf-i. +phrase = fraz-o. +physician = kuracist-o. +physics = fizik-o. +pick = (choose), elekt-i; (gather), kolekt-i. +pickle = pekl-i. +picture = bild-o; (portrait), portret-o; -- gallery, pinakotek-o. +picturesque = pitoresk-a, pentrind-a. +pie = kukajx-o; (patty), pastecx-o. +piece = pec-o. +pig = pork-o. +pigeon = kolomb-o. +(be a) pilgrim = pilgrim-i. +pillage = rab-i. +pillar = kolon-o. +pin = pingl-o. +pinch = pincx-i. +pine = (tree), pin-o; -- for, sopir-i je. +pineapple = ananas-o. +pinnacle = pint-o. +pioneer = pionir-o. +pious = pi-a. +pipe = tub-o; (for smoking), pip-o. +pitcher = krucx-o. +pity = kompat-i; (regrettable affair), domagx-o. +placard = afisx-o. +place = lok-o; (for something), -ej-o (111); + (broad, short street or open space), plac-o; (put), met-i. +plait = plekt-i. +plan = plan-o, projekt-o, skiz-o. +plane = plat-a. +planet = planed-o. +plank = tabul-o. +plant = plant-i; (vegetable growth), kreskajx-o, vegetajx-o. +plate = plat-o; (dish) teler-o. +platform = (railway), peron-o. +play = lud-i; (music), muzik-i; (theatrical), teatrajx-o. +player = (theatrical), aktor-o. +pleasant = agrabl-a, dolcx-a, afabl-a. +please = placx-i (265); kontentig-i, far-i plezuron al; + (in requests), bonvolu, mi petas. +pleasure = plezur-o; take -- in, gxu-i. +plot = konspir-i. +plow = plug-i. +plum = prun-o. +plumber = plumbist-o. +plunder = rab-i. +plural = multenombr-o. +pneumatic = pneumatik-a. +pocket = posx-o. +poem = poem-o. +poet = poet-o. +poetry = poezi-o. +point = punkt-o; (sharp), pint-o; -- out, montr-i. +poise = (trans.), balanc-i; (of manner), aplomb-o. +poison = venen-o. +pole = stang-o; (shaft of vehicle), timon-o; (geographical), polus-o. +Pole = pol-o. +police = polic-o. +polite = gxentil-a. +politics = politik-o. +polish = polur-i; polished, polurit-a, glat-a. +pomp = pomp-o. +popular = popular-o, popol-a. +porcelain = porcelan-o. +porch = verand-o; (stoop), peron-o; (balcony), balkon-o. +pork = porkajx-o. +port = haven-o. +portion = porci-o, part-o. +portrait = portret-o. +possess = posed-i. +possible = ebl-a (161, 162); kredebl-a (270). +post = (pole), stang-o; (mail), posxt-o; --card, posxtkart-o; + --paid, afrankit-e. +postage = (cost), posxtelspezo; -- stamp, posxtmark-o. +poster = afisx-o. +pot = pot-o. +potato = terpom-o; sweet --, batat-o. +pound = pist-i; (measure), funt-o. +pour = (liquids), versx-i; (as in a chute), sxut-i. +powder = pudr-o. +power = pov-o, potenc-o. +practice = praktik-i. +praise = lauxd-i. +pray = pregx-i. +preach = predik-i. +precise = preciz-a, gxust-a. +predestined = fatal-a. +prefer = prefer-i. +prefix = prefiks-o. +premium = premi-o. +prepare = prepar-i. +prepay = afrank-i. +presence = cxeest-o, apudest-o; in the -- of (prep.), cxe (125), antaux. +present = (gift), donac-o; (time), estantec-o, estant-a, nun-a (171); + (in attendance), cxeestant-a. +present = prezent-i, donac-i, don-i. +preserve = (keep), ten-i; (keep safe), konserv-i; + (food), kompot-o, konfitajx-o. +preside = prezid-i. +president = prezidant-o. +press = prem-i; (print), pres-i; (wardrobe), sxrank-o; + (be urgent), urgx-i. +pretend = (make pretext of), pretekst-i; (feign), sxajnig-i; + (lay claim), pretend-i. +price = prez-o, kost-o. +prick = pik-i. +priest = pastr-o. +prince = princ-o, regxid-o. +principal = precip-a, cxef-a. +print = pres-i. +prize = sxat-i; (premium), premi-o. +prized = kar-a, altetaksat-a, sxatat-a. +problem = problem-o. +process = metod-o; (legal), proces-o. +proclaim = proklam-i. +procrastinate = prokrast-i. +produce = produkt-i; -- a result, efik-i; (give birth to), nask-i. +profession = profesi-o. +professor = profesor-o. +profile = profil-o. +profit = profit-i; (percentage), tantiem-o. +profound = profund-a. +progress = progres-i. +project = projekt-o. +promenade = promen-i. +promise = promes-i. +propensity = inklin-o, em-o (192). +(be) proper = dec-i. +property = proprajx-o, posedajx-o; (land), bien-o; + (characteristic), ec-o (202). +proportional = proporci-a. +propose = propon-i, sugesti-i. +prose = prozo; piece of --, prozajxo. +prosecute = persekut-i. +prosper = prosper-i. +protect = protekt-i, gard-i. +protest = protest-i. +proud = fier-a +prove = pruv-i; (test), prov-i. +provoke = incit-i, ekscit-i, kauxz-i, nask-i, kolerig-i. +psalm = psalm-o. +public = publik-o. +publish = publikig-i, eldon-i. +pudding = puding-o. +pull = tir-i. +pump = pump-i. +pumpkin = kukurb-o. +punish = pun-i. +pure = pur-a. +puree = pistajx-o. +purple = purpur-a. +purpose = cel-i, intenc-i. +push = pusx-i; (shove), sxov-i. +put = met-i; -- off, prokrast-i. + + Q. + +quality = ec-o (202); (texture, etc.), kvalito. +quantity = kvant-o; any --, a certain --, iom (217); see table, 235. +quarter = (of a city), kvartal-o; (fourth), kvaron-o; --ly, trimonat-a. +question = demand-o; (problem), problem-o; (doubt), dub-o. +quick = rapid-a; (lively), viv-a. +quiet = kviet-a, trankvil-a, silent-a. +quince = cidoni-o. +quite = (adv.), tut-e. +quote = cit-i. + + R. + +rabbit = kunikl-o. +race = (people), ras-o. +radish = rafan-o; horse--, armoraci-o. +radius = radi-o. +rag = cxifon-o. +raging = furioz-a. +rail = rel-o; --way, fervoj-o; --way carriage, vagon-o; + --way station, stacidom-o. +rain = pluv-o; --bow, cxielark-o. +raise = lev-i. +raisin = sekvinber-o. +rank = rang-o; (grade), grad-o. +rap = frapet-i. +rapid = rapid-a. +rascal = fripon-o, kanajl-o. +rasp = rasp-i. +raspberry = framb-o. +rat = rat-o. +rate = taks-i; (schedule of prices), tarif-o, prezar-o; + (percentage), procent-o; at the -- of (prep.), po (175). +rational = prudent-a, racional-a. +raucous = rauxk-a. +raven = korv-o. +ravishing = rav-a. +raw = nekuirit-a. +ray = (of light), radi-o. +reach = ating-i; (a goal), traf-i. +read = leg-i. +ready = pret-a. +real = efektiv-a, real-a; ver-a. +reap = rikolt-i. +reason = (exert the power of reasoning), rezon-i; (cause), kauxz-o; + (motive), kial-o; for what --, for any --, etc., see table, 235. +reasonable = prudent-a. +rebate = rabat-i. +recall = revok-i; (to memory), rememor-i; + (to another's memory), rememorig-i. +receive = ricev-i; (accept), akcept-i; (money), enspez-i. +receipt = (for payment), kvitanc-o. +reckon = kalkul-i. +recent = nov-a, antauxnelong-a (90). +receptacle = uj-o (237); (for one object), ing-o (181). +recess = (alcove), alkov-o; (vacation), libertemp-o. +reciprocal = reciprok-a (180). +recite = deklam-i. +recline = kusx-i (239). +recommend = rekomend-i. +recompense = rekompensx-i. +recover = (find), retrov-i; (get well), resanigx-i. +red = rugx-a; reddish, duberugx-a. +reduction = (of price), rabat-o. +refine = rafin-i. +refuse = rifuz-i, malpermes-i. +refute = refut-i. +regale = regal-i. +region = region-o. +register = (trans.), registr-i; (letters), rekomend-i. +regret = bedauxr-i; (be penitent for), pent-i. +regrettable = bedauxrind-a; -- affair (pity), domagx-o. +regulation = regul-o, legx-o. +reign = reg-i. +rejoice = gxoj-i (116). +relate = rilat-i (266); (tell), rakont-i. +relative = (person), parenc-o. +religion = religi-o. +rely = konfid-i; fid-i. +remain = rest-i; remaining (other), ceter-a. +remember = memor-i; (recall to memory), rememor-i. +render = far-i, ig-i (214); (an account), don-i, prezent-i, liver-i. +renown = fam-o, glor-o. +rent = lu-i; (let), luig-i; (farm out), farm-i; (price), luprez-o. +repair = ripar-i; (patch), flik-i. +repeat = ripet-i. +repent = pent-i. +report = raport-i. +repose = ripoz-i. +represent = reprezent-i. +reproach = riprocx-i. +republic = respublik-o. +repulse = repusx-i, repel-i. +request = pet-i. +require = postul-i; (need), bezon-i. +rescue = sav-i. +reside = logx-i. +respect = respekt-i. +rest = (repose), ripoz-i; (remain), rest-i; (-- upon), apog-i sur. +restaurant = restoraci-o. +result = rezult-i. +resume = resum-o. +return = (go back), reir-i; (come back), reven-i; (give back), redon-i. +revery = rev-o. +review = (magazine), revu-o. +reward = rekompenc-i. +rhubarb = rabarb-o. +rib = rip-o. +ribbon = ruband-o. +rice = riz-o. +rich = ricx-a. +ride = rajd-i; (in vehicle, boat, etc.), vetur-i. +ridicule = mok-i; worthy of -- (ridiculous), ridind-a. +right = prav-a; (to something), rajt-o; (not left), dekstr-a. +right-angled = ort-a. +ring = (intrans.), sonor-i; (circlet), ring-o. +ringlet = (of hair), bukl-o. +ripe = matur-a. +river = river-o. +road = voj-o; (broad roadway), sxose-o. +roam = vag-i. +roar = mugx-i. +roast = rost-i. +rob = rab-i, sxtel-i. +robber = rabist-o. +robe = rob-o. +Robert = Robert-o. +roguish = petol-a; (rascally), fripon-a. +roll = (trans.), rul-i; (something around something else), volv-i; + (bread), bulk-o; (list), list-o, registr-o. +roof = tegment-o. +room = cxambr-o; (space), spac-o. +root = radik-o. +rose = roz-o. +(by) rote = parker-e. +round = rond-o; (of ladder), sxtupet-o; + (roundabout) (prep.) cxirkaux (89, 120, 159, 160). +routine = rutin-o. +row = (boats), rem-i. +royalty = regxec-o; (share of profit) tantiem-o. +rub = frot-i. +ruin = ruin-o. +rule = reg-i; (draw lines), lini-i; (regulation), regul-o. +rumor = fam-o; rumored, lauxdir-a. +run = kur-i; (of fluids), flu-i. +Russian = rus-o. +rust = rust-i. + + S. + +sack = sak-o; (plunder), rab-i. +sacred = sankt-a. +sacrifice = ofer-i, oferdon-i. +saddle = sel-o. +safe = sendangxer-a, senrisk-a; (chest), monkest-o. +sail = vel-o. +salad = salat-o. +salary = salajr-o. +salt = sal-o. +salute = salut-i. +same = sam-a. +sample = specimen-o. +sand = sabl-o. +sap = suk-o. +sardine = sarden-o. +satchel = valiz-o. +sated = sat-a. +satin = atlas-o. +satisfied = kontent-a; (of hunger), sat-a. +Saturday = sabat-o. +sausage = kolbas-o. +sauce = sauxc-o. +saucer = subtas-o, teleret-o. +saucy = petol-a, malgxentil-a, insultem-a. +savage = sovagx-a. +save = sav-i; (keep), konserv-i; (economize), sxpar-i; + (prep.), krom, escepte de. +saw = seg-i. +say = dir-i (77). +scales = (for weighing), pesil-o. +scarcely = (adv.), apenaux. +scent = (trans.), flar-i. +schedule = (of rates), tarif-o. +science = scienc-o. +scissors = tondil-o. +Scot = (Scotchman), skot-o. +scoundrel = kanajl-o, fripon-o. +scrape = skrap-i. +screen = sxirm-i. +screw = sxrauxb-o; --driver, sxrauxbturnil-o. +sculpture = skulpt-i. +sea = mar-o. +seal = sigel-i. +season = (of the year), sezon-o. +second = (of time), sekund-o; (in order), dua; + a -- time (adv.), duafoje, bis. +secret = sekret-o. +secretary = sekretari-o. +section = sekci-o, part-o, er-o (276). +see = vid-i; -- to, zorg-i pri. +seed = sem-o. +seek = sercx-i; -- advice of, konsult-i. +seem = sxajn-i; --ing, sxajn-a, kvazaux-a. +seize = kapt-i. +select = elekt-i. +self = (reflexive), see 39, 40, 44; (intensive), mem (219). +self-command = aplomb-o. +sell = vend-i. +senate = senat-o. +send = send-i. +sense = prudent-o, sagx-o; (meaning), senc-o; (feeling), sent-o. +sentence = fraz-o; (legal), jugx-o, kondamn-o. +separate = (intrans.), disigx-i, disir-i; (distinct), apart-a. +September = septembr-o. +serene = trankvil-a. +series = seri-o, vic-o. +serious = serioz-a, grav-a. +serve = serv-i; (be good for), tauxg-i por. +set = met-i; (of the sun), subir-i; (type), kompost-i; + -- free, liberig-i; -- out (start), forir-i, ekir-i. +seven = (adj.), sep (136). +several = kelk-aj, kelk-e. +severe = sever-a. +sew = kudr-i. +shade = (shadow), ombr-o; (tint) nuanc-o; (screen), sxirmil-o. +shaft = (of vehicle), timon-o. +shake = (trans.), sku-i; (oscillate), sxancel-i; -- hands, manprem-i. +sham = pretekst-i. +shape = form-o; --ly, beltali-a. +share = partopren-i, divid-i, part-o, porci-o. +sharp = akr-a; (pointed), pint-a. +shatter = frakas-i. +shave = raz-i. +shawl = sxal-o. +she = (pronoun), sxi (32, 37, 42). +shear = tond-i. +sheep = sxaf-o. +shelf = bret-o. +shell = sxel-o; (of mollusk), konk-o; to remove the --, sensxelig-i. +shelter = sxirm-i. +shepherd = pasxtist-o. +shield = sxild-o; (protect), sxirm-i. +shin-bone = tibi-o. +shine = bril-i, lum-i. +ship = sxip-o. +shirt = cxemiz-o. +shoe = sxu-o. +shoot = (with gun, etc.), paf-i. +shop = butik-o. +shore = bord-o, marbord-o. +short = mallong-a; --sighted, miop-a; --hand, stenografi-o. +shoulder = sxultr-o. +shove = sxov-i. +shovel = sxovel-i. +show = (trans.), montr-i. +shrill = akr-a, akrason-a. +shun = evit-i. +shut = (trans.), ferm-i. +side = flank-o; --board, telermebl-o; --walk, trotuar-o; + --wise, oblikv-a. +sift = kribr-i. +sigh = sopir-i. +sign = sign-o; -- the name, subskrib-i. +signify = signif-i. +silent = silent-a (239). +silk = silk-o. +silver = argxent-o. +similar = simil-a. +simple = simpl-a. +sin = pek-i. +since = (conj.), cxar, tial ke (83); (prep.), de, depost (89); + (adv.), de tiam. +sing = kant-i. +single = sol-a, unuop-a; -- man (unmarried man), frauxl-o. +sit = sid-i (239). +six = (adj.), ses (136). +sketch = skiz-i. +skill = lertec-o; trial of --, konkurs-o. +skin = (human), hauxt-o; (of animals), fel-o. +skirt = jup-o. +sky = cxiel-o. +slanting = oblikv-a, klin-a. +slate = (stone), ardez-o. +slaughter = bucx-i. +slave = sklav-o. +sleep = dorm-i; lull to --, lul-i. +sleeve = manik-o. +slide = glit-i. +slime = sxlim-o. +slipper = pantofl-o. +sly = ruz-a. +smear = sxmir-i. +smell = (trans.), flar-i; (intrans.), odor-i. +smile = ridet-i. +smoke = fum-i. +smooth = glat-a; (polished), polurit-a. +sneeze = tern-i. +snow = negx-i. +so = (conj.), do; (adv.), (thus), tiel (88, 156); + (therefore), tial (78); -- much, tiom (104, 164). +society = societ-o. +Socrates = Sokrat-o. +sofa = kanap-o. +soft = mol-a. +soil = ter-o; soiled, malpur-a. +soldier = soldat-o; (professional), militist-o. +sole = sol-a; (of foot), pland-o; (of shoe), ledpland-o. +solemn = solen-a. +some = kelk-a, kelk-e, iom (217); --one, --how, etc., see table, 235. +son = fil-o. +soon = (adv.), baldaux. +sorcerer = sorcxist-o. +sort = spec-o, klas-o; (put in order), ordig-i, enfakig-i. +soul = anim-o. +sound = (intrans.), son-i; (of bells), sonor-i; + (in good condition), bonstat-a. +soup = sup-o. +sour = acid-a, maldolcx-a. +south = sud-o. +sow = sem-i. +space = spac-o. +spacious = vast-a, grandspac-a, grandampleks-a. +Spaniard = hispan-o. +spare = (save), sxpar-i; (pardon), pardon-i. +sparrow = paser-o. +speak = parol-i (77). +spear = lanc-o. +special = special-a, apart-a. +specialty = fak-o. +species = spec-o. +specimen = specimen-o, model-o. +spectre = fantom-o. +speed = rapid-o, rapidec-o. +spell = silab-i; (witchcraft), sorcxajx-o. +spend = (money), elspez-i; (time), pasig-i. +speso = spes-o (285). +spider = arane-o. +spin = sxpin-i. +spinach = spinac-o. +spite = malic-o; in -- of, (prep.), malgraux, spite. +splash = (trans.), plauxd-i. +splendor = pomp-o, bril-o, belegec-o. +split = (trans.), fend-i. +spoil = (trans.), difekt-i. +spoke = (of wheel), radi-o. +spoon = kuler-o. +spot = makul-i. +spout = (liquids), sxpruc-i. +spring = (season), printemp-o; (of water), font-o. +sprite = kobold-o, fe-o. +spruce = (tree), pice-o. +spurt = (of liquids), sxpruc-i. +spy = spion-o; (catch sight of), ekvid-i; --glass, lorn-o. +square = kvadrat-o; (public), plac-o. +stain = makul-i. +stair = (staircase), sxtupar-o. +stag = cerv-o. +stake = (of palisade), palis-o. +stamp = (officially), stamp-i; (with foot), piedfrap-i; + postage --, posxtmark-o. +stand = star-i (239); (endure), sufer-i, elport-i. +standard = (model), model-o; (flag), standard-o. +star = stel-o; (any heavenly body), astr-o. +starch = amel-o. +state = (condition), stat-o; (political), sxtat-o; + (governed body), regn-o. +station = (state), stat-o; (railway, etc.), staci-o, stacidom-o. +stay = rest-i. +steady = firm-a, konstant-a, nemovebl-a. +steal = sxtel-i, rab-i (252). +steam = vapor-o. +steel = sxtal-o. +steep = krut-a. +step = pasx-i; (of stairs), sxtup-o. +stern = sever-a. +stew = (trans.), stuf-i. +stick = baston-o; (adhere), algluigx-i. +still = (silent), silent-a; (adv.), ankoraux; jam; (conj.), tamen. +stimulate = stimul-i, incit-i. +sting = pik-i. +stipulate = kondicx-o. +stocking = sxtrump-o. +stomach = stomak-o. +stone = sxton-o. +stoop = klinigx-i; (entrance porch), peron-o. +stop = (intrans.), halt-i; (leave off), cxes-i; -- up, sxtop-i. +stopper = sxtopil-o. +store = (shop), butik-o; (warehouse), magazen-o, konservej-o, tenej-o. +story = (tale), fabel-o, rakont-o; (of house), etagx-o. +stove = forn-o. +straight = rekt-a. +strange = strang-a, kurioz-a; (foreign), fremd-a. +strap = rimen-o. +straw = pajl-o. +strawberry = frag-o. +streak = stri-o; make a --, strek-i. +street = strat-o; -- arab, bub-o. +street-car = tramveturil-o; -- line, tramvoj-o. +stress = akcent-o; (force), fort-o. +stretch = (trans.), etend-i; (forcibly), strecx-i. +string = sxnur-o; (shoelace), lacx-o; -- bean, fazeol-o. +strike = frap-i, bat-i; (of laborers), strik-o; -- out, trastrek-i. +strip = (of paper, cloth, etc.), banderol-o; -- off, senig-i. +stripe = stri-o. +strive = pen-i. +strong = fort-a. +struggle = barakt-i. +student = student-o; (person studying), studant-o. +study = stud-i. +stuff = sxtof-o; (furniture, etc.), rembur-i. +stump = stump-o. +style = stil-o, mod-o, fason-o. +subject = (theme), tem-o; (grammatical), subjekt-o; (ruled), regat-o. +subscribe = subskrib-i; (to magazine, etc.), abon-i. +substance = substanc-o. +succeed = sukces-i; (fare well), prosper-i; (follow), sekv-i, postven-i. +succulent = suk-a, sukplen-a. +such = tia (65); (adv.), tiel (88). +sudden = subit-a, neatendit-a. +suffer = sufer-i, toler-i; (permit), permes-i. +suffice = suficx-i. +suffix = sufiks-o. +suffocate = (trans.), sufok-i. +sugar = suker-o. +suggest = sugesti-i, propon-i. +suit = (of clothes), vest-oj, komplet-o; (at law), proces-o. +suitable = konven-a, konform-a, tauxg-a, dec-a. +suite = (of rooms), apartament-o. +sulphur = sulfur-o. +sum = sum-o; (total), tut-o. +summarize = resum-i. +summer = somer-o; --house, lauxb-o. +summit = pint-o, supr-o. +sun = sun-o. +Sunday = dimancx-o. +superior = super-a; (person), superul-o. +superstition = supersticx-o. +supply = liver-i, proviz-i. +suppose = supoz-i; opini-i. +sure = cert-a. +surface = suprajx-o. +surprise = surpriz-i. +suspect = suspekt-i. +suspend = pendig-i. +suspenders = sxelk-o. +swallow = glut-i; (bird), hirund-o. +swamp = marcx-o. +swan = cign-o. +swear = jxur-i. +Swede = sved-o. +sweep = (floors, etc.), bala-i. +sweet = dolcx-a; --potato, batat-o. +sweetmeat = bombon-o, sukerajx-o, konfitajx-o; be fond of --, frand-i. +swim = nagx-i. +swine = pork-o. +swing = (trans.), sving-i; (balance), balanc-i (279). +Swiss = svis-o. +swoon = sven-i. +sword = glav-o. +syllable = silab-o. +Syracuse = Sirakuz-o. + + T. + +table = (furniture), tabl-o; (tabulation), tabel-o. +tail = vost-o. +tailor = tajlor-o. +take = pren-i; (magazines, etc.), abon-i; -- in (money), enspez-i; + -- place, okaz-i; -- note of, observ-i, rimark-i; -- oath, jxur-i; + -- steps toward accomplishing, klopod-i; -- pleasure in, gxu-i; + -- the attention of, distr-i. +tale = fabel-o. +talent = talent-o. +tall = alt-a, altkresk-a, grand-a. +talon = ungeg-o. +tap = (rap), frapet-i; (faucet), kran-o. +tariff = tarif-o. +task = task-o. +taste = gust-o, gustum-i. +tax = impost-o. +tea = te-o; -- caddy, teuj-o (181); --pot, tekrucx-o. +teach = instru-i. +tear = sxir-i; (of the eye), larm-o. +tease = turmentet-i, cxagren-i. +tedious = ted-a, enuig-a, lacig-a. +telegraph = telegraf-i. +telephone = telefon-i. +telescope = teleskop-o. +tell = dir-i, rakont-i (77); -- lies, mensog-i. +temper = humor-o; lose the --, koler-i. +temple = (of the head), tempi-o; (building), templ-o. +tempt = tent-i. +ten = (adj.), dek (136). +tender = delikat-a, mol-a, kares-a. +tenor = (voice), tenor-o; (course), dauxr-o. +tent = tend-o. +term = (word), termin-o; (condition), kondicx-o; (time), templim-o. +terrace = teras-o. +territory = teritori-o. +terror = terur-o. +test = prov-i, ekzamen-i. +texture = kvalit-o; (thing woven), teksajx-o. +than = (conj.), ol (82, 97, 98). +thank = dank-i (265). +that = (conj.), ke (53, 83, 105, 259, 262); (pronoun), tiu (56); + tio (233, 234); -- kind, tia (65); (adv.), tiel (88, 156); + -- way, tiamanier-e, tiel (88); -- much, tiel mult-e, tiom + (104, 164); (when) (adv.), kiam (155). +thaw = (intrans.), degel-i. +the = (article), la (11, 47, 201, 280, a); (adv.), ju, des (84). +theatre = teatr-o. +theme = tem-o. +then = (conj.), do; (adv.), tiam (73); (afterwards), post-e. +theory = teori-o. +there = (adv.), tie (68); (adv. calling attention), jen (228); + see also 51. +therefore = (adv.), tial (78); pro tio, sekv-e. +they = (pronoun), ili (32, 37, 42); (indefinite), oni (54). +thick = dik-a, dens-a. +thigh = femur-o. +thing = afer-o, objekt-o, ajx-o (227); any--, what --, etc., + see table, 235. +think = pens-i; (have the opinion), opini-i. +(be) thirsty = soif-i. +this = (pronoun), tio cxi (233, 234); + (pronoun and adj.), tiu cxi (60); all --, cxio cxi. See table, 235. +thong = rimen-o. +thorn = dorn-o. +thou = (pronoun), ci (40). +though = (conj.), kvankam; as --, kvazaux (250). +thousand = (adj.), mil (142). +thread = faden-o; -- a needle, enkudrilig-i fadenon. +threaten = minac-i. +three = (adj.), tri (136). +threshold = sojl-o. +thrifty = sxparem-a. +throat = gorgx-o. +throne = tron-o. +throng = amas-o, ar-o (126). +through = (prep.), tra (46, 160); (by means of), per (64); + (because of), pro (86), de (170). +throw = jxet-i. +thumb = dika fingr-o. +thunder = tondr-i. +Thursday = jxauxd-o. +thus = (adv.), tiel (88, 156), tiamanier-e. +ticket = bilet-o; -- window, gicxet-o. +tickle = tikl-i. +tie = lig-i; (shoes, etc.), lacx-i. +tiger = tigr-o. +tile = kahel-o; (brick), brik-o. +till = (money box), kas-o; (prep.), gxis (46, 89); + -- the soil, terkultur-i. +time = (in general), temp-o; (occasion), foj-o (127); + (epoch), epok-o; (of day), hor-o. +tin = (metal), stan-o; -- plate (sheet iron covered with tin), lad-o. +tinkle = tint-i. +tint = nuanc-o, kolor-o. +tire = (trans.), lacig-i, enuig-i; (pneumatic), pneuxmatik-o. +to = (prep.), al (46, 160, 251, 252); gxis (46, 89). +toad = buf-o. +toast = (bread), panrostajx-o; (sentiment), tost-o. +tobacco = tabak-o. +today = (adv.), hodiaux (93, 171). +toe = piedfingr-o. +toilet = tualet-o. +tolerate = toler-i, sufer-i. +tomato = tomat-o. +tomb = tomb-o. +tomorrow = (adv.), morgaux (93, 171). +tone = ton-o. +tongue = (of the body), lang-o; (of vehicle), timon-o; + (language), lingv-o. +too = (adv.), tro; (too much), tro multe, tro. +tool = il-o (63). +tooth = dent-o. +top = supr-o. +torment = turment-i. +total = tut-o. +touch = tusx-i; (feel with the fingers, etc.), palp-i; + sense of --, palpad-o; -- the heart of, kortusx-i. +toward = (prep.), al (46, 160, 251, 252). +tower = tur-o; -- above, superstar-i. +trace = sign-o, postsign-o. +trade = (occupation), meti-o; (commerce), komerc-o; + (exchange), intersxangx-i. +train = (of cars), vagonar-o; (of dress), trenajx-o. +tram = tram-o; --way, tramvoj-o; -- car, tramveturil-o. +tranquil = trankvil-a; kviet-a. +translate = traduk-i. +travel = vojagx-i; (by vehicle), vetur-i. +tray = plet-o. +treacherous = perfid-a. +treasure = trezor-o. +treasurer = kasist-o. +treasury = kas-o. +treat = (in speech or writing), trakt-i; (for illness), kurac-i; + (act towards), kondut-i kontraux; (regale), regal-i. +treatise = traktat-o. +tree = arb-o. +tremble = trem-i; (vacillate), sxanceligx-i. +trial = jugxa auxskultado, esplorad-o; (of skill), konkurs-o; + (affliction), malgxoj-o, sufer-o; (test), prov-o, ekzamen-o; + (attempt), prov-o. +trifle = bagatel-o. +triumph = triumf-o. +tropic = tropik-o. +trot = trot-i. +trousers = pantalon-o. +trunk = (chest with lid), kofr-o; (of tree), trunk-o. +trust = fid-i, konfid-i; (financial), trust-o. +truth = ver-o. +try = (legally), jugx-i; (strive), pen-i; (attempt, test), prov-i. +tub = kuv-o. +tube = tub-o. +tuber = tuber-o. +Tuesday = mard-o. +tumbler = (for drinking), glas-o; (juggler), jxonglist-o. +tune = ari-o, melodi-o. +Turk = turk-o. +turkey = meleagr-o. +turn = (trans.), turn-i; (in a series), vic-o. +turnip = nap-o. +turnstile = gicxet-o. +twilight = krepusk-o. +twist = (trans.), tord-i. +twitter = pep-i. +two = (adj.), du (136). +tyrant = tiran-o. + + U. + +umbrella = ombrel-o. +uncle = onkl-o. +unanimous = unuvocx-a, unuanim-a. +uncommon = kurioz-a, nekomun-a. +unconcerned = indiferent-a; nezorgem-a. +under = (prep.), sub (121, 160). +underline = substrek-i. +understand = kompren-i. +undertake = entrepren-i; -- initiative work, klopod-i. +undeviating = rekt-a. +unfailing = (adv.), nepr-e, cert-e. +unimportant = indiferent-a, negrav-a. +union = unuig-o, unuigx-o, kunig-o, kunigx-o. +universe = univers-o. +university = universitat-o. +until = (prep.), gxis (89) +up = (adv.), supre, supren (121); -- to, gxis (46). +upholster = rembur-i. +upper = supr-a. +upon = (prep.), sur (160). +upright = just-a; (vertical), vertikal-a. +urge = urgx-i, insiste pet-i. +upset = (trans.), renvers-i. +utmost = ekstrem-a, ebl-o (161, see also 162). + + V. + +(be) vacant = vak-i, esti neokupata. +vacillate = sxanceligx-i. +vagabond = vagist-o. +vain = (futile), van-a; senutil-a, senfrukt-a; + (proud), vant-a, fier-a; in --, vane. +valise = valiz-o. +valley = val-o. +value = (appraise), taks-i; (like), sxat-i; have the -- of, valor-i. +vanquish = venk-i. +vapor = vapor-o. +varied = divers-a, malsimil-a. +vase = vaz-o. +vast = vast-a, grand-a. +vaunt = fanfaron-i, vantparol-i. +veal = bovidajx-o (207, c). +vegetable = (edible), legom-o; (plant growth), vegetajx-o, + kreskajx-o (227, a). +vegetarian = vegetar-a. +vegetate = veget-i. +veil = vual-o. +vein = vejn-o. +velvet = velur-o. +veranda = verand-o. +verify = konstat-i, kontrol-i. +vermicelli = vermicxel-o. +verse = vers-o; (poesy), poezi-o. +vertical = vertikal-a. +very (very much) = (adv.), tre, tre multe; (adj.), sam-a, + ident-a, (intensive) mem (219). +vex = cxagren-i. +vibrate = (intrans.), vibr-i. +vice = (wickedness), malvirt-o; (prefix), vic-. +vie = konkur-i. +village = vilagx-o. +vindication = apologi-o. +vinegar = vinagr-o. +violet = viol-o. +violin = violon-o. +virtue = virt-o. +visage = vizagx-o. +visit = vizit-i. +vivid = hel-a. +voice = vocx-o. +volume = (book), volum-o; (of a body), volumen-o. +vote = vocxdon-i, balot-i. +vowel = vokal-o. +voyage = vojagx-i. + + W. + +wade = vad-i. +waffle = vafl-o. +wager = vet-i. +wages = salajr-o. +wait = (wait for), atend-i; -- on, serv-i. +waiter = (in restaurant, etc.), kelner-o. +waist = tali-o; --coat, vesxt-o +wake = (trans.), vek-i. +walk = marsx-i; (for pleasure), promen-i; (of park, etc.), ale-o; + side--, trotuar-o. +wall = mur-o. +waltz = vals-i. +wander = vag-i. +want = (need), bezon-i; (desire), dezir-i, vol-i; + (be lacking), mank-i; (extremity), mizereg-o. +war = milit-i. +wardrobe = (garments), vestar-o; (furniture), sxrank-o, vestosxrank-o. +warehouse = magazen-o. +warm = varm-a; make --, varmig-i, hejt-i. +warn = avert-i; (give notice), aviz-i, antauxsciig-i. +wash = lav-i. +waste = (prodigality), malsxpar-o; (refuse), forjxetajx-o; + (desert), dezert-o. +watch = (look at), rigardad-i; (timepiece), posxhorlogx-o; + -- over, gard-i. +water = akv-o; -- color, akvarel-o; --fall, kaskad-o. +wave = ond-o; (flutter, brandish), flirt-i, sving-i. +wax = vaks-o. +way = (manner), manier-o; (custom), kutim-o; (method), metod-o; + (means), rimed-o; (road), voj-o; -- in, enirejo; + this --, any--, etc., see table, 235. +we = (pronoun), ni (32, 37). +wear = port-i; -- out, eluz-i. +(be) wearied = enu-i. +weather = veter-o; --cock, ventoflag-o. +weave = teks-i; (plait), plekt-i. +Wednesday = merkred-o. +week = semajn-o. +weep = plor-i. +weigh = (trans.), pes-i; (intrans.), (be heavy), pez-i; + (meditate upon), pripens-i (264, c). +welcome = bonven-i; bone akcept-i; you are --, ("no thanks needed"), + estas nenio, volonte farite. +well = (healthy), san-a; (for water), put-o; (adv.), bon-e; + (interjection), nu (273), bon-e; -- informed, kler-a; + -- nigh (adv.), preskaux. +west = okcident-o. +wet = malsekig-i, tremp-i. +whale = balen-o. +what = (pronoun), kio (233, 234); (pronominal adj.), kiu (106, 146); + -- kind, -- way, -- time, etc., see table, 235. +wheat = tritik-o. +wheel = rad-o. +when = (adv.), kiam (125, 155); (while), dum (96). +where = (adv.), kie (118, 151); --fore, kial (129), tial (78). +whether = (conj.), cxu (30, 66, a). +which = (pronoun), kio (233, 234); (pronoun and adj.), kiu (106, 146); + -- way, -- kind, etc. see table, 235. +while = (prep.), dum (120, 159); (conj.), dum (96); + (concessive), kvankam; a --, iom da tempo. +whip = vip-i. +whistle = fajf-i; (hiss), sibl-i. +white = blank-a; whitish, dubeblank-a. +who = (pronoun), kiu (106, 143); whose, kies (107, 147). +whole = (entire), tut-a. +why = (adv.), kial (129), pro kio. +wicket = gicxet-o. +wide = largx-a; make --, plilargxig-i, etend-i. +widow = vidvin-o; widower, vidv-o. +wig = peruk-o. +wild = sovagx-a. +(be) willing = vol-i. +willingly = volont-e. +wilt = velk-i. +wind = vent-o, survolv-i; (twist), tord-i; (a watch), strecx-i. +winding = tord-a. +window = fenestr-o; ticket --, gicxet-o. +wine = vin-o. +winter = vintr-o. +wipe = visx-i. +wise = sagx-a. +wish = vol-i, dezir-i. +witch = sorcxistin-o; --craft, sorcx-o. +with = (prep.), kun (70, 76, 120, 159, 160); (by means of), per (64); + (agent of the passive), de (169); je (260); + -- regard to, rilate (266); --draw, elir-i, forir-i; + (= having), havante (222). +wither = velk-i. +without = (prep.), sen (248). +(give) witness = atest-i. +witty = sprit-a. +woe = malgxoj-o; (interjection), ve (273). +wolf = lup-o. +wonder = mir-i. +woo = amindum-i. +wood = lign-o. +wool = lan-o. +word = vort-o; (spoken), parol-o. +work = labor-i; (of machinery), funkci-i; + (literary composition), verk-o. +world = mond-o. +worm = verm-o. +worship = ador-i; (divine service), Diserv-o. +(be) worth = valor-i. +worthy = ind-a (154). +wound = vund-i. +wreath = girland-o. +wrestle = barakt-i. +wretch = fripon-o, kanajl-o; --ed, mizer-a, acx-a (272). +wrinkle = sulket-o, faldet-o. +write = skrib-i; (books, articles, music), verk-i. +wrong = malprav-a, erar-a, maljust-a. + + Y. + +yawn = osced-i; (open), fendigx-i. +year = jar-o. +yearn = sopir-i; dezireg-i. +yellow = flav-a; --ish, dubeflav-a. +yes = (adv.), jes (171). +yesterday = (adv.), hieraux (93, 171); day before --, antaux-hieraux. +yet = (adv.), ankoraux; jam; (conj.), tamen. +yoke = jug-o. +you = (pronoun), vi (32, 37, 39); see also oni (54). +young = jun-a; (offspring), id-o (207). + + Z. + +zeal = fervor-o. +zenith = zenit-o. +zero = nul-o. +zigzag = zigzag-o. +zinc = zink-o. +zone = zon-o. +zoology = zoologi-o. + + + + INDEX. + +The references are to sections, unless the page (p.) is given. The +following abbreviations are used: ace. = accusative; adj. = adjective; +adv. = adverb; expr. = expressed; ftn. = footnote; inf. = infinitive; +intrans. = intransitive; prep. = preposition; trans. = transitive. For +Esperanto words whose use or meaning is specially explained, references +are given in the Vocabulary. + + A. + +Abbreviations, 286; of ordinals, p. 107, ftn. +Abstract nouns, 202. +Accent, 8; of elided word, 280, b. +Accompaniment, 70; distinguished from instrumentality and opposition, + p. 49, ftn. +Accordance, expr. by "laux", 191. +Active voice, participles of, 108, 119, 152; tenses of, see Tenses; + synopsis of, 267. +Accusative, ending, 23; of adj., 24; of pronoun, 37; of adv., 69, 121; + of direction, 46, 108; of measure, 139; of time, 91; distinguished + from temporal adv., 94; with temporal adv., 93; when avoided, 92; + after adv., 266; with intrans. verb, 264; with nouns expressing + motion, 263; in composition, p. 132, ftn.; instead of prepositional + phrase, 265, 266; not used after prep., 36, ("al, gxis, tra") 46, + ("preter") p. 139, ftn.; not used with article, 25; not used with + predicates, 25, 210; "cognate," see acc. with intrans. verbs, 264, + a. +Adjectives, defined, 12; ending of, 12; formation of, 116, (from adv.) + 171, (from prep.) 159; attributive, 13; acc. of, 24; plural of, + 17; agreement, (with nouns) 17, 21, 24, (with pronouns) 33, (with + words connected by "nek") 31; comparison of, 74; possessive, 43, + (pronominal use of) 45; predicate, 19, (after trans, verbs) 210; + use of, distinguished from adv. with "da", 103; demonstrative, 65; + distributive, 177; indefinite, 208; interrogative, 112; negative, + 224; reflexive possessive, 44; relative, 150; causative verbs from + roots of, 214, a; intrans. verbs from roots of, 232, c; cardinal, + 136; ordinal, 149. +Adverbs, defined, 66; primary, 66; derived, 79; (from prep.) 120; + demonstrative, ("tie") 68, ("tiam") 73, ("tial") 78, ("tiel") 88, + ("tiom") 104; interrogative, ("kie") 118, ("kiam") 123, ("kial") + 129, ("kiel") 134, ("kiom") 140, ("cxu") 30, p. 38, ftn.; relative, + ("kie") 151, ("kiam") 155, ("kiel") 156, p. 170, ftn., ("kiom") 164; + distributive, ("cxie") 182, ("cxiam") iS7, ("cxial") 188, ("cxiel") + 193, ("cxiom") 194; indefinite, ("ie") 209, ("iam") 212, ("ial") + 213, ("iel") 216, ("iom") 217; negative, ("nenie") 225, ("neniam") + 226, ("nenial") 229, ("neniel") 230, ("neniom") 231, ("ne") 27, + 66, a; generalizing, ("ajn") 236; numeral, 158; position of, 66, + a; expressing direction of motion, 69, 121; with expressions of + time, 93; distinguishing from acc. of time, 94; with acc., 266; with + prep., 87; calling attention, ("jen") 228; causative verbs from, + 214, c; intrans. verbs from, 232, d; as interjections, p. 216, ftn.; + derivation of words from primary, 171. +Adverbial clauses, p. 168, ftn.; participle, 222, (translating + "without") p. 193, ftn. +Adversative conjunctions, p. 32, ftn. +Advice, expression of, 257, 259. +Affectionate diminutives, 283 (also 198, and ftn., p. 221). +Affirmation, 66. +Affixes, see Prefixes, Suffixes. +Agency, expr. by "de", 169. +Agreement, of attributive adj., 17, (with acc.) 24; of predicate noun + and adj., 21; of adj. with two or more nouns, 17; of adj. with words + connected by "nek", 31; of adj. with pronouns, 33; of participle, + 108; of nouns in apposition, 48. +Alphabet, I. +Anticipation, expr. by clause, 97; by inf. with prep., 98. +Aoristic tenses, explained, p. 78, ftn.; conjugation of, (present) 14, + (past) 35, (future) 55, (conditional) 241, (imperative), 254. +Apposition, 48. +Argumentative conjunction, p. 32, ftn. +Article, definite, 11; invariable, 18, 25; for possessive adj., 47; + with possessive adj., 45; generic, 201, 218, b, elision of, 280, a; + no indefinite, II. +Assumption, defined, 240; implied, 244. +Augmentatives, 122. +Auxiliary verbs, 109. + + C. + +Cardinal numerals, 136; formation of, 142. +Case, see Accusative, Dative, Nominative, Possessive. +Causative verbs, 214. +Cause, expr. by clause, 83; by "pro", 86; by "ke", p. 222, ftn. +Characteristic, expr. by "kun", 76; by adverbial participle, 222. + Clauses, defined, p. 34, ftn.; adverbial, p. 168, ftn.; causal, + 83; of anticipation, 97; of duration of time, 96; of imaginative + comparison, 250; of purpose, 262; of result, 105; subordinate + imperative, 259. +"Cognate acc.," see acc. with intrans. verbs, 264. +Collective nouns, 126. +Collective sense given by use of "da", 103. +Commands, expression of, 256; in subordinate clause, 259. +Complement of prep., 36. +Complementary inf., 29. +Comparison, of adj., 74; of adv., 79; of words expressing quantity, 81; + containing "ol", 82; "ju" and "des" in, 84. +Composition, see Compounds. +Compound tenses, explained, 109; of impersonal verbs, 179; conjugation + of, see Tenses. +Compounds, dependent, 176; descriptive, 167; possessive, 184. +Conclusion (of conditions) defined, 240; (of letters), + see Correspondence. +Concrete nouns, formation of, 227. +Conditional mood, 241; compound tenses of, 242; in contrary to fact + conditions, 246; in less vivid conditions, 243; independent use of, + 244; of "devi", 247; conditional sentences, see Conditions. +Conditions, defined, 240; contrary to fact, 246; factual, 240; less + vivid, 243; vivid, p. 189, ftn.; summary of, 249. +Conjugation, 34; synopsis of, 267; of tenses, see Tenses. +Conjunctions, defined, 52; coordinating, 52; subordinating, 53, (not + omitted) p. 34, ftn.; "aux", p. 32, ftn.; "kaj", 26, p. 32, ftn.; + "ke", (in indirect statements), 53, (in causal clauses) 83, p. + 222, ftn.; (in result clause) 105, (in purpose clause) 262, (in + subordinate imperative clause) 259; "kvazaux", 250; "nek", 31, p. 32, + ftn.; "se", 240; "sed", p. 32, ftn.; "tamen", p. 32, ftn.; "do", p. + 32, ftn.; see p. 110, ftn. +Connection, expr. by "de", 49; indefinite, expr. by "je", 260. +Consent, expression of, 257, (in subordinate clauses) 259. +Consonants, combinations of, 6; pronunciation of, 3, names of, 4. +Contrary to fact conditions, 246. +Coordinating conjunctions, 52. +Copulative conjunctions, p. 32, ftn. +Correlative words, 235. +Correspondence, 278. + + D. + +Dates, expr. by acc., 91; expr. by "antaux", 90; expr. by prep., 89; + on letters, see Correspondence, 278. +"Dative," ethical, of reference, of separation, p. 197, ftn. +Definite quantity, nouns of, followed by "de", 100. +Degree, advs. of, 66, ("tiel") 88, ("kiel") 134, 156; highest + possible, 162; see also Comparison. +Deliberation, expression of, 257, (in subordinative clause) 259. +Demonstrative, pronoun, ("tiu") 56, ("cxi tiu") 60, ("tio, cxi tio") + 233; adjective, 65; adv., see Adverbs. +Dependent compounds, 176. +Derivation, of adv., 79, (from prep.) 120; of words from prep., 159; of + words from primary adv., 171. +Descriptive compounds, 167. +Diminutives, 198; affectionate, 283. +Diphthongs, 5. +Direct object, defined, 23; inf. as, see Complementary inf., 29; clause + as, 53, 259; of complementary inf., 29; of participle, 108; of prep., + see Complement, 36. +Direction, expr. by acc. (of noun) 46, 263, (of adv.) 121. +Disjunctive conjunctions, p. 32, ftn. +Distributive, prep., see "po", 175; pronoun, ("cxiu") 173, ("cxio") 233; + adj., 177; adv., see Adverbs. +Double letters, 6, e. + + E. + +Elision, 280. +Emphasis, by "ecx", 66; by "ja", 215. +Emphatic negation, 27. +Ending, of acc., 23; of adj., 12; of adv., 79; of noun, 10; of plural, + 16; of inf., 28; of indicative, 14, 35, 55; of conditional, 241, of + imperative, 254; of participle, see Participles. +"Ethical dative," p. 197, ftn. +Exclamations, 115; use of "je" in, 260. +Exhortation, 255. +Expedience, expressions of, 259. + + F. + +Factual conditions, 240. +Feminine nouns, formation of, 59. +Formation, of words, 116; of opposites, 67, of feminines, 59; with + "-ig-" and "-igx-", 239; from primary words, 159, 171. +Fractions, 166. +Frequentative verbs, 218, a. +Future participle, (active) 152, (passive) 199. +Future tense, 55, (progressive) 114, (passive) 183, periphrastic, 153, + 200. +Future perfect tense, 148, (passive) 196. + + G. + +Generic article, 201. 218, b. +Generalizing adv. "ajn", 236. + + H. + +Highest degree possible, 162. + + I. + +Imaginative comparison, 250. +Imperative mood, 254; in commands and prohibitions, 256; in resolve and + exhortation, 255, in subordinate clauses, 259;. less peremptory uses + of, 257; to express purpose, 262. +Imperfect tense, 113, (passive) 178. +Impersonal verbs, 50, compound tenses of, 179; modifiers of, 141. +Impersonally used verbs, explained, 141; modifiers of, 141. +Inchoative verbs, 232, a. +Indefinite connection, expr. by "je", 260. +Indefinite, pronoun, ("iu") 203, ("io") 233; (personal) 54; adj., 208; + advs., see Adverbs; prep., 260; suffix, 268; quantity, expressions + of, with "da", 99, 101. +Independent use of conditional mood, 244. +Indicative mood, defined, 241; tenses of, see Synopsis, 267. +"Indirect object," see "al". +Indirect quotation, tenses in, 58; statements in, 53; questions in, + p. 38, ftn.; p. 170, ftn. +Infinitive, defined, 28, 241; ending of, 28; complementary, 29; as + subject, 29; modifiers of, 130; synopsis of, 267; with prep., 98; + replaced by noun, 218, b. +Instruction, (orders), requests for, 257, 259. +Instrumentality, expr. by "per", 64; distinguished from accompaniment, + p. 49, ftn. +Instruments, formation of names of, 63. +Intensive pronoun, "mem", 219. +Intention, expr. by clause, 259. +Interjections, 273. +International money system, 285; weights and measures, 284. +Interrogation, 30, 66, a. +Interrogative, pronoun, ("kiu") 106, (kio) 233; adj., 112; advs., + see Adverbs. +Intransitive verbs, defined, 22; no passive, p. 122, ftn.; from adj. + roots, 232, c; from noun roots, advs., preps., suffixes, prefixes, + 232, d; from trans, verb roots, 232, b, (table of), 279. +Introductory particle, not needed, 50, 51. +Invariability, of article, 18; of "mem", 219; of verb, 18; of + cardinals, 136. +Inversion, not needed in questions, 30. + + L. + +Less peremptory uses of imperative, 257. +Less vivid conditions, 243. +Letters, names of, 4; double, pronunciation of, 6, e; see also + Correspondence, 278. +Limitation of third personal pronoun, 42. + + M. + +Manner, expr. by "kun", 76; expr. by. "per", p. 53, ftn.; by + adverbial participle, 222; advs. of, see Adverbs. +Material, expression of, 197. +Means, expression of, 64. +Measure, ace. of, 139; expr. by "je", 260. +Measures, weights and, 284. +Metric system, 284. +Modifiers of impersonally used verbs, 141. +Money system, The international, 285. +Mood, defined, 241; inf., see Infinitive; conditional, 241; imperative, + 254; indicative, see 267; in conditions, see Conditions. +Moral obligation, 247. +Motive or reason, advs. of, see Adverbs; expr. by clause, 83; expr. by + prep., 86. + + N. + +Names, of letters, 4; orthography of proper, 128. +Necessity, expression of, 259. +Negative, pronoun, ("neniu") 220; ("nenio") 233; adj., 224; + advs., see Adverbs; conjunction, 31. +"Nominative absolute," how rendered, p. 169, ftn. +Nominative case, ending of, (for nouns) 10, (for adj.) 12; of predicate + noun and adj., 25, 210; with prep., 36, ("al", "gxis", "tra") 46. +Noun, defined, 10, ending of, 10, plural of, 16; acc. of, 23; elision + of, 280, b; feminine, 59; numeral, 157; participial, 205; predicate, + 20, 211; possessive case of, 49; expressing motion, followed by + acc., 263; expressing quantity, followed by "da", 99, by "de", 100; + replacing inf., 218, b; replacing participial phrase, p. 193, ftn.; + from adv., 171; from prep., 159. +Noun roots, causative verbs from, 214, c; intrans. verbs from, 232, d. +Number, see Plural. +Numeral nouns, 157; advs., 158. +Numerals, cardinal, 136; formation of, 142; fractional, 166; ordinal, + 149; abbreviation of, p. 107, ftn.; followed by "el", 138. + + O. + +Object, see Direct object, Indirect object, Complement. +Obligation, 247, (moral) 247. +Opposites, formation of, 67; of "pli" and "plej", 80. +Opposition, distinguished from accompaniment, p. 49, ftn. +Order, of word endings, p. 10, ftn.; see also Position. +Ordinal numerals, 149; advs., 158; abbreviation of, p. 107, ftn. +Orthography, of proper nouns, 128. + + P. + +Part of the whole, expression of, (after noun) 99, (after adv.) 101. +Participial nouns, 205; advs., 222. +Participle, defined, 108; agreement of, 108; adverbial, 222, + (translating "without") p. 193, ftn.; present, 108, (passive) 165; + past, 119, (passive) 189; future, 152, (passive) 199. +Particle, introductory, not needed, 50, 51. +Partitive construction, p. 74, ftn. +Passive voice, agent of, 169; participles of, see Participles; tenses + of, see Tenses; of "-ig-" formations, 239; distinguished from + "-igx-" formations, 232, b. +Past tense, 35, (passive) see Imperfect; past participle, see + Participles. +Past periphrastic future, 153, (passive) 200. +Past inception, present action with, 131. +Peremptory commands and prohibitions, 256, 259. +Perfect tense, 124, (passive) 190; perfect participle, see Past + participle. +Periphrastic futures, 153, (passive) 200. +Permission, expression of, 269. +Perplexity, expression of, 257, 259. +Personal pronouns, 32; acc. of, 37; indefinite, 54; reflexive, 39, 40; + limitation of third personal, 42; position of unemphatic, 274. +Place, expr. by "cxe", 125; advs. of, see Adverbs; expr. by "-ej-", + III; 128. +Pluperfect tense, 135, (passive), 195. +Plural, of nouns, 16; of pronouns, 56, 106, 203, 173, 220; of adj., 16; + of "unu", 137; none of article, 18; none of pronouns ending in "-o", + 233. +Position, of attributive adj., 13; of adv., 66, a; of emphatic negative, + 27; of unemphatic pronoun, 274; of interrogative adv., 30. +Possession, expr. by "de", 49. +Possessive, adjective, 43; reflexive, 44; article for, 47; ftn., p. 221. +Possessive case of nouns, 49; of pronouns, ("ties") 62, ("kies") 107, + 147, ("cxies") 174, ("ies") 204, ("nenies") 221; see also Possessive + adjective, 43. +Possessive compounds, 184. +"Possessive pronouns," p. 24, ftn. +Possibility, expression of, 270. +Predicate, adj., 19, agreement of, 21; after trans, verbs, 210; noun, + 20; agreement of, 21; after trans. verb, 211; clause as, 259. +Prefixes, causative verbs from, 214, c; intrans. verbs from, 232, d; + prep. as, 160, 248; adverb as, 71, 167, a, interjection as, p. 216, + ftn.; "bo-", 277; "dis-", 245; "duon-", 277; "ek-", 206; "eks-", 281; + "ge-", 271; "mal-", 67; "pra-", 282; "re-", 223. +Prepositions, defined, 36; with inf., 98; with adv., 87; with other + preps., 87; case use with, 36, 46; expressing time relations, 89; as + prefixes, 160; word derivation from, 159; advs. from, 120; causative + verbs from, 214, c; intrans. verbs from, 232, d; making intrans. + verbs trans., 264, b, c; see also references in Vocabulary. +Prepositional phrase, acc. instead of, 265, 266. +Present action with past inception, 131. +Present periphrastic future, 153, (passive) 200. +Present participle, 108, (passive) 165. +Present tense, 14, (progressive) 110, (passive) 168. +Primary adverbs, defined, 66; derivation of words from, 171. +Probability, expression of, 270. +Progressive tenses, present, 110, future, 114; passive, 200. +Prohibition, expression of, 256, 259. +Pronominal adjective, possessive adj. as, 45; pronoun as, ("tiu") + 57, 60, ("kiu") 106, 146, ("cxiu") 173, ("iu") 203, ("neniu") 220, + ("ambaux") 238. +Pronouns, defined, 32; agreement with, 33; personal, 32; indefinite + personal, 54; reflexive, 38, 39, 40, (in composition) p. 132, ftn.; + possessive, p. 24, ftn.; possessive form of, see Possessive case; + limitation of third personal, 42; position of unemphatic, 274; + correlation of predicative or relative, 234; followed by "el", + 173, p. 115, ftn.; series in "-o", 233; demonstrative, 56, 60, + 233; distributive, 173, 233; indefinite, 203, 233; interrogative, + 106, 233; negative, 220, 233; relative, 146; 233; summary, 235; + "ambaux", 238; intensive, 219. +Proper nouns, orthography of, 128. +Protestations, use of "je" in, 260. +Proximity, expr. by "cxi", 60, 66, p. 229, ftn. +Purpose, expr. by inf., 98; by imperative, 262; by prep., 95. + + Q. + +Quantity, construction with nouns expressing, 99, 100; construction with + advs. expressing, 101; advs. of, ("tiom") 104, ("kiom") 140, 164, + ("cxiom") 194, ("iom") 217, ("neniom") 231; comparison of advs. + expressing, 81. +Questions, 30; indirect, p. 38, ftn., p. 170, ftn.; of deliberation, + perplexity, or for instructions, 257, 259. +Quotations, indirect, 53, 58. + + R. + +Reciprocal expressions, 180. +Reference, expr. by "al", 251. +Reflexive pronouns, of first and second persons, 39; of third person, + 40; with substantival inf., 130. +Reflexive possessive adjective, 44. +Reflexive verbs, 41; distinguished from verbs in "-igx-", 232, b. +Relative pronoun, ("kiu") 146, ("kio") 233; not omitted, p. 106, ftn. +Relative adjective, 150; relative adverb, see Adverbs. +Relative clause, see 146, 233, (temporal) 155, (of manner) 156, + (quantitative) 164. +Request, expression of, 257, 259; for instructions, 257, 259. +Resolve, expression of, 255. +Result, clauses of, 105. +Root, defined, p. 42, ftn. +Route, expression of, 191. + + S. + +Salutations, 115. +Separation, expr. by "de", 170; expr. by "al", 252; by "for", 71; by + "dis-", 245. +Situation, expr. by "cxe", 125; by adverbial participle, 222. +Source, expr. by "de", 170. +Statements, indirect, 53; tenses in, 58. +Subject, defined, 15; preceded by verb, 51; inf. as, 130; clause as, + 141, 259; of adverbial participle, 222. +Subordinate clause, defined, 53; imperative in, 259, 262; conditional + in, see Conditions, 243, 246. +Subordinating conjunctions, "ke", 53, 105, 259 ("tial ke") 83, p. 222, + ftn.; ("por ke") 262; (not omitted) p. 34, ftn.; "se", 240; + "kvazaux", 250; "cxu", p. 38, ftn. +Substantive, defined, p. 71, ftn.; inf. as, 98, 130; clause as, 53, 259. +Substitution, expr. by prep., p. 63, ftn.; expr. by prep. with inf., 98; + of noun for inf., 218, b, p. 193, ftn. +Suffixes, causative verbs from, 214, c; intrans. verbs from, 232, d; + "-ad-", 218; "-acx-", 272; "-ajx-", 227; "-an-", 145; "-ar-", 126; + "-cxj-", 283; "-ebl-", 161; "-ec-", 202; "-eg-", 122; "-ej-", 111; + "-em-", 192; "-er-", 276; "-estr-", 253; "-et-", 198; "-id-" 207; + "-ig-", 214, 239, 275; "-igx-", 232, 239, 279; "-il-", 63; "-in-", + 59; "-ind-", 154; "-ing-", 237; "-ist-", 172, p. 154, ftn.; "-nj-", + 283; "-obl-", 186; "-on-", 166; "-op-", 261; "-uj-", 181; "-ul-", + 132; "-um-", 268. +Summary of conditions, 249. +Superlatives, (adj.) 74, (adv.) 79; followed by "el", 75. +Syllables, 7. +Synonyms, apparent, ("diri: paroli: rakonti") 77, ("koni: scii") 117, + ("tempo; fojo") 127, ("logxi: vivi") 133, ("antikva: maljuna: + malnova") p. 128, ftn., 67, ("cxiu: tuta") p. 130, ftn., + ("indiferenta: nezorga") p. 162, ftn., ("provi: peni: jugxi") p. 228, + ftn., ("gxuste: juste: jxus") p. 198, ftn., ("ankoraux: jam") p. 124, + ftn., p. 112, ftn., ("trovigxi: sin trovi: kusxi: sidi)" p. 217, ftn. +Synopsis of the verb, 267. +System, correlative, 235; metric, 284; of money, 285. + + T. + +Temporal clauses, 96, 155. +Temporal adverbs, 66, ("tiam") 73, ("kiam") 123, 155, ("cxiam") 187, + ("iam") 212, ("neniam") 226, ("jam") p. 124, ftn. ("ankoraux") p. + 112, ftn., ("jxus") p. 116, ftn. +Tenses, aoristic, p. 78, ftn.; compound, 109; (of impersonal verbs) 179; + in indirect quotations, 58; in conditions, 249; of inf., 267; + of conditional, 241, 242; of imperative, 254; present, 14, + (progressive) 110, (passive) 168, past, 35, (passive) 178; future, + 55, (progressive) 114; (passive) 183; imperfect, 113, (passive) + 178; perfect, 124, (passive) 190; pluperfect, 135, (passive) 195; + future perfect, 148, (passive) 190; periphrastic, 153, (passive) 200; + synopsis of all, 267. +Terminations, see Endings. +Terms of address, 163; affectionate, 283, p. 221, ftn. +Time, of day, 185; expr. by prep., 89; expr. by acc., 91; expr. by + clause, 96, 155; expr. by adverbial participle, 222; advs. of, see + Temporal adverbs. +Titles, 163; use of "mosxto", 258. +Transitive verbs, defined, 22; formed by "-ig-", 214; from intrans. + roots, 264, b, c; list of some, 275. + + U. + +Unemphatic words, position of, (negative) 27, (pronoun) 274. + + V. + +Verbal nouns in "-ad-", 218, b, p. 193, ftn. +Verbal roots, causative verbs from, 214, b. +Verbs, mood of, 241; invariable, 18; causative, 214; frequentative, + 218, a; inchoative, 232, a; impersonal, 50; reflexive, 41; trans., + defined, 22; trans, from intrans. roots, 275; intrans., defined, + 22; intrans. from trans. roots, 232, b, 279; from prep., 159; from + adv., 171; conjugation of, 34, (synopsis) 267, preceding the subject, + 51; as interjection, p. 216, ftn.; implied, (in comparisons) 82, + 156, 250; (in salutations) 115, (in exclamations) 115, 228; with + prepositional phrase containing "da", 102. +Vivid conditions, p. 189, ftn. +Vowels, pronunciation of, 2. + + W. + +Way, expression of, (manner) 76, (route) 191. +Weights and measures, 284. +Wish, expression of, 257, 259. +Words, correlative, 235; formation of, 116; from prepositions, 159; + from primary advs., 171; composition of, see Compounds; order of, + in question, 30; see also Position. + + + + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO *** + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will +be renamed. + +Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright +law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, +so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the +United States without permission and without paying copyright +royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms +of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online +at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you +are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the +country where you are located before using this eBook. +</div> +<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: A Complete Grammar of Esperanto</div> +<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Ivy Kellerman Reed</div> +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: May 25, 2003 [eBook #7787]<br> +[Most recently updated: December 4, 2022]</div> +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</div> +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Character set encoding: UTF-8</div> +<div style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Produced by: William W. Patterson, Carlo Traverso, Charles Franks and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team.</div> +<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO ***</div> + +<p> +TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE: +</p> + +<p> +The Esperanto alphabet contains 28 characters. These are the +characters of English, but with "q", "w", "x", and "y" removed, and +six diacritical letters added. The diacritical letters are "c", +"g", "h", "j" and "s" with circumflexes (or "hats", as Esperantists +fondly call them), and "u" with a breve. Zamenhof himself suggested +that where the diacritical letters caused difficulty, one could +instead use "ch", "gh", "hh", "jh", "sh" and "u". A plain ASCII +file is one such place; there are no ASCII codes for Esperanto's +special letters. +</p> + +<p> +However, there are two problems with Zamenhof's "h-method". There +is no difference between "u" and "u" with a breve, and there is no +way to determine (without prior knowledge of the word(s) involved, +and sometimes a bit of context) whether an "h" following one of +those other five letters is really the second half of a diacritical +pair, or just an "h" that happened to find itself next to one of +them. Consequently other, unambiguous, methods have been used over +the years. One is the "x-method", which uses the digraphs "cx", +"gx", "hx", "jx", "sx" and "ux" to represent the special letters. +There is no ambiguity because the letter "x" is not an Esperanto +letter, and each diacritical letter has a unique transliteration. +This is the method used in this Project Gutenberg e-text. +</p> + +<center style="font-weight: bold"> +<p> +A COMPLETE +</p> + +<p> +<big>GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO</big> +</p> + + <p> + THE INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE + </p> + <p> + <small>WITH</small><br> + GRADED EXERCISES FOR READING AND TRANSLATION<br> + TOGETHER WITH FULL VOCABULARIES + </p> + <p> + <small>BY</small><br> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">IVY KELLERMAN, A.M., Ph.D.</span> + </p> + <p style="font-size: smaller"> + MEMBER OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE AND CHAIRMAN OF EXAMINATIONS<br> + FOR THE ESPERANTO ASSOCIATION OF NORTH AMERICA, MEMBER<br> + OF THE INTERNATIONAL <i>LINGVA KOMITATO</i> + </p> +</center> + +<hr align="center" width="38%"> + +<center> + <p> + TO + </p> + <p> + <big>DR. L. L. ZAMENHOF</big> + </p> + <p> + THE AUTHOR OF<br> + ESPERANTO + </p> +</center> + +<hr align="center" width="38%"> + +<center><b>PREFACE.</b></center> + +<p> +This volume has been prepared to meet a twofold need. An adequate +presentation of the International Language has become an imperative +necessity. Such presentation, including full and accurate grammatical +explanations, suitably graded reading lessons, and similarly graded +material for translation from English, has not heretofore been +accessible within the compass of a single volume, or in fact within the +compass of any two or three volumes. +</p> + +<p> +The combination of grammar and reader here offered is therefore +unique. It is to furnish not merely an introduction to Esperanto, or +a superficial acquaintance with it, but a genuine understanding of +the language and mastery of its use without recourse to additional +textbooks, readers, etc. In other words, this one volume affords +as complete a knowledge of Esperanto as several years' study of a +grammar and various readers will accomplish for any national language. +Inflection, word-formation and syntax are presented clearly and +concisely, yet with a degree of completeness and in a systematic order +that constitute a new feature. Other points worthy of note are the +following: +</p> + +<p> +The <i>reasons</i> for syntactical usages are given, instead of mere +statements that such usages exist. For example, clauses of purpose and +of result are really explained, instead of being dismissed with the +unsatisfactory remark that "the imperative follows <i>por ke,</i>" or +the "use of <i>tiel ... ke</i> and <i>tia ... ke</i> +must be distinguished from that of <i>tiel ... kiel</i> +and <i>tia ... kia,</i>" etc., with but little intimation +of when and why <i>por ke</i>, <i>tiel ... ke</i> and +<i>tia ... ke</i> are likely to +occur. +</p> + +<p> +Affixes are not mentioned until some familiarity with the general +character of the language is assured, as well as the possession of +a fair vocabulary. They are introduced gradually, with adequate +explanation and illustration. Of importance in connection with +word-formation is an element distinctly new—the explanation and +classification of compound words. Such words, like affixes, are +withheld until the use of <i>simple</i> words is familiar. +</p> + +<p> +Another new feature is the gradual introduction of correlative words +in their logical order, and in their proper grammatical categories, +before they are called "correlatives," or tabulated. The tabulation +finally presented is a real classification, with regard to the meaning +and grammatical character of the words, not merely an arbitrary +alphabetical arrangement. The use of primary adverbs precedes the +explanation of adverb derivation; prepositions, especially <i>de</i>, +<i>da</i>, <i>je</i>, etc., receive careful attention, also the verb +system, and the differentiation of words whose English equivalents are +ambiguous. +</p> + +<p> +A general characteristic of obvious advantage is that almost without +exception new forms and constructions are illustrated by means of +words or roots already familiar. Likewise, the new words or roots of +each lesson recur at least once in the next lesson, and usually in +some lesson thereafter as well. Each reading exercise gives not only a +thorough application of the grammatical principles of the lesson, but a +review of those in the preceding lesson, and no use is made of words or +constructions not yet explained. The comparative ease of the language, +and the lack of necessity for reciting paradigms, permit the reading +exercises to be long enough for the student to feel that he has really +mastered something. These exercises are further unique, in that each +after the fifth is a coherent narrative, and nearly every one is a story +of genuine interest in itself. These stories, if bound separately, would +alone constitute a reader equivalent to those used in first and second +year work in national languages. (For list of titles, see Table of +Contents.) +</p> + +<p> +The second element of the twofold need which this volume meets is the +necessity for a presentation of Esperanto, not as a thing apart, but +in that form which will make it most serviceable as an introduction to +national tongues. A stepping-stone to both ancient and modern languages, +Esperanto may render invaluable aid, and pave the way for surmounting +the many difficulties confronting both student and teacher. Through +Esperanto, the labor in the acquirement of these languages may be +reduced in the same proportion in which the pleasure and thoroughness +of such acquirement are increased. For this reason, the grammatical +constructions of Esperanto are here explained as consistently as +possible in accordance with the usage of national languages, especially +those in the school curriculum, and precise names are assigned to +them. Such matters as <i>contrary to fact conditions</i>, <i>indirect +quotations</i>, <i>clauses of purpose</i> and <i>of result</i>, +<i>accusatives of time</i> and <i>measure</i>, <i>expressions of +separation</i>, <i>reference</i>, etc., thus become familiar to the +student, long before he meets them in the more difficult garb of a +national tongue, whose exceptions seem to outnumber its rules, and whose +idioms prove more puzzling than its exceptions, unless approached by the +smooth and gradual ascent of the International Language, Esperanto. +</p> + +<p align="right"> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Ivy Kellerman.</span> +</p> + +<table> + <tr> + <td> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Washington, D. C.,</span><br> + August 3, 1910. + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<hr align="center" width="38%"> + +<center><b>TABLE OF CONTENTS.</b></center> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="4"> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">LESSON</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">I.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + Alphabet.—Vowels.—Consonants.—Names + of the Letters.—Diphthongs.—Combinations of + Consonants.—Syllables.—Accent. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">II.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + Nouns.—The Article.—Adjectives.—Attributive + Adjectives.—Present Tense of the Verb + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">III.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Plural Number.—Predicate Adjective and Noun + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">IV.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + Transitive Verbs.—The Accusative Case.—The Conjunction + <b>Kaj</b>.—The Negative <b>Ne</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">V.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Complementary Infinitive.—Interrogation.—The + Conjunction <b>Nek</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">VI.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + Personal Pronouns.—Agreement with Pronouns.—Conjugation of + the Verb. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">VII.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Past Tense.—Prepositions.—Accusative Case of Personal + Pronouns. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">VIII.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + Reflexive Pronouns.—Reflexive Verbs. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">IX.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + Limitation of the Third Personal Pronoun.—Possessive + Adjectives.—Pronominal Use of Possessive Adjectives.—<b>La + Kato kaj la Pasero</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">X.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Accusative of Direction.—The Article for the Possessive + Adjective.—Apposition.—<b>La Arabo kaj la Kamelo</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XI.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + Possessive Case of Nouns.—Impersonal Verbs.—Verbs + Preceding their Subjects.—Coordinating Conjunctions.—<b>La + Arabo en la Dezerto</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XII.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + Indirect Statements.—The Indefinite Personal Pronoun + <b>Oni</b>.—The Future Tense.—<b>La Ventoflago</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XIII.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Demonstrative Pronoun <b>Tiu</b>.—Tenses in Indirect + Quotations.—Formation of Feminine Nouns.—<b>En la + Parko</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XIV.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Demonstrative Pronoun <b>Ĉi tiu</b>.—Possessive Form of + the Demonstrative Pronoun.—The Suffix <b>-Il-</b>.—The + Expression of Means or Instrumentality.—<b>La Manĝo</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XV.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Demonstrative Adjective.—Adverbs Defined and + Classified.—Formation of Opposites.—<b>La Ruza Juna + Viro</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XVI.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Demonstrative Adverb of Place.—Accompaniment.—The + Adverb <b>For</b>.—The Meaning of + <b>Povi</b>.—<b>Malamikoj en la Dezerto</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XVII.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Demonstrative Temporal Adverb.—Comparison of + Adjectives.—Manner and Characteristic.—<b>Diri</b>, + <b>Paroli</b> and <b>Rakonti</b>.—<b>Frederiko Granda kaj la + Juna Servisto</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XVIII.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Demonstrative Adverb of Motive or Reason.—Derivation of + Adverbs.—Comparison of Words Expressing + Quantity.—Comparisons Containing <b>Ol</b>.—Causal + Clauses.—<b>Pri la Sezonoj</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XIX.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + <b>Ju</b> and <b>Des</b> in Comparisons.—The Preposition + <b>Inter</b>.—The Preposition <b>Pro</b>.—Prepositions + with Adverbs and Other Prepositions.—<b>La Aŭtuno kaj la + Vintro</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XX.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Demonstrative Adverb of Manner and Degree.—Prepositions + Expressing Time-Relations.—<b>En Septembro</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XXI.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Accusative of Time.—Adverbs and the Accusative of + Time.—The Preposition <b>Por</b>.—<b>La Sezonoj kaj la + Mondo</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XXII.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + Clauses Expressing Duration of Time.—Clauses Expressing + Anticipation.—The Infinitive with <b>Anstataŭ</b>, + <b>Por</b>, <b>Antaŭ ol</b>.—The Expression of a Part of + the Whole.—<b>Diogeno kaj Aleksandro Granda</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XXIII.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + Adverbs Expressing a Part of the Whole.—The Demonstrative Adverb + of Quantity.—Result Clauses.—<b>En la Butiko</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XXIV.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Interrogative Pronoun.—The Present Active + Participle.—Compound Tenses.—The Progressive Present + Tense.—The Suffix <b>-Ej-</b>.—<b>En Nia Domo</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XXV.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Interrogative Adjective.—The Imperfect + Tense.—Salutations and Exclamations.—Word + Formation.—<b>Koni</b> and <b>Scii</b>.—<b>La Nepo Vizitas + la Avinon</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XXVI.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Interrogative Adverb of Place.—The Past Active + Participle.—Adverb Derivation from Prepositions.—Adverbs + Expressing Direction of Motion.—The Suffix + <b>-Eg-</b>.—<b>La Pluvego</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XXVII.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Interrogative Temporal Adverb.—The Perfect Tense.—The + Preposition <b>Ĉe</b>.—The Suffix + <b>-Ar-</b>.—<b>Tempo</b> and <b>Fojo</b>.—The Orthography + of Proper Names.—<b>Roberto Bruce kaj la Araneo</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XXVIII.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Interrogative Adverb of Motive or Reason.— The Infinitive as + Subject.—Present Action with Past Inception.—The Suffix + <b>-Ul-</b>.—<b>Loĝi</b> and <b>Vivi</b>.—<b>Pri la + Avo kaj la Avino</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XXIX.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Interrogative Adverb of Manner and Degree.—The Pluperfect + Tense.—Cardinal Numbers.—The Accusative of + Measure.—<b>Nia Familio</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XXX.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Interrogative Adverb of Quantity.—Modifiers of Impersonally + Used Verbs.—Formation of Cardinal Numerals.—The Suffix + <b>-An-</b>.—<b>Leciono Pri Aritmetiko</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XXXI.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Relative Pronoun.—The Future Perfect Tense.—Ordinal + Numerals.—<b>Alfredo Granda kaj la Libro</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XXXII.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + <b>Kia</b> as a Relative Adjective.—<b>Kie</b> as a Relative + Adverb.—The Future Active Participle.—The Periphrastic + Future Tenses.—The Suffix <b>-Ind-</b>.—<b>Alfredo Granda + kaj la Kukoj</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XXXIII.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + <b>Kiam</b> as a Relative Adverb.—<b>Kiel</b> as a Relative + Adverb.—Numeral Nouns and Adverbs.—Word Derivation from + Prepositions.—<b>La Invito</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XXXIV.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + Prepositions as Prefixes.—The Suffix + <b>-Ebl-</b>.—Expression of the Highest Degree + Possible.—Titles and Terms of Address.—<b>Ĉe la + Festo</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XXXV.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + <b>Kiom</b> as a Relative Adverb.—The Present Passive + Participle.—Fractions.—Descriptive Compounds.—<b>La + Ĥinoj</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XXXVI.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Present Passive Tense.—The Use of <b>De</b> to Express + Agency.—The General Meaning of <b>De</b>.—Word Derivation + from Primary Adverbs.—The Suffix <b>-Ist-</b>.—<b>Antikva + Respubliko</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XXXVII.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Distributive Pronoun.—The Preposition + <b>Po</b>.—Dependent Compounds.—<b>La Ĉapelo sur la + Stango</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XXXVIII.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Distributive Adjective.—The Imperfect Passive + Tense.—Compound Tenses of Impersonal Verbs.—Reciprocal + Expressions.—The Suffix <b>-Uj-</b>.—<b>Vilhelmo Tell kaj + la Pomo</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XXXIX.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Distributive Adverb of Place.—The Future Passive + Tense.—Possessive Compounds.—The Time of Day.—The + Suffix <b>-Obl-</b>.—<b>En la Stacidomo</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XL.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Distributive Temporal Adverb.—The Distributive Adverb + <b>Ĉial</b>.—The Past Passive Participle.—The Perfect + Passive Tense.—The Preposition <b>Laŭ</b>.—The Suffix + <b>-Em-</b>.—<b>La Perdita Infano</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XLI.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Distributive Adverb <b>Ĉiel</b>.—The Distributive + Adverb <b>Ĉiom</b>.—The Pluperfect Passive Tense.—The + Future Perfect Passive Tense.—The Expression of + Material.—The Suffix <b>-Et-</b>.—<b>La Donaco</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XLII.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Future Passive Participle.—The Passive Periphrastic Future + Tenses.—The Generic Article.—The Suffix + <b>-Ec-</b>.—<b>Sur la Vaporŝipo</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XLIII.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Indefinite Pronoun.—Participial Nouns.—The Prefix + <b>Ek-</b>.—The Suffix <b>-Id-</b>.—<b>La Nesto sur la + Tendo</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XLIV.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Indefinite Adjective.—The Indefinite Adverb of + Place.—Predicate Nominatives.—<b>La Ĉevalo kaj la + Sonorilo</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XLV.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Indefinite Temporal Adverb.—The Indefinite Adverb + <b>Ial</b>.—Causative Verbs.—Emphasis by Means of + <b>Ja</b>.—<b>Ĉe la Malnova Ponto</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XLVI.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Indefinite Adverb <b>Iel</b>.—The Indefinite Adverb + <b>Iom</b>.—The Suffix <b>-Ad-</b>.—The Use of + <b>Mem</b>.—<b>Arĥimedo kaj la Kronoj</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XLVII.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Negative Pronoun.—The Adverbial Participle.—The Prefix + <b>Re-</b>.—<b>La Filozofo Arĥimedo</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XLVIII.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Negative Adjective.—The Negative Adverb of Place.—The + Negative Temporal Adverb.—The Suffix <b>-Aĵ-</b>.—The + Adverb <b>Jen</b>.—<b>Du Artkonkursoj</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XLIX.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Negative Adverbs <b>Nenial</b>, <b>Neniel</b>, + <b>Neniom</b>.—The Suffix <b>-Iĝ-</b>.—<b>La + Krepusko</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">L.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Pronouns ending in <b>-O</b>.—Correlative Words.—The + Use of <b>Ajn</b>.—The Suffix <b>-Ing-</b>.—<b>La Gordia + Ligaĵo</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">LI.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Pronoun <b>Ambaŭ</b>.—Formations with <b>-Ig-</b> and + <b>-Iĝ-</b>.—Factual Conditions.—<b>La Monaĥoj + kaj la Azeno</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">LII.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Conditional Mood.—Compound Tenses of the Conditional + Mood.—Less Vivid Conditions.—Independent Use of the + Conditional Mood.—The Prefix <b>Dis-</b>.—<b>Pri la + Gravitado</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">LIII.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + Conditions Contrary to Fact.—The Verb <b>Devi</b>.—The + Preposition <b>Sen</b>.—<b>La Filozofo Sokrato</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">LIV.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + Summary of Conditions.—Clauses of Imaginative + Comparison.—The Use of <b>Al</b> to Express Reference.—The + Suffix <b>-Estr-</b>.—<b>La Ostracismo de Aristejdo</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">LV.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Imperative Mood.—Resolve and Exhortation.—Commands and + Prohibitions.—Less Peremptory Uses of the Imperative.—The + Use of <b>Moŝto</b>.—<b>La Glavo de Damoklo</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">LVI.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Imperative in Subordinate Clauses.—The Preposition + <b>Je</b>.—The Suffix <b>-Op-</b>.—<b>La Marŝado de + la Dekmil Grekoj</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">LVII.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + Clauses Expressing Purpose.—Further Uses of the + Accusative.—Synopsis of the Conjugation of the Verb.—The + Suffix <b>-Um-</b>.—<b>La Reirado de la Dekmilo</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">LVIII.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + Permission and Possibility.—The Prefix <b>Ge-</b>.—The + Suffix <b>-Aĉ-</b>.—Interjections.—<b>Aleksandro + Granda</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">LIX.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Position of Unemphatic Pronouns.—Some Intransitive + Verbs.—The Suffix <b>-Er-</b>.—The Prefixes <b>Bo-</b> and + <b>Duon-</b>.—Correspondence.—<b>Kelkaj Leteroj</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">LX.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + Some Transitive Verbs.—Elision.—The Prefix + <b>Eks-</b>.—The Prefix <b>Pra-</b>.—The Suffixes + <b>-Ĉj-</b> and <b>-Nj-</b>.—Weights and + Measures.—The International Money + System.—Abbreviations.—<b>Pri La Kamero</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td><td>ESPERANTO-ENGLISH VOCABULARY.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td><td>ENGLISH-ESPERANTO VOCABULARY.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td><td>INDEX.</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<hr align="center" width="38%"> + +<center> + <big>A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF</big><br> + <big>ESPERANTO.</big> +</center> + +<hr align="center" width="38%"> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON I.</b></center> + +<center>ALPHABET.</center> + +<p> +<b>1.</b> The Esperanto alphabet contains the following letters: <b>a</b>, +<b>b</b>, <b>c</b>, <b>ĉ</b>, <b>d</b>, <b>e</b>, <b>f</b>, <b>g</b>, +<b>ĝ</b>, <b>h</b>, <b>ĥ</b>, <b>i</b>, <b>j</b>, <b>ĵ</b>, +<b>k</b>, <b>l</b>, <b>m</b>, <b>n</b>, <b>o</b>, <b>p</b>, <b>r</b>, <b>s</b>, +<b>ŝ</b>, <b>t</b>, <b>u</b>, <b>ŭ</b>, <b>v</b>, <b>z</b>. +</p> + +<center>VOWELS.</center> + +<p> +<b>2.</b> The vowels of the alphabet are pronounced as follows: +</p> + +<p> +<b>a</b> as in <i>far</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>e</b> as in <i>fiancé</i>, like <i>a</i> in <i>fate</i>. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +This "long a" sound in English frequently ends with a vanish,—a +brief terminal sound of <i>ĭ</i>, which makes +the vowel slightly diphthongal, as in <i>day</i>, <i>aye</i>. Such a +vanish must not be given to any of the Esperanto vowels. +</p> + +<p> +<b>i</b> as in <i>machine</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>o</b> as in <i>toll</i>, <i>for</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>u</b> as in <i>rude</i>, <i>rural</i>. +</p> + +<center>CONSONANTS.</center> + +<p> +<b>3.</b> The consonants <b>b</b>, <b>d</b>, <b>f</b>, <b>h</b>, +<b>k</b>, <b>l</b>, <b>m</b>, <b>n</b>, <b>p</b>, <b>t</b>, <b>v</b>, +<b>z</b>, are pronounced as in English, and the remaining eleven as +follows: +</p> + +<p> +<b>c</b> like <i>ts</i> in <i>hats</i>, <i>tsetse</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>ĉ</b> like <i>ch</i> in <i>chin</i>, <i>much</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>g</b> like <i>g</i> in <i>go</i>, <i>big</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>ĝ</b> like <i>g</i> in <i>gem</i>, <i>j</i> in <i>jar</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>ĥ</b> is produced by expelling the breath forcibly, with the +throat only partially open. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +As in pronouncing German and Scotch <i>ch</i>, Spanish +<i>j</i>, Irish <i>gh</i>, Russian <i>x</i>, Classical Greek +χ +etc. There are only a few words containing +this consonant. +</p> + +<p> +<b>j</b> like <i>y</i> in <i>yes</i>, <i>beyond</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>ĵ</b> like <i>z</i> in <i>azure</i>, <i>s</i> in <i>visual</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>r</b> is slightly trilled or rolled. +</p> + +<p> +<b>s</b> like <i>s</i> in <i>see</i>, <i>basis</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>ŝ</b> like <i>sh</i> in <i>shine</i>, <i>rash</i>, <i>ch</i> in +<i>machine</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>ŭ</b> like <i>w</i> or consonantal <i>u</i>. See Diphthongs, +<b>5</b>. +</p> + +<center>NAMES OF THE LETTERS.</center> + +<p> +<b>4.</b> The vowels are named by their sounds, as given in <b>2</b>. +The names of the consonants are <b>bo</b>, <b>co</b>, <b>ĉo</b>, +<b>do</b>, <b>fo</b>, <b>go</b>, <b>ĝo</b>, <b>ho</b>, +<b>ĥo</b>, <b>jo</b>, <b>ĵo</b>, <b>ko</b>, <b>lo</b>, +<b>mo</b>, <b>no</b>, <b>po</b>, <b>ro</b>, <b>so</b>, <b>ŝo</b>, +<b>to</b>, <b>ŭo</b>, <b>vo</b>, <b>zo</b>. These are used in +speaking of the letters, in pronouncing them in abbreviations, as <b>ko +to po</b> for <b>k. t. p.</b> (= etc.), and in spelling words, as <b>bo, +i, ro, do, o, birdo</b>. +</p> + +<center>DIPHTHONGS.</center> + +<p> +<b>5.</b> Diphthongs are combinations of two vowels uttered as a single +sound, by one breath-impulse. The diphthongs in Esperanto contain an +i or u sound as the second element, but in order to avoid confusion +with combinations of vowels not forming diphthongs (as in <b>naiva</b>, +like English <i>naïve</i>, etc.), they are written with <b>j</b> and +<b>ŭ</b> instead. Their pronunciation is as follows: +</p> + +<p> +<b>aj</b> like <i>ai</i> in <i>aisle</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>ej</b> like <i>ei</i> in <i>vein</i>, <i>ey</i> in <i>they</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>oj</b> like <i>oi</i> in <i>coin</i>, <i>oy</i> in <i>boy</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>uj</b> like <i>ui</i> in <i>ruin</i>, <i>u(e)y</i> in <i>gluey</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>eŭ</b> like <i>ayw</i> in <i>wayward</i>, or like +<i>é(h)oo</i> pronounced together. +</p> + +<p> +<b>aŭ</b> like <i>ou</i> in <i>out</i>, <i>ow</i> in <i>owl</i>. +</p> + +<center>COMBINATIONS OF CONSONANTS.</center> + +<p> +<b>6.</b> Each consonant, in a combination of two or more consonants, +is pronounced with its full value, whether within a word or at its +beginning. There are no silent letters. +</p> + +<p> +<b>a.</b> Thus, both consonants are clearly sounded in the groups +<b>kn</b>, <b>kv</b>, <b>gv</b>, <b>sv</b>, in such words as +<b>knabo</b>, <b>kvin</b>, <b>gvidi</b>, <b>sviso</b>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>b.</b> The combination <b>kz</b>, as in <b>ekzisti</b>, +<b>ekzameno</b>, must not be modified to the <i>gs</i> or <i>ks</i> +represented by <i>x</i> in <i>exist</i>, <i>execute</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>c.</b> The combination <b>sc</b>, as in <b>escepte</b>, <b>scias</b>, +is equivalent to the combination <i>sts</i> in <i>la</i><b>st +s</b><i>aid</i>, <i>fir</i><b>st s</b><i>ong</i>, pronounced together +rapidly. The <b>s</b> in a word beginning with <b>sc</b> may be sounded +with the end of the preceding word, if that word ends in a vowel, as +<b>mis-cias</b> for <b>mi scias</b>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>d.</b> The <b>n</b> and <b>g</b> are pronounced separately in the +combination <b>ng</b>, in such words as <b>lingvo</b>, <b>angulo</b>, +producing the sound of <i>ng</i> heard in <i>linger</i>, not that in +<i>singer</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>e.</b> Each of two similar letters is clearly sounded, +as <b>interrilato</b>, <b>ellasi</b>, like <i>inter-relate</i>, +<i>well-laid</i>. +</p> + +<center>SYLLABLES.</center> + +<p> +<b>7.</b> Each word contains as many syllables as it has vowels and +diphthongs. The division of syllables within a word is as follows: +</p> + +<p> +<b>a.</b> A single consonant goes with the following vowel, as +<b>pa-no</b>, <b>be-la</b>, <b>a-e-ro</b>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>b.</b> A consonant followed by <b>l</b> or <b>r</b> (which are +liquids) goes with the <b>l</b> or <b>r</b>, as in <b>ta-blo</b>, +<b>a-kra</b>, <b>a-gra-bla</b>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>c.</b> Otherwise, the syllable division is made before the last +consonant of the group, as <b>sus-pek-ti</b>, <b>sank-ta</b>, +<b>deks-tra</b>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>d.</b> Prefixes are separated from the words to which they are +attached, as <b>dis-meti</b>, <b>mal-akra</b>, and compound words +are divided into their component parts, as <b>ĉef-urbo</b>, +<b>sun-ombrelo</b>. +</p> + +<center>ACCENT.</center> + +<p> +<b>8.</b> Words of more than one syllable are accented upon the syllable +before the last, as <b>tá-blo</b>, <b>a-grá-bla</b>, +<b>sus-pék-ti</b>. +</p> + +<center>WORDS FOR PRACTICE.</center> + +<p> +<b>9.</b> (To be pronounced aloud, and correctly accented) Afero, +trairi, najbaro, aero, hodiaŭ, pacienco, centono, ĉielo, +eĉ, samideano, treege, obei, obeu, Eŭropo, gvidi, ĝojo, +ĉiujn, justa, ĝuste, juĝi, ĵaŭdo, lingvo, +knabo, larĝa, pagi, kvieteco, ekzemplo, ellerni, fojo, krajono, +forrajdi, kuirejo, ĉevalejo, sankteco, scio, nescio, edzo, meze, +duobla, ŝipo, ŝarĝi, poŝo, svingi, sklavo, palaj, +ŝafaĵo, atmosfero, monaĥo, geometrio, laŭdi, vasta, +eksplodi, senĉesa, sensencaĵo, malluma, arbaranoj, manĝo, +freŝa, aŭskulti, daŭri. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON II.</b></center> + +<center>NOUNS.</center> + +<p> +<b>10.</b> Words which are the names of persons or things are called +nouns. The ending, or final letter, of nouns in Esperanto is <b>o</b>: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>knabo</b>, <i>boy</i>.<br> + <b>ĉevalo</b>, <i>horse</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>pomo</b>, <i>apple</i>.<br> + <b>tablo</b>, <i>table</i>. + </td> + </table> +</center> + +<center>THE ARTICLE.</center> + +<p> +<b>11.</b> The definite article is <b>la</b>, <i>the</i>, as <b>la +knabo</b>, <i>the boy</i>, <b>la ĉevalo</b>, <i>the horse</i>, +<b>la tablo</b>, <i>the table</i>, <b>la pomo</b>, <i>the apple</i>. In +English there is an indefinite article "a, an" for the singular, but +none for the plural. Esperanto has no indefinite article for either +singular or plural. Therefore <b>knabo</b> may mean <i>boy</i>, or <i>a +boy</i>, <b>pomo</b> may mean <i>apple</i> or <i>an apple</i>. +</p> + +<center>ADJECTIVES</center> + +<p> +<b>12.</b> A word used with a noun (expressed or understood) to express +a quality or characteristic is called an adjective. The ending of +adjectives in Esperanto is <b>a</b>: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>bela</b>, <i>beautiful</i>.<br> + <b>flava</b>, <i>yellow</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>granda</b>, <i>large</i>.<br> + <b>forta</b>, <i>strong</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center>ATTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVES.</center> + +<p> +<b>13.</b> An adjective is said to modify a noun whose quality it +expresses. When directly preceding or following its noun, it is called +an attributive adjective: +</p> + +<p> +<b>la granda ĉevalo</b>, <i>the large horse</i>.<br> +<b>bela birdo</b>, <i>a beautiful bird</i>.<br> +<b>floro flava</b>, <i>a yellow flower</i>.<br> +<b>forta knabo</b>, <i>a strong boy</i>.<br> +</p> + +<center>PRESENT TENSE OF THE VERB.</center> + +<p> +<b>14.</b> Words which express action or condition are called verbs. +When representing an act or condition as a fact, and dealing with the +present time, they are said to be in the present tense. The ending of +all Esperanto verbs in the present tense is <b>-as</b>: +</p> + + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>kuras</b>, <i>runs, is running</i>.<br> + <b>flugas</b>, <i>flies, is flying</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>brilas</b>, <i>shines, is shining</i>.<br> + <b>dormas</b>, <i>sleeps, is sleeping</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<p> +<b>15.</b> The person or thing whose action or condition the verb +expresses is called the subject of the verb: +</p> + +<p> +<b>La suno brilas</b>, <i>the sun shines (is shining)</i>, subject: <b>suno</b>.<br> +<b>Knabo kuras</b>, <i>a boy runs (is running)</i>, subject: <b>knabo</b>. +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span><br> + (To be memorized in this and in all following lessons.) + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>bela</b>, <i>beautiful</i>.<br> + <b>birdo</b>, <i>bird</i>.<br> + <b>blanka</b>, <i>white</i>.<br> + <b>bona</b>, <i>good</i>.<br> + <b>brilas</b>, <i>shines, is shining</i>.<br> + <b>ĉevalo</b>, <i>horse</i>.<br> + <b>dormas</b>, <i>sleeps, is sleeping</i>.<br> + <b>flava</b>, <i>yellow</i>.<br> + <b>floro</b>, <i>flower</i>.<br> + <b>flugas</b>, <i>flies, is flying</i>.<br> + <b>forta</b>, <i>strong</i>,<br> + <b>granda</b>, <i>large</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>kaj</b>, <i>and</i>.<br> + <b>kantas</b>, <i>sings, is singing</i>.<br> + <b>knabo</b>, <i>boy</i>.<br> + <b>kuras</b>, <i>runs, is running</i>.<br> + <b>la</b>, <i>the</i>.<br> + <b>luno</b>, <i>moon</i>.<br> + <b>marŝas</b>, <i>walks, is walking</i>.<br> + <b>pomo</b>, <i>apple</i>.<br> + <b>suno</b>, <i>sun</i>.<br> + <b>tablo</b>, <i>table</i>.<br> + <b>violo</b>, <i>violet</i>.<br> + <b>viro</b>, <i>man</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center><b>READING LESSON.</b></center> + +<p> +1. Bona viro. 2. La granda tablo. 3. Blanka floro. 4. Flava birdo. 5. La +bela birdo kantas. 6. Forta knabo kuras. 7. La bona viro marŝas. 8. +La bela ĉevalo kuras. 9. La suno brilas. 10. Birdo flugas kaj knabo +kuras. 11. Ĉevalo blanka marŝas. 12. La bela luno brilas. 13. +La knabo kantas kaj la viro dormas. 14. Bela granda pomo. 15. La bona +knabo kantas. 16. La granda ĉevalo dormas. 17. La suno brilas kaj +la luno brilas. 18. Granda forta tablo. 19. Violo flava. 20. La bona +flava pomo. +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. A beautiful flower. 2. A good large table. 3. A yellow violet and +a white violet. 4. The moon is-shining (shines). 5. The good boy +is-walking (walks). 6. The beautiful yellow bird is-flying (flies). +7. The strong man is-sleeping (sleeps). 8. The white bird is-singing +(sings). 9. A strong horse runs, and a man walks. 10. The sun shines, +and the boy is-singing (sings). 11. The large yellow apple. 12. An apple +large and good. +</p> + + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON III.</b></center> + +<center>THE PLURAL NUMBER.</center> + +<p> +<b>16.</b> The plural number of nouns, that is, the form which indicates +more than one person or thing, is made by adding <b>-j</b> to the +noun, as <b>viroj</b>, <i>men</i>, from <b>viro</b>, <i>man</i>; +<b>tabloj</b>, <i>tables</i>, from <b>tablo</b>, <i>table</i>. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<b>-oj</b> is pronounced like <i>oy</i> in <i>boy</i>. See 5. +</p> + +<p> +<b>17.</b> An adjective modifying a plural noun agrees with it in +number, being given the plural form by the addition of the ending -j. An +adjective modifying two or more nouns used together is of course given +the plural form: +</p> + +<p> +<b>bonaj viroj</b>, <i>good men</i>.<br> +<b>grandaj ĉevaloj</b>, <i>large horses</i>.<br> +<b>belaj birdo kaj floro (bela birdo kaj bela floro)</b>, <i>beautiful bird and (beautiful) flower</i>. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<b>-aj</b> is pronounced like <i>ai</i> in <i>aisle</i>. See 5. +</p> + +<p> +<b>18.</b> The article is <i>invariable</i>, that is, does not change +in form when used with plural nouns, as <b>la viro</b>, <i>the man</i>, +<b>la viroj</b>, <i>the men</i>. The verb is also invariable in form: +</p> + +<p> +<b>La viroj marŝas</b>, <i>the men walk</i>, <i>the men are walking</i>.<br> +<b>La suno kaj la luno brilas</b>, <i>the sun and the moon are shining</i>.<br> +<b>La viro estas</b>, <i>the man is</i>.<br> +<b>La viroj estas</b>, <i>the men are</i>. +</p> + +<center>PREDICATE ADJECTIVE AND NOUN.</center> + +<p> +<b>19.</b> When the adjective is a part of that which is told or +predicated of the subject of the verb, as when used with the verbs "to +be," "to seem," etc., it is called a <i>predicate adjective</i>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>La birdo estas bela</b>, <i>the bird is beautiful</i>.<br> +<b>La knabo ŝajnas bona</b>, <i>the boy seems good</i>.<br> +<b>La viroj estas fortaj</b>, <i>the men are strong</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>20.</b> A noun may also be used as part of the predicate, and is then +called a <i>predicate noun</i>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Violoj estas floroj</b>, <i>violets are flowers</i>.<br> +<b>La kolombo estas birdo</b>, <i>the dove is a bird</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>21.</b> Predicate nouns and adjectives agree in number with the word +or words with which they are in predicate relation: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Rozoj estas belaj</b>, <i>roses are beautiful</i>.<br> +<b>La knabo kaj la viro ŝajnas fortaj</b>, <i>the boy and the man seem strong</i>. +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>alta</b>, <i>high, tall</i>.<br> + <b>arbo</b>, <i>tree</i>.<br> + <b>ĉambro</b>, <i>room</i>.<br> + <b>domo</b>, <i>house</i>.<br> + <b>en</b>, <i>in</i>.<br> + <b>estas</b>, <i>is, are</i>.<br> + <b>folio</b>, <i>leaf</i>.<br> + <b>freŝa</b>, <i>fresh</i>.<br> + <b>ĝardeno</b>, <i>garden</i>.<br> + <b>kampo</b>, <i>field</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>kolombo</b>, <i>dove</i>.<br> + <b>kuŝas</b>, <i>lies, is lying, lie</i>.<br> + <b>longa</b>, <i>long</i>.<br> + <b>rozo</b>, <i>rose</i>.<br> + <b>ruĝa</b>, <i>red</i>.<br> + <b>seĝo</b>, <i>chair</i>.<br> + <b>sidas</b>, <i>sits, sit, is sitting</i>.<br> + <b>sur</b>, <i>on</i>.<br> + <b>ŝajnas</b>, <i>seems, seem</i>.<br> + <b>verda</b>, <i>green</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center><b>READING LESSON.</b></center> + +<p> +1. La alta viro estas en la ĝardeno. 2. Blanka ĉevalo estas en +la kampo. 3. Belaj birdoj sidas sur la verda arbo. 4. La bonaj knaboj +estas en la domo. 5. La ĉambroj en la bela domo estas grandaj. 6. +Freŝaj floroj kuŝas sur la tablo. 7. La violoj en la kampo +estas belaj. 8. La luno kaj la suno ŝajnas grandaj. 9. La kolomboj +estas belaj birdoj. 10. La knaboj ŝajnas fortaj. 11. Ruĝaj +pomoj estas sur la tablo en la ĉambro. 12. La fortaj viroj sidas +sur seĝoj en la longa ĉambro. 13. La arboj estas altaj kaj +verdaj. 14. La kolomboj sur la arboj kantas. 15. Fortaj ĉevaloj +marŝas kaj kuras en la verdaj kampoj. 16. La knaboj dormas en la +granda domo. 17. Ruĝaj, flavaj, kaj verdaj folioj estas en la +ĝardeno. 18. Longa tablo estas en la domo. 19. Belaj birdoj flugas +kaj kantas en la kampo. 20. Freŝaj rozoj ŝajnas belaj. 21. La +folioj estas verdaj kaj ruĝaj. +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. The trees in the garden are tall and green. 2. The rooms in the house +are long. 3. The flowers on the table are red, yellow and white. 4. The +leaves are long and green. 5. The men are-sitting (sit) on chairs in the +garden. 6. In the garden are yellow roses. 7. The birds in the field are +doves. 8. The boys in the room in the house seem tall. 9. Fresh violets +are beautiful flowers. 10. The horses in the green fields seem strong. +11. Doves are-singing (sing) in the garden. 12. The men in the large +house sleep. 13. The house is long and high, and the rooms in the house +are large. 14. Red and yellow apples lie on the big table. 15. Green +leaves are on the trees in the large garden. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON IV.</b></center> + +<center>TRANSITIVE VERBS.</center> + +<p> +<b>22.</b> The verbs so far given have been <i>intransitive verbs</i>, +expressing a state or an action limited to the subject, and not +immediately affecting any other person or thing, as <b>la knabo +kuras</b>, <i>the boy runs</i>. On the other hand a <i>transitive +verb</i> expresses an act of the subject upon some person or thing; +as, <b>la knabo trovas — —</b>, <i>the boy finds — +—</i>. +</p> + +<center>THE ACCUSATIVE CASE.</center> + +<p> +<b>23.</b> The person or thing acted upon is called the <i>direct +object</i> of a transitive verb, and is given the ending <b>-n</b>. This +is called the accusative ending; and the word to which it is attached is +said to be in the <i>accusative case</i>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>La viro havas seĝon</b>, <i>the man has a chair</i>.<br> +<b>La knabo trovas florojn</b>, <i>the boy finds flowers</i>. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +The ending <b>-n</b> follows the ending <b>-j</b>, if the word +to be put in the accusative case is in the plural number. +</p> + +<p> +<b>24.</b> An attributive adjective modifying a noun in the accusative +case is made to agree in case, by addition of the same accusative ending +<b>-n</b>. This prevents any doubt as to which of two or more nouns in a +sentence is modified by the adjective, and permits of variation in the +order of the words: +</p> + +<p> +<b>La knabo trovas belan floron</b>, <i>the boy finds a beautiful flower</i>.<br> +<b>Florojn belajn la viro havas</b>, <i>the man has beautiful flowers</i>.<br> +<b>La viro havas grandan seĝon</b>, <i>the man has a large chair</i>.<br> +<b>Ruĝan rozon la knabo havas</b>, <i>the boy has a red rose</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>25.</b> A predicate adjective or noun (19) is never in the accusative +case, nor is the accusative ending ever attached to the article, which +is invariable as stated in 18. +</p> + +<center>THE CONJUNCTION <b>KAJ</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>26.</b> In the expression <i>both ... and ...</i>, the conjunction +<b>kaj</b> is used for both words, being merely repeated: +</p> + +<p> +<b>La viro kaj marŝas kaj kuras</b>, <i>the man both walks and runs</i>.<br> +<b>La ĉevalo estas kaj granda kaj forta</b>, <i>the horse is both large and strong</i>.<br> +<b>La knabo havas kaj rozojn kaj violojn</b>, <i>the boy has both roses and violets</i>.<br> +<b>Kaj la knabo kaj la viro estas altaj</b>, <i>both the boy and the man are tall</i>. +</p> + +<center>THE NEGATIVE <b>NE</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>27.</b> The negative word meaning "not" when forming part of a +sentence, and "no" when used as an answer to a question, is <b>ne</b>. +When used as a sentence-negative, it usually immediately precedes the +verb. For emphatic negation of some other word than the verb, <b>ne</b> +may precede that word: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Violoj ne estas ruĝaj</b>, <i>violets are not red</i>.<br> +<b>La viroj ne sidas sur seĝoj</b>, <i>the men are-not-sitting on chairs</i>.<br> +<b>La kolombo kantas, ne flugas</b>, <i>the dove is-singing, not flying</i>.<br> +<b>La domo estas blanka, ne verda</b>, <i>the house is white, not green</i>. +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>apud</b>, <i>near, in the vicinity of</i>.<br> + <b>benko</b>, <i>bench</i>.<br> + <b>branĉo</b>, <i>branch</i>.<br> + <b>diversa</b>, <i>various</i>.<br> + <b>feliĉa</b>, <i>happy</i>.<br> + <b>frukto</b>, <i>fruit</i>.<br> + <b>havas</b>, <i>have, has</i>.<br> + <b>herbo</b>, <i>grass</i>.<br> + <b>ili</b>, <i>they</i>.<br> + <b>kolektas</b>, <i>gather, collect</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>koloro</b>, <i>color</i>.<br> + <b>larĝa</b>, <i>wide, broad</i>.<br> + <b>manĝas</b>, <i>eat, eats</i>.<br> + <b>mola</b>, <i>soft</i>.<br> + <b>nigra</b>, <i>black</i>.<br> + <b>ne</b>, <i>not, no</i>.<br> + <b>rompas</b>, <i>break, breaks</i>.<br> + <b>sed</b>, <i>but</i>.<br> + <b>trovas</b>, <i>find, finds</i>.<br> + <b>vidas</b>, <i>see, sees</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center><b>READING LESSON.</b></center> + +<p> +1. La knaboj ne estas en la ĉambro en la blanka domo. 2. Ili estas +en la granda ĝardeno. 3. La ĝardeno ŝajnas kaj longa kaj +larĝa. 4. La feliĉaj knaboj vidas la belan ĝardenon. +5. Ili vidas florojn apud alta arbo. 6. La floroj havas diversajn +kolorojn. 7. La knaboj kolektas kaj ruĝajn kaj flavajn florojn. 8. +Sed ili ne trovas fruktojn en la ĝardeno. 9. Florojn blankajn ili +ne vidas. 10. La alta arbo havas verdajn foliojn sur la branĉoj. +11. La knaboj rompas branĉon, kaj kolektas la fruktojn. 12. Ili +vidas florojn sur la branĉoj, sed la florojn ili ne kolektas. +13. La knaboj ne sidas sur benkoj en la ĝardeno, sed kuŝas +sur la mola herbo. 14. La kolomboj sidas sur la arboj, kaj ili estas +feliĉaj. 15. La knaboj vidas la belajn birdojn. 16. Fortaj nigraj +ĉevaloj manĝas la herbon en la kampo. 17. La knaboj vidas +la ĉevalojn, sed la ĉevaloj ne vidas la knabojn. 18. La +ĉevaloj ne dormas, ili manĝas. 19. La freŝa herbo +estas verda kaj mola. 20. Feliĉaj estas kaj la knaboj kaj la +ĉevaloj. 21. La pomo estas bona frukto. +</p> + + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. Green leaves are on the trees. 2. The boys break branches and gather +the apples. 3. They are near the tall tree in the garden. 4. They find +leaves on the tree, but they do not see the fruit. 5. The house is long, +broad and high. 6. The rooms in the house are both long and wide. 7. The +men have strong black horses. 8. The horses eat the fresh green grass in +the field. 9. The men sit on benches in the garden. 10. The boys do not +sleep, but they lie on the soft grass. 11. They see both the birds and +the flowers, and they seem happy. 12. The flowers have various colors, +but the grass is green. 13. The doves are not sitting on the tree, they +are flying near the trees. 14. Beautiful red roses are lying on the +table in the house. 15. The large red apples are near the yellow roses. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON V.</b></center> + +<center>THE COMPLEMENTARY INFINITIVE.</center> + +<p> +<b>28.</b> The infinitive is a form of the verb which expresses merely +the general idea of the action or condition indicated, and has some +of the characteristics of a noun. The ending of the infinitive is +<b>-i</b>, as <b>kuri</b>, <i>to run</i>, <b>esti</b>, <i>to be</i>, +<b>havi</b>, <i>to have</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>29.</b> An infinitive used to complete the meaning of another +verb, serving as a direct object to a transitive verb, is called a +<i>complementary infinitive</i>. If the complementary infinitive is from +a transitive verb, it may itself have a direct object: +</p> + +<p> +<b>La knabo volas kuri</b>, <i>the boy wishes to run</i>.<br> +<b>Birdoj ŝatas kanti</b>, <i>birds like to sing</i>.<br> +<b>La knabo volas havi ĉevalon</b>, <i>the boy wishes to have a horse</i>.<br> +<b>Ili volas trovi florojn</b>, <i>they wish to find flowers</i>. +</p> + +<center>INTERROGATION.</center> + +<p> +<b>30.</b> An interrogative sentence is one which asks a question. +Unless some directly interrogative word (as "who," "when," "why," etc.) +is used, the sentence is rendered interrogative by use of the word +<b>ĉu</b>. This interrogative particle is placed at the beginning +of a sentence, the words of which are left in the same order as for a +statement. Since there is no inversion of order, there is no necessity +for a word like English "do" or "does," to introduce the verb: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Ĉu la knabo estas bona?</b> <i>Is the boy good?</i><br> +<b>Ĉu ili havas florojn?</b> <i>Have they flowers?</i><br> +<b>Ĉu la kolomboj kantas?</b> <i>Do the doves sing? (Are the doves singing?)</i> +</p> + + +<center>THE CONJUNCTION <b>NEK</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>31.</b> In the expression <i>neither ... nor ...</i>, the conjunction +<b>nek</b> is used for both words. Since an adjective modifier of two +or more words connected by <b>nek</b> must necessarily modify them +separately, the adjective remains in the singular number: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Ili nek marŝas nek kuras</b>, <i>they neither walk nor run</i>.<br> +<b>La viro havas nek domon nek ĝardenon</b>, <i>the man has neither a house nor a garden</i>.<br> +<b>Nek la rozo nek la violo estas verda</b>, <i>neither the rose nor the violet is green</i>. +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span><br> + (Verbs will hereafter be quoted in the infinitive form.) + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>bruna</b>, <i>brown</i>.<br> + <b>ĉerizo</b>, <i>cherry</i>.<br> + <b>ĉu</b>, (<b>30</b>).<br> + <b>dolĉa</b>, <i>sweet</i>.<br> + <b>gusto</b>, <i>taste</i>.<br> + <b>ĝi</b>, <i>it</i>.<br> + <b>Gertrude</b>, <i>Gertrude</i>.<br> + <b>knabino</b>, <i>girl</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>matura</b>, <i>ripe</i>.<br> + <b>Mario</b>, <i>Mary</i>.<br> + <b>nek</b>, <i>neither, nor</i>.<br> + <b>persiko</b>, <i>peach</i>.<br> + <b>jes</b>, <i>yes</i>.<br> + <b>preferi</b>, <i>to prefer</i>.<br> + <b>ŝati</b>, <i>to like</i>.<br> + <b>voli</b>, <i>to wish</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center><b>READING LESSON.</b></center> + +<p> +1. Ĉu persiko estas ruĝa? 2. Jes, ĝi estas kaj ruĝa +kaj dolĉa. 3. Ĉu ĉerizoj estas brunaj? 4. Ne, ili estas +nek brunaj nek nigraj, sed flavaj. 5. Ĉu la pomo estas frukto? Jes, +ĝi estas bona frukto. 6. Ĉu la viro kaj la knabo havas pomojn? +7. Ne, ili havas nek pomojn nek persikojn. 8. Ĉu Mario havas la +maturan frukton? 9. Mario kaj Gertrudo havas la frukton. 10. Ili estas +en la domo, kaj manĝas la maturan frukton. 11. La persikoj havas +dolĉan guston. 12. La knabinoj volas havi florojn, sed la knaboj +preferas kolekti diversajn fruktojn. 13. Ili volas trovi maturajn +ĉerizojn kaj flavajn persikojn. 14. La ĉerizoj havas belan +ruĝan koloron. 15. La persikoj ŝajnas molaj kaj bonaj. 16. +Mario rompas branĉon, kaj vidas ĉerizojn sur la branĉoj. +17. Gertrudo estas feliĉa, kaj volas havi la belan frukton. 18. +Gertrudo estas alta, bela knabino. 19. Mario ŝatas ĉerizojn. +20. La knaboj kaj knabinoj sidas sur la verda herbo, kaj manĝas +la ĉerizojn. 21. Ili ne volas manĝi pomojn, ili preferas la +dolĉajn ĉerizojn. 22. La folioj apud la ĉerizoj estas nek +larĝaj nek longaj. +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. Have the girls beautiful flowers? 2. No, they have fresh fruit. 3. +The boys do not wish to gather flowers. 4. They prefer to break the +branches, and find the sweet cherries. 5. Gertrude wishes to eat apples, +but Mary has neither apples nor peaches. 6. Do the girls like to sit in +the house and eat fruit? 7. Yes, they like to sit in the house, but they +prefer to walk in the field. 8. Are ripe peaches brown? 9. No, they are +red and yellow. 10. Has the peach a sweet taste? 11. Do the girls see +the beautiful black horses in the fields? 12. Yes, they see the horses, +but the horses seem not to see the girls. 13. Mary sits on the soft +green grass, and eats ripe fruit. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON VI.</b></center> + +<center>PERSONAL PRONOUNS.</center> + +<p> +<b>32.</b> Words which stand in the place of nouns, as "you," "he," +"who," "which," are called <i>pronouns</i>. Pronouns referring to the +person speaking (<i>I</i>, <i>we</i>), the person addressed (<i>you</i>, +<i>thou</i>), or the person or thing spoken of (<i>he</i>, <i>she</i>, +<i>it</i>, <i>they</i>), are called <i>personal pronouns</i>. They are +considered singular or plural, according to whether they refer to one or +more persons. Since the meaning of such pronouns indicates the number, +no plural ending is ever attached to them. The personal pronouns are: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="1" cellpadding="8"> + <tr><td nowrap> </td><td nowrap align="center">Singular.</td><td nowrap align="center">Plural.</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap align="right">First person:</td><td nowrap><b>mi</b>, <i>I</i> (<i>me</i>).</td><td nowrap><b>ni</b>, <i>we</i> (<i>us</i>).</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap align="right">Second person:</td><td nowrap><b>vi</b>, <i>you</i>.</td><td nowrap><b>vi</b>, <i>you</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap align="right" valign="middle">Third person:</td><td nowrap><b>li</b>, <i>he</i> (<i>him</i>).<br><b>ŝi</b>, <i>she</i> (<i>her</i>).<br><b>ĝi</b>, <i>it</i>.</td><td nowrap valign="middle"><b>ili</b>, <i>they</i> (<i>them</i>).</td></tr> + </table> +</center> + +<p class="footnote"> +There is another pronoun <b>ci</b>, <i>thou</i>, for the second person +singular, used in solemn style, as in the Bible, in poetry, and also for +intimate or familiar address when desired, like German <i>du</i>, French +<i>tu</i>, etc. +</p> + +<center>AGREEMENT WITH PRONOUNS.</center> + +<p> +<b>33.</b> Nouns in predicate relation with pronouns, or adjectives +modifying such pronouns, are made to agree with them in number: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Ni estas bonaj kaj feliĉaj</b>, <i>we are good and happy</i>.<br> +<b>Rozoj estas floroj, ill ne estas fruktoj</b>, <i>roses are flowers, they are not fruits</i>.<br> +<b>Gertrudo, vi estas bona</b>, <i>Gertrude, you are good</i>.<br> +<b>Knabinoj, ĉu vi estas feliĉaj?</b> <i>Girls, are you happy?</i> +</p> + +<center>CONJUGATION OF THE VERB.</center> + +<p> +<b>34.</b> Any pronoun may serve as the subject of a verb. The +combination of the verb with each of the personal pronouns in succession +for its subject, is called the <i>conjugation</i> of the verb. Following +is the conjugation of the present tense of <b>esti</b>, and of +<b>vidi</b>: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>mi estas</b>, <i>I am</i>.<br> + <b>vi estas</b>, <i>you are</i>.<br> + <b>li (ŝi, ĝi) estas</b>, <i>he (she, it) is</i>.<br> + <b>ni estas</b>, <i>we are</i>.<br> + <b>vi estas</b>, <i>you (plural) are</i>.<br> + <b>ili estas</b>, <i>they are</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>mi vidas</b>, <i>I see</i>.<br> + <b>vi vidas</b>, <i>you see</i>.<br> + <b>li (ŝi, ĝi) vidas</b>, <i>he (she, it) sees.</i><br> + <b>ni vidas</b>, <i>we see</i>.<br> + <b>vi vidas</b>, <i>you (plural) see</i>.<br> + <b>ili vidas</b>, <i>they see</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>al</b>, <i>to, toward</i>.<br> + <b>Arturo</b>, <i>Arthur</i>.<br> + <b>aŭ</b>, <i>or</i> (aŭ.. aŭ.., <i>either.. or..</i>)<br> + <b>ĉar</b>, <i>because</i>.<br> + <b>doni</b>, <i>to give</i>.<br> + <b>fali</b>, <i>to fall</i>.<br> + <b>fenestro</b>, <i>window</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>hodiaŭ</b>, <i>today</i>.<br> + <b>kudri</b>, <i>to sew</i>.<br> + <b>Roberto</b>, <i>Robert</i>.<br> + <b>skui</b>, <i>to shake</i>.<br> + <b>stari</b>, <i>to stand</i>.<br> + <b>sub</b>, <i>under, beneath</i>.<br> + <b>virino</b>, <i>woman</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center><b>READING LESSON.</b></center> + +<p> +1. Knaboj, ĉu vi volas sidi en la domo, aŭ en la ĝardeno? +2. Ni preferas sidi hodiaŭ en la ĝardeno, sub la granda +arbo. 3. Ĉu vi havas pomojn, aŭ ĉerizojn? 4. Ni havas +nek pomojn nek ĉerizojn, sed ni havas dolĉajn persikojn. 5. +Arturo donas al vi la maturajn persikojn, ĉar li ŝatas kolekti +frukton. 6. Arturo, ĉu vi rompas la branĉojn? 7. Ne, sed mi +skuas branĉon, kaj la persikoj falas. 8. Mi staras sub la arbo, +kaj kolektas la dolĉan frukton. 9. La frukton mi donas al Mario +kaj Gertrudo. 10. Mi volas doni persikon al Heleno, sed hodiaŭ +ŝi estas en la domo. 11. Ŝi sidas apud la fenestro kaj kudras. +12. Ŝi preferas kudri, kaj volas nek marŝi nek sidi en la +ĝardeno. 13. Kaj ŝi kaj la virino apud ŝi volas kudri +hodiaŭ. 14. Ili estas feliĉaj, ĉar ili vidas la birdojn +en la arbo apud la fenestro. 15. La birdoj estas kolomboj, kaj sidas +sur la arbo. 16. Sub la arboj en la kampo staras ĉevaloj, kaj ili +manĝas la verdan molan herbon. 17. Ni donas pomojn al ili, ĉar +ili ŝatas pomojn. 18. Ni estas feliĉaj, ĉar ni havas +belajn persikojn maturajn kaj bonajn. 19. Roberto, vi estas alta, sed +vi, knabinoj, ne estas altaj. +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. Does Arthur break the branch and gather the apples? 2. No, he shakes +the branch, and the apples fall. 3. They are ripe and sweet. 4. Robert, +do you wish to stand beneath the tree? 5. No, I do not wish to stand +under it, but near it. 6. I wish to give both the peaches and the apples +to the woman. 7. She is sitting in the house, near the window. 8. Mary +is sitting in (on) a chair near her. 9. Both Mary and the woman are +sewing. 10. They prefer to sew, and do not wish to walk in the garden +to-day. 11. They are happy because they like to sew. 12. They do not +wish to gather flowers, or walk, or see the birds. 13. They have neither +apples nor peaches, but they do not wish to eat. 14. They give the fruit +to the boys and girls. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON VII.</b></center> + +<center>THE PAST TENSE.</center> + +<p> +<b>35.</b> The past tense of the verb expresses an action which took +place in past time, or a condition which existed in past time. The +ending of this tense is <b>-is</b>, as <b>kuris</b>, ran, <b>flugis</b>, +flew, <b>brilis</b>, shone. The conjugation of <b>esti</b> and also of +<b>vidi</b> in the past tense is as follows: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>mi estis</b>, <i>I was</i>.<br> + <b>vi estis</b>, <i>you were</i>.<br> + <b>li (ŝi, ĝi) estis</b>, <i>he (she, it) was</i>.<br> + <b>ni estis</b>, <i>we were</i>.<br> + <b>vi estis</b>, <i>you (plural) were</i>.<br> + <b>ili estis</b>, <i>they were</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>mi vidis</b>, <i>I saw</i>.<br> + <b>vi vidis</b>, <i>you saw</i>.<br> + <b>li (ŝi, ĝi) vidis</b>, <i>he (she, it) saw</i>.<br> + <b>ni vidis</b>, <i>we saw</i>.<br> + <b>vi vidis</b>, <i>you (plural) saw</i>.<br> + <b>ili vidis</b>, <i>they saw</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center>PREPOSITIONS.</center> + +<p> +<b>36.</b> A preposition is a word like "in," "on," placed before a +noun or pronoun to indicate some relation between this and another +word. The preposition is said to <i>govern</i> the noun or pronoun, +which is called its <i>complement</i>. In English, the complement of a +preposition seems to be put in the accusative case if it is a pronoun, +but to remain unchanged in form if it is a noun. In Esperanto the +preposition does not affect the form of the word governed, which remains +in the nominative case: +</p> + +<p> +<b>La arbo estas en la ĝardeno</b>, <i>the tree is in the garden</i>.<br> +<b>Bonaj pomoj estas sur ĝi</b>, <i>good apples are on it</i>.<br> +<b>Mi donis ĉerizojn al li</b>, <i>I gave cherries to him</i>.<br> +<b>La knabo estas apud mi</b>, <i>the boy is near me</i>.<br> +<b>Sub la arbo staris ĉevalo</b>, <i>under the tree stood a horse</i>. +</p> + +<center>ACCUSATIVE CASE OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS.</center> + +<p> +<b>37.</b> For use as the object of a verb, any pronoun may be put in +the accusative case by addition of the accusative ending <b>-n</b> (23): +</p> + +<p> +<b>La viro vidis vin kaj min</b>, <i>the man saw you and me</i>.<br> +<b>Li vidis ilin kaj nin</b>, <i>he saw them and us</i>.<br> +<b>Mi vidis nek lin nek ŝin</b>, <i>I saw neither him nor her</i>.<br> +<b>Ni volas havi ĝin</b>, <i>we wish to have it</i>. +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>agrabla</b>, <i>pleasant, agreeable</i>.<br> + <b>bildo</b>, <i>picture</i>.<br> + <b>blua</b>, <i>blue</i>.<br> + <b>danki</b>, <i>to thank</i>.<br> + <b>de</b>, <i>from</i>.<br> + <b>diri</b>, <i>to say</i>.<br> + <b>infano</b>, <i>child</i>.<br> + <b>interesa</b>, <i>interesting</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>luma</b>, <i>light (not dark)</i>.<br> + <b>muro</b>, <i>wall</i>.<br> + <b>nun</b>, <i>now</i>.<br> + <b>planko</b>, <i>floor</i>.<br> + <b>pordo</b>, <i>door</i>.<br> + <b>rigardi</b>, <i>to look (at)</i>.<br> + <b>tapiŝo</b>, <i>carpet</i>.<br> + <b>tra</b>, <i>through</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center><b>READING LESSON.</b></center> + +<p> +1. Hodiaŭ la knaboj kaj knabinoj estas en la granda domo. 2. Ili +staras apud la tablo, en agrabla luma ĉambro. 3. Ĝi havas +altajn larĝajn fenestrojn. 4. Sub la tablo kaj seĝoj, mola +tapiŝo kuŝas sur la planko. 5. La tapiŝo havas belajn +kolorojn, ruĝan, bluan, flavan, kaj verdan. 6. Virino marŝis +tra la pordo, kaj staris apud la tablo. 7. Ŝi havis interesajn +bildojn, kaj donis ilin al la knaboj kaj la knabinoj. 8. Ŝi diris +"Ĉu vi volas rigardi la bildojn?" 9. "Jes, ni dankas vin," diris +la infanoj, kaj ŝi donis al ili la bildojn. 10. Granda bildo falis +de la tablo, sed Arturo nun havas ĝin. 11. Li donas ĝin al +Mario, ŝi dankas lin, kaj donas ĝin al Roberto. 12. Ili volis +doni ĝin al Gertrudo, sed ŝi diris "Ne, mi dankas vin, mi ne +ŝatas rigardi bildojn." 13. Ŝi marŝis de la tablo al la +fenestro kaj diris "Mi preferas kudri." 14. Ŝi volis sidi en granda +seĝo apud la fenestro. 15. La virino rigardis ŝin kaj diris +"Mi donis la bildojn al vi, knaboj kaj knabinoj," ĉar ili estas +interesaj bildoj. 16. Gertrudo diris "Vi estas bona al ni, sed mi volas +sidi apud la pordo aŭ la fenestro. 17. Mi kolektis dolĉajn +violojn en la ĝardeno, kaj nun mi volas rigardi la dolĉajn +florojn, kaj kudri." +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. Do the boys and girls wish to be good? 2. They gathered fresh flowers +and gave them to the woman. 3. The happy children were in the garden, +but now they are in the house. 4. The rooms in the house are light, +because they have large wide windows. 5. The doors in the room are +wide and high. 6. The carpets on the floor seem soft, and have various +beautiful colors. 7. A large strong table stands near the door. 8. +We can sit near the table and look through the windows. 9. Gertrude +is-looking-at the various pictures. 10. She looks-at them, and seems +to be happy. 11. She gave a picture to me and I thanked her. 12. Helen +walked near the table and shook it. 13. Arthur did not see the pictures +because they were lying on the floor. 14. He looked-at the pictures on +the wall, but they are neither interesting nor beautiful. 15. Robert +looked through the window, and saw us in the pleasant garden. +</p> + + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON VIII.</b></center> + +<center>REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS.</center> + +<p> +<b>38.</b> A pronoun which refers to the same person or thing as the +subject of the verb in the sentence, but is used in some other relation +than subject of that verb, is said to be used <i>reflexively</i>, or to +be a <i>reflexive pronoun</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>39.</b> The first and second personal pronouns, <b>mi</b>, <b>ni</b>, +and <b>vi</b>, (<b>ci</b>) are used for the reflexive pronouns of the +first and second persons. There can be no ambiguity, since words such as +"me, myself, us, ourselves," can refer to no one else than the person +or persons speaking; while words such as "you, yourself, yourselves +(thee, thyself)," can refer to no one else than the person or persons +addressed: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Mi vidas min</b>, <i>I see myself</i>.<br> +<b>Mi diris al mi</b>, <i>I said to myself</i>.<br> +<b>Ni havas tapiŝon sub ni</b>, <i>we have a carpet under us</i>.<br> +<b>Ni amuzis nin</b>, <i>we amused ourselves</i>.<br> +(<b>Ci trovas domon apud ci</b>, <i>thou findest a house near thee</i>.)<br> +<b>Vi diras al vi</b>, <i>you say to yourself (yourselves)</i>.<br> +<b>Vi amuzas vin</b>, <i>you amuse yourself (yourselves)</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>40.</b> When the verb is in the third person, a pronoun of the +third person, used otherwise than as the subject, might or might not +refer to the subject of that verb. For example, "He sees a bird near +him," may mean that the subject sees a bird near himself, or near +another person. If such a pronoun of the third person is intended to +refer to the subject of the verb, Esperanto uses a special reflexive +pronoun <b>si</b> (accusative <b>sin</b>), which means <i>him(self)</i>, +<i>her(self)</i>, <i>it(self)</i>, <i>them(selves)</i>, according to the +gender and number of the verb: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Li amuzas sin</b>, <i>he amuses himself</i>.<br> +<b>Arturo vidis birdon apud si</b>, <i>Arthur saw a bird near him(self)</i>.<br> +<b>Ŝi trovas floron apud si</b>, <i>she finds a flower near her(self)</i>.<br> +<b>Mario trovis sin sur blua tapiŝo</b>, <i>Mary found herself on a blue carpet</i>.<br> +<b>La tapiŝo havas diversajn kolorojn en si</b>, <i>the carpet has various colors in it(self)</i>.<br> +<b>La birdo kaŝas sin sub la folioj</b>, <i>the bird hides itself under the leaves</i>.<br> +<b>Ili amuzas sin</b>, <i>they amuse themselves</i>.<br> +<b>La viroj havas seĝojn apud si</b>, <i>the men have chairs near them(selves)</i>.<br> +<b>La virinoj trovas florojn apud si</b>, <i>the women find flowers near them(selves)</i>.<br> +<b>La arboj havas ĉerizojn sur si</b>, <i>the trees have cherries on them(selves)</i>.<br> +<b>Sub si la infanoj trovis molan tapiŝon</b>, <i>under them(selves) the children found a soft carpet</i>. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +From the very fact that <b>si</b> always <i>refers to</i> the subject +of the verb, it is evident that <b>si</b> can never itself be used as +subject or part of the subject of the verb. +</p> + +<center>REFLEXIVE VERBS.</center> + +<p> +<b>41.</b> A verb having a reflexive pronoun for its direct object +is sometimes called a <i>reflexive verb</i>, from the fact that some +languages have had or still have a special reflexive or middle form of +the verb, to express an act of the subject on or for itself, or they +have certain verbs whose use is chiefly or exclusively reflexive. The +conjugation of a verb reflexively is therefore as follows: +</p> + +<p> +<b>mi amuzas min (mi min amuzas)</b>, <i>I amuse myself</i>.<br> +<b>vi amuzas vin (vi vin amuzas)</b>, <i>you amuse yourself</i>.<br> +<b>li (ŝi, ĝi) amuzas sin (sin amuzas)</b>, <i>he (she, it) amuses him (her, it)self</i>.<br> +<b>ni amuzas nin (ni nin amuzas)</b>, <i>we amuse ourselves</i>.<br> +<b>vi amuzas vin (vi vin amuzas)</b>, <i>you amuse yourselves</i>.<br> +<b>ili amuzas sin (ili sin amuzas)</b>, <i>they amuse themselves</i>. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +As Greek +<i>ετράποντο</i>, +<i>they turned themselves</i>; +Latin <i>exerceor</i>, <i>I exercise myself</i>, <i>vescor</i>, <i>I +eat</i> (<i>I feed myself</i>); German <i>ich hüte mich</i>, +<i>I beware</i> (<i>I guard myself</i>); Spanish <i>me alegro</i>, or +<i>alégrome</i>, <i>I rejoice</i> (<i>I gladden myself</i>); French +<i>il s'arrête</i>, <i>he halts</i> (<i>he stops himself</i>). +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>Alfredo</b>, <i>Alfred</i>.<br> + <b>amuzi</b>, <i>to amuse</i>.<br> + <b>antaŭ</b>, <i>before, in front of</i>.<br> + <b>aparteni</b>, <i>to belong</i>.<br> + <b>griza</b>, <i>gray</i>.<br> + <b>iri</b>, <i>to go</i>.<br> + <b>Johano</b>, <i>John</i>.<br> + <b>kaŝi</b>, <i>to hide, to conceal</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>komenci</b>, <i>to begin</i>.<br> + <b>laŭdi</b>, <i>to praise</i>.<br> + <b>legi</b>, <i>to read</i>.<br> + <b>libro</b>, <i>book</i>.<br> + <b>perdi</b>, <i>to lose</i>.<br> + <b>skatolo</b>, <i>small box or case</i>.<br> + <b>strato</b>, <i>street</i>.<br> + <b>si</b>, <i>himself, etc.</i> (40). + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center><b>READING LESSON.</b></center> + +<p> +1. Johano kaj Alfredo amuzis sin en la ĝardeno. 2. Johano +kaŝis sin, kaj Alfredo trovis Johanon. 3. Alfredo sin kaŝis +en alta arbo, kaj Johano trovis Alberton. 4. Mario kaj Gertrudo sin +kaŝis apud la floroj, kaj la knaboj trovis la knabinojn. 5. La +knabinoj ne volas perdi sin en la agrabla kampo. 6. Johano komencis +amuzi sin en luma ĉambro en la domo. 7. La muro havas interesajn +bildojn sur si. 8. Tra la fenestro antaŭ si Johano rigardas +la virojn kaj la virinojn sur la strato. 9. Li havas molan grizan +tapiŝon sub si, kaj ne volas seĝon. 10. Li kaj Alfredo volis +iri al la strato kaj amuzi sin. 11. Ili marŝis al la pordo, kaj +trovis ruĝan skatolon antaŭ si. 12. En la skatolo estis libro, +kaj Johano diris al si "La libro ne apartenas al mi." 13. Li diris al +Alfredo "Ĉar ni trovis ĝin, mi volas legi la libron." 14. +Virino antaŭ pordo komencis rigardi la knabojn, kaj ili diris +al ŝi "Ĉu la libro apartenas al vi? Ni trovis ĝin en +skatolo." 15. La virino diris "Jes, ni perdis ĝin, kaj mi dankas +vin, ĉar vi donas al mi la skatolon kaj la libron." 16. Ŝi +iris al la strato, kaj la knaboj iris al la domo. +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. The book in the gray box does not belong to me. 2. I found it in +front of me, near the door. 3. You began to praise yourselves, but I do +not praise myself. 4. They hid themselves, and I stood near them. 5. The +birds sit on the tree, because it has ripe cherries on it. 6. Alfred +amused himself on the street, but we like to amuse ourselves in the +house. 7. The trees have good fruit on them. 8. She found herself in a +beautiful light room. 9. The carpet on the floor had various colors in +it, and the high wall had pictures on it. 10. The pictures had boys and +girls in them. 11. The book belongs to her, but it fell from the box. +12. The table has red and blue and yellow flowers on it. 13. Did you see +the doves near the flowers in front of (before) you? 14. The birds saw +the fruit on the tree in front of them, and flew to the branches. 15. I +sat on the bench in the garden, and began to read an interesting book. +16. They hid themselves in the leaves and began to sing. 17. The child +is in a pleasant room. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON IX.</b></center> + +<center>LIMITATION OF THE THIRD PERSONAL PRONOUN.</center> + +<p> +<b>42.</b> Since there is a special reflexive pronoun of the third +person, the third personal pronouns, <b>li</b>, <b>ŝi</b>, +<b>ĝi</b>, <b>ili</b>, when used otherwise than as subjects, never +refer to the subject of the verb, but always to some other person or +thing: +</p> + +<p> +<b>La knabo laŭdas lin</b>, <i>the boy praises him</i> (another person).<br> +<b>Ŝi donas pomojn al ŝi</b>, <i>she gives apples to her</i> (to another person).<br> +<b>La birdo vidis ĝin</b>, <i>the bird saw it</i> (something else than the bird).<br> +<b>La knaboj kaŝis ilin</b>, <i>the boys hid them</i> (other persons or things).<br> +<b>Ili trovis ilin apud si</b>, <i>they found them</i> (other persons or things) <i>near them(selves)</i>.<br> +<b>La birdoj flugis al ili</b>, <i>the birds flew to them</i>. +</p> + +<center>POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES.</center> + +<p> +<b>43.</b> Words like "my," "his," "your," which indicate ownership +or some possessive relation, are called <i>possessive adjectives</i>. +Possessive adjectives are formed from the personal pronouns by adding +the adjective ending <b>-a</b>, as <b>mia</b>, <i>my</i>, <b>via</b>, +<i>your</i> (<b>cia</b>, <i>thy</i>), <b>lia</b>, <i>his</i>, +<b>ŝia</b>, <i>her</i>, <b>ĝia</b>, <i>its</i>, <b>nia</b>, +<i>our</i>, <b>via</b>, <i>your (plural)</i>, <b>ilia</b>, <i>their</i>. +The limitation in the use of the third personal pronouns (<b>42</b>) is +also true of the adjectives derived from them: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Mia domo kaj miaj ĝardenoj estas grandaj</b>, <i>my house and my gardens are large</i>.<br> +<b>Johano sidas sur via seĝo</b>, <i>John is sitting in your chair</i>.<br> +<b>Li havas lian ĉevalon</b>, <i>he has his</i> (another person's) <i>horse</i>.<br> +<b>Ĉu vi legis ŝiajn librojn?</b> <i>Did you read her books</i>? +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +Sometimes these words are called possessive pronouns, although really +they are not pronouns at all, but pronominal adjectives with a +possessive meaning. +</p> + +<p> +<b>44.</b> Reflexive possessive adjectives, like the reflexive pronoun, +refer to the subject of the verb in the sentence. For the first and +second persons, they are the same as the personal possessive adjectives. +The reflexive possessive adjective of the third person is <b>sia</b>, +<i>his</i>, <i>her</i>, <i>its</i>, <i>their</i>, formed by adding the +ending <b>-a</b> to the reflexive pronoun <b>si</b>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Mi havas miajn librojn sur mia tablo</b>, <i>I have my books on my table</i>.<br> +<b>Johano perdis siajn librojn</b>, <i>John lost his (John's) books</i>.<br> +<b>Mario estas en sia ĉambro</b>, <i>Mary is in her room</i>.<br> +<b>La birdoj flugis al sia arbo</b>, <i>the birds flew to their tree</i>. +</p> + +<center>PRONOMINAL USE OF POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES.</center> + +<p> +<b>45.</b> Possessive adjectives may be used predicatively, as "the +book is mine," or may modify some word or words not expressed, as "mine +are large." Instead of having special forms, like English <i>mine</i>, +<i>yours</i>, <i>hers</i>, etc., Esperanto uses the regular possessive +adjectives preceded by the article: +</p> + +<p> +<b>La granda libro estas la mia</b>, <i>the large book is mine</i>.<br> +<b>La via estas granda, la miaj estas belaj</b>, <i>yours is large, mine are beautiful</i>.<br> +<b>Ili havas la sian, sed ne la lian</b>, <i>they have theirs, but not his</i>.<br> +<b>La iliaj ŝajnas esti bonaj</b>, <i>theirs seem to be good</i>. +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>diro</b>, <i>saying, remark</i>.<br> + <b>ĝis</b>, <i>as far as, up to, down to</i>.<br> + <b>hieraŭ</b>, <i>yesterday</i>.<br> + <b>juna</b>, <i>young</i>.<br> + <b>kapti</b>, <i>to catch, to seize</i>.<br> + <b>kato</b>, <i>cat</i>.<br> + <b>kolera</b>, <i>angry</i>.<br> + <b>lavi</b>, <i>to wash</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>manĝo</b>, <i>meal</i>.<br> + <b>nesto</b>, <i>nest</i>.<br> + <b>pasero</b>, <i>sparrow</i>.<br> + <b>patro</b>, <i>father</i>.<br> + <b>post,</b> <i>after, behind</i>.<br> + <b>surprizi</b>, <i>to surprise</i>.<br> + <b>teni</b>, <i>to hold, to keep</i>.<br> + <b>vizaĝo</b>, <i>face</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center><b>READING LESSON.</b></center> + +<p> +1. Hieraŭ mi perdis mian grizan katon. 2. Ilia kato kaptis nian +birdon. 3. Via kolera diro surprizis mian patron. 4. Ĉu la granda +kampo apartenas al ŝia patro? 5. Ne, ĝi ne estas la lia. 6. +La lia estas bela, sed mi preferas la mian. 7. Ĉu vi ŝatas +vian libron aŭ la ilian? 8. Li havas nek siajn ĉevalojn nek la +iliajn. 9. La knabinoj ŝajnas esti koleraj. 10. Ili komencis legi +siajn librojn. 11. La viro kaptis kaj tenis siajn ĉevalojn, sed li +ne trovis iliajn ĉevalojn. 12. Ŝia libro kuŝas sur la +planko, post ŝia seĝo. 13. Ŝi ne trovis ilian libron, sed +la junaj infanoj trovis la nian. +</p> + +<center><b>LA KATO KAJ LA PASERO.</b></center> + +<p> +Griza kato iris de la domo ĝis la strato. Ĝi vidis paseron +antaŭ si, kaj volis manĝi ĝin. La kato staris post +granda arbo, kaj kaptis la paseron. La pasero diris "Bona kato lavas +sin antaŭ sia manĝo, sed vi ne lavis vian vizaĝon." La +interesa diro surprizis la katon. La kato ne tenis la paseron, sed +komencis lavi sian vizaĝon. La pasero flugis de la kato ĝis +la arbo. La kolera kato diris "Mi perdis mian manĝon, ĉar mi +komencis lavi min antaŭ la manĝo!" Nun la katoj ne lavas sin +antaŭ la manĝoj. Ili havas siajn manĝojn, kaj post la +manĝoj ili lavas la vizaĝojn. La paseroj ne surprizas ilin +nun, sed ili tenas la paserojn. La katoj estas feliĉaj, sed la +paseroj ne estas feliĉaj. La junaj paseroj volas flugi al la nestoj +en la arboj. +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. The boys are not in their (own) house, but they are in his. 2 Is the +large beautiful house yours? 3. The woman walked through the door of +their house, as far as her room. 4. The room has interesting pictures on +its walls. 5. We praised their flowers yesterday, and they gave them to +us. 6. Their books are in their (the books') box. 7. They are on their +(the boys') table. 8. The gray cat was angry because it did not hold the +bird. 9. The sparrow surprised it, and it commenced to wash its face. +10. The sparrow wished to fly as far as the tall tree, but the cat held +it. 11. The sparrow said "A good cat washes its face, but you are not a +good cat." 12. The sparrow was angry because the cat seized it and held +it. 13. The bird did not lose its meal, but the angry cat lost its meal. +14. Do you see his cat or hers? 15. I see both his and hers, but ours +is not in our garden. 16. My father is a tall strong man. 17. I like to +look at him. 18. The children saw the young birds in the nest. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON X.</b></center> + +<center>THE ACCUSATIVE OF DIRECTION.</center> + +<p> +<b>46.</b> When the verb in a sentence expresses motion, the word +indicating the place, person or thing toward which the motion is +directed is given the accusative ending. This is also true if the word +is the complement of any preposition which does not itself sufficiently +indicate motion in a certain direction. (The prepositions <b>al</b>, +<i>to, toward,</i> <b>ĝis</b>, <i>as far as,</i> <b>tra</b>, +<i>through,</i> express motion in the direction of their complements, +and could not well be used except in a sentence whose verb expresses +motion. Consequently the accusative is not used after any of these +three): +</p> + +<p> +<b>Li iris ĝardenon</b>, <i>he went to the garden ("gardenward").</i><br> +<b>La viro iros Bostonon</b>, <i>the man will go to Boston ("Bostonward").</i> +</p> + +<p class="footnote" style="margin-top: 0; text-align: right"> +<i>Cf.</i> English "he went home," "he went homeward," etc. +</p> + +<p> +<b>Li estis en la ĝardeno</b>, kaj kuris en la domon, <i>he was in the garden and ran into the house.</i><br> +<b>Ĝi ne estas sur la tablo</b>, ĝi falis sur la plankon, <i>it is not on the table, it fell upon the floor.</i><br> +<b>Ili falis sub la tablon ĝis la planko</b>, <i>they fell under the table as far as the floor</i> (direction expressed by whole prepositional phrase).<br> +<b>Mi iris tra la domo en mian ĉambron</b>, <i>I went through the house into my room.</i> +</p> + +<center>THE ARTICLE FOR THE POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE.</center> + +<p> +<b>47.</b> In many sentences where the possessor is already sufficiently +indicated, English nevertheless uses a possessive adjective, as in "I +wash my face," "he shakes his head," but on the other hand omits it +entirely with certain words indicating relationship, as in "Brother gave +it to me," etc. In both cases Esperanto uses the article instead of the +possessive adjective, unless the fact of possession is to be emphasized: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Mi lavas la vizaĝon</b>, <i>I wash my face.</i><br> +<b>Li skuas la kapon</b>, <i>he shakes his head.</i><br> +<b>La patro estas alta</b>, <i>Father is tall.</i><br> +<b>Mi donis ĝin al la patro</b>, <i>I gave it to Father.</i> +</p> + +<center>APPOSITION.</center> + +<p> +<b>48.</b> English often uses the preposition "of" between two words +where no idea of possession really exists, as "the city of Boston." +Since nouns used in apposition refer to the same thing, and are in the +same grammatical construction, Esperanto does not use a preposition: +</p> + +<p> +<b>La urbo Bostono estas granda</b>, <i>the city</i> (of) <i>Boston is large.</i><br> +<b>Mia amiko Johano estas alta</b>, <i>my friend John is tall.</i><br> +<b>Ĉu vi ne konas min</b>, vian amikon? <i>do you not know me, your friend?</i> +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>arabo</b>, <i>arab.</i><br> + <b>baldaŭ</b>, <i>soon.</i><br> + <b>Bostono</b>, <i>Boston.</i><br> + <b>frato</b>, <i>brother.</i><br> + <b>kamelo</b>, <i>camel.</i><br> + <b>kapo</b>, <i>head.</i><br> + <b>kolo</b>, <i>neck.</i><br> + <b>korpo</b>, <i>body.</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>meti</b>, <i>to put, to place.</i><br> + <b>nazo</b>, <i>nose.</i><br> + <b>nur</b>, <i>only, merely.</i><br> + <b>puŝi</b>, <i>to push.</i><br> + <b>trans</b>, <i>across.</i><br> + <b>tuta</b>, <i>whole, entire, all.</i><br> + <b>urbo</b>, <i>city.</i><br> + <b>varma</b>, <i>warm.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center><b>LA ARABO KAJ LA KAMELO.</b></center> + +<p> +Arabo sidis en sia domo en la urbo. Apud domo trans la strato li vidis +kamelon. La kamelo iris trans la straton ĝis la pordo, kaj diris al +la arabo, "Frato, mi ne estas varma, mi volas meti nur la nazon en vian +varman domon." La arabo skuis la kapon, sed la kamelo metis la nazon tra +la pordo en la ĉambron. La kamelo komencis puŝi sian tutan +vizaĝon en la domon. Baldaŭ li havis la kapon ĝis la +kolo en la domo. Post la kapo iris la kolo en ĝin, kaj baldaŭ +la tuta korpo estis en la domo. La arabo estis kolera, ĉar li ne +volis havi tutan kamelon en sia domo. Li kuris al la kamelo, kaptis +lin, tenis lin, kaj diris, "Frato, vi volis meti nur la nazon en mian +domon. La ĉambro ne estas granda sed ĝi estas la mia, kaj mi +preferas sidi en ĝi." "Via diro estas bona," diris la kamelo, "via +domo ne estas granda, sed ĝi estas varma, kaj mi ŝatas stari +en ĝi. Mi preferas stari kaj kuŝi en ĝi, kaj mi donos al +vi mian arbon trans la strato. Ĉu vi ne volas iri sub la arbon?" +Kaj la kamelo puŝis la arabon de lia domo en la straton de la urbo. +La kamelo nun trovis sin en varma ĉambro, sed la juna arabo staris +trans la strato kaj ne estis varma. +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. The cat ran across the street. 2. Across the street it found a +sparrow. 3. It caught the bird, but began to wash its face, and the +sparrow flew to the nest. 4. I went into the garden as far as the large +tree. 5. I did not hold my book, and it fell upon the floor. 6. It began +to fall under the table, but I seized it. 7. My brother pushed the +books into their box, and put it on the table. 8. We went to the city +of Boston yesterday and into a beautiful house. 9. The arab shook his +head and said, "No." 10. But the camel commenced to go through the door. +11. His remark did not seem to surprise the camel. 12. The camel pushed +its head and neck, and soon its whole body into the warm house. 13. It +wished to put merely its nose into it. 14. The arab was angry, because +it pushed itself into his house. 15. He said, "Brother, the house is +mine, and I do not wish to have you in it." 16. But soon after the +remark, the whole camel was in the house. 17. He pushed the young arab +into the street. 18. He went across the street and stood upon the grass +under a tree. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XI.</b></center> + +<center>POSSESSIVE CASE OF NOUNS.</center> + +<p> +<b>49.</b> The preposition <b>de</b> is used to express possession or +connection: +</p> + +<p> +<b>La muroj de la domo</b>, <i>the walls of the house.</i><br> +<b>La koloroj de la floroj</b>, <i>the colors of the flowers.</i><br> +<b>La libro de la knabo</b>, <i>the book of the boy (the boy's book).</i><br> +<b>Branĉo de la arbo</b>, <i>a branch of the tree.</i><br> +<b>La ĝardeno de la viroj</b>, <i>the garden of the men (the men's garden).</i> +</p> + +<center>IMPERSONAL VERBS.</center> + +<p> +<b>50.</b> Verbs with an impersonal or indeterminate subject, as "it +rains," "it is snowing," are called impersonal, because there is +no actual subject, the word "it" serving merely as an introductory +particle. No such particle is used with impersonal verbs in Esperanto: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Pluvas</b>, <i>it rains, it is raining.</i><br> +<b>Neĝis hieraŭ</b>, <i>it snowed yesterday.</i> +</p> + +<center>VERBS PRECEDING THEIR SUBJECTS.</center> + +<p> +<b>51.</b> When the verb in a sentence precedes its subject, English +often uses an introductory particle, such as "there," "it." In Esperanto +no such particles are needed: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Estas floroj sur la tablo</b>, <i>there are flowers on the table.</i><br> +<b>Estis Johano, ne Alfredo, en la ĝardeno</b>, <i>it was John, not Alfred, in the garden.</i><br> +<b>Estas domo en la kampo</b>, <i>there is a house in the field.</i><br> +<b>Estis mi</b>, <i>it was I.</i> +</p> + +<center>COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS.</center> + +<p> +<b>52.</b> Words like <b>aŭ, kaj, nek, sed,</b> which join words, +word-groups, or sentences together are conjunctions. All the +conjunctions given so far connect words, phrases, or sentences of +similar rank or kind. These are called coordinating conjunctions, and +the words, phrases, or sentences connected by them are said to be +coordinate: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Ĉu vi marŝas aŭ kuras?</b><br> +(<b>Aŭ</b> connects the verbs.) +</p> + +<p> +<b>Ŝi iris, kaj ni estis feliĉaj.</b><br> +(<b>Kaj</b> connects the sentences.) +</p> + +<p> +<b>Nek vi nek mi vidis ĝin.</b><br> +(The second <b>nek</b> connects the pronouns, the first being introductory and adverbial.) +</p> + +<p> +<b>Aŭ li aŭ ŝi perdis la libron.</b><br> +(The second <b>aŭ</b> connects the pronouns, the first being introductory and adverbial.) +</p> + +<p> +<b>Ĝi falis sur la seĝon, sed ne sur la plankon.</b><br> +(<b>Sed</b> connects the phrases.) +</p> + +<p> +<b>Li ne ŝatis ĝin. Tamen li tenis ĝin.</b><br> +(<b>Tamen</b> connects the sentences.) +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +A phrase is a word-group forming an expression, but not containing a +verb, as "through the house," "of the man," "before me," etc. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +Coordinating conjunctions may be further classified according to +their meaning: <b>Aŭ</b> is disjunctive, connecting alternates, +and expressing separation. <b>Kaj</b> is copulative, expressing +union. <b>Nek</b> is disjunctive, expressing separation and also +negation. <b>Sed</b> is adversative, expressing opposition, contrast, +or modification of a previous statement. <b>Tamen</b> is adversative, +affirming something in spite of a previous objection or concession. +<b>Do,</b> <i>so, then, consequently,</i> is argumentative, expressing a +logical inference or result in a somewhat conversational manner. +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>akvo</b>, <i>water.</i><br> + <b>amiko</b>, <i>friend.</i><br> + <b>ankaŭ</b>, <i>also.</i><br> + <b>bezoni</b>, <i>to need.</i><br> + <b>dezerto</b>, <i>desert.</i><br> + <b>fidela</b>, <i>faithful.</i><br> + <b>mono</b>, <i>money.</i><br> + <b>neĝi</b>, <i>to snow.</i><br> + <b>pluvi</b>, <i>to rain.</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>porti</b>, <i>to carry.</i><br> + <b>riĉa</b>, <i>rich, wealthy.</i><br> + <b>sablo</b>, <i>sand.</i><br> + <b>sako</b>, <i>sack, bag.</i><br> + <b>seka</b>, <i>dry.</i><br> + <b>tamen</b>, <i>nevertheless.</i><br> + <b>trinki</b>, <i>to drink.</i><br> + <b>veni</b>, <i>to come.</i><br> + <b>vojo</b>, <i>road, way.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center><b>LA ARABO EN LA DEZERTO.</b></center> + +<p> +Arabo iris trans grandan sekan dezerton. Kamelo, lia fidela amiko, +portis lin. La kamelo ankaŭ portis belajn tapiŝojn, ĉar +la arabo estis riĉa viro. La arabo havis ne nur tapiŝojn, sed +ankaŭ sakojn. En la sakoj estis akvo, ĉar en la dezerto nek +pluvas nek neĝas. La viro trinkis akvon, kaj ankaŭ donis akvon +al sia kamelo. La kamelo marŝis kaj marŝis, sed ne venis al +la domo de la arabo, ĉar ili perdis la vojon. La suno brilis, kaj +la sablo de la dezerto ŝajnis varma. La arabo ne trovis la vojon, +kaj baldaŭ li ne havis akvon. Tamen la kamelo marŝis kaj +marŝis, kaj baldaŭ la arabo vidis sakon antaŭ si, sur la +seka sablo. Li estis feliĉa kaj diris al si "Ĉu estas akvo en +ĝi? Mi volas trinki, kaj volas doni akvon al mia fidela kamelo." +Li ankaŭ volis lavi la tutan vizaĝon en la akvo, ĉar li +estis varma. Post sia diro li kaptis la sakon, kaj komencis rigardi en +ĝin. Li metis la nazon en ĝin, sed ne trovis akvon en la sako. +Nek li nek lia fidela kamelo havis akvon, ĉar estis nur mono en +la sako. La arabo estis kolera, ĉar li ne volis monon, li bezonis +akvon. Li havis monon en sia domo en la urbo, kaj volis trovi akvon. +Ĉu li tamen metis la sakon trans la kolon de sia kamelo? Ne, li ne +volis meti ĝin sur sian kamelon, ĉar li estis kolera. Li ne +tenis la sakon, sed ĝi falis sur la sablon, kaj kuŝis apud li. +La sako nun kuŝas sur la sablo de la granda dezerto, kaj la mono +estas en ĝi. +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. Today it is raining, but yesterday it was snowing. 2. Did your friend +John carry his chair into the house? 3. I saw your good friends on the +way to the city. 4. Is the large sack behind the door theirs? 5. Neither +she nor her brother saw the whole city. 6. They went to the city of +Boston and lost their way. 7. There are interesting houses across the +street. 8. The body of a camel is large, and its neck is long. 9. The +camel pushed its head into the house of the arab, and he was angry. 10. +On the sand in the desert there lies a sack. 11. In the sack there is +money. 12. The arab was warm, and wished to drink water. 13. He also +wished to give water to the faithful camel. 14. Nevertheless, he found +only money in the sack. 15. He was angry, and did not keep the sack. +16. Yesterday he wished to find money, but today he prefers water. 17. +Nevertheless there is only sand in the desert. 18. He wished to come +from the dry desert to the house of a faithful friend. 19. Both he and +his friends are rich. 20. They went to his house yesterday, and came to +theirs today. 21. They do not need money. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XII.</b></center> + +<center>INDIRECT STATEMENTS.</center> + +<p> +<b>53.</b> A statement made indirectly by means of a clause dependent upon a +verb meaning "say," "think," "know," "believe," or a similar expression, +as in "I know that he came," "I hear that he is good," is called an +<i>indirect statement.</i> (The <i>direct</i> statement is "he came," +"he is good.") An indirect statement is joined to the main verb or +sentence by the subordinating conjunction <b>ke,</b> <i>that.</i> +</p> + +<b>Mi diras ke li estas bona</b>, <i>I say that he is good.</i><br> +<b>Johano diras ke vi venis hieraŭ</b>, <i>John says that you came yesterday.</i><br> +<b>Ŝi opinias ke estas mono en la sako</b>, <i>she thinks that there is money in the bag.</i><br> +<b>Ni vidas ke neĝas</b>, <i>we see that it is snowing.</i> + +<p class="footnote"> +A clause is a group of words including a verb, which is dependent upon +or subordinate to a main verb or sentence, as "—that he came," +"—when he went," "—that he is good," etc. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +In English the subordinating conjunction may sometimes be omitted, +either "I think that he is good," or "I think he is good," being usually +permissible. But in Esperanto there is no variation, and the conjunction +<b>ke</b> is never omitted. +</p> + +<center>THE INDEFINITE PERSONAL PRONOUN <b>ONI</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>54.</b> When an indefinite personal pronoun is desired, as in the +expressions "one knows," "they say," "people say," "you can see," etc., +the indefinite personal pronoun <b>oni</b> is used. This pronoun may +also be used in translating such expressions as "it is said," "I am +told," etc.: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Oni diras ke li estas riĉa</b>, <i>they say (one says) that he is rich.</i><br> +<b>Oni vidas ke ili estas amikoj</b>, <i>one sees that they are friends.</i><br> +<b>Mi opinias ke oni ŝatas lin</b>, <i>I think that people like him (that he is liked).</i><br> +<b>Oni diris al mi ke estas sablo en la dezerto</b>, <i>I was told (people said to me) that there is sand in the desert.</i><br> +<b>Oni opinias ke ŝi estas feliĉa</b>, <i>it is thought (one thinks) that she is happy.</i><br> +<b>Ĉu oni vidis nin en la ĝardeno?</b> <i>Were we seen (did people see us) in the garden?</i><br> +<b>Oni ŝatas agrablajn infanojn</b>, <i>people like agreeable children (agreeable children are liked).</i> +</p> + +<center>THE FUTURE TENSE.</center> + +<p> +<b>55.</b> The future tense of the verb expresses an act or state as +about to take place, or as one that will take place in future time. The +ending of this tense is <b>-os,</b> as <b>kuros,</b> <i>will run,</i> +<b>flugos,</b> <i>will fly,</i> <b>brilos,</b> <i>will shine.</i> The +conjugation of <b>esti</b> and also of <b>vidi</b> in the future tense +is as follows: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>mi estos</b>, <i>I shall be.</i><br> + <b>vi estos</b>, <i>you will be.</i><br> + <b>li (ŝi, ĝi) estos</b>, <i>he (she, it) will be.</i><br> + <b>ni estos</b>, <i>we shall be.</i><br> + <b>vi estos</b>, <i>you (plural) will be.</i><br> + <b>ili estos</b>, <i>they will be.</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>mi vidos</b>, <i>I shall see.</i><br> + <b>vi vidos</b>, <i>you will see.</i><br> + <b>li (ŝi, ĝi) vidos</b>, <i>he (she, it) will see.</i><br> + <b>ni vidos</b>, <i>we shall see.</i><br> + <b>vi vidos</b>, <i>you (plural) will see.</i><br> + <b>ili vidos</b>, <i>they will see.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>aŭdi</b>, <i>to hear.</i><br> + <b>blovi</b>, <i>to blow.</i><br> + <b>greno</b>, <i>grain</i> (wheat, corn, etc.).<br> + <b>ke</b>, <i>that</i> (conjunction).<br> + <b>kontraŭ</b>, <i>against</i>.<br> + <b>montri</b>, <i>to show, to point out</i>.<br> + <b>norda</b>, <i>north, northern</i>.<br> + <b>nova</b>, <i>new</i>.<br> + <b>okcidenta</b>, <i>west, western</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>oni</b>, (see <b>54</b>).<br> + <b>opinii</b>, <i>to think, to opine</i>.<br> + <b>orienta</b>, <i>east, eastern</i>.<br> + <b>pluvo</b>, <i>rain</i>.<br> + <b>suda</b>, <i>south, southern</i>.<br> + <b>velki</b>, <i>to wilt, to wither</i>.<br> + <b>vento</b>, <i>wind</i>.<br> + <b>ventoflago</b>, <i>weathercock</i>.<br> + <b>vetero</b>, <i>weather</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center><b>LA VENTOFLAGO.</b></center> + +<p> +Estis varma vetero, la suno brilis, kaj suda vento blovis. Tamen la nova +ventoflago sur la domo diris al si, "La sudan venton mi ne ŝatas. +Mi preferas orientan venton." La vento orienta aŭdis la diron +kaj ĝi venis kontraŭ la ventoflagon. Pluvis kaj pluvis, kaj +oni estis kolera kontraŭ la ventoflago, ĉar ĝi montras +orientan venton. Ĝi diris, "Pluvas nun, sed la greno en la kampoj +bezonos sekan veteron. Oni estos kolera kontraŭ mi, ĉar mi +montras orientan venton." La okcidenta vento aŭdis la ventoflagon, +kaj baldaŭ venis. Ĝi ne estis forta, sed ĝi estis seka +kaj agrabla vento, kaj ne portis pluvon. La viroj, virinoj, kaj junaj +infanoj volis trinki, sed ili ne havis akvon. La greno kaj la floroj +velkis, kaj la frukto ankaŭ falis. La nova ventoflago diris, "Oni +estos kolera kontraŭ mi, ĉar ne pluvas. Oni opinios ke, +ĉar mi montras okcidentan venton, la frukto falas, kaj la greno +kaj floroj velkas. Mi ŝatas montri nek okcidentan nek orientan +venton!" Norda vento aŭdis kaj venis al la ventoflago. La vetero +ne estis agrabla, kaj la virinoj kaj la junaj infanoj ne estis varmaj. +Neĝis, kaj oni estis kolera. Oni diris "La greno kaj la frukto +bezonas varman veteron, sed hodiaŭ neĝas. Ni preferas la +sudan venton. Ni havis ĝin, antaŭ la orienta, la okcidenta, +kaj la norda ventoj. La ventoflago ne estas fidela amiko al ni. Ĝi +ne montras bonajn ventojn, kaj ni volas rompi ĝin!" Oni kuris al +la domo, kaptis la novan ventoflagon, kaj ankaŭ rompis ĝin. +Ĝi falis, kaj kuŝis sur la vojo antaŭ la domo. +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. One can see that the weathercock points-out the winds. 2. They say +that the west wind will be a dry wind. 3. The weathercock now shows that +an agreeable south wind blows. 4. People will be angry with (against) +the weathercock, because it points-out a north wind. 5. A north wind is +not warm, and the grain and fruit will need a warm wind. 6. It snowed, +and the young children were not warm, because the north wind blew. 7. +People will like a south wind, but an east wind will carry rain. 8. +Can one find money in the desert? 9. Do you think (that) he is in the +house? 10. He is said to be (they say that he is) on the street. 11. +It is thought (people think) that the camel is a faithful friend. 12. +I am told (people tell me) that the camel has a large body, and a long +neck. 13. One can see that it is not beautiful. 14. People do not like +to drink warm water. 15. Nevertheless we shall drink warm water in the +city. 16. It was beautiful weather yesterday, but today we shall have +good weather also. 17. I think that a warm wind will blow soon. 18. My +friend has a beautiful new house. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XIII.</b></center> + +<center>THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN <b>TIU</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>56.</b> The demonstrative pronoun <b>tiu</b>, <i>that,</i> is used +to indicate a person or a definitely specified thing. The plural is +<b>tiuj</b>, <i>those:</i> +</p> + +<p> +<b>Tiu estas la via, kaj mi volas tiun</b>, <i>that is yours, and I wish that one.</i><br> +<b>Tiuj estos koleraj kontraŭ vi</b>, <i>those will be angry with you.</i><br> +<b>Li aŭdis tiujn</b>, <i>he heard those (persons, or things).</i> +</p> + +<p> +<b>57.</b> The demonstrative pronoun <b>tiu</b> is also used as a +<i>pronominal adjective</i>, in agreement with a noun: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Tiu vento estos varma</b>, <i>that wind will be warm.</i><br> +<b>Mi vidas tiun ventoflagon</b>, <i>I see that weathercock.</i><br> +<b>Tiuj infanoj estas junaj</b>, <i>those children are young.</i><br> +<b>Mi trovos tiujn librojn</b>, <i>I shall find those books.</i> +</p> + +<center>TENSES IN INDIRECT QUOTATIONS.</center> + +<p> +<b>58.</b> The verb in an indirect statement (53) or an indirect question +remains in the same tense in which it would be if the statement or +question were direct. (In English this is true only if the introductory +verb is present or future, since after an introductory past tense the +tense of the indirect quotation is changed, and <i>am, is, are, have, +will</i> become <i>was, were, had, would,</i> etc.) +</p> + +<table class="novmargins"> + <tr><td align="center"><b>Mi</b></td> <td align="center"><b>diras</b></td> <td align="center"><b>ke</b></td> <td align="center"><b>li</b></td> <td align="center"><b>estas</b></td> <td align="center"><b>bona</b></td> <td align="left" nowrap>, <i>I say that he is good.</i></td></tr> + <tr><td align="center"><b>"</b></td> <td align="center"><b>diris</b></td> <td align="center"><b>"</b></td> <td align="center"><b>"</b></td> <td align="center"><b>"</b></td> <td align="center"><b>"</b></td> <td align="left" nowrap>, <i>I said that he was good.</i></td></tr> + <tr><td align="center"><b>"</b></td> <td align="center"><b>diros</b></td> <td align="center"><b>"</b></td> <td align="center"><b>"</b></td> <td align="center"><b>"</b></td> <td align="center"><b>"</b></td> <td align="left" nowrap>, <i>I shall say that he is good.</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<table class="novmargins"> + <tr><td align="center"><b>Li</b></td> <td align="center"><b>miras</b></td> <td align="center"><b>ĉu</b></td> <td align="center"><b>mi</b></td> <td align="center"><b>aŭdas</b></td> <td align="left" nowrap>, <i>he wonders whether I hear.</i></td></tr> + <tr><td align="center"><b>"</b></td> <td align="center"><b>miris</b></td> <td align="center"><b>"</b></td> <td align="center"><b>"</b></td> <td align="center"><b>"</b></td> <td align="left" nowrap>, <i>he wondered whether I heard.</i></td></tr> + <tr><td align="center"><b>"</b></td> <td align="center"><b>miros</b></td> <td align="center"><b>"</b></td> <td align="center"><b>"</b></td> <td align="center"><b>"</b></td> <td align="left" nowrap>, <i>he will wonder whether I hear.</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<table class="novmargins"> + <tr><td nowrap><b>Mi opiniis ke ĝi estas bona</b>,</td><td nowrap><i>I thought that it was good</i> (I thought "<i>it is good</i>").</td></tr> +</table> + +<table class="novmargins"> + <tr><td nowrap><b>Oni miris ĉu li venos</b>,</td><td nowrap><i>they wondered whether he would come</i> (they wondered "<i>will he come?</i>").</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="footnote"> +An indirect question is introduced by <b>ĉu</b>, whether, after +verbs meaning "ask," "wonder," "know," etc.: Mi miras ĉu li +venis, <i>I wonder whether he came.</i> Oni demandas ĉu li estas +riĉa, <i>people ask whether he is rich.</i> +</p> + +<center>FORMATION OF FEMININE NOUNS.</center> + +<p> +<b>59.</b> Feminine nouns corresponding to distinctly masculine nouns +such as <b>frato</b>, <b>knabo</b>, <b>viro</b>, may be formed from +these by inserting the suffix <b>-in-</b> just before the noun-ending +<b>-o:</b> +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>fratino</b>, <i>sister</i> (from frato, <i>brother</i>).<br> + <b>knabino</b>, <i>girl</i> (from knabo, <i>boy</i>). + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>patrino</b>, <i>mother</i> (from patro, <i>father</i>).<br> + <b>virino</b>, <i>woman</i> (from viro, <i>man</i>). + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<p class="footnote"> +<i>Cf.</i> English names similarly formed from masculine names, +as <i>Pauline, Josephine, Ernestine, Geraldine,</i> etc., also +German <i>Königin</i>, queen, from <i>König</i>, king; +<i>Löwin</i>, lioness, from <i>Löwe</i>, lion, etc. +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>almenaŭ</b>, <i>at least.</i><br> + <b>ĉapelo</b>, <i>hat.</i><br> + <b>ĉielo</b>, <i>sky, heaven.</i><br> + <b>filo</b>, <i>son.</i><br> + <b>konstrui</b>, <i>to build.</i><br> + <b>miri</b>, <i>to wonder.</i><br> + <b>morgaŭ</b>, <i>tomorrow.</i><br> + <b>nubo</b>, <i>cloud.</i><br> + <b>ombrelo</b>, <i>umbrella.</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>paroli</b>, <i>to talk, to speak.</i><br> + <b>parko</b>, <i>park.</i><br> + <b>preskaŭ</b>, <i>almost.</i><br> + <b>pri</b>, <i>concerning, about.</i><br> + <b>promeni</b>, <i>to take a walk.</i><br> + <b>super</b>, <i>above.</i><br> + <b>timi</b>, <i>to fear, to be afraid (of).</i><br> + <b>tiu</b>, <i>that (56).</i><br> + <b>zorga</b>, <i>careful.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + + +<center><b>EN LA PARKO.</b></center> + +<p> +Miaj junaj amiko kaj amikino, kaj ankaŭ ilia patrino, iris +hieraŭ al la parko. La infanoj diris al la patrino ke la parko +estas agrabla, kaj ke ili volas promeni en ĝi. La knabino parolis +al sia frato pri la belaj floroj. Ŝi diris al li ke la floroj +velkas, kaj ke la herbo en preskaŭ la tuta parko bezonas pluvon. +La knabo diris hodiaŭ al mi ke hieraŭ li kaj lia fratino +aŭdis la birdojn en la arboj super siaj kapoj. Li diris ke li +miris pri tiuj birdoj, tamen li opinias ke la birdoj baldaŭ +konstruos siajn nestojn en tiuj arboj. La infanoj promenis, kaj +baldaŭ ili vidis ke grizaj nuboj venas sur la ĉielon, kaj +mia juna amikino timis ke pluvos. Ŝi parolis al la patrino pri la +nuboj kaj la pluvo, montris al ŝi la grizajn nubojn, kaj diris +ke si volas iri al la domo. Ili komencis marŝi al la strato, kaj +preskaŭ kuris, ĉar ili ne havis ombrelon. Tra la fenestroj +de la domoj oni rigardis ilin, kaj la knabo miris ĉu li kaj +liaj patrino kaj fratino amuzas tiujn virojn kaj virinojn. Tamen la +patrino diris ke ŝi ne timas ke ŝi amuzos tiujn, sed ke +ŝi timas la pluvon. Ŝi kaj la filino volas esti zorgaj pri +almenaŭ la novaj ĉapeloj. La filo diris al ŝi ke li +ankaŭ estas zorga, sed ke li opinias ke ne pluvos. Baldaŭ +la patro venis al ili, kaj portis ombrelojn, ĉar li ankaŭ +timis la pluvon. Li miris ĉu la infanoj kaj ilia patrino havas +ombrelojn. Baldaŭ pluvis, sed ili estis sekaj, ĉar ili havis +la ombrelojn. Morgaŭ ili ne promenos en la parko, sed iros al la +urbo. +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. The east wind is dry and the south wind will be too warm. 2. A +west wind blew against the weathercock, but the grain needed a south +wind. 3 A north wind is blowing and I think that it will soon snow. 4. +It (51) will be beautiful weather tomorrow, because a pleasant wind +is now blowing. 5. The flowers will wither because those children +gathered them. 6. They are talking about that park, but I do not wish to +take-a-walk, because there are clouds in (on) the sky. 7. At least we +shall take an umbrella, and my brother will hold it over our heads. 8. +My sister said "Mother and I are-afraid that it will rain." 9. My young +sister will be careful about that new umbrella. 10. I wonder whether +she will take-a-walk tomorrow. 11. That park is pleasant and the grass +is soft and green. 12. The birds are building their nests now, in those +branches above our heads. 13. The sky above us is blue, and a west wind +is beginning to blow. 14. I can see that weathercock, on that large +house near the park. 15. Mother says that my sister will have a new hat +tomorrow. 16. She will be careful of (about) that hat. 17. My father's +friend is very careful of his son. 18. One sees that he is not a strong +boy. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XIV.</b></center> + +<center>THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN <b>ĈI TIU</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>60.</b> The demonstrative pronoun (and pronominal adjective) meaning +"this" is formed by using with <b>tiu</b> (56) the word <b>ĉi</b>, +which expresses the general idea of nearness or proximity. (Consequently +the literal meaning of <b>ĉi tiu</b> is <i>that one nearby</i>, +<i>that one here</i>.) The word <b>ĉi</b> may either precede or +follow the pronoun: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Ĉi tiu estas la mia</b>, <i>this is mine</i>.<br> +<b>Mi vidis ĉi tiun</b>, <i>I saw this one</i>.<br> +<b>Ĉu vi volas tiujn ĉi?</b> <i>Do you wish these?</i><br> +<b>Ĉi tiu knabino estas mia fratino</b>, <i>this girl is my sister</i>.<br> +<b>Mi vidis ĉi tiujn ĉapelojn</b>, <i>I saw these hats</i>.<br> +<b>Ĉi tiuj amikoj promenos</b>, <i>these friends will take a walk</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>61.</b> The words <b>tiu</b> and <b>ĉi tiu</b> may be used to +distinguish between persons or things <i>previously</i> mentioned and +<i>just</i> mentioned: +</p> + +<p class="leftjustified1"> +<b>Gertrude kaj Mario estas en la parko. Tiu rigardas la florojn, ĉi tiu kolektas ilin.</b><br> +<i>Gertrude and Mary are in the park. The former (that one) looks at the flowers, the latter (this one) gathers them.</i> +</p> + +<center>POSSESSIVE FORM OF THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN.</center> + +<p> +<b>62.</b> To express possession, the demonstrative pronouns <b>tiu</b> +and <b>ĉi tiu</b> have the special possessive or genitive forms +<b>ties</b>, <i>that one's</i>, and <b>ĉi ties</b>, <i>this +one's</i>. The use of <b>ties</b> and <b>ĉi ties</b> to mean +"the former" and "the latter" is similar to the use of <b>tiu</b> and +<b>ĉi tiu</b> shown in 61: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Mi iris al ties domo</b>, <i>I went to that one's house</i>.<br> +<b>Ĉi ties filoj estas junaj</b>, <i>this person's (this one's) sons are young</i>.<br> +<b>Mi ŝatas ties koloron, sed preferas ĉi tiun floron</b>, <i>I like that one's color, but prefer this flower</i>.<br> +<b>La patro kaj lia amiko parolas pri siaj domoj. Ties estas nova, sed ĉi ties ŝajnas bela</b>, <i>Father and his friend are talking about their houses. The former's is new, but the latter's seems beautiful</i>. +</p> + +<center>THE SUFFIX <b>-IL-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>63.</b> Names of instruments, tools or utensils may be formed by +adding the suffix <b>-il-</b> (followed by the ending <b>-o</b>) to +roots whose meaning permits: +</p> + +<p> +<b>flugilo</b>, <i>wing</i> (from <b>flugi</b>, <i>to fly</i>).<br> +<b>kaptilo</b>, <i>snare, trap</i> (from <b>kapti</b>, <i>to catch</i>).<br> +<b>kudrilo</b>, <i>needle</i> (from <b>kudri</b>, <i>to sew</i>).<br> +<b>montrilo</b>, <i>indicator, (clock) hand</i> (from <b>montri</b>, <i>to point out, show</i>).<br> +<b>tenilo</b>, <i>handle</i> (from <b>teni</b>, <i>to hold</i>). +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +The root of a word is that part of it which contains the essential +meaning, and to which the verb endings <b>-i</b>, <b>-as</b>, +<b>-is</b>, <b>-os</b>, the noun ending <b>-o</b>, the adjective +ending <b>-a</b>, etc., are attached, when no suffix intervenes. Thus, +<b>vir-</b> is the root of <b>viro</b> and of <b>virino</b>; <b>kur-</b> +is the root of <b>kuri</b>, etc. +</p> + +<center>THE EXPRESSION OF MEANS OR INSTRUMENTALITY.</center> + +<p> +<b>64.</b> The means or instrumentality through which an act is +accomplished is expressed by use of the preposition <b>per</b>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Oni kudras per kudrilo</b>, <i>one sews by means of (with) a needle</i>.<br> +<b>La birdoj flugas per flugiloj</b>, <i>the birds fly by (with) wings</i>.<br> +<b>Li amuzas sin per tiuj bildoj</b>, <i>he amuses himself with (by) those pictures</i>.<br> +<b>Mi trovis ĝin per via helpo</b>, <i>I found it by (through) your help</i>. +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>akra</b>, <i>sharp</i>.<br> + <b>buŝo</b>, <i>mouth</i>.<br> + <b>dekstra</b>, <i>right (not left)</i>.<br> + <b>ĉi</b> (see 60).<br> + <b>forko</b>, <i>fork</i>.<br> + <b>helpo</b>, <i>help</i>.<br> + <b>kafo</b>, <i>coffee</i>.<br> + <b>kulero</b>, <i>spoon</i>.<br> + <b>mano</b>, <i>hand</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>najbaro</b>, <i>neighbour</i>.<br> + <b>per</b>, <i>by means of</i> (64).<br> + <b>supo</b>, <i>soup</i>.<br> + <b>telero</b>, <i>plate</i>.<br> + <b>terpomo</b>, <i>potato</i>.<br> + <b>ties</b>, <i>that one's</i> (62).<br> + <b>tranĉi</b>, <i>to cut</i>.<br> + <b>tre</b>, <i>very, exceedingly</i>.<br> + <b>viando</b>, <i>meat</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center><b>LA MANĜO.</b></center> + +<p> +Hieraŭ mi miris ĉu mi havos bonan manĝon en la domo de +mia amiko. Sed mi opiniis ke mi havos tre bonan manĝon, ĉar +mia amiko ŝatas doni bonajn manĝojn al siaj amikoj. Oni metis +tre bonan supon antaŭ mi, kaj mi manĝis tiun per granda +kulero. Post la supo mi havis viandon. Ĉi tiun mi tenis per forko, +kaj tranĉis per akra tranĉilo. La forko, tranĉilo kaj +kulero estas manĝiloj. Mi havis ne nur viandon, sed ankaŭ +novajn terpomojn. Mi tranĉis tiujn ĉi per la tranĉilo, +sed mi metis ilin en la buŝon per forko. Mi tenis la forkon en +la dekstra mano, kaj metis la tranĉilon trans mian teleron. Oni +bezonas akran tranĉilon, sed oni ne bezonas tre akran forkon. +Post la viando kaj la terpomoj, oni donis al mi freŝajn maturajn +ĉerizojn. Ili kuŝis sur granda telero, kaj havis belan +koloron. Ilia gusto estis ankaŭ bona. Mi preskaŭ ne diris +ke mi ankaŭ havis kafon. Mi parolos morgaŭ al mia amiko pri +lia kafo, kaj laŭdos ĝin. Post la manĝo, najbaro de mia +amiko venis en ĉi ties domon, kaj ili parolis al mi pri siaj novaj +domoj. Per la helpo de sia patro, mia amiko konstruos grandan domon. Lia +najbaro volas konstrui belan sed ne tre grandan domon. Ties nova domo +estos bela, sed mi opinias ke mi preferos ĉi ties domon. Mia amiko +volis doni almenaŭ kafon al sia najbaro, sed li diris ke li ne +volas trinki kafon. Tamen li volis persikon. Li tenis tiun en la mano, +kaj manĝis tiun. +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. The birds have very strong wings on their bodies, but they do not +have hands. 2. They will build their nests, and sing about the young +birds. 3. Those children were talking to me yesterday about their cat. +4. They said that it likes to catch and eat sparrows. 5. Tomorrow it +will hide (itself) behind a tree, and will catch a young sparrow. 6. The +children will gather peaches in that-person's garden, and will put them +upon a plate. 7. They will shake the whole tree by means of a branch. 8. +The sweet fruit above them will fall upon the soft green grass. 9. The +children wondered whether the cherries were ripe. 10. They seem almost +ripe, and tomorrow the children will pick (gather) them, with the help +of their father. 11. It is said (54) that the grain in that-man's field +very [much] needs rain. 12. People also think that the flowers will +wither, for (because) it did not rain yesterday or today. 13. My careful +young friend will carry an umbrella in his hand tomorrow, because he +fears the rain. 14. He sees those gray clouds in (on) the sky. 15. He +holds the umbrella by its handle. 16. The weathercock is an indicator +concerning the weather. 17. One eats meat with a fork, and soup with a +spoon. 18. One holds the spoon in the right hand. 19. A knife is sharp, +but one does not need a sharp fork. 20. We shall have a very good meal, +and also very good coffee. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XV.</b></center> + +<center>THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVE.</center> + +<p> +<b>65.</b> The demonstrative adjective related to the demonstrative +pronoun <b>tiu</b> (56) is <b>tia</b>, <i>that kind of, that sort of, +such:</i> +</p> + +<p> +<b>Tia floro estas bela</b>, <i>that kind of a flower is beautiful.</i><br> +<b>Mi ŝatas tian viandon</b>, <i>I like that sort of meat.</i><br> +<b>Tiaj najbaroj estas agrablaj</b>, <i>such (that kind of) neighbors are pleasant.</i><br> +<b>Mi volas aŭdi tiajn birdojn</b>, <i>I wish to hear such birds.</i> +</p> + +<center>ADVERBS DEFINED AND CLASSIFIED.</center> + +<p> +<b>66.</b> An adverb is a word which modifies the meaning of a verb, +adjective, another adverb, or phrase. It may express manner, time, +degree, negation, etc. Adverbs are either primary, as "now," "almost," +or derived, as "glad-ly," "sweet-ly," The Esperanto primary adverbs +given in this and in preceding lessons may be classified as follows: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr><td nowrap colspan="2" align="center">(<i>a</i>) Temporal Adverbs (expressing time).</td></tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>baldaŭ</b>, <i>soon</i>.<br> + <b>hieraŭ</b>, <i>yesterday</i>.<br> + <b>hodiaŭ</b>, <i>today</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>morgaŭ</b>, <i>tomorrow</i>.<br> + <b>nun</b>, <i>now</i>.<br> + <b>tuj</b>, <i>immediately</i>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr><td nowrap colspan="2" align="center">(<i>b</i>) Adverbs of Degree.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>almenaŭ</b>, <i>at least</i>.<br> + <b>nur</b>, <i>merely</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>preskaŭ</b>, <i>almost</i>.<br> + <b>tre</b>, <i>very, much</i>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr><td nowrap colspan="2" align="center">(<i>c</i>) Adverbs Expressing Other Ideas.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + addition: <b>ankaŭ</b>, <i>also</i>.<br> + interrogation: <b>ĉu</b>, (<b>30</b>).<br> + proximity: <b>ĉi</b>, (<b>60</b>). + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + emphasis: <b>eĉ</b>, <i>even</i>.<br> + affirmation: <b>jes</b>, <i>yes</i>.<br> + negation: <b>ne</b>, <i>not, no</i>, (<b>27</b>). + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<p> +<b>a.</b> An adverb usually precedes, but may also follow, the word +or words which it modifies. It must be so placed as to leave no doubt +about which of two words or word-groups it is intended to modify. Thus, +<b>mi preskaŭ volis havi tiun</b> clearly means <i>I almost wished +to have that</i>; but <b>mi volis preskaŭ havi tiun</b> might +mean either "I <i>almost wished</i> to have that," or more probably +"I wished <i>almost to have</i> that." An example of permissible +variation in the position of adverbs is shown in questions to which +an affirmative answer is expected. Such questions may be put in the +form of a statement, followed by <b>ĉu ne</b> (instead of having +<b>ĉu</b> introduce the sentence, with <b>ne</b> in its normal +position): +</p> + +<p> +<b>Li venos, ĉu ne?</b> <i>He will come, will he not?</i><br> +<b>La vetero estas bela, ĉu ne?</b> <i>The weather is beautiful, is it not?</i><br> +<b>Vi aŭdis tiun diron, ĉu ne?</b> <i>You heard that remark, did you not?</i> +</p> + +<center>FORMATION OF OPPOSITES.</center> + +<p> +<b>67.</b> If the meaning of a word is such that it can have a direct +opposite, such opposite may be formed from it by use of the prefix +<b>mal-</b>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>malalta</b>, <i>low, short</i> (from <b>alta</b>, <i>high, tall</i>).<br> +<b>malamiko</b>, <i>enemy</i> (from <b>amiko</b>, <i>friend</i>).<br> +<b>maldekstra</b>, <i>left</i> (from <b>dekstra</b>, <i>right</i>).<br> +<b>malhelpi</b>, <i>to hinder</i> (from <b>helpi</b>, <i>to help</i>).<br> +<b>maljuna</b>, <i>aged, old</i> (from <b>juna</b>, <i>young</i>).<br> +<b>malnova</b>, <i>old, not new</i> (from <b>nova</b>, <i>new</i>). +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<i>Cf.</i> English <i>malcontent</i>, "discontented," <i>maladroit</i>, +"clumsy." +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>dum</b>, <i>during</i>.<br> + <b>eĉ</b>, <i>even</i>.<br> + <b>gardi</b>, <i>to guard</i>.<br> + <b>helpi</b>, <i>to help, to aid</i>.<br> + <b>honti</b>, <i>to be ashamed</i>.<br> + <b>kara</b>, <i>dear</i>.<br> + <b>kontenta</b>, <i>satisfied</i>.<br> + <b>kuraĝa</b>, <i>courageous</i>.<br> + <b>nokto</b>, <i>night</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>povi</b>, <i>to be able</i>.<br> + <b>preni</b>, <i>to take</i>.<br> + <b>propono</b>, <i>proposal</i>.<br> + <b>respondi</b>, <i>to answer</i>.<br> + <b>ruza</b>, <i>sly, cunning</i>.<br> + <b>ŝteli</b>, <i>to steal</i>.<br> + <b>tia</b>, <i>that kind of</i> (65).<br> + <b>tuj</b>, <i>immediately</i>.<br> + <b>voĉo</b>, <i>voice</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center><b>LA RUZA JUNA VIRO.</b></center> + +<p> +Ruza juna viro kaj bona maljuna viro iris trans dezerton. Tiu havis +nigran ĉevalon, ĉi tiu havis blankan ĉevalon. "Vi gardos +niajn ĉevalojn dum la nokto, ĉu ne?" diris la juna viro per +dolĉa voĉo al sia amiko, "Ĉar dum la nokto oni ne povos +vidi mian nigran ĉevalon, sed malamikoj povos tuj vidi vian blankan +ĉevalon. Oni povos ŝteli tian ĉevalon, ĉar vi estas +maljuna kaj malforta, kaj ne povos malhelpi malamikojn." Tia propono +ne ŝajnis agrabla al la maljuna viro. Li ne estis kontenta, tamen +li ne volis perdi sian ĉevalon, ĉar li estis malriĉa. +Li diris al si ke li donos sian blankan ĉevalon al la juna viro, +kaj prenos ties nigran ĉevalon. Tuj li diris al ĉi tiu "Sed +per via helpo mi ne perdos mian ĉevalon: mi donos la mian al vi, +kaj prenos vian ĉevalon. La via estas malbela, sed ĝi estas +almenaŭ nigra; vi donos ĝin al mi, ĉu ne?" "Jes," +respondis la ruza juna viro, kaj li donis sian nigran ĉevalon al +tiu, kaj prenis la blankan ĉevalon. "Nun," diris la maljuna viro, +"Vi estas kuraĝa kaj forta, kaj vi gardos la ĉevalojn, ĉu +ne? Vi povos malhelpi malamikojn per tiu granda akra tranĉilo, kaj +oni ne povos ŝteli vian blankan ĉevalon." La ruza juna viro +ne hontis. Li respondis "Mia kara amiko, mi nun dormos, ĉar oni +ne ŝtelos blankan ĉevalon. Mi povos vidi tian ĉevalon +dum la nokto, kaj malhelpi malamikojn. Sed tiu ĉevalo via (<i>that +horse of yours</i>) havas la koloron de la nokto, kaj eĉ nun oni +povas ŝteli ĝin." La malkontenta maljuna viro diris per kolera +voĉo "Ĉu vi ne hontas pri tia propono?" Tamen la ruza juna +viro tuj komencis dormi, kaj la maljuna viro gardis la ĉevalojn dum +la tuta nokto. +</p> + +<center> + <b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b><br> + (Words to be formed with the prefix mal- are italicised.) +</center> + +<p> +1. Does one eat potatoes and meat with a fork or a spoon? 2. One puts +soup into the mouth by means of a spoon. 3. One cuts fruit with a knife, +and puts the fruit upon a plate. 4. The coffee was <i>cold</i>, and I +was much <i>dissatisfied</i>. 5. My knife was <i>dull</i>, nevertheless +I almost immediately cut my (the) <i>left</i> hand. 6. I was ashamed, +but I think that the handle of that knife was very <i>short</i>. 7. +The grass is <i>wet</i> today, and I fear that we shall not be able +to take a walk, even in that <i>small</i> park. 8. I <i>dislike</i> +to go-walking upon the <i>hard</i> streets. 9. The courageous young +man and his <i>aged</i> friend talked about their <i>enemies</i>. 10. +They wished to be careful about their horses. 11. The young man was +very sly, and wished to sleep during the night. 12. He said that one +can steal a black horse during the <i>dark</i> night. 13. He said +that either (<i>aŭ</i>) he or the <i>old</i> man would guard the +horses. 14. The <i>old</i> man answered that he would give to him his +[own] white horse. 15. He took that one's black horse. 16. He was +ashamed, and was very angry at his <i>faithless</i> friend. 17. But he +<i>stayed-awake</i>, and guarded the horses. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XVI.</b></center> + +<center>THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADVERB OF PLACE.</center> + +<p> +<b>68.</b> The demonstrative adverbs of place related to the pronouns +<b>tiu</b> and <b>ĉi tiu</b> are <b>tie</b>, <i>there, in (at) that +place</i>, and <b>ĉi tie</b>, <i>here, in (at) this place</i>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>La telero estas tie</b>, <i>the plate is there (in that place)</i>.<br> +<b>La libroj kuŝas ĉi tie</b>, <i>the books lie here (in this place)</i>.<br> +<b>Mi trovis vin tie kaj lin tie ĉi</b>, <i>I found you there and him here.</i><br> +<b>Tie la vetero ŝajnas tre agrabla</b>, <i>there the weather seems very pleasant.</i> +</p> + +<p> +<b>69.</b> If the verb in the sentence expresses motion toward the place +indicated by <b>tie</b> or <b>ĉi tie</b>, the ending <b>-n</b> is +added to the adverb (46), forming <b>tien</b>, <i>thither, there</i>, +and <b>ĉi tien</b>, <i>hither, here</i>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Li iros tien</b>, <i>he will go there (thither)</i>.<br> +<b>Mi venis ĉi tien</b>, <i>I came here (hither)</i>.<br> +<b>Ni estis tie, kaj venis ĉi tien</b>, <i>we were there and came here +(hither)</i>. +</p> + +<center>ACCOMPANIMENT.</center> + +<p> +<b>70.</b> Accompaniment or association is expressed by the preposition +<b>kun</b>, <i>with, along with</i>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>La viro venis kun sia amiko</b>, <i>the man came with his friend</i>.<br> +<b>Mi promenos kun vi</b>, <i>I shall go walking with you</i>.<br> +<b>La knabo kun tiu viro estas lia frato</b>, <i>the boy with that man is his brother</i>. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<b>Kun</b> must not be confused with <b>per</b> (64), which expresses +instrumentality, although per may often be translated by English +"with." The English preposition "with" may be said to have three rather +clearly defined different meanings. In the linguistic history of this +word, the original meaning was "against," still shown in <i>fight +with, strive with, contend with, withstand</i>, etc. (<i>Cf.</i> +German <i>widerstreiten</i>, to strive with, <i>widerhalten</i>, to +resist, etc.) Gradually this word "with" usurped the meaning of the +original preposition "mid," expressing association or accompaniment +(<i>cf.</i> German <i>mit</i>, "with", which it crowded out of +the language except in one unimportant compound). The word "by" +was also encroaching upon "mid" from another direction, and so +"mid's" successor "with" came to be interchangeable with "by" in +expressing instrumentality. Thus, English "with" indicates opposition, +accompaniment, or instrumentality, for which three senses Esperanto has +the three prepositions <b>kontraŭ</b>, <b>kun</b>, and <b>per</b>, +respectively. +</p> + +<center>THE ADVERB <b>FOR</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>71.</b> The adverb <b>for</b>, <i>away</i>, may be used +independently, as <b>Li iris for de mi</b>, <i>he went away from me</i>, +but it is more frequently used as a prefix to give a sense of departure, +loss or somewhat forcible removal: +</p> + +<p> +<b>foriri</b>, <i>to go away, to depart</i>.<br> +<b>forkuri</b>, <i>to run away, to escape</i>.<br> +<b>forlasi</b>, <i>to leave alone, to abandon, to desert</i>.<br> +<b>formanĝi</b>, <i>to eat away, to eat up</i>.<br> +<b>forpreni</b>, <i>to take away, to remove</i>.<br> +<b>fortrinki</b>, <i>to drink away, to drink up</i>. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<i>Cf</i>. the prefix <i>for-</i> in English "forfend," <i>to keep away, +to avert</i>, "forbid," <i>to exclude from, to command against</i>, +"forbear," <i>to refrain from</i>, etc. +</p> + +<center>THE MEANING OF <b>POVI</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>72.</b> The verb <b>povi</b>, to be able, is used to translate +English <i>can</i>, which is defective, that is, does not occur in all +of the forms a verb may have: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Mi povas paroli</b>, <i>I am able to talk, I can talk.</i><br> +<b>Mi povis paroli</b>, <i>I was able to talk, I could talk.</i><br> +<b>Mi povos paroli</b>, <i>I shall be able to talk,</i> ———.<br> +<b>Mi volas povi paroli</b>, <i>I wish to be able to talk,</i> ———. +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>el</b>, <i>out of, out</i>.<br> + <b>ĉirkaŭ</b>, <i>around, roundabout</i>.<br> + <b>for</b>, <i>away</i> (71).<br> + <b>frua</b>, <i>early</i>.<br> + <b>glavo</b>, <i>sword</i>.<br> + <b>horo</b>, <i>hour</i>.<br> + <b>kun</b>, <i>with</i> (70).<br> + <b>lasi</b>, <i>to leave</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>peli</b>, <i>to drive, to chase</i>.<br> + <b>poŝo</b>, <i>pocket</i>.<br> + <b>rajdi</b>, <i>to ride</i>.<br> + <b>rapidi</b>, <i>to hasten</i>.<br> + <b>resti</b>, <i>to remain, to stay</i>.<br> + <b>saĝa</b>, <i>wise</i>.<br> + <b>tie</b>, <i>there</i> (68).<br> + <b>voki</b>, <i>to call</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center><b>MALAMIKOJ EN LA DEZERTO.</b></center> + +<p> +Juna viro kaj lia saĝa patro volis iri trans la dezerton, kun siaj +amikoj. La amikoj estis fortaj, kaj la juna viro estis tre kuraĝa. +Ili restis en malgranda urbo dum la nokto, kaj forrajdis kun tiuj +amikoj. La patro kaj la filo opiniis ke la amikoj kun ili povos helpi +per siaj akraj glavoj. Ili opiniis ke ili povos forpeli la malamikojn. +Eĉ en la dezerto oni trovas malamikojn. Tiaj malamikoj forprenas +la monon de bonaj viroj. La juna viro estis kontenta, ĉar li +estis kun la amikoj. La maljuna viro estis kontenta ĉar li estis +kun sia filo. Baldaŭ la nokto venis. Estis tre malluma tie en la +dezerto, kaj ili preskaŭ ne povis vidi. Dum la fruaj horoj de la +nokto la patro aŭdis voĉojn, kaj preskaŭ tuj li vidis la +malamikojn. La ruzaj malbonaj viroj rapidis tien, kaj vokis la maljunan +viron. La malkuraĝaj amikoj de la patro kaj filo nek restis tie, +nek helpis forpeli la malamikojn. Ili tuj forkuris. La malamikoj staris +ĉirkaŭ la patro, kaj forpuŝis lin de lia ĉevalo. +La filo volis malhelpi ilin, sed li ne povis. Li povis nur resti kun +la patro, kaj gardi lin tie kontraŭ la glavoj de la malamikoj. +Baldaŭ la malamikoj komencis forpreni la monon el la poŝoj +de la saĝa maljuna viro. La kolera filo diris per maldolĉa +(<i>bitter</i>) voĉo "Ĉu vi ne hontas? Ĉu vi lasos al +ni nek la ĉevalojn nek nian monon?" Sed la malamikoj respondis +"Ne, ni lasos al vi nek la ĉevalojn nek la monon. Ni ne estas +malsaĝaj." Post tiu diro ili tuj forrapidis, kaj prenis kun si la +ĉevalojn. +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. The foolish friends of the young man and his aged father did not +stay with them. 2. They did not help them with their swords, but ran +away at once (<i>tuj</i>), and were not ashamed. 3. The old man heard +disagreeable voices behind him, and soon he saw the enemy. 4. The enemy +called them, and hastened there (69). 5. Those sly bad men took the +money out of the pockets of the courageous young man. 6. They stood +around him, and also around his father. 7. The father and son could not +even guard their horses. 8. The enemy did not leave (to) these their +horses, but took both the horses and the money. 9. Soon the enemy rode +away, during the late hours of the night. 10. The father and son were +angry and dissatisfied. 11. They said "We fear and dislike such men." +12. The father said "By the help of our neighbors we can (<i>povos</i>) +find those bad men, and drive them away, out of the desert." 13. The son +replied, "Dear Father, such a proposal seems good, and I will help with +my long sharp sword. 14. But we are now in the desert, and the road to +the city is long. 15. We cannot ride thither, but we can walk thither. +16. Can you not hasten, with (<i>per</i>) my help?" 17. The wise old man +answered, "Yes, my son, with such help I can walk thither." +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XVII.</b></center> + +<center>THE DEMONSTRATIVE TEMPORAL ADVERB.</center> + +<p> +<b>73.</b> The demonstrative temporal adverb related to the +demonstrative pronoun <b>tiu</b> is <b>tiam</b>, <i>then, at that +time:</i> +</p> + +<p> +<b>Tiam li rajdos al la urbo</b>, <i>then he will ride to the city.</i><br> +<b>Nun ili estas saĝaj, sed tiam ili estis malsaĝaj</b>, <i>now they are wise, but at that time they were foolish.</i> +</p> + +<center>COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.</center> + +<p> +<b>74.</b> An adjective may have three degrees, <i>positive</i>, +<i>comparative</i> and <i>superlative.</i> English has various ways of +forming the comparative and superlative degrees (as by the suffixes +<i>-er, -est,</i> the adverbs <i>more, most,</i> and irregular methods +as in <i>good, better, best,</i> etc.). Esperanto has only one method, +using the adverbs <b>pli</b>, <i>more</i>, and <b>plej</b>, <i>most:</i> +</p> + +<center> + <table border="1" cellpadding="8"> + <tr><td nowrap align="center">Positive.</td><td nowrap align="center">Comparative.</td><td nowrap align="center">Superlative.</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap><b>bela</b>, <i>beautiful</i></td><td nowrap><b>pli bela</b>, <i>more beautiful</i></td><td nowrap><b>plej bela</b>, <i>most beautiful.</i></td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap><b>bona</b>, <i>good</i></td><td nowrap><b>pli bona</b>, <i>better</i></td><td nowrap><b>plej bona</b>, <i>best</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap><b>malbona</b>, <i>bad</i></td><td nowrap><b>pli malbona</b>, <i>worse</i></td><td nowrap><b>plej malbona</b>, <i>worst</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap><b>saĝa</b>, <i>wise</i></td><td nowrap><b>pli saĝa</b>, <i>wiser</i></td><td nowrap><b>plej saĝa</b>, <i>wisest</i>.</td></tr> + </table> +</center> + +<p> +<b>75.</b> The preposition <b>el</b> is used with words expressing the +group or class out of which a superlative is selected and mentioned: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Li estas la plej juna el tiuj</b>, <i>he is the youngest of (out of) those.</i><br> +<b>Vi estas la plej feliĉa el ni</b>, <i>you are the happiest of us.</i><br> +<b>Tiu estis la plej ruza el la viroj</b>, <i>that one was the craftiest of the men.</i> +</p> + +<center>MANNER AND CHARACTERISTIC.</center> + +<p> +<b>76.</b> The actions or feelings which accompany an act or state, or +the characteristic which permanently accompanies a person or thing, may +be expressed by a substantive with the preposition <b>kun</b>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Li prenis ĝin kun la plej granda zorgo</b>, <i>he took it with the greatest care</i>.<br> +<b>Mi aŭdis lin kun intereso kaj plezuro</b>, <i>I heard him with interest and pleasure</i>.<br> +<b>Ŝi estas virino kun bona gusto</b>, <i>she is a woman with (of) good taste</i>.<br> +<b>Mi havas ĉevalon kun forta korpo</b>, <i>I have a horse with a strong body</i>. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +Sometimes the manner of an action may be expressed by the instrument of +it, expressed by the preposition <b>per</b> with a substantive modified +by an adjective: <b>Li kantis per dolĉa voĉo</b>, <i>he sang +with (by means of) a sweet voice</i>. <b>Vi puŝis min per forta +mano</b>, <i>you pushed me with a strong hand</i>. +</p> + +<center><b>DIRI</b>, <b>PAROLI</b> AND <b>RAKONTI</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>77.</b> The verbs <b>diri</b>, <i>to say</i>, <b>paroli</b>, <i>to +talk, to speak</i>, and <b>rakonti</b>, <i>to relate</i>, having in +common the general idea of speech or expression, must not be confused in +use: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Mi diris al vi ke pluvas</b>, <i>I said to (told) you that it was raining</i>.<br> +<b>Mi diris ĝin al vi</b>, <i>I said it to you (I told you)</i>.<br> +<b>Mi parolis al vi pri ĝi</b>, <i>I talked (spoke) to you about it</i>.<br> +<b>Mi rakontis ĝin al vi</b>, <i>I related (told) it to you</i>. +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>ami</b>, <i>to love</i>.<br> + <b>ekster</b>, <i>outside (of)</i>.<br> + <b>Frederiko</b>, <i>Frederick</i>.<br> + <b>gratuli</b>, <i>to congratulate</i>.<br> + <b>intereso</b>, <i>interest</i>.<br> + <b>letero</b>, <i>letter</i>.<br> + <b>plej</b>, <i>most</i> (<b>74</b>).<br> + <b>plezuro</b>, <i>pleasure</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>pli</b>, <i>more</i> (<b>74</b>).<br> + <b>plumo</b>, <i>pen</i>.<br> + <b>rakonti</b>, <i>to relate</i> (<b>77</b>).<br> + <b>reĝo</b>, <i>king</i>.<br> + <b>servisto</b>, <i>servant</i>.<br> + <b>skribi</b>, <i>to write</i>.<br> + <b>tiam</b>, <i>then</i> (<b>73</b>).<br> + <b>zorgo</b>, <i>care</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center><b>FREDERIKO GRANDA KAJ LA JUNA SERVISTO.</b></center> + +<p> +Hieraŭ mi legis interesan libron pri Frederiko Granda (<i>the +Great</i>). En ĝi oni rakontas ke la reĝo kun plezuro legis +aŭ skribis per sia plumo, dum malfruaj horoj de la nokto. Agrabla +juna knabo, la plej juna el la servistoj, tiam restis ekster la pordo. +Ĉar la reĝo legis plej interesan novan libron, li ne opiniis +ke la horo estas malfrua. Li vokis sian malgrandan serviston, sed la +knabo, nek venis nek respondis. La reĝo iris tien, kaj trovis +la knabon ekster la pordo. Li vidis ke la knabo dormas sur malalta +seĝo. Tiam Frederiko Granda ne estis kolera, sed hontis ĉar li +vokis la infanon. La reĝo Frederiko vidis leteron en la poŝo +de la knabo. Tuj li prenis la leteron el lia poŝo, kaj rigardis +ĝin. Ĝi estis letero al la servisto, de lia patrino. Ŝi ne +estis riĉa virino, ŝi ŝajnis esti tre malriĉa. En +ĉi tiu letero la patrino diris per la plumo ke ŝi amas la +filon. Ŝi dankis lin ĉar li skribis al ŝi longan leteron. +Ŝi ankaŭ dankis lin ĉar li donis al ŝi monon. La +reĝo volis esti tre bona al tia filo. Kun la plej granda zorgo li +metis monon el sia poŝo kun la letero kaj tiam lasis la leteron en +ties poŝo. Tiam li formarŝis al sia ĉambro, kaj vokis la +malgrandan serviston. La knabo tuj aŭdis, kaj rapidis tra la pordo. +Li kuris trans la ĉambron, kaj staris antaŭ la reĝo. "Ĉu +vi dormis?" diris Frederiko Granda. "Jes, mi timas ke mi preskaŭ +dormis," respondis la knabo, "kaj mi tre hontas." Tiam li metis la manon +en la poŝon, kaj trovis la monon. Li ŝajnis pli malfeliĉa +kaj diris kun granda timo "Malamiko metis ĉi tiun monon en mian +poŝon! Oni opinios ke mi ŝtelis ĝin! Oni malamos min, +kaj forpelos min!" Frederiko respondis, "Ne, mi donis ĝin al vi, +ĉar mi amas bonajn knabojn. Mi gratulas vian patrinon, ĉar +ŝi havas tian filon." +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. An interesting story is related (54) about Frederick the Great. 2. +His youngest servant stayed outside of the door. 3. The king called him, +and he hastened thither and stood before him. 4. Yesterday he did not +hear the king. 5. The king called him, but he did not answer. 6. The +king thought that the boy had gone away with the older servants, and he +was angry. 7. He left his book on the table, and went to the door. 8. +Then he saw that the little boy was sleeping there. 9. He looked at him +with greater interest, and saw a letter in his pocket. 10. The letter +was from the boy's mother. 11. He had written a letter to her, with his +pen, and had given (to) her money, because she was poor. 12. He wrote +longer letters with pleasure, because he was a most faithful son. 13. +The king congratulated the mother of the boy, concerning such a son. 14. +(The) king Frederick wished to be kinder (<i>pli bona</i>) to the boy. +15. He placed his book upon the table, near his sword, and talked to the +little servant. 16. Then the older servants came, and stood around the +king. 17. They walked with great care, and the younger servant did not +hear them. 18. They loved the little boy, and wished to help him. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XVIII.</b></center> + +<center>THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADVERB OF MOTIVE OR REASON.</center> + +<p> +<b>78.</b> The demonstrative adverb of motive or reason, related to the +demonstrative pronoun <b>tiu</b>, is <b>tial</b>, <i>therefore</i>, +<i>for that reason</i>, <i>so</i>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Tial la servisto foriris</b>, <i>therefore the servant went away</i>.<br> +<b>Tial mi gratulis lin</b>, <i>for that reason I congratulated him</i>.<br> +<b>Tial oni forpelis lin</b>, <i>so they drove him away</i>. +</p> + +<center>DERIVATION OF ADVERBS.</center> + +<p> +<b>79.</b> Adverbs may be derived from roots whose meaning permits, +by addition of the adverb-ending <b>-e</b>, as <b>feliĉe</b>, +<i>happily</i>, <b>kolere</b>, <i>angrily</i>. The comparison of adverbs +is similar to that of adjectives: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="1" cellpadding="8"> + <tr><td nowrap align="center">Positive.</td><td nowrap align="center">Comparative.</td><td nowrap align="center">Superlative.</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap><b>saĝe</b>, <i>wisely</i></td><td nowrap><b>pli saĝe</b>, <i>more wisely</i></td><td nowrap><b>plej saĝe</b>, <i>most wisely</i></td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap><b>bone</b>, <i>well</i></td><td nowrap><b>pli bone</b>, <i>better</i></td><td nowrap><b>plej bone</b>, <i>best</i></td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap><b>malbone</b>, <i>badly</i></td><td nowrap><b>pli malbone</b>, <i>worse</i></td><td nowrap><b>plej malbone</b>, <i>worst</i></td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap><b>ruze</b>, <i>slyly</i></td><td nowrap><b>pli ruze</b>, <i>more slyly</i></td><td nowrap><b>plej ruze</b>, <i>most slyly</i></td></tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center><b>MALPLI</b> AND <b>MALPLEJ</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>80.</b> The opposites (67) of <b>pli</b> and <b>plej</b> are +<b>malpli</b>, <i>less</i>, and <b>malplej</b>, <i>least</i>. Their use +is similar to that of <b>pli</b> and <b>plej</b>. (These adverbs may +also modify verbs): +</p> + +<p> +<b>Li estas malpli kuraĝa</b>, <i>he is less courageous</i>.<br> +<b>Tiuj estis malplej akraj</b>, <i>those were least sharp</i>.<br> +<b>La vento blovis malpli forte</b>, <i>the wind blew less strongly</i>.<br> +<b>Li skribis malplej zorge</b>, <i>he wrote least carefully</i>.<br> +<b>Mi malpli timas ilin</b>, <i>I fear them less</i>.<br> +<b>Vi malplej bezonos helpon</b>, <i>you will need help least</i>. +</p> + +<center>COMPARISON OF WORDS EXPRESSING QUANTITY.</center> + +<p> +<b>81.</b> Since in their precise sense the words <b>pli</b>, +<b>malpli</b>, <b>plej</b>, <b>malplej</b>, express <i>degree</i>, a +<i>quantitative</i> meaning is given by <b>multe</b>, <i>much</i>, in +the desired degree of comparison: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="1" cellpadding="8"> + <tr><td nowrap>multe, much</td><td nowrap>pli multe, more (in amount)</td><td nowrap>plej multe, most</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap> </td><td nowrap>malpli multe, less "</td><td nowrap>malplej multe, least</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap>malmulte, little</td><td nowrap>pli malmulte, less "</td><td nowrap>plej malmulte, least</td></tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center>COMPARISONS CONTAINING <b>OL</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>82.</b> In a comparison made by the use of <b>pli</b> or +<b>malpli</b>, the case used after <b>ol</b>, <i>than</i>, must indicate +clearly the sense intended: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Mi amas ilin pli multe ol ŝin</b>, <i>I love them more than</i> (I love) <i>her</i>.<br> +<b>Mi amas ilin pli multe ol ŝi</b>, <i>I love them more than she</i> (loves them).<br> +<b>Vi helpis la viron malpli multe ol la knabo</b>, <i>you helped the man less than the boy</i> (helped him).<br> +<b>Vi helpis la viron malpli multe ol la knabon</b>, <i>you helped the man less than</i> (you helped) <i>the boy</i>. +</p> + +<center>CAUSAL CLAUSES.</center> + +<p> +<b>83.</b> A clause giving a cause or reason is introduced by +<b>ĉar</b>, <i>because, for</i>, or by the combination <b>tial +ke</b>, <i>for this reason that, because, for</i>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Mi venis frue, ĉar mi volis vidi vin</b>, <i>I came early, for I wished to see you</i>.<br> +<b>La floroj velkis tial, ke ne pluvis</b>, <i>the flowers wilted for this reason, that it did not rain</i>. +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>anstataŭ</b>, <i>instead of</i>.<br> + <b>aprilo</b>, <i>April</i>.<br> + <b>aŭgusto</b>, <i>August</i>.<br> + <b>jaro</b>, <i>year</i>.<br> + <b>junio</b>, <i>June</i>.<br> + <b>julio</b>, <i>July</i>.<br> + <b>majo</b>, <i>May</i>.<br> + <b>marto</b>, <i>March</i>.<br> + <b>monato</b>, <i>month</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>multa</b>, <i>much</i> (<b>multaj</b>, <i>many</i>).<br> + <b>ofta</b>, <i>frequent</i> (<b>ofte</b>, <i>often</i>).<br> + <b>ol</b>, <i>than</i> (<b>82</b>).<br> + <b>printempo</b>, <i>spring</i> (season).<br> + <b>tago</b>, <i>day</i>.<br> + <b>sezono</b>, <i>season</i>.<br> + <b>somero</b>, <i>summer</i>.<br> + <b>tial</b>, <i>therefore</i> (<b>78</b>).<br> + <b>vintro</b>, <i>winter</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center><b>PRI LA SEZONOJ.</b></center> + +<p> +La vintro estas la malplej agrabla sezono el la tuta jaro. Neĝas +tre multe, kaj tial oni nur malofte promenas, ĉar la stratoj +estas tro malsekaj. Oni marŝas kun granda zorgo, kaj malrapide +(<i>slowly</i>), tial ke oni ne volas fali kaj preskaŭ rompi la +kolon. Oni zorge gardas sin tiam kontraŭ la malvarmaj nordaj +ventoj. La manojn oni metas en la poŝojn, sed la vizaĝon oni +ne povas bone gardi. Mi ne ŝatas resti ekster la domo dum tia +vetero. Mi multe preferas sidi en varma luma ĉambro, kaj skribi +leterojn per bona plumo. La monatoj de la printempo estas marto, aprilo +kaj majo. La bela printempo ŝajnas pli agrabla ol la vintro. +Ĝiaj tagoj estas pli longaj kaj pli varmaj, ĝiaj ventoj blovas +malpli forte. En ĉi tiu sezono la kampoj kaj arboj frue komencas +montri plej belajn kolorojn. La birdoj konstruas siajn nestojn, kaj +dolĉe kantas. Oni povas promeni sur la mola herbo, anstataŭ +sur malsekaj malagrablaj stratoj. Pluvas pli multe en aprilo, tamen +post la pluvo la herbo ŝajnas pli verda, kaj la nuboj baldaŭ +forflugas de la blua ĉielo. Dum majo oni trovas violojn, kaj en +junio oni vidas tre multajn rozojn. Sed la plej agrabla el la sezonoj +estas la somero. Anstataŭ malvarmaj ventoj la somero havas la plej +belan veteron, kun suda aŭ okcidenta ventoj. La longaj tagoj estas +varmaj, sed la noktoj estas tute agrablaj. Tiam oni havas pli bonajn +fruktojn ol dum la printempo. La monatoj de la somero estas junio, julio +kaj aŭgusto. Mi plej ŝatas junion. Ĉu vi ŝatas ĝin +pli multe ol mi? Ĉu vi ŝatas aŭguston pli multe ol +julion? +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. I read a most interesting book about Frederick the Great. 2. It +relates that he often stayed-awake and read with great interest during +the later hours of the night. 3. His youngest servant was a small boy. +4. The king loved this boy more than [he loved] the older servants. 5. +The winter is a less pleasant season than the spring, but the summer is +more pleasant than that [season]. 6. During March the east winds blow +most strongly, and shake the trees very much. 7. In April one needs his +umbrella, for (the reason that) there are often clouds in the sky and +it rains a great deal (very much). 8. The streets are very wet, but the +water does not seem to wash them. 9. In May one begins to find sweet +violets, and the birds in the trees above our heads sing very sweetly. +10. In June the most beautiful roses are seen (54). 11. July and August +are the warmest months of the whole year. 12. The days are longer than +the nights, and the weathercock shows west and south winds, instead of +those disagreeable north and east winds. 13. One stays outside [of] the +house then with greater pleasure, and goes walking in the parks. 14. +I think that I like the summer better than you [do]. 15. Therefore I +praise the summer more than you [do]. 16. However, I praise you more +than [I praise] your younger brother. 17. He is less wise than you. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XIX.</b></center> + +<center><b>JU</b> AND <b>DES</b> IN COMPARISONS.</center> + +<p> +<b>84.</b> In clauses expressing a comparison between two objects, acts +or states, the adverbial use of English "the ... the ..." (meaning "by +how much ... by that much ...") is rendered by the adverbs <b>ju</b> and +<b>des</b>, respectively: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Ju pli bona li estas, des pli feliĉa li estos</b>, <i>the better he is, the happier he will be.</i><br> +<b>Ju pli ofte mi rigardas, des pli mi volas rigardi</b>, <i>the oftener I look, the more I wish to look.</i><br> +<b>Ju pli bele la luno brilas, des pli oni ŝatas la nokton</b>, <i>the more beautifully the moon shines, the more one likes the night.</i><br> +<b>Ju malpli pluvas, des pli la floroj velkas</b>, <i>the less it rains, the more the flowers wither.</i><br> +<b>Ju malpli multe vi helpas, des malpli multe mi laŭdos vin</b>, <i>the less you help, the less I shall praise you.</i><br> +<b>Ĉar vi helpis, mi des pli multe laŭdos vin</b>, <i>because you helped, I shall praise you the (that much) more.</i> +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<i>Cf.</i> Shakespeare, As You Like It, V, II, 49, <i>By so much the more +shall I tomorrow be at the height of heart-heaviness, by how much I +shall think my brother happy in having what he wishes for.</i> +</p> + +<center>THE PREPOSITION <b>INTER</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>85.</b> In English, the preposition "between" is used in reference +to two persons or things, and "among" in reference to three or more. As +the difference in meaning is not essential, Esperanto has but the one +preposition inter to express both <i>between</i> and <i>among:</i> +</p> + +<p> +<b>Li sidas inter vi kaj mi</b>, <i>he is sitting between you and me.</i><br> +<b>Li sidas inter siaj amikoj</b>, <i>he is sitting among his friends.</i><br> +<b>La monato majo estas inter aprilo kaj junio</b>, <i>the month of May is between April and June.</i><br> +<b>Inter tiuj libroj estas tre interesa libro</b>, <i>among those books there is a very interesting book.</i> +</p> + +<center>THE PREPOSITION <b>PRO</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>86.</b> Cause or reason may be expressed not only by an adverb +(78) or a clause (83), but also by use of the preposition <b>pro</b>, +<i>because of, on account of, for the sake of, for</i>. It directs the +thought away from the complement toward the action, feeling or state +caused by it, or done in its interest or behalf: +</p> + +<p> +<b>La floroj velkas pro la seka vetero</b>, <i>the flowers wilt because of the dry weather.</i><br> +<b>Mi skribis la leteron pro vi</b>, <i>I wrote the letter for you (for your sake).</i><br> +<b>Pro tiuj nuboj mi timas ke pluvos</b>, <i>on account of those clouds I fear that it will rain.</i><br> +<b>Oni ŝatas ĉerizojn pro la dolĉa gusto</b>, <i>people like cherries because of the sweet taste.</i> +</p> + +<center>PREPOSITIONS WITH ADVERBS AND OTHER PREPOSITIONS.</center> + +<p> +<b>87.</b> Prepositions may be used with adverbs or with prepositional +phrases when the meaning permits: +</p> + +<p> +<b>La kato kuris el sub la tablo</b>, <i>the cat ran out-from under the table</i>.<br> +<b>Li venos el tie</b>, <i>he will come out of there</i>.<br> +<b>De nun li estos zorga</b>, <i>from now he will be careful</i>.<br> +<b>Li staris dekstre de la vojo</b>, <i>he stood on the right of the road</i>.<br> +<b>Mi iros for de ĉi tie</b>, <i>I shall go away from here</i>. +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>aŭtuno</b>, <i>autumn, fall</i>.<br> + <b>decembro</b>, <i>December</i>.<br> + <b>des</b>, (see <b>84</b>).<br> + <b>februaro</b>, <i>February</i>.<br> + <b>glacio</b>, <i>ice</i>.<br> + <b>inter</b>, <i>between, among</i> (<b>85</b>).<br> + <b>januaro</b>, <i>January</i>.<br> + <b>ju</b>, (see <b>84</b>).<br> + <b>kovri</b>, <i>to cover</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>neĝo</b>, <i>snow</i>.<br> + <b>novembro</b>, <i>November</i>.<br> + <b>nuda</b>, <i>bare, naked</i>.<br> + <b>oktobro</b>, <i>October</i>.<br> + <b>pro</b>, <i>because of</i> (<b>86</b>).<br> + <b>rikolti</b>, <i>to harvest</i>.<br> + <b>rivero</b>, <i>river</i>.<br> + <b>septembro</b>, <i>September</i>.<br> + <b>tero</b>, <i>ground, earth</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center><b>LA AŬTUNO KAJ LA VINTRO.</b></center> + +<p> +La sezonoj de la jaro estas la vintro, la printempo, la somero, kaj +la aŭtuno. La aŭtuno estas inter la somero kaj la vintro. +Ĝiaj monatoj estas septembro, oktobro kaj novembro. En septembro +oni povas kolekti maturajn fruktojn. Tiam ankaŭ oni rikoltas la +flavan grenon de la kampoj. Dum ĉi tiu monato kaj dum oktobro +la folioj sur la branĉoj komencas esti ruĝaj kaj flavaj, +anstataŭ verdaj. La herbo velkas, kaj bruna tapiŝo ŝajnas +kovri la teron. Baldaŭ la folioj falas al la tero, kaj en novembro +la arboj estas tute nudaj. Pli aŭ malpli frue neĝas. La glacio +ofte kovras la akvon en la riveroj, kaj restas sur la stratoj kaj la +vojoj. La mola blanka neĝo kovras la teron, kaj kuŝas sur la +branĉoj de la arboj. Tiam, pro la fortaj ventoj, ĝi falas +de la branĉoj al la tero. La birdoj frue lasas tian veteron, kaj +flugas de ĉi tie al pli sudaj kampoj kaj arboj. Ili ne povas resti, +pro la malvarmaj tagoj kaj noktoj. Ili malŝatas la neĝon kaj +la glacion pli multe ol ni. Ju pli multe neĝas; des pli malofte +ni volas promeni. Ni preferas resti en la domo, anstataŭ ekster +ĝi. Ju pli ni rigardas la nudajn branĉojn de la arboj, des pli +malagrabla ŝajnas la vintro. Tamen la junaj infanoj tre ŝatas +tian veteron, kaj ju pli neĝas, kaj ju pli forte la norda vento +blovas, des malpli ili estas kontentaj en la domo. Ili volas kuri sur +la neĝo, ĉirkaŭ la arboj kaj inter ili, kun siaj junaj +amikoj. Ili povas bone amuzi sin per la neĝo. La monatoj de la +vintro estas decembro, januaro kaj februaro. Ĝi estas la plej +malvarma sezono. +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. September, October and November are the months of autumn. 2. In these +months, people harvest the yellow grain and gather various fruits. 3. +The leaves on the trees around us begin to have red and yellow colors. +4. They begin to fall from the branches and lie upon the ground. 5. The +more strongly the cold north wind blows through the branches, the sooner +the leaves fall from there. 6. They lie under the bare trees, with the +brown grass. 7. The sooner it snows, the sooner the ground will seem to +have a white carpet. 8. The snow will completely (<i>tute</i>) cover the +grass during the months of the winter. 9. These months are December, +January and February. 10. From that time (<i>de tiam</i>) the ice and +snow will cover the roads, and altogether (<i>tute</i>) hide them. 11. +There will often be ice on the water of the river. 12. We like this +season of the year more than March, April and May. 13. We like it even +more than the summer. 14. The months of the latter (62) are June, July +and August. 15. The summer is the warmest season of the entire year. +16. Therefore we often say that the summer is the pleasantest season. +17. Because of its many pleasures, the summer is dear to me. 18. It is +between the spring and the autumn. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XX.</b></center> + +<center>THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADVERB OF MANNER AND DEGREE.</center> + +<p> +<b>88.</b> The demonstrative adverb of manner and degree, related +to the demonstrative pronoun <b>tiu</b>, is <b>tiel</b>, <i>in that +(this) manner, in such a way, thus, so</i>. Like English "thus," "so," +<b>tiel</b> may modify adjectives and other adverbs, by indicating +degree: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Ĉu oni tiel helpas amikon?</b> <i>Does one help a friend in that (this) way?</i><br> +<b>Mi ĝin skribis tiel</b>, <i>I wrote it thus (in such a way).</i><br> +<b>La vetero estas tiel bela</b>, <i>the weather is so beautiful.</i><br> +<b>Tiel mallonge li parolis</b>, <i>thus briefly he spoke.</i><br> +<b>Mi trovis tiel belan floron</b>, <i>I found such a beautiful flower.</i><br> +<b>Li prenis tiel multe</b>, <i>he took that much (so much).</i> +</p> + +<center>PREPOSITIONS EXPRESSING TIME-RELATIONS.</center> + +<p> +<b>89.</b> The relations which prepositions express may be of various +kinds. As in English, a certain number of prepositions primarily +expressing place may also express time-relations. Such prepositions +are <b>antaŭ</b>, <b>ĉirkaŭ</b>, <b>de</b>, <b>en</b>, +<b>ĝis</b>, <b>inter</b>, <b>post</b>, and <b>je</b> (whose use in +other than time-relations will be explained later): +</p> + +<p> +<b>Mi foriros ĉirkaŭ junio</b>, <i>I shall depart about June.</i><br> +<b>De tiu horo mi estis via amiko</b>, <i>from that hour I was your friend.</i><br> +<b>Li ne parolis al mi de tiu semajno</b>, <i>he did not speak to me since from) that week.</i><br> +<b>En la tuta monato ne neĝis</b>, <i>it did not snow in (at any time within) the entire month.</i><br> +<b>Mi dormis ĝis malfrua horo</b>, <i>I slept until (up to) a late hour.</i><br> +<b>Ĝis nun li ne vidis vin</b>, <i>until now he did not see you.</i><br> +<b>Inter marto kaj junio mi iros tien</b>, <i>between March and June I shall go there.</i><br> +<b>Je malfrua horo li foriris</b>, <i>at a late hour he went away.</i><br> +<b>Mi iros tien je dimanĉo</b>, <i>I shall go there on Sunday.</i><br> +<b>Je tiu horo li vokis min</b>, <i>at that hour he called me.</i><br> +<b>Ŝi ne restis tie post julio</b>, <i>she did not stay there after July.</i><br> +<b>Post ne longe mi vokos vin</b>, <i>soon (after not long) I shall call you.</i> +</p> + +<p> +<b>90.</b> When a definite date or point in time is expressed, +<b>antaŭ</b> means "before." When used with an expression of an +<i>amount</i> of time, it is to be translated by "ago" following the +expression (not by "before" preceding it): +</p> + +<p> +<b>Antaŭ dimanĉo mi foriros</b>, <i>before Sunday I shall go away.</i><br> +<b>Mi vidis lin antaŭ tiu horo</b>, <i>I saw him before that hour.</i><br> +<b>Li skribos ĝin antaŭ la nova jaro</b>, <i>he will write it before New Year.</i><br> +<b>Antaŭ multaj jaroj mi trovis ĝin</b>, <i>many years ago I found it.</i><br> +<b>Mi rompis ĝin antaŭ longa tempo</b>, <i>I broke it a long time ago.</i><br> +<b>Antaŭ tre longe vi legis tiun libron</b>, <i>you read that book very long ago.</i><br> +<b>Li venis antaŭ ne longe</b>, <i>he came recently (not long ago).</i><br> +<b>Antaŭ malmultaj jaroj li forkuris</b>, <i>a few years ago he escaped.</i> +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +As already shown, <b>kun</b> expresses accompaniment, <b>per</b> +expresses instrumentality, <b>pro</b> expresses cause, +<b>kontraŭ</b> expresses opposition, <b>anstataŭ</b> expresses +substitution, <b>sur</b>, <b>apud</b>, <b>sub</b>, etc., express place, +<b>dum</b> expresses time, etc. +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>dimanĉo</b>, <i>Sunday.</i><br> + <b>energia</b>, <i>energetic.</i><br> + <b>frosto</b>, <i>frost.</i><br> + <b>je</b>, <i>at, on</i> (89).<br> + <b>kota</b>, <i>muddy.</i><br> + <b>labori</b>, <i>to work, to labor</i>.<br> + <b>laca</b>, <i>tired, weary.</i><br> + <b>lundo</b>, <i>Monday.</i><br> + <b>mardo</b>, <i>Tuesday.</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>mateno</b>, <i>morning.</i><br> + <b>promeno</b>, <i>walk, promenade.</i><br> + <b>rakonto</b>, <i>story, narrative.</i><br> + <b>ripozi</b>, <i>to rest, to repose.</i><br> + <b>semajno</b>, <i>week.</i><br> + <b>tempo</b>, time.<br> + <b>tiel</b>, <i>thus, so</i> (88)<br> + <b>tro</b>, <i>too, too much.</i><br> + <b>vespero</b>, <i>evening.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center><b>EN SEPTEMBRO.</b></center> + +<p> +Antaŭ multaj jaroj ni preferis resti en nia malgranda domo trans +la rivero, dum la tuta aŭtuno. Sed nun ni restas tie nur ĝis +oktobro. De aŭgusto ĝis oktobro la vetero estas tre agrabla +tie, sed baldaŭ post tiu monato la fortaj ventoj blovas, kaj +la folioj komencas fali. La frosto kovras la teron, kaj baldaŭ +neĝas tre ofte. Ju pli nudaj estas la arboj, des pli malbelaj ili +ŝajnas. La vetero antaŭ novembro ne estas tro malvarma, sed +post tiu monato ni opinias ke la urbo estas pli agrabla ol domo inter +kampoj kaj arboj, trans larĝa rivero. La frosto, neĝo kaj +glacio kovras la teron en decembro, januaro kaj februaro. Sed la monato +septembro ŝajnas tre agrabla, pro siaj multaj plezuroj. La viroj +laboras energie en la kampoj, de la mateno ĝis la vespero. Ili +rikoltas la flavan grenon, kaj kolektas la fruktojn. Sed je dimanĉo +oni ne laboras tiel energie, sed dormas ĝis malfrua horo, tial ke +je tiu tago oni ripozas. Je lundo oni komencas labori tre frue, kaj je +mardo oni ankaŭ laboras energie. En septembro la vojoj ne estas +tro kotaj, kaj longaj promenoj estas ofte agrablaj. Ju pli ofte mi +promenas kun miaj amikoj, des pli multe mi ŝatas tiajn promenojn. +Sed hieraŭ mi estis tre laca post la promeno, tial mi ripozis sur +granda mola seĝo. Antaŭ ne longe la patro promenis kun mi, +sed ni ne estis tiel lacaj je tiu tago. Ŝajnas ke ju pli ofte ni +promenas, des malpli lacaj ni estas post la promenoj. Post ne longe mi +estos pli forta. +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. Many years ago we had a small house across the river. 2. We did not +remain there during the entire year, but only in the warmer months of +the summer. 3. Often we stayed until September or even until October. 4. +My younger brothers and sisters amused themselves very well there from +(the) morning until (the) evening. 5. They amused themselves among the +flowers and trees, or went from there into the large fields. 6. Here the +men work energetically, and harvest the ripe yellow grain. 7. Only on +Sunday do they rest, because on that day one does not work. 8. Between +August and November the men work more than in the winter. 9. In December +and after that month they rest, for (83) from that time the frost, ice +and snow cover the ground. 10. Because of the snow on the ground, long +walks are not pleasant in the winter. 11. Recently (90) we went walking +in the park across the river, but we were so tired after that walk! 12. +The longer the walk is, the sooner one wishes to rest. 13. On Monday it +rained, so (78) we read stories and wrote letters, in a pleasant light +room in our house. 14. Before evening, however, the sun shone, and the +streets were not so muddy. 15. On Tuesday these streets were almost dry, +and soon the roads near the river and between the fields will also be +dry. 16. A few years ago those roads were very good. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XXI.</b></center> + +<center>THE ACCUSATIVE OF TIME.</center> + +<p> +<b>91.</b> Duration of time and a date or point in time may be expressed +not only by use of the prepositions <b>dum</b>, <i>during</i>, and +<b>je</b>, <i>at, on</i>, but also (as in English) without the use +of any preposition. When no preposition is used, the word or words +indicating time are put in the accusative case: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Li restis tie la tutan semajnon (dum la tuta semajno)</b>, <i>he stayed there the whole week (during the whole week)</i>.<br> +<b>Ŝi estis feliĉa longan tempon (dum longa tempo)</b>, <i>she was happy a long time</i> (<i>during a long time</i>; <i>for a long time</i>).<br> +<b>Ni rajdos tagon kaj nokton (dum tago kaj nokto)</b>, <i>we shall ride a day and a night</i> (<i>during a day and a night</i>; <i>for a day and a night</i>).<br> +<b>Mi venis dimanĉon (je dimanĉo)</b>, <i>I came Sunday</i> (<i>on Sunday</i>).<br> +<b>Tiun horon (je tiu horo), li forkuris</b>, <i>that hour</i> (<i>at that hour</i>) <i>he escaped</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>92.</b> Although generally preferable, an accusative construction +must be carefully placed, or avoided altogether, if confusion with other +accusatives (expressing direction of motion, direct object, etc.) might +result: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Mi volas iri Bostonon je lundo</b>, <i>I wish to go to Boston on Monday</i>.<br> +<b>Mi volas iri al Bostono lundon</b>, <i>I wish to go to Boston Monday</i>.<br> +<b>Lundon mi volas iri Bostonon</b>, <i>Monday I wish to go to Boston</i>. +</p> + +<center>ADVERBS AND THE ACCUSATIVE OF TIME.</center> + +<p> +<b>93.</b> An accusative of time, as well as a temporal adverb, may +further define or be defined by another expression of time: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Li venis longan tempon antaŭ tiu horo</b>, <i>he came a long time before that hour</i>.<br> +<b>Jaron post jaro ili restis tie</b>, <i>year after year they stayed there</i>.<br> +<b>hodiaŭ matene</b>, <i>this morning</i>.<br> +<b>hodiaŭ vespere</b>, <i>this evening</i>.<br> +<b>hodiaŭ nokte</b>, <i>tonight</i>.<br> +<b>hieraŭ vespere</b>, <i>last evening</i>.<br> +<b>hieraŭ nokte</b>, <i>last night</i>.<br> +<b>dimanĉon matene</b>, <i>Sunday morning</i>.<br> +<b>lundon vespere</b>, <i>Monday evening</i>.<br> +<b>mardon nokte</b>, <i>Tuesday night</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>94.</b> An accusative of time does not necessarily imply that the act +or state mentioned occurs oftener than the instance cited. An adverb +from the same root usually gives an idea of frequency or repetition: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Li iros al ilia domo dimanĉon</b>, <i>he will go to their house Sunday</i>.<br> +<b>Li iras al ilia domo dimanĉe</b>, <i>he goes to their house Sundays</i>.<br> +<b>Li laboris tagon kaj nokton</b>, <i>he worked a day and a night</i>.<br> +<b>Li laboras tage kaj nokte</b>, <i>he works day and night</i> (<i>by day and by night</i>). +</p> + +<center>THE PREPOSITION <b>POR</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>95.</b> The object or purpose with reference to which an act is +performed or a condition exists is expressed by the preposition +<b>por</b>, <i>for</i>. It directs the thought toward its complement, +contrasting thus with <b>pro</b> (86): +</p> + +<p> +<b>Mi havas libron por vi</b>, <i>I have a book for you</i>.<br> +<b>Mi ne havas la tempon por tiel longa promeno</b>, <i>I have not the time for so long a (such a long) walk</i>.<br> +<b>Ili faris ĝin por via plezuro</b>, <i>they did it for your pleasure</i>. +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>brila</b>, <i>brilliant</i>.<br> + <b>Dio</b>, <i>God</i>.<br> + <b>dividi</b>, <i>to divide</i>.<br> + <b>fari</b>, <i>to make</i>.<br> + <b>forgesi</b>, <i>to forget</i>.<br> + <b>ĝojo</b>, <i>joy</i>.<br> + <b>konstanta</b>, <i>constant</i>.<br> + <b>kvieta</b>, <i>quiet, calm</i>.<br> + <b>lando</b>, <i>land, country</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>merkredo</b>, <i>Wednesday</i>.<br> + <b>mezo</b>, <i>middle</i>.<br> + <b>mondo</b>, <i>world</i>.<br> + <b>paci</b>, <i>to be at peace</i>.<br> + <b>por</b>, <i>for</i> (95).<br> + <b>plori</b>, <i>to weep</i>.<br> + <b>preta</b>, <i>ready</i>.<br> + <b>ridi</b>, <i>to laugh</i>.<br> + <b>riproĉi</b>, <i>to reproach</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center><b>LA SEZONOJ KAJ LA MONDO.</b></center> + +<p> +Antaŭ tre longa tempo Dio faris la mondon. Li vidis ke la floroj +havas belajn kolorojn, ke la arboj estas altaj kaj verdaj. Tiam li +vokis la sezonojn kaj diris "Belan mondon mi faris por vi. Ĉu vi +gardos ĝin tage kaj nokte, kaj estos tre zorgaj pri ĝi?" La +sezonoj respondis "Jes," kaj ridis pro ĝojo. Mallongan tempon ili +ŝajnis esti tre feliĉaj inter la arboj kaj floroj de la nova +mondo. Sed ne multajn semajnojn ili tiel zorge gardis la mondon. Ili +komencis malpaci (<i>quarrel</i>) inter si, de la mateno ĝis la +vespero, kaj ofte forgesis la arbojn kaj florojn. Ju pli ili malpacis, +des malpli zorge ili gardis la mondon. La malkonstanta printempo ne +ŝatis la kvietan vintron, kaj ploris pri la malvarma neĝo. La +varma brila somero diris ke la aŭtuno estas tro malbrila. La laca +aŭtuno volis ripozi, kaj riproĉis la malkonstantan printempon +pri ĉi ties kota vetero. Pli kaj pli multe ili malpacis, kaj post +ne longe ili tute ne restis amikoj. Tiam la aŭtuno diris "Mi ne +povas pli longan tempon labori kun vi pro la mondo. Niaj gustoj estas +tro diversaj. Tial hodiaŭ matene ni dividos la mondon inter ni." La +vintro respondis "Bone! Mi estas preta," kaj la somero kaj la printempo +ridis pro ĝojo. Tiun tagon ili dividis la mondon inter si. La +vintro konstruis sian domon en la plej nordaj kaj sudaj landoj. Tie la +frosto, neĝo kaj glacio kovras la tutan landon, dum la tuta jaro. +La brila energia somero prenis por si la mezon de la mondo. Tial la +vetero tie estas plej varma kaj brila. La aŭtuno kaj la printempo +prenis por si la landojn inter la vintro kaj la somero. Tial la vetero +estas nek tro varma nek tro malvarma en ĉi tiuj landoj. Tiam la +sezonoj rakontis al Dio ke ili tiel dividis la mondon inter si. +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. Tuesday my brother heard an interesting story, and Wednesday evening +after a pleasant walk he related it to me. 2. The story is, that many +years ago God made the beautiful new world, and gave it to the seasons. +3. They laughed for joy, and said that they would guard it well. 4. They +were ready for pleasure, and also were willing (<i>volis</i>) to work +energetically for-the-sake-of the new young world. 5. Almost a year +they were happy, but these seasons were too diverse, and could not long +remain friends. 6. The brilliant summer wept and reproached the tired +autumn. 7. The autumn preferred to rest, and disliked the muddy weather +of the inconstant spring. 8. The quiet winter concealed itself beneath +the frost and soft white snow, and wished to sleep. 9. The longer they +kept the world among them, the more they quarreled. 10. Soon the autumn +made the proposition, "We will divide the world." 11. Immediately that +morning the seasons divided the world among themselves. 12. The northern +and southern lands now belong to the winter, and the middle of the world +belongs to the summer. 13. The spring and autumn took for themselves +those lands between the winter and summer. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XXII.</b></center> + +<center>CLAUSES EXPRESSING DURATION OF TIME.</center> + +<p> +<b>96.</b> The time during which an act takes place or a condition +exists may be expressed not only by an adverb or accusative of time +(91), or by use of the preposition <b>dum</b>, but also by a clause +introduced by <b>dum</b>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Li venis dum vi forestis</b>, <i>he came while (during-the-time-that) you were away</i>.<br> +<b>Dum la sezonoj malpacis, ili forgesis pri la mondo</b>, <i>while the seasons quarreled, they forgot about the world</i>.<br> +<b>Ni ridas pro ĝojo dum neĝas</b>, <i>we laugh for joy while it is snowing</i>. +</p> + +<center>CLAUSES EXPRESSING ANTICIPATION.</center> + +<p> +<b>97.</b> A clause expressing an action or condition as preceding +or anticipating that of the main verb is introduced by <b>antaŭ +ol</b>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Mi foriros antaŭ ol vi venos</b>, <i>I shall depart before you (will) come</i>.<br> +<b>Antaŭ ol vi riproĉis lin, li ne ploris</b>, <i>before you reproached him, he did not weep</i>.<br> +<b>Vi ploris antaŭ ol vi ridis</b>, <i>you wept before (sooner than) you laughed</i>. +</p> + +<center>THE INFINITIVE WITH <b>ANSTATAŬ</b>, <b>POR</b>, <b>ANTAŬ OL</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>98.</b> An infinitive may be substantively used with +<b>anstataŭ</b> to express substitution, with <b>por</b> to +express purpose (<i>Cf.</i> Old English "But what went ye out <i>for to +see</i>," <i>Matt. xi, 8</i>), and with <b>antaŭ ol</b> to express +anticipation. It is usually translated by the English infinitive in +<i>-ing</i>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Anstataŭ resti li foriris</b>, <i>instead of staying he went away</i>.<br> +<b>Vi malhelpas anstataŭ helpi min</b>, <i>you hinder instead of helping me</i>.<br> +<b>Ni venis por helpi vin</b>, <i>we came to help (in order to help) you</i>.<br> +<b>Mi estas preta por iri merkredon</b>, <i>I am ready to go (for going) Wednesday</i>.<br> +<b>Li havos tro multe por fari</b>, <i>he will have too much to do</i>.<br> +<b>Mi laboros antaŭ ol ripozi</b>, <i>I shall work before resting</i>.<br> +<b>Antaŭ ol foriri, li dankis min</b>, <i>before going away, he thanked me</i>.<br> +<b>Dio faris la mondon antaŭ ol doni ĝin al la sezonoj</b>, <i>God made the world before giving it to the seasons</i>. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<i>Substantive</i> is the general name for nouns and pronouns, +that is, for words which indicate persons, things, etc., and may be +used as subject or object of a verb, complement of a preposition, +etc. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +The infinitive may be used with <b>antaŭ ol</b> if its subject +is the same as the subject of the main verb. Otherwise the +construction explained in <b>97</b> must be used. +</p> + +<center>THE EXPRESSION OF A PART OF THE WHOLE.</center> + +<p> +<b>99.</b> After nouns indicating a quantity or portion of some +indefinite whole, the substantive expressing that indefinite whole is +preceded by the preposition <b>da</b>, <i>of</i>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Estas skatolo da ĉerizoj tie</b>, <i>there is a box of cherries there</i>.<br> +<b>Mi trovis grandan sakon da mono</b>, <i>I found a large bag of money</i>.<br> +<b>Li havas teleron da viando</b>, <i>he has a plate of meat</i>.<br> +<b>Post horoj da ĝojo ofte venas horoj da malĝojo</b>, <i>after hours of joy there often come hours of sorrow</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>100.</b> The preposition <b>da</b> must not be used if a quantity or +portion of a <i>definite</i> or <i>limited</i> whole is expressed. If +the word indicating the whole is limited by <b>la</b>, it is thereby +made definite: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Telero de la maturaj pomoj</b>, <i>a plate of the ripe apples</i>.<br> +<b>Sako de la bona kafo</b>, <i>a sack of the good coffee</i>. +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>Aleksandro</b>, <i>Alexander</i>.<br> + <b>barelo</b>, <i>barrel</i>.<br> + <b>bruo</b>, <i>noise</i>.<br> + <b>da</b>, <i>of</i> (99).<br> + <b>demandi</b>, <i>to inquire, to ask</i>.<br> + <b>Diogeno</b>, <i>Diogenes</i>.<br> + <b>greka</b>, <i>Greek</i>.<br> + <b>kelkaj</b>, <i>several, some</i>.<br> + <b>kvankam</b>, <i>although</i>.<br> + <b>ĉifono</b>, <i>rag</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>koni</b>, <i>to be acquainted with</i>.<br> + <b>laŭta</b>, <i>loud</i>.<br> + <b>lito</b>, <i>bed</i>.<br> + <b>loĝi</b>, <i>to dwell, to reside</i>.<br> + <b>nombro</b>, <i>number (quantity)</i>.<br> + <b>pura</b>, <i>clean</i>.<br> + <b>sufiĉa</b>, <i>sufficient, enough</i>.<br> + <b>veki</b>, <i>to wake</i>.<br> + <b>viziti</b>, <i>to visit</i>.<br> + <b>vesto</b>, <i>garment, clothes</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center><b>DIOGENO KAJ ALEKSANDRO GRANDA.</b></center> + +<p> +Antaŭ multaj jaroj saĝa greka viro, Diogeno, loĝis +en granda urbo. Li opiniis ke ju pli malmulte oni bezonas, des pli +feliĉa oni estas. Por montri al la mondo ke li ne bezonas multe, +kaj ke tial li havas sufiĉe por esti feliĉa, li loĝis +en granda malnova barelo, anstataŭ havi domon. Anstataŭ +kuŝi nokte sur lito aŭ almenaŭ sur mola tapiŝo, li +eĉ dormis en tiu barelo. Oni multe parolis pri Diogeno en la urbo, +ne nur ĉar li tiel loĝis, sed ankaŭ pro liaj saĝaj +diroj. Post kelke da tempo (<i>some time</i>) la reĝo Aleksandro +Granda venis tien por viziti la urbon. Dum li estis tie li aŭdis +pri Diogeno, kaj demandis pri li. "Ĉu li loĝas en la urbo?" +Aleksandro diris. "Kvankam vi ne konas lin, mi opinias ke mi volas +vidi tian viron." Oni respondis "Diogeno estas saĝa viro, sed +anstataŭ loĝi en domo, li preferas sidi la tutan tempon en +malnova barelo. Anstataŭ porti (<i>wearing</i>) purajn vestojn, +li portas nur malpurajn ĉifonojn, ĉar li opinias ke ju pli +malmulte li bezonas, des pli feliĉa li estos." Aleksandro diris +"Antaŭ ol foriri de via lando mi vizitos tiun viron." Antaŭ +ol li foriris de la urbo, Aleksandro iris kun nombro da amikoj por +viziti Diogenon, kaj trovis lin en lia barelo. "Ĉu tiu viro volas +paroli al mi?" demandis Diogeno per laŭta voĉo. Aleksandro +Granda respondis "Mi estas la reĝo Aleksandro, kaj mi volas koni +vin. Mi vidas ke kvankam vi estas saĝa vi estas tre malriĉa. +Ĉu vi ne volas kelkajn novajn vestojn anstataŭ tiuj malpuraj +ĉifonoj?" Diogeno tuj diris "Antaŭ ol vi venis kaj staris +inter mi kaj la suno, ĉi tiu tre varme brilis sur min. Ĉu vi +venis por fari bruon kaj por veki min?" Aleksandro ridis kaj diris "Mi +vidas ke vi havas sufiĉe por esti feliĉa. Tial mi estas preta +por foriri." +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. Diogenes was a wise man who dwelt in a Greek city, many years ago. 2. +In order to show to the inconstant world that one does not need much in +order to be happy, he did not have even a house or a bed. 3. He stayed +day and night in a big barrel, instead of residing in a house. 4. He +preferred to wear old rags, instead of good clean clothes. 5. He said +"The less one needs, the happier he will be." 6. While Alexander the +Great was visiting that city, people talked to him about Diogenes. 7. +They asked "Are you acquainted-with that wise man?" 8. Soon the king +went with a number of his friends to that-man's big barrel, in the +middle of the city. 9. Diogenes was asleep, but the noise of the loud +voices waked him, and he said angrily "You are standing between me and +the sun! Will you not go away at once?" 10. Although several of the men +laughed, Alexander said "We did not come to quarrel with you. 11. I see +that you have enough to be happy, so instead of talking and making a +noise we shall leave (go away from) you at once." 12. Before Diogenes +could answer, Alexander had quietly walked away. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XXIII.</b></center> + +<center>ADVERBS EXPRESSING A PART OF THE WHOLE.</center> + + +<p> +<b>101.</b> After adverbs used to indicate a quantity or portion of +some indefinite whole, as well as after nouns of such meaning (99), +the substantive expressing the indefinite whole is preceded by the +preposition <b>da</b>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Multe da bruo</b>, <i>much (a quantity of) noise</i>.<br> +<b>Tiel malmulte da tempo</b>, <i>so little (such a small quantity of) time</i>.<br> +<b>Kelke da pomoj</b>, <i>some (an indefinite number of) apples</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>102.</b> Verbs may be modified by an adverb and prepositional phrase +containing <b>da</b>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Li trinkis malmulte da akvo</b>, <i>he drank little (not much) water</i>.<br> +<b>Estas multe da sablo en la dezerto</b>, <i>there is much sand in the desert</i>.<br> +<b>Ju pli neĝas, des pli multe da neĝo kuŝas sur la vojoj</b>, <i>the more it snows, the more snow lies on the roads</i>. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +A prepositional phrase containing <b>da</b>, whether following a noun or +an adverb, is sometimes called a <i>partitive</i> construction. +</p> + +<p> +<b>103.</b> It is evident from the above examples that an adverb +followed by <b>da</b> has a somewhat collective sense, indicating a +general sum, mass, or portion of the whole, without distinction of +particulars. An <i>adjective</i> of quantitative meaning, on the other +hand, usually indicates consideration of the individuals composing the +sum or mass named: +</p> + +<p> +<b>En urbo oni havas multe da bruo</b>, <i>in a city one has much noise</i>.<br> +<b>Ni aŭdis multajn bruojn</b>, <i>we heard many (different) noises</i>.<br> +<b>Tie oni havas multe da plezuro</b>, <i>there one has much pleasure</i>.<br> +<b>Oni havas multajn plezurojn tie</b>, <i>people have many (different) pleasures there</i>. +</p> + +<center>THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADVERB OF QUANTITY.</center> + +<p> +<b>104.</b> The demonstrative adverb of quantity related to the +demonstrative pronoun <b>tiu</b> is <b>tiom</b>, <i>that (this) much, +that many, that quantity, so much</i>, etc.:— +</p> + +<p> +<b>Mi donis tiom da mono al vi</b>, <i>I gave that much (that amount of) money to you.</i><br> +<b>Mi aĉetis tiom da viando</b>, <i>I bought that much meat</i>.<br> +<b>Tiom de la libroj mi legis</b>, <i>that many of the books I read</i>. +</p> + +<center>RESULT CLAUSES.</center> + +<p> +<b>105.</b> A clause of result (also called a consecutive clause) +expresses an action or condition as due to, or resulting from, something +indicated in the main sentence, as "he is so strong that he can do it," +"I had so much pleasure that I laughed heartily." In Esperanto a result +clause is introduced by <b>ke</b>, preceded (directly or in the main +sentence) by an adverb or adjective of manner, degree, or quantity: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Diogeno estis tiel saĝa greka viro ke Aleksandro laŭdis lin</b>, <i>Diogenes was such a wise Greek man that Alexander praised him</i>.<br> +<b>Mi havis tiom da plezuro ke mi tre ridis</b>, <i>I had so much pleasure that I laughed very much</i>.<br> +<b>Ĝi estas tia vilaĝo ke mi ŝatas loĝi tie</b>, <i>it is such (that sort of) a village that I like to live there</i>. +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>aĉeti</b>, <i>to buy</i>.<br> + <b>asparago</b>, <i>asparagus</i>.<br> + <b>brasiko</b>, <i>cabbage</i>.<br> + <b>butiko</b>, <i>store, shop</i>.<br> + <b>frago</b>, <i>strawberry</i>.<br> + <b>funto</b>, <i>pound</i>.<br> + <b>glaso</b>, <i>glass, tumbler</i>.<br> + <b>ĵaŭdo</b>, <i>Thursday</i>.<br> + <b>kremo</b>, <i>cream</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>kontuzo</b>, <i>bruise</i>.<br> + <b>lakto</b>, <i>milk</i>.<br> + <b>legomo</b>, <i>vegetable</i>.<br> + <b>ovo</b>, <i>egg</i>.<br> + <b>pizo</b>, <i>pea</i>.<br> + <b>sabato</b>, <i>Saturday</i>.<br> + <b>tiom</b>, <i>that much</i> (104).<br> + <b>vendredo</b>, <i>Friday</i>.<br> + <b>vilaĝo</b>, <i>village</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center><b>EN LA BUTIKO.</b></center> + +<p> +Hodiaŭ matene mi iris kun la patrino al la plej granda butiko en +nia vilaĝo. Tie ŝi aĉetis tiom da legomoj kaj fruktoj ke +ni tute ne povis porti ilin. Tial juna knabo venis kun ni, kaj portis +kelke da ili por ni. La patrino ne aĉetis tiel multe je vendredo, +sed hodiaŭ estas sabato, kaj ŝi volis aĉeti legomojn por +dimanĉo, ĉar dimanĉe oni ne povas iri en la butikojn. +Tial sabate oni kutime aĉetas sufiĉe por la manĝoj de +sabato kaj dimanĉo. Meze de la butiko staras multe da bareloj. En +ĉi tiuj oni trovas grandan nombron da freŝaj puraj legomoj. +La patrino aĉetis tiel multe da asparago kaj novaj pizoj, kaj +tiel grandan sakon da terpomoj, ke la tablo restis preskaŭ nuda. +Mi vidis brasikon tie, sed tiun legomon mi malŝatas, kvankam oni +diras ke ĝi estas tre bona legomo. Antaŭ ol foriri de la +butiko la patrino aĉetis kelke da ovoj, kaj rigardis la fruktojn en +bareloj apud la pordo. Ili ŝajnis tiel bonaj ke ŝi aĉetis +kelkajn maturajn pomojn kaj skatolon da fragoj. Dum oni donis al ŝi +la fruktojn, mi aĉetis kelkajn funtojn da sukero. Tiam ni estis +pretaj por foriri el la butiko. Sur la vojo ni aŭdis tiel grandan +bruon ke mi lasis la patrinon kaj kuris trans la straton. Mi trovis tie +infanon,la filon de nia najbaro. Li faris la bruon, ĉar li falis +de la arbo antaŭ sia domo, kaj tre laŭte ploris. Li diris al +mi ke li havas multajn kontuzojn sur la kapo. Ĉar mi bone konas +la infanon, mi demandis "Ĉu vi volas grandan ruĝan pomon? Mi +havas tian pomon por vi." Li tuj kaptis la pomon, kaj mi foriris. Tiam +la patrino kaj mi iris al la domo. +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. I shall go to the village today with my younger sister. 2. We wish +to buy some eggs, vegetables and fruit for Mother. 3. Mother prefers to +remain in the house, because it is raining. 4. It rained on Thursday and +Friday, but today it is not raining very much. 5. The air is warm and +pleasant, and we shall carry umbrellas with us. 6. We shall buy some +new peas, a box of strawberries and several pounds of sugar. 7. Thus +we shall have enough for the meals of Saturday and Sunday. 8. I wonder +whether we shall see such asparagus and such cabbage on the tables or +in the barrels. 9. Although I do not often eat such vegetables, Father +and Mother are very fond of (<i>multe ŝatas</i>) both cabbage and +asparagus. 10. We shall also buy enough milk for several glasses of +milk, and we shall need much cream for the strawberries. 11. It seems +that we shall buy such a number of vegetables that we cannot carry them. +12. While we were standing near the door, ready to go toward the village +(46), we heard a loud voice. 13. A child was standing in the street, and +crying. 14. He wished to go with his mother to visit some friends. 15. +I suppose that a noise on the street waked him, and he did not wish to +remain in his bed. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XXIV.</b></center> + +<center>THE INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN.</center> + +<p> +<b>106.</b> The interrogative pronoun (and pronominal adjective) is +<b>kiu</b>, <i>who, which</i>. Since the use of this pronoun indicates +a question, the sentence containing it does not need the interrogative +adverb <b>ĉu</b> (30): +</p> + +<p> +<b>Kiu vokas vin?</b> <i>Who calls you?</i><br> +<b>Kiun vi vokas?</b> <i>Whom do you call?</i><br> +<b>Kiuj el vi vokis nin?</b> <i>Which (ones) of you called us?</i><br> +<b>Kiujn li helpis?</b> <i>Whom (which ones) did he help?</i><br> +<b>Kiun tagon vi venos?</b> <i>What day will you come?</i><br> +<b>Kiujn legomojn vi preferas?</b> <i>What vegetables do you prefer?</i><br> +<b>Mi miras kiun libron vi aĉetis</b>, <i>I wonder which book you bought?</i> +</p> + +<p> +<b>107.</b> The interrogative pronoun <b>kiu</b> has a possessive or +genitive form <b>kies</b>, <i>whose</i>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>En kies domo vi loĝas?</b> <i>In whose house do you reside?</i><br> +<b>Kies amikojn vi vizitis?</b> <i>Whose friends did you visit?</i> +</p> + +<center>THE PRESENT ACTIVE PARTICIPLE.</center> + +<p> +<b>108.</b> A participle is a <i>verbal adjective</i>, as in "a +<i>crying</i> child." It agrees like other adjectives with the word +modified (19, 24). The participle from a transitive verb (22) may take +a direct object, and a participle expressing motion may be followed by +an accusative indicating direction of motion (46). The present active +participle, expressing what the word modified <i>is doing</i>, ends +in <b>-anta,</b> as <b>vidanta</b>, <i>seeing</i>, <b>iranta</b>, +<i>going:</i> +</p> + +<p> +<b>La ploranta infano volas dormi</b>, <i>the crying child wishes to sleep.</i><br> +<b>Mi vidas la falantajn foliojn</b>, <i>I see the falling leaves.</i><br> +<b>Kiu estas la virino aĉetanta ovojn?</b> <i>Who is the woman buying eggs?</i><br> +<b>Mi parolis al la viroj irantaj vilaĝon</b>, <i>I talked to the men (who were) going toward the village.</i> +</p> + +<center>COMPOUND TENSES.</center> + +<p> +<b>109.</b> A participle may be used predicatively with a form of +<b>esti</b>, as <b>Mi estas demandanta</b>, <i>I am asking</i>, +<b>La viro estas aĉetanta</b>, <i>the man is buying</i>. Such +combinations are called <i>compound tenses</i>, in contrast to the +<i>simple</i> or <i>aoristic</i> tenses. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +An aoristic tense consists of but one word (ending in <b>-as</b>, +<b>-os</b>, etc.) and expresses an act or state as a whole, without +specifying whether it is finished, still in progress, or yet begun. +</p> + +<p> +Compound tenses occur less often in Esperanto than in English, and an +aoristic Esperanto tense may often be translated by an English compound +tense, as <b>La birdoj flugas</b>, <i>the birds are flying</i>. When +used to form a compound tense, the verb <b>esti</b> is called the +<i>auxiliary verb</i>. No other verb is ever used as an auxiliary (a +simpler method than in English, which uses <i>be</i>, <i>have</i>, +<i>do</i>, <i>will</i>, <i>shall</i>, <i>would</i>, etc.). +</p> + +<center>THE PROGRESSIVE PRESENT TENSE.</center> + +<p> +<b>110.</b> The compound tense formed by using the present active +participle with the present tense of <b>esti</b> is called the +<i>progressive present tense</i>. It differs from the aoristic present +by expressing an action as definitely in progress, or a condition as +continuously existing, at the moment of speaking. The conjugation of +<b>vidi</b> in this tense is as follows: +</p> + +<p> +<b>mi estas vidanta</b>, <i>I am seeing</i>.<br> +<b>vi estas vidanta</b>, <i>you are seeing</i>.<br> +<b>li (ŝi, ĝi) estas vidanta</b>, <i>he (she, it) is seeing</i>.<br> +<b>ni estas vidantaj</b>, <i>we are seeing</i>.<br> +<b>vi estas vidantaj</b>, <i>you (plural) are seeing</i>.<br> +<b>ili estas vidantaj</b>, <i>they are seeing</i>. +</p> + +<center>THE SUFFIX <b>-EJ-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>111.</b> Words expressing the place where the action indicated by the +root occurs, or where the object indicated by the root may be found, are +formed by inserting the suffix <b>-ej-</b> before the noun-ending: +</p> + +<p> +<b>ĉevalejo</b>, <i>stable</i> (from <b>ĉevalo</b>, <i>horse</i>).<br> +<b>dormejo</b>, <i>dormitory</i> (from <b>dormi</b>, <i>to sleep</i>).<br> +<b>herbejo</b>, <i>meadow</i> (from <b>herbo</b>, <i>grass</i>).<br> +<b>loĝejo</b>, <i>lodging-place, dwelling</i> (from <b>loĝi</b>, <i>to dwell, to lodge</i>). +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +Similar formations are made in English with the suffix <i>-y</i>, as +<i>bakery</i>, <i>bindery</i>, <i>grocery</i>, etc. This suffix is +equivalent to the <i>-ei</i> in German <i>Bäckerei</i>, bakery, +<i>Druckerei</i>, printing-office, etc., and to the <i>-ie</i> in French +<i>patisserie</i>, pastry-shop, <i>imprimerie</i>, printing-shop, etc. +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>alia</b>, <i>other, another.</i><br> + <b>baki</b>, <i>to bake.</i><br> + <b>dika</b>, <i>thick.</i><br> + <b>facila</b>, <i>easy.</i><br> + <b>familio</b>, <i>family.</i><br> + <b>kanapo</b>, <i>sofa.</i><br> + <b>kies</b>, <i>whose</i> (107).<br> + <b>kiu</b>, <i>who</i> (106). + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>kuiri</b>, <i>to cook.</i><br> + <b>kurteno</b>, <i>curtain.</i><br> + <b>kutimo</b>, <i>custom.</i><br> + <b>leciono</b>, <i>lesson.</i><br> + <b>lerni</b>, <i>to learn.</i><br> + <b>pano</b>, <i>bread.</i><br> + <b>persono</b>, <i>person.</i><br> + <b>salono</b>, <i>parlor.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center><b>EN NIA DOMO.</b></center> + +<p> +Oni ofte miras kies domo en nia vilaĝo estas plej bela, kaj kiu +domo estas la plej agrabla loĝejo. Nia domo ne estas tre granda, +sed ĝi estas nova kaj ni multe ŝatas ĝin. Ĝia salono +estas granda, kun belaj puraj kurtenoj kovrantaj la fenestrojn, kaj +mola dika tapiŝo kovranta la plankon. Ĉi tie estas kelkaj +seĝoj, malgranda tablo, kaj longa kanapo. Personoj vizitantaj nin +kutime sidas en ĉi tiu ĉambro, kaj dum ni estas sidantaj tie +ni nur parolas, anstataŭ skribi aŭ legi. Alia ĉambro +en la domo estas tre luma kaj agrabla, sed malpli granda. Ĉi +tie staras tablo sufiĉe granda por nia tuta familio, kaj en tiu +ĉambro oni manĝas. Ofte ni restas tie longan tempon post la +manĝo, ĉar la patro rakontas interesajn rakontojn al ni, kaj +ni multe ridas, kaj demandas pri tiuj rakontoj, kaj tiel bone amuzas +nin ke mi preskaŭ forgesas pri miaj lecionoj. Tamen mi havas multe +da lecionoj por lerni, kaj ili tute ne estas facilaj. Je tre frua +horo matene mi iras al la lernejo, kun miaj fratoj kaj fratinoj. Nur +sabate kaj dimanĉe ni ne iras tien. La lernejo estas malnova kaj +malgranda, sed oni estas nun konstruanta novan pli grandan lernejon apud +nia domo. Dum la infanoj estas lernantaj siajn lecionojn tie, la patrino +kutime iras al la bakejon, por aĉeti sufiĉe da pano, por la +manĝoj de la tago. Ofte ŝi iras ankaŭ al aliaj butikoj. +Ĵaŭdon ŝi aĉetis kelke da novaj pizoj, kaj da +asparago. Vendredon ŝi aĉetis kelkajn funtojn da sukero, skatolon +da fragoj, kaj sufiĉe da kremo kaj lakto. Hodiaŭ ŝi estas +aĉetanta brasikon kaj sakon da terpomoj. Ŝi volas kuiri tre +bonan manĝon, tamen ŝi havas tro multe por fari en la kuirejo, +ĉar ŝi ne havas servistinon. +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. Who is the woman sitting on the sofa in the parlor? 2. I can not +easily see her, but I hear her voice. 3. I wonder whose voice that is. +4. However, I think that it is the voice of a friend of Mother's. 5. Now +I can see her, although she does not see me. 6. I am well acquainted +with her. 7. She is a friend of our whole family, and is visiting a +neighbor of ours (<i>najbaron nian</i>) in this city. 8. My sister is +sitting on the sofa in another room, and learning her lessons. 9. Soon +she will go to school. 10. Whose book is she reading? 11. That thick +book is mine, but the other books on the table near her are hers. 12. +She prefers to sit in the sewing-room (111) to read or write (98), +because the curtains in front of the windows are not too thick, and so +(78) that room is very light and pleasant. 13. She also likes to look at +the falling snow, and the men and women walking on the muddy streets. +14. On account of the cold weather, people are wearing thick clothes. +15. The men and boys are keeping their hands in their pockets while +they walk. 16. The girls walking toward the school are friends of my +sister's. 17. In that school they learn to cook. Soon they will be able +to bake bread, and even to cook a whole meal. 18. I think such a custom +is very good. 19. Many persons can not cook well enough (<i>sufiĉe +bone</i>). +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XXV.</b></center> + +<center>THE INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVE.</center> + +<p> +<b>112.</b> The interrogative adjective related to the interrogative +pronoun <b>kiu</b>, is <b>kia</b>, <i>what kind of</i>, <i>what sort +of</i>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Kiajn vestojn li portis?</b> <i>What sort of clothes did he wear?</i><br> +<b>Kian panon vi preferas?</b> <i>What kind of bread do you prefer?</i><br> +<b>Mi miras kia persono li estas</b>, <i>I wonder what sort of a person he is</i>.<br> +<b>Kia vetero estas?</b> <i>What sort of weather is it?</i><br> +<b>Kia plezuro!</b> <i>What a pleasure!</i> +</p> + +<center>THE IMPERFECT TENSE.</center> + +<p> +<b>113.</b> The compound tense formed by using the present active +participle with the past tense of <b>esti</b> represents an act or +condition as in progress in past time, but not perfected, and is called +the <i>imperfect tense</i>. The conjugation of <b>vidi</b> in this tense +is as follows: +</p> + +<p> +<b>mi estis vidanta</b>, <i>I was seeing</i>.<br> +<b>vi estis vidanta</b>, <i>you were seeing</i>.<br> +<b>li (ŝi, ĝi) estis vidanta</b>, <i>he (she, it) was seeing</i>.<br> +<b>ni estis vidantaj</b>, <i>we were seeing</i>.<br> +<b>vi estis vidantaj</b>, <i>you were seeing</i>.<br> +<b>ili estis vidantaj</b>, <i>they were seeing</i>. +</p> + +<center>THE PROGRESSIVE FUTURE TENSE.</center> + +<p> +<b>114.</b> The compound tense formed by using the present active +participle with the future tense of <b>esti</b> represents an +act or condition as in progress—or a condition as existing +continuously—at a future time, and is called the <i>progressive +future</i> tense. The conjugation of <b>vidi</b> in this tense is as +follows: +</p> + +<p> +<b>mi estos vidanta</b>, <i>I shall be seeing</i>.<br> +<b>vi estos vidanta</b>, <i>you will be seeing</i>.<br> +<b>li (ŝi, ĝi) estos vidanta</b>, <i>he (she, it) will be seeing</i>.<br> +<b>ni estos vidantaj</b>, <i>we shall be seeing</i>.<br> +<b>vi estos vidantaj</b>, <i>you will be seeing</i>.<br> +<b>ili estos vidantaj</b>, <i>they will be seeing</i>. +</p> + +<center>SALUTATIONS AND EXCLAMATIONS.</center> + +<b>115.</b> When the word or words expressing a salutation or +exclamation may be regarded as the direct object of a verb +which is not expressed; these words are put in the accusative +case: + +<p> +<b>Bonan matenon!</b> <i>Good morning!</i> (I wish you "good morning.")<br> +<b>Bonan nokton!</b> <i>Good night!</i> (I wish you a "good night.")<br> +<b>Multajn salutojn al via patro!</b> (I send) <i>many greetings to your father!</i><br> +<b>Dankon!</b> <i>Thanks!</i> (I give to you "thanks.")<br> +<b>Ĉielon!</b> <i>Heavens!</i> (I invoke the "heavens.") +</p> + +<center>WORD FORMATION.</center> + +<p> +<b>116.</b> The majority of roots have such a meaning that at least two +kinds of words, and often three or four, may be formed from them by +use of the general endings for verbs, nouns, adjectives and adverbs. +(Each root will hereafter be quoted but once in the vocabularies, with a +hyphen separating it from the ending with which it appears first in the +reading lesson, or with which it is most frequently used.) Following are +examples of word formation from roots already familiar: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="1" cellpadding="8"> + <tr><td align="center">Verb.</td><td align="center">Noun.</td><td align="center">Adjective.</td><td align="center">Adverb.</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap><b>brili</b>, <i>to shine</i></td><td nowrap><b>brilo</b>, <i>shine, brilliance</i></td><td nowrap><b>brila</b>, <i>shining, brilliant</i></td><td nowrap><b>brile</b>, <i>brilliantly</i></td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap><b>flori</b>, <i>to bloom</i></td><td nowrap><b>floro</b>, <i>flower, blossom</i></td><td nowrap><b>flora</b>, <i>floral</i></td><td nowrap><b>flore</b>, <i>florally</i></td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap><b>ĝoji</b>, <i>to rejoice</i></td><td nowrap><b>ĝojo</b>, <i>joy, gladness</i></td><td nowrap><b>ĝoja</b>, <i>joyful, glad</i></td><td nowrap><b>ĝoje</b>, <i>gladly</i></td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap><b>kontuzi</b>, <i>to bruise</i></td><td nowrap><b>kontuzo</b>, <i>bruise, contusion</i></td><td> </td><td> </td></tr> + <tr><td> </td><td nowrap><b>tuto</b>, <i>whole</i></td><td nowrap><b>tuta</b>, <i>entire, whole, all</i></td><td nowrap><b>tute</b>, <i>entirely</i></td></tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center><b>KONI</b> AND <b>SCII</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>117.</b> The verb <b>koni</b>, which means "to know" in the sense of "to +be acquainted with" is used in speaking of persons, languages, places, +etc. <b>Koni</b> always has a direct object. It is never followed by +<b>ke</b>, <b>ĉu</b>, <b>kiu</b>, or any other interrogative word. +<b>Scii</b> means "to know" in the sense of "to be aware," "to have +knowledge." It is not used in speaking of persons. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<b>Koni</b> is equivalent to German <i>kennen</i>, French +<i>connaitre</i>, Spanish <i>conocer</i>, while <b>scii</b> is +equivalent to German <i>wissen</i>, French <i>savoir</i>, Spanish +<i>saber</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>Ĉu vi konas tiun personon?</b> <i>Do you know that person?</i><br> +<b>Mi scias ke li estas nia najbaro</b>, <i>I know that he is our neighbor.</i><br> +<b>Mi bone konas Bostonon</b>, <i>I am well acquainted with Boston.</i><br> +<b>Mi ne scias ĉu li konas ilin</b>, <i>I do not know whether he knows them.</i> +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>av-o</b>, <i>grandfather</i>.<br> + <b>buked-o</b>, <i>bouquet</i>.<br> + <b>ekzamen-o</b>, <i>examination</i>.<br> + <b>ferm-i</b>, <i>to close</i>.<br> + <b>frap-i</b>, <i>to strike, to knock</i>.<br> + <b>geometri-o</b>, <i>geometry</i>.<br> + <b>german-a</b>, <i>German</i>.<br> + <b>hejm-o</b>, <i>home</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>kia</b>, <i>what kind of</i> (112).<br> + <b>lingv-o</b>, <i>language</i>.<br> + <b>nep-o</b>, <i>grandson</i>.<br> + <b>nu!</b> <i>Well!</i><br> + <b>paper-o</b>, <i>paper</i>.<br> + <b>salut-i</b>, <i>to greet</i>.<br> + <b>sci-i</b>, <i>to know</i> (117).<br> + <b>stud-i</b>, <i>to study</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center><b>LA NEPO VIZITAS LA AVINON.</b></center> + +<p> +Hieraŭ matene mi vizitis la avinon. Ŝia hejmo estas apud la +granda nova bakejo. Mi vidis ŝin tra la fenestro, ĉar la +kurtenoj kovrantaj ĝin estas tre maldikaj. Ŝi estis sidanta +sur la kanapo, kaj skribanta per plumo sur granda papero. Antaŭ +ol frapi sur la pordo mi vokis ŝin kaj diris "Bonan matenon, +kara avino!" Tuj ŝi demandis "Kiu estas tie? Kies voĉon mi +aŭdas?" Mi respondis "Estas via nepo. Ĉu vi ne konas mian +voĉon?" Antaŭ ol ŝi povis veni al la pordo mi estis +malfermanta ĝin. Mi iris en la salonon kaj donis al la avino +bukedon da floroj. "La patrino donas ĉi tiujn al vi, kun siaj plej +bonaj salutoj," mi diris. La avino respondis "Nu, kia plezuro! Multan +dankon al ŝi pro la bela bukedo, kaj ankaŭ al vi, ĉar +vi portis ĝin ĉi tien por mi!" Dum ŝi estis metanta la +florojn en glason da akvo la avino diris "Nu, kiajn lecionojn vi havis +hodiaŭ en la lernejo?" Mi respondis ke mi bone konis la lecionojn, +ĉar mi zorge studis ilin. "Ni estas lernantaj la germanan lingvon," +mi diris, "kaj ju pli longe ni studas ĝin, des pli multe mi +ĝin ŝatas, kvankam ĝi estas tre malfacila." Mi rakontis +ankaŭ pri la lecionoj de geometrio, kaj aliaj lecionoj, sed diris +ke la ekzamenoj estos baldaŭ komencantaj. "Je tiu tempo," mi diris, +"mi estos skribanta la respondojn al la ekzamenoj, preskaŭ la tutan +semajnon." La avino demandis kun intereso "Ĉu la demandoj de la +ekzamenoj estos malfacilaj?" Mi respondis "Mi ne scias, sed mi timas ke +ni estos tre lacaj post tiom da laboro." Post kelke da aliaj demandoj +kaj respondoj, mi opiniis ke estas la horo por foriri. Dum mi estis +foriranta, la avino diris "Multajn salutojn al la tuta familio!" Mi +dankis ŝin, diris "Bonan tagon!" kaj tiam foriris. +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. What sort of noise do I hear outside the door? 2. Are some of my +friends knocking? 3. We were talking yesterday about the examinations in +our school, and these boys came home to study with me. 4. I shall go to +the door to open it and to greet my friends. 5. Good morning! Did you +come to study geometry, or the German language? 6. Which of these is +usually more difficult, and in which will the examination be the longer? +7. Well, we brought our German books, because we prefer to study these. +8. We wish to know this language thoroughly. 9. We shall go into the +writing-room (111), for (83) some friends of my grandmother are in the +parlor. 10. We can hear their voices here, and we can not study very +well while they are talking. 11. They were carrying many flowers, and +gave a beautiful bouquet to my grandmother. 12. She said "Many thanks +for (86) the sweet violets! In whose garden did they bloom?" 13. Her +friend's granddaughter is a friend of my youngest sister. 14. Well, +shall we begin to study? Have you enough paper, and have you a good pen? +15. I shall close this other door, because they are baking bread in the +kitchen, and cooking meat. 16. We shall be hearing the voices of so many +persons that I know that we can not study. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XXVI.</b></center> + +<center>THE INTERROGATIVE ADVERB OF PLACE.</center> + +<p> +<b>118.</b> The interrogative adverb of place, related to the +interrogative pronoun <b>kiu</b> is <b>kie</b>, <i>where</i>, <i>in (at) +what place</i>. If the verb in the sentence expresses motion toward the +place indicated by <b>kie</b>, the ending <b>-n</b> is added, forming +<b>kien</b>, <i>whither</i> (<i>where</i>): +</p> + +<p> +<b>Kie li estis kaj kien oni forpelis lin?</b> <i>Where was he and whither did they drive him (away)?</i><br> +<b>Li miros kie lia nepo estas</b>, <i>he will wonder where his grandson is</i>.<br> +<b>Mi ne scias kien li kuris</b>, <i>I do not know where (whither) he ran</i>. +</p> + +<center>THE PAST ACTIVE PARTICIPLE.</center> + +<p> +<b>119.</b> The past active participle, (for the characteristics of a +participle see 108) expressing what the word modified <i>did</i> or +<i>has done</i>, ends in <b>-inta</b>, as <b>vidinta</b>, <i>having +seen</i>, <b>irinta</b>, <i>gone, having gone</i>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>La falintaj folioj estas brunaj</b>, <i>the fallen leaves are brown</i>.<br> +<b>Kiu estas la viro salutinta nin?</b> <i>who is the man having greeted (who greeted) us?</i><br> +<b>Oni forgesas la foririntajn personojn</b>, <i>one forgets the departed persons (the persons who have gone away)</i>. +</p> + +<center>ADVERB DERIVATION FROM PREPOSITIONS.</center> + +<p> +<b>120.</b> Adverbs may be derived from prepositions whose sense +permits, by use of the adverb ending <b>-e</b>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Antaŭe li studis la geometrion</b>, <i>previously he studied geometry</i>.<br> +<b>Poste li studis la germanan</b>, <i>afterwards he studied German</i>.<br> +<b>Li marŝis antaŭe, ne malantaŭe</b>, <i>he walked in front, not behind</i>.<br> +<b>Dume la viroj staris ĉirkaŭe</b>, <i>meanwhile the men stood roundabout</i>.<br> +<b>Ili venis kune kaj sidis apude</b>, <i>they came together and sat near by</i>. +</p> + +<center>ADVERBS EXPRESSING DIRECTION OF MOTION.</center> + +<p> +<b>121.</b> An adverb expressing place or direction is given the ending +<b>-n</b> when used with a verb expressing motion toward that place or +direction (<b>69</b>, <b>118</b>, etc.): +</p> + +<p> +<b>Ĉu li rajdis norden aŭ suden?</b> <i>Did he ride north or south(ward)?</i><br> +<b>Ni kuris antaŭen, ne malantaŭen</b>, <i>we ran forward, not back</i>.<br> +<b>La bukedo falis eksteren kaj suben</b>, <i>the bouquet fell out and underneath</i>.<br> +<b>Li estis marŝanta hejmen</b>, <i>he was walking home (homeward)</i>. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +The adverb may precede the verb and be united with it by simple +juxtaposition, if the resulting word is not too long: <b>Li +hejmeniris</b>, <i>he went home (he "home-went")</i>. <b>Ni +antaŭeniros</b>, <i>we shall advance (go forward)</i>. <b>La bukedo +subenfalis</b>, <i>the bouquet fell underneath</i>. +</p> + +<center>THE SUFFIX <b>-EG-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>122.</b> The suffix <b>-eg-</b> may be added to a root to augment or +intensify its meaning, thus forming an <i>augmentative</i> of the root: +</p> + +<p> +<b>barelego</b>, <i>hogshead</i> (from <b>barelo</b>, <i>barrel</i>).<br> +<b>bonega</b>, <i>excellent</i> (from <b>bona</b>, <i>good</i>).<br> +<b>malbonege</b>, <i>wickedly, wretchedly</i> (from <b>malbone</b>, <i>badly, poorly</i>).<br> +<b>domego</b>, <i>mansion</i> (from <b>domo</b>, <i>house</i>).<br> +<b>ploregi</b>, <i>to sob, to wail</i> (from <b>plori</b>, <i>to weep</i>).<br> +<b>treege</b>, <i>exceedingly</i> (from <b>tre</b>, <i>very</i>). +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>aer-o</b>, <i>air.</i><br> + <b>danc-i</b>, <i>to dance.</i><br> + <b>fulm-o</b>, <i>lightning.</i><br> + <b>gut-o</b>, <i>drop</i> (of water, etc.).<br> + <b>kie</b>, <i>where</i> (118).<br> + <b>okaz-i</b>, <i>to happen, to occur.</i><br> + <b>okul-o</b>, <i>eye.</i><br> + <b>pec-o</b>, <i>piece.</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>pez-a</b>, <i>heavy.</i><br> + <b>polv-o</b>, <i>dust.</i><br> + <b>sekv-i</b>, <i>to follow.</i><br> + <b>serĉ-i</b>, <i>to hunt for, to search.</i><br> + <b>silent-a</b>, <i>still, silent.</i><br> + <b>subit-a</b>, <i>sudden.</i><br> + <b>tegment-o</b>, <i>roof.</i><br> + <b>tondr-o</b>, <i>thunder.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center><b>LA PLUVEGO.</b></center> + +<p> +Nu, kia pluvego okazis hieraŭ vespere! Post kvieta varmega mateno, +subite multaj nuboj kovris la ĉielon. La aero ŝajnis peza, kaj +estis tute silenta kelkan tempon. Tiam forte blovanta vento frapegis la +arbojn, kaj komencis fortege skui la branĉojn. Multege da polvo +kaj malgrandaj pecoj da papero dancis kaj flugis ĉirkaŭen en +la aero, kaj ankaŭ ĉielen. Falis tiam kelkaj grandaj gutoj +da pluvo, kaj ni sciis ke la pluvego estas venanta. Ni malfermis niajn +ombrelojn, kaj kuris antaŭen, por iri hejmen antaŭ ol falos +multe da pluvo. La fulmo tiel ofte brilis ke ni fermis la okulojn pro +ĝi, kaj treege ĝin timis. Preskaŭ tuj la tondro sekvis +ĝin. Tondris tiom kaj tiel laŭtege ke la bruo ŝajnis +frapi kontraŭ niajn kapojn. Tiam komencis subite pluvegi, sed je +tiu tempo ni estis preskaŭ sub la tegmento de nia domo. Dume la +vento pli kaj pli blovegis, kaj ju pli forte ĝi blovis, des pli +peze la gutoj da pluvo falis teren, kun multege da bruo. Mi opinias +ke mi malofte antaŭe vidis tian pluvegon. La sekvintan tagon mi +promenis tre frue, kaj vidis ke la pordego al la ĝardeno de mia avo +estas kuŝanta sur la tero. Apude mi vidis ventoflagon falintan de +la tegmento de tiu granda ĉevalejo. Velkintaj floroj kuŝis sur +la tero ĉirkaŭ mi, kaj inter ili estis branĉoj falintaj +de la arboj, ĉar la grandega forto de la vento forrompis eĉ +ĉi tiujn. Sur malgranda branĉo restis nesto, sed kie estis la +birdoj! Mi serĉis la junajn birdojn sed tute ne povis trovi ilin, +tial mi opinias ke ili forflugis antaŭ ol la ventoj forrompis de +la arbo ilian malgrandan hejmon. Mi ne scias kien ili flugis, sed mi +opinias ke ili flugis suden al la arboj en tiu granda kampo trans la +rivero. +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. While we were walking home (121) from school yesterday, it rained +very suddenly. 2. What a storm it was! 3. We were talking about the +lessons in geometry, and were looking at these books about the German +language. 4. So we did not see the clouds in (on) the sky. 5. Well, we +forgot about examinations and began to wonder where to go. 6. We did +not know whether we had enough time to run even to Grandfather's house +before it would rain. 7. Many papers fell out of our books, and the +wind caught them. 8. The wind chased them away from us, and they seemed +to dance around in the air. 9. However, we easily caught and gathered +them, and then we ran forward. 10. Suddenly it thundered very loudly, +and we saw the brilliant lightning in the sky. 11. We almost closed our +eyes for the lightning. 12. Big drops of rain fell heavily and struck +the dust violently. 13. The air was heavy and still then, and the storm +immediately followed the few drops of rain. 14. We hastened across the +street, and ran faster and faster. 15. We were exhausted (<b>122</b>) +and our clothes were exceedingly wet before we were in the house. 16. +The rain was dropping from the roof, but we ran through it, and knocked +on the door. 17. We rested some time here, before going home. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XXVII.</b></center> + +<center>THE INTERROGATIVE TEMPORAL ADVERB</center> + +<p> +<b>123.</b> The interrogative temporal adverb, related to the +interrogative pronoun <b>kiu</b>, is <b>kiam</b>, <i>when, at what +time?</i> +</p> + +<p> +<b>Kiam li serĉos min?</b> <i>When will he look for me?</i><br> +<b>Oni miras kiam li venos</b>, <i>they wonder when he is coming (will come).</i><br> +<b>Kiam falis tiuj gutoj da pluvo?</b> <i>When did those drops of rain fall?</i> +</p> + +<center>THE PERFECT TENSE.</center> + +<p> +<b>124.</b> The compound tense formed by using the past active +participle with the present tense of <b>esti</b> is called the +<i>perfect tense</i>. It differs from the aoristic past tense +(<b>35</b>) and from the imperfect (<b>113</b>) by expressing an act +or condition as definitely completed or perfected. The conjugation of +<b>vidi</b> in the perfect tense is as follows: +</p> + +<p> +<b>mi estas vidinta</b>, <i>I have seen (I am having-seen)</i>.<br> +<b>vi estas vidinta</b>, <i>you have seen (you are having-seen)</i>.<br> +<b>li (ŝi, ĝi) estas vidinta</b>, <i>he (she, it) has seen (is having-seen)</i>.<br> +<b>ni estas vidintaj</b>, <i>we have seen (we are having-seen)</i>.<br> +<b>vi estas vidintaj</b>, <i>you have seen (you are having-seen)</i>.<br> +<b>ili estas vidintaj</b>, <i>they have seen (they are having-seen)</i>. +</p> + +<center>THE PREPOSITION <b>ĈE</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>125.</b> The general situation of a person, object or action is +expressed by the use of the preposition <b>ĉe</b>, <i>at, at the +house of, in the region or land of, among, with</i>, etc.: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Li staris silente ĉe la pordego</b>, <i>he stood silently at the gate</i>.<br> +<b>Li loĝas ĉe mia avo</b>, <i>he lives (dwells) at my grandfather's</i>.<br> +<b>Ili estas ĉe la lernejo</b>, <i>they are at the school</i>.<br> +<b>Li restos ĉe amikoj</b>, <i>he will stay with (at the house of) friends</i>.<br> +<b>Li vizitos ĉe ni morgaŭ</b>, <i>he will visit at-our-house tomorrow</i>. +</p> + +<center>THE SUFFIX <b>-AR-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>126.</b> Words expressing a collection, group or assemblage of +similar persons or things, as <i>forest</i> (collection of trees), +<i>army</i> (assemblage of soldiers), etc., may be formed by the use +of the suffix <b>-ar-</b>. This suffix may itself be used as a root to +form <b>aro</b>, <i>group, flock</i>, etc., <b>are</b>, <i>in a group, +by throngs</i>, etc. Words formed with the suffix <b>-ar-</b> are called +collectives: +</p> + +<p> +<b>arbaro</b>, <i>forest</i> (from <b>arbo</b>, <i>tree</i>).<br> +<b>ĉevalaro</b>, <i>herd of horses</i> (from <b>ĉevalo</b>, <i>horse</i>).<br> +<b>kamparo</b>, <i>country</i> (from <b>kampo</b>, <i>field</i>).<br> +<b>libraro</b>, <i>collection of books, library</i> (from <b>libro</b>, <i>book</i>).<br> +<b>amikaro</b>, <i>circle of friends</i> (from <b>amiko</b>, <i>friend</i>). +</p> + +<center><b>TEMPO</b> AND <b>FOJO</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>127.</b> The general word for "time" in the sense of duration, +or suitability (as "the proper time"), is <b>tempo</b>. The word +<b>fojo</b>, <i>time, occasion</i>, refers to the performance or +occurrence of an act or event, in repetition or series: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Mi ne havas multe da tempo</b>, <i>I have not much time</i>.<br> +<b>Li venis multajn fojojn, kaj la lastan fojon li restis longan tempon</b>, <i>he came many times, and the last time he remained a long time</i>.<br> +<b>Kelkajn fojojn laŭte tondris</b>, <i>several times it thundered loudly</i>.<br> +<b>Multe da fojoj ni fermis la okulojn pro la fulmo</b>, <i>many times we closed our eyes on account of the lightning</i>. +</p> + +<center>THE ORTHOGRAPHY OF PROPER NOUNS.</center> + +<p> +<b>128.</b> Proper nouns, that is, nouns which are names of persons, +cities, countries, etc., are given Esperanto spelling if they are names +of continents, countries, large or very well-known cities, or if they +are first (Christian) names of persons, as <b>Azio</b>, <i>Asia</i>, +<b>Skotlando</b>, <i>Scotland</i>, <b>Bostono</b>, <i>Boston</i>, +<b>Johano</b>, <i>John</i>, <b>Mario</b>, <i>Mary</i>. Surnames and +names of places which are small or not well known are more often +quoted in the national spelling. The pronunciation may be indicated in +parentheses, as <b>Mt. Vernon</b> (<b>Maŭnt Vernon</b>), <b>Roberto +Bruce</b> (<b>Brus</b>), <b>Martinique</b> (<b>Martinik'</b>), etc. +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>arane-o</b>, <i>spider</i>.<br> + <b>Azi-o</b>, <i>Asia</i>.<br> + <b>ĉe</b>, <i>at</i> (125).<br> + <b>fin-o</b>, <i>end, ending</i>.<br> + <b>foj-o</b>, <i>time, instance</i> (127).<br> + <b>kiam</b>, <i>when</i> (123).<br> + <b>pacienc-o</b>, <i>patience</i>.<br> + <b>pied-o</b>, <i>foot</i>.<br> + <b>plafon-o</b>, <i>ceiling</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>ramp-i</b>, <i>to crawl</i>.<br> + <b>rekt-a</b>, <i>direct, straight</i>.<br> + <b>rimark-i</b>, <i>to notice</i>.<br> + <b>send-i</b>, <i>to send</i>.<br> + <b>Skotland-o</b>, <i>Scotland</i>.<br> + <b>soldat-o</b>, <i>soldier</i>.<br> + <b>sukces-i</b>, <i>to succeed</i>.<br> + <b>supr-e</b>, <i>above</i>.<br> + <b>venk-i</b>, <i>to conquer</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center><b>ROBERTO BRUCE KAJ LA ARANEO.</b></center> + +<p> +Oni rakontas la sekvantan interesan rakonton pri Roberto Bruce, +reĝo antaŭ multaj jaroj en Skotlando. Okazis ke li estis +rigardanta la soldataron de siaj malamikoj, de la fenestro de granda +ĉevalejo. Por povi rigardi plej facile, kaj ankaŭ por sin +kaŝi, li forsendis siajn soldatojn kaj restis la tutan tagon sub +tiu tegmento. Kvankam la ĉevalejo estis granda ĝi estis +malnova, kaj li opiniis ke la malamikoj ne serĉos lin tie. Je +la fino de la tago li subite rimarkis araneon sur la muro apud si. +La araneo estis rampanta supren, sed baldaŭ ĝi falis en +la polvon ĉe liaj piedoj. Tuj la falinta araneo komencis alian +fojon supren rampi. Alian fojon ĝi falis teren, sed post ne longe +ĝi komencis rampi alian fojon. "Kia pacienco!" diris la reĝo +al si. "Mi ne sciis ke la araneo havas tiel multe da pacienco! Sed +kien ĝi nun estas falinta?" Li rigardis ĉirkaŭen +kaj fine (<i>finally</i>) li vidis la falintan araneon. Kun granda +surprizo li rimarkis ke ĝi estas komencanta supren rampi. +Multajn fojojn ĝi supren rampis, kaj tiom da fojoj ĝi falis +malsupren. Fine, tamen, ĝi sukcese rampis ĝis la plafono. La +reĝo malfermis la buŝon pro surprizo, kaj diris al si "Kiam +antaŭe mi vidis tiom da pacienco! Mi opinias ke la fina sukceso +de tiu malgranda araneo donas al mi bonegan lecionon. Mi estas ofte +malsukcesinta, sed malpli ofte ol tiu araneo sur la muro. Mi estas +perdinta multe da soldatoj, kaj la malamikoj estas venkintaj multajn +fojojn, ĉar ili havas multe pli grandan nombron da soldatoj. +Tamen, mi estos pacienca, ĉar oni ne scias kiam li fine sukcesos." +La sekvintan tagon, la reĝo Roberto Bruce komencis treege labori +kontraŭ siaj malamikoj. Post mallonga tempo li bone sukcesis, +kaj tute venkis la malamikoj en granda venko ĉe Bannockburn +(Banokb'rn). +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. Although the enemies of Robert Bruce conquered him many times, he +finally conquered them in Scotland, because he was patient and very +courageous. 2. He was sitting in a large stable, to hide (himself), and +also in order to (98) look directly from its roof (at) the soldiery +(126) of the enemy. 3. At the end of the day he noticed a spider +crawling up (ward) on the wall. 4. The spider fell suddenly into the +dust and lay at the king's feet, but soon began to crawl up. 5. "Where +does it wish to go?" said the king to himself. 6. "What patience it +shows! It has crawled up and fallen down a great many times." 7. Finally +however the spider succeeded, and crawled up to the ceiling. 8. The +king said that he had learned a lesson from the patient spider. 9. He +said "Although the enemy have conquered many times, because they have a +larger number of soldiers, I shall finally succeed against them." 10. +Soon it happened that the wind blew violently, and a rainstorm occurred. +11. The blast shook the foliage (126) on the trees, and broke away many +small branches. 12. A group of soldiers ran right (<i>rekte</i>) toward +the stable, and Robert Bruce was much afraid that they would find him. +13. But they merely stole the horses there, and rode away. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XXVIII.</b></center> + +<center>THE INTERROGATIVE ADVERB OF MOTIVE OR REASON.</center> + +<p> +<b>129.</b> The interrogative adverb of motive or reason related to the +interrogative pronoun <b>kiu</b> is <b>kial</b>, <i>why, wherefore, for +what reason</i>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Kial la araneo supren rampis?</b> <i>why did the spider crawl up?</i><br> +<b>Mi demandos kial li rimarkis ĝin</b>, <i>I will ask why he noticed it.</i> +</p> + +<center>THE INFINITIVE AS SUBJECT.</center> + +<p> +<b>130.</b> The infinitive may be used as the subject of a verb. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<i>Cf</i>. the complementary infinitive (28), equivalent to the object +of a verb, and the use of the infinitive after the prepositions +<b>por</b>, <b>anstataŭ</b>, <b>antaŭ ol</b> (98). +</p> + +<p> +Any modifier of the infinitive is necessarily adverbial. An indefinite +personal object (or pronominal complement of a preposition) after +an infinitive used as subject is expressed by the reflexive pronoun +<b>si</b>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Promeni estas granda plezuro</b>, <i>to go walking is a great pleasure</i>.<br> +<b>Promeni estas agrable</b>, <i>to go walking is pleasant</i>.<br> +<b>Ĉu estas facile rigardi la plafonon?</b> <i>Is it easy to look at the ceiling?</i><br> +<b>Estas bone sin helpi</b>, <i>it is well to help oneself</i>.<br> +<b>Paroli al si estas malsaĝe</b>, <i>to talk to oneself is silly</i>. +</p> + +<center>PRESENT ACTION WITH PAST INCEPTION.</center> + +<p> +<b>131.</b> A present act or state which began in the past is expressed +by the present tense (instead of by the past as in English): +</p> + +<p> +<b>Mi estas ĉi tie de lundo</b>, <i>I have been (I am) here since Monday</i>.<br> +<b>De Marto mi studas tiun lingvon</b>, <i>since March I have been (I am) studying that language</i>.<br> +<b>Ili estas amikoj de tiu tago</b>, <i>they have been (they are) friends from that day</i>.<br> +<b>Ni loĝas tie de antaŭ kelkaj monatoj</b>, <i>we have been living (we are living) here since some months ago</i>. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<i>Cf.</i> German <i>er ist schon lange hier</i>, he has already been +here a long time, French <i>je suis ici depuis deux ans</i>, I have been +here two years, etc. +</p> + +<center>THE SUFFIX <b>-UL-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>132.</b> The suffix <b>-ul-</b> is used to form nouns indicating +a person characterized by or possessing the distinguishing trait, +character or quality in the root: +</p> + +<p> +<b>junulo</b>, <i>a youth, a young man</i> (from <b>juna</b>, <i>young</i>).<br> +<b>belulino</b>, <i>a beauty, a belle</i> (from <b>bela</b>, <i>beautiful</i>).<br> +<b>maljunulo</b>, <i>an old man</i> (from <b>maljuna</b>, <i>old</i>).<br> +<b>saĝulo</b>, <i>a sage, a wise man</i> (from <b>saga</b>, <i>wise</i>).<br> +<b>malriĉulino</b>, <i>a poor woman</i> (from <b>malriĉa</b>, <i>poor</i>). +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<i>Cf</i>. the English adjectives <i>quer-ul-ous</i>, <i>cred-ul-ous</i>, +<i>garr-ul-ous</i>, etc., and the Latin nouns <i>fam-ul-us</i>, a servant, +<i>fig-ul-us</i>, a potter, and <i>leg-ul-us</i>, a gatherer. +</p> + +<center><b>LOĜI</b> AND <b>VIVI</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>133.</b> The verb <b>loĝi</b>, <i>to reside, to dwell, to +lodge</i>, must not be confused with <b>vivi</b>, which means <i>to +live</i> in the sense of "to be alive:" +</p> + +<p> +<b>Li loĝas apude</b>, <i>he lives near by</i>.<br> +<b>Li vivis longan tempon</b>, <i>he lived a long time</i>.<br> +<b>Vivi feliĉe estas pli bone ol loĝi riĉe</b>, <i>to live happily is better than to live (lodge) richly</i>. +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>afabl-a</b>, <i>amiable, affable</i>.<br> + <b>afer-o</b>, <i>thing, matter, affair</i>.<br> + <b>balanc-i</b>, <i>to balance, to nod</i>.<br> + <b>barb-o</b>, <i>beard</i>.<br> + <b>batal-o</b>, <i>battle</i>.<br> + <b>brov-o</b>, <i>eyebrow</i>.<br> + <b>bukl-o</b>, <i>curl</i> (of hair).<br> + <b>har-o</b>, <i>hair</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>kial</b>, <i>why</i> (129).<br> + <b>mejl-o</b>, <i>mile</i>.<br> + <b>okulhar-o</b>, <i>eyelash</i>.<br> + <b>okulvitr-oj</b>, <i>spectacles</i>.<br> + <b>pens-i</b>, <i>to think, to ponder</i>.<br> + <b>vang-o</b>, <i>cheek</i>.<br> + <b>verand-o</b>, <i>porch, veranda</i>.<br> + <b>viv-i</b>, <i>to live</i> (133). + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center><b>PRI LA AVO KAJ LA AVINO.</b></center> + +<p> +Mia avo estas tre afabla persono. Li estas maljunulo kun blankaj haroj +kaj blanka barbo. Li havas bluajn okulojn, kaj la brovoj super ili +estas eĉ pli blankaj ol liaj haroj. Kvankam li loĝas en nia +vilaĝo de antaŭ kelkaj jaroj, li antaŭe loĝis en +Skotlando. Antaŭ multaj jaroj li estis soldato, kaj li ofte parolas +al mi pri la bataloj kaj venkoj de tiu tempo. Sidi kviete sur la verando +kaj rakonti tiajn rakontojn al la nepo ŝajne donas al li multe da +plezuro. Multajn fojojn je la fino de la tago li sidas tie, kaj parolas +pri tiaj aferoj ĝis malfrua horo de la vespero. Sidi ĉe liaj +piedoj kaj aŭdi liajn rakontojn estas tre interese al mi. Komence, +dum mi estas ĉe li, mi kutime demandas "Ĉu oni sukcesis en +tiu batalo?" Tuj li balancas la kapon kaj komencas pacience rakonti pri +la venkoj kaj malvenkoj (<i>defeats</i>). Li malofte respondas "Mi ne +scias," al miaj demandoj "Kiam," kaj "Kial." Kelkajn fojojn li diras "Mi +havas tiun opinion, sed mi ne bone scias pri la tuta afero, kaj mi miras +ĉu aliaj personoj scias pli bone." Ĉar li estas multe studinta +kaj pensinta, liaj opinioj estas treege interesaj. Li ĝojas tial +ke mi demandas pri aferoj okazintaj (<i>things that have happened</i>), +ĉar tiaj demandoj montras ke mi ankaŭ pensas pri ili. Mia +avino estas malgranda, kun belaj bukloj da tute blankaj haroj. Ŝi +havas belajn brunajn okulojn, kun longaj nigraj okulharoj. Oni diras +ke antaŭ multaj jaroj ŝi estis belulino. Eĉ nun estas +plezure rigardi ŝin, kaj vidi ŝiajn ruĝajn vangojn. De +antaŭ kelkaj jaroj ŝi portas okulvitrojn por legi aŭ +skribi aŭ kudri, kaj ŝi bezonas ripozon post malmulte da +laboro. Promeno de eĉ mejlo estas tro longa nun por la avino. +Oni diras ke ŝi ne vivos tre longan tempon, kaj tia penso donas +malĝojon al ni, ĉar ni treege amas la afablan paciencan +avinon. +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. Our grandfather is an old man, and they say that he will not live +much longer. 2. He is not very strong, and can not take (<i>fari</i>) +long walks. 3. The mile between his house and ours now seems long to +him. 4. He prefers to sit quietly in the house or on the veranda, and +think, nearly all day long (the whole day). 5. He is very amiable, +and can tell exceedingly interesting stories, about the victories and +defeats which happened (119) many years ago. 6. Such things are wicked I +think, and I am very glad that (83) such battles do not happen now. 7. +Grandfather has a long white beard and much white hair. 8. It is very +interesting to hear his stories, and also to look directly at him while +he is telling them. 9. He tells such stories with great pleasure. 10. +Although he has lived with (125) us since February (131), he does not +know (117) a great many of the neighbors, or of the other persons living +(133) near. 11. Grandmother has blue eyes, red cheeks, and soft white +curls. 12. She speaks slowly, with a sweet voice, and is very patient. +13. Today she said to me "Good morning, my dear (132), I have lost my +spectacles. Will you look-for them for me?" I nodded (the head) and soon +found the spectacles. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XXIX.</b></center> + +<center>THE INTERROGATIVE ADVERB OF MANNER AND DEGREE.</center> + +<p> +<b>134.</b> The interrogative adverb of manner or degree, related to the +interrogative pronoun <b>kiu</b>, is <b>kiel</b>, <i>how, in what way, +to what degree:</i> +</p> + +<p> +<b>Kiel oni vivas en tia aero?</b> <i>How do people live in such air?</i><br> +<b>Kiel afabla ŝi estas!</b> <i>How amiable she is!</i><br> +<b>Mi miras kiel la batalo okazis</b>, <i>I wonder how the battle happened.</i><br> +<b>Kiel longe li pensis pri ĝi?</b> <i>How long did he think about it?</i> +</p> + +<center>THE PLUPERFECT TENSE.</center> + +<p> +<b>135.</b> The compound tense formed by combining the past active +participle with the past tense of <b>esti</b> represents an act or +condition as having been completed at some time in the past, and is +called the <i>pluperfect tense</i>. The conjugation of <b>vidi</b> in +this tense is as follows: +</p> + +<p> +<b>mi estis vidinta</b>, <i>I had seen (I was having-seen).</i><br> +<b>vi estis vidinta</b>, <i>you had seen (you were having-seen).</i><br> +<b>li (ŝi, ĝi) estis vidinta</b>, <i>he (she, it) had seen (was having-seen).</i><br> +<b>ni estis vidintaj</b>, <i>we had seen (we were having-seen).</i><br> +<b>vi estis vidintaj</b>, <i>you had seen (you were having-seen).</i><br> +<b>ili estis vidintaj</b>, <i>they had seen (they were having-seen).</i> +</p> + +<center>CARDINAL NUMERALS.</center> + +<p> +<b>136.</b> Cardinals are numeral adjectives which answer the question +"How many?" The cardinals from one to twelve are as follows: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>unu</b>, <i>one.</i><br> + <b>du</b>, <i>two.</i><br> + <b>tri</b>, <i>three.</i><br> + <b>kvar</b>, <i>four.</i><br> + <b>kvin</b>, <i>five.</i><br> + <b>ses</b>, <i>six.</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>sep</b>, <i>seven.</i><br> + <b>ok</b>, <i>eight.</i><br> + <b>naŭ</b>, <i>nine.</i><br> + <b>dek</b>, <i>ten.</i><br> + <b>dek unu</b>, <i>eleven.</i><br> + <b>dek du</b>, <i>twelve.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<p> +<b>137.</b> With the exception of <b>unu</b>, none of the cardinals may +receive the plural ending <b>-j</b> or the accusative ending <b>-n</b>. +That is, they are invariable in form. <b>Unuj</b> may be used to mean +<i>some</i> in contrast to <b>aliaj</b>, <i>others:</i> +</p> + +<p> +<b>Unuj marŝis</b>, aliaj kuris, <i>some walked, others ran.</i><br> +<b>Mi prenis unujn kaj lasis la aliajn</b>, <i>I took some and left the others.</i> +</p> + +<p> +<b>138.</b> The preposition <b>el</b> is used after numeral adjectives +expressing a number <i>out of</i> some larger number or quantity: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Ses el la knaboj venis</b>, <i>six of the boys came.</i><br> +<b>Ok el tiuj libroj estas la miaj</b>, <i>eight of those books are mine.</i><br> +<b>El tiuj ĉapeloj mi ŝatas nur unu</b>, <i>of those hats I like only one.</i> +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +The cardinal <b>unu</b> must not be used in the sense of the English +pronominal "one," as in <i>I am searching for a book, but not the one on +the table</i>, which should be translated <b>Mi serĉas libron, sed +ne tiun sur la tablo.</b> +</p> + +<center>THE ACCUSATIVE OF MEASURE.</center> + +<p> +<b>139.</b> A substantive in the accusative case may be used, instead +of a prepositional phrase or an adverb, not only to express measure +(duration) of time (91), but also to express measure of weight, price, +length, etc.: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Li marŝis dek unu mejlojn</b>, <i>he walked eleven miles</i>.<br> +<b>La parko estas larĝa tri mejlojn, kaj longa kvar mejlojn</b>, <i>the park is three miles wide and four miles long</i>.<br> +<b>La tablo pezas dek du funtojn</b>, <i>the table weighs (is heavy) twelve pounds</i>. +</p> + +<center><b>NIA FAMILIO.</b></center> + +<p> +Mi rakontos al vi kian familion ni havas. Ni estas ses personoj kaj ni +loĝas en ĉi tiu domo de antaŭ preskaŭ kvar jaroj. +Antaŭ ol veni ĉi tien al la urbo, ni estis loĝintaj +tri jarojn en kvieta vilaĝo en la kamparo. Mia patro estas alta, +kun grizaj haroj kaj griza barbo. Kvankam li ne estas riĉulo, li +tamen havas sufiĉe da mono por vivi kontente kaj feliĉe. Li +ŝatas marŝi, kaj ofte li estas marŝinta kvin aŭ ses +mejlojn por unu promeno. Unu fojon mi demandis "Kiel vi povas marŝi +tiel multe?" Li respondis "Dum mi estis junulo mi estis soldato, kaj +tiam mi estis tre multe marŝanta. Tial mi ne forgesas la plezurojn +de longaj promenoj." La patrino estas malpli alta ol mi, kaj kiel bluajn +okulojn ŝi havas, sub nigraj okulharoj kaj nigraj brovoj! Ŝiaj +haroj estas nigraj kaj buklaj, kaj ŝiaj vangoj estas ruĝaj. +Ŝi havas dolĉan voĉon, kaj estas plezuro aŭdi +ŝiajn kantojn. Por legi aŭ skribi ŝi kutime portas +okulvitrojn. Mi havas du fratojn kaj unu fratinon. La fratino havas dek +unu jarojn. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +Like French and some other languages, Esperanto commonly uses the verb +<i>to have</i> rather than the verb <i>to be</i>, in expressing age: Li +havas sep jarojn, <i>he is seven years old (he has seven years)</i>. +Mi havis dek jarojn tiam, <i>I was ten years old (I had ten years) +then</i>. +</p> + +<p> +Unu el la fratoj havas ok jarojn, la alia havas dek du jarojn. Ili povas +bonege kuri, rajdi, kaj fari aliajn interesajn aferojn. Ili lernis +siajn lecionojn en la lernejo tiel bone ke ses fojojn en unu monato +oni laŭdis ilin. Ni multe ĝojis pri tiom da laŭdo por +la fratoj. La fratino estas malpli forta, tamen ŝi ofte promenas +kun ni eĉ du aŭ tri mejlojn. La avino ankaŭ loĝas +ĉe ni de antaŭ sep aŭ ok jaroj. Unu el ni kutime restas +ĉe la hejmo kun ŝi, dum la aliaj promenas, ĉar ŝi ne +estas sufiĉe forta por marŝi eĉ unu mejlon. Mi ofte miras +kial ŝi preferas sidi sur la verando, kaj mi demandas al ŝi +"Ĉu vi estas tro laca por marŝi?" Ŝi kutime balancas la +kapon kaj diras "Jes, mia nepo, mi estas tro laca." +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. Three and four make seven. 2. Two and six make eight. Five and six +make eleven. 3. Seven and five make twelve. 4. I have been studying +geometry since five months ago, and German since January. 5. I have read +three German books, but I shall not be able to talk in this language +until after August. 6. To learn how to speak such a language is a +difficult matter. 7. Nine of the children in our school are now studying +German with me. 8. Some learn it easily, others do not like it. 9. Three +of the boys and two of the girls in that school are German. 10. They +had resided four years in a large city, but I think (that) they live +more contentedly in our quiet village. 11. They can not talk with us +very well, but merely nod their heads when we talk to them. 12. I had +not seen them before they came to school, although they are neighbors +of ours. 13. They are amiable children, with blue eyes, red cheeks, and +yellow hair. 14. They can ride very well, and often ride eight or ten +miles in one day. 15. They usually ride in a park three miles wide and +four miles long, where there is but little (<i>nur malmulte da</i>) +dust. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XXX.</b></center> + +<center>THE INTERROGATIVE ADVERB OF QUANTITY.</center> + +<p> +<b>140.</b> The interrogative adverb of quantity related to the +interrogative pronoun <b>kiu</b> is <b>kiom</b>, <i>how much, how +many</i>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Kiom da tempo vi ripozis?</b> <i>How much time did you rest?</i><br> +<b>Kiom da sukero kaj kiom da fragoj vi aĉetis?</b> <i>How much sugar and how many strawberries did you buy?</i><br> +<b>Ni miras kiom da mono li havos</b>, <i>we wonder how much money he will have</i>.<br> +<b>Kiom de la leciono vi lernis?</b> <i>How much of the lesson did you learn?</i> +</p> + +<center>MODIFIERS OF IMPERSONALLY USED VERBS.</center> + +<p> +<b>141.</b> Any modifier of an impersonal verb (<b>50</b>) or of a +verb used impersonally, that is, with an infinitive or clause for its +subject, or without any definitely expressed or personal subject (as in +"it is cold," "it seems too early"), must necessarily be adverbial: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Estas varme en la domo</b>, <i>it is warm in the house.</i><br> +<b>Estos malvarme morgaŭ</b>, <i>it will be cold tomorrow.</i><br> +<b>Estas bone ke li venis</b>, <i>it is well that he came.</i><br> +<b>Estas amuze ke ni forgesis lin</b>, <i>it is amusing that we forgot him.</i><br> +<b>Ke vi venis estis tre saĝe</b>, <i>that you came was very wise.</i><br> +<b>Estos pli agrable en la salono</b>, <i>it will be pleasanter in the parlor.</i> +</p> + +<center>FORMATION OF CARDINAL NUMERALS.</center> + +<p> +<b>142.</b> The cardinal numerals for the tens, hundreds and thousands +are formed by prefixing <b>du</b>, <b>tri</b>, <b>kvar</b>, etc., to +<b>dek</b>, <i>ten</i>, <b>cent</b>, <i>hundred</i>, and <b>mil</b>, +<i>thousand</i>, respectively. +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellpadding="8"> + <tr><td nowrap colspan="2" align="center">Tens.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>dudek</b>, <i>twenty</i>.<br> + <b>tridek</b>, <i>thirty</i>.<br> + <b>kvardek</b>, <i>forty</i>.<br> + <b>kvindek</b>, <i>fifty</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>sesdek</b>, <i>sixty</i>.<br> + <b>sepdek</b>, <i>seventy</i>.<br> + <b>okdek</b>, <i>eighty</i>.<br> + <b>naŭdek</b>, <i>ninety</i>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr><td nowrap align="center">Hundreds.</td><td nowrap align="center">Thousands.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>ducent</b>, <i>two hundred</i>.<br> + <b>kvincent</b>, <i>five hundred</i>.<br> + <b>sepcent</b>, <i>seven hundred</i>, etc. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>trimil</b>, <i>three thousand</i>.<br> + <b>kvarmil</b>, <i>four thousand</i>.<br> + <b>sesmil</b>, <i>six thousand</i>, etc. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<p> +<b>143.</b> The cardinals between ten and twenty, twenty and thirty, +etc., are formed by placing <b>unu, du, tri</b>, etc., after <b>dek, +dudek, tridek</b>, etc. (<i>Cf</i>. <b>dek unu</b>, <i>eleven</i>, +<b>dek du</b>, <i>twelve</i>, <b>136</b>): +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>dek kvar</b>, <i>fourteen</i>.<br> + <b>dek naŭ</b>, <i>nineteen</i>.<br> + <b>dudek tri</b>, <i>twenty-three</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>tridek kvin</b>, <i>thirty-five</i>.<br> + <b>sepdek ok</b>, <i>seventy-eight</i>.<br> + <b>naŭdek ses</b>, <i>ninety-six</i>, etc. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<p> +<b>144.</b> Cardinals containing more than two figures begin with the +largest number and descend regularly, as in English: +</p> + +<p> +<b>cent tridek kvin</b>, <i>one hundred and thirty-five</i>.<br> +<b>kvarcent naŭdek sep</b>, <i>four hundred and ninety-seven</i>.<br> +<b>sescent du</b>, <i>six hundred and two</i>.<br> +<b>mil okdek</b>, <i>one thousand and eighty</i>.<br> +<b>mil naucent dek du</b>, <i>one thousand nine hundred and twelve (nineteen hundred and twelve)</i>. +</p> + +<center>THE SUFFIX <b>-AN-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>145.</b> The suffix <b>-an-</b> is used to form words indicating an +inhabitant or resident of the place denoted by the root, or a member +or adherent of the party, organization, etc., denoted by the root. The +suffix <b>-an-</b> may itself be used as a root, forming <b>ano</b>, +<i>member</i>, etc. +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>bostonano</b>, <i>Bostonian</i>.<br> + <b>kamparano</b>, <i>countryman, peasant</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>domano</b>, <i>inmate of a house</i>.<br> + <b>vilaĝano</b>, <i>villager</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<p class="footnote"> +<i>Cf</i>. English <i>urb-an</i>, <i>suburb-an</i>, <i>Rom-an</i>, +<i>republic-an</i>, <i>Mohammed-an</i>, etc. +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>aritmetik-o</b>, <i>arithmetic.</i><br> + <b>cent</b>, <i>hundred</i> (142).<br> + <b>erar-o</b>, <i>error, mistake.</i><br> + <b>grad-o</b>, <i>grade, degree. </i><br> + <b>kalkul-i</b>, <i>to calculate, to reckon.</i><br> + <b>kiom</b>, <i>how much (140).</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>memor-i</b>, <i>to remember.</i><br> + <b>mil</b>, <i>thousand</i> (142).<br> + <b>minut-o</b>, <i>minute.</i><br> + <b>ricev-i</b>, <i>to receive.</i><br> + <b>sekund-o</b>, <i>second.</i><br> + <b>superjar-o</b>, <i>leap-year.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center><b>LECIONO PRI ARITMETIKO.</b></center> + +<p> +Estas malvarme hodiaŭ, kaj tute ne agrable ekster la domo. La +urbanoj ne estas promenantaj en la parko, ĉar ili preferas resti +en la domoj. Mi ankaŭ restis en la domo, kaj parolis al mia +juna frato. Mi helpis lin pri la leciono en aritmetiko, tial ke li +baldaŭ havos ekzamenojn, kaj li volas esti preta por skribi tre +bonajn respondojn. Mi demandis al li "Kiom faras dek tri kaj dek kvar?" +Li respondis ke tiuj faras dudek sep. Tiam mi demandis kiom faras +dudek unu kaj tridek kvar. Li kalkulis kvin aŭ ses sekundojn, +per mallaŭta voĉo, kaj diris "Ili faras kvindek kvin." Mi +demandis kiom faras ducent tri kaj sepcent ok, kaj li respondis ke ili +faras naŭcent dek unu. Li tute ne faris erarojn al mi, kaj fine mi +diris al li ke li povas bonege kalkuli. Mi opinias ke li ricevos bonan +gradon en la ekzamenoj. Post kelkaj minutoj ni komencis paroli pri aliaj +aferoj. Mi demandis "Kiom da tagoj en la monato septembro?" La frato +respondis "Septembro, novembro, aprilo kaj junio havas tridek tagojn. +Kvankam tiuj monatoj havas tiom da tagoj, la aliaj monatoj havas tridek +unu tagojn. Sed la monato februaro havas nur dudek ok tagojn." Estas +interese lerni pri ĉi tiu monato februaro. Dum tri jaroj ĝi +havas dudek ok tagojn, sed en la sekvanta jaro ĝi havas dudek +naŭ tagojn. La jaro havanta tian februaron estas la "superjaro." +Mi rakontis tiun interesan aferon al la frato, kaj li diris ke li bone +memoros ĝin. Li diris ke li ne antaŭe sciis pri la superjaro. +Li ne sciis ke la superjaro havas tricent sesdek ses tagojn, kvankam +la aliaj jaroj havas nur tricent sesdek kvin tagojn. Li diris ke li +ankaŭ memoros pri la nombro da tagoj en la superjaro, kaj ke li +rakontos la aferon al la aliaj knaboj. +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. (To be written out in full): 14, 18, 42, 86, 79, 236, 431, 687, 788, +1240, 1885, 9872, 4500, 1912. 2. There are twelve months in a year, and +in most of the months of the year there are thirty-one days. 3. There +are only thirty days in the months April, June, September and November. +4. There are seven days in a week, and twenty-four hours in a day. 5. +Twelve of these hours make the day, and the others make the night. 6. +There are sixty minutes in one hour, and sixty seconds in one minute. +7. There are four weeks and also two or three days in one month. 8. +In the year there are fifty-two weeks. 9. How many weeks are there in +ten years? 10. At least one year in ten years is a leap-year. 11. In a +leap-year there are three hundred and sixty-six days, instead of three +hundred and sixty-five. 12. Wise men calculated about this matter, many +years ago. 13. It is well for us that they liked to study arithmetic. +15. I have often received good grades in this study. 16. I remember it +easily, and seldom make mistakes. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XXXI.</b></center> + +<center>THE RELATIVE PRONOUN.</center> + +<p> +<b>146.</b> A connecting pronoun referring to something which precedes +(or follows) is called a <i>relative pronoun</i>. The person or thing to +which it refers is called its <i>antecedent.</i> The relative pronoun, +identical in form with the interrogative pronoun (106), as in English, +is <b>kiu</b>, <i>which, who.</i> +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +Sometimes English uses "that" for a relative pronoun, as "I saw the book +<i>that</i> you have." This must always be translated by <b>kiu</b>. +Likewise, English sometimes omits the relative pronoun, as "I saw the +book you have." The relative pronoun is never thus omitted in Esperanto. +</p> + +<p> +The relative pronoun agrees <i>in number</i> with its antecedent. +Whether it is in the accusative case or not depends upon its relation to +its own verb or to other words in its own clause (called the relative +clause): +</p> + +<p> +<b>La junuloj, kiuj venis, estas afablaj</b>, <i>the youths who came are amiable.</i><br> +<b>La personoj, kiujn li vidos, estas amikoj miaj</b>, <i>the persons (whom) he will see are friends of mine.</i><br> +<b>Mi kalkulis la gradon, kiun li ricevos</b>, <i>I calculated the grade (which) he will receive.</i><br> +<b>Mi memoras tiun aferon, pri kiu vi parolas</b>, <i>I remember that matter about which you speak.</i> +</p> + +<p> +<b>147.</b> Like English "whose" the genitive form <b>kies</b> of the +interrogative pronoun (107) is also used as a relative, referring to a +substantive (singular or plural) for its antecedent: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Li estas la viro, kies libron vi trovis</b>, <i>he is the man whose book you found.</i><br> +<b>Mi konas la infanojn, kies patro estas amiko via</b>, <i>I know the children whose father is a friend of yours.</i> +</p> + +<center>THE FUTURE PERFECT TENSE.</center> + +<p> +<b>148.</b> The compound tense formed by combining the past participle +with the future tense of the auxiliary verb <b>esti</b> represents +an act or condition as having been already completed or perfected at +a future time, and is called the <i>future perfect tense.</i> The +conjugation of <b>vidi</b> in this tense is as follows: +</p> + +<p> +<b>mi estos vidinta</b>, <i>I shall have seen (I shall be having-seen).</i><br> +<b>vi estos vidinta</b>, <i>you will have seen (you will be having-seen).</i><br> +<b>li (ŝi, ĝi) estos vidinta</b>, <i>he (she, it) will have seen (will be having-seen).</i><br> +<b>ni estos vidintaj</b>, <i>we shall have seen (shall be having-seen).</i><br> +<b>vi estos vidintaj</b>, <i>you will have seen (will be having-seen).</i><br> +<b>ili estos vidintaj</b>, <i>they will have seen (will be having-seen).</i> +</p> + +<center>ORDINAL NUMERALS.</center> + +<p> +<b>149.</b> Ordinal numerals are adjectives which answer the question +"Which in order?" as "first", "third", etc. They are formed by adding +the adjectival suffix <b>-a</b> to the cardinals. The various parts +of an ordinal must be connected by hyphens, since it is to the entire +cardinal, and not any part of it, that the adjective ending <b>-a</b> is +attached: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>unua</b>, <i>first.</i><br> + <b>dua</b>, <i>second.</i><br> + <b>tria</b>, <i>third.</i><br> + <b>oka</b>, <i>eighth.</i><br> + <b>dek-unua</b>, <i>eleventh.</i><br> + <b>dek-naŭa</b>, <i>nineteenth.</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>dudek-sepa</b>, <i>twenty-seventh.</i><br> + <b>kvardek-sesa</b>, <i>forty-sixth.</i><br> + <b>cent-okdek-kvina</b>, <i>hundred and eighty-fifth.</i><br> + <b>mil-okcent-kvara</b>, <i>one thousand eight hundred and fourth.</i><br> + <b>sesmil-sepa</b>, <i>six thousand and seventh.</i><br> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<p class="footnote"> +Ordinal numerals may be abbreviated thus: <b>la</b>, <i>1st</i>, +<b>2a</b>, <i>2nd</i>, <b>3a</b>, <i>3rd</i>, <b>5a</b>, <i>5th</i>, +<b>1912a</b>, <i>1912th</i>, <b>233a</b>, <i>233rd</i>, etc. If the +ordinal number is used in an accusative construction, the abbreviation +is given the accusative ending, as <b>lan</b>, <b>2an</b>, <b>3an</b>, +<b>1912an</b>, etc. +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>angl-a</b>, <i>English.</i><br> + <b>dezir-i</b>, <i>to desire.</i><br> + <b>dolar-o</b>, <i>dollar.</i><br> + <b>gajn-i</b>, <i>to win, to gain.</i><br> + <b>kost-i</b>, <i>to cost.</i><br> + <b>last-a</b>, <i>last.</i><br> + <b>latin-a</b>, <i>Latin.</i><br> + <b>mar-o</b>, <i>sea.</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>neces-a</b>, <i>necessary.</i><br> + <b>paf-i</b>, <i>to shoot.</i><br> + <b>pafark-o</b>, <i>bow</i> (for shooting).<br> + <b>part-o</b>, <i>part, share.</i><br> + <b>pen-i</b>, <i>to strive, to try.</i><br> + <b>traduk-i</b>, <i>to translate.</i><br> + <b>sag-o</b>, <i>arrow.</i><br> + <b>sam-a</b>, <i>same.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center><b>ALFREDO GRANDA KAJ LA LIBRO.</b></center> + +<p> +Antaŭ pli multe ol mil jaroj vivis Alfredo Granda, unu el la +plej interesaj personoj pri kiuj ni estas aŭdintaj. Li estis la +unua angla reĝo, kiu deziris legi librojn. Li estis ankaŭ +la lasta, kiu povis legi ilin, ĝis post multaj jaroj. Unu tagon, +dum li estis malgranda knabo kun flavaj buklaj haroj, lia patrino, +tre saĝa reĝino, montris al li kaj al liaj fratoj belegan +libron. Ŝi diris ke la libro kostis multe da mono en lando trans +la maro, kaj ke ĝi nun apartenas al ŝi. Si diris "Miaj filoj, +mi donos ĉi tiun libron al tiu el vi, kiu lernos legi ĝin. +Kiu el vi estos la unua, kiu povos legi? Tiu ricevos la libron." Nu, +Alfredo komencis studi, kaj post ne longe li gajnis la belegan libron. +Liaj fratoj eĉ ne penis gajni ĝin. Tiam oni tre malmulte +pensis pri libroj. La reĝoj kaj iliaj filoj nur malofte povis +legi, kaj treege malofte povis skribi. Oni laŭdis nur personojn, +kiuj bone rajdis kaj batalis per sagoj kaj pafarkoj. Sed oni opiniis +ke tute ne estis necese scii pri la aferoj, kiujn la libroj rakontas. +Tial Alfredo ne ricevis laŭdon pro sia deziro por legi. La sesan +aŭ sepan jaron post sia ricevo de la libro, Alfredo volis lerni +la latinan lingvon, ĉar tiam oni skribis latine (<i>in Latin</i>) +la librojn, kiuj estis plej bonaj. Oni serĉis ĝis la finoj +de la lando, kaj iris multajn mejlojn, sed preskaŭ ne povis trovi +personon, kiu eĉ estis aŭdinta pri tia lingvo. Fine oni trovis +personon por helpi Alfredon, kiu tiam lernis la latinan lingvon. Tiu +sama Alfredo estis reĝo multajn jarojn, kaj estis unu el la plej +bonaj reĝoj, kiujn la angla lando estas havinta. Alfredo skribis +librojn en la latina lingvo, kaj ankaŭ tradukis latinajn librojn en +la anglan lingvon. +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. (To be written out in full): 37th, 59th, 73rd, 92nd, 846th, 119th, +1274th, 1910th, 14235th. 2. Before my friend will have finished that +mansion (122), it will have cost twenty thousand dollars. 3. Before +coming to visit you, I shall have ridden twelve miles on my horse. 4. +The grade which you will have received in arithmetic soon after the +first of March will be excellent. 5. You do not make mistakes very +often in the lessons. 6. I shall try after a few minutes to translate +that Latin book, for (<i>ĉar</i>) it seems interesting. 7. It is +necessary to study Latin, for I desire to read the stories which are +in my Latin book. 8. The one thousand nine hundred and fourth year was +a leap-year. 9. The fourth year after that year was also a leap-year. +10. The 1912th year will be a leap-year. There are three hundred and +sixty-six days in such a year. 12. Alfred won the book which his mother +had bought. 13. Such a book now costs four or five hundred dollars. 14. +Alfred the Great was the last king until many years afterward (until +after many years) who could read or write. 15. He was the first king +in that land who even wished to be able to read books. 16. We often +talk about this same King Alfred, and say that he was the father of +the English language. 17. People say so (<i>diras tiel</i>) because he +translated Latin books into the language of his land, and because he +also wrote books in that language. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XXXII.</b></center> + +<center><b>KIA</b> AS A RELATIVE ADJECTIVE.</center> + +<p> +<b>150.</b> The interrogative adjective <b>kia</b> (112) is also used +as a relative adjective, referring back to <b>tia,</b> or to some +equivalent phrase or word indicating quality, such as <b>sama</b>, etc. +In this use it may often be translated "as", or "which": +</p> + +<p> +<b>Mi havas tian libron, kian mi volas</b>, <i>I have such a (that kind of) book as (which kind) I wish.</i><br> +<b>Tiaj amikoj, kiajn vi havas, estas afablaj</b>, <i>such friends as (of which kind) you have are amiable.</i><br> +<b>Li deziras tian ĉapelon, kia kostas ses dolarojn</b>, <i>he desires that kind of hat which (kind) costs six dollars.</i><br> +<b>Mi havas la saman deziron, kian vi</b>, <i>I have the same desire as you (same kind which you have).</i> +</p> + +<center><b>KIE</b> AS A RELATIVE ADVERB.</center> + +<p> +<b>151.</b> The interrogative adverb <b>kie</b>, <b>kien</b> (118) is +also used as a relative adverb of place with <b>tie</b>, <b>tien</b>, or +some other expression of place for its antecedent. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +Any interrogative adverb may also be used to introduce an indirect +question, thus serving as a subordinating conjunction (<i>cf.</i> +<b>ĉu</b>). +</p> + +<p> +<b>Kien</b> is used when the verb in the relative clause expresses +motion toward the place indicated, whether or not its antecedent has +this ending. Similarly, <b>kie</b> may refer to <b>tie</b> or to +<b>tien</b>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Mi iros tien, kie vi estas</b>, <i>I shall go there where you are.</i><br> +<b>Mi estis tie, kien vi iros</b>, <i>I was there (at that place) where you will go.</i><br> +<b>Mi iros tien, kien vi iris</b>, <i>I shall go to that place to which you went (I shall go where you went).</i><br> +<b>Mi trovis lin en la urbo, kie li loĝas</b>, <i>I found him in the city where he lives.</i><br> +<b>Ĉu vi venos ĉi tien, kie ni estas?</b> <i>Are you coming here where we are?</i> +</p> + +<center>THE FUTURE ACTIVE PARTICIPLE.</center> + +<p> +<b>152.</b> The future active participle, expressing what the +word modified will do or is about to do, ends in <b>-onta,</b> as +<b>vidonta</b>, <i>about to see</i>, <b>ironta</b>, <i>about to go</i>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>La forironta viro vokis sian serviston</b>, <i>the man going to depart (the about-to-depart man) called his servant.</i><br> +<b>La virino salutonta vin estas tre afabla</b>, <i>the woman about to greet you is very affable.</i><br> +<b>La venonta monato estas marto</b>, <i>the coming month is March.</i><br> +<b>La venontan semajnon mi foriros</b>, <i>the coming (next) week I shall depart.</i> +</p> + +<center>THE PERIPHRASTIC FUTURE TENSES.</center> + +<p> +<b>153.</b> The compound tenses formed by combining the future active +participle with each of the three aoristic tenses of <b>esti</b> +represent an act or state as about to occur in the present, past, or +future, respectively, and are called <i>periphrastic future tenses.</i> +Except when great accuracy is desired, these tenses are not often used. +A synopsis of <b>vidi</b> in the first person singular and plural of +these tenses is as follows: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr><td nowrap align="center" colspan="2">Present Periphrastic Future.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>mi estas vidonta</b>,<br> + <i>I am about to (going to) see.</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>ni estas vidontaj</b>,<br> + <i>we are about to (going to) see.</i> + </td> + </tr> + <tr><td nowrap align="center" colspan="2">Past Periphrastic Future.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>mi estis vidonta</b>,<br> + <i>I was about to (going to) see.</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>ni estis vidontaj</b>,<br> + <i>we were about to (going to) see.</i> + </td> + </tr> + <tr><td nowrap align="center" colspan="2">Future Periphrastic Future.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>mi estos vidonta</b>,<br> + <i>I shall be about to (going to) see.</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>ni estos vidontaj</b>,<br> + <i>we shall be about to (going to) see.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center>THE SUFFIX <b>-IND-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>154.</b> The suffix <b>-ind-</b> is used to form words expressing +<i>worthy of, deserving of,</i> that which is indicated in the root. +It may also be used as a root, to form <b>inda</b>, <i>worthy</i>, +<b>malinda</b>, <i>unworthy</i>, <b>indo</b>, <i>worth, merit,</i> etc.: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>dezirinda</b>, <i>desirable.</i><br> + <b>laŭdinda</b>, <i>praiseworthy. </i><br> + <b>mallaŭdinda</b>, <i>blameworthy.</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>rimarkinda</b>, <i>noteworthy, remarkable.</i><br> + <b>ridinde</b>, <i>ridiculously, laughably.</i><br> + <b>tradukinda</b>, <i>worth translating.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>ankoraŭ</b>, <i>still, yet.</i><br> + <b>atak-i</b>, <i>to attack.</i><br> + <b>bat-i</b>, <i>to beat.</i><br> + <b>cert-a</b>, <i>sure, certain.</i><br> + <b>defend-i</b>, <i>to defend.</i><br> + <b>difekt-i</b>, <i>to spoil.</i><br> + <b>edz-o</b>, <i>husband.</i><br> + <b>fajr-o</b>, <i>fire.</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>flar-i</b>, <i>to smell.</i><br> + <b>gast-o</b>, <i>guest.</i><br> + <b>ho!</b> <i>Oh!</i><br> + <b>kri-i</b>, <i>to exclaim, to cry.</i><br> + <b>kruel-a</b>, <i>cruel.</i><br> + <b>kuk-o</b>, <i>cake.</i><br> + <b>lign-o</b>, <i>wood.</i><br> + <b>suspekt-i</b>, <i>to suspect.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + + +<p class="footnote"> +The adverb <b>ankoraŭ</b> expresses the ideas "until and during +the present time", "in the future as now and before", "in constant or +uniform succession", "in an increasing or additional degree", given +sometimes by English <i>yet</i>, sometimes by <i>still</i>: Mi estas +ankoraŭ sidanta ĉi tie, <i>I am still sitting here.</i> +Li ankoraŭ ne venis, <i>still he has not come (he has not come +yet).</i> Li ankoraŭ restos tie, <i>he will still stay there.</i> +Ankoraŭ ili venas, <i>still they come.</i> Li estos ankoraŭ +pli ruza, <i>he will be still (yet) more crafty.</i> +</p> + +<center><b>ALFREDO GRANDA KAJ LA KUKOJ.</b></center> + +<p> +Unu fojon antaŭ pli multe ol mil jaroj, soldatoj venis de trans +la maro por ataki la anglan reĝon Alfredon Grandan. Ili nek konis +nek malamis lin, sed ili sciis ke li estas persono kies landon ili +deziras gajni. Ĉi tiuj malamikoj estis venintaj tiel subite ke +Alfredo ne estis preta por defendi sian landon kontraŭ ili. Tial li +forkuris kelkajn mejlojn de la urbo, kaj sin kaŝis en granda arbaro +malantaŭ vilaĝo. Anstataŭ porti reĝajn vestojn li +aĉetis tiajn ĉifonojn kiajn kamparanoj kaj malriĉuloj +portas. Li loĝis ĉe malriĉa sed laŭdinda kamparano, +kiu ne konis la reĝon, kaj tute ne suspektis kia persono lia +gasto estas. Unu memorindan tagon Alfredo estis sidanta apud la +fajro, kaj estis rigardanta siajn sagojn kaj pafarkon dum li pensis +malĝoje pri sia lando. La edzino de la arbarano demandis "Ĉu +vi ankoraŭ sidos tie dekkvin aŭ dudek minutojn?" "Jes," +respondis la reĝo. Ŝi diris "Nu, estos necese fari pli +varmegan fajron por tiaj kukoj kiajn mi nun estas bakonta. Ĉu vi +gardos tiujn kukojn kiuj nun estas super la fajro, dum mi kolektos pli +multe da ligno?" Alfredo respondis "Certe mi gardos ilin kontraŭ +la fajro." La virino serĉonta lignon foriris en alian parton de la +arbaro, kie estis multe da ligno, kaj la reĝo penis zorgi pri la +kukoj. Sed baldaŭ li forgesis ilin, kaj la fajro ilin difektis. +Kiam la virino venis kaj flaris la kukojn ŝi kriis "ho, vi +riproĉinda viro! Kvankam vi ankoraŭ sidas tie, vi ne pensas +pri la kukoj, kaj la fajro estas difektinta ilin!" Ŝi estis kruele +batonta la reĝon, kiam li diris al ŝi kiu li estas, kaj kial +li forgesis la kukojn. Tiam ŝi tre hontis, kaj anstataŭ +mallaŭdi lin ŝi volis esti ankoraŭ pli bona al li. +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. Alfred the Great was a praiseworthy king who lived more than a +thousand years ago. 2. People still talk about him because he not only +translated many Latin books into the English language, but also wrote in +English. 3. He wished to help the peasants still more. 4. But enemies +often attacked him, and finally they conquered his soldiers. 5. Then +they hastened to where (151) Alfred was. 6. They were about to attack +him, when he rode away secretly (<i>kaŝe</i>) into a large forest. +7. There he dwelt some time in the house of a poor forester. 8. He wore +such rags as a peasant usually wears, and did not tell the forester who +he was. 9. One day he was sitting near the fire and wondering, "Will the +enemy have conquered my soldiers next week?" 10. The forester's wife +said, "Will you sit there yet a while and take-care of those cakes? I am +about to gather more wood." 11. He replied, "Certainly, I will try to +help you." 12. But when after a few minutes the woman smelled the cakes, +she knew that the fire had spoiled them. 13. She exclaimed "Oh, what a +blame-worthy man!" 14. She commenced to beat the king cruelly, but he +did not defend himself. 15. Instead (120), he told her who he was. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XXXIII.</b></center> + +<center><b>KIAM</b> AS A RELATIVE ADVERB.</center> + +<p> +<b>155.</b> The interrogative temporal adverb <b>kiam</b> (123) is also +used as a relative temporal adverb, with <b>tiam</b> or an equivalent +word or phrase for its antecedent. (It may not be omitted as in English +"at the time he came"): +</p> + +<p> +<b>Mi suspektis lin je la tempo kiam li venis</b>, <i>I suspected him at the time when he came (the time that he came)</i>.<br> +<b>Li defendis sin tiam, kiam oni atakis lin</b>, <i>he defended himself then, when he was attacked</i>.<br> +<b>Mi ankoraŭ sidos tie ĝis kiam vi venos</b>, <i>I shall still sit there until when you come (until you come)</i>.<br> +<b>Post kiam li tiel laŭte kriis, li komencis plori</b>, <i>after he shouted so loudly, he began to cry</i>. +</p> + +<center><b>KIEL</b> AS A RELATIVE ADVERB.</center> + +<p> +<b>156.</b> The interrogative adverb <b>kiel</b> (134) is also used as a +relative adverb of manner and degree, with <b>tiel</b>, or <b>same</b>, +or an equivalent adverb or phrase for its antecedent. It may often be +translated "as:" +</p> + +<p> +<b>Mi defendis min tiel, kiel li defendis sin</b>, <i>I defended myself in that way in which (way) he defended himself</i>.<br> +<b>Vi ne estas tiel kruela kiel li</b>, <i>you are not so cruel as he (is)</i>.<br> +<b>Ili batis lin same kiel vi</b>, <i>they beat him in the same way as you (did)</i>.<br> +<b>Ili batis lin same kiel vin</b>, <i>they beat him the same as (they did) you</i>.<br> +<b>Kiel mi diris al li, mi estas feliĉa</b>, <i>as I told him, I am happy</i> (antecedent not expressed).<br> +<b>Li parolis tiel mallaŭte kiel antaŭe</b>, <i>he spoke as softly as before</i>.<br> +<b>Ŝi estas tiel bona kiel ŝi estas bela</b>, <i>she is as good as she is fair</i>. +</p> + +<center>NUMERAL NOUNS AND ADVERBS.</center> + +<p> +<b>157.</b> Nouns may be formed from the cardinals by addition of +the ending <b>-o.</b> After such nouns the preposition <b>da</b> or +<b>de</b> is used: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>dekduo</b>, <i>a dozen.</i><br> + <b>dudeko</b>, <i>a score.</i><br> + <b>deko</b>, <i>a ten, half a score.</i><br> + <b>cento</b>, <i>a hundred.</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>milo</b>, <i>a thousand.</i><br> + <b>unuo</b>, <i>a unit.</i><br> + <b>kvaro</b>, <i>a four, a quartette.</i><br> + <b>trio</b>, <i>a three, a trio.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<p class="footnote"> +The prepositions <b>da</b> and <b>de</b> follow nouns (<b>99, 100</b>) +or adverbs (<b>101</b>), while <b>el</b> follows adjectives in the +superlative degree (<b>75</b>), cardinal numerals (<b>138</b>), and +the pronouns tiu, kiu (<b>106</b>), etc.: dekduo da ovoj, <i>a dozen +(of) eggs.</i> dekduo de la ovoj, <i>a dozen of the eggs.</i> dek du el +tiuj ovoj, <i>twelve of those eggs.</i> kiu el la ovoj? <i>which one +of the eggs?</i> tiu el la ovoj, <i>that one of the eggs.</i> la plej +freŝa el la ovoj, <i>the freshest of the eggs.</i> +</p> + +<p> +<b>158.</b> Adverbs may be formed from the cardinals by addition of the +ending <b>-e</b>: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>unue</b>, <i>firstly, at first.</i><br> + <b>due</b>, <i>secondly, in the second place.</i><br> + <b>kvine</b>, <i>fifthly, in the fifth place.</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>deke</b>, <i>tenthly.</i><br> + <b>sesdeke</b>, <i>sixtiethly.</i><br> + <b>okdek-kvare</b>, <i>eighty-fourthly.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center>WORD DERIVATION FROM PREPOSITIONS.</center> + +<p> +<b>159.</b> Adjectives, verbs and nouns, as well as adverbs +(<b>120</b>), may be derived from prepositions by addition of the +formative endings (<b>116</b>), with sometimes a special suffix also: +</p> + +<p> +<b>anstataŭi</b>, <i>to replace, to take the place of.</i><br> +<b>anstataŭulo</b>, <i>a substitute.</i><br> +<b>antaŭa</b>, <i>previous, preceding.</i><br> +<b>apuda</b>, <i>near, contiguous, adjacent.</i><br> +<b>ĉirkaŭi</b>, <i>to surround, to encircle.</i><br> +<b>ĉirkaŭo</b>, <i>a circuit, a circumference.</i><br> +<b>kontraŭa</b>, <i>adverse, opposite, contrary.</i><br> +<b>kontraŭulo</b>, <i>adversary, opponent.</i><br> +<b>kunulo</b>, <i>comrade, companion.</i><br> +<b>superi</b>, <i>to surpass, to exceed, to be above.</i><br> +<b>superege</b>, <i>surpassingly, exceedingly.</i> +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>adiaŭ</b>, <i>farewell, goodbye.</i><br> + <b>akcept-i</b>, <i>to accept, to receive.</i><br> + <b>elekt-i</b>, <i>to choose, to select.</i><br> + <b>fest-i</b>, <i>to celebrate, to entertain.</i><br> + <b>gant-o</b>, <i>glove.</i><br> + <b>ĝentil-a</b>, <i>courteous.</i><br> + <b>invit-i</b>, <i>to invite.</i><br> + <b>ĵus</b>, <i>just, at the moment.</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>kuz-o</b>, <i>cousin.</i><br> + <b>malgraŭ</b>, <i>notwithstanding.</i><br> + <b>par-o</b>, <i>pair.</i><br> + <b>pend-i</b>, <i>to hang.</i><br> + <b>prez-o</b>, <i>price.</i><br> + <b>renkont-i</b>, <i>to meet.</i><br> + <b>ŝu-o</b>, <i>shoe.</i><br> + <b>uz-i</b>, <i>to use.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<p class="footnote"> +The adverb <b>ĵus</b> indicates the elapsing of the least possible +time since the act or condition indicated, or between the two acts or +conditions indicated. Ni ĵus venis, <i>we just came (we came but +a moment ago).</i> Mi havas la saman opinion kian vi ĵus diris, +<i>I have the same opinion as you just gave (said).</i> Mi vidis lin +ĵus kiam li estis forironta, <i>I saw him just when he was about to +depart.</i> Ĵus kiam vi venis li foriris, <i>just as you came he +went away.</i> +</p> + +<center><b>LA INVITO.</b></center> + +<p> +Hieraŭ matene mia kuzo vizitis ĉe ni, kaj invitis min al +malgranda festo kiu okazos morgaŭ vespere. Tiam li festos la +lastan tagon de la jaro. Li diris ke la gastoj sidos ĉirkaŭ +la fajrejo kaj rakontos rakontojn ĝis malfrua horo. Mi akceptis +lian ĝentilan inviton, kaj diris ke mi certe venos. Mia kuzo +loĝas en la sama urbo kie nia familio loĝas, sed en alia +parto. Lia hejmo estas preskaŭ du mejlojn de la nia. Tamen, ni +estas bonaj kunuloj, kaj ofte promenas kune. Ĵus kiam li estis +elironta el la pordo hieraŭ, mi uzis la okazon (<i>opportunity</i>) +por proponi mallongan promenon. Li respondis ke li ĝoje promenos +kun mi, malgraŭ la neĝa vetero. Tial ni formarŝis tien, +kie la stratoj estis malplej kotaj. La kuzo havas dek ok jarojn, sed +mi estas preskaŭ tiel alta kiel li. Mi estas certa ke mi estas +ankaŭ tiel forta kiel li. Ni parolis pri multaj interesaj aferoj, +kaj bonege nin amuzis, ĝis kiam estis necese hejmen iri. La kuzo +diris "adiaŭ," kaj iris rekte hejmen, sed mi iris al granda butiko. +Unue, mi volis aĉeti paron da novaj gantoj, por anstataŭi +la malnovajn gantojn kiujn mi ankoraŭ estis portanta, kvankam +mi aĉetis ilin antaŭ tri monatoj. Due, mi bezonis paron da +novaj ŝuoj. Mi iris en la butikon kie pendis tiaj gantoj, kiajn +mi ŝatas, kaj oni tuj venis por renkonti min, kaj demandis "Kiajn +vestojn vi volas aĉeti?" Oni montris al mi preskaŭ dudekon +da paroj da gantoj. Mi elektis tre bonan paron, kaj estis ĵus +aĉetonta ilin, malgraŭ la tro granda prezo, kiam mi vidis +alian pli belan paron. Tial mi aĉetis ĉi tiun, kaj poste mi +rigardis la ŝuojn. Mi trovis rimarkinde bonan paron, ĉar estas +centoj da ŝuoj en tiu butiko. Mi tuj aĉetis tiun paron, kaj +tiam hejmen iris. +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. My friend likes to live in the city, but his wife prefers to live +in their little wooden house in the country. 2. There she can see and +smell the flowers, and can take (<i>fari</i>) long walks in the adjacent +fields and forest. 3. There are often hundreds of persons in a village, +but there are thousands of persons in a city. 4. The larger a city is, +the larger and better its stores are. 5. In the second place, one can +buy better bread, vegetables and cake in the city. 6. Thirdly, one can +also find better gloves, hats and shoes there, and the price is often +less. 7. Therefore I make use of the opportunity when I go to the city, +and usually buy a pair of new gloves. 8. I am still wearing a pair of +gloves which the rain spoiled. 9. Notwithstanding their ugly color, +they are still thick and good. 10. But soon I shall buy such a pair as +(150) is hanging in the window of that store. 11. The price is low, and +I need a new pair now, for my cousin has invited me to a small party +(<i>festo</i>) at his house. 12. I accepted his invitation courteously, +and said that I would gladly be his guest. 13. We are good comrades, +although he is younger than I am. 14. My (girl) cousin, his sister, is +older than he is, but he is as tall as she. 15. I was just about to send +a letter to him at the minute that (155) he knocked on our door. 16. His +visit will take the place of (159) my letter. 17. Just as (just when) he +was going away, I said goodbye to him, and said that I would meet him +in the park tomorrow. 18. I think that we shall have a pleasant walk, +although the weather is still remarkably cold, the same as (156) it was +two or three months ago. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XXXIV.</b></center> + +<center>PREPOSITIONS AS PREFIXES.</center> + +<p> +<b>160.</b> Any preposition may be used as a prefix to a verb, provided +the resulting compound is intelligible. A few prepositional compounds +are given below, only verbs being shown, although nouns, adjectives and +adverbs may be formed from these (116): +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>alveni</b>, <i>to arrive.</i><br> + <b>aldoni</b>, <i>to add.</i><br> + <b>antaŭdiri</b>, <i>to predict.</i><br> + <b>ĉirkaŭpreni</b>, <i>to embrace.</i><br> + <b>ĉeesti</b>, <i>to be present.</i><br> + <b>dependi</b>, <i>to hang from, to depend.</i><br> + <b>demeti</b>, <i>to lay aside.</i><br> + <b>depreni</b>, <i>to subtract.</i><br> + <b>enhavi</b>, <i>to contain.</i><br> + <b>eliri</b>, <i>to go out.</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>interparoli</b>, <i>to converse.</i><br> + <b>kontraŭdiri</b>, <i>to contradict.</i><br> + <b>kunlabori</b>, <i>to collaborate.</i><br> + <b>kunveni</b>, <i>to assemble.</i><br> + <b>priskribi</b>, <i>to describe.</i><br> + <b>subteni</b>, <i>to support.</i><br> + <b>surmeti</b>, <i>to put on.</i><br> + <b>traguti</b>, <i>to percolate.</i><br> + <b>travidi</b>, <i>to see through</i><br> + <b>transiri</b>, <i>to cross.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<p class="footnote"> +Like English "out" the preposition <b>el</b> often develops in +composition a secondary sense of "thoroughly" or "completely" +(<i>cf.</i> "I am tired out"): eltrovi, <i>to find out, to discover.</i> +elpensi, <i>to think out, to invent.</i> ellabori, <i>to work out, to +elaborate.</i> ellerni, <i>to learn thoroughly, to master.</i> eluzi, +<i>to use completely, to wear out</i> (transitive). +</p> + +<center>THE SUFFIX <b>-EBL-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>161.</b> The suffix <b>-ebl-</b> is used to form adjectives, adverbs, +etc., expressing the likelihood or possibility of that which is +indicated by the root. It may be used as a root, to form <b>ebla</b>, +<i>possible,</i> etc. +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>eltrovebla</b>, <i>discoverable.</i><br> + <b>legebla</b>, <i>legible.</i><br> + <b>manĝebla</b>, <i>edible.</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>rompebla</b>, <i>breakable.</i><br> + <b>videbla</b>, <i>visible.</i><br> + <b>travidebla</b>, <i>transparent.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<p class="footnote"> +The suffix <b>-ebl-</b> is often equivalent to the English suffixes +<i>-able</i>, <i>-ible</i>, but these suffixes have other meanings also, +as in "readable," <i>worth reading</i> (<b>leginda</b>), "lovable," +<i>deserving of love</i> (<b>aminda</b>), etc. +</p> + +<center>EXPRESSION OF THE HIGHEST DEGREE POSSIBLE.</center> + +<p> +<b>162.</b> The adverb <b>plej</b>, <i>most</i> (74), modified by +<b>kiel eble</b> (<i>as possible</i>), is used to express the highest +degree possible: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Ĝi estas kiel eble plej bona</b>, <i>it is the best possible.</i><br> +<b>Ni estos kiel eble plej saĝaj</b>, <i>we shall be as wise as possible.</i><br> +<b>Li uzis kiel eble plej malmulte</b>, <i>he used the least possible.</i><br> +<b>Mi skribis kiel eble plej legeble</b>, <i>I wrote as legibly as possible.</i> +</p> + +<center>TITLES AND TERMS OF ADDRESS.</center> + +<p> +<b>163.</b> The words <b>sinjoro,</b> <i>gentleman,</i> +<b>sinjorino,</b> <i>lady,</i> <b>fraŭlino,</b> <i>miss,</i> are +used like English <i>Mr., Mrs., Miss,</i> before proper names, and are +also used as terms of address, without being followed by the name: +Adiaŭ, Sinjoro. Adiaŭ, Sinjorino, <i>Goodbye (Sir). Goodbye, +Madam.</i> +</p> + +<p> +<b>Fraŭlino B——, ĉu vi konas tiun sinjoron kun Sinjorino C——?</b> <i>Miss B——, do you know that gentleman with Mrs. C——?</i><br> +<b>Mi ne konas tiun fraŭlinon</b>, <i>I do not know that young lady.</i><br> +<b>Kien vi volas iri, Fraŭlino?</b> <i>Where do you wish to go (Miss)?</i><br> +<b>Sinjoro A—— estas tre afabla</b>, <i>Mr. A—— is very amiable.</i> +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<i>Cf.</i> English <i>Doctor, Professor, Madam,</i> as terms of +address, and also German <i>Mein Herr, gnädige Frau, gnädiges +Fräulein,</i> French <i>Monsieur, Mademoiselle,</i> Spanish, +<i>Señor, Señora,</i> Italian <i>Signore,</i> etc. +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>atent-a</b>, <i>attentive.</i><br> + <b>aŭskult-i</b>, <i>to listen.</i><br> + <b>babil-i</b>, <i>to chatter.</i><br> + <b>doktor-o</b>, <i>doctor.</i><br> + <b>fraŭl-o</b>, <i>bachelor.</i><br> + <b>gaj-a</b>, <i>merry, gay.</i><br> + <b>grup-o</b>, <i>group.</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>onkl-o</b>, <i>uncle.</i><br> + <b>san-a</b>, <i>in good health.</i><br> + <b>sent-i</b>, <i>to feel.</i><br> + <b>sinjor-o</b>, <i>gentleman.</i><br> + <b>ŝtup-o</b>, <i>step (of stairs).</i><br> + <b>tas-o</b>, <i>cup.</i><br> + <b>vojaĝ-o</b>, <i>voyage, journey.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center><b>ĈE LA FESTO.</b></center> + +<p> +Hieraŭ vespere mi iris al la hejmo de mia kuzo, kiu estis invitinta +min al malgranda festo ĉe li. Ĉar mi deziris alveni kiel eble +plej frue, mi foriris de mia loĝejo kiel eble plej baldaŭ, +malgraŭ la neĝa vetero. Mi estis surmetinta paron da dikaj +gantoj, kaj mi portis dikajn ŝuojn. Mi ankaŭ havis mian +ombrelon, kvankam pro la vento mi ne povis uzi tiun. Tuj kiam mi +supreniris la ŝtuparon ĉe la hejmo de la kuzo, li aŭdis +min, kaj venis por malfermi la pordon kaj akcepti min. "Bonan vesperon, +kia estas via sano?" li diris. Mi respondis "Mi sanas bonege, dankon," +kaj eniris la domon kun li. Ni supren iris per granda ŝtuparo al +ĉambro kie mi lasis la ĉapelon, gantojn kaj ombrelon, tiam +ni malsupren venis kaj eniris la salonon. Mi salutis la onklinon, kiu +afable parolis al mi, kaj ankaŭ la du kuzinojn. Unu kuzino estis +ĵus priskribonta interesan libron, kiun ŝi antaŭ ne longe +tralegis, kiam la aliaj gastoj komencis alveni. Sinjoro B—— +ĉeestis, kaj Doktoro C——, kun sia filino Fraŭlino +Mario, kaj multe da aliaj sinjoroj kaj sinjorinoj. La gastoj sidis +aŭ staris en malgrandaj grupoj, kaj interparolis kun videbla +plezuro. Unu rakontis pri vojaĝo, kaj tiam oni komencis priparoli +la prezojn de aferoj en aliaj landoj. Mi atente aŭskultis kelkajn +minutojn, kaj tiam foriris al alia grupo, kie oni gaje babilis pri +estontaj (<i>future</i>) promenoj kaj festoj. Post unu aŭ du horoj, +la servistinoj alportis al ni bonan malgrandan manĝon, kune kun +tasoj da bonega kafo. Fine, je malfrua horo ni ĝentile dankis la +familion de mia kuzo, kaj diris adiaŭ. Tiam ni foriris hejmen, kun +sentoj da granda plezuro pro la agrabla festo. +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. There are dozens of edible fruits, but the fruits of hundreds of +trees are not at all (<i>tute ne estas</i>) edible. 2. The transparent +cup and plate upon the table are very breakable. 3. I predict that you +will break them as soon as you seize them. 4. That letter is worth +reading. 5. But it is difficult to read it, for it is not very legible. +6. It is from my uncle, who wishes to arrive at-our-house as early as +possible. 7. He is still in the city, but soon he will be here, and will +go up the steps (<i>ŝtuparon</i>) of our porch and knock on the +door. 8. There are very few persons who contradict his opinions. 9. His +opinions, however, are worthy of attention (154) and usually I listen +courteously while he is talking. 10. Now, however, I prefer to listen +to the group of ladies in the adjacent room. 11. They are chattering +gaily, and listening to the young lady who is about to sing. 12. Madam, +do you feel the wind? I notice that it is blowing the curtains which +hang before that window. 13. I will close the window, because I am not +very well (<i>sana</i>) today. 14. Is that gentleman across the room a +bachelor? 15. Yes. He is describing a voyage and the people whom he met. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XXXV.</b></center> + +<center><b>KIOM</b> AS A RELATIVE ADVERB.</center> + +<p> +<b>164.</b> The interrogative adverb <b>kiom</b> (140) is used as a +relative adverb of quantity, with <b>tiom</b> or some equivalent word or +phrase for its antecedent. In this use it is commonly translated "as": +</p> + +<p> +<b>La taso enhavis tiom da kafo, kiom mi povis trinki</b>, <i>the cup contained as much coffee as I could drink</i>.<br> +<b>Mi havos tiom da tempo, kiom mi bezonos</b>, <i>I shall have as much time as I shall need</i>.<br> +<b>Li sendis tiom, kiom vi volis</b>, <i>he sent as much as you wished</i>. +</p> + +<center>THE PRESENT PASSIVE PARTICIPLE.</center> + +<p> +<b>165.</b> The present passive participle (for the present +<i>active</i> participle see 108), expressing that which is <i>undergone +by</i> the person or thing indicated by the word modified, ends in +<b>-ata</b>, as <b>vidata</b>, <i>being seen</i>: +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +The verb <b>iri</b>, <i>to go</i>, used to illustrate the active +participles (108, 119, 152), cannot be used to illustrate a +<i>passive</i> participle, since passive participles can be made from +<i>transitive verbs</i> (<b>22</b>) <i>only</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>La laŭdata knabo estas feliĉa</b>, <i>the boy being praised is happy</i>.<br> +<b>Mi serĉos la deziratan libron</b>, <i>I shall look for the desired book</i>.<br> +<b>La vestoj farataj por vi estas belaj</b>, <i>the clothes being made for you are beautiful</i>. +</p> + +<center>FRACTIONS.</center> + +<p> +<b>166.</b> Fractions are formed from the cardinals by the use of the +suffix <b>-on-</b> followed by the ending <b>-o</b>. Adjectives and +adverbs may be derived from these by use of the endings <b>-a</b> or +<b>-e</b>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>La duono de ses estas tri</b>, <i>the half of six is three</i>.<br> +<b>Li estis nur duone atenta</b>, <i>he was only half attentive</i>.<br> +<b>La triona parto de ses estas du</b>, <i>the third part of six is two</i>.<br> +<b>Dek unu dekduonoj</b>, <i>eleven twelfths</i>.<br> +<b>Mi dudekone finis la laboron</b>, <i>I one-twentieth finished the work</i>. +</p> + +<center>DESCRIPTIVE COMPOUNDS.</center> + +<p> +<b>167.</b> A compound word whose first element <i>modifies</i> the +second in an adjectival or adverbial relation is called a <i>descriptive +compound</i>. The final <b>-a</b> or <b>-e</b> of the first element +may be omitted, unless the resulting combination would be ambiguous or +harsh-sounding. +</p> + +<p> +<b>a.</b> When the first element is adverbial (an adverb or +preposition), the second element may be either an adverb or adjective: +</p> + +<p> +<b>multekosta</b>, <i>expensive</i>.<br> +<b>duonkolere</b>, <i>half angrily</i>.<br> +<b>nevidebla</b>, <i>invisible</i>.<br> +<b>nevole</b>, <i>involuntarily</i>.<br> +<b>ruĝflava (ruĝeflava)</b>, <i>reddish yellow</i>.<br> +<b>survoje</b>, <i>on the way, en route</i>.<br> +<b>antaŭhieraŭ</b>, <i>day before yesterday</i>.<br> +<b>postmorgaŭ</b>, <i>day after tomorrow</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>b.</b> An <i>adjective</i> may be used for the first element, if the +second is an adverb or adjective <i>derived from a noun-root</i>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>samtempa</b>, <i>contemporaneous</i>.<br> +<b>unufoje</b>, <i>once, one time</i>.<br> +<b>trifoje</b>, <i>thrice, three times</i>.<br> +<b>unutaga</b>, <i>one day's, of one day</i>.<br> +<b>unuataga</b>, <i>the first day's</i>.<br> +<b>frutempe</b>, <i>at an early time</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>c.</b> A <i>noun</i> may be used for the second element, if the +resulting word has not merely unity of form, but also unity of meaning +with a slightly different sense from that expressed by the noun and +adjective uncombined: +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +In national languages a change of accent often accompanies such +change in meaning, as <i>bla'ckberry</i> (not <i>black be'rry</i>), +<i>blu'ebird</i> (not <i>blue bi'rd</i>), <i>swee'theart</i> (not +<i>sweet hea'rt</i>), German <i>ju'ngfrau</i>, <i>virgin</i> (not +<i>jung frau'</i>, <i>young woman</i>), etc. +</p> + +<p> +<b>bonveno</b>, <i>a welcome</i> (not "bona veno", <i>a good coming</i>).<br> +<b>libertempo</b>, <i>a vacation, leisure</i> (not "libera tempo", <i>free time</i>).<br> +<b>superjaro</b>, <i>leap-year</i> (not "super jaro", <i>above a year</i>).<br> +<b>bondeziroj</b>, <i>good wishes, felicitations</i> (not "bonaj deziroj", <i>good desires</i>).<br> +<b>plimulto</b>, <i>a majority</i> (adverb and noun combined). +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>ĥin-o</b>, <i>Chinaman</i>.<br> + <b>jam</b>, <i>already</i>.<br> + <b>kler-a</b>, <i>enlightened, learned</i>.<br> + <b>komerc-o</b>, <i>trade, commerce</i>.<br> + <b>lanc-o</b>, <i>spear, lance</i>.<br> + <b>liber-a</b>, <i>free</i>.<br> + <b>metod-o</b>, <i>method, way</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>naci-o</b>, <i>nation</i>.<br> + <b>paĝ-o</b>, <i>page</i>.<br> + <b>pres-i</b>, <i>to print</i>.<br> + <b>pulv-o</b>, <i>gunpowder</i>.<br> + <b>ŝanĝ-i</b>, <i>to change</i>.<br> + <b>te-o</b>, <i>tea</i>.<br> + <b>ted-a</b>, <i>tiresome, tedious</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<p class="footnote"> +The adverb <b>jam</b> indicates a change from some preceding action +or state to the different one expressed in the sentence, clause or +phrase containing <b>jam</b>. It may often be translated "yet," "now," +etc. Mi jam vidis lin, <i>I already saw (have already seen) him</i>. +Ĉu vi jam trovis ĝin? Ne, mi ankoraŭ ne trovis ĝin. +<i>Have you yet (have you already) found it? No, I have not yet (still +not) found it</i>. Li jam ne vivas, <i>he no longer lives (he already +is-not-alive)</i>. Jam ne neĝas, <i>it is not snowing now (already +not snowing)</i>. +</p> + +<center><b>LA ĤINOJ.</b></center> + +<p> +Antaŭ miloj da jaroj la ĥinoj estis la plej klera nacio en +la mondo. Dum aliaj nacioj ankoraŭ ne konis metodojn por presi +librojn, kaj ankoraŭ faris ilin skribe, la samtempaj ĥinoj +jam estis forlasintaj tiun multekostan kaj tedan metodon. Ili jam estis +presantaj la paĝojn de miloj da libroj. Aliaj nacioj tiam estis +batalantaj kiel eble plej kruele, per sago kaj pafarko, kaj per lanco. +Sed ili ankoraŭ ne havis pafilojn, ĉar pulvo estis tute +nekonata al ili. Tamen la ĥinoj jam bone konis metodojn por fari +kaj por uzi pulvon, kaj faris tiajn amuzajn flavruĝajn fajrojn, +kiajn ni ankoraŭ hodiaŭ aĉetas de ili, por uzi je festaj +tagoj. Sed la ĥinoj ne multe ŝatis la komercon, kaj ne deziris +aĉeti aŭ lerni de aliaj nacioj. Ili ankoraŭ nun havas la +samajn metodojn por presi librojn kaj por fari pulvon, kiajn ili havis +antaŭ mil jaroj. Ili malofte ŝanĝas siajn kutimojn. Tial +la aliaj nacioj, kiuj antaŭe ne estis tiel kleraj, antaŭeniras +pli rapide ol la ĥinoj. La lando de la ĥinoj enhavas tiom da +personoj, kiom tri aŭ kvar aliaj nacioj. Granda parto de tiu lando +estas ankoraŭ nekonata al okcidentaj nacioj, kvankam plej multe da +nia teo elvenas el la ĥina lando. Oni diras ke la parolata lingvo +kaj la skribata lingvo de la ĥinoj estas du tre malsamaj aferoj. +La lingvo estas almenaŭ treege malfacila, kaj post kiam oni estas +longe studinta ĝin, oni tamen estas nur duone lerninta ĝin. Mi +ĝojas tial ke la lingvoj studataj en la lernejoj de nia lando ne +estas tiel malfacilaj kiel la ĥina lingvo. La latina kaj germana +lingvoj estas sufiĉe malfacilaj, kvankam ili estas tre interesaj +kaj ankaŭ konataj de la kleruloj en multaj landoj. La latina lingvo +jam ne estas parolata lingvo. +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. Why are the persons in that merry group laughing and chattering +instead of listening to Mr. B——? 2. I think that the doctor +is telling stories about a bachelor who was once a good friend of +his. 3. The gentleman being talked about (160, 165) will visit us +this evening, possibly. 4. My aunt and cousin will come down stairs +and converse with him. 5. We shall drink as many cups of tea or of +coffee as we wish. 6. He will say "How is your health, Madam?" My +aunt will reply half-angrily that she is seldom ill. 7. We shall sit +on the veranda, for the sun is still shining, although it is already +setting. 8. That young lady who came with Mrs. C—— relates +the best possible stories. 9. She says that the Chinese were already +an enlightened nation hundreds of years ago, while other nations were +still cruelly fighting. 10. A method for printing the pages of books, +instead of writing them, was a discovery of the Chinese. They printed +books in their printing-shops, a thousand years ago. 12. They also +were-acquainted-with gunpowder, which they made and used for such fires +as we use on national days of-celebration, when we have leisure and wish +to enjoy (to amuse) ourselves. 13. But the Chinese have not changed +these methods. 14. Their ways of commerce, work and pleasure are the +same as they were long ago. 15. Such a nation does not progress rapidly, +even though its life is very long. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XXXVI.</b></center> + +<center>THE PRESENT PASSIVE TENSE.</center> + +<p> +<b>168.</b> The compound tense formed by combining the present passive +participle with the present tense of the auxiliary verb <b>esti</b> +expresses an act or condition as <i>being undergone</i> by the subject +of the verb, and is called the <i>present passive tense</i>. The +conjugation of <b>vidi</b> in this tense is as follows: +</p> + +<p> +<b>mi estas vidata</b>, <i>I am (being) seen</i>.<br> +<b>vi estas vidata</b>, <i>you are (being) seen</i>.<br> +<b>li (ŝi, ĝi) estas vidata</b>, <i>he (she, it) is (being) seen</i>.<br> +<b>ni estas vidataj</b>, <i>we are (being) seen</i>.<br> +<b>vi estas vidataj</b>, <i>you are (being) seen</i>.<br> +<b>ili estas vidataj</b>, <i>they are (being) seen</i>. +</p> + +<center>THE USE OF <b>DE</b> TO EXPRESS AGENCY.</center> + +<p> +<b>169.</b> The person by whom (or the thing by which) an act, indicated +by a passive verb or participle, is performed is called the <i>agent</i> +of the passive voice, and is expressed by a substantive preceded by +<b>de</b>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>La lanco estas portata de mi</b>, <i>the spear is carried by me</i>.<br> +<b>La libroj estas jam presataj de li</b>, <i>the books are already being printed by him</i>.<br> +<b>La vojoj estas kovrataj de neĝo</b>, <i>the roads are being covered by snow</i>.<br> +<b>Ŝi estas laŭdata de la sinjoro</b>, <i>she is being praised by the gentleman</i>. +</p> + +<center>THE GENERAL MEANING OF <b>DE</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>170.</b> The preposition <b>de</b> conveys the general idea of +separation from a source or starting point, in space (literal or +figurative), or in time (89, 131). This meaning develops into that of +the source from which connection or ownership arises (49), and also +into that of the agency from which an act is done or a condition caused +(169). The prepositional phrase containing <b>de</b> must be so placed +as to avoid ambiguity in its meaning, or must be reinforced by an adverb +or other word: +</p> + +<p> +<b>La arbo estas malproksima de la domo</b>, <i>the tree is far from the house</i>.<br> +<b>Ĝi estas proksima de la ĝardeno</b>, <i>it is near to (from) the garden</i>.<br> +<b>Mi prenas la libron for de la knabo</b>, <i>I take the book away from the boy</i>.<br> +<b>Mi prenas la libron de la knabo</b>, <i>I take the book of the boy</i>.<br> +<b>La afero dependas de vi</b>, <i>the matter depends upon (from) you</i>. +</p> + +<center>WORD DERIVATION FROM PRIMARY ADVERBS.</center> + +<p> +<b>171.</b> Adjectives, verbs, and nouns may be derived from primary +adverbs (66), as well as from prepositions (120, 159): +</p> + +<p> +<b>La nunaj metodoj</b>, <i>the present methods (methods of-now)</i>.<br> +<b>Mi adiaŭis lin per adiaŭa saluto</b>, <i>I bade farewell to him by a farewell salute</i> (see also 273).<br> +<b>Ni faris tujan interŝanĝon</b>, <i>we made an immediate exchange</i>.<br> +<b>Ĉu li skribis jesan aŭ nean respondon?</b> <i>Did he write an affirmative or a negative answer</i>?<br> +<b>Anstataŭ nei, li respondis jese</b>, <i>instead of denying, he answered affirmatively</i>.<br> +<b>La morgaŭa festo estos pli agrabla ol la hieraŭa</b>, <i>tomorrow's (the morrow's) celebration will be more pleasant than that of yesterday</i>.<br> +<b>La tiamaj personoj estis liaj samtempuloj</b>, <i>the persons of-that-time were his contemporaries</i>. +</p> + +<center>THE SUFFIX <b>-IST-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>172.</b> The suffix <b>-ist-</b> is added to roots to express the +profession, trade or occupation connected with the idea in the root: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>floristo</b>, <i>florist</i>.<br> + <b>komercisto</b>, <i>trader, merchant</i>.<br> + <b>servisto</b>, <i>servant</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>okulisto</b>, <i>oculist</i>.<br> + <b>presisto</b>, <i>printer</i>.<br> + <b>ŝtelisto</b>, <i>thief</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>administr-i</b>, <i>to manage</i>.<br> + <b>antikv-a</b>, <i>ancient</i><br> + <b>Eŭrop-o</b>, <i>Europe</i>.<br> + <b>grav-a</b>, <i>important, serious</i>.<br> + <b>ital-a</b>, <i>Italian</i>.<br> + <b>kvadrat-a</b>, <i>square</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>mont-o</b>, <i>mountain</i>.<br> + <b>nom-o</b>, <i>name</i>.<br> + <b>proksim-a</b>, <i>near</i>.<br> + <b>reprezent-i</b>, <i>to represent</i>.<br> + <b>respublik-o</b>, <i>republic</i>.<br> + <b>tiran-o</b>, <i>tyrant</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<p class="footnote"> +The words <b>antikva</b>, <b>maljuna</b>, <b>malnova</b>, all of +which may at times be translated "old," must not be confused in use: +Mi havas malnovan ĉapelon, <i>I have an old hat (a hat which +is not new)</i>. Li estas maljuna sinjoro, <i>he is an old (aged) +gentleman</i>. Li estas malnova amiko mia, <i>he is an old friend of +mine (a friend of long standing)</i>. La ĥinoj estis kleraj eĉ +en la antikva tempo, <i>the Chinese were learned even in the olden +time (in ancient time)</i>. La antikvaj kleruloj jam sciis tre multe, +<i>the ancient learned (enlightened) men already knew a great deal</i>. +La maljuna sinjoro en la malnovaj vestoj estas antikvisto, <i>the old +gentleman with the old clothes is an antiquary</i>. +</p> + +<center><b>ANTIKVA RESPUBLIKO.</b></center> + +<p> +La plej antikva respubliko en Eŭropo kuŝas en la norda parto +de la bela itala lando, inter la maro kaj la rivero, proksime de la +montoj. Ĝia nomo estas San Marino, kaj ĝi estas respubliko de +antaŭ mil kvarcent jaroj. Kvankam la ĉirkaŭaj landoj kaj +nacioj apartenis en antikva tempo al la tiamaj reĝoj, San Marino +jam estis libera. Ĝiaj aferoj estas ankoraŭ administrataj +tiel, kiel la anoj (145) volas, ne kiel unu aŭ alia reĝo +aŭ tirano deziras. Dufoje en la jaro la anoj elektas personojn, +kiuj administros la gravajn aferojn de la respubliko dum la sekvontaj +ses monatoj. Kvardek ses el tiuj personoj reprezentas la anojn, kaj unu +alia estas reĝo tiun duonon da jaro. Per tia metodo, la anoj estas +bone reprezentataj, kaj la aferoj estas administrataj kiel eble plej +saĝe. La tuta respubliko enhavas nur dudek du kvadratajn mejlojn da +tero. En la respubliko kaj la tiea (171) urbo kiu havas la saman nomon, +ne estas tiom da personoj kiom en multaj italaj urboj. Tamen ĉi +tiu respubliko estas pli granda ol multaj antikvaj grekaj respublikoj. +La grekaj respublikoj estis bonekonataj, kaj enhavis multe da kleruloj +inter siaj anoj. Sed en la nuna tempo la grekoj havas reĝon. Oni +ne trovas tre klerajn personojn en San Marino, tamen la laboristoj +estas energiaj, kaj laboras kiel eble plej multe. La rikoltistoj plej +ofte havas bonajn rikoltojn, kaj la plimulto da personoj estas treege +kontenta kaj feliĉa. Oni ne pensas pri komerco aŭ eksterlandaj +(167, a) aferoj kaj ne volas vojaĝi malproksimen de la bone +amata hejmo. Oni preferas gaje amuzi sin ĉehejme (167, a), en la +libertempo inter la rikoltoj, kaj la vivo tute ne ŝajnas malfacila +aŭ teda. +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. The serious affairs of a republic are managed by persons representing +the persons who live there. 2. The inhabitants are well represented, +and as free as possible. 3. Enlightened persons often prefer to live +in a republic. 4. Persons who have a good king are very happy, but +those who have a bad king are as unhappy as possible. 5. Nowadays +(<i>nuntempe</i>) there are very few tyrants. 6. The majority of +the kings of Europe are praiseworthy. 7. That nation which was most +enlightened a thousand years ago was the Chinese nation. 8. The Chinese +of-that-time already had good printers among them. 9. It is said (54) +that the Chinese drink as much tea as two or three contemporary nations. +10. The oldest republic in Europe is named San Marino. 11. It is near +the mountains, in the northern part of the much praised Italian land. +12. It contains only twenty-two square miles, and is therefore one of +the smallest republics in the world. 13. Fourteen hundred years ago it +was already a republic, and it is still that same republic. 14. The +inhabitants are energetic and patient, and have as much to eat as they +need. 15. There are bakers and shopkeepers (172) and many laborers among +them. 16. They do not think about commerce, or greatly (<i>multe</i>) +change their customs. 17. They seldom take (<i>faras</i>) tiresome +journeys, but remain peacefully (<i>pace</i>) at home. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XXXVII.</b></center> + +<center>THE DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUN.</center> + +<p> +<b>173.</b> The distributive pronoun (and pronominal adjective) is +<b>ĉiu</b>, <i>each (one)</i>, <i>every (one)</i>. Sometimes it +is equivalent to English <i>any</i>, as in "Any one who studies can +learn," etc. The plural is <b>ĉiuj</b>, <i>every</i>, <i>all</i>. +The article is never interposed between <b>ĉiuj</b> and the +noun modified (as in English "all the men"), and is used only if +<b>ĉiuj</b> is pronominal and followed by <b>el</b>: +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +The use of <b>ĉiu</b> and <b>ĉiuj</b> must be distinguished +from that of the adjective <b>tuta</b>, which means "all" in the sense +of "entire": Ĉiuj viroj laboras la tutan tagon, <i>all men work all +(the whole) day</i>. Mi vidis ĉiun vizaĝon, sed mi ne vidis la +tutan vizaĝon de ĉiu viro, <i>I saw every face, but I did not +see all the face of each man</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>Ĉiu, kiu studos, lernos</b>, <i>every one who studies will learn</i>.<br> +<b>Mi vidis ĉiun el ili, kaj parolis al ĉiu knabo</b>, <i>I saw each of them, and talked to every boy</i>.<br> +<b>Mi dankas vin ĉiujn</b>, <i>I thank you all (I thank all of you)</i>.<br> +<b>Ni ĉiuj estas reprezentataj</b>, <i>we are all (all of us are) represented</i>.<br> +<b>Ĉiuj el la maristoj alvenis</b>, <i>all (every one) of the sailors arrived</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>174.</b> The distributive pronoun has a possessive or genitive form +<b>ĉies</b>, <i>every-one's</i>, <i>every-body's</i>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Li konas ĉies nomon</b>, <i>he knows every-one's name</i>.<br> +<b>Ĉies opinio estis diversa</b>, <i>every-body's opinion was different</i>.<br> +<b>Kies voĉojn mi aŭdas? Ĉies</b>, <i>whose voices do I hear? Everybody's</i>. +</p> + +<center>THE PREPOSITION <b>PO</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>175.</b> The preposition <b>po</b>, <i>at the rate of</i>, <i>at</i>, +is used chiefly before cardinals and has a distributive sense: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Li marŝas po kvar mejloj ĉiutage</b>, <i>he walks at the rate of four miles daily (every-day)</i>.<br> +<b>Mi aĉetis kafon po malalta prezo</b>, <i>I bought coffee at a low price</i>.<br> +<b>Mi aĉetis viandon po kvarono da dolaro por funto</b>, <i>I bought meat at a quarter of a dollar for (per) pound</i>.<br> +<b>La ĉapelisto aĉetas ĉapelojn pogrande</b>, <i>the hatter buys hats wholesale</i>. +</p> + +<center>DEPENDENT COMPOUNDS.</center> + +<p> +<b>176.</b> A compound word whose first element is a substantive, +dependent upon the second element in some prepositional relation, is +called a <i>dependent compound</i>. (If the two words were not united +into one, the first element would be preceded by a preposition, or would +be in the accusative case.) The ending <b>-o</b> may be omitted from the +first element of a dependent compound: +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +A personal pronoun serving as the first element of a dependent +compound may keep the accusative ending, to indicate its +construction: sinlaŭdo, <i>self-praise</i>. sinekzameno, +<i>self-examination</i>. sindefendo, <i>self-defence</i>. +sinkontraŭdira, <i>self-contradictory</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>jarcento</b>, <i>century</i> (cento da jaroj).<br> +<b>manĝoĉambro</b>, <i>dining-room</i> (ĉambro por manĝoj).<br> +<b>noktomezo</b>, <i>midnight</i> (mezo de la nokto).<br> +<b>paperfaristo</b>, <i>papermaker</i> (faristo de papero).<br> +<b>sunbrilo</b>, <i>sunshine</i> (brilo de la suno).<br> +<b>tagmezo</b>, <i>noon</i> (mezo de la tago).<br> +<b>vespermanĝo</b>, <i>supper</i> (manĝo je la vespero).<br> +<b>ventoflago</b>, <i>weathercock</i> (flago por la vento). +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>ĉies</b>, <i>every body's</i> (174).<br> + <b>ĉiu</b>, <i>every-body</i> (173).<br> + <b>decid-i</b>, <i>to decide</i>.<br> + <b>dev-o</b>, <i>duty</i>.<br> + <b>fleks-i</b>, <i>to bend</i>.<br> + <b>genu-o</b>, <i>knee</i>.<br> + <b>intenc-i</b>, <i>to intend</i>.<br> + <b>juĝ-i</b>, to <i>judge</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>lag-o</b>, <i>lake</i>.<br> + <b>po</b>, <i>at the rate of</i> (175).<br> + <b>sever-a</b>, <i>severe</i>.<br> + <b>stang-o</b>, <i>pole</i>.<br> + <b>svis-o</b>, <i>Swiss</i>.<br> + <b>vend-i</b>, <i>to sell</i>.<br> + <b>Vilhelm-o</b>, <i>William</i>.<br> + <b>vort-o</b>, <i>word</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + + +<center><b>LA ĈAPELO SUR LA STANGO.</b></center> + +<p> +Antaŭ ol Svislando estis tiel libera kiel la nuna svisa respubliko, +ĝiaj aferoj estis administrataj de personoj kiuj reprezentis aliajn +naciojn. Ofte tiuj personoj estis kiel eble plej severaj juĝistoj +al la svisoj. Unufoje plej kruela tirano estis administranta aferojn +svisajn. Li elpensis rimarkindan metodon por montri sian povon +(<i>power</i>), kaj por esti malagrabla al la svisoj. Li decidis meti +sian ĉapelon sur altan stangon en la vendejo (<i>market-place</i>), +en malgranda vilaĝo apud bela lago inter la altaj montoj. Li diris +ke de nun tiu ĉapelo reprezentas lin, kaj portos lian nomon. +Saluti la ĉapelon estos la grava devo de ĉiu persono en la +vilaĝo. Estos ĉies devo ne nur saluti la ĉapelon, sed +ankaŭ genufleksi (<i>kneel</i>) antaŭ la stango. La tirano +diris ke li forprenos la domon, la kampojn kaj tiom da mono, kiom +li povos, de ĉiu vilaĝano aŭ kamparano kiu forgesos +genufleksi. "Mi intencas sendi gardistojn," li diris, "kiuj rimarkos +ĉu vi ĉiuj genufleksos kiam vi estas proksimaj de la stango." +Je tagmezo alvenis gardistoj, por rimarki ĉu la necesaj salutoj +estos farataj de ĉiuj, kaj por kapti ĉiujn svisojn kiuj ne +genufleksis. Baldaŭ la kamparanoj komencis eniri la vendejon, por +vendi legomojn po kiel eble altaj prezoj, kaj por aĉeti vestojn +kaj aliajn aferojn po treege plej malaltaj prezoj. Ĉiu, kiu iris +proksimen de la stango, zorge genufleksis antaŭ la ĉapelo +de la malamata tirano, pro timo pri la hejmoj kaj la familioj. Fine, +kamparano, kies nomo estis Vilhelmo Tell, eniris la vendejon, kaj +staris du aŭ tri minutojn proksime de la stango, dum li diris +kelkajn vortojn al amiko. Sed anstataŭ fari tujan saluton, aŭ +genufleksi, li tute ne rigardis la stangon. +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. The day before yesterday my youngest cousin was sitting on my knee, +and I told him that a rainbow (<i>ĉielarko</i>) is made by the +sunshine and the rain. 2. My cousin goes to school every day, after +he has breakfast in the dining-room. 3. A new school is being built, +not far from the home of the judge. 4. It is my cousin's duty to study +those books at the rate of ten pages a day. 5. My cousin and I decided +last night (93) to buy new hats for ourselves. 6. We intend to go +to the hatter's early tomorrow morning. 7. I think that all clothes +are being sold at a low price at-the-present-time. 8. During a visit +at a friend's, I read an interesting book about ancient Europe. 9. +It relates that several centuries ago a severe and cruel tyrant was +managing affairs in Switzerland. 10. Once he put his hat on a pole in +the market-place, and said that it was the duty of-every-one to kneel +before it. 11. This serious affair happened in a village one or two +miles square, on (<i>ĉe</i>) the lake not far from the mountains +through which one goes on the way (167, a) to the Italian land. 12. +William Tell did not kneel or even look at the hat representing the +tyrant. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XXXVIII.</b></center> + +<center>THE DISTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVE.</center> + +<p> +<b>177.</b> The distributive adjective related to the distributive +pronoun <b>ĉiu</b>, giving a comprehensive idea of the quality of +some person or thing, is <b>ĉia</b>, <i>every kind of, every sort +of</i>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Oni vendas ĉiajn fruktojn tie</b>, <i>they sell every sort of fruit there.</i><br> +<b>Estas ĉiaj personoj en la mondo</b>, <i>there are all sorts of persons in the world.</i> +</p> + +<center>THE IMPERFECT PASSIVE TENSE.</center> + +<p> +<b>178.</b> The compound tense formed by combining the present passive +participle with the past tense of the auxiliary verb <b>esti</b> +expresses an act or condition as being undergone by the subject of the +verb <i>at some time in the past</i>. It is called the <i>imperfect +passive tense</i>. The conjugation of <b>vidi</b> in this tense is as +follows: +</p> + +<p> +<b>mi estis vidata</b>, <i>I was (being) seen.</i><br> +<b>vi estis vidata</b>, <i>you were (being) seen.</i><br> +<b>li (ŝi, ĝi) estis vidata</b>, <i>he (she, it) was (being) seen.</i><br> +<b>ni estis vidataj</b>, <i>we were (being) seen.</i><br> +<b>vi estis vidataj</b>, <i>you were (being) seen.</i><br> +<b>ili estis vidataj</b>, <i>they were (being) seen.</i> +</p> + +<center>COMPOUND TENSES OF IMPERSONAL VERBS.</center> + +<p> +<b>179.</b> When impersonal verbs, or other verbs used impersonally, +are in compound tenses, the participial element is given the ending +<b>-e</b>, like other modifiers of impersonally used verbs (141): +</p> + +<p> +<b>Estis pluvante antaŭ unu minuto</b>, <i>it was raining a minute ago.</i><br> +<b>Estis multe neĝinte</b>, <i>it had snowed a great deal.</i><br> +<b>Estis vidate ke ĉiu ploras</b>, <i>it was seen that every one wept.</i> +</p> + +<center>RECIPROCAL EXPRESSIONS.</center> + +<p> +<b>180.</b> To give a reciprocal sense, when there are two or more +subjects and the action goes from one to the other (expressed in English +by "each other," "one another," "mutually," "reciprocally"), the +phrases <b>unu la alian</b>, <b>unu al la alia</b>, etc., or the adverb +<b>reciproke</b>, is used: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Estas nia devo helpi unu la alian</b>, <i>it is our duty to help one another.</i><br> +<b>Ili parolas unu al la alia</b>, <i>they are talking to each other.</i><br> +<b>La viroj reciproke uzis siajn pafilojn</b>, <i>the men used each other's guns.</i><br> +<b>Ili falis unu sur la alian</b>, <i>they fell upon each other.</i> +</p> + +<center>THE SUFFIX <b>-UJ-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>181.</b> The suffix <b>-uj-</b> may be used to form words indicating +<i>that which contains, bears, or is a receptacle for</i>, some number +or quantity of that which is expressed by the root. It may be used +instead of <b>-lando</b> to form the name of a region containing any one +race or tribe, and instead of <b>-arbo</b> to form the names of fruit +trees: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>ujo</b>, <i>a receptacle</i>.<br> + <b>monujo</b>, <i>purse</i>.<br> + <b>supujo</b>, <i>soup-tureen</i>.<br> + <b>leterujo</b>, <i>letter-case</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>patrujo (patrolando)</b>, <i>fatherland</i>.<br> + <b>sukerujo</b>, <i>sugar-bowl</i>.<br> + <b>pomujo (pomarbo)</b>, <i>apple-tree</i>.<br> + <b>sagujo</b>, <i>quiver</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>ag-i</b>, <i>to act</i>.<br> + <b>ceter-a</b>, <i>remaining</i>.<br> + <b>ĉia</b>, <i>of every kind</i> (177).<br> + <b>fier-a</b>, <i>proud</i>.<br> + <b>imag-i</b>, <i>to imagine</i>.<br> + <b>konduk-i</b>, <i>to lead</i>.<br> + <b>kor-o</b>, <i>heart</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>mort-i</b>, <i>to die</i>.<br> + <b>pet-i</b>, <i>to plead, to request</i>.<br> + <b>prepar-i</b>, <i>to prepare</i>.<br> + <b>pun-i</b>, <i>to punish</i>.<br> + <b>reciprok-a</b>, <i>reciprocal, mutual</i>.<br> + <b>simil-a</b>, <i>like, similar</i>.<br> + <b>tuŝ-i</b>, <i>to touch</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center><b>VILHELMO TELL KAJ LA POMO.</b></center> + +<p> +Tuj kiam la gardistoj rimarkis ke la ĉapelo sur la stango ne +estis salutata de Vilhelmo Tell, ili kaptis lin, kaj kondukis lin +al la tirano, por esti juĝata. La tirano demandis de Tell kial +li ne genufleksis antaŭ la ĉapelo, simile al la aliaj +vilaĝanoj. Tell respondis fiere ke li ne sciis pri la ĉiutagaj +genufleksoj de la aliaj personoj. Li diris ke li tute ne intencis agi +kontraŭ la deziroj de la juĝistoj. Sed la tirano malamis +la altan fortan svison, tial li decidis puni lin per severa puno, +kaj demandis "Kiun el viaj infanoj vi plej amas?" Vilhelmo Tell +ne povis imagi kial la demando estas farata al li, kaj respondis +"Mi amas ĉiujn el ili, sinjoro." La tirano diris "Nu, estas +rakontate inter la vilaĝanoj ke vi estas rimarkinda arkpafisto +(<i>archer</i>). Ni eltrovos kia arkpafisto vi estas. Ni vidos ĉu +vi povos forpafi pomon de sur la kapo de via plej juna filo. Aldone +(<i>in addition</i>), estos via devo forpafi la pomon per la unua +sago, alie (<i>otherwise</i>) mi punos vin kaj vian filon per tuja +morto." Tell diris ke li estas preta por ricevi ĉian alian punon, +anstataŭ tia puno, sed malgraŭ ĉies petoj la tirano +estis jam elektanta pomon de apuda pomarbo. Li kondukis la knabon +malproksimen de la ceteraj personoj, kaj metis la pomon sur lian kapon. +Tell kaj la filo reciproke rigardis sin, dum la patro diris ke li ne +tuŝos haron de lia kapo. Tiam li elprenis sagon el la sagujo, +faris la necesajn preparojn, kaj rapide pafis. Tuj la pomo forfalis de +la kapo de la infano, kaj ĉiu havis feliĉan koron. Dum Tell +ĉirkaŭprenis la filon, la tirano demandis "Kial vi havas tiun +ceteran sagon en la mano." Tell laŭte respondis "Por mortpafi vin, +tuj post la infano, ĉar mi treege timis pro la vivo de mia kara +filo." +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. William Tell had a strong flexible (161) bow. 2. He could +shoot-with-a-bow (<i>arkpafi</i>) excellently, therefore he was a +well-known archer. 3. He put six or eight arrows into his quiver, and +went with his sons to the village. 4. Possibly he saw the hat upon the +pole, but he did not kneel before it. 5. It was being noticed already +in the village that Tell hated the tyrant very much. 6. When the guards +seized him for that act, and led him before the tyrant, who was also +the judge, Tell said "I did not know about this new duty, and could not +imagine why the hat was on the pole there." 7. The tyrant replied with +(<i>per</i>) angry words, for he hated the proud Swiss whom every one +else loved. 8. He said severely "It is said that you are a praiseworthy +archer. 9. Therefore I was wondering whether you could shoot an apple +from your son's head. 10. Now we shall see whether you can shoot off +the apple, or whether you will touch the child's head." 11. Amid the +pleadings of all, Tell successfully shot off the apple. 12. A similar +second arrow was ready in his hand. 13. The tyrant saw the remaining +arrow, and prepared to punish Tell by death. 14. But he escaped, and the +Swiss congratulated each other heartily (<i>kore</i>). 15. After some +time they followed him, at the rate of six miles an hour. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XXXIX.</b></center> + +<center>THE DISTRIBUTIVE ADVERB OF PLACE.</center> + +<p> +<b>182.</b> The distributive adverb of place, related to the +distributive pronoun <b>ĉiu</b>, is <b>ĉie</b>, everywhere. +The ending <b>-n</b> may be added to <b>ĉie</b> to show direction +of motion (121): +</p> + +<p> +<b>Oni trovas tiajn virojn ĉie</b>, <i>such men are found everywhere</i>.<br> +<b>Li iris ĉien, kie mi estis estinta</b>, <i>he went everywhere where I had been</i>.<br> +<b>Mi vidas lin ĉie, kien mi iras</b>, <i>I see him everywhere I go</i>. +</p> + +<center>THE FUTURE PASSIVE TENSE.</center> + +<p> +<b>183.</b> The compound tense formed by combining the present passive +participle with the future tense of <b>esti</b> indicates that an act +or condition <i>will be undergone</i> by the subject of the verb. It is +called the <i>future passive tense</i>. The conjugation of <b>vidi</b> +in this tense is as follows: +</p> + +<p> +<b>mi estos vidata</b>, <i>I shall be seen</i>.<br> +<b>vi estos vidata</b>, <i>you will be seen</i>.<br> +<b>li (ŝi, ĝi) estos vidata</b>, <i>he (she, it) will be seen</i>.<br> +<b>ni estos vidataj</b>, <i>we shall be seen</i>.<br> +<b>vi estos vidataj</b>, <i>you will be seen</i>.<br> +<b>ili estos vidataj</b>, <i>they will be seen</i>. +</p> + +<center>POSSESSIVE COMPOUNDS.</center> + +<p> +<b>184.</b> Compound adjectives may be formed with an adjectival root +for the first element, and a noun-root for the second element. Such +adjectives have the meaning "possessed of" that which is indicated in +the compound. (Similar adjectives are formed in English, with <i>-ed</i> +as the final syllable): +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>belbrova</b>, <i>beautiful-browed</i>.<br> + <b>bonintenca</b>, <i>good-intentioned</i>.<br> + <b>dumana</b>, <i>two-handed</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>longnaza</b>, <i>long-nosed</i>.<br> + <b>kvarpieda</b>, <i>four-footed</i>.<br> + <b>ruĝhara</b>, <i>red-haired</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center>THE TIME OF DAY.</center> + +<p> +<b>185.</b> The ordinals are used in expressing the hour of the day, +with <b>horo</b> expressed or understood. The minutes are expressed +by the cardinals. In questions the adjective <b>kioma</b> (from +<b>kiom</b>, <i>how much</i>) is used: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Kioma horo estas?</b> <i>What hour (what o'clock, what time) is it?</i><br> +<b>Je kioma horo vi venos?</b> <i>At what time (what o'clock) will you come?</i><br> +<b>Estas la dua horo</b>, <i>it is two o'clock (it is the second hour)</i>.<br> +<b>Estas la tria kaj kvin minutoj</b>, <i>it is five minutes past three</i>.<br> +<b>Ni iris je la sesa kaj duono</b>, <i>we went at half past six</i>.<br> +<b>Estas la oka kaj kvardek kvin (</b><i>or:</i><b> estas unu kvarono antaŭ la naŭa)</b>, <i>it is eight forty-five (a quarter of nine)</i>. +</p> + +<center>THE SUFFIX <b>-OBL-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>186.</b> The suffix <b>-obl-</b> is used to form multiples indicating +how many fold, as "two fold," "double," "triple," etc.: +</p> + +<p> +<b>duoblo</b>, <i>a double</i>.<br> +<b>duobla</b>, <i>double</i>.<br> +<b>duoble</b>, <i>doubly</i>.<br> +<b>kvarobla</b>, <i>quadruple</i>.<br> +<b>kvindekobla</b>, <i>fifty-fold</i>.<br> +<b>multobla</b>, <i>manifold</i>.<br> +<b>Trioble du estas ses</b>, <i>three times two is six</i>. +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>bilet-o</b>, <i>ticket</i>.<br> + <b>cend-o</b>, <i>cent</i>.<br> + <b>ĉie</b>, <i>everywhere</i> (182).<br> + <b>esprim-o</b>, <i>expression</i>.<br> + <b>giĉet-o</b>, <i>wicket, ticket-window</i>.<br> + <b>horloĝ-o</b>, <i>clock</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>pag-i</b>, <i>to pay</i>.<br> + <b>preter</b>, <i>beyond, past</i>.<br> + <b>staci-o</b>, <i>station</i>.<br> + <b>telefon-i</b>, <i>to telephone</i>.<br> + <b>vagon-o</b>, <i>car</i>.<br> + <b>valiz-o</b>, <i>valise</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<p class="footnote"> +The preposition <b>preter</b> indicates the movement of something +alongside of and passing beyond something else. Since it does not +express motion <i>toward</i> its complement, it cannot be followed by +the accusative. +</p> + +<center><b>EN LA STACIDOMO.</b></center> + +<p> +Du bonkoraj (184) amikoj miaj loĝas en la urbo B——. +Ni reciproke konas nin de antaŭ ses jaroj. Mi estis duoble +ĝoja hieraŭ kiam mi ricevis leteron de ili, ĉar en tiu +ili petis de mi baldaŭan viziton. Tial mi telefonis hieraŭ +posttagmeze al la stacidomo, por demandi je kioma horo foriros la +vagonaro (<i>train</i>) al B——. Oni respondis per la +telefono ke la vagonaro foriros je la tria kaj tridek kvin. Tuj poste +mi enmetis kelkajn vestojn en mian jam preskaŭ eluzitan valizon, +kaj faris ĉiujn preparojn por la mallonga vojaĝo. Je la dua +horo, tuj post la tagmanĝo (<i>midday meal</i>), mi marŝis +stacidomon. Survoje mi eniris butikon kaj aĉetis paron da novaj +gantoj. Kiam mi eniris la stacidomon, mi kuris preter la aliaj personoj +al la giĉeto kie biletoj estas vendataj. Mi diris al la sinjoro +ĉe la giĉeto "Mi deziras bileton al B——. Kiom +estos necese pagi?" La brunokula sinjoro respondis "Tia bileto kostos +dolaron dudek cendojn." Mi puŝis tiom da mono tra la giĉeto, +kaj tuj ricevis la bileton, kiun la sinjoro jam havis en la mano. +Tiam mi iris proksimen de la pordego tra kiu oni estos enlasata al +la vagonaro. "Kiom da tempo antaŭ la foriro de la vagonaro al +B——?" mi demandis al la gardisto. Li laŭtvoĉe +respondis "Nur sep minutojn. Ĉu vi ne vidas tiun horloĝon?" +Mi ne estis rimarkinta la horloĝon, tial mi almetis la montrilojn +de mia poŝhorloĝo (<i>watch</i>) por montri la saman horon. +Mi estis multe tuŝata de ĉiaj bonintencaj personoj kurantaj +ĉien preter mi, kaj puŝantaj unu la alian. Fine oni malfermis +la pordegon. Mi kaj la ceteraj personoj rapidis al la vagonaro kaj kiel +eble plej baldaŭ eniris ĝin. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<b>Posttagmezo</b>, <i>afternoon</i>, is a descriptive compound (167, a) +whose second element <b>tagmezo</b> is a dependent compound (176). +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. Because of the request of my friend whose brother died recently, I +went last (<i>la antaŭan</i>) week to visit him. 2. The remaining +persons of his family were not at home. 3. I telephoned to find out at +what time the train would depart. 4. I was told (54) that it would leave +at four twenty-seven. 5. I put enough money into my purse, and carried +along (<i>kunportis</i>) a valise into which I had put some clothes. +6. When I entered the station, I hurried past the other people to the +wicket, and asked for (<i>petis</i>) a ticket to B——. 7. The +ticket seller said "Two dollars and forty cents." 8. I could not imagine +why it was necessary to pay so much, but I at once pushed that much +money through the window, and received the ticket. 9. Then I looked at +my watch and went near the gate, but the yellowhaired guard who conducts +persons to the trains said "Persons who go through that gate before the +train arrives will be severely punished." 10. So all of us stood near +the double gate. 11. The trains are much like each other, and it is +better to act as the guards request, and not express impatience. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XL.</b></center> + +<center>THE DISTRIBUTIVE TEMPORAL ADVERB.</center> + +<p> +<b>187.</b> The distributive adverb of time, related to the distributive +pronoun <b>ĉiu</b>, is <b>ĉiam</b>, <i>always</i>, <i>at all +times</i>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Vi ĉiam pagas tro multe</b>, <i>you always pay too much</i>.<br> +<b>Mi estas ĉiam preta por helpi vin</b>, <i>I am always ready to help you</i>. +</p> + +<center>THE DISTRIBUTIVE ADVERB <b>ĈIAL</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>188.</b> The distributive adverb of motive or reason, related to the +pronoun <b>ĉiu</b>, is <b>ĉial</b>, <i>for every reason</i>, +<i>for all reasons</i>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Ĉial li estas feliĉa hodiaŭ</b>, <i>for every reason he is happy today</i>.<br> +<b>La mia ĉial estas la plej bona</b>, <i>mine is for all reasons the best</i>. +</p> + +<center>THE PAST PASSIVE PARTICIPLE.</center> + +<p> +<b>189.</b> The past passive participle expresses an act or condition +as <i>having been undergone</i> by the person or thing indicated by the +word modified. This participle ends in <b>-ita</b>, as <b>vidita</b>, +<i>having been seen</i>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>La prezo pagita de vi estis tro granda</b>, <i>the price paid by you was too great</i>.<br> +<b>La punita infano ploras</b>, <i>the (having-been) punished child is crying</i>.<br> +<b>Mi aĉetos bonefaritajn gantojn</b>, <i>I shall buy well-made gloves</i>.<br> +<b>Li serĉis la forgesitan bileton</b>, <i>he looked for the forgotten ticket</i>. +</p> + +<center>THE PERFECT PASSIVE TENSE.</center> + +<p> +<b>190.</b> The compound tense formed by combining the past passive +participle with the present tense of the verb <b>esti</b> expresses an +act or condition which <i>has been undergone</i> by the subject of the +verb. It is called the <i>perfect passive tense</i>. The conjugation of +the verb <b>vidi</b> in this tense is as follows: +</p> + +<p> +<b>mi estas vidita</b>, <i>I have been seen</i> (<i>I am having-been-seen</i>).<br> +<b>vi estas vidita</b>, <i>you have been seen</i>.<br> +<b>li (ŝi, ĝi) estas vidita</b>, <i>he</i> (<i>she, it</i>) <i>has been seen</i>.<br> +<b>ni estas viditaj</b>, <i>we have been seen</i>.<br> +<b>vi estas viditaj</b>, <i>you have been seen</i>.<br> +<b>ili estas viditaj</b>, <i>they have been seen</i>. +</p> + +<center>THE PREPOSITION <b>LAŬ</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>191.</b> In expressing that <i>in accordance with which</i> something +is done, takes place, moves, etc., the preposition <b>laŭ</b> is +used: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Li agis laŭ sia opinio</b>, <i>he acted in accordance with his own opinion</i>.<br> +<b>Mi faros ĝin laŭ bona metodo</b>, <i>I shall do it according to a good method</i>.<br> +<b>Laŭ kia maniero li agis?</b> <i>In what manner did he act?</i><br> +<b>Mi marŝis laŭ la strato</b>, <i>I walked down (or up) the street</i>.<br> +<b>Li iris laŭ la rivero per tiu vojo</b>, <i>he went along the river by that road</i>.<br> +<b>Nuboj nigraj kuris laŭ la ĉielo</b>, <i>black clouds raced along the sky</i>.<br> +<b>Ĝi kuŝas laŭlonge de la domo</b>, <i>it lies lengthwise of the house</i>. +</p> + +<center>THE SUFFIX <b>-EM-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>192.</b> The suffix <b>-em-</b> indicates a <i>tendency</i> or +<i>inclination</i> toward that which is expressed in the root: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>agema</b>, <i>active</i>.<br> + <b>mallaborema</b>, <i>lazy</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>pacema</b>, <i>peaceful, pacific</i>.<br> + <b>pensema</b>, <i>pensive, thoughtful</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>atend-i</b>, <i>to wait (for), to expect</i>.<br> + <b>ĉial</b>, <i>for every reason</i> (188).<br> + <b>ĉiam</b>, <i>always</i> (187).<br> + <b>gazet-o</b>, <i>magazine, gazette</i>.<br> + <b>ĵurnal-o</b>, <i>journal, paper</i>.<br> + <b>kompat-i</b>, <i>to pity</i>.<br> + <b>larm-o</b>, <i>tear</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>laŭ</b>, <i>according to</i> (191).<br> + <b>manier-o</b>, <i>manner, way</i>.<br> + <b>mov-i</b>, <i>to move</i> (transitive)<br> + <b>okup-i</b>, <i>to occupy</i>.<br> + <b>pal-a</b>, <i>pale</i>.<br> + <b>polic-o</b>, <i>police</i>.<br> + <b>trankvil-a</b>, <i>calm, tranquil</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center><b>LA PERDITA INFANO.</b></center> + +<p> +Dum mi estis atendanta hieraŭ posttagmeze en la stacidomo, mi +subite rimarkis palan sinjorinon kun larmoj en ŝiaj okuloj. Ŝi +rigardis ĉien kun esprimo de nekaŝebla timo, kaj estis videble +maltrankvila. Ŝi serĉis du aŭ tri minutojn inter la +personoj ĉirkaŭ si, kaj fine ŝi vidis bluevestitan +policanon, kiu estis parolanta al unu el la gardistoj. Ŝi rapide +diris kelkajn vortojn al li, kaj tuj li ankaŭ komencis serĉi +cie. Mi tre kompatis la ploreman sinjorinon, kaj kiam la policano +preteriris, mi demandis ĉu mi ne povas helpi. Mi diris ke mi ne +estos okupata (<i>busy</i>) ĝis la alveno de la vagonaro. Li +respondis ke la filo de tiu virino estas perdita, kaj li donis al mi la +sekvantan priskribon de la infano, laŭ la vortoj de la patrino: la +knabo estas agema brunhara sesjarulo, kun bluaj okuloj, kaj li estas +ruĝe vestita (<i>dressed in red</i>). Lia patrino estis ĵus +aĉetinta sian bileton ĉe la giĉeto, kaj post kiam ŝi +pagis la naŭdek cendojn por ĝi, subite ŝi rimarkis +ke la infano ne estis kun ŝi. Kvankam ŝi jam serĉis +ĉie, la filo ŝajnas ankoraŭ netrovebla. Ŝi multe +timas pro li, kvankam li ĉiam estas bona knabo. Mi tuj komencis +marŝi ĉien inter la personoj ĉirkaŭ mi, kaj fine +eniris malgrandan ĉambron apud la horloĝo ĉe la fino de +la stacidomo, kie estas vendataj tagĵurnaloj (<i>newspapers</i>), +gazetoj kaj libroj. Tie antaŭ nemovebla tablo kovrita de brile +koloritaj ĵurnaloj staris malgranda ruĝevestita knabo. Mi +diris al li "Mia studema juna amiko, oni ne vojaĝas laŭ tiu +metodo. Via patrino jam de longe atendas vin. Mi montros al vi kie +ŝi estas." Li venis kun mi, kaj proksime de la pordo kie mi estis +lasinta mian valizon staris la sinjorino. Ŝi estis ĉial +ĝoja kiam ŝi vidis nin, kaj dankeme ĉirkaŭprenis la +infanon. +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +1. The poor (to-be-pitied) lady whose little boy (son) was +lost in the station yesterday afternoon was very uneasy +about him for every reason. 2. She was pale and tearful +(<i>plorema</i>) when I saw her, and looked in every direction +in a most impatient manner. 3. There was an expression +of fear upon her face and she went as quickly as possible +to a nearby policeman, and said a few (<i>kelkajn</i>) words +to him. 4. I heard the last words, and at once said to myself +"It is now only ten minutes past two. 5. My train +will leave (<i>foriros</i>) at half-past two, so I have time to help." +6. I said to the blue-garbed policeman "During the next +(<i>sekvontajn</i>) twenty minutes I shall not be busy. Do you +desire my help?" 7. He answered "Yes, you are very +kind (<i>ĝentila</i>). The son of that lady has been lost. 8. +According to her description, he is a yellow-haired blue-eyed +five-year-old, and apparently (<i>ŝajne</i>) too restless +(<i>movema</i>). 9. I shall find him as soon as possible, nevertheless +I shall gladly accept your help. 10. The child is +dressed in white and wears a red hat." 11. As (<i>ĉar</i>) I am +not at all lazy (<i>mallaborema</i>), I went along the stationary +(<i>nemoveblaj</i>) tables as-far-as the end of the station, and +there I saw that-sort-of child, looking at the magazines and +newspapers. 12. I led him to the lady, who with tears in +her eyes was just going to telephone to her husband. + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XLI.</b></center> + +<center>THE DISTRIBUTIVE ADVERB <b>ĈIEL</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>193.</b> The distributive adverb of manner, related to the +distributive pronoun <b>ĉiu</b>, is <b>ĉiel</b>, <i>in every +way, in every manner</i>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Li povas ĉiel prepari ĝin</b>, <i>he can prepare it in every manner</i>.<br> +<b>Li estos ĉiel helpata</b>, <i>he will be helped in every way</i>. +</p> + +<center>THE DISTRIBUTIVE ADVERB <b>ĈIOM</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>194.</b> The distributive adverb of quantity, related to the +distributive pronoun <b>ĉiu</b>, is <b>ĉiom</b>, <i>every +quantity, the whole, all</i>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Li prenis multe da sukero, sed ne ĉiom da ĝi</b>, <i>he took a great deal of sugar, but not all of it</i>.<br> +<b>Li elprenis ĉiom de la teo el la teujo</b>, <i>he took all of the tea out of the tea caddy</i>. +</p> + +<center>THE PLUPERFECT PASSIVE TENSE.</center> + +<p> +<b>195.</b> The compound tense made by combining the past passive +participle with the past tense of the verb <b>esti</b> expresses an +act or condition which <i>had been undergone</i> by the subject of the +verb at some point in past time. It is called the <i>pluperfect passive +tense</i>. The conjugation of <b>vidi</b> in this tense is as follows: +</p> + +<p> +<b>mi estis vidita</b>, <i>I had been seen (I was having-been-seen)</i>.<br> +<b>vi estis vidita</b>, <i>you had been seen</i>.<br> +<b>li (ŝi, ĝi) estis vidita</b>, <i>he (she, it) had been seen</i>.<br> +<b>ni estis viditaj</b>, <i>we had been seen</i>.<br> +<b>vi estis viditaj</b>, <i>you had been seen</i>.<br> +<b>ili estis viditaj</b>, <i>they had been seen</i>. +</p> + +<center>THE FUTURE PERFECT PASSIVE TENSE.</center> + +<p> +<b>196.</b> The compound tense made by combining the past passive +participle with the future tense of the verb <b>esti</b> expresses an +act or condition which <i>will have been undergone</i> by the subject +of the verb at some point in future time. It is called the <i>future +perfect passive tense</i>. The conjugation of <b>vidi</b> in this tense +is as follows: +</p> + +<p> +<b>mi estos vidita</b>, <i>I shall have been seen (shall be having-been-seen)</i>.<br> +<b>vi estos vidita</b>, <i>you will have been seen</i>.<br> +<b>li (ŝi, ĝi) estos vidita</b>, <i>he (she, it) will have been seen</i>.<br> +<b>ni estos viditaj</b>, <i>we shall have been seen</i>.<br> +<b>vi estos viditaj</b>, <i>you will have been seen</i>.<br> +<b>ili estos viditaj</b>, <i>they will have been seen</i>. +</p> + +<center>THE EXPRESSION OF MATERIAL.</center> + +<p> +<b>197.</b> The material <i>out of which</i> something is made or +constructed is expressed by use of the preposition <b>el</b>. As in +English, an adjective may be used instead of the prepositional phrase +unless a verb or participle lays stress upon the fact of construction: +</p> + +<p> +<b>La tablo estas farita el ligno</b>, <i>the table is made out of wood</i>.<br> +<b>La tablo estas ligna (el ligno)</b>, <i>the table is wooden (of wood)</i>.<br> +<b>La infanoj konstruis domon el neĝo</b>, <i>the children built a house of (out of) snow.</i><br> +<b>Oni faras supon el asparago</b>, <i>they make soup out of asparagus.</i> +</p> + +<center>THE SUFFIX <b>-ET-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>198.</b> The suffix <b>-et-</b> indicates diminution of degree +in that which is expressed by the root. It is thus in contrast to +the augmentative suffix <b>-eg-</b> (122). Sometimes an affectionate +significance is given: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>beleta</b>, <i>pretty.</i><br> + <b>dormeti</b>, <i>to doze.</i><br> + <b>floreto</b>, <i>floweret, floret.</i><br> + <b>lageto</b>, <i>pond, small lake.</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>libreto</b>, <i>booklet.</i><br> + <b>monteto</b>, <i>hill.</i><br> + <b>rideti</b>, <i>to smile.</i><br> + <b>vojeto</b>, <i>path.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>best-o</b>, <i>animal</i>.<br> + <b>ĉiel</b>, <i>in every way</i> (193).<br> + <b>ĉiom</b>, <i>the whole, all</i> (194).<br> + <b>donac-o</b>, <i>gift, present</i>.<br> + <b>drap-o</b>, <i>cloth</i>.<br> + <b>hund-o</b>, <i>dog</i>.<br> + <b>konsist-i</b>, <i>to consist</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>leon-o</b>, <i>lion</i>.<br> + <b>lud-i</b>, <i>to play</i>.<br> + <b>material-o</b>, <i>material</i>.<br> + <b>posed-i</b>, <i>to own, to possess</i>.<br> + <b>pup-o</b>, <i>doll</i>.<br> + <b>rost-i</b>, <i>to roast</i>.<br> + <b>verŝ-i</b>, <i>to pour</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center><b>LA DONACO.</b></center> + +<p> +Mi volas doni beletan donacon al mia plej juna fratino morgaŭ, +sed ju pli mi pensas pri ĝi, des pli malfacile estas decidi +pri la afero. Estas duoble malfacile, ĉar ŝi jam posedas +ĉiun ludilon (<i>toy</i>) kiun oni povas imagi. Ĉiu el +ŝiaj amikoj ĝoje donacas (<i>make presents</i>) al tiel afabla +knabino. Tamen mi iris hieraŭ matene al ludilobutiko, kaj rigardis +la ludilojn tie. Multaj konsistis el diversaj pupoj, grandaj kaj +malgrandaj, kaj belege vestitaj. Sed mi estas certa ke la fratineto jam +posedas sufiĉe da pupoj—tial mi ne aĉetis tian ludilon, +kvankam ili estas ĉiam interesaj al knabinetoj. Sur unu tablo +kuŝis ĉiaj malgrandaj bestoj, faritaj el ligno, drapo, kaj +diversaj materialoj. Estis ĉevaletoj, hundetoj, katetoj, kaj flavaj +leonetoj. Proksime de tiuj staris malgrandaj brile koloritaj vagonaroj, +kiujn oni povis rapide movi, laŭ la maniero de grandaj vagonaroj. +Etaj policanoj staris apude, kaj estis ĉial malfacile elekti la +plej interesan el tiom da interesaj ludiloj. Baldaŭ mi rimarkis +knabineton apud mi. Ĉiel ŝi tre similis al mia fratino, kaj +tial mi decidis elekti tian ludilon, kia estos elektita plej frue de +la nekonata knabineto. Mi atendis trankvile, kaj eĉ legis unu +aŭ du paĝojn de miaj ĵus aĉetitaj gazetoj kaj +tagĵurnaloj. Fine la beleta infano estis rigardinta preskaŭ +ĉiom de la ludiloj kiuj okupis la tablojn, dum la kompatinda +servistino lace ŝin sekvis. Tiam la knabineto kriis "Ho, kiel +beleta pupodomo! Estas litoj en la dormoĉambroj; legomoj kaj +rostita viando, faritaj el papero, kuŝas sur la tablo en la +manĝo-ĉambro; kaj mi vidas tie pupon, kiu certe ĵus faris +la teon, kaj estas elverŝonta ĝin en tiujn tasetojn!" Tuj mi +faris decidon laŭ la plezuro de la knabineto, kaj baldaŭ la +pupodomo estis aĉetita por mia fratineto. +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. My pale delicate (<i>malsanema</i>) little sister is always happy +when she has a new toy. 2. Her dolls were made out of cloth when +she was a very little girl, because otherwise she could too easily +break them. 3. But yesterday my grandmother made a present of a doll +(presented a doll) to her, and since that moment she has been as happy +as possible. 4. I have not seen tears in her eyes, or heard a cross +(<i>koleretan</i>) word. 5. This new doll is made out of cloth, and its +dress consists of very pretty material. 6. My sister decided that she +likes it better than her other playthings, and I think that those poor +(<i>kompatindaj</i>) other dolls will soon have been forgotten. 7. The +doll seems in every way more interesting than the little animals made +out of cloth or wood, which are on the table with her dolls. 8. She +possesses a little dog and a little cat, and a little lion, and until +yesterday she had a wooden pony. 9. The pony is already broken, and has +been given away to a poor (<i>malriĉa</i>) child, the daughter +of our laundress (<i>lavistino</i>). 10. My sister possesses a small +train of cars which she can move everywhere, and she is very fond of +(<i>ametas</i>) this toy. 11. There are small sacks of sand in the cars, +and usually she is happy when she is pouring the sand out of one of +these into another, or putting all of the sand into a box, by means of +a small spoon. 12. For every reason I am doubly glad today that she is +busied in this manner (<i>tiamaniere</i>). 13. I wish to take a walk +along that pleasant path toward the hill, instead of waiting for my +little sister. 14. I must buy the meat to roast for supper, before I +come home from my walk. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XLII.</b></center> + +<center>THE FUTURE PASSIVE PARTICIPLE.</center> + +<p> +<b>199.</b> The future passive participle, expressing that which <i>will +be or is about to be undergone</i> by the person or thing indicated by +the word modified, ends in <b>-ota</b>, as <b>vidota</b>, about to be +seen: +</p> + +<p> +<b>La punota infano mallaŭte ploretas</b>, <i>the child about to be punished whimpers softly.</i><br> +<b>La formovota tablo estas peza</b>, <i>the table about to be moved away is heavy.</i><br> +<b>La domo konstruota de li estos bela</b>, <i>the house going to be built by him will be beautiful</i>. +</p> + +<center>THE PASSIVE PERIPHRASTIC FUTURE TENSES.</center> + +<p> +<b>200.</b> The compound tenses formed by combining the future passive +participle with each of the three aoristic tenses of <b>esti</b> +represent an act or condition as <i>about to be undergone</i> in the +present, past, or future, respectively. These are called <i>passive +periphrastic future tenses</i>. Except when great accuracy is desired, +these tenses, like those of the active voice (153) are not often used. A +synopsis of <b>vidi</b> in the first person singular of these tenses is +as follows: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr><td nowrap align="center">Present Periphrastic Future.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap> + <b>mi estas vidota</b>, <i>I am about to be (going to be) seen.</i> + </td> + </tr> + <tr><td nowrap align="center">Past Periphrastic Future.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap> + <b>mi estis vidota</b>, <i>I was about to be (going to be) seen.</i> + </td> + </tr> + <tr><td nowrap align="center">Future Periphrastic Future.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap> + <b>mi estos vidota</b>, <i>I shall be about to be (going to be) seen.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center>THE GENERIC ARTICLE.</center> + +<p> +<b>201.</b> The article is placed before nouns used in a comprehensive +or universal sense, indicating a whole class, kind, substance, or +abstract quality. In such use it is called the <i>generic article:</i> +</p> + +<p> +<b>La pacienco estas laŭdinda</b>, <i>patience is praiseworthy.</i><br> +<b>La vivo surtera estas nur parto de la vivo ĉiama</b>, <i>life on earth is merely a part of the life eternal.</i><br> +<b>La viro estas pli forta ol la virino</b>, <i>man is stronger than woman.</i> +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<i>Cf.</i> French <i>La patience est amère, mais son fruit est +doux, patience is bitter, but its fruit is sweet</i>, German <i>Das +Leben ist kurtz, life is short</i>, Italian <i>La speranza è il +pan de miseri, hope is the poor man's bread</i>, Spanish <i>Las riquezas +son bagajes de la fortuna, riches are the baggage of fortune</i>, etc. +In English the generic article (as in "the life eternal" above) may +often be replaced by omission of both "a" and "the." +</p> + +<center>THE SUFFIX <b>-EC-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>202.</b> The suffix <b>-ec-</b> is used to form words indicating +the <i>abstract quality</i> of that which is expressed in the root, or +formation, to which it is attached: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>amikeco</b>, <i>friendship</i>.<br> + <b>ofteco</b>, <i>frequency</i>.<br> + <b>indeco</b>, <i>worthiness</i>.<br> + <b>dankemeco</b>, <i>thankfulness</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>fleksebleco</b>, <i>flexibility</i>.<br> + <b>patreco</b>, <i>fatherhood</i>.<br> + <b>patrineco</b>, <i>motherhood</i>.<br> + <b>maltrankvileco</b>, <i>uneasiness</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>bord-o</b>, <i>bank, shore</i>.<br> + <b>brak-o</b>, <i>arm</i>.<br> + <b>fabrik-i</b>, <i>to manufacture</i>.<br> + <b>krut-a</b>, <i>steep</i>.<br> + <b>lan-o</b>, <i>wool</i>.<br> + <b>mebl-o</b>, <i>piece of furniture</i>.<br> + <b>pas-i</b>, <i>to pass</i> (intrans.).<br> + <b>pitoresk-a</b>, <i>picturesque</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>pont-o</b>, <i>bridge</i>.<br> + <b>sonor-i</b>, <i>to ring</i> (intrans.).<br> + <b>surtut-o</b>, <i>overcoat</i>.<br> + <b>sving-i</b>, <i>to swing, to brandish</i>.<br> + <b>ŝip-o</b>, <i>ship</i>.<br> + <b>ŝton-o</b>, <i>stone</i>.<br> + <b>vapor-o</b>, <i>steam</i>.<br> + <b>vetur-i</b>, <i>to travel</i> (in a vehicle). + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center><b>SUR LA VAPORŜIPO.</b></center> + +<p> +Unu el la plezuroj de la kampara vivo konsistas el la multenombraj +(<i>numerous</i>) okazoj por veturi ĉien, kien oni volas iri, +per kvietaj pitoreskaj vojoj. Ni havas ankoraŭ unu (<i>still +one, yet another</i>) okazon por plezuro en nia vilaĝo, ĉar +ni povas veturi per vaporŝipo sur la bela lago ĉe kies +bordo kuŝas la vilaĝo. Hieraŭ du kuzinoj venis por +viziti ĉe ni, kaj tuj post la tagmanĝo ni decidis promeni +laŭ tiu pitoreska vojeto al la lago. Kiam ni alvenis al la lago, +ni rimarkis ke beleta vaporŝipeto estis ĵus forironta. Tial +mi aĉetis tri biletojn, kaj kiel eble plej rapide ni suriris la +ŝipeton. La sonoriloj (<i>bells</i>) estis jam sonorintaj, kaj tuj +post kiam ni transmarŝis la ponteton, de la tero al la planko de +la ŝipeto, oni forprenis la ponteton. Kelkaj personoj kiuj estis +ankoraŭ sur la tero kuris kun granda rapideco al la ponteto. Ili +svingis la brakojn kaj la ombrelojn tre energie, sed la ŝipeto ne +atendis eĉ unu minuton. La personoj ŝajnis tre koleraj pro sia +malfrueco, kaj ankoraŭ pli koleraj pro la trankvila foriro de la +ŝipeto. Ĉiu sur la ŝipeto ridetis, ĉar la koleremo +(<i>irascibility</i>) estas ĉiam amuza. Tiam ĉiu komencis sin +amuzi tiel, kiel li deziris. Mi estis kunportinta dikan lanan surtuton, +sed pro la varmeco de la vetero mi ne bezonis ĝin, kaj lasis +ĝin sur apuda seĝo. Ni atendis kun plezuro por vidi la krutajn +montetojn kiuj estos videblaj tuj kiam la ŝipeto estos pasinta +preter malgranda arbaro. La pitoreskeco de la belaj montetoj estas +difektota, ĉar grandaj fabrikejoj estas jam konstruataj ĉe la +montpiedoj. La ŝtonoj por la muroj jam kuŝas pretaj apude, +kune kun grandaj stangoj kaj aliaj pecoj da ligno. Tie oni fabrikos +tablojn, seĝojn, kaj aliajn meblojn el zorge elektita ligno. +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. It is difficult in every way to select a present for a child who +already possesses enough toys. 2. In a toy-shop yesterday I examined the +dolls made out of woolen cloth and other material, and also looked at +the various little animals. 3. There were ponies, little dogs and little +lions and camels. 4. There were also little sets of furniture (126), +which consisted of tables, sofas and chairs. 5. On the tables were small +plates containing vegetables, fruits and roast (189) meat, entirely made +out of colored paper. 6. There were also little cups and tumblers of +thin glass, into which one could pour water or milk. 7. As (ĉar) +one dollar was all (194) of the money which I had in my purse, I left +the shop. 8. I walked along a stony picturesque path toward the lake, +swinging my overcoat on my arm, while I thought over (<i>pripensis</i>) +the difficulty, and tried to decide what sort of present to choose. 9. +The steamboat to B—— was just leaving, so I went across the +footbridge (<i>ponteto</i>) on to the pretty little ship, while its +bells were ringing, and rode an hour in the open (<i>libera</i>) air. +10. The shore which we passed is very picturesque, but its beauty is +about to be spoiled, for a large furniture factory is going to be built +between that steep hill and the lake. 11. Its proximity to the water is +necessary, for water-power (<i>akvoforto</i>) will be used. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XLIII.</b></center> + +<center>THE INDEFINITE PRONOUN.</center> + +<p> +<b>203.</b> The indefinite pronoun (and pronominal adjective) <b>iu</b>, +<i>any one, a certain one</i>, presents the idea of some person or +thing, without definitely characterizing it: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Mi parolas pri iu, kiun vi konas</b>, <i>I am talking about a certain one whom you know</i>.<br> +<b>Mi vizitis iujn el viaj amikoj</b>, <i>I visited some of your friends</i>.<br> +<b>Mi havas kelkajn pomojn, sed iuj ne estas bonaj</b>, <i>I have several apples, but certain ones are not good</i>.<br> +<b>Iuj pontoj estas bone faritaj</b>, <i>some bridges are well made</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>204.</b> The indefinite pronoun <b>iu</b> has a possessive or +genitive form <b>ies</b>, <i>somebody's, someone's, a certain one's</i>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Mi tuŝis ies brakon</b>, <i>I touched someone's arm</i>.<br> +<b>Ĉu ies surtuto kuŝas sur la tablo?</b> <i>Is anybody's overcoat lying on the table?</i><br> +<b>Ies ludiloj estas rompitaj</b>, <i>someone's playthings are broken</i>. +</p> + +<center>PARTICIPIAL NOUNS.</center> + +<p> +<b>205.</b> Nouns may be formed from participles, by substituting +the noun ending <b>-o</b> for the adjectival ending <b>-a</b>. Such +participial nouns indicate persons temporarily or non-professionally +performing or undergoing that which is expressed by the root: +</p> + +<p> +<b>helpanto</b>, <i>one who is helping, an assistant.</i><br> +<b>elpensinto</b>, <i>one who has thought out something, an inventor.</i><br> +<b>legonto</b>, <i>one who is about to read.</i><br> +<b>vidato</b>, <i>one (being) seen.</i><br> +<b>sendito</b>, <i>one (having been) sent, an envoy.</i><br> +<b>la juĝoto</b>, <i>the one about to be judged, the accused.</i> +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +Participial nouns must not be confused with nouns formed by the +suffix <b>-ist-</b> (172) expressing professional or permanent +occupation: <b>rajdanto</b>, <i>a rider</i>, <b>rajdisto</b>, +<i>jockey, horseman</i>, <b>juĝanto</b>, <i>a judge</i> (of +something), <b>juĝisto</b>, <i>judge</i> (professional), +<b>laboranto</b>, <i>a person working</i>, <b>laboristo</b>, +<i>laborer</i>. +</p> + +<center>THE PREFIX <b>EK-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>206.</b> Sudden or momentary action, or the beginning of an action or +state, is indicated by the prefix <b>ek-</b>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>ekdormi</b>, <i>to fall asleep.</i><br> +<b>ekkanti</b>, <i>to burst into song.</i><br> +<b>ekiri</b>, <i>to set out, to start.</i><br> +<b>ekridi</b>, <i>to burst into a laugh</i><br> +<b>ekrigardi</b>, <i>to glance at.</i> +</p> + +<center>THE SUFFIX <b>-ID-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>207.</b> Words indicating the <i>young of, the child of, the +descendant of,</i> are formed by use of the suffix <b>-id-</b>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>ĉevalido</b>, <i>colt</i> (from <b>ĉevalo</b>, <i>horse</i>).<br> +<b>hundido</b>, <i>puppy</i> (from <b>hundo</b>, <i>dog</i>).<br> +<b>katido</b>, <i>kitten</i> (from <b>kato</b>, <i>cat</i>).<br> +<b>leonido</b>, <i>a lion's whelp</i> (from <b>leono</b>, <i>lion</i>).<br> +<b>reĝidino</b>, <i>a king's daughter, a princess</i> (from <b>reĝo</b>, <i>king</i>). +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>amas-o</b>, <i>heap, throng.</i><br> + <b>daŭr-i</b>, <i>to continue.</i><br> + <b>hirund-o</b>, <i>swallow.</i> (bird).<br> + <b>hom-o</b>, <i>human being.</i><br> + <b>humor-o</b>, <i>temper, humor.</i><br> + <b>ies</b>, <i>some one's</i> (204).<br> + <b>iu</b>, <i>some one</i> (203). + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>kugl-o</b>, <i>bullet.</i><br> + <b>milit-i</b>, <i>to fight, to make war.</i><br> + <b>ost-o</b>, <i>bone.</i><br> + <b>renvers-i</b>, <i>to upset, to overturn.</i><br> + <b>sign-o</b>, <i>sign, mark.</i><br> + <b>tend-o</b>, <i>tent.</i><br> + <b>tru-o</b>, <i>hole.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<p class="footnote"> +<i>Cf</i>. the difference between <b>viro</b>, <i>man</i> (in contrast +to <b>virino</b>, <i>woman</i>), and <b>homo</b>, <i>man in the generic +sense</i>, including both men and women. +</p> + +<center><b>LA NESTO SUR LA TENDO.</b></center> + +<p> +Unufoje iu reĝo estis farinta militon kontraŭ la homoj de +lando ĉe la bordo de pitoreska rivero. La soldatoj ne venis tien +per vaporŝipoj, sed estis konstruintaj ponton trans la rivero, por +la veturiloj (<i>vehicles</i>). Estis necese resti kelkan tempon apud +urbo kiun la reĝo volis ekataki, kaj li havis grandan tendaron +(<i>encampment</i>) antaŭ tiu urbo. Unu tagon en la daŭro +(<i>course</i>) de la milito, iuj el la soldatoj pasis preter la +tendo de la reĝo, laŭ la ŝtona vojeto laŭ kiu ili +ĉiutage marŝis por gardi la tendaron. Unu el ĉi tiuj +ekrimarkis ke hirundo estas konstruinta sian neston sur la reĝa +tendo. Sur la nesto, kiu estis bone konstruita el koto, sidis trankvile +la hirundo. Dum la soldatoj svingis la brakojn kaj ekridis unu post la +alia, pri la kuraĝa birdo, la reĝo aŭdis ies voĉon. +Li elvenis el sia tendo por eltrovi kial la parolantoj faras tiom da +bruo, kaj kial ili tiel ekkriis kaj ekridis. Kiam la viroj montris al +li la birdon, li diris kun bonhumora rideto, "Tiu hirundo estos mia +gasto. Ĉiuj el la militistoj certe zorgos de nun pri la hirundo kaj +la hirundidoj." Tial la nesto restis netuŝata en la daŭro de +ĉiu batalo. Kelkaj kugloj pasis preter ĝi, sed la trankvileco +de la birdo daŭris same kiel antaŭe. Fine la reĝo +venkis, per kruelega batalo. Tuj la venkintoj forportis la tendojn, +kune kun multaj militkaptitoj (<i>prisoners of war</i>). Nur la tendon +de la reĝo oni lasis tie, ĉar la reĝo diris ke ĝi +nun apartenas al la hirundo. Ĝi jam estis malnova kaj eluzita, +tra kiu la pluvo eniris per multe da truoj. Sed ĝi ankoraŭ +staris, ĝis iu tago somera kiam la hirundidoj povis jam bone flugi. +Tiam la vento subite renversis ĝin, kaj ĝi ekfalis, kaj +kuŝis, amaso da ĉifonoj, inter multe da kugloj, homaj ostoj, +kaj la ceteraj malgajaj postsignoj (<i>traces</i>) de ies venko sur la +batalejo. +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. There is a pretty story about a swallow which built its nest for its +young (<i>idoj</i>) on the king's tent. 2. The soldiers who were walking +along the steep path past the tent glanced at it, and caught sight +of (206) the bird. 3. Some of them burst into a laugh, and gestured +(<i>svingis la brakon</i>) toward the bird, to point it out to their +comrades. 4. The good-humored king put on a thick woolen overcoat, and +came out of his tent, to inquire why his soldiers were conversing so +noisily there. 5. The tent was an expensive one, and contained handsome +furniture, as well as (<i>kaj ankau</i>) a bell which always rang as +soon as (<i>tuj kiam</i>) one touched it. 6. The king immediately +noticed the swallow's nest, and said with an amiable smile "Surely such +a courageous bird is a worthy (154) guest for a king." 7. The warriors +(172) cared for the swallow as much as possible during the course of the +war. 8. When the victors departed, they left that tent there. 9. Finally +the wind upset it, and it fell to the ground. 10. The young swallows +already could fly, by (<i>je</i>) that time. 11. The battleground is +covered with bullets, piles of human bones, and similar melancholy signs +of war. 12. War (201) is wicked and shameful (154). 13. Why do kings and +princes wish to make war upon each other (180)? 14. When their sons have +gone away to (make) war, the mothers of the soldiers are very uneasy. +15. Perhaps those sons will be prisoners of war. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XLIV.</b></center> + +<center>THE INDEFINITE ADJECTIVE.</center> + +<p> +<b>208.</b> The indefinite adjective, related to the indefinite pronoun +<b>iu</b>, is <b>ia</b>, <i>of any kind, some kind of, a certain kind +of,</i> expressing indefinitely the quality of a person or thing: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Estas ia birdo sur tiu arbo</b>, <i>there is a bird of some sort on that tree.</i><br> +<b>Mi vidis iajn ostojn sur la tero</b>, <i>I saw some kind of bones on the ground.</i><br> +<b>Estas ia homo en tiu tendo</b>, <i>there is some sort of human being in that tent.</i> +</p> + +<center>THE INDEFINITE ADVERB OF PLACE.</center> + +<p> +<b>209.</b> The indefinite adverb of place, related to the indefinite +pronoun <b>iu</b>, is <b>ie</b>, <i>anywhere, somewhere, in (at) a +certain place.</i> If the verb in the sentence expresses motion toward +the place indicated by <b>ie</b>, the ending <b>-n</b> is added (121): +</p> + +<p> +<b>Ie en tiu arbaro estas leono</b>, <i>somewhere in that forest is a lion.</i><br> +<b>Ie malantaŭ la soldatoj vi trovos amason da kugloj</b>, <i>somewhere behind the soldiers you will find a heap of bullets.</i><br> +<b>La hirundo flugis ien</b>, <i>the swallow flew somewhere (in some direction).</i><br> +<b>Mi iros ien, sed mi ankoraŭ ne scias kien</b>, <i>I am going somewhere, but I do not yet know where.</i> +</p> + +<center>PREDICATE NOMINATIVES.</center> + +<p> +<b>210.</b> An adjective may stand in predicate relation to the +<i>direct object of a transitive verb,</i> as well as to the subject +of an intransitive verb (19). Such a predicate adjective, agreeing +in number (21) with the object of the verb, <i>but remaining in the +nominative case,</i> indicates the result produced by the verb upon +the object, or the condition, quality or temporary state in which this +object is found: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Li faris la mondon feliĉa</b>, <i>he made the world happy (made-happy the world).</i><br> +<b>Mi lasis la knabon trankvila</b>, <i>I left the boy calm (undisturbed).</i><br> +<b>Mi trovis la truon jam farita</b>, <i>I found the hole already made.</i><br> +<b>Mi lasis ilin bone punitaj</b>, <i>I left them well punished.</i> +<p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<i>Cf.</i> the difference between the examples given and sentences with +the same words in an attributive (13) use: +</p> +<p class="footnote"> +Dio faris la mondon feliĉan, <i>God made the happy world.</i><br> +Mi lasis la knabon trankvilan, <i>I left the calm boy.</i><br> +Mi trovis la jam faritan truon, <i>I found the already made hole.</i><br> +Mi lasis ilin bone punitajn, <i>I left those who had been well punished.</i> +</p> + +<p> +<b>211.</b> A <i>noun</i> may be used similarly in predicate relation +after a transitive verb, as well as after an intransitive verb (20): +</p> + +<p> +<b>Ŝi nomis sian filinon Mario</b>, <i>she named her daughter Mary.</i><br> +<b>Oni elektis tiun reprezentanto</b>, <i>they elected that one representative.</i><br> +<b>Mi vidos lin venkinto</b>, <i>I shall see him a conqueror.</i><br> +<b>Mi trovis lin ŝtelisto</b>, <i>I found him a thief.</i> +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<i>Cf.</i> the examples given and the following sentences using the same +words in apposition (48) or attributive relation (13): +</p> +<p class="footnote"> +<b>Ŝi nomis sian filinon Marion</b>, <i>she named (mentioned) her daughter Mary.</i><br> +<b>Oni elektis tiun reprezentanton</b>, <i>they elected that representative.</i> +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>anonc-i</b>, <i>to announce.</i><br> + <b>ia</b>, <i>some kind of</i> (208).<br> + <b>ie</b>, <i>somewhere</i> (209).<br> + <b>just-a</b>, <i>upright, just</i>.<br> + <b>klar-a</b>, <i>distinct, clear.</i><br> + <b>kresk-i</b>, <i>to grow.</i><br> + <b>oportun-a</b>, <i>convenient.</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>paŝt-i</b>, <i>to feed</i> (flocks, etc.).<br> + <b>plend-i</b>, <i>to complain.</i><br> + <b>proces-o</b>, <i>legal process.</i><br> + <b>rajt-o</b>, <i>right, privilege.</i><br> + <b>ripar-i</b>, <i>to mend, to repair.</i><br> + <b>sufer-i</b>, <i>to suffer.</i><br> + <b>ŝnur-o</b>, <i>string.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center><b>LA ĈEVALO KAJ LA SONORILO.</b></center> + +<p> +Unufoje en malgranda urbeto (<i>town</i>) en Italujo, la reĝo, +kiun oni estis nominta Johano, metis grandan sonorilon en la vendejon. +Li anoncis ke ĉiu plendanto pri maljusteco havos la rajton alvoki +(<i>to summon</i>) juĝiston per tiu sonorilo. Tiam la juĝisto +faros proceson en la juĝejo pro tiaj plendantoj. Oni multe uzis la +sonorilon, laŭ la anonco de la reĝo, kaj multe da plendantoj +ricevis justecon. Sammaniere, granda nombro da maljustuloj estis punata +per ĝia helpo. Kiam okazis ke iu homo montris sin maljusta al +alia, ĉi tiu anoncis la aferon per la oportuna sonorilo. Kiam iu +faris la edzinon malfeliĉa, la sonorilo tuj sonoris por anonci +ŝiajn suferojn, kaj por alvoki la juĝiston. Fine, oni tiom +uzis la sonorilon justecan, ke la ŝnurego (<i>rope</i>) estis tute +eluzita, kaj ĝia lasta uzinto okaze forrompis ĝin. Sed iu +preterpasinto vidis la duonon de la ŝnurego kuŝanta sur la +tero, kaj riparis ĝin per kelkaj branĉetoj de apuda arbo. Li +pensis en si "Iu plendonto nun trovos ĝin preta por esti uzata." +Rimarkinde, la branĉetoj ne velkis, sed restis verdaj, kaj kreskis +kiel antaŭe. +</p> + +<p> +En la sama urbo loĝis riĉulo kiu estis forvendinta +preskaŭ ĉiom de siaj domoj, ĉevaloj, ĉevaletoj, +ĉevalidoj, hundoj kaj multekostaj vestoj, ĉar en sia maljuneco +li amis nur la monon, kaj tiun li amegis. Li ankoraŭ posedis nur +unu maljunan ĉevalon, kaj fine li forsendis eĉ tiun, por sin +paŝti laŭ la vojo. En la daŭro de la tago, la ĉevalo +ekrimarkis la branĉetojn kreskantajn sur la ŝnurego de la +sonorilo. Tuj ĝi kaptis la branĉetojn, por manĝi ilin, +kaj tuj la juĝisto aŭdis la sonorilon klare sonoranta. +Li rapidis al la vendejo, kaj laŭte ekridis kiam li vidis ies +ĉevalon tie. Li decidis puni la riĉulon ĉar tiu ĉi +ne donis sufiĉe por manĝi al la maljuna militĉevalo. +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. The horse caught sight of the twigs with which a passer-by had mended +the bellrope. 2. Because it wished to eat the green leaves, it seized +the rope, and the bell immediately rang loudly and clearly. 3. The horse +almost upset the poles which supported (160) the roof over the bell +of-justice. 4. Any one (173) had the right to use this bell, to announce +any kind of injustice. 5. The judge burst into a laugh as soon as he saw +that sort of plaintiff standing there. 6. More often he saw human beings +as plaintiffs, instead of animals. 7. When a laborer showed himself +unkind to his wife and children, they could announce their sufferings by +means of the convenient bell. 8. People called it the bell of justice. +9. According to everyone's opinion, it is the duty of a just judge +to punish evildoers and unjust persons. 10. He decided that he would +institute proceedings (<i>faros proceson</i>) against the owner (205) +of the horse. 11. The man had driven away the horse, and it was grazing +(<i>sin paŝtanta</i>) along the road. 12. It was some one's duty to +give some sort of home to his horse. 13. The judge said, "I will find +out whose horse that poor beast is, and will put a mark opposite the +name of that man. I will not leave him alone (<i>trankvila</i>), but +will show myself very severe." +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XLV.</b></center> + +<center>THE INDEFINITE TEMPORAL ADVERB.</center> + +<p> +<b>212.</b> The indefinite temporal adverb, related to the indefinite +pronoun <b>iu</b>, is <b>iam</b>, <i>sometime, any time, ever, once upon +a time</i>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Iam mi rakontos la aferon al vi</b>, <i>sometime I will tell you the affair.</i><br> +<b>Reĝo iam loĝis tie</b>, <i>a king once (upon a time) dwelt there.</i><br> +<b>Ĉu vi iam faris proceson kontraŭ li?</b> <i>Did you ever go to law against him?</i> +</p> + +<center>THE INDEFINITE ADVERB <b>IAL</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>213.</b> The indefinite adverb of motive or reason, related to the +indefinite pronoun <b>iu</b>, is <b>ial</b>, <i>for any reason, for some +reason, for certain reasons:</i> +</p> + +<p> +<b>Ial li ne riparis la tendon</b>, <i>for some reason he did not repair the tent.</i><br> +<b>Ĉu vi opinias ke ial li maljuste suferas?</b> <i>Do you think that for any reason he is suffering unjustly?</i> +</p> + +<center>CAUSATIVE VERBS.</center> + +<p> +<b>214.</b> The suffix <b>-ig-</b> is used to form verbs indicating the +<i>causing, rendering or bringing about</i> of that which is expressed +in the root or formation to which it is attached. Verbs containing the +suffix <b>-ig-</b> are called <i>causative verbs</i> and are always +transitive (22). +</p> + +<p> +<b>a.</b> Causative verbs from <i>adjectival</i> roots indicate that the +quality or condition expressed in the root is produced in the object of +the verb: +</p> + +<p> +<b>dolĉigi</b>, <i>to sweeten, to assuage</i> (from <b>dolĉa</b>, <i>sweet</i>).<br> +<b>moligi</b>, <i>to soften</i> (from <b>mola</b>, <i>soft</i>).<br> +<b>plilongigi</b>, <i>to lengthen, to make longer</i> (from <b>pli longa</b>, <i>longer</i>).<br> +<b>faciligi</b>, <i>to facilitate</i> (from <b>facila</b>, <i>easy</i>).<br> +<b>beligi</b>, <i>to beautify</i> (from <b>bela</b>, <i>beautiful</i>). +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +The meaning often resembles that of the predicate nominative (210), as: +</p> +<p class="footnote"> +<b>Li faris la mondon ĝoja</b>, <i>he made the world glad.</i><br> +<b>Li ĝojigis la mondon</b>, <i>he gladdened the world.</i> +</p> + +<p> +<b>b.</b> Causative verbs from <i>verbal</i> roots indicate that the +action expressed in the root is made to take place: +</p> + +<p> +<b>dormigi</b>, <i>to put to sleep</i> (from <b>dormi</b>, <i>to sleep</i>).<br> +<b>konigi</b>, <i>to make acquainted with</i> (from <b>koni</b>, <i>to know</i>).<br> +<b>mirigi</b>, <i>to astonish</i> (from <b>miri</b>, <i>to wonder</i>).<br> +<b>mortigi</b>, <i>to kill</i> (from <b>morti</b>, <i>to die</i>). +</p> + +<p> +<b>c.</b> Causative verbs may be formed from noun-roots, prepositions, +adverbs, prefixes and suffixes whose meaning permits: +</p> + +<p> +<b>amasigi</b>, <i>to amass, to heap up</i> (from <b>amaso</b>, <i>pile</i>).<br> +<b>kunigi</b>, <i>to unite, to bring together</i> (from <b>kun</b>, <i>with</i>).<br> +<b>forigi</b>, <i>to do away with</i> (from <b>for</b>, <i>away</i>).<br> +<b>ebligi</b>, <i>to render possible</i> (<b>-ebl-</b>, 161). +</p> + +<center>EMPHASIS BY MEANS OF <b>JA</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>215.</b> The emphatic form of the verb, expressed in English by +"do", "did", as in "I do study", "I did find it", "Do tell me", and by +adverbs such as "certainly", "indeed", etc., is expressed in Esperanto +by placing the adverb <b>ja</b>, <i>indeed</i>, before the verb: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Vi ja mirigas min!</b> <i>You do astonish me!</i><br> +<b>Li ja estas justa juĝisto</b>, <i>he is indeed an upright judge</i>.<br> +<b>Li ja havis tiun rajton</b>, <i>he did have that right</i>. +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>akompan-i</b>, <i>to accompany</i>.<br> + <b>danĝer-o</b>, <i>danger</i>.<br> + <b>gvid-i</b>, <i>to guide</i>.<br> + <b>ial</b>, <i>for some reason</i> (213).<br> + <b>iam</b>, <i>sometimes</i> (212). + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>indiferent-a</b>, <i>indifferent</i>.<br> + <b>ja</b>, <i>indeed</i> (215).<br> + <b>kred-i</b>, <i>to believe</i>.<br> + <b>salt-i</b>, <i>to leap, to jump</i>.<br> + <b>tir-i</b>, <i>to draw, to pull</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<p class="footnote"> +<i>Cf.</i> the difference in meaning and use between <b>esti +indiferenta</b>, <i>to be indifferent</i>, and <b>ne esti zorga</b>, +<i>not to be careful</i>, both of which may be translated "not to +care for": +</p> +<p class="footnote"> +<b>Li estas indiferenta al la libro</b>, <i>he does not care about (is indifferent to) the book</i>.<br> +<b>Li ne zorgas pri la libro</b>, <i>he does not care for (take care of) the book</i>.<br> +<b>Estas indiferente al mi ĉu li venos, aŭ ne</b>, <i>I do not care whether he is coming or not</i>. +</p> + +<center><b>ĈE LA MALNOVA PONTO.</b></center> + +<p> +Iam loĝis en nia urbeto junulo kiu havis afablan pli junan +fratinon. Unu tagon en la daŭro de la bela printempa vetero +la junulo invitis la fratinon veturi ien en veturilo tirata de du +ĉevaloj. La invito ĝojigis la knabinon, kaj ŝi respondis +ke ŝi kun plezuro akompanos la fraton. Tuj ŝi pretigis sin +por iri, kaj ili ekveturis. Ili pasis preter pitoreskaj kampoj kaj +arbaretoj, kaj fine alvenis al ponto trans la rivero. Ili kredis +ĝin malnova kaj ne tre forta, kaj ial la junulino estis treege +timigita (<i>frightened</i>). "Ho, kara frato," ŝi ekkriis, kun +eksalteto pro timo, "tiu ponto ja estas danĝera! Mi deziras +marŝi trans ĝin, ĉar iam la pezeco de unu persono estos +tiom tro multe por veturilo sur malforta ponto!" Sed la timemaj petoj de +lia fratino ŝajne kolerigis la junulon, kaj li respondis malafable, +"Nu, vi ja mirigas min! Vi montras vin tre malsaĝa, ĉar la +konstruintoj de tiu ponto certe faris ĝin sufiĉe forta por +tia veturilo kia la nia. Ne estos necese eksalti de ĝi, kaj piede +transiri la ponton." Tiamaniere li penis trankviligi la kompatindan +knabinon, sed tiaj vortoj nur silentigis ŝin, kaj ŝi komencis +mallaŭte ploreti. Tamen la frato montris sin indiferenta al +ŝiaj timemaj sentoj, kaj tute malatentis ŝiajn larmojn. Li +gvidis la ĉevalojn rekte trans la ponton, dum la fratino atendis la +bruegon de rompigita ligno, kaj imagis ke ŝi estas tuj mortigota. +Tamen, la ponto estis tiel forta kiel la junulo estis klariginta, +kaj tute ne estis danĝera. Sed pro la malafableco de la frato +al la fratino, ili tute ne agrable pasigis la ceterajn horojn de la +posttagmezo, malgraŭ la beleco de la vetero kaj de la kamparo. +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. Somewhere in that same town, there lived another youth, who also had +an amiable sister. 2. One convenient day, she accompanied him for a ride +in a vehicle drawn by a fast horse. 3. When they reached (<i>alvenis +al</i>) the bridge, this girl also was frightened for some reason, the +same as the girl in the other story. 4. She said "I do not intend to +complain, but the carriage will certainly be too heavy while we are in +it. I am afraid that that bridge is dangerous, so I will jump out and +walk. I will also pick (<i>kolektos</i>) some sort of flowers, among +the flowers growing there, near where someone's horses are grazing. I +will not delay (<i>atendigi</i>) you long." He replied, "That bridge +is entirely safe (<i>nedanĝera</i>) but instead of explaining +(<i>making-clear</i>) to you about it, I will lead the horse across +the bridge, while you walk across, for I am not indifferent to your +fear." Then he helped his sister get out (<i>eliri</i>) of the carriage, +and guided the horse across. Then he said with a pleasant smile, "It +was not necessary to cross on foot." She replied, "No, but you showed +yourself a courteous brother, and were very patient." Then they rode on +(<i>antaŭen</i>), and talked to each other very amiably. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XLVI.</b></center> + +<center>THE INDEFINITE ADVERB <b>IEL</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>216.</b> The indefinite adverb of manner, related to the indefinite +pronoun <b>iu</b>, is <b>iel</b>, <i>somehow, in any way, in some (any) +manner:</i> +</p> + +<p> +<b>Mi penis vin iel gvidi tien</b>, <i>I tried somehow to guide you thither.</i><br> +<b>Iel ni anoncos la decidon</b>, <i>we shall announce the decision in some way.</i> +</p> + +<center>THE INDEFINITE ADVERB <b>IOM</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>217.</b> The indefinite adverb of quantity, related to the indefinite +pronoun <b>iu</b>, is <b>iom</b>, <i>some, any quantity, a certain +amount:</i> +</p> + +<p> +<b>Ĉu vi havas iom da tempo?</b> <i>Have you some time?</i><br> +<b>Ŝi varmigos iom da akvo</b>, <i>she will heat some water.</i><br> +<b>Tiu metodo estas iomete danĝera</b>, <i>that way is a little dangerous</i> (198).<br> +<b>La ŝnuro estas iom tro longa</b>, <i>the string is somewhat too long.</i> +</p> + +<center>THE SUFFIX <b>-AD-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>218.</b> The suffix <b>-ad-</b> is used to form words indicating +that the action expressed in the root is <i>continuous, habitual or +repeated.</i> +</p> + +<p> +<b>a.</b> Verbs formed with the suffix <b>-ad-</b> are called +<i>frequentative verbs</i>, and may often be translated by the root +meaning, preceded by "keep (on)", "used to", etc.: +</p> + +<p> +<b>frapadi</b>, <i>to keep knocking, to knock repeatedly.</i><br> +<b>rigardadi</b>, <i>to keep on looking, to gaze.</i><br> +<b>vizitadi</b>, <i>to keep visiting, visit repeatedly, frequent, haunt.</i><br> +<b>Antaŭ du jaroj ŝi tre dolĉe kantadis</b>, <i>two years ago she used to sing very sweetly.</i> +</p> + +<p> +<b>b.</b> Nouns formed with the suffix <b>-ad-</b> are often equivalent +to English verbal nouns ending in <i>-ing</i>, and (with the generic +article, 201) may replace the infinitive as subject (130) and sometimes +as object (29): +</p> + +<p> +<b>kriado</b>, <i>crying, shouting</i> (from <b>krio</b>, <i>cry, shout</i>).<br> +<b>movado</b>, <i>motion, movement in general</i> (from <b>movo</b>, <i>a movement</i>).<br> +<b>pafado</b>, <i>shooting, fusillade</i> (from <b>pafo</b>, <i>a shot</i>).<br> +<b>parolado</b>, <i>a speech, address</i> (from <b>parolo</b>, <i>a word spoken</i>).<br> +<b>pensado</b>, <i>thought, contemplation</i> (from <b>penso</b>, <i>a thought</i>).<br> +<b>La promenado donas plezuron</b>, <i>the taking of walks gives pleasure.</i><br> +<b>Mi preferas la legadon de tiaj libroj</b>, <i>I prefer the reading of (to read) such books.</i> +</p> + +<center>THE USE OF <b>MEM</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>219.</b> The invariable pronoun <b>mem</b>, <i>self, selves</i>, +is intensive, and lays stress upon the substantive which immediately +precedes it, or which it obviously modifies. (The combination of +<b>mem</b> with personal pronouns must not be confused with reflexive +pronouns, 39, 40): +</p> + +<p> +<b>Mi mem akompanos vin</b>, <i>I myself shall accompany you.</i><br> +<b>La gvidisto mem perdis la vojon</b>, <i>the guide himself lost the way.</i><br> +<b>Mi kredos al la viro mem</b>, <i>I shall give credence to the man himself.</i><br> +<b>La viroj mem defendis sin</b>, <i>the men themselves defended themselves.</i><br> +<b>Ĝi pendas sur la muro mem</b>, <i>it hangs on the very wall (the wall itself).</i><br> +<b>Ŝi venis mem por vidi vin</b>, <i>she came herself to see you.</i><br> +<b>Mi ekvidis la ŝteliston mem</b>, <i>I caught a glimpse of the thief himself.</i> +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>Arĥimed-o</b>, <i>Archimedes.</i><br> + <b>ban-i</b>, <i>to bathe</i> (trans.).<br> + <b>fals-i</b>, <i>to debase, to forge.</i><br> + <b>Hieron-o</b>, <i>Hiero.</i><br> + <b>honest-a</b>, <i>honest.</i><br> + <b>ide-o</b>, <i>idea.</i><br> + <b>iel</b>, <i>somehow</i> (216).<br> + <b>iom</b>, <i>some</i> (217). + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>ĵet-i</b>, <i>to throw, to cast.</i><br> + <b>kompren-i</b>, <i>to understand.</i><br> + <b>kron-o</b>, <i>crown.</i><br> + <b>lev-i</b>, <i>to lift, to raise.</i><br> + <b>lok-o</b>, <i>place.</i><br> + <b>mem</b>, <i>self, selves</i> (219).<br> + <b>or-o</b>, <i>gold.</i><br> + <b>Sikeli-o</b>, <i>Sicily.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center><b>ARĤIMEDO KAJ LA KRONOJ.</b></center> + +<p> +Iam bonekonata reĝo, nomita Hierono, vivadis en granda urbo en +Sikelio, kiu estas sudokcidenta de Italujo. Li suspektis ke iam la +kronfaristoj, kiuj fabrikadis kronojn por li, ne uzis ĉiom de +la oro donita al ili de la reĝo, sed falsadis ĝin per la +uzado de iu alia materialo. Tamen, Hierono ne povis per si mem eltrovi +ĉu oni falsadas la oron. Tial li venigis grekan klerulon, kies +nomo estis Arĥimedo, kaj rakontis al li sian timon pri la falsita +oro. Arĥimedo certigis lin ke iel li ja eltrovos pri la falsado, +kaj helpos la reĝon kontraŭ la falsintoj, kiuj estis tiel +indiferentaj al la honesteco. Ĉiutage li multe pensadis pri la +afero, sed ju pli longe li pensadis, des malpli sukcesaj estis liaj +penoj, ĝis iu tago, kiam li okaze faris interesan eltrovon. Li +estis ĵus baninta sin, kaj subite ekrimarkis ke dum li mem restis +en la akvo, ial ŝajnis esti iomete pli multe da akvo en la banujo +ol antaŭe. Tuj li komprenis ke lia korpo estas forpuŝinta +iom de la akvo el ĝia loko. Li komprenis ke tiom da akvo estas +elpuŝita, kiom antaŭe estis en tiu loko kie li mem estas. Tia +levado de la akvo per lia korpo donis al li saĝan ideon, kaj li +prenis en la mano du aŭ tri orajn kronojn. Li ĵetis ilin unu +post la alia en la banujon, kaj zorge rimarkis al kiu alteco ĉiu +el ili levis la akvon. Tiam li eltiris ilin, kaj enmetis la kronon pri +kiu Hierono estis plej suspektema. Li rimarkis ke ĉi tiu ne tiel +alten levis la akvon, tial li estis certa ke la oro en ĝi estas +multe falsita. Oni diras ke kiam li eltrovis ĉi tiun metodon por +montri la falsadon de la malhonestaj kronfaristoj, li eksaltetis pro +ĝojo kaj ekkriis "eŭreka," kiu estas la greka vorto por "mi +estas trovinta." Tiun saman vorton oni ankoraŭ nun uzadas en la +angla lingvo. +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. Several centuries ago, a rich and powerful (<i>multepova</i>) king, +named Hiero, lived in Sicily. 2. Sometimes he was suspicious about +the crown-makers who wrought (<i>faris</i>) crowns for him, out of +the gold which he himself gave them. 3. He wondered whether these men +were honest. 4. He suspected that perhaps (<i>eble</i>) they did not +use all of the gold which was given them, but kept some of it for +themselves. 5. He could not of himself (<i>per si mem</i>) discover +whether they were debasing the gold in his crowns, so he summoned +a wise man from (<i>el</i>) Greece. 6. To this well-informed man, +whose name was Archimedes, he made clear his fears. 7. Archimedes +assured the king that he would find out somehow about the matter. +8. He meditated several hours every day, and tried to discover a +satisfactory (<i>kontentiga</i>) method, but for some reason he did +not succeed. 9. One day, however, when he was bathing (himself), he +noticed that there seemed to be a little more water in the bathtub +when he himself was in it, than before. 10. The rising of the water +gave him an idea. 11. He threw the crowns one after another into the +water, and noticed how much water each displaced. 12. In this manner +(<i>tiamaniere</i>) he understood how much each had been alloyed by the +local (<i>lokaj</i>) crown-makers, whom Hiero soon threw into prison +(<i>la malliberejon</i>). +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XLVII.</b></center> + +<center>THE NEGATIVE PRONOUN.</center> + +<p> +<b>220.</b> The negative pronoun (and pronominal adjective) is +<b>neniu</b>, <i>no one</i>, <i>nobody</i>, <i>no</i> (formed of +<b>ne</b> and <b>iu</b>, with a medial <b>n</b> inserted for the sake of +euphony): +</p> + +<p> +<b>Neniu el vi komprenas min</b>, <i>no one of you understands me</i>.<br> +<b>Mi trovis neniun preta por iri</b>, <i>I found nobody ready to go</i>.<br> +<b>Li havis neniun honestan serviston</b>, <i>he had no honest servant</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>221.</b> The negative pronoun <b>neniu</b> has a possessive or +genitive form, <b>nenies</b>, <i>nobody's</i>, <i>no one's</i>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Ĉies afero estas nenies afero</b>, <i>everybody's affair is nobody's affair</i>.<br> +<b>Li laŭdos nenies ideojn</b>, <i>he will praise no one's ideas</i>. +</p> + +<center>THE ADVERBIAL PARTICIPLE.</center> + +<p> +<b>222.</b> A participle may be equivalent not only to a clause +describing or determining the substantive modified, as in <b>la +parolanta viro</b>, <i>the man who-is-talking</i>, <b>la sendota +knabo</b>, <i>the boy who-will-be-sent</i>, but also to an +<i>adverbial</i> clause. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +An adverbial clause modifies a verb, as in <b>dum vi atendis, li +foriris</b>, <i>while you waited, he went away</i>; <b>ĉar mi +ĝojis, mi ridis</b>, <i>because I was happy, I laughed</i>. +</p> + +<p> +Such a participle has for its subject the subject of the verb in the +sentence (though not in attributive or predicate relation with it), and +indicates some relation of time, cause, manner, situation, etc., between +the action of the participle and that of the main verb in the sentence. +An <i>adverbial participle</i> is given the ending <b>-e</b>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Ĝojante, mi ridis</b>, <i>rejoicing, I laughed</i>.<br> +<b>Forironte, ni adiaŭis lin</b>, <i>being about to depart, we bade him farewell</i>.<br> +<b>Baninte la infaneton, ŝi dormigis ĝin</b>, <i>after bathing (having bathed) the baby, she put it to sleep</i>.<br> +<b>Estante ruzaj, ili falsis la oron</b>, <i>being sly, they debased the gold</i>.<br> +<b>Tiel helpate de vi, mi sukcesos</b>, <i>thus helped by you, I shall succeed</i>.<br> +<b>Silentigite de li, ili ne plendis</b>, <i>(having been) silenced by him, they did not complain</i>.<br> +<b>Punote, li ekkriis</b>, <i>being about to be punished, he gave a cry</i>.<br> +<b>Ne parolinte, li foriris</b>, <i>without speaking (not having spoken), he left</i>.<br> +<b>Li venis, ne vokite</b>, <i>he came without being (came not-having-been) called</i>. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +The adverbial participle must not be used in rendering the English +"nominative absolute" construction of a participial clause referring +to something else than the subject. In such a sentence a clause +must be used: <i>The youth being young, everyone watched him</i>, +<b>ĉar la junulo estis juna, ĉiu rigardadis lin</b>; <i>the +work being finished, he went away</i>, <b>kiam la lahoro estis finita, +li foriris</b>. +</p> + +<center>THE PREFIX <b>RE-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>223.</b> The prefix <b>re-</b> indicates the repetition of an action +or state, or the <i>return</i> of a person or thing to its original +place or state. (<i>Cf.</i> English prefix <b>re-</b>; meaning either +"again" or "back.") +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>rekapti</b>, <i>to recapture</i>.<br> + <b>renovigi</b>, <i>to renew</i>.<br> + <b>rekoni</b>, <i>to recognize</i>.<br> + <b>ĝis la revido</b>, <i>au revoir</i>.<br> + <b>ree</b>, <i>again, anew</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>rebrili</b>, <i>to shine back, to reflect</i>.<br> + <b>reteni</b>, <i>to hold back, to retain</i>.<br> + <b>reveni</b>, <i>to come back, to return</i>.<br> + <b>reiri</b>, <i>to go back, to return</i>.<br> + <b>reĵeti</b>, <i>to throw back, to reject</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>brul-i</b>, <i>to be in flames, to burn</i>.<br> + <b>cilindr-o</b>, <i>cylinder</i>.<br> + <b>detru-i</b>, <i>to destroy</i>.<br> + <b>fam-a</b>, <i>famous</i>.<br> + <b>filozof-o</b>, <i>philosopher</i>.<br> + <b>fizik-o</b>, <i>physics</i>.<br> + <b>insul-o</b>, <i>island</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>maŝin-o</b>, <i>machine</i>.<br> + <b>nenies</b>, <i>nobody's</i> (221).<br> + <b>neniu</b>, <i>no one</i> (220).<br> + <b>problem-o</b>, <i>problem</i>.<br> + <b>Sirakuz-o</b>, <i>Syracuse</i>.<br> + <b>spegul-o</b>, <i>mirror</i>.<br> + <b>ŝraŭb-o</b>, <i>screw</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center><b>LA FILOZOFO ARĤIMEDO.</b></center> + +<p> +Eble neniu greka klerulo estis pli fama ol la filozofo Arĥimedo. +Longe studadinte la problemojn de la geometrio kaj de la fiziko, li +faris multe da eltrovoj. Li tiel multe komprenis pri la uzado de la +levilo (<i>lever</i>) ke oni rakontas la sekvantan rakonteton pri li: +Li diris al la reĝo Hierono "Kiam oni donos al mi lokon sur kiu mi +povos stari, mi mem ekmovos la mondon per mia levilo!" Zorge ekzameninte +la ecojn (202) de la ŝraŭbo kaj de la cilindro, li elpensis +diversajn maŝinojn en kiuj ŝraŭboj kaj cilindroj estas +iamaniere kunigitaj. Uzante unu el tiuj maŝinoj, oni povis facile +puŝi al la akvo la ŝipojn (necese konstruitajn sur la tero); +kiujn antaŭe la viroj mem enpuŝis en la akvon, kun multe da +laboro, aŭ tiris tien per ĉevaloj. Uzante alian maŝinon +elpensitan de tiu greko, oni povis levi akvon de unu loko al alia. +Ankoraŭ nun oni nomas tian maŝinon la "ŝraŭbo de +Arĥimedo." En la daŭro de granda militado kontraŭ la +urbo Sirakuzo, sur la insulo Sikelio, Arĥimedo elpensis diversajn +maŝinojn por helpi la Sirakuzanojn. Vidinte ke la sunlumo rebrilas +de spegulo, li faris el speguloj maŝinon per kiu li ekbruligis +(<i>set on fire</i>) la ŝipojn de la malamikoj. Ĉi tiuj, +ne komprenante <b>kiamaniere</b> la ŝipoj ekbrulis, estis multe +timigitaj. Sed eĉ helpite de Arĥimedo la Sirakuzanoj ne +venkis. Post iom da tempo, la malamikoj kaptis kaj tute detruis la urbon +Sirakuzon. Nenies domo restis netuŝita, kaj centoj da personoj +estis mortigataj. Oni ne scias per kia morto Arĥimedo mortis, sed +eble la malamikoj, iel rekoninte la elpensinton de la spegulmaŝino, +ĵetis lin en la maron aŭ alimaniere lin mortigis. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +The use of <b>kiamaniere</b>, <i>in what manner</i>, <i>how</i>, is +preferable to that of <b>kiel</b> in indirect questions, as the latter +might be confused with the use of <b>kiel</b>, meaning "as" (156). +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. The Greek philosopher Archimedes was not only famous long ago, among +his contemporaries (167, b, 132), but even today his name is well known +everywhere. 2. No one's knowledge about the problems of geometry and +physics was greater. 3. No one understood better the properties of +the cylinder and the screw. 4. Having studied these properties a long +time, and having meditated a great deal about them, he understood them +a little (217) better than any one else (<i>iu alia</i>). 5. The story +about the debasing of the gold crowns has already been told. 6. There is +another anecdote, namely (<i>nome</i>), that he remarked to Hiero, king +of Syracuse, that with a lever he would move the world, as soon as he +had a place on which he himself could stand. 7. Having discovered how +(<i>kiamaniere</i>) the sunlight is reflected by a mirror, and heats the +wood upon which it shines, he invented a machine made out of mirrors. +8. Aided by this machine, the Syracusans were able to set on fire the +wooden ships of the enemy. 9. The enemy, however, were not repulsed +from the island, but at once rebuilt and repaired their ships, and sent +them back to attack the city again. 10. Finally, having captured the +city, they destroyed it, and killed a large number of the inhabitants +(<i>loĝantoj</i>), also Archimedes himself. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XLVIII.</b></center> + +<center>THE NEGATIVE ADJECTIVE.</center> + +<p> +<b>224.</b> The negative adjective, related to the negative pronoun +<b>neniu,</b> is <b>nenia</b>, <i>no kind of, no sort of</i>, expressing +a negative idea concerning the quality of a person or thing: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Mi havas nenian spegulon</b>, <i>I have no sort of mirror.</i><br> +<b>Nenia problemo estas tro malfacila por li</b>, <i>no sort of problem is too difficult for him.</i> +</p> + +<center>THE NEGATIVE ADVERB OF PLACE.</center> + +<p> +<b>225.</b> The negative adverb of place is <b>nenie</b>, +<i>nowhere.</i> The ending <b>-n</b> may be added, as to other adverbs +(121), to indicate direction: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Nenie estas pli bona maŝino</b>, <i>nowhere is there a better machine.</i><br> +<b>Mi iros nenien morgaŭ</b>, <i>I shall go nowhere tomorrow.</i> +</p> + +<center>THE NEGATIVE TEMPORAL ADVERB.</center> + +<p> +<b>226.</b> The negative adverb of time is <b>neniam</b>, <i>never, at +no time</i>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Neniam vivis pli fama filozofo</b>, <i>there never lived a more famous philosopher.</i><br> +<b>Vi neniam trovos tiajn ŝraŭbojn aŭ cilindrojn</b>, <i>you will never find that kind of screws or cylinders.</i> +</p> + +<center>THE SUFFIX <b>-AĴ-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>227.</b> The suffix <b>-aĵ-</b> is used to form <i>concrete</i> +words. It is thus in contrast to the abstract-forming suffix <b>-ec-</b> +(202). +</p> + +<p> +<b>a.</b> A word formed from a <i>verbal</i> root by means of the suffix +<b>-aĵ-</b> expresses a concrete example of <i>a thing which +undergoes</i> (or, in the case of intransitives, <i>results from</i>) +the action indicated in the root: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>konstruaĵo</b>, <i>a building.</i><br> + <b>sendaĵo</b>, <i>consignment, thing sent.</i><br> + <b>manĝaĵo</b>, <i>food.</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>kreskaĵo</b>, <i>a plant, a growth.</i><br> + <b>rebrilaĵo</b>, <i>a reflection.</i><br> + <b>restaĵo</b>, <i>remainder.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<p> +<b>b.</b> A word formed from an <i>adjectival</i> root or formation by +means of the suffix <b>-aĵ-</b> indicates <i>a thing characterized +by</i> or <i>possessing the quality</i> expressed in the root or +formation to which it is attached: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>belaĵo</b>, <i>a thing of beauty.</i><br> + <b>maljustaĵo</b>, <i>an injustice.</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>mirindaĵo</b>, <i>a marvel.</i><br> + <b>okazintaĵo</b>, <i>an occurrence.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<p> +<b>c.</b> A word formed from a <i>noun-root</i> by means of the suffix +<b>-aĵ-</b> indicates <i>a thing made</i> or <i>derived from</i> +that which is expressed in the root: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>sukeraĵo</b>, <i>a sweet, confection.</i><br> + <b>ovaĵo</b>, <i>an omelet.</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>oraĵo</b>, <i>a gold object.</i><br> + <b>araneaĵo</b>, <i>a spider-web.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center>THE ADVERB <b>JEN</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>228.</b> The adverb <b>jen</b>, <i>behold, here, there</i>, is used +to point out or call attention to something: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Jen estas la problemo!</b> <i>There is the problem!</i><br> +<b>Jen la filozofo!</b> <i>Behold the philosopher!</i><br> +<b>Jen ŝi ludas, jen ŝi studas</b>, <i>now she plays, now she studies.</i><br> +<b>Mi faris ĝin jene</b>, <i>I did it as follows.</i><br> +<b>Mi agis laŭ la jena metodo</b>, <i>I acted in the following way.</i><br> +<b>Li diris la jenajn vortojn</b>, <i>he spoke the following words.</i> +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>aranĝ-i</b>, <i>to arrange.</i><br> + <b>art-o</b>, <i>art.</i><br> + <b>ber-o</b>, <i>berry.</i><br> + <b>jen</b>, <i>there, behold</i> (228).<br> + <b>ĵaluz-a</b>, <i>jealous.</i><br> + <b>konkurs-o</b>, <i>competition.</i><br> + <b>lert-a</b>, <i>skilled, clever.</i><br> + <b>nenia</b>, <i>no kind of</i> (224). + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>neniam</b>, <i>never</i> (226).<br> + <b>nenie</b>, <i>nowhere</i> (225).<br> + <b>pentr-i</b>, <i>to paint.</i><br> + <b>postul-i</b>, <i>to demand.</i><br> + <b>precip-a</b>, <i>principal, chief.</i><br> + <b>regul-o</b>, <i>rule.</i><br> + <b>tromp-i</b>, <i>to deceive.</i><br> + <b>vin-o</b>, wine. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center><b>DU ARTKONKURSOJ.</b></center> + +<p> +Vivadis en Grekujo antaŭ multaj jarcentoj du lertaj famaj +pentristoj. Ili estis reciproke ĵaluzaj, kaj neniam povis +interparoli paceme. Ne povinte decidi la problemon, kaj eltrovi kiu +el ili estas la plej lerta, ili fine aranĝis konkurson pri +la pentrado. Laŭ ĝiaj reguloj, ĉiu el ili pentris +pentraĵon, por montri sian lertecon. Unu pentris teleron da +vinberoj (<i>grapes</i>). Ĝi estis tiel mirinde kolorigita ke +eĉ la birdoj venis kaj penis ĝin manĝi, pensinte ĝin +ne nur pentraĵo, sed la vinberoj mem. "Nenia pentraĵo povos +superi la mian," ĝojege ekkriis la pentristo, "jen, la birdoj mem +rekonas mian lertecon!" Tiam li diris al la alia artisto, "Nu, kial vi +ne fortiras tiun kurtenon? Mi volas rigardi vian pentraĵon." La dua +pentristo respondis kun rideto, "Jen estas mia pentraĵo. Nenie apud +vi estas kurteno, sed vi vidas nur pentraĵon de kurteno antaŭ +tiu konstruaĵo." Tre mirigite, la pentrinto de la vinberoj diris +"Vi ja superas min en la pentrado. Mi trompis la birdojn per mia +pentraĵo, sed vi trompas eĉ aliajn artistojn! Tia lerteco +estas ja mirindaĵo!" +</p> + +<p> +Oni rakontas similan okazintaĵon pri fama artisto kiu pentris +multe da pentraĵoj por Aleksandro Granda. Malgajninte en konkurso +kontraŭ iuj aliaj artistoj, li opiniis ke la juĝintoj estas +maljustaj al li, precipe pro la ĵaluzeco. Li ekkriis "Ĉar +niaj pentraĵoj estas bildoj de ĉevaloj, ili certe postulas +ĉevalajn juĝantojn!" Tial oni enkondukis du aŭ tri +ĉevalojn. La ĉevaloj, tute ne rigardinte la pentraĵojn de +la aliaj artistoj, kuris rekte al tiu de la plendinta artisto, kaj klare +montris sian rekonadon de la tie pentritaj ĉevaloj. Surprizite, +oni diris "Jen estas justaj juĝantoj!" Tuj oni laŭdis la +pentriston kaj severe punis la malhonestajn homajn juĝintojn. +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION</b></center> + +<p> +1. Syracuse was the largest city on the island of Sicily. 2. The famous +philosopher and physicist Archimedes lost his life when that city was +destroyed and entirely burned. 3. At least, no sort of trace of him +seems to have been found after that occurrence. 4. Never, perhaps, was +there a more learned man in Syracuse. 5. Greece was also famous for +its skilled painters, and there are many anecdotes about them. 6. A +painter who failed in a certain competition believed that none of the +judges had been just to him. 7. He exclaimed "Behold this iniquity +(injustice)! Nowhere can I find a human being who is not jealous. 8. +Since the paintings are chiefly of horses, do they not require horses +for judges?" 9. His proposal was accepted (54), and some horses were +led in. 10. Without noticing (222) the other paintings, the horses +walked at once to the picture of the unsuccessful artist, and showed +immediate recognition of the horses painted there. 11. This act showed +which competitor (<i>konkursinto</i>) was the most skilful. 12. The +painter, having deceived the horses, as another artist had once deceived +birds by a picture of grapes, said "Animals decide not by rules, but by +feelings." +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XLIX.</b></center> + +<center>THE NEGATIVE ADVERBS <b>NENIAL</b>, <b>NENIEL</b>, <b>NENIOM</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>229.</b> The negative adverb of motive or reason, related to the +negative pronoun <b>neniu</b>, is <b>nenial</b>, <i>for no reason:</i> +</p> + +<p> +<b>Li estas nenial ĵaluza</b>, <i>he is jealous for no reason.</i><br> +<b>Nenial li trompis vin</b>, <i>for no reason he deceived you.</i> +</p> + +<p> +<b>230.</b> The negative adverb of manner is <b>neniel</b>, <i>in no +way.</i> +</p> + +<p> +<b>Mi povos neniel aranĝi konkurson</b>, <i>I can in no way arrange a competition.</i><br> +<b>Tiu ago estas neniel laŭregula</b>, <i>That act is in no way regular.</i> +</p> + +<p> +<b>231.</b> The negative adverb of quantity is <b>neniom</b>, <i>no +amount of, not any, none, no:</i> +</p> + +<p> +<b>Tiu pentraĵo postulas neniom da lerteco</b>, <i>such a painting requires no skill.</i><br> +<b>Estas neniom da vino en lia glaso</b>, <i>there is no wine in his glass.</i> +</p> + +<center>THE SUFFIX <b>-IĜ-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>232.</b> The suffix <b>-iĝ-</b> is used to form intransitive +verbs of an <i>inchoative</i> nature. +</p> + +<p> +<b>a.</b> Inchoative verbs from the roots of <i>intransitive verbs</i> +indicate the <i>beginning</i> or <i>coming into existence</i> of the act +or condition expressed in the root: +</p> + +<p> +<b>sidiĝi</b>, <i>to become sitting, to sit down, to take a seat.</i><br> +<b>stariĝi</b>, <i>to become standing, to stand up.</i> +</p> + +<p> +<b>b.</b> Intransitive verbs may be similarly formed from the roots +of <i>transitive</i> verbs, and indicate an action of the verb not +immediately due to the subject's acting upon itself (as in the case of +reflexive verbs, 41) and not caused by any direct agency (as in the case +of the passive voice, 169): +</p> + +<p> +<b>La pordo fermiĝas</b>, <i>the door closes (goes shut).</i><br> +<b>La veturilo moviĝas</b>, <i>the vehicle moves.</i><br> +<b>La branĉo rompiĝas</b>, <i>the branch breaks.</i><br> +<b>Grupo da personoj kolektiĝis</b>, <i>a group of persons gathered.</i> +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<i>Cf.</i> the examples given and the following sentences in which the +same verbal roots are used in the simple form and in the passive voice: +</p> +<p class="footnote"> +<b>Ni fermas la pordon</b>, <i>we close the door.</i> <b>La pordo estas fermita</b>, <i>the door is (has been) closed.</i><br> +<b>Oni movas la veturilon</b>, <i>they move the vehicle.</i> <b>La veturilo estas movata</b>, <i>the vehicle is being moved.</i><br> +<b>Mi rompas la branĉon</b>, <i>I break the branch.</i> <b>La branĉo estas rompita</b>, <i>the branch is (has been) broken.</i><br> +<b>Li kolektis florojn</b>, <i>he gathered flowers.</i> <b>Floroj estas kolektitaj</b>, <i>flowers have been gathered.</i> +</p> + +<p> +<b>c.</b> Intransitive verbs may similarly be formed from +<i>adjectival</i> roots, and indicate the acquiring of the +characteristic or quality expressed in the root: +</p> + +<p> +<b>laciĝi</b>, <i>to become tired, to get tired.</i><br> +<b>varmiĝi</b>, <i>to become warm, to get warm.</i><br> +<b>maljuniĝi</b>, <i>to become old, to age.</i> +</p> + +<p> +<b>d.</b> Verbs may similarly be formed from noun-roots, adverbs, +prepositions, prefixes and suffixes whose meaning permits: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>amikiĝi</b>, <i>to become a friend.</i><br> + <b>foriĝi</b>, <i>to go away, to disappear.</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>kuniĝi</b>, <i>to become joined.</i><br> + <b>ebliĝi</b>, <i>to become possible.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>apenaŭ</b>, <i>hardly, scarcely.</i><br> + <b>atmosfer-o</b>, <i>atmosphere.</i><br> + <b>dub-i</b>, <i>to doubt.</i><br> + <b>efektiv-a</b>, <i>effective, real.</i><br> + <b>hel-a</b>, <i>clear, bright.</i><br> + <b>horizont-o</b>, <i>horizon.</i><br> + <b>krepusk-o</b>, <i>twilight.</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>nenial</b>, <i>for no reason</i> (229).<br> + <b>neniel</b>, <i>in no way</i> (230).<br> + <b>neniom</b>, <i>none, no</i> (231).<br> + <b>ombr-o</b>, <i>shadow.</i><br> + <b>pejzaĝ-o</b>, <i>landscape.</i><br> + <b>radi-o</b>, <i>ray.</i><br> + <b>tropik-a</b>, <i>tropical.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center><b>LA KREPUSKO.</b></center> + +<p> +Estas tre agrable sidiĝi sur la herbon, kaj rigardi la +plilongiĝantajn ombrojn, en la daŭro de bela somera vespero. +La suno grade malleviĝas post la montetoj, la nuboj fariĝas +(<i>become</i>) bele kolorigitaj, kaj la tuta pejzaĝo pli kaj +pli beliĝas. Malrapide la krepusko anstataŭas la helan +sunlumon, kaj fine ĉie noktiĝas. La krepusko estas la +rebrilado de la sunlumo tra la atmosfero, post la malleviĝo de +la suno mem, laŭ la jena maniero: la radioj suprenbriladas, en +la aeron super niaj kapoj, en la okcidenta parto de la ĉielo. +De tie ili rebriladas tiamaniere ke la ĉielo lumiĝas. +Kiam estas iom da nuboj sur la ĉielo okcidenta, la sunradioj +briladas rekte kontraŭ ilin, belege kolorigante tiujn nubojn. En +tropikaj landoj la krepuskiĝo okazas tre rapide. Ĝi ne nur +komenciĝas subite, sed ankaŭ daŭras tre mallongan tempon. +La noktiĝo preskaŭ tuj sekvas la taglumon, kun rimarkinda +subiteco. Apenaŭ komenciĝas la krepusko, kiam la subiranta +suno ŝajnas fali preter la horizonto. Tute male (<i>quite on the +contrary</i>), en landoj treege nordaj, krepuskiĝas tre frue en +la tago, kaj la krepusko daŭras longan tempon antaŭ ol la +nokto venas. Efektive (<i>really</i>), en tiuj landoj la krepusko +tute anstataŭas la nokton, dum ses monatoj de la jaro. Tie oni +havas krepuskon dum la unua duonjaro, kaj la taglumon dum la sekvinta +duonjaro. Krepusko daŭranta tiom da tempo estas tiel rimarkinda +kiel tago de tia sama longeco. Mi dubas ĉu tia dividado de la +tempo inter tago kaj malhela nokto estas agrabla, sed oni povas +neniel malhelpi ĝin. Ĉiu tre norda lando havas la saman +travivaĵon (<i>experience</i>), ĉiujare, kaj efektive oni +apenaŭ rimarkas ĝin. Pri ĉiu plendanto oni nur diras "Li +estas nenial malkontenta." +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +1. Nowhere have I read a more amusing story than that +of (<i>pri</i>) the two painters who, being mutually (180) jealous, +arranged a competition. 2. One painted a cluster (126) +of grapes, so excellently that the birds flew to it. 3. The +other deceived his rival (competitor) himself, by a painting +of a curtain. 4. The most famous artists, however, often +show their skill by painting (222) pictures of the sunset, +chiefly, I think, because of the brilliant colors. 5. In fact +(<i>efektive</i>), I doubt whether there is a more beautiful sight +(227, b) than the sunset. 6. It is made by the bright rays +of the sun, which shine back through the atmosphere, long +after the sun itself has passed below the horizon. 7. The +more moisture (<i>malsekaĵo</i>) there is in the air, the more +brilliant the colors are, and the more beautiful the entire +landscape becomes. 8. In tropical lands, night falls very +suddenly, and there is almost no sort of twilight. 9. In +fact, a twilight scarcely occurs there. 10. In the lands far +north, on the contrary, the twilight lasts six months, and +the remainder of the year is the day. 11. To dwell in such +a land is surely a remarkable experience. 12. It can in no +way be understood by persons who have never lived there. +13. Such things increase (make greater) my desire to visit +those northern lands. 14. For no reason, however, do I +wish to reside in the tropical countries. + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON L.</b></center> + +<center>THE PRONOUNS ENDING IN <b>-O</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>233.</b> In contrast to the pronouns ending in <b>-u</b> (<b>tiu</b>, +<b>kiu</b>, <b>ĉiu</b>, <b>iu</b>, <b>neniu</b>), a similar series +ending in <b>-o</b> refers to an object, fact or action not definitely +specified (but never to a person), like English <i>what, anything, +something, nothing,</i> etc. Because of their somewhat vague meaning, +these pronouns do not occur in the plural, nor are they ever used as +pronominal adjectives: +</p> + +<table> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + Demonstrative: + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>tio</b>, <i>that (thing, fact or action)</i>.<br> + <b>ĉi tio</b>, <i>this (thing, fact or action)</i>. + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + Interrogative and Relative: + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>kio</b>, <i>what.</i> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + Distributive: + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>ĉio</b>, <i>everything.</i><br> + <b>ĉio ĉi</b>, <i>all this.</i> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + Indefinite: + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>io</b>, <i>anything, something.</i> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + Negative: + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>nenio</b>, <i>nothing.</i> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p> +<b>234.</b> A pronoun (not personal) in predicate or relative relation +to a pronoun ending in <b>-o</b> must itself be of the same series: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Kio estas ĉi tio, kion vi diras?</b> <i>What is this, which you say?</i><br> +<b>Ŝi vidis tion, kio ĵus okazis</b>, <i>she saw that which just occurred.</i><br> +<b>Ĉio ĉi, kion vi vidas, estas farita de ili</b>, <i>everything here (all this), which you see, was done by them.</i><br> +<b>Li havas ion por vi, sed nenion por mi</b>, <i>he has something for you, but nothing for me.</i> +</p> + +<center>CORRELATIVE WORDS.</center> + +<p> +<b>235.</b> Pronouns, adjectives and adverbs, which are related to each +other as corresponding demonstratives, interrogatives, relatives, etc., +are called <i>correlatives</i>. In Esperanto the correlative system +is more complete than in any other language, and may be summarized as +follows: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="1" cellpadding="8"> + <tr><td align="center" valign="top">Demonstrative</td><td align="center" valign="top">Interrogative<br>and<br>Relative</td><td align="center" valign="top"> Distributive</td><td align="center" valign="top"> Indefinite</td><td align="center" valign="top"> Negative</tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>tio (233)</b><br> + <i>that (thing)</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>kio (233)</b><br> + <i>what, which</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>ĉio (233)</b><br> + <i>everything</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>io (233)</b><br> + <i>anything</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>nenio (233)</b><br> + <i>nothing</i> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>tiu (56)</b><br> + <i>that (one)</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>kiu (146)</b><br> + <i>who, which</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>ĉiu (173)</b><br> + <i>every, each</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>iu (203)</b><br> + <i>any (one)</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>neniu (220)</b><br> + <i>no (one)</i> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>ties (62)</b><br> + <i>that one's</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>kies (147)</b><br> + <i>whose</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>ĉies (174)</b><br> + <i>every one's</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>ies (204)</b><br> + <i>any one's</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>nenies (221)</b><br> + <i>no one's</i> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>tia (65)</b><br> + <i>that kind of</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>kia (150)</b><br> + <i>what kind of</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>ĉia (177)</b><br> + <i>every kind</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>ia (208)</b><br> + <i>any kind</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>nenia (224)</b><br> + <i>no kind of</i> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>tie (68)</b><br> + <i>there</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>kie (151)</b><br> + <i>where</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>ĉie (182)</b><br> + <i>everywhere</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>ie (209)</b><br> + <i>anywhere</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>nenie (225)</b><br> + <i>nowhere</i> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>tiam (73)</b><br> + <i>then</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>kiam (155)</b><br> + <i>when</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>ĉiam (187)</b><br> + <i>always</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>iam (212)</b><br> + <i>any time</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>neniam (226)</b><br> + <i>never</i> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>tial (78)</b><br> + <i>therefore,</i><br> + <i>so</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>kial (129)</b><br> + <i>wherefore,</i><br> + <i>why</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>ĉial (188)</b><br> + <i>for every</i><br> + <i>reason</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>ial (213)</b><br> + <i>for any</i><br> + <i>reason</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>nenial (229)</b><br> + <i>for no</i><br> + <i>reason</i> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>tiel (88), (156)</b>,<br> + <i>thus, so</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>kiel (156)</b><br> + <i>how, as</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>ĉiel (193)</b><br> + <i>every way</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>iel (216)</b><br> + <i>any way</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>neniel (230)</b><br> + <i>in no way</i> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>tiom (104)</b><br> + <i>that much,</i><br> + <i>so much</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>kiom (164)</b><br> + <i>how much,</i><br> + <i>as</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>ĉiom (194)</b><br> + <i>all, the</i><br> + <i>whole of</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>iom (217)</b><br> + <i>some, any</i><br> + <i>amount</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>neniom (231)</b><br> + <i>none, no</i><br> + <i>quantity</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center>THE USE OF <b>AJN</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>236.</b> The word <b>ajn</b> may be placed after any +interrogative-relative or indefinite correlative word, to give a +generalizing sense. In order to avoid confusion with the accusative +plural ending, <b>ajn</b> is <i>never attached</i> to the correlative +which it follows: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>kio ajn</b>, <i>whatever</i>.<br> + <b>kies ajn</b>, <i>whosesoever</i>.<br> + <b>kie ajn</b>, <i>wherever</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>kiam ajn</b>, <i>whenever</i>.<br> + <b>kiom ajn</b>, <i>however much</i>.<br> + <b>ia ajn</b>, <i>any kind whatever</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center>THE SUFFIX <b>-ING-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>237.</b> The suffix <b>-ing-</b> is used to form words indicating +that which holds <i>one</i> specimen of what is expressed in the root: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>glavingo</b>, <i>scabbard</i>.<br> + <b>lumingo</b>, <i>torch-holder</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>plumingo</b>, <i>pen-holder</i>.<br> + <b>ingo</b>, <i>sheath, case, socket</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>ĉio</b>, <i>everything</i> (233).<br> + <b>Gordio</b>, <i>Gordius</i>.<br> + <b>io</b>, <i>anything</i> (233).<br> + <b>jug-o</b>, <i>yoke</i>.<br> + <b>klin-i</b>, <i>to bend, incline</i> (trans).<br> + <b>kio</b>, <i>what</i> (233).<br> + <b>lig-i</b>, <i>to tie, to bind</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>nenio</b>, <i>nothing</i> (233).<br> + <b>ofer-o</b>, <i>offering</i>.<br> + <b>reg-i</b>, <i>to rule, to govern</i>.<br> + <b>sankt-a</b>, <i>sacred, holy</i>.<br> + <b>templ-o</b>, <i>temple</i>.<br> + <b>tio</b>, <i>that (thing)</i> (233).<br> + <b>util-a</b>, <i>useful</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center><b>LA GORDIA LIGAĴO.</b></center> + +<p> +Unufoje en antikva tempo la regatoj de iu reĝolando en Azio ne +havis reĝon. Ne sciante kion fari, ili demandis de la dioj. La dioj +respondis, "Kiu ajn venos unue en nian sanktan templon hodiaŭ, +por fari oferojn, estos via reĝo." Okaze kamparano nomita Gordio +venis al la templo, ĵus post la tagiĝo. La regatoj tuj +rekonis la estontan reĝon, kvankam li veturis sur peza malbela +veturilo. Salutinte la surprizitan kamparanon, oni nomis lin reĝo. +Decidinte fari dankoferon al la dioj, Gordio metis en la templon la +veturilon mem sur kiu li tien veturis, antaŭ ol li komencis regi +kiel la nova reĝo. La jugo estis alligita (<i>tied fast</i>) per +granda ligaĵo el ŝnurego. Post la morto de Gordio oni grade +komencis kredi ion tre interesan pri tio. Oni diris ke tiu, kiu povos +iel ajn malligi tiun ligaĵon, fariĝos reganto super ĉiuj +reĝoj de Azio. +</p> + +<p> +Post kelkaj jaroj Aleksandro Granda decidis fari grandan militadon +kontraŭ Azio, kaj alproksimiĝis al la lando kie estis reginta +Gordio. Kiam li demandis, "Kio estas ĉi tie la plej interesa +vidindaĵo?" oni rakontis al li tion, kion oni diras pri la +ŝnurega ligaĵo sur la veturilo de Gordio. Kompreneble (<i>of +course</i>) Aleksandro deziris fari ion ajn utilan por venki Azion, tial +li tuj venigis gvidiston por konduki lin al la templo. Alveninte tien, +li zorge rigardadis la ligaĵon, kaj ekzamenis la ŝnuregon el +kiu ĝi estis farita. Tiam, elpreninte sian glavon el la glavingo, +subite kliniĝante li rekte tratranĉis la tutan ligaĵon. +"Nenio estas pli facila ol tio," li diris, "kaj nun mi ne dubas ĉu +mi certe regos super ĉiuj reĝoj de Azio." Pro tio, kion faris +Aleksandro Granda, oni ankoraŭ nuntempe diras, kiam iu ajn superas +malfacilaĵon per kia ajn subita metodo, "Li tranĉis la gordian +ligaĵon." +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. One often hears the remark "I will cut the Gordian knot." 2. There +is an interesting story about this. 3. A wagon whose yoke was tied to +the pole by a large knot had been put in the middle of the temple. 4. +It was a thank-offering to the sacred gods, by whose help Gordius had +in olden time become king. 5. It was said that whoever would be able to +untie that rope would no doubt become ruler over the whole of Asia. 6. +Alexander the Great, having begun a campaign against Asia, approached +the city where this temple was. 7. Having heard the story, he at once +had a guide come, and went thither, guided by him. 8. He desired to +do everything which was useful to the conquering of Asia. 9. Having +examined the knot carefully, he bent over and tried for a few minutes +to untie it. 10. Then he chose another method. 11. He seized his sword, +and suddenly cut through the whole knot. 12. Having done this, he put +the sword back into the scabbard. 13. This he did, instead of continuing +(<i>daŭrigi</i>) his efforts to untie the knot. 14. In fact, +having no patience, he had become tired. 15. Perhaps the conquering +of Asia did not in any way become possible on account of this, but at +least the story is interesting, whatever actually (<i>efektive</i>) +happened. 16. Nothing is impossible, whenever one tries enough. 17. In a +tropical country, such as part of Asia is, the landscapes are beautiful. +18. A tropical twilight is very short, however, and the shadows have +scarcely become long when the sun seems to sink suddenly below the +horizon, although the last bright rays continue to shine back through +the atmosphere for a few minutes. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON LI.</b></center> + +<center>THE PRONOUN <b>AMBAŬ</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>238.</b> The pronoun (and pronominal adjective) <b>ambaŭ</b>, +<i>both</i>, indicates two persons or things considered together. It is +invariable in form: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Ili ambaŭ venis al la templo</b>, <i>they both came to the temple</i>.<br> +<b>Ambaŭ faris oferojn al la dioj</b>, <i>both made offerings to the gods</i>.<br> +<b>Vidante kaj la plumon kaj la plumingon, mi prenis la ambaŭ</b>, <i>seeing both the pen and the penholder, I took both</i>. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +This pronoun must not be confused with the use of <b>kaj</b>, translated +<i>both</i> in the combination <b>kaj ... kaj ...</b>, <i>both ... and +...</i> (26). +</p> + +<center>FORMATIONS WITH <b>-IG-</b> AND <b>-IĜ-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>239.</b> Some verbs may be used in the simple form, and also with +both the suffix <b>-ig-</b> and the suffix <b>-iĝ-</b>. Thus from +one verb-root three verbs of distinct meaning may be made, and the +formation with <b>-ig-</b>, being transitive, may also be used in the +passive: +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td nowrap><b>sidi</b>,</td><td nowrap><i>to sit, to be sitting</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td> </td><td nowrap><b>sidiĝi</b>, <i>to become sitting, to take a seat</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td> </td><td nowrap><b>sidigi</b>, <i>to cause to sit, to seat</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td> </td><td nowrap><b>esti sidigata</b>, <i>to be caused to sit</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap colspan="2"><b>silenti</b>, <i>to be silent</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td> </td><td nowrap><b>silentiĝi</b>, <i>to become silent</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td> </td><td nowrap><b>silentigi</b>, <i>to cause to be silent, to silence</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td> </td><td nowrap><b>esti silentigita</b>, <i>to be silenced</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap colspan="2"><b>kuŝi</b>, <i>to lie, to be lying</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td> </td><td nowrap><b>kuŝiĝi</b>, <i>to lie down, to go to bed</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td> </td><td nowrap><b>kuŝigi</b>, <i>to cause to lie, to lay</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td> </td><td nowrap><b>esti kuŝigita</b>, <i>to be laid</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap colspan="2"><b>stari</b>, <i>to stand, to be standing</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td> </td><td nowrap><b>stariĝi</b>, <i>to rise, to stand up, to become erect</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td> </td><td nowrap><b>starigi</b>, <i>to raise, to cause to stand up, to erect</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td> </td><td nowrap><b>esti starigita</b>, <i>to be raised, to be erected</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + +<center>FACTUAL CONDITIONS.</center> + +<p> +<b>240.</b> A conditional sentence consists of two parts, an +<i>assumption</i> and a <i>conclusion</i>. The assumption is a clause +(introduced usually by the conjunction <b>se</b>, <i>if</i>) which +assumes something as true or realized. The conclusion is a statement +whose truth or realization depends upon the truth or realization of the +assumption. <i>Factual conditions</i> (conditions of fact) may deal with +the present, past or future time: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Se li vidas tion, li ploras</b>, <i>if he sees that, he weeps (is weeping)</i>.<br> +<b>Se li vidis tion, li ploris</b>, <i>if he saw that, he wept</i>.<br> +<b>Li ploros, se li vidos tion</b>, <i>he will weep, if he sees that</i>.<br> +<b>Se li venis hieraŭ, li foriros morgaŭ</b>, <i>if he came yesterday, he will go away tomorrow</i>.<br> +<b>Se li estas vidinta tion, li nun ploras</b>, <i>if he has seen that, he now is weeping</i>.<br> +<b>Se tio estas vidota, li estas punota</b>, <i>if that is going to be seen, he is going to be punished</i>.<br> +<b>Se li estas kaptita, li estos jam punita</b>, <i>if he has been captured, he will already have been punished</i>. +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>ambaŭ</b>, <i>both</i> (238).<br> + <b>azen-o</b>, <i>ass, donkey</i>.<br> + <b>ben-i</b>, <i>to bless</i>.<br> + <b>dors-o</b>, <i>back</i>.<br> + <b>form-o</b>, <i>form</i>.<br> + <b>halt-i</b>, <i>to stop</i> (intrans.).<br> + <b>monaĥ-o</b>, <i>monk</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>mut-a</b>, <i>dumb, mute</i>.<br> + <b>orel-o</b>, <i>ear</i>.<br> + <b>petol-a</b>, <i>mischievous</i>.<br> + <b>propr-a</b>, <i>own, one's own</i>.<br> + <b>se</b>, <i>if</i>.<br> + <b>spir-i</b>, <i>to breathe</i>.<br> + <b>turment-i</b>, <i>to torment</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center><b>LA MONAĤOJ KAJ LA AZENO.</b></center> + +<p> +Iam du monaĥoj reiris tra la arbaro al la monaĥejo, dum grade +krepuskiĝis. Ambaŭ portis pezajn sakojn da terpomoj, kaj +baldaŭ laciĝis, sed ne sciis kion fari. Okaze ili ekvidis +azenon ligitan al arbo, kaj unu monaĥo, haltinte, diris petole al +la alia "Se vi anstataŭos la beston, mi havos portanton por miaj +propraj sakoj, kaj ankaŭ por la viaj." Lia kunulo respondis "Nu, +se la azeno portos miajn sakojn, mi mem ĝoje restos en ĝia +loko." Ĵus dirite, tuj farite (<i>no sooner said than done</i>). +Malliginte la ligaĵojn kiuj tenis la azenon, ili ĵetis +la sakojn trans la dorson de la utila besto. Unu monaĥo tuj +forkondukis la azenon, dum ambaŭ viroj laŭte ridis. Post tio, +la dua monaĥo sin ligis per la sama ŝnurego kiu antaŭe +tenis la azenon. Kiam revenis la kamparano, kies azeno estis ĵus +ŝtelita, li ekhaltis, multe mirigite, vidante homon tie ligita. +La monaĥo anoncis al li, "Ĉar mi estis tro manĝema, +Dio faris azenon el mi, antaŭ du jaroj. Mi ĵus rericevis +mian propran formon." Tuj la kredema kamparano invitis la petolan +monaĥon al sia hejmo. La monaĥo restis tiun nokton ĉe la +kamparano, kaj la sekvintan tagon li foriris, beninte la kamparanon, sed +kaŝe ridante pri la afero. Tiam la kamparano iris vendejon, por +aĉeti alian azenon. Li ekvidis sian propran azenon, kiun la unua +monaĥo estis sendinta tien, post sia reveno al la monaĥejo. +La malsaĝa kamparano, kliniĝinte al la besto, diris "Ho, bona +monaĥo, mi vidas ke duan fojon vi jam estis tro manĝema!" La +muta besto forte svingis la orelojn kaj skuis la kapon, pro la varma +elspiraĵo apud sia orelo. Tio ŝajne estis respondo al la +ĵus diritaj vortoj, tial la malsaĝa kamparano ree aĉetis +sian propran azenon. Ĉiam poste li nek turmentis nek eĉ +laborigis ĝin, kredante la azenon la sankta monaĥo mem. +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +1. If the subjects of any kingdom whatever did not have a king, in +ancient times, they usually asked the sacred gods about it. 2. If the +gods informed (<i>sciigis</i>) them that whatever man would come to the +temple first would become their king, they immediately chose the first +comer (<i>la unuan veninton</i>) king. 3. Whoever was chosen king made +the blessed gods a thank-offering, which consisted of something out +of his own possessions (227, a). 4. Gordius did not offer to the gods +merely the yoke of his wagon, but the whole wagon. 5. A knot of rope was +tied between the yoke and the pole. 6. People soon began to say, "If +any one soever can untie that knot, he will become ruler of Asia." 7. +If any other men tried to untie that rope, they failed. 8. Alexander, +though (<i>tamen</i>), had scarcely arrived when he drew (out) his sword +from the scabbard, and cut the knot. 9. If you will take-a-seat, I will +tell you about the two mischievous monks, returning to the monastery. +10. Both were breathing with difficulty, and stopped to rest. 11. Having +noticed a donkey near by, they untied it. 12. One led the long-eared +dumb animal away, while the other tied himself in its own place. 13. The +credulous (192) peasant believed everything which was told (54) him, +even that the monk had formerly had the form of an ass. + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON LII.</b></center> + +<center>THE CONDITIONAL MOOD.</center> + +<p> +<b>241.</b> That indication of the speaker's frame of mind which +is given by the form of the verb is called the <i>mood</i> of the +verb. All verbs given so far have been in the <i>indicative mood</i>, +which represents an act or state as a reality or fact, or in the +<i>infinitive mood</i>, which expresses the verbal idea in a general +way, resembling that of a substantive. The <i>conditional mood</i> does +not indicate whether or not the act or state mentioned is a fact, but +merely expresses the speaker's idea of its likelihood or certainty, or +is used in an assumption or conclusion dealing with suppositions, not +with actual facts. The ending of the conditional mood is <b>-us</b>. The +conjugation of <b>vidi</b> in the aoristic tense of the conditional mood +is as follows: +</p> + +<p> +<b>mi vidus</b>, <i>I should see.</i><br> +<b>vi vidus</b>, <i>you would see.</i><br> +<b>li (ŝi, ĝi) vidus</b>, <i>he (she, it) would see.</i><br> +<b>ni vidus</b>, <i>we should see.</i><br> +<b>vi vidus</b>, <i>you would see.</i><br> +<b>ili vidus</b>, <i>they would see.</i> +</p> + +<center>COMPOUND TENSES OF THE CONDITIONAL MOOD.</center> + +<p> +<b>242.</b> In addition to the aoristic tense, the conditional mood has +three active and three passive compound tenses, formed by combining the +participles with the aoristic tense of <b>esti</b> in the conditional +mood. A synopsis of <b>vidi</b> in these compound tenses is as follows: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr><td nowrap colspan="3" align="center">Active Voice.</td></tr> + <tr><td>Present:</td><td nowrap><b>mi estus vidanta</b>,</td><td nowrap><i>I should be seeing</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td>Past:</td><td nowrap><b>mi estus vidinta</b>,</td><td nowrap><i>I should have seen</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td>Future:</td><td nowrap><b>mi estus vidonta</b>,</td><td nowrap><i>I should be about to see</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap colspan="3" align="center">Passive Voice.</td></tr> + <tr><td>Present:</td><td nowrap><b>mi estus vidata</b>,</td><td nowrap><i>I should be seen</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td>Past:</td><td nowrap><b>mi estus vidita</b>,</td><td nowrap><i>I should have been seen</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td>Future:</td><td nowrap><b>mi estus vidota</b>,</td><td nowrap><i>I should be about to be seen</i>.</td></tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center>LESS VIVID CONDITIONS.</center> + +<p> +<b>243.</b> A conditional sentence dealing with <i>suppositions</i> +concerning events in <i>present</i> or <i>future</i> time is called +a <i>less vivid condition</i> (<i>Less vivid</i>, in contrast to +factual conditions (240), which are <i>vivid</i>, because they deal +with facts.), and the conditional mood is used in both the assumption +and the conclusion: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Se li vidus tion, li plorus</b>, <i>if he should see that, he would weep</i>.<br> +<b>Mi ĝoje helpus vin, se mi povus</b>, <i>I would gladly help you, if I could</i>.<br> +<b>Se vi metus ilin sur la dorson de la azeno, ĝi portus ilin</b>, <i>if you should put them on the donkey's back, it would carry them</i>.<br> +<b>La petola junulo turmentus la monaĥon, se li revenus</b>, <i>the mischievous youth would torment the monk, if he should return</i>.<br> +<b>Se li estus kaptata, li estus punata</b>, <i>if he should be caught, he would be punished</i>. +</p> + +<center>INDEPENDENT USE OF THE CONDITIONAL MOOD.</center> + +<p> +<b>244.</b> The conditional mood may be used in a conclusion whose +assumption is merely <i>implied</i>, serving thus to soften or make +vague the statement or question in which it is used: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Mi ĝoje helpus vin</b>, <i>I would gladly help you.</i><br> +<b>Ĉu vi bonvole dirus al mi?</b> <i>Would you kindly tell me?</i><br> +<b>Kiu volus enspiri tian aeron?</b> <i>Who would wish to inhale such air?</i><br> +<b>Estus bone reteni vian propran</b>, <i>it would be well to keep your own.</i><br> +<b>La ĉielo vin benus pro tio</b>, <i>Heaven would bless you for that.</i> +</p> + +<center>THE PREFIX <b>DIS-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>245.</b> The prefix <b>dis-</b> indicates separation or movement in +several different directions at once: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>disdoni</b>, <i>to distribute.</i><br> + <b>dispeli</b>, <i>to dispel.</i><br> + <b>disigi</b>, <i>to separate</i> (trans.). + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>disiĝi</b>, <i>to separate</i> (intrans.).<br> + <b>disiĝo</b>, <i>separation, schism.</i><br> + <b>dissendi</b>, <i>to send around.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<p class="footnote"> +<i>Cf.</i> the English prefix <i>dis-</i> in <i>disperse</i>, +<i>disseminate</i>, <i>distribute,</i> etc. +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>ĉes-i</b>, <i>to cease, to leave off.</i><br> + <b>dens-a</b>, <i>dense.</i><br> + <b>difin-i</b>, <i>to define.</i><br> + <b>ekzist-i</b>, <i>to exist.</i><br> + <b>flu-i</b>, <i>to flow.</i><br> + <b>gravit-i</b>, <i>to gravitate.</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>kaŭz-i</b>, <i>to cause.</i><br> + <b>leĝ-o</b>, <i>law.</i><br> + <b>natur-o</b>, <i>nature.</i><br> + <b>objekt-o</b>, <i>object.</i><br> + <b>plu</b>, further, <i>more.</i><br> + <b>turn-i</b>, <i>to turn</i> (trans.). + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<p class="footnote"> +The adverb <b>plu</b> gives an idea of <i>continuance</i> to the word +which it modifies. When used with <b>ne</b>, the two together give +an idea of cessation concerning a previous continuous act or state: +<b>Ambaŭ parolos plu morgaŭ</b>, <i>both will talk further +tomorrow.</i> <b>Mi ne plu haltos</b>, <i>I shall not stop (any) +more.</i> <b>Li ne plu ŝajnis muta</b>, <i>he no longer seemed +mute.</i> +</p> + +<center><b>PRI LA GRAVITADO.</b></center> + +<p> +1. Ofte oni parolas pri la pezeco de diversaj objektoj. Tia pezeco estas +kaŭzata de la forto kiun oni nomas la gravitado. Pro tiu forto ne +nur objektoj sur la tero, sed ankaŭ la tero mem, havas konatan +pezecon, kiun la kleruloj jam antaŭ longe kalkulis. La suno kaj la +luno simile havas pezecon, ĉar ili ambaŭ, same kiel la tero, +moviĝas laŭ tiu sama gravitado kiu efektive regas ĉiujn +el la ĉielaj korpoj. Se la gravitado ĉesus ekzisti, la riveroj +ne plu fluus antaŭen en siaj fluejoj (<i>beds</i>). Ne fluante de +altaj ĝis malaltaj lokoj, la akvo disfluus, aŭ restus tie, +kie ajn ĝi okaze estus. Neniom da pluvo falus; kontraŭe, +la malsekaĵo en la aero ankoraŭ restus tie, en la formo +de densaj mallumaj ĉiamaj nuboj. Ĉiuj vivaj estaĵoj +(<i>beings</i>), ĉiuj konstruaĵoj, efektive ĉio, +baldaŭ disflugus de la rapide turniĝanta mondo. Ĉiuj +ĉi (<i>all these</i>) nun devas resti sur la tero, tial ke la +gravitado restigas ilin ĉi tie. Se la gravitado ne plu ekzistus, +nenio restus plu sur la tero. La aero mem ne plu ĉirkaŭus +nin, sed ĝi ankaŭ forlasus la mondon, tuj maldensiĝinte +(<i>having become rarefied</i>). La fama angla filozofo Newton estis +la unua, kiu studadis la kialon (<i>reason</i>) de la falado de objektoj. +Li komencis, laŭ la rakonto, per okaza ekrigardo al falantaj pomoj en +sia propra pomarbejo. Antaŭ tri jarcentoj, li eltrovis ke estas tia +forto kia la gravitado, kaj difinis la naturajn leĝojn laŭ +kiuj la gravitado sin montras. Ĉi tiu forto, kiu restigas ĉion +sur la tero, estas tamen la kaŭzo de nia laciĝado, kiam ni +marŝas aŭ kuras, ĉar ĝi faras nin pezaj, kaj tial +ni ofte deziras halti kaj ripozi. Estas ankaŭ la malfacileco en la +superado de tiu sama forto, kiu faras tiel malfacila la konstruadon de +utilaj aerŝipoj. +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. Newton was an Englishman who lived three centuries ago. 2. One day he +was walking in his orchard, and, noticing the falling apples, he stood +still (<i>ekhaltis</i>) and began to wonder why they fall. 3. He studied +the cause of their falling, wishing to discover whatever laws of nature +he could. 4. He watched various falling objects, and tried to calculate +their velocity (<i>rapideco</i>). 5. Finally he recognized that +force which is called gravitation. 6. Of course (<i>kompreneble</i>) +gravitation had always existed, but its laws were not noticed or clearly +defined until Newton studied the matter. 7. If gravitation should +not exist any more, no rain would fall, but instead of condensing, +the moisture would remain above our heads in eternal clouds. 8. But +gradually the moisture and the air itself, becoming rarefied, would fly +away from the earth, being held no longer by the force of gravitation. +9. The water in the rivers would leave off flowing (cease to flow) on +toward the sea, because now the water flows from high to low places +only on account of gravitation. 10. Instead of gravitating toward the +sea, in fact, the water would flow in every direction (245) out of the +riverbeds, or would remain there, without moving at all (<i>tute ne +movante</i>). 11. Nothing on earth would remain here very long, but +everything would fly off the quickly moving world, and leave it entirely +bare. Soon, also, the earth itself would break-into-pieces (245). +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON LIII.</b></center> + +<center>CONDITIONS CONTRARY TO FACT.</center> + +<p> +<b>246.</b> A <i>condition contrary to fact</i> indicates that the +opposite of what is mentioned has really taken place or is taking place. +It expresses the speaker's certainty that an act or state would have +been realized, if some other act or state were also realized. Such +conditions cannot refer to the future, but only to present or past time. +The conditional mood is used: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Se vi estus turninta vin, vi estus vidinta tion</b>, <i>if you had turned, you would have seen that</i>.<br> +<b>Se la malsekaĵo ne estus densiĝinta, ne estus pluvinte</b>, <i>if the moisture had not condensed, it would not have rained</i>.<br> +<b>Se li estus kaptita, li estus punita</b>, <i>if he had been caught, he would have been punished</i>.<br> +<b>Se li estus sidanta tie, mi vidus lin</b>, <i>if he were (if he should be) sitting there, I should see him</i>.<br> +<b>Se la gravitado ne ekzistus, tiu pluvo ne estus falanta</b>, <i>if gravitation did not (should not) exist, that rain would not be falling</i>. +</p> + +<center>THE VERB <b>DEVI</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>247.</b> The verb <b>devi</b> (<i>cf.</i> devo, <i>duty</i>) is +equivalent to the verb <i>must</i> (which in English has no future, +past, infinitive, etc.), and to <i>to have to</i>, <i>to be obliged +to</i>, etc., carrying the idea of <i>must</i> into all tenses +and moods. In the conditional mood its meaning is softened into a +vaguer sense (of <i>moral</i> obligation), and carries the idea of +<i>ought</i>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Objektoj en la aero devas fali</b>, <i>objects in the air have to fall</i>.<br> +<b>Ni devis agi laŭ la leĝoj</b>, <i>we had to act according to the laws</i>.<br> +<b>Vi devos iri</b>, <i>you must (will have to) go</i>.<br> +<b>Ŝi ne volas devi fari tion</b>, <i>she does not wish to have to do that</i>.<br> +<b>Ili devigis min iri</b>, <i>they compelled me to go</i>.<br> +<b>Vi devus iri</b>, <i>you should go (you ought to go)</i>.<br> +<b>Oni devus pensi antaŭ ol paroli</b>, <i>one ought to think before speaking</i>.<br> +<b>Li estus devinta veni</b>, <i>he ought to have come</i>.<br> +<b>Tio devus esti farita</b>, <i>that ought to have been done</i>. +</p> + +<center>THE PREPOSITION <b>SEN</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>248.</b> The preposition <b>sen</b>, <i>without</i>, indicates +the omission, absence or exclusion of that which is expressed by +its complement. It may be used as a prefix (160), giving a sense +of deprivation or exclusion (like that given by the English suffix +<i>-less</i>): +</p> + +<p> +<b>Li difinis la vorton sen eraro</b>, <i>he defined the word without an error</i>.<br> +<b>La rivero senĉese fluas</b>, <i>the river flows without ceasing</i>.<br> +<b>Tio estas ne nur senutila sed eĉ malutila</b>, <i>that is not only useless but even harmful</i>.<br> +<b>Li ne plu estas senmona</b>, <i>he is no longer penniless</i>.<br> +<b>Li sentime alproksimiĝis al ĝi</b>, <i>he fearlessly approached it</i>. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +English phrases containing "without" as in "without reading," must +be changed to phrases clearly containing verbal nouns, as "without +the reading of," before translating into an Esperanto phrase with +<b>sen</b>. Otherwise a participle with <b>ne</b> should replace the +phrase (<b>222</b>): <b>Sen la legado de tio, mi ne komprenus</b>, +<i>without (the) reading (of) that, I should not understand</i>. <b>Ne +leginte tion, mi ne komprenus</b>, <i>without reading (not having read) +that, I should not understand</i>. +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>akuz-i</b>, <i>to accuse</i>.<br> + <b>instru-i</b>, <i>to teach</i>.<br> + <b>kondamn-i</b>, <i>to condemn</i>.<br> + <b>konfes-i</b>, <i>to confess, to admit</i>.<br> + <b>konscienc-o</b>, <i>conscience</i>.<br> + <b>kulp-o</b>, <i>guilt</i>.<br> + <b>merit-i</b>, <i>to deserve</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>nobl-a</b>, <i>noble</i>.<br> + <b>pardon-i</b>, <i>to pardon</i>.<br> + <b>pek-i</b>, <i>to sin</i>.<br> + <b>prav-a</b>, <i>right, correct</i>.<br> + <b>sen</b>, <i>without</i> (248).<br> + <b>So-krato</b>, <i>Socrates</i>.<br> + <b>venen-o</b>, <i>poison</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center><b>LA FILOZOFO SOKRATO.</b></center> + +<p> +Unu el la plej famaj grekaj filozofoj estis nomita Sokrato. Li +estis malbela malalta persono, kun senhara kapo kaj dika korpo, +sed malgraŭ tio li estis treege bona, nobla kaj saĝa. Li +instruadis per interparolado kun la lernantoj. Kutime li komencis per +demando pri io ajn, pri kio la aŭskultanto respondos. Fine, la +lernanto grade komprenis ĉu liaj propraj opinioj pri la afero +estas pravaj. Ankoraŭ nun oni nomas tiun metodon de instruado per +la interparolado "la Sokrata metodo." Sokrato diradis tute sen timo +ĉion, kion li pensis, eĉ pri la dioj kaj pri la nekredeblaj +rakontoj pri la dioj. Se li ne estus tiel multe klariginta, eble li +estus vivinta pli longan tempon. Sed multaj personoj malamis lin, +precipe ĉar li donis novajn ideojn al la junuloj, kiuj sekve +komencis pensi por si mem, anstataŭ fari tion kion faras ĉiu +alia. Tial oni akuzis Sokraton en la juĝejo, nomante lin pekanto +kaj malbonfaranto, unue, ĉar li ne disdonas oferojn al la dioj, +due, ĉar li enkondukas novajn diojn (ĉar li diris ke +supernatura voĉo, kiu sendube estis lia nomo por la konscienco, +parolis mallaŭte ĉe lia orelo), trie, ĉar li malbonigas +la junularon de la urbo. Se li estus konfesinte la kulpon kaj petinte +pardonon, tiam la juĝistoj eble estus punintaj lin per nura +(<i>mere</i>) monpago (<i>fine</i>). Sed li fiere respondis ke efektive +li multe plibonigas la junularon, kaj anstataŭ esti malutila, +aŭ eĉ neutila, li treege utilas al la urbo. Li diris ke oni +havas nenian rajton puni lin, sed ke, kaŭze de sia bonfarado +al la urbo, li efektive meritas ĉiutagan manĝon senpagan. +Tamen, tute ne kompreninte kiel prava Sokrato estas, la juĝistoj +mortkondamnis lin. Oni devigis lin trinki la venenon. Iom poste, en la +malliberejo, li trankvile adiaŭis siajn plorantajn amikojn, kaj +akceptinte la venenan trinkaĵon, sentime ĝin trinkis. +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. Socrates believed that if one knows about good and evil (201) he +will do good, but will not do evil. 2. Therefore he wished to help +mankind (<i>la homaron</i>), teaching them what the good is. 3. He +also wished to discover for himself what is right and what is wrong. +4. So he asked every one whom he met (about) his opinions, and the +one-talking-with [him] would also notice whether his own ideas were +right or not. 5. But the fellow-citizens of Socrates were jealous, +and hated him, because they did not understand him. 6. Therefore they +accused him, called him a sinner, and sent around (245) false reports +(<i>falsajn sciigojn</i>) about him. 7. Because he said that conscience +guided him (in the form of a soft voice at his ear), they accused him +of (<i>pri</i>) introducing (218, b) new gods. 8. They also said that +he was corrupting the youth of the city. 9. If Socrates had pleaded +guilty, and begged for a fine instead of the death-punishment, without +doubt he would have been pardoned and fined (<i>monpunita</i>). 10. But +he said "I have never in my life sinned in any way, and I do not deserve +any sort of punishment." So the judges condemned him to death by the +drinking of poison. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON LIV.</b></center> + +<center>SUMMARY OF CONDITIONS</center> + +<b>249.</b> The three kinds of conditional sentences, together +with the moods and tenses used in them, may be tabulated +as follows: + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr><td nowrap><i>Name</i></td><td nowrap><b>Factual</b></td><td nowrap><b>Less Vivid</b></td><td nowrap><b>Contrary to Fact</b></td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap><i>Subject Matter</i></td><td nowrap>facts</td><td nowrap>suppositions</td><td nowrap>opposite of facts</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap><i>Time</i></td><td nowrap>any</td><td nowrap>(usually) future</td><td nowrap>present or past</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap><i>Mood</i></td><td nowrap>indicative</td><td nowrap>conditional</td><td nowrap>conditional</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap><i>Tense</i></td><td nowrap>any</td><td nowrap>(usually) aoristic</td><td nowrap>(usually) compound</td></tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center>CLAUSES OF IMAGINATIVE COMPARISON.</center> + +<p> +<b>250.</b> Clauses of imaginative comparison are introduced by the +conjunction <b>kvazaŭ</b>, <i>as though</i>, <i>as if</i>. +Sometimes the verb in the comparison may be left unexpressed or merely +implied: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Li trinkas la venenon kvazaŭ ĝi estus vino</b>, <i>he drinks the poison as though it were wine</i>.<br> +<b>La kondamnito marŝis kvazaŭ kun malfacileco</b>, <i>the condemned man walked as if with difficulty</i>.<br> +<b>Li konfesis kvazaŭ kulpulo</b>, <i>he confessed like a culprit</i>. +</p> + +<center>THE USE OF <b>AL</b> TO EXPRESS REFERENCE.</center> + +<p> +<b>251.</b> Personal pronouns, and less frequently nouns, may be +used with the preposition <b>al</b> to express <i>concern</i> or +<i>interest</i> on the part of the person indicated by the complement of +this preposition: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Li bruligis al si la manon</b>, <i>he burned his hand</i>.<br> +<b>Hi tranĉis al li la barbon</b>, <i>they cut his beard (the beard for him)</i>.<br> +<b>Ŝi preparas al ni bonan manĝon</b>, <i>she is preparing us a good meal</i>.<br> +<b>Ĉu vi faros servon al mi?</b> <i>Will you do me a service?</i> +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +The use of <b>al</b> in this sense, approaching that of <b>por</b> +but less purposeful and definite, resembles the "dative of reference" +and "ethical dative" of other languages, as in French <i>je me +suis brulé la langue</i>, <i>I have burned my tongue</i>, +German <i>ich wasche mir die Hände</i>, <i>I wash my hands</i>, +Latin <i>sese Caesari ad pedes proicerunt</i>, <i>they threw +themselves at the feet of Cæsar</i>, Greek +<i>τί σοι μαθήσομαι</i>, +<i>what am I to learn for you?</i> etc. +</p> + +<p> +<b>252.</b> By an extension of its use in expressing reference, +<b>al</b> may often be used in the place of <b>de</b> expressing +separation (170), when the use of <b>de</b> might seem to indicate +agency (169) or possession (49): +</p> + +<p> +<b>La luno estas kaŝata al ni de la nuboj</b>, <i>the moon is hidden from us (to us) by the clouds</i>.<br> +<b>Ĝi estas stelita al mi de li</b>, <i>it has been stolen from me by him</i>. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +This use resembles the "dative of separation" of other languages, as in +German <i>es stahl mir das Leben</i>, <i>it stole the life from me</i>, +French <i>il me prend la vie</i>, <i>it takes my life</i>, Latin <i>hunc +mihi timorem eripe</i>, <i>remove this fear from me</i>, Greek +<i>δέξατό οι σκήπτρον</i>, +<i>he took his sceptre from him</i>, etc. +</p> + +<center>THE SUFFIX <b>-ESTR-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>253.</b> The suffix <b>-estr-</b> is used to indicate the +<i>chief</i>, <i>head</i>, or <i>one in control</i> of that which is +expressed in the root: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>lernejestro</b>, <i>(school) principal</i>.<br> + <b>monaĥestro</b>, <i>abbot</i>.<br> + <b>policestro</b>, <i>chief of police</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>urbestro</b>, <i>mayor</i>.<br> + <b>estraro</b>, <i>governing body</i>.<br> + <b>ŝipestro</b>, <i>ship-captain</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>Aristejd-o</b>, <i>Aristeides.</i><br> + <b>ekzil-i</b>, <i>to exile.</i><br> + <b>enu-i</b>, <i>to be wearied, bored.</i><br> + <b>ĝust-a</b>, <i>exact.</i><br> + <b>kvazaŭ</b>, <i>as though, as if</i> (250).<br> + <b>ostr-o</b>, <i>oyster.</i><br> + <b>ostracism-o</b>, <i>ostracism.</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>popol-o</b>, <i>a people.</i><br> + <b>pot-o</b>, <i>pot.</i><br> + <b>senc-o</b>, <i>meaning, sense.</i><br> + <b>signif-i</b>, <i>to signify.</i><br> + <b>son-i</b>, <i>to sound.</i><br> + <b>strang-a</b>, <i>strange.</i><br> + <b>ŝel-o</b>, <i>shell, bark, peel.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<p class="footnote"> +Care must be taken to distinguish <b>ĝusta</b>, <i>exact</i>, +<b>ĝuste</b>, <i>exactly, just</i>, from <b>justa</b>, <i>upright, +just</i>, <b>juste</b>, <i>justly,</i> and also from the adverb +<b>ĵus</b> <i>just</i>. +</p> + +<center><b>LA OSTRACISMO DE ARISTEJDO.</b></center> + +<p> +La vorto ostracismo havas interesan devenon (<i>origin</i>). En ĝia +komenco oni rekonas la grekan vorton kiu signifas "ŝelon de la +ostro." En ĝia fino oni vidas la saman "-ismon " kiu, deveninte +de la greka, ankoraŭ estas uzata kiel vortfino en multaj diversaj +lingvoj. La nuna senco de la vorto, facile trovebla en anglaj vortaroj +(<i>dictionaries</i>), devenas de la jena greka kutimo: +</p> + +<p> +Sepdek jarojn antaŭ ol vivadis Sokrato, oni faris strangan +leĝon en lia urbo. Laŭ tiu, oni povis ekzili iun ajn estron +kies ideoj pri la administrado de la urbo ne ŝajnis pravaj. Ĉi +tion oni povis fari, tute sen juĝado aŭ eĉ akuzado, +ĉar oni havis la jenan metodon: se ĉe popola kunveno ses mil +urbanoj voĉdonis (<i>vote</i>) kontraŭ iun ajn, tiu estis +devigata foriri de la urbo, kaj forresti dek jarojn. Li povis neniel +havigi (<i>get</i>) al si pardonon, sed devis tuj foriri kvazaŭ +konfesinta kulpulo. Por voĉdonoj, oni skribis la nomon de la +kondamnoto sur peco da potaĵo (<i>pottery</i>), aŭ pli ofte +sur ostroŝelo. Ĝuste tial oni nomas la kutimon ostracismo. +Unufoje, kelkaj malamikoj proponis voĉdonadon pri la ostracismo +de tre bona kaj nobla viro, nomita Aristejdo, kiu tute ne meritis tian +punadon. +</p> + +<p> +Antaŭ ol la kunveno disiĝis, kamparano alproksimiĝis +al Aristejdo (kiu mem ĉeestis), petante lian helpon, ĉar la +neinstruita kamparano ne povis skribi. La saĝulo diris "Kion vi +volas skribi sur la ŝelo?" La kamparano, ne sciante ke li parolas +al la viro mem, respondis "Aristejdon." Skribinte ĝin, Aristejdo +demandis kun trankvila konscienco "Pro ĝuste kiaj pekoj vi malamas +Aristejdon?" La kamparano respondis, "Ho, mi ne kaŝos al vi ke mi +eĉ ne konas lin! Sed mi deziras ekzili lin nur ĉar min enuigas +la sono de lia nomo. Mi tre enuas ĉiam aŭdante lin nomata +Aristejdo la justa!" +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. Aristeides had just arrived at the popular assembly when a peasant +approached him. 2. If Aristeides had not had a pleasant countenance +and musical (<i>belsonan</i>) voice, doubtless the peasant would not +have asked his help. 3. Ought Aristeides to have written his own name +on the oyster-shell or piece of pottery which was going to be used as +a vote against him? 4. Without just (exactly) this help, the peasant +could not have voted. 5. Doing him the service requested, Aristeides +said, as if (<b>250</b>) he himself were not the man under-discussion +(<b>205</b>), "Why do you hate Aristeides? 6. Could you tell me how +he has sinned against the city?" 7. The silly-creature (<b>132</b>) +replied, "Oh, I know nothing about him, but I am weary [of] always +hearing him called the just." 8. Ought such persons as that ignorant +peasant have-the-right to vote about important affairs? 9. The ancient +law about ostracism was a strange [one]. 10. The name of the person +to-be-exiled (<b>199</b>) was usually written upon an oyster-shell, +and the meaning of the word signifying the custom comes from that. 11. +Through (<i>per</i>) ostracism, any leader could be banished, justly or +unjustly, without trial of any kind, or explanation of the reasons. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON LV.</b></center> + +<center>THE IMPERATIVE MOOD.</center> + +<p> +<b>254.</b> For expressions of command, exhortation, entreaty, etc., +there is an <i>imperative mood</i>, as in English. The ending of the +imperative mood is <b>-u</b>. Beside the aoristic tense, six compound +tenses are formed by combining the participles with the imperative mood +<b>estu</b> of the auxiliary verb, but these tenses are seldom used. The +conjugation of <b>vidi</b> in the aoristic tense of this mood, together +with a synopsis in the compound tenses, is as follows: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr><td nowrap align="center" colspan="4">Aoristic Tense.</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap><b>mi vidu!</b></td><td nowrap><i>let me see!</i></td><td nowrap><b>ni vidu!</b></td><td nowrap><i>let us see!</i></td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap><b>(vi) vidu!</b></td><td nowrap><i>(you) see!</i></td><td nowrap><b>(vi) vidu!</b></td><td nowrap><i>(you) see!</i></td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap><b>li (ŝi, ĝi) vidu!</b></td><td nowrap><i>let him (her, it) see!</i></td><td nowrap><b>ili vidu!</b></td><td nowrap><i>let them see!</i></td></tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr><td nowrap align="center" colspan="4">Compound Tenses.</td></tr> + <tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><i>Active.</i></td><td align="center" colspan="2"><i>Passive.</i></td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap>Present:</td><td nowrap><b>mi estu vidanta</b>,</td><td nowrap>Present:</td><td nowrap><b>mi estu vidata</b>,</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap>Past:</td><td nowrap><b>mi estu vidinta</b>,</td><td nowrap>Past:</td><td nowrap><b>mi estu vidita</b>,</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap>Future:</td><td nowrap><b>mi estu vidonta</b>.</td><td nowrap>Future:</td><td nowrap><b>mi estu vidota</b>.</td></tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center>RESOLVE AND EXHORTATION.</center> + +<p> +<b>255.</b> The <i>first person singular</i> of the imperative mood is +used to express the speaker's resolve concerning his own action, or +an exhortation to himself concerning such action. The <i>first person +plural</i> is used to express resolve or exhortation concerning the +joint action of the speaker and the person or persons addressed: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Mi pensu pri tio!</b> <i>Let me think about that!</i><br> +<b>Mi ne forgesu tion!</b> <i>I must not (do not let me) forget that!</i><br> +<b>Ni ekzilu lin!</b> <i>Let us exile him!</i><br> +<b>Ni ne sidiĝu tie!</b> <i>Let us not sit down there!</i><br> +<b>Ni estu grize vestitaj!</b> <i>Let us be dressed in gray!</i> +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +This force is usually expressed in English by "let" with an accusative +and infinitive construction. +</p> + +<center>COMMANDS AND PROHIBITIONS.</center> + +<p> +<b>256.</b> The <i>second and third</i> persons of the imperative are +used to express peremptory commands and prohibitions. +</p> + +<b>a.</b> In the <i>second</i> person the pronoun is usually omitted, as +in English, unless special emphasis is placed upon it: + +<p> +<b>Estu trankvila!</b> <i>Be calm!</i> (One person is addressed.)<br> +<b>Estu pretaj por akompani min!</b> <i>Be ready to accompany me!</i> (Two or more persons are addressed.)<br> +<b>Parolu kvazaŭ vi komprenus!</b> <i>Talk as though you understood!</i><br> +<b>Ne fermu tiun pordon!</b> <i>Do not shut that door!</i><br> +<b>Ne estu vidata tie!</b> <i>Do not be seen there!</i> +</p> + +<b>b.</b> In the <i>third</i> person a circumlocution in English is +necessary in translation (as <i>let</i>, <i>must</i>, <i>are to</i>, +<i>is to</i>, etc.): + +<p> +<b>Li estu zorga!</b> <i>Let him be careful (he must be careful)!</i><br> +<b>Ŝi ne faru tion!</b> <i>Do not let her do that (she is not to do that)!</i><br> +<b>Ĉio estu pardonata!</b> <i>Let everything be forgiven!</i><br> +<b>Oni lasu min trankvila!</b> <i>People are to let me alone!</i><br> +<b>Ili neniam revenu!</b> <i>Let them never (do not let them ever) return!</i><br> +<b>La kulpuloj estu punataj!</b> <i>Let the culprits be punished!</i> +</p> + +<center>LESS PEREMPTORY USES OF THE IMPERATIVE.</center> + +<p> +<b>257.</b> By an extension of its use in resolve, exhortation, command +and prohibition, the imperative mood may be employed for less peremptory +expressions, such as <i>request</i>, <i>wish</i>, <i>advice</i>, etc., +and in <i>questions of deliberation or perplexity</i>, or <i>requests +for instruction</i>: +</p> + +<table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td valign="top"> + Request: + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>Ĉesu tiun bruon, mi petas!</b> <i>Stop that noise, I beg!</i><br> + <b>Bonvolu fari tion!</b> <i>Please do that!</i><br> + <b>Pardonu al ni niajn pekojn!</b> <i>Forgive us our sins!</i> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"> + Wish: + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>Ili estu feliĉaj!</b> <i>May they be happy!</i><br> + <b>Dio vin benu!</b> <i>God bless you!</i><br> + <b>Vivu la reĝo!</b> <i>(Long) live the king!</i> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"> + Advice: + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>Pensu antaŭ ol agi!</b> <i>Think before acting!</i><br> + <b>Foriru, se vi ne estas kontenta!</b> <i>Go away, if you are not satisfied!</i> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"> + Consent: + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>Nu, parolu, sed mi ne aŭskultos!</b> <i>Well, talk, but I shall not listen!</i><br> + <b>Iru tuj, se vi volas.</b> <i>Go at once, if you like.</i> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"> + Question: + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>Ĉu mi faru tion aŭ ne?</b> <i>Am I to do that or not?</i><br> + <b>Ĉu ni disdonu la librojn?</b> <i>Shall we distribute the books?</i><br> + <b>Ĉu li estu kondamnita?</b> <i>Shall he be condemned?</i><br> + <b>Ĉu ili venu ĉi tien?</b> <i>Are they to (shall they) come here?</i> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<center>THE USE OF <b>MOŜTO</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>258.</b> The word <b>moŝto</b> may be used alone, or after a +title, to denote respect. When used after a title, the title becomes an +adjective: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Lia reĝa moŝto</b>, <i>his majesty</i>.<br> +<b>Lia juĝista moŝto</b>, <i>his honor the judge.</i><br> +<b>Ŝia reĝina moŝto</b>, <i>her majesty</i>.<br> +<b>Lia urbestra moŝto</b>, <i>his honor the mayor.</i><br> +<b>Ĉu via moŝto lin aŭdis?</b> <i>Did your honor (excellency, etc.) hear him?</i> +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>Afrik-o</b>, <i>Africa.</i><br> + <b>barbar-o</b>, <i>barbarian.</i><br> + <b>Damokl-o</b>, <i>Damocles.</i><br> + <b>flank-o</b>, <i>side.</i><br> + <b>imperi-o</b>, <i>empire.</i><br> + <b>konsent-i</b>, <i>to consent.</i><br> + <b>konsil-i</b>, <i>to advise.</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>moŝt-o</b>, a title (see 258).<br> + <b>ordon-i</b>, <i>to order, to bid.</i><br> + <b>permes-i</b>, <i>to permit.</i><br> + <b>plaĉ-i</b>, <i>to please.</i><br> + <b>sklav-o</b>, <i>slave.</i><br> + <b>sol-a</b>, <i>sole, only.</i><br> + <b>volont-e</b>, <i>willingly.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center><b>LA GLAVO DE DAMOKLO.</b></center> + +<p> +Antaŭ pli multe ol dumil jaroj vivis en Sirakuzo, sur la insulo +Sikelio, tre kruela tirano. Li diris al si "Mi estu ĉiopova +(<i>all-powerful</i>)!" Tial li faris multe da militadoj, kaj venkis +ne nur barbarajn popolojn, sed ankaŭ multajn urbojn en Italujo +kaj norda Afriko. Detruinte ĉion sen kompato, li ordonis "La +loĝantoj estu vendataj por sklavoj!" Li deziris fari por si, el la +venkitaj kaj sklavigitaj popoloj, unu grandan imperion. Sed la urboj +ĉie, eĉ en Grekujo, ne kaŝis al li sian grandan malamon +al tia tirano. Tial li ĉiam timis pri sia vivo, timante ke iu +subite mortigos lin. Unufoje Damoklo, amiko de la tirano, diris al li, +"Se mi estus tiel riĉa kaj pova kiel via reĝa moŝto, +mi estus treege feliĉa!" La tirano respondis, "Venu al festo +ĉe mi, se tio plaĉas al vi, kaj eltrovu ĉu mi devus esti +feliĉa aŭ ne." "Mi venos tre volonte," ekkriis Damoklo, "kaj +mi dankas vian moŝton pro tia afableco!" La tirano ĝentile +respondis "Ho, estas nenio (=<i>you are welcome</i>)! Nur ne forgesu +la deciditan horon!" Je la ĝusta horo Damoklo iris al la festo, +kie oni donis al li seĝon flanke de la tirano mem. "Manĝu kaj +trinku kiom ajn vi volas," konsilis la tirano, "kaj poste ni parolos +pri la feliĉeco." Damoklo tuj konsentis al tia propono, kaj agis +laŭ la permeso tiel afable donita al li. Manĝante bonegan +manĝaĵon, kaj trinkante dolĉan vinon, li tute ne enuis +ĉe la festo. Baldaŭ la tirano diris "Rigardu supren, kaj vidu +ĝuste kian feliĉecon mi havas!" Supren rigardinte, Damoklo +ekvidis akran glavon, antaŭe kaŝitan al li de kurteno. +Subtenate de unu sola haro, la glavo ŝajnis kvazaŭ tuj falonta +sur la kapon de Damoklo. "La dioj min helpu!" li ekkriis, forsaltinte de +la tablo. Pro la ĵus dirita stranga rakonto, oni ankoraŭ nun +nomas la atendadon por io timeginda, kio ŝajnas ĉiam okazonta +sed efektive ne okazas, "la glavo de Damoklo." +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. The word ostracism comes from the Greek word signifying +"oyster-shell." 2. It has its present meaning because oyster-shells +or pieces of pottery were used for the voting. 3. The story about +Aristeides is interesting, but that about the sword of Damocles is also +interesting. 4. His friend, the Syracusan tyrant, had permitted all +sorts of injustices, against not only barbarians but even Greeks. 5. +His only bidding usually was "Let every inhabitant be sold as a slave!" +6. He thought "Let me make one sole empire out of Africa, Italy and +Sicily!" 7. Damocles said to him "Your royal highness ought to be very +happy!" 8. The tyrant answered, "Come to a feast tomorrow, and find +out. I will give you a seat (214, b) beside me." 9. Damocles willingly +consented, and went thither. 10. The tyrant advised "Let us eat and +drink until midnight, if that would be-pleasing to you. Then let us +discuss the problem about happiness." 11. After a few hours Damocles +heard a slight sound over his head, and the tyrant said to him, "Look +up and you will see what kind of happiness mine is." 12. "Heaven defend +me!" exclaimed Damocles, catching sight of a sharp sword hanging by a +single (sole) hair. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON LVI.</b></center> + +<center>THE IMPERATIVE IN SUBORDINATE CLAUSES.</center> + +<p> +<b>259.</b> The imperative mood is used in a subordinate clause, +with a meaning similar to that in its independent use, after a main +verb expressing <i>command</i>, <i>exhortation</i>, <i>resolve</i>, +<i>consent</i>, <i>wish</i>, etc., or after any word or general +expression of <i>command</i>, <i>intention</i>, <i>necessity</i>, +<i>expedience</i>, etc. Such clauses are introduced by the conjunction +ke: +</p> + +<p> +Command and Prohibition.<br> +<b>Li diras ke vi iru</b>, <i>he says that you are to go</i>.<br> +<b>Ŝi skribis al li ke li venu</b>, <i>she wrote him to come</i>.<br> +<b>Mi malpermesas ke vi restu</b>, <i>I forbid you to remain</i>.<br> +<b>Ni ordonos ke li estu punata</b>, <i>we shall order that he be punished.</i> +</p> + +<p> +Request and Wish.<br> +<b>Mi petas ke vi ne lasu min</b>, <i>I beg that you do not leave me.</i><br> +<b>Mi petegas ke vi estu trankvilaj</b>, <i>I implore you to be calm.</i><br> +<b>Li deziras ke ili estu sklavigitaj</b>, <i>he desires that they be enslaved</i>.<br> +<b>Ni volis ke li ne forgesu tion</b>, <i>we wished him not to forget that</i>. +</p> + +<p> +Advice, Consent, Permission.<br> +<b>Mi konsilis al li ke li iru</b>, <i>I advised him to go</i>.<br> +<b>Mi konsentis ke li restu</b>, <i>I consented that he remain.</i><br> +<b>Ili permesos ke la barbaroj forkuru</b>, <i>they will permit the barbarians to escape (that the barbarians escape)</i>. +</p> + +<p> +Questions.<br> +<b>Li demandas ĉu ili foriru</b>, <i>he inquires whether they are to go away</i>.<br> +<b>Oni demandis ĉu lia moŝto eniru</b>, <i>they asked whether his honor was to enter</i>.<br> +<b>Mi miras ĉu mi faru tion</b>, <i>I wonder whether I am to do that</i>. +</p> + +<p> +Intention, Expedience, Necessity, etc.<br> +<b>Ni intencas ke vi estu helpata</b>, <i>we intend that you shall be helped</i>.<br> +<b>Lia propono estas ke ni ricevu la duonon</b>, <i>his proposal is, that we receive the half</i>.<br> +<b>Lia lasta ordono estis</b>, ke vi venu, <i>his last order was that you come</i>.<br> +<b>Estos bone ke vi ne plu nomu lin</b>, <i>it will be well for you not to (that you do not) mention him any more</i>.<br> +<b>Estas dezirinde ke ni havu bonan imperiestron</b>, <i>it is desirable that we have a good emperor</i>.<br> +<b>Estis necese ke ĉiu stariĝu</b>, <i>it was necessary for everyone to rise</i>.<br> +<b>Plaĉos al li ke vi iru</b>, <i>he will be pleased to have you go</i>. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +In English and some other languages an imperative idea may often be +expressed by the infinitive, as "I wish you to go," but in Esperanto +this must be expressed by the equivalent of "I wish <i>that</i> you go." +The infinitive may not be used except when it can itself be the subject +of the verb in such general statements as "it is necessary to go." +</p> + +<center>THE PREPOSITION <b>JE</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>260.</b> Since prepositional uses are not exactly alike in any two +languages, it is not always possible to translate a preposition of +one language by what is its equivalent in some senses in another. In +order to insure some means of translating correctly into Esperanto +any prepositional phrase of the national languages, the preposition +<b>je</b> is regarded as of rather indefinite meaning. In addition to +its use in dates and allusions to time (<b>89</b>, <b>185</b>), it may +be employed when no other preposition gives the exact sense required, +especially in protestations and exclamations, expressions of measure +(see also <b>139</b>), and of indefinite connection: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Je la nomo de ĉielo!</b> <i>In the name of Heaven!</i><br> +<b>Je mia honoro mi ja elfaros tion!</b> <i>On my honor I will accomplish that!</i><br> +<b>Ĝi estas longa je du mejloj</b>, <i>it is two miles long (long by two miles)</i>.<br> +<b>Ili venis je grandaj nombroj</b>, <i>they came in great numbers</i>.<br> +<b>Li estas tenata de la policano, je la brako, per forta ŝnurego</b>, <i>he is held by the policemen, by the arm, with (by) a strong rope</i>. +</p> + +<p> +The preposition <b>je</b> is used to express indefinite connection after +the following words (other prepositions sometimes used are given in +parentheses): +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>ekkrii je (pro)</b>, <i>to cry out at</i>.<br> + <b>enui je</b>, <i>to be bored with</i>.<br> + <b>fiera je (pri)</b>, <i>proud of</i>.<br> + <b>fidi je (al)</b>, <i>to rely upon</i>.<br> + <b>ĝoji je (pri)</b>, <i>to rejoice at</i>.<br> + <b>gratuli je (pri)</b>, <i>congratulate on</i>.<br> + <b>honti je (pri)</b>, <i>to be ashamed of</i>.<br> + <b>inda je</b>, <i>worthy of</i>.<br> + <b>interesiĝi je</b>, <i>to take interest in</i>.<br> + <b>kapti je</b>, <i>to seize by</i>.<br> + <b>kontenta je (kun)</b>, <i>content with</i>.<br> + <b>kredi je</b>, <i>to believe in</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>(sin) okupi je</b>, <i>to busy (oneself) at</i>.<br> + <b>plena je (de)</b>, <i>full of</i>.<br> + <b>preni je</b>, <i>to take by</i>.<br> + <b>provizi je (per)</b>, <i>to provide with</i>.<br> + <b>riĉigi je (per)</b>, <i>to enrich with</i>.<br> + <b>ridi je</b>, <i>to laugh at</i>.<br> + <b>satiĝi je</b>, <i>to be sated with</i>.<br> + <b>senigi je</b>, <i>to deprive of</i>.<br> + <b>simila je (al)</b>, <i>similar to</i>.<br> + <b>sopiri je (al)</b>, <i>to yearn for</i>.<br> + <b>ŝarĝi je</b>, <i>to load with</i>.<br> + <b>teni je</b>, <i>to hold by</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<p class="footnote"> +The translation given for a preposition in any dictionary is the general +one which serves in the majority of cases. The finer shades of meaning +and real or apparent exceptions can merely be touched upon if mentioned +at all. +</p> + +<center>THE SUFFIX <b>-OP-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>261.</b> The suffix <b>-op-</b> is used to form <i>collective</i> +numerals: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>duope</b>, <i>by twos</i>, <i>in pairs</i>.<br> + <b>kvarope</b>, <i>by fours</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>milope</b>, <i>by thousands</i>.<br> + <b>sesopigi</b>, <i>to form into groups of six</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>cel-i</b>, <i>to aim.</i><br> + <b>Cirus-o</b>, <i>Cyrus.</i><br> + <b>fidi</b>, <i>to rely.</i><br> + <b>ĝu-i</b>, <i>to enjoy.</i><br> + <b>honor-o</b>, <i>honor.</i><br> + <b>krom</b>, <i>beside, save, but.</i><br> + <b>plen-a</b>, <i>full.</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>prokrast-i</b>, <i>to delay</i> (trans.).<br> + <b>proviz-i</b>, <i>to provide.</i><br> + <b>rezult-i</b>, <i>to result.</i><br> + <b>sopir-i</b>, <i>to yearn, to sigh.</i><br> + <b>spac-o</b>, <i>space.</i><br> + <b>terur-a</b>, <i>terrible.</i><br> + <b>ver-o</b>, <i>truth.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center><b>LA MARŜADO DE LA DEKMIL GREKOJ.</b></center> + +<p> +Iam Ciruso, nepo de Ciruso Granda, sopiris je la imperio de sia pli +maljunafrato, kiu sekvis la patron de ambaŭ fratoj kiel reĝo, +aŭ pli ĝuste imperiestro. Decidinte forigi de la reĝeco +(<i>to dethrone</i>) sian fraton, Ciruso petis la grekojn ke ili +partoprenu (<i>take part</i>) en kelkaj negravaj militadoj. Multaj +tiamaj grekoj tre volonte sin okupis je la batalado, pro la granda +pago ricevata. La venditaj sklavoj kaj la detruitaj konstruaĵoj +ĉiam provizis ilin je multe da riĉaĵo, kaj krom tio la +militistoj ŝajnis ĝui eĉ la militadon mem. Estis tute +indiferente al ili ĉu la kaŭzo de la militado estas prava kaj +justa aŭ ne. Unue Ciruso nur petis ke ili helpu liajn proprajn +soldatojn kontraŭ iuj najbaroj. Li kaŝis al ili sian veran +celon, ĉar se la grekoj estus suspektintaj tion, kion li intencis +fari, ili neniam estus akompanintaj lin tiel malproksimen de sia +patrolando. Grade li kondukis ilin trans tutan Azion, kaj fine la dekmil +grekoj komprenis ĉion, kaj treege koleriĝis. Paroladante al +ili, Ciruso tuj diris "Mi ne permesas ke vi reiru, kaj mi petegas ke vi +antaŭen marŝadu kun mi, sen plua (<i>further</i>) prokrasto! +Se mi sukcesos kontraŭ mia frato, mi certigas vin je mia honoro +ke ĉiu el vi revenos havante sakojn plenajn je riĉaĵo! +Estas nur necese ke vi fidu je mi, kaj ĉio estos bona!" Tiam la +soldatoj hontis je sia antaŭa timo, kaj kuraĝe antaŭen +marŝadis. Fine, apud granda urbo, la frato de Ciruso elvenis +havante okcentmil soldatojn, por batali kontraŭ la centmil de +Ciruso. Per la helpo de siaj grekoj, Ciruso estis preskaŭ venkinta +en terura batalo, kiam subite li ekvidis sian fraton, je malgranda +interspaco. Ekkriante "Mi vidas la viron!" li rajdis rekte al la +reĝo, ĵetante sian pezan lancon al li. La sola rezulto estis +la morto de Ciruso mem, ĉar la amikoj de la reĝo, kvinope kaj +sesope atakinte Ciruson, lin tuj mortigis. +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. Cyrus did not desire that his brother should remain king. 2. He +decided, "Let me myself become (<i>fariĝi</i>) king! I should much +enjoy that!" 3. So he asked the Greeks to help him in some battles +against nearby enemies. 4. Gradually an army (126) of a hundred thousand +men, ten thousand of whom were Greeks, gathered (232, b) around him. 5. +He led them farther and farther, into the middle of Asia, until finally +the Greeks suspected his true aim. 6. They said to each other in terror, +"He did not at first propose that we fight against the Great King. Let +us return home without delay!" 7. Cyrus addressed (218) them as follows: +"Must I permit you to go back? I implore you to be courageous, and I +do advise you not to forget your longing for (260) honor! 8. Only be +worthy of your leader, and rely upon me! Do you not wish to return home +provided with wealth, beside the money which I shall pay to you?" 9. +Immediately the soldiers were ashamed of their fear, and advanced by +hundreds, full of courage. 10. Soon the brother of Cyrus approached, +with (<i>havante</i>) eight hundred thousand men. 11. By the aid of +the Greeks, Cyrus won the battle, but he himself lost his life. 12. So +neither he nor the Greeks could enjoy the result of their efforts. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON LVII.</b></center> + +<center>CLAUSES EXPRESSING PURPOSE.</center> + +<p> +<b>262.</b> <i>Purpose</i> may be expressed by a subordinate imperative +clause, introduced by <b>por ke</b>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Mi faras ĝin por ke li helpu vin</b>, <i>I do it in order that he may help you</i>.<br> +<b>Mi ekkriis por ke vi aŭdu</b>, <i>I cried out in order that you should hear</i>.<br> +<b>Li venos por ke ni estu feliĉaj</b>, <i>he will come that we may be happy</i>.<br> +<b>Mi studas por ke mi lernu</b>, <i>I study that I may learn</i>.<br> +<b>Ili restu por ke ni punu ilin</b>, <i>let them stay for us to punish them</i>. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<i>Cf.</i> the expression of purpose by the <i>infinitive</i> with +<b>por</b> (<b>98</b>), which however cannot be used except when the +subject of the main verb is the subject of the subordinate verb, or when +the object of the main verb is the subject of the subordinate verb. +</p> + +<center>FURTHER USES OF THE ACCUSATIVE.</center> + +<p class="footnote"> +<i>Cf.</i> the accusative of direct object (<b>23</b>), direction +of motion (<b>46</b>, <b>121</b>), time (<b>91</b>), and measure +(<b>139</b>). +</p> + +<p> +<b>263.</b> The accusative of direction of motion is used after +<i>nouns</i> from roots expressing motion: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Lia eniro en la urbon estis subita</b>, <i>his entrance into the city was sudden</i>.<br> +<b>La irado tien estos plezuro</b>, <i>(the) going thither will be a pleasure</i>.<br> +<b>Ĝia falado teren timigis min</b>, <i>its falling earthward terrified me</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>264. a.</b> An intransitive verb may be followed by a noun in the +accusative case, if the meaning of the noun is related to that of the +verb: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Li vivas agrablan vivon</b>, <i>he lives an agreeable life</i>.<br> +<b>Ŝi dancis belan dancon</b>, <i>she danced a beautiful dance</i>.<br> +<b>Ili ploris maldolĉajn larmojn</b>, <i>they wept bitter tears</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>b.</b> Verbs of motion (<b>iri</b>, <b>veni</b>, <b>pasi</b>, +<b>marŝi</b>, <b>veturi</b>, etc.) compounded with prepositions or +adverbs (<b>121</b>) indicating direction, also compounds of such verbs +as <b>esti</b> and <b>stari</b> with prepositions expressing situation, +may be followed by the accusative, instead of by a prepositional phrase +in which the preposition is repeated: +</p> + +<p> +<b>La viro preterpasis la domon</b>, <i>the man passed (by) the house</i>.<br> +<b>Lin antaŭvenis du sklavoj</b>, <i>there preceded (came before) him two slaves</i>.<br> +<b>Ni supreniru la ŝtuparon</b>, <i>let us go up the stairs</i>.<br> +<b>Mi ĉeestis la feston</b>, <i>I attended (was present at) the entertainment</i>.<br> +<b>Mi kontraŭstaras vian opinion</b>, <i>I oppose (withstand) your opinion</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>c.</b> The slight change in meaning given by <b>pri</b> used as a +prefix may render intransitive verbs transitive. The same is true of +<b>el</b> prefixed to intransitive verbs not expressing motion: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Ŝi priploris la mortintan birdon</b>, <i>she mourned the dead bird</i>.<br> +<b>Mi pripensos la aferon</b>, <i>I shall consider (think over) the matter</i>.<br> +<b>Ni ĝin priparolos</b>, <i>we shall talk it over</i>.<br> +<b>Li klare elparolas la vortojn</b>, <i>he pronounces the words clearly</i>. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +In this use <b>pri</b> resembles the English and German inseparable +prefix <i>be-</i>, as in English <i>bemoan</i>, <i>bewail</i>, +<i>bethink</i>, <i>bespeak</i>, German <i>beklagen</i>, +<i>besprechen</i>, <i>sich</i> , etc. +</p> + +<p> +<b>265.</b> The accusative may be used after verbs of such meaning that +either a prepositional phrase or an accusative would seem correct: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Mi pardonas lin (al li)</b>, <i>I pardon (grant pardon to) him</i>.<br> +<b>Mi helpis lin (al li)</b>, <i>I helped (gave aid to) him</i>.<br> +<b>Ĝi plaĉas min (al mi)</b>, <i>it pleases (is pleasing to) me</i>.<br> +<b>Li obeis nin (al ni)</b>, <i>he obeyed (was obedient to) us</i>.<br> +<b>Ŝi ridis mian timon (je mia timo)</b>, <i>she ridiculed (laughed at) my fear</i>. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +When ambiguity would be caused, as by the presence of another +accusative, this construction may not be employed. One may say +<b>pardonu nin</b>, but must say <b>pardonu al ni niajn pekojn</b>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>266.</b> The accusative may be used after certain adverbs which are +normally followed by a prepositional phrase: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Rilate tion (rilate al tio)</b>, <i>in regard to that</i>.<br> +<b>Escepte tion (escepte de tio)</b>, <i>with the exception of that</i>.<br> +<b>Koncerne la aferon (koncerne je la afero)</b>, <i>concerning the affair</i>.<br> +<b>Kompare la alian (kompare kun la alia)</b>, <i>in comparison with the other</i>.<br> +<b>Konforme la leĝon (konforme al la leĝo)</b>, <i>in conformity to the law</i>. +</p> + +<table border="0" width="100%" style="margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 0"> + <tr><td nowrap align="center" colspan="3">SYNOPSIS OF THE CONJUGATION OF THE VERB.</td></tr> + <tr><td width="20%" align="left"><b>267.</b></td><td nowrap width="60%" align="center"><b>vidi</b>, to see.</td><td width="20%"> </td></tr> +</table> + +<center style="margin-top: 0"> + <table border="1" style="margin-top: 0" cellpadding="8"> + <tr><td align="center" width="50%">ACTIVE.</td><td align="center" width="50%">PASSIVE.</td></tr> + <tr><td align="center" colspan="2">INDICATIVE.</td></tr> + <tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><i>Present.</i></td></tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + (<i>Aoristic</i>) <b>mi vidas</b><br> + (<i>Progressive</i>) <b>mi estas vidanta</b> + </td> + <td nowrap align="center" valign="top"> + <b>mi estas vidata</b> + </td> + </tr> + <tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><i>Past.</i></td></tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + (<i>Aoristic</i>) <b>mi vidis</b><br> + (<i>Imperfect</i>) <b>mi estis vidanta</b> + </td> + <td nowrap align="center" valign="top"> + <b>mi estis vidata</b> + </td> + </tr> + <tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><i>Future.</i></td></tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + (<i>Aoristic</i>) <b>mi vidos</b><br> + (<i>Progressive</i>) <b>mi estos vidanta</b> + </td> + <td nowrap align="center" valign="top"> + <b>mi estos vidata</b> + </td> + </tr> + <tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><i>Perfect.</i></td></tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap> + <b>mi estas vidinta</b> + </td> + <td nowrap align="center"> + <b>mi estas vidita</b> + </td> + </tr> + <tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><i>Pluperfect.</i></td></tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap> + <b>mi estis vidinta</b> + </td> + <td nowrap align="center"> + <b>mi estis vidita</b> + </td> + </tr> + <tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><i>Future Perfect.</i></td></tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap> + <b>mi estos vidinta</b> + </td> + <td nowrap align="center"> + <b>mi estos vidita</b> + </td> + </tr> + <tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><i>Periphrastic Futures.</i></td></tr> + <tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><i>(Present).</i></td></tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap> + <b>mi estas vidonta</b> + </td> + <td nowrap align="center"> + <b>mi estas vidota</b> + </td> + </tr> + <tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><i>(Past).</i></td></tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap> + <b>mi estis vidonta</b> + </td> + <td nowrap align="center"> + <b>mi estis vidota</b> + </td> + </tr> + <tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><i>(Future).</i></td></tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap> + <b>mi estos vidonta</b> + </td> + <td nowrap align="center"> + <b>mi estos vidota</b> + </td> + </tr> + <tr><td align="center" colspan="2">CONDITIONAL.</td></tr> + <tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><i>Present.</i></td></tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + (<i>Aoristic</i>) <b>mi vidus</b><br> + (<i>Progressive</i>) <b>mi estus vidanta</b> + </td> + <td nowrap align="center" valign="top"> + <b>mi estus vidata</b> + </td> + </tr> + <tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><i>Past.</i></td></tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap> + <b>mi estus vidinta</b> + </td> + <td nowrap align="center"> + <b>mi estus vidita</b> + </td> + </tr> + <tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><i>Future.</i></td></tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap> + <b>mi estus vidonta</b> + </td> + <td nowrap align="center"> + <b>mi estus vidota</b> + </td> + </tr> + <tr><td align="center" colspan="2">IMPERATIVE.</td></tr> + <tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><i>Present.</i></td></tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + (<i>Aoristic</i>) <b>mi vidu</b><br> + (<i>Progressive</i>) <b>mi estu vidanta</b> + </td> + <td nowrap align="center" valign="top"> + <b>mi estu vidata</b> + </td> + </tr> + <tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><i>Past.</i></td></tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap> + <b>mi estu vidinta</b> + </td> + <td nowrap align="center"> + <b>mi estu vidita</b> + </td> + </tr> + <tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><i>Future.</i></td></tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap> + <b>mi estu vidonta</b> + </td> + <td nowrap align="center"> + <b>mi estu vidota</b> + </td> + </tr> + <tr><td align="center" colspan="2">INFINITIVE.</td></tr> + <tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><i>Present.</i></td></tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + (<i>Aoristic</i>) <b>vidi</b><br> + (<i>Progressive</i>) <b>esti vidanta</b> + </td> + <td nowrap align="center" valign="top"> + <b>esti vidata</b> + </td> + </tr> + <tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><i>Perfect.</i></td></tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap> + <b>esti vidinta</b> + </td> + <td nowrap align="center"> + <b>esti vidita</b> + </td> + </tr> + <tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><i>Future.</i></td></tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap> + <b>esti vidonta</b> + </td> + <td nowrap align="center"> + <b>esti vidota</b> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center>THE SUFFIX <b>-UM-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>268.</b> The indefinite suffix <b>-um-</b> serves the same general +purpose in word formation which <b>je</b> serves as an indefinite +preposition (260): +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>aerumi</b>, <i>to air</i>.<br> + <b>buŝumo</b>, <i>muzzle</i>.<br> + <b>gustumi</b>, <i>to taste</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>kolumo</b>, <i>collar</i>.<br> + <b>plenumi</b>, <i>to fulfil</i>.<br> + <b>proksimume</b>, <i>approximately</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>eben-a</b>, <i>level, even</i>.<br> + <b>escept-o</b>, <i>exception</i>.<br> + <b>esper-i</b>, <i>to hope</i>.<br> + <b>fremd-a</b>, <i>foreign</i>.<br> + <b>histori-o</b>, <i>history</i>.<br> + <b>kompar-i</b>, <i>to compare</i>.<br> + <b>koncern-i</b>, <i>to concern</i>.<br> + <b>konform-i</b>, <i>to conform</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>nepr-e</b>, <i>inevitably, certainly</i>.<br> + <b>obe-i</b>, <i>to obey</i>.<br> + <b>obstin-a</b>, <i>obstinate</i>.<br> + <b>promes-i</b>, <i>to promise</i>.<br> + <b>rilat-o</b>, <i>relation</i>.<br> + <b>sat-a</b>, <i>satiated</i>.<br> + <b>sav-i</b>, <i>to save</i>.<br> + <b>verk-i</b>, <i>to compose</i> (books or music). + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center><b>LA REIRADO DE LA DEKMILO.</b></center> + +<p> +La grekaj militistoj sentis grandan teruron kiam Ciruso ne plu vivis. +La celo de la longa marŝado ne povis esti plenumata, pro la morto +de la obstina trokuraĝa militestro mem. Kvankam la grekoj estis +venkintoj, ili estis tute solaj en fremda lando, ĉirkaŭitaj +de barbaroj kiuj, per trompemaj proponoj kaj falsaj promesoj pri amikaj +interrilatoj, tuj okazigis la morton de la grekaj estroj. Senigite je +siaj estroj, la kompatindaj viroj tute malesperis. Sed kelkaj subestroj, +rapide kunveniginte la soldatojn, diris, "Ni mem kondukos vin per +kiel eble plej rekta vojo hejmen! Ni faros nian eblon (<i>utmost</i>) +por ke ni ĉiuj estu savitaj!" Ĉar restis nenio alia por +fari, la malfacila malgaja reirado de la grekoj komenciĝis sen +prokrasto. Ili transiris varmegajn ebenaĵojn (<i>plains</i>), +supreniris kaj malsupreniris krutajn neĝkovritajn montojn, meze de +la vintro, kaj sen pontoj transiris larĝajn riverojn. Ĉie la +malfidindaj barbaroj atakis ilin, kvazaŭ por ke neniu greko restu +viva. Krom tio, la grekoj mortis dekope kaj dudekope ĉiutage, +pro varmegeco, malvarmegeco, laceco kaj malsateco (<i>hunger</i>). +Fine, post nekredeblaj suferoj, la restaĵo de la dekmil soldatoj +alvenis sur monton, kaj ekvidis la maron. Laŭta ekkriego "La maro! +La maro!" eksonis inter la lacaj viroj, el kiuj multaj ploris larmojn +de ĝojo. De infaneco ili alkutimis al la vojaĝado per akvo, +kaj post iom da ripozo ili sin provizis je ŝipoj, por transiri +la maron al la patrujo je kiu ili estis tiel longe sopirintaj. Treege +interesa historio koncerne la tutan aferon estas verkita de fama greka +verkisto (<i>writer</i>), kiu estis akompaninta Ciruson por ke li povu +ĝui kaj studi ĉion interesan sur la vojo. Tiu azia militado +de Ciruso nepre estas unu el la plej rimarkindaj okazintaĵoj iam +priskribitaj, eĉ sen escepto de la posta irado tien de Aleksandro +Granda. +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. After the death of Cyrus, the leaders of the Greek warriors did not +know what to do. 2. In the course of the following day, one of the +leaders of the enemy sent a messenger (205) with deceitful promises +about help. 2. He said "Assemble in our leader's tent, in order that +you may all discuss the matter." 3. The Greek leaders went, although +they suspected danger, because they did not know how else to save +their men. 4. But they never returned, and soon the Greeks understood +that the barbarians had killed them. 5. They wept tears of despair, +and said "The barbarians will inevitably destroy us, for we are in +a foreign land, where we know neither the languages nor the roads, +and the peoples are without exception hostile to us." 6. But the +leaders-of-lesser-rank said "Obey us and follow us, and we shall do our +best to save you!" 7. Their return, across hot plains and snow-covered +mountains, made-more-difficult by hunger and by the unceasing attacks +of the barbarians, is related in the history written by a famous Greek +historian. 8. One can still read this interesting narrative, in Greek or +in a translation. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON LVIII.</b></center> + +<center>PERMISSION AND POSSIBILITY.</center> + +<p> +<b>269.</b> Permission is usually expressed by the use of +<b>permesi</b>, <b>lasi</b>, or the imperative mood: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Ĉu vi permesas ke mi restu?</b> <i>May I</i> (<i>do you permit me to</i>) <i>stay?</i><br> +<b>Jes, mi permesas (jes, restu)</b>, <i>yes, you may</i> (<i>yes, stay</i>).<br> +<b>Ne estas permesate eniri tien</b>, <i>it is not allowed to enter there.</i><br> +<b>Lasu lin veni</b>, <i>let him come.</i> +</p> + +<p> +<b>270.</b> The idea of possibility or probability is given by +the use of some such adverb as <b>eble</b>, <b>kredeble</b>, +<b>verŝajne</b>, etc.: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Eble li obeos al vi</b>, <i>he may</i> (<i>perhaps he will</i>) <i>obey you.</i><br> +<b>Kredeble li sukcesos</b>, <i>probably he will succeed.</i><br> +<b>Verŝajne vi estas prava</b>, <i>you are probably right.</i><br> +<b>Eble oni lin savus</b>, <i>they might</i> (<i>possibly they would</i>) <i>save him.</i><br> +<b>Ili nepre ne batis lin</b>, <i>they could not have</i> (<i>surely did not</i>) <i>beat him.</i><br> +<b>Tio estas neebla!</b> <i>That can not be</i> (<i>that is impossible</i>)! +</p> + +<center>THE PREFIX <b>GE-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>271.</b> Words formed with the prefix <b>ge-</b> indicate the two +sexes together: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>gepatroj</b>, <i>parents.</i><br> + <b>geavoj</b>, <i>grandparents.</i><br> + <b>genepoj</b>, <i>grandchildren.</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>gefiloj</b>, <i>son(s) and daughter(s)</i>.<br> + <b>gefratoj</b>, <i>brother(s) and sister(s).</i><br> + <b>geedzoj</b>, <i>husband(s) and wife (wives).</i> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap colspan="2"> + <b>gesinjoroj</b>, <i>Mr. and Mrs., lady (ladies) and gentleman (gentlemen).</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center>THE SUFFIX <b>-AĈ-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>272.</b> The suffix <b>-aĉ-</b> has a disparaging significance: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>domaĉo</b>, <i>a hovel</i>.<br> + <b>hundaĉo</b>, <i>a cur</i>.<br> + <b>obstinaĉa</b>, <i>obstinate</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>pentraĉi</b>, <i>to daub</i>.<br> + <b>popolaĉo</b>, <i>rabble, mob</i>.<br> + <b>ridaĉi</b>, <i>to guffaw</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center>INTERJECTIONS.</center> + +<p> +<b>273.</b> Interjections are words used to express feeling or call +attention. Among the more common interjections are: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>Adiaŭ!</b> <i>Farewell!</i> (171).<br> + <b>Fi!</b> <i>Fie!</i><br> + <b>Ho!</b> <i>Oh! Ho!</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>Hura!</b> <i>Hurrah!</i><br> + <b>Nu!</b> <i>Well!</i><br> + <b>Ve!</b> <i>Woe!</i> (Ho ve! <i>Alas!</i>). + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<p class="footnote"> +Verbs in the imperative, and adverbs, are frequently used as +interjections, as <b>Atentu!</b> <i>Look out!</i> <b>Aŭskultu!</b> +<i>Hark!</i> <b>Bonvenu!</b> <i>Welcome!</i> <b>Antaŭen!</b> +<i>Forward!</i> <b>Bone!</b> <i>Good!</i> <b>For!</b> <i>Away!</i> +<b>Ja!</b> <i>Indeed!</i> <b>Jen!</b> <i>There! Behold!</i> +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +The interjection <b>fi</b> is sometimes used as a disparaging prefix, +like <b>-aĉ-</b> (272), as <b>fibirdo</b>, <i>ugly bird</i>, +<b>fiĉevalo</b>, <i>a sorry nag</i>. +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>Aleksandri-o</b>, <i>Alexandria</i>.<br> + <b>Amerik-o</b>, <i>America</i>.<br> + <b>Aristotel-o</b>, <i>Aristotle</i>.<br> + <b>Aŭstrali-o</b>, <i>Australia</i>.<br> + <b>bibliotek-o</b>, <i>library</i>.<br> + <b>eduk-i</b>, <i>to bring up, educate</i>.<br> + <b>Egipt-o</b>, <i>Egypt</i>.<br> + <b>estim-i</b>, <i>to esteem</i>.<br> + <b>firm-a</b>, <i>firm</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>fond-i</b>, <i>to found, establish</i>.<br> + <b>hispan-o</b>, <i>Spaniard</i>.<br> + <b>kapabl-a</b>, <i>capable</i>.<br> + <b>komun-a</b>, <i>common, mutual</i>.<br> + <b>kontinent-o</b>, <i>continent</i>.<br> + <b>Krist-o</b>, <i>Christ</i>.<br> + <b>milion-o</b>, <i>million</i>.<br> + <b>spite</b>, <i>in spite of</i>.<br> + <b>vast-a</b>, <i>vast, extensive</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center><b>ALEKSANDRO GRANDA.</b></center> + +<p> +Permesu ke mi diru kelkajn vortojn pri la vivo de Aleksandro Granda, kiu +ne estis matura viro sed havis nur dudek jarojn kiam li fariĝis +reĝo. Liaj gepatroj estis tre zorge edukintaj lin, kaj la filozofo +Aristotelo, kiun li tre alte estimis, estis unu el liaj instruistoj. +Aleksandro firme tenadis sian propran reĝolandon, kaj ankaŭ +Grekujon, kiun lia patro estis venkinta; krom tio, li faris militadojn +kontraŭ diversaj fremdaj landoj, unue en Azio, tiam en Afriko, +kie li fondis urbon, kaj ĝin nomis Aleksandrio. Aleksandrio nepre +estis belega riĉa urbo. Tie <b>troviĝis</b> poste la fama +Aleksandria biblioteko. Se ĝi ne estus detruita de fajro, en la +daŭro de iuj militadoj, ni sendube konus multe pli bone la sciadon +de la antikvaj grekoj, kiuj verŝajne estis la plej klera popolo iam +vivinta en Eŭropo. Venkinte Egipton, Aleksandro reiris en Azion, +ĝis tre orienta kaj suda partoj, venkante ĉiujn ĉie, +kvazaŭ ili estus la plej malkuraĝaj popolaĉoj en la +mondo. Sed spite ĉies petoj li estis obstinaĉe nezorgema +pri sia sano, kaj subite, ho ve, li mortis pro febro, tricent dektri +jarojn antaŭ Kristo. Se li ne estus tiel frue mortinta, kiel +multe li estus eble elfarinta! Li esperis venki Hispanujon, Italujon, +kaj, mallongavorte, tiom de la okcidenta mondo kiom li jam posedis de +la orienta. Tiam li celis kunigi ĉion en unu vastan imperion, +kvazaŭ por fari el la mondo unu grandan familion. Li intencis +ke la milionoj da enloĝantoj akceptu komunajn leĝojn kaj +kutimojn, eĉ komunan lingvon, — kredeble la grekan. Eble +li ja havis la kapablecon por fari ĉion ĉi. Estas pro tio +ke oni ofte aŭdas la diron "Aleksandro sopiris je aliaj mondoj +por venki." Tamen, kiel malgranda estis tiu mondo kiun li konis! La +tiamuloj konis nur malgrandan parton de Afriko, de Azio, eĉ de +Eŭropo. Ili sciis nenion pri Anglujo, aŭ pri la vastaj +kontinentoj Aŭstralio, norda kaj suda Amerikoj. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +The use of <b>troviĝi</b>, and also of <b>sin trovi</b>, +<b>kuŝi</b>, <b>stari</b> and <b>sidi</b>, in a sense not greatly +differing from that of <b>esti</b>, avoids the monotonous repetition +of forms of <b>esti</b>, just as English uses <i>lie</i>, <i>sit</i>, +<i>perch</i>, etc., in narration for similar reasons: +</p> +<p class="footnote"> +<b>Multaj vilaĝoj troviĝas tie</b>, <i>many villages are (situated) there</i>.<br> +<b>Egipto troviĝas en la nordorienta parto de Afriko</b>, <i>Egypt is (found) in the northeastern part of Africa</i>.<br> +<b>Li sin trovis sola en la dezerto</b>, <i>he found himself (he was) alone in the desert</i>.<br> +<b>La urbo kuŝis inter du lagoj</b>, <i>the city lay between two lakes</i>.<br> +<b>Sur la montflanko sidis vilaĝeto</b>, <i>on the mountainside perched a tiny village</i>. +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. Alexander the Great wished to unite the whole world into one vast +empire. 2. He intended that all the different peoples should conform to +common laws and that their sons-and-daughters should speak one common +language, and in spite of their love for their national languages, +should leave-off speaking them. 3. Possibly he might have accomplished +his object to some extent (217), if he had not died suddenly when he +was only thirty-two years old. 4. His soldiers marched weeping past his +tent, to bid farewell to their dying leader. 5. They must have esteemed +him very highly! 6. It was Alexander who founded the city of Alexandria, +in Egypt, where approximately three hundred years before Christ the +famous Alexandrian library was located. 7. It contained an enormous +collection-of-books — almost seven hundred thousand. 8. Alas, this +extensive library was destroyed by fire! 9. Alexander, who "sighed for +other worlds to conquer," did not even know of the existence of North +and South America, Australia, or even of England and Northern Europe. +10. Beside his Asiatic empire, he knew very little of Asia, even of +China, with its millions of inhabitants. 11. How small the world was in +those days! +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON LIX.</b></center> + +<center>THE POSITION OF UNEMPHATIC PRONOUNS.</center> + +<p> +<b>274.</b> An unemphatic personal, indefinite or demonstrative pronoun +very frequently precedes the verb of which it is the object. This is +especially true if the verb in question is an infinitive: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Mi volas lin vidi</b>, <i>I wish to see him.</i><br> +<b>Li povos tion fari</b>, <i>he will be able to do that.</i><br> +<b>Vi devus ion manĝi</b>, <i>you ought to eat something.</i><br> +<b>Ĉu vi ĝin kredis?</b> <i>Did you believe it?</i><br> +<b>Se li min vidus</b>, li min savus, <i>if he should see me, he would save me.</i> +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<i>Cf</i>. in other languages, as in German <i>ich möchte ihn +sehen</i>, French <i>je veux le voir</i>, Latin <i>se alunt, me +defendi</i>, etc. That such pronouns <i>are</i> unemphatic can be seen +from English <i>let her come</i> (= <i>let'er come</i>), <i>make him +stop</i> (= <i>make'im stop</i>), etc., in which the unemphatic forms +<i>er, im</i>, replace <i>him, her</i>, in pronunciation (<i>cf</i>. +the Greek enclitic pronouns +<i>μοϋ, μοί, μέ, σον, σοι, σέ, οϋ, οι, έ</i>, +the Sanskrit enclitic forms +<i>mā, me, tvā, te, nas, vas, enam, enat, enām,</i> also <i>sīm</i>, +and the Avestan +<i>ī, īm</i>). +The same +phenomenon is indicated in <i>prithee</i> (= <i>pray thee</i>), and in +the spellings <i>gimme</i> (= <i>give me</i>), <i>lemme</i> (= <i>let +me</i>), in dialect stories. +</p> + +<center>SOME INTRANSITIVE VERBS.</center> + +<p> +<b>275.</b> Some intransitive verbs have English meanings which do not +differ in form from the <i>transitive</i> English verbs to which they +are related. In Esperanto the suffix <b>-ig-</b> (214) must be used +when the transitive meaning is desired. Some examples are given in the +following table: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="1" cellpadding="8"> + <tr><td nowrap align="center">Verb.</td><td nowrap align="center">Intransitive Use.</td><td nowrap align="center">Transitive Use.</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap valign="top"><b>Boli . . .</b></td><td nowrap valign="top"><b>La akvo bolas</b><br><i>The water boils</i></td><td nowrap valign="top"><b>Li boligas la akvon</b><br><i>He boils the water</i></td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap valign="top"><b>Bruli . . .</b></td><td nowrap valign="top"><b>La fajro brulas</b><br><i>The fire burns</i></td><td nowrap valign="top"><b>Li bruligis la paperon</b><br><i>He burned the paper</i></td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap valign="top"><b>Ĉesi . . .</b></td><td nowrap valign="top"><b>La bruo ĉesas</b><br><i>The noise stops</i></td><td nowrap valign="top"><b>Li ĉesigas la bruon</b><br><i>He stops the noise</i></td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap valign="top"><b>Daŭri . . .</b></td><td nowrap valign="top"><b>La bruo daŭras</b><br><i>The noise continues</i></td><td nowrap valign="top"><b>Li daŭrigas la bruon</b><br><i>He continues the noise</i></td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap valign="top"><b>Degeli . . .</b></td><td nowrap valign="top"><b>La glacio degelas</b><br><i>The ice thaws</i></td><td nowrap valign="top"><b>Li ĝin degeligas per fajro</b><br><i>He thaws it with fire</i></td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap valign="top"><b>Droni . . .</b></td><td nowrap valign="top"><b>La knabino dronis</b><br><i>The girl drowned</i></td><td nowrap valign="top"><b>La viro ŝin dronigis</b><br><i>The man drowned her</i></td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap valign="top"><b>Eksplodi . . .</b></td><td nowrap valign="top"><b>Pulvo eksplodas</b><br><i>Gunpowder explodes</i></td><td nowrap valign="top"><b>Li ĝin eksplodigos</b><br><i>He will explode it</i></td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap valign="top"><b>Halti . . .</b></td><td nowrap valign="top"><b>Li haltis timigite</b><br><i>He halted in alarm</i></td><td nowrap valign="top"><b>Li haltigis la soldatojn</b><br><i>He halted the soldiers</i></td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap valign="top"><b>Lumi . . .</b></td><td nowrap valign="top"><b>La suno lumas</b><br><i>The sun shines</i></td><td nowrap valign="top"><b>Li lumigis la lampon</b><br><i>He lighted the lamp</i></td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap valign="top"><b>Pasi . . .</b></td><td nowrap valign="top"><b>La tempo pasas</b><br><i>Time passes</i></td><td nowrap valign="top"><b>Tiel li pasigis la tagon</b><br><i>Thus he passed the day</i></td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap valign="top"><b>Pendi . . .</b></td><td nowrap valign="top"><b>Ĝi pendas de branĉo</b><br><i>It hangs on a branch</i></td><td nowrap valign="top"><b>Li ĝin pendigis de branĉo</b><br><i>He hung it on a branch</i></td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap valign="top"><b>Soni . . .</b></td><td nowrap valign="top"><b>La saluta pafo sonis</b><br><i>The salute sounded</i></td><td nowrap valign="top"><b>Oni sonigis la salutan pafon</b><br><i>They sounded the salute</i></td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap valign="top"><b>Sonori . . .</b></td><td nowrap valign="top"><b>La sonorilo sonoris</b><br><i>The bell rang</i></td><td nowrap valign="top"><b>Oni sonorigis la sonorilon</b><br><i>They rang the bell</i></td></tr> + </table> +</center> + +<p class="footnote"> +A transitive use of such intransitive verbs would be like using the +English intransitive verb "learn" for the transitive verb "teach," as in +the "I'll learn you" (for "I'll teach you") of illiterate speech. +</p> + +<center>THE SUFFIX <b>-ER-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>276.</b> The suffix <b>-er-</b> is used to form words expressing +units or component parts of that which is indicated in the root: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>fajrero</b>, <i>spark</i> (of fire).<br> + <b>monero</b>, <i>coin</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>neĝero</b>, <i>snowflake</i>.<br> + <b>sablero</b>, <i>grain of sand</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center>THE PREFIXES <b>BO-</b> AND <b>DUON-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>277.</b> The prefix <b>bo-</b> indicates relationship by marriage. +To indicate half-blood relationship, or step-relationship, <b>duon-</b> +(166) is used: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>bopatro</b>, <i>father-in-law</i>.<br> + <b>bofratino</b>, <i>sister-in-law</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>duonpatro</b>, <i>stepfather</i>.<br> + <b>duonfrato</b>, <i>half-brother</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +CORRESPONDENCE. + +<p> +<b>278.</b> a. Letters should be dated as indicated in the following: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Bostono, je la 24a de decembro, 1912a.</b><br> +<b>Nov-Jorko, la 24an decembro, 1912a.</b><br> +<b>Sirakuzo, 24/XII/1912.</b> +</p> + +<p> +<b>b.</b> The usual methods of address are (to strangers and in business +letters): <b>Sinjoro, Sinjorino, Estimata Sinjoro, Karaj Sinjoroj, Tre +estimata Fraŭlino,</b> etc.; (to friends and relatives) <b>Kara +Fraŭlino, Karaj Gefratoj, Kara Amiko, Kara Mario, Patrino mia,</b> +(placing the possessive adjective after the noun in this way gives +an affectionate sense, as in English "Mother mine," etc) etc.; (to +persons whose opinions on some subject are known to agree with those of +the writer) <b>Estimata (Kara) Samideano</b> (<i>follower of the same +idea</i>). +</p> + +<p> +<b>c.</b> Among the more usual forms of conclusion are (to strangers and +in business letters): <b>Tre fidele la via, Tre vere, Kun granda estimo, +Kun plej alta estimo,</b> etc., (to friends): <b>Kun amika saluto, Kun +ĉiuj bondeziroj, Kun samideanaj salutoj, Frate la via,</b> etc. +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>adres-o</b>, <i>address.</i><br> + <b>apart-a</b>, <i>separate.</i><br> + <b>bedaur-i</b>, <i>to regret.</i><br> + <b>ĉef-a</b>, <i>chief.</i><br> + <b>do</b>, <i>so, then.</i><br> + <b>fontan-o</b>, <i>fountain.</i><br> + <b>hotel-o</b>, <i>hotel.</i><br> + <b>ink-o</b>, <i>ink.</i><br> + <b>konven-a</b>, <i>suitable.</i><br> + <b>kovert-o</b>, <i>envelope</i> (for letters). + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>krajon-o</b>, <i>pencil.</i><br> + <b>mend-i</b>, <i>to order</i> (of stores, etc).<br> + <b>Nov-Jorko</b>, <i>New York.</i><br> + <b>numer-o</b>, <i>number</i> (numeral).<br> + <b>ofic-o</b>, <i>office, employment.</i><br> + <b>poŝt-o</b>, <i>post</i> (letters, etc.).<br> + <b>respekt-o</b>, <i>respect.</i><br> + <b>special-a</b>, <i>special.</i><br> + <b>stat-o</b>, <i>state</i> (political body)<br> + <b>tram-o</b>, <i>tram.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<p class="footnote"> +<b>Ĉef-</b> is often used in descriptive compounds +(167, b), as <b>ĉefkuiristo</b>, <i>chief (head) cook, +chef</i>, <b>ĉefurbo</b>, <i>chief city, capital</i>, +<b>ĉefanĝelo</b>, <i>archangel</i>. +</p> + +<hr align="center" width="38%" style="margin-bottom: 0"> + +<center style="margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em">KELKAJ LETEROJ.</center> + +<hr align="center" width="38%" style="margin-top: 0"> + +<p class="rightjustified2">Sirakuzo, la 2an de marto, 1911.</p> + +<p> +Kara Amiko, +</p> + +<p class="indented"> +Sendube vin surprizos ricevi leteron skribitan de mi ĉe hotelo +en ĉi tiu urbo, ne tre malproksime de via propra oficejo! Via +bofrato, kiun mi okaze renkontis hieraŭ en la poŝtoficejo, +donis al mi vian adreson. Ĝis nun, mi estas tiel okupata ke mi ne +havis la tempon eĉ por telefoni al vi. Sed nun mi havas du aŭ +tri minutojn da libera tempo, kaj mi tuj ekkaptas la okazon por skribi +letereton, petante ke vi vespermanĝu kun mi hodiaŭ vespere, +ĉe la hotelo kie, kiel vi vidas, mi loĝas de antaŭ unu +tago. (Pardonu, mi petas, <b>ke</b> mi finas ĉi tiun leteron +per krajono, sed mi ĵus eltrovis ke restas neniom plu da inko +en mia fontanplumo.) Venu je la sesa, se tiu horo estas konvena. +Bedaŭrinde (<i>unfortunately</i>), mi devos forresti de la hotelo +la tutan posttagmezon, pri komercaj aferoj, alie mi vin renkontus +ĉe la tramvojo, kie haltas la tramveturiloj (<i>streetcars</i>). +Estos plej bone, mi opinias, ke vi iru rekte al mia ĉambro, numero +26, kie mi senprokraste vin renkontos, se mi ne estos efektive jam +vin atendanta. Ni esperu ke la ĉefkuiristo preparos al ni bonan +manĝon! Mi esperas ke vi malatentos la falantajn neĝerojn, +kaj nepre venos, responde al mia iomete subita invito, ĉar ni ja +havos multe da komunaj travivaĵoj por priparoli. Do ĝis la +baldaŭa revido je la vespermanĝo! +</p> + +<p class="rightjustified2">Kun plej amikaj salutoj,</p> + +<p class="rightjustified1">Roberto.</p> + + +<p class="footnote"> +The word <b>tial</b> may be omitted from the combination <b>tial ke</b> +(83), if the meaning is obvious. +</p> + +<hr align="center" width="38%"> + +<p class="rightjustified2">Boston, 13/VII/1911.</p> + +<div>Wilson kaj Jones,</div> +<div class="leftjustified1">Nov-Jorko.</div> +Estimataj Sinjoroj:— +<div class="indented"> +Bonvolu sendi al mi per revenanta poŝto vian plej novan prezaron +(<i>price-list</i>). Ni baldaŭ bezonos iujn novajn meblojn por niaj +oficejoj, precipe skribtablojn, tablojn konvenajn por skribmaŝinoj +(<i>typewriters</i>), kaj specialajn librujojn, farotajn laŭ niaj +bezonoj. Se viaj prezoj estas konvenaj, ni sendube volos mendi de vi +tian meblaron. +</div> +<div style="text-align: center">Kun respekto,</div> +<div class="rightjustified3">J. F. Smith,</div> +<div class="rightjustified2">ĉe Brown kaj Brown.</div> + +<hr align="center" width="38%"> + +<p class="rightjustified2">Nov-Jorko, 17/VII/1911.</p> + +<div>Sinjoro J. F. Smith,</div> +<div class="leftjustified1">ĉe Brown kaj Brown,</div> +<div class="leftjustified2">Nov-Jorko.</div> +Estimata Sinjoro:— +<div class="indented"> +Ni havas la honoron sendi al vi en aparta koverto nian plej novan +prezaron, al kiu ni petas ke vi donu vian atenton, precipe al paĝoj +15-29. Tie vi trovos priskribitaj niajn plej bonajn oficejajn meblarojn. +Ni senpage metos ĉiujn aĉetitajn meblojn sur la vagonaron, sed +kompreneble ni ne pagos la koston de la sendado. +</div> +<div class="indented"> +Ni plezure fabrikos specialajn librujojn laŭ viaj bezonoj, kaj +volonte ricevos viajn ordonojn pri tio. Niaj prezoj estos kiel eble plej +malaltaj. +</div> +<div class="indented"> +Esperante ke la meblaroj priskribitaj en nia prezaro, kune kun la +tie-presitaj prezoj, estos plene kontentigaj, kaj certigante al vi ke ni +zorge plenumos ĉiun mendon, ni restas, +</div> +<div style="text-align: center">Tre respekte la viaj,</div> +<div class="rightjustified4">Wilson kaj Jones.</div> + +<hr align="center" width="38%"> + +<p class="rightjustified2">Bostono, la 27an Majo.</p> + +<div>Sinjoro B. F. Brown,</div> +<div class="leftjustified2">Sirakuzo, Nov-Jorka Ŝtato.</div> +Kara Sinjoro:— +<div class="indented"> +Vian adreson ni dankas al niaj komunaj amikoj Sinjoroj Miller kaj White, +kaj per ĉi tio ni permesas al ni proponi al vi niajn servojn por +la vendado de tiaj infanludiloj, kiajn vi fabrikas. Ni havas bonegajn +montrajn fenestrojn (<i>show-windows</i>), en nia butiko, preskaŭ +meze de la ĉefstrato en la urbo, kaj en nia butiko troviĝas +sufiĉe da grandaj vitramebloj (<i>show-cases</i>). Tial ni povus +tre oportune administri tian aferon. Ni multe ĝojos se vi respondos +kiel eble plej baldaŭ, sciigante al ni kiom da procento vi donos, +kaj kiajn aranĝojn vi volus fari. Ni certigas al vi ke en ĉiu +okazo ni penos fari nian eblon por via plej bona intereso. +</div> +<div style="text-align: center">Kun alta estimo,</div> +<div class="rightjustified4">D. Rose.</div> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON LX.</b></center> + +<center>SOME TRANSITIVE VERBS.</center> + +<p> +<b>279.</b> Some transitive verbs have English meanings which do not +differ in form from the <i>intransitive</i> English verbs to which they +are related (conversely to the use explained in 275). In Esperanto the +suffix <b>-iĝ-</b> (232), or a different root, must be used when +an intransitive meaning is desired. Following are the more common verbs +of this character, together with examples of the intransitive use of +several of them: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>balanci</b>, <i>to balance</i>.<br> + <b>etendi</b>, <i>to extend, to expand</i>.<br> + <b>fermi</b>, <i>to close, to shut</i>.<br> + <b>fini</b>, <i>to end, to finish</i>.<br> + <b>fleksi</b>, <i>to bend, to flex</i>.<br> + <b>hejti</b>, <i>to heat</i>.<br> + <b>klini</b>, <i>to incline, to bend</i>.<br> + <b>kolekti</b>, <i>to gather</i>, <i>to collect</i>.<br> + <b>komenci</b>, <i>to begin</i>, <i>to commence</i>.<br> + <b>mezuri</b>, <i>to measure</i>.<br> + <b>montri</b>, <i>to show</i>.<br> + <b>movi</b>, <i>to move</i>.<br> + <b>paŝti</b>, <i>to pasture, to feed</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>renversi</b>, <i>to upset</i>, <i>to overturn</i>.<br> + <b>rompi</b>, <i>to break</i>.<br> + <b>ruli</b>, <i>to roll, (a wheel,</i> <i>ball, etc.)</i>.<br> + <b>skui</b>, <i>to shake</i>.<br> + <b>streĉi</b>, <i>to stretch</i>.<br> + <b>svingi</b>, <i>to swing</i>.<br> + <b>ŝanceli</b>, <i>to cause to</i> <i>vacillate</i>.<br> + <b>ŝanĝi</b>, <i>to change</i>.<br> + <b>ŝiri</b>, <i>to tear</i>.<br> + <b>turni</b>, <i>to turn</i>.<br> + <b>veki</b>, <i>to wake</i>.<br> + <b>verŝi</b>, <i>to pour</i>.<br> + <b>volvi</b>, <i>to roll</i> (around something). + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<p> +<b>La laboro nun finiĝas</b>, <i>the work is now coming to an end</i>.<br> +<b>La glavo fleksiĝis</b>, <i>the sword bent</i>.<br> +<b>La folioj disvolviĝas</b>, <i>the leaves unroll (develop)</i>.<br> +<b>Ĉiu kutimo ŝanĝiĝos</b>, <i>every custom will change</i>.<br> +<b>La vintro jam komenciĝas</b>, <i>the winter is already beginning</i>.<br> +<b>Mi vekiĝos je la sesa</b>, <i>I shall awake at six (o'clock)</i>.<br> +<b>La montrilo ŝanceliĝis</b>, <i>the indicator trembled (vacillated)</i>.<br> +<b>Vasta ebenaĵo etendiĝis antaŭ li</b>, <i>a vast plain extended before him</i>. +</p> + +<center>ELISION.</center> + +<p> +<b>280.</b> Elision is not common, and its use in writing as well as in +speaking is best avoided. It occurs most frequently in poetry. +</p> + +<p> +<b>a.</b> The <b>-a</b> of the article may be elided before a word +beginning with a vowel, or after a preposition ending in a vowel: +</p> + +<p> +<b>"L' espero, l' obstino kaj la pacienco."</b><br> +<b>"De l' montoj riveretoj fluas."</b><br> +<b>"Kaj kantas tra l' pura aero."</b> +</p> + +<p> +<b>b.</b> The final <b>-o</b> of a noun may be elided in poetry. The +original accent of the noun remains unchanged: +</p> + +<p> +<b>"Ho, mia kor', ne batu maltrankvile."</b><br> +<b>"Sur la kampo la rozet'."</b> +</p> + +<p> +<b>c.</b> The final <b>-e</b> of an adverb is very rarely elided (except +in the expression <b>dank' al</b>, which occurs in prose as well as in +poetry): +</p> + +<p> +<b>"Ke povu mi foj' je eterno ekdormi!"</b><br> +<b>Dank' al vi, mi sukcesis</b>, <i>thanks to you, I succeeded</i>. +</p> + +<center>THE PREFIX <b>EKS-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>281.</b> The prefix <b>eks-</b> is used to form words expressing a +previous incumbent of a position, or removal from such position: +</p> + +<p> +<b>eksprezidanto</b>, <i>ex-president</i>.<br> +<b>eksreĝo</b>, <i>ex-king</i>.<br> +<b>eksigi</b>, <i>to put out of office, to discharge</i>.<br> +<b>eksiĝi</b>, <i>to withdraw from one's office, to resign</i>. +</p> + +<center>THE PREFIX <b>PRA-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>282.</b> The prefix <b>pra-</b> is used to form words expressing +precedence in the line of descent, or general remoteness in past time: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>praavo</b>, <i>great grandfather</i>.<br> + <b>pranepo</b>, <i>great grandson</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>prapatroj</b>, <i>forefathers, ancestors</i>.<br> + <b>pratempa</b>, <i>primeval</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center>THE SUFFIXES <b>-ĈJ-</b> AND <b>-NJ-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>283.</b> The suffix <b>-ĉj-</b> is used to form affectionate +diminutives, from the first syllable or syllables of masculine names +or terms of address. The suffix <b>-nj-</b> forms similar feminine +diminutives: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>Joĉjo</b>, <i>Johnnie, Joe</i>.<br> + <b>Paĉjo</b>, <i>Papa</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>Manjo</b>, <i>May, Mamie</i>.<br> + <b>Panjo</b>, <i>Mamma</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center>WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.</center> + +<b>284.</b> National systems of weights and measures translated into +international form (as <b>mejlo</b>, <i>mile</i>, <b>funto</b>, +<i>pound</i>) cannot convey a very definite meaning to one not familiar +with the particular system used. Consequently the metric system +(already used by scientists everywhere and by the general public in +many countries) is adopted for the international system of weights and +measures: + +<center>Length and Surface.</center> + +<center> + <table> + <tr> + <td> + <b>milimetro</b>, <i>millimeter</i> (.0394 inch).<br> + <b>centimetro</b>, <i>centimeter</i> (.3937 inch).<br> + <b>decimetro</b>, <i>decimeter</i> (3.937 inches).<br> + <b>metro</b>, <i>meter</i> (39.37 inches).<br> + <b>dekametro</b>, <i>dekameter</i> (393.7 inches).<br> + <b>hektometro</b>, <i>hektometer</i> (328 feet 1 inch).<br> + <b>kilometro</b>, <i>kilometer</i> (3280 feet 10 inches; .62137 mile).<br> + <b>kvadrata metro</b>, <i>square meter</i> (1550 square inches).<br> + <b>hektaro</b>, <i>hektare</i> (2.471 acres). + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center>Weight.</center> + +<center> + <table> + <tr> + <td> + <b>gramo</b>, <i>gram</i> (15.432 grains avoirdupois).<br> + <b>dekagramo</b>, <i>dekagram</i> (.3527 ounce avoirdupois).<br> + <b>hektogramo</b>, <i>hektogram</i> (3.5274 ounce avoirdupois).<br> + <b>kilogramo</b>, <i>kilogram</i> (2.2046 pounds avoirdupois). + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center>Capacity.</center> + +<center> + <table> + <tr> + <td> + <b>decilitro</b>, <i>deciliter</i> (6.1022 cubic inches; .845 gill).<br> + <b>litro</b>, <i>liter</i> (.908 quart, dry measure; 1.0567 quart, liquid).<br> + <b>dekalitro</b>, <i>dekaliter</i> (9.08 quart, dry measure; 2.6417 gallons).<br> + <b>hektolitro</b>, <i>hektoliter</i> (2 bushels 3.35 pecks; 26.417 gallons).<br> + <b>kilolitro</b>, <i>kiloliter</i> (1.308 cubic yards; 264.17 gallons). + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center>THE INTERNATIONAL MONEY SYSTEM.</center> + +<p> +<b>285.</b> Names of national coins translated into international +form (as <b>dolaro</b>, <i>dollar</i>, <b>cendo</b>, <i>cent</i>) +cannot convey a very definite meaning to persons not familiar with +these coins. Consequently the system devised for international use +(not for actual coins, but for calculation and price quotations) is +based upon a unit called the <b>speso</b>. The multiples of this +unit are the <b>spesdeko</b> (10 <b>spesoj</b>), <b>spescento</b> +(100 <b>spesoj</b>), and <b>spesmilo</b> (1000 <b>spesoj</b>). Ten +<i>spesmiloj</i> have approximately the value of a five-dollar gold +piece, twenty marks, twenty-five francs, one pound sterling, etc. The +<i>spesmilo</i>, equivalent to about $0.4875 in the money of the United +States and Canada, is the unit commonly used. (To reduce dollars to +<i>spesmiloj</i>, multiply by 2.051.) +</p> + +<center>ABBREVIATIONS.</center> + +<p> +<b>286.</b> The following abbreviations are often used (for those of the +metric system see any English dictionary): +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>Dro.</b>, Doktoro, <i>Dr.</i><br> + <b>Fino.</b>, Fraŭlino, <i>Miss</i>.<br> + <b>Pro.</b>, Profesoro, <i>Prof.</i><br> + <b>Sro.</b>, Sinjoro, <i>Mr.</i><br> + <b>Sino.</b>, Sinjorino, <i>Mrs.</i><br> + <b>Ko.</b>, K-io., Kompanio, <i>Co.</i><br> + <b>No.</b>, N-ro., Numero, <i>No.</i><br> + <b>&</b>, kaj, &. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>Sm.</b>, spesmilo(j).<br> + <b>Sd.</b>, spesdeko(j).<br> + <b>k. t. p.</b>, kaj tiel plu, <i>and so forth</i>.<br> + <b>k. c.</b>, kaj ceteraj, <i>etc.</i><br> + <b>k. sim.</b>, kaj simila(j), <i>et. sim.</i><br> + <b>t. e.</b>, tio estas, <i>i.e.</i><br> + <b>e.</b>, ekzemple, <i>e.g.</i><br> + <b>p.s.</b>, postskribaĵo, <i>P.S.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>abon-i</b>, <i>to subscribe to, take</i>.<br> + <b>aparat-o</b>, <i>apparatus</i>.<br> + <b>aŭtomat-a</b>, <i>automatic</i>.<br> + <b>bov-o</b>, <i>ox</i>.<br> + <b>dimensi-o</b>, <i>dimension</i>.<br> + <b>ekzempl-o</b>, <i>example</i>.<br> + <b>fokus-o</b>, <i>focus</i>.<br> + <b>fotograf-i</b>, <i>to photograph</i>.<br> + <b>funkci-i</b>, <i>to function, work</i>.<br> + <b>kamer-o</b>, <i>camera</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>led-o</b>, <i>leather</i>.<br> + <b>metal-o</b>, <i>metal</i>.<br> + <b>moment-o</b>, <i>moment</i>.<br> + <b>negativ-o</b>, <i>negative</i>.<br> + <b>objektiv-o</b>, <i>lens, objective</i>.<br> + <b>original-o</b>, <i>original</i>.<br> + <b>plat-o</b>, <i>plate</i> (photographic, etc)<br> + <b>prov-i</b>, <i>to try</i>.<br> + <b>reklam-i</b>, <i>to advertise</i>.<br> + <b>streĉ-i</b>, <i>to stretch</i> (trans.). + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<p class="footnote"> +<i>Cf.</i> the difference between <b>provi</b>, <i>to try</i> in +the sense of testing, making an essay or endeavor, <b>peni</b>, +<i>to try</i> in the sense of taking pains or making an effort, and +<b>juĝi</b>, <i>to try</i> in a judicial sense. +</p> + +<hr align="center" width="38%"> + +<center>PRI LA KAMERO.</center> + +<p class="rightjustified1">Bostono, 12/XI/1910.</p> + +<div>Brown kaj Ko.,</div> +<div class="leftjustified2">Nov-Jorko.</div> +Sinjoroj:— +<div class="indented1"> +Vidinte vian reklamon en gazeto al kiu mi abonas, mi skribas por peti +ke vi sendu al mi priskribaĵon de via kamero nomita "La Infaneto," +kiun eble mi deziros provi. +</div> +<div class="indented"> +Bonvolu ankaŭ sendi dekduonon da platoj, 6 x 9 centimetrojn, por +kiu mi <b>ĉi</b> kune sendas spesmilon kaj duonon. +</div> +<div style="text-align: center">Kun respekto,</div> +<div class="rightjustified4">J. C. Smith.</div> + +<p class="footnote"> +The particle <b>ĉi</b> (used with <b>tiu, tio, ties, ĉiu, +ĉio</b>) may also be used with certain adverbs, as <b>ĉi +sube</b>, <i>here below</i>, <b>ĉi supre</b>, <i>here above</i>, +<b>ĉi kune</b>, <i>herewith</i>, etc. +</p> + +<hr align="center" width="38%"> + +<p class="rightjustified1">Nov-Jorko, 18an novembro, 1910.</p> + +<div>Kara Sinjoro:—</div> +<div class="indented"> +Respondante al via estimata letero de la 12a, ni donas ĉi sube +mallongan priskribaĵon de nia bonega fotografilo nomita "La +Infaneto." +</div> +<div class="indented"> +"La Infaneto" kamero havis neesperitan sukceson, kaj estas vendita po +miloj da ekzempleroj. Ĉie oni unuvoĉe laŭdas ĝian +malgrandan kaj tamen bonegan konstruon, kaj ankaŭ ĝian firman +samtempe facilan funkciadon. Ĝi ne estas pli granda ol monujo, tial +ĝi ne bezonas pli multe da spaco ol tiu, kaj povas esti portata kaj +uzata treege konvene. +</div> + +<div class="indented"> +La dimensioj de la fermita kamero estas 8 x 5 x 6.5 centimetroj. La +pezo, kun objektivo, tri platingoj, kaj malbrila (<i>ground</i>) vitro, +estas 365 gramoj. "La Infaneto" estas konstruita tute el metalo, kaj +kovrita de bonega bovledo. Kiam oni malfermas la aparaton, la objektivo +samtempe enfokusiĝas, tiamaniere ke la kamero estas preta por uzado +post unu sekundo, ĉar la objektivfermilo (<i>shutter</i>) estas +ĉiam streĉita. Sekve: neniaj preparadoj, nenia prokrasto je la +ekfotografado. +</div> +<div class="indented"> +La negativoj estas klaraj ĝis la bordo, kaj tial konvenaj por +pligrandigo. Cetere, oni scias ke bona pligrandigo ofte pli kontentigas +ol malgranda originalo. Precipe ĉe promenoj kaj vojaĝoj oni +tial volonte preferas la malgrandan "Infaneton," por poste pligrandigi +la negativojn. +</div> +<div class="indented"> +Por la pligrandigo ni fabrikas specialajn taglum-pligrandigajn +aparatojn, kies prezoj estas malaltaj (vidu en nia prezaro). +</div> +<div class="indented"> +Ni ne ŝanĝis la konstruon de "La Infaneto" de post 1909, +ĉar ĝis nun ĝi estas ĉiurilate kontentiga. Sole la +rapideca reguligo de la momenta (<i>instantaneous</i>) fermilo estas +plibonigita, ĉar ni ĝin fabrikas kun speciala aŭtomata +fermilo, kiu estas aranĝita por malfermoj daŭraj (<i>time +exposures</i>), kaj momentaj, je unu sekundo ĝis unu centono da +sekundo. +</div> +<div class="indented"> +Esperante ke ni baldaŭ ricevos mendon de vi, kaj certigante al vi +ke ni tre zorge plenumos iun ajn mendon, ni restas. +</div> +<div class="rightjustified4">Tre respekte la viaj,</div> +<div class="rightjustified3">Brown & Ko.</div> +<div class="rightjustified2">Per C.</div> + +<hr align="center" width="38%"> + +<center><b>ESPERANTO-ENGLISH VOCABULARY.</b></center> + +<p> +The following vocabulary includes all roots used in the preceding +Lessons, all primary words of the language, and a large number of +additional roots (to facilitate original composition). No attempt has +been made, however, to include all of the roots in the language, for +which an Esperanto-English Dictionary should be consulted. +</p> + +<p> +References are to sections, unless the page (p.) is given. For other +parts of speech than those indicated under each root or primary word, +see Word Formation, <b>116</b>, <b>120</b>, <b>159</b>, <b>171</b>. See +also the references given under each prefix and suffix. For formation of +compound words, see <b>160</b>, <b>167</b>, <b>176</b>, <b>184</b>. The +following abbreviations are used: adj. = adjective; adv. = adverb; conj. += conjunction; intrans. = intransitive; prep. = preposition; trans. = +transitive; — = repetition of the word. +</p> + +<p><b>A.</b></p> + +<b>abel-o</b>, bee.<br> +<b>abi-o</b>, fir.<br> +<b>abiturient-o</b>, bachelor of arts (A.B.).<br> +<b>abomen-a</b>, abominable.<br> +<b>abon-i</b>, to subscribe to, take (magazine, etc.).<br> +<b>abrikot-o</b>, apricot.<br> +<b>acer-o</b>, maple (tree).<br> +<b>acid-a</b>, acid, sour.<br> +<b>-aĉ-</b>, <i>derogatory suffix</i> (<b>272</b>).<br> +<b>aĉet-i</b>, to buy.<br> +<b>-ad-</b>, <i>suffix indicating duration</i> (<b>218</b>).<br> +<b>adiaŭ</b>, (<i>adv. and interjection</i>), farewell, good-bye (<b>171</b>, <b>273</b>).<br> +<b>adjektiv-o</b>, adjective.<br> +<b>administr-i</b>, to administer, to manage.<br> +<b>admir-i</b>, to admire.<br> +<b>admon-i</b>, to exhort, admonish.<br> +<b>ador-i</b>, to worship, adore.<br> +<b>adres-o</b>, address (on letters, etc.).<br> +<b>adverb-o</b>, adverb.<br> +<b>advokat-o</b>, lawyer, barrister.<br> + +<b>aer-o</b>, air.<br> +<b>afabl-a</b>, affable, amiable.<br> +<b>afer-o</b>, affair, matter, thing, cause.<br> +<b>afiŝ-o</b>, handbill, placard, poster.<br> +<b>afrank-i</b>, to frank (letters), prepay; <b>—ite</b>, post-paid.<br> +<b>Afrik-o</b>, Africa.<br> +<b>ag-i</b>, to act, perform action.<br> +<b>agac-i</b>, to set on edge (of teeth).<br> +<b>agent-o</b>, agent.<br> +<b>agit-i</b>, to agitate.<br> +<b>agl-o</b>, eagle.<br> +<b>agoni-o</b>, agony.<br> +<b>agrabl-a</b>, agreeable, pleasant.<br> +<b>aĝ-o</b>, age.<br> +<b>ajn</b> (<i>adv.</i>), ever (<b>236</b>).<br> +<b>-aĵ-</b>, <i>suffix forming concrete words</i> (<b>227</b>).<br> +<b>akademi-o</b>, academy.<br> +<b>akcel-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to accelerate, hasten.<br> +<b>akcent-o</b>, accent, stress.<br> +<b>akcept-i</b>, to accept, receive, welcome.<br> +<b>akcident-o</b>, accident.<br> +<b>akir-i</b>, to acquire.<br> +<b>akompan-i</b>, to accompany.<br> +<b>akr-a</b>, sharp, acute, shrill.<br> +<b>akrid-o</b>, grasshopper.<br> +<b>aks-o</b>, axis, axle.<br> +<b>akt-o</b>, act (of a play).<br> +<b>aktiv-a</b>, active (grammatical).<br> +<b>aktor-o</b>, actor (player).<br> +<b>akurat-a</b>, accurate, exact.<br> +<b>akuz-i</b>, to accuse.<br> +<b>akuzativ-o</b>, accusative.<br> +<b>akv-o</b>, water.<br> +<b>akvarel-o</b>, water-color painting.<br> +<b>akvari-o</b>, aquarium.<br> +<b>al</b> (<i>prep.</i>), to, toward (<b>46, 160, 251, 252</b>).<br> +<b>alaŭd-o</b>, lark (bird).<br> +<b>ale-o</b>, avenue, walk, path (of garden, park, etc.).<br> +<b>Aleksandri-o</b>, Alexandria.<br> +<b>Aleksandr-o</b>, Alexander.<br> +<b>alfabet-o</b>, alphabet.<br> +<b>Alfred-o</b>, Alfred.<br> +<b>algebr-o</b>, algebra.<br> +<b>ali-a</b>, other.<br> +<b>alk-o</b>, elk.<br> +<b>alkohol-o</b>, alcohol.<br> +<b>alkov-o</b>, alcove, recess.<br> +<b>almanak-o</b>, almanac.<br> +<b>almenaŭ</b>, (<i>adv.</i>), at least (<b>66</b>).<br> +<b>almoz-o</b>, alms; <b>—ulo</b>, beggar.<br> +<b>alt-a</b>, high, tall.<br> +<b>altar-o</b>, altar.<br> +<b>alud-i</b>, to allude to.<br> +<b>alumet-o</b>, match (for fire).<br> +<b>am-i</b>, to love.<br> +<b>amas-o</b>, crowd, throng, mass.<br> +<b>ambaŭ</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), both (of two objects naturally in pairs, or of persons or things assumed or already known to be thus grouped) (<b>238</b>).<br> + +<b>ambos-o</b>, anvil.<br> +<b>amel-o</b>, starch.<br> +<b>Amerik-o</b>, America.<br> +<b>amfibi-a</b>, amphibious.<br> +<b>amfiteatr-o</b>, amphitheatre.<br> +<b>amik-o</b>, friend.<br> +<b>amindum-i</b>, to woo, make love.<br> +<b>ampleks-o</b>, extent, dimension.<br> +<b>amuz-i</b>, to amuse.<br> +<b>-an-</b>, <i>suffix denoting membership, etc.</i> (<b>145</b>).<br> +<b>analiz-i</b>, to analyse.<br> +<b>ananas-o</b>, pineapple.<br> +<b>anas-o</b>, duck.<br> +<b>anekdot-o</b>, anecdote.<br> +<b>Angl-o</b>, Englishman.<br> +<b>angul-o</b>, angle, corner.<br> +<b>anĝel-o</b>, angel.<br> +<b>anim-o</b>, soul.<br> +<b>ankaŭ</b> (<i>adv.</i>), also.<br> +<b>ankoraŭ</b> (<i>adv</i>), still, yet.<br> +<b>ankr-o</b>, anchor.<br> +<b>anonc-i</b>, to announce.<br> +<b>ans-o</b>, latch, door-handle.<br> +<b>anser-o</b>, goose.<br> +<b>anstataŭ</b> (<i>prep.</i>), instead of (<b>98, 159</b>).<br> +<b>antaŭ</b> (<i>prep.</i>), before (<b>89, 90, 120, 159, 160</b>), <b>antaŭ ol</b> (<i>conj.</i>), <b>97, 98</b>.<br> +<b>antikv-a</b>, ancient, antique.<br> +<b>antilop-o</b>, antelope.<br> +<b>antipati-o</b>, antipathy.<br> +<b>aparat-o</b>, apparatus.<br> +<b>apart-a</b>, separate.<br> +<b>apartament-o</b>, apartment, suite (of rooms).<br> +<b>aparten-i</b>, to belong.<br> +<b>apati-o</b>, apathy.<br> +<b>apenaŭ</b> (<i>adv.</i>), scarcely, hardly.<br> +<b>aper-i</b>, to appear.<br> +<b>apetit-o</b>, appetite.<br> +<b>aplaŭd-i</b>, to applaud.<br> +<b>aplomb-o</b>, assurance, self-command.<br> +<b>apog-i</b>, to lean, to rest (upon).<br> +<b>apologi-o</b>, apology, vindication.<br> +<b>apotek-o</b>, pharmacy, drugstore, chemist's shop.<br> +<b>april-o</b>, April.<br> +<b>aprob-i</b>, to approve.<br> +<b>apud</b> (<i>prep.</i>), near to, close by (<b>120, 159</b>).<br> +<b>-ar-</b>, <i>suffix forming collectives</i> (<b>126</b>).<br> +<b>Arab-o</b>, Arab.<br> +<b>arane-o</b>, spider.<br> +<b>aranĝ-i</b>, to arrange.<br> +<b>arb-o</b>, tree.<br> +<b>arbitraci-i</b>, to arbitrate.<br> +<b>ardez-o</b>, slate (stone).<br> +<b>aren-o</b>, arena.<br> +<b>arest-i</b>, to arrest.<br> +<b>argil-o</b>, clay.<br> +<b>argument-i</b>, to argue.<br> +<b>arĝent-o</b>, silver (metal).<br> + +<b>arĥitektur-o</b>, architecture.<br> +<b>Arĥimed-o</b>, Archimedes.<br> +<b>ari-o</b>, tune, air (music).<br> +<b>Aristejd-o</b>, Aristeides.<br> +<b>aristokrat-o</b>, aristocrat.<br> +<b>Aristotel-o</b>, Aristotle.<br> +<b>aritmetik-o</b>, arithmetic.<br> +<b>ark-o</b>, arc.<br> +<b>arkad-o</b>, arcade.<br> +<b>arm-i</b>, to arm.<br> +<b>arme-o</b>, army.<br> +<b>armoraci-o</b>, horse-radish.<br> +<b>arogant-a</b>, arrogant.<br> +<b>arom-o</b>, aroma, fragrance.<br> +<b>art-o</b>, art.<br> +<b>artik-o</b>, joint.<br> +<b>artikol-o</b>, article (grammatical or literary).<br> +<b>Artur-o</b>, Arthur.<br> +<b>asekur-i</b>, to insure (with a company).<br> +<b>asoci-o</b>, association (organization).<br> +<b>asparag-o</b>, asparagus.<br> +<b>aspekt-o</b>, aspect, appearance.<br> +<b>astr-o</b>, heavenly body, star.<br> +<b>atak-i</b>, to attack.<br> +<b>atend-i</b>, to wait, wait for, expect.<br> +<b>atent-a</b>, attentive.<br> +<b>atest-i</b>, to attest, give witness, certify.<br> +<b>ating-i</b>, to attain, reach.<br> +<b>atlas-o</b>, satin.<br> +<b>atlet-o</b>, athlete.<br> +<b>atmosfer-o</b>, atmosphere.<br> +<b>atribut-o</b>, attribute.<br> +<b>aŭ</b> (<i>conj.</i>), or, either.<br> +<b>aŭd-i</b>, to hear.<br> +<b>aŭgust-o</b>, August.<br> +<b>aŭskult-i</b>, to listen.<br> +<b>Aŭstrali-o</b>, Australia.<br> +<b>aŭtomat-a</b>, automatic.<br> +<b>aŭtor-o</b>, author.<br> +<b>aŭtun-o</b>, autumn.<br> +<b>av-o</b>, grandfather.<br> +<b>avar-a</b>, avaricious, miserly.<br> +<b>avel-o</b>, hazel-nut.<br> +<b>aven-o</b>, oats.<br> +<b>avert-i</b>, to warn, caution.<br> +<b>avid-a</b>, eager.<br> +<b>aviz-i</b>, to give notice.<br> +<b>azen-o</b>, ass, donkey.<br> +<b>Azi-o</b>, Asia.<br> +<b>azot-o</b>, nitrogen.<br> + +<p><b>B.</b></p> + +<b>babil-i</b>, to chatter, babble.<br> +<b>bagatel-o</b>, trifle, bagatelle.<br> +<b>bal-o</b>, ball (dance).<br> +<b>bak-i</b>, to bake.<br> +<b>bala-i</b>, to sweep (a floor, etc.).<br> +<b>balanc-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to balance, poise; <b>—i la kapon</b>, to nod the head.<br> +<b>baldaŭ</b> (<i>adv.</i>), soon.<br> +<b>balen-o</b>, whale.<br> +<b>ban-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to bathe.<br> + +<b>banan-o</b>, banana.<br> +<b>bandaĝ-i</b>, to bandage.<br> +<b>bank-o</b>, bank (financial).<br> +<b>bankrot-i</b>, to become bankrupt, fail.<br> +<b>bant-o</b>, bow (of ribbon).<br> +<b>bar-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to bar, to obstruct.<br> +<b>barakt-i</b>, to wrestle, struggle.<br> +<b>barb-o</b>, beard.<br> +<b>barbar-o</b>, barbarian.<br> +<b>barel-o</b>, barrel.<br> +<b>bariton-o</b>, barytone.<br> +<b>bas-o</b>, bass (voice).<br> +<b>baston-o</b>, stick.<br> +<b>bat-i</b>, to beat.<br> +<b>batal-i</b>, to fight, battle.<br> +<b>batat-o</b>, sweet potato.<br> +<b>bedaŭr-i</b>, to regret.<br> +<b>bek-o</b>, beak, bill.<br> +<b>bel-a</b>, beautiful, handsome.<br> +<b>belg-o</b>, Belgian.<br> +<b>ben-i</b>, to bless.<br> +<b>benk-o</b>, bench.<br> +<b>ber-o</b>, berry.<br> +<b>best-o</b>, animal, beast.<br> +<b>bet-o</b>, beet.<br> +<b>bezon-i</b>, to need, want.<br> +<b>bibliotek-o</b>, library.<br> +<b>bicikl-o</b>, bicycle.<br> +<b>bien-o</b>, land, property, estate.<br> +<b>bier-o</b>, beer.<br> +<b>bifstek-o</b>, beefsteak.<br> +<b>bild-o</b>, picture, image.<br> +<b>bilet-o</b>, ticket, note; <b>bank—</b>, bank-note, bill.<br> +<b>bird-o</b>, bird.<br> +<b>bis</b> (<i>adv.</i>), once more, a second time, encore.<br> +<b>biskvit-o</b>, biscuit.<br> +<b>blank-a</b>, white.<br> +<b>blek-i</b>, to neigh, bleat, give its cry (of any animal).<br> +<b>blind-a</b>, blind.<br> +<b>blov-i</b>, to blow.<br> +<b>blu-a</b>, blue (color).<br> +<b>bluz-o</b>, blouse.<br> +<b>bo-</b>, <i>prefix expressing relationship by marriage</i> (<b>277</b>).<br> +<b>boat-o</b>, boat.<br> +<b>boj-i</b>, to bark (of dogs).<br> +<b>bol-i</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), to boil.<br> +<b>bombon-o</b>, bonbon, sweet.<br> +<b>bon-a</b>, good; <b>—veni</b>, to welcome.<br> +<b>bor-i</b>, to bore (holes).<br> +<b>bord-o</b>, shore, bank, edge (of rivers, etc.).<br> +<b>Boston-o</b>, Boston.<br> +<b>bot-o</b>, boot.<br> +<b>botel-o</b>, bottle.<br> +<b>bov-o</b>, ox; <b>—aĵo</b>, beef; <b>—idaĵo</b>, veal; <b>—viro</b>, bull.<br> +<b>brak-o</b>, arm (of the body).<br> +<b>branĉ-o</b>, branch, bough.<br> +<b>brand-o</b>, brandy.<br> + +<b>brasik-o</b>, cabbage; <b>florbrasiko</b>, cauliflower.<br> +<b>brav-a</b>, brave.<br> +<b>bret-o</b>, shelf, bracket.<br> +<b>brid-o</b>, bridle (of harness).<br> +<b>brik-o</b>, brick, tile.<br> +<b>bril-i</b>, to shine (<b>116</b>).<br> +<b>Brit-o</b>, Briton.<br> +<b>brod-i</b>, to embroider.<br> +<b>bronz-o</b>, bronze.<br> +<b>bros-i</b>, to brush.<br> +<b>broŝur-o</b>, pamphlet, brochure.<br> +<b>brov-o</b>, eyebrow.<br> +<b>bru-o</b>, noise.<br> +<b>brul-i</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), to burn (<b>275</b>).<br> +<b>brun-a</b>, brown.<br> +<b>brut-o</b>, cattle, dumb animal.<br> +<b>bub-o</b>, street arab, gamin.<br> +<b>buĉ-i</b>, to slaughter, butcher.<br> +<b>buf-o</b>, toad.<br> +<b>buk-o</b>, buckle (metal).<br> +<b>buked-o</b>, bouquet.<br> +<b>bukl-o</b>, curl, ringlet (of hair).<br> +<b>bulb-o</b>, onion, bulb.<br> +<b>bulgar-o</b>, Bulgarian.<br> +<b>bulk-o</b>, roll (bread).<br> +<b>bulvard-o</b>, boulevard.<br> +<b>burĝon-o</b>, bud, young shoot.<br> +<b>buŝ-o</b>, mouth.<br> +<b>buter-o</b>, butter.<br> +<b>butik-o</b>, shop, store.<br> +<b>buton-o</b>, button.<br> + +<p><b>C.</b></p> + +<b>cel-i</b>, to aim, have as purpose or goal.<br> +<b>celeri-o</b>, celery.<br> +<b>cend-o</b>, cent (coin).<br> +<b>cent</b>, hundred (<b>142</b>).<br> +<b>centigram-o</b>, centigram (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>centilitr-o</b>, centiliter (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>centimetr-o</b>, centimeter (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>centr-o</b>, center.<br> +<b>cerb-o</b>, brain.<br> +<b>cert-a</b>, certain, sure.<br> +<b>cerv-o</b>, stag, deer.<br> +<b>ceter-a</b>, remaining.<br> +<b>ci</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), thou (<b>40</b>).<br> +<b>cidoni-o</b>, quince.<br> +<b>cifer-o</b>, cipher.<br> +<b>cigar-o</b>, cigar.<br> +<b>cigared-o</b>, cigarette.<br> +<b>cign-o</b>, swan.<br> +<b>cilindr-o</b>, cylinder.<br> +<b>cinam-o</b>, cinnamon.<br> +<b>cindr-o</b>, ashes.<br> +<b>cir-o</b>, blacking (for shoes).<br> +<b>cirkonstanc-o</b>, circumstance.<br> +<b>cirkuler-o</b>, circular (letter).<br> +<b>Cirus-o</b>, Cyrus.<br> +<b>cit-i</b>, to quote.<br> +<b>citron-o</b>, lemon.<br> +<b>civiliz-i</b>, to civilize.<br> +<b>col-o</b>, inch (measure).<br> + +<p><b>Ĉ.</b></p> + +<b>ĉagren-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to grieve, vex, annoy.<br> +<b>ĉambr-o</b>, room.<br> +<b>ĉap-o</b>, cap.<br> +<b>ĉapel-o</b>, hat.<br> +<b>ĉapitr-o</b>, chapter (of book).<br> +<b>ĉar</b> (<i>conj.</i>), because, since (<b>83</b>).<br> +<b>ĉarm-a</b>, charming, delightful.<br> +<b>ĉarnir-o</b>, hinge.<br> +<b>ĉas-i</b>, to hunt (game or wild animals).<br> +<b>ĉe</b> (<i>prep.</i>), at, in the house or presence of (<b>125, 160</b>).<br> +<b>ĉef-a</b>, chief, principal, head.<br> +<b>ĉek-o</b>, cheque.<br> +<b>ĉemiz-o</b>, shirt, chemise.<br> +<b>ĉen-o</b>, chain (for watch, etc.).<br> +<b>ĉeriz-o</b>, cherry.<br> +<b>ĉes-i</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), to cease, leave off (<b>275</b>).<br> +<b>ĉeval-o</b>, horse; <b>—viro</b>, stallion.<br> +<b>ĉi</b> (<i>adv.</i>), <i>expresses proximity</i> (<b>60, 66</b>).<br> +<b>ĉia</b>, of every kind (<b>177</b>).<br> +<b>ĉial</b> (<i>adv.</i>), for every reason (<b>188</b>).<br> +<b>ĉiam</b> (<i>adv.</i>), always (<b>187</b>).<br> +<b>ĉie</b> (<i>adv.</i>), everywhere (<b>182</b>).<br> +<b>ĉiel</b> (<i>adv.</i>), in every way (<b>193</b>).<br> +<b>ĉiel-o</b>, heaven, sky.<br> +<b>ĉies</b> (<i>pronoun, possessive</i>), everybody's (<b>174</b>).<br> +<b>ĉifon-o</b>, rag.<br> +<b>ĉio</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), everything, all (<b>233</b>).<br> +<b>ĉiom</b> (<i>adv.</i>), all (<b>194</b>).<br> +<b>ĉirkaŭ</b> (<i>prep.</i>), around, roundabout (<b>89, 120, 159, 160</b>).<br> +<b>ĉiu</b> (<i>pronoun and adj.</i>), every one, each (<b>173</b>).<br> +<b>-ĉj-</b>, <i>suffix forming affectionate diminutives</i> (<b>283</b>).<br> +<b>ĉokolad-o</b>, chocolate.<br> +<b>ĉu</b> (<i>adv.</i>), whether (<i>when translated</i>) (<b>30, 66</b>).<br> + +<p><b>D.</b></p> + +<b>da</b> (<i>prep.</i>), of (<i>after quantitative noun or adv.</i>) (<b>99, 101, 103</b>).<br> +<b>daktil-o</b>, date (fruit).<br> +<b>Damokl-o</b>, Damocles.<br> +<b>dan-o</b>, Dane.<br> +<b>danc-i</b>, to dance.<br> +<b>danĝer-o</b>, danger.<br> +<b>dank-i</b>, to thank.<br> +<b>dat-o</b>, date (chronological).<br> +<b>daŭr-i</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), to continue, last.<br> +<b>de</b> (<i>prep.</i>), of, from, by (49, 89, l00, 160, 169, 170).<br> +<b>dec-i</b>, to be proper, decent; <b>ne decas ke vi iru</b>, it is not proper for you to go.<br> +<b>decembr-o</b>, December.<br> +<b>decid-i</b>, to decide.<br> +<b>decigram-o</b>, decigram (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>decilitr-o</b>, deciliter (<b>284</b>).<br> + +<b>decimetr-o</b>, decimeter (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>defend-i</b>, to defend.<br> +<b>degel-i</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), to thaw (<b>275</b>).<br> +<b>deĵor-i</b>, to be on duty (of officer, attendant, etc.).<br> +<b>dek</b> (<i>adj.</i>), ten (<b>136</b>).<br> +<b>dekagram-o</b>, dekagram (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>dekalitr-o</b>, dekaliter (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>dekametr-o</b>, dekameter (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>deklam-i</b>, to declaim, recite.<br> +<b>dekstr-a</b>, right (not left).<br> +<b>deleg-i</b>, to delegate.<br> +<b>delikat-a</b>, delicate, dainty, nice.<br> +<b>demand-i</b>, to ask, inquire.<br> +<b>dens-a</b>, dense, thick, close.<br> +<b>dent-o</b>, tooth.<br> +<b>depeŝ-o</b>, a dispatch.<br> +<b>des</b> (<i>adv.</i>), the more (<i>used with</i> pli, 84).<br> +<b>desert-o</b>, dessert.<br> +<b>detal-o</b>, detail.<br> +<b>detru-i</b>, to destroy.<br> +<b>dev-i</b>, to have to, must (<b>247</b>).<br> +<b>dezert-o</b>, desert, waste.<br> +<b>dezir-i</b>, to desire.<br> +<b>Di-o</b>, God.<br> +<b>diamant-o</b>, diamond.<br> +<b>difekt-i</b>, to damage, spoil.<br> +<b>diferenc-a</b>, different.<br> +<b>difin-i</b>, to define, to destine.<br> +<b>dik-a</b>, thick, corpulent.<br> +<b>dikt-i</b>, to dictate (letters, etc.)<br> +<b>diligent-a</b>, diligent.<br> +<b>dimanĉ-o</b>, Sunday.<br> +<b>dimensi-o</b>, dimension.<br> +<b>Diogen-o</b>, Diogenes.<br> +<b>diplom-o</b>, diploma.<br> +<b>diplomat-o</b>, diplomat.<br> +<b>dir-i</b>, to say (<b>77</b>).<br> +<b>direkt-i</b>, to direct, guide, manage.<br> +<b>dis-</b>, <i>prefix expressing separation</i> (<b>245</b>).<br> +<b>diskut-i</b>, to discuss.<br> +<b>distanc-o</b>, distance.<br> +<b>disting-i</b>, to distinguish.<br> +<b>distr-i</b>, to distract, take away the attention.<br> +<b>diven-i</b>, to guess.<br> +<b>divers-a</b>, varied, diverse, different.<br> +<b>divid-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to divide.<br> +<b>do</b>, consequently, then, so.<br> +<b>doktor-o</b>, doctor.<br> +<b>dolar-o</b>, dollar.<br> +<b>dolĉ-a</b>, sweet, pleasant.<br> +<b>dolor-o</b>, pain, ache.<br> +<b>dom-o</b>, house.<br> +<b>domaĝ-o</b>, pity, regrettable affair.<br> +<b>don-i</b>, to give.<br> +<b>donac-i</b>, to make a gift, present.<br> +<b>dorlot-i</b>, to caress, fondle, pet.<br> +<b>dorm-i</b>, to sleep.<br> +<b>dorn-o</b>, thorn.<br> +<b>dors-o</b>, back (of the body).<br> +<b>dot-i</b>, to endow.<br> + +<b>drap-o</b>, cloth.<br> +<b>drog-o</b>, drug.<br> +<b>dron-i</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), to drown (<b>275</b>).<br> +<b>du</b> (<i>adj.</i>), two (<b>136</b>)<br> +<b>dub-i</b>, to doubt.<br> +<b>dum</b> (<i>prep and conj.</i>), during, while (<b>96, 120, 159</b>).<br> +<b>dung-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to hire (persons).<br> + +<p><b>E.</b></p> + +<b>eben-a</b>, even, flat, level.<br> +<b>-ebl-</b>, <i>suffix expressing possibility</i> (<b>161, 162</b>).<br> +<b>ebri-a</b>, inebriate, intoxicated.<br> +<b>-ec-</b>, <i>suffix forming abstracts</i> (<b>202</b>).<br> +<b>eĉ</b> (<i>adv.</i>), even.<br> +<b>eduk-i</b>, to bring up, educate.<br> +<b>edz-o</b>, husband, married man.<br> +<b>efekt-o</b>, effect.<br> +<b>efektiv-a</b>, real, actual.<br> +<b>efik-i</b>, to be efficacious, act (on), produce a result.<br> +<b>-eg-</b>, <i>suffix forming augmentatives</i> (<b>122</b>).<br> +<b>egal-a</b>, equal.<br> +<b>Egipt-o</b>, Egypt.<br> +<b>eĥ-o</b>, echo.<br> +<b>-ej-</b>, <i>suffix forming words indicating place</i> (<b>III</b>).<br> +<b>ek-</b>, <i>prefix expressing suddenness or beginning</i> (<b>206</b>).<br> +<b>eks-</b>, <i>prefix expressing former incumbency</i> (<b>281</b>).<br> +<b>ekscit-i</b>, to excite.<br> +<b>eksperiment-i</b>, to experiment.<br> +<b>eksplod-i</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), to explode.<br> +<b>ekster</b> (<i>prep.</i>), outside of (<b>120, 121</b>).<br> +<b>ekzamen-i</b>, to examine, test.<br> +<b>ekzempl-o</b>, example.<br> +<b>ekzempler-o</b>, copy (of book or magazine).<br> +<b>ekzerc-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to exercise.<br> +<b>ekzil-i</b>, to exile, banish<br> +<b>ekzist-i</b>, to exist.<br> +<b>el</b> (<i>prep.</i>), out of, of, out (75, 106, 138, 197, 264, c).<br> +<b>elekt-i</b>, to choose.<br> +<b>elektr-a</b>, electric.<br> +<b>elokvent-a</b>, eloquent.<br> +<b>-em-</b>, <i>suffix expressing propensity or inclination</i> (<b>192</b>).<br> +<b>eminent-a</b>, eminent.<br> +<b>en</b> (<i>prep.</i>), in (<b>89,160</b>), into (<b>46</b>).<br> +<b>energi-o</b>, energy.<br> +<b>entrepren-i</b>, to undertake.<br> +<b>entuziasm-o</b>, enthusiasm.<br> +<b>enu-i</b>, to be wearied, be bored.<br> +<b>envi-i</b>, to envy.<br> +<b>epok-o</b>, epoch, period, time.<br> +<b>-er-</b>, <i>suffix expressing a component part</i> (<b>276</b>).<br> +<b>erar-i</b>, to err, make a mistake.<br> +<b>escept-i</b>, to except (<b>266</b>).<br> +<b>esper-i</b>, to hope.<br> + +<b>esplor-i</b>, to investigate, explore.<br> +<b>esprim-i</b>, to express.<br> +<b>est-i</b>, to be (<b>109</b>).<br> +<b>establ-i</b>, to establish.<br> +<b>estim-i</b>, to esteem.<br> +<b>esting-i</b>, to extinguish.<br> +<b>-estr-</b>, <i>suffix expressing leadership or authority</i> (<b>253</b>).<br> +<b>-et-</b>, <i>suffix forming diminutives</i> (<b>198</b>).<br> +<b>etaĝ-o</b>, story (of a house); teretaĝo, ground floor; unua etaĝo, second story.<br> +<b>etend-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to extend, lengthen, widen.<br> +<b>etern-a</b>, eternal.<br> +<b>Eŭrop-o</b>, Europe.<br> +<b>evangeli-o</b>, gospel, evangel.<br> +<b>evit-i</b>, to avoid, shun.<br> +<b>evoluci-o</b>, evolution.<br> + +<p><b>F.</b></p> + +<b>fab-o</b>, bean (leguminous fruit).<br> +<b>fabel-o</b>, story, tale.<br> +<b>fabl-o</b>, fable.<br> +<b>fabrik-i</b>, to manufacture.<br> +<b>facil-a</b>, easy.<br> +<b>faden-o</b>, thread.<br> +<b>fajf-i</b>, to whistle.<br> +<b>fajr-o</b>, fire.<br> +<b>fak-o</b>, department, specialty.<br> +<b>fakt-o</b>, fact.<br> +<b>fal-i</b>, to fall.<br> +<b>fald-i</b>, to fold.<br> +<b>fals-i</b>, to falsify, forge, debase.<br> +<b>fam-o</b>, fame, renown, rumor.<br> +<b>famili-o</b>, family.<br> +<b>familiar-a</b>, familiar, accustomed.<br> +<b>fand-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to smelt, fuse (metals, etc.).<br> +<b>fanfaron-i</b>, to boast, vaunt oneself, brag.<br> +<b>fantom-o</b>, phantom, ghost.<br> +<b>far-i</b>, to make, do, render.<br> +<b>faraon-o</b>, pharaoh (Egyptian ruler).<br> +<b>farm-i</b>, to farm (as a tenant).<br> +<b>farmaci-o</b>, pharmacy (knowledge of the use of drugs).<br> +<b>fart-i</b>, to be in (good or bad) health.<br> +<b>farun-o</b>, flour.<br> +<b>fask-o</b>, bundle, bunch.<br> +<b>fason-o</b>, cut, mode, fashion.<br> +<b>fatal-a</b>, fatal, predestined.<br> +<b>faŭk-o</b>, jaw (literal and figurative).<br> +<b>favor-a</b>, favorable.<br> +<b>fazeol-o</b>, bean (garden bean).<br> +<b>fe-o</b>, fairy, fay; <b>—ino</b>, fairy.<br> +<b>febr-o</b>, fever.<br> +<b>februar-o</b>, February.<br> +<b>fel-o</b>, skin, hide (of animals).<br> +<b>feliĉ-a</b>, happy.<br> +<b>femur-o</b>, thigh.<br> +<b>fend-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to split.<br> +<b>fenestr-o</b>, window.<br> + +<b>fer-o</b>, iron; <b>—vojo</b>, railway.<br> +<b>ferdek-o</b>, deck (of ship).<br> +<b>ferm-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to close, shut.<br> +<b>fervor-o</b>, zeal, fervor.<br> +<b>fest-i</b>, to celebrate.<br> +<b>festen-o</b>, banquet.<br> +<b>fi</b> (<i>interjection</i>), fie! (<b>273</b>).<br> +<b>fiakr-o</b>, cab.<br> +<b>fianĉ-o</b>, betrothed man, fiance.<br> +<b>fid-i</b>, to rely upon, trust.<br> +<b>fidel-a</b>, faithful, loyal.<br> +<b>fier-a</b>, proud, haughty.<br> +<b>fil-o</b>, son.<br> +<b>filozof-o</b>, philosopher.<br> +<b>fin-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to finish, end.<br> +<b>fingr-o</b>, finger; <b>dika fingro</b>, thumb; <b>montra fingro</b>, index finger; <b>longa fingro</b>, middle finger; <b>ringa fingro</b>, ring-finger; <b>malgranda fingro</b>, little finger.<br> +<b>firm-a</b>, firm, steady.<br> +<b>fiŝ-o</b>, fish.<br> +<b>fizik-o</b>, physics, physical science.<br> +<b>flag-o</b>, flag, banner, small standard.<br> +<b>flank-o</b>, side.<br> +<b>flar-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to smell, scent.<br> +<b>flav-a</b>, yellow.<br> +<b>fleks-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to bend, flex.<br> +<b>flik-i</b>, to patch.<br> +<b>flor-o</b>, flower (<b>116</b>).<br> +<b>flu-i</b>, to flow.<br> +<b>flug-i</b>, to fly.<br> +<b>fluid-a</b>, fluid, liquid.<br> +<b>foj-o</b>, time, occasion (<b>127</b>).<br> +<b>fojn-o</b>, hay.<br> +<b>fokus-o</b>, focus.<br> +<b>foli-o</b>, leaf.<br> +<b>fond-i</b>, to found, establish.<br> +<b>font-o</b>, spring (of water), fount.<br> +<b>fontan-o</b>, fountain (artificial).<br> +<b>for</b> (<i>adv.</i>), away (<b>71</b>).<br> +<b>forges-i</b>, to forget.<br> +<b>fork-o</b>, fork.<br> +<b>form-o</b>, shape, form.<br> +<b>formik-o</b>, ant.<br> +<b>forn-o</b>, stove.<br> +<b>fort-a</b>, strong.<br> +<b>fos-i</b>, to dig.<br> +<b>fotograf-i</b>, to photograph<br> +<b>frag-o</b>, strawberry.<br> +<b>frak-o</b>, evening dress (for men).<br> +<b>frakas-i</b>, to shatter, break to pieces.<br> +<b>framb-o</b>, raspberry.<br> +<b>franc-o</b>, Frenchman.<br> +<b>frand-i</b>, to be fond of sweets, be an epicure.<br> +<b>franĝ-o</b>, fringe.<br> +<b>frap-i</b>, to knock, strike.<br> +<b>frat-o</b>, brother.<br> +<b>fraŭl-o</b>, bachelor, unmarried man.<br> +<b>fraz-o</b>, sentence, phrase.<br> +<b>Frederik-o</b>, Frederick.<br> + +<b>fremd-a</b>, foreign.<br> +<b>frenez-a</b>, crazy, mad.<br> +<b>freŝ-a</b>, fresh, new.<br> +<b>fripon-o</b>, rogue, rascal, knave.<br> +<b>frit-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to fry.<br> +<b>fromaĝ-o</b>, cheese.<br> +<b>frost-o</b>, frost.<br> +<b>frot-i</b>, to rub.<br> +<b>fru-a</b>, early.<br> +<b>frukt-o</b>, fruit.<br> +<b>frunt-o</b>, forehead.<br> +<b>fulm-o</b>, lightning.<br> +<b>fum-i</b>, to smoke.<br> +<b>fund-o</b>, bottom.<br> +<b>fundament-o</b>, foundation, base.<br> +<b>funebr-o</b>, mourning.<br> +<b>fung-o</b>, mushroom.<br> +<b>funkci-i</b>, to function, work.<br> +<b>funt-o</b>, pound.<br> +<b>furioz-a</b>, furious, raging.<br> +<b>fuŝ-i</b>, to bungle.<br> +<b>fut-o</b>, foot (measure).<br> + +<p><b>G.</b></p> + +<b>gaj-a</b>, gay, merry.<br> +<b>gajn-i</b>, to gain.<br> +<b>galeri-o</b>, gallery.<br> +<b>galop-i</b>, to gallop.<br> +<b>gant-o</b>, glove.<br> +<b>gard-i</b>, to guard, watch over.<br> +<b>gas-o</b>, gas.<br> +<b>gast-o</b>, guest.<br> +<b>gazet-o</b>, gazette, magazine.<br> +<b>ge-</b>, <i>prefix indicating both sexes together</i> (<b>271</b>).<br> +<b>general-o</b>, general (military).<br> +<b>genu-o</b>, knee; <b>—fleksi</b>, to kneel.<br> +<b>geometri-o</b>, geometry.<br> +<b>german-o</b>, German.<br> +<b>Gertrud-o</b>, Gertrude.<br> +<b>giĉet-o</b>, wicket, ticket-window, turnstile.<br> +<b>girland-o</b>, garland, wreath.<br> +<b>glaci-o</b>, ice; <b>—aĵo</b>, an ice (food).<br> +<b>glad-i</b>, to iron (linen, etc.).<br> +<b>glas-o</b>, tumbler, glass.<br> +<b>glat-a</b>, smooth, polished, flat.<br> +<b>glav-o</b>, sword.<br> +<b>glit-i</b>, to glide, slide.<br> +<b>glob-o</b>, globe.<br> +<b>glor-o</b>, glory.<br> +<b>glu-o</b>, glue.<br> +<b>glut-i</b>, to swallow.<br> +<b>gorĝ-o</b>, throat.<br> +<b>graci-a</b>, graceful.<br> +<b>grad-o</b>, grade, degree.<br> +<b>graf-o</b>, count; <b>—lando</b>, county.<br> +<b>gram-o</b>, gram (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>gramatik-o</b>, grammar.<br> +<b>grand-a</b>, great, large, big.<br> +<b>gras-o</b>, fat.<br> +<b>gratul-i</b>, to congratulate.<br> +<b>grav-a</b>, important, serious, grave.<br> +<b>gravit-i</b>, to gravitate.<br> +<b>grek-o</b>, Greek.<br> + +<b>gren-o</b>, grain (wheat, corn, etc.).<br> +<b>grimp-i</b>, to climb up, creep up.<br> +<b>grinc-i</b>, to grind, gnash.<br> +<b>griz-a</b>, gray.<br> +<b>grup-o</b>, group.<br> +<b>gurd-o</b>, hurdy-gurdy, barrel organ.<br> +<b>gust-o</b>, taste.<br> +<b>gut-i</b>, to drip.<br> +<b>gvid-i</b>, to guide.<br> + +<p><b>Ĝ.</b></p> + +<b>ĝarden-o</b>, garden.<br> +<b>ĝem-i</b>, to groan.<br> +<b>ĝen-i</b>, to disturb, incommode.<br> +<b>ĝeneral-a</b>, general, common.<br> +<b>ĝentil-a</b>, courteous, polite.<br> +<b>ĝi</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), it (<b>32, 37, 42, 274</b>).<br> +<b>ĝis</b> (<i>prep.</i>), as far as, until (<b>46, 89</b>).<br> +<b>ĝoj-i</b>, to rejoice, be glad (<b>116</b>).<br> +<b>ĝu-i</b>, to enjoy, find pleasure in.<br> +<b>ĝust-a</b>, exact, just.<br> + +<p><b>H.</b></p> + +<b>hajl-o</b>, hail (frozen rain).<br> +<b>hak-i</b>, to chop, hack; <b>—ilo</b>, axe.<br> +<b>halt-i</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), to halt, stop.<br> +<b>har-o</b>, a hair.<br> +<b>haŭt-o</b>, skin (human).<br> +<b>hav-i</b>, to have.<br> +<b>haven-o</b>, harbor, port.<br> +<b>hazard-o</b>, chance, hazard.<br> +<b>hebre-o</b>, Hebrew.<br> +<b>hejm-o</b>, home.<br> +<b>hejt-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to heat (a place).<br> +<b>hektar-o</b>, hektare (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>hektogram-o</b>, hektogram (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>hektolitr-o</b>, hektoliter (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>hektometr-o</b>, hektometer (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>hel-a</b>, bright, clear.<br> +<b>help-i</b>, to help, aid, assist.<br> +<b>herb-o</b>, grass, herb.<br> +<b>hero-o</b>, hero.<br> +<b>hezit-i</b>, to hesitate.<br> +<b>hieraŭ</b> (<i>adv.</i>), yesterday (<b>93, 171</b>).<br> +<b>Hieron-o</b>, Hiero.<br> +<b>hipokrit-i</b>, to play the hypocrite.<br> +<b>hirund-o</b>, swallow (bird).<br> +<b>hispan-o</b>, Spaniard.<br> +<b>histori-o</b>, history.<br> +<b>ho</b> (<i>interjection</i>), ho, oh (<b>273</b>).<br> +<b>hodiaŭ</b> (<i>adv.</i>), today (<b>93, 171</b>).<br> +<b>Holand-o</b>, Holland.<br> +<b>hom-o</b>, human being.<br> +<b>honest-a</b>, honest.<br> +<b>honor-i</b>, to honor.<br> +<b>hont-i</b>, to be ashamed.<br> +<b>hor-o</b>, hour (<b>185</b>).<br> +<b>horizont-o</b>, horizon.<br> +<b>horizontal-a</b>, horizontal.<br> +<b>horloĝ-o</b>, clock; poŝhorloĝo, watch.<br> + +<b>hotel-o</b>, hotel.<br> +<b>humil-a</b>, humble.<br> +<b>humor-o</b>, humor, temper.<br> +<b>hund-o</b>, dog.<br> +<b>hura!</b> (<i>interjection</i>), hurrah!<br> + +<p><b>Ĥ.</b></p> + +<b>ĥemi-o</b>, chemistry.<br> +<b>ĥin-o</b>, Chinaman.<br> +<b>ĥor-o</b>, choir.<br> + +<p><b>I.</b></p> + +<b>ia</b>, any kind of (<b>208</b>).<br> +<b>ial</b> (<i>adv.</i>), for any reason (<b>213</b>).<br> +<b>iam</b> (<i>adv.</i>), ever, at any time, once (<b>212</b>).<br> +<b>-id-</b>, <i>suffix indicating descendant or young of</i> (<b>207</b>).<br> +<b>ide-o</b>, idea.<br> +<b>ideal-o</b>, ideal.<br> +<b>ident-a</b>, identical.<br> +<b>idiom-o</b>, idiom.<br> +<b>idiot-o</b>, idiot.<br> +<b>ie</b> (<i>adv.</i>), somewhere (<b>209</b>).<br> +<b>iel</b> (<i>adv.</i>), somehow (<b>216</b>).<br> +<b>ies</b> (<i>pronoun, possessive</i>), somebody's (<b>204</b>).<br> +<b>-ig-</b>, <i>suffix forming causative verbs</i> (<b>214, 239, 275</b>).<br> +<b>ignor-i</b>, to ignore.<br> +<b>-iĝ-</b>, <i>suffix forming inchoative and intransitive verbs</i> (<b>232, 239, 279</b>).<br> +<b>-il-</b>, <i>suffix forming names of instruments</i> (<b>63</b>).<br> +<b>ili</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), they (<b>32, 37, 42</b>).<br> +<b>ilustr-i</b>, to illustrate.<br> +<b>iluzi-o</b>, illusion, delusion.<br> +<b>imag-i</b>, to imagine, fancy.<br> +<b>imit-i</b>, to imitate.<br> +<b>imperi-o</b>, empire.<br> +<b>implik-i</b>, to implicate.<br> +<b>impost-o</b>, tax, impost.<br> +<b>impres-i</b>, to impress.<br> +<b>impuls-o</b>, impulse.<br> +<b>-in-</b>, <i>suffix forming feminines</i> (<b>59</b>).<br> +<b>incit-i</b>, to incite, arouse, provoke.<br> +<b>-ind-</b>, <i>suffix expressing worth or merit</i> (<b>154</b>).<br> +<b>indian-o</b>, Indian (American).<br> +<b>indiferent-a</b>, indifferent, unconcerned, unimportant.<br> +<b>industri-o</b>, industry (trade, business).<br> +<b>infan-o</b>, child.<br> +<b>infekt-i</b>, to infect, contaminate.<br> +<b>influ-i</b>, to influence.<br> +<b>inform-i</b>, to give information.<br> +<b>-ing-</b>, <i>suffix expressing a holder or container</i> (<b>237</b>).<br> +<b>inĝenier-o</b>, engineer.<br> +<b>ink-o</b>, ink.<br> +<b>insekt-o</b>, insect.<br> +<b>insist-i</b>, to insist.<br> +<b>inspir-i</b>, to inspire.<br> +<b>instru-i</b>, to instruct, teach.<br> + +<b>insul-o</b>, island.<br> +<b>insult-i</b>, to insult.<br> +<b>inteligent-a</b>, intelligent.<br> +<b>intend-i</b>, to intend.<br> +<b>inter</b> (<i>prep.</i>), between, among (<b>85, 89, 160</b>).<br> +<b>interes-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to interest.<br> +<b>intermit-i</b>, to be intermittent.<br> +<b>intern-a</b>, internal; <b>—e</b>, inside.<br> +<b>interpret-i</b>, to interpret.<br> +<b>intim-a</b>, intimate.<br> +<b>invit-i</b>, to invite.<br> +<b>io</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), something (<b>233</b>).<br> +<b>iom</b> (<i>adv.</i>), some, a certain amount; iom post iom, little by little (<b>217</b>).<br> +<b>ir-i</b>, to go.<br> +<b>-ist-</b>, <i>suffix indicating profession, etc.</i> (<b>172</b>).<br> +<b>ital-o</b>, Italian.<br> +<b>iu</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), some one, a certain (one) (<b>203</b>).<br> + +<p><b>J.</b></p> + +<b>ja</b> (<i>adv.</i>), indeed, in fact (<b>215</b>).<br> +<b>jak-o</b>, jacket, short coat.<br> +<b>jam</b> (<i>adv.</i>), already.<br> +<b>januar-o</b>, January.<br> +<b>jar-o</b>, year.<br> +<b>je</b>, <i>prep. of indefinite meaning</i> (<b>89, 185, 260</b>).<br> +<b>jen</b> (<i>adv.</i>), there, behold (<b>228</b>).<br> +<b>jes</b> (<i>adv.</i>), yes (<b>171</b>).<br> +<b>Jesu-o</b>, Jesus.<br> +<b>Johano</b>, John.<br> +<b>ju</b> (<i>adv.</i>), the more (<i>used with</i> pli, 84).<br> +<b>jug-o</b>, yoke.<br> +<b>juĝ-i</b>, to judge.<br> +<b>juli-o</b>, July.<br> +<b>jun-a</b>, young.<br> +<b>jung-i</b>, to harness.<br> +<b>juni-o</b>, June.<br> +<b>jup-o</b>, skirt.<br> +<b>jurist-o</b>, jurist.<br> +<b>just-a</b>, just, upright.<br> +<b>juvel-o</b>, jewel.<br> + +<p><b>Ĵ.</b></p> + +<b>ĵaluz-a</b>, jealous.<br> +<b>ĵaŭd-o</b>, Thursday.<br> +<b>ĵet-i</b>, to throw, cast, hurl.<br> +<b>ĵongl-i</b>, to juggle.<br> +<b>ĵur-i</b>, to take oath, swear.<br> +<b>ĵurnal-o</b>, newspaper, journal.<br> +<b>ĵus</b> (<i>adv.</i>), a moment before, just.<br> + +<p><b>K.</b></p> + +<b>kadavr-o</b>, corpse.<br> +<b>kadr-o</b>, frame (of pictures).<br> +<b>kaduk-a</b>, decaying, in ruin.<br> +<b>kaf-o</b>, coffee.<br> +<b>kaĝ-o</b>, cage.<br> + +<b>kahel-o</b>, tile (for paving).<br> +<b>kaj</b> (<i>conj.</i>), and; kaj..kaj.., both..and.. (<b>26</b>).<br> +<b>kajer-o</b>, notebook.<br> +<b>kaldron-o</b>, caldron.<br> +<b>kalendar-o</b>, calendar.<br> +<b>kaleŝ-o</b>, carriage.<br> +<b>kalkan-o</b>, heel (of the foot); <b>—umo</b>, heel of a shoe.<br> +<b>kalkul-i</b>, to calculate, reckon.<br> +<b>kamel-o</b>, camel.<br> +<b>kamen-o</b>, chimney.<br> +<b>kamer-o</b>, camera.<br> +<b>kamp-o</b>, field.<br> +<b>kanajl-o</b>, scoundrel, rascal.<br> +<b>kanap-o</b>, sofa.<br> +<b>kand-o</b>, candy.<br> +<b>kandel-o</b>, candle.<br> +<b>kanot-o</b>, canoe.<br> +<b>kant-i</b>, to sing.<br> +<b>kap-o</b>, head.<br> +<b>kapabl-a</b>, capable.<br> +<b>kapel-o</b>, chapel (for prayer).<br> +<b>kapital-o</b>, capital (money).<br> +<b>kapitol-o</b>, capitol.<br> +<b>kapt-i</b>, to catch, seize.<br> +<b>kar-a</b>, dear, prized.<br> +<b>karakter-o</b>, character.<br> +<b>karb-o</b>, coal.<br> +<b>karcer-o</b>, jail.<br> +<b>kares-i</b>, to caress.<br> +<b>karn-o</b>, flesh.<br> +<b>karot-o</b>, carrot.<br> +<b>kart-o</b>, card; poŝtkarto, postcard; vizitkarto, visiting card.<br> +<b>karton-o</b>, pasteboard.<br> +<b>karusel-o</b>, merry-go-round.<br> +<b>kas-o</b>, money-box, treasury; <b>—isto</b>, cashier, treasurer.<br> +<b>kaskad-o</b>, waterfall, cascade.<br> +<b>kastel-o</b>, castle.<br> +<b>kaŝ-i</b>, to hide, conceal (<b>252</b>).<br> +<b>kaŝtan-o</b>, chestnut.<br> +<b>kat-o</b>, cat.<br> +<b>katen-o</b>, fetter, chain.<br> +<b>kaŭz-o</b>, cause.<br> +<b>kav-o</b>, cavity, hole.<br> +<b>kaz-o</b>, case (grammatical).<br> +<b>ke</b> (<i>conj.</i>), that (<b>53, 83, 105, 259, 262</b>).<br> +<b>kel-o</b>, cellar.<br> +<b>kelk-a</b>, some; <b>—aj</b>, several, more than one or two.<br> +<b>kelner-o</b>, waiter (in hotel or restaurant).<br> +<b>kest-o</b>, chest; tirkesto, drawer.<br> +<b>kia</b>, what kind of (<b>112, 150</b>); kiamanier-e, how.<br> +<b>kial</b> (<i>adv.</i>), why (<b>129</b>).<br> +<b>kiam</b> (<i>adv.</i>), when (<b>123, 155</b>).<br> +<b>kie</b> (<i>adv.</i>), where (<b>118, 151</b>).<br> +<b>kiel</b> (<i>adv.</i>), how, in which way, as (<b>134, 156</b>).<br> +<b>kies</b> (<i>pronoun, possessive</i>), whose (<b>107, 147</b>).<br> +<b>kilogram-o</b>, kilogram (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>kilolitr-o</b>, kiloliter (<b>284</b>).<br> + +<b>kilometr-o</b>, kilometer (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>kio</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), what (<b>233</b>).<br> +<b>kiom</b> (<i>adv.</i>), how much (<b>140, 164, 185</b>).<br> +<b>kis-i</b>, to kiss.<br> +<b>kiu</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), who (<b>106, 146</b>).<br> +<b>klak-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to clap, clatter.<br> +<b>klar-a</b>, clear, distinct.<br> +<b>klav-o</b>, key (of piano, etc.).<br> +<b>klas-o</b>, class.<br> +<b>kler-a</b>, enlightened, well-in-formed.<br> +<b>klimat-o</b>, climate.<br> +<b>klin-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to incline, bend.<br> +<b>kling-o</b>, blade (of knife, etc.).<br> +<b>klopod-i</b>, to undertake initiative work, take steps toward, labor for the success or completion of something.<br> +<b>klub-o</b>, club (organization)<br> +<b>knab-o</b>, boy.<br> +<b>kobold-o</b>, sprite, kobold, brownie.<br> +<b>kofr-o</b>, trunk, chest with a lid.<br> +<b>kok-o</b>, cock (domestic fowl).<br> +<b>koket-a</b>, coquettish.<br> +<b>koks-o</b>, hip.<br> +<b>kol-o</b>, neck.<br> +<b>kolbas-o</b>, sausage.<br> +<b>kolegi-o</b>, college.<br> +<b>kolekt-i</b> (trans.), to collect, gather.<br> +<b>koler-i</b>, to be angry, lose the temper.<br> +<b>kolomb-o</b>, pigeon, dove.<br> +<b>kolon-o</b>, column, pillar.<br> +<b>kolonel-o</b>, colonel.<br> +<b>kolor-o</b>, color.<br> +<b>kolport-i</b>, to peddle.<br> +<b>komand-i</b>, to command (military and naval).<br> +<b>komb-i</b>, to comb.<br> +<b>komedi-o</b>, comedy.<br> +<b>komenc-i</b> (trans.), to begin, commence.<br> +<b>komerc-i</b>, to trade, engage in commerce.<br> +<b>komfort-o</b>, comfort (freedom from pain, want, etc.).<br> +<b>komisi-i</b>, to entrust with, put in charge of, give the agency for.<br> +<b>komitat-o</b>, committee.<br> +<b>komiz-o</b>, clerk, employee, assistant.<br> +<b>kompani-o</b>, company (commercial organization).<br> +<b>kompar-i</b>, (<i>trans.</i>) to compare, (<b>266</b>).<br> +<b>kompat-i</b>, to pity, have compassion for.<br> +<b>komplet-o</b>, suit (of clothes).<br> +<b>komplez-o</b>, kindness, courtesy, disposition to oblige.<br> +<b>komplik-i</b>, to complicate.<br> +<b>kompost-i</b>, to compose, set (type); <b>—isto</b>, compositor.<br> +<b>kompot-o</b>, jam, preserve,<br> +<b>kompren-i</b>, to understand.<br> + +<b>komun-a</b>, common, mutual.<br> +<b>komunik-i</b>, to communicate.<br> +<b>kon-i</b>, to be acquainted with, know; <b>—atiĝi kun</b>, to become acquainted with (<b>117</b>).<br> +<b>koncern-i</b>, to concern (<b>266</b>).<br> +<b>koncert-o</b>, concert (musical).<br> +<b>kondamn-i</b>, to condemn.<br> +<b>kondiĉ-o</b>, terms specified, stipulation, condition.<br> +<b>konduk-i</b>, to conduct, lead.<br> +<b>konduktor-o</b>, conductor (of car, train, etc.).<br> +<b>kondut-i</b>, to behave, conduct oneself.<br> +<b>konfes-i</b>, to confess, admit.<br> +<b>konfid-i</b>, to trust, have confidence in.<br> +<b>konfit-i</b>, to preserve, pickle (fruits, etc.).<br> +<b>konform-i</b>, to be in conformity with (<b>266</b>).<br> +<b>konfuz-i</b>, to confuse, confound.<br> +<b>kongres-o</b>, congress (assembly).<br> +<b>konk-o</b>, shell (of mollusk, etc.).<br> +<b>konkur-i</b>, to vie, compete.<br> +<b>konkurenc-o</b>, competition (in business, etc.).<br> +<b>konkurs-o</b>, prearranged trial of skill, formal competition (for prizes, etc.).<br> +<b>konsci-i</b>, to be conscious.<br> +<b>konscienc-o</b>, conscience.<br> +<b>konsent-i</b>, to consent, agree.<br> +<b>konserv-i</b>, to keep, preserve, save.<br> +<b>konservativ-a</b>, conservative.<br> +<b>konsil-i</b>, to advise, counsel.<br> +<b>konsist-i</b>, to consist.<br> +<b>konsol-i</b>, to console, comfort.<br> +<b>konsonant-o</b>, consonant.<br> +<b>konspir-i</b>, to conspire, plot.<br> +<b>konstant-a</b>, constant.<br> +<b>konstat-i</b>, to verify, ascertain the truth of, certify.<br> +<b>konstituci-o</b>, constitution.<br> +<b>konstru-i</b>, to build.<br> +<b>konsul-o</b>, consul.<br> +<b>konsult-i</b>, to seek advice of, consult.<br> +<b>kont-o</b>, account (book-keeping, commercial).<br> +<b>kontent-a</b>, content, satisfied.<br> +<b>kontinent-o</b>, continent (geographical).<br> +<b>kontrakt-i</b>, to contract, agree.<br> +<b>kontralt-o</b>, contralto.<br> +<b>kontraŭ</b> (<i>prep.</i>), against, opposite, opposed to (<b>159, 160</b>).<br> +<b>kontrol-i</b>, to control, inspect, examine and check.<br> +<b>kontur-o</b>, outline, contour.<br> +<b>kontuz-i</b>, to bruise.<br> +<b>konven-i</b>, to be suitable, be fitting or convenient.<br> +<b>konvink-i</b>, to convince, persuade.<br> +<b>kopi-i</b>, to copy.<br> +<b>kor-o</b>, heart (of the body).<br> +<b>korb-o</b>, basket.<br> + +<b>korekt-i</b>, to correct.<br> +<b>korespond-i</b>, to exchange letters, correspond.<br> +<b>koridor-o</b>, corridor, passage.<br> +<b>kork-o</b>, cork (bark).<br> +<b>korn-o</b>, horn.<br> +<b>korp-o</b>, body, <b>—a</b>, corporeal.<br> +<b>korpus-o</b>, corps (military).<br> +<b>kort-o</b>, courtyard, court.<br> +<b>kortego</b>, court (royal, etc.).<br> +<b>korv-o</b>, raven.<br> +<b>kost-i</b>, to cost.<br> +<b>kostum-o</b>, costume.<br> +<b>kot-o</b>, mud.<br> +<b>kotiz-i</b>, to pay dues, pay one's share of an assessment.<br> +<b>kotlet-o</b>, cutlet, chop.<br> +<b>koton-o</b>, cotton.<br> +<b>kov-i</b>, to brood (of birds).<br> +<b>kovert-o</b>, envelope<br> +<b>kovr-i</b>, to cover.<br> +<b>krab-o</b>, crab.<br> +<b>krad-o</b>, grating, grate, lattice.<br> +<b>krajon-o</b>, pencil.<br> +<b>krak-i</b>, to clack, crackle.<br> +<b>kran-o</b>, faucet, tap.<br> +<b>kravat-o</b>, cravat.<br> +<b>kre-i</b>, to create.<br> +<b>kred-i</b>, to believe (<b>265</b>).<br> +<b>krem-o</b>, cream.<br> +<b>krepusk-o</b>, twilight, half-light of dawn or evening.<br> +<b>kresk-i</b>, to grow.<br> +<b>krestomati-o</b>, chrestomathy, collection of selected passages.<br> +<b>kret-o</b>, chalk.<br> +<b>krev-i</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), to burst, crack open (suddenly and with noise).<br> +<b>kri-i</b>, to cry out.<br> +<b>kribr-i</b>, to sift (with a sieve).<br> +<b>krim-o</b>, crime.<br> +<b>kring-o</b>, ring-shaped biscuit.<br> +<b>kripl-a</b>, crippled.<br> +<b>Krist-o</b>, Christ.<br> +<b>kritik-i</b>, to criticise.<br> +<b>kroĉ-i</b>, to hook.<br> +<b>krom</b> (<i>prep.</i>), beside, aside from, except, save, but.<br> +<b>kron-o</b>, crown.<br> +<b>kruc-o</b>, cross; <b>—umi</b>, to crucify.<br> +<b>kruĉ-o</b>, pitcher, jug; tekruĉo, tea-pot.<br> +<b>kruel-a</b>, cruel.<br> +<b>krur-o</b>, leg.<br> +<b>krust-o</b>, crust.<br> +<b>krut-a</b>, steep.<br> +<b>kubut-o</b>, elbow.<br> +<b>kudr-i</b>, to sew.<br> +<b>kugl-o</b>, bullet.<br> +<b>kuir-i</b>, to cook.<br> +<b>kuk-o</b>, cake; <b>—aĵo</b>, pastry.<br> +<b>kukum-o</b>, cucumber.<br> +<b>kukurb-o</b>, pumpkin.<br> +<b>kuler-o</b>, spoon.<br> +<b>kulp-a</b>, guilty.<br> + +<b>kultur-i</b>, to cultivate; terkulturi, to till the soil, farm.<br> +<b>kun</b> (<i>prep.</i>), with (<b>70, 76, 120, 160, 159</b>).<br> +<b>kunikl-o</b>, rabbit.<br> +<b>kupon-o</b>, coupon.<br> +<b>kupr-o</b>, copper (metal).<br> +<b>kur-i</b>, to run.<br> +<b>kurac-i</b>, to treat for illness, cure; <b>—ato</b>, a patient; <b>—isto</b>, a physician, medical man.<br> +<b>kuraĝ-o</b>, courage.<br> +<b>kurb-o</b>, curve.<br> +<b>kurioz-a</b>, uncommon, curious.<br> +<b>kurs-o</b>, course (of lessons).<br> +<b>kurten-o</b>, curtain.<br> +<b>kusen-o</b>, cushion.<br> +<b>kuŝ-i</b>, to lie, recline (<b>239</b>).<br> +<b>kutim-o</b>, custom, habit.<br> +<b>kuv-o</b>, tub, large basin.<br> +<b>kuz-o</b>, cousin.<br> +<b>kvadrat-o</b>, square (equilateral rectangle).<br> +<b>kvalit-o</b>, quality, texture.<br> +<b>kvankam</b> (<i>conj.</i>), though, although, while (concessive).<br> +<b>kvant-o</b>, quantity, amount.<br> +<b>kvar</b>, (<i>adj.</i>), four (<b>136</b>).<br> +<b>kvartal-o</b>, quarter (of a city).<br> +<b>kvazaŭ</b> (<i>conj.</i>), as though, as if (<b>250</b>).<br> +<b>kverk-o</b>, oak.<br> +<b>kviet-a</b>, calm, quiet.<br> +<b>kvin</b>, (<i>adj.</i>), five (<b>136</b>).<br> +<b>kvitanc-o</b>, receipt (for payment).<br> + +<p><b>L.</b></p> + +<b>la</b> (article), the (<b>II, 47, 201, 280, a</b>).<br> +<b>labor-i</b>, to work, labor.<br> +<b>lac-a</b>, tired, weary.<br> +<b>laĉ-o</b>, string, lace (of shoe, etc.).<br> +<b>lad-o</b>, tin plate (sheet iron covered with tin).<br> +<b>lag-o</b>, lake.<br> +<b>lakt-o</b>, milk.<br> +<b>laktuk-o</b>, lettuce.<br> +<b>lam-a</b>, lame.<br> +<b>lamp-o</b>, lamp.<br> +<b>lan-o</b>, wool.<br> +<b>lanc-o</b>, lance, spear.<br> +<b>land-o</b>, land, country.<br> +<b>lang-o</b>, tongue (of the body).<br> +<b>lantern-o</b>, lantern.<br> +<b>lanug-o</b>, down (hairs, feathers).<br> +<b>lard-o</b>, bacon.<br> +<b>larĝ-a</b>, wide, broad.<br> +<b>larm-o</b>, tear (of the eye).<br> +<b>las-i</b>, (<i>trans.</i>), to leave, let, permit.<br> +<b>last-a</b>, last (in a series).<br> +<b>latin-a</b>, Latin.<br> +<b>laŭ</b> (<i>prep.</i>), in accordance with, along, by (<b>191</b>).<br> +<b>laŭb-o</b>, arbor, summer-house.<br> +<b>laŭd-i</b>, to praise.<br> + +<b>laŭt-a</b>, loud.<br> +<b>lav-i</b>, to wash.<br> +<b>lecion-o</b>, lesson.<br> +<b>led-o</b>, leather.<br> +<b>leg-i</b>, to read.<br> +<b>legom-o</b>, vegetable.<br> +<b>leĝ-o</b>, law.<br> +<b>lek-i</b>, to lick.<br> +<b>leon-o</b>, lion.<br> +<b>lepor-o</b>, hare.<br> +<b>lern-i</b>, to learn.<br> +<b>lert-a</b>, clever, skilful.<br> +<b>leter-o</b>, letter (epistle).<br> +<b>lev-i</b>, to raise, lift.<br> +<b>li</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), he, him (<b>32, 37, 42</b>).<br> +<b>liber-a</b>, free.<br> +<b>libr-o</b>, book.<br> +<b>lig-i</b>, to tie, bind, fasten; <b>—ilo</b>, bond; that which ties or fastens; <b>—aĵo</b>, knot; <b>—o</b>, league, alliance.<br> +<b>lign-o</b>, wood.<br> +<b>lim-o</b>, limit, boundary.<br> +<b>limonad-o</b>, lemonade.<br> +<b>lingv-o</b>, language.<br> +<b>lini-o</b>, line; <b>—ilo</b>, ruler.<br> +<b>lip-o</b>, lip; <b>—haroj</b>, moustache.<br> +<b>lit-o</b>, bed (for sleeping).<br> +<b>liter-o</b>, letter of the alphabet; laŭlitera, literal.<br> +<b>literatur-o</b>, literature.<br> +<b>litr-o</b>, liter (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>liver-i</b>, to deliver, supply, furnish.<br> +<b>log-i</b>, to allure.<br> +<b>loĝ-i</b>, to dwell, reside (<b>133</b>).<br> +<b>lok-o</b>, place; <b>—a</b>, local.<br> +<b>lokomotiv-o</b>, locomotive.<br> +<b>long-a</b>, long.<br> +<b>lonicer-o</b>, honeysuckle.<br> +<b>lorn-o</b>, telescope, spyglass; <b>—eto</b>, opera-glasses.<br> +<b>lu-i</b>, to hire, rent (engage and pay rent for).<br> +<b>lud-i</b>, to play.<br> +<b>luks-o</b>, luxury.<br> +<b>lul-i</b>, to lull to sleep; <b>—ilo</b>, cradle.<br> +<b>lum-i</b>, to shine (<b>275</b>).<br> +<b>lun-o</b>, moon.<br> +<b>lunatik-o</b>, lunatic.<br> +<b>lund-o</b>, Monday.<br> +<b>lup-o</b>, wolf.<br> + +<p><b>M.</b></p> + +<b>maĉ-i</b>, to chew, masticate.<br> +<b>magazen-o</b>, warehouse.<br> +<b>magi-o</b>, magic.<br> +<b>magistr-o</b>, master of arts (A.M.).<br> +<b>maiz-o</b>, maize, Indian corn.<br> +<b>maj-o</b>, May.<br> +<b>majest-a</b>, majestic.<br> +<b>majones-a</b>, mayonnaise.<br> +<b>majstr-o</b>, master (of his art or profession).<br> +<b>makaroni-o</b>, macaroni.<br> +<b>maksimum-o</b>, maximum.<br> + +<b>makul-o</b>, spot, stain.<br> +<b>makzel-o</b>, jaw; <b>—osto</b>, jawbone.<br> +<b>mal-</b>, <i>prefix forming opposites</i> (<b>67</b>).<br> +<b>maleol-o</b>, ankle.<br> +<b>malgraŭ</b> (<i>prep.</i>), notwithstanding.<br> +<b>malic-a</b>, malicious.<br> +<b>man-o</b>, hand.<br> +<b>mandat-o</b>, money-order.<br> +<b>manĝ-i</b>, to eat.<br> +<b>manier-o</b>, manner, way.<br> +<b>manik-o</b>, sleeve.<br> +<b>mank-i</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), to be lacking, wanting.<br> +<b>mantel-o</b>, cloak, mantle.<br> +<b>manuskript-o</b>, manuscript.<br> +<b>mar-o</b>, sea.<br> +<b>marĉ-o</b>, swamp, marsh.<br> +<b>mard-o</b>, Tuesday.<br> +<b>Mari-o</b>, Mary.<br> +<b>mark-o</b>, mark.<br> +<b>marmelad-o</b>, marmalade.<br> +<b>marmor-o</b>, marble (stone),<br> +<b>marŝ-i</b>, to walk.<br> +<b>mart-o</b>, March.<br> +<b>martel-o</b>, hammer.<br> +<b>mastr-o</b>, master (of a house, etc.)<br> +<b>maŝin-o</b>, machine.<br> +<b>maten-o</b>, morning (<b>93</b>).<br> +<b>material-o</b>, material.<br> +<b>matur-a</b>, ripe, mature.<br> +<b>mebl-o</b>, piece of furniture.<br> +<b>medicin-o</b>, medicine (the science).<br> +<b>meĥanik-o</b>, mechanics.<br> +<b>mejl-o</b>, mile.<br> +<b>meleagr-o</b>, turkey.<br> +<b>melk-i</b>, to milk.<br> +<b>melodi-o</b>, melody.<br> +<b>melon-o</b>, melon.<br> +<b>mem</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), self, selves (<b>219</b>).<br> +<b>membr-o</b>, limb, member.<br> +<b>memor-i</b>, to remember, keep in mind; rememori, to recall to memory.<br> +<b>mend-i</b>, to order (of a store, etc.).<br> +<b>mensog-i</b>, to lie, tell lies.<br> +<b>menton-o</b>, chin.<br> +<b>menu-o</b>, menu.<br> +<b>merit-i</b>, to deserve, merit.<br> +<b>merkred-o</b>, Wednesday.<br> +<b>merl-o</b>, blackbird.<br> +<b>met-i</b>, to put, place.<br> +<b>metal-o</b>, metal.<br> +<b>meti-o</b>, trade, handicraft.<br> +<b>metod-o</b>, method, way.<br> +<b>metr-o</b>, meter (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>mez-o</b>, middle.<br> +<b>mezur-i</b>, to measure.<br> +<b>mi</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), I, me (<b>32, 37</b>).<br> +<b>miel-o</b>, honey.<br> +<b>mien-o</b>, appearance, mien.<br> +<b>miks-i</b> (trans.), to mix.<br> +<b>mil</b> (<i>adj.</i>), thousand (<b>142</b>).<br> +<b>mild-a</b>, mild.<br> +<b>milimetr-o</b>, millimeter (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>milion-o</b>, million.<br> + +<b>milit-i</b>, to fight, wage war.<br> +<b>min-o</b>, mine (of coal, silver, etc.).<br> +<b>minac-i</b>, to threaten.<br> +<b>mineral-o</b>, mineral.<br> +<b>minimum-o</b>, minimum.<br> +<b>ministr-o</b>, minister (political).<br> +<b>minut-o</b>, minute.<br> +<b>miop-a</b>, shortsighted.<br> +<b>mir-i</b>, to wonder.<br> +<b>mister-o</b>, mystery.<br> +<b>mizer-o</b>, misery.<br> +<b>mod-o</b>, mode, fashion.<br> +<b>model-o</b>, model.<br> +<b>moder-a</b>, moderate.<br> +<b>modest-a</b>, modest.<br> +<b>mok-i</b>, to mock.<br> +<b>mol-a</b>, soft.<br> +<b>moment-o</b>, moment; <b>—a</b>, momentary, instantaneous.<br> +<b>mon-o</b>, money.<br> +<b>monaĥ-o</b>, monk.<br> +<b>monarĥi-o</b>, monarch.<br> +<b>monat-o</b>, month.<br> +<b>mond-o</b>, world.<br> +<b>mont-o</b>, mountain.<br> +<b>montr-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to show.<br> +<b>mor-o</b>, conduct (in regard to right or wrong); <b>—oj</b>, morals.<br> +<b>moral-a</b>, moral; <b>—eco</b>, morality.<br> +<b>mord-i</b>, to bite.<br> +<b>morgaŭ</b> (<i>adv.</i>), tomorrow (<b>171</b>).<br> +<b>mort-i</b>, to die; <b>—igi</b>, to kill.<br> +<b>moŝt-o</b>, <i>title of respect</i> (<b>258</b>).<br> +<b>mov-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to move, put in motion.<br> +<b>muel-o</b>, mill (for grinding).<br> +<b>muĝ-i</b>, to roar, bellow.<br> +<b>mult-a</b>, much (<b>81</b>).<br> +<b>mur-o</b>, wall.<br> +<b>murmur-i</b>, to murmur.<br> +<b>mus-o</b>, mouse.<br> +<b>mustard-o</b>, mustard.<br> +<b>muŝ-o</b>, fly.<br> +<b>mut-a</b>, dumb, mute.<br> +<b>muze-o</b>, museum.<br> +<b>muzik-o</b>, music.<br> + +<p><b>N.</b></p> + +<b>naci-o</b>, nation.<br> +<b>naĝ-i</b>, to swim.<br> +<b>naiv-a</b>, artless, naive, ingenuous.<br> +<b>najbar-o</b>, neighbor.<br> +<b>najl-o</b>, nail (of metal).<br> +<b>nap-o</b>, turnip.<br> +<b>nask-i</b>, to produce, bring forth, give birth to.<br> +<b>natur-o</b>, nature.<br> +<b>naŭ</b> (<i>adj.</i>), nine (<b>136</b>).<br> +<b>naz-o</b>, nose.<br> +<b>ne</b> (<i>adv.</i>), no, not (27, 66, a, 171).<br> +<b>nebul-o</b>, fog, mist.<br> +<b>neces-a</b>, necessary.<br> +<b>negativ-o</b>, negative (photographic).<br> +<b>neĝ-o</b>, snow.<br> + +<b>nek</b> (<i>negative conj.</i>), neither, nor (<b>31</b>).<br> +<b>nenia</b>, no kind of (<b>224</b>).<br> +<b>nenial</b> (<i>adv.</i>), for no reason (<b>229</b>).<br> +<b>neniam</b> (<i>adv.</i>), never (<b>226</b>).<br> +<b>nenie</b> (<i>adv.</i>), nowhere (<b>225</b>).<br> +<b>neniel</b> (<i>adv.</i>), in no way (<b>230</b>).<br> +<b>nenies</b> (<i>pronoun, possessive</i>), nobody's (<b>221</b>).<br> +<b>nenio</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), nothing (<b>233</b>).<br> +<b>neniom</b> (<i>adv.</i>), none, not any (<b>231</b>).<br> +<b>neniu</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), no one, nobody, no (<b>220</b>).<br> +<b>nep-o</b>, grandson.<br> +<b>nepr-e</b>, inevitably, certainly, unfailingly.<br> +<b>nerv-o</b>, nerve.<br> +<b>nest-o</b>, nest.<br> +<b>neŭtral-a</b>, neutral, non-partisan.<br> +<b>nev-o</b>, nephew.<br> +<b>ni</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), we, us (<b>32, 37</b>).<br> +<b>nigr-a</b>, black.<br> +<b>nivel-o</b>, level.<br> +<b>-nj-</b>, <i>suffix forming affectionate diminutives</i> (<b>283</b>).<br> +<b>nobel-o</b>, nobleman.<br> +<b>nobl-a</b>, noble (in character).<br> +<b>nokt-o</b>, night.<br> +<b>nom-o</b>, name; <b>—i</b>, to name, mention.<br> +<b>nombr-o</b>, number (quantity).<br> +<b>nord-o</b>, north.<br> +<b>norveg-o</b>, Norwegian.<br> +<b>nostalgi-o</b>, homesickness.<br> +<b>not-o</b>, note.<br> +<b>nov-a</b>, new, recent, novel; denove, anew, again.<br> +<b>novembr-o</b>, November.<br> +<b>nu</b> (<i>interjection</i>), well! (<b>273</b>).<br> +<b>nuanc-o</b>, shade, tint, hue.<br> +<b>nub-o</b>, cloud.<br> +<b>nud-a</b>, bare, naked, nude.<br> +<b>nuks-o</b>, nut.<br> +<b>nul-o</b>, zero, naught.<br> +<b>numer-o</b>, number, numeral (No.).<br> +<b>nun</b> (<i>adv.</i>), now (<b>171</b>).<br> +<b>nur</b> (<i>adv.</i>), merely, only.<br> +<b>nutr-i</b>, to nourish, to feed.<br> + +<p><b>O.</b></p> + +<b>obe-i</b>, to obey (<b>265</b>).<br> +<b>objekt-o</b>, object, thing.<br> +<b>objektiv-o</b>, lens, objective.<br> +<b>-obl-</b>, <i>suffix forming multiples</i> (<b>186</b>).<br> +<b>oblikv-a</b>, oblique, slanting.<br> +<b>observ-i</b>, to observe, take note of.<br> +<b>obstin-a</b>, obstinate.<br> +<b>ocean-o</b>, ocean.<br> +<b>odor-i</b>, to smell (good or bad).<br> +<b>ofend-i</b>, to offend.<br> +<b>ofer-i</b>, to sacrifice, offer.<br> +<b>ofic-o</b>, office, employment; <b>—isto</b>, officer (of firm or organization); <b>—ejo</b>, office (the place).<br> +<b>oficial-a</b>, official.<br> + +<b>oficir-o</b>, officer (military or naval).<br> +<b>oft-a</b>, frequent.<br> +<b>ok</b> (<i>adj.</i>), eight (<b>136</b>).<br> +<b>okaz-i</b>, to happen, occur, take place.<br> +<b>okcident-o</b>, west.<br> +<b>oktobr-o</b>, October.<br> +<b>okul-o</b>, eye.<br> +<b>okup-i</b>, to occupy.<br> +<b>ol</b> (<i>conj.</i>), than (<b>82, 97, 98</b>).<br> +<b>ole-o</b>, oil.<br> +<b>oliv-o</b>, olive.<br> +<b>ombr-o</b>, shadow, shade.<br> +<b>ombrel-o</b>, umbrella.<br> +<b>-on-</b>, <i>suffix forming fractions</i> (<b>166</b>).<br> +<b>ond-o</b>, wave.<br> +<b>oni</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), one, they (<b>54</b>).<br> +<b>onkl-o</b>, uncle.<br> +<b>-op-</b>, <i>suffix forming collective numerals</i> (<b>261</b>).<br> +<b>oper-o</b>, opera.<br> +<b>opini-i</b>, to have the opinion, think.<br> +<b>oportun-a</b>, handy, convenient, opportune.<br> +<b>or-o</b>, gold.<br> +<b>oranĝ-o</b>, orange (fruit).<br> +<b>ord-o</b>, order (methodical or proper arrangement).<br> +<b>ordinar-a</b>, ordinary; eksterordinara, extraordinary.<br> +<b>ordon-i</b>, to order, bid, command.<br> +<b>orel-o</b>, ear (of the body).<br> +<b>orf-o</b>, orphan.<br> +<b>organ-o</b>, organ (physical).<br> +<b>organiz-i</b>, to organize.<br> +<b>orgen-o</b>, organ, (musical instrument).<br> +<b>orient-o</b>, east.<br> +<b>original-o</b>, original.<br> +<b>orkestr-o</b>, orchestra.<br> +<b>ornam-i</b>, to ornament, adorn.<br> +<b>ort-a</b>, right-angled.<br> +<b>osced-i</b>, to gape, yawn.<br> +<b>ost-o</b>, bone.<br> +<b>ostr-o</b>, oyster.<br> +<b>ostracism-o</b>, ostracism.<br> +<b>ov-o</b>, egg.<br> + +<p><b>P.</b></p> + +<b>pac-o</b>, peace.<br> +<b>pacienc-o</b>, patience.<br> +<b>padel-i</b>, to paddle.<br> +<b>paf-i</b>, to shoot (with gun, etc.).<br> +<b>pag-i</b>, to pay.<br> +<b>paĝ-o</b>, page (of a book, etc.).<br> +<b>pajl-o</b>, straw.<br> +<b>pak-i</b>, to pack.<br> +<b>pal-a</b>, pale.<br> +<b>palac-o</b>, palace.<br> +<b>palis-o</b>, stake; <b>—aro</b>, palisade.<br> +<b>palp-i</b>, to feel (with the fingers, etc.); <b>—ado</b>, touch (the sense).<br> +<b>palpebr-o</b>, eyelid.<br> +<b>pan-o</b>, bread.<br> + +<b>pantalon-o</b>, trousers.<br> +<b>pantofl-o</b>, slipper.<br> +<b>paper-o</b>, paper (material).<br> +<b>papili-o</b>, butterfly.<br> +<b>par-o</b>, pair.<br> +<b>paradiz-o</b>, paradise.<br> +<b>paragraf-o</b>, paragraph.<br> +<b>paralel-a</b>, parallel.<br> +<b>pardon-i</b>, to forgive, pardon (<b>265</b>).<br> +<b>parenc-o</b>, relative (person).<br> +<b>parfum-o</b>, perfume.<br> +<b>park-o</b>, park.<br> +<b>parker-e</b>, by rote, by heart, from memory.<br> +<b>parol-i</b>, to speak (<b>77</b>).<br> +<b>part-o</b>, part, share.<br> +<b>particip-o</b>, participle.<br> +<b>pas-i</b>, (<i>intrans.</i>), to pass.<br> +<b>pasaĝer-o</b>, passenger.<br> +<b>paser-o</b>, sparrow.<br> +<b>pasi-o</b>, passion.<br> +<b>pasiv-a</b>, passive.<br> +<b>Pask-o</b>, Easter.<br> +<b>pasteĉ-o</b>, patty, small pie.<br> +<b>pastinak-o</b>, parsnip.<br> +<b>pastr-o</b>, pastor, clergyman, priest.<br> +<b>paŝ-i</b>, to step.<br> +<b>paŝt-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to pasture, feed; <b>—isto</b>, shepherd.<br> +<b>pat-o</b>, pan, frying-pan.<br> +<b>patr-o</b>, father.<br> +<b>paŭz-o</b>, pause.<br> +<b>pavim-o</b>, pavement.<br> +<b>pec-o</b>, piece, morsel.<br> +<b>pejzaĝ-o</b>, landscape.<br> +<b>pek-i</b>, to sin.<br> +<b>pekl-i</b>, to pickle (meat, etc.).<br> +<b>pel-i</b>, to chase away, drive off.<br> +<b>pelt-o</b>, coat or wrap of fur.<br> +<b>pen-i</b>, to strive, try.<br> +<b>pend-i</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), to hang.<br> +<b>penetr-i</b>, to penetrate.<br> +<b>penik-o</b>, paintbrush, hair pencil.<br> +<b>pens-i</b>, to think.<br> +<b>pent-i</b>, to repent.<br> +<b>pentr-i</b>, to paint.<br> +<b>pep-i</b>, to chirp, twitter.<br> +<b>per</b> (<i>prep.</i>), by means of, with, by (<b>64</b>).<br> +<b>perd-i</b>, to lose.<br> +<b>pere-i</b>, to perish.<br> +<b>perfekt-a</b>, perfect.<br> +<b>perfid-i</b>, to betray; <b>—a</b>, perfidious, treacherous.<br> +<b>period-a</b>, periodic.<br> +<b>perl-o</b>, pearl.<br> +<b>permes-i</b>, to permit, allow, let.<br> +<b>peron-o</b>, platform (railway), stoop (entrance porch).<br> +<b>persekut-i</b>, to persecute, prosecute.<br> +<b>persik-o</b>, peach.<br> +<b>persist-i</b>, to persist, persevere.<br> +<b>person-o</b>, person.<br> +<b>peruk-o</b>, wig.<br> +<b>pes-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to ascertain the weight of; <b>—ilo</b>, scales, balance.<br> + +<b>pet-i</b>, to request, beg, ask.<br> +<b>petol-i</b>, to be mischievous, saucy, roguish.<br> +<b>petrol-o</b>, petroleum, kerosene.<br> +<b>petrosel-o</b>, parsley.<br> +<b>pez-i</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), to be heavy, weigh.<br> +<b>pi-a</b>, pious.<br> +<b>pice-o</b>, spruce (tree).<br> +<b>pied-o</b>, foot; <b>—iranto</b>, pedestrian.<br> +<b>piedestal-o</b>, pedestal.<br> +<b>pik-i</b>, to prick, sting.<br> +<b>pilgrim-i</b>, to go on a pilgrimage.<br> +<b>pilk-o</b>, ball (to play with).<br> +<b>pin-o</b>, pine (tree).<br> +<b>pinakotek-o</b>, picture gallery.<br> +<b>pinĉ-i</b>, to pinch.<br> +<b>pingl-o</b>, pin.<br> +<b>pint-o</b>, point, pinnacle, summit.<br> +<b>pionir-o</b>, pioneer.<br> +<b>pip-o</b>, pipe (for smoking).<br> +<b>pipr-o</b>, pepper.<br> +<b>pir-o</b>, pear.<br> +<b>pist-i</b>, to crush, mash; <b>—aĵo</b>, purée.<br> +<b>pitoresk-a</b>, picturesque.<br> +<b>piz-o</b>, pea.<br> +<b>plac-o</b>, public square, place (broad, short street or open space).<br> +<b>plaĉ-i</b>, to please, to be pleasing (<b>265</b>).<br> +<b>plad-o</b>, flat dish.<br> +<b>plafon-o</b>, ceiling.<br> +<b>plan-o</b>, plan, scheme.<br> +<b>pland-o</b>, sole (of the foot).<br> +<b>planed-o</b>, planet.<br> +<b>plank-o</b>, floor.<br> +<b>plant-i</b>, to plant.<br> +<b>plat-a</b>, flat, plane.<br> +<b>plaŭd-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to splash, dabble (a liquid).<br> +<b>plej</b> (<i>adv.</i>), most (<b>74, 79, 81, 162</b>); malplej, least (<b>80</b>).<br> +<b>plekt-i</b>, to weave, plait, braid.<br> +<b>plen-a</b>, full; plenum-i, to fulfil.<br> +<b>plend-i</b>, to complain.<br> +<b>plet-o</b>, tray.<br> +<b>plezur-o</b>, pleasure.<br> +<b>pli</b> (<i>adv.</i>), more (<b>74, 79, 81</b>); malpli, less (<b>80</b>).<br> +<b>plor-i</b>, to weep, cry.<br> +<b>plu</b> (<i>adv.</i>), further, more, any more.<br> +<b>plug-i</b>, to plow.<br> +<b>plum-o</b>, pen, feather.<br> +<b>plumb-o</b>, lead (metal); <b>—isto</b>, plumber.<br> +<b>pluv-o</b>, rain.<br> +<b>pneŭmatik-o</b>, pneumatic tire.<br> +<b>po</b> (<i>prep.</i>), at the rate of (<b>175</b>).<br> +<b>poem-o</b>, poem.<br> +<b>poet-o</b>, poet.<br> +<b>poezi-o</b>, poetry, poesy.<br> +<b>pokal-o</b>, goblet, cup.<br> + +<b>pol-o</b>, Pole.<br> +<b>polic-o</b>, police (force).<br> +<b>politik-o</b>, politics.<br> +<b>polm-o</b>, palm (of the hand).<br> +<b>polur-i</b>, to polish, make smooth and glossy.<br> +<b>polus-o</b>, pole (geographical).<br> +<b>polv-o</b>, dust.<br> +<b>pom-o</b>, apple.<br> +<b>pomp-o</b>, pomp, splendor.<br> +<b>pont-o</b>, bridge.<br> +<b>popol-o</b>, a people, folk.<br> +<b>popular-a</b>, popular.<br> +<b>por</b> (<i>prep.</i>), for (<b>95, 98, 262</b>).<br> +<b>porcelan-o</b>, porcelain, china.<br> +<b>porci-o</b>, portion, share.<br> +<b>pord-o</b>, door.<br> +<b>pork-o</b>, swine, pig, hog.<br> +<b>port-i</b>, to carry, bear.<br> +<b>portret-o</b>, portrait.<br> +<b>posed-i</b>, to possess, own.<br> +<b>post</b> (<i>prep.</i>), after, behind (<b>89, 120</b>).<br> +<b>postul-i</b>, to require, demand.<br> +<b>poŝ-o</b>, pocket.<br> +<b>poŝt-o</b>, post (mail); <b>—kesto</b>, mailbox; <b>—marko</b>, postage stamp; <b>—mandato</b>, postal money order.<br> +<b>pot-o</b>, pot.<br> +<b>potenc-a</b>, powerful, mighty.<br> +<b>pov-i</b>, to be able, can (<b>72</b>).<br> +<b>pra-</b>, <i>prefix indicating remoteness in line of descent</i> (<b>282</b>).<br> +<b>praktik-o</b>, practice.<br> +<b>prav-a</b>, right, in the right.<br> +<b>precip-a</b>, principal, chief.<br> +<b>preciz-a</b>, precise.<br> +<b>predik-i</b>, to preach.<br> +<b>prefer-i</b>, to prefer.<br> +<b>prefiks-o</b>, prefix.<br> +<b>preĝ-i</b>, to pray; <b>—ejo</b>, church.<br> +<b>prem-i</b>, to press.<br> +<b>premi-o</b>, premium, prize.<br> +<b>pren-i</b>, to take.<br> +<b>prepar-i</b>, to prepare.<br> +<b>pres-i</b>, to print.<br> +<b>preskaŭ</b> (<i>adv.</i>), almost.<br> +<b>pret-a</b>, ready.<br> +<b>pretekst-i</b>, to make pretext of, pretend, sham.<br> +<b>pretend-i</b>, to make pretension to, lay claim to.<br> +<b>preter</b> (<i>prep.</i>), beyond, past, by.<br> +<b>prez-o</b>, price.<br> +<b>prezent-i</b>, to present, offer.<br> +<b>prezid-i</b>, to preside; <b>—anto</b>, presiding officer, president, chairman.<br> +<b>pri</b> (<i>prep.</i>), concerning, about, of (160, 264, c).<br> +<b>princ-o</b>, prince.<br> +<b>princip-o</b>, principle.<br> +<b>printemp-o</b>, spring (season).<br> +<b>pro</b> (<i>prep.</i>), on account of, because of, for (<b>86</b>).<br> +<b>problem-o</b>, problem.<br> + +<b>procent-o</b>, interest, percentage.<br> +<b>proces-o</b>, lawsuit, legal process.<br> +<b>produkt-i</b>, to produce.<br> +<b>profesi-o</b>, profession, occupation, calling.<br> +<b>profesor-o</b>, professor.<br> +<b>profil-o</b>, profile.<br> +<b>profit-o</b>, profit; <b>—i</b>, to profit (by).<br> +<b>profund-a</b>, deep, profound.<br> +<b>progres-i</b>, to progress.<br> +<b>projekt-o</b>, project.<br> +<b>proklam-i</b>, to proclaim.<br> +<b>prokrast-i</b>, to delay, procrastinate.<br> +<b>proksim-a</b>, near.<br> +<b>promen-i</b>, to go walking, promenade.<br> +<b>promes-i</b>, to promise.<br> +<b>propon-i</b>, to propose, offer.<br> +<b>proporci-o</b>, proportion.<br> +<b>propr-a</b>, own (one's own); malpropra, other people's; <b>—igi al si</b>, to appropriate, make one's own.<br> +<b>prosper-i</b>, to have success, prosper.<br> +<b>protekt-i</b>, to protect.<br> +<b>protest-i</b>, to protest.<br> +<b>protokol-o</b>, minutes (of a meeting).<br> +<b>prov-i</b>, to try, attempt, test.<br> +<b>proviz-i</b>, to provide.<br> +<b>proz-o</b>, prose; <b>—aĵo</b>, prose composition, piece of prose.<br> +<b>prudent-a</b>, reasonable, sensible, rational.<br> +<b>prujn-o</b>, hoar frost.<br> +<b>prun-o</b>, plum.<br> +<b>prunt-o</b>, loan; <b>—i</b>, (<b>—e doni)</b>, to lend; <b>—e preni</b>, to borrow.<br> +<b>pruv-i</b>, to prove, give proof of.<br> +<b>psalm-o</b>, psalm.<br> +<b>publik-o</b>, public (the); <b>—igi</b>, to publish.<br> +<b>puding-o</b>, pudding.<br> +<b>pudr-i</b>, to powder.<br> +<b>pugn-o</b>, fist.<br> +<b>pulm-o</b>, lung.<br> +<b>pulv-o</b>, gunpowder.<br> +<b>pump-i</b>, to pump.<br> +<b>pun-i</b>, to punish.<br> +<b>punt-o</b>, lace (point, etc.).<br> +<b>pup-o</b>, doll.<br> +<b>pupitr-o</b>, desk.<br> +<b>pur-a</b>, clean, pure.<br> +<b>purpur-a</b>, purple.<br> +<b>puŝ-i</b>, to push; repuŝi, to repulse.<br> +<b>put-o</b>, well (for water).<br> + +<p><b>R.</b></p> + +<b>rabarb-o</b>, rhubarb.<br> +<b>rab-i</b>, to pillage, plunder; <b>—isto</b>, robber.<br> +<b>rabat-i</b>, to rebate, give a reduction, discount or rebate.<br> +<b>rad-o</b>, wheel.<br> +<b>radi-o</b>, ray (of light), spoke (of wheel), radius.<br> + +<b>radik-o</b>, root.<br> +<b>rafan-o</b>, radish.<br> +<b>rafin-i</b>, to refine; <b>—ejo</b>, refinery.<br> +<b>rajd-i</b>, to ride (horse, etc.).<br> +<b>rajt-o</b>, right (to something).<br> +<b>rakont-i</b>, to relate, narrate (<b>77</b>).<br> +<b>ramp-i</b>, to creep, crawl, clamber.<br> +<b>ran-o</b>, frog.<br> +<b>rand-o</b>, edge, border.<br> +<b>rang-o</b>, rank, grade, dignity.<br> +<b>rapid-a</b>, rapid, quick; <b>—o</b>, speed; <b>—emo</b>, haste.<br> +<b>raport-i</b>, to report, give a report.<br> +<b>ras-o</b>, race (tribe, people, nation).<br> +<b>rasp-i</b>, to rasp, grate; <b>—ilo</b>, grater.<br> +<b>rat-o</b>, rat.<br> +<b>raŭk-a</b>, hoarse, raucous.<br> +<b>rav-i</b>, to enchant.<br> +<b>raz-i</b>, to shave.<br> +<b>re-</b>, <i>prefix indicating repetition or return</i> (<b>223</b>).<br> +<b>real-a</b>, real.<br> +<b>reciprok-a</b>, reciprocal, mutual (<b>180</b>).<br> +<b>redakci-o</b>, editorial department.<br> +<b>redakt-i</b>, to edit.<br> +<b>redaktor-o</b>, editor.<br> +<b>redingot-o</b>, frock coat.<br> +<b>refut-i</b>, to refute.<br> +<b>reg-i</b>, to rule, govern, reign.<br> +<b>regal-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to regale, treat (to food or drink).<br> +<b>region-o</b>, region.<br> +<b>registr-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to register, enroll.<br> +<b>regn-o</b>, state, governed body; <b>—ano</b>, citizen, subject.<br> +<b>regul-o</b>, rule, regulation.<br> +<b>reĝ-o</b>, king.<br> +<b>reklam-i</b>, to advertise.<br> +<b>rekomend-i</b>, to recommend, register (a letter).<br> +<b>rekompenc-i</b>, to recompense, reward.<br> +<b>rekt-a</b>, straight, undeviating, direct.<br> +<b>rel-o</b>, rail.<br> +<b>religi-o</b>, religion.<br> +<b>rem-i</b>, to row.<br> +<b>rembur-i</b>, to upholster, stuff, pad.<br> +<b>renkont-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to meet.<br> +<b>renvers-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to upset.<br> +<b>reprezent-i</b>, to represent.<br> +<b>respekt-i</b>, to respect.<br> +<b>respond-i</b>, to answer.<br> +<b>respublik-o</b>, republic.<br> +<b>rest-i</b>, to remain, stay.<br> +<b>restoraci-o</b>, restaurant.<br> +<b>resum-i</b>, to summarize, give in resumé.<br> +<b>ret-o</b>, net, netting.<br> +<b>rev-i</b>, to indulge in revery, dream, fancy.<br> +<b>revu-o</b>, journal, review, magazine.<br> +<b>rezon-i</b>, to reason (exert the power of reasoning).<br> + +<b>rezult-i</b>, to result.<br> +<b>ricev-i</b>, to receive.<br> +<b>riĉ-a</b>, rich.<br> +<b>rid-i</b>, to laugh (<b>265</b>).<br> +<b>rifuz-i</b>, to refuse.<br> +<b>rigard-i</b>, to look.<br> +<b>rigl-i</b>, to bolt (fasten).<br> +<b>rikolt-i</b>, to harvest, reap.<br> +<b>rilat-i</b>, to have relation (to) (<b>266</b>).<br> +<b>rimark-i</b>, to notice, note.<br> +<b>rimed-o</b>, means, way; vivrimedoj, means of livelihood.<br> +<b>rimen-o</b>, thong, strap.<br> +<b>ring-o</b>, ring.<br> +<b>rip-o</b>, rib.<br> +<b>ripar-i</b>, to mend, repair.<br> +<b>ripet-i</b>, to repeat.<br> +<b>ripoz-i</b>, to repose, rest.<br> +<b>riproĉ-i</b>, to reproach.<br> +<b>river-o</b>, river.<br> +<b>riz-o</b>, rice.<br> +<b>rob-o</b>, dress, robe.<br> +<b>Robert-o</b>, Robert.<br> +<b>romp-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to break.<br> +<b>rond-o</b>, circle, ring, round.<br> +<b>ros-o</b>, dew.<br> +<b>rost-i</b>, to roast.<br> +<b>roz-o</b>, rose (flower).<br> +<b>ruband-o</b>, ribbon.<br> +<b>rubus-o</b>, blackberry.<br> +<b>ruĝ-a</b>, red.<br> +<b>ruin-o</b>, ruin.<br> +<b>rul-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to roll (ball, etc.).<br> +<b>rus-o</b>, Russian.<br> +<b>rust-i</b>, to rust.<br> +<b>rutin-o</b>, routine.<br> +<b>ruz-a</b>, crafty, cunning, sly.<br> + +<p><b>S.</b></p> + +<b>sabat-o</b>, Saturday.<br> +<b>sabl-o</b>, sand.<br> +<b>sag-o</b>, arrow.<br> +<b>saĝ-a</b>, wise.<br> +<b>sak-o</b>, sack, bag.<br> +<b>sal-o</b>, salt.<br> +<b>salajr-o</b>, salary, wages.<br> +<b>salat-o</b>, salad.<br> +<b>salon-o</b>, parlor, drawing-room.<br> +<b>salt-i</b>, to jump, leap.<br> +<b>salut-i</b>, to salute, greet.<br> +<b>sam-a</b>, same.<br> +<b>san-a</b>, healthy, well.<br> +<b>sang-o</b>, blood.<br> +<b>sankt-a</b>, sacred, holy.<br> +<b>sap-o</b>, soap.<br> +<b>sarden-o</b>, sardine.<br> +<b>sat-a</b>, sated; malsata, hungry.<br> +<b>saŭc-o</b>, sauce, gravy, dressing.<br> +<b>sav-i</b>, to save; rescue.<br> +<b>sci-i</b>, to know (<b>117</b>).<br> +<b>scienc-o</b>, science.<br> +<b>se</b> (<i>conj.</i>), if (<b>240</b>).<br> +<b>sed</b> (<i>conj.</i>), but.<br> +<b>seg-i</b>, to saw.<br> +<b>seĝ-o</b>, chair.<br> + +<b>sek-a</b>, dry.<br> +<b>sekret-o</b>, secret.<br> +<b>sekretari-o</b>, secretary.<br> +<b>sekund-o</b>, second (of time).<br> +<b>sekv-i</b>, to follow.<br> +<b>sel-o</b>, saddle.<br> +<b>sem-o</b>, seed; <b>—i</b>, to sow.<br> +<b>semajn-o</b>, week.<br> +<b>sen</b> (<i>prep.</i>), without (<b>248</b>).<br> +<b>senat-o</b>, senate; <b>—ano</b>, senator.<br> +<b>senc-o</b>, sense, meaning.<br> +<b>send-i</b>, to send.<br> +<b>sent-i</b>, to feel, perceive.<br> +<b>sep</b> (<i>adj.</i>), seven (<b>136</b>).<br> +<b>septembr-o</b>, September.<br> +<b>serĉ-i</b>, to seek, hunt, look for.<br> +<b>serur-o</b>, lock.<br> +<b>serv-i</b>, to serve.<br> +<b>servic-o</b>, course (of a meal).<br> +<b>ses</b> (<i>adj.</i>), six (<b>136</b>).<br> +<b>sever-a</b>, severe, stern.<br> +<b>sezon-o</b>, season.<br> +<b>si</b> (<i>pronoun, reflexive</i>), himself, herself, etc. (<b>40, 44, 274</b>).<br> +<b>sibl-i</b>, to hiss, whistle (wind, etc.).<br> +<b>sid-i</b>, to sit (<b>239</b>).<br> +<b>sigel-i</b>, to seal.<br> +<b>sign-o</b>, sign, trace, mark.<br> +<b>signif-i</b>, to signify, mean.<br> +<b>silab-o</b>, syllable.<br> +<b>silent-i</b>, to be silent (<b>239</b>).<br> +<b>silk-o</b>, silk.<br> +<b>simi-o</b>, monkey.<br> +<b>simil-a</b>, like, similar.<br> +<b>simpl-a</b>, simple.<br> +<b>sinjor-o</b>, gentleman, Mr. (<b>163</b>).<br> +<b>Sirakuz-o</b>, Syracuse.<br> +<b>sitel-o</b>, pail, bucket.<br> +<b>skatol-o</b>, small box or case.<br> +<b>skiz-i</b>, to sketch.<br> +<b>sklav-o</b>, slave.<br> +<b>skot-o</b>, Scot, Scotchman.<br> +<b>skrap-i</b>, to scrape.<br> +<b>skrib-i</b>, to write.<br> +<b>sku-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to shake.<br> +<b>skulpt-i</b>, to carve, sculpture.<br> +<b>societ-o</b>, society.<br> +<b>soif-i</b>, to be thirsty.<br> +<b>sojl-o</b>, threshold.<br> +<b>Sokrat-o</b>, Socrates.<br> +<b>sol-a</b>, alone, sole, only.<br> +<b>soldat-o</b>, soldier.<br> +<b>solen-a</b>, formal, solemn.<br> +<b>somer-o</b>, summer.<br> +<b>son-i</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), to sound.<br> +<b>sonĝ-i</b>, to dream (in sleep).<br> +<b>sonor-i</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), to ring, sound; <b>—ilo</b>, bell.<br> +<b>sopir-i</b>, to yearn, long, sigh.<br> +<b>sorb-i</b>, to absorb; <b>—papero</b>, blotting-paper.<br> +<b>sorĉ-o</b>, witchcraft; ensorĉi, to bewitch; <b>—isto</b>, sorcerer.<br> +<b>sort-o</b>, destiny, fate, lot.<br> + +<b>sovaĝ-a</b>, wild, savage.<br> +<b>spac-o</b>, space.<br> +<b>spec-o</b>, kind, sort, species.<br> +<b>special-a</b>, special.<br> +<b>specimen-o</b>, specimen, sample.<br> +<b>spegul-o</b>, mirror.<br> +<b>spert-a</b>, experienced, expert.<br> +<b>spes-o</b>, speso (international unit of money, 284).<br> +<b>spez-o</b>, clearing (financial); elspezi, to disburse, expend, spend; enspezi, to take in, receive (funds).<br> +<b>spinac-o</b>, spinach.<br> +<b>spir-i</b>, to breathe; elspiri, to exhale.<br> +<b>spite</b> (<i>prep.</i>), in spite of.<br> +<b>sprit-a</b>, witty.<br> +<b>staci-o</b>, station (railway, boat, etc.).<br> +<b>stamp-i</b>, to mark officially, stamp.<br> +<b>standard-o</b>, standard, flag.<br> +<b>stan-o</b>, tin (metal).<br> +<b>stang-o</b>, pole.<br> +<b>star-i</b>, to stand (<b>239</b>).<br> +<b>stat-o</b>, state (of being), condition.<br> +<b>stel-o</b>, star.<br> +<b>stenografi-o</b>, shorthand, stenography.<br> +<b>stil-o</b>, style.<br> +<b>stimul-i</b>, to stimulate.<br> +<b>stomak-o</b>, stomach.<br> +<b>strang-a</b>, strange, peculiar.<br> +<b>strat-o</b>, street.<br> +<b>streĉ-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to stretch.<br> +<b>strek-i</b>, to make a streak, or line; substreki, to underline; surstreki, trastreki, to cross off, strike out.<br> +<b>stri-o</b>, streak, stripe, band.<br> +<b>strik-o</b>, strike (of labor).<br> +<b>stud-i</b>, to study.<br> +<b>student-o</b>, student (college, etc.).<br> +<b>stuf-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to stew.<br> +<b>stump-o</b>, stump (of tree, etc.).<br> +<b>sub</b> (<i>prep.</i>), under, beneath (<b>121, 160</b>).<br> +<b>subit-a</b>, sudden, abrupt.<br> +<b>substanc-o</b>, substance.<br> +<b>sud-o</b>, south.<br> +<b>sufer-i</b>, to suffer, endure.<br> +<b>sufiĉ-i</b>, to suffice; <b>—ega</b>, abundant.<br> +<b>sufiks-o</b>, suffix.<br> +<b>sufok-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to suffocate.<br> +<b>sugesti-i</b>, to suggest.<br> +<b>suk-o</b>, sap, juice (of plants, etc.); <b>—a</b>, succulent.<br> +<b>sukces-i</b>, to succeed.<br> +<b>suker-o</b>, sugar.<br> +<b>sulfur-o</b>, sulphur.<br> +<b>sulk-o</b>, furrow, wrinkle.<br> +<b>sum-o</b>, sum, amount.<br> +<b>sun-o</b>, sun.<br> +<b>sup-o</b>, soup.<br> +<b>super</b> (<i>prep.</i>), above, over (<b>159</b>); <b>—a</b>, superior.<br> + +<b>superstiĉ-o</b>, superstition.<br> +<b>supoz-i</b>, to suppose.<br> +<b>supr-e</b> (<i>adv.</i>), above; <b>—a</b>, upper, above; <b>—aĵo</b>, surface.<br> +<b>sur</b> (<i>prep.</i>), on, upon (<b>160</b>).<br> +<b>surd-a</b>, deaf.<br> +<b>surpriz-i</b>, to surprise.<br> +<b>surtut-o</b>, overcoat.<br> +<b>suspekt-i</b>, to suspect.<br> +<b>sved-o</b>, Swede.<br> +<b>sven-i</b>, to faint, swoon.<br> +<b>sving-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), swing, brandish.<br> +<b>svis-o</b>, Swiss.<br> + +<p><b>Ŝ.</b></p> + +<b>ŝaf-o</b>, sheep; <b>—aĵo</b>, mutton; <b>—ido</b>, lamb; <b>—idaĵo</b>, lamb (meat); <b>—viro</b>, ram.<br> +<b>ŝajn-i</b>, to seem, appear.<br> +<b>ŝal-o</b>, shawl.<br> +<b>ŝanc-o</b>, luck, chance; bonŝance, luckily.<br> +<b>ŝancel-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to oscillate, vacillate, make tremble.<br> +<b>ŝanĝ-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to change, alter.<br> +<b>ŝarĝ-i</b>, to burden, load.<br> +<b>ŝat-i</b>, to like, prize.<br> +<b>ŝaŭm-o</b>, foam, froth.<br> +<b>ŝel-o</b>, shell, peeling, bark.<br> +<b>ŝelk-o</b>, suspender, supporter.<br> +<b>ŝerc-i</b>, to joke, jest.<br> +<b>ŝi</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), she, her (<b>32, 37, 42</b>).<br> +<b>ŝild-o</b>, shield.<br> +<b>ŝink-o</b>, ham.<br> +<b>ŝip-o</b>, ship.<br> +<b>ŝir-i</b>, to tear.<br> +<b>ŝirm-i</b>, to shelter, shield; <b>—ilo</b>, screen.<br> +<b>ŝlim-o</b>, slime.<br> +<b>ŝlos-i</b>, to lock; <b>—ilo</b>, key.<br> +<b>ŝmir-i</b>, to anoint, smear.<br> +<b>ŝnur-o</b>, string.<br> +<b>ŝose-o</b>, broad roadway, drive.<br> +<b>ŝov-i</b>, to shove, push.<br> +<b>ŝovel-i</b>, to shovel.<br> +<b>ŝpar-i</b>, to spare, be economical of.<br> +<b>ŝpin-i</b>, to spin.<br> +<b>ŝpruc-i</b>, to gush, spout, spurt (of liquids).<br> +<b>ŝrank-o</b>, cupboard, wardrobe.<br> +<b>ŝraŭb-o</b>, screw.<br> +<b>ŝtal-o</b>, steel.<br> +<b>ŝtat-o</b>, state (political).<br> +<b>ŝtel-i</b>, to steal (<b>252</b>).<br> +<b>ŝtip-o</b>, log, block of wood.<br> +<b>ŝtof-o</b>, cloth, stuff.<br> +<b>ŝton-o</b>, stone.<br> +<b>ŝtop-i</b>, to stop up, cork; <b>—ilo</b>, stopper.<br> +<b>ŝtrump-o</b>, stocking.<br> +<b>ŝtup-o</b>, step, round; <b>—aro</b>, stair-case.<br> +<b>ŝu-o</b>, shoe; superŝuo, overshoe.<br> +<b>ŝuld-i</b>, to owe, be indebted.<br> +<b>ŝultr-o</b>, shoulder.<br> + +<b>ŝut-o</b>, chute; <b>—i</b>, to pour (as in a chute).<br> +<b>ŝvel-i</b>, to swell, become swollen.<br> +<b>ŝvit-i</b>, to perspire.<br> + +<p><b>T.</b></p> + +<b>tabak-o</b>, tobacco.<br> +<b>tabel-o</b>, table, index, tabulation.<br> +<b>tabl-o</b>, table (furniture).<br> +<b>tabul-o</b>, board, plank.<br> +<b>tag-o</b>, day; <b>—iĝo</b>, dawn; <b>—mezo</b>, noon.<br> +<b>tajlor-o</b>, tailor.<br> +<b>taks-i</b>, to estimate, value, rate.<br> +<b>talent-o</b>, talent.<br> +<b>tali-o</b>, waist; beltalia, shapely, having a good figure.<br> +<b>tambur-o</b>, drum.<br> +<b>tamen</b> (<i>conj.</i>), nevertheless, however, yet, still.<br> +<b>tantiem-o</b>, percentage of profit, royalty.<br> +<b>tapiŝ-o</b>, carpet.<br> +<b>tarif-o</b>, tariff, schedule of rates.<br> +<b>tas-o</b>, cup; subtaso, saucer.<br> +<b>task-o</b>, task.<br> +<b>taŭg-i</b>, to be fit for, good for.<br> +<b>tavol-o</b>, layer.<br> +<b>te-o</b>, tea.<br> +<b>teatr-o</b>, theatre; <b>—aĵo</b>, play.<br> +<b>ted-i</b>, to be tedious.<br> +<b>teg-i</b>, to cover, put a covering upon.<br> +<b>tegment-o</b>, roof.<br> +<b>teks-i</b>, to weave.<br> +<b>telefon-i</b>, to telephone.<br> +<b>telegraf-i</b>, to telegraph.<br> +<b>teler-o</b>, plate; <b>—meblo</b>, sideboard.<br> +<b>tem-o</b>, theme, subject.<br> +<b>temp-o</b>, time.<br> +<b>tempi-o</b>, temple (of the head).<br> +<b>templ-o</b>, temple (building).<br> +<b>ten-i</b>, to hold, keep.<br> +<b>tend-o</b>, tent.<br> +<b>tenor-o</b>, tenor (voice).<br> +<b>tent-i</b>, to tempt.<br> +<b>teori-o</b>, theory.<br> +<b>ter-o</b>, earth, soil; enterigi, to inter.<br> +<b>teras-o</b>, terrace.<br> +<b>teritori-o</b>, territory.<br> +<b>termin-o</b>, term, definition (word).<br> +<b>tern-i</b>, to sneeze.<br> +<b>terpom-o</b>, potato.<br> +<b>terur-o</b>, terror.<br> +<b>tia</b>, that kind of, such (<b>65</b>).<br> +<b>tial</b> (<i>adv.</i>), therefore (<b>78, 83</b>).<br> +<b>tiam</b> (<i>adv.</i>), then, at that time (<b>73</b>).<br> +<b>tibi-o</b>, shin bone, tibia; <b>—karno</b>, calf (of the leg).<br> +<b>tie</b> (<i>adv.</i>), there (<b>68</b>).<br> +<b>tiel</b> (<i>adv.</i>), thus, so (<b>88, 156</b>).<br> +<b>tigr-o</b>, tiger.<br> +<b>tikl-i</b>, to tickle.<br> + +<b>tili-o</b>, linden.<br> +<b>tim-i</b>, to fear, be afraid of.<br> +<b>timon-o</b>, pole, tongue, shaft.<br> +<b>tint-i</b>, to jingle, tinkle.<br> +<b>tio</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), that (<b>233, 234</b>).<br> +<b>tiom</b> (<i>adv.</i>), that much, so much (<b>104, 164</b>).<br> +<b>tir-i</b>, to pull, draw.<br> +<b>tiran-o</b>, tyrant.<br> +<b>titol-o</b>, title.<br> +<b>tiu</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), that one, that (<b>56</b>); tiu ĉi, this one, this (<b>60</b>).<br> +<b>tost-o</b>, toast (sentiment).<br> +<b>tol-o</b>, linen.<br> +<b>toler-i</b>, to tolerate.<br> +<b>tomat-o</b>, tomato.<br> +<b>tomb-o</b>, tomb, grave.<br> +<b>ton-o</b>, tone.<br> +<b>tond-i</b>, to shear; <b>—ilo</b>, shears, scissors.<br> +<b>tondr-i</b>, to thunder.<br> +<b>tord-i</b>, to twist; <b>—a</b>, crooked, winding.<br> +<b>tra</b> (<i>prep.</i>), through (<b>46, 160</b>).<br> +<b>trab-o</b>, beam (wooden).<br> +<b>traduk-i</b>, to translate.<br> +<b>traf-i</b>, to reach, attain (that which was aimed at or sought); maltrafi, to miss.<br> +<b>trajt-o</b>, feature.<br> +<b>trakt-i</b>, to treat of (in essay, speech, etc.); <b>—ato</b>, treatise.<br> +<b>tram-o</b>, tram; <b>—vojo</b>, tramway, street-car line; <b>—veturilo</b>, street-car.<br> +<b>tranĉ-i</b>, to cut, sever.<br> +<b>trankvil-a</b>, serene, tranquil, calm.<br> +<b>trans</b> (<i>prep.</i>), across, the other side of (<b>160</b>).<br> +<b>tre</b> (<i>adv.</i>), very, very much.<br> +<b>trem-i</b>, to tremble.<br> +<b>tremp-i</b>, to drench, dip.<br> +<b>tren-i</b>, to drag, haul, draw; <b>—aĵo</b>, train (of a dress).<br> +<b>trezor-o</b>, treasure.<br> +<b>tri</b> (<i>adj.</i>), three (<b>136</b>).<br> +<b>trik-i</b>, to knit.<br> +<b>trink-i</b>, to drink.<br> +<b>tritik-o</b>, wheat.<br> +<b>triumf-o</b>, triumph.<br> +<b>tro</b> (<i>adv.</i>), too, too much.<br> +<b>tromp-i</b>, to deceive.<br> +<b>tron-o</b>, throne.<br> +<b>tropik-o</b>, tropic.<br> +<b>trot-i</b>, to trot.<br> +<b>trotuar-o</b>, sidewalk, pavement.<br> +<b>trov-i</b>, to find.<br> +<b>tru-o</b>, hole.<br> +<b>trud-i</b>, to force upon, impose; altrudema, importunate.<br> +<b>trunk-o</b>, trunk (of tree or body).<br> +<b>tualet-o</b>, toilet.<br> +<b>tub-o</b>, tube, pipe.<br> +<b>tuber-o</b>, bulb, knot, tuber.<br> +<b>tuj</b> (<i>adv.</i>), at once, immediately<br> +<b>tuk-o</b>, piece of cloth.<br> + +<b>tur-o</b>, tower.<br> +<b>turk-o</b>, Turk.<br> +<b>turment-i</b>, to torment.<br> +<b>turn-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to turn.<br> +<b>tus-i</b>, to cough.<br> +<b>tuŝ-i</b>, to touch; kortuŝi, to touch (the heart of).<br> +<b>tut-a</b>, entire, whole, all.<br> + +<p><b>U.</b></p> + +<b>-uj-</b>, <i>suffix indicating receptacle, that which bears or contains</i> (<b>181</b>).<br> +<b>-ul-</b>, <i>suffix indicating person characterized by that in the root</i> (<b>132</b>).<br> +<b>ulm-o</b>, elm.<br> +<b>-um-</b>, indefinite suffix (<b>268</b>).<br> +<b>ung-o</b>, nail (of finger); <b>—ego</b>, claw, talon.<br> +<b>univers-o</b>, universe.<br> +<b>universitat-o</b>, university.<br> +<b>unu</b> (<i>adj.</i>), one (<b>136, 137, 180</b>); unuiĝo, union.<br> +<b>uragan-o</b>, hurricane.<br> +<b>urb-o</b>, city; ĉefurbo, capital.<br> +<b>urĝ-i</b>, to be urgent or pressing.<br> +<b>urs-o</b>, bear.<br> +<b>Uson-o</b>, United States of America.<br> +<b>util-a</b>, useful.<br> +<b>uz-i</b>, to use; trouzi, to abuse.<br> + +<p><b>V.</b></p> + +<b>vad-i</b>, to wade.<br> +<b>vafl-o</b>, waffle.<br> +<b>vag-i</b>, to wander, to roam; <b>—isto</b>, vagabond.<br> +<b>vagon-o</b>, car, railway carriage.<br> +<b>vak-i</b>, to be vacant.<br> +<b>vaks-o</b>, wax.<br> +<b>val-o</b>, valley.<br> +<b>valiz-o</b>, valise, satchel, bag.<br> +<b>valor-i</b>, to be worth.<br> +<b>vals-i</b>, to waltz.<br> +<b>van-a</b>, vain, fruitless.<br> +<b>vang-o</b>, cheek.<br> +<b>vant-a</b>, vain, conceited.<br> +<b>vapor-o</b>, steam, vapor.<br> +<b>varb-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to enlist, recruit.<br> +<b>varm-a</b>, warm.<br> +<b>vast-a</b>, vast, spacious, extensive.<br> +<b>vaz-o</b>, vase, basin.<br> +<b>ve!</b> (<i>interjection</i>), woe! ho ve! alas! (<b>273</b>).<br> +<b>veget-i</b>, to vegetate, grow (as plants).<br> +<b>vegetar-a</b>, vegetarian.<br> +<b>vejn-o</b>, vein.<br> +<b>vek-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to wake, awake.<br> +<b>vel-o</b>, sail.<br> +<b>velk-i</b>, to fade, wither, wilt.<br> +<b>velur-o</b>, velvet.<br> +<b>ven-i</b>, to come.<br> +<b>vend-i</b>, to sell.<br> + +<b>vendred-o</b>, Friday.<br> +<b>venen-o</b>, poison.<br> +<b>venĝ-i</b>, to avenge.<br> +<b>venk-i</b>, to conquer, vanquish.<br> +<b>vent-o</b>, wind.<br> +<b>ver-o</b>, truth.<br> +<b>verand-o</b>, veranda, porch.<br> +<b>verd-a</b>, green.<br> +<b>verk-i</b>, to compose (music or literature).<br> +<b>verm-o</b>, worm.<br> +<b>vermiĉel-o</b>, vermicelli.<br> +<b>vers-o</b>, verse.<br> +<b>verŝ-i</b>, to pour (a liquid).<br> +<b>vertikal-a</b>, vertical.<br> +<b>vesper-o</b>, evening (<b>93</b>).<br> +<b>vest-i</b>, to clothe, dress.<br> +<b>veŝt-o</b>, vest, waistcoat.<br> +<b>vet-i</b>, to wager, bet.<br> +<b>veter-o</b>, weather.<br> +<b>vetur-i</b>, to ride, go (in vehicle, boat, etc.).<br> +<b>vi</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), you (<b>32, 37, 274</b>).<br> +<b>viand-o</b>, meat.<br> +<b>vibr-i</b>, to vibrate.<br> +<b>vic-o</b>, turn, place in a series; laŭvice, in turn; siavice, in his (her, its, their) turn; vicprezidanto, vice-president.<br> +<b>vid-i</b>, to see.<br> +<b>vidv-o</b>, widower; <b>—ino</b>, widow.<br> +<b>vigl-a</b>, alert, brisk.<br> +<b>vilaĝ-o</b>, village.<br> +<b>vin-o</b>, wine.<br> +<b>vinagr-o</b>, vinegar.<br> +<b>vinber-o</b>, grape; sekvinbero, raisin.<br> +<b>vintr-o</b>, winter.<br> +<b>viol-o</b>, violet.<br> +<b>violon-o</b>, violin.<br> +<b>vip-i</b>, to whip.<br> +<b>vir-o</b>, man<br> +<b>virt-o</b>, virtue.<br> +<b>viŝ-i</b>, to wipe.<br> +<b>vitr-o</b>, glass (material).<br> +<b>viv-i</b>, to live (<b>133</b>).<br> +<b>vizaĝ-o</b>, face, visage.<br> +<b>vizit-i</b>, to visit.<br> +<b>voĉ-o</b>, voice; <b>—doni</b>, to vote.<br> +<b>voj-o</b>, road, way.<br> +<b>vojaĝ-i</b>, to journey, travel, voyage.<br> +<b>vok-i</b>, to call.<br> +<b>vokal-o</b>, vowel.<br> +<b>vol-i</b>, to be willing, will, wish.<br> +<b>volont-e</b>, willingly.<br> +<b>volum-o</b>, volume (book).<br> +<b>volumen-o</b>, volume (of a body).<br> +<b>volv-i</b>, to roll (something around something).<br> +<b>vort-o</b>, word; <b>—aro</b>, dictionary.<br> +<b>vost-o</b>, tail.<br> +<b>vual-o</b>, veil.<br> +<b>vulgar-a</b>, common, vulgar.<br> +<b>vulp-o</b>, fox.<br> +<b>vund-i</b>, to wound.<br> + +<p><b>Z.</b></p> + +<b>zenit-o</b>, zenith.<br> +<b>zigzag-o</b>, zigzag.<br> +<b>zingibr-o</b>, ginger.<br> +<b>zink-o</b>, zinc.<br> +<b>zon-o</b>, girdle, belt, zone.<br> +<b>zoologi-o</b>, zoology.<br> +<b>zorg-i</b>, to care (for), be anxious (about).<br> +<b>zum-i</b>, to hum, buzz.<br> + +<hr align="center" width="38%"> + +<center><b>ENGLISH-ESPERANTO VOCABULARY.</b></center> + +<p> +The following vocabulary includes all Esperanto roots used in the +preceding lessons, all primary words of the language, and a large number +of additional roots (to facilitate original composition). No attempt +has been made, however, to include all of the roots of the language, +or their various English meanings, for which an English-Esperanto +Dictionary should be consulted. +</p> + +<p> +References are to sections, unless the page (p.) is given. For other parts of +speech than those indicated, see Word Formation, 116, 120, 159, 171, also the +references under Prefixes and Suffixes in the Index. For formation of compound +words other than those given, see 160, 167, 176, 184. The following +abbreviations are used: adj. = adjective; adv. = adverb; conj. = conjunction; +intrans. = intransitive; prep. = preposition; trans. = transitive; — = +repetition of the English word. +</p> + +<p><b>A.</b></p> + +<b>abandon</b>, forlas-i.<br> +<b>abash</b>, hontig-i.<br> +<b>(be) able</b>, pov-i (<b>72</b>).<br> +<b>abominable</b>, abomen-a.<br> +<b>about</b> (<i>prep.</i>), ĉirkaŭ; (<b>concerning</b>) pri; (<i>adv.</i>), (approximately, proksimum-e.<br> +<b>above</b> (<i>prep.</i>), super (<b>159</b>); (<i>adv.</i>), supr-e; ĉi supre.<br> +<b>abrupt</b>, subit-a.<br> +<b>absorb</b>, sorb-i.<br> +<b>abundant</b>, sufiĉeg-a.<br> +<b>academy</b>, akademi-o.<br> +<b>accelerate</b> (<i>trans.</i>), akcel-i.<br> +<b>accent</b>, akcent-o.<br> +<b>accept</b>, akcept-i.<br> +<b>accident</b>, akcident-o; (<b>chance</b>) okaz-o.<br> +<b>accompany</b>, akompan-i.<br> +<b>(in) accordance with</b> (<i>prep.</i>), laŭ (<b>191</b>).<br> + +<b>account</b>, kont-o; (<b>bill</b>) kalkul-o; (<b>story</b>) rakont-o.<br> +<b>(on) account of</b> (<i>prep.</i>), pro (<b>86</b>).<br> +<b>accurate</b>, akurat-a.<br> +<b>accusative</b>, akuzativ-o.<br> +<b>accuse</b>, akuz-i, kulpig-i.<br> +<b>accustomed</b>, familiar-a, kutimit-a.<br> +<b>ache</b>, dolor-o.<br> +<b>acid</b>, acid-o.<br> +<b>(be) acquainted with</b>, kon-i (<b>117</b>); <b>become —</b>, konatiĝ-i. acquire, akir-i.<br> +<b>across</b> (<i>prep.</i>), trans.<br> +<b>act</b>, ag-i; <b>—on</b>, efik-i; (<b>behave</b>) kondut-i; (<b>of play</b>) akt-o.<br> +<b>active</b>, agema; (<b>grammatical</b>), aktiv-a.<br> +<b>actor</b>, aktor-o.<br> +<b>actual</b>, efektiv-a, ver-a.<br> +<b>acute</b>, akr-a.<br> +<b>add</b>, aldon-i (<b>160</b>).<br> +<b>address</b> (<b>on letters, etc.</b>) adres-o; (<b>lecture</b>) parolad-o.<br> +<b>adequate</b>, sufiĉ-a.<br> +<b>adjacent</b>, apud-a (<b>159</b>).<br> +<b>adjective</b>, adjektiv-o.<br> +<b>administer</b> (<b>manage</b>), administr-i.<br> +<b>admire</b>, admir-i.<br> +<b>admit</b>, konfes-i; (<b>let in</b>) allas-i.<br> +<b>admonish</b>, admon-i.<br> +<b>adore</b>, ador-i.<br> +<b>adorn</b>, ornam-i.<br> +<b>adverb</b>, adverb-o.<br> +<b>advantage</b>, util-o, profit-o.<br> +<b>advertise</b>, reklam-i.<br> +<b>advise</b>, konsil-i.<br> +<b>affable</b>, afabl-a.<br> +<b>affair</b>, afer-o; <b>regrettable —</b>, domaĝ-o.<br> +<b>affirmative</b>, jes-a (<b>171</b>).<br> +<b>(be) afraid</b>, tim-i.<br> +<b>Africa</b>, Afrik-o.<br> +<b>after</b> (<i>prep.</i>), post (<b>89</b>).<br> +<b>afternoon</b>, posttagmez-o.<br> +<b>again</b>, denov-e, re-e (<b>223</b>).<br> +<b>against</b> (<i>prep.</i>), kontraŭ.<br> +<b>age</b>, aĝ-o; <b>of —</b>, plenaĝ-a; <b>old —</b>, maljunec-o.<br> +<b>(give an) agency</b>, komisi-i.<br> +<b>agent</b>, agent-o.<br> +<b>agitate</b>, agit-i.<br> +<b>agony</b>, agoni-o.<br> +<b>agree</b>, konsent-i; (<b>contract</b>) kontrakt-i.<br> +<b>agreeable</b>, agrabl-a.<br> +<b>aid</b>, help-i.<br> +<b>aim at</b>, cel-i.<br> +<b>air</b>, aer-o; <b>to —</b>, aerum-i; (<b>music</b>) ari-o.<br> +<b>alas!</b>, ho ve (<b>273</b>).<br> +<b>alcohol</b>, alkohol-o.<br> +<b>alcove</b>, alkov-o.<br> +<b>alert</b>, vigl-a.<br> +<b>Alexander</b>, Aleksandr-o.<br> + +<b>Alexandria</b>, Aleksandri-o.<br> +<b>Alfred</b>, Alfred-o.<br> +<b>algebra</b>, algebr-o.<br> +<b>alive</b>, viv-a.<br> +<b>all</b> (<i>pronoun and adj.</i>), ĉiuj (<b>173</b>); (<i>indefinite pronoun</i>) ĉio (<b>233</b>); (<i>adv. of quantity</i>) ĉiom (<b>194</b>); (<b>whole, entire</b>) tut-a.<br> +<b>alliance</b>, lig-o.<br> +<b>allow</b>, permes-i.<br> +<b>allude</b>, alud-i.<br> +<b>allure</b>, log-i.<br> +<b>almanac</b>, almanak-o.<br> +<b>almost</b> (<i>adv.</i>), preskaŭ.<br> +<b>alms</b>, almoz-o.<br> +<b>alone</b>, sol-a.<br> +<b>along</b> (<i>prep.</i>), laŭ (<b>191</b>); <b>— with</b>, kune kun.<br> +<b>aloud</b>, laŭt-e.<br> +<b>alphabet</b>, alfabet-o.<br> +<b>already</b> (<i>adv.</i>), jam.<br> +<b>also</b> (<i>adv.</i>), ankaŭ.<br> +<b>altar</b>, altar-o.<br> +<b>alter</b> (<i>trans.</i>), ŝanĝ-i, aliig-i.<br> +<b>although</b> (<i>conj.</i>), kvankam.<br> +<b>always</b> (<i>adv.</i>), ĉiam (<b>187</b>).<br> +<b>America</b>, Amerik-o.<br> +<b>amiable</b>, afabl-a, amind-a.<br> +<b>amid</b>, meze de, inter (<b>85</b>).<br> +<b>among</b> (<i>prep.</i>), inter (<b>85</b>).<br> +<b>amount</b>, sum-o, kvant-o; <b>a certain —</b>, iom (<b>217</b>).<br> +<b>amphibious</b>, amfibi-a.<br> +<b>amphitheatre</b>, amfiteatr-o.<br> +<b>amuse</b>, amuz-i.<br> +<b>analyse</b>, analiz-i.<br> +<b>ancestor</b>, prapatr-o (<b>282</b>).<br> +<b>anchor</b>, ankr-o.<br> +<b>ancient</b>, antikv-a.<br> +<b>and</b> (<i>conj.</i>), kaj (<b>26</b>).<br> +<b>anecdote</b>, anekdot-o.<br> +<b>anew</b>, denov-e.<br> +<b>angel</b>, anĝel-o.<br> +<b>angle</b>, angul-o.<br> +<b>angry</b>, koler-a.<br> +<b>animal</b>, best-o.<br> +<b>ankle</b>, maleol-o.<br> +<b>announce</b>, anonc-i.<br> +<b>annoy</b>, ĉagren-i.<br> +<b>anoint</b>, ŝmir-i.<br> +<b>answer</b>, respond-i.<br> +<b>ant</b>, formik-o.<br> +<b>antelope</b>, antilop-o.<br> +<b>antipathy</b>, antipati-o.<br> +<b>antique</b>, antikv-a.<br> +<b>anvil</b>, ambos-o.<br> +<b>anxious</b>, maltrankvil-a.<br> +<b>any</b> (<i>pronoun and adj.</i>), iu (<b>203</b>); (<i>adv. of quantity</i>) iom (<b>217</b>); <b>—kind</b>, <b>—time</b>, <b>—thing</b>, etc., see table, 235.<br> +<b>any more</b> (<i>adv.</i>), plu.<br> +<b>apartment</b>, apartament-o.<br> +<b>apathy</b>, apati-o.<br> +<b>apologise</b>, pardonon pet-i.<br> +<b>apology</b> (<b>defence</b>), apologi-o.<br> + +<b>apparatus</b>, aparat-o.<br> +<b>appear</b> (<b>come in sight</b>), aper-i; (<b>seem</b>) ŝajn-i.<br> +<b>appearance</b> (<b>aspect</b>), aspekt-o, mien-o, vidiĝ-o.<br> +<b>appetite</b>, apetit-o.<br> +<b>applaud</b>, aplaŭd-i.<br> +<b>apple</b>, pom-o.<br> +<b>apply</b> (<b>put on</b>), almet-i; <b>— to</b> (<b>for information, etc.</b>), sin turni al.<br> +<b>approach</b>, alproksimiĝ-i al.<br> +<b>appropriate</b>, proprigi al si; (<b>suitable</b>), konven-a, dec-a.<br> +<b>approve</b>, aprob-i.<br> +<b>approximate</b>, proksimum-a.<br> +<b>apricot</b>, abrikot-o.<br> +<b>April</b>, april-o.<br> +<b>apron</b>, antaŭtuk-o.<br> +<b>aquarium</b>, akvari-o.<br> +<b>Arab</b>, arab-o; <b>street —</b>, bub-o.<br> +<b>arbitrate</b>, arbitraci-i.<br> +<b>arbor</b>, laŭb-o.<br> +<b>arc</b>, ark-o.<br> +<b>arcade</b>, arkad-o.<br> +<b>archer</b>, pafarkist-o.<br> +<b>Archimedes</b>, Arĥimed-o.<br> +<b>architecture</b>, arĥitektur-o.<br> +<b>arena</b>, aren-o.<br> +<b>argue</b>, argument-i.<br> +<b>Aristeides</b>, Aristejd-o.<br> +<b>aristocrat</b>, aristokrat-o.<br> +<b>Aristotle</b>, Aristotel-o.<br> +<b>arithmetic</b>, aritmetik-o.<br> +<b>arm</b> (<b>of the body</b>), brak-o; (<b>weapon</b>) armil-o.<br> +<b>army</b>, arme-o.<br> +<b>aroma</b>, arom-o.<br> +<b>around</b> (<i>prep.</i>), ĉirkaŭ (<b>89, 160</b>).<br> +<b>arouse</b>, incit-i, vek-i.<br> +<b>arrange</b>, aranĝ-i.<br> +<b>arrest</b>, arest-i.<br> +<b>arrive</b>, alven-i.<br> +<b>arrogant</b>, arogant-a.<br> +<b>arrow</b>, sag-o.<br> +<b>art</b>, art-o.<br> +<b>Arthur</b>, Artur-o.<br> +<b>article</b> (<b>grammatical, literary</b>) artikol-o.<br> +<b>artificial</b>, artefarit-a.<br> +<b>artless</b>, naiv-a.<br> +<b>as</b> (<i>adv.</i>) kiel; as ... as ... tiel ... kiel ... (<b>156</b>); <b>— if</b>, <b>— though</b>, kvazaŭ (<b>250</b>); <b>— far as</b>, ĝis (prep., 46); <b>— much ... as ...</b>, tiom ... kiom (<b>164</b>).<br> +<b>ascertain</b>, certiĝ-i; <b>— the truth of</b>, konstat-i.<br> +<b>(be) ashamed</b>, hont-i.<br> +<b>ashes</b>, cindr-o.<br> +<b>Asia</b>, Azi-o.<br> +<b>aside from</b> (<i>prep.</i>), krom.<br> +<b>ask</b> (<b>inquire</b>), demand-i; (<b>request</b>), pet-i.<br> +<b>asparagus</b>, asparag-o.<br> +<b>aspect</b>, aspekt-o, mien-o.<br> +<b>ass</b>, azen-o.<br> + +<b>assemble</b>, kunven-i, kunvok-i.<br> +<b>assist</b>, help-i.<br> +<b>association</b> (<b>organization</b>), asoci-o.<br> +<b>assurance</b>, aplomb-o, certigo.<br> +<b>at</b> (<i>prep.</i>), ĉe (<b>125, 160</b>), je (<b>260</b>); <b>— the rate of</b>, po (<b>175</b>).<br> +<b>athlete</b>, atlet-o.<br> +<b>atmosphere</b>, atmosfer-o.<br> +<b>attack</b>, atak-i.<br> +<b>attain</b>, ating-i, traf-i.<br> +<b>attempt</b>, prov-i.<br> +<b>attentive</b>, atent-a.<br> +<b>attest</b>, atest-i.<br> +<b>attribute</b>, atribut-o.<br> +<b>August</b>, aŭgust-o.<br> +<b>Australia</b>, Aŭstrali-o.<br> +<b>author</b>, aŭtor-o, verkist-o.<br> +<b>automatic</b>, aŭtomat-a.<br> +<b>autumn</b>, aŭtun-o.<br> +<b>avaricious</b>, avar-a.<br> +<b>avenge</b>, venĝ-i.<br> +<b>avenue</b>, ale-o, bulvard-o.<br> +<b>avoid</b>, evit-i.<br> +<b>awake</b> (<i>trans.</i>), vek-i.<br> +<b>away</b> (<i>adv.</i>), for (<b>71</b>); (<b>distant</b>), malproksim-e (<b>170</b>).<br> +<b>axe</b>, hakil-o.<br> +<b>axis</b> (<b>axle</b>), aks-o.<br> + +<p><b>B.</b></p> + +<b>babble</b>, babil-i.<br> +<b>baby</b>, infanet-o.<br> +<b>bachelor</b>, fraŭl-o; <b>— of arts (A.B.)</b>, abiturient-o.<br> +<b>back</b> (<b>of the body</b>), dors-o; to the rear (<i>adv.</i>), malantaŭen (<b>121</b>).<br> +<b>bacon</b>, lard-o.<br> +<b>bag</b>, sak-o, valiz-o.<br> +<b>bagatelle</b>, bagatel-o.<br> +<b>bake</b> (<i>trans.</i>), bak-i.<br> +<b>balance</b> (<i>trans.</i>), balanc-i; (<b>scales</b>), pesil-o.<br> +<b>ball</b> (<b>to play with</b>), pilk-o; (<b>dance</b>), bal-o; (<b>globe</b>), glob-o.<br> +<b>banana</b>, banan-o.<br> +<b>band</b> (<b>stripe</b>), stri-o; (<b>music</b>), orkestr-o; (<b>group</b>), ar-o (<b>126</b>).<br> +<b>bandage</b>, bandaĝ-i.<br> +<b>banish</b>, ekzil-i.<br> +<b>bank</b> (<b>financial</b>), bank-o; (<b>shore</b>), bord-o.<br> +<b>(become) bankrupt</b>, bankrot-i<br> +<b>banner</b>, flag-o, standard-o.<br> +<b>banquet</b>, festen-o.<br> +<b>bar</b>, bar-i.<br> +<b>barbarian</b>, barbar-o.<br> +<b>bare</b>, nud-a.<br> +<b>bark</b> (<b>of trees</b>), ŝel-o; (<b>of dogs</b>), boj-i.<br> +<b>barrel</b>, barel-o; <b>— organ</b>, gurd-o.<br> +<b>barren</b>, senfrukt-a.<br> +<b>barrister</b>, advokat-o.<br> +<b>barytone</b>, bariton-o.<br> +<b>base</b> (<b>foundation</b>), fundament-o, baz-o; (<b>ignoble</b>), malnobl-a.<br> +<b>basin</b>, vaz-o, kuv-o.<br> + +<b>basket</b>, korb-o.<br> +<b>bass</b> (<b>voice</b>), bas-o.<br> +<b>bathe</b> (<i>trans.</i>), ban-i.<br> +<b>battle</b>, batal-i.<br> +<b>be</b>, est-i (<b>109</b>).<br> +<b>beak</b>, bek-o.<br> +<b>beam</b> (<b>wooden</b>), trab-o; (<b>light</b>), radi-o.<br> +<b>bean</b> (<b>leguminous fruit</b>), fab-o; (<b>garden bean</b>), fazeol-o.<br> +<b>bear</b> (<b>animal</b>), urs-o; (<b>carry</b>), port-i; (<b>endure</b>), elport-i, sufer-i; (<b>produce, give birth to</b>), nask-i.<br> +<b>beard</b>, barb-o.<br> +<b>beast</b>, best-o.<br> +<b>beat</b>, bat-i; (<b>surpass</b>), super-i, venk-i.<br> +<b>beautiful</b>, bel-a.<br> +<b>because</b> (<i>conj.</i>), ĉar (<b>83</b>), tial ke (<b>83</b>); <b>— of</b> (<i>prep.</i>), pro (<b>86</b>).<br> +<b>become</b>, iĝ-i, fariĝ-i (<b>232</b>); (<b>be suitable</b>), konven-i, dec-i.<br> +<b>bed</b>, lit-o.<br> +<b>bee</b>, abel-o.<br> +<b>beef</b>, bovaĵ-o (227, c).<br> +<b>beefsteak</b>, bifstek-o.<br> +<b>beet</b>, bet-o.<br> +<b>before</b> (<i>prep.</i>), antaŭ (<b>89, 90, 120, 159, 160</b>); (<i>conj.</i>), antaŭ ol (<b>97, 98</b>); (<i>adv.</i>), antaŭe, ĵus antaŭe.<br> +<b>beg</b> (request), pet-i; (ask alms), almozon pet-i.<br> +<b>beggar</b>, almozul-o.<br> +<b>begin</b> (<i>trans.</i>), komenc-i (<i>see also prefix</i> ek-, 206).<br> +<b>behave</b>, kondut-i.<br> +<b>behind</b> (<i>prep.</i>), post.<br> +<b>behold</b>, rigard-i, vid-i; (<i>adv.</i>), jen (<b>228</b>).<br> +<b>Belgian</b>, belg-o.<br> +<b>believe</b>, kred-i (<b>265</b>).<br> +<b>bell</b>, sonoril-o.<br> +<b>belong</b>, aparten-i.<br> +<b>below</b> (<i>prep.</i>), sub; (<i>adv.</i>), sub-e, malsupr-e.<br> +<b>belt</b>, zon-o.<br> +<b>bench</b>, benk-o.<br> +<b>bend</b> (<i>trans.</i>), klin-i, fleks-i.<br> +<b>benevolence</b>, bonfar-o.<br> +<b>berry</b>, ber-o.<br> +<b>beside</b> (<i>prep.</i>), krom; (near), apud; (<b>at the side of</b>), flanke de.<br> +<b>bet</b>, vet-i.<br> +<b>betray</b>, perfid-i.<br> +<b>betrothed</b> (<b>man</b>), fianĉ-o.<br> +<b>between</b> (<i>prep.</i>), inter (<b>85, 89</b>).<br> +<b>bewitch</b>, ensorĉ-i.<br> +<b>beyond</b> (<i>prep.</i>), preter.<br> +<b>bicycle</b>, bicikl-o.<br> +<b>bid</b> (<b>order</b>), ordon-i; <b>— farewell</b>, adiaŭ-i.<br> +<b>big</b>, grand-a.<br> +<b>bill</b> (<b>of bird</b>), bek-o; <b>bank —</b>, bankbilet-o; <b>hand—</b>, afiŝ-o; (<b>reckoning</b>), kalkul-o.<br> + +<b>bind</b> (<b>fasten</b>), lig-i; (<b>wounds</b>), bandaĝ-i.<br> +<b>bird</b>, bird-o.<br> +<b>biscuit</b>, biskvit-o; (<b>ring-shaped</b>), kring-o.<br> +<b>bit</b> (<b>piece</b>), pec-o; (<i>adv.</i>), iom (<b>217</b>).<br> +<b>bite</b>, mord-i.<br> +<b>black</b>, nigr-a; <b>to —</b> (<b>shoes, etc.</b>), cir-i.<br> +<b>blackberry</b>, rubus-o.<br> +<b>blackbird</b>, merl-o.<br> +<b>blacking</b>, cir-o.<br> +<b>blade</b> (<b>of knife, etc.</b>), kling-o.<br> +<b>bleat</b>, blek-i.<br> +<b>bless</b>, ben-i.<br> +<b>blind</b>, blind-a.<br> +<b>block</b> (<b>of wood</b>), stip-o.<br> +<b>blood</b>, sang-o.<br> +<b>bloom</b>, flor-i (<b>116</b>).<br> +<b>blot</b> (<b>spot</b>), makul-o.<br> +<b>blotter</b>, sorbil-o, sorbpaper-o.<br> +<b>blouse</b>, bluz-o, kitel-o.<br> +<b>blow</b>, blov-i; (<b>stroke</b>), bat-o.<br> +<b>blue</b>, blu-a; <b>—ish</b>, dubeblu-a.<br> +<b>blush</b>, ruĝiĝ-i.<br> +<b>board</b> (<b>plank</b>), tabul-o; (<b>food</b>), nutrad-o.<br> +<b>boast</b>, fanfaron-i.<br> +<b>boat</b>, boat-o, ŝipet-o.<br> +<b>body</b>, korp-o.<br> +<b>boil</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), bol-i (<b>275</b>).<br> +<b>bolt</b> (<b>fasten</b>), rigl-i.<br> +<b>bonbon</b>, bombon-o.<br> +<b>bond</b> (<b>fastening</b>), ligil-o.<br> +<b>bone</b>, ost-o.<br> +<b>book</b>, libr-o; <b>note—</b>, <b>copy—</b>, kajer-o.<br> +<b>boot</b>, bot-o.<br> +<b>border</b> (<b>edge</b>), rand-o.<br> +<b>bore</b> (<b>holes</b>), bor-i; (<b>weary</b>), enuig-i.<br> +<b>(be) born</b>, naskiĝ-i.<br> +<b>borrow</b>, pruntepren-i.<br> +<b>Boston</b>, Boston-o.<br> +<b>both</b> (<i>pronoun and adj.</i>), ambaŭ (<b>238</b>); (<i>adv.</i>), kaj (<b>26</b>).<br> +<b>bottle</b>, botel-o.<br> +<b>bottom</b>, fund-o, malsupr-o.<br> +<b>bough</b>, branĉ-o.<br> +<b>boulevard</b>, bulvard-o.<br> +<b>boundary</b>, lim-o.<br> +<b>bouquet</b>, buked-o.<br> +<b>bow</b> (<b>of ribbon</b>), bant-o; (<b>for shooting</b>), pafark-o.<br> +<b>bow</b> (<b>bend</b>), kliniĝ-i, salut-i.<br> +<b>box</b>, kest-o; <b>small —</b>, skatol-o.<br> +<b>boy</b>, knab-o.<br> +<b>bracket</b> (<b>shelf</b>), bret-o.<br> +<b>brag</b>, fanfaron-i.<br> +<b>braid</b>, plekt-i.<br> +<b>brain</b>, cerb-o.<br> +<b>branch</b> (<b>of tree</b>), branĉ-o; (<b>of work or study</b>), fak-o.<br> +<b>brandish</b>, sving-i.<br> +<b>brandy</b>, brand-o.<br> +<b>brave</b>, brav-o.<br> +<b>bread</b>, pan-o.<br> + +<b>break</b> (<i>trans</i>)., romp-i; <b>— to pieces</b>, frakas-i.<br> +<b>breakfast</b>, matenmanĝ-o.<br> +<b>breathe</b>, spir-i.<br> +<b>brick</b>, brik-o.<br> +<b>bridge</b>, pont-o.<br> +<b>bridle</b>, brid-o.<br> +<b>bright</b> (<b>clear</b>), hel-a.<br> +<b>bring</b>, alport-i; <b>— forth</b> (<b>produce</b>), nask-i; <b>— up</b> (<b>educate</b>), eduk-i.<br> +<b>brisk</b>, vigl-a.<br> +<b>Briton</b>, Brit-o.<br> +<b>broad</b>, larĝ-a.<br> +<b>brochure</b>, broŝur-o.<br> +<b>bronze</b>, bronz-o.<br> +<b>brood</b> (<b>birds</b>), kov-i.<br> +<b>brother</b>, frat-o.<br> +<b>brown</b>, brun-a.<br> +<b>brownie</b>, kobold-o.<br> +<b>bruise</b>, kontuz-i.<br> +<b>brush</b>, bros-i.<br> +<b>brute</b>, brut-o.<br> +<b>bucket</b>, sitel-o.<br> +<b>buckle</b>, buk-o.<br> +<b>bud</b>, burĝon-o.<br> +<b>build</b>, konstru-i.<br> +<b>bulb</b>, tuber-o, bulb-o.<br> +<b>Bulgarian</b>, Bulgar-o.<br> +<b>bull</b>, bovvir-o.<br> +<b>bullet</b>, kugl-o.<br> +<b>bunch</b>, fask-o.<br> +<b>bundle</b>, fask-o, pakaĵ-o.<br> +<b>bungle</b>, fuŝ-i.<br> +<b>burden</b>, ŝarĝ-i.<br> +<b>burn</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), brul-i (<b>275</b>).<br> +<b>burst</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), krev-i.<br> +<b>bury</b>, enterig-i.<br> +<b>but</b> (<i>conj.</i>), sed; (<i>prep.</i>), krom.<br> +<b>butcher</b>, buĉ-i.<br> +<b>butter</b>, buter-o.<br> +<b>butterfly</b>, papili-o.<br> +<b>button</b>, buton-o; <b>to —</b>, butonum-i.<br> +<b>buy</b>, aĉet-i.<br> +<b>buzz</b>, zum-i.<br> +<b>by</b> (<i>prep.</i>), per (<b>64</b>); de (<b>169, 170</b>); (<b>past</b>), preter; (<b>according to</b>), laŭ (<b>191</b>).<br> + +<p><b>C.</b></p> + +<b>cab</b>, fiakr-o.<br> +<b>cabbage</b>, brasik-o.<br> +<b>cage</b>, kaĝ-o.<br> +<b>cake</b>, kuk-o.<br> +<b>calculate</b>, kalkul-i.<br> +<b>caldron</b>, kaldron-o.<br> +<b>calendar</b>, kalendar-o.<br> +<b>calf</b>, bovid-o; (<b>of the leg</b>), tibikarn-o.<br> +<b>call</b>, vok-i; (<b>visit</b>), vizit-i.<br> +<b>calling</b> (<b>profession</b>), profesi-o.<br> +<b>calm</b>, kviet-a, trankvil-a.<br> +<b>camel</b>, kamel-o.<br> +<b>camera</b>, kamer-o.<br> + +<b>can</b> (be able), pov-i (<b>72</b>); (<b>preserve fruit, etc.</b>), konfit-i.<br> +<b>candle</b>, kandel-o.<br> +<b>candy</b>, kand-o.<br> +<b>canoe</b>, kanot-o.<br> +<b>cap</b>, ĉap-o.<br> +<b>capable</b>, kapabl-a.<br> +<b>capital</b> (<b>money</b>), kapital-o; (<b>excellent</b>), boneg-a; (<b>city</b>), ĉefurb-o.<br> +<b>capitol</b>, kapitol-o.<br> +<b>car</b>, vagon-o.<br> +<b>card</b>, kart-o; <b>visiting —</b>, vizitkart-o.<br> +<b>care</b> (<b>for</b>), zorg-i (pri).<br> +<b>caress</b>, dorlot-i, kares-i.<br> +<b>carpet</b>, tapiŝ-o.<br> +<b>carriage</b>, kaleŝ-o, veturil-o.<br> +<b>carrot</b>, karot-o.<br> +<b>carry</b>, port-i.<br> +<b>carve</b>, skulpt-i.<br> +<b>case</b> (<b>small box</b>), skatol-o; (<b>chest</b>), kest-o; (<b>legal</b>), proces-o; (<b>holder</b>), uj-o (<b>181</b>), ing-o (<b>237</b>); (<b>occasion</b>), okaz-o; (<b>grammatical</b>), kaz-o.<br> +<b>cashier</b>, kasist-o.<br> +<b>cascade</b>, kaskad-o.<br> +<b>cast</b>, ĵet-i.<br> +<b>castle</b>, kastel-o.<br> +<b>cat</b>, kat-o.<br> +<b>catch</b>, kapt-i.<br> +<b>cattle</b>, brut-o, brutar-o.<br> +<b>cauliflower</b>, florbrasik-o.<br> +<b>cause</b>, ig-i (<b>214</b>); (<b>produce a result</b>), kaŭz-i; (<b>motive</b>), kial-o; tial-o; (<b>espoused or advocated</b>), afer-o; (<b>legal</b>), proces-o.<br> +<b>caution</b>, avert-i.<br> +<b>cavity</b>, kav-o.<br> +<b>cease</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), ĉes-i.<br> +<b>ceiling</b>, plafon-o.<br> +<b>celebrate</b>, fest-i, solenig-i; <b>—ed</b>, fama.<br> +<b>celery</b>, celeri-o.<br> +<b>cellar</b>, kel-o.<br> +<b>cent</b>, cend-o.<br> +<b>center</b>, centr-o.<br> +<b>centigram</b>, centigram-o (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>centiliter</b>, centilitr-o (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>centimeter</b>, centimetr-o (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>certain</b>, cert-a; <b>a —</b> (<b>one</b>), iu (<i>pronoun and adj.</i>, 203); <b>— amount, etc.</b>, <i>see table</i>, 235.<br> +<b>certainly</b>, nepr-e, cert-e, ja (<b>215</b>).<br> +<b>certify</b>, atest-i, certig-i, konstat-i.<br> +<b>chain</b>, ĉen-o; (<b>fetter</b>), katen-o; (<b>of mountains</b>), montar-o.<br> +<b>chair</b>, seĝ-o.<br> +<b>(be) chairman</b>, prezid-i.<br> +<b>chalk</b>, kret-o.<br> +<b>chance</b>, ŝanc-o; (<b>hazard</b>), hazard-o; (<b>opportunity</b>), okazo.<br> +<b>change</b> (<i>trans.</i>), ŝanĝ-i; (<b>coins</b>), moner-oj.<br> +<b>chapel</b>, kapel-o.<br> +<b>chapter</b>, ĉapitr-o.<br> + +<b>character</b>, karakter-o.<br> +<b>charge</b> (<b>commission</b>), komisi-o; (<b>burden</b>), ŝarĝ-o; (<b>price, cost</b>), prez-o, kost-o.<br> +<b>charm</b>, ĉarm-i.<br> +<b>chase</b> (<b>game, etc.</b>), ĉas-i; (<b>drive off</b>), forpel-i.<br> +<b>chatter</b>, babil-i.<br> +<b>check</b> (<b>on bank</b>), ĉek-o.<br> +<b>cheek</b>, vang-o.<br> +<b>cheese</b>, fromaĝ-o.<br> +<b>chemise</b>, ĉemiz-o.<br> +<b>chemistry</b>, ĥemi-o.<br> +<b>chemist's shop</b>, apotek-o.<br> +<b>cheque</b>, ĉek-o.<br> +<b>cherry</b>, ĉeriz-o.<br> +<b>chest</b> (<b>box</b>), kest-o; (<b>with a lid</b>), kofr-o.<br> +<b>chestnut</b>, kaŝtan-o.<br> +<b>chew</b>, maĉ-i.<br> +<b>chief</b>, ĉef-a, precip-a; (<b>leader</b>), estr-o (<b>253</b>).<br> +<b>child</b>, infan-o, id-o (<b>207</b>).<br> +<b>chimney</b>, kamen-o.<br> +<b>chin</b>, menton-o.<br> +<b>china</b> (<b>porcelain</b>), porcelan-o; (<b>country</b>), Ĥinuj-o.<br> +<b>Chinaman</b>, ĥin-o.<br> +<b>chirp</b>, pep-i.<br> +<b>chocolate</b>, ĉokolad-o.<br> +<b>choir</b>, ĥor-o.<br> +<b>choose</b>, elekt-i.<br> +<b>chop</b>, hak-i; (<b>cutlet</b>), kotlet-o.<br> +<b>chrestomathy</b>, krestomati-o.<br> +<b>Christ</b>, Krist-o.<br> +<b>church</b> (<b>building</b>), preĝej-o.<br> +<b>chute</b>, ŝut-o.<br> +<b>cigar</b>, cigar-o.<br> +<b>cigarette</b>, cigared-o.<br> +<b>cinnamon</b>, cinam-o.<br> +<b>cipher</b>, cifer-o.<br> +<b>circle</b>, cirkl-o, rond-o.<br> +<b>circular</b> (<b>letter, etc.</b>), cirkuler-o.<br> +<b>circumstance</b>, okaz-o, detal-o, cirkonstanc-o.<br> +<b>citizen</b>, regnan-o, urban-o.<br> +<b>city</b>, urb-o.<br> +<b>civilise</b>, civiliz-i.<br> +<b>clack</b>, krak-i.<br> +<b>claim</b>, pretend-i.<br> +<b>clamber</b>, ramp-i.<br> +<b>clap</b> (<i>trans.</i>), klak-i.<br> +<b>class</b>, klas-o.<br> +<b>clatter</b>, (<i>trans.</i>), klak-i.<br> +<b>claw</b>, ungeg-o.<br> +<b>clay</b>, argil-o.<br> +<b>clean</b>, pur-a.<br> +<b>clear</b> (<b>bright</b>), hela; (<b>distinct</b>), klar-a.<br> +<b>clearing</b> (<b>financial</b>), spez-o.<br> +<b>clergyman</b>, pastr-o.<br> +<b>clerk</b>, komiz-o.<br> +<b>clever</b>, lert-a.<br> +<b>climate</b>, klimat-o.<br> +<b>climb up</b>, grimp-i, supren ramp-i.<br> +<b>cloak</b>, mantel-o.<br> +<b>clock</b>, horloĝ-o.<br> + +<b>close</b> (<i>trans.</i>), ferm-i; (<b>dense</b>), dens-a; <b>— to</b> (<i>prep.</i>), apud; proksim-e de (<b>170</b>).<br> +<b>cloth</b> (<b>in general</b>), ŝtof-o; (woollen, etc.), drap-o; (<b>piece of</b>), tuk-o; <b>table—</b>, tablotuk-o.<br> +<b>clothe</b>, vest-i.<br> +<b>cloud</b>, nub-o.<br> +<b>club</b> (<b>organization</b>), klub-o; (<b>weapon</b>), bastoneg-o.<br> +<b>coal</b>, karb-o.<br> +<b>coat</b>, vest-o; (<b>short</b>), jak-o; (<b>frock</b>), redingot-o; <b>over—</b>, surtut-o.<br> +<b>cock</b> (<b>fowl</b>), kok-o.<br> +<b>coffee</b>, kaf-o.<br> +<b>collect</b> (<i>trans.</i>), kolekt-i.<br> +<b>college</b>, kolegi-o.<br> +<b>colonel</b>, kolonel-o.<br> +<b>color</b>, kolor-o.<br> +<b>column</b>, kolon-o.<br> +<b>comb</b>, komb-i.<br> +<b>come</b>, ven-i.<br> +<b>comedy</b>, komedi-o.<br> +<b>comfort</b> (<b>console</b>), konsol-i; (<b>freedom from pain, etc.</b>), komfort-o.<br> +<b>command</b>, ordon-i; (<b>military and naval</b>), komand-i.<br> +<b>commerce</b>, komerc-o.<br> +<b>commission</b> (<b>entrusted</b>), komisi-o; (<b>percentage of profit</b>), tantiem-o, komisipag-o.<br> +<b>committee</b>, komitat-o.<br> +<b>common</b> (<b>general</b>), ĝeneral-a; (<b>mutual</b>), komun-a; (<b>vulgar</b>), vulgar-a.<br> +<b>communicate</b>, komunik-i.<br> +<b>company</b> (<b>commercial</b>), kompanio; (<b>guests</b>), gastar-o; (<b>presence</b>), ĉeest-o.<br> +<b>compare</b> (<i>trans.</i>), kompar-i (<b>266</b>).<br> +<b>compassion</b>, kompat-o.<br> +<b>compete</b>, konkur-i.<br> +<b>competition</b>, konkurad-o; (<b>for prizes</b>), konkurs-o; (<b>in business</b>), konkurenc-o.<br> +<b>complain</b>, plend-i.<br> +<b>complicate</b>, komplik-i.<br> +<b>compose</b> (<b>music or literature</b>), verk-i.<br> +<b>compositor</b> (<b>of type</b>), kompostist-o.<br> +<b>conceal</b>, kaŝ-i (<b>252</b>).<br> +<b>concern</b>, koncern-i (<b>266</b>); (<b>anxiety</b>), maltrankvilec-o.<br> +<b>concerning</b> (<i>prep.</i>), pri. (264, c).<br> +<b>concert</b> (<b>musical</b>), koncert-o.<br> +<b>condemn</b>, kondamn-i.<br> +<b>condition</b>, cirkonstanc-o; (<b>stipulation</b>), kondiĉ-o; (<b>state</b>), stat-o.<br> +<b>conduct</b> (<b>lead</b>), konduk-i; <b>— oneself</b> (<b>behave</b>), kondut-i.<br> +<b>conduct</b> (<b>behavior</b>), kondut-o; (<b>in regard to right or wrong</b>), mor-o.<br> +<b>conductor</b> (<b>of car, etc.</b>), konduktor-o.<br> +<b>confess</b>, konfes-i.<br> + +<b>confide</b>, konfid-i.<br> +<b>conform</b>, konform-i (<b>266</b>).<br> +<b>confound</b> (<b>confuse</b>), konfuz-i.<br> +<b>congratulate</b>, gratul-i.<br> +<b>congress</b>, kongres-o.<br> +<b>conquer</b>, venk-i.<br> +<b>conscience</b>, konscienc-o.<br> +<b>(be) conscious</b>, konsci-i.<br> +<b>consent</b>, konsent-i.<br> +<b>consequently</b>, sekv-e, do; tial (<b>78</b>).<br> +<b>(be) conservative</b>, konservativ-a.<br> +<b>consist</b>, konsist-i.<br> +<b>console</b>, konsol-i.<br> +<b>consonant</b> (<b>letter</b>), konsonant-o.<br> +<b>conspire</b>, konspir-i.<br> +<b>constant</b>, konstant-a.<br> +<b>constitution</b>, konstituci-o.<br> +<b>consul</b>, konsul-o.<br> +<b>consult</b>, konsult-i, pet-i konsilon de.<br> +<b>contaminate</b>, infekt-i.<br> +<b>content</b>, kontent-a.<br> +<b>continent</b> (<b>land</b>), kontinent-o.<br> +<b>continue</b>, daŭr-i, daŭrig-i.<br> +<b>contour</b>, kontur-o.<br> +<b>contract</b> (<b>commercial and legal</b>), kontrakt-i.<br> +<b>contralto</b>, kontralt-o.<br> +<b>contrary</b>, mal-o (<b>67</b>); kontraŭstarem-a.<br> +<b>control</b>, kontrol-i; (<b>govern</b>), reg-i.<br> +<b>convenient</b>, konven-a, oportun-a.<br> +<b>convince</b>, konvink-i.<br> +<b>cook</b>, kuir-i.<br> +<b>copper</b>, kupr-o.<br> +<b>copy</b>, kopi-i; (<b>of a book, etc.</b>), ekzempler-o.<br> +<b>coquettish</b>, koket-a.<br> +<b>cork</b>, ŝtop-i; (<b>bark of cork tree</b>), kork-o.<br> +<b>corner</b>, angul-o.<br> +<b>corporal</b>, corporeal, korp-a.<br> +<b>corps</b> (<b>military</b>), korpus-o.<br> +<b>corpse</b>, kadavr-o.<br> +<b>correct</b>, korekt-i; (<b>right</b>), prav-a.<br> +<b>correspond</b>, korespond-i.<br> +<b>corridor</b>, koridor-o.<br> +<b>cost</b>, kost-i.<br> +<b>costume</b>, kostum-o.<br> +<b>cotton</b>, koton-o.<br> +<b>cough</b>, tus-i.<br> +<b>counsel</b>, konsil-i.<br> +<b>count</b>, kalkul-i, sum-i, nombr-i; (<b>person</b>), graf-o.<br> +<b>county</b>, grafland-o.<br> +<b>country</b>, land-o; (<b>as opposed to city</b>), kampar-o.<br> +<b>coupon</b>, kupon-o.<br> +<b>(be) courageous</b>, kuraĝ-i.<br> +<b>course</b> (<b>of lessons</b>), kurs-o; (<b>of a meal</b>), servic-o; <b>of —</b>, kompreneble; <b>in the — of</b>, en la daŭro de.<br> +<b>court</b>, kort-o, korteg-o, juĝej-o.<br> +<b>courteous</b>, ĝentil-a.<br> +<b>courtesy</b>, ĝentilec-o; (<b>kindness</b>), komplez-o.<br> + +<b>cousin</b>, kuz-o.<br> +<b>cover</b>, kovr-i; (<b>put covering upon</b>), teg-i.<br> +<b>crab</b>, krab-o.<br> +<b>crack</b> (<b>split</b>) (<i>trans.</i>), fend-i; (<b>crackle</b>), krak-i; (<b>burst open</b>) (<i>intrans.</i>), krev-i.<br> +<b>cradle</b>, lulil-o.<br> +<b>crafty</b>, ruz-a.<br> +<b>cravat</b>, kravat-o.<br> +<b>crawl</b>, ramp-i.<br> +<b>crazy</b>, frenez-a.<br> +<b>cream</b>, krem-o.<br> +<b>create</b>, kre-i.<br> +<b>creep</b>, ramp-i; <b>— up</b>, grimp-i.<br> +<b>crime</b>, krim-o.<br> +<b>crippled</b>, kripl-a.<br> +<b>criticise</b>, kritik-i.<br> +<b>crooked</b>, tord-a, malrekt-a, kurb-a.<br> +<b>cross</b>, kruc-o; (<b>angry</b>), koler-a; <b>— off</b>, trastrek-i.<br> +<b>crowd</b>, amas-o, anar-o (<b>145, 126</b>).<br> +<b>crown</b>, kron-o.<br> +<b>crucify</b>, krucum-i.<br> +<b>cruel</b>, kruel-a.<br> +<b>crush</b>, pist-i, premeg-i.<br> +<b>crust</b>, krust-o.<br> +<b>cry</b> (<b>weep</b>), plor-i; (<b>shout</b>), kri-i; (<b>of animals</b>), blek-i.<br> +<b>cucumber</b>, kukum-o.<br> +<b>cultivate</b>, kultur-i; <b>— the soil</b>, terkultur-i.<br> +<b>cunning</b>, ruz-a.<br> +<b>cup</b>, tas-o; (<b>goblet</b>), pokal-o.<br> +<b>cupboard</b>, ŝrank-o.<br> +<b>curious</b> (<b>odd</b>), kurioz-a; (<b>inquisitive</b>), scivol-a.<br> +<b>curl</b> (<b>of hair</b>), bukl-o.<br> +<b>curtain</b>, kurten-o.<br> +<b>curve</b>, kurb-o.<br> +<b>cushion</b>, kusen-o.<br> +<b>custom</b>, kutim-o; (<b>tax</b>), impost-o.<br> +<b>cut</b>, tranĉ-i; (<b>of a garment</b>), fason-o.<br> +<b>cutlet</b>, kotlet-o.<br> +<b>cylinder</b>, cilindr-o.<br> +<b>Cyrus</b>, Cirus-o.<br> + +<p><b>D.</b></p> + +<b>dabble</b> (<b>a liquid</b>), plaŭd-i.<br> +<b>dainty</b>, delikat-a.<br> +<b>damage</b>, difekt-i.<br> +<b>Damocles</b>, Damokl-o.<br> +<b>Dane</b>, dan-o.<br> +<b>danger</b>, danĝer-o.<br> +<b>dance</b>, danc-i.<br> +<b>date</b> (<b>fruit</b>), daktil-o; (<b>time</b>), dat-o.<br> +<b>dawn</b>, tagiĝ-o.<br> +<b>day</b>, tag-o.<br> +<b>deaf</b>, surd-a.<br> +<b>dear</b> (<b>prized</b>), kar-a; (<b>expensive</b>), multekost-a.<br> +<b>debase</b> (<b>adulterate</b>), fals-i; (<b>make bad</b>), malbonig-i.<br> + +<b>decay</b> (<b>mould</b>), ŝim-o; (<b>in health</b>), kaduk-i.<br> +<b>deceive</b>, tromp-i.<br> +<b>December</b>, decembr-o.<br> +<b>decide</b>, decid-i.<br> +<b>decigram</b>, decigram-o (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>deciliter</b>, decilitr-o (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>decimeter</b>, decimetr-o (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>deck (of ship)</b>, ferdek-o; (<b>adorn</b>), ornam-i.<br> +<b>declaim</b>, deklam-i.<br> +<b>deep</b>, profund-a.<br> +<b>deer</b>, cerv-o.<br> +<b>defend</b>, defend-i.<br> +<b>define</b>, defin-i, priskrib-i.<br> +<b>degree</b>, grad-o.<br> +<b>dekagram</b>, dekagram-o (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>dekaliter</b>, dekalitr-o (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>dekameter</b>, dekametr-o (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>delay</b>, prokrast-i.<br> +<b>delegate</b>, deleg-i.<br> +<b>delicate</b>, delikat-a.<br> +<b>delightful</b>, ĉarm-a, plaĉeg-a.<br> +<b>deliver (supply)</b>, liver-i; (<b>set free</b>), liberig-i.<br> +<b>delusion</b>, iluzi-o.<br> +<b>demand</b>, postul-i.<br> +<b>dense</b>, dens-a.<br> +<b>deny</b>, ne-i (<b>171</b>).<br> +<b>department (of work, etc.)</b>, fak-o.<br> +<b>desert</b>, dezert-o; (<b>just reward</b>), merit-o.<br> +<b>deserve</b>, merit-i.<br> +<b>desire</b>, dezir-i.<br> +<b>desk</b>, pupitr-o, skribtabl-o.<br> +<b>dessert</b>, desert-o.<br> +<b>destine</b>, destin-i; difin-i.<br> +<b>destiny</b>, destin-o; (<b>lot</b>), sort-o.<br> +<b>destroy</b>, detru-i, neniig-i.<br> +<b>detail</b>, detal-o.<br> +<b>dew</b>, ros-o.<br> +<b>diamond</b>, diamant-o.<br> +<b>dictionary</b>, vortar-o.<br> +<b>dictate (letters)</b>, dikt-i.<br> +<b>die</b>, mort-i.<br> +<b>different</b>, divers-a, malsam-a, diferenc-a.<br> +<b>differentiate</b>, diferencig-i.<br> +<b>dig</b>, fos-i.<br> +<b>dignity (rank)</b>, rang-o.<br> +<b>diligent</b>, diligent-a.<br> +<b>dimension</b>, dimensio; (<b>size</b>), ampleks-o.<br> +<b>Diogenes</b>, Diogen-o.<br> +<b>dip (in liquid)</b>, tremp-i.<br> +<b>diploma</b>, diplom-o; <b>holder of —</b>, diplomit-o.<br> +<b>diplomat</b>, diplomat-o.<br> +<b>direct (guide)</b>, direkt-i; (<b>undeviating</b>), rekt-a.<br> +<b>disburse</b>, elspez-i, elpag-i.<br> +<b>discount</b>, rabat-i.<br> +<b>discuss</b>, diskut-i, priparol-i.<br> +<b>disdain</b>, malŝat-i, malestim-i.<br> +<b>dish (flat)</b>, plad-o.<br> +<b>dispatch (letter)</b>, depeŝ-o.<br> +<b>distance</b>, distanc-o.<br> + +<b>distinct</b>, klar-a.<br> +<b>distinguish</b>, disting-i.<br> +<b>distract (the attention)</b>, distr-i; (<b>confuse</b>), konfuz-i.<br> +<b>disturb</b>, ĝen-i, maltrankvilig-i.<br> +<b>diverse</b>, divers-a.<br> +<b>divide</b> (<i>trans.</i>), divid-i.<br> +<b>do</b>, far-i; (<b>suffice</b>), sufiĉ-i.<br> +<b>doctor</b>, doktor-o; (<b>medical</b>), kuracist-o.<br> +<b>dog</b>, hund-o.<br> +<b>doll</b>, pup-o.<br> +<b>dollar</b>, dolar-o.<br> +<b>donkey</b>, azen-o.<br> +<b>door</b>, pord-o; <b>—handle,</b> ans-o.<br> +<b>doubt</b>, dub-i.<br> +<b>down (hair or feathers)</b>, lanug-o; (<b>downward</b>) (<i>adv.</i>), malsupren.<br> +<b>dove</b>, kolomb-o.<br> +<b>drag</b> (<i>trans.</i>), tren-i.<br> +<b>draw (pull)</b>, tir-i; (<b>sketch</b>), skiz-i.<br> +<b>drawer</b>, tirkest-o.<br> +<b>drawing-room</b>, salon-o.<br> +<b>dream (in sleep)</b>, sonĝ-i; (<b>fancy</b>), rev-i.<br> +<b>drench</b>, tremp-i.<br> +<b>dress</b>, vest-i (sin); (<b>frock</b>), rob-o; <b>—suit</b>, frak-o.<br> +<b>dressing (sauce)</b>, saŭc-o.<br> +<b>drink</b>, trink-i.<br> +<b>drip</b>, gut-i.<br> +<b>drive (off)</b>, pel-i; (<b>vehicle</b>), veturig-i; (<b>roadway</b>), ŝose-o.<br> +<b>drown</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), dron-i.<br> +<b>drug</b>, drog-o; <b>—store</b>, apotek-o.<br> +<b>drum</b>, tambur-o.<br> +<b>dry</b>, sek-a.<br> +<b>duck</b>, anas-o.<br> +<b>dues</b>, kotizaĵ-o; <b>pay —</b>, kotiz-i.<br> +<b>dumb</b>, mut-a; <b>— animal</b>, brut-o.<br> +<b>during</b> (<i>prep.</i>), dum (<b>96</b>); en la daŭro de-.<br> +<b>dusk</b>, krepusk-o.<br> +<b>dust</b>, polv-o; <b>remove the —</b>, senpolvig-i.<br> +<b>duty</b>, dev-o; <b>be on —</b>, deĵor-i.<br> +<b>dwell</b>, loĝ-i.<br> + +<p><b>E.</b></p> + +<b>each</b> (<i>adj. and pronoun</i>), ĉiu (<b>173</b>).<br> +<b>eager</b>, avid-a.<br> +<b>eagle</b>, agl-o.<br> +<b>ear (of the body)</b>, orel-o.<br> +<b>early</b>, fru-a.<br> +<b>earth</b>, ter-o; (<b>the planet</b>), terglob-o.<br> +<b>east</b>, orient-o.<br> +<b>Easter</b>, Pask-o.<br> +<b>easy</b>, facil-a.<br> +<b>eat</b>, manĝ-i.<br> +<b>echo</b>, eĥ-o.<br> +<b>economical</b>, ŝparem-a.<br> +<b>edge</b>, rand-o; (<b>of rivers, etc.</b>), bord-o.<br> +<b>edit</b>, redakt-i.<br> +<b>editor</b>, redaktor-o.<br> +<b>editorial body</b>, redakci-o.<br> + +<b>educate</b>, (<b>rear</b>), eduk-i; (<b>teach</b>), instru-i.<br> +<b>effect</b>, efekt-o.<br> +<b>effective</b>, efektiv-a.<br> +<b>(be) efficacious</b>, efik-i.<br> +<b>egg</b>, ov-o.<br> +<b>Egypt</b>, Egipt-o.<br> +<b>eight</b> (<i>adj.</i>), ok (<b>136</b>).<br> +<b>either</b> (<i>pronoun and adj.</i>), iu (<b>203</b>); ĉiu (<b>173</b>); unu aŭ la alia; (<i>adv.</i>), aŭ; <b>on — side</b> (<i>adv.</i>), ambaŭflanke (<b>238</b>).<br> +<b>elbow</b>, kubut-o.<br> +<b>electric</b>, elektr-a.<br> +<b>elk</b>, alk-o.<br> +<b>elm</b>, ulm-o.<br> +<b>eloquent</b>, elokvent-a.<br> +<b>embroider</b>, brod-i.<br> +<b>eminent</b>, eminent-a.<br> +<b>empire</b>, imperi-o.<br> +<b>employ</b> (<b>hire</b>), dung-i; <b>— oneself</b>, sin okupi; (<b>use</b>), uz-i.<br> +<b>employee</b>, komiz-o, dungit-o, oficist-o.<br> +<b>employment</b>, ofic-o, okupad-o.<br> +<b>enchant</b>, ensorĉ-i, rav-i.<br> +<b>encore</b> (<i>adv.</i>), bis.<br> +<b>end</b> (<i>trans.</i>), fin-i.<br> +<b>endow</b>, dot-i.<br> +<b>endure</b>, sufer-i, elport-i.<br> +<b>engineer</b>, inĝenier-o.<br> +<b>Englishman</b>, angl-o.<br> +<b>enjoy</b>, ĝu-i; <b>— oneself</b>, sin amuz-i.<br> +<b>enlightened</b>, kler-a.<br> +<b>enlist</b> (<i>trans.</i>), varb-i.<br> +<b>enroll</b> (<i>trans.</i>), registr-i, varb-i.<br> +<b>enthusiasm</b>, entuziasm-o.<br> +<b>entire</b>, tut-a.<br> +<b>entrust</b>, komisii, alkonfid-i.<br> +<b>envelope</b> (<b>of letter</b>), kovert-o.<br> +<b>envy</b>, envi-i.<br> +<b>(be an) epicure</b>, frand-i.<br> +<b>epoch</b>, epok-o.<br> +<b>equal</b>, egal-a.<br> +<b>err</b>, erar-i.<br> +<b>establish</b>, establ-i, fond-i; (<b>prove, etc.</b>), konstat-i.<br> +<b>estate</b>, bien-o.<br> +<b>esteem</b>, estim-i.<br> +<b>estimate</b>, taks-i.<br> +<b>eternal</b>, etern-a, ĉiam-a.<br> +<b>Europe</b>, Eŭrop-o.<br> +<b>evangel</b>, evangeli-o.<br> +<b>even</b> (<b>level</b>), eben-a; <b>— number</b>, parnombro; (<b>actually</b>) (<i>adv.</i>), eĉ.<br> +<b>evening</b>, vesper-o (<b>93</b>); <b>— dress (of man)</b>, frak-o.<br> +<b>ever</b> (<i>adv.</i>), iam (<b>212</b>); (<i>indefinite adv.</i>), ajn (<b>236</b>); (<b>always</b>), ĉiam (<b>187</b>).<br> +<b>every</b> (<b>one</b>), (<i>pronoun and adv.</i>), ĉiu (<b>173</b>); <b>—thing</b>, <b>— way</b>, etc., <i>see table</i>, 235.<br> +<b>evolution</b>, evoluci-o.<br> + +<b>exact</b>, akurat-a, ĝust-a; (<b>demand</b>), postul-i.<br> +<b>examine</b>, ekzamen-i; <b>— and check</b>, kontrol-i.<br> +<b>example</b>, ekzempl-o; (<b>model</b>), model-o.<br> +<b>Excellency</b> (<i>title</i>), moŝt-o (<b>258</b>).<br> +<b>except</b>, escept-i (<b>266</b>); (<i>prep.</i>), krom.<br> +<b>excite</b>, ekscit-i.<br> +<b>exercise</b> (<i>trans.</i>), ekzerc-i.<br> +<b>exhale</b>, elspir-i.<br> +<b>exhort</b>, admon-i.<br> +<b>exile</b>, ekzil-i.<br> +<b>exist</b>, ekzist-i.<br> +<b>expect</b>, atend-i.<br> +<b>expend</b> (<b>money</b>), elspez-i; (<b>energy, etc.</b>), uz-i, eluz-i.<br> +<b>experienced</b>, spert-a.<br> +<b>experiment</b>, eksperiment-i.<br> +<b>expert</b>, spert-a, lert-a.<br> +<b>explode</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), eksplod-i (<b>275</b>).<br> +<b>explore</b>, esplor-i.<br> +<b>express</b>, esprim-i; (train), rapida vagonaro.<br> +<b>extend</b> (<i>trans.</i>), etend-i, pligrandig-i, plilongig-i.<br> +<b>extensive</b>, vast-a, vastampleks-a.<br> +<b>extent</b> (size), ampleks-o.<br> +<b>extinguish</b>, esting-i.<br> +<b>extraordinary</b>, eksterordinar-a.<br> +<b>eye</b>, okul-o; <b>—brow</b>, brov-o; <b>—lid</b>, palpebr-o.<br> + +<p><b>F.</b></p> + +<b>fable</b>, fabel-o.<br> +<b>face</b>, vizaĝ-o.<br> +<b>fact</b>, fakt-o; <b>in —</b>, fakt-e, efektiv-e, ja (<b>215</b>).<br> +<b>fade</b>, velk-i.<br> +<b>fair</b> (just), just-a; (<b>beautiful</b>), bel-a.<br> +<b>fairy</b>, fe-o, fein-o.<br> +<b>faint</b>, sven-i.<br> +<b>faithful</b>, fidel-a.<br> +<b>fall</b>, fal-i; (<b>autumn</b>), aŭtun-o.<br> +<b>false</b>, fals-a; (<b>treacherous</b>), perfid-a.<br> +<b>fame</b>, fam-o.<br> +<b>familiar</b>, familiar-a, kutim-a.<br> +<b>family</b>, famili-o.<br> +<b>fancy</b>, imag-i, rev-i.<br> +<b>far</b>, malproksim-e; <b>as — as</b> (<i>prep.</i>), ĝis (<b>46</b>).<br> +<b>farm</b> (<b>as a tenant</b>), farm-i; (<b>till the soil</b>), terkultur-i.<br> +<b>farewell</b> (<i>adv. and interjection</i>), adiaŭ (<b>171, 273</b>).<br> +<b>fashion</b>, fason-o, mod-o.<br> +<b>fasten</b>, lig-i.<br> +<b>fat</b>, gras-o; (<b>corpulent</b>), dik-a.<br> +<b>fatal</b>, fatal-a.<br> +<b>fate</b>, sort-o, fatal-o, destin-o.<br> +<b>father</b>, patr-o.<br> +<b>faucet</b>, kran-o.<br> +<b>favor</b>, favor-i; <b>a —</b>, komplezo.<br> +<b>favorable</b>, favor-a.<br> +<b>fay</b>, fe-o, fein-o.<br> + +<b>fear</b>, tim-i.<br> +<b>feather</b>, plum-o.<br> +<b>feature</b>, trajt-o.<br> +<b>feed</b>, nutr-i; <b>— flocks</b>, paŝt-i.<br> +<b>feel</b>, sent-i; (<b>with fingers, etc.</b>), palp-i.<br> +<b>female</b>, in-o (<b>59</b>).<br> +<b>fervor</b>, fervor-o.<br> +<b>fetter</b> (<b>chain, etc.</b>), katen-o.<br> +<b>fever</b>, febr-o.<br> +<b>fiancé</b>, fianĉ-o.<br> +<b>fie</b> (<i>interjection</i>), fi (<b>273</b>).<br> +<b>field</b>, kamp-o.<br> +<b>fight</b>, batal-i, milit-i.<br> +<b>fill</b>, plenig-i.<br> +<b>find</b>, trov-i.<br> +<b>fine</b>, bel-a, delikat-a; (<b>of money</b>), monpun-o.<br> +<b>finger</b>, fingr-o; <b>index —</b>, montra fingro; <b>little —</b>, malgranda fingro; <b>middle —</b>, longa fingro; <b>ring —</b>, ringa fingro.<br> +<b>finish</b> (<i>trans.</i>), fin-i.<br> +<b>fir</b>, abi-o.<br> +<b>fire</b>, fajr-o; <b>set — to</b>, ekbrulig-i.<br> +<b>firm</b>, firm-a.<br> +<b>fish</b>, fiŝ-o; (<b>catch fish</b>), fiŝkapt-i.<br> +<b>fist</b>, pugn-o.<br> +<b>fit</b>, almezur-i; <b>(be) —</b>, taŭg-i.<br> +<b>(be) fitting</b>, konven-i; (<b>decent</b>), dec-i.<br> +<b>five</b> (<i>adj.</i>), kvin (<b>136</b>).<br> +<b>flag</b>, flag-o; standard-o.<br> +<b>flat</b>, glat-a, eben-a; plat-a.<br> +<b>flesh</b>, karn-o.<br> +<b>flex</b> (<i>trans.</i>), fleks-i.<br> +<b>floor</b>, plank-o.<br> +<b>flour</b>, farun-o.<br> +<b>flow</b>, flu-i.<br> +<b>flower</b>, flor-o (<b>116</b>).<br> +<b>fluid</b>, fluid-a.<br> +<b>fly</b>, flug-i; (<b>insect</b>), muŝ-o.<br> +<b>foam</b>, ŝaŭm-o.<br> +<b>focus</b>, fokus-o.<br> +<b>fog</b>, nebul-o.<br> +<b>fold</b>, fald-i.<br> +<b>folk</b>, popol-o.<br> +<b>follow</b>, sekv-i, postven-i, postir-i.<br> +<b>(be) fond of sweets</b>, frand-i.<br> +<b>fondle</b>, dorlot-i.<br> +<b>foot</b> (<b>of the body</b>), pied-o; (<b>measure</b>), fut-o.<br> +<b>for</b> (<i>prep.</i>), por (<b>95, 98, 262</b>); pro (<b>86</b>); (<i>conj.</i>), ĉar (<b>83</b>).<br> +<b>force</b>, fort-o; (compel), devig-i; <b>— (upon)</b>, altrud-i (al).<br> +<b>fore-</b>, pra- (<b>282</b>).<br> +<b>forehead</b>, frunt-o.<br> +<b>foreign</b>, fremd-a.<br> +<b>forge</b> (<b>falsify</b>), fals-i.<br> +<b>forget</b>, forges-i.<br> +<b>forgive</b>, pardon-i.<br> +<b>fork</b>, fork-o.<br> +<b>form</b>, form-i, alform-i, model-i.<br> +<b>formal</b>, solen-a.<br> +<b>found</b>, fond-i.<br> +<b>foundation</b>, fundament-o.<br> + +<b>four</b> (<i>adj.</i>), kvar (<b>136</b>).<br> +<b>fount</b>, font-o.<br> +<b>fountain</b>, fontan-o.<br> +<b>fox</b>, vulp-o.<br> +<b>fragrance</b>, arom-o, bonodor-o.<br> +<b>frame</b> (<b>of picture</b>), kadr-o.<br> +<b>frank</b>, afrank-i.<br> +<b>Frederick</b>, Frederik-o.<br> +<b>free</b>, liber-a.<br> +<b>Frenchman</b>, franc-o.<br> +<b>frequent</b>, oft-a; (<b>visit often</b>), vizitad-i.<br> +<b>fresh</b>, freŝ-a, nov-a.<br> +<b>Friday</b>, vendred-o.<br> +<b>friend</b>, amik-o.<br> +<b>fringe</b>, franĝ-o.<br> +<b>frivolous</b>, malserioz-a.<br> +<b>frock coat</b>, redingot-o.<br> +<b>frog</b>, ran-o.<br> +<b>from</b> (<i>prep.</i>), de (<b>89, 170</b>); el; (<b>cause</b>), pro (<b>86</b>).<br> +<b>frost</b>, frost-o; (<b>hoar</b>), prujn-o.<br> +<b>froth</b>, ŝaŭm-o.<br> +<b>fruit</b>, frukt-o.<br> +<b>fruitless</b> (<b>vain</b>), van-a.<br> +<b>fry</b> (<i>trans.</i>), frit-i.<br> +<b>function</b> (<b>of machinery, etc.</b>), funkci-i.<br> +<b>funereal</b>, funebr-a.<br> +<b>fulfil</b>, plenum-i.<br> +<b>full</b>, plen-a.<br> +<b>fur</b>, fel-o; (<b>coat or wrap</b>), pelt-o.<br> +<b>furious</b>, furioz-a.<br> +<b>furnish</b> (<b>supply</b>), liver-i; (<b>provide</b>), proviz-i; (<b>a house</b>), mebl-i.<br> +<b>furniture</b> (<b>piece of</b>), mebl-o.<br> +<b>furrow</b>, sulk-o.<br> +<b>further</b> (<i>adv.</i>), plu.<br> +<b>fuse</b> (<i>trans.</i>), fand-i.<br> +<b>futile</b>, van-a.<br> +<b>future</b>, estontec-o; (<b>grammatical</b>), estont-o; (<i>adj.</i>), estont-a.<br> + +<p><b>G.</b></p> + +<b>gain</b>, gajn-i, obten-i.<br> +<b>gallery</b>, galeri-o; (<b>for pictures</b>), pinakotek-o.<br> +<b>gallop</b>, galop-i.<br> +<b>gamin</b>, bub-o.<br> +<b>gape</b> (<b>yawn</b>), osced-i.<br> +<b>garden</b>, ĝarden-o.<br> +<b>garland</b>, girland-o.<br> +<b>gas</b>, gas-o.<br> +<b>gather</b> (<i>trans.</i>), kolekt-i.<br> +<b>gay</b>, gaj-a.<br> +<b>gaze</b>, fikse rigard-i.<br> +<b>gazette</b>, gazet-o.<br> +<b>general</b>, ĝeneral-a, komun-a; (<b>military</b>), general-o.<br> +<b>gentleman</b>, sinjor-o.<br> +<b>geometry</b>, geometri-o.<br> +<b>German</b>, german-o.<br> +<b>Gertrude</b>, Gertrud-o.<br> +<b>ghost</b>, fantom-o.<br> +<b>gift</b>, donac-o.<br> +<b>ginger</b>, zingibr-o.<br> + +<b>girdle</b>, zon-o.<br> +<b>give</b>, don-i; (<b>as a gift</b>), donac-i; <b>— information</b>, inform-i; <b>— notice</b>, aviz-i; <b>— witness</b>, atest-i; <b>— birth to</b>, nask-i.<br> +<b>(be) glad</b>, ĝoj-i (<b>116</b>).<br> +<b>glass</b> (<b>material</b>), vitr-o; (<b>tumbler</b>), glas-o.<br> +<b>glide</b>, glit-i.<br> +<b>globe</b>, glob-o.<br> +<b>glory</b>, glor-o.<br> +<b>glossy</b> (<b>polished</b>), polurit-a.<br> +<b>glove</b>, gant-o.<br> +<b>glue</b>, glu-i.<br> +<b>gnash</b>, grinc-i.<br> +<b>go</b>, ir-i; (<b>in vehicle, boat, etc.</b>), vetur-i; <b>— on a pilgrimage</b>, pilgrim-i.<br> +<b>goal</b>, cel-o.<br> +<b>goblet</b>, pokal-o.<br> +<b>God</b>, Di-o.<br> +<b>good</b>, bon-a; <b>be — for</b>, taŭg-i por.<br> +<b>good-bye</b> (<i>adv. and interjection</i>), adiaŭ (<b>171, 273</b>).<br> +<b>goose</b>, anser-o.<br> +<b>gospel</b>, evangeli-o.<br> +<b>govern</b>, reg-i.<br> +<b>graceful</b>, graci-a.<br> +<b>grade</b>, grad-o; (<b>rank</b>), rang-o.<br> +<b>grain</b> (<b>wheat, etc.</b>), gren-o; (<b>unit</b>) er-o (<b>276</b>).<br> +<b>gram</b>, gram-o (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>grammar</b>, gramatik-o.<br> +<b>grandfather</b>, av-o.<br> +<b>grandson</b>, nep-o.<br> +<b>grape</b>, vinber-o.<br> +<b>grass</b>, herb-o.<br> +<b>grasshopper</b>, akrid-o.<br> +<b>grate</b>, rasp-i; grater, raspil-o.<br> +<b>grating</b> (<b>bar or lattice</b>), krad-o.<br> +<b>grave</b>, tomb-o; (<b>serious</b>), grav-a.<br> +<b>gravitate</b>, gravit-i.<br> +<b>gravy</b>, saŭc-o.<br> +<b>gray</b>, griz-a.<br> +<b>grieve</b> (<i>trans.</i>), ĉagren-i, malĝojig-i; (<i>intrans.</i>) malĝoj-i.<br> +<b>grind</b>, grinc-i.<br> +<b>great</b>, grand-a; (<b>remote in ancestry</b>), pra- (<b>282</b>).<br> +<b>Greek</b>, grek-o.<br> +<b>green</b>, verd-a; <b>—ish</b>, dubeverd-a.<br> +<b>greet</b>, salut-i.<br> +<b>groan</b>, ĝem-i.<br> +<b>group</b>, grup-o, ar-o (<b>126</b>).<br> +<b>ground</b>, ter-o; <b>— floor</b>, teretaĝ-o.<br> +<b>grow</b>, kresk-i, veget-i.<br> +<b>guard</b>, gard-i.<br> +<b>guess</b>, diven-i.<br> +<b>guest</b>, gast-o.<br> +<b>guide</b>, gvid-i, direkt-i.<br> +<b>guilty</b>, kulp-a.<br> +<b>gunpowder</b>, pulv-o.<br> +<b>gush</b> (<b>of liquids</b>), ŝpruc-i.<br> + +<p><b>H.</b></p> + +<b>habit</b>, kutim-o.<br> +<b>hack</b>, hak-i; (<b>carriage</b>), fiakr-o.<br> + +<b>hail</b> (<b>frozen rain</b>), hajl-o.<br> +<b>(a) hair</b>, har-o; <b>— pencil</b>, penik-o.<br> +<b>half</b>, duon-o (<b>166, 277</b>).<br> +<b>halt</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), halt-i.<br> +<b>ham</b>, ŝink-o.<br> +<b>hammer</b>, martel-o.<br> +<b>hand</b>, man-o; (<b>of clock</b>), montril-o.<br> +<b>handbill</b>, afiŝ-o.<br> +<b>handicraft</b>, meti-o.<br> +<b>handsome</b>, bel-a.<br> +<b>hang</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), pend-i.<br> +<b>handy</b>, oportun-a.<br> +<b>happen</b>, okaz-i.<br> +<b>happy</b>, feliĉ-a.<br> +<b>harbor</b>, haven-o.<br> +<b>hardly</b> (<i>adv.</i>), apenaŭ.<br> +<b>hare</b>, lepor-o.<br> +<b>haricot</b> (<b>bean</b>), fazeol-o.<br> +<b>harness</b>, jung-i.<br> +<b>harvest</b>, rikolt-i.<br> +<b>hasten</b> (<i>trans.</i>), akcel-i; (<i>intrans.</i>) rapid-i.<br> +<b>hat</b>, ĉapel-o.<br> +<b>haughty</b>, fier-a.<br> +<b>haul</b>, tren-i.<br> +<b>have</b>, hav-i; <b>— to</b>, dev-i.<br> +<b>hay</b>, fojn-o.<br> +<b>hazard</b>, hazard-o.<br> +<b>hazel-nut</b>, avel-o.<br> +<b>he</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), li (<b>32, 37, 42</b>).<br> +<b>head</b>, kap-o; (<i>adj.</i>), ĉef-a.<br> +<b>health</b>, san-o; <b>state of (good or bad) —</b>, fart-o.<br> +<b>hear</b>, aŭd-i.<br> +<b>heart</b>, kor-o;<b> by —</b>, (<b>by rote</b>), parker-e.<br> +<b>heat</b> (<i>trans.</i>), hejt-i, varmig-i.<br> +<b>heaven</b>, ĉiel-o; heavenly body, astr-o.<br> +<b>heavy</b>, pez-a.<br> +<b>Hebrew</b>, hebre-o.<br> +<b>heel</b> (<b>of foot</b>), kalkan-o; (<b>of shoe</b>), kalkanum-o.<br> +<b>hektare</b>, hektar-o (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>hektogram</b>, hektogram-o (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>hektoliter</b>, hektolitr-o (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>hektometer</b>, hektometr-o (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>help</b>, help-i (<b>265</b>).<br> +<b>hen</b>, kokin-o.<br> +<b>herb</b>, herb-o.<br> +<b>hero</b>, hero-o.<br> +<b>hesitate</b>, hezit-i.<br> +<b>hide</b>, kaŝ-i (<b>252</b>); (<b>skin of animals</b>), fel-o.<br> +<b>Hiero</b>, Hieron-o.<br> +<b>high</b>, alt-a.<br> +<b>hinge</b>, ĉarnir-o.<br> +<b>hip</b>, koks-o.<br> +<b>hire</b> (<b>persons</b>), dung-i; (<b>houses, etc.</b>), lu-i.<br> +<b>hiss</b>, sibl-i.<br> +<b>history</b>, histori-o.<br> +<b>ho</b> (<i>interjection</i>), ho (<b>273</b>).<br> +<b>hoar</b> (frost), prujn-o.<br> +<b>hoarse</b>, raŭk-a.<br> + +<b>hog</b>, pork-o.<br> +<b>hold</b>, ten-i.<br> +<b>holder</b> (<b>handle</b>), tenil-o, ans-o; (<b>receptacle</b>), uj-o (<b>181</b>); ing-o (<b>237</b>).<br> +<b>hole</b>, tru-o; (<b>cavity</b>), kav-o.<br> +<b>Holland</b>, Holand-o.<br> +<b>holy</b>, sankt-a.<br> +<b>home</b>, hejm-o; <b>at —</b>, ĉehejme.<br> +<b>homesickness</b>, nostalgi-o.<br> +<b>honest</b>, honest-a.<br> +<b>honey</b>, miel-o.<br> +<b>honeysuckle</b>, lonicer-o.<br> +<b>honor</b>, honor-i; (<i>as term of address</i>), moŝt-o (<b>258</b>).<br> +<b>hook</b>, kroĉ-i.<br> +<b>hope</b>, esper-i.<br> +<b>horizon</b>, horizont-o.<br> +<b>horizontal</b>, horizontal-a.<br> +<b>horn</b>, korn-o.<br> +<b>horse</b>, ĉeval-o.<br> +<b>horse-radish</b>, armoraci-o.<br> +<b>hose</b>, ŝtrump-oj; <b>— supporter</b>, ŝelk-o.<br> +<b>hotel</b>, hotel-o.<br> +<b>hour</b>, hor-o (<b>185</b>).<br> +<b>house</b>, dom-o; <b>at the — of</b> (<i>prep.</i>), ĉe (<b>125, 160</b>).<br> +<b>how</b> (<i>adv.</i>), kiel (<b>134</b>); kiamanier-e; <b>— much</b>, kiom (<b>140, 185</b>).<br> +<b>however</b> (<i>conj.</i>), tamen; (<i>adv.</i>), ajn (<b>236</b>).<br> +<b>hue</b>, nuanc-o.<br> +<b>hum</b>, zum-i.<br> +<b>human being</b>, hom-o.<br> +<b>humble</b>, humil-a.<br> +<b>humor</b>, humor-o.<br> +<b>hundred</b> (<i>adj.</i>), cent (<b>142</b>).<br> +<b>hungry</b>, malsat-a.<br> +<b>hunt</b>, serĉ-i; (<b>game or wild animals</b>), ĉas-i.<br> +<b>hurdy-gurdy</b>, gurd-o.<br> +<b>hurl</b>, ĵet-i.<br> +<b>hurrah</b> (<i>interjection</i>), hura (<b>273</b>).<br> +<b>hurricane</b>, uragan-o.<br> +<b>hurry</b>, rapid-i.<br> +<b>husband</b>, edz-o.<br> +<b>hypocrite</b>, hipokrit-o.<br> + +<p><b>I.</b></p> + +<b>I</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), mi (<b>32, 37, 274</b>).<br> +<b>ice</b>, glaci-o; (<b>food</b>), glaciaĵ-o.<br> +<b>idea</b>, ide-o.<br> +<b>ideal</b>, ideal-o.<br> +<b>identical</b>, ident-a.<br> +<b>idiom</b>, idiom-o.<br> +<b>idiot</b>, idiot-o.<br> +<b>if</b> (<i>conj.</i>), se (<b>240</b>); <b>as —</b>, kvazaŭ (<b>250</b>); (<b>whether</b>), ĉu.<br> +<b>ignore</b>, ignor-i.<br> +<b>illusion</b>, iluzi-o.<br> +<b>illustrate</b>, ilustr-i.<br> +<b>image</b>, bild-o.<br> +<b>imagine</b>, imag-i.<br> +<b>imitate</b>, imit-i.<br> + +<b>immediate</b>, tuj-a (<b>171</b>).<br> +<b>implicate</b>, implik-i.<br> +<b>important</b>, grav-a, serioz-a.<br> +<b>importunate</b>, altrudem-a.<br> +<b>impose</b>, trud-i.<br> +<b>impost</b>, impost-o.<br> +<b>impress</b>, impres-i.<br> +<b>impulse</b>, impuls-o.<br> +<b>in</b> (<i>prep.</i>), en (<b>46, 89, 160</b>); <b>— the presence of</b>, ĉe (<b>125, 160</b>).<br> +<b>inch</b>, col-o.<br> +<b>incite</b>, incit-i.<br> +<b>incline</b> (<i>trans.</i>), klin-i.<br> +<b>incommode</b>, ĝen-i.<br> +<b>(be) indebted</b>, ŝuld-i.<br> +<b>indeed</b> (<i>adv.</i>), ja (<b>215</b>); do; efektiv-e.<br> +<b>index</b>, tabel-o.<br> +<b>Indian</b> (<b>American</b>), indian-o, ruĝhaŭtul-o; <b>— corn</b>, maiz-o.<br> +<b>indifferent</b>, indiferent-a.<br> +<b>industry</b> (<b>trade</b>), industri-o.<br> +<b>inebriate</b>, ebri-a.<br> +<b>inevitable</b>, nepr-a, neevitebl-a.<br> +<b>infect</b>, infekt-i.<br> +<b>influence</b>, influ-i.<br> +<b>inform</b>, inform-i, sciig-i.<br> +<b>ingenuous</b>, naiv-a.<br> +<b>inhabitant</b>, loĝant-o, an-o (<b>145</b>).<br> +<b>inhale</b>, enspir-i.<br> +<b>ink</b>, ink-o.<br> +<b>inquire</b>, demand-i.<br> +<b>insect</b>, insekt-o.<br> +<b>inside</b> (<i>adv.</i>), intern-e; (<i>prep.</i>), en.<br> +<b>insist</b>, insist-i.<br> +<b>inspect</b>, inspekt-i, ekzamen-i, rigard-i, kontrol-i.<br> +<b>inspire</b>, inspir-i.<br> +<b>instantaneous</b>, moment-a.<br> +<b>instead of</b> (<i>prep.</i>), anstataŭ (<b>98, 159</b>).<br> +<b>instruct</b>, instru-i; (<b>order</b>), ordon-i.<br> +<b>insult</b>, insult-i.<br> +<b>insure</b> (<b>with a company</b>), asekur-i; (<b>make certain</b>), certig-i.<br> +<b>intelligent</b>, inteligent-a.<br> +<b>intend</b>, intenc-i.<br> +<b>interest</b>, interes-i; (<b>of money</b>), procent-o.<br> +<b>(be) intermittent</b>, intermit-i.<br> +<b>internal</b>, intern-a.<br> +<b>interpret</b>, interpret-i.<br> +<b>intimate</b>, intim-a.<br> +<b>intoxicated</b>, ebri-a.<br> +<b>investigate</b>, esplor-i, ekzamen-i, elserĉ-i.<br> +<b>invite</b>, invit-i.<br> +<b>iron</b> (<b>metal</b>), fer-o; (<b>linen</b>), glad-i.<br> +<b>island</b>, insul-o.<br> +<b>it</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), ĝi (<b>32, 37, 42, 274</b>); <i>see also</i> 50, 51.<br> +<b>Italian</b>, ital-o.<br> + +<p><b>J.</b></p> + +<b>jacket</b>, jak-o.<br> +<b>jail</b>, karcer-o.<br> + +<b>jam</b>, kompot-o, fruktaĵ-o.<br> +<b>January</b>, januar-o.<br> +<b>jaw</b> (<b>orifice, opening</b>), faŭk-o; (<b>of the skull</b>), makzel-o; <b>—bone</b>, makzelost-o.<br> +<b>jealous</b>, ĵaluz-a.<br> +<b>jest</b>, ŝerc-i.<br> +<b>Jesus</b>, Jesu-o.<br> +<b>Jew</b>, hebre-o.<br> +<b>jewel</b>, juvel-o.<br> +<b>jingle</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), tint-i.<br> +<b>John</b>, Johan-o.<br> +<b>joint</b>, artik-o.<br> +<b>joke</b>, ŝerc-i.<br> +<b>journal</b>, ĵurnal-o, revu-o.<br> +<b>journey</b>, vojaĝ-i.<br> +<b>judge</b>, juĝ-i.<br> +<b>jug</b>, kruĉ-o.<br> +<b>juggle</b>, ĵongl-i.<br> +<b>July</b>, juli-o.<br> +<b>jump</b>, salt-i.<br> +<b>June</b>, juni-o.<br> +<b>jurist</b>, jurist-o.<br> +<b>just</b> (<b>upright</b>), just-a; (<b>exact</b>), ĝust-a; (<i>adv.</i>), ĝust-e, ĵus.<br> + +<p><b>K.</b></p> + +<b>keep</b>, ten-i, gard-i; (<b>preserve</b>), konserv-i;<b> — in mind</b>, memor-i.<br> +<b>kerosene</b>, petrol-o.<br> +<b>key</b>, ŝlosil-o; (<b>of piano, etc.</b>), klav-o.<br> +<b>kill</b>, mortig-i.<br> +<b>kilogram</b>, kilogram-o (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>kiloliter</b>, kilolitr-o (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>kilometer</b>, kilometr-o (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>kind</b> (<b>species</b>), spec-o; (<b>good</b>), bon-a, bonkor-a; <b>that —</b>, <b>what —</b>, etc., <i>see table</i>, 235.<br> +<b>kindness</b>, komplez-o, bonkorec-o.<br> +<b>king</b>, reĝ-o; <b>—dom</b>, reĝolando.<br> +<b>kiss</b>, kis-i.<br> +<b>knave</b>, fripon-o.<br> +<b>knee</b>, genu-o.<br> +<b>kneel</b>, genufleks-i.<br> +<b>knit</b>, trik-i.<br> +<b>knock</b>, frap-i.<br> +<b>knot</b>, tuber-o; (<b>tied</b>), ligaĵ-o; (<b>of ribbon</b>), bant-o.<br> +<b>know</b>, sci-i; (<b>be acquainted with</b>), kon-i (<b>117</b>).<br> +<b>kobold</b>, kobold-o.<br> + +<p><b>L.</b></p> + +<b>labor</b>, labor-i; <b>— for the success or completion of something</b>, klopod-i.<br> +<b>lace</b>, punt-o; (<b>of a shoe</b>), laĉ-o.<br> +<b>(be) lacking</b> (<i>intrans.</i>) mank-i.<br> +<b>lake</b>, lag-o.<br> +<b>lamb</b>, ŝafid-o; (<b>meat</b>), ŝafidaĵ-o.<br> +<b>lame</b>, lam-a.<br> +<b>lamp</b>, lamp-o.<br> +<b>lance</b>, lanc-o.<br> +<b>land</b>, land-o; (<b>estate</b>), bien-o; (<b>soil</b>), ter-o.<br> + +<b>landscape</b>, pejzaĝ-o.<br> +<b>language</b>, lingv-o.<br> +<b>lantern</b>, lantern-o.<br> +<b>large</b>, grand-a.<br> +<b>lark</b> (<b>bird</b>), alaŭd-o.<br> +<b>last</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), daŭr-i; (<b>in a series</b>), last-a; (<b>previous</b>) pasint-a, antaŭ-a.<br> +<b>latch</b>, ans-o.<br> +<b>late</b>, malfru-a.<br> +<b>Latin</b>, latin-a.<br> +<b>latter</b>, ĉi-tiu (<b>61, 62</b>).<br> +<b>lattice</b>, krad-o.<br> +<b>laugh</b>, rid-i (<b>265</b>).<br> +<b>law</b>, leĝ-o; <b>—suit</b>, proces-o; (<b>rule</b>), regul-o.<br> +<b>lawyer</b>, advokat-o, leĝist-o.<br> +<b>lay</b>, meti, kuŝig-i; <b>— aside</b>, demet-i; <b>— claim</b>, pretend-i.<br> +<b>layer</b>, tavol-o.<br> +<b>lead</b>, konduk-i.<br> +<b>lead</b> (<b>metal</b>), plumb-o.<br> +<b>leaf</b>, foli-o.<br> +<b>league</b> (<b>alliance</b>), lig-o.<br> +<b>lean</b> (<i>trans.</i>), apog-i, klin-i; (<b>not fat</b>), malgras-a.<br> +<b>leap</b>, salt-i; <b>—year</b>, superjar-o.<br> +<b>learn</b>, lern-i; (<b>news, etc.</b>), sciiĝ-i.<br> +<b>learned</b>, kler-a.<br> +<b>least</b> (<i>adv.</i>), malplej (<b>80</b>), malpli multe (<b>81</b>); <b>at —</b>, almenaŭ.<br> +<b>leather</b>, led-o.<br> +<b>leave</b> (<i>trans.</i>), las-i; <b>— off</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), ĉes-i.<br> +<b>leg</b>, krur-o.<br> +<b>legal</b>, leĝ-a; <b>— process</b>, proces-o.<br> +<b>lemon</b>, citron-o.<br> +<b>lemonade</b>, citronaĵ-o, limonad-o.<br> +<b>lend</b>, prunt-i, pruntedon-i.<br> +<b>lens</b>, objektiv-o.<br> +<b>lengthen</b> (<i>trans.</i>), etend-i, plilongig-i.<br> +<b>less</b> (<i>adv.</i>), malpli (<b>80</b>); malpli multe (<b>81</b>).<br> +<b>lesson</b>, lecion-o.<br> +<b>let</b> (<i>trans.</i>), las-i; (<b>rent</b>), luig-i; (<b>permit</b>), permes-i.<br> +<b>letter</b> (<b>epistle</b>), leter-o; (<b>of the alphabet</b>), liter-o.<br> +<b>lettuce</b>, laktuk-o.<br> +<b>level</b>, nivel-o; (<b>flat</b>), eben-a.<br> +<b>library</b>, bibliotek-o; (<b>collection of books</b>), librar-o.<br> +<b>lick</b>, lek-i.<br> +<b>lie</b> (<b>recline</b>), kuŝ-i (<b>239</b>); (<b>tell falsehoods</b>), mensog-i.<br> +<b>lift</b>, lev-i.<br> +<b>light</b>, lum-a, hel-a; (<b>not heavy</b>), malpez-a.<br> +<b>lightning</b>, fulm-o.<br> +<b>like</b>, ŝat-i; (<b>similar</b>), simil-a; see also 250.<br> +<b>limb</b>, membro; (<b>of a tree</b>), branĉ-o.<br> +<b>limit</b>, lim-i.<br> +<b>linden</b>, tili-o.<br> +<b>line</b>, lini-o, vic-o, strek-o.<br> +<b>linen</b>, tol-o.<br> + +<b>lion</b>, leon-o.<br> +<b>lip</b>, lip-o.<br> +<b>liquid</b>, fluid-a.<br> +<b>listen</b>, aŭskult-i.<br> +<b>liter</b>, litr-o (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>literal</b>, laŭliter-a.<br> +<b>literature</b>, literatur-o.<br> +<b>little</b>, malgrand-a; (<i>with slightly affectionate sense</i>), et-a (<b>198</b>); (<i>adv.</i>), malmulte, iom (<b>217</b>); <b>— by —</b>, iom post iom.<br> +<b>live</b>, viv-i; (<b>dwell</b>), loĝ-i (<b>133</b>).<br> +<b>load</b>, ŝarĝ-i.<br> +<b>loan</b>, prunt-i, pruntedon-i.<br> +<b>local</b>, lok-a.<br> +<b>lock</b>, ŝlos-i; (<b>fastening</b>), serur-o.<br> +<b>locomotive</b>, lokomotiv-o.<br> +<b>lodge</b>, loĝ-i.<br> +<b>log</b>, ŝtip-o.<br> +<b>long</b>, long-a; <b>— for</b>, sopir-i je.<br> +<b>look</b>, rigard-i; <b>— for</b>, serĉ-i.<br> +<b>lose</b>, perd-i; (<b>fail to profit</b>), malgajn-i; <b>— time</b>, malfru-i.<br> +<b>lot</b> (<b>fate</b>), sort-o.<br> +<b>loud</b>, laŭt-a.<br> +<b>love</b>, am-i; <b>make —</b>, amindum-i.<br> +<b>loyal</b>, fidel-a, lojal-a.<br> +<b>luck</b>, ŝanc-o; lucky, bonŝanc-a.<br> +<b>lull</b>, kvietig-i; (<b>to sleep</b>), lul-i.<br> +<b>lunatic</b>, lunatik-o.<br> +<b>lung</b>, pulm-o.<br> +<b>luxury</b>, luks-o.<br> + +<p><b>M.</b></p> + +<b>macaroni</b>, makaroni-o.<br> +<b>machine</b>, maŝin-o.<br> +<b>mad</b>, frenez-a.<br> +<b>magazine</b>, gazet-o, ĵurnal-o, revu-o.<br> +<b>magic</b>, magi-o.<br> +<b>mail</b>, poŝt-o, enpoŝtig-i; <b>— box</b>, poŝtkest-o.<br> +<b>maize</b>, maiz-o.<br> +<b>majestic</b>, majest-a.<br> +<b>majesty</b> (<i>term of address</i>), moŝt-o (<b>258</b>).<br> +<b>make</b>, far-i (see also 214); <b>— mistakes</b>, erar-i; <b>— love</b>, amindum-i.<br> +<b>malicious</b>, malic-a.<br> +<b>man</b>, vir-o.<br> +<b>manage</b>, administr-i, direkt-i; (<b>a household</b>), mastrum-i.<br> +<b>manner</b>, manier-o; (<b>right or wrong</b>), mor-o; <b>in that —</b>, <b>in every —</b>, etc., <i>see table</i>, 235.<br> +<b>mantle</b>, mantel-o.<br> +<b>manufacture</b>, fabrik-i.<br> +<b>manuscript</b>, manuskript-o.<br> +<b>maple</b>, acer-o.<br> +<b>marble</b> (stone), marmor-o.<br> +<b>march</b>, marŝad-i.<br> +<b>March</b>, mart-o.<br> +<b>mark</b>, mark-o, sign-o; (<b>official</b>), stamp-o.<br> +<b>marmalade</b>, marmelad-o.<br> +<b>marry</b> (<b>become married</b>), edziĝ-i.<br> + +<b>master</b>, mastr-o; (<b>of his profession or art</b>), majstr-o; <b>— of Arts (A.M.)</b>, magistr-o.<br> +<b>match</b> (<b>for fire</b>), alumet-o.<br> +<b>material</b>, material-o; (<b>cloth</b>), ŝtof-o.<br> +<b>matter</b>, afer-o.<br> +<b>mature</b>, matur-a.<br> +<b>maximum</b>, maksimum-o.<br> +<b>May</b>, maj-o; (<b>auxiliary verb</b>), <i>see</i> 269, 270.<br> +<b>mayonnaise</b>, majones-a.<br> +<b>mean</b>, signif-i, intenc-i, malnobl-a.<br> +<b>meaning</b>, senc-o.<br> +<b>means</b>, rimed-o; <b>by — of</b> (<i>prep.</i>), per (<b>64</b>).<br> +<b>measure</b> (<i>trans.</i>), mezur-i.<br> +<b>meat</b>, viand-o.<br> +<b>mechanics</b>, meĥanik-o.<br> +<b>medical</b>, medicin-a, kuracist-a.<br> +<b>medicine</b> (<b>drug, etc.</b>), kuracil-o; (<b>science</b>), medicin-o, kuracart-o.<br> +<b>meet</b> (<i>trans.</i>), renkont-i, traf-i; (<b>assemble</b>), kunven-i.<br> +<b>melody</b>, melodi-o.<br> +<b>melon</b>, melon-o.<br> +<b>melt</b>, fluidig-i, fluidiĝ-i, degel-i.<br> +<b>member</b>, membr-o, an-o (<b>145</b>).<br> +<b>memory</b>, memor-o; <b>by —</b>, parker-e, memor-e.<br> +<b>mend</b>, ripar-i; (<b>patch</b>), flik-i.<br> +<b>mention</b>, nom-i; cit-i.<br> +<b>menu</b>, menu-o.<br> +<b>merely</b> (<i>adv.</i>), nur.<br> +<b>merit</b>, merit-i.<br> +<b>merry</b>, gaj-a; <b>make —</b>, festen-i.<br> +<b>merry-go-round</b>, karusel-o.<br> +<b>metal</b>, metal-o.<br> +<b>meter</b>, metr-o (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>method</b>, metod-o.<br> +<b>middle</b>, mez-o, centr-o.<br> +<b>mien</b>, mien-o.<br> +<b>mild</b>, mild-a.<br> +<b>mile</b>, mejl-o.<br> +<b>milk</b>, lakt-o; (<b>draw the milk of</b>), melk-i.<br> +<b>mill</b>, muel-o.<br> +<b>millimeter</b>, milimetr-o (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>million</b>, milion-o.<br> +<b>mine</b> (<b>coal, etc</b>), min-o; (<i>possessive adj.</i>), mi-a (<b>43</b>).<br> +<b>mineral</b>, mineral-o.<br> +<b>minimum</b>, minimum-o.<br> +<b>minister</b> (<b>political</b>), ministr-o; (<b>clergyman</b>), pastr-o.<br> +<b>minute</b> (time), minut-o; (<i>adj.</i>), detal-a, malgrand-a.<br> +<b>minutes</b> (of a meeting), protokol-o.<br> +<b>mirror</b>, spegul-o.<br> +<b>miserly</b>, avar-a.<br> +<b>misery</b>, mizer-o.<br> +<b>miss</b> (<b>fail to reach</b>), maltraf-i; (<b>be missing</b>), mank-i; (<b>notice the absence of</b>), senti la foreston de; (<b>young lady</b>), fraŭlin-o (<b>163</b>).<br> + +<b>mist</b>, nebul-o.<br> +<b>mistake</b>, erar-o.<br> +<b>Mister</b>, Sinjor-o (<b>163, 286</b>).<br> +<b>mix</b> (<i>trans.</i>), miks-i.<br> +<b>mock</b>, mok-i.<br> +<b>mode</b>, fason-o, mod-o.<br> +<b>model</b>, model-o.<br> +<b>moderate</b>, moder-a.<br> +<b>modest</b>, modest-a.<br> +<b>moment</b>, moment-o; <b>a — ago</b>, (<i>adv.</i>), ĵus.<br> +<b>monarch</b>, monarĥ-o.<br> +<b>Monday</b>, lund-o.<br> +<b>money</b>, mon-o; <b>— box</b>, kas-o; <b>— order</b>, mandat-o.<br> +<b>monk</b>, monaĥ-o.<br> +<b>monkey</b>, simi-o.<br> +<b>month</b>, monat-o.<br> +<b>moon</b>, lun-o.<br> +<b>moral</b>, moral-a, bonmor-a; morals, moroj.<br> +<b>more</b> (<i>adv.</i>), pli (<b>74, 79</b>); (<b>quantity</b>), pli multe (<b>81</b>); (<b>further</b>), plu; <b>the —</b>, ju pli, des pli (<b>84</b>).<br> +<b>morning</b>, maten-o (<b>93</b>).<br> +<b>morsel</b>, pec-o.<br> +<b>most</b> (<i>adv.</i>), plej (<b>74, 79</b>); (<b>quantity</b>), plej multe (<b>81</b>).<br> +<b>mould</b>, ŝim-o.<br> +<b>mountain</b>, mont-o.<br> +<b>mourning</b>, funebr-o.<br> +<b>mouse</b>, mus-o.<br> +<b>moustache</b>, lipharoj.<br> +<b>mouth</b>, buŝ-o; (<b>of river</b>), enflu-o, elflu-o.<br> +<b>move</b> (<i>trans.</i>), mov-i; (<b>change residence</b>) transloĝ-i.<br> +<b>much</b>, mult-a (<b>81</b>); (<b>very</b>), tre.<br> +<b>mud</b>, kot-o.<br> +<b>murmur</b>, murmur-i.<br> +<b>museum</b>, muze-o.<br> +<b>mushroom</b>, fung-o.<br> +<b>music</b>, muzik-o.<br> +<b>must</b>, dev-i (<b>247</b>).<br> +<b>mute</b>, mut-a.<br> +<b>mutton</b>, ŝafaĵ-o.<br> +<b>mutual</b>, reciprok-a (<b>180</b>), komun-a.<br> +<b>myopic</b>, miop-a.<br> +<b>mystery</b>, mister-o.<br> + +<p><b>N.</b></p> + +<b>nail</b> (<b>metal</b>), najl-o; (<b>of the finger or toe</b>), ung-o.<br> +<b>naive</b>, naiv-a.<br> +<b>naked</b>, nud-a.<br> +<b>name</b>, nom-o.<br> +<b>narrate</b>, rakont-i.<br> +<b>nation</b>, naci-o.<br> +<b>nature</b>, natur-o.<br> +<b>naught</b>, nul-o; (<b>none</b>), neniom (<b>231</b>).<br> +<b>near</b>, proksim-a (<b>170</b>); (<i>prep.</i>), apud (<b>120, 159</b>).<br> +<b>necessary</b>, neces-a.<br> + +<b>neck</b>, kol-o.<br> +<b>need</b>, bezon-i.<br> +<b>needle</b>, kudril-o.<br> +<b>negative</b>, ne-a (<b>171</b>); (<b>photographic</b>), negativ-o.<br> +<b>neighbor</b>, najbar-o.<br> +<b>neither</b> (<i>conj.</i>), nek (<b>31</b>); (<i>pronoun and adj.</i>), neniu (<b>220</b>).<br> +<b>nephew</b>, nev-o.<br> +<b>nerve</b>, nerv-o.<br> +<b>nest</b>, nest-o.<br> +<b>net</b>, ret-o.<br> +<b>neutral</b>, neŭtral-a.<br> +<b>never</b> (<i>adv.</i>), neniam (<b>226</b>).<br> +<b>nevertheless</b> (<i>conj.</i>), tamen.<br> +<b>new</b>, nov-a, freŝ-a; news, novaĵ-o.<br> +<b>newspaper</b>, ĵurnal-o, tagĵurnal-o.<br> +<b>nice</b>, delikat-a.<br> +<b>night</b>, nokt-o.<br> +<b>nine</b> (<i>adj.</i>), naŭ (<b>136</b>).<br> +<b>nitrogen</b>, azot-o.<br> +<b>no</b> (<i>adv.</i>), ne (<b>27, 66, a</b>); (<i>adj.</i>), neniu (<b>220</b>); <b>— one</b>, <b>—where</b>, etc., <i>see table</i>, 235.<br> +<b>noble</b>, nobl-a,<br> +<b>nobleman</b>, nobel-o.<br> +<b>nobody</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), neniu (<b>220</b>).<br> +<b>nod</b> (<b>the head</b>), balanc-i (<b>la kapon</b>).<br> +<b>noise</b>, bru-o.<br> +<b>none</b> (<i>adj. and pronoun</i>), neniu (<b>220</b>); (<i>adv.</i>), neniom (<b>231</b>).<br> +<b>non-partisan</b>, neŭtral-a.<br> +<b>noon</b>, tagmez-o.<br> +<b>nor</b> (<i>conj.</i>), nek (<b>31</b>).<br> +<b>north</b>, nord-o.<br> +<b>Norwegian</b>, norveg-o.<br> +<b>not</b> (<i>adv.</i>), ne (<b>27, 66, a</b>).<br> +<b>note</b>, not-o, bilet-o; <b>—book</b>, kajer-o; (<b>notice</b>), rimark-i, not-i.<br> +<b>nothing</b>, nenio (<b>233</b>).<br> +<b>notice</b>, rimark-i; not-i; <b>give —</b>, aviz-i.<br> +<b>notwithstanding</b> (<i>prep.</i>), malgraŭ; (<b>conj.</b>), tamen.<br> +<b>nourish</b>, nutr-i.<br> +<b>novel</b>, nov-a; (<b>book</b>), roman-o.<br> +<b>November</b>, novembr-o.<br> +<b>now</b> (<i>adv.</i>), nun.<br> +<b>nude</b>, nud-a.<br> +<b>nullify</b>, nulig-i, neniig-i.<br> +<b>number</b> (<b>quantity</b>), nombr-o; (<b>numeral</b>), numer-o.<br> +<b>nut</b>, nuks-o.<br> + +<p><b>O.</b></p> + +<b>oak</b>, kverk-o.<br> +<b>(make) oath</b>, ĵur-i.<br> +<b>oats</b>, aven-o.<br> +<b>obey</b>, obe-i (<b>265</b>).<br> +<b>object</b>, objekt-o; (<b>aim</b>), cel-o; (<b>oppose</b>), kontraŭparol-i, kontraŭstar-i, protest-i.<br> +<b>objective</b>, objektiv-o.<br> + +<b>obligation</b> (<b>financial</b>), ŝuld-o; (<b>moral</b>), dev-o.<br> +<b>oblige</b> (<b>compel</b>), devig-i; (<b>render service</b>), far-i komplezon, serv-i.<br> +<b>oblique</b>, oblikv-a.<br> +<b>observe</b>, observ-i, rimark-i, not-i.<br> +<b>obstinate</b>, obstin-a.<br> +<b>obstruct</b>, bar-i.<br> +<b>occasion</b>, foj-o (<b>127</b>); okaz-o.<br> +<b>occupation</b>, profesi-o, okup-o, meti-o.<br> +<b>occupy</b>, okup-i.<br> +<b>occur</b>, okaz-i.<br> +<b>ocean</b>, ocean-o.<br> +<b>October</b>, oktobr-o.<br> +<b>odor</b>, odor-o.<br> +<b>of</b> (<i>prep.</i>), de (<b>49, 100, 160, 170</b>); da (<b>99, 101, 103</b>); el; (<b>concerning</b>), pri (160, 264, c).<br> +<b>offend</b>, ofend-i.<br> +<b>offer</b>, propon-i, prezent-i, ofer-i.<br> +<b>office</b>, ofic-o; (<b>place</b>), oficej-o.<br> +<b>officer</b> (<b>of organization or firm</b>), oficist-o; (<b>military or naval</b>), oficir-o.<br> +<b>official</b>, oficial-a.<br> +<b>often</b> (<i>adv.</i>), oft-e, multfoj-e.<br> +<b>oh</b> (<i>interjection</i>), ho (<b>273</b>).<br> +<b>oil</b>, ole-o.<br> +<b>olive</b>, oliv-o.<br> +<b>on</b> (<i>prep.</i>), sur; <b>— account of</b>, pro (<b>86</b>).<br> +<b>once</b> (<i>adv.</i>), unufoj-e; <b>— on a time</b>, iam (<b>212</b>); <b>at —</b>, tuj; <b>— more</b>, bis.<br> +<b>one</b> (<i>adj.</i>), unu (<b>136, 137, 180</b>); (<i>pronoun</i>), oni (<b>54</b>). See 235.<br> +<b>onion</b>, bulb-o.<br> +<b>only</b>, sol-a; (<b>mere</b>), nur-a.<br> +<b>opera</b>, oper-o; <b>— glasses</b>, lornet-o.<br> +<b>opinion</b>, opini-o.<br> +<b>opportune</b>, oportun-a.<br> +<b>opposed to</b> (<i>prep.</i>), kontraŭ.<br> +<b>opposite</b> (<b>converse</b>), mal-o (<b>67</b>); (<i>prep.</i>), kontraŭ.<br> +<b>or</b> (<i>conj.</i>), aŭ.<br> +<b>orange</b> (fruit), oranĝ-o.<br> +<b>orchestra</b>, orkestr-o.<br> +<b>order</b>, ordon-i; (<b>of store, etc.</b>), mend-i; (<b>methodical or proper arrangement</b>), ord-o; <b>money —</b>, mandat-o.<br> +<b>ordinary</b>, ordinar-a.<br> +<b>organ</b> (<b>physical</b>), organ-o; (<b>musical</b>), orgen-o.<br> +<b>organize</b>, organiz-i.<br> +<b>original</b>, original-o.<br> +<b>ornament</b>, ornam-i.<br> +<b>orphan</b>, orf-o.<br> +<b>oscillate</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), balanciĝ-i.<br> +<b>ostracism</b>, ostracism-o.<br> +<b>other</b>, ali-a; (<b>remaining</b>), ceter-a; <b>— people's</b>, malpropr-a; <b>—wise</b>, ali-e.<br> +<b>out of</b>, el.<br> +<b>outline</b>, kontur-o; (<b>profile</b>), profil-o; (<b>sketch</b>), skiz-o.<br> + +<b>outside</b> (<i>prep.</i>), ekster (<b>120, 121</b>).<br> +<b>over</b> (<i>prep.</i>), super; (<b>across</b>), trans; (<b>concerning</b>), pri; <b>—coat</b>, surtut-o; <b>—shoe</b>, superŝu-o; (<i>adv.</i>), (<b>too</b>), tro.<br> +<b>owe</b>, ŝuld-i.<br> +<b>own</b>, posed-i, propr-a.<br> +<b>ox</b>, bov-o.<br> +<b>oyster</b>, ostr-o.<br> + +<p><b>P.</b></p> + +<b>pack</b>, pak-i.<br> +<b>pad</b>, rembur-i.<br> +<b>paddle</b>, padel-i.<br> +<b>page</b> (<b>of book, etc.</b>), paĝ-o.<br> +<b>pail</b>, sitel-o.<br> +<b>pain</b>, dolor-o; (<b>effort</b>), pen-o; take pains, pen-i.<br> +<b>paint</b>, pentr-i; (<b>material</b>), kolorigil-o; <b>—brush</b>, penik-o.<br> +<b>pair</b>, par-o.<br> +<b>palace</b>, palac-o.<br> +<b>pale</b>, pal-a.<br> +<b>palisade</b>, palisar-o.<br> +<b>palm</b> (<b>of the hand</b>), polm-o.<br> +<b>pamphlet</b>, broŝur-o.<br> +<b>pan</b>, pat-o.<br> +<b>paper</b> (<b>material</b>), paper-o; <b>news—</b>, ĵurnal-o.<br> +<b>paradise</b>, paradiz-o.<br> +<b>paragraph</b>, paragraf-o.<br> +<b>pardon</b>, pardon-i (<b>265</b>).<br> +<b>parallel</b>, paralel-a.<br> +<b>park</b>, park-o.<br> +<b>parlor</b>, salon-o.<br> +<b>parsley</b>, petrosel-o.<br> +<b>parsnip</b>, pastinak-o.<br> +<b>part</b>, part-o; of a work or book, kajer-o; separate (<i>trans.</i>), disir-i, apartig-i, disdivid-i.<br> +<b>participle</b>, particip-o.<br> +<b>pass</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), pas-i.<br> +<b>passage</b>, koridor-o.<br> +<b>passenger</b>, pasaĝer-o.<br> +<b>passion</b>, pasi-o.<br> +<b>passive</b>, pasiv-a.<br> +<b>past</b> (<i>prep.</i>), preter; (<b>time</b>), estintec-o; (<b>grammatical</b>), estint-o; (<b>bygone</b>), estint-a.<br> +<b>paste</b> (<b>glue</b>), glu-i.<br> +<b>pasteboard</b>, karton-o.<br> +<b>pastor</b>, pastr-o.<br> +<b>pastry</b>, kukaĵ-o.<br> +<b>pasture</b> (<i>trans.</i>), paŝt-i.<br> +<b>patch</b>, flik-i.<br> +<b>path</b>, vojet-o.<br> +<b>patience</b>, pacienc-o.<br> +<b>patient</b> (<b>ill person</b>), kuracat-o.<br> +<b>patty</b>, pasteĉ-o.<br> +<b>pause</b>, paŭz-i.<br> +<b>pavement</b>, pavim-o; (<b>sidewalk</b>), trotuar-o.<br> +<b>pay</b>, pag-i; — dues, kotiz-i.<br> +<b>pea</b>, piz-o.<br> +<b>peace</b>, pac-o.<br> +<b>peach</b>, persik-o.<br> +<b>pear</b>, pir-o.<br> + +<b>pearl</b>, perl-o.<br> +<b>peculiar</b>, strang-a, kurioz-a.<br> +<b>peddle</b>, kolport-i.<br> +<b>pedestal</b>, piedestal-o.<br> +<b>pedestrian</b>, piedirant-o.<br> +<b>peeling</b>, ŝel-o.<br> +<b>pen</b>, plum-o; (<b>enclosure</b>), ej-o (<b>III</b>).<br> +<b>pencil</b>, krajon-o; <b>hair—</b>, penik-o.<br> +<b>penetrate</b>, penetr-i.<br> +<b>people</b>, popol-o; (<i>indefinite pronoun</i>), oni (<b>54</b>).<br> +<b>pepper</b>, pipr-o.<br> +<b>perceive</b>, sent-i; (<b>see</b>), vid-i.<br> +<b>percentage</b>, procent-o; (<b>of profit</b>), tantiem-o.<br> +<b>perfect</b>, perfekt-a.<br> +<b>perfidious</b>, perfid-a.<br> +<b>perform</b> (act), ag-i; (<b>fulfil</b>), plenum-i; (<b>do</b>), far-i.<br> +<b>perfume</b>, parfum-o; (<b>odor</b>), bonodor-o.<br> +<b>period</b>, period-o; (<b>of time</b>), epok-o; (<b>punctuation</b>), punkt-o.<br> +<b>perish</b>, pere-i.<br> +<b>permit</b>, permes-i.<br> +<b>persecute</b>, persekut-i; (<b>worry</b>), turment-i, ĝen-i.<br> +<b>persevere</b>, persist-i.<br> +<b>person</b>, person-o.<br> +<b>perspire</b>, ŝvit-i.<br> +<b>persuade</b>, konvink-i.<br> +<b>pet</b>, dorlot-i.<br> +<b>petroleum</b>, petrol-o.<br> +<b>phantom</b>, fantom-o.<br> +<b>Pharaoh</b>, faraon-o.<br> +<b>pharmacy</b>, farmaci-o; (<b>shop</b>), apotek-o.<br> +<b>philosopher</b>, filozof-o.<br> +<b>photograph</b>, fotograf-i.<br> +<b>phrase</b>, fraz-o.<br> +<b>physician</b>, kuracist-o.<br> +<b>physics</b>, fizik-o.<br> +<b>pick</b> (<b>choose</b>), elekt-i; (<b>gather</b>), kolekt-i.<br> +<b>pickle</b>, pekl-i.<br> +<b>picture</b>, bild-o; (<b>portrait</b>), portret-o; <b>— gallery</b>, pinakotek-o.<br> +<b>picturesque</b>, pitoresk-a, pentrind-a.<br> +<b>pie</b>, kukaĵ-o; (<b>patty</b>), pasteĉ-o.<br> +<b>piece</b>, pec-o.<br> +<b>pig</b>, pork-o.<br> +<b>pigeon</b>, kolomb-o.<br> +<b>(be a) pilgrim</b>, pilgrim-i.<br> +<b>pillage</b>, rab-i.<br> +<b>pillar</b>, kolon-o.<br> +<b>pin</b>, pingl-o.<br> +<b>pinch</b>, pinĉ-i.<br> +<b>pine</b> (<b>tree</b>), pin-o; <b>— for</b>, sopir-i je.<br> +<b>pineapple</b>, ananas-o.<br> +<b>pinnacle</b>, pint-o.<br> +<b>pioneer</b>, pionir-o.<br> +<b>pious</b>, pi-a.<br> +<b>pipe</b>, tub-o; (<b>for smoking</b>), pip-o.<br> +<b>pitcher</b>, kruĉ-o.<br> + +<b>pity</b>, kompat-i; (<b>regrettable affair</b>), domaĝ-o.<br> +<b>placard</b>, afiŝ-o.<br> +<b>place</b>, lok-o; (<b>for something</b>), -ej-o (<b>111</b>); (<b>broad, short street or open space</b>), plac-o; (<b>put</b>), met-i.<br> +<b>plait</b>, plekt-i.<br> +<b>plan</b>, plan-o, projekt-o, skiz-o.<br> +<b>plane</b>, plat-a.<br> +<b>planet</b>, planed-o.<br> +<b>plank</b>, tabul-o.<br> +<b>plant</b>, plant-i; (<b>vegetable growth</b>), kreskaĵ-o, vegetaĵ-o.<br> +<b>plate</b>, plat-o; (<b>dish</b>) teler-o.<br> +<b>platform</b> (<b>railway</b>), peron-o.<br> +<b>play</b>, lud-i; (<b>music</b>), muzik-i; (<b>theatrical</b>), teatraĵ-o.<br> +<b>player</b> (<b>theatrical</b>), aktor-o.<br> +<b>pleasant</b>, agrabl-a, dolĉ-a, afabl-a.<br> +<b>please</b>, plaĉ-i (<b>265</b>); kontentig-i, far-i plezuron al; (<b>in requests</b>), bonvolu, mi petas.<br> +<b>pleasure</b>, plezur-o; <b>take — in</b>, ĝu-i.<br> +<b>plot</b>, konspir-i.<br> +<b>plow</b>, plug-i.<br> +<b>plum</b>, prun-o.<br> +<b>plumber</b>, plumbist-o.<br> +<b>plunder</b>, rab-i.<br> +<b>plural</b>, multenombr-o.<br> +<b>pneumatic</b>, pneumatik-a.<br> +<b>pocket</b>, poŝ-o.<br> +<b>poem</b>, poem-o.<br> +<b>poet</b>, poet-o.<br> +<b>poetry</b>, poezi-o.<br> +<b>point</b>, punkt-o; (<b>sharp</b>), pint-o; <b>— out</b>, montr-i.<br> +<b>poise</b> (<i>trans.</i>), balanc-i; (of manner), aplomb-o.<br> +<b>poison</b>, venen-o.<br> +<b>pole</b>, stang-o; (<b>shaft of vehicle</b>), timon-o; (<b>geographical</b>), polus-o.<br> +<b>Pole</b>, pol-o.<br> +<b>police</b>, polic-o.<br> +<b>polite</b>, ĝentil-a.<br> +<b>politics</b>, politik-o.<br> +<b>polish</b>, polur-i; polished, polurit-a, glat-a.<br> +<b>pomp</b>, pomp-o.<br> +<b>popular</b>, popular-o, popol-a.<br> +<b>porcelain</b>, porcelan-o.<br> +<b>porch</b>, verand-o; (<b>stoop</b>), peron-o; (<b>balcony</b>), balkon-o.<br> +<b>pork</b>, porkaĵ-o.<br> +<b>port</b>, haven-o.<br> +<b>portion</b>, porci-o, part-o.<br> +<b>portrait</b>, portret-o.<br> +<b>possess</b>, posed-i.<br> +<b>possible</b>, ebl-a (<b>161, 162</b>); kredebl-a (<b>270</b>).<br> +<b>post</b> (<b>pole</b>), stang-o; (<b>mail</b>), poŝt-o; <b>—card</b>, poŝtkart-o; <b>—paid</b>, afrankit-e.<br> +<b>postage</b> (<b>cost</b>), poŝtelspezo; <b>— stamp</b>, poŝtmark-o.<br> +<b>poster</b>, afiŝ-o.<br> +<b>pot</b>, pot-o.<br> + +<b>potato</b>, terpom-o; <b>sweet —</b>, batat-o.<br> +<b>pound</b>, pist-i; (<b>measure</b>), funt-o.<br> +<b>pour</b> (liquids), verŝ-i; (<b>as in a chute</b>), ŝut-i.<br> +<b>powder</b>, pudr-o.<br> +<b>power</b>, pov-o, potenc-o.<br> +<b>practice</b>, praktik-i.<br> +<b>praise</b>, laŭd-i.<br> +<b>pray</b>, preĝ-i.<br> +<b>preach</b>, predik-i.<br> +<b>precise</b>, preciz-a, ĝust-a.<br> +<b>predestined</b>, fatal-a.<br> +<b>prefer</b>, prefer-i.<br> +<b>prefix</b>, prefiks-o.<br> +<b>premium</b>, premi-o.<br> +<b>prepare</b>, prepar-i.<br> +<b>prepay</b>, afrank-i.<br> +<b>presence</b>, ĉeest-o, apudest-o; <b>in the — of</b> (<i>prep.</i>), ĉe (<b>125</b>), antaŭ.<br> +<b>present</b> (<b>gift</b>), donac-o; (<b>time</b>), estantec-o, estant-a, nun-a (<b>171</b>); (<b>in attendance</b>), ĉeestant-a.<br> +<b>present</b>, prezent-i, donac-i, don-i.<br> +<b>preserve</b> (<b>keep</b>), ten-i; (<b>keep safe</b>), konserv-i; (<b>food</b>), kompot-o, konfitaĵ-o.<br> +<b>preside</b>, prezid-i.<br> +<b>president</b>, prezidant-o.<br> +<b>press</b>, prem-i; (<b>print</b>), pres-i; (<b>wardrobe</b>), ŝrank-o; (<b>be urgent</b>), urĝ-i.<br> +<b>pretend</b> (<b>make pretext of</b>), pretekst-i; (<b>feign</b>), ŝajnig-i; (<b>lay claim</b>), pretend-i.<br> +<b>price</b>, prez-o, kost-o.<br> +<b>prick</b>, pik-i.<br> +<b>priest</b>, pastr-o.<br> +<b>prince</b>, princ-o, reĝid-o.<br> +<b>principal</b>, precip-a, ĉef-a.<br> +<b>print</b>, pres-i.<br> +<b>prize</b>, ŝat-i; (<b>premium</b>), premi-o.<br> +<b>prized</b>, kar-a, altetaksat-a, ŝatat-a.<br> +<b>problem</b>, problem-o.<br> +<b>process</b>, metod-o; (<b>legal</b>), proces-o.<br> +<b>proclaim</b>, proklam-i.<br> +<b>procrastinate</b>, prokrast-i.<br> +<b>produce</b>, produkt-i; <b>— a result</b>, efik-i; (<b>give birth to</b>), nask-i.<br> +<b>profession</b>, profesi-o.<br> +<b>professor</b>, profesor-o.<br> +<b>profile</b>, profil-o.<br> +<b>profit</b>, profit-i; (<b>percentage</b>), tantiem-o.<br> +<b>profound</b>, profund-a.<br> +<b>progress</b>, progres-i.<br> +<b>project</b>, projekt-o.<br> +<b>promenade</b>, promen-i.<br> +<b>promise</b>, promes-i.<br> +<b>propensity</b>, inklin-o, em-o (<b>192</b>).<br> +<b>(be) proper</b>, dec-i.<br> +<b>property</b>, propraĵ-o, posedaĵ-o; (<b>land</b>), bien-o; (<b>characteristic</b>), ec-o (<b>202</b>).<br> + +<b>proportional</b>, proporci-a.<br> +<b>propose</b>, propon-i, sugesti-i.<br> +<b>prose</b>, prozo; <b>piece of —</b>, prozaĵo.<br> +<b>prosecute</b>, persekut-i.<br> +<b>prosper</b>, prosper-i.<br> +<b>protect</b>, protekt-i, gard-i.<br> +<b>protest</b>, protest-i.<br> +<b>proud</b>, fier-a<br> +<b>prove</b>, pruv-i; (<b>test</b>), prov-i.<br> +<b>provoke</b>, incit-i, ekscit-i, kaŭz-i, nask-i, kolerig-i.<br> +<b>psalm</b>, psalm-o.<br> +<b>public</b>, publik-o.<br> +<b>publish</b>, publikig-i, eldon-i.<br> +<b>pudding</b>, puding-o.<br> +<b>pull</b>, tir-i.<br> +<b>pump</b>, pump-i.<br> +<b>pumpkin</b>, kukurb-o.<br> +<b>punish</b>, pun-i.<br> +<b>pure</b>, pur-a.<br> +<b>puree</b>, pistaĵ-o.<br> +<b>purple</b>, purpur-a.<br> +<b>purpose</b>, cel-i, intenc-i.<br> +<b>push</b>, puŝ-i; (<b>shove</b>), ŝov-i.<br> +<b>put</b>, met-i; <b>— off</b>, prokrast-i.<br> + +<p><b>Q.</b></p> + +<b>quality</b>, ec-o (<b>202</b>); (<b>texture, etc.</b>), kvalito.<br> +<b>quantity</b>, kvant-o; <b>any —</b>, <b>a certain —</b>, iom (<b>217</b>); <i>see table</i>, 235.<br> +<b>quarter</b> (<b>of a city</b>), kvartal-o; (<b>fourth</b>), kvaron-o; <b>—ly</b>, trimonat-a.<br> +<b>question</b>, demand-o; (<b>problem</b>), problem-o; (<b>doubt</b>), dub-o.<br> +<b>quick</b>, rapid-a; (<b>lively</b>), viv-a.<br> +<b>quiet</b>, kviet-a, trankvil-a, silent-a.<br> +<b>quince</b>, cidoni-o.<br> +<b>quite</b> (<i>adv.</i>), tut-e.<br> +<b>quote</b>, cit-i.<br> + +<p><b>R.</b></p> + +<b>rabbit</b>, kunikl-o.<br> +<b>race</b> (<b>people</b>), ras-o.<br> +<b>radish</b>, rafan-o; <b>horse—</b>, armoraci-o.<br> +<b>radius</b>, radi-o.<br> +<b>rag</b>, ĉifon-o.<br> +<b>raging</b>, furioz-a.<br> +<b>rail</b>, rel-o; <b>—way</b>, fervoj-o; <b>—way carriage</b>, vagon-o; <b>—way station</b>, stacidom-o.<br> +<b>rain</b>, pluv-o; <b>—bow</b>, ĉielark-o.<br> +<b>raise</b>, lev-i.<br> +<b>raisin</b>, sekvinber-o.<br> +<b>rank</b>, rang-o; (<b>grade</b>), grad-o.<br> +<b>rap</b>, frapet-i.<br> +<b>rapid</b>, rapid-a.<br> +<b>rascal</b>, fripon-o, kanajl-o.<br> +<b>rasp</b>, rasp-i.<br> +<b>raspberry</b>, framb-o.<br> +<b>rat</b>, rat-o.<br> + +<b>rate</b>, taks-i; (<b>schedule of prices</b>), tarif-o, prezar-o; (<b>percentage</b>), procent-o; <b>at the — of</b> (<i>prep.</i>), po (<b>175</b>).<br> +<b>rational</b>, prudent-a, racional-a.<br> +<b>raucous</b>, raŭk-a.<br> +<b>raven</b>, korv-o.<br> +<b>ravishing</b>, rav-a.<br> +<b>raw</b>, nekuirit-a.<br> +<b>ray</b> (<b>of light</b>), radi-o.<br> +<b>reach</b>, ating-i; (<b>a goal</b>), traf-i.<br> +<b>read</b>, leg-i.<br> +<b>ready</b>, pret-a.<br> +<b>real</b>, efektiv-a, real-a; ver-a.<br> +<b>reap</b>, rikolt-i.<br> +<b>reason</b> (<b>exert the power of reasoning</b>), rezon-i; (<b>cause</b>), kaŭz-o; (<b>motive</b>), kial-o; <b>for what —, for any —, etc.</b>, <i>see table</i>, 235.<br> +<b>reasonable</b>, prudent-a.<br> +<b>rebate</b>, rabat-i.<br> +<b>recall</b>, revok-i; (<b>to memory</b>), rememor-i; (<b>to another's memory</b>), rememorig-i.<br> +<b>receive</b>, ricev-i; (<b>accept</b>), akcept-i; (<b>money</b>), enspez-i.<br> +<b>receipt</b> (<b>for payment</b>), kvitanc-o.<br> +<b>reckon</b>, kalkul-i.<br> +<b>recent</b>, nov-a, antaŭnelong-a (<b>90</b>).<br> +<b>receptacle</b>, uj-o (<b>237</b>); (<b>for one object</b>), ing-o (<b>181</b>).<br> +<b>recess</b> (<b>alcove</b>), alkov-o; (<b>vacation</b>), libertemp-o.<br> +<b>reciprocal</b>, reciprok-a (<b>180</b>).<br> +<b>recite</b>, deklam-i.<br> +<b>recline</b>, kuŝ-i (<b>239</b>).<br> +<b>recommend</b>, rekomend-i.<br> +<b>recompense</b>, rekompenŝ-i.<br> +<b>recover</b> (<b>find</b>), retrov-i; (<b>get well</b>), resaniĝ-i.<br> +<b>red</b>, ruĝ-a; reddish, duberuĝ-a.<br> +<b>reduction</b> (<b>of price</b>), rabat-o.<br> +<b>refine</b>, rafin-i.<br> +<b>refuse</b>, rifuz-i, malpermes-i.<br> +<b>refute</b>, refut-i.<br> +<b>regale</b>, regal-i.<br> +<b>region</b>, region-o.<br> +<b>register</b> (<i>trans.</i>), registr-i; (<b>letters</b>), rekomend-i.<br> +<b>regret</b>, bedaŭr-i; (<b>be penitent for</b>), pent-i.<br> +<b>regrettable</b>, bedaŭrind-a; <b>— affair (pity)</b>, domaĝ-o.<br> +<b>regulation</b>, regul-o, leĝ-o.<br> +<b>reign</b>, reg-i.<br> +<b>rejoice</b>, ĝoj-i (<b>116</b>).<br> +<b>relate</b>, rilat-i (<b>266</b>); (<b>tell</b>), rakont-i.<br> +<b>relative</b> (<b>person</b>), parenc-o.<br> +<b>religion</b>, religi-o.<br> +<b>rely</b>, konfid-i; fid-i.<br> +<b>remain</b>, rest-i; remaining (<b>other</b>), ceter-a.<br> +<b>remember</b>, memor-i; (<b>recall to memory</b>), rememor-i.<br> +<b>render</b>, far-i, ig-i (<b>214</b>); (<b>an account</b>), don-i, prezent-i, liver-i.<br> +<b>renown</b>, fam-o, glor-o.<br> +<b>rent</b>, lu-i; (<b>let</b>), luig-i; (<b>farm out</b>), farm-i; (<b>price</b>), luprez-o.<br> + +<b>repair</b>, ripar-i; (<b>patch</b>), flik-i.<br> +<b>repeat</b>, ripet-i.<br> +<b>repent</b>, pent-i.<br> +<b>report</b>, raport-i.<br> +<b>repose</b>, ripoz-i.<br> +<b>represent</b>, reprezent-i.<br> +<b>reproach</b>, riproĉ-i.<br> +<b>republic</b>, respublik-o.<br> +<b>repulse</b>, repuŝ-i, repel-i.<br> +<b>request</b>, pet-i.<br> +<b>require</b>, postul-i; (<b>need</b>), bezon-i.<br> +<b>rescue</b>, sav-i.<br> +<b>reside</b>, loĝ-i.<br> +<b>respect</b>, respekt-i.<br> +<b>rest</b> (<b>repose</b>), ripoz-i; (<b>remain</b>), rest-i; (<b>— upon</b>), apog-i sur.<br> +<b>restaurant</b>, restoraci-o.<br> +<b>result</b>, rezult-i.<br> +<b>resume</b>, resum-o.<br> +<b>return</b> (<b>go back</b>), reir-i; (<b>come back</b>), reven-i; (<b>give back</b>), redon-i.<br> +<b>revery</b>, rev-o.<br> +<b>review</b> (<b>magazine</b>), revu-o.<br> +<b>reward</b>, rekompenc-i.<br> +<b>rhubarb</b>, rabarb-o.<br> +<b>rib</b>, rip-o.<br> +<b>ribbon</b>, ruband-o.<br> +<b>rice</b>, riz-o.<br> +<b>rich</b>, riĉ-a.<br> +<b>ride</b>, rajd-i; (<b>in vehicle, boat, etc.</b>), vetur-i.<br> +<b>ridicule</b>, mok-i; worthy of — (ridiculous), ridind-a.<br> +<b>right</b>, prav-a; (<b>to something</b>), rajt-o; (<b>not left</b>), dekstr-a.<br> +<b>right-angled</b>, ort-a.<br> +<b>ring</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), sonor-i; (<b>circlet</b>), ring-o.<br> +<b>ringlet</b> (<b>of hair</b>), bukl-o.<br> +<b>ripe</b>, matur-a.<br> +<b>river</b>, river-o.<br> +<b>road</b>, voj-o; (<b>broad roadway</b>), ŝose-o.<br> +<b>roam</b>, vag-i.<br> +<b>roar</b>, muĝ-i.<br> +<b>roast</b>, rost-i.<br> +<b>rob</b>, rab-i, ŝtel-i.<br> +<b>robber</b>, rabist-o.<br> +<b>robe</b>, rob-o.<br> +<b>Robert</b>, Robert-o.<br> +<b>roguish</b>, petol-a; (<b>rascally</b>), fripon-a.<br> +<b>roll</b> (<i>trans.</i>), rul-i; (<b>something around something else</b>), volv-i; (<b>bread</b>), bulk-o; (<b>list</b>), list-o, registr-o.<br> +<b>roof</b>, tegment-o.<br> +<b>room</b>, ĉambr-o; (<b>space</b>), spac-o.<br> +<b>root</b>, radik-o.<br> +<b>rose</b>, roz-o.<br> +<b>(by) rote</b>, parker-e.<br> +<b>round</b>, rond-o; (<b>of ladder</b>), ŝtupet-o; (<b>roundabout</b>) (<i>prep.</i>) ĉirkaŭ (<b>89, 120, 159, 160</b>).<br> +<b>routine</b>, rutin-o.<br> +<b>row</b> (boats), rem-i.<br> +<b>royalty</b>, reĝec-o; (<b>share of profit</b>) tantiem-o.<br> + +<b>rub</b>, frot-i.<br> +<b>ruin</b>, ruin-o.<br> +<b>rule</b>, reg-i; (<b>draw lines</b>), lini-i; (<b>regulation</b>), regul-o.<br> +<b>rumor</b>, fam-o; rumored, laŭdir-a.<br> +<b>run</b>, kur-i; (<b>of fluids</b>), flu-i.<br> +<b>Russian</b>, rus-o.<br> +<b>rust</b>, rust-i.<br> + +<p><b>S.</b></p> + +<b>sack</b>, sak-o; (<b>plunder</b>), rab-i.<br> +<b>sacred</b>, sankt-a.<br> +<b>sacrifice</b>, ofer-i, oferdon-i.<br> +<b>saddle</b>, sel-o.<br> +<b>safe</b>, sendanĝer-a, senrisk-a; (<b>chest</b>), monkest-o.<br> +<b>sail</b>, vel-o.<br> +<b>salad</b>, salat-o.<br> +<b>salary</b>, salajr-o.<br> +<b>salt</b>, sal-o.<br> +<b>salute</b>, salut-i.<br> +<b>same</b>, sam-a.<br> +<b>sample</b>, specimen-o.<br> +<b>sand</b>, sabl-o.<br> +<b>sap</b>, suk-o.<br> +<b>sardine</b>, sarden-o.<br> +<b>satchel</b>, valiz-o.<br> +<b>sated</b>, sat-a.<br> +<b>satin</b>, atlas-o.<br> +<b>satisfied</b>, kontent-a; (<b>of hunger</b>), sat-a.<br> +<b>Saturday</b>, sabat-o.<br> +<b>sausage</b>, kolbas-o.<br> +<b>sauce</b>, saŭc-o.<br> +<b>saucer</b>, subtas-o, teleret-o.<br> +<b>saucy</b>, petol-a, malĝentil-a, insultem-a.<br> +<b>savage</b>, sovaĝ-a.<br> +<b>save</b>, sav-i; (<b>keep</b>), konserv-i; (<b>economize</b>), ŝpar-i; (<i>prep.</i>), krom, escepte de.<br> +<b>saw</b>, seg-i.<br> +<b>say</b>, dir-i (<b>77</b>).<br> +<b>scales</b> (<b>for weighing</b>), pesil-o.<br> +<b>scarcely</b> (<i>adv.</i>), apenaŭ.<br> +<b>scent</b> (<i>trans.</i>), flar-i.<br> +<b>schedule</b> (<b>of rates</b>), tarif-o.<br> +<b>science</b>, scienc-o.<br> +<b>scissors</b>, tondil-o.<br> +<b>Scot</b> (<b>Scotchman</b>), skot-o.<br> +<b>scoundrel</b>, kanajl-o, fripon-o.<br> +<b>scrape</b>, skrap-i.<br> +<b>screen</b>, ŝirm-i.<br> +<b>screw</b>, ŝraŭb-o; <b>—driver</b>, ŝraŭbturnil-o.<br> +<b>sculpture</b>, skulpt-i.<br> +<b>sea</b>, mar-o.<br> +<b>seal</b>, sigel-i.<br> +<b>season</b> (<b>of the year</b>), sezon-o.<br> +<b>second</b> (<b>of time</b>), sekund-o; (<b>in order</b>), dua; <b>a — time</b> (<i>adv.</i>), duafoje, bis.<br> +<b>secret</b>, sekret-o.<br> +<b>secretary</b>, sekretari-o.<br> +<b>section</b>, sekci-o, part-o, er-o (<b>276</b>).<br> +<b>see</b>, vid-i; <b>— to</b>, zorg-i pri.<br> + +<b>seed</b>, sem-o.<br> +<b>seek</b>, serĉ-i; <b>— advice of</b>, konsult-i.<br> +<b>seem</b>, ŝajn-i; <b>—ing</b>, ŝajn-a, kvazaŭ-a.<br> +<b>seize</b>, kapt-i.<br> +<b>select</b>, elekt-i.<br> +<b>self</b> (<i>reflexive</i>), <i>see</i> 39, 40, 44; (<i>intensive</i>), mem (<b>219</b>).<br> +<b>self-command</b>, aplomb-o.<br> +<b>sell</b>, vend-i.<br> +<b>senate</b>, senat-o.<br> +<b>send</b>, send-i.<br> +<b>sense</b>, prudent-o, saĝ-o; (<b>meaning</b>), senc-o; (<b>feeling</b>), sent-o.<br> +<b>sentence</b>, fraz-o; (<b>legal</b>), juĝ-o, kondamn-o.<br> +<b>separate</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), disiĝ-i, disir-i; (<b>distinct</b>), apart-a.<br> +<b>September</b>, septembr-o.<br> +<b>serene</b>, trankvil-a.<br> +<b>series</b>, seri-o, vic-o.<br> +<b>serious</b>, serioz-a, grav-a.<br> +<b>serve</b>, serv-i; (<b>be good for</b>), taŭg-i por.<br> +<b>set</b>, met-i; (<b>of the sun</b>), subir-i; (<b>type</b>), kompost-i; <b>— free</b>, liberig-i; <b>— out (start)</b>, forir-i, ekir-i.<br> +<b>seven</b> (<i>adj.</i>), sep (<b>136</b>).<br> +<b>several</b>, kelk-aj, kelk-e.<br> +<b>severe</b>, sever-a.<br> +<b>sew</b>, kudr-i.<br> +<b>shade</b> (<b>shadow</b>), ombr-o; (<b>tint</b>) nuanc-o; (<b>screen</b>), ŝirmil-o.<br> +<b>shaft</b> (<b>of vehicle</b>), timon-o.<br> +<b>shake</b> (<i>trans.</i>), sku-i; (<b>oscillate</b>), ŝancel-i; <b>— hands</b>, manprem-i.<br> +<b>sham</b>, pretekst-i.<br> +<b>shape</b>, form-o; <b>—ly</b>, beltali-a.<br> +<b>share</b>, partopren-i, divid-i, part-o, porci-o.<br> +<b>sharp</b>, akr-a; (<b>pointed</b>), pint-a.<br> +<b>shatter</b>, frakas-i.<br> +<b>shave</b>, raz-i.<br> +<b>shawl</b>, ŝal-o.<br> +<b>she</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), ŝi (<b>32, 37, 42</b>).<br> +<b>shear</b>, tond-i.<br> +<b>sheep</b>, ŝaf-o.<br> +<b>shelf</b>, bret-o.<br> +<b>shell</b>, ŝel-o; (<b>of mollusk</b>), konk-o; <b>to remove the —</b>, senŝelig-i.<br> +<b>shelter</b>, ŝirm-i.<br> +<b>shepherd</b>, paŝtist-o.<br> +<b>shield</b>, ŝild-o; (<b>protect</b>), ŝirm-i.<br> +<b>shin-bone</b>, tibi-o.<br> +<b>shine</b>, bril-i, lum-i.<br> +<b>ship</b>, ŝip-o.<br> +<b>shirt</b>, ĉemiz-o.<br> +<b>shoe</b>, ŝu-o.<br> +<b>shoot</b> (<b>with gun, etc.</b>), paf-i.<br> +<b>shop</b>, butik-o.<br> +<b>shore</b>, bord-o, marbord-o.<br> +<b>short</b>, mallong-a; <b>—sighted</b>, miop-a; <b>—hand</b>, stenografi-o.<br> +<b>shoulder</b>, ŝultr-o.<br> +<b>shove</b>, ŝov-i.<br> + +<b>shovel</b>, ŝovel-i.<br> +<b>show</b> (<i>trans.</i>), montr-i.<br> +<b>shrill</b>, akr-a, akrason-a.<br> +<b>shun</b>, evit-i.<br> +<b>shut</b> (trans.), ferm-i.<br> +<b>side</b>, flank-o; <b>—board</b>, telermebl-o; <b>—walk</b>, trotuar-o; <b>—wise</b>, oblikv-a.<br> +<b>sift</b>, kribr-i.<br> +<b>sigh</b>, sopir-i.<br> +<b>sign</b>, sign-o; <b>— the name</b>, subskrib-i.<br> +<b>signify</b>, signif-i.<br> +<b>silent</b>, silent-a (<b>239</b>).<br> +<b>silk</b>, silk-o.<br> +<b>silver</b>, arĝent-o.<br> +<b>similar</b>, simil-a.<br> +<b>simple</b>, simpl-a.<br> +<b>sin</b>, pek-i.<br> +<b>since</b> (<i>conj.</i>), ĉar, tial ke (<b>83</b>); (<i>prep.</i>), de, depost (<b>89</b>); (<i>adv.</i>), de tiam.<br> +<b>sing</b>, kant-i.<br> +<b>single</b>, sol-a, unuop-a; <b>— man (unmarried man)</b>, fraŭl-o.<br> +<b>sit</b>, sid-i (<b>239</b>).<br> +<b>six</b> (<i>adj.</i>), ses (<b>136</b>).<br> +<b>sketch</b>, skiz-i.<br> +<b>skill</b>, lertec-o; <b>trial of —</b>, konkurs-o.<br> +<b>skin</b> (<b>human</b>), haŭt-o; (<b>of animals</b>), fel-o.<br> +<b>skirt</b>, jup-o.<br> +<b>sky</b>, ĉiel-o.<br> +<b>slanting</b>, oblikv-a, klin-a.<br> +<b>slate</b> (<b>stone</b>), ardez-o.<br> +<b>slaughter</b>, buĉ-i.<br> +<b>slave</b>, sklav-o.<br> +<b>sleep</b>, dorm-i; <b>lull to —</b>, lul-i.<br> +<b>sleeve</b>, manik-o.<br> +<b>slide</b>, glit-i.<br> +<b>slime</b>, ŝlim-o.<br> +<b>slipper</b>, pantofl-o.<br> +<b>sly</b>, ruz-a.<br> +<b>smear</b>, ŝmir-i.<br> +<b>smell</b> (<i>trans.</i>), flar-i; (<i>intrans.</i>), odor-i.<br> +<b>smile</b>, ridet-i.<br> +<b>smoke</b>, fum-i.<br> +<b>smooth</b>, glat-a; (<b>polished</b>), polurit-a.<br> +<b>sneeze</b>, tern-i.<br> +<b>snow</b>, neĝ-i.<br> +<b>so</b> (<i>conj.</i>), do; (<i>adv.</i>), (<b>thus</b>), tiel (<b>88, 156</b>); (<b>therefore</b>), tial (<b>78</b>); <b>— much</b>, tiom (<b>104, 164</b>).<br> +<b>society</b>, societ-o.<br> +<b>Socrates</b>, Sokrat-o.<br> +<b>sofa</b>, kanap-o.<br> +<b>soft</b>, mol-a.<br> +<b>soil</b>, ter-o; soiled, malpur-a.<br> +<b>soldier</b>, soldat-o; (<b>professional</b>), militist-o.<br> +<b>sole</b>, sol-a; (<b>of foot</b>), pland-o; (<b>of shoe</b>), ledpland-o.<br> +<b>solemn</b>, solen-a.<br> + +<b>some</b>, kelk-a, kelk-e, iom (<b>217</b>); <b>—one</b>, <b>—how</b>, etc., <i>see table</i>, 235.<br> +<b>son</b>, fil-o.<br> +<b>soon</b> (<i>adv.</i>), baldaŭ.<br> +<b>sorcerer</b>, sorĉist-o.<br> +<b>sort</b>, spec-o, klas-o; (<b>put in order</b>), ordig-i, enfakig-i.<br> +<b>soul</b>, anim-o.<br> +<b>sound</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), son-i; (<b>of bells</b>), sonor-i; (<b>in good condition</b>), bonstat-a.<br> +<b>soup</b>, sup-o.<br> +<b>sour</b>, acid-a, maldolĉ-a.<br> +<b>south</b>, sud-o.<br> +<b>sow</b>, sem-i.<br> +<b>space</b>, spac-o.<br> +<b>spacious</b>, vast-a, grandspac-a, grandampleks-a.<br> +<b>Spaniard</b>, hispan-o.<br> +<b>spare</b> (save), ŝpar-i; (<b>pardon</b>), pardon-i.<br> +<b>sparrow</b>, paser-o.<br> +<b>speak</b>, parol-i (<b>77</b>).<br> +<b>spear</b>, lanc-o.<br> +<b>special</b>, special-a, apart-a.<br> +<b>specialty</b>, fak-o.<br> +<b>species</b>, spec-o.<br> +<b>specimen</b>, specimen-o, model-o.<br> +<b>spectre</b>, fantom-o.<br> +<b>speed</b>, rapid-o, rapidec-o.<br> +<b>spell</b>, silab-i; (<b>witchcraft</b>), sorĉaĵ-o.<br> +<b>spend</b> (<b>money</b>), elspez-i; (<b>time</b>), pasig-i.<br> +<b>speso</b>, spes-o (<b>285</b>).<br> +<b>spider</b>, arane-o.<br> +<b>spin</b>, ŝpin-i.<br> +<b>spinach</b>, spinac-o.<br> +<b>spite</b>, malic-o; <b>in — of</b>, (<i>prep.</i>), malgraŭ, spite.<br> +<b>splash</b> (<i>trans.</i>), plaŭd-i.<br> +<b>splendor</b>, pomp-o, bril-o, belegec-o.<br> +<b>split</b> (<i>trans.</i>), fend-i.<br> +<b>spoil</b> (<i>trans.</i>), difekt-i.<br> +<b>spoke</b> (<b>of wheel</b>), radi-o.<br> +<b>spoon</b>, kuler-o.<br> +<b>spot</b>, makul-i.<br> +<b>spout</b> (<b>liquids</b>), ŝpruc-i.<br> +<b>spring</b> (<b>season</b>), printemp-o; (<b>of water</b>), font-o.<br> +<b>sprite</b>, kobold-o, fe-o.<br> +<b>spruce</b> (<b>tree</b>), pice-o.<br> +<b>spurt</b> (<b>of liquids</b>), ŝpruc-i.<br> +<b>spy</b>, spion-o; (<b>catch sight of</b>), ekvid-i; <b>—glass</b>, lorn-o.<br> +<b>square</b>, kvadrat-o; (<b>public</b>), plac-o.<br> +<b>stain</b>, makul-i.<br> +<b>stair</b> (<b>staircase</b>), ŝtupar-o.<br> +<b>stag</b>, cerv-o.<br> +<b>stake</b> (<b>of palisade</b>), palis-o.<br> +<b>stamp</b> (<b>officially</b>), stamp-i; (<b>with foot</b>), piedfrap-i; <b>postage —</b>, poŝtmark-o.<br> +<b>stand</b>, star-i (<b>239</b>); (<b>endure</b>), sufer-i, elport-i.<br> +<b>standard</b> (<b>model</b>), model-o; (<b>flag</b>), standard-o.<br> + +<b>star</b>, stel-o; (<b>any heavenly body</b>), astr-o.<br> +<b>starch</b>, amel-o.<br> +<b>state</b> (<b>condition</b>), stat-o; (<b>political</b>), ŝtat-o; (<b>governed body</b>), regn-o.<br> +<b>station</b> (<b>state</b>), stat-o; (<b>railway, etc.</b>), staci-o, stacidom-o.<br> +<b>stay</b>, rest-i.<br> +<b>steady</b>, firm-a, konstant-a, nemovebl-a.<br> +<b>steal</b>, ŝtel-i, rab-i (<b>252</b>).<br> +<b>steam</b>, vapor-o.<br> +<b>steel</b>, ŝtal-o.<br> +<b>steep</b>, krut-a.<br> +<b>step</b>, paŝ-i; (<b>of stairs</b>), ŝtup-o.<br> +<b>stern</b>, sever-a.<br> +<b>stew</b> (<i>trans.</i>), stuf-i.<br> +<b>stick</b>, baston-o; (<b>adhere</b>), algluiĝ-i.<br> +<b>still</b> (<b>silent</b>), silent-a; (<i>adv.</i>), ankoraŭ; jam; (<i>conj.</i>), tamen.<br> +<b>stimulate</b>, stimul-i, incit-i.<br> +<b>sting</b>, pik-i.<br> +<b>stipulate</b>, kondiĉ-o.<br> +<b>stocking</b>, ŝtrump-o.<br> +<b>stomach</b>, stomak-o.<br> +<b>stone</b>, ŝton-o.<br> +<b>stoop</b>, kliniĝ-i; (<b>entrance porch</b>), peron-o.<br> +<b>stop</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), halt-i; (<b>leave off</b>), ĉes-i; <b>— up</b>, ŝtop-i.<br> +<b>stopper</b>, ŝtopil-o.<br> +<b>store</b> (<b>shop</b>), butik-o; (<b>warehouse</b>), magazen-o, konservej-o, tenej-o.<br> +<b>story</b> (<b>tale</b>), fabel-o, rakont-o; (<b>of house</b>), etaĝ-o.<br> +<b>stove</b>, forn-o.<br> +<b>straight</b>, rekt-a.<br> +<b>strange</b>, strang-a, kurioz-a; (<b>foreign</b>), fremd-a.<br> +<b>strap</b>, rimen-o.<br> +<b>straw</b>, pajl-o.<br> +<b>strawberry</b>, frag-o.<br> +<b>streak</b>, stri-o; <b>make a —</b>, strek-i.<br> +<b>street</b>, strat-o; <b>— arab</b>, bub-o.<br> +<b>street-car</b>, tramveturil-o; <b>— line</b>, tramvoj-o.<br> +<b>stress</b>, akcent-o; (<b>force</b>), fort-o.<br> +<b>stretch</b> (<i>trans.</i>), etend-i; (<b>forcibly</b>), streĉ-i.<br> +<b>string</b>, ŝnur-o; (<b>shoelace</b>), laĉ-o; <b>— bean</b>, fazeol-o.<br> +<b>strike</b>, frap-i, bat-i; (<b>of laborers</b>), strik-o; <b>— out</b>, trastrek-i.<br> +<b>strip</b> (<b>of paper, cloth, etc.</b>), banderol-o; <b>— off</b>, senig-i.<br> +<b>stripe</b>, stri-o.<br> +<b>strive</b>, pen-i.<br> +<b>strong</b>, fort-a.<br> +<b>struggle</b>, barakt-i.<br> +<b>student</b>, student-o; (<b>person studying</b>), studant-o.<br> +<b>study</b>, stud-i.<br> +<b>stuff</b>, ŝtof-o; (<b>furniture, etc.</b>), rembur-i.<br> + +<b>stump</b>, stump-o.<br> +<b>style</b>, stil-o, mod-o, fason-o.<br> +<b>subject</b> (<b>theme</b>), tem-o; (<b>grammatical</b>), subjekt-o; (<b>ruled</b>), regat-o.<br> +<b>subscribe</b>, subskrib-i; (<b>to magazine, etc.</b>), abon-i.<br> +<b>substance</b>, substanc-o.<br> +<b>succeed</b>, sukces-i; (<b>fare well</b>), prosper-i; (<b>follow</b>), sekv-i, postven-i.<br> +<b>succulent</b>, suk-a, sukplen-a.<br> +<b>such</b>, tia (<b>65</b>); (<i>adv.</i>), tiel (<b>88</b>).<br> +<b>sudden</b>, subit-a, neatendit-a.<br> +<b>suffer</b>, sufer-i, toler-i; (<b>permit</b>), permes-i.<br> +<b>suffice</b>, sufiĉ-i.<br> +<b>suffix</b>, sufiks-o.<br> +<b>suffocate</b> (<i>trans.</i>), sufok-i.<br> +<b>sugar</b>, suker-o.<br> +<b>suggest</b>, sugesti-i, propon-i.<br> +<b>suit</b> (<b>of clothes</b>), vest-oj, komplet-o; (<b>at law</b>), proces-o.<br> +<b>suitable</b>, konven-a, konform-a, taŭg-a, dec-a.<br> +<b>suite</b> (<b>of rooms</b>), apartament-o.<br> +<b>sulphur</b>, sulfur-o.<br> +<b>sum</b>, sum-o; (<b>total</b>), tut-o.<br> +<b>summarize</b>, resum-i.<br> +<b>summer</b>, somer-o; <b>—house</b>, laŭb-o.<br> +<b>summit</b>, pint-o, supr-o.<br> +<b>sun</b>, sun-o.<br> +<b>Sunday</b>, dimanĉ-o.<br> +<b>superior</b>, super-a; (<b>person</b>), superul-o.<br> +<b>superstition</b>, superstiĉ-o.<br> +<b>supply</b>, liver-i, proviz-i.<br> +<b>suppose</b>, supoz-i; opini-i.<br> +<b>sure</b>, cert-a.<br> +<b>surface</b>, supraĵ-o.<br> +<b>surprise</b>, surpriz-i.<br> +<b>suspect</b>, suspekt-i.<br> +<b>suspend</b>, pendig-i.<br> +<b>suspenders</b>, ŝelk-o.<br> +<b>swallow</b>, glut-i; (<b>bird</b>), hirund-o.<br> +<b>swamp</b>, marĉ-o.<br> +<b>swan</b>, cign-o.<br> +<b>swear</b>, ĵur-i.<br> +<b>Swede</b>, sved-o.<br> +<b>sweep</b> (<b>floors, etc.</b>), bala-i.<br> +<b>sweet</b>, dolĉ-a; <b>—potato</b>, batat-o.<br> +<b>sweetmeat</b>, bombon-o, sukeraĵ-o, konfitaĵ-o; <b>be fond of —</b>, frand-i.<br> +<b>swim</b>, naĝ-i.<br> +<b>swine</b>, pork-o.<br> +<b>swing</b> (<i>trans.</i>), sving-i; (<b>balance</b>), balanc-i (<b>279</b>).<br> +<b>Swiss</b>, svis-o.<br> +<b>swoon</b>, sven-i.<br> +<b>sword</b>, glav-o.<br> +<b>syllable</b>, silab-o.<br> +<b>Syracuse</b>, Sirakuz-o.<br> + +<p><b>T.</b></p> + +<b>table</b> (<b>furniture</b>), tabl-o; (<b>tabulation</b>), tabel-o.<br> + +<b>tail</b>, vost-o.<br> +<b>tailor</b>, tajlor-o.<br> +<b>take</b>, pren-i; (<b>magazines, etc.</b>), abon-i; <b>— in (money)</b>, enspez-i; <b>— place</b>, okaz-i; <b>— note of</b>, observ-i, rimark-i; <b>— oath</b>, ĵur-i; <b>— steps toward accomplishing</b>, klopod-i; <b>— pleasure in</b>, ĝu-i; <b>— the attention of</b>, distr-i.<br> +<b>tale</b>, fabel-o.<br> +<b>talent</b>, talent-o.<br> +<b>tall</b>, alt-a, altkresk-a, grand-a.<br> +<b>talon</b>, ungeg-o.<br> +<b>tap</b> (rap), frapet-i; (<b>faucet</b>), kran-o.<br> +<b>tariff</b>, tarif-o.<br> +<b>task</b>, task-o.<br> +<b>taste</b>, gust-o, gustum-i.<br> +<b>tax</b>, impost-o.<br> +<b>tea</b>, te-o; <b>— caddy</b>, teuj-o (<b>181</b>); <b>—pot</b>, tekruĉ-o.<br> +<b>teach</b>, instru-i.<br> +<b>tear</b>, ŝir-i; (<b>of the eye</b>), larm-o.<br> +<b>tease</b>, turmentet-i, ĉagren-i.<br> +<b>tedious</b>, ted-a, enuig-a, lacig-a.<br> +<b>telegraph</b>, telegraf-i.<br> +<b>telephone</b>, telefon-i.<br> +<b>telescope</b>, teleskop-o.<br> +<b>tell</b>, dir-i, rakont-i (<b>77</b>); <b>— lies</b>, mensog-i.<br> +<b>temper</b>, humor-o; <b>lose the —</b>, koler-i.<br> +<b>temple</b> (<b>of the head</b>), tempi-o; (<b>building</b>), templ-o.<br> +<b>tempt</b>, tent-i.<br> +<b>ten</b> (<i>adj.</i>), dek (<b>136</b>).<br> +<b>tender</b>, delikat-a, mol-a, kares-a.<br> +<b>tenor</b> (<b>voice</b>), tenor-o; (<b>course</b>), daŭr-o.<br> +<b>tent</b>, tend-o.<br> +<b>term</b> (<b>word</b>), termin-o; (<b>condition</b>), kondiĉ-o; (<b>time</b>), templim-o.<br> +<b>terrace</b>, teras-o.<br> +<b>territory</b>, teritori-o.<br> +<b>terror</b>, terur-o.<br> +<b>test</b>, prov-i, ekzamen-i.<br> +<b>texture</b>, kvalit-o; (<b>thing woven</b>), teksaĵ-o.<br> +<b>than</b> (<i>conj.</i>), ol (<b>82, 97, 98</b>).<br> +<b>thank</b>, dank-i (<b>265</b>).<br> +<b>that</b> (<i>conj.</i>), ke (<b>53, 83, 105, 259, 262</b>); (<i>pronoun</i>), tiu (<b>56</b>); tio (<b>233, 234</b>); <b>— kind</b>, tia (<b>65</b>); (<i>adv.</i>), tiel (<b>88, 156</b>); <b>— way</b>, tiamanier-e, tiel (<b>88</b>); <b>— much</b>, tiel mult-e, tiom (<b>104, 164</b>); (<b>when</b>) (<i>adv.</i>), kiam (<b>155</b>).<br> +<b>thaw</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), degel-i.<br> +<b>the</b> (<i>article</i>), la (11, 47, 201, 280, a); (<i>adv.</i>), ju, des (<b>84</b>).<br> +<b>theatre</b>, teatr-o.<br> +<b>theme</b>, tem-o.<br> +<b>then</b> (<i>conj.</i>), do; (<i>adv.</i>), tiam (<b>73</b>); (<b>afterwards</b>), post-e.<br> +<b>theory</b>, teori-o.<br> + +<b>there</b> (<i>adv.</i>), tie (<b>68</b>); (<i>adv. calling attention</i>), jen (<b>228</b>); <i>see also</i> 51.<br> +<b>therefore</b> (<i>adv.</i>), tial (<b>78</b>); pro tio, sekv-e.<br> +<b>they</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), ili (<b>32, 37, 42</b>); (<i>indefinite</i>), oni (<b>54</b>).<br> +<b>thick</b>, dik-a, dens-a.<br> +<b>thigh</b>, femur-o.<br> +<b>thing</b>, afer-o, objekt-o, aĵ-o (<b>227</b>); <b>any—</b>, <b>what —</b>, etc., <i>see table</i>, 235.<br> +<b>think</b>, pens-i; (<b>have the opinion</b>), opini-i.<br> +<b>(be) thirsty</b>, soif-i.<br> +<b>this</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), tio ĉi (<b>233, 234</b>); (<i>pronoun and adj.</i>), tiu ĉi (<b>60</b>); <b>all —</b>, ĉio ĉi. <i>See table</i>, 235.<br> +<b>thong</b>, rimen-o.<br> +<b>thorn</b>, dorn-o.<br> +<b>thou</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), ci (<b>40</b>).<br> +<b>though</b> (<i>conj.</i>), kvankam; <b>as —</b>, kvazaŭ (<b>250</b>).<br> +<b>thousand</b> (<i>adj.</i>), mil (<b>142</b>).<br> +<b>thread</b>, faden-o; <b>— a needle</b>, enkudrilig-i fadenon.<br> +<b>threaten</b>, minac-i.<br> +<b>three</b> (<i>adj.</i>), tri (<b>136</b>).<br> +<b>threshold</b>, sojl-o.<br> +<b>thrifty</b>, ŝparem-a.<br> +<b>throat</b>, gorĝ-o.<br> +<b>throne</b>, tron-o.<br> +<b>throng</b>, amas-o, ar-o (<b>126</b>).<br> +<b>through</b> (<i>prep.</i>), tra (<b>46, 160</b>); (<b>by means of</b>), per (<b>64</b>); (<b>because of</b>), pro (<b>86</b>), de (<b>170</b>).<br> +<b>throw</b>, ĵet-i.<br> +<b>thumb</b>, dika fingr-o.<br> +<b>thunder</b>, tondr-i.<br> +<b>Thursday</b>, ĵaŭd-o.<br> +<b>thus</b> (<i>adv.</i>), tiel (<b>88, 156</b>), tiamanier-e.<br> +<b>ticket</b>, bilet-o; <b>— window</b>, giĉet-o.<br> +<b>tickle</b>, tikl-i.<br> +<b>tie</b>, lig-i; (<b>shoes, etc.</b>), laĉ-i.<br> +<b>tiger</b>, tigr-o.<br> +<b>tile</b>, kahel-o; (<b>brick</b>), brik-o.<br> +<b>till</b> (<b>money box</b>), kas-o; (<i>prep.</i>), ĝis (<b>46, 89</b>); <b>— the soil</b>, terkultur-i.<br> +<b>time</b> (<b>in general</b>), temp-o; (<b>occasion</b>), foj-o (<b>127</b>); (<b>epoch</b>), epok-o; (<b>of day</b>), hor-o.<br> +<b>tin</b> (<b>metal</b>), stan-o; <b>— plate (sheet iron covered with tin</b>), lad-o.<br> +<b>tinkle</b>, tint-i.<br> +<b>tint</b>, nuanc-o, kolor-o.<br> +<b>tire</b> (<i>trans.</i>), lacig-i, enuig-i; (<b>pneumatic</b>), pneŭmatik-o.<br> +<b>to</b> (<i>prep.</i>), al (<b>46, 160, 251, 252</b>); ĝis (<b>46, 89</b>).<br> +<b>toad</b>, buf-o.<br> +<b>toast</b> (<b>bread</b>), panrostaĵ-o; (<b>sentiment</b>), tost-o.<br> +<b>tobacco</b>, tabak-o.<br> +<b>today</b> (<i>adv.</i>), hodiaŭ (<b>93, 171</b>).<br> +<b>toe</b>, piedfingr-o.<br> +<b>toilet</b>, tualet-o.<br> +<b>tolerate</b>, toler-i, sufer-i.<br> +<b>tomato</b>, tomat-o.<br> + +<b>tomb</b>, tomb-o.<br> +<b>tomorrow</b> (<i>adv.</i>), morgaŭ (<b>93, 171</b>).<br> +<b>tone</b>, ton-o.<br> +<b>tongue</b> (<b>of the body</b>), lang-o; (<b>of vehicle</b>), timon-o; (<b>language</b>), lingv-o.<br> +<b>too</b> (<i>adv.</i>), tro; (<b>too much</b>), tro multe, tro.<br> +<b>tool</b>, il-o (<b>63</b>).<br> +<b>tooth</b>, dent-o.<br> +<b>top</b>, supr-o.<br> +<b>torment</b>, turment-i.<br> +<b>total</b>, tut-o.<br> +<b>touch</b>, tuŝ-i; (<b>feel with the fingers, etc.</b>), palp-i; <b>sense of —</b>, palpad-o; <b>— the heart of</b>, kortuŝ-i.<br> +<b>toward</b> (<i>prep.</i>), al (<b>46, 160, 251, 252</b>).<br> +<b>tower</b>, tur-o; <b>— above</b>, superstar-i.<br> +<b>trace</b>, sign-o, postsign-o.<br> +<b>trade</b> (<b>occupation</b>), meti-o; (<b>commerce</b>), komerc-o; (<b>exchange</b>), interŝanĝ-i.<br> +<b>train</b> (<b>of cars</b>), vagonar-o; (<b>of dress</b>), trenaĵ-o.<br> +<b>tram</b>, tram-o; <b>—way</b>, tramvoj-o; <b>— car</b>, tramveturil-o.<br> +<b>tranquil</b>, trankvil-a; kviet-a.<br> +<b>translate</b>, traduk-i.<br> +<b>travel</b>, vojaĝ-i; (<b>by vehicle</b>), vetur-i.<br> +<b>tray</b>, plet-o.<br> +<b>treacherous</b>, perfid-a.<br> +<b>treasure</b>, trezor-o.<br> +<b>treasurer</b>, kasist-o.<br> +<b>treasury</b>, kas-o.<br> +<b>treat</b> (<b>in speech or writing</b>), trakt-i; (<b>for illness</b>), kurac-i; (<b>act towards</b>), kondut-i kontraŭ; (<b>regale</b>), regal-i.<br> +<b>treatise</b>, traktat-o.<br> +<b>tree</b>, arb-o.<br> +<b>tremble</b>, trem-i; (<b>vacillate</b>), ŝanceliĝ-i.<br> +<b>trial</b>, juĝa aŭskultado, esplorad-o; (<b>of skill</b>), konkurs-o; (<b>affliction</b>), malĝoj-o, sufer-o; (<b>test</b>), prov-o, ekzamen-o; (<b>attempt</b>), prov-o.<br> +<b>trifle</b>, bagatel-o.<br> +<b>triumph</b>, triumf-o.<br> +<b>tropic</b>, tropik-o.<br> +<b>trot</b>, trot-i.<br> +<b>trousers</b>, pantalon-o.<br> +<b>trunk</b> (<b>chest with lid</b>), kofr-o; (<b>of tree</b>), trunk-o.<br> +<b>trust</b>, fid-i, konfid-i; (<b>financial</b>), trust-o.<br> +<b>truth</b>, ver-o.<br> +<b>try</b> (<b>legally</b>), juĝ-i; (<b>strive</b>), pen-i; (<b>attempt, test</b>), prov-i.<br> +<b>tub</b>, kuv-o.<br> +<b>tube</b>, tub-o.<br> +<b>tuber</b>, tuber-o.<br> +<b>Tuesday</b>, mard-o.<br> + +<b>tumbler</b> (<b>for drinking</b>), glas-o; (<b>juggler</b>), ĵonglist-o.<br> +<b>tune</b>, ari-o, melodi-o.<br> +<b>Turk</b>, turk-o.<br> +<b>turkey</b>, meleagr-o.<br> +<b>turn</b> (<i>trans.</i>), turn-i; (<b>in a series</b>), vic-o.<br> +<b>turnip</b>, nap-o.<br> +<b>turnstile</b>, giĉet-o.<br> +<b>twilight</b>, krepusk-o.<br> +<b>twist</b> (<i>trans.</i>), tord-i.<br> +<b>twitter</b>, pep-i.<br> +<b>two</b> (<i>adj.</i>), du (<b>136</b>).<br> +<b>tyrant</b>, tiran-o.<br> + +<p><b>U.</b></p> + +<b>umbrella</b>, ombrel-o.<br> +<b>uncle</b>, onkl-o.<br> +<b>unanimous</b>, unuvoĉ-a, unuanim-a.<br> +<b>uncommon</b>, kurioz-a, nekomun-a.<br> +<b>unconcerned</b>, indiferent-a; nezorgem-a.<br> +<b>under</b> (<i>prep.</i>), sub (<b>121, 160</b>).<br> +<b>underline</b>, substrek-i.<br> +<b>understand</b>, kompren-i.<br> +<b>undertake</b>, entrepren-i; <b>— initiative work</b>, klopod-i.<br> +<b>undeviating</b>, rekt-a.<br> +<b>unfailing</b> (<i>adv.</i>), nepr-e, cert-e.<br> +<b>unimportant</b>, indiferent-a, negrav-a.<br> +<b>union</b>, unuig-o, unuiĝ-o, kunig-o, kuniĝ-o.<br> +<b>universe</b>, univers-o.<br> +<b>university</b>, universitat-o.<br> +<b>until</b> (<i>prep.</i>), ĝis (<b>89</b>)<br> +<b>up</b> (<i>adv.</i>), supre, supren (<b>121</b>); <b>— to</b>, ĝis (<b>46</b>).<br> +<b>upholster</b>, rembur-i.<br> +<b>upper</b>, supr-a.<br> +<b>upon</b> (<i>prep.</i>), sur (<b>160</b>).<br> +<b>upright</b>, just-a; (<b>vertical</b>), vertikal-a.<br> +<b>urge</b>, urĝ-i, insiste pet-i.<br> +<b>upset</b> (<i>trans.</i>), renvers-i.<br> +<b>utmost</b>, ekstrem-a, ebl-o (161, <i>see also</i> 162).<br> + +<p><b>V.</b></p> + +<b>(be) vacant</b>, vak-i, esti neokupata.<br> +<b>vacillate</b>, ŝanceliĝ-i.<br> +<b>vagabond</b>, vagist-o.<br> +<b>vain</b> (<b>futile</b>), van-a; senutil-a, senfrukt-a; (<b>proud</b>), vant-a, fier-a; <b>in —</b>, vane.<br> +<b>valise</b>, valiz-o.<br> +<b>valley</b>, val-o.<br> +<b>value</b> (<b>appraise</b>), taks-i; (<b>like</b>), ŝat-i; <b>have the — of</b>, valor-i.<br> +<b>vanquish</b>, venk-i.<br> +<b>vapor</b>, vapor-o.<br> +<b>varied</b>, divers-a, malsimil-a.<br> +<b>vase</b>, vaz-o.<br> +<b>vast</b>, vast-a, grand-a.<br> +<b>vaunt</b>, fanfaron-i, vantparol-i.<br> +<b>veal</b>, bovidaĵ-o (207, c).<br> + +<b>vegetable</b> (<b>edible</b>), legom-o; (<b>plant growth</b>), vegetaĵ-o, kreskaĵ-o (227, a).<br> +<b>vegetarian</b>, vegetar-a.<br> +<b>vegetate</b>, veget-i.<br> +<b>veil</b>, vual-o.<br> +<b>vein</b>, vejn-o.<br> +<b>velvet</b>, velur-o.<br> +<b>veranda</b>, verand-o.<br> +<b>verify</b>, konstat-i, kontrol-i.<br> +<b>vermicelli</b>, vermiĉel-o.<br> +<b>verse</b>, vers-o; (<b>poesy</b>), poezi-o.<br> +<b>vertical</b>, vertikal-a.<br> +<b>very (very much)</b> (<i>adv.</i>), tre, tre multe; (<i>adj.</i>), sam-a, ident-a, (<i>intensive</i>) mem (<b>219</b>).<br> +<b>vex</b>, ĉagren-i.<br> +<b>vibrate</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), vibr-i.<br> +<b>vice</b> (<b>wickedness</b>), malvirt-o; (<i>prefix</i>), vic-.<br> +<b>vie</b>, konkur-i.<br> +<b>village</b>, vilaĝ-o.<br> +<b>vindication</b>, apologi-o.<br> +<b>vinegar</b>, vinagr-o.<br> +<b>violet</b>, viol-o.<br> +<b>violin</b>, violon-o.<br> +<b>virtue</b>, virt-o.<br> +<b>visage</b>, vizaĝ-o.<br> +<b>visit</b>, vizit-i.<br> +<b>vivid</b>, hel-a.<br> +<b>voice</b>, voĉ-o.<br> +<b>volume</b> (<b>book</b>), volum-o; (<b>of a body</b>), volumen-o.<br> +<b>vote</b>, voĉdon-i, balot-i.<br> +<b>vowel</b>, vokal-o.<br> +<b>voyage</b>, vojaĝ-i.<br> + +<p><b>W.</b></p> + +<b>wade</b>, vad-i.<br> +<b>waffle</b>, vafl-o.<br> +<b>wager</b>, vet-i.<br> +<b>wages</b>, salajr-o.<br> +<b>wait</b> (<b>wait for</b>), atend-i; <b>— on</b>, serv-i.<br> +<b>waiter</b> (<b>in restaurant, etc.</b>), kelner-o.<br> +<b>waist</b>, tali-o; <b>—coat</b>, veŝt-o<br> +<b>wake</b> (<i>trans.</i>), vek-i.<br> +<b>walk</b>, marŝ-i; (<b>for pleasure</b>), promen-i; (<b>of park, etc.</b>), ale-o; <b>side—</b>, trotuar-o.<br> +<b>wall</b>, mur-o.<br> +<b>waltz</b>, vals-i.<br> +<b>wander</b>, vag-i.<br> +<b>want</b> (<b>need</b>), bezon-i; (<b>desire</b>), dezir-i, vol-i; (<b>be lacking</b>), mank-i; (<b>extremity</b>), mizereg-o.<br> +<b>war</b>, milit-i.<br> +<b>wardrobe</b> (<b>garments</b>), vestar-o; (<b>furniture</b>), ŝrank-o, vestoŝrank-o.<br> +<b>warehouse</b>, magazen-o.<br> +<b>warm</b>, varm-a; <b>make —</b>, varmig-i, hejt-i.<br> +<b>warn</b>, avert-i; (<b>give notice</b>), aviz-i, antaŭsciig-i.<br> +<b>wash</b>, lav-i.<br> + +<b>waste</b> (<b>prodigality</b>), malŝpar-o; (<b>refuse</b>), forĵetaĵ-o; (<b>desert</b>), dezert-o.<br> +<b>watch</b> (<b>look at</b>), rigardad-i; (<b>timepiece</b>), poŝhorloĝ-o; <b>— over</b>, gard-i.<br> +<b>water</b>, akv-o; <b>— color</b>, akvarel-o; <b>—fall</b>, kaskad-o.<br> +<b>wave</b>, ond-o; (<b>flutter, brandish</b>), flirt-i, sving-i.<br> +<b>wax</b>, vaks-o.<br> +<b>way</b> (<b>manner</b>), manier-o; (<b>custom</b>), kutim-o; (<b>method</b>), metod-o; (<b>means</b>), rimed-o; (<b>road</b>), voj-o; <b>— in</b>, enirejo; <b>this —</b>, <b>any—, etc.</b>, <i>see table</i>, 235.<br> +<b>we</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), ni (<b>32, 37</b>).<br> +<b>wear</b>, port-i; <b>— out</b>, eluz-i.<br> +<b>(be) wearied</b>, enu-i.<br> +<b>weather</b>, veter-o; <b>—cock</b>, ventoflag-o.<br> +<b>weave</b>, teks-i; (<b>plait</b>), plekt-i.<br> +<b>Wednesday</b>, merkred-o.<br> +<b>week</b>, semajn-o.<br> +<b>weep</b>, plor-i.<br> +<b>weigh</b> (<i>trans.</i>), pes-i; (<i>intrans.</i>), (<b>be heavy</b>), pez-i; (<b>meditate upon</b>), pripens-i (264, c).<br> +<b>welcome</b>, bonven-i; bone akcept-i; <b>you are —</b>, (<b>"no thanks needed"</b>), estas nenio, volonte farite.<br> +<b>well</b> (<b>healthy</b>), san-a; (<b>for water</b>), put-o; (<i>adv.</i>), bon-e; (<i>interjection</i>), nu (<b>273</b>), bon-e; <b>— informed</b>, kler-a; <b>— nigh</b> (<i>adv.</i>), preskaŭ.<br> +<b>west</b>, okcident-o.<br> +<b>wet</b>, malsekig-i, tremp-i.<br> +<b>whale</b>, balen-o.<br> +<b>what</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), kio (<b>233, 234</b>); (<i>pronominal adj.</i>), kiu (106, 146); <b>— kind</b>, <b>— way</b>, <b>— time</b>, <b>etc.</b>, <i>see table</i>, 235.<br> +<b>wheat</b>, tritik-o.<br> +<b>wheel</b>, rad-o.<br> +<b>when</b> (<i>adv.</i>), kiam (<b>125, 155</b>); (<b>while</b>), dum (<b>96</b>).<br> +<b>where</b> (<i>adv.</i>), kie (<b>118, 151</b>); <b>—fore</b>, kial (<b>129</b>), tial (<b>78</b>).<br> +<b>whether</b> (<i>conj.</i>), ĉu (30, 66, a).<br> +<b>which</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), kio (<b>233, 234</b>); (<i>pronoun and adj.</i>), kiu (106, 146); <b>— way</b>, <b>— kind</b>, <b>etc</b>. <i>see table</i>, 235.<br> +<b>while</b> (<i>prep.</i>), dum (<b>120, 159</b>); (<i>conj.</i>), dum (<b>96</b>); (concessive), kvankam; a —, iom da tempo.<br> +<b>whip</b>, vip-i.<br> +<b>whistle</b>, fajf-i; (<b>hiss</b>), sibl-i.<br> +<b>white</b>, blank-a; whitish, dubeblank-a.<br> +<b>who</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), kiu (<b>106, 143</b>); whose, kies (<b>107, 147</b>).<br> +<b>whole</b> (<b>entire</b>), tut-a.<br> +<b>why</b> (<i>adv.</i>), kial (<b>129</b>), pro kio.<br> +<b>wicket</b>, giĉet-o.<br> + +<b>wide</b>, larĝ-a; <b>make —</b>, plilarĝig-i, etend-i.<br> +<b>widow</b>, vidvin-o; widower, vidv-o.<br> +<b>wig</b>, peruk-o.<br> +<b>wild</b>, sovaĝ-a.<br> +<b>(be) willing</b>, vol-i.<br> +<b>willingly</b>, volont-e.<br> +<b>wilt</b>, velk-i.<br> +<b>wind</b>, vent-o, survolv-i; (<b>twist</b>), tord-i; (<b>a watch</b>), streĉ-i.<br> +<b>winding</b>, tord-a.<br> +<b>window</b>, fenestr-o; <b>ticket —</b>, giĉet-o.<br> +<b>wine</b>, vin-o.<br> +<b>winter</b>, vintr-o.<br> +<b>wipe</b>, viŝ-i.<br> +<b>wise</b>, saĝ-a.<br> +<b>wish</b>, vol-i, dezir-i.<br> +<b>witch</b>, sorĉistin-o; <b>—craft</b>, sorĉ-o.<br> +<b>with</b> (<i>prep.</i>), kun (<b>70, 76, 120, 159, 160</b>); (<b>by means of</b>), per (<b>64</b>); (<i>agent of the passive</i>), de (<b>169</b>); je (<b>260</b>); <b>— regard to</b>, rilate (<b>266</b>); <b>—draw</b>, elir-i, forir-i; <b>(= having)</b>, havante (<b>222</b>).<br> +<b>wither</b>, velk-i.<br> +<b>without</b> (<i>prep.</i>), sen (<b>248</b>).<br> +<b>(give) witness</b>, atest-i.<br> +<b>witty</b>, sprit-a.<br> +<b>woe</b>, malĝoj-o; (<i>interjection</i>), ve (<b>273</b>).<br> +<b>wolf</b>, lup-o.<br> +<b>wonder</b>, mir-i.<br> +<b>woo</b>, amindum-i.<br> +<b>wood</b>, lign-o.<br> +<b>wool</b>, lan-o.<br> +<b>word</b>, vort-o; (<b>spoken</b>), parol-o.<br> +<b>work</b>, labor-i; (<b>of machinery</b>), funkci-i; (<b>literary composition</b>), verk-o.<br> +<b>world</b>, mond-o.<br> +<b>worm</b>, verm-o.<br> +<b>worship</b>, ador-i; (<b>divine service</b>), Diserv-o.<br> +<b>(be) worth</b>, valor-i.<br> +<b>worthy</b>, ind-a (<b>154</b>).<br> +<b>wound</b>, vund-i.<br> +<b>wreath</b>, girland-o.<br> +<b>wrestle</b>, barakt-i.<br> +<b>wretch</b>, fripon-o, kanajl-o; <b>—ed</b>, mizer-a, aĉ-a (<b>272</b>).<br> +<b>wrinkle</b>, sulket-o, faldet-o.<br> +<b>write</b>, skrib-i; (<b>books, articles, music</b>), verk-i.<br> +<b>wrong</b>, malprav-a, erar-a, maljust-a.<br> + +<p><b>Y.</b></p> + +<b>yawn</b>, osced-i; (<b>open</b>), fendiĝ-i.<br> +<b>year</b>, jar-o.<br> +<b>yearn</b>, sopir-i; dezireg-i.<br> +<b>yellow</b>, flav-a; <b>—ish</b>, dubeflav-a.<br> +<b>yes</b> (<i>adv.</i>), jes (<b>171</b>).<br> +<b>yesterday</b> (<i>adv.</i>), hieraŭ (<b>93, 171</b>); <b>day before —</b>, antaŭ-hieraŭ.<br> + +<b>yet</b> (<i>adv.</i>), ankoraŭ; jam; (<i>conj.</i>), tamen.<br> +<b>yoke</b>, jug-o.<br> +<b>you</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), vi (<b>32, 37, 39</b>); <i>see also</i> oni (<b>54</b>).<br> +<b>young</b>, jun-a; (<b>offspring</b>), id-o (<b>207</b>).<br> + +<p><b>Z.</b></p> + +<b>zeal</b>, fervor-o.<br> +<b>zenith</b>, zenit-o.<br> +<b>zero</b>, nul-o.<br> +<b>zigzag</b>, zigzag-o.<br> +<b>zinc</b>, zink-o.<br> +<b>zone</b>, zon-o.<br> +<b>zoology</b>, zoologi-o.<br> + +<center><b>INDEX.</b></center> + +<p> +The references are to sections, unless the page (p.) is given. The +following abbreviations are used: ace. = accusative; adj. = adjective; +adv. = adverb; expr. = expressed; ftn. = footnote; inf. = infinitive; +intrans. = intransitive; prep. = preposition; trans. = transitive. For +Esperanto words whose use or meaning is specially explained, references +are given in the Vocabulary. +</p> + +<center><b>A.</b></center> + +<b>Abbreviations</b>, 286; of ordinals, p. 107, ftn. +<b>Abstract nouns</b>, 202. +<b>Accent</b>, 8; of elided word, 280, b. +<b>Accompaniment</b>, 70; distinguished from instrumentality and opposition, + p. 49, ftn. +<b>Accordance</b>, expr. by <i>laŭ</i>, 191. +<b>Active voice</b>, participles of, 108, 119, 152; tenses of, see Tenses; + synopsis of, 267. +<b>Accusative</b>, ending, 23; of adj., 24; of pronoun, 37; of adv., 69, 121; + of direction, 46, 108; of measure, 139; of time, 91; distinguished + from temporal adv., 94; with temporal adv., 93; when avoided, 92; + after adv., 266; with intrans. verb, 264; with nouns expressing + motion, 263; in composition, p. 132, ftn.; instead of prepositional + phrase, 265, 266; not used after prep., 36, (<i>al, ĝis, + tra</i>) 46, (<i>preter</i>) p. 139, ftn.; not used with article, 25; + not used with predicates, 25, 210; "cognate," see acc. with intrans. + verbs, 264, a. +<b>Adjectives</b>, defined, 12; ending of, 12; formation of, 116, (from adv.) + 171, (from prep.) 159; attributive, 13; acc. of, 24; plural of, 17; + agreement, (with nouns) 17, 21, 24, (with pronouns) 33, (with words + connected by <i>nek</i>) 31; comparison of, 74; possessive, 43, + (pronominal use of) 45; predicate, 19, (after trans, verbs) 210; use + of, distinguished from adv. with <i>da</i>, 103; demonstrative, 65; + distributive, 177; indefinite, 208; interrogative, 112; negative, + 224; reflexive possessive, 44; relative, 150; causative verbs from + roots of, 214, a; intrans. verbs from roots of, 232, c; cardinal, + 136; ordinal, 149. + +<b>Adverbs</b>, defined, 66; primary, 66; derived, 79; (from prep.) 120; + demonstrative, (<i>tie</i>) 68, (<i>tiam</i>) 73, (<i>tial</i>) 78, + (<i>tiel</i>) 88, (<i>tiom</i>) 104; interrogative, (<i>kie</i>) + 118, (<i>kiam</i>) 123, (<i>kial</i>) 129, (<i>kiel</i>) 134, + (<i>kiom</i>) 140, (<i>ĉu</i>) 30, p. 38, ftn.; relative, + (<i>kie</i>) 151, (<i>kiam</i>) 155, (<i>kiel</i>) 156, p. 170, + ftn., (<i>kiom</i>) 164; distributive, (<i>ĉie</i>) 182, + (<i>ĉiam</i>) iS7, (<i>ĉial</i>) 188, (<i>ĉiel</i>) + 193, (<i>ĉiom</i>) 194; indefinite, (<i>ie</i>) 209, + (<i>iam</i>) 212, (<i>ial</i>) 213, (<i>iel</i>) 216, (<i>iom</i>) + 217; negative, (<i>nenie</i>) 225, (<i>neniam</i>) 226, + (<i>nenial</i>) 229, (<i>neniel</i>) 230, (<i>neniom</i>) 231, + (<i>ne</i>) 27, 66, a; generalizing, (<i>ajn</i>) 236; numeral, + 158; position of, 66, a; expressing direction of motion, 69, 121; + with expressions of time, 93; distinguishing from acc. of time, 94; + with acc., 266; with prep., 87; calling attention, (<i>jen</i>) + 228; causative verbs from, 214, c; intrans. verbs from, 232, d; as + interjections, p. 216, ftn.; derivation of words from primary, 171. +<b>Adverbial clauses</b>, p. 168, ftn.; participle, 222, (translating + "without") p. 193, ftn. +<b>Adversative conjunctions</b>, p. 32, ftn. +<b>Advice</b>, expression of, 257, 259. +<b>Affectionate diminutives</b>, 283 (also 198, and ftn., p. 221). +<b>Affirmation</b>, 66. +<b>Affixes</b>, see Prefixes, Suffixes. +<b>Agency</b>, expr. by <i>de</i>, 169. +<b>Agreement</b>, of attributive adj., 17, (with acc.) 24; of predicate noun + and adj., 21; of adj. with two or more nouns, 17; of adj. with + words connected by <i>nek</i>, 31; of adj. with pronouns, 33; of + participle, 108; of nouns in apposition, 48. +<b>Alphabet</b>, I. +<b>Anticipation</b>, expr. by clause, 97; by inf. with prep., 98. +<b>Aoristic tenses</b>, explained, p. 78, ftn.; conjugation of, (present) 14, + (past) 35, (future) 55, (conditional) 241, (imperative), 254. +<b>Apposition</b>, 48. +<b>Argumentative conjunction</b>, p. 32, ftn. +<b>Article</b>, definite, 11; invariable, 18, 25; for possessive adj., 47; + with possessive adj., 45; generic, 201, 218, b, elision of, 280, a; + no indefinite, II. +<b>Assumption</b>, defined, 240; implied, 244. +<b>Augmentatives</b>, 122. +<b>Auxiliary verbs</b>, 109. + +<center><b>C.</b></center> + +<b>Cardinal numerals</b>, 136; formation of, 142. +<b>Case</b>, see Accusative, Dative, Nominative, Possessive. +<b>Causative verbs</b>, 214. +<b>Cause</b>, expr. by clause, 83; by <i>pro</i>, 86; by <i>ke</i>, p. 222, + ftn. +<b>Characteristic</b>, expr. by <i>kun</i>, 76; by adverbial participle, 222. + Clauses, defined, p. 34, ftn.; adverbial, p. 168, ftn.; causal, + 83; of anticipation, 97; of duration of time, 96; of imaginative + comparison, 250; of purpose, 262; of result, 105; subordinate + imperative, 259. +<b>"Cognate acc.</b>," see acc. with intrans. verbs, 264. +<b>Collective nouns</b>, 126. +<b>Collective sense given by use of <i>da</i></b>, 103. +<b>Commands</b>, expression of, 256; in subordinate clause, 259. +<b>Complement of prep.</b>, 36. +<b>Complementary inf.</b>, 29. +<b>Comparison</b>, of adj., 74; of adv., 79; of words expressing quantity, 81; + containing <i>ol</i>, 82; <i>ju</i> and <i>des</i> in, 84. +<b>Composition</b>, see Compounds. +<b>Compound tenses</b>, explained, 109; of impersonal verbs, 179; conjugation + of, see Tenses. +<b>Compounds</b>, dependent, 176; descriptive, 167; possessive, 184. +<b>Conclusion (of conditions) defined</b>, 240; (of letters), + see Correspondence. +<b>Concrete nouns</b>, formation of, 227. +<b>Conditional mood</b>, 241; compound tenses of, 242; in contrary to fact + conditions, 246; in less vivid conditions, 243; independent use of, + 244; of <i>devi</i>, 247; conditional sentences, see Conditions. +Conditions, defined, 240; contrary to fact, 246; factual, 240; less + vivid, 243; vivid, p. 189, ftn.; summary of, 249. + +<b>Conjugation</b>, 34; synopsis of, 267; of tenses, see Tenses. +<b>Conjunctions</b>, defined, 52; coordinating, 52; subordinating, 53, (not + omitted) p. 34, ftn.; <i>aŭ</i>, p. 32, ftn.; <i>kaj</i>, + 26, p. 32, ftn.; <i>ke</i>, (in indirect statements), 53, (in + causal clauses) 83, p. 222, ftn.; (in result clause) 105, (in + purpose clause) 262, (in subordinate imperative clause) 259; + <i>kvazaŭ</i>, 250; <i>nek</i>, 31, p. 32, ftn.; <i>se</i>, 240; + <i>sed</i>, p. 32, ftn.; <i>tamen</i>, p. 32, ftn.; <i>do</i>, p. 32, + ftn.; see p. 110, ftn. +<b>Connection</b>, expr. by <i>de</i>, 49; indefinite, expr. by <i>je</i>, 260. +<b>Consent</b>, expression of, 257, (in subordinate clauses) 259. +<b>Consonants</b>, combinations of, 6; pronunciation of, 3, names of, 4. +<b>Contrary to fact conditions</b>, 246. +<b>Coordinating conjunctions</b>, 52. +<b>Copulative conjunctions</b>, p. 32, ftn. +<b>Correlative words</b>, 235. +<b>Correspondence</b>, 278. + +<center><b>D.</b></center> + +<b>Dates</b>, expr. by acc., 91; expr. by <i>antaŭ</i>, 90; expr. by + prep., 89; on letters, see Correspondence, 278. +<b>"Dative</b>," ethical, of reference, of separation, p. 197, ftn. +<b>Definite quantity</b>, nouns of, followed by <i>de</i>, 100. +<b>Degree</b>, advs. of, 66, (<i>tiel</i>) 88, (<i>kiel</i>) 134, 156; highest + possible, 162; see also Comparison. +<b>Deliberation</b>, expression of, 257, (in subordinative clause) 259. +<b>Demonstrative</b>, pronoun, (<i>tiu</i>) 56, (<i>ĉi tiu</i>) 60, + (<i>tio, ĉi tio</i>) 233; adjective, 65; adv., see Adverbs. +<b>Dependent compounds</b>, 176. +<b>Derivation</b>, of adv., 79, (from prep.) 120; of words from prep., 159; of + words from primary adv., 171. +<b>Descriptive compounds</b>, 167. +<b>Diminutives</b>, 198; affectionate, 283. +<b>Diphthongs</b>, 5. +<b>Direct object</b>, defined, 23; inf. as, see Complementary inf., 29; clause + as, 53, 259; of complementary inf., 29; of participle, 108; of prep., + see Complement, 36. +<b>Direction</b>, expr. by acc. (of noun) 46, 263, (of adv.) 121. +<b>Disjunctive conjunctions</b>, p. 32, ftn. +<b>Distributive</b>, prep., see <i>po</i>, 175; pronoun, (<i>ĉiu</i>) 173, + (<i>ĉio</i>) 233; adj., 177; adv., see Adverbs. +<b>Double letters</b>, 6, e. + +<center><b>E.</b></center> + +<b>Elision</b>, 280. +<b>Emphasis</b>, by <i>eĉ</i>, 66; by <i>ja</i>, 215. +<b>Emphatic negation</b>, 27. +<b>Ending</b>, of acc., 23; of adj., 12; of adv., 79; of noun, 10; of plural, + 16; of inf., 28; of indicative, 14, 35, 55; of conditional, 241, of + imperative, 254; of participle, see Participles. +<b>"Ethical dative</b>," p. 197, ftn. +<b>Exclamations</b>, 115; use of <i>je</i> in, 260. +<b>Exhortation</b>, 255. +<b>Expedience</b>, expressions of, 259. + +<center><b>F.</b></center> + +<b>Factual conditions</b>, 240. +<b>Feminine nouns</b>, formation of, 59. +<b>Formation</b>, of words, 116; of opposites, 67, of feminines, 59; with + <i>-ig-</i> and <i>-iĝ-</i>, 239; from primary words, 159, 171. +<b>Fractions</b>, 166. +<b>Frequentative verbs</b>, 218, a. +<b>Future participle</b>, (active) 152, (passive) 199. +<b>Future tense</b>, 55, (progressive) 114, (passive) 183, periphrastic, 153, + 200. +<b>Future perfect tense</b>, 148, (passive) 196. + +<center><b>G.</b></center> + +<b>Generic article</b>, 201. 218, b. +<b>Generalizing adv. <i>ajn</i></b>, 236. + +<center><b>H.</b></center> + +<b>Highest degree possible</b>, 162. + +<center><b>I.</b></center> + +<b>Imaginative comparison</b>, 250. +<b>Imperative mood</b>, 254; in commands and prohibitions, 256; in resolve and + exhortation, 255, in subordinate clauses, 259;. less peremptory uses + of, 257; to express purpose, 262. +<b>Imperfect tense</b>, 113, (passive) 178. +<b>Impersonal verbs</b>, 50, compound tenses of, 179; modifiers of, 141. +<b>Impersonally used verbs</b>, explained, 141; modifiers of, 141. +<b>Inchoative verbs</b>, 232, a. +<b>Indefinite connection</b>, expr. by <i>je</i>, 260. +<b>Indefinite</b>, pronoun, (<i>iu</i>) 203, (<i>io</i>) 233; (personal) 54; + adj., 208; advs., see Adverbs; prep., 260; suffix, 268; quantity, + expressions of, with <i>da</i>, 99, 101. +<b>Independent use of conditional mood</b>, 244. +<b>Indicative mood</b>, defined, 241; tenses of, see Synopsis, 267. +<b>"Indirect object</b>," see <i>al</i>. +<b>Indirect quotation</b>, tenses in, 58; statements in, 53; questions in, + p. 38, ftn.; p. 170, ftn. +<b>Infinitive</b>, defined, 28, 241; ending of, 28; complementary, 29; as + subject, 29; modifiers of, 130; synopsis of, 267; with prep., 98; + replaced by noun, 218, b. +<b>Instruction</b>, (orders), requests for, 257, 259. +<b>Instrumentality</b>, expr. by <i>per</i>, 64; distinguished from + accompaniment, p. 49, ftn. +<b>Instruments</b>, formation of names of, 63. +<b>Intensive pronoun</b>, <i>mem</i>, 219. +<b>Intention</b>, expr. by clause, 259. +<b>Interjections</b>, 273. +<b>International money system</b>, 285; weights and measures, 284. +<b>Interrogation</b>, 30, 66, a. +<b>Interrogative</b>, pronoun, (<i>kiu</i>) 106, (kio) 233; adj., 112; advs., + see Adverbs. +<b>Intransitive verbs</b>, defined, 22; no passive, p. 122, ftn.; from adj. + roots, 232, c; from noun roots, advs., preps., suffixes, prefixes, + 232, d; from trans, verb roots, 232, b, (table of), 279. +<b>Introductory particle</b>, not needed, 50, 51. +<b>Invariability</b>, of article, 18; of <i>mem</i>, 219; of verb, 18; of + cardinals, 136. +<b>Inversion</b>, not needed in questions, 30. + +<center><b>L.</b></center> + +<b>Less peremptory uses of imperative</b>, 257. +<b>Less vivid conditions</b>, 243. +<b>Letters</b>, names of, 4; double, pronunciation of, 6, e; see also + Correspondence, 278. +<b>Limitation of third personal pronoun</b>, 42. + +<center><b>M.</b></center> + +<b>Manner</b>, expr. by <i>kun</i>, 76; expr. by. <i>per</i>, p. 53, ftn.; by + adverbial participle, 222; advs. of, see Adverbs. +<b>Material</b>, expression of, 197. +<b>Means</b>, expression of, 64. +<b>Measure</b>, ace. of, 139; expr. by <i>je</i>, 260. +<b>Measures</b>, weights and, 284. +<b>Metric system</b>, 284. +<b>Modifiers of impersonally used verbs</b>, 141. +<b>Money system</b>, The international, 285. +<b>Mood</b>, defined, 241; inf., see Infinitive; conditional, 241; imperative, + 254; indicative, see 267; in conditions, see Conditions. +<b>Moral obligation</b>, 247. +<b>Motive or reason</b>, advs. of, see Adverbs; expr. by clause, 83; expr. by + prep., 86. + +<center><b>N.</b></center> + +<b>Names</b>, of letters, 4; orthography of proper, 128. +<b>Necessity</b>, expression of, 259. +<b>Negative</b>, pronoun, (<i>neniu</i>) 220; (<i>nenio</i>) 233; adj., 224; + advs., see Adverbs; conjunction, 31. +<b>"Nominative absolute</b>," how rendered, p. 169, ftn. +<b>Nominative case</b>, ending of, (for nouns) 10, (for adj.) 12; of predicate + noun and adj., 25, 210; with prep., 36, (<i>al</i>, <i>ĝis</i>, + <i>tra</i>) 46. +<b>Noun</b>, defined, 10, ending of, 10, plural of, 16; acc. of, 23; elision + of, 280, b; feminine, 59; numeral, 157; participial, 205; predicate, + 20, 211; possessive case of, 49; expressing motion, followed by acc., + 263; expressing quantity, followed by <i>da</i>, 99, by <i>de</i>, + 100; replacing inf., 218, b; replacing participial phrase, p. 193, + ftn.; from adv., 171; from prep., 159. +<b>Noun roots</b>, causative verbs from, 214, c; intrans. verbs from, 232, d. +<b>Number</b>, see Plural. +<b>Numeral nouns</b>, 157; advs., 158. +<b>Numerals</b>, cardinal, 136; formation of, 142; fractional, 166; ordinal, + 149; abbreviation of, p. 107, ftn.; followed by <i>el</i>, 138. + +<center><b>O.</b></center> + +<b>Object</b>, see Direct object, Indirect object, Complement. +<b>Obligation</b>, 247, (moral) 247. +<b>Opposites</b>, formation of, 67; of <i>pli</i> and <i>plej</i>, 80. +<b>Opposition</b>, distinguished from accompaniment, p. 49, ftn. +<b>Order</b>, of word endings, p. 10, ftn.; see also Position. +<b>Ordinal numerals</b>, 149; advs., 158; abbreviation of, p. 107, ftn. +<b>Orthography</b>, of proper nouns, 128. + +<center><b>P.</b></center> + +<b>Part of the whole</b>, expression of, (after noun) 99, (after adv.) 101. +<b>Participial nouns</b>, 205; advs., 222. +<b>Participle</b>, defined, 108; agreement of, 108; adverbial, 222, + (translating "without") p. 193, ftn.; present, 108, (passive) 165; + past, 119, (passive) 189; future, 152, (passive) 199. +<b>Particle</b>, introductory, not needed, 50, 51. +<b>Partitive construction</b>, p. 74, ftn. +<b>Passive voice</b>, agent of, 169; participles of, see Participles; tenses + of, see Tenses; of <i>-ig-</i> formations, 239; distinguished from + <i>-iĝ-</i> formations, 232, b. +<b>Past tense</b>, 35, (passive) see Imperfect; past participle, see + Participles. +<b>Past periphrastic future</b>, 153, (passive) 200. +<b>Past inception</b>, present action with, 131. +<b>Peremptory commands and prohibitions</b>, 256, 259. +<b>Perfect tense</b>, 124, (passive) 190; perfect participle, see Past + participle. +<b>Periphrastic futures</b>, 153, (passive) 200. +<b>Permission</b>, expression of, 269. +<b>Perplexity</b>, expression of, 257, 259. +<b>Personal pronouns</b>, 32; acc. of, 37; indefinite, 54; reflexive, 39, 40; + limitation of third personal, 42; position of unemphatic, 274. +<b>Place</b>, expr. by <i>ĉe</i>, 125; advs. of, see Adverbs; expr. by + <i>-ej-</i>, III; 128. +<b>Pluperfect tense</b>, 135, (passive), 195. +<b>Plural</b>, of nouns, 16; of pronouns, 56, 106, 203, 173, 220; of adj., 16; + of <i>unu</i>, 137; none of article, 18; none of pronouns ending in + <i>-o</i>, 233. +<b>Position</b>, of attributive adj., 13; of adv., 66, a; of emphatic negative, + 27; of unemphatic pronoun, 274; of interrogative adv., 30. +<b>Possession</b>, expr. by <i>de</i>, 49. + +<b>Possessive</b>, adjective, 43; reflexive, 44; article for, 47; ftn., p. 221. +<b>Possessive case of nouns</b>, 49; of pronouns, (<i>ties</i>) 62, + (<i>kies</i>) 107, 147, (<i>ĉies</i>) 174, (<i>ies</i>) 204, + (<i>nenies</i>) 221; see also Possessive adjective, 43. +<b>Possessive compounds</b>, 184. +<b>"Possessive pronouns</b>," p. 24, ftn. +<b>Possibility</b>, expression of, 270. +<b>Predicate</b>, adj., 19, agreement of, 21; after trans, verbs, 210; noun, + 20; agreement of, 21; after trans. verb, 211; clause as, 259. +<b>Prefixes</b>, causative verbs from, 214, c; intrans. verbs from, 232, d; + prep. as, 160, 248; adverb as, 71, 167, a, interjection as, p. + 216, ftn.; <i>bo-</i>, 277; <i>dis-</i>, 245; <i>duon-</i>, 277; + <i>ek-</i>, 206; <i>eks-</i>, 281; <i>ge-</i>, 271; <i>mal-</i>, 67; + <i>pra-</i>, 282; <i>re-</i>, 223. +<b>Prepositions</b>, defined, 36; with inf., 98; with adv., 87; with other + preps., 87; case use with, 36, 46; expressing time relations, 89; as + prefixes, 160; word derivation from, 159; advs. from, 120; causative + verbs from, 214, c; intrans. verbs from, 232, d; making intrans. + verbs trans., 264, b, c; see also references in Vocabulary. +<b>Prepositional phrase</b>, acc. instead of, 265, 266. +<b>Present action with past inception</b>, 131. +<b>Present periphrastic future</b>, 153, (passive) 200. +<b>Present participle</b>, 108, (passive) 165. +<b>Present tense</b>, 14, (progressive) 110, (passive) 168. +<b>Primary adverbs</b>, defined, 66; derivation of words from, 171. +<b>Probability</b>, expression of, 270. +<b>Progressive tenses</b>, present, 110, future, 114; passive, 200. +<b>Prohibition</b>, expression of, 256, 259. +<b>Pronominal adjective</b>, possessive adj. as, 45; pronoun as, (<i>tiu</i>) + 57, 60, (<i>kiu</i>) 106, 146, (<i>ĉiu</i>) 173, (<i>iu</i>) + 203, (<i>neniu</i>) 220, (<i>ambaŭ</i>) 238. +<b>Pronouns</b>, defined, 32; agreement with, 33; personal, 32; indefinite + personal, 54; reflexive, 38, 39, 40, (in composition) p. 132, ftn.; + possessive, p. 24, ftn.; possessive form of, see Possessive case; + limitation of third personal, 42; position of unemphatic, 274; + correlation of predicative or relative, 234; followed by <i>el</i>, + 173, p. 115, ftn.; series in <i>-o</i>, 233; demonstrative, 56, 60, + 233; distributive, 173, 233; indefinite, 203, 233; interrogative, + 106, 233; negative, 220, 233; relative, 146; 233; summary, 235; + <i>ambaŭ</i>, 238; intensive, 219. +<b>Proper nouns</b>, orthography of, 128. +<b>Protestations</b>, use of <i>je</i> in, 260. +<b>Proximity</b>, expr. by <i>ĉi</i>, 60, 66, p. 229, ftn. +<b>Purpose</b>, expr. by inf., 98; by imperative, 262; by prep., 95. + +<center><b>Q.</b></center> + +<b>Quantity</b>, construction with nouns expressing, 99, 100; construction with + advs. expressing, 101; advs. of, (<i>tiom</i>) 104, (<i>kiom</i>) + 140, 164, (<i>ĉiom</i>) 194, (<i>iom</i>) 217, (<i>neniom</i>) + 231; comparison of advs. expressing, 81. +<b>Questions</b>, 30; indirect, p. 38, ftn., p. 170, ftn.; of deliberation, + perplexity, or for instructions, 257, 259. +<b>Quotations</b>, indirect, 53, 58. + +<center><b>R.</b></center> + +<b>Reciprocal expressions</b>, 180. +<b>Reference</b>, expr. by <i>al</i>, 251. +<b>Reflexive pronouns</b>, of first and second persons, 39; of third person, + 40; with substantival inf., 130. +<b>Reflexive possessive adjective</b>, 44. +<b>Reflexive verbs</b>, 41; distinguished from verbs in <i>-iĝ-</i>, 232, + b. +<b>Relative pronoun</b>, (<i>kiu</i>) 146, (<i>kio</i>) 233; not omitted, p. + 106, ftn. + +<b>Relative adjective</b>, 150; relative adverb, see Adverbs. +<b>Relative clause</b>, see 146, 233, (temporal) 155, (of manner) 156, + (quantitative) 164. +<b>Request</b>, expression of, 257, 259; for instructions, 257, 259. +<b>Resolve</b>, expression of, 255. +<b>Result</b>, clauses of, 105. +<b>Root</b>, defined, p. 42, ftn. +<b>Route</b>, expression of, 191. + +<center><b>S.</b></center> + +<b>Salutations</b>, 115. +<b>Separation</b>, expr. by <i>de</i>, 170; expr. by <i>al</i>, 252; by + <i>for</i>, 71; by <i>dis-</i>, 245. +<b>Situation</b>, expr. by <i>ĉe</i>, 125; by adverbial participle, 222. +<b>Source</b>, expr. by <i>de</i>, 170. +<b>Statements</b>, indirect, 53; tenses in, 58. +<b>Subject</b>, defined, 15; preceded by verb, 51; inf. as, 130; clause as, + 141, 259; of adverbial participle, 222. +<b>Subordinate clause</b>, defined, 53; imperative in, 259, 262; conditional + in, see Conditions, 243, 246. +<b>Subordinating conjunctions</b>, <i>ke</i>, 53, 105, 259 (<i>tial ke</i>) 83, + p. 222, ftn.; (<i>por ke</i>) 262; (not omitted) p. 34, ftn.; + <i>se</i>, 240; <i>kvazaŭ</i>, 250; <i>ĉu</i>, p. 38, ftn. +<b>Substantive</b>, defined, p. 71, ftn.; inf. as, 98, 130; clause as, 53, 259. +<b>Substitution</b>, expr. by prep., p. 63, ftn.; expr. by prep. with inf., 98; + of noun for inf., 218, b, p. 193, ftn. +<b>Suffixes</b>, causative verbs from, 214, c; intrans. verbs from, 232, + d; <i>-ad-</i>, 218; <i>-aĉ-</i>, 272; <i>-aĵ-</i>, + 227; <i>-an-</i>, 145; <i>-ar-</i>, 126; <i>-ĉj-</i>, 283; + <i>-ebl-</i>, 161; <i>-ec-</i>, 202; <i>-eg-</i>, 122; <i>-ej-</i>, + 111; <i>-em-</i>, 192; <i>-er-</i>, 276; <i>-estr-</i>, 253; + <i>-et-</i>, 198; <i>-id-</i> 207; <i>-ig-</i>, 214, 239, 275; + <i>-iĝ-</i>, 232, 239, 279; <i>-il-</i>, 63; <i>-in-</i>, + 59; <i>-ind-</i>, 154; <i>-ing-</i>, 237; <i>-ist-</i>, 172, p. + 154, ftn.; <i>-nj-</i>, 283; <i>-obl-</i>, 186; <i>-on-</i>, 166; + <i>-op-</i>, 261; <i>-uj-</i>, 181; <i>-ul-</i>, 132; <i>-um-</i>, + 268. +<b>Summary of conditions</b>, 249. +<b>Superlatives</b>, (adj.) 74, (adv.) 79; followed by <i>el</i>, 75. +<b>Syllables</b>, 7. +<b>Synonyms</b>, apparent, (<i>diri: paroli: rakonti</i>) 77, (<i>koni: + scii</i>) 117, (<i>tempo; fojo</i>) 127, (<i>loĝi: vivi</i>) + 133, (<i>antikva: maljuna: malnova</i>) p. 128, ftn., 67, + (<i>ĉiu: tuta</i>) p. 130, ftn., (<i>indiferenta: nezorga</i>) + p. 162, ftn., (<i>provi: peni: juĝi</i>) p. 228, ftn., + (<i>ĝuste: juste: ĵus</i>) p. 198, ftn., (<i>ankoraŭ: + jam</i>) p. 124, ftn., p. 112, ftn., (<i>troviĝi: sin trovi: + kuŝi: sidi)</i> p. 217, ftn. +<b>Synopsis of the verb</b>, 267. +<b>System</b>, correlative, 235; metric, 284; of money, 285. + +<center><b>T.</b></center> + +<b>Temporal clauses</b>, 96, 155. +<b>Temporal adverbs</b>, 66, (<i>tiam</i>) 73, (<i>kiam</i>) 123, 155, + (<i>ĉiam</i>) 187, (<i>iam</i>) 212, (<i>neniam</i>) 226, + (<i>jam</i>) p. 124, ftn. (<i>ankoraŭ</i>) p. 112, ftn., + (<i>ĵus</i>) p. 116, ftn. +<b>Tenses</b>, aoristic, p. 78, ftn.; compound, 109; (of impersonal verbs) + 179; in indirect quotations, 58; in conditions, 249; of inf., + 267; of conditional, 241, 242; of imperative, 254; present, 14, + (progressive) 110, (passive) 168, past, 35, (passive) 178; future, + 55, (progressive) 114; (passive) 183; imperfect, 113, (passive) + 178; perfect, 124, (passive) 190; pluperfect, 135, (passive) 195; + future perfect, 148, (passive) 190; periphrastic, 153, (passive) 200; + synopsis of all, 267. +<b>Terminations</b>, see Endings. +<b>Terms of address</b>, 163; affectionate, 283, p. 221, ftn. +<b>Time</b>, of day, 185; expr. by prep., 89; expr. by acc., 91; expr. by + clause, 96, 155; expr. by adverbial participle, 222; advs. of, see + Temporal adverbs. +<b>Titles</b>, 163; use of <i>moŝto</i>, 258. + +<b>Transitive verbs</b>, defined, 22; formed by <i>-ig-</i>, 214; from intrans. + roots, 264, b, c; list of some, 275. + +<center><b>U.</b></center> + +<b>Unemphatic words</b>, position of, (negative) 27, (pronoun) 274. + +<center><b>V.</b></center> + +<b>Verbal nouns in <i>-ad-</i></b>, 218, b, p. 193, ftn. +<b>Verbal roots</b>, causative verbs from, 214, b. +<b>Verbs</b>, mood of, 241; invariable, 18; causative, 214; frequentative, + 218, a; inchoative, 232, a; impersonal, 50; reflexive, 41; trans., + defined, 22; trans, from intrans. roots, 275; intrans., defined, + 22; intrans. from trans. roots, 232, b, 279; from prep., 159; from + adv., 171; conjugation of, 34, (synopsis) 267, preceding the subject, + 51; as interjection, p. 216, ftn.; implied, (in comparisons) 82, + 156, 250; (in salutations) 115, (in exclamations) 115, 228; with + prepositional phrase containing <i>da</i>, 102. +<b>Vivid conditions</b>, p. 189, ftn. +<b>Vowels</b>, pronunciation of, 2. + +<center><b>W.</b></center> + +<b>Way</b>, expression of, (manner) 76, (route) 191. +<b>Weights and measures</b>, 284. +<b>Wish</b>, expression of, 257, 259. +<b>Words</b>, correlative, 235; formation of, 116; from prepositions, 159; + from primary advs., 171; composition of, see Compounds; order of, in + question, 30; see also Position. + +<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO ***</div> +<div style='text-align:left'> + +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will +be renamed. +</div> + +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright +law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, +so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United +States without permission and without paying copyright +royalties. 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Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..bb4096f --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #7787 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/7787) diff --git a/old/7787.txt b/old/7787.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..37c0a9a --- /dev/null +++ b/old/7787.txt @@ -0,0 +1,15002 @@ +Project Gutenberg's A Complete Grammar of Esperanto, by Ivy Kellerman Reed + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: A Complete Grammar of Esperanto + +Author: Ivy Kellerman Reed + +Posting Date: December 4, 2010 [EBook #7787] +Release Date: March, 2005 +First Posted: May 25, 2003 +Last Updated: November 13, 2004 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO *** + + + + +Produced by William W. Patterson, Carlo Traverso, Charles +Franks and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team. We +thank the Case Western Reserve University Library +Preservation Department that has given us the image files +with which the present e-book has been prepared. + + + + + + + + + + +TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE: + +The Esperanto alphabet contains 28 characters. These are the +characters of English, but with "q", "w", "x", and "y" removed, and +six diacritical letters added. The diacritical letters are "c", +"g", "h", "j" and "s" with circumflexes (or "hats", as Esperantists +fondly call them), and "u" with a breve. Zamenhof himself suggested +that where the diacritical letters caused difficulty, one could +instead use "ch", "gh", "hh", "jh", "sh" and "u". A plain ASCII +file is one such place; there are no ASCII codes for Esperanto's +special letters. + +However, there are two problems with Zamenhof's "h-method". There +is no difference between "u" and "u" with a breve, and there is no +way to determine (without prior knowledge of the word(s) involved, +and sometimes a bit of context) whether an "h" following one of +those other five letters is really the second half of a diacritical +pair, or just an "h" that happened to find itself next to one of +them. Consequently other, unambiguous, methods have been used over +the years. One is the "x-method", which uses the digraphs "cx", +"gx", "hx", "jx", "sx" and "ux" to represent the special letters. +There is no ambiguity because the letter "x" is not an Esperanto +letter, and each diacritical letter has a unique transliteration. +This is the method used in this Project Gutenberg e-text. + + + + + + + + + A COMPLETE + GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO + + THE INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE + + WITH + GRADED EXERCISES FOR READING AND TRANSLATION + TOGETHER WITH FULL VOCABULARIES + + BY + IVY KELLERMAN, A.M., Ph.D. + + MEMBER OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE AND CHAIRMAN OF EXAMINATIONS + FOR THE ESPERANTO ASSOCIATION OF NORTH AMERICA, MEMBER + OF THE INTERNATIONAL "LINGVA KOMITATO" + + + * * * * * + + + TO + + DR. L. L. ZAMENHOF + + THE AUTHOR OF + ESPERANTO + + + * * * * * + + + PREFACE. + +This volume has been prepared to meet a twofold need. An adequate +presentation of the International Language has become an imperative +necessity. Such presentation, including full and accurate grammatical +explanations, suitably graded reading lessons, and similarly graded +material for translation from English, has not heretofore been +accessible within the compass of a single volume, or in fact within the +compass of any two or three volumes. + +The combination of grammar and reader here offered is therefore +unique. It is to furnish not merely an introduction to Esperanto, or +a superficial acquaintance with it, but a genuine understanding of +the language and mastery of its use without recourse to additional +textbooks, readers, etc. In other words, this one volume affords +as complete a knowledge of Esperanto as several years' study of a +grammar and various readers will accomplish for any national language. +Inflection, word-formation and syntax are presented clearly and +concisely, yet with a degree of completeness and in a systematic order +that constitute a new feature. Other points worthy of note are the +following: + +The reasons for syntactical usages are given, instead of mere statements +that such usages exist. For example, clauses of purpose and of result +are really explained, instead of being dismissed with the unsatisfactory +remark that "the imperative follows 'por ke,'" or the "use of 'tiel ... +ke' and 'tia ... ke' must be distinguished from that of 'tiel ... kiel' +and 'tia ... kia,'" etc., with but little intimation of when and why +"por ke", "tiel ... ke" and "tia ... ke" are likely to occur. + +Affixes are not mentioned until some familiarity with the general +character of the language is assured, as well as the possession of +a fair vocabulary. They are introduced gradually, with adequate +explanation and illustration. Of importance in connection with +word-formation is an element distinctly new--the explanation and +classification of compound words. Such words, like affixes, are +withheld until the use of simple words is familiar. + +Another new feature is the gradual introduction of correlative words in +their logical order, and in their proper grammatical categories, before +they are called "correlatives," or tabulated. The tabulation finally +presented is a real classification, with regard to the meaning and +grammatical character of the words, not merely an arbitrary alphabetical +arrangement. The use of primary adverbs precedes the explanation of +adverb derivation; prepositions, especially "de", "da", "je", etc., +receive careful attention, also the verb system, and the differentiation +of words whose English equivalents are ambiguous. + +A general characteristic of obvious advantage is that almost without +exception new forms and constructions are illustrated by means of +words or roots already familiar. Likewise, the new words or roots of +each lesson recur at least once in the next lesson, and usually in +some lesson thereafter as well. Each reading exercise gives not only a +thorough application of the grammatical principles of the lesson, but a +review of those in the preceding lesson, and no use is made of words or +constructions not yet explained. The comparative ease of the language, +and the lack of necessity for reciting paradigms, permit the reading +exercises to be long enough for the student to feel that he has really +mastered something. These exercises are further unique, in that each +after the fifth is a coherent narrative, and nearly every one is a story +of genuine interest in itself. These stories, if bound separately, would +alone constitute a reader equivalent to those used in first and second +year work in national languages. (For list of titles, see Table of +Contents.) + +The second element of the twofold need which this volume meets is the +necessity for a presentation of Esperanto, not as a thing apart, but +in that form which will make it most serviceable as an introduction to +national tongues. A stepping-stone to both ancient and modern languages, +Esperanto may render invaluable aid, and pave the way for surmounting +the many difficulties confronting both student and teacher. Through +Esperanto, the labor in the acquirement of these languages may be +reduced in the same proportion in which the pleasure and thoroughness +of such acquirement are increased. For this reason, the grammatical +constructions of Esperanto are here explained as consistently as +possible in accordance with the usage of national languages, especially +those in the school curriculum, and precise names are assigned to them. +Such matters as "contrary to fact conditions", "indirect quotations", +"clauses of purpose" and "of result", "accusatives of time" and +"measure", "expressions of separation", "reference", etc., thus +become familiar to the student, long before he meets them in the more +difficult garb of a national tongue, whose exceptions seem to outnumber +its rules, and whose idioms prove more puzzling than its exceptions, +unless approached by the smooth and gradual ascent of the International +Language, Esperanto. + + Ivy Kellerman. + +Washington, D. C., +August 3, 1910. + + + * * * * * + + + TABLE OF CONTENTS. + + LESSON + I. Alphabet.--Vowels.--Consonants.--Names of the Letters.-- + Diphthongs.--Combinations of Consonants.--Syllables.--Accent. + II. Nouns.--The Article.--Adjectives.--Attributive Adjectives.-- + Present Tense of the Verb + III. The Plural Number.--Predicate Adjective and Noun + IV. Transitive Verbs.--The Accusative Case.--The Conjunction + "Kaj".--The Negative "Ne". + V. The Complementary Infinitive.--Interrogation.--The + Conjunction "Nek". + VI. Personal Pronouns.--Agreement with Pronouns.--Conjugation of + the Verb. + VII. The Past Tense.--Prepositions.--Accusative Case of Personal + Pronouns. + VIII. Reflexive Pronouns.--Reflexive Verbs. + IX. Limitation of the Third Personal Pronoun.--Possessive + Adjectives.--Pronominal Use of Possessive Adjectives.--"La + Kato kaj la Pasero". + X. The Accusative of Direction.--The Article for the Possessive + Adjective.--Apposition.--"La Arabo kaj la Kamelo". + XI. Possessive Case of Nouns.--Impersonal Verbs.--Verbs + Preceding their Subjects.--Coordinating Conjunctions.--"La + Arabo en la Dezerto". + XII. Indirect Statements.--The Indefinite Personal Pronoun + "Oni".--The Future Tense.--"La Ventoflago". + XIII. The Demonstrative "Pronoun Tiu".--Tenses in Indirect + Quotations.--Formation of Feminine Nouns.--"En la + Parko". + XIV. The Demonstrative Pronoun "Cxi tiu".--Possessive Form of + the Demonstrative Pronoun.--The Suffix "-Il-".--The + Expression of Means or Instrumentality.--"La Mangxo". + XV. The Demonstrative Adjective.--Adverbs Defined and + Classified.--Formation of Opposites.--"La Ruza Juna + Viro". + XVI. The Demonstrative Adverb of Place.--Accompaniment.--The + Adverb "For".--The Meaning of "Povi".--"Malamikoj en la + Dezerto". + XVII. The Demonstrative Temporal Adverb.--Comparison of + Adjectives.--Manner and Characteristic.--"Diri", + "Paroli" and "Rakonti".--"Frederiko Granda kaj la + Juna Servisto". + XVIII. The Demonstrative Adverb of Motive or Reason.--Derivation + of Adverbs.--Comparison of Words Expressing Quantity.-- + Comparisons Containing "Ol".--Causal Clauses.--"Pri la + Sezonoj". + XIX. "Ju" and "Des" in Comparisons.--The Preposition "Inter".-- + The Preposition "Pro".--Prepositions with Adverbs and Other + Prepositions.--"La Auxtuno kaj la Vintro". + XX. The Demonstrative Adverb of Manner and Degree.--Prepositions + Expressing Time-Relations.--"En Septembro". + XXI. The Accusative of Time.--Adverbs and the Accusative of + Time.--The Preposition "Por".--"La Sezonoj kaj la + Mondo". + XXII. Clauses Expressing Duration of Time.--Clauses Expressing + Anticipation.--The Infinitive with "Anstataux", "Por", + "Antaux ol".--The Expression of a Part of the Whole.-- + "Diogeno kaj Aleksandro Granda". + XXIII. Adverbs Expressing a Part of the Whole.--The Demonstrative + Adverb of Quantity.--Result Clauses.--"En la Butiko". + XXIV. The Interrogative Pronoun.--The Present Active + Participle.--Compound Tenses.--The Progressive Present + Tense.--The Suffix "-Ej-".--"En Nia Domo". + XXV. The Interrogative Adjective.--The Imperfect Tense.-- + Salutations and Exclamations.--Word Formation.--"Koni" and + "Scii".--"La Nepo Vizitas la Avinon". + XXVI. The Interrogative Adverb of Place.--The Past Active + Participle.--Adverb Derivation from Prepositions.--Adverbs + Expressing Direction of Motion.--The Suffix + "-Eg-".--"La Pluvego". + XXVII. The Interrogative Temporal Adverb.--The Perfect Tense.--The + Preposition "Cxe".--The Suffix "-Ar-".--"Tempo" and "Fojo".-- + The Orthography of Proper Names.--"Roberto Bruce kaj la + Araneo". + XXVIII. The Interrogative Adverb of Motive or Reason.-- The + Infinitive as Subject.--Present Action with Past + Inception.--The Suffix "-Ul-".--"Logxi" and "Vivi".--"Pri + la Avo kaj la Avino". + XXIX. The Interrogative Adverb of Manner and Degree.--The + Pluperfect Tense.--Cardinal Numbers.--The Accusative of + Measure.--"Nia Familio". + XXX. The Interrogative Adverb of Quantity.--Modifiers of + Impersonally Used Verbs.--Formation of Cardinal + Numerals.--The Suffix "-An-".--"Leciono Pri Aritmetiko". + XXXI. The Relative Pronoun.--The Future Perfect Tense.--Ordinal + Numerals.--"Alfredo Granda kaj la Libro". + XXXII. "Kia" as a Relative Adjective.--"Kie" as a Relative + Adverb.--The Future Active Participle.--The Periphrastic + Future Tenses.--The Suffix "-Ind-".--"Alfredo Granda + kaj la Kukoj". + XXXIII. "Kiam" as a Relative Adverb.--"Kiel" as a Relative + Adverb.--Numeral Nouns and Adverbs.--Word Derivation from + Prepositions.--"La Invito". + XXXIV. Prepositions as Prefixes.--The Suffix "-Ebl-".--Expression + of the Highest Degree Possible.--Titles and Terms of + Address.--"Cxe la Festo". + XXXV. "Kiom" as a Relative Adverb.--The Present Passive + Participle.--Fractions.--Descriptive Compounds.--"La Hxinoj". + XXXVI. The Present Passive Tense.--The Use of "De" to Express + Agency.--The General Meaning of "De".--Word Derivation + from Primary Adverbs.--The Suffix "-Ist-".--"Antikva + Respubliko". + XXXVII. The Distributive Pronoun.--The Preposition "Po".-- + Dependent Compounds.--"La Cxapelo sur la Stango". + XXXVIII. The Distributive Adjective.--The Imperfect Passive Tense.-- + Compound Tenses of Impersonal Verbs.--Reciprocal + Expressions.--The Suffix "-Uj-".--"Vilhelmo Tell kaj + la Pomo". + XXXIX. The Distributive Adverb of Place.--The Future Passive + Tense.--Possessive Compounds.--The Time of Day.--The + Suffix "-Obl-".--"En la Stacidomo". + XL. The Distributive Temporal Adverb.--The Distributive Adverb + "Cxial".--The Past Passive Participle.--The Perfect + Passive Tense.--The Preposition "Laux".--The Suffix + "-Em-".--"La Perdita Infano". + XLI. The Distributive Adverb "Cxiel".--The Distributive + Adverb "Cxiom".--The Pluperfect Passive Tense.--The + Future Perfect Passive Tense.--The Expression of + Material.--The Suffix "-Et-".--"La Donaco". + XLII. The Future Passive Participle.--The Passive Periphrastic + Future Tenses.--The Generic Article.--The Suffix + "-Ec-".--"Sur la Vaporsxipo". + XLIII. The Indefinite Pronoun.--Participial Nouns.--The Prefix + "Ek-".--The Suffix "-Id-".--"La Nesto sur la + Tendo". + XLIV. The Indefinite Adjective.--The Indefinite Adverb of Place.-- + Predicate Nominatives.--"La Cxevalo kaj la Sonorilo". + XLV. The Indefinite Temporal Adverb.--The Indefinite Adverb + "Ial".--Causative Verbs.--Emphasis by Means of "Ja".-- + "Cxe la Malnova Ponto". + XLVI. The Indefinite Adverb "Iel".--The Indefinite Adverb "Iom".-- + The Suffix "-Ad-".--The Use of "Mem".--"Arhximedo kaj la + Kronoj". + XLVII. The Negative Pronoun.--The Adverbial Participle.--The Prefix + "Re-".--"La Filozofo Arhximedo". + XLVIII. The Negative Adjective.--The Negative Adverb of Place.--The + Negative Temporal Adverb.--The Suffix "-Ajx-".--The Adverb + "Jen".--"Du Artkonkursoj". + XLIX. The Negative Adverbs "Nenial", "Neniel", "Neniom".--The + Suffix "-Igx-".--"La Krepusko". + L. The Pronouns ending in "-O".--Correlative Words.--The Use of + "Ajn".--The Suffix "-Ing-".--"La Gordia Ligajxo". + LI. The Pronoun "Ambaux".--Formations with "-Ig-" and "-Igx-".-- + Factual Conditions.--"La Monahxoj kaj la Azeno". + LII. The Conditional Mood.--Compound Tenses of the Conditional + Mood.--Less Vivid Conditions.--Independent Use of the + Conditional Mood.--The Prefix "Dis-".--"Pri la + Gravitado". + LIII. Conditions Contrary to Fact.--The Verb "Devi".--The + Preposition "Sen".--"La Filozofo Sokrato". + LIV. Summary of Conditions.--Clauses of Imaginative + Comparison.--The Use of "Al" to Express Reference.--The + Suffix "-Estr-".--"La Ostracismo de Aristejdo". + LV. The Imperative Mood.--Resolve and Exhortation.--Commands and + Prohibitions.--Less Peremptory Uses of the Imperative.--The + Use of "Mosxto".--"La Glavo de Damoklo". + LVI. The Imperative in Subordinate Clauses.--The Preposition + "Je".--The Suffix "-Op-".--"La Marsxado de la Dekmil Grekoj". + LVII. Clauses Expressing Purpose.--Further Uses of the + Accusative.--Synopsis of the Conjugation of the Verb.--The + Suffix "-Um-".--"La Reirado de la Dekmilo". + LVIII. Permission and Possibility.--The Prefix "Ge-".--The + Suffix "-Acx-".--Interjections.--"Aleksandro Granda". + LIX. The Position of Unemphatic Pronouns.--Some Intransitive + Verbs.--The Suffix "-Er-".--The Prefixes "Bo-" and + "Duon-".--Correspondence.--"Kelkaj Leteroj". + LX. Some Transitive Verbs.--Elision.--The Prefix "Eks-".--The + Prefix "Pra-".--The Suffixes "-Cxj-" and "-Nj-".--Weights and + Measures.--The International Money System.--Abbreviations.-- + "Pri La Kamero". + + ESPERANTO-ENGLISH VOCABULARY. + + ENGLISH-ESPERANTO VOCABULARY. + + INDEX. + + + * * * * * + + + A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF + ESPERANTO. + + + * * * * * + + + + LESSON I. + + + ALPHABET. + +1. The Esperanto alphabet contains the following letters: a, b, c, cx, +d, e, f, g, gx, h, hx, i, j, jx, k, l, m, n, o, p, r, s, sx, t, u, ux, +v, z. + + + VOWELS. + +2. The vowels of the alphabet are pronounced as follows: + +"a" as in "far". + +"e" as in "fiance", like "a" in "fate". + +[Footnote: This "long a" sound in English frequently ends with a +vanish,--a brief terminal sound of "short i" which makes the vowel +slightly diphthongal, as in "day", "aye". Such a vanish must +not be given to any of the Esperanto vowels.] + +"i" as in "machine". + +"o" as in "toll", "for". + +"u" as in "rude", "rural". + + + CONSONANTS. + +3. The consonants "b", "d", "f", "h", "k", "l", "m", "n", "p", "t", +"v", "z", are pronounced as in English, and the remaining eleven as +follows: + +"c" like "ts" in "hats", "tsetse". + +"cx" like "ch" in "chin", "much". + +"g" like "g" in "go", "big". + +"gx" like "g" in "gem", "j" in "jar". + +"hx" is produced by expelling the breath forcibly, with the throat only +partially open. + +[Footnote: As in pronouncing German and Scotch "ch", Spanish "j", Irish +"gh", Russian "x", Classical Greek Greek: "chi" etc. There are only a +few words containing this consonant.] + +"j" like "y" in "yes", "beyond". + +"jx" like "z" in "azure", "s" in "visual". + +"r" is slightly trilled or rolled. + +"s" like "s" in "see", "basis". + +"sx" like "sh" in "shine", "rash", "ch" in machine". + +"ux" like "w" or consonantal "u". See Diphthongs, 5. + + + NAMES OF THE LETTERS. + +4. The vowels are named by their sounds, as given in (2). The names +of the consonants are "bo", "co", "cxo", "do", "fo", "go", "gxo", +"ho", "hxo", "jo", "jxo", "ko", "lo", "mo", "no", "po", "ro", "so", +"sxo", "to", "uxo", "vo", "zo". These are used in speaking of the +letters, in pronouncing them in abbreviations, as "ko to po" for +"k. t. p." (= etc.), and in spelling words, as "bo, i, ro, do, o, +birdo". + + + DIPHTHONGS. + +5. Diphthongs are combinations of two vowels uttered as a single +sound, by one breath-impulse. The diphthongs in Esperanto contain an +i or u sound as the second element, but in order to avoid confusion +with combinations of vowels not forming diphthongs (as in "naiva", like +English "naive", etc.), they are written with "j" and "ux" instead. +Their pronunciation is as follows: + +"aj" like "ai" in "aisle". + +"ej" like "ei" in "vein", "ey" in "they". + +"oj" like "oi" in "coin", "oy" in "boy". + +"uj" like "ui" in "ruin", "u(e)y" in "gluey". + +"eux" like "ayw" in "wayward", or like E(h)oo" pronounced together. + +"aux" like "ou" in "out", "ow" in "owl". + + + COMBINATIONS OF CONSONANTS. + +6. Each consonant, in a combination of two or more consonants, is +pronounced with its full value, whether within a word or at its +beginning. There are no silent letters. + +a. Thus, both consonants are clearly sounded in the groups "kn", "kv", +"gv", "sv", in such words as "knabo", "kvin", "gvidi", "sviso". + +b. The combination "kz", as in "ekzisti", "ekzameno", must not be +modified to the "gs" or "ks" represented by "x" in "exist", "execute". + +c. The combination "sc", as in "escepte", "scias", is equivalent to the +combination "sts" in "laST Said", "firST Song", pronounced together +rapidly. The "s" in a word beginning with "sc" may be sounded with the +end of the preceding word, if that word ends in a vowel, as "mis-cias" +for "mi scias". + +d. The "n" and "g" are pronounced separately in the combination "ng", in +such words as "lingvo", "angulo", producing the sound of "ng" heard in +"linger", not that in "singer". + +e. Each of two similar letters is clearly sounded, as "interrilato", +"ellasi", like "inter-relate", "well-laid". + + + SYLLABLES. + +7. Each word contains as many syllables as it has vowels and diphthongs. +The division of syllables within a word is as follows: + +a. A single consonant goes with the following vowel, as "pa-no", +"be-la", "a-e-ro". + +b. A consonant followed by "l" or "r" (which are liquids) goes with the +"l" or "r", as in "ta-blo", "a-kra", "a-gra-bla". + +c. Otherwise, the syllable division is made before the last consonant of +the group, as "sus-pek-ti", "sank-ta", "deks-tra". + +d. Prefixes are separated from the words to which they are attached, +as "dis-meti", "mal-akra", and compound words are divided into their +component parts, as "cxef-urbo", "sun-ombrelo". + + + ACCENT. + +8. Words of more than one syllable are accented upon the syllable before +the last, as "TA-blo", "a-GRA-bla", "sus-PEK-ti". + + + WORDS FOR PRACTICE. + +9. (To be pronounced aloud, and correctly accented) Afero, trairi, +najbaro, aero, hodiaux, pacienco, centono, cxielo, ecx, samideano, +treege, obei, obeu, Euxropo, gvidi, gxojo, cxiujn, justa, gxuste, jugxi, +jxauxdo, lingvo, knabo, largxa, pagi, kvieteco, ekzemplo, ellerni, fojo, +krajono, forrajdi, kuirejo, cxevalejo, sankteco, scio, nescio, edzo, +meze, duobla, sxipo, sxargxi, posxo, svingi, sklavo, palaj, sxafajxo, +atmosfero, monahxo, geometrio, lauxdi, vasta, eksplodi, sencxesa, +sensencajxo, malluma, arbaranoj, mangxo, fresxa, auxskulti, dauxri. + + + + LESSON II. + + + NOUNS. + +10. Words which are the names of persons or things are called nouns. +The ending, or final letter, of nouns in Esperanto is "o": + + knabo = boy. pomo = apple. + cxevalo = horse. tablo = table. + + + THE ARTICLE. + +11. The definite article is "la", the, as "la knabo", the boy, "la +cxevalo", the horse, "la tablo", the table, "la pomo", the apple. In +English there is an indefinite article "a, an" for the singular, but +none for the plural. Esperanto has no indefinite article for either +singular or plural. Therefore "knabo" may mean "boy", or "a boy", "pomo" +may mean "apple" or "an apple". + + + ADJECTIVES + +12. A word used with a noun (expressed or understood) to express +a quality or characteristic is called an adjective. The ending of +adjectives in Esperanto is "a": + + bela = beautiful. granda = large. + flava = yellow. forta = strong. + + + ATTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVES. + +13. An adjective is said to modify a noun whose quality it expresses. +When directly preceding or following its noun, it is called an +attributive adjective: + + la granda cxevalo = the large horse. + bela birdo = a beautiful bird. + floro flava = a yellow flower. + forta knabo = a strong boy. + + + PRESENT TENSE OF THE VERB. + +14. Words which express action or condition are called verbs. When +representing an act or condition as a fact, and dealing with the present +time, they are said to be in the present tense. The ending of all +Esperanto verbs in the present tense is "-as": + + kuras = runs, is running. brilas = shines, is shining. + flugas = flies, is flying. dormas = sleeps, is sleeping. + +15. The person or thing whose action or condition the verb expresses is +called the subject of the verb: + + La suno brilas, the sun shines (is shining), subject: suno. + Knabo kuras, a boy runs (is running), subject: knabo. + + + VOCABULARY. + + (To be memorized in this and in all following lessons.) + + bela = beautiful. kaj = and. + birdo = bird. kantas = sings, is singing. + blanka = white. knabo = boy. + bona = good. kuras = runs, is running. + brilas = shines, is shining. la = the. + cxevalo = horse. luno = moon. + dormas = sleeps, is sleeping. marsxas = walks, is walking. + flava = yellow. pomo = apple. + floro = flower. suno = sun. + flugas = flies, is flying. tablo = table. + forta = strong, violo = violet. + granda = large. viro = man. + + + READING LESSON. + +1. Bona viro. 2. La granda tablo. 3. Blanka floro. 4. Flava birdo. 5. La +bela birdo kantas. 6. Forta knabo kuras. 7. La bona viro marsxas. 8. La +bela cxevalo kuras. 9. La suno brilas. 10. Birdo flugas kaj knabo kuras. +11. Cxevalo blanka marsxas. 12. La bela luno brilas. 13. La knabo kantas +kaj la viro dormas. 14. Bela granda pomo. 15. La bona knabo kantas. 16. +La granda cxevalo dormas. 17. La suno brilas kaj la luno brilas. 18. +Granda forta tablo. 19. Violo flava. 20. La bona flava pomo. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. A beautiful flower. 2. A good large table. 3. A yellow violet and +a white violet. 4. The moon is-shining (shines). 5. The good boy +is-walking (walks). 6. The beautiful yellow bird is-flying (flies). +7. The strong man is-sleeping (sleeps). 8. The white bird is-singing +(sings). 9. A strong horse runs, and a man walks. 10. The sun shines, +and the boy is-singing (sings). 11. The large yellow apple. 12. An apple +large and good. + + + + LESSON III. + + + THE PLURAL NUMBER. + +16. The plural number of nouns, that is, the form which indicates +more than one person or thing, is made by adding "-j" to the noun, as +"viroj", men, from "viro", man; "tabloj", tables, from "tablo", table. + +[Footnote: "-oj" is pronounced like "oy" in "boy". See 5.] + +17. An adjective modifying a plural noun agrees with it in number, being +given the plural form by the addition of the ending -j. An adjective +modifying two or more nouns used together is of course given the plural +form: + + bonaj viroj, good men. + grandaj cxevaloj, large horses. + belaj birdo kaj floro (bela birdo kaj bela floro), + beautiful bird and (beautiful) flower. + +[Footnote: "-aj" is pronounced like "ai" in "aisle". See 5.] + +18. The article is invariable, that is, does not change in form when +used with plural nouns, as "la viro", the man, "la viroj", the men. The +verb is also invariable in form: + + La viroj marsxas, the men walk, the men are walking. + La suno kaj la luno brilas, the sun and the moon are shining. + La viro estas, the man is. + La viroj estas, the men are. + + + PREDICATE ADJECTIVE AND NOUN. + +19. When the adjective is a part of that which is told or predicated of +the subject of the verb, as when used with the verbs "to be," "to seem," +etc., it is called a "predicate adjective": + + La birdo estas bela, the bird is beautiful. + La knabo sxajnas bona, the boy seems good. + La viroj estas fortaj, the men are strong. + +20. A noun may also be used as part of the predicate, and is then called +a "predicate noun": + + Violoj estas floroj, violets are flowers. + La kolombo estas birdo, the dove is a bird. + +21. Predicate nouns and adjectives agree in number with the word +or words with which they are in predicate relation: + + Rozoj estas belaj, roses are beautiful. + La knabo kaj la viro sxajnas fortaj, the boy and the man seem strong. + + + VOCABULARY + + alta = high, tall. kolombo = dove. + arbo = tree. kusxas = lies, is lying, lie. + cxambro = room. longa = long. + domo = house. rozo = rose. + en = in. rugxa = red. + estas = is, are. segxo = chair. + folio = leaf. sidas = sits, sit, is sitting. + fresxa = fresh. sur = on. + gxardeno = garden. sxajnas = seems, seem. + kampo = field. verda = green. + + + READING LESSON. + +1. La alta viro estas en la gxardeno. 2. Blanka cxevalo estas en la +kampo. 3. Belaj birdoj sidas sur la verda arbo. 4. La bonaj knaboj estas +en la domo. 5. La cxambroj en la bela domo estas grandaj. 6. Fresxaj +floroj kusxas sur la tablo. 7. La violoj en la kampo estas belaj. 8. La +luno kaj la suno sxajnas grandaj. 9. La kolomboj estas belaj birdoj. +10. La knaboj sxajnas fortaj. 11. Rugxaj pomoj estas sur la tablo en la +cxambro. 12. La fortaj viroj sidas sur segxoj en la longa cxambro. 13. +La arboj estas altaj kaj verdaj. 14. La kolomboj sur la arboj kantas. +15. Fortaj cxevaloj marsxas kaj kuras en la verdaj kampoj. 16. La knaboj +dormas en la granda domo. 17. Rugxaj, flavaj, kaj verdaj folioj estas en +la gxardeno. 18. Longa tablo estas en la domo. 19. Belaj birdoj flugas +kaj kantas en la kampo. 20. Fresxaj rozoj sxajnas belaj. 21. La folioj +estas verdaj kaj rugxaj. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. The trees in the garden are tall and green. 2. The rooms in the house +are long. 3. The flowers on the table are red, yellow and white. 4. The +leaves are long and green. 5. The men are-sitting (sit) on chairs in the +garden. 6. In the garden are yellow roses. 7. The birds in the field are +doves. 8. The boys in the room in the house seem tall. 9. Fresh violets +are beautiful flowers. 10. The horses in the green fields seem strong. +11. Doves are-singing (sing) in the garden. 12. The men in the large +house sleep. 13. The house is long and high, and the rooms in the house +are large. 14. Red and yellow apples lie on the big table. 15. Green +leaves are on the trees in the large garden. + + + + LESSON IV. + + + TRANSITIVE VERBS. + +22. The verbs so far given have been "intransitive verbs", expressing a +state or an action limited to the subject, and not immediately affecting +any other person or thing, as "la knabo kuras", the boy runs. On the +other hand a "transitive verb" expresses an act of the subject upon some +person or thing; as, "la knabo trovas -- --", the boy finds -- --. + + + THE ACCUSATIVE CASE. + +23. The person or thing acted upon is called the "direct object" of +a transitive verb, and is given the ending "-n". This is called the +accusative ending; and the word to which it is attached is said to be +in the "accusative case": + + La viro havas segxon, the man has a chair. + La knabo trovas florojn, the boy finds flowers. + +[Footnote: The ending "-n" follows the ending "-j", if the word to be +put in the accusative case is in the plural number.] + +24. An attributive adjective modifying a noun in the accusative case is +made to agree in case, by addition of the same accusative ending "-n". +This prevents any doubt as to which of two or more nouns in a sentence +is modified by the adjective, and permits of variation in the order of +the words: + + La knabo trovas belan floron, the boy finds a beautiful flower. + Florojn belajn la viro havas, the man has beautiful flowers. + La viro havas grandan segxon, the man has a large chair. + Rugxan rozon la knabo havas, the boy has a red rose. + +25. A predicate adjective or noun (19) is never in the accusative case, +nor is the accusative ending ever attached to the article, which is +invariable as stated in 18. + + + THE CONJUNCTION "KAJ". + +26. In the expression "both ... and ...", the conjunction "kaj" is used +for both words, being merely repeated: + + La viro kaj marsxas kaj kuras, the man both walks and runs. + La cxevalo estas kaj granda kaj forta, + the horse is both large and strong. + La knabo havas kaj rozojn kaj violojn, + the boy has both roses and violets. + Kaj la knabo kaj la viro estas altaj, + both the boy and the man are tall. + + + THE NEGATIVE "NE". + +27. The negative word meaning "not" when forming part of a sentence, +and "no" when used as an answer to a question, is "ne". When used as +a sentence-negative, it usually immediately precedes the verb. For +emphatic negation of some other word than the verb, "ne" may precede +that word: + + Violoj ne estas rugxaj, violets are not red. + La viroj ne sidas sur segxoj, the men are-not-sitting on chairs. + La kolombo kantas, ne flugas, the dove is-singing, not flying. + La domo estas blanka, ne verda, the house is white, not green. + + + VOCABULARY + + apud = near, in the vicinity of. koloro = color. + benko = bench. largxa = wide, broad. + brancxo = branch. mangxas = eat, eats. + diversa = various. mola = soft. + felicxa = happy. nigra = black. + frukto = fruit. ne = not, no. + havas = have, has. rompas = break, breaks. + herbo = grass. sed = but. + ili = they. trovas = find, finds. + kolektas = gather, collect. vidas = see, sees. + + + READING LESSON. + +1. La knaboj ne estas en la cxambro en la blanka domo. 2. Ili estas +en la granda gxardeno. 3. La gxardeno sxajnas kaj longa kaj largxa. +4. La felicxaj knaboj vidas la belan gxardenon. 5. Ili vidas florojn +apud alta arbo. 6. La floroj havas diversajn kolorojn. 7. La knaboj +kolektas kaj rugxajn kaj flavajn florojn. 8. Sed ili ne trovas fruktojn +en la gxardeno. 9. Florojn blankajn ili ne vidas. 10. La alta arbo +havas verdajn foliojn sur la brancxoj. 11. La knaboj rompas brancxon, +kaj kolektas la fruktojn. 12. Ili vidas florojn sur la brancxoj, sed +la florojn ili ne kolektas. 13. La knaboj ne sidas sur benkoj en la +gxardeno, sed kusxas sur la mola herbo. 14. La kolomboj sidas sur la +arboj, kaj ili estas felicxaj. 15. La knaboj vidas la belajn birdojn. +16. Fortaj nigraj cxevaloj mangxas la herbon en la kampo. 17. La knaboj +vidas la cxevalojn, sed la cxevaloj ne vidas la knabojn. 18. La cxevaloj +ne dormas, ili mangxas. 19. La fresxa herbo estas verda kaj mola. 20. +Felicxaj estas kaj la knaboj kaj la cxevaloj. 21. La pomo estas bona +frukto. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Green leaves are on the trees. 2. The boys break branches and gather +the apples. 3. They are near the tall tree in the garden. 4. They find +leaves on the tree, but they do not see the fruit. 5. The house is long, +broad and high. 6. The rooms in the house are both long and wide. 7. The +men have strong black horses. 8. The horses eat the fresh green grass in +the field. 9. The men sit on benches in the garden. 10. The boys do not +sleep, but they lie on the soft grass. 11. They see both the birds and +the flowers, and they seem happy. 12. The flowers have various colors, +but the grass is green. 13. The doves are not sitting on the tree, they +are flying near the trees. 14. Beautiful red roses are lying on the +table in the house. 15. The large red apples are near the yellow roses. + + + + LESSON V. + + + THE COMPLEMENTARY INFINITIVE. + +28. The infinitive is a form of the verb which expresses merely the +general idea of the action or condition indicated, and has some of the +characteristics of a noun. The ending of the infinitive is "-i", as +"kuri", to run, "esti", to be, "havi", to have. + +29. An infinitive used to complete the meaning of another verb, serving +as a direct object to a transitive verb, is called a "complementary +infinitive". If the complementary infinitive is from a transitive verb, +it may itself have a direct object: + + La knabo volas kuri, the boy wishes to run. + Birdoj sxatas kanti, birds like to sing. + La knabo volas havi cxevalon, the boy wishes to have a horse. + Ili volas trovi florojn, they wish to find flowers. + + + INTERROGATION. + +30. An interrogative sentence is one which asks a question. Unless some +directly interrogative word (as "who," "when," "why," etc.) is used, +the sentence is rendered interrogative by use of the word "cxu". This +interrogative particle is placed at the beginning of a sentence, the +words of which are left in the same order as for a statement. Since +there is no inversion of order, there is no necessity for a word like +English "do" or "does," to introduce the verb: + + Cxu la knabo estas bona? Is the boy good? + Cxu ili havas florojn? Have they flowers? + Cxu la kolomboj kantas? Do the doves sing? (Are the doves singing?) + + + THE CONJUNCTION "NEK". + +31. In the expression "neither ... nor ...", the conjunction "nek" +is used for both words. Since an adjective modifier of two or more +words connected by "nek" must necessarily modify them separately, +the adjective remains in the singular number: + + Ili nek marsxas nek kuras, they neither walk nor run. + La viro havas nek domon nek gxardenon, + the man has neither a house nor a garden. + Nek la rozo nek la violo estas verda, + neither the rose nor the violet is green. + + + VOCABULARY + + (Verbs will hereafter be quoted in the infinitive form.) + + bruna = brown. matura = ripe. + cxerizo = cherry. Mario = Mary. + cxu = (30). nek = neither, nor. + dolcxa = sweet. persiko = peach. + gusto = taste. jes = yes. + gxi = it. preferi = to prefer. + Gertrude = Gertrude. sxati = to like. + knabino = girl. voli = to wish. + + + READING LESSON. + +1. Cxu persiko estas rugxa? 2. Jes, gxi estas kaj rugxa kaj dolcxa. 3. +Cxu cxerizoj estas brunaj? 4. Ne, ili estas nek brunaj nek nigraj, sed +flavaj. 5. Cxu la pomo estas frukto? Jes, gxi estas bona frukto. 6. +Cxu la viro kaj la knabo havas pomojn? 7. Ne, ili havas nek pomojn nek +persikojn. 8. Cxu Mario havas la maturan frukton? 9. Mario kaj Gertrudo +havas la frukton. 10. Ili estas en la domo, kaj mangxas la maturan +frukton. 11. La persikoj havas dolcxan guston. 12. La knabinoj volas +havi florojn, sed la knaboj preferas kolekti diversajn fruktojn. 13. Ili +volas trovi maturajn cxerizojn kaj flavajn persikojn. 14. La cxerizoj +havas belan rugxan koloron. 15. La persikoj sxajnas molaj kaj bonaj. 16. +Mario rompas brancxon, kaj vidas cxerizojn sur la brancxoj. 17. Gertrudo +estas felicxa, kaj volas havi la belan frukton. 18. Gertrudo estas alta, +bela knabino. 19. Mario sxatas cxerizojn. 20. La knaboj kaj knabinoj +sidas sur la verda herbo, kaj mangxas la cxerizojn. 21. Ili ne volas +mangxi pomojn, ili preferas la dolcxajn cxerizojn. 22. La folioj apud la +cxerizoj estas nek largxaj nek longaj. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Have the girls beautiful flowers? 2. No, they have fresh fruit. 3. +The boys do not wish to gather flowers. 4. They prefer to break the +branches, and find the sweet cherries. 5. Gertrude wishes to eat apples, +but Mary has neither apples nor peaches. 6. Do the girls like to sit in +the house and eat fruit? 7. Yes, they like to sit in the house, but they +prefer to walk in the field. 8. Are ripe peaches brown? 9. No, they are +red and yellow. 10. Has the peach a sweet taste? 11. Do the girls see +the beautiful black horses in the fields? 12. Yes, they see the horses, +but the horses seem not to see the girls. 13. Mary sits on the soft +green grass, and eats ripe fruit. + + + + LESSON VI. + + + PERSONAL PRONOUNS. + +32. Words which stand in the place of nouns, as "you," "he," "who," +"which," are called "pronouns". Pronouns referring to the person +speaking ("I", "we"), the person addressed ("you", "thou"), or the +person or thing spoken of ("he", "she", "it", "they"), are called +"personal pronouns". They are considered singular or plural, according +to whether they refer to one or more persons. Since the meaning of such +pronouns indicates the number, no plural ending is ever attached to +them. The personal pronouns are: + + Singular. Plural. + + First person: mi, I (me). ni, we (us). + + Second person: vi, you. vi, you. + + li, he (him). + Third person: sxi, she (her). ili, they (them). + gxi, it. + +[Footnote: There is another pronoun "ci" (thou), for the second person +singular, used in solemn style, as in the Bible, in poetry, and also +for intimate or familiar address when desired, like German "du", French +"tu", etc.] + + + AGREEMENT WITH PRONOUNS. + +33. Nouns in predicate relation with pronouns, or adjectives modifying +such pronouns, are made to agree with them in number: + + Ni estas bonaj kaj felicxaj, we are good and happy. + Rozoj estas floroj, ill ne estas fruktoj, + roses are flowers, they are not fruits. + Gertrudo, vi estas bona, Gertrude, you are good. + Knabinoj, cxu vi estas felicxaj? Girls, are you happy? + + + CONJUGATION OF THE VERB. + +34. Any pronoun may serve as the subject of a verb. The combination +of the verb with each of the personal pronouns in succession for its +subject, is called the "conjugation" of the verb. Following is the +conjugation of the present tense of "esti", and of "vidi": + + mi estas = I am. mi vidas = I see. + vi estas = you are. vi vidas = you see. + li (sxi, gxi) estas = li (sxi, gxi) vidas : + he (she, it) is. he (she, it) sees. + ni estas = we are. ni vidas = we see. + vi estas = you (plural) are. vi vidas = you (plural) see. + ili estas = they are. ili vidas = they see. + + + VOCABULARY + + al = to, toward. hodiaux = today. + Arturo = Arthur. kudri = to sew. + aux = or (aux ... aux ..., either ... or ...) Roberto = Robert. + cxar = because. skui = to shake. + doni = to give. stari = to stand. + fali = to fall. sub = under, beneath. + fenestro = window. virino = woman. + + + READING LESSON. + +1. Knaboj, cxu vi volas sidi en la domo, aux en la gxardeno? 2. Ni +preferas sidi hodiaux en la gxardeno, sub la granda arbo. 3. Cxu vi +havas pomojn, aux cxerizojn? 4. Ni havas nek pomojn nek cxerizojn, +sed ni havas dolcxajn persikojn. 5. Arturo donas al vi la maturajn +persikojn, cxar li sxatas kolekti frukton. 6. Arturo, cxu vi rompas la +brancxojn? 7. Ne, sed mi skuas brancxon, kaj la persikoj falas. 8. Mi +staras sub la arbo, kaj kolektas la dolcxan frukton. 9. La frukton mi +donas al Mario kaj Gertrudo. 10. Mi volas doni persikon al Heleno, sed +hodiaux sxi estas en la domo. 11. Sxi sidas apud la fenestro kaj kudras. +12. Sxi preferas kudri, kaj volas nek marsxi nek sidi en la gxardeno. +13. Kaj sxi kaj la virino apud sxi volas kudri hodiaux. 14. Ili estas +felicxaj, cxar ili vidas la birdojn en la arbo apud la fenestro. 15. La +birdoj estas kolomboj, kaj sidas sur la arbo. 16. Sub la arboj en la +kampo staras cxevaloj, kaj ili mangxas la verdan molan herbon. 17. Ni +donas pomojn al ili, cxar ili sxatas pomojn. 18. Ni estas felicxaj, cxar +ni havas belajn persikojn maturajn kaj bonajn. 19. Roberto, vi estas +alta, sed vi, knabinoj, ne estas altaj. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Does Arthur break the branch and gather the apples? 2. No, he shakes +the branch, and the apples fall. 3. They are ripe and sweet. 4. Robert, +do you wish to stand beneath the tree? 5. No, I do not wish to stand +under it, but near it. 6. I wish to give both the peaches and the apples +to the woman. 7. She is sitting in the house, near the window. 8. Mary +is sitting in (on) a chair near her. 9. Both Mary and the woman are +sewing. 10. They prefer to sew, and do not wish to walk in the garden +to-day. 11. They are happy because they like to sew. 12. They do not +wish to gather flowers, or walk, or see the birds. 13. They have neither +apples nor peaches, but they do not wish to eat. 14. They give the fruit +to the boys and girls. + + + + LESSON VII. + + + THE PAST TENSE. + +35. The past tense of the verb expresses an action which took place in +past time, or a condition which existed in past time. The ending of +this tense is "-is", as "kuris", ran, "flugis", flew, "brilis", shone. +The conjugation of "esti" and also of "vidi" in the past tense is as +follows: + + mi estis = I was. mi vidis = I saw. + vi estis = you were. vi vidis = you saw. + li (sxi, gxi) estis = li (sxi, gxi) vidis : + he (she, it) was. he (she, it) saw. + ni estis = we were. ni vidis = we saw. + vi estis = you (plural) were. vi vidis = you (plural) saw. + ili estis = they were. ili vidis = they saw. + + + PREPOSITIONS. + +36. A preposition is a word like "in," "on," placed before a noun or +pronoun to indicate some relation between this and another word. The +preposition is said to "govern" the noun or pronoun, which is called its +"complement". In English, the complement of a preposition seems to be +put in the accusative case if it is a pronoun, but to remain unchanged +in form if it is a noun. In Esperanto the preposition does not affect +the form of the word governed, which remains in the nominative case: + + La arbo estas en la gxardeno, the tree is in the garden. + Bonaj pomoj estas sur gxi, good apples are on it. + Mi donis cxerizojn al li, I gave cherries to him. + La knabo estas apud mi, the boy is near me. + Sub la arbo staris cxevalo, under the tree stood a horse. + + + ACCUSATIVE CASE OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. + +37. For use as the object of a verb, any pronoun may be put in the +accusative case by addition of the accusative ending "-n" (23): + + La viro vidis vin kaj min, the man saw you and me. + Li vidis ilin kaj nin, he saw them and us. + Mi vidis nek lin nek sxin, I saw neither him nor her. + Ni volas havi gxin, we wish to have it. + + + VOCABULARY + + agrabla = pleasant, agreeable. luma = light (not dark). + bildo = picture. muro = wall. + blua = blue. nun = now. + danki = to thank. planko = floor. + de = from. pordo = door. + diri = to say. rigardi = to look (at). + infano = child. tapisxo = carpet. + interesa = interesting. tra = through. + + + READING LESSON. + +1. Hodiaux la knaboj kaj knabinoj estas en la granda domo. 2. Ili staras +apud la tablo, en agrabla luma cxambro. 3. Gxi havas altajn largxajn +fenestrojn. 4. Sub la tablo kaj segxoj, mola tapisxo kusxas sur la +planko. 5. La tapisxo havas belajn kolorojn, rugxan, bluan, flavan, kaj +verdan. 6. Virino marsxis tra la pordo, kaj staris apud la tablo. 7. Sxi +havis interesajn bildojn, kaj donis ilin al la knaboj kaj la knabinoj. +8. Sxi diris "Cxu vi volas rigardi la bildojn?" 9. "Jes, ni dankas +vin," diris la infanoj, kaj sxi donis al ili la bildojn. 10. Granda +bildo falis de la tablo, sed Arturo nun havas gxin. 11. Li donas gxin +al Mario, sxi dankas lin, kaj donas gxin al Roberto. 12. Ili volis doni +gxin al Gertrudo, sed sxi diris "Ne, mi dankas vin, mi ne sxatas rigardi +bildojn." 13. Sxi marsxis de la tablo al la fenestro kaj diris "Mi +preferas kudri." 14. Sxi volis sidi en granda segxo apud la fenestro. +15. La virino rigardis sxin kaj diris "Mi donis la bildojn al vi, knaboj +kaj knabinoj," cxar ili estas interesaj bildoj. 16. Gertrudo diris "Vi +estas bona al ni, sed mi volas sidi apud la pordo aux la fenestro. 17. +Mi kolektis dolcxajn violojn en la gxardeno, kaj nun mi volas rigardi la +dolcxajn florojn, kaj kudri." + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Do the boys and girls wish to be good? 2. They gathered fresh flowers +and gave them to the woman. 3. The happy children were in the garden, +but now they are in the house. 4. The rooms in the house are light, +because they have large wide windows. 5. The doors in the room are +wide and high. 6. The carpets on the floor seem soft, and have various +beautiful colors. 7. A large strong table stands near the door. 8. +We can sit near the table and look through the windows. 9. Gertrude +is-looking-at the various pictures. 10. She looks-at them, and seems +to be happy. 11. She gave a picture to me and I thanked her. 12. Helen +walked near the table and shook it. 13. Arthur did not see the pictures +because they were lying on the floor. 14. He looked-at the pictures on +the wall, but they are neither interesting nor beautiful. 15. Robert +looked through the window, and saw us in the pleasant garden. + + + + LESSON VIII. + + + REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS. + +38. A pronoun which refers to the same person or thing as the subject +of the verb in the sentence, but is used in some other relation than +subject of that verb, is said to be used "reflexively", or to be a +"reflexive pronoun". + + +39. The first and second personal pronouns, "mi", "ni", and "vi", +("ci") are used for the reflexive pronouns of the first and second +persons. There can be no ambiguity, since words such as "me, myself, +us, ourselves," can refer to no one else than the person or persons +speaking; while words such as "you, yourself, yourselves (thee, +thyself)," can refer to no one else than the person or persons +addressed: + + Mi vidas min, I see myself. + Mi diris al mi, I said to myself. + Ni havas tapisxon sub ni, we have a carpet under us. + Ni amuzis nin, we amused ourselves. + (Ci trovas domon apud ci, thou findest a house near thee.) + Vi diras al vi, you say to yourself (yourselves). + Vi amuzas vin, you amuse yourself (yourselves). + +40. When the verb is in the third person, a pronoun of the third person, +used otherwise than as the subject, might or might not refer to the +subject of that verb. For example, "He sees a bird near him," may mean +that the subject sees a bird near himself, or near another person. +If such a pronoun of the third person is intended to refer to the +subject of the verb, Esperanto uses a special reflexive pronoun "si" +(accusative "sin"), which means "him(self)", "her(self)", "it(self)", +"them(selves)", according to the gender and number of the verb: + + Li amuzas sin, he amuses himself. + Arturo vidis birdon apud si, Arthur saw a bird near him(self). + Sxi trovas floron apud si, she finds a flower near her(self). + Mario trovis sin sur blua tapisxo, + Mary found herself on a blue carpet. + La tapisxo havas diversajn kolorojn en si, + the carpet has various colors in it(self). + La birdo kasxas sin sub la folioj, + the bird hides itself under the leaves. + Ili amuzas sin, they amuse themselves. + La viroj havas segxojn apud si, + the men have chairs near them(selves). + La virinoj trovas florojn apud si, + the women find flowers near them(selves). + La arboj havas cxerizojn sur si, + the trees have cherries on them(selves). + Sub si la infanoj trovis molan tapisxon, + under them(selves) the children found a soft carpet. + +[Footnote: From the very fact that "si" always refers to the subject of +the verb, it is evident that "si" can never itself be used as subject or +part of the subject of the verb.] + + + REFLEXIVE VERBS. + +41. A verb having a reflexive pronoun for its direct object is sometimes +called a "reflexive verb", from the fact that some languages have had or +still have a special reflexive or middle form of the verb, to express an +act of the subject on or for itself, or they have certain verbs whose +use is chiefly or exclusively reflexive. The conjugation of a verb +reflexively is therefore as follows: + + mi amuzas min (mi min amuzas), I amuse myself. + vi amuzas vin (vi vin amuzas), you amuse yourself. + li (sxi, gxi) amuzas sin (sin amuzas), + he (she, it) amuses him (her, it)self. + ni amuzas nin (ni nin amuzas), we amuse ourselves. + vi amuzas vin (vi vin amuzas), you amuse yourselves. + ili amuzas sin (ili sin amuzas), they amuse themselves. + +[Footnote: As Greek "etraponto", they turned themselves; Latin +"exerceor", I exercise myself, "vescor", I eat (I feed myself); German +"ich huete mich", I beware (I guard myself); Spanish "me alegro", or +"alegrome", I rejoice (I gladden myself); French "il s'arrete", he halts +(he stops himself).] + + + VOCABULARY + + Alfredo = Alfred. komenci = to begin. + amuzi = to amuse. lauxdi = to praise. + antaux = before, in front of. legi = to read. + aparteni = to belong. libro = book. + griza = gray. perdi = to lose. + iri = to go. skatolo = small box or case. + Johano = John. strato = street. + kasxi = to hide, to conceal. si = himself, etc. (40). + + + READING LESSON. + +1. Johano kaj Alfredo amuzis sin en la gxardeno. 2. Johano kasxis sin, +kaj Alfredo trovis Johanon. 3. Alfredo sin kasxis en alta arbo, kaj +Johano trovis Alberton. 4. Mario kaj Gertrudo sin kasxis apud la floroj, +kaj la knaboj trovis la knabinojn. 5. La knabinoj ne volas perdi sin en +la agrabla kampo. 6. Johano komencis amuzi sin en luma cxambro en la +domo. 7. La muro havas interesajn bildojn sur si. 8. Tra la fenestro +antaux si Johano rigardas la virojn kaj la virinojn sur la strato. 9. +Li havas molan grizan tapisxon sub si, kaj ne volas segxon. 10. Li kaj +Alfredo volis iri al la strato kaj amuzi sin. 11. Ili marsxis al la +pordo, kaj trovis rugxan skatolon antaux si. 12. En la skatolo estis +libro, kaj Johano diris al si "La libro ne apartenas al mi." 13. Li +diris al Alfredo "Cxar ni trovis gxin, mi volas legi la libron." 14. +Virino antaux pordo komencis rigardi la knabojn, kaj ili diris al sxi +"Cxu la libro apartenas al vi? Ni trovis gxin en skatolo." 15. La virino +diris "Jes, ni perdis gxin, kaj mi dankas vin, cxar vi donas al mi la +skatolon kaj la libron." 16. Sxi iris al la strato, kaj la knaboj iris +al la domo. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. The book in the gray box does not belong to me. 2. I found it in +front of me, near the door. 3. You began to praise yourselves, but I do +not praise myself. 4. They hid themselves, and I stood near them. 5. The +birds sit on the tree, because it has ripe cherries on it. 6. Alfred +amused himself on the street, but we like to amuse ourselves in the +house. 7. The trees have good fruit on them. 8. She found herself in a +beautiful light room. 9. The carpet on the floor had various colors in +it, and the high wall had pictures on it. 10. The pictures had boys and +girls in them. 11. The book belongs to her, but it fell from the box. +12. The table has red and blue and yellow flowers on it. 13. Did you see +the doves near the flowers in front of (before) you? 14. The birds saw +the fruit on the tree in front of them, and flew to the branches. 15. I +sat on the bench in the garden, and began to read an interesting book. +16. They hid themselves in the leaves and began to sing. 17. The child +is in a pleasant room. + + + + LESSON IX. + + + LIMITATION OF THE THIRD PERSONAL PRONOUN. + +42. Since there is a special reflexive pronoun of the third person, the +third personal pronouns, "li", "sxi", "gxi", "ili", when used otherwise +than as subjects, never refer to the subject of the verb, but always to +some other person or thing: + + La knabo lauxdas lin, the boy praises him (another person). + Sxi donas pomojn al sxi, she gives apples to her (to another person). + La birdo vidis gxin, the bird saw it (something else than the bird). + La knaboj kasxis ilin, the boys hid them (other persons or things). + Ili trovis ilin apud si, + they found them (other persons or things) near them(selves). + La birdoj flugis al ili, the birds flew to them. + + + POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES. + +43. Words like "my," "his," "your," which indicate ownership or some +possessive relation, are called "possessive adjectives". Possessive +adjectives are formed from the personal pronouns by adding the adjective +ending "-a", as "mia", my, "via", your ("cia", thy), "lia", his, "sxia", +her, "gxia", its, "nia", our, "via", your (plural), "ilia", their. The +limitation in the use of the third personal pronouns ("42") is also true +of the adjectives derived from them: + + Mia domo kaj miaj gxardenoj estas grandaj, + my house and my gardens are large. + Johano sidas sur via segxo, John is sitting in your chair. + Li havas lian cxevalon, he has his (another person's) horse. + Cxu vi legis sxiajn librojn? Did you read her books? + +[Footnote: Sometimes these words are called possessive pronouns, +although really they are not pronouns at all, but pronominal adjectives +with a possessive meaning.] + +44. Reflexive possessive adjectives, like the reflexive pronoun, refer +to the subject of the verb in the sentence. For the first and second +persons, they are the same as the personal possessive adjectives. The +reflexive possessive adjective of the third person is "sia", his, her, +its, their, formed by adding the ending "-a" to the reflexive pronoun +"si": + + Mi havas miajn librojn sur mia tablo, I have my books on my table. + Johano perdis siajn librojn, John lost his (John's) books. + Mario estas en sia cxambro, Mary is in her room. + La birdoj flugis al sia arbo, the birds flew to their tree. + + + PRONOMINAL USE OF POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES. + +45. Possessive adjectives may be used predicatively, as "the book is +mine," or may modify some word or words not expressed, as "mine are +large." Instead of having special forms, like English "mine", "yours", +"hers", etc., Esperanto uses the regular possessive adjectives preceded +by the article: + + La granda libro estas la mia, the large book is mine. + La via estas granda, la miaj estas belaj, + yours is large, mine are beautiful. + Ili havas la sian, sed ne la lian, they have theirs, but not his. + La iliaj sxajnas esti bonaj, theirs seem to be good. + + + + VOCABULARY + + diro = saying, remark. mangxo = meal. + gxis = as far as, up to, down to. nesto = nest. + hieraux = yesterday. pasero = sparrow. + juna = young. patro = father. + kapti = to catch, to seize. post, after, behind. + kato = cat. surprizi = to surprise. + kolera = angry. teni = to hold, to keep. + lavi = to wash. vizagxo = face. + + + READING LESSON. + +1. Hieraux mi perdis mian grizan katon. 2. Ilia kato kaptis nian +birdon. 3. Via kolera diro surprizis mian patron. 4. Cxu la granda +kampo apartenas al sxia patro? 5. Ne, gxi ne estas la lia. 6. La lia +estas bela, sed mi preferas la mian. 7. Cxu vi sxatas vian libron aux +la ilian? 8. Li havas nek siajn cxevalojn nek la iliajn. 9. La knabinoj +sxajnas esti koleraj. 10. Ili komencis legi siajn librojn. 11. La viro +kaptis kaj tenis siajn cxevalojn, sed li ne trovis iliajn cxevalojn. +12. Sxia libro kusxas sur la planko, post sxia segxo. 13. Sxi ne trovis +ilian libron, sed la junaj infanoj trovis la nian. + + + LA KATO KAJ LA PASERO. + +Griza kato iris de la domo gxis la strato. Gxi vidis paseron antaux si, +kaj volis mangxi gxin. La kato staris post granda arbo, kaj kaptis la +paseron. La pasero diris "Bona kato lavas sin antaux sia mangxo, sed vi +ne lavis vian vizagxon." La interesa diro surprizis la katon. La kato +ne tenis la paseron, sed komencis lavi sian vizagxon. La pasero flugis +de la kato gxis la arbo. La kolera kato diris "Mi perdis mian mangxon, +cxar mi komencis lavi min antaux la mangxo!" Nun la katoj ne lavas sin +antaux la mangxoj. Ili havas siajn mangxojn, kaj post la mangxoj ili +lavas la vizagxojn. La paseroj ne surprizas ilin nun, sed ili tenas la +paserojn. La katoj estas felicxaj, sed la paseroj ne estas felicxaj. La +junaj paseroj volas flugi al la nestoj en la arboj. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. The boys are not in their (own) house, but they are in his. 2 Is the +large beautiful house yours? 3. The woman walked through the door of +their house, as far as her room. 4. The room has interesting pictures on +its walls. 5. We praised their flowers yesterday, and they gave them to +us. 6. Their books are in their (the books') box. 7. They are on their +(the boys') table. 8. The gray cat was angry because it did not hold the +bird. 9. The sparrow surprised it, and it commenced to wash its face. +10. The sparrow wished to fly as far as the tall tree, but the cat held +it. 11. The sparrow said "A good cat washes its face, but you are not a +good cat." 12. The sparrow was angry because the cat seized it and held +it. 13. The bird did not lose its meal, but the angry cat lost its meal. +14. Do you see his cat or hers? 15. I see both his and hers, but ours +is not in our garden. 16. My father is a tall strong man. 17. I like to +look at him. 18. The children saw the young birds in the nest. + + + + LESSON X. + + + THE ACCUSATIVE OF DIRECTION. + +46. When the verb in a sentence expresses motion, the word indicating +the place, person or thing toward which the motion is directed is given +the accusative ending. This is also true if the word is the complement +of any preposition which does not itself sufficiently indicate motion +in a certain direction. (The prepositions "al", to, toward, "gxis", +as far as, "tra", through, express motion in the direction of their +complements, and could not well be used except in a sentence whose verb +expresses motion. Consequently the accusative is not used after any of +these three): + + Li iris gxardenon, he went to the garden ("gardenward"). + La viro iros Bostonon, the man will go to Boston ("Bostonward"). + +[Footnote: Cf. English "he went home," "he went homeward," etc.] + + Li estis en la gxardeno, kaj kuris en la domon, + he was in the garden and ran into the house. + Gxi ne estas sur la tablo, gxi falis sur la plankon, + it is not on the table, it fell upon the floor. + Ili falis sub la tablon gxis la planko, + they fell under the table as far as the floor + (direction expressed by whole prepositional phrase). + Mi iris tra la domo en mian cxambron, + I went through the house into my room. + + + THE ARTICLE FOR THE POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE. + +47. In many sentences where the possessor is already sufficiently +indicated, English nevertheless uses a possessive adjective, as in "I +wash my face," "he shakes his head," but on the other hand omits it +entirely with certain words indicating relationship, as in "Brother gave +it to me," etc. In both cases Esperanto uses the article instead of the +possessive adjective, unless the fact of possession is to be emphasized: + + Mi lavas la vizagxon, I wash my face. + Li skuas la kapon, he shakes his head. + La patro estas alta, Father is tall. + Mi donis gxin al la patro, I gave it to Father. + + + APPOSITION. + +48. English often uses the preposition "of" between two words where +no idea of possession really exists, as "the city of Boston." Since +nouns used in apposition refer to the same thing, and are in the same +grammatical construction, Esperanto does not use a preposition: + + La urbo Bostono estas granda, the city (of) Boston is large. + Mia amiko Johano estas alta, my friend John is tall. + Cxu vi ne konas min, vian amikon? do you not know me, your friend? + + + VOCABULARY + + arabo = arab. meti = to put, to place. + baldaux = soon. nazo = nose. + Bostono = Boston. nur = only, merely. + frato = brother. pusxi = to push. + kamelo = camel. trans = across. + kapo = head. tuta = whole, entire, all. + kolo = neck. urbo = city. + korpo = body. varma = warm. + + + LA ARABO KAJ LA KAMELO. + +Arabo sidis en sia domo en la urbo. Apud domo trans la strato li vidis +kamelon. La kamelo iris trans la straton gxis la pordo, kaj diris al la +arabo, "Frato, mi ne estas varma, mi volas meti nur la nazon en vian +varman domon." La arabo skuis la kapon, sed la kamelo metis la nazon tra +la pordo en la cxambron. La kamelo komencis pusxi sian tutan vizagxon +en la domon. Baldaux li havis la kapon gxis la kolo en la domo. Post la +kapo iris la kolo en gxin, kaj baldaux la tuta korpo estis en la domo. +La arabo estis kolera, cxar li ne volis havi tutan kamelon en sia domo. +Li kuris al la kamelo, kaptis lin, tenis lin, kaj diris, "Frato, vi +volis meti nur la nazon en mian domon. La cxambro ne estas granda sed +gxi estas la mia, kaj mi preferas sidi en gxi." "Via diro estas bona," +diris la kamelo, "via domo ne estas granda, sed gxi estas varma, kaj mi +sxatas stari en gxi. Mi preferas stari kaj kusxi en gxi, kaj mi donos +al vi mian arbon trans la strato. Cxu vi ne volas iri sub la arbon?" +Kaj la kamelo pusxis la arabon de lia domo en la straton de la urbo. La +kamelo nun trovis sin en varma cxambro, sed la juna arabo staris trans +la strato kaj ne estis varma. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. The cat ran across the street. 2. Across the street it found a +sparrow. 3. It caught the bird, but began to wash its face, and the +sparrow flew to the nest. 4. I went into the garden as far as the large +tree. 5. I did not hold my book, and it fell upon the floor. 6. It began +to fall under the table, but I seized it. 7. My brother pushed the +books into their box, and put it on the table. 8. We went to the city +of Boston yesterday and into a beautiful house. 9. The arab shook his +head and said, "No." 10. But the camel commenced to go through the door. +11. His remark did not seem to surprise the camel. 12. The camel pushed +its head and neck, and soon its whole body into the warm house. 13. It +wished to put merely its nose into it. 14. The arab was angry, because +it pushed itself into his house. 15. He said, "Brother, the house is +mine, and I do not wish to have you in it." 16. But soon after the +remark, the whole camel was in the house. 17. He pushed the young arab +into the street. 18. He went across the street and stood upon the grass +under a tree. + + + + LESSON XI. + + + POSSESSIVE CASE OF NOUNS. + +49. The preposition "de" is used to express possession or connection: + + La muroj de la domo, the walls of the house. + La koloroj de la floroj, the colors of the flowers. + La libro de la knabo, the book of the boy (the boy's book). + Brancxo de la arbo, a branch of the tree. + La gxardeno de la viroj, the garden of the men (the men's garden). + + + IMPERSONAL VERBS. + +50. Verbs with an impersonal or indeterminate subject, as "it rains," +"it is snowing," are called impersonal, because there is no actual +subject, the word "it" serving merely as an introductory particle. No +such particle is used with impersonal verbs in Esperanto: + + Pluvas, it rains, it is raining. + Negxis hieraux, it snowed yesterday. + + + VERBS PRECEDING THEIR SUBJECTS. + +51. When the verb in a sentence precedes its subject, English often uses +an introductory particle, such as "there," "it." In Esperanto no such +particles are needed: + + Estas floroj sur la tablo, there are flowers on the table. + Estis Johano, ne Alfredo, en la gxardeno, + it was John, not Alfred, in the garden. + Estas domo en la kampo, there is a house in the field. + Estis mi, it was I. + + + COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS. + +52. Words like "aux", "kaj", "nek", "sed", which join words, +word-groups, or sentences together are conjunctions. All the +conjunctions given so far connect words, phrases, or sentences of +similar rank or kind. These are called coordinating conjunctions, +and the words, phrases, or sentences connected by them are said +to be coordinate: + + Cxu vi marsxas aux kuras? + ("Aux" connects the verbs.) + + Sxi iris, kaj ni estis felicxaj. + ("Kaj" connects the sentences.) + + Nek vi nek mi vidis gxin. + (The second "nek" connects the pronouns, + the first being introductory and adverbial.) + + Aux li aux sxi perdis la libron. + (The second "aux" connects the pronouns, + the first being introductory and adverbial.) + + Gxi falis sur la segxon, sed ne sur la plankon. + ("Sed" connects the phrases.) + + Li ne sxatis gxin. Tamen li tenis gxin. + ("Tamen" connects the sentences.) + +[Footnote: A phrase is a word-group forming an expression, but not +containing a verb, as "through the house," "of the man," "before me," +etc.] + +[Footnote: Coordinating conjunctions may be further classified according +to their meaning: "Aux" is disjunctive, connecting alternates, and +expressing separation. "Kaj" is copulative, expressing union. "Nek" +is disjunctive, expressing separation and also negation. "Sed" is +adversative, expressing opposition, contrast, or modification of a +previous statement. "Tamen" is adversative, affirming something in spite +of a previous objection or concession. "Do," "so, then, consequently," +is argumentative, expressing a logical inference or result in a somewhat +conversational manner.] + + + VOCABULARY + + akvo = water. porti = to carry. + amiko = friend. ricxa = rich, wealthy. + ankaux = also. sablo = sand. + bezoni = to need. sako = sack, bag. + dezerto = desert. seka = dry. + fidela = faithful. tamen = nevertheless. + mono = money. trinki = to drink. + negxi = to snow. veni = to come. + pluvi = to rain. vojo = road, way. + + + LA ARABO EN LA DEZERTO. + +Arabo iris trans grandan sekan dezerton. Kamelo, lia fidela amiko, +portis lin. La kamelo ankaux portis belajn tapisxojn, cxar la arabo +estis ricxa viro. La arabo havis ne nur tapisxojn, sed ankaux sakojn. En +la sakoj estis akvo, cxar en la dezerto nek pluvas nek negxas. La viro +trinkis akvon, kaj ankaux donis akvon al sia kamelo. La kamelo marsxis +kaj marsxis, sed ne venis al la domo de la arabo, cxar ili perdis la +vojon. La suno brilis, kaj la sablo de la dezerto sxajnis varma. La +arabo ne trovis la vojon, kaj baldaux li ne havis akvon. Tamen la kamelo +marsxis kaj marsxis, kaj baldaux la arabo vidis sakon antaux si, sur la +seka sablo. Li estis felicxa kaj diris al si "Cxu estas akvo en gxi? +Mi volas trinki, kaj volas doni akvon al mia fidela kamelo." Li ankaux +volis lavi la tutan vizagxon en la akvo, cxar li estis varma. Post sia +diro li kaptis la sakon, kaj komencis rigardi en gxin. Li metis la nazon +en gxin, sed ne trovis akvon en la sako. Nek li nek lia fidela kamelo +havis akvon, cxar estis nur mono en la sako. La arabo estis kolera, cxar +li ne volis monon, li bezonis akvon. Li havis monon en sia domo en la +urbo, kaj volis trovi akvon. Cxu li tamen metis la sakon trans la kolon +de sia kamelo? Ne, li ne volis meti gxin sur sian kamelon, cxar li estis +kolera. Li ne tenis la sakon, sed gxi falis sur la sablon, kaj kusxis +apud li. La sako nun kusxas sur la sablo de la granda dezerto, kaj la +mono estas en gxi. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Today it is raining, but yesterday it was snowing. 2. Did your friend +John carry his chair into the house? 3. I saw your good friends on the +way to the city. 4. Is the large sack behind the door theirs? 5. Neither +she nor her brother saw the whole city. 6. They went to the city of +Boston and lost their way. 7. There are interesting houses across the +street. 8. The body of a camel is large, and its neck is long. 9. The +camel pushed its head into the house of the arab, and he was angry. 10. +On the sand in the desert there lies a sack. 11. In the sack there is +money. 12. The arab was warm, and wished to drink water. 13. He also +wished to give water to the faithful camel. 14. Nevertheless, he found +only money in the sack. 15. He was angry, and did not keep the sack. +16. Yesterday he wished to find money, but today he prefers water. 17. +Nevertheless there is only sand in the desert. 18. He wished to come +from the dry desert to the house of a faithful friend. 19. Both he and +his friends are rich. 20. They went to his house yesterday, and came to +theirs today. 21. They do not need money. + + + + LESSON XII. + + + INDIRECT STATEMENTS. + +53. A statement made indirectly by means of a clause dependent upon a +verb meaning "say," "think," "know," "believe," or a similar expression, +as in "I know that he came," "I hear that he is good," is called an +"indirect statement." (The "direct" statement is "he came," "he is +good.") An indirect statement is joined to the main verb or sentence by +the subordinating conjunction "ke," that. + + Johano diras ke vi venis hieraux, + John says that you came yesterday. + Sxi opinias ke estas mono en la sako, + she thinks that there is money in the bag. + +[Footnote: A clause is a group of words including a verb, which is +dependent upon or subordinate to a main verb or sentence, as "--that he +came," "--when he went," "--that he is good," etc.] + +[Footnote: In English the subordinating conjunction may sometimes be +omitted, either "I think that he is good," or "I think he is good," +being usually permissible. But in Esperanto there is no variation, and +the conjunction "ke" is never omitted.] + + + THE INDEFINITE PERSONAL PRONOUN "ONI". + +54. When an indefinite personal pronoun is desired, as in the +expressions "one knows," "they say," "people say," "you can see," etc., +the indefinite personal pronoun "oni" is used. This pronoun may also be +used in translating such expressions as "it is said," "I am told," etc.: + + Oni diras ke li estas ricxa, they say (one says) that he is rich. + Oni vidas ke ili estas amikoj, one sees that they are friends. + Mi opinias ke oni sxatas lin, + I think that people like him (that he is liked). + Oni diris al mi ke estas sablo en la dezerto, + I was told (people said to me) that there is sand in the desert. + Oni opinias ke sxi estas felicxa, + it is thought (one thinks) that she is happy. + Cxu oni vidis nin en la gxardeno? + Were we seen (did people see us) in the garden? + Oni sxatas agrablajn infanojn, + people like agreeable children (agreeable children are liked). + + + THE FUTURE TENSE. + +55. The future tense of the verb expresses an act or state as about to +take place, or as one that will take place in future time. The ending of +this tense is "-os," as "kuros," will run, "flugos," will fly, "brilos," +will shine. The conjugation of "esti" and also of "vidi" in the future +tense is as follows: + + mi estos = I shall be. mi vidos = I shall see. + vi estos = you will be. vi vidos = you will see. + li (sxi, gxi) estos = li (sxi, gxi) vidos : + he (she, it) will be. he (she, it) will see. + ni estos = we shall be. ni vidos = we shall see. + vi estos = you (plural) will be. vi vidos = you (plural) will see. + ili estos = they will be. ili vidos = they will see. + + + VOCABULARY + + auxdi = to hear. oni = (see 54). + blovi = to blow. opinii = to think, to opine. + greno = grain (wheat, corn, etc.). orienta = east, eastern. + ke = that (conjunction). pluvo = rain. + kontraux = against. suda = south, southern. + montri = to show, to point out. velki = to wilt, to wither. + norda = north, northern. vento = wind. + nova = new. ventoflago = weathercock. + okcidenta = west, western. vetero = weather. + + + LA VENTOFLAGO. + +Estis varma vetero, la suno brilis, kaj suda vento blovis. Tamen la +nova ventoflago sur la domo diris al si, "La sudan venton mi ne sxatas. +Mi preferas orientan venton." La vento orienta auxdis la diron kaj gxi +venis kontraux la ventoflagon. Pluvis kaj pluvis, kaj oni estis kolera +kontraux la ventoflago, cxar gxi montras orientan venton. Gxi diris, +"Pluvas nun, sed la greno en la kampoj bezonos sekan veteron. Oni estos +kolera kontraux mi, cxar mi montras orientan venton." La okcidenta vento +auxdis la ventoflagon, kaj baldaux venis. Gxi ne estis forta, sed gxi +estis seka kaj agrabla vento, kaj ne portis pluvon. La viroj, virinoj, +kaj junaj infanoj volis trinki, sed ili ne havis akvon. La greno kaj la +floroj velkis, kaj la frukto ankaux falis. La nova ventoflago diris, +"Oni estos kolera kontraux mi, cxar ne pluvas. Oni opinios ke, cxar mi +montras okcidentan venton, la frukto falas, kaj la greno kaj floroj +velkas. Mi sxatas montri nek okcidentan nek orientan venton!" Norda +vento auxdis kaj venis al la ventoflago. La vetero ne estis agrabla, +kaj la virinoj kaj la junaj infanoj ne estis varmaj. Negxis, kaj oni +estis kolera. Oni diris "La greno kaj la frukto bezonas varman veteron, +sed hodiaux negxas. Ni preferas la sudan venton. Ni havis gxin, antaux +la orienta, la okcidenta, kaj la norda ventoj. La ventoflago ne estas +fidela amiko al ni. Gxi ne montras bonajn ventojn, kaj ni volas rompi +gxin!" Oni kuris al la domo, kaptis la novan ventoflagon, kaj ankaux +rompis gxin. Gxi falis, kaj kusxis sur la vojo antaux la domo. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. One can see that the weathercock points-out the winds. 2. They say +that the west wind will be a dry wind. 3. The weathercock now shows that +an agreeable south wind blows. 4. People will be angry with (against) +the weathercock, because it points-out a north wind. 5. A north wind is +not warm, and the grain and fruit will need a warm wind. 6. It snowed, +and the young children were not warm, because the north wind blew. 7. +People will like a south wind, but an east wind will carry rain. 8. +Can one find money in the desert? 9. Do you think (that) he is in the +house? 10. He is said to be (they say that he is) on the street. 11. +It is thought (people think) that the camel is a faithful friend. 12. +I am told (people tell me) that the camel has a large body, and a long +neck. 13. One can see that it is not beautiful. 14. People do not like +to drink warm water. 15. Nevertheless we shall drink warm water in the +city. 16. It was beautiful weather yesterday, but today we shall have +good weather also. 17. I think that a warm wind will blow soon. 18. My +friend has a beautiful new house. + + + + LESSON XIII. + + + THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN "TIU". + +56. The demonstrative pronoun "tiu", that, is used to indicate a person +or a definitely specified thing. The plural is "tiuj", those: + + Tiu estas la via, kaj mi volas tiun, + that is yours, and I wish that one. + Tiuj estos koleraj kontraux vi, those will be angry with you. + Li auxdis tiujn, he heard those (persons, or things). + +57. The demonstrative pronoun "tiu" is also used as a "pronominal +adjective", in agreement with a noun: + + Tiu vento estos varma, that wind will be warm. + Mi vidas tiun ventoflagon, I see that weathercock. + Tiuj infanoj estas junaj, those children are young. + Mi trovos tiujn librojn, I shall find those books. + + + TENSES IN INDIRECT QUOTATIONS. + +58. The verb in an indirect statement (53) or an indirect question +remains in the same tense in which it would be if the statement or +question were direct. (In English this is true only if the introductory +verb is present or future, since after an introductory past tense the +tense of the indirect quotation is changed, and "am, is, are, have, +will" become "was, were, had, would," etc.) + + Mi diras ke li estas bona, I say that he is good. + " diris " " " " , I said that he was good. + " diros " " " " , I shall say that he is good. + Li miras cxu mi auxdas, he wonders whether I hear. + " miris " " " , he wondered whether I heard. + " miros " " " , he will wonder whether I hear. + Mi opiniis ke gxi estas bona, I thought that it was good + (I thought "it is good"). + Oni miris cxu li venos, they wondered whether he would come + (they wondered "will he come?"). + +[Footnote: An indirect question is introduced by "cxu", whether, after +verbs meaning "ask," "wonder," "know," etc.: "Mi miras cxu li venis", I +wonder whether he came. "Oni demandas cxu li estas ricxa", people ask +whether he is rich.] + + + FORMATION OF FEMININE NOUNS. + +59. Feminine nouns corresponding to distinctly masculine nouns such as +"frato", "knabo", "viro", may be formed from these by inserting the +suffix "-in-" just before the noun-ending "-o": + + fratino = sister patrino = mother + (from frato, brother). (from patro, father). + knabino = girl virino = woman + (from knabo, boy). (from viro, man). + + +[Footnote: Cf. English names similarly formed from masculine names, +as "Pauline, Josephine, Ernestine, Geraldine," etc., also German +"Koenigin", queen, from "Koenig", king; "Loewin", lioness, from "Loewe", +lion, etc.] + + + VOCABULARY + + almenaux = at least. paroli = to talk, to speak. + cxapelo = hat. parko = park. + cxielo = sky, heaven. preskaux = almost. + filo = son. pri = concerning, about. + konstrui = to build. promeni = to take a walk. + miri = to wonder. super = above. + morgaux = tomorrow. timi = to fear, to be afraid (of). + nubo = cloud. tiu = that (56). + ombrelo = umbrella. zorga = careful. + + + EN LA PARKO. + +Miaj junaj amiko kaj amikino, kaj ankaux ilia patrino, iris hieraux al +la parko. La infanoj diris al la patrino ke la parko estas agrabla, +kaj ke ili volas promeni en gxi. La knabino parolis al sia frato pri +la belaj floroj. Sxi diris al li ke la floroj velkas, kaj ke la herbo +en preskaux la tuta parko bezonas pluvon. La knabo diris hodiaux al +mi ke hieraux li kaj lia fratino auxdis la birdojn en la arboj super +siaj kapoj. Li diris ke li miris pri tiuj birdoj, tamen li opinias ke +la birdoj baldaux konstruos siajn nestojn en tiuj arboj. La infanoj +promenis, kaj baldaux ili vidis ke grizaj nuboj venas sur la cxielon, +kaj mia juna amikino timis ke pluvos. Sxi parolis al la patrino pri la +nuboj kaj la pluvo, montris al sxi la grizajn nubojn, kaj diris ke si +volas iri al la domo. Ili komencis marsxi al la strato, kaj preskaux +kuris, cxar ili ne havis ombrelon. Tra la fenestroj de la domoj oni +rigardis ilin, kaj la knabo miris cxu li kaj liaj patrino kaj fratino +amuzas tiujn virojn kaj virinojn. Tamen la patrino diris ke sxi ne timas +ke sxi amuzos tiujn, sed ke sxi timas la pluvon. Sxi kaj la filino volas +esti zorgaj pri almenaux la novaj cxapeloj. La filo diris al sxi ke li +ankaux estas zorga, sed ke li opinias ke ne pluvos. Baldaux la patro +venis al ili, kaj portis ombrelojn, cxar li ankaux timis la pluvon. +Li miris cxu la infanoj kaj ilia patrino havas ombrelojn. Baldaux +pluvis, sed ili estis sekaj, cxar ili havis la ombrelojn. Morgaux ili ne +promenos en la parko, sed iros al la urbo. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. The east wind is dry and the south wind will be too warm. 2. A +west wind blew against the weathercock, but the grain needed a south +wind. 3 A north wind is blowing and I think that it will soon snow. 4. +It (51) will be beautiful weather tomorrow, because a pleasant wind +is now blowing. 5. The flowers will wither because those children +gathered them. 6. They are talking about that park, but I do not wish to +take-a-walk, because there are clouds in (on) the sky. 7. At least we +shall take an umbrella, and my brother will hold it over our heads. 8. +My sister said "Mother and I are-afraid that it will rain." 9. My young +sister will be careful about that new umbrella. 10. I wonder whether +she will take-a-walk tomorrow. 11. That park is pleasant and the grass +is soft and green. 12. The birds are building their nests now, in those +branches above our heads. 13. The sky above us is blue, and a west wind +is beginning to blow. 14. I can see that weathercock, on that large +house near the park. 15. Mother says that my sister will have a new hat +tomorrow. 16. She will be careful of (about) that hat. 17. My father's +friend is very careful of his son. 18. One sees that he is not a strong +boy. + + + LESSON XIV. + + + THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN "CXI TIU". + +60. The demonstrative pronoun (and pronominal adjective) meaning "this" +is formed by using with "tiu" (56) the word "cxi", which expresses the +general idea of nearness or proximity. (Consequently the literal meaning +of "cxi tiu" is "that one nearby", "that one here".) The word "cxi" may +either precede or follow the pronoun: + + Cxi tiu estas la mia, this is mine. + Mi vidis cxi tiun, I saw this one. + Cxu vi volas tiujn cxi? Do you wish these? + Cxi tiu knabino estas mia fratino, this girl is my sister. + Mi vidis cxi tiujn cxapelojn, I saw these hats. + Cxi tiuj amikoj promenos, these friends will take a walk. + +61. The words "tiu" and "cxi tiu" may be used to distinguish between +persons or things "previously" mentioned and "just" mentioned: + + Gertrude kaj Mario estas en la parko. + Tiu rigardas la florojn, cxi tiu kolektas ilin. + + Gertrude and Mary are in the park. + The former (that one) looks at the flowers, + the latter (this one) gathers them. + + + POSSESSIVE FORM OF THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN. + +62. To express possession, the demonstrative pronouns "tiu" and "cxi +tiu" have the special possessive or genitive forms "ties", that one's, +and "cxi ties", this one's. The use of "ties" and "cxi ties" to mean +"the former" and "the latter" is similar to the use of "tiu" and "cxi +tiu" shown in 61: + + + Mi iris al ties domo, I went to that one's house. + Cxi ties filoj estas junaj, + this person's (this one's) sons are young. + Mi sxatas ties koloron, sed preferas cxi tiun floron, + I like that one's color, but prefer this flower. + La patro kaj lia amiko parolas pri siaj domoj. + Ties estas nova, sed cxi ties sxajnas bela. + Father and his friend are talking about their houses. + The former's is new, but the latter's seems beautiful. + + + THE SUFFIX "-IL-". + +63. Names of instruments, tools or utensils may be formed by adding +the suffix "-il-" (followed by the ending "-o") to roots whose meaning +permits: + + flugilo, wing (from flugi, to fly). + kaptilo, snare, trap (from kapti, to catch). + kudrilo, needle (from kudri, to sew). + montrilo, indicator, (clock) hand (from montri, to point out, show). + tenilo, handle (from teni, to hold). + +[Footnote: The root of a word is that part of it which contains the +essential meaning, and to which the verb endings "-i", "-as", "-is", +"-os", the noun ending "-o", the adjective ending "-a", etc., are +attached, when no suffix intervenes. Thus, "vir-" is the root of "viro" +and of "virino"; "kur-" is the root of "kuri", etc.] + + + THE EXPRESSION OF MEANS OR INSTRUMENTALITY. + +64. The means or instrumentality through which an act is accomplished is +expressed by use of the preposition "per": + + Oni kudras per kudrilo, one sews by means of (with) a needle. + La birdoj flugas per flugiloj, the birds fly by (with) wings. + Li amuzas sin per tiuj bildoj, + he amuses himself with (by) those pictures. + Mi trovis gxin per via helpo, I found it by (through) your help. + + + VOCABULARY + + akra = sharp najbaro = neighbor. + busxo = mouth. per = by means of (64). + dekstra = right (not left). supo = soup. + cxi (see 60). telero = plate. + forko = fork. terpomo = potato. + helpo = help. ties = that one's (62). + kafo = coffee. trancxi = to cut. + kulero = spoon. tre = very, exceedingly. + mano = hand. viando = meat. + + + LA MANGXO. + +Hieraux mi miris cxu mi havos bonan mangxon en la domo de mia amiko. Sed +mi opiniis ke mi havos tre bonan mangxon, cxar mia amiko sxatas doni +bonajn mangxojn al siaj amikoj. Oni metis tre bonan supon antaux mi, +kaj mi mangxis tiun per granda kulero. Post la supo mi havis viandon. +Cxi tiun mi tenis per forko, kaj trancxis per akra trancxilo. La forko, +trancxilo kaj kulero estas mangxiloj. Mi havis ne nur viandon, sed +ankaux novajn terpomojn. Mi trancxis tiujn cxi per la trancxilo, sed +mi metis ilin en la busxon per forko. Mi tenis la forkon en la dekstra +mano, kaj metis la trancxilon trans mian teleron. Oni bezonas akran +trancxilon, sed oni ne bezonas tre akran forkon. Post la viando kaj la +terpomoj, oni donis al mi fresxajn maturajn cxerizojn. Ili kusxis sur +granda telero, kaj havis belan koloron. Ilia gusto estis ankaux bona. +Mi preskaux ne diris ke mi ankaux havis kafon. Mi parolos morgaux al +mia amiko pri lia kafo, kaj lauxdos gxin. Post la mangxo, najbaro de +mia amiko venis en cxi ties domon, kaj ili parolis al mi pri siaj novaj +domoj. Per la helpo de sia patro, mia amiko konstruos grandan domon. +Lia najbaro volas konstrui belan sed ne tre grandan domon. Ties nova +domo estos bela, sed mi opinias ke mi preferos cxi ties domon. Mia amiko +volis doni almenaux kafon al sia najbaro, sed li diris ke li ne volas +trinki kafon. Tamen li volis persikon. Li tenis tiun en la mano, kaj +mangxis tiun. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. The birds have very strong wings on their bodies, but they do not +have hands. 2. They will build their nests, and sing about the young +birds. 3. Those children were talking to me yesterday about their cat. +4. They said that it likes to catch and eat sparrows. 5. Tomorrow it +will hide (itself) behind a tree, and will catch a young sparrow. 6. The +children will gather peaches in that-person's garden, and will put them +upon a plate. 7. They will shake the whole tree by means of a branch. 8. +The sweet fruit above them will fall upon the soft green grass. 9. The +children wondered whether the cherries were ripe. 10. They seem almost +ripe, and tomorrow the children will pick (gather) them, with the help +of their father. 11. It is said (54) that the grain in that-man's field +very [much] needs rain. 12. People also think that the flowers will +wither, for (because) it did not rain yesterday or today. 13. My careful +young friend will carry an umbrella in his hand tomorrow, because he +fears the rain. 14. He sees those gray clouds in (on) the sky. 15. He +holds the umbrella by its handle. 16. The weathercock is an indicator +concerning the weather. 17. One eats meat with a fork, and soup with a +spoon. 18. One holds the spoon in the right hand. 19. A knife is sharp, +but one does not need a sharp fork. 20. We shall have a very good meal, +and also very good coffee. + + + + LESSON XV. + + + THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVE. + +65. The demonstrative adjective related to the demonstrative pronoun +"tiu" (56) is "tia", that kind of, that sort of, such: + + Tia floro estas bela, that kind of a flower is beautiful. + Mi sxatas tian viandon, I like that sort of meat. + Tiaj najbaroj estas agrablaj, + such (that kind of) neighbors are pleasant. + Mi volas auxdi tiajn birdojn, I wish to hear such birds. + + + ADVERBS DEFINED AND CLASSIFIED. + +66. An adverb is a word which modifies the meaning of a verb, adjective, +another adverb, or phrase. It may express manner, time, degree, +negation, etc. Adverbs are either primary, as "now," "almost," or +derived, as "glad-ly," "sweet-ly," The Esperanto primary adverbs given +in this and in preceding lessons may be classified as follows: + + (a) Temporal Adverbs (expressing time). + + baldaux = soon. morgaux = tomorrow. + hieraux = yesterday. nun = now. + hodiaux = today. tuj = immediately. + + (b) Adverbs of Degree. + + almenaux = at least. preskaux = almost. + nur = merely. tre = very, much. + + (c) Adverbs Expressing Other Ideas. + + addition: ankaux = also. emphasis: ecx = even. + interrogation: cxu, (30). affirmation: jes = yes. + proximity: cxi, (60). negation: ne = not, no, (27). + +a. An adverb usually precedes, but may also follow, the word or words +which it modifies. It must be so placed as to leave no doubt about which +of two words or word-groups it is intended to modify. Thus, "mi preskaux +volis havi tiun" clearly means "I almost wished to have that"; but "mi +volis preskaux havi tiun" might mean either "I almost wished to have +that," or more probably "I wished almost to have that." An example of +permissible variation in the position of adverbs is shown in questions +to which an affirmative answer is expected. Such questions may be put in +the form of a statement, followed by "cxu ne" (instead of having "cxu" +introduce the sentence, with "ne" in its normal position): + + Li venos, cxu ne? He will come, will he not? + La vetero estas bela, cxu ne? The weather is beautiful, is it not? + Vi auxdis tiun diron, cxu ne? You heard that remark, did you not? + + + FORMATION OF OPPOSITES. + +67. If the meaning of a word is such that it can have a direct opposite, +such opposite may be formed from it by use of the prefix "mal-": + + malalta = low, short (from "alta", high, tall). + malamiko = enemy (from "amiko", friend). + maldekstra = left (from "dekstra", right). + malhelpi = to hinder (from "helpi", to help). + maljuna = aged, old (from "juna", young). + malnova = old, not new (from "nova", new). + +[Footnote: Cf. English "malcontent", "discontented," "maladroit", +"clumsy."] + + + VOCABULARY + + dum = during. povi = to be able. + ecx = even. preni = to take. + gardi = to guard. propono = proposal. + helpi = to help, to aid. respondi = to answer. + honti = to be ashamed. ruza = sly, cunning. + kara = dear. sxteli = to steal. + kontenta = satisfied. tia = that kind of (65). + kuragxa = courageous. tuj = immediately. + nokto = night. vocxo = voice. + + + LA RUZA JUNA VIRO. + +Ruza juna viro kaj bona maljuna viro iris trans dezerton. Tiu havis +nigran cxevalon, cxi tiu havis blankan cxevalon. "Vi gardos niajn +cxevalojn dum la nokto, cxu ne?" diris la juna viro per dolcxa vocxo al +sia amiko, "Cxar dum la nokto oni ne povos vidi mian nigran cxevalon, +sed malamikoj povos tuj vidi vian blankan cxevalon. Oni povos sxteli +tian cxevalon, cxar vi estas maljuna kaj malforta, kaj ne povos malhelpi +malamikojn." Tia propono ne sxajnis agrabla al la maljuna viro. Li ne +estis kontenta, tamen li ne volis perdi sian cxevalon, cxar li estis +malricxa. Li diris al si ke li donos sian blankan cxevalon al la juna +viro, kaj prenos ties nigran cxevalon. Tuj li diris al cxi tiu "Sed per +via helpo mi ne perdos mian cxevalon: mi donos la mian al vi, kaj prenos +vian cxevalon. La via estas malbela, sed gxi estas almenaux nigra; vi +donos gxin al mi, cxu ne?" "Jes," respondis la ruza juna viro, kaj li +donis sian nigran cxevalon al tiu, kaj prenis la blankan cxevalon. +"Nun," diris la maljuna viro, "Vi estas kuragxa kaj forta, kaj vi gardos +la cxevalojn, cxu ne? Vi povos malhelpi malamikojn per tiu granda akra +trancxilo, kaj oni ne povos sxteli vian blankan cxevalon." La ruza juna +viro ne hontis. Li respondis "Mia kara amiko, mi nun dormos, cxar oni +ne sxtelos blankan cxevalon. Mi povos vidi tian cxevalon dum la nokto, +kaj malhelpi malamikojn. Sed tiu cxevalo via ("that horse of yours") +havas la koloron de la nokto, kaj ecx nun oni povas sxteli gxin." La +malkontenta maljuna viro diris per kolera vocxo "Cxu vi ne hontas pri +tia propono?" Tamen la ruza juna viro tuj komencis dormi, kaj la maljuna +viro gardis la cxevalojn dum la tuta nokto. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + (Words to be formed with the prefix "mal-" are quoted.) + +1. Does one eat potatoes and meat with a fork or a spoon? 2. One puts +soup into the mouth by means of a spoon. 3. One cuts fruit with a knife, +and puts the fruit upon a plate. 4. The coffee was "cold", and I was +much "dissatisfied". 5. My knife was "dull", nevertheless I almost +immediately cut my (the) "left" hand. 6. I was ashamed, but I think +that the handle of that knife was very "short". 7. The grass is "wet" +today, and I fear that we shall not be able to take a walk, even in that +"small" park. 8. I "dislike" to go-walking upon the "hard" streets. +9. The courageous young man and his "aged" friend talked about their +"enemies". 10. They wished to be careful about their horses. 11. The +young man was very sly, and wished to sleep during the night. 12. He +said that one can steal a black horse during the "dark" night. 13. He +said that either (aux) he or the "old" man would guard the horses. 14. +The "old" man answered that he would give to him his [own] white horse. +15. He took that one's black horse. 16. He was ashamed, and was very +angry at his "faithless" friend. 17. But he "stayed-awake", and guarded +the horses. + + + + LESSON XVI. + + + THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADVERB OF PLACE. + +68. The demonstrative adverbs of place related to the pronouns "tiu" and +"cxi tiu" are "tie", there, in (at) that place, and "cxi tie", here, in +(at) this place: + + La telero estas tie, the plate is there (in that place). + La libroj kusxas cxi tie, the books lie here (in this place). + Mi trovis vin tie kaj lin tie cxi, I found you there and him here. + Tie la vetero sxajnas tre agrabla, + there the weather seems very pleasant. + +69. If the verb in the sentence expresses motion toward the place +indicated by "tie" or "cxi tie", the ending "-n" is added to the adverb +(46), forming "tien", thither, there, and "cxi tien", hither, here: + + Li iros tien, he will go there (thither). + Mi venis cxi tien, I came here (hither). + Ni estis tie, kaj venis cxi tien, + we were there and came here (hither). + + + ACCOMPANIMENT. + +70. Accompaniment or association is expressed by the preposition "kun", +with, along with: + + La viro venis kun sia amiko, the man came with his friend. + Mi promenos kun vi, I shall go walking with you. + La knabo kun tiu viro estas lia frato, + the boy with that man is his brother. + +[Footnote: "Kun" must not be confused with "per" (64), which expresses +instrumentality, although per may often be translated by English "with." +The English preposition "with" may be said to have three rather clearly +defined different meanings. In the linguistic history of this word, +the original meaning was "against," still shown in "fight with, strive +with, contend with, withstand", etc. (Cf. German "widerstreiten", to +strive with, "widerhalten", to resist, etc.) Gradually this word "with" +usurped the meaning of the original preposition "mid," expressing +association or accompaniment (cf. German "mit", with, which it crowded +out of the language except in one unimportant compound). The word +"by" was also encroaching upon "mid" from another direction, and so +"mid's" successor "with" came to be interchangeable with "by" in +expressing instrumentality. Thus, English "with" indicates opposition, +accompaniment, or instrumentality, for which three senses Esperanto has +the three prepositions "kontraux", "kun", and "per", respectively.] + + + THE ADVERB "FOR". + +71. The adverb "for", away, may be used independently, as "Li iris +for de mi", he went away from me, but it is more frequently used as a +prefix to give a sense of departure, loss or somewhat forcible removal: + + foriri = to go away, to depart. + forkuri = to run away, to escape. + forlasi = to leave alone, to abandon, to desert. + formangxi = to eat away, to eat up. + forpreni = to take away, to remove. + fortrinki = to drink away, to drink up. + +[Footnote: Cf. the prefix "for-" in English "forfend," to keep away, +to avert, "forbid," to exclude from, to command against, "forbear," to +refrain from, etc.] + + + THE MEANING OF "POVI". + +72. The verb "povi", to be able, is used to translate English "can", +which is defective, that is, does not occur in all of the forms a verb +may have: + + Mi povas paroli, I am able to talk, I can talk. + Mi povis paroli, I was able to talk, I could talk. + Mi povos paroli, I shall be able to talk, ------. + Mi volas povi paroli, I wish to be able to talk, ------. + + + VOCABULARY + + el = out of, out. peli = to drive, to chase. + cxirkaux = around, roundabout. posxo = pocket. + for = away (71). rajdi = to ride. + frua = early. rapidi = to hasten. + glavo = sword. resti = to remain, to stay. + horo = hour. sagxa = wise. + kun = with (70). tie = there (68). + lasi = to leave. voki = to call. + + + MALAMIKOJ EN LA DEZERTO. + +Juna viro kaj lia sagxa patro volis iri trans la dezerton, kun siaj +amikoj. La amikoj estis fortaj, kaj la juna viro estis tre kuragxa. Ili +restis en malgranda urbo dum la nokto, kaj forrajdis kun tiuj amikoj. +La patro kaj la filo opiniis ke la amikoj kun ili povos helpi per siaj +akraj glavoj. Ili opiniis ke ili povos forpeli la malamikojn. Ecx en +la dezerto oni trovas malamikojn. Tiaj malamikoj forprenas la monon de +bonaj viroj. La juna viro estis kontenta, cxar li estis kun la amikoj. +La maljuna viro estis kontenta cxar li estis kun sia filo. Baldaux la +nokto venis. Estis tre malluma tie en la dezerto, kaj ili preskaux ne +povis vidi. Dum la fruaj horoj de la nokto la patro auxdis vocxojn, kaj +preskaux tuj li vidis la malamikojn. La ruzaj malbonaj viroj rapidis +tien, kaj vokis la maljunan viron. La malkuragxaj amikoj de la patro kaj +filo nek restis tie, nek helpis forpeli la malamikojn. Ili tuj forkuris. +La malamikoj staris cxirkaux la patro, kaj forpusxis lin de lia cxevalo. +La filo volis malhelpi ilin, sed li ne povis. Li povis nur resti kun la +patro, kaj gardi lin tie kontraux la glavoj de la malamikoj. Baldaux la +malamikoj komencis forpreni la monon el la posxoj de la sagxa maljuna +viro. La kolera filo diris per maldolcxa ("bitter") vocxo "Cxu vi ne +hontas? Cxu vi lasos al ni nek la cxevalojn nek nian monon?" Sed la +malamikoj respondis "Ne, ni lasos al vi nek la cxevalojn nek la monon. +Ni ne estas malsagxaj." Post tiu diro ili tuj forrapidis, kaj prenis kun +si la cxevalojn. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. The foolish friends of the young man and his aged father did not stay +with them. 2. They did not help them with their swords, but ran away at +once ("tuj"), and were not ashamed. 3. The old man heard disagreeable +voices behind him, and soon he saw the enemy. 4. The enemy called them, +and hastened there (69). 5. Those sly bad men took the money out of +the pockets of the courageous young man. 6. They stood around him, and +also around his father. 7. The father and son could not even guard +their horses. 8. The enemy did not leave (to) these their horses, but +took both the horses and the money. 9. Soon the enemy rode away, during +the late hours of the night. 10. The father and son were angry and +dissatisfied. 11. They said "We fear and dislike such men." 12. The +father said "By the help of our neighbors we can ("povos") find those +bad men, and drive them away, out of the desert." 13. The son replied, +"Dear Father, such a proposal seems good, and I will help with my long +sharp sword. 14. But we are now in the desert, and the road to the city +is long. 15. We cannot ride thither, but we can walk thither. 16. Can +you not hasten, with ("per") my help?" 17. The wise old man answered, +"Yes, my son, with such help I can walk thither." + + + + LESSON XVII. + + THE DEMONSTRATIVE TEMPORAL ADVERB. + +73. The demonstrative temporal adverb related to the demonstrative +pronoun "tiu" is "tiam", then, at that time: + + Tiam li rajdos al la urbo, then he will ride to the city. + Nun ili estas sagxaj, sed tiam ili estis malsagxaj, + now they are wise, but at that time they were foolish. + + + COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. + +74. An adjective may have three degrees, "positive", "comparative" and +"superlative." English has various ways of forming the comparative +and superlative degrees (as by the suffixes "-er, -est," the adverbs +"more, most," and irregular methods as in "good, better, best," etc.). +Esperanto has only one method, using the adverbs "pli", more, and +"plej", most: + + POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE. + --------------- ------------------------ -------------------------- + bela, beautiful pli bela, more beautiful plej bela, most beautiful + bona, good pli bona, better plej bona, best + malbona, bad pli malbona, worse plej malbona, worst + sagxa, wise pli sagxa, wiser plej sagxa, wisest + +75. The preposition "el" is used with words expressing the group or +class out of which a superlative is selected and mentioned: + + Li estas la plej juna el tiuj, he is the youngest of (out of) those. + Vi estas la plej felicxa el ni, you are the happiest of us. + Tiu estis la plej ruza el la viroj, + that one was the craftiest of the men. + + + MANNER AND CHARACTERISTIC. + +76. The actions or feelings which accompany an act or state, or the +characteristic which permanently accompanies a person or thing, may be +expressed by a substantive with the preposition "kun": + + Li prenis gxin kun la plej granda zorgo, + he took it with the greatest care. + Mi auxdis lin kun intereso kaj plezuro, + I heard him with interest and pleasure. + Sxi estas virino kun bona gusto, + she is a woman with (of) good taste. + Mi havas cxevalon kun forta korpo, + I have a horse with a strong body. + +[Footnote: Sometimes the manner of an action may be expressed by the +instrument of it, expressed by the preposition "per" with a substantive +modified by an adjective: "Li kantis per dolcxa vocxo", he sang with (by +means of) a sweet voice. "Vi pusxis min per forta mano", you pushed me +with a strong hand.] + + + "DIRI", "PAROLI" AND "RAKONTI". + +77. The verbs "diri", to say, "paroli", to talk, to speak, and +"rakonti", to relate, having in common the general idea of speech or +expression, must not be confused in use: + + Mi diris al vi ke pluvas, I said to (told) you that it was raining. + Mi diris gxin al vi, I said it to you (I told you). + Mi parolis al vi pri gxi, I talked (spoke) to you about it. + Mi rakontis gxin al vi, I related (told) it to you. + + + VOCABULARY + + ami = to love. pli = more (74). + ekster = outside (of). plumo = pen. + Frederiko = Frederick. rakonti = to relate (77). + gratuli = to congratulate. regxo = king. + intereso = interest. servisto = servant. + letero = letter. skribi = to write. + plej = most (74). tiam = then (73). + plezuro = pleasure. zorgo = care. + + + FREDERIKO GRANDA KAJ LA JUNA SERVISTO. + +Hieraux mi legis interesan libron pri Frederiko Granda ("the Great"). +En gxi oni rakontas ke la regxo kun plezuro legis aux skribis per sia +plumo, dum malfruaj horoj de la nokto. Agrabla juna knabo, la plej juna +el la servistoj, tiam restis ekster la pordo. Cxar la regxo legis plej +interesan novan libron, li ne opiniis ke la horo estas malfrua. Li vokis +sian malgrandan serviston, sed la knabo, nek venis nek respondis. La +regxo iris tien, kaj trovis la knabon ekster la pordo. Li vidis ke la +knabo dormas sur malalta segxo. Tiam Frederiko Granda ne estis kolera, +sed hontis cxar li vokis la infanon. La regxo Frederiko vidis leteron +en la posxo de la knabo. Tuj li prenis la leteron el lia posxo, kaj +rigardis gxin. Gxi estis letero al la servisto, de lia patrino. Sxi ne +estis ricxa virino, sxi sxajnis esti tre malricxa. En cxi tiu letero la +patrino diris per la plumo ke sxi amas la filon. Sxi dankis lin cxar +li skribis al sxi longan leteron. Sxi ankaux dankis lin cxar li donis +al sxi monon. La regxo volis esti tre bona al tia filo. Kun la plej +granda zorgo li metis monon el sia posxo kun la letero kaj tiam lasis la +leteron en ties posxo. Tiam li formarsxis al sia cxambro, kaj vokis la +malgrandan serviston. La knabo tuj auxdis, kaj rapidis tra la pordo. Li +kuris trans la cxambron, kaj staris antaux la regxo. "Cxu vi dormis?" +diris Frederiko Granda. "Jes, mi timas ke mi preskaux dormis," respondis +la knabo, "kaj mi tre hontas." Tiam li metis la manon en la posxon, +kaj trovis la monon. Li sxajnis pli malfelicxa kaj diris kun granda +timo "Malamiko metis cxi tiun monon en mian posxon! Oni opinios ke mi +sxtelis gxin! Oni malamos min, kaj forpelos min!" Frederiko respondis, +"Ne, mi donis gxin al vi, cxar mi amas bonajn knabojn. Mi gratulas vian +patrinon, cxar sxi havas tian filon." + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. An interesting story is related (54) about Frederick the Great. 2. +His youngest servant stayed outside of the door. 3. The king called him, +and he hastened thither and stood before him. 4. Yesterday he did not +hear the king. 5. The king called him, but he did not answer. 6. The +king thought that the boy had gone away with the older servants, and he +was angry. 7. He left his book on the table, and went to the door. 8. +Then he saw that the little boy was sleeping there. 9. He looked at him +with greater interest, and saw a letter in his pocket. 10. The letter +was from the boy's mother. 11. He had written a letter to her, with his +pen, and had given (to) her money, because she was poor. 12. He wrote +longer letters with pleasure, because he was a most faithful son. 13. +The king congratulated the mother of the boy, concerning such a son. 14. +(The) king Frederick wished to be kinder ("pli bona") to the boy. 15. He +placed his book upon the table, near his sword, and talked to the little +servant. 16. Then the older servants came, and stood around the king. +17. They walked with great care, and the younger servant did not hear +them. 18. They loved the little boy, and wished to help him. + + + + LESSON XVIII. + + + THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADVERB OF MOTIVE OR REASON. + +78. The demonstrative adverb of motive or reason, related to the +demonstrative pronoun "tiu", is "tial", therefore, for that reason, +so: + + Tial la servisto foriris, therefore the servant went away. + Tial mi gratulis lin, for that reason I congratulated him. + Tial oni forpelis lin, so they drove him away. + + + DERIVATION OF ADVERBS. + +79. Adverbs may be derived from roots whose meaning permits, by addition +of the adverb-ending "-e", as "felicxe", happily, "kolere", angrily. The +comparison of adverbs is similar to that of adjectives: + + POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE. + ------------- ---------------------- ----------------------- + sagxe, wisely pli sagxe, more wisely plej sagxe, most wisely + bone, well pli bone, better plej bone, best + malbone, badly pli malbone, worse plej malbone, worst + ruze, slyly pli ruze, more slyly plej ruze, most slyly + + + "MALPLI" AND "MALPLEJ". + +80. The opposites (67) of "pli" and "plej" are "malpli", less, and +"malplej", least. Their use is similar to that of "pli" and "plej". +(These adverbs may also modify verbs): + + Li estas malpli kuragxa, he is less courageous. + Tiuj estis malplej akraj, those were least sharp. + La vento blovis malpli forte, the wind blew less strongly. + Li skribis malplej zorge, he wrote least carefully. + Mi malpli timas ilin, I fear them less. + Vi malplej bezonos helpon, you will need help least. + + + COMPARISON OF WORDS EXPRESSING QUANTITY. + +81. Since in their precise sense the words "pli", "malpli", "plej", +"malplej", express degree, a quantitative meaning is given by "multe", +"much", in the desired degree of comparison: + + multe, much pli multe, more (in amount) plej multe, most + + malpli multe, less " malplej multe, least + + malmulte, little pli malmulte, less " plej malmulte, least + + + COMPARISONS CONTAINING "OL". + +82. In a comparison made by the use of "pli" or "malpli", the case used +after "ol", than, must indicate clearly the sense intended: + + Mi amas ilin pli multe ol sxin, I love them more than (I love) her. + Mi amas ilin pli multe ol sxi, + I love them more than she (loves them). + Vi helpis la viron malpli multe ol la knabo, + you helped the man less than the boy (helped him). + Vi helpis la viron malpli multe ol la knabon, + you helped the man less than (you helped) the boy. + + + CAUSAL CLAUSES. + +83. A clause giving a cause or reason is introduced by "cxar", because, +for, or by the combination "tial ke", for this reason that, because, +for: + + Mi venis frue, cxar mi volis vidi vin, + I came early, for I wished to see you. + La floroj velkis tial, ke ne pluvis, + the flowers wilted for this reason, that it did not rain. + + + VOCABULARY + + anstataux = instead of. multa = much (multaj, many). + aprilo = April. ofta = frequent (ofte, often). + auxgusto = August. ol = than (82). + jaro = year. printempo = spring (season). + junio = June. tago = day. + julio = July. sezono = season. + majo = May. somero = summer. + marto = March. tial = therefore (78). + monato = month. vintro = winter. + + + PRI LA SEZONOJ. + +La vintro estas la malplej agrabla sezono el la tuta jaro. Negxas tre +multe, kaj tial oni nur malofte promenas, cxar la stratoj estas tro +malsekaj. Oni marsxas kun granda zorgo, kaj malrapide ("slowly"), tial +ke oni ne volas fali kaj preskaux rompi la kolon. Oni zorge gardas sin +tiam kontraux la malvarmaj nordaj ventoj. La manojn oni metas en la +posxojn, sed la vizagxon oni ne povas bone gardi. Mi ne sxatas resti +ekster la domo dum tia vetero. Mi multe preferas sidi en varma luma +cxambro, kaj skribi leterojn per bona plumo. La monatoj de la printempo +estas marto, aprilo kaj majo. La bela printempo sxajnas pli agrabla ol +la vintro. Gxiaj tagoj estas pli longaj kaj pli varmaj, gxiaj ventoj +blovas malpli forte. En cxi tiu sezono la kampoj kaj arboj frue komencas +montri plej belajn kolorojn. La birdoj konstruas siajn nestojn, kaj +dolcxe kantas. Oni povas promeni sur la mola herbo, anstataux sur +malsekaj malagrablaj stratoj. Pluvas pli multe en aprilo, tamen post +la pluvo la herbo sxajnas pli verda, kaj la nuboj baldaux forflugas de +la blua cxielo. Dum majo oni trovas violojn, kaj en junio oni vidas +tre multajn rozojn. Sed la plej agrabla el la sezonoj estas la somero. +Anstataux malvarmaj ventoj la somero havas la plej belan veteron, kun +suda aux okcidenta ventoj. La longaj tagoj estas varmaj, sed la noktoj +estas tute agrablaj. Tiam oni havas pli bonajn fruktojn ol dum la +printempo. La monatoj de la somero estas junio, julio kaj auxgusto. Mi +plej sxatas junion. Cxu vi sxatas gxin pli multe ol mi? Cxu vi sxatas +auxguston pli multe ol julion? + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. I read a most interesting book about Frederick the Great. 2. It +relates that he often stayed-awake and read with great interest during +the later hours of the night. 3. His youngest servant was a small boy. +4. The king loved this boy more than [he loved] the older servants. 5. +The winter is a less pleasant season than the spring, but the summer is +more pleasant than that [season]. 6. During March the east winds blow +most strongly, and shake the trees very much. 7. In April one needs his +umbrella, for (the reason that) there are often clouds in the sky and +it rains a great deal (very much). 8. The streets are very wet, but the +water does not seem to wash them. 9. In May one begins to find sweet +violets, and the birds in the trees above our heads sing very sweetly. +10. In June the most beautiful roses are seen (54). 11. July and August +are the warmest months of the whole year. 12. The days are longer than +the nights, and the weathercock shows west and south winds, instead of +those disagreeable north and east winds. 13. One stays outside [of] the +house then with greater pleasure, and goes walking in the parks. 14. +I think that I like the summer better than you [do]. 15. Therefore I +praise the summer more than you [do]. 16. However, I praise you more +than [I praise] your younger brother. 17. He is less wise than you. + + + + LESSON XIX. + + + "JU" AND "DES" IN COMPARISONS. + +84. In clauses expressing a comparison between two objects, acts or +states, the adverbial use of English "the ... the ..." (meaning "by how +much ... by that much ...") is rendered by the adverbs "ju" and "des", +respectively: + + + Ju pli bona li estas, des pli felicxa li estos, + the better he is, the happier he will be. + Ju pli ofte mi rigardas, des pli mi volas rigardi, + the oftener I look, the more I wish to look. + Ju pli bele la luno brilas, des pli oni sxatas la nokton, + the more beautifully the moon shines, the more one likes the night. + Ju malpli pluvas, des pli la floroj velkas, + the less it rains, the more the flowers wither. + Ju malpli multe vi helpas, des malpli multe mi lauxdos vin, + the less you help, the less I shall praise you. + Cxar vi helpis, mi des pli multe lauxdos vin, + because you helped, I shall praise you the (that much) more. + +[Footnote: Cf. Shakespeare, As You Like It, V, II, 49, "By so much the +more shall I tomorrow be at the height of heart-heaviness, by how much I +shall think my brother happy in having what he wishes for."] + + + THE PREPOSITION "INTER". + +85. In English, the preposition "between" is used in reference to two +persons or things, and "among" in reference to three or more. As the +difference in meaning is not essential, Esperanto has but the one +preposition inter to express both "between" and "among": + + Li sidas inter vi kaj mi, he is sitting between you and me. + Li sidas inter siaj amikoj, he is sitting among his friends. + La monato majo estas inter aprilo kaj junio, + the month of May is between April and June. + Inter tiuj libroj estas tre interesa libro, + among those books there is a very interesting book. + + + THE PREPOSITION "PRO". + +86. Cause or reason may be expressed not only by an adverb (78) or a +clause (83), but also by use of the preposition "pro", because of, on +account of, for the sake of, for. It directs the thought away from the +complement toward the action, feeling or state caused by it, or done in +its interest or behalf: + + La floroj velkas pro la seka vetero, + the flowers wilt because of the dry weather. + Mi skribis la leteron pro vi, + I wrote the letter for you (for your sake). + Pro tiuj nuboj mi timas ke pluvos, + on account of those clouds I fear that it will rain. + Oni sxatas cxerizojn pro la dolcxa gusto, + people like cherries because of the sweet taste. + + + PREPOSITIONS WITH ADVERBS AND OTHER PREPOSITIONS. + +87. Prepositions may be used with adverbs or with prepositional phrases +when the meaning permits: + + La kato kuris el sub la tablo, the cat ran out-from under the table. + Li venos el tie, he will come out of there. + De nun li estos zorga, from now he will be careful. + Li staris dekstre de la vojo, he stood on the right of the road. + Mi iros for de cxi tie, I shall go away from here. + + + VOCABULARY + + auxtuno = autumn, fall. negxo = snow. + decembro = December. novembro = November. + des = (see 84). nuda = bare, naked. + februaro = February. oktobro = October. + glacio = ice. pro = because of (86). + inter = between, among (85). rikolti = to harvest. + januaro = January. rivero = river. + ju = (see 84). septembro = September. + kovri = to cover. tero = ground, earth. + + + LA AUXTUNO KAJ LA VINTRO. + +La sezonoj de la jaro estas la vintro, la printempo, la somero, kaj la +auxtuno. La auxtuno estas inter la somero kaj la vintro. Gxiaj monatoj +estas septembro, oktobro kaj novembro. En septembro oni povas kolekti +maturajn fruktojn. Tiam ankaux oni rikoltas la flavan grenon de la +kampoj. Dum cxi tiu monato kaj dum oktobro la folioj sur la brancxoj +komencas esti rugxaj kaj flavaj, anstataux verdaj. La herbo velkas, kaj +bruna tapisxo sxajnas kovri la teron. Baldaux la folioj falas al la +tero, kaj en novembro la arboj estas tute nudaj. Pli aux malpli frue +negxas. La glacio ofte kovras la akvon en la riveroj, kaj restas sur la +stratoj kaj la vojoj. La mola blanka negxo kovras la teron, kaj kusxas +sur la brancxoj de la arboj. Tiam, pro la fortaj ventoj, gxi falas de +la brancxoj al la tero. La birdoj frue lasas tian veteron, kaj flugas +de cxi tie al pli sudaj kampoj kaj arboj. Ili ne povas resti, pro la +malvarmaj tagoj kaj noktoj. Ili malsxatas la negxon kaj la glacion pli +multe ol ni. Ju pli multe negxas; des pli malofte ni volas promeni. Ni +preferas resti en la domo, anstataux ekster gxi. Ju pli ni rigardas la +nudajn brancxojn de la arboj, des pli malagrabla sxajnas la vintro. +Tamen la junaj infanoj tre sxatas tian veteron, kaj ju pli negxas, kaj +ju pli forte la norda vento blovas, des malpli ili estas kontentaj en +la domo. Ili volas kuri sur la negxo, cxirkaux la arboj kaj inter ili, +kun siaj junaj amikoj. Ili povas bone amuzi sin per la negxo. La monatoj +de la vintro estas decembro, januaro kaj februaro. Gxi estas la plej +malvarma sezono. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. September, October and November are the months of autumn. 2. In these +months, people harvest the yellow grain and gather various fruits. 3. +The leaves on the trees around us begin to have red and yellow colors. +4. They begin to fall from the branches and lie upon the ground. 5. The +more strongly the cold north wind blows through the branches, the sooner +the leaves fall from there. 6. They lie under the bare trees, with the +brown grass. 7. The sooner it snows, the sooner the ground will seem +to have a white carpet. 8. The snow will completely ("tute") cover the +grass during the months of the winter. 9. These months are December, +January and February. 10. From that time ("de tiam") the ice and snow +will cover the roads, and altogether ("tute") hide them. 11. There will +often be ice on the water of the river. 12. We like this season of the +year more than March, April and May. 13. We like it even more than the +summer. 14. The months of the latter (62) are June, July and August. 15. +The summer is the warmest season of the entire year. 16. Therefore we +often say that the summer is the pleasantest season. 17. Because of its +many pleasures, the summer is dear to me. 18. It is between the spring +and the autumn. + + + + LESSON XX. + + + THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADVERB OF MANNER AND DEGREE. + +88. The demonstrative adverb of manner and degree, related to the +demonstrative pronoun "tiu", is "tiel", in that (this) manner, in +such a way, thus, so. Like English "thus," "so," "tiel" may modify +adjectives and other adverbs, by indicating degree: + + Cxu oni tiel helpas amikon? + Does one help a friend in that (this) way? + Mi gxin skribis tiel, I wrote it thus (in such a way). + La vetero estas tiel bela, the weather is so beautiful. + Tiel mallonge li parolis, thus briefly he spoke. + Mi trovis tiel belan floron, I found such a beautiful flower. + Li prenis tiel multe, he took that much (so much). + + + PREPOSITIONS EXPRESSING TIME-RELATIONS. + +89. The relations which prepositions express may be of various kinds. +As in English, a certain number of prepositions primarily expressing +place may also express time-relations. Such prepositions are "antaux", +"cxirkaux", "de", "en", "gxis", "inter", "post", and "je" (whose use in +other than time-relations will be explained later): + + Mi foriros cxirkaux junio, I shall depart about June. + De tiu horo mi estis via amiko, from that hour I was your friend. + Li ne parolis al mi de tiu semajno, + he did not speak to me since from) that week. + En la tuta monato ne negxis, + it did not snow in (at any time within) the entire month. + Mi dormis gxis malfrua horo, I slept until (up to) a late hour. + Gxis nun li ne vidis vin, until now he did not see you. + Inter marto kaj junio mi iros tien, + between March and June I shall go there. + Je malfrua horo li foriris, at a late hour he went away. + Mi iros tien je dimancxo, I shall go there on Sunday. + Je tiu horo li vokis min, at that hour he called me. + Sxi ne restis tie post julio, she did not stay there after July. + Post ne longe mi vokos vin, + soon (after not long) I shall call you. + +90. When a definite date or point in time is expressed, "antaux" means +"before." When used with an expression of an "amount" of time, it is +to be translated by "ago" following the expression (not by "before" +preceding it): + + Antaux dimancxo mi foriros, before Sunday I shall go away. + Mi vidis lin antaux tiu horo, I saw him before that hour. + Li skribos gxin antaux la nova jaro, + he will write it before New Year. + Antaux multaj jaroj mi trovis gxin, many years ago I found it. + Mi rompis gxin antaux longa tempo, I broke it a long time ago. + Antaux tre longe vi legis tiun libron, + you read that book very long ago. + Li venis antaux ne longe, he came recently (not long ago). + Antaux malmultaj jaroj li forkuris, a few years ago he escaped. + +[Footnote: As already shown, "kun" expresses accompaniment, "per" +expresses instrumentality, "pro" expresses cause, "kontraux" expresses +opposition, "anstataux" expresses substitution, "sur", "apud", "sub", +etc., express place, "dum" expresses time, etc.] + + + VOCABULARY + + dimancxo = Sunday. mateno = morning. + energia = energetic. promeno = walk, promenade. + frosto = frost. rakonto = story, narrative. + je = at, on (89). ripozi = to rest, to repose. + kota = muddy. semajno = week. + labori = to work, to labor. tempo = time. + laca = tired, weary. tiel = thus, so (88) + lundo = Monday. tro = too, too much. + mardo = Tuesday. vespero = evening. + + + EN SEPTEMBRO. + +Antaux multaj jaroj ni preferis resti en nia malgranda domo trans la +rivero, dum la tuta auxtuno. Sed nun ni restas tie nur gxis oktobro. +De auxgusto gxis oktobro la vetero estas tre agrabla tie, sed baldaux +post tiu monato la fortaj ventoj blovas, kaj la folioj komencas fali. La +frosto kovras la teron, kaj baldaux negxas tre ofte. Ju pli nudaj estas +la arboj, des pli malbelaj ili sxajnas. La vetero antaux novembro ne +estas tro malvarma, sed post tiu monato ni opinias ke la urbo estas pli +agrabla ol domo inter kampoj kaj arboj, trans largxa rivero. La frosto, +negxo kaj glacio kovras la teron en decembro, januaro kaj februaro. Sed +la monato septembro sxajnas tre agrabla, pro siaj multaj plezuroj. La +viroj laboras energie en la kampoj, de la mateno gxis la vespero. Ili +rikoltas la flavan grenon, kaj kolektas la fruktojn. Sed je dimancxo oni +ne laboras tiel energie, sed dormas gxis malfrua horo, tial ke je tiu +tago oni ripozas. Je lundo oni komencas labori tre frue, kaj je mardo +oni ankaux laboras energie. En septembro la vojoj ne estas tro kotaj, +kaj longaj promenoj estas ofte agrablaj. Ju pli ofte mi promenas kun +miaj amikoj, des pli multe mi sxatas tiajn promenojn. Sed hieraux mi +estis tre laca post la promeno, tial mi ripozis sur granda mola segxo. +Antaux ne longe la patro promenis kun mi, sed ni ne estis tiel lacaj je +tiu tago. Sxajnas ke ju pli ofte ni promenas, des malpli lacaj ni estas +post la promenoj. Post ne longe mi estos pli forta. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Many years ago we had a small house across the river. 2. We did not +remain there during the entire year, but only in the warmer months of +the summer. 3. Often we stayed until September or even until October. 4. +My younger brothers and sisters amused themselves very well there from +(the) morning until (the) evening. 5. They amused themselves among the +flowers and trees, or went from there into the large fields. 6. Here the +men work energetically, and harvest the ripe yellow grain. 7. Only on +Sunday do they rest, because on that day one does not work. 8. Between +August and November the men work more than in the winter. 9. In December +and after that month they rest, for (83) from that time the frost, ice +and snow cover the ground. 10. Because of the snow on the ground, long +walks are not pleasant in the winter. 11. Recently (90) we went walking +in the park across the river, but we were so tired after that walk! 12. +The longer the walk is, the sooner one wishes to rest. 13. On Monday it +rained, so (78) we read stories and wrote letters, in a pleasant light +room in our house. 14. Before evening, however, the sun shone, and the +streets were not so muddy. 15. On Tuesday these streets were almost dry, +and soon the roads near the river and between the fields will also be +dry. 16. A few years ago those roads were very good. + + + + LESSON XXI. + + + THE ACCUSATIVE OF TIME. + +91. Duration of time and a date or point in time may be expressed +not only by use of the prepositions "dum", during, and "je", at, on, +but also (as in English) without the use of any preposition. When no +preposition is used, the word or words indicating time are put in the +accusative case: + + Li restis tie la tutan semajnon (dum la tuta semajno), + he stayed there the whole week (during the whole week). + Sxi estis felicxa longan tempon (dum longa tempo), + she was happy a long time (during a long time; for a long time). + Ni rajdos tagon kaj nokton (dum tago kaj nokto), + we shall ride a day and a night (during a day and a night; + for a day and a night). + Mi venis dimancxon (je dimancxo), I came Sunday (on Sunday). + Tiun horon (je tiu horo), li forkuris, + that hour (at that hour) he escaped. + +92. Although generally preferable, an accusative construction must +be carefully placed, or avoided altogether, if confusion with other +accusatives (expressing direction of motion, direct object, etc.) might +result: + + Mi volas iri Bostonon je lundo, I wish to go to Boston on Monday. + Mi volas iri al Bostono lundon, I wish to go to Boston Monday. + Lundon mi volas iri Bostonon, Monday I wish to go to Boston. + + + ADVERBS AND THE ACCUSATIVE OF TIME. + +93. An accusative of time, as well as a temporal adverb, may further +define or be defined by another expression of time: + + Li venis longan tempon antaux tiu horo, + he came a long time before that hour. + Jaron post jaro ili restis tie, + year after year they stayed there. + hodiaux matene, this morning. + hodiaux vespere, this evening. + hodiaux nokte, tonight. + hieraux vespere, last evening. + hieraux nokte, last night. + dimancxon matene, Sunday morning. + lundon vespere, Monday evening. + mardon nokte, Tuesday night. + +94. An accusative of time does not necessarily imply that the act or +state mentioned occurs oftener than the instance cited. An adverb from +the same root usually gives an idea of frequency or repetition: + + Li iros al ilia domo dimancxon, he will go to their house Sunday. + Li iras al ilia domo dimancxe, he goes to their house Sundays. + Li laboris tagon kaj nokton, he worked a day and a night. + Li laboras tage kaj nokte, + he works day and night (by day and by night). + + + THE PREPOSITION "POR". + +95. The object or purpose with reference to which an act is performed +or a condition exists is expressed by the preposition "por", for. It +directs the thought toward its complement, contrasting thus with "pro" +(86): + + Mi havas libron por vi, I have a book for you. + Mi ne havas la tempon por tiel longa promeno, + I have not the time for so long a (such a long) walk. + Ili faris gxin por via plezuro, they did it for your pleasure. + + + VOCABULARY + + brila = brilliant. merkredo = Wednesday. + Dio = God. mezo = middle. + dividi = to divide. mondo = world. + fari = to make. paci = to be at peace. + forgesi = to forget. por = for (95). + gxojo = joy. plori = to weep. + konstanta = constant. preta = ready. + kvieta = quiet, calm. ridi = to laugh. + lando = land, country. riprocxi = to reproach. + + + LA SEZONOJ KAJ LA MONDO. + +Antaux tre longa tempo Dio faris la mondon. Li vidis ke la floroj +havas belajn kolorojn, ke la arboj estas altaj kaj verdaj. Tiam li +vokis la sezonojn kaj diris "Belan mondon mi faris por vi. Cxu vi +gardos gxin tage kaj nokte, kaj estos tre zorgaj pri gxi?" La sezonoj +respondis "Jes," kaj ridis pro gxojo. Mallongan tempon ili sxajnis +esti tre felicxaj inter la arboj kaj floroj de la nova mondo. Sed ne +multajn semajnojn ili tiel zorge gardis la mondon. Ili komencis malpaci +("quarrel") inter si, de la mateno gxis la vespero, kaj ofte forgesis +la arbojn kaj florojn. Ju pli ili malpacis, des malpli zorge ili gardis +la mondon. La malkonstanta printempo ne sxatis la kvietan vintron, kaj +ploris pri la malvarma negxo. La varma brila somero diris ke la auxtuno +estas tro malbrila. La laca auxtuno volis ripozi, kaj riprocxis la +malkonstantan printempon pri cxi ties kota vetero. Pli kaj pli multe ili +malpacis, kaj post ne longe ili tute ne restis amikoj. Tiam la auxtuno +diris "Mi ne povas pli longan tempon labori kun vi pro la mondo. Niaj +gustoj estas tro diversaj. Tial hodiaux matene ni dividos la mondon +inter ni." La vintro respondis "Bone! Mi estas preta," kaj la somero kaj +la printempo ridis pro gxojo. Tiun tagon ili dividis la mondon inter si. +La vintro konstruis sian domon en la plej nordaj kaj sudaj landoj. Tie +la frosto, negxo kaj glacio kovras la tutan landon, dum la tuta jaro. La +brila energia somero prenis por si la mezon de la mondo. Tial la vetero +tie estas plej varma kaj brila. La auxtuno kaj la printempo prenis por +si la landojn inter la vintro kaj la somero. Tial la vetero estas nek +tro varma nek tro malvarma en cxi tiuj landoj. Tiam la sezonoj rakontis +al Dio ke ili tiel dividis la mondon inter si. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Tuesday my brother heard an interesting story, and Wednesday evening +after a pleasant walk he related it to me. 2. The story is, that many +years ago God made the beautiful new world, and gave it to the seasons. +3. They laughed for joy, and said that they would guard it well. 4. +They were ready for pleasure, and also were willing ("volis") to work +energetically for-the-sake-of the new young world. 5. Almost a year +they were happy, but these seasons were too diverse, and could not long +remain friends. 6. The brilliant summer wept and reproached the tired +autumn. 7. The autumn preferred to rest, and disliked the muddy weather +of the inconstant spring. 8. The quiet winter concealed itself beneath +the frost and soft white snow, and wished to sleep. 9. The longer they +kept the world among them, the more they quarreled. 10. Soon the autumn +made the proposition, "We will divide the world." 11. Immediately that +morning the seasons divided the world among themselves. 12. The northern +and southern lands now belong to the winter, and the middle of the world +belongs to the summer. 13. The spring and autumn took for themselves +those lands between the winter and summer. + + + + LESSON XXII. + + + CLAUSES EXPRESSING DURATION OF TIME. + +96. The time during which an act takes place or a condition exists may +be expressed not only by an adverb or accusative of time (91), or by use +of the preposition "dum", but also by a clause introduced by "dum": + + Li venis dum vi forestis, + he came while (during-the-time-that) you were away. + Dum la sezonoj malpacis, ili forgesis pri la mondo, + while the seasons quarreled, they forgot about the world. + Ni ridas pro gxojo dum negxas, + we laugh for joy while it is snowing. + + + CLAUSES EXPRESSING ANTICIPATION. + +97. A clause expressing an action or condition as preceding or +anticipating that of the main verb is introduced by "antaux ol": + + Mi foriros antaux ol vi venos, I shall depart before you (will) come. + Antaux ol vi riprocxis lin, li ne ploris, + before you reproached him, he did not weep. + Vi ploris antaux ol vi ridis, + you wept before (sooner than) you laughed. + + + THE INFINITIVE WITH "ANSTATAUX", "POR", "ANTAUX OL". + +98. An infinitive may be substantively used with "anstataux" to express +substitution, with "por" to express purpose (Cf. Old English "But what +went ye out for to see," Matt. xi, 8), and with "antaux ol" to express +anticipation. It is usually translated by the English infinitive in +"-ing": + + Anstataux resti li foriris, instead of staying he went away. + Vi malhelpas anstataux helpi min, you hinder instead of helping me. + Ni venis por helpi vin, we came to help (in order to help) you. + Mi estas preta por iri merkredon, + I am ready to go (for going) Wednesday. + Li havos tro multe por fari, he will have too much to do. + Mi laboros antaux ol ripozi, I shall work before resting. + Antaux ol foriri, li dankis min, before going away, he thanked me. + Dio faris la mondon antaux ol doni gxin al la sezonoj, + God made the world before giving it to the seasons. + +[Footnote: "Substantive" is the general name for nouns and pronouns, +that is, for words which indicate persons, things, etc., and may be used +as subject or object of a verb, complement of a preposition, etc.] + +[Footnote: The infinitive may be used with "antaux ol" if its subject +is the same as the subject of the main verb. Otherwise the construction +explained in (97) must be used.] + + + THE EXPRESSION OF A PART OF THE WHOLE. + +99. After nouns indicating a quantity or portion of some indefinite +whole, the substantive expressing that indefinite whole is preceded by +the preposition "da", of: + + Estas skatolo da cxerizoj tie, there is a box of cherries there. + Mi trovis grandan sakon da mono, I found a large bag of money. + Li havas teleron da viando, he has a plate of meat. + Post horoj da gxojo ofte venas horoj da malgxojo, + after hours of joy there often come hours of sorrow. + +100. The preposition "da" must not be used if a quantity or portion of a +"definite" or "limited" whole is expressed. If the word indicating the +whole is limited by "la", it is thereby made definite: + + Telero de la maturaj pomoj, a plate of the ripe apples. + Sako de la bona kafo, a sack of the good coffee. + + + VOCABULARY + + Aleksandro = Alexander. koni = to be acquainted with. + barelo = barrel. lauxta = loud. + bruo = noise. lito = bed. + da = of (99). logxi = to dwell, to reside. + demandi = to inquire, to ask. nombro = number (quantity). + Diogeno = Diogenes. pura = clean. + greka = Greek. suficxa = sufficient, enough. + kelkaj = several, some. veki = to wake. + kvankam = although. viziti = to visit. + cxifono = rag. vesto = garment, clothes. + + + DIOGENO KAJ ALEKSANDRO GRANDA. + +Antaux multaj jaroj sagxa greka viro, Diogeno, logxis en granda urbo. Li +opiniis ke ju pli malmulte oni bezonas, des pli felicxa oni estas. Por +montri al la mondo ke li ne bezonas multe, kaj ke tial li havas suficxe +por esti felicxa, li logxis en granda malnova barelo, anstataux havi +domon. Anstataux kusxi nokte sur lito aux almenaux sur mola tapisxo, li +ecx dormis en tiu barelo. Oni multe parolis pri Diogeno en la urbo, ne +nur cxar li tiel logxis, sed ankaux pro liaj sagxaj diroj. Post kelke +da tempo ("some time") la regxo Aleksandro Granda venis tien por viziti +la urbon. Dum li estis tie li auxdis pri Diogeno, kaj demandis pri li. +"Cxu li logxas en la urbo?" Aleksandro diris. "Kvankam vi ne konas lin, +mi opinias ke mi volas vidi tian viron." Oni respondis "Diogeno estas +sagxa viro, sed anstataux logxi en domo, li preferas sidi la tutan +tempon en malnova barelo. Anstataux porti ("wearing") purajn vestojn, li +portas nur malpurajn cxifonojn, cxar li opinias ke ju pli malmulte li +bezonas, des pli felicxa li estos." Aleksandro diris "Antaux ol foriri +de via lando mi vizitos tiun viron." Antaux ol li foriris de la urbo, +Aleksandro iris kun nombro da amikoj por viziti Diogenon, kaj trovis lin +en lia barelo. "Cxu tiu viro volas paroli al mi?" demandis Diogeno per +lauxta vocxo. Aleksandro Granda respondis "Mi estas la regxo Aleksandro, +kaj mi volas koni vin. Mi vidas ke kvankam vi estas sagxa vi estas tre +malricxa. Cxu vi ne volas kelkajn novajn vestojn anstataux tiuj malpuraj +cxifonoj?" Diogeno tuj diris "Antaux ol vi venis kaj staris inter mi kaj +la suno, cxi tiu tre varme brilis sur min. Cxu vi venis por fari bruon +kaj por veki min?" Aleksandro ridis kaj diris "Mi vidas ke vi havas +suficxe por esti felicxa. Tial mi estas preta por foriri." + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Diogenes was a wise man who dwelt in a Greek city, many years ago. 2. +In order to show to the inconstant world that one does not need much in +order to be happy, he did not have even a house or a bed. 3. He stayed +day and night in a big barrel, instead of residing in a house. 4. He +preferred to wear old rags, instead of good clean clothes. 5. He said +"The less one needs, the happier he will be." 6. While Alexander the +Great was visiting that city, people talked to him about Diogenes. 7. +They asked "Are you acquainted-with that wise man?" 8. Soon the king +went with a number of his friends to that-man's big barrel, in the +middle of the city. 9. Diogenes was asleep, but the noise of the loud +voices waked him, and he said angrily "You are standing between me and +the sun! Will you not go away at once?" 10. Although several of the men +laughed, Alexander said "We did not come to quarrel with you. 11. I see +that you have enough to be happy, so instead of talking and making a +noise we shall leave (go away from) you at once." 12. Before Diogenes +could answer, Alexander had quietly walked away. + + + + LESSON XXIII. + + + ADVERBS EXPRESSING A PART OF THE WHOLE. + +101. After adverbs used to indicate a quantity or portion of some +indefinite whole, as well as after nouns of such meaning (99), the +substantive expressing the indefinite whole is preceded by the +preposition "da": + + Multe da bruo, much (a quantity of) noise. + Tiel malmulte da tempo, so little (such a small quantity of) time. + Kelke da pomoj, some (an indefinite number of) apples. + +102. Verbs may be modified by an adverb and prepositional phrase +containing "da": + + Li trinkis malmulte da akvo, he drank little (not much) water. + Estas multe da sablo en la dezerto, there is much sand in the desert. + Ju pli negxas, des pli multe da negxo kusxas sur la vojoj, + the more it snows, the more snow lies on the roads. + +[Footnote: A prepositional phrase containing "da", whether following a +noun or an adverb, is sometimes called a "partitive" construction.] + +103. It is evident from the above examples that an adverb followed +by "da" has a somewhat collective sense, indicating a general sum, +mass, or portion of the whole, without distinction of particulars. +An "adjective" of quantitative meaning, on the other hand, usually +indicates consideration of the individuals composing the sum or mass +named: + + En urbo oni havas multe da bruo, in a city one has much noise. + Ni auxdis multajn bruojn, we heard many (different) noises. + Tie oni havas multe da plezuro, there one has much pleasure. + Oni havas multajn plezurojn tie, + people have many (different) pleasures there. + + + THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADVERB OF QUANTITY. + +104. The demonstrative adverb of quantity related to the demonstrative +pronoun "tiu" is "tiom", that (this) much, that many, that quantity, so +much, etc.:-- + + Mi donis tiom da mono al vi, + I gave that much (that amount of) money to you. + Mi acxetis tiom da viando, I bought that much meat. + Tiom de la libroj mi legis, that many of the books I read. + + RESULT CLAUSES. + +105. A clause of result (also called a consecutive clause) expresses an +action or condition as due to, or resulting from, something indicated +in the main sentence, as "he is so strong that he can do it," "I had so +much pleasure that I laughed heartily." In Esperanto a result clause is +introduced by "ke", preceded (directly or in the main sentence) by an +adverb or adjective of manner, degree, or quantity: + + Diogeno estis tiel sagxa greka viro ke Aleksandro lauxdis lin, + Diogenes was such a wise Greek man that Alexander praised him. + Mi havis tiom da plezuro ke mi tre ridis, + I had so much pleasure that I laughed very much. + Gxi estas tia vilagxo ke mi sxatas logxi tie, + it is such (that sort of) a village that I like to live there. + + + VOCABULARY + + acxeti = to buy. kontuzo = bruise. + asparago = asparagus. lakto = milk. + brasiko = cabbage. legomo = vegetable. + butiko = store, shop. ovo = egg. + frago = strawberry. pizo = pea. + funto = pound. sabato = Saturday. + glaso = glass, tumbler. tiom = that much (104). + jxauxdo = Thursday. vendredo = Friday. + kremo = cream. vilagxo = village. + + + EN LA BUTIKO. + +Hodiaux matene mi iris kun la patrino al la plej granda butiko en nia +vilagxo. Tie sxi acxetis tiom da legomoj kaj fruktoj ke ni tute ne povis +porti ilin. Tial juna knabo venis kun ni, kaj portis kelke da ili por +ni. La patrino ne acxetis tiel multe je vendredo, sed hodiaux estas +sabato, kaj sxi volis acxeti legomojn por dimancxo, cxar dimancxe oni +ne povas iri en la butikojn. Tial sabate oni kutime acxetas suficxe +por la mangxoj de sabato kaj dimancxo. Meze de la butiko staras multe +da bareloj. En cxi tiuj oni trovas grandan nombron da fresxaj puraj +legomoj. La patrino acxetis tiel multe da asparago kaj novaj pizoj, kaj +tiel grandan sakon da terpomoj, ke la tablo restis preskaux nuda. Mi +vidis brasikon tie, sed tiun legomon mi malsxatas, kvankam oni diras +ke gxi estas tre bona legomo. Antaux ol foriri de la butiko la patrino +acxetis kelke da ovoj, kaj rigardis la fruktojn en bareloj apud la +pordo. Ili sxajnis tiel bonaj ke sxi acxetis kelkajn maturajn pomojn +kaj skatolon da fragoj. Dum oni donis al sxi la fruktojn, mi acxetis +kelkajn funtojn da sukero. Tiam ni estis pretaj por foriri el la butiko. +Sur la vojo ni auxdis tiel grandan bruon ke mi lasis la patrinon kaj +kuris trans la straton. Mi trovis tie infanon,la filon de nia najbaro. +Li faris la bruon, cxar li falis de la arbo antaux sia domo, kaj tre +lauxte ploris. Li diris al mi ke li havas multajn kontuzojn sur la kapo. +Cxar mi bone konas la infanon, mi demandis "Cxu vi volas grandan rugxan +pomon? Mi havas tian pomon por vi." Li tuj kaptis la pomon, kaj mi +foriris. Tiam la patrino kaj mi iris al la domo. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. I shall go to the village today with my younger sister. 2. We wish +to buy some eggs, vegetables and fruit for Mother. 3. Mother prefers to +remain in the house, because it is raining. 4. It rained on Thursday and +Friday, but today it is not raining very much. 5. The air is warm and +pleasant, and we shall carry umbrellas with us. 6. We shall buy some +new peas, a box of strawberries and several pounds of sugar. 7. Thus +we shall have enough for the meals of Saturday and Sunday. 8. I wonder +whether we shall see such asparagus and such cabbage on the tables or in +the barrels. 9. Although I do not often eat such vegetables, Father and +Mother are very fond of ("multe sxatas") both cabbage and asparagus. 10. +We shall also buy enough milk for several glasses of milk, and we shall +need much cream for the strawberries. 11. It seems that we shall buy +such a number of vegetables that we cannot carry them. 12. While we were +standing near the door, ready to go toward the village (46), we heard a +loud voice. 13. A child was standing in the street, and crying. 14. He +wished to go with his mother to visit some friends. 15. I suppose that a +noise on the street waked him, and he did not wish to remain in his bed. + + + + LESSON XXIV. + + + THE INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN. + +106. The interrogative pronoun (and pronominal adjective) is "kiu", +who, which. Since the use of this pronoun indicates a question, the +sentence containing it does not need the interrogative adverb "cxu" +(30): + + + Kiu vokas vin? Who calls you? + Kiun vi vokas? Whom do you call? + Kiuj el vi vokis nin? Which (ones) of you called us? + Kiujn li helpis? Whom (which ones) did he help? + Kiun tagon vi venos? What day will you come? + Kiujn legomojn vi preferas? What vegetables do you prefer? + Mi miras kiun libron vi acxetis? I wonder which book you bought? + +107. The interrogative pronoun "kiu" has a possessive or genitive form +"kies", whose: + + En kies domo vi logxas? In whose house do you reside? + Kies amikojn vi vizitis? Whose friends did you visit? + + + THE PRESENT ACTIVE PARTICIPLE. + +108. A participle is a "verbal adjective", as in "a "crying" child." +It agrees like other adjectives with the word modified (19, 24). The +participle from a transitive verb (22) may take a direct object, and a +participle expressing motion may be followed by an accusative indicating +direction of motion (46). The present active participle, expressing what +the word modified "is doing", ends in "-anta," as "vidanta", seeing, +"iranta", going: + + La ploranta infano volas dormi. The crying child wishes to sleep. + Mi vidas la falantajn foliojn, I see the falling leaves. + Kiu estas la virino acxetanta ovojn? Who is the woman buying eggs? + Mi parolis al la viroj irantaj vilagxon. + I talked to the men (who were) going toward the village. + + + COMPOUND TENSES. + +109. A participle may be used predicatively with a form of "esti", as +"Mi estas demandanta", I am asking, "La viro estas acxetanta", the man +is buying. Such combinations are called "compound tenses", in contrast +to the "simple" or "aoristic" tenses. + +[Footnote: An aoristic tense consists of but one word (ending in +"-as", "-os", etc.) and expresses an act or state as a whole, without +specifying whether it is finished, still in progress, or yet begun.] + +Compound tenses occur less often in Esperanto than in English, and an +aoristic Esperanto tense may often be translated by an English compound +tense, as "La birdoj flugas", the birds are flying. When used to +form a compound tense, the verb "esti" is called the "auxiliary verb". +No other verb is ever used as an auxiliary (a simpler method than in +English, which uses "be", "have", "do", "will", "shall", "would", etc.). + + + THE PROGRESSIVE PRESENT TENSE. + +110. The compound tense formed by using the present active participle +with the present tense of "esti" is called the "progressive present +tense". It differs from the aoristic present by expressing an action +as definitely in progress, or a condition as continuously existing, at +the moment of speaking. The conjugation of "vidi" in this tense is as +follows: + + mi estas vidanta, I am seeing. + vi estas vidanta, you are seeing. + li (sxi, gxi) estas vidanta, he (she, it) is seeing. + ni estas vidantaj, we are seeing. + vi estas vidantaj, you (plural) are seeing. + ili estas vidantaj, they are seeing. + + + THE SUFFIX "-EJ-". + +111. Words expressing the place where the action indicated by the root +occurs, or where the object indicated by the root may be found, are +formed by inserting the suffix "-ej-" before the noun-ending: + + cxevalejo, stable (from "cxevalo", horse). + dormejo, dormitory (from "dormi", to sleep). + herbejo, meadow (from "herbo", grass). + logxejo, lodging-place, dwelling (from "logxi", to dwell, to lodge). + +[Footnote: Similar formations are made in English with the suffix "-y", +as "bakery", "bindery", "grocery", etc. This suffix is equivalent to the +"-ei" in German "Baeckerei", bakery, "Druckerei", printing-office, etc., +and to the "-ie" in French "patisserie", pastry-shop, "imprimerie", +printing-shop, etc.] + + + VOCABULARY + + alia = other, another. kuiri = to cook. + baki = to bake. kurteno = curtain. + dika = thick. kutimo = custom. + facila = easy. leciono = lesson. + familio = family. lerni = to learn. + kanapo = sofa. pano = bread. + kies = whose (107). persono = person. + kiu = who (106). salono = parlor. + + + EN NIA DOMO. + +Oni ofte miras kies domo en nia vilagxo estas plej bela, kaj kiu domo +estas la plej agrabla logxejo. Nia domo ne estas tre granda, sed gxi +estas nova kaj ni multe sxatas gxin. Gxia salono estas granda, kun belaj +puraj kurtenoj kovrantaj la fenestrojn, kaj mola dika tapisxo kovranta +la plankon. Cxi tie estas kelkaj segxoj, malgranda tablo, kaj longa +kanapo. Personoj vizitantaj nin kutime sidas en cxi tiu cxambro, kaj +dum ni estas sidantaj tie ni nur parolas, anstataux skribi aux legi. +Alia cxambro en la domo estas tre luma kaj agrabla, sed malpli granda. +Cxi tie staras tablo suficxe granda por nia tuta familio, kaj en tiu +cxambro oni mangxas. Ofte ni restas tie longan tempon post la mangxo, +cxar la patro rakontas interesajn rakontojn al ni, kaj ni multe ridas, +kaj demandas pri tiuj rakontoj, kaj tiel bone amuzas nin ke mi preskaux +forgesas pri miaj lecionoj. Tamen mi havas multe da lecionoj por lerni, +kaj ili tute ne estas facilaj. Je tre frua horo matene mi iras al la +lernejo, kun miaj fratoj kaj fratinoj. Nur sabate kaj dimancxe ni ne +iras tien. La lernejo estas malnova kaj malgranda, sed oni estas nun +konstruanta novan pli grandan lernejon apud nia domo. Dum la infanoj +estas lernantaj siajn lecionojn tie, la patrino kutime iras al la +bakejon, por acxeti suficxe da pano, por la mangxoj de la tago. Ofte +sxi iras ankaux al aliaj butikoj. Jxauxdon sxi acxetis kelke da novaj +pizoj, kaj da asparago. Vendredon sxi acxetis kelkajn funtojn da sukero, +skatolon da fragoj, kaj suficxe da kremo kaj lakto. Hodiaux sxi estas +acxetanta brasikon kaj sakon da terpomoj. Sxi volas kuiri tre bonan +mangxon, tamen sxi havas tro multe por fari en la kuirejo, cxar sxi ne +havas servistinon. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Who is the woman sitting on the sofa in the parlor? 2. I can not +easily see her, but I hear her voice. 3. I wonder whose voice that is. +4. However, I think that it is the voice of a friend of Mother's. 5. Now +I can see her, although she does not see me. 6. I am well acquainted +with her. 7. She is a friend of our whole family, and is visiting a +neighbor of ours ("najbaron nian") in this city. 8. My sister is sitting +on the sofa in another room, and learning her lessons. 9. Soon she +will go to school. 10. Whose book is she reading? 11. That thick book +is mine, but the other books on the table near her are hers. 12. She +prefers to sit in the sewing-room (111) to read or write (98), because +the curtains in front of the windows are not too thick, and so (78) +that room is very light and pleasant. 13. She also likes to look at the +falling snow, and the men and women walking on the muddy streets. 14. On +account of the cold weather, people are wearing thick clothes. 15. The +men and boys are keeping their hands in their pockets while they walk. +16. The girls walking toward the school are friends of my sister's. 17. +In that school they learn to cook. Soon they will be able to bake bread, +and even to cook a whole meal. 18. I think such a custom is very good. +19. Many persons can not cook well enough ("suficxe bone"). + + + + LESSON XXV. + + + THE INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVE. + +112. The interrogative adjective related to the interrogative pronoun +"kiu", is "kia", what kind of, what sort of: + + Kiajn vestojn li portis? What sort of clothes did he wear? + Kian panon vi preferas? What kind of bread do you prefer? + Mi miras kia persono li estas. I wonder what sort of a person he is. + Kia vetero estas? What sort of weather is it? + Kia plezuro! What a pleasure! + + + THE IMPERFECT TENSE. + +113. The compound tense formed by using the present active participle +with the past tense of "esti" represents an act or condition as in +progress in past time, but not perfected, and is called the "imperfect +tense". The conjugation of "vidi" in this tense is as follows: + + mi estis vidanta. I was seeing. + vi estis vidanta. you were seeing. + li (sxi, gxi) estis vidanta. he (she, it) was seeing. + ni estis vidantaj. we were seeing. + vi estis vidantaj. you were seeing. + ili estis vidantaj. they were seeing. + + + THE PROGRESSIVE FUTURE TENSE. + +114. The compound tense formed by using the present active participle +with the future tense of "esti" represents an act or condition as in +progress--or a condition as existing continuously--at a future time, and +is called the "progressive future" tense. The conjugation of "vidi" in +this tense is as follows: + + mi estos vidanta. I shall be seeing. + vi estos vidanta. you will be seeing. + li (sxi, gxi) estos vidanta. he (she, it) will be seeing. + ni estos vidantaj. we shall be seeing. + vi estos vidantaj. you will be seeing. + ili estos vidantaj. they will be seeing. + + + SALUTATIONS AND EXCLAMATIONS. + +exclamation may be regarded as the direct object of a verb which is not +expressed; these words are put in the accusative + + Bonan matenon! Good morning! (I wish you "good morning.") + Bonan nokton! Good night! (I wish you a "good night.") + Multajn salutojn al via patro! + (I send) many greetings to your father! + Dankon! Thanks! (I give to you "thanks.") + Cxielon! Heavens! (I invoke the "heavens.") + + + WORD FORMATION. + +116. The majority of roots have such a meaning that at least two kinds +of words, and often three or four, may be formed from them by use of +the general endings for verbs, nouns, adjectives and adverbs. (Each +root will hereafter be quoted but once in the vocabularies, with a +hyphen separating it from the ending with which it appears first in the +reading lesson, or with which it is most frequently used.) Following are +examples of word formation from roots already familiar: + +VERB. NOUN. ADJECTIVE. ADVERB. + +brili brilo brila brile + to shine shine, brilliance shining, brilliant brilliantly + +flori floro flora flore + to bloom flower, blossom floral florally + +gxoji gxojo gxoja gxoje + to rejoice joy, gladness joyful, glad gladly + +kontuzi kontuzo + to bruise bruise, contusion + + tuto tuta tute + whole entire, whole, all entirely + + + "KONI" AND "SCII". + +117. The verb "koni", which means "to know" in the sense of "to be +acquainted with" is used in speaking of persons, languages, places, etc. +"Koni" always has a direct object. It is never followed by "ke", "cxu", +"kiu", or any other interrogative word. "Scii" means "to know" in the +sense of "to be aware," "to have knowledge." It is not used in speaking +of persons. + +[Footnote: "Koni" is equivalent to German "kennen", French "connaitre", +Spanish "conocer", while "scii" is equivalent to German "wissen", French +"savoir", Spanish "saber".] + + Cxu vi konas tiun personon? Do you know that person? + Mi scias ke li estas nia najbaro. I know that he is our neighbor. + Mi bone konas Bostonon. I am well acquainted with Boston. + Mi ne scias cxu li konas ilin. I do not know whether he knows them. + + + VOCABULARY + + av-o = grandfather. kia = what kind of (112). + buked-o = bouquet. lingv-o = language. + ekzamen-o = examination. nep-o = grandson. + ferm-i = to close. nu! Well! + frap-i = to strike, to knock. paper-o = paper. + geometri-o = geometry. salut-i = to greet. + german-a = German. sci-i = to know (117). + hejm-o = home. stud-i = to study. + + + LA NEPO VIZITAS LA AVINON. + +Hieraux matene mi vizitis la avinon. Sxia hejmo estas apud la granda +nova bakejo. Mi vidis sxin tra la fenestro, cxar la kurtenoj kovrantaj +gxin estas tre maldikaj. Sxi estis sidanta sur la kanapo, kaj skribanta +per plumo sur granda papero. Antaux ol frapi sur la pordo mi vokis sxin +kaj diris "Bonan matenon, kara avino!" Tuj sxi demandis "Kiu estas tie? +Kies vocxon mi auxdas?" Mi respondis "Estas via nepo. Cxu vi ne konas +mian vocxon?" Antaux ol sxi povis veni al la pordo mi estis malfermanta +gxin. Mi iris en la salonon kaj donis al la avino bukedon da floroj. +"La patrino donas cxi tiujn al vi, kun siaj plej bonaj salutoj," mi +diris. La avino respondis "Nu, kia plezuro! Multan dankon al sxi pro la +bela bukedo, kaj ankaux al vi, cxar vi portis gxin cxi tien por mi!" +Dum sxi estis metanta la florojn en glason da akvo la avino diris "Nu, +kiajn lecionojn vi havis hodiaux en la lernejo?" Mi respondis ke mi +bone konis la lecionojn, cxar mi zorge studis ilin. "Ni estas lernantaj +la germanan lingvon," mi diris, "kaj ju pli longe ni studas gxin, des +pli multe mi gxin sxatas, kvankam gxi estas tre malfacila." Mi rakontis +ankaux pri la lecionoj de geometrio, kaj aliaj lecionoj, sed diris ke la +ekzamenoj estos baldaux komencantaj. "Je tiu tempo," mi diris, "mi estos +skribanta la respondojn al la ekzamenoj, preskaux la tutan semajnon." +La avino demandis kun intereso "Cxu la demandoj de la ekzamenoj estos +malfacilaj?" Mi respondis "Mi ne scias, sed mi timas ke ni estos tre +lacaj post tiom da laboro." Post kelke da aliaj demandoj kaj respondoj, +mi opiniis ke estas la horo por foriri. Dum mi estis foriranta, la avino +diris "Multajn salutojn al la tuta familio!" Mi dankis sxin, diris +"Bonan tagon!" kaj tiam foriris. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. What sort of noise do I hear outside the door? 2. Are some of my +friends knocking? 3. We were talking yesterday about the examinations in +our school, and these boys came home to study with me. 4. I shall go to +the door to open it and to greet my friends. 5. Good morning! Did you +come to study geometry, or the German language? 6. Which of these is +usually more difficult, and in which will the examination be the longer? +7. Well, we brought our German books, because we prefer to study these. +8. We wish to know this language thoroughly. 9. We shall go into the +writing-room (111), for (83) some friends of my grandmother are in the +parlor. 10. We can hear their voices here, and we can not study very +well while they are talking. 11. They were carrying many flowers, and +gave a beautiful bouquet to my grandmother. 12. She said "Many thanks +for (86) the sweet violets! In whose garden did they bloom?" 13. Her +friend's granddaughter is a friend of my youngest sister. 14. Well, +shall we begin to study? Have you enough paper, and have you a good pen? +15. I shall close this other door, because they are baking bread in the +kitchen, and cooking meat. 16. We shall be hearing the voices of so many +persons that I know that we can not study. + + + + LESSON XXVI. + + + THE INTERROGATIVE ADVERB OF PLACE. + +118. The interrogative adverb of place, related to the interrogative +pronoun "kiu" is "kie", where, in (at) what place. If the verb in the +sentence expresses motion toward the place indicated by "kie", the +ending "-n" is added, forming "kien", whither (where): + + Kie li estis kaj kien oni forpelis lin? + Where was he and whither did they drive him (away)? + Li miros kie lia nepo estas. He will wonder where his grandson is. + Mi ne scias kien li kuris. I do not know where (whither) he ran. + + + THE PAST ACTIVE PARTICIPLE. + +119. The past active participle, (for the characteristics of a +participle see 108) expressing what the word modified "did" or "has +done", ends in "-inta", as "vidinta", having seen, "irinta", gone, +having gone: + + La falintaj folioj estas brunaj. The fallen leaves are brown. + Kiu estas la viro salutinta nin? + Who is the man having greeted (who greeted) us? + Oni forgesas la foririntajn personojn. + One forgets the departed persons (the persons who have gone away). + + + ADVERB DERIVATION FROM PREPOSITIONS. + +120. Adverbs may be derived from prepositions whose sense permits, by +use of the adverb ending "-e": + + Antauxe li studis la geometrion, previously he studied geometry. + Poste li studis la germanan, afterwards he studied German. + Li marsxis antauxe, ne malantauxe, he walked in front, not behind. + Dume la viroj staris cxirkauxe, meanwhile the men stood roundabout. + Ili venis kune kaj sidis apude, they came together and sat near by. + + + ADVERBS EXPRESSING DIRECTION OF MOTION. + +121. An adverb expressing place or direction is given the ending "-n" +when used with a verb expressing motion toward that place or direction +(69, 118, etc.): + + Cxu li rajdis norden aux suden? Did he ride north or south(ward)? + Ni kuris antauxen, ne malantauxen, we ran forward, not back. + La bukedo falis eksteren kaj suben, + the bouquet fell out and underneath. + Li estis marsxanta hejmen, he was walking home (homeward). + +[Footnote: The adverb may precede the verb and be united with it by +simple juxtaposition, if the resulting word is not too long: "Li +hejmeniris", he went home (he "home-went"). "Ni antauxeniros", we +shall advance (go forward). "La bukedo subenfalis", the bouquet fell +underneath.] + + + THE SUFFIX "-EG-". + +122. The suffix "-eg-" may be added to a root to augment or intensify +its meaning, thus forming an "augmentative" of the root: + + barelego, hogshead (from "barelo", barrel). + bonega, excellent (from "bona", good). + malbonege, wickedly, wretchedly (from "malbone", badly, poorly). + domego, mansion (from "domo", house). + ploregi, to sob, to wail (from "plori", to weep). + treege, exceedingly (from "tre", very). + + + VOCABULARY + + aer-o = air. pez-a = heavy. + danc-i = to dance. polv-o = dust. + fulm-o = lightning. sekv-i = to follow. + gut-o = drop (of water, etc.). sercx-i = to hunt for, to search. + kie = where (118). silent-a = still, silent. + okaz-i = to happen, to occur. subit-a = sudden. + okul-o = eye. tegment-o = roof. + pec-o = piece. tondr-o = thunder. + + + LA PLUVEGO. + +Nu, kia pluvego okazis hieraux vespere! Post kvieta varmega mateno, +subite multaj nuboj kovris la cxielon. La aero sxajnis peza, kaj estis +tute silenta kelkan tempon. Tiam forte blovanta vento frapegis la +arbojn, kaj komencis fortege skui la brancxojn. Multege da polvo kaj +malgrandaj pecoj da papero dancis kaj flugis cxirkauxen en la aero, kaj +ankaux cxielen. Falis tiam kelkaj grandaj gutoj da pluvo, kaj ni sciis +ke la pluvego estas venanta. Ni malfermis niajn ombrelojn, kaj kuris +antauxen, por iri hejmen antaux ol falos multe da pluvo. La fulmo tiel +ofte brilis ke ni fermis la okulojn pro gxi, kaj treege gxin timis. +Preskaux tuj la tondro sekvis gxin. Tondris tiom kaj tiel lauxtege ke la +bruo sxajnis frapi kontraux niajn kapojn. Tiam komencis subite pluvegi, +sed je tiu tempo ni estis preskaux sub la tegmento de nia domo. Dume la +vento pli kaj pli blovegis, kaj ju pli forte gxi blovis, des pli peze +la gutoj da pluvo falis teren, kun multege da bruo. Mi opinias ke mi +malofte antauxe vidis tian pluvegon. La sekvintan tagon mi promenis tre +frue, kaj vidis ke la pordego al la gxardeno de mia avo estas kusxanta +sur la tero. Apude mi vidis ventoflagon falintan de la tegmento de tiu +granda cxevalejo. Velkintaj floroj kusxis sur la tero cxirkaux mi, kaj +inter ili estis brancxoj falintaj de la arboj, cxar la grandega forto +de la vento forrompis ecx cxi tiujn. Sur malgranda brancxo restis +nesto, sed kie estis la birdoj! Mi sercxis la junajn birdojn sed tute +ne povis trovi ilin, tial mi opinias ke ili forflugis antaux ol la +ventoj forrompis de la arbo ilian malgrandan hejmon. Mi ne scias kien +ili flugis, sed mi opinias ke ili flugis suden al la arboj en tiu granda +kampo trans la rivero. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. While we were walking home (121) from school yesterday, it rained +very suddenly. 2. What a storm it was! 3. We were talking about the +lessons in geometry, and were looking at these books about the German +language. 4. So we did not see the clouds in (on) the sky. 5. Well, we +forgot about examinations and began to wonder where to go. 6. We did +not know whether we had enough time to run even to Grandfather's house +before it would rain. 7. Many papers fell out of our books, and the +wind caught them. 8. The wind chased them away from us, and they seemed +to dance around in the air. 9. However, we easily caught and gathered +them, and then we ran forward. 10. Suddenly it thundered very loudly, +and we saw the brilliant lightning in the sky. 11. We almost closed our +eyes for the lightning. 12. Big drops of rain fell heavily and struck +the dust violently. 13. The air was heavy and still then, and the storm +immediately followed the few drops of rain. 14. We hastened across the +street, and ran faster and faster. 15. We were exhausted (122) and our +clothes were exceedingly wet before we were in the house. 16. The rain +was dropping from the roof, but we ran through it, and knocked on the +door. 17. We rested some time here, before going home. + + + + LESSON XXVII. + + + THE INTERROGATIVE TEMPORAL ADVERB + +123. The interrogative temporal adverb, related to the interrogative +pronoun "kiu", is "kiam", when, at what time? + + Kiam li sercxos min? When will he look for me? + Oni miras kiam li venos, they wonder when he is coming (will come). + Kiam falis tiuj gutoj da pluvo? When did those drops of rain fall? + + + THE PERFECT TENSE. + +124. The compound tense formed by using the past active participle +with the present tense of "esti" is called the "perfect tense". It +differs from the aoristic past tense (35) and from the imperfect (113) +by expressing an act or condition as definitely completed or perfected. +The conjugation of "vidi" in the perfect tense is as follows: + + mi estas vidinta, I have seen (I am having-seen). + vi estas vidinta, you have seen (you are having-seen). + li (sxi, gxi) estas vidinta, he (she, it) has seen (is having-seen). + ni estas vidintaj, we have seen (we are having-seen). + vi estas vidintaj, you have seen (you are having-seen). + ili estas vidintaj, they have seen (they are having-seen). + + + THE PREPOSITION "CXE". + +125. The general situation of a person, object or action is expressed by +the use of the preposition "cxe", at, at the house of, in the region or +land of, among, with, etc.: + + Li staris silente cxe la pordego, he stood silently at the gate. + Li logxas cxe mia avo, he lives (dwells) at my grandfather's. + Ili estas cxe la lernejo, they are at the school. + Li restos cxe amikoj, he will stay with (at the house of) friends. + Li vizitos cxe ni morgaux, he will visit at-our-house tomorrow. + + + THE SUFFIX "-AR-". + +126. Words expressing a collection, group or assemblage of similar +persons or things, as "forest" (collection of trees), "army" (assemblage +of soldiers), etc., may be formed by the use of the suffix "-ar-". This +suffix may itself be used as a root to form "aro", "group, flock", etc., +"are", in a group, by throngs, etc. Words formed with the suffix "-ar-" +are called collectives: + + arbaro, forest (from arbo, tree). + cxevalaro, herd of horses (from cxevalo, horse). + kamparo, country (from kampo, field). + libraro, collection of books, library (from libro, book). + amikaro, circle of friends (from amiko, friend). + + "TEMPO" AND "FOJO". + +127. The general word for "time" in the sense of duration, or +suitability (as "the proper time"), is "tempo". The word "fojo", +time, occasion, refers to the performance or occurrence of an +act or event, in repetition or series: + + Mi ne havas multe da tempo, I have not much time. + Li venis multajn fojojn, kaj la lastan fojon li restis longan tempon, + he came many times, and the last time he remained a long time. + Kelkajn fojojn lauxte tondris, several times it thundered loudly. + Multe da fojoj ni fermis la okulojn pro la fulmo, + many times we closed our eyes on account of the lightning. + + THE ORTHOGRAPHY OF PROPER NOUNS. + +128. Proper nouns, that is, nouns which are names of persons, cities, +countries, etc., are given Esperanto spelling if they are names of +continents, countries, large or very well-known cities, or if they +are first (Christian) names of persons, as "Azio", Asia, "Skotlando", +Scotland, "Bostono", Boston, "Johano", John, "Mario", Mary. Surnames +and names of places which are small or not well known are more often +quoted in the national spelling. The pronunciation may be indicated +in parentheses, as "Mt. Vernon" ("Mauxnt Vernon"), "Roberto Bruce" +("Brus"), "Martinique" ("Martinik'"), etc. + + + VOCABULARY + + arane-o = spider. ramp-i = to crawl. + Azi-o = Asia. rekt-a = direct, straight. + cxe = at (125). rimark-i = to notice. + fin-o = end, ending. send-i = to send. + foj-o = time, instance (127). Skotland-o = Scotland. + kiam = when (123). soldat-o = soldier. + pacienc-o = patience. sukces-i = to succeed. + pied-o = foot. supr-e = above. + plafon-o = ceiling. venk-i = to conquer. + + + ROBERTO BRUCE KAJ LA ARANEO. + +Oni rakontas la sekvantan interesan rakonton pri Roberto Bruce, regxo +antaux multaj jaroj en Skotlando. Okazis ke li estis rigardanta la +soldataron de siaj malamikoj, de la fenestro de granda cxevalejo. +Por povi rigardi plej facile, kaj ankaux por sin kasxi, li forsendis +siajn soldatojn kaj restis la tutan tagon sub tiu tegmento. Kvankam la +cxevalejo estis granda gxi estis malnova, kaj li opiniis ke la malamikoj +ne sercxos lin tie. Je la fino de la tago li subite rimarkis araneon +sur la muro apud si. La araneo estis rampanta supren, sed baldaux gxi +falis en la polvon cxe liaj piedoj. Tuj la falinta araneo komencis +alian fojon supren rampi. Alian fojon gxi falis teren, sed post ne +longe gxi komencis rampi alian fojon. "Kia pacienco!" diris la regxo al +si. "Mi ne sciis ke la araneo havas tiel multe da pacienco! Sed kien +gxi nun estas falinta?" Li rigardis cxirkauxen kaj fine ("finally") +li vidis la falintan araneon. Kun granda surprizo li rimarkis ke gxi +estas komencanta supren rampi. Multajn fojojn gxi supren rampis, kaj +tiom da fojoj gxi falis malsupren. Fine, tamen, gxi sukcese rampis +gxis la plafono. La regxo malfermis la busxon pro surprizo, kaj diris +al si "Kiam antauxe mi vidis tiom da pacienco! Mi opinias ke la fina +sukceso de tiu malgranda araneo donas al mi bonegan lecionon. Mi estas +ofte malsukcesinta, sed malpli ofte ol tiu araneo sur la muro. Mi estas +perdinta multe da soldatoj, kaj la malamikoj estas venkintaj multajn +fojojn, cxar ili havas multe pli grandan nombron da soldatoj. Tamen, mi +estos pacienca, cxar oni ne scias kiam li fine sukcesos." La sekvintan +tagon, la regxo Roberto Bruce komencis treege labori kontraux siaj +malamikoj. Post mallonga tempo li bone sukcesis, kaj tute venkis la +malamikoj en granda venko cxe Bannockburn (Banokb'rn). + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Although the enemies of Robert Bruce conquered him many times, he +finally conquered them in Scotland, because he was patient and very +courageous. 2. He was sitting in a large stable, to hide (himself), and +also in order to (98) look directly from its roof (at) the soldiery +(126) of the enemy. 3. At the end of the day he noticed a spider +crawling up (ward) on the wall. 4. The spider fell suddenly into the +dust and lay at the king's feet, but soon began to crawl up. 5. "Where +does it wish to go?" said the king to himself. 6. "What patience it +shows! It has crawled up and fallen down a great many times." 7. Finally +however the spider succeeded, and crawled up to the ceiling. 8. The +king said that he had learned a lesson from the patient spider. 9. He +said "Although the enemy have conquered many times, because they have a +larger number of soldiers, I shall finally succeed against them." 10. +Soon it happened that the wind blew violently, and a rainstorm occurred. +11. The blast shook the foliage (126) on the trees, and broke away many +small branches. 12. A group of soldiers ran right ("rekte") toward the +stable, and Robert Bruce was much afraid that they would find him. 13. +But they merely stole the horses there, and rode away. + + + + LESSON XXVIII. + + + THE INTERROGATIVE ADVERB OF MOTIVE OR REASON. + +129. The interrogative adverb of motive or reason related to the +interrogative pronoun "kiu" is "kial", why, wherefore, for what +reason: + + Kial la araneo supren rampis? why did the spider crawl up? + Mi demandos kial li rimarkis gxin, I will ask why he noticed it. + + + THE INFINITIVE AS SUBJECT. + +130. The infinitive may be used as the subject of a verb. + +[Footnote: Cf. the complementary infinitive (28), equivalent to the +object of a verb, and the use of the infinitive after the prepositions +"por", "anstataux", "antaux ol" (98).] + + +Any modifier of the infinitive is necessarily adverbial. An indefinite +personal object (or pronominal complement of a preposition) after an +infinitive used as subject is expressed by the reflexive pronoun "si": + + Promeni estas granda plezuro, to go walking is a great pleasure. + Promeni estas agrable, to go walking is pleasant. + Cxu estas facile rigardi la plafonon? + Is it easy to look at the ceiling? + Estas bone sin helpi, it is well to help oneself. + Paroli al si estas malsagxe, to talk to oneself is silly. + + + PRESENT ACTION WITH PAST INCEPTION. + +131. A present act or state which began in the past is expressed by the +present tense (instead of by the past as in English): + + Mi estas cxi tie de lundo, I have been (I am) here since Monday. + De Marto mi studas tiun lingvon, + since March I have been (I am) studying that language. + Ili estas amikoj de tiu tago, + they have been (they are) friends from that day. + Ni logxas tie de antaux kelkaj monatoj, + we have been living (we are living) here since some months ago. + +[Footnote: Cf. German "er ist schon lange hier", he has already been +here a long time, French "je suis ici depuis deux ans", I have been here +two years, etc.] + + + THE SUFFIX "-UL-". + +132. The suffix "-ul-" is used to form nouns indicating a person +characterized by or possessing the distinguishing trait, character or +quality in the root: + + junulo, a youth, a young man (from "juna", young). + belulino, a beauty, a belle (from "bela", beautiful). + maljunulo, an old man (from "maljuna", old). + sagxulo, a sage, a wise man (from "saga", wise). + malricxulino, a poor woman (from "malricxa", poor). + +[Footnote: Cf. the English adjectives "quer-ul-ous", "cred-ul-ous", +"garr-ul-ous", etc., and the Latin nouns "fam-ul-us", a servant, +"fig-ul-us", a potter, and "leg-ul-us", a gatherer.] + + + "LOGXI" AND "VIVI". + +133. The verb "logxi", "to reside, to dwell, to lodge", must not be +confused with "vivi", which means "to live" in the sense of "to be +alive": + + Li logxas apude, he lives near by. + Li vivis longan tempon, he lived a long time. + Vivi felicxe estas pli bone ol logxi ricxe, + to live happily is better than to live (lodge) richly. + + + VOCABULARY + + afabl-a = amiable, affable. kial = why (129). + afer-o = thing, matter, affair. mejl-o = mile. + balanc-i = to balance, to nod. okulhar-o = eyelash. + barb-o = beard. okulvitr-oj = spectacles. + batal-o = battle. pens-i = to think, to ponder. + brov-o = eyebrow. vang-o = cheek. + bukl-o = curl (of hair). verand-o = porch, veranda. + har-o = hair. viv-i = to live (133). + + + PRI LA AVO KAJ LA AVINO. + +Mia avo estas tre afabla persono. Li estas maljunulo kun blankaj haroj +kaj blanka barbo. Li havas bluajn okulojn, kaj la brovoj super ili estas +ecx pli blankaj ol liaj haroj. Kvankam li logxas en nia vilagxo de +antaux kelkaj jaroj, li antauxe logxis en Skotlando. Antaux multaj jaroj +li estis soldato, kaj li ofte parolas al mi pri la bataloj kaj venkoj +de tiu tempo. Sidi kviete sur la verando kaj rakonti tiajn rakontojn al +la nepo sxajne donas al li multe da plezuro. Multajn fojojn je la fino +de la tago li sidas tie, kaj parolas pri tiaj aferoj gxis malfrua horo +de la vespero. Sidi cxe liaj piedoj kaj auxdi liajn rakontojn estas +tre interese al mi. Komence, dum mi estas cxe li, mi kutime demandas +"Cxu oni sukcesis en tiu batalo?" Tuj li balancas la kapon kaj komencas +pacience rakonti pri la venkoj kaj malvenkoj ("defeats"). Li malofte +respondas "Mi ne scias," al miaj demandoj "Kiam," kaj "Kial." Kelkajn +fojojn li diras "Mi havas tiun opinion, sed mi ne bone scias pri la +tuta afero, kaj mi miras cxu aliaj personoj scias pli bone." Cxar li +estas multe studinta kaj pensinta, liaj opinioj estas treege interesaj. +Li gxojas tial ke mi demandas pri aferoj okazintaj ("things that have +happened"), cxar tiaj demandoj montras ke mi ankaux pensas pri ili. +Mia avino estas malgranda, kun belaj bukloj da tute blankaj haroj. Sxi +havas belajn brunajn okulojn, kun longaj nigraj okulharoj. Oni diras ke +antaux multaj jaroj sxi estis belulino. Ecx nun estas plezure rigardi +sxin, kaj vidi sxiajn rugxajn vangojn. De antaux kelkaj jaroj sxi portas +okulvitrojn por legi aux skribi aux kudri, kaj sxi bezonas ripozon post +malmulte da laboro. Promeno de ecx mejlo estas tro longa nun por la +avino. Oni diras ke sxi ne vivos tre longan tempon, kaj tia penso donas +malgxojon al ni, cxar ni treege amas la afablan paciencan avinon. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Our grandfather is an old man, and they say that he will not live +much longer. 2. He is not very strong, and can not take ("fari") long +walks. 3. The mile between his house and ours now seems long to him. 4. +He prefers to sit quietly in the house or on the veranda, and think, +nearly all day long (the whole day). 5. He is very amiable, and can tell +exceedingly interesting stories, about the victories and defeats which +happened (119) many years ago. 6. Such things are wicked I think, and I +am very glad that (83) such battles do not happen now. 7. Grandfather +has a long white beard and much white hair. 8. It is very interesting to +hear his stories, and also to look directly at him while he is telling +them. 9. He tells such stories with great pleasure. 10. Although he +has lived with (125) us since February (131), he does not know (117) a +great many of the neighbors, or of the other persons living (133) near. +11. Grandmother has blue eyes, red cheeks, and soft white curls. 12. +She speaks slowly, with a sweet voice, and is very patient. 13. Today +she said to me "Good morning, my dear (132), I have lost my spectacles. +Will you look-for them for me?" I nodded (the head) and soon found the +spectacles. + + + + LESSON XXIX. + + + THE INTERROGATIVE ADVERB OF MANNER AND DEGREE. + +134. The interrogative adverb of manner or degree, related to the +interrogative pronoun "kiu", is "kiel", how, in what way, to what +degree: + + Kiel oni vivas en tia aero? How do people live in such air? + Kiel afabla sxi estas! How amiable she is! + Mi miras kiel la batalo okazis, I wonder how the battle happened. + Kiel longe li pensis pri gxi? How long did he think about it? + + THE PLUPERFECT TENSE. + +135. The compound tense formed by combining the past active participle +with the past tense of "esti" represents an act or condition as having +been completed at some time in the past, and is called the "pluperfect +tense". The conjugation of "vidi" in this tense is as follows: + + mi estis vidinta, I had seen (I was having-seen). + vi estis vidinta, you had seen (you were having-seen). + li (sxi, gxi) estis vidinta, he (she, it) had seen (was having-seen). + ni estis vidintaj, we had seen (we were having-seen). + vi estis vidintaj, you had seen (you were having-seen). + ili estis vidintaj, they had seen (they were having-seen). + + + CARDINAL NUMERALS. + +136. Cardinals are numeral adjectives which answer the question "How +many?" The cardinals from one to twelve are as follows: + + unu = one. sep = seven. + du = two. ok = eight. + tri = three. naux = nine. + kvar = four. dek = ten. + kvin = five. dek unu = eleven. + ses = six. dek du = twelve. + +137. With the exception of "unu", none of the cardinals may receive the +plural ending "-j" or the accusative ending "-n". That is, they are +invariable in form. "Unuj" may be used to mean "some" in contrast to +"aliaj", others: + + Unuj marsxis, aliaj kuris, some walked, others ran. + Mi prenis unujn kaj lasis la aliajn, I took some and left the others. + +138. The preposition "el" is used after numeral adjectives expressing a +number "out of" some larger number or quantity: + + Ses el la knaboj venis, six of the boys came. + Ok el tiuj libroj estas la miaj, eight of those books are mine. + El tiuj cxapeloj mi sxatas nur unu, of those hats I like only one. + +[Footnote: The cardinal "unu" must not be used in the sense of the +English pronominal "one," as in "I am searching for a book, but not the +one on the table", which should be translated "Mi sercxas libron, sed ne +tiun sur la tablo."] + + + THE ACCUSATIVE OF MEASURE. + +139. A substantive in the accusative case may be used, instead of +a prepositional phrase or an adverb, not only to express measure +(duration) of time (91), but also to express measure of weight, price, +length, etc.: + + Li marsxis dek unu mejlojn, he walked eleven miles. + La parko estas largxa tri mejlojn, kaj longa kvar mejlojn, + the park is three miles wide and four miles long. + La tablo pezas dek du funtojn, + the table weighs (is heavy) twelve pounds. + + + NIA FAMILIO. + +Mi rakontos al vi kian familion ni havas. Ni estas ses personoj kaj ni +logxas en cxi tiu domo de antaux preskaux kvar jaroj. Antaux ol veni +cxi tien al la urbo, ni estis logxintaj tri jarojn en kvieta vilagxo +en la kamparo. Mia patro estas alta, kun grizaj haroj kaj griza barbo. +Kvankam li ne estas ricxulo, li tamen havas suficxe da mono por vivi +kontente kaj felicxe. Li sxatas marsxi, kaj ofte li estas marsxinta +kvin aux ses mejlojn por unu promeno. Unu fojon mi demandis "Kiel vi +povas marsxi tiel multe?" Li respondis "Dum mi estis junulo mi estis +soldato, kaj tiam mi estis tre multe marsxanta. Tial mi ne forgesas la +plezurojn de longaj promenoj." La patrino estas malpli alta ol mi, kaj +kiel bluajn okulojn sxi havas, sub nigraj okulharoj kaj nigraj brovoj! +Sxiaj haroj estas nigraj kaj buklaj, kaj sxiaj vangoj estas rugxaj. Sxi +havas dolcxan vocxon, kaj estas plezuro auxdi sxiajn kantojn. Por legi +aux skribi sxi kutime portas okulvitrojn. Mi havas du fratojn kaj unu +fratinon. La fratino havas dek unu jarojn. + +[Footnote: Like French and some other languages, Esperanto commonly uses +the verb "to have" rather than the verb "to be", in expressing age: Li +havas sep jarojn, he is seven years old (he has seven years). Mi havis +dek jarojn tiam, I was ten years old (I had ten years) then.] + +Unu el la fratoj havas ok jarojn, la alia havas dek du jarojn. Ili povas +bonege kuri, rajdi, kaj fari aliajn interesajn aferojn. Ili lernis +siajn lecionojn en la lernejo tiel bone ke ses fojojn en unu monato +oni lauxdis ilin. Ni multe gxojis pri tiom da lauxdo por la fratoj. La +fratino estas malpli forta, tamen sxi ofte promenas kun ni ecx du aux +tri mejlojn. La avino ankaux logxas cxe ni de antaux sep aux ok jaroj. +Unu el ni kutime restas cxe la hejmo kun sxi, dum la aliaj promenas, +cxar sxi ne estas suficxe forta por marsxi ecx unu mejlon. Mi ofte miras +kial sxi preferas sidi sur la verando, kaj mi demandas al sxi "Cxu vi +estas tro laca por marsxi?" Sxi kutime balancas la kapon kaj diras "Jes, +mia nepo, mi estas tro laca." + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Three and four make seven. 2. Two and six make eight. Five and six +make eleven. 3. Seven and five make twelve. 4. I have been studying +geometry since five months ago, and German since January. 5. I have read +three German books, but I shall not be able to talk in this language +until after August. 6. To learn how to speak such a language is a +difficult matter. 7. Nine of the children in our school are now studying +German with me. 8. Some learn it easily, others do not like it. 9. Three +of the boys and two of the girls in that school are German. 10. They +had resided four years in a large city, but I think (that) they live +more contentedly in our quiet village. 11. They can not talk with us +very well, but merely nod their heads when we talk to them. 12. I had +not seen them before they came to school, although they are neighbors +of ours. 13. They are amiable children, with blue eyes, red cheeks, and +yellow hair. 14. They can ride very well, and often ride eight or ten +miles in one day. 15. They usually ride in a park three miles wide and +four miles long, where there is but little ("nur malmulte da") dust. + + + + LESSON XXX. + + + THE INTERROGATIVE ADVERB OF QUANTITY. + +140. The interrogative adverb of quantity related to the interrogative +pronoun "kiu" is "kiom", how much, how many: + + Kiom da tempo vi ripozis? How much time did you rest? + Kiom da sukero kaj kiom da fragoj vi acxetis? + How much sugar and how many strawberries did you buy? + Ni miras kiom da mono li havos, + we wonder how much money he will have. + Kiom de la leciono vi lernis? How much of the lesson did you learn? + + + MODIFIERS OF IMPERSONALLY USED VERBS. + +141. Any modifier of an impersonal verb (50) or of a verb used +impersonally, that is, with an infinitive or clause for its subject, +or without any definitely expressed or personal subject (as in "it is +cold," "it seems too early"), must necessarily be adverbial: + + Estas varme en la domo, it is warm in the house. + Estos malvarme morgaux, it will be cold tomorrow. + Estas bone ke li venis, it is well that he came. + Estas amuze ke ni forgesis lin, it is amusing that we forgot him. + Ke vi venis estis tre sagxe, that you came was very wise. + Estos pli agrable en la salono, it will be pleasanter in the parlor. + + + FORMATION OF CARDINAL NUMERALS. + +142. The cardinal numerals for the tens, hundreds and thousands are +formed by prefixing "du", "tri", "kvar", etc., to "dek", ten, "cent", +hundred, and "mil", thousand, respectively. + + Tens. + --------------------------------------------- + dudek, twenty. sesdek, sixty. + tridek, thirty. sepdek, seventy. + kvardek, forty. okdek, eighty. + kvindek, fifty. nauxdek, ninety. + + Hundreds. Thousands. + ---------------------------- ------------------------- + ducent, two hundred. trimil, three thousand. + kvincent, five hundred. kvarmil, four thousand. + sepcent, seven hundred, etc. sesmil, six thousand, etc. + +143. The cardinals between ten and twenty, twenty and thirty, etc., are +formed by placing "unu, du, tri", etc., after "dek, dudek, tridek", etc. +(Cf. "dek unu", eleven, "dek du", twelve, 136): + + dek kvar = fourteen. tridek kvin = thirty-five. + dek naux = nineteen. sepdek ok = seventy-eight. + dudek tri = twenty-three. nauxdek ses = ninety-six, etc. + +144. Cardinals containing more than two figures begin with the largest +number and descend regularly, as in English: + + cent tridek kvin, one hundred and thirty-five. + kvarcent nauxdek sep, four hundred and ninety-seven. + sescent du, six hundred and two. + mil okdek, one thousand and eighty. + mil naucent dek du, + one thousand nine hundred and twelve + (nineteen hundred and twelve). + + + THE SUFFIX "-AN-". + +145. The suffix "-an-" is used to form words indicating an inhabitant or +resident of the place denoted by the root, or a member or adherent of +the party, organization, etc., denoted by the root. The suffix "-an-" +may itself be used as a root, forming "ano", member, etc. + + bostonano = Bostonian. domano = inmate of a house. + kamparano = countryman, peasant. vilagxano = villager. + +[Footnote: Cf. English "urb-an", "suburb-an", "Rom-an", "republic-an", +"Mohammed-an", etc.] + + + VOCABULARY + + aritmetik-o = arithmetic. memor-i = to remember. + cent = hundred (142). mil = thousand (142). + erar-o = error, mistake. minut-o = minute. + grad-o = grade, degree. ricev-i = to receive. + kalkul-i = to calculate, to reckon. sekund-o = second. + kiom = how much (140). superjar-o = leap-year. + + + LECIONO PRI ARITMETIKO. + +Estas malvarme hodiaux, kaj tute ne agrable ekster la domo. La urbanoj +ne estas promenantaj en la parko, cxar ili preferas resti en la domoj. +Mi ankaux restis en la domo, kaj parolis al mia juna frato. Mi helpis +lin pri la leciono en aritmetiko, tial ke li baldaux havos ekzamenojn, +kaj li volas esti preta por skribi tre bonajn respondojn. Mi demandis +al li "Kiom faras dek tri kaj dek kvar?" Li respondis ke tiuj faras +dudek sep. Tiam mi demandis kiom faras dudek unu kaj tridek kvar. Li +kalkulis kvin aux ses sekundojn, per mallauxta vocxo, kaj diris "Ili +faras kvindek kvin." Mi demandis kiom faras ducent tri kaj sepcent +ok, kaj li respondis ke ili faras nauxcent dek unu. Li tute ne faris +erarojn al mi, kaj fine mi diris al li ke li povas bonege kalkuli. Mi +opinias ke li ricevos bonan gradon en la ekzamenoj. Post kelkaj minutoj +ni komencis paroli pri aliaj aferoj. Mi demandis "Kiom da tagoj en la +monato septembro?" La frato respondis "Septembro, novembro, aprilo kaj +junio havas tridek tagojn. Kvankam tiuj monatoj havas tiom da tagoj, la +aliaj monatoj havas tridek unu tagojn. Sed la monato februaro havas nur +dudek ok tagojn." Estas interese lerni pri cxi tiu monato februaro. Dum +tri jaroj gxi havas dudek ok tagojn, sed en la sekvanta jaro gxi havas +dudek naux tagojn. La jaro havanta tian februaron estas la "superjaro." +Mi rakontis tiun interesan aferon al la frato, kaj li diris ke li bone +memoros gxin. Li diris ke li ne antauxe sciis pri la superjaro. Li +ne sciis ke la superjaro havas tricent sesdek ses tagojn, kvankam la +aliaj jaroj havas nur tricent sesdek kvin tagojn. Li diris ke li ankaux +memoros pri la nombro da tagoj en la superjaro, kaj ke li rakontos la +aferon al la aliaj knaboj. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. (To be written out in full): 14, 18, 42, 86, 79, 236, 431, 687, 788, +1240, 1885, 9872, 4500, 1912. 2. There are twelve months in a year, and +in most of the months of the year there are thirty-one days. 3. There +are only thirty days in the months April, June, September and November. +4. There are seven days in a week, and twenty-four hours in a day. 5. +Twelve of these hours make the day, and the others make the night. 6. +There are sixty minutes in one hour, and sixty seconds in one minute. +7. There are four weeks and also two or three days in one month. 8. +In the year there are fifty-two weeks. 9. How many weeks are there in +ten years? 10. At least one year in ten years is a leap-year. 11. In a +leap-year there are three hundred and sixty-six days, instead of three +hundred and sixty-five. 12. Wise men calculated about this matter, many +years ago. 13. It is well for us that they liked to study arithmetic. +15. I have often received good grades in this study. 16. I remember it +easily, and seldom make mistakes. + + + + LESSON XXXI. + + + THE RELATIVE PRONOUN. + +146. A connecting pronoun referring to something which precedes (or +follows) is called a "relative pronoun". The person or thing to which +it refers is called its "antecedent." The relative pronoun, identical +in form with the interrogative pronoun (106), as in English, is "kiu", +which, who. + +[Footnote: Sometimes English uses "that" for a relative pronoun, as +"I saw the book that you have." This must always be translated by +"kiu". Likewise, English sometimes omits the relative pronoun, as "I +saw the book you have." The relative pronoun is never thus omitted in +Esperanto.] + +The relative pronoun agrees in number with its antecedent. Whether it +is in the accusative case or not depends upon its relation to its own +verb or to other words in its own clause (called the relative clause): + + La junuloj, kiuj venis, estas afablaj, + the youths who came are amiable. + La personoj, kiujn li vidos, estas amikoj miaj, + the persons (whom) he will see are friends of mine. + Mi kalkulis la gradon, kiun li ricevos, + I calculated the grade (which) he will receive. + Mi memoras tiun aferon, pri kiu vi parolas, + I remember that matter about which you speak. + +147. Like English "whose" the genitive form "kies" of the interrogative +pronoun (107) is also used as a relative, referring to a substantive +(singular or plural) for its antecedent: + + Li estas la viro, kies libron vi trovis, + he is the man whose book you found. + Mi konas la infanojn, kies patro estas amiko via, + I know the children whose father is a friend of yours. + + + THE FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. + +148. The compound tense formed by combining the past participle with the +future tense of the auxiliary verb "esti" represents an act or condition +as having been already completed or perfected at a future time, and is +called the "future perfect tense." The conjugation of "vidi" in this +tense is as follows: + + + mi estos vidinta, I shall have seen (I shall be having-seen). + vi estos vidinta, you will have seen (you will be having-seen). + li (sxi, gxi) estos vidinta, + he (she, it) will have seen (will be having-seen). + ni estos vidintaj, we shall have seen (shall be having-seen). + vi estos vidintaj, you will have seen (will be having-seen). + ili estos vidintaj, they will have seen (will be having-seen). + + + ORDINAL NUMERALS. + +149. Ordinal numerals are adjectives which answer the question "Which +in order?" as "first", "third", etc. They are formed by adding the +adjectival suffix "-a" to the cardinals. The various parts of an ordinal +must be connected by hyphens, since it is to the entire cardinal, and +not any part of it, that the adjective ending "-a" is attached: + + unua = first. kvardek-sesa = forty-sixth. + dua = second. cent-okdek-kvina : + tria = third. hundred and eighty-fifth. + oka = eighth. mil-okcent-kvara : + dek-unua = eleventh. one thousand eight hundred and + dek-nauxa = nineteenth. fourth. + dudek-sepa = twenty-seventh. sesmil-sepa : + six thousand and seventh. + +[Footnote: Ordinal numerals may be abbreviated thus: "la", "1st", "2a", +"2nd", "3a", "3rd", "5a", "5th", "1912a", "1912th", "233a", "233rd", +etc. If the ordinal number is used in an accusative construction, the +abbreviation is given the accusative ending, as "lan", "2an", "3an", +"1912an", etc.] + + + VOCABULARY + + angl-a = English. neces-a = necessary. + dezir-i = to desire. paf-i = to shoot. + dolar-o = dollar. pafark-o = bow (for shooting). + gajn-i = to win, to gain. part-o = part, share. + kost-i = to cost. pen-i = to strive, to try. + last-a = last. traduk-i = to translate. + latin-a = Latin. sag-o = arrow. + mar-o = sea. sam-a = same. + + + ALFREDO GRANDA KAJ LA LIBRO. + +Antaux pli multe ol mil jaroj vivis Alfredo Granda, unu el la plej +interesaj personoj pri kiuj ni estas auxdintaj. Li estis la unua angla +regxo, kiu deziris legi librojn. Li estis ankaux la lasta, kiu povis +legi ilin, gxis post multaj jaroj. Unu tagon, dum li estis malgranda +knabo kun flavaj buklaj haroj, lia patrino, tre sagxa regxino, montris +al li kaj al liaj fratoj belegan libron. Sxi diris ke la libro kostis +multe da mono en lando trans la maro, kaj ke gxi nun apartenas al +sxi. Si diris "Miaj filoj, mi donos cxi tiun libron al tiu el vi, kiu +lernos legi gxin. Kiu el vi estos la unua, kiu povos legi? Tiu ricevos +la libron." Nu, Alfredo komencis studi, kaj post ne longe li gajnis +la belegan libron. Liaj fratoj ecx ne penis gajni gxin. Tiam oni tre +malmulte pensis pri libroj. La regxoj kaj iliaj filoj nur malofte povis +legi, kaj treege malofte povis skribi. Oni lauxdis nur personojn, +kiuj bone rajdis kaj batalis per sagoj kaj pafarkoj. Sed oni opiniis +ke tute ne estis necese scii pri la aferoj, kiujn la libroj rakontas. +Tial Alfredo ne ricevis lauxdon pro sia deziro por legi. La sesan +aux sepan jaron post sia ricevo de la libro, Alfredo volis lerni la +latinan lingvon, cxar tiam oni skribis latine ("in Latin") la librojn, +kiuj estis plej bonaj. Oni sercxis gxis la finoj de la lando, kaj iris +multajn mejlojn, sed preskaux ne povis trovi personon, kiu ecx estis +auxdinta pri tia lingvo. Fine oni trovis personon por helpi Alfredon, +kiu tiam lernis la latinan lingvon. Tiu sama Alfredo estis regxo multajn +jarojn, kaj estis unu el la plej bonaj regxoj, kiujn la angla lando +estas havinta. Alfredo skribis librojn en la latina lingvo, kaj ankaux +tradukis latinajn librojn en la anglan lingvon. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. (To be written out in full): 37th, 59th, 73rd, 92nd, 846th, 119th, +1274th, 1910th, 14235th. 2. Before my friend will have finished that +mansion (122), it will have cost twenty thousand dollars. 3. Before +coming to visit you, I shall have ridden twelve miles on my horse. 4. +The grade which you will have received in arithmetic soon after the +first of March will be excellent. 5. You do not make mistakes very often +in the lessons. 6. I shall try after a few minutes to translate that +Latin book, for ("cxar") it seems interesting. 7. It is necessary to +study Latin, for I desire to read the stories which are in my Latin +book. 8. The one thousand nine hundred and fourth year was a leap-year. +9. The fourth year after that year was also a leap-year. 10. The 1912th +year will be a leap-year. There are three hundred and sixty-six days in +such a year. 12. Alfred won the book which his mother had bought. 13. +Such a book now costs four or five hundred dollars. 14. Alfred the Great +was the last king until many years afterward (until after many years) +who could read or write. 15. He was the first king in that land who even +wished to be able to read books. 16. We often talk about this same King +Alfred, and say that he was the father of the English language. 17. +People say so ("diras tiel") because he translated Latin books into the +language of his land, and because he also wrote books in that language. + + + + LESSON XXXII. + + + "KIA" AS A RELATIVE ADJECTIVE. + +150. The interrogative adjective "kia" (112) is also used as a relative +adjective, referring back to "tia," or to some equivalent phrase or word +indicating quality, such as "sama", etc. In this use it may often be +translated "as", or "which": + + Mi havas tian libron, kian mi volas, + I have such a (that kind of) book as (which kind) I wish. + Tiaj amikoj, kiajn vi havas, estas afablaj, + such friends as (of which kind) you have are amiable. + Li deziras tian cxapelon, kia kostas ses dolarojn, + he desires that kind of hat which (kind) costs six dollars. + Mi havas la saman deziron, kian vi, + I have the same desire as you (same kind which you have). + + + "KIE" AS A RELATIVE ADVERB. + +151. The interrogative adverb "kie", "kien" (118) is also used as a +relative adverb of place with "tie", "tien", or some other expression of +place for its antecedent. + +[Footnote: Any interrogative adverb may also be used to introduce an +indirect question, thus serving as a subordinating conjunction (cf. +"cxu").] + +"Kien" is used when the verb in the relative clause expresses motion +toward the place indicated, whether or not its antecedent has this +ending. Similarly, "kie" may refer to "tie" or to "tien": + + Mi iros tien, kie vi estas, + I shall go there where you are. + Mi estis tie, kien vi iros, + I was there (at that place) where you will go. + Mi iros tien, kien vi iris, + I shall go to that place to which you went + (I shall go where you went). + Mi trovis lin en la urbo, kie li logxas, + I found him in the city where he lives. + Cxu vi venos cxi tien, kie ni estas? + Are you coming here where we are? + + + THE FUTURE ACTIVE PARTICIPLE. + +152. The future active participle, expressing what the word modified +will do or is about to do, ends in "-onta," as "vidonta", about to +see, "ironta", about to go: + + + La forironta viro vokis sian serviston, + the man going to depart (the about-to-depart man) + called his servant. + La virino salutonta vin estas tre afabla, + the woman about to greet you is very affable. + La venonta monato estas marto, + the coming month is March. + La venontan semajnon mi foriros, + the coming (next) week I shall depart. + + + THE PERIPHRASTIC FUTURE TENSES. + +153. The compound tenses formed by combining the future active +participle with each of the three aoristic tenses of "esti" represent +an act or state as about to occur in the present, past, or future, +respectively, and are called "periphrastic future tenses." Except when +great accuracy is desired, these tenses are not often used. A synopsis +of "vidi" in the first person singular and plural of these tenses is as +follows: + + Present Periphrastic Future. + + mi estas vidonta, ni estas vidontaj, + I am about to (going we are about to (going + to) see. to) see. + + Past Periphrastic Future. + + mi estis vidonta, ni estis vidontaj, + I was about to (going we were about to (going + to) see. to) see. + + Future Periphrastic Future. + + mi estos vidonta, ni estos vidontaj, + I shall be about to (going we shall be about to (going + to) see. to) see. + + + THE SUFFIX "-IND-". + +154. The suffix "-ind-" is used to form words expressing "worthy of, +deserving of," that which is indicated in the root. It may also be used +as a root, to form "inda", worthy, "malinda", unworthy, "indo", worth, +merit, etc.: + + dezirinda = desirable. rimarkinda = noteworthy, remarkable. + lauxdinda = praiseworthy. ridinde = ridiculously, laughably. + mallauxdinda = blameworthy. tradukinda = worth translating. + + + VOCABULARY + + ankoraux = still, yet. flar-i = to smell. + atak-i = to attack. gast-o = guest. + bat-i = to beat. ho! = Oh! + cert-a = sure, certain. kri-i = to exclaim, to cry. + defend-i = to defend. kruel-a = cruel. + difekt-i = to spoil. kuk-o = cake. + edz-o = husband. lign-o = wood. + fajr-o = fire. suspekt-i = to suspect. + +[Footnote: The adverb "ankoraux" expresses the ideas "until and during +the present time", "in the future as now and before", "in constant or +uniform succession", "in an increasing or additional degree", given +sometimes by English "yet", sometimes by "still": Mi estas ankoraux +sidanta cxi tie, "I am still sitting here." Li ankoraux ne venis, "still +he has not come (he has not come yet)." Li ankoraux restos tie, "he +will still stay there." Ankoraux ili venas, "still they come." Li estos +ankoraux pli ruza, "he will be still (yet) more crafty."] + + + ALFREDO GRANDA KAJ LA KUKOJ. + +Unu fojon antaux pli multe ol mil jaroj, soldatoj venis de trans la maro +por ataki la anglan regxon Alfredon Grandan. Ili nek konis nek malamis +lin, sed ili sciis ke li estas persono kies landon ili deziras gajni. +Cxi tiuj malamikoj estis venintaj tiel subite ke Alfredo ne estis preta +por defendi sian landon kontraux ili. Tial li forkuris kelkajn mejlojn +de la urbo, kaj sin kasxis en granda arbaro malantaux vilagxo. Anstataux +porti regxajn vestojn li acxetis tiajn cxifonojn kiajn kamparanoj kaj +malricxuloj portas. Li logxis cxe malricxa sed lauxdinda kamparano, +kiu ne konis la regxon, kaj tute ne suspektis kia persono lia gasto +estas. Unu memorindan tagon Alfredo estis sidanta apud la fajro, kaj +estis rigardanta siajn sagojn kaj pafarkon dum li pensis malgxoje pri +sia lando. La edzino de la arbarano demandis "Cxu vi ankoraux sidos tie +dekkvin aux dudek minutojn?" "Jes," respondis la regxo. Sxi diris "Nu, +estos necese fari pli varmegan fajron por tiaj kukoj kiajn mi nun estas +bakonta. Cxu vi gardos tiujn kukojn kiuj nun estas super la fajro, dum +mi kolektos pli multe da ligno?" Alfredo respondis "Certe mi gardos ilin +kontraux la fajro." La virino sercxonta lignon foriris en alian parton +de la arbaro, kie estis multe da ligno, kaj la regxo penis zorgi pri la +kukoj. Sed baldaux li forgesis ilin, kaj la fajro ilin difektis. Kiam la +virino venis kaj flaris la kukojn sxi kriis "ho, vi riprocxinda viro! +Kvankam vi ankoraux sidas tie, vi ne pensas pri la kukoj, kaj la fajro +estas difektinta ilin!" Sxi estis kruele batonta la regxon, kiam li +diris al sxi kiu li estas, kaj kial li forgesis la kukojn. Tiam sxi tre +hontis, kaj anstataux mallauxdi lin sxi volis esti ankoraux pli bona al +li. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Alfred the Great was a praiseworthy king who lived more than a +thousand years ago. 2. People still talk about him because he not only +translated many Latin books into the English language, but also wrote in +English. 3. He wished to help the peasants still more. 4. But enemies +often attacked him, and finally they conquered his soldiers. 5. Then +they hastened to where (151) Alfred was. 6. They were about to attack +him, when he rode away secretly ("kasxe") into a large forest. 7. There +he dwelt some time in the house of a poor forester. 8. He wore such +rags as a peasant usually wears, and did not tell the forester who he +was. 9. One day he was sitting near the fire and wondering, "Will the +enemy have conquered my soldiers next week?" 10. The forester's wife +said, "Will you sit there yet a while and take-care of those cakes? I am +about to gather more wood." 11. He replied, "Certainly, I will try to +help you." 12. But when after a few minutes the woman smelled the cakes, +she knew that the fire had spoiled them. 13. She exclaimed "Oh, what a +blame-worthy man!" 14. She commenced to beat the king cruelly, but he +did not defend himself. 15. Instead (120), he told her who he was. + + + + LESSON XXXIII. + + + "KIAM" AS A RELATIVE ADVERB. + +155. The interrogative temporal adverb "kiam" (123) is also used as a +relative temporal adverb, with "tiam" or an equivalent word or phrase +for its antecedent. (It may not be omitted as in English "at the time he +came"): + + Mi suspektis lin je la tempo kiam li venis, + I suspected him at the time when he came (the time that he came). + Li defendis sin tiam, kiam oni atakis lin, + he defended himself then, when he was attacked. + Mi ankoraux sidos tie gxis kiam vi venos, + I shall still sit there until when you come (until you come). + Post kiam li tiel lauxte kriis, li komencis plori, + after he shouted so loudly, he began to cry. + + + "KIEL" AS A RELATIVE ADVERB. + +156. The interrogative adverb "kiel" (134) is also used as a relative +adverb of manner and degree, with "tiel", or "same", or an equivalent +adverb or phrase for its antecedent. It may often be translated "as": + + Mi defendis min tiel, kiel li defendis sin, + I defended myself in that way in which (way) he defended himself. + Vi ne estas tiel kruela kiel li, + you are not so cruel as he (is). + Ili batis lin same kiel vi, + they beat him in the same way as you (did). + Ili batis lin same kiel vin, + they beat him the same as (they did) you. + Kiel mi diris al li, mi estas felicxa, + as I told him, I am happy (antecedent not expressed). + Li parolis tiel mallauxte kiel antauxe, + he spoke as softly as before. + Sxi estas tiel bona kiel sxi estas bela, + she is as good as she is fair. + + + NUMERAL NOUNS AND ADVERBS. + +157. Nouns may be formed from the cardinals by addition of the ending +"-o." After such nouns the preposition "da" or "de" is used: + + dekduo = a dozen. milo = a thousand. + dudeko = a score. unuo = a unit. + deko = a ten, half a score. kvaro = a four, a quartette. + cento = a hundred. trio = a three, a trio. + +[Footnote: The prepositions "da" and "de" follow nouns (99, 100) or +adverbs (101), while "el" follows adjectives in the superlative degree +(75), cardinal numerals (138), and the pronouns tiu, kiu (106), etc.: +"dekduo da ovoj", a dozen (of) eggs. "dekduo de la ovoj", a dozen of the +eggs. "dek du el tiuj ovoj", twelve of those eggs. "kiu el la ovoj?" +which one of the eggs? "tiu el la ovoj", that one of the eggs. "la plej +fresxa el la ovoj", the freshest of the eggs.] + +158. Adverbs may be formed from the cardinals by addition of the ending +"-e": + + unue = firstly, at first. deke = tenthly. + due = secondly, in the second place. sesdeke = sixtiethly. + kvine = fifthly, in the fifth place. okdek-kvare = eighty-fourthly. + + + WORD DERIVATION FROM PREPOSITIONS. + +159. Adjectives, verbs and nouns, as well as adverbs (120), may be +derived from prepositions by addition of the formative endings (116), +with sometimes a special suffix also: + + + anstatauxi = to replace, to take the place of. + anstatauxulo = a substitute. + antauxa = previous, preceding. + apuda = near, contiguous, adjacent. + cxirkauxi = to surround, to encircle. + cxirkauxo = a circuit, a circumference. + kontrauxa = adverse, opposite, contrary. + kontrauxulo = adversary, opponent. + kunulo = comrade, companion. + superi = to surpass, to exceed, to be above. + superege = surpassingly, exceedingly. + + + VOCABULARY + + adiaux = farewell, goodbye. kuz-o = cousin. + akcept-i = to accept, to receive. malgraux = notwithstanding. + elekt-i = to choose, to select. par-o = pair. + fest-i = to celebrate, to entertain. pend-i = to hang. + gant-o = glove. prez-o = price. + gxentil-a = courteous. renkont-i = to meet. + invit-i = to invite. sxu-o = shoe. + jxus = just, at the moment. uz-i = to use. + +[Footnote: The adverb "jxus" indicates the elapsing of the least +possible time since the act or condition indicated, or between the two +acts or conditions indicated. "Ni jxus venis", we just came (we came but +a moment ago). "Mi havas la saman opinion kian vi jxus diris", I have +the same opinion as you just gave (said). "Mi vidis lin jxus kiam li +estis forironta", I saw him just when he was about to depart. "Jxus kiam +vi venis li foriris", just as you came he went away.] + + + LA INVITO. + +Hieraux matene mia kuzo vizitis cxe ni, kaj invitis min al malgranda +festo kiu okazos morgaux vespere. Tiam li festos la lastan tagon de +la jaro. Li diris ke la gastoj sidos cxirkaux la fajrejo kaj rakontos +rakontojn gxis malfrua horo. Mi akceptis lian gxentilan inviton, kaj +diris ke mi certe venos. Mia kuzo logxas en la sama urbo kie nia familio +logxas, sed en alia parto. Lia hejmo estas preskaux du mejlojn de la +nia. Tamen, ni estas bonaj kunuloj, kaj ofte promenas kune. Jxus kiam li +estis elironta el la pordo hieraux, mi uzis la okazon ("opportunity") +por proponi mallongan promenon. Li respondis ke li gxoje promenos kun +mi, malgraux la negxa vetero. Tial ni formarsxis tien, kie la stratoj +estis malplej kotaj. La kuzo havas dek ok jarojn, sed mi estas preskaux +tiel alta kiel li. Mi estas certa ke mi estas ankaux tiel forta kiel li. +Ni parolis pri multaj interesaj aferoj, kaj bonege nin amuzis, gxis kiam +estis necese hejmen iri. La kuzo diris "adiaux," kaj iris rekte hejmen, +sed mi iris al granda butiko. Unue, mi volis acxeti paron da novaj +gantoj, por anstatauxi la malnovajn gantojn kiujn mi ankoraux estis +portanta, kvankam mi acxetis ilin antaux tri monatoj. Due, mi bezonis +paron da novaj sxuoj. Mi iris en la butikon kie pendis tiaj gantoj, +kiajn mi sxatas, kaj oni tuj venis por renkonti min, kaj demandis "Kiajn +vestojn vi volas acxeti?" Oni montris al mi preskaux dudekon da paroj +da gantoj. Mi elektis tre bonan paron, kaj estis jxus acxetonta ilin, +malgraux la tro granda prezo, kiam mi vidis alian pli belan paron. +Tial mi acxetis cxi tiun, kaj poste mi rigardis la sxuojn. Mi trovis +rimarkinde bonan paron, cxar estas centoj da sxuoj en tiu butiko. Mi tuj +acxetis tiun paron, kaj tiam hejmen iris. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. My friend likes to live in the city, but his wife prefers to live in +their little wooden house in the country. 2. There she can see and smell +the flowers, and can take ("fari") long walks in the adjacent fields +and forest. 3. There are often hundreds of persons in a village, but +there are thousands of persons in a city. 4. The larger a city is, the +larger and better its stores are. 5. In the second place, one can buy +better bread, vegetables and cake in the city. 6. Thirdly, one can also +find better gloves, hats and shoes there, and the price is often less. +7. Therefore I make use of the opportunity when I go to the city, and +usually buy a pair of new gloves. 8. I am still wearing a pair of gloves +which the rain spoiled. 9. Notwithstanding their ugly color, they are +still thick and good. 10. But soon I shall buy such a pair as (150) is +hanging in the window of that store. 11. The price is low, and I need a +new pair now, for my cousin has invited me to a small party ("festo") +at his house. 12. I accepted his invitation courteously, and said that +I would gladly be his guest. 13. We are good comrades, although he is +younger than I am. 14. My (girl) cousin, his sister, is older than he +is, but he is as tall as she. 15. I was just about to send a letter to +him at the minute that (155) he knocked on our door. 16. His visit will +take the place of (159) my letter. 17. Just as (just when) he was going +away, I said goodbye to him, and said that I would meet him in the park +tomorrow. 18. I think that we shall have a pleasant walk, although the +weather is still remarkably cold, the same as (156) it was two or three +months ago. + + + + LESSON XXXIV. + + + PREPOSITIONS AS PREFIXES. + +160. Any preposition may be used as a prefix to a verb, provided the +resulting compound is intelligible. A few prepositional compounds are +given below, only verbs being shown, although nouns, adjectives and +adverbs may be formed from these (116): + + alveni = to arrive. interparoli = to converse. + aldoni = to add. kontrauxdiri = to contradict. + antauxdiri = to predict. kunlabori = to collaborate. + cxirkauxpreni = to embrace. kunveni = to assemble. + cxeesti = to be present. priskribi = to describe. + dependi = to hang from, to depend. subteni = to support. + demeti = to lay aside. surmeti = to put on. + depreni = to subtract. traguti = to percolate. + enhavi = to contain. travidi = to see through + eliri = to go out. transiri = to cross. + +[Footnote: Like English "out" the preposition "el" often develops in +composition a secondary sense of "thoroughly" or "completely" (cf. "I am +tired out"): "eltrovi", to find out, to discover. "elpensi", to think +out, to invent. "ellabori", to work out, to elaborate. "ellerni", to +learn thoroughly, to master. "eluzi", to use completely, to wear out +(transitive).] + + + THE SUFFIX "-EBL-". + +161. The suffix "-ebl-" is used to form adjectives, adverbs, etc., +expressing the likelihood or possibility of that which is indicated by +the root. It may be used as a root, to form "ebla", possible, etc. + + eltrovebla = discoverable. rompebla = breakable. + legebla = legible. videbla = visible. + mangxebla = edible. travidebla = transparent. + +[Footnote: The suffix "-ebl-" is often equivalent to the English +suffixes "-able", "-ible", but these suffixes have other meanings also, +as in "readable," "worth reading" (leginda), "lovable," "deserving of +love" (aminda), etc.] + + + EXPRESSION OF THE HIGHEST DEGREE POSSIBLE. + +162. The adverb "plej", "most" (74), modified by "kiel eble" (as +possible), is used to express the highest degree possible: + + Gxi estas kiel eble plej bona, it is the best possible. + Ni estos kiel eble plej sagxaj, we shall be as wise as possible. + Li uzis kiel eble plej malmulte, he used the least possible. + Mi skribis kiel eble plej legeble, I wrote as legibly as possible. + + + TITLES AND TERMS OF ADDRESS. + +163. The words "sinjoro," gentleman, "sinjorino," lady, "frauxlino," +miss, are used like English "Mr., Mrs., Miss," before proper names, +and are also used as terms of address, without being followed by the +name: "Adiaux, Sinjoro. Adiaux, Sinjorino," Goodbye (Sir). Goodbye, +Madam. + + Frauxlino B----, cxu vi konas tiun sinjoron kun Sinjorino C----? + Miss B----, do you know that gentleman with Mrs. C----? + Mi ne konas tiun frauxlinon, I do not know that young lady. + Kien vi volas iri, Frauxlino? Where do you wish to go (Miss)? + Sinjoro A---- estas tre afabla, Mr. A---- is very amiable. + +[Footnote: Cf. English "Doctor, Professor, Madam," as terms of address, +and also German "Mein Herr, gnaedige Frau, gnaediges Fraeulein," French +"Monsieur, Mademoiselle," Spanish, "Senor, Senora," Italian "Signore," +etc.] + + + VOCABULARY + + atent-a = attentive. onkl-o = uncle. + auxskult-i = to listen. san-a = in good health. + babil-i = to chatter. sent-i = to feel. + doktor-o = doctor. sinjor-o = gentleman. + frauxl-o = bachelor. sxtup-o = step (of stairs). + gaj-a = merry, gay. tas-o = cup. + grup-o = group. vojagx-o = voyage, journey. + + + CXE LA FESTO. + +Hieraux vespere mi iris al la hejmo de mia kuzo, kiu estis invitinta +min al malgranda festo cxe li. Cxar mi deziris alveni kiel eble plej +frue, mi foriris de mia logxejo kiel eble plej baldaux, malgraux la +negxa vetero. Mi estis surmetinta paron da dikaj gantoj, kaj mi portis +dikajn sxuojn. Mi ankaux havis mian ombrelon, kvankam pro la vento mi ne +povis uzi tiun. Tuj kiam mi supreniris la sxtuparon cxe la hejmo de la +kuzo, li auxdis min, kaj venis por malfermi la pordon kaj akcepti min. +"Bonan vesperon, kia estas via sano?" li diris. Mi respondis "Mi sanas +bonege, dankon," kaj eniris la domon kun li. Ni supren iris per granda +sxtuparo al cxambro kie mi lasis la cxapelon, gantojn kaj ombrelon, tiam +ni malsupren venis kaj eniris la salonon. Mi salutis la onklinon, kiu +afable parolis al mi, kaj ankaux la du kuzinojn. Unu kuzino estis jxus +priskribonta interesan libron, kiun sxi antaux ne longe tralegis, kiam +la aliaj gastoj komencis alveni. Sinjoro B---- cxeestis, kaj Doktoro +C----, kun sia filino Frauxlino Mario, kaj multe da aliaj sinjoroj +kaj sinjorinoj. La gastoj sidis aux staris en malgrandaj grupoj, kaj +interparolis kun videbla plezuro. Unu rakontis pri vojagxo, kaj tiam +oni komencis priparoli la prezojn de aferoj en aliaj landoj. Mi atente +auxskultis kelkajn minutojn, kaj tiam foriris al alia grupo, kie oni +gaje babilis pri estontaj ("future") promenoj kaj festoj. Post unu aux +du horoj, la servistinoj alportis al ni bonan malgrandan mangxon, kune +kun tasoj da bonega kafo. Fine, je malfrua horo ni gxentile dankis la +familion de mia kuzo, kaj diris adiaux. Tiam ni foriris hejmen, kun +sentoj da granda plezuro pro la agrabla festo. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. There are dozens of edible fruits, but the fruits of hundreds of +trees are not at all ("tute ne estas") edible. 2. The transparent cup +and plate upon the table are very breakable. 3. I predict that you will +break them as soon as you seize them. 4. That letter is worth reading. +5. But it is difficult to read it, for it is not very legible. 6. It is +from my uncle, who wishes to arrive at-our-house as early as possible. +7. He is still in the city, but soon he will be here, and will go up the +steps ("sxtuparon") of our porch and knock on the door. 8. There are +very few persons who contradict his opinions. 9. His opinions, however, +are worthy of attention (154) and usually I listen courteously while he +is talking. 10. Now, however, I prefer to listen to the group of ladies +in the adjacent room. 11. They are chattering gaily, and listening +to the young lady who is about to sing. 12. Madam, do you feel the +wind? I notice that it is blowing the curtains which hang before that +window. 13. I will close the window, because I am not very well ("sana") +today. 14. Is that gentleman across the room a bachelor? 15. Yes. He is +describing a voyage and the people whom he met. + + + + LESSON XXXV. + + + "KIOM" AS A RELATIVE ADVERB. + +164. The interrogative adverb "kiom" (140) is used as a relative adverb +of quantity, with "tiom" or some equivalent word or phrase for its +antecedent. In this use it is commonly translated "as": + + La taso enhavis tiom da kafo, kiom mi povis trinki, + the cup contained as much coffee as I could drink. + Mi havos tiom da tempo, kiom mi bezonos, + I shall have as much time as I shall need. + Li sendis tiom, kiom vi volis, he sent as much as you wished. + + + THE PRESENT PASSIVE PARTICIPLE. + +165. The present passive participle (for the present active participle +see 108), expressing that which is "undergone by" the person or thing +indicated by the word modified, ends in "-ata", as "vidata", being +seen: + +[Footnote: The verb "iri", to go, used to illustrate the active +participles (108, 119, 152), cannot be used to illustrate a passive +participle, since passive participles can be made from transitive verbs +(22) only.] + + La lauxdata knabo estas felicxa, the boy being praised is happy. + Mi sercxos la deziratan libron, I shall look for the desired book. + La vestoj farataj por vi estas belaj, + the clothes being made for you are beautiful. + + + FRACTIONS. + +166. Fractions are formed from the cardinals by the use of the suffix +"-on-" followed by the ending "-o". Adjectives and adverbs may be +derived from these by use of the endings "-a" or "-e": + + La duono de ses estas tri, the half of six is three. + Li estis nur duone atenta, he was only half attentive. + La triona parto de ses estas du, the third part of six is two. + Dek unu dekduonoj, eleven twelfths. + Mi dudekone finis la laboron, I one-twentieth finished the work. + + + DESCRIPTIVE COMPOUNDS. + +167. A compound word whose first element modifies the second in an +adjectival or adverbial relation is called a "descriptive compound". +The final "-a" or "-e" of the first element may be omitted, unless the +resulting combination would be ambiguous or harsh-sounding. + +a. When the first element is adverbial (an adverb or preposition), the +second element may be either an adverb or adjective: + + multekosta, expensive. + duonkolere, half angrily. + nevidebla, invisible. + nevole, involuntarily. + rugxflava (rugxeflava), reddish yellow. + survoje, on the way, en route. + antauxhieraux, day before yesterday. + postmorgaux, day after tomorrow. + +b. An adjective may be used for the first element, if the second is an +adverb or adjective "derived from a noun-root": + + samtempa, contemporaneous. + unufoje, once, one time. + trifoje, thrice, three times. + unutaga, one day's, of one day. + unuataga, the first day's. + frutempe, at an early time. + +c. A noun may be used for the second element, if the resulting word +has not merely unity of form, but also unity of meaning with a +slightly different sense from that expressed by the noun and adjective +uncombined: + +[Footnote: In national languages a change of accent often accompanies +such change in meaning, as "BLACKberry" (not "black BERry"), "BLUEbird" +(not "blue BIRD"), "SWEETheart" (not "sweet HEART"), German "JUNGfrau", +"virgin" (not "jung FRAU", young woman), etc.] + + bonveno, a welcome (not "bona veno", a good coming). + libertempo, a vacation, leisure (not "libera tempo", free time). + superjaro, leap-year (not "super jaro", above a year). + bondeziroj, good wishes, felicitations + (not "bonaj deziroj", good desires). + plimulto, a majority (adverb and noun combined). + + + VOCABULARY + + hxin-o = Chinaman. naci-o = nation. + jam = already. pagx-o = page. + kler-a = enlightened, learned. pres-i = to print. + komerc-o = trade, commerce. pulv-o = gunpowder. + lanc-o = spear, lance. sxangx-i = to change. + liber-a = free. te-o = tea. + metod-o = method, way. ted-a = tiresome, tedious. + +[Footnote: The adverb "jam" indicates a change from some preceding +action or state to the different one expressed in the sentence, clause +or phrase containing "jam". It may often be translated "yet," "now," +etc. "Mi jam vidis lin", I already saw (have already seen) him. "Cxu vi +jam trovis gxin? Ne, mi ankoraux ne trovis gxin". Have you yet (have you +already) found it? No, I have not yet (still not) found it. "Li jam ne +vivas", he no longer lives (he already is-not-alive). "Jam ne negxas", +it is not snowing now (already not snowing).] + + + LA HXINOJ. + +Antaux miloj da jaroj la hxinoj estis la plej klera nacio en la mondo. +Dum aliaj nacioj ankoraux ne konis metodojn por presi librojn, kaj +ankoraux faris ilin skribe, la samtempaj hxinoj jam estis forlasintaj +tiun multekostan kaj tedan metodon. Ili jam estis presantaj la pagxojn +de miloj da libroj. Aliaj nacioj tiam estis batalantaj kiel eble plej +kruele, per sago kaj pafarko, kaj per lanco. Sed ili ankoraux ne havis +pafilojn, cxar pulvo estis tute nekonata al ili. Tamen la hxinoj jam +bone konis metodojn por fari kaj por uzi pulvon, kaj faris tiajn amuzajn +flavrugxajn fajrojn, kiajn ni ankoraux hodiaux acxetas de ili, por uzi +je festaj tagoj. Sed la hxinoj ne multe sxatis la komercon, kaj ne +deziris acxeti aux lerni de aliaj nacioj. Ili ankoraux nun havas la +samajn metodojn por presi librojn kaj por fari pulvon, kiajn ili havis +antaux mil jaroj. Ili malofte sxangxas siajn kutimojn. Tial la aliaj +nacioj, kiuj antauxe ne estis tiel kleraj, antauxeniras pli rapide ol +la hxinoj. La lando de la hxinoj enhavas tiom da personoj, kiom tri aux +kvar aliaj nacioj. Granda parto de tiu lando estas ankoraux nekonata al +okcidentaj nacioj, kvankam plej multe da nia teo elvenas el la hxina +lando. Oni diras ke la parolata lingvo kaj la skribata lingvo de la +hxinoj estas du tre malsamaj aferoj. La lingvo estas almenaux treege +malfacila, kaj post kiam oni estas longe studinta gxin, oni tamen estas +nur duone lerninta gxin. Mi gxojas tial ke la lingvoj studataj en la +lernejoj de nia lando ne estas tiel malfacilaj kiel la hxina lingvo. La +latina kaj germana lingvoj estas suficxe malfacilaj, kvankam ili estas +tre interesaj kaj ankaux konataj de la kleruloj en multaj landoj. La +latina lingvo jam ne estas parolata lingvo. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Why are the persons in that merry group laughing and chattering +instead of listening to Mr. B----? 2. I think that the doctor is telling +stories about a bachelor who was once a good friend of his. 3. The +gentleman being talked about (160, 165) will visit us this evening, +possibly. 4. My aunt and cousin will come down stairs and converse with +him. 5. We shall drink as many cups of tea or of coffee as we wish. 6. +He will say "How is your health, Madam?" My aunt will reply half-angrily +that she is seldom ill. 7. We shall sit on the veranda, for the sun is +still shining, although it is already setting. 8. That young lady who +came with Mrs. C---- relates the best possible stories. 9. She says +that the Chinese were already an enlightened nation hundreds of years +ago, while other nations were still cruelly fighting. 10. A method for +printing the pages of books, instead of writing them, was a discovery +of the Chinese. They printed books in their printing-shops, a thousand +years ago. 12. They also were-acquainted-with gunpowder, which they made +and used for such fires as we use on national days of-celebration, when +we have leisure and wish to enjoy (to amuse) ourselves. 13. But the +Chinese have not changed these methods. 14. Their ways of commerce, work +and pleasure are the same as they were long ago. 15. Such a nation does +not progress rapidly, even though its life is very long. + + + + LESSON XXXVI. + + + THE PRESENT PASSIVE TENSE. + +168. The compound tense formed by combining the present passive +participle with the present tense of the auxiliary verb "esti" expresses +an act or condition as "being undergone" by the subject of the verb, and +is called the "present passive tense". The conjugation of "vidi" in this +tense is as follows: + + mi estas vidata, I am (being) seen. + vi estas vidata, you are (being) seen. + li (sxi, gxi) estas vidata, he (she, it) is (being) seen. + ni estas vidataj, we are (being) seen. + vi estas vidataj, you are (being) seen. + ili estas vidataj, they are (being) seen. + + + THE USE OF "DE" TO EXPRESS AGENCY. + +169. The person by whom (or the thing by which) an act, indicated by a +passive verb or participle, is performed is called the "agent" of the +passive voice, and is expressed by a substantive preceded by "de": + + La lanco estas portata de mi, the spear is carried by me. + La libroj estas jam presataj de li, + the books are already being printed by him. + La vojoj estas kovrataj de negxo, + the roads are being covered by snow. + Sxi estas lauxdata de la sinjoro, + she is being praised by the gentleman. + + + THE GENERAL MEANING OF "DE". + +170. The preposition "de" conveys the general idea of separation from a +source or starting point, in space (literal or figurative), or in time +(89, 131). This meaning develops into that of the source from which +connection or ownership arises (49), and also into that of the agency +from which an act is done or a condition caused (169). The prepositional +phrase containing "de" must be so placed as to avoid ambiguity in its +meaning, or must be reinforced by an adverb or other word: + + La arbo estas malproksima de la domo, the tree is far from the house. + Gxi estas proksima de la gxardeno, it is near to (from) the garden. + Mi prenas la libron for de la knabo, + I take the book away from the boy. + Mi prenas la libron de la knabo, I take the book of the boy. + La afero dependas de vi, the matter depends upon (from) you. + + + WORD DERIVATION FROM PRIMARY ADVERBS. + +171. Adjectives, verbs, and nouns may be derived from primary adverbs +(66), as well as from prepositions (120, 159): + + La nunaj metodoj, the present methods (methods of-now). + Mi adiauxis lin per adiauxa saluto, + I bade farewell to him by a farewell salute (see also 273). + Ni faris tujan intersxangxon, we made an immediate exchange. + Cxu li skribis jesan aux nean respondon? + Did he write an affirmative or a negative answer? + Anstataux nei, li respondis jese, + instead of denying, he answered affirmatively. + La morgauxa festo estos pli agrabla ol la hierauxa, + tomorrow's (the morrow's) celebration will be more pleasant + than that of yesterday. + La tiamaj personoj estis liaj samtempuloj, + the persons of-that-time were his contemporaries. + + + THE SUFFIX "-IST-". + +172. The suffix "-ist-" is added to roots to express the profession, +trade or occupation connected with the idea in the root: + + floristo = florist. okulisto = oculist. + komercisto = trader, merchant. presisto = printer. + servisto = servant. sxtelisto = thief. + + + VOCABULARY + + administr-i = to manage. mont-o = mountain. + antikv-a = ancient nom-o = name. + Euxrop-o = Europe. proksim-a = near. + grav-a = important, serious. reprezent-i = to represent. + ital-a = Italian. respublik-o = republic. + kvadrat-a = square. tiran-o = tyrant. + +[Footnote: The words "antikva", "maljuna", "malnova", all of which may +at times be translated "old," must not be confused in use: Mi havas +malnovan cxapelon, "I have an old hat (a hat which is not new)". Li +estas maljuna sinjoro, "he is an old (aged) gentleman". Li estas malnova +amiko mia, "he is an old friend of mine (a friend of long standing)". La +hxinoj estis kleraj ecx en la antikva tempo, "the Chinese were learned +even in the olden time (in ancient time)". La antikvaj kleruloj jam +sciis tre multe, "the ancient learned (enlightened) men already knew a +great deal". La maljuna sinjoro en la malnovaj vestoj estas antikvisto, +"the old gentleman with the old clothes is an antiquary".] + + + ANTIKVA RESPUBLIKO. + +La plej antikva respubliko en Euxropo kusxas en la norda parto de la +bela itala lando, inter la maro kaj la rivero, proksime de la montoj. +Gxia nomo estas San Marino, kaj gxi estas respubliko de antaux mil +kvarcent jaroj. Kvankam la cxirkauxaj landoj kaj nacioj apartenis en +antikva tempo al la tiamaj regxoj, San Marino jam estis libera. Gxiaj +aferoj estas ankoraux administrataj tiel, kiel la anoj (145) volas, +ne kiel unu aux alia regxo aux tirano deziras. Dufoje en la jaro la +anoj elektas personojn, kiuj administros la gravajn aferojn de la +respubliko dum la sekvontaj ses monatoj. Kvardek ses el tiuj personoj +reprezentas la anojn, kaj unu alia estas regxo tiun duonon da jaro. +Per tia metodo, la anoj estas bone reprezentataj, kaj la aferoj estas +administrataj kiel eble plej sagxe. La tuta respubliko enhavas nur +dudek du kvadratajn mejlojn da tero. En la respubliko kaj la tiea (171) +urbo kiu havas la saman nomon, ne estas tiom da personoj kiom en multaj +italaj urboj. Tamen cxi tiu respubliko estas pli granda ol multaj +antikvaj grekaj respublikoj. La grekaj respublikoj estis bonekonataj, +kaj enhavis multe da kleruloj inter siaj anoj. Sed en la nuna tempo la +grekoj havas regxon. Oni ne trovas tre klerajn personojn en San Marino, +tamen la laboristoj estas energiaj, kaj laboras kiel eble plej multe. +La rikoltistoj plej ofte havas bonajn rikoltojn, kaj la plimulto da +personoj estas treege kontenta kaj felicxa. Oni ne pensas pri komerco +aux eksterlandaj (167, a) aferoj kaj ne volas vojagxi malproksimen de la +bone amata hejmo. Oni preferas gaje amuzi sin cxehejme (167, a), en la +libertempo inter la rikoltoj, kaj la vivo tute ne sxajnas malfacila aux +teda. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. The serious affairs of a republic are managed by persons representing +the persons who live there. 2. The inhabitants are well represented, and +as free as possible. 3. Enlightened persons often prefer to live in a +republic. 4. Persons who have a good king are very happy, but those who +have a bad king are as unhappy as possible. 5. Nowadays ("nuntempe") +there are very few tyrants. 6. The majority of the kings of Europe are +praiseworthy. 7. That nation which was most enlightened a thousand years +ago was the Chinese nation. 8. The Chinese of-that-time already had +good printers among them. 9. It is said (54) that the Chinese drink as +much tea as two or three contemporary nations. 10. The oldest republic +in Europe is named San Marino. 11. It is near the mountains, in the +northern part of the much praised Italian land. 12. It contains only +twenty-two square miles, and is therefore one of the smallest republics +in the world. 13. Fourteen hundred years ago it was already a republic, +and it is still that same republic. 14. The inhabitants are energetic +and patient, and have as much to eat as they need. 15. There are bakers +and shopkeepers (172) and many laborers among them. 16. They do not +think about commerce, or greatly ("multe") change their customs. 17. +They seldom take ("faras") tiresome journeys, but remain peacefully +("pace") at home. + + + + LESSON XXXVII. + + + THE DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUN. + +173. The distributive pronoun (and pronominal adjective) is "cxiu", each +(one), every (one). Sometimes it is equivalent to English "any", as in +"Any one who studies can learn," etc. The plural is "cxiuj", every, all. +The article is never interposed between "cxiuj" and the noun modified +(as in English "all the men"), and is used only if "cxiuj" is pronominal +and followed by "el": + +[Footnote: The use of "cxiu" and "cxiuj" must be distinguished from that +of the adjective "tuta", which means "all" in the sense of "entire": +"Cxiuj viroj laboras la tutan tagon", all men work all (the whole) day. +"Mi vidis cxiun vizagxon, + sed mi ne vidis la tutan vizagxon de cxiu viro", +I saw every face, + but I did not see all the face of each man.] + + Cxiu, kiu studos, lernos, every one who studies will learn. + Mi vidis cxiun el ili, kaj parolis al cxiu knabo, + I saw each of them, and talked to every boy. + Mi dankas vin cxiujn, I thank you all (I thank all of you). + Ni cxiuj estas reprezentataj, we are all (all of us are) represented. + Cxiuj el la maristoj alvenis, all (every one) of the sailors arrived. + +174. The distributive pronoun has a possessive or genitive form "cxies", +every-one's, every-body's: + + Li konas cxies nomon, he knows every-one's name. + Cxies opinio estis diversa, every-body's opinion was different. + Kies vocxojn mi auxdas? Cxies, whose voices do I hear? Everybody's. + + + THE PREPOSITION "PO". + +175. The preposition "po", at the rate of, at, is used chiefly before +cardinals and has a distributive sense: + + Li marsxas po kvar mejloj cxiutage, + he walks at the rate of four miles daily (every-day). + Mi acxetis kafon po malalta prezo, I bought coffee at a low price. + Mi acxetis viandon po kvarono da dolaro por funto, + I bought meat at a quarter of a dollar for (per) pound. + La cxapelisto acxetas cxapelojn pogrande, + the hatter buys hats wholesale. + + + DEPENDENT COMPOUNDS. + +176. A compound word whose first element is a substantive, dependent +upon the second element in some prepositional relation, is called a +"dependent compound". (If the two words were not united into one, the +first element would be preceded by a preposition, or would be in the +accusative case.) The ending "-o" may be omitted from the first element +of a dependent compound: + +[Footnote: A personal pronoun serving as the first element of a +dependent compound may keep the accusative ending, to indicate its +construction: "sinlauxdo", self-praise. "sinekzameno", self-examination. +"sindefendo", self-defence. "sinkontrauxdira", self-contradictory.] + + jarcento, century (cento da jaroj). + mangxocxambro, dining-room (cxambro por mangxoj). + noktomezo, midnight (mezo de la nokto). + paperfaristo, papermaker (faristo de papero). + sunbrilo, sunshine (brilo de la suno). + tagmezo, noon (mezo de la tago). + vespermangxo, supper (mangxo je la vespero). + ventoflago, weathercock (flago por la vento). + + + VOCABULARY + + cxies = every body's (174). lag-o = lake. + cxiu = every-body (173). po = at the rate of (175). + decid-i = to decide. sever-a = severe. + dev-o = duty. stang-o = pole. + fleks-i = to bend. svis-o = Swiss. + genu-o = knee. vend-i = to sell. + intenc-i = to intend. Vilhelm-o = William. + jugx-i = to judge. vort-o = word. + + + LA CXAPELO SUR LA STANGO. + +Antaux ol Svislando estis tiel libera kiel la nuna svisa respubliko, +gxiaj aferoj estis administrataj de personoj kiuj reprezentis aliajn +naciojn. Ofte tiuj personoj estis kiel eble plej severaj jugxistoj al la +svisoj. Unufoje plej kruela tirano estis administranta aferojn svisajn. +Li elpensis rimarkindan metodon por montri sian povon ("power"), kaj por +esti malagrabla al la svisoj. Li decidis meti sian cxapelon sur altan +stangon en la vendejo ("market-place"), en malgranda vilagxo apud bela +lago inter la altaj montoj. Li diris ke de nun tiu cxapelo reprezentas +lin, kaj portos lian nomon. Saluti la cxapelon estos la grava devo de +cxiu persono en la vilagxo. Estos cxies devo ne nur saluti la cxapelon, +sed ankaux genufleksi ("kneel") antaux la stango. La tirano diris ke +li forprenos la domon, la kampojn kaj tiom da mono, kiom li povos, de +cxiu vilagxano aux kamparano kiu forgesos genufleksi. "Mi intencas sendi +gardistojn," li diris, "kiuj rimarkos cxu vi cxiuj genufleksos kiam +vi estas proksimaj de la stango." Je tagmezo alvenis gardistoj, por +rimarki cxu la necesaj salutoj estos farataj de cxiuj, kaj por kapti +cxiujn svisojn kiuj ne genufleksis. Baldaux la kamparanoj komencis eniri +la vendejon, por vendi legomojn po kiel eble altaj prezoj, kaj por +acxeti vestojn kaj aliajn aferojn po treege plej malaltaj prezoj. Cxiu, +kiu iris proksimen de la stango, zorge genufleksis antaux la cxapelo +de la malamata tirano, pro timo pri la hejmoj kaj la familioj. Fine, +kamparano, kies nomo estis Vilhelmo Tell, eniris la vendejon, kaj staris +du aux tri minutojn proksime de la stango, dum li diris kelkajn vortojn +al amiko. Sed anstataux fari tujan saluton, aux genufleksi, li tute ne +rigardis la stangon. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. The day before yesterday my youngest cousin was sitting on my knee, +and I told him that a rainbow ("cxielarko") is made by the sunshine and +the rain. 2. My cousin goes to school every day, after he has breakfast +in the dining-room. 3. A new school is being built, not far from the +home of the judge. 4. It is my cousin's duty to study those books at +the rate of ten pages a day. 5. My cousin and I decided last night +(93) to buy new hats for ourselves. 6. We intend to go to the hatter's +early tomorrow morning. 7. I think that all clothes are being sold +at a low price at-the-present-time. 8. During a visit at a friend's, +I read an interesting book about ancient Europe. 9. It relates that +several centuries ago a severe and cruel tyrant was managing affairs +in Switzerland. 10. Once he put his hat on a pole in the market-place, +and said that it was the duty of-every-one to kneel before it. 11. This +serious affair happened in a village one or two miles square, on ("cxe") +the lake not far from the mountains through which one goes on the way +(167, a) to the Italian land. 12. William Tell did not kneel or even +look at the hat representing the tyrant. + + + + LESSON XXXVIII. + + THE DISTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVE. + +177. The distributive adjective related to the distributive pronoun +"cxiu", giving a comprehensive idea of the quality of some person or +thing, is "cxia", every kind of, every sort of: + + Oni vendas cxiajn fruktojn tie, + they sell every sort of fruit there. + Estas cxiaj personoj en la mondo, + there are all sorts of persons in the world. + + THE IMPERFECT PASSIVE TENSE. + +178. The compound tense formed by combining the present passive +participle with the past tense of the auxiliary verb "esti" expresses +an act or condition as being undergone by the subject of the verb "at +some time in the past". It is called the "imperfect passive tense". The +conjugation of "vidi" in this tense is as follows: + + mi estis vidata, I was (being) seen. + vi estis vidata, you were (being) seen. + li (sxi, gxi) estis vidata, he (she, it) was (being) seen. + ni estis vidataj, we were (being) seen. + vi estis vidataj, you were (being) seen. + ili estis vidataj, they were (being) seen. + + + COMPOUND TENSES OF IMPERSONAL VERBS. + +179. When impersonal verbs, or other verbs used impersonally, are in +compound tenses, the participial element is given the ending "-e", like +other modifiers of impersonally used verbs (141): + + Estis pluvante antaux unu minuto, it was raining a minute ago. + Estis multe negxinte, it had snowed a great deal. + Estis vidate ke cxiu ploras, it was seen that every one wept. + + + RECIPROCAL EXPRESSIONS. + +180. To give a reciprocal sense, when there are two or more subjects and +the action goes from one to the other (expressed in English by "each +other," "one another," "mutually," "reciprocally"), the phrases "unu la +alian", "unu al la alia", etc., or the adverb "reciproke", is used: + + Estas nia devo helpi unu la alian, + it is our duty to help one another. + Ili parolas unu al la alia, + they are talking to each other. + La viroj reciproke uzis siajn pafilojn, + the men used each other's guns. + Ili falis unu sur la alian, + they fell upon each other. + + THE SUFFIX "-UJ-". + +181. The suffix "-uj-" may be used to form words indicating "that which +contains, bears, or is a receptacle for", some number or quantity of +that which is expressed by the root. It may be used instead of "-lando" +to form the name of a region containing any one race or tribe, and +instead of "-arbo" to form the names of fruit trees: + + ujo = a receptacle. patrujo (patrolando) = fatherland. + monujo = purse. sukerujo = sugar-bowl. + supujo = soup-tureen. pomujo (pomarbo) = apple-tree. + leterujo = letter-case. sagujo = quiver. + + + VOCABULARY + + ag-i = to act. mort-i = to die. + ceter-a = remaining. pet-i = to plead, to request. + cxia = of every kind (177). prepar-i = to prepare. + fier-a = proud. pun-i = to punish. + imag-i = to imagine. reciprok-a = reciprocal, mutual. + konduk-i = to lead. simil-a = like, similar. + kor-o = heart. tusx-i = to touch. + + + VILHELMO TELL KAJ LA POMO. + +Tuj kiam la gardistoj rimarkis ke la cxapelo sur la stango ne estis +salutata de Vilhelmo Tell, ili kaptis lin, kaj kondukis lin al la +tirano, por esti jugxata. La tirano demandis de Tell kial li ne +genufleksis antaux la cxapelo, simile al la aliaj vilagxanoj. Tell +respondis fiere ke li ne sciis pri la cxiutagaj genufleksoj de la aliaj +personoj. Li diris ke li tute ne intencis agi kontraux la deziroj de +la jugxistoj. Sed la tirano malamis la altan fortan svison, tial li +decidis puni lin per severa puno, kaj demandis "Kiun el viaj infanoj +vi plej amas?" Vilhelmo Tell ne povis imagi kial la demando estas +farata al li, kaj respondis "Mi amas cxiujn el ili, sinjoro." La tirano +diris "Nu, estas rakontate inter la vilagxanoj ke vi estas rimarkinda +arkpafisto ("archer"). Ni eltrovos kia arkpafisto vi estas. Ni vidos +cxu vi povos forpafi pomon de sur la kapo de via plej juna filo. Aldone +("in addition"), estos via devo forpafi la pomon per la unua sago, alie +("otherwise") mi punos vin kaj vian filon per tuja morto." Tell diris +ke li estas preta por ricevi cxian alian punon, anstataux tia puno, +sed malgraux cxies petoj la tirano estis jam elektanta pomon de apuda +pomarbo. Li kondukis la knabon malproksimen de la ceteraj personoj, kaj +metis la pomon sur lian kapon. Tell kaj la filo reciproke rigardis sin, +dum la patro diris ke li ne tusxos haron de lia kapo. Tiam li elprenis +sagon el la sagujo, faris la necesajn preparojn, kaj rapide pafis. Tuj +la pomo forfalis de la kapo de la infano, kaj cxiu havis felicxan koron. +Dum Tell cxirkauxprenis la filon, la tirano demandis "Kial vi havas tiun +ceteran sagon en la mano." Tell lauxte respondis "Por mortpafi vin, tuj +post la infano, cxar mi treege timis pro la vivo de mia kara filo." + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. William Tell had a strong flexible (161) bow. 2. He could +shoot-with-a-bow ("arkpafi") excellently, therefore he was a well-known +archer. 3. He put six or eight arrows into his quiver, and went with his +sons to the village. 4. Possibly he saw the hat upon the pole, but he +did not kneel before it. 5. It was being noticed already in the village +that Tell hated the tyrant very much. 6. When the guards seized him +for that act, and led him before the tyrant, who was also the judge, +Tell said "I did not know about this new duty, and could not imagine +why the hat was on the pole there." 7. The tyrant replied with ("per") +angry words, for he hated the proud Swiss whom every one else loved. +8. He said severely "It is said that you are a praiseworthy archer. 9. +Therefore I was wondering whether you could shoot an apple from your +son's head. 10. Now we shall see whether you can shoot off the apple, or +whether you will touch the child's head." 11. Amid the pleadings of all, +Tell successfully shot off the apple. 12. A similar second arrow was +ready in his hand. 13. The tyrant saw the remaining arrow, and prepared +to punish Tell by death. 14. But he escaped, and the Swiss congratulated +each other heartily ("kore"). 15. After some time they followed him, at +the rate of six miles an hour. + + + + LESSON XXXIX. + + + THE DISTRIBUTIVE ADVERB OF PLACE. + +182. The distributive adverb of place, related to the distributive +pronoun "cxiu", is "cxie", everywhere. The ending "-n" may be added to +"cxie" to show direction of motion (121): + + Oni trovas tiajn virojn cxie, + such men are found everywhere. + Li iris cxien, kie mi estis estinta, + he went everywhere where I had been. + Mi vidas lin cxie, kien mi iras, + I see him everywhere I go. + + + THE FUTURE PASSIVE TENSE. + +183. The compound tense formed by combining the present passive +participle with the future tense of "esti" indicates that an act or +condition "will be undergone" by the subject of the verb. It is called +the "future passive tense". The conjugation of "vidi" in this tense is +as follows: + + mi estos vidata, I shall be seen. + vi estos vidata, you will be seen. + li (sxi, gxi) estos vidata, he (she, it) will be seen. + ni estos vidataj, we shall be seen. + vi estos vidataj, you will be seen. + ili estos vidataj, they will be seen. + + + POSSESSIVE COMPOUNDS. + +184. Compound adjectives may be formed with an adjectival root for the +first element, and a noun-root for the second element. Such adjectives +have the meaning "possessed of" that which is indicated in the compound. +(Similar adjectives are formed in English, with "-ed" as the final +syllable): + + belbrova = beautiful-browed. longnaza = long-nosed. + bonintenca = good-intentioned. kvarpieda = four-footed. + dumana = two-handed. rugxhara = red-haired. + + + THE TIME OF DAY. + +185. The ordinals are used in expressing the hour of the day, with +"horo" expressed or understood. The minutes are expressed by the +cardinals. In questions the adjective "kioma" (from "kiom", how much) +is used: + + Kioma horo estas? What hour (what o'clock, what time) is it? + Je kioma horo vi venos? At what time (what o'clock) will you come? + Estas la dua horo, it is two o'clock (it is the second hour). + Estas la tria kaj kvin minutoj, it is five minutes past three. + Ni iris je la sesa kaj duono, we went at half past six. + Estas la oka kaj kvardek kvin + (or: estas unu kvarono antaux la nauxa), + it is eight forty-five (a quarter of nine). + + + THE SUFFIX "-OBL-". + +186. The suffix "-obl-" is used to form multiples indicating how many +fold, as "two fold," "double," "triple," etc.: + + duoblo, a double. + duobla, double. + duoble, doubly. + kvarobla, quadruple. + kvindekobla, fifty-fold. + multobla, manifold. + Trioble du estas ses, three times two is six. + + + VOCABULARY + + bilet-o = ticket. pag-i = to pay. + cend-o = cent. preter = beyond, past. + cxie = everywhere (182). staci-o = station. + esprim-o = expression. telefon-i = to telephone. + gicxet-o = wicket, ticket-window. vagon-o = car. + horlogx-o = clock. valiz-o = valise. + +[Footnote: The preposition "preter" indicates the movement of something +alongside of and passing beyond something else. Since it does not +express motion "toward" its complement, it cannot be followed by the +accusative.] + + + EN LA STACIDOMO. + +Du bonkoraj (184) amikoj miaj logxas en la urbo B----. Ni reciproke +konas nin de antaux ses jaroj. Mi estis duoble gxoja hieraux kiam mi +ricevis leteron de ili, cxar en tiu ili petis de mi baldauxan viziton. +Tial mi telefonis hieraux posttagmeze al la stacidomo, por demandi +je kioma horo foriros la vagonaro ("train") al B----. Oni respondis +per la telefono ke la vagonaro foriros je la tria kaj tridek kvin. +Tuj poste mi enmetis kelkajn vestojn en mian jam preskaux eluzitan +valizon, kaj faris cxiujn preparojn por la mallonga vojagxo. Je la dua +horo, tuj post la tagmangxo ("midday meal"), mi marsxis stacidomon. +Survoje mi eniris butikon kaj acxetis paron da novaj gantoj. Kiam mi +eniris la stacidomon, mi kuris preter la aliaj personoj al la gicxeto +kie biletoj estas vendataj. Mi diris al la sinjoro cxe la gicxeto "Mi +deziras bileton al B----. Kiom estos necese pagi?" La brunokula sinjoro +respondis "Tia bileto kostos dolaron dudek cendojn." Mi pusxis tiom da +mono tra la gicxeto, kaj tuj ricevis la bileton, kiun la sinjoro jam +havis en la mano. Tiam mi iris proksimen de la pordego tra kiu oni estos +enlasata al la vagonaro. "Kiom da tempo antaux la foriro de la vagonaro +al B----?" mi demandis al la gardisto. Li lauxtvocxe respondis "Nur sep +minutojn. Cxu vi ne vidas tiun horlogxon?" Mi ne estis rimarkinta la +horlogxon, tial mi almetis la montrilojn de mia posxhorlogxo ("watch") +por montri la saman horon. Mi estis multe tusxata de cxiaj bonintencaj +personoj kurantaj cxien preter mi, kaj pusxantaj unu la alian. Fine oni +malfermis la pordegon. Mi kaj la ceteraj personoj rapidis al la vagonaro +kaj kiel eble plej baldaux eniris gxin. + +[Footnote: "Posttagmezo", afternoon, is a descriptive compound (167, a) +whose second element "tagmezo" is a dependent compound (176).] + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Because of the request of my friend whose brother died recently, I +went last ("la antauxan") week to visit him. 2. The remaining persons of +his family were not at home. 3. I telephoned to find out at what time +the train would depart. 4. I was told (54) that it would leave at four +twenty-seven. 5. I put enough money into my purse, and carried along +("kunportis") a valise into which I had put some clothes. 6. When I +entered the station, I hurried past the other people to the wicket, and +asked for ("petis") a ticket to B----. 7. The ticket seller said "Two +dollars and forty cents." 8. I could not imagine why it was necessary to +pay so much, but I at once pushed that much money through the window, +and received the ticket. 9. Then I looked at my watch and went near the +gate, but the yellowhaired guard who conducts persons to the trains +said "Persons who go through that gate before the train arrives will be +severely punished." 10. So all of us stood near the double gate. 11. The +trains are much like each other, and it is better to act as the guards +request, and not express impatience. + + + + LESSON XL. + + + THE DISTRIBUTIVE TEMPORAL ADVERB. + +187. The distributive adverb of time, related to the distributive +pronoun "cxiu", is "cxiam", always, at all times: + + Vi cxiam pagas tro multe, you always pay too much. + Mi estas cxiam preta por helpi vin, I am always ready to help you. + + + THE DISTRIBUTIVE ADVERB "CXIAL". + +188. The distributive adverb of motive or reason, related to the pronoun +"cxiu", is "cxial", for every reason, for all reasons: + + Cxial li estas felicxa hodiaux, for every reason he is happy today. + La mia cxial estas la plej bona, mine is for all reasons the best. + + + THE PAST PASSIVE PARTICIPLE. + +189. The past passive participle expresses an act or condition as +"having been undergone" by the person or thing indicated by the word +modified. This participle ends in "-ita", as "vidita", having been +seen: + + La prezo pagita de vi estis tro granda, + the price paid by you was too great. + La punita infano ploras, + the (having-been) punished child is crying. + Mi acxetos bonefaritajn gantojn, + I shall buy well-made gloves. + Li sercxis la forgesitan bileton, + he looked for the forgotten ticket. + + + THE PERFECT PASSIVE TENSE. + +190. The compound tense formed by combining the past passive participle +with the present tense of the verb "esti" expresses an act or condition +which "has been undergone" by the subject of the verb. It is called the +"perfect passive tense". The conjugation of the verb "vidi" in this +tense is as follows: + + mi estas vidita, I have been seen (I am having-been-seen). + vi estas vidita, you have been seen. + li (sxi, gxi) estas vidita, he (she, it) has been seen. + ni estas viditaj, we have been seen. + vi estas viditaj, you have been seen. + ili estas viditaj, they have been seen. + + + THE PREPOSITION "LAUX". + +191. In expressing that "in accordance with which" something is done, +takes place, moves, etc., the preposition "laux" is used: + + + Li agis laux sia opinio, + he acted in accordance with his own opinion. + Mi faros gxin laux bona metodo, + I shall do it according to a good method. + Laux kia maniero li agis? + In what manner did he act? + Mi marsxis laux la strato, + I walked down (or up) the street. + Li iris laux la rivero per tiu vojo, + he went along the river by that road. + Nuboj nigraj kuris laux la cxielo, + black clouds raced along the sky. + Gxi kusxas lauxlonge de la domo, + it lies lengthwise of the house. + + + THE SUFFIX "-EM-". + +192. The suffix "-em-" indicates a "tendency" or "inclination" toward +that which is expressed in the root: + + agema = active. pacema = peaceful, pacific. + mallaborema = lazy. pensema = pensive, thoughtful. + + + VOCABULARY + + atend-i = to wait (for), to expect. laux = according to (191). + cxial = for every reason (188). manier-o = manner, way. + cxiam = always (187). mov-i = to move (transitive) + gazet-o = magazine, gazette. okup-i = to occupy. + jxurnal-o = journal, paper. pal-a = pale. + kompat-i = to pity. polic-o = police. + larm-o = tear. trankvil-a = calm, tranquil. + + + LA PERDITA INFANO. + +Dum mi estis atendanta hieraux posttagmeze en la stacidomo, mi subite +rimarkis palan sinjorinon kun larmoj en sxiaj okuloj. Sxi rigardis +cxien kun esprimo de nekasxebla timo, kaj estis videble maltrankvila. +Sxi sercxis du aux tri minutojn inter la personoj cxirkaux si, kaj fine +sxi vidis bluevestitan policanon, kiu estis parolanta al unu el la +gardistoj. Sxi rapide diris kelkajn vortojn al li, kaj tuj li ankaux +komencis sercxi cie. Mi tre kompatis la ploreman sinjorinon, kaj kiam la +policano preteriris, mi demandis cxu mi ne povas helpi. Mi diris ke mi +ne estos okupata ("busy") gxis la alveno de la vagonaro. Li respondis +ke la filo de tiu virino estas perdita, kaj li donis al mi la sekvantan +priskribon de la infano, laux la vortoj de la patrino: la knabo estas +agema brunhara sesjarulo, kun bluaj okuloj, kaj li estas rugxe vestita +("dressed in red"). Lia patrino estis jxus acxetinta sian bileton cxe +la gicxeto, kaj post kiam sxi pagis la nauxdek cendojn por gxi, subite +sxi rimarkis ke la infano ne estis kun sxi. Kvankam sxi jam sercxis +cxie, la filo sxajnas ankoraux netrovebla. Sxi multe timas pro li, +kvankam li cxiam estas bona knabo. Mi tuj komencis marsxi cxien inter +la personoj cxirkaux mi, kaj fine eniris malgrandan cxambron apud la +horlogxo cxe la fino de la stacidomo, kie estas vendataj tagjxurnaloj +("newspapers"), gazetoj kaj libroj. Tie antaux nemovebla tablo kovrita +de brile koloritaj jxurnaloj staris malgranda rugxevestita knabo. Mi +diris al li "Mia studema juna amiko, oni ne vojagxas laux tiu metodo. +Via patrino jam de longe atendas vin. Mi montros al vi kie sxi estas." +Li venis kun mi, kaj proksime de la pordo kie mi estis lasinta mian +valizon staris la sinjorino. Sxi estis cxial gxoja kiam sxi vidis nin, +kaj dankeme cxirkauxprenis la infanon. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +lost in the station yesterday afternoon was very uneasy about him for +every reason. 2. She was pale and tearful ("plorema") when I saw her, +and looked in every direction in a most impatient manner. 3. There was +an expression of fear upon her face and she went as quickly as possible +to a nearby policeman, and said a few ("kelkajn") words to him. 4. I +heard the last words, and at once said to myself "It is now only ten +minutes past two. 5. My train will leave ("foriros") at half-past two, +so I have time to help." 6. I said to the blue-garbed policeman "During +the next ("sekvontajn") twenty minutes I shall not be busy. Do you +desire my help?" 7. He answered "Yes, you are very kind ("gxentila"). +The son of that lady has been lost. 8. According to her description, he +is a yellow-haired blue-eyed five-year-old, and apparently ("sxajne") +too restless ("movema"). 9. I shall find him as soon as possible, +nevertheless I shall gladly accept your help. 10. The child is dressed +in white and wears a red hat." 11. As ("cxar") I am not at all lazy +("mallaborema"), I went along the stationary ("nemoveblaj") tables +as-far-as the end of the station, and there I saw that-sort-of child, +looking at the magazines and newspapers. 12. I led him to the lady, who +with tears in + + + + LESSON XLI. + + + THE DISTRIBUTIVE ADVERB "CXIEL". + +193. The distributive adverb of manner, related to the distributive +pronoun "cxiu", is "cxiel", in every way, in every manner: + + Li povas cxiel prepari gxin, he can prepare it in every manner. + Li estos cxiel helpata, he will be helped in every way. + + + THE DISTRIBUTIVE ADVERB "CXIOM". + +194. The distributive adverb of quantity, related to the distributive +pronoun "cxiu", is "cxiom", every quantity, the whole, all: + + Li prenis multe da sukero, sed ne cxiom da gxi, + he took a great deal of sugar, but not all of it. + Li elprenis cxiom de la teo el la teujo, + he took all of the tea out of the tea caddy. + + + THE PLUPERFECT PASSIVE TENSE. + +195. The compound tense made by combining the past passive participle +with the past tense of the verb "esti" expresses an act or condition +which "had been undergone" by the subject of the verb at some point in +past time. It is called the "pluperfect passive tense". The conjugation +of "vidi" in this tense is as follows: + + mi estis vidita, I had been seen (I was having-been-seen). + vi estis vidita, you had been seen. + li (sxi, gxi) estis vidita, he (she, it) had been seen. + ni estis viditaj, we had been seen. + vi estis viditaj, you had been seen. + ili estis viditaj, they had been seen. + + + THE FUTURE PERFECT PASSIVE TENSE. + +196. The compound tense made by combining the past passive participle +with the future tense of the verb "esti" expresses an act or condition +which "will have been undergone" by the subject of the verb at some +point in future time. It is called the "future perfect passive tense". +The conjugation of "vidi" in this tense is as follows: + + mi estos vidita, I shall have been seen (shall be having-been-seen). + vi estos vidita, you will have been seen. + li (sxi, gxi) estos vidita, he (she, it) will have been seen. + ni estos viditaj, we shall have been seen. + vi estos viditaj, you will have been seen. + ili estos viditaj, they will have been seen. + + + THE EXPRESSION OF MATERIAL. + +197. The material "out of which" something is made or constructed is +expressed by use of the preposition "el". As in English, an adjective +may be used instead of the prepositional phrase unless a verb or +participle lays stress upon the fact of construction: + + La tablo estas farita el ligno, the table is made out of wood. + La tablo estas ligna (el ligno), the table is wooden (of wood). + La infanoj konstruis domon el negxo, + the children built a house of (out of) snow. + Oni faras supon el asparago, they make soup out of asparagus. + + + THE SUFFIX "-ET-". + +198. The suffix "-et-" indicates diminution of degree in that which is +expressed by the root. It is thus in contrast to the augmentative suffix +"-eg-" (122). Sometimes an affectionate significance is given: + + beleta = pretty. libreto = booklet. + dormeti = to doze. monteto = hill. + floreto = floweret, floret. rideti = to smile. + lageto = pond, small lake. vojeto = path. + + + VOCABULARY + + best-o = animal. leon-o = lion. + cxiel = in every way (193). lud-i = to play. + cxiom = the whole, all (194). material-o = material. + donac-o = gift, present. posed-i = to own, to possess. + drap-o = cloth. pup-o = doll. + hund-o = dog. rost-i = to roast. + konsist-i = to consist. versx-i = to pour. + + + LA DONACO. + +Mi volas doni beletan donacon al mia plej juna fratino morgaux, sed ju +pli mi pensas pri gxi, des pli malfacile estas decidi pri la afero. +Estas duoble malfacile, cxar sxi jam posedas cxiun ludilon ("toy") kiun +oni povas imagi. Cxiu el sxiaj amikoj gxoje donacas ("make presents") al +tiel afabla knabino. Tamen mi iris hieraux matene al ludilobutiko, kaj +rigardis la ludilojn tie. Multaj konsistis el diversaj pupoj, grandaj +kaj malgrandaj, kaj belege vestitaj. Sed mi estas certa ke la fratineto +jam posedas suficxe da pupoj--tial mi ne acxetis tian ludilon, kvankam +ili estas cxiam interesaj al knabinetoj. Sur unu tablo kusxis cxiaj +malgrandaj bestoj, faritaj el ligno, drapo, kaj diversaj materialoj. +Estis cxevaletoj, hundetoj, katetoj, kaj flavaj leonetoj. Proksime +de tiuj staris malgrandaj brile koloritaj vagonaroj, kiujn oni povis +rapide movi, laux la maniero de grandaj vagonaroj. Etaj policanoj staris +apude, kaj estis cxial malfacile elekti la plej interesan el tiom da +interesaj ludiloj. Baldaux mi rimarkis knabineton apud mi. Cxiel sxi tre +similis al mia fratino, kaj tial mi decidis elekti tian ludilon, kia +estos elektita plej frue de la nekonata knabineto. Mi atendis trankvile, +kaj ecx legis unu aux du pagxojn de miaj jxus acxetitaj gazetoj kaj +tagjxurnaloj. Fine la beleta infano estis rigardinta preskaux cxiom +de la ludiloj kiuj okupis la tablojn, dum la kompatinda servistino +lace sxin sekvis. Tiam la knabineto kriis "Ho, kiel beleta pupodomo! +Estas litoj en la dormocxambroj; legomoj kaj rostita viando, faritaj +el papero, kusxas sur la tablo en la mangxo-cxambro; kaj mi vidas tie +pupon, kiu certe jxus faris la teon, kaj estas elversxonta gxin en tiujn +tasetojn!" Tuj mi faris decidon laux la plezuro de la knabineto, kaj +baldaux la pupodomo estis acxetita por mia fratineto. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. My pale delicate ("malsanema") little sister is always happy when +she has a new toy. 2. Her dolls were made out of cloth when she was a +very little girl, because otherwise she could too easily break them. +3. But yesterday my grandmother made a present of a doll (presented a +doll) to her, and since that moment she has been as happy as possible. +4. I have not seen tears in her eyes, or heard a cross ("koleretan") +word. 5. This new doll is made out of cloth, and its dress consists of +very pretty material. 6. My sister decided that she likes it better +than her other playthings, and I think that those poor ("kompatindaj") +other dolls will soon have been forgotten. 7. The doll seems in every +way more interesting than the little animals made out of cloth or wood, +which are on the table with her dolls. 8. She possesses a little dog and +a little cat, and a little lion, and until yesterday she had a wooden +pony. 9. The pony is already broken, and has been given away to a poor +("malricxa") child, the daughter of our laundress ("lavistino"). 10. My +sister possesses a small train of cars which she can move everywhere, +and she is very fond of ("ametas") this toy. 11. There are small sacks +of sand in the cars, and usually she is happy when she is pouring the +sand out of one of these into another, or putting all of the sand into +a box, by means of a small spoon. 12. For every reason I am doubly glad +today that she is busied in this manner ("tiamaniere"). 13. I wish to +take a walk along that pleasant path toward the hill, instead of waiting +for my little sister. 14. I must buy the meat to roast for supper, +before I come home from my walk. + + + + LESSON XLII. + + + THE FUTURE PASSIVE PARTICIPLE. + +199. The future passive participle, expressing that which "will be or +is about to be undergone" by the person or thing indicated by the word +modified, ends in "-ota", as "vidota", about to be seen: + + La punota infano mallauxte ploretas, + the child about to be punished whimpers softly. + La formovota tablo estas peza, + the table about to be moved away is heavy. + La domo konstruota de li estos bela, + the house going to be built by him will be beautiful. + + + THE PASSIVE PERIPHRASTIC FUTURE TENSES. + +200. The compound tenses formed by combining the future passive +participle with each of the three aoristic tenses of "esti" represent +an act or condition as "about to be undergone" in the present, past, +or future, respectively. These are called "passive periphrastic future +tenses". Except when great accuracy is desired, these tenses, like those +of the active voice (153) are not often used. A synopsis of "vidi" in +the first person singular of these tenses is as follows: + + Present Periphrastic Future. + mi estas vidota, I am about to be (going to be) seen. + + Past Periphrastic Future. + mi estis vidota, I was about to be (going to be) seen. + + Future Periphrastic Future. + mi estos vidota, I shall be about to be (going to be) seen. + + + THE GENERIC ARTICLE. + +201. The article is placed before nouns used in a comprehensive or +universal sense, indicating a whole class, kind, substance, or abstract +quality. In such use it is called the "generic article": + + La pacienco estas lauxdinda, patience is praiseworthy. + La vivo surtera estas nur parto de la vivo cxiama, + life on earth is merely a part of the life eternal. + La viro estas pli forta ol la virino, + man is stronger than woman. + +[Footnote: Cf. French "La patience est amere, mais son fruit est doux, +patience is bitter, but its fruit is sweet", German "Das Leben ist +kurtz, life is short", Italian "La speranza e il pan de miseri, hope is +the poor man's bread", Spanish "Las riquezas son bagajes de la fortuna, +riches are the baggage of fortune", etc. In English the generic article +(as in "the life eternal" above) may often be replaced by omission of +both "a" and "the."] + + + THE SUFFIX "-EC-". + +202. The suffix "-ec-" is used to form words indicating the "abstract +quality" of that which is expressed in the root, or formation, to which +it is attached: + + amikeco = friendship. fleksebleco = flexibility. + ofteco = frequency. patreco = fatherhood. + indeco = worthiness. patrineco = motherhood. + dankemeco = thankfulness. maltrankvileco = uneasiness. + + + VOCABULARY + + bord-o = bank, shore. pont-o = bridge. + brak-o = arm. sonor-i = to ring (intrans.). + fabrik-i = to manufacture. surtut-o = overcoat. + krut-a = steep. sving-i = to swing, to brandish. + lan-o = wool. sxip-o = ship. + mebl-o = piece of furniture. sxton-o = stone. + pas-i = to pass (intrans.). vapor-o = steam. + pitoresk-a = picturesque. vetur-i = to travel (in a vehicle). + + + SUR LA VAPORSXIPO. + +Unu el la plezuroj de la kampara vivo konsistas el la multenombraj +("numerous") okazoj por veturi cxien, kien oni volas iri, per kvietaj +pitoreskaj vojoj. Ni havas ankoraux unu ("still one, yet another") +okazon por plezuro en nia vilagxo, cxar ni povas veturi per vaporsxipo +sur la bela lago cxe kies bordo kusxas la vilagxo. Hieraux du kuzinoj +venis por viziti cxe ni, kaj tuj post la tagmangxo ni decidis promeni +laux tiu pitoreska vojeto al la lago. Kiam ni alvenis al la lago, +ni rimarkis ke beleta vaporsxipeto estis jxus forironta. Tial mi +acxetis tri biletojn, kaj kiel eble plej rapide ni suriris la sxipeton. +La sonoriloj ("bells") estis jam sonorintaj, kaj tuj post kiam ni +transmarsxis la ponteton, de la tero al la planko de la sxipeto, oni +forprenis la ponteton. Kelkaj personoj kiuj estis ankoraux sur la tero +kuris kun granda rapideco al la ponteto. Ili svingis la brakojn kaj la +ombrelojn tre energie, sed la sxipeto ne atendis ecx unu minuton. La +personoj sxajnis tre koleraj pro sia malfrueco, kaj ankoraux pli koleraj +pro la trankvila foriro de la sxipeto. Cxiu sur la sxipeto ridetis, cxar +la koleremo ("irascibility") estas cxiam amuza. Tiam cxiu komencis sin +amuzi tiel, kiel li deziris. Mi estis kunportinta dikan lanan surtuton, +sed pro la varmeco de la vetero mi ne bezonis gxin, kaj lasis gxin +sur apuda segxo. Ni atendis kun plezuro por vidi la krutajn montetojn +kiuj estos videblaj tuj kiam la sxipeto estos pasinta preter malgranda +arbaro. La pitoreskeco de la belaj montetoj estas difektota, cxar +grandaj fabrikejoj estas jam konstruataj cxe la montpiedoj. La sxtonoj +por la muroj jam kusxas pretaj apude, kune kun grandaj stangoj kaj aliaj +pecoj da ligno. Tie oni fabrikos tablojn, segxojn, kaj aliajn meblojn el +zorge elektita ligno. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. It is difficult in every way to select a present for a child who +already possesses enough toys. 2. In a toy-shop yesterday I examined +the dolls made out of woolen cloth and other material, and also looked +at the various little animals. 3. There were ponies, little dogs and +little lions and camels. 4. There were also little sets of furniture +(126), which consisted of tables, sofas and chairs. 5. On the tables +were small plates containing vegetables, fruits and roast (189) meat, +entirely made out of colored paper. 6. There were also little cups and +tumblers of thin glass, into which one could pour water or milk. 7. As +(cxar) one dollar was all (194) of the money which I had in my purse, +I left the shop. 8. I walked along a stony picturesque path toward the +lake, swinging my overcoat on my arm, while I thought over ("pripensis") +the difficulty, and tried to decide what sort of present to choose. 9. +The steamboat to B---- was just leaving, so I went across the footbridge +("ponteto") on to the pretty little ship, while its bells were ringing, +and rode an hour in the open ("libera") air. 10. The shore which we +passed is very picturesque, but its beauty is about to be spoiled, for a +large furniture factory is going to be built between that steep hill and +the lake. 11. Its proximity to the water is necessary, for water-power +("akvoforto") will be used. + + + + LESSON XLIII. + + + THE INDEFINITE PRONOUN. + +203. The indefinite pronoun (and pronominal adjective) "iu", any one, +a certain one, presents the idea of some person or thing, without +definitely characterizing it: + + Mi parolas pri iu, kiun vi konas, + I am talking about a certain one whom you know. + Mi vizitis iujn el viaj amikoj, + I visited some of your friends. + Mi havas kelkajn pomojn, sed iuj ne estas bonaj, + I have several apples, but certain ones are not good. + Iuj pontoj estas bone faritaj, + some bridges are well made. + +204. The indefinite pronoun "iu" has a possessive or genitive form +"ies", somebody's, someone's, a certain one's: + + Mi tusxis ies brakon, I touched someone's arm. + Cxu ies surtuto kusxas sur la tablo? + Is anybody's overcoat lying on the table? + Ies ludiloj estas rompitaj, someone's playthings are broken. + + + PARTICIPIAL NOUNS. + +205. Nouns may be formed from participles, by substituting the noun +ending "-o" for the adjectival ending "-a". Such participial nouns +indicate persons temporarily or non-professionally performing or +undergoing that which is expressed by the root: + + helpanto, one who is helping, an assistant. + elpensinto, one who has thought out something, an inventor. + legonto, one who is about to read. + vidato, one (being) seen. + sendito, one (having been) sent, an envoy. + la jugxoto, the one about to be judged, the accused. + +[Footnote: Participial nouns must not be confused with nouns formed +by the suffix "-ist-" (172) expressing professional or permanent +occupation: "rajdanto", a rider, "rajdisto", jockey, horseman, +"jugxanto", a judge (of something), "jugxisto", judge (professional), +"laboranto", a person working, "laboristo", laborer.] + + + THE PREFIX "EK-". + +206. Sudden or momentary action, or the beginning of an action or state, +is indicated by the prefix "ek-": + + ekdormi, to fall asleep. + ekkanti, to burst into song. + ekiri, to set out, to start. + ekridi, to burst into a laugh + ekrigardi, to glance at. + + + THE SUFFIX "-ID-". + +207. Words indicating the "young of, the child of, the descendant of," +are formed by use of the suffix "-id-": + + cxevalido, colt (from "cxevalo", horse). + hundido, puppy (from "hundo", dog). + katido, kitten (from "kato", cat). + leonido, a lion's whelp (from "leono", lion). + regxidino, a king's daughter, a princess (from "regxo", king). + + + VOCABULARY + + amas-o = heap, throng. kugl-o = bullet. + dauxr-i = to continue. milit-i = to fight, to make war. + hirund-o = swallow. (bird). ost-o = bone. + hom-o = human being. renvers-i = to upset, to overturn. + humor-o = temper, humor. sign-o = sign, mark. + ies = some one's (204). tend-o = tent. + iu = some one (203). tru-o = hole. + +[Footnote: Cf. the difference between "viro", man (in contrast to +"virino", woman), and "homo", man in the generic sense, including both +men and women.] + + + LA NESTO SUR LA TENDO. + +Unufoje iu regxo estis farinta militon kontraux la homoj de lando cxe la +bordo de pitoreska rivero. La soldatoj ne venis tien per vaporsxipoj, +sed estis konstruintaj ponton trans la rivero, por la veturiloj +("vehicles"). Estis necese resti kelkan tempon apud urbo kiun la regxo +volis ekataki, kaj li havis grandan tendaron ("encampment") antaux tiu +urbo. Unu tagon en la dauxro ("course") de la milito, iuj el la soldatoj +pasis preter la tendo de la regxo, laux la sxtona vojeto laux kiu ili +cxiutage marsxis por gardi la tendaron. Unu el cxi tiuj ekrimarkis ke +hirundo estas konstruinta sian neston sur la regxa tendo. Sur la nesto, +kiu estis bone konstruita el koto, sidis trankvile la hirundo. Dum la +soldatoj svingis la brakojn kaj ekridis unu post la alia, pri la kuragxa +birdo, la regxo auxdis ies vocxon. Li elvenis el sia tendo por eltrovi +kial la parolantoj faras tiom da bruo, kaj kial ili tiel ekkriis kaj +ekridis. Kiam la viroj montris al li la birdon, li diris kun bonhumora +rideto, "Tiu hirundo estos mia gasto. Cxiuj el la militistoj certe +zorgos de nun pri la hirundo kaj la hirundidoj." Tial la nesto restis +netusxata en la dauxro de cxiu batalo. Kelkaj kugloj pasis preter gxi, +sed la trankvileco de la birdo dauxris same kiel antauxe. Fine la regxo +venkis, per kruelega batalo. Tuj la venkintoj forportis la tendojn, kune +kun multaj militkaptitoj ("prisoners of war"). Nur la tendon de la regxo +oni lasis tie, cxar la regxo diris ke gxi nun apartenas al la hirundo. +Gxi jam estis malnova kaj eluzita, tra kiu la pluvo eniris per multe da +truoj. Sed gxi ankoraux staris, gxis iu tago somera kiam la hirundidoj +povis jam bone flugi. Tiam la vento subite renversis gxin, kaj gxi +ekfalis, kaj kusxis, amaso da cxifonoj, inter multe da kugloj, homaj +ostoj, kaj la ceteraj malgajaj postsignoj ("traces") de ies venko sur la +batalejo. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. There is a pretty story about a swallow which built its nest for its +young ("idoj") on the king's tent. 2. The soldiers who were walking +along the steep path past the tent glanced at it, and caught sight +of (206) the bird. 3. Some of them burst into a laugh, and gestured +("svingis la brakon") toward the bird, to point it out to their +comrades. 4. The good-humored king put on a thick woolen overcoat, and +came out of his tent, to inquire why his soldiers were conversing so +noisily there. 5. The tent was an expensive one, and contained handsome +furniture, as well as ("kaj ankau") a bell which always rang as soon +as ("tuj kiam") one touched it. 6. The king immediately noticed the +swallow's nest, and said with an amiable smile "Surely such a courageous +bird is a worthy (154) guest for a king." 7. The warriors (172) cared +for the swallow as much as possible during the course of the war. 8. +When the victors departed, they left that tent there. 9. Finally the +wind upset it, and it fell to the ground. 10. The young swallows already +could fly, by ("je") that time. 11. The battleground is covered with +bullets, piles of human bones, and similar melancholy signs of war. 12. +War (201) is wicked and shameful (154). 13. Why do kings and princes +wish to make war upon each other (180)? 14. When their sons have gone +away to (make) war, the mothers of the soldiers are very uneasy. 15. +Perhaps those sons will be prisoners of war. + + + + LESSON XLIV. + + + THE INDEFINITE ADJECTIVE. + +208. The indefinite adjective, related to the indefinite pronoun "iu", +is "ia", of any kind, some kind of, a certain kind of, expressing +indefinitely the quality of a person or thing: + + Estas ia birdo sur tiu arbo, + there is a bird of some sort on that tree. + Mi vidis iajn ostojn sur la tero, + I saw some kind of bones on the ground. + Estas ia homo en tiu tendo, + there is some sort of human being in that tent. + + + THE INDEFINITE ADVERB OF PLACE. + +209. The indefinite adverb of place, related to the indefinite pronoun +"iu", is "ie", anywhere, somewhere, in (at) a certain place. If the +verb in the sentence expresses motion toward the place indicated by +"ie", the ending "-n" is added (121): + + Ie en tiu arbaro estas leono, + somewhere in that forest is a lion. + Ie malantaux la soldatoj vi trovos amason da kugloj, + somewhere behind the soldiers you will find a heap of bullets. + La hirundo flugis ien, + the swallow flew somewhere (in some direction). + Mi iros ien, sed mi ankoraux ne scias kien, + I am going somewhere, but I do not yet know where. + + + PREDICATE NOMINATIVES. + +210. An adjective may stand in predicate relation to the direct object +of a transitive verb, as well as to the subject of an intransitive verb +(19). Such a predicate adjective, agreeing in number (21) with the +object of the verb, but remaining in the nominative case, indicates the +result produced by the verb upon the object, or the condition, quality +or temporary state in which this object is found: + + Li faris la mondon felicxa, + he made the world happy (made-happy the world). + Mi lasis la knabon trankvila, I left the boy calm (undisturbed). + Mi trovis la truon jam farita, I found the hole already made. + Mi lasis ilin bone punitaj, I left them well punished. + +[Footnote: Cf. the difference between the examples given and sentences +with the same words in an attributive (13) use: +Dio faris la mondon felicxan, + God made the happy world. +Mi lasis la knabon trankvilan, + I left the calm boy. +Mi trovis la jam faritan truon, + I found the already made hole. +Mi lasis ilin bone punitajn, + I left those who had been well punished.] + +211. A noun may be used similarly in predicate relation after a +transitive verb, as well as after an intransitive verb (20): + + Sxi nomis sian filinon Mario, she named her daughter Mary. + Oni elektis tiun reprezentanto, + they elected that one representative. + Mi vidos lin venkinto, I shall see him a conqueror. + Mi trovis lin sxtelisto, I found him a thief. + +[Footnote: Cf. the examples given and the following sentences using the +same words in apposition (48) or attributive relation (13): +Sxi nomis sian filinon Marion, + she named (mentioned) her daughter Mary. +Oni elektis tiun reprezentanton, + they elected that representative.] + + + VOCABULARY + + anonc-i = to announce. pasxt-i = to feed (flocks, etc.). + ia = some kind of (208). plend-i = to complain. + ie = somewhere (209). proces-o = legal process. + just-a = upright, just. rajt-o = right, privilege. + klar-a = distinct, clear. ripar-i = to mend, to repair. + kresk-i = to grow. sufer-i = to suffer. + oportun-a = convenient. sxnur-o = string. + + + LA CXEVALO KAJ LA SONORILO. + +Unufoje en malgranda urbeto ("town") en Italujo, la regxo, kiun oni +estis nominta Johano, metis grandan sonorilon en la vendejon. Li anoncis +ke cxiu plendanto pri maljusteco havos la rajton alvoki ("to summon") +jugxiston per tiu sonorilo. Tiam la jugxisto faros proceson en la +jugxejo pro tiaj plendantoj. Oni multe uzis la sonorilon, laux la anonco +de la regxo, kaj multe da plendantoj ricevis justecon. Sammaniere, +granda nombro da maljustuloj estis punata per gxia helpo. Kiam okazis +ke iu homo montris sin maljusta al alia, cxi tiu anoncis la aferon per +la oportuna sonorilo. Kiam iu faris la edzinon malfelicxa, la sonorilo +tuj sonoris por anonci sxiajn suferojn, kaj por alvoki la jugxiston. +Fine, oni tiom uzis la sonorilon justecan, ke la sxnurego ("rope") +estis tute eluzita, kaj gxia lasta uzinto okaze forrompis gxin. Sed +iu preterpasinto vidis la duonon de la sxnurego kusxanta sur la tero, +kaj riparis gxin per kelkaj brancxetoj de apuda arbo. Li pensis en si +"Iu plendonto nun trovos gxin preta por esti uzata." Rimarkinde, la +brancxetoj ne velkis, sed restis verdaj, kaj kreskis kiel antauxe. + +En la sama urbo logxis ricxulo kiu estis forvendinta preskaux cxiom de +siaj domoj, cxevaloj, cxevaletoj, cxevalidoj, hundoj kaj multekostaj +vestoj, cxar en sia maljuneco li amis nur la monon, kaj tiun li amegis. +Li ankoraux posedis nur unu maljunan cxevalon, kaj fine li forsendis +ecx tiun, por sin pasxti laux la vojo. En la dauxro de la tago, la +cxevalo ekrimarkis la brancxetojn kreskantajn sur la sxnurego de la +sonorilo. Tuj gxi kaptis la brancxetojn, por mangxi ilin, kaj tuj la +jugxisto auxdis la sonorilon klare sonoranta. Li rapidis al la vendejo, +kaj lauxte ekridis kiam li vidis ies cxevalon tie. Li decidis puni +la ricxulon cxar tiu cxi ne donis suficxe por mangxi al la maljuna +militcxevalo. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. The horse caught sight of the twigs with which a passer-by had mended +the bellrope. 2. Because it wished to eat the green leaves, it seized +the rope, and the bell immediately rang loudly and clearly. 3. The horse +almost upset the poles which supported (160) the roof over the bell +of-justice. 4. Any one (173) had the right to use this bell, to announce +any kind of injustice. 5. The judge burst into a laugh as soon as he saw +that sort of plaintiff standing there. 6. More often he saw human beings +as plaintiffs, instead of animals. 7. When a laborer showed himself +unkind to his wife and children, they could announce their sufferings by +means of the convenient bell. 8. People called it the bell of justice. +9. According to everyone's opinion, it is the duty of a just judge +to punish evildoers and unjust persons. 10. He decided that he would +institute proceedings ("faros proceson") against the owner (205) of the +horse. 11. The man had driven away the horse, and it was grazing ("sin +pasxtanta") along the road. 12. It was some one's duty to give some sort +of home to his horse. 13. The judge said, "I will find out whose horse +that poor beast is, and will put a mark opposite the name of that man. +I will not leave him alone ("trankvila"), but will show myself very +severe." + + + + LESSON XLV. + + + THE INDEFINITE TEMPORAL ADVERB. + +212. The indefinite temporal adverb, related to the indefinite pronoun +"iu", is "iam", sometime, any time, ever, once upon a time: + + Iam mi rakontos la aferon al vi, + sometime I will tell you the affair. + Regxo iam logxis tie, + a king once (upon a time) dwelt there. + Cxu vi iam faris proceson kontraux li? + Did you ever go to law against him? + + + THE INDEFINITE ADVERB "IAL". + +213. The indefinite adverb of motive or reason, related to the +indefinite pronoun "iu", is "ial", for any reason, for some reason, +for certain reasons: + + Ial li ne riparis la tendon, + for some reason he did not repair the tent. + Cxu vi opinias ke ial li maljuste suferas? + Do you think that for any reason he is suffering unjustly? + + + CAUSATIVE VERBS. + +214. The suffix "-ig-" is used to form verbs indicating the "causing, +rendering or bringing about" of that which is expressed in the root or +formation to which it is attached. Verbs containing the suffix "-ig-" +are called "causative verbs" and are always transitive (22). + +a. Causative verbs from adjectival roots indicate that the quality or +condition expressed in the root is produced in the object of the verb: + + dolcxigi, to sweeten, to assuage (from "dolcxa", sweet). + moligi, to soften (from "mola", soft). + plilongigi, to lengthen, to make longer (from "pli longa", longer). + faciligi, to facilitate (from "facila", easy). + beligi, to beautify (from "bela", beautiful). + +[Footnote: The meaning often resembles that of the predicate nominative +(210), as: +Li faris la mondon gxoja, + he made the world glad. +Li gxojigis la mondon, + he gladdened the world.] + +b. Causative verbs from verbal roots indicate that the action expressed +in the root is made to take place: + + dormigi, to put to sleep (from dormi, to sleep). + konigi, to make acquainted with (from koni, to know). + mirigi, to astonish (from miri, to wonder). + mortigi, to kill (from morti, to die). + + +c. Causative verbs may be formed from noun-roots, prepositions, adverbs, +prefixes and suffixes whose meaning permits: + + amasigi, to amass, to heap up (from amaso, pile). + kunigi, to unite, to bring together (from kun, with). + forigi, to do away with (from for, away). + ebligi, to render possible (-ebl-, 161). + + + EMPHASIS BY MEANS OF "JA". + +215. The emphatic form of the verb, expressed in English by "do", "did", +as in "I do study", "I did find it", "Do tell me", and by adverbs such +as "certainly", "indeed", etc., is expressed in Esperanto by placing the +adverb "ja", indeed, before the verb: + + Vi ja mirigas min! You do astonish me! + Li ja estas justa jugxisto, he is indeed an upright judge. + Li ja havis tiun rajton, he did have that right. + + + VOCABULARY + + akompan-i = to accompany. indiferent-a = indifferent. + dangxer-o = danger. ja = indeed (215). + gvid-i = to guide. kred-i = to believe. + ial = for some reason (213). salt-i = to leap, to jump. + iam = sometimes (212). tir-i = to draw, to pull. + +[Cf. the difference in meaning and use between "esti indiferenta", to be +indifferent, and "ne esti zorga", not to be careful, both of which may +be translated "not to care for": +Li estas indiferenta al la libro, + he does not care about (is indifferent to) the book. +Li ne zorgas pri la libro, + he does not care for (take care of) the book. +Estas indiferente al mi cxu li venos, aux ne, + I do not care whether he is coming or not.] + + + CXE LA MALNOVA PONTO. + +Iam logxis en nia urbeto junulo kiu havis afablan pli junan fratinon. +Unu tagon en la dauxro de la bela printempa vetero la junulo invitis +la fratinon veturi ien en veturilo tirata de du cxevaloj. La invito +gxojigis la knabinon, kaj sxi respondis ke sxi kun plezuro akompanos +la fraton. Tuj sxi pretigis sin por iri, kaj ili ekveturis. Ili pasis +preter pitoreskaj kampoj kaj arbaretoj, kaj fine alvenis al ponto trans +la rivero. Ili kredis gxin malnova kaj ne tre forta, kaj ial la junulino +estis treege timigita ("frightened"). "Ho, kara frato," sxi ekkriis, +kun eksalteto pro timo, "tiu ponto ja estas dangxera! Mi deziras marsxi +trans gxin, cxar iam la pezeco de unu persono estos tiom tro multe +por veturilo sur malforta ponto!" Sed la timemaj petoj de lia fratino +sxajne kolerigis la junulon, kaj li respondis malafable, "Nu, vi ja +mirigas min! Vi montras vin tre malsagxa, cxar la konstruintoj de tiu +ponto certe faris gxin suficxe forta por tia veturilo kia la nia. Ne +estos necese eksalti de gxi, kaj piede transiri la ponton." Tiamaniere +li penis trankviligi la kompatindan knabinon, sed tiaj vortoj nur +silentigis sxin, kaj sxi komencis mallauxte ploreti. Tamen la frato +montris sin indiferenta al sxiaj timemaj sentoj, kaj tute malatentis +sxiajn larmojn. Li gvidis la cxevalojn rekte trans la ponton, dum la +fratino atendis la bruegon de rompigita ligno, kaj imagis ke sxi estas +tuj mortigota. Tamen, la ponto estis tiel forta kiel la junulo estis +klariginta, kaj tute ne estis dangxera. Sed pro la malafableco de la +frato al la fratino, ili tute ne agrable pasigis la ceterajn horojn de +la posttagmezo, malgraux la beleco de la vetero kaj de la kamparo. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Somewhere in that same town, there lived another youth, who also had +an amiable sister. 2. One convenient day, she accompanied him for a +ride in a vehicle drawn by a fast horse. 3. When they reached ("alvenis +al") the bridge, this girl also was frightened for some reason, the +same as the girl in the other story. 4. She said "I do not intend to +complain, but the carriage will certainly be too heavy while we are +in it. I am afraid that that bridge is dangerous, so I will jump out +and walk. I will also pick ("kolektos") some sort of flowers, among +the flowers growing there, near where someone's horses are grazing. +I will not delay ("atendigi") you long." He replied, "That bridge is +entirely safe ("nedangxera") but instead of explaining ("making-clear") +to you about it, I will lead the horse across the bridge, while you +walk across, for I am not indifferent to your fear." Then he helped his +sister get out ("eliri") of the carriage, and guided the horse across. +Then he said with a pleasant smile, "It was not necessary to cross on +foot." She replied, "No, but you showed yourself a courteous brother, +and were very patient." Then they rode on ("antauxen"), and talked to +each other very amiably. + + + + LESSON XLVI. + + + THE INDEFINITE ADVERB "IEL". + +216. The indefinite adverb of manner, related to the indefinite pronoun +"iu", is "iel", somehow, in any way, in some (any) manner: + + Mi penis vin iel gvidi tien, + I tried somehow to guide you thither. + Iel ni anoncos la decidon, + we shall announce the decision in some way. + + + THE INDEFINITE ADVERB "IOM". + +217. The indefinite adverb of quantity, related to the indefinite +pronoun "iu", is "iom", some, any quantity, a certain amount: + + Cxu vi havas iom da tempo? Have you some time? + Sxi varmigos iom da akvo, she will heat some water. + Tiu metodo estas iomete dangxera, + that way is a little dangerous (198). + La sxnuro estas iom tro longa, the string is somewhat too long. + + + THE SUFFIX "-AD-". + +218. The suffix "-ad-" is used to form words indicating that the action +expressed in the root is continuous, habitual or repeated. + +a. Verbs formed with the suffix "-ad-" are called "frequentative +verbs", and may often be translated by the root meaning, preceded by +"keep (on)", "used to", etc.: + + frapadi, to keep knocking, to knock repeatedly. + rigardadi, to keep on looking, to gaze. + vizitadi, to keep visiting, visit repeatedly, frequent, haunt. + Antaux du jaroj sxi tre dolcxe kantadis, + two years ago she used to sing very sweetly. + +b. Nouns formed with the suffix "-ad-" are often equivalent to English +verbal nouns ending in "-ing", and (with the generic article, 201) may +replace the infinitive as subject (130) and sometimes as object (29): + + kriado, crying, shouting (from krio, cry, shout). + movado, motion, movement in general (from movo, a movement). + pafado, shooting, fusillade (from pafo, a shot). + parolado, a speech, address (from parolo, a word spoken). + pensado, thought, contemplation (from penso, a thought). + La promenado donas plezuron, the taking of walks gives pleasure. + Mi preferas la legadon de tiaj libroj, + I prefer the reading of (to read) such books. + + + THE USE OF "MEM". + +219. The invariable pronoun "mem", self, selves, is intensive, and lays +stress upon the substantive which immediately precedes it, or which it +obviously modifies. (The combination of "mem" with personal pronouns +must not be confused with reflexive pronouns, 39, 40): + + Mi mem akompanos vin, I myself shall accompany you. + La gvidisto mem perdis la vojon, the guide himself lost the way. + Mi kredos al la viro mem, I shall give credence to the man himself. + La viroj mem defendis sin, the men themselves defended themselves. + Gxi pendas sur la muro mem, + it hangs on the very wall (the wall itself). + Sxi venis mem por vidi vin, she came herself to see you. + Mi ekvidis la sxteliston mem, + I caught a glimpse of the thief himself. + + + VOCABULARY + + Arhximed-o = Archimedes. jxet-i = to throw, to cast. + ban-i = to bathe (trans.). kompren-i = to understand. + fals-i = to debase, to forge. kron-o = crown. + Hieron-o = Hiero. lev-i = to lift, to raise. + honest-a = honest. lok-o = place. + ide-o = idea. mem = self, selves (219). + iel = somehow (216). or-o = gold. + iom = some (217). Sikeli-o = Sicily. + + + ARHXIMEDO KAJ LA KRONOJ. + +Iam bonekonata regxo, nomita Hierono, vivadis en granda urbo en Sikelio, +kiu estas sudokcidenta de Italujo. Li suspektis ke iam la kronfaristoj, +kiuj fabrikadis kronojn por li, ne uzis cxiom de la oro donita al ili de +la regxo, sed falsadis gxin per la uzado de iu alia materialo. Tamen, +Hierono ne povis per si mem eltrovi cxu oni falsadas la oron. Tial li +venigis grekan klerulon, kies nomo estis Arhximedo, kaj rakontis al +li sian timon pri la falsita oro. Arhximedo certigis lin ke iel li ja +eltrovos pri la falsado, kaj helpos la regxon kontraux la falsintoj, +kiuj estis tiel indiferentaj al la honesteco. Cxiutage li multe pensadis +pri la afero, sed ju pli longe li pensadis, des malpli sukcesaj estis +liaj penoj, gxis iu tago, kiam li okaze faris interesan eltrovon. Li +estis jxus baninta sin, kaj subite ekrimarkis ke dum li mem restis en la +akvo, ial sxajnis esti iomete pli multe da akvo en la banujo ol antauxe. +Tuj li komprenis ke lia korpo estas forpusxinta iom de la akvo el gxia +loko. Li komprenis ke tiom da akvo estas elpusxita, kiom antauxe estis +en tiu loko kie li mem estas. Tia levado de la akvo per lia korpo donis +al li sagxan ideon, kaj li prenis en la mano du aux tri orajn kronojn. +Li jxetis ilin unu post la alia en la banujon, kaj zorge rimarkis al kiu +alteco cxiu el ili levis la akvon. Tiam li eltiris ilin, kaj enmetis la +kronon pri kiu Hierono estis plej suspektema. Li rimarkis ke cxi tiu ne +tiel alten levis la akvon, tial li estis certa ke la oro en gxi estas +multe falsita. Oni diras ke kiam li eltrovis cxi tiun metodon por montri +la falsadon de la malhonestaj kronfaristoj, li eksaltetis pro gxojo kaj +ekkriis "euxreka," kiu estas la greka vorto por "mi estas trovinta." +Tiun saman vorton oni ankoraux nun uzadas en la angla lingvo. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Several centuries ago, a rich and powerful ("multepova") king, +named Hiero, lived in Sicily. 2. Sometimes he was suspicious about the +crown-makers who wrought ("faris") crowns for him, out of the gold which +he himself gave them. 3. He wondered whether these men were honest. 4. +He suspected that perhaps ("eble") they did not use all of the gold +which was given them, but kept some of it for themselves. 5. He could +not of himself ("per si mem") discover whether they were debasing the +gold in his crowns, so he summoned a wise man from ("el") Greece. 6. To +this well-informed man, whose name was Archimedes, he made clear his +fears. 7. Archimedes assured the king that he would find out somehow +about the matter. 8. He meditated several hours every day, and tried to +discover a satisfactory ("kontentiga") method, but for some reason he +did not succeed. 9. One day, however, when he was bathing (himself), he +noticed that there seemed to be a little more water in the bathtub when +he himself was in it, than before. 10. The rising of the water gave him +an idea. 11. He threw the crowns one after another into the water, and +noticed how much water each displaced. 12. In this manner ("tiamaniere") +he understood how much each had been alloyed by the local ("lokaj") +crown-makers, whom Hiero soon threw into prison ("la malliberejon"). + + + + LESSON XLVII. + + + THE NEGATIVE PRONOUN. + +220. The negative pronoun (and pronominal adjective) is "neniu", no one, +nobody, no (formed of "ne" and "iu", with a medial "n" inserted for the +sake of euphony): + + Neniu el vi komprenas min, no one of you understands me. + Mi trovis neniun preta por iri, I found nobody ready to go. + Li havis neniun honestan serviston, he had no honest servant. + +221. The negative pronoun "neniu" has a possessive or genitive form, +"nenies", nobody's, no one's: + + Cxies afero estas nenies afero, + everybody's affair is nobody's affair. + Li lauxdos nenies ideojn, + he will praise no one's ideas. + + + THE ADVERBIAL PARTICIPLE. + +222. A participle may be equivalent not only to a clause describing or +determining the substantive modified, as in "la parolanta viro", the +man who-is-talking, "la sendota knabo", the boy who-will-be-sent, but +also to an "adverbial" clause. + +[Footnote: An adverbial clause modifies a verb, as in "dum vi atendis, +li foriris", while you waited, he went away; "cxar mi gxojis, mi ridis", +because I was happy, I laughed.] + +Such a participle has for its subject the subject of the verb in the +sentence (though not in attributive or predicate relation with it), and +indicates some relation of time, cause, manner, situation, etc., between +the action of the participle and that of the main verb in the sentence. +An adverbial participle is given the ending "-e": + + Gxojante, mi ridis, + rejoicing, I laughed. + Forironte, ni adiauxis lin, + being about to depart, we bade him farewell. + Baninte la infaneton, sxi dormigis gxin, + after bathing (having bathed) the baby, she put it to sleep. + Estante ruzaj, ili falsis la oron, + being sly, they debased the gold. + Tiel helpate de vi, mi sukcesos, + thus helped by you, I shall succeed. + Silentigite de li, ili ne plendis, + (having been) silenced by him, they did not complain. + Punote, li ekkriis, + being about to be punished, he gave a cry. + Ne parolinte, li foriris, + without speaking (not having spoken), he left. + Li venis, ne vokite, + he came without being (came not-having-been) called. + +[Footnote: The adverbial participle must not be used in rendering the +English "nominative absolute" construction of a participial clause +referring to something else than the subject. In such a sentence a +clause must be used: "The youth being young, everyone watched him", cxar +la junulo estis juna, cxiu rigardadis lin; "the work being finished, he +went away", kiam la lahoro estis finita, li foriris.] + + + THE PREFIX "RE-". + +223. The prefix "re-" indicates the repetition of an action or state, or +the "return" of a person or thing to its original place or state. (Cf. +English prefix "re-"; meaning either "again" or "back.") + + rekapti = to recapture. rebrili = to shine back, to reflect. + renovigi = to renew. reteni = to hold back, to retain. + rekoni = to recognize. reveni = to come back, to return. + gxis la revido = au revoir. reiri = to go back, to return. + ree = again, anew. rejxeti = to throw back, to reject. + + + VOCABULARY + + brul-i = to be in flames, to burn. masxin-o = machine. + cilindr-o = cylinder. nenies = nobody's (221). + detru-i = to destroy. neniu = no one (220). + fam-a = famous. problem-o = problem. + filozof-o = philosopher. Sirakuz-o = Syracuse. + fizik-o = physics. spegul-o = mirror. + insul-o = island. sxrauxb-o = screw. + + + LA FILOZOFO ARHXIMEDO. + +Eble neniu greka klerulo estis pli fama ol la filozofo Arhximedo. Longe +studadinte la problemojn de la geometrio kaj de la fiziko, li faris +multe da eltrovoj. Li tiel multe komprenis pri la uzado de la levilo +("lever") ke oni rakontas la sekvantan rakonteton pri li: Li diris al +la regxo Hierono "Kiam oni donos al mi lokon sur kiu mi povos stari, mi +mem ekmovos la mondon per mia levilo!" Zorge ekzameninte la ecojn (202) +de la sxrauxbo kaj de la cilindro, li elpensis diversajn masxinojn en +kiuj sxrauxboj kaj cilindroj estas iamaniere kunigitaj. Uzante unu el +tiuj masxinoj, oni povis facile pusxi al la akvo la sxipojn (necese +konstruitajn sur la tero); kiujn antauxe la viroj mem enpusxis en la +akvon, kun multe da laboro, aux tiris tien per cxevaloj. Uzante alian +masxinon elpensitan de tiu greko, oni povis levi akvon de unu loko al +alia. Ankoraux nun oni nomas tian masxinon la "sxrauxbo de Arhximedo." +En la dauxro de granda militado kontraux la urbo Sirakuzo, sur la +insulo Sikelio, Arhximedo elpensis diversajn masxinojn por helpi la +Sirakuzanojn. Vidinte ke la sunlumo rebrilas de spegulo, li faris el +speguloj masxinon per kiu li ekbruligis ("set on fire") la sxipojn de +la malamikoj. Cxi tiuj, ne komprenante kiamaniere* la sxipoj ekbrulis, +estis multe timigitaj. Sed ecx helpite de Arhximedo la Sirakuzanoj ne +venkis. Post iom da tempo, la malamikoj kaptis kaj tute detruis la urbon +Sirakuzon. Nenies domo restis netusxita, kaj centoj da personoj estis +mortigataj. Oni ne scias per kia morto Arhximedo mortis, sed eble la +malamikoj, iel rekoninte la elpensinton de la spegulmasxino, jxetis lin +en la maron aux alimaniere lin mortigis. + +[Footnote: The use of "kiamaniere" (in what manner, how) is preferable +to that of "kiel" in indirect questions, as the latter might be confused +with the use of "kiel", meaning "as" (156).] + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. The Greek philosopher Archimedes was not only famous long ago, among +his contemporaries (167, b, 132), but even today his name is well known +everywhere. 2. No one's knowledge about the problems of geometry and +physics was greater. 3. No one understood better the properties of the +cylinder and the screw. 4. Having studied these properties a long time, +and having meditated a great deal about them, he understood them a +little (217) better than any one else ("iu alia"). 5. The story about +the debasing of the gold crowns has already been told. 6. There is +another anecdote, namely ("nome"), that he remarked to Hiero, king of +Syracuse, that with a lever he would move the world, as soon as he +had a place on which he himself could stand. 7. Having discovered how +("kiamaniere") the sunlight is reflected by a mirror, and heats the +wood upon which it shines, he invented a machine made out of mirrors. +8. Aided by this machine, the Syracusans were able to set on fire the +wooden ships of the enemy. 9. The enemy, however, were not repulsed +from the island, but at once rebuilt and repaired their ships, and sent +them back to attack the city again. 10. Finally, having captured the +city, they destroyed it, and killed a large number of the inhabitants +("logxantoj"), also Archimedes himself. + + + + LESSON XLVIII. + + + THE NEGATIVE ADJECTIVE. + +224. The negative adjective, related to the negative pronoun "neniu," is +"nenia", no kind of, no sort of, expressing a negative idea concerning +the quality of a person or thing: + + Mi havas nenian spegulon, I have no sort of mirror. + Nenia problemo estas tro malfacila por li, + no sort of problem is too difficult for him. + + + THE NEGATIVE ADVERB OF PLACE. + +225. The negative adverb of place is "nenie", nowhere. The ending "-n" +may be added, as to other adverbs (121), to indicate direction: + + Nenie estas pli bona masxino, nowhere is there a better machine. + Mi iros nenien morgaux, I shall go nowhere tomorrow. + + + THE NEGATIVE TEMPORAL ADVERB. + +226. The negative adverb of time is "neniam", never, at no time: + + Neniam vivis pli fama filozofo, + there never lived a more famous philosopher. + Vi neniam trovos tiajn sxrauxbojn aux cilindrojn, + you will never find that kind of screws or cylinders. + + + THE SUFFIX "-AJX-". + +227. The suffix "-ajx-" is used to form "concrete" words. It is thus in +contrast to the abstract-forming suffix "-ec-" (202). + + +a. A word formed from a verbal root by means of the suffix "-ajx-" +expresses a concrete example of "a thing which undergoes" (or, in the +case of intransitives, "results from") the action indicated in the root: + + konstruajxo = a building. kreskajxo = a plant, a growth. + sendajxo = consignment, thing sent. rebrilajxo = a reflection. + mangxajxo = food. restajxo = remainder. + +b. A word formed from an adjectival root or formation by means of the +suffix "-ajx-" indicates "a thing characterized by" or "possessing the +quality" expressed in the root or formation to which it is attached: + + belajxo = a thing of beauty. mirindajxo = a marvel. + maljustajxo = an injustice. okazintajxo = an occurrence. + +c. A word formed from a noun-root by means of the suffix "-ajx-" +indicates "a thing made" or "derived from" that which is expressed in +the root: + + sukerajxo = a sweet, confection. orajxo = a gold object. + ovajxo = an omelet. araneajxo = a spider-web. + + + THE ADVERB "JEN". + +228. The adverb "jen", behold, here, there, is used to point out or +call attention to something: + + Jen estas la problemo! There is the problem! + Jen la filozofo! Behold the philosopher! + Jen sxi ludas, jen sxi studas, now she plays, now she studies. + Mi faris gxin jene, I did it as follows. + Mi agis laux la jena metodo, I acted in the following way. + Li diris la jenajn vortojn, he spoke the following words. + + + VOCABULARY + + arangx-i = to arrange. neniam = never (226). + art-o = art. nenie = nowhere (225). + ber-o = berry. pentr-i = to paint. + jen = there, behold (228). postul-i = to demand. + jxaluz-a = jealous. precip-a = principal, chief. + konkurs-o = competition. regul-o = rule. + lert-a = skilled, clever. tromp-i = to deceive. + nenia = no kind of (224). vin-o = wine. + + + DU ARTKONKURSOJ. + +Vivadis en Grekujo antaux multaj jarcentoj du lertaj famaj pentristoj. +Ili estis reciproke jxaluzaj, kaj neniam povis interparoli paceme. +Ne povinte decidi la problemon, kaj eltrovi kiu el ili estas la plej +lerta, ili fine arangxis konkurson pri la pentrado. Laux gxiaj reguloj, +cxiu el ili pentris pentrajxon, por montri sian lertecon. Unu pentris +teleron da vinberoj ("grapes"). Gxi estis tiel mirinde kolorigita ke ecx +la birdoj venis kaj penis gxin mangxi, pensinte gxin ne nur pentrajxo, +sed la vinberoj mem. "Nenia pentrajxo povos superi la mian," gxojege +ekkriis la pentristo, "jen, la birdoj mem rekonas mian lertecon!" Tiam +li diris al la alia artisto, "Nu, kial vi ne fortiras tiun kurtenon? +Mi volas rigardi vian pentrajxon." La dua pentristo respondis kun +rideto, "Jen estas mia pentrajxo. Nenie apud vi estas kurteno, sed vi +vidas nur pentrajxon de kurteno antaux tiu konstruajxo." Tre mirigite, +la pentrinto de la vinberoj diris "Vi ja superas min en la pentrado. +Mi trompis la birdojn per mia pentrajxo, sed vi trompas ecx aliajn +artistojn! Tia lerteco estas ja mirindajxo!" + +Oni rakontas similan okazintajxon pri fama artisto kiu pentris multe +da pentrajxoj por Aleksandro Granda. Malgajninte en konkurso kontraux +iuj aliaj artistoj, li opiniis ke la jugxintoj estas maljustaj al +li, precipe pro la jxaluzeco. Li ekkriis "Cxar niaj pentrajxoj estas +bildoj de cxevaloj, ili certe postulas cxevalajn jugxantojn!" Tial oni +enkondukis du aux tri cxevalojn. La cxevaloj, tute ne rigardinte la +pentrajxojn de la aliaj artistoj, kuris rekte al tiu de la plendinta +artisto, kaj klare montris sian rekonadon de la tie pentritaj cxevaloj. +Surprizite, oni diris "Jen estas justaj jugxantoj!" Tuj oni lauxdis la +pentriston kaj severe punis la malhonestajn homajn jugxintojn. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION + +1. Syracuse was the largest city on the island of Sicily. 2. The famous +philosopher and physicist Archimedes lost his life when that city was +destroyed and entirely burned. 3. At least, no sort of trace of him +seems to have been found after that occurrence. 4. Never, perhaps, was +there a more learned man in Syracuse. 5. Greece was also famous for +its skilled painters, and there are many anecdotes about them. 6. A +painter who failed in a certain competition believed that none of the +judges had been just to him. 7. He exclaimed "Behold this iniquity +(injustice)! Nowhere can I find a human being who is not jealous. 8. +Since the paintings are chiefly of horses, do they not require horses +for judges?" 9. His proposal was accepted (54), and some horses were led +in. 10. Without noticing (222) the other paintings, the horses walked +at once to the picture of the unsuccessful artist, and showed immediate +recognition of the horses painted there. 11. This act showed which +competitor ("konkursinto") was the most skilful. 12. The painter, having +deceived the horses, as another artist had once deceived birds by a +picture of grapes, said "Animals decide not by rules, but by feelings." + + + + LESSON XLIX. + + + THE NEGATIVE ADVERBS "NENIAL", "NENIEL", "NENIOM". + +229. The negative adverb of motive or reason, related to the negative +pronoun "neniu", is "nenial", for no reason: + + Li estas nenial jxaluza, he is jealous for no reason. + Nenial li trompis vin, for no reason he deceived you. + +230. The negative adverb of manner is "neniel", in no way. + + Mi povos neniel arangxi konkurson, + I can in no way arrange a competition. + Tiu ago estas neniel lauxregula, + That act is in no way regular. + +231. The negative adverb of quantity is "neniom", no amount of, not +any, none, no: + + Tiu pentrajxo postulas neniom da lerteco, + such a painting requires no skill. + Estas neniom da vino en lia glaso, + there is no wine in his glass. + + + THE SUFFIX "-IGX-". + +232. The suffix "-igx-" is used to form intransitive verbs of an +"inchoative" nature. + +a. Inchoative verbs from the roots of "intransitive verbs" indicate +the "beginning" or "coming into existence" of the act or condition +expressed in the root: + + sidigxi, to become sitting, to sit down, to take a seat. + starigxi, to become standing, to stand up. + +b. Intransitive verbs may be similarly formed from the roots of +"transitive" verbs, and indicate an action of the verb not immediately +due to the subject's acting upon itself (as in the case of reflexive +verbs, 41) and not caused by any direct agency (as in the case of the +passive voice, 169): + + La pordo fermigxas, the door closes (goes shut). + La veturilo movigxas, the vehicle moves. + La brancxo rompigxas, the branch breaks. + Grupo da personoj kolektigxis, a group of persons gathered. + +[Footnote: Cf. the examples given and the following sentences in which +the same verbal roots are used in the simple form and in the passive +voice: + + Ni fermas la pordon, La pordo estas fermita, + we close the door. the door is (has been) closed. + + Oni movas la veturilon, La veturilo estas movata, + they move the vehicle. the vehicle is being moved. + + Mi rompas la brancxon, La brancxo estas rompita, + I break the branch. the branch is (has been) broken. + + Li kolektis florojn, Floroj estas kolektitaj, + he gathered flowers. flowers have been gathered.] + +c. Intransitive verbs may similarly be formed from "adjectival" roots, +and indicate the acquiring of the characteristic or quality expressed in +the root: + + lacigxi, to become tired, to get tired. + varmigxi, to become warm, to get warm. + maljunigxi, to become old, to age. + +d. Verbs may similarly be formed from noun-roots, adverbs, +prepositions, prefixes and suffixes whose meaning permits: + + amikigxi, to become a friend. kunigxi, to become joined. + forigxi, to go away, to disappear. ebligxi, to become possible. + + + VOCABULARY + + apenaux = hardly, scarcely. nenial = for no reason (229). + atmosfer-o = atmosphere. neniel = in no way (230). + dub-i = to doubt. neniom = none, no (231). + efektiv-a = effective, real. ombr-o = shadow. + hel-a = clear, bright. pejzagx-o = landscape. + horizont-o = horizon. radi-o = ray. + krepusk-o = twilight. tropik-a = tropical. + + + LA KREPUSKO. + +Estas tre agrable sidigxi sur la herbon, kaj rigardi la plilongigxantajn +ombrojn, en la dauxro de bela somera vespero. La suno grade mallevigxas +post la montetoj, la nuboj farigxas ("become") bele kolorigitaj, kaj la +tuta pejzagxo pli kaj pli beligxas. Malrapide la krepusko anstatauxas la +helan sunlumon, kaj fine cxie noktigxas. La krepusko estas la rebrilado +de la sunlumo tra la atmosfero, post la mallevigxo de la suno mem, laux +la jena maniero: la radioj suprenbriladas, en la aeron super niaj kapoj, +en la okcidenta parto de la cxielo. De tie ili rebriladas tiamaniere ke +la cxielo lumigxas. Kiam estas iom da nuboj sur la cxielo okcidenta, +la sunradioj briladas rekte kontraux ilin, belege kolorigante tiujn +nubojn. En tropikaj landoj la krepuskigxo okazas tre rapide. Gxi ne +nur komencigxas subite, sed ankaux dauxras tre mallongan tempon. La +noktigxo preskaux tuj sekvas la taglumon, kun rimarkinda subiteco. +Apenaux komencigxas la krepusko, kiam la subiranta suno sxajnas fali +preter la horizonto. Tute male ("quite on the contrary"), en landoj +treege nordaj, krepuskigxas tre frue en la tago, kaj la krepusko dauxras +longan tempon antaux ol la nokto venas. Efektive ("really"), en tiuj +landoj la krepusko tute anstatauxas la nokton, dum ses monatoj de la +jaro. Tie oni havas krepuskon dum la unua duonjaro, kaj la taglumon +dum la sekvinta duonjaro. Krepusko dauxranta tiom da tempo estas tiel +rimarkinda kiel tago de tia sama longeco. Mi dubas cxu tia dividado +de la tempo inter tago kaj malhela nokto estas agrabla, sed oni povas +neniel malhelpi gxin. Cxiu tre norda lando havas la saman travivajxon +("experience"), cxiujare, kaj efektive oni apenaux rimarkas gxin. Pri +cxiu plendanto oni nur diras "Li estas nenial malkontenta." + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +of ("pri") the two painters who, being mutually (180) jealous, arranged +a competition. 2. One painted a cluster (126) of grapes, so excellently +that the birds flew to it. 3. The other deceived his rival (competitor) +himself, by a painting of a curtain. 4. The most famous artists, +however, often show their skill by painting (222) pictures of the +sunset, chiefly, I think, because of the brilliant colors. 5. In fact +("efektive"), I doubt whether there is a more beautiful sight (227, +b) than the sunset. 6. It is made by the bright rays of the sun, +which shine back through the atmosphere, long after the sun itself +has passed below the horizon. 7. The more moisture ("malsekajxo") +there is in the air, the more brilliant the colors are, and the more +beautiful the entire landscape becomes. 8. In tropical lands, night +falls very suddenly, and there is almost no sort of twilight. 9. In +fact, a twilight scarcely occurs there. 10. In the lands far north, on +the contrary, the twilight lasts six months, and the remainder of the +year is the day. 11. To dwell in such a land is surely a remarkable +experience. 12. It can in no way be understood by persons who have never +lived there. 13. Such things increase (make greater) my desire to visit +those northern lands. 14. For no reason, however, do I + + + + LESSON L. + + + THE PRONOUNS ENDING IN "-O". + +233. In contrast to the pronouns ending in "-u" ("tiu", "kiu", "cxiu", +"iu", "neniu"), a similar series ending in "-o" refers to an object, +fact or action not definitely specified (but never to a person), like +English "what, anything, something, nothing," etc. Because of their +somewhat vague meaning, these pronouns do not occur in the plural, nor +are they ever used as pronominal adjectives: + +Demonstrative: tio = that (thing, fact or action). + cxi tio = this (thing, fact or action). + +Interrogative and Relative: kio = what. + +Distributive: cxio = everything. + cxio cxi = all this. + +Indefinite: io = anything, something. + +Negative: nenio = nothing. + +234. A pronoun (not personal) in predicate or relative relation to a +pronoun ending in "-o" must itself be of the same series: + + Kio estas cxi tio, kion vi diras? What is this, which you say? + Sxi vidis tion, kio jxus okazis, she saw that which just occurred. + Cxio cxi, kion vi vidas, estas farita de ili, + everything here (all this), which you see, was done by them. + Li havas ion por vi, sed nenion por mi, + he has something for you, but nothing for me. + + + CORRELATIVE WORDS. + +235. Pronouns, adjectives and adverbs, which are related to each other +as corresponding demonstratives, interrogatives, relatives, etc., are +called "correlatives". In Esperanto the correlative system is more +complete than in any other language, and may be summarized as follows: + + Demonstrative Interrogative Distributive Indefinite Negative + and Relative + + tio (233) kio (233) cxio (233) io (233) nenio (233) + that (thing) what, which everything anything nothing + + tiu (56) kiu (146) cxiu (173) iu (203) neniu (220) + that (one) who, which every, each any (one) no (one) + + ties (62) kies (147) cxies (174) ies (204) nenies(221) + that one's whose every one's any one's no one's + + tia (65) kia (150) cxia (177) ia (208) nenia (224) + that kind of what kind of every kind any kind no kind of + + tie (68) kie (151) cxie (182) ie (209) nenie (225) + there where everywhere anywhere nowhere + + tiam (73) kiam (155) cxiam (187) iam (212) neniam (226) + then when always any time never + + tial (78) kial (129) cxial (188) ial (213) nenial (229) + therefore, wherefore, for every for any for no + so why reason reason reason + + tiel (88), kiel (156) cxiel (193) iel (216) neniel (230) + (156) thus, so how, as every way any way in no way + + tiom (104) kiom (164) cxiom (194) iom (217) neniom (231) + that much, how much, all, the some, any none, no + so much as whole of amount quantity + + + THE USE OF "AJN". + +236. The word "ajn" may be placed after any interrogative-relative or +indefinite correlative word, to give a generalizing sense. In order +to avoid confusion with the accusative plural ending, "ajn" is "never +attached" to the correlative which it follows: + + kio ajn = whatever. kiam ajn = whenever. + kies ajn = whosesoever. kiom ajn = however much. + kie ajn = wherever. ia ajn = any kind whatever. + + + THE SUFFIX "-ING-". + +237. The suffix "-ing-" is used to form words indicating that which +holds "one" specimen of what is expressed in the root: + + glavingo = scabbard. plumingo = pen-holder. + lumingo = torch-holder. ingo = sheath, case, socket. + + + VOCABULARY + + cxio = everything (233). nenio = nothing (233). + Gordio = Gordius. ofer-o = offering. + io = anything (233). reg-i = to rule, to govern. + jug-o = yoke. sankt-a = sacred, holy. + klin-i = to bend, incline (trans). templ-o = temple. + kio = what (233). tio = that (thing) (233). + lig-i = to tie, to bind. util-a = useful. + + + LA GORDIA LIGAJXO. + +Unufoje en antikva tempo la regatoj de iu regxolando en Azio ne +havis regxon. Ne sciante kion fari, ili demandis de la dioj. La dioj +respondis, "Kiu ajn venos unue en nian sanktan templon hodiaux, por fari +oferojn, estos via regxo." Okaze kamparano nomita Gordio venis al la +templo, jxus post la tagigxo. La regatoj tuj rekonis la estontan regxon, +kvankam li veturis sur peza malbela veturilo. Salutinte la surprizitan +kamparanon, oni nomis lin regxo. Decidinte fari dankoferon al la dioj, +Gordio metis en la templon la veturilon mem sur kiu li tien veturis, +antaux ol li komencis regi kiel la nova regxo. La jugo estis alligita +("tied fast") per granda ligajxo el sxnurego. Post la morto de Gordio +oni grade komencis kredi ion tre interesan pri tio. Oni diris ke tiu, +kiu povos iel ajn malligi tiun ligajxon, farigxos reganto super cxiuj +regxoj de Azio. + +Post kelkaj jaroj Aleksandro Granda decidis fari grandan militadon +kontraux Azio, kaj alproksimigxis al la lando kie estis reginta Gordio. +Kiam li demandis, "Kio estas cxi tie la plej interesa vidindajxo?" +oni rakontis al li tion, kion oni diras pri la sxnurega ligajxo sur +la veturilo de Gordio. Kompreneble ("of course") Aleksandro deziris +fari ion ajn utilan por venki Azion, tial li tuj venigis gvidiston +por konduki lin al la templo. Alveninte tien, li zorge rigardadis la +ligajxon, kaj ekzamenis la sxnuregon el kiu gxi estis farita. Tiam, +elpreninte sian glavon el la glavingo, subite klinigxante li rekte +tratrancxis la tutan ligajxon. "Nenio estas pli facila ol tio," li +diris, "kaj nun mi ne dubas cxu mi certe regos super cxiuj regxoj de +Azio." Pro tio, kion faris Aleksandro Granda, oni ankoraux nuntempe +diras, kiam iu ajn superas malfacilajxon per kia ajn subita metodo, "Li +trancxis la gordian ligajxon." + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. One often hears the remark "I will cut the Gordian knot." 2. There +is an interesting story about this. 3. A wagon whose yoke was tied to +the pole by a large knot had been put in the middle of the temple. +4. It was a thank-offering to the sacred gods, by whose help Gordius +had in olden time become king. 5. It was said that whoever would be +able to untie that rope would no doubt become ruler over the whole of +Asia. 6. Alexander the Great, having begun a campaign against Asia, +approached the city where this temple was. 7. Having heard the story, +he at once had a guide come, and went thither, guided by him. 8. He +desired to do everything which was useful to the conquering of Asia. 9. +Having examined the knot carefully, he bent over and tried for a few +minutes to untie it. 10. Then he chose another method. 11. He seized +his sword, and suddenly cut through the whole knot. 12. Having done +this, he put the sword back into the scabbard. 13. This he did, instead +of continuing ("dauxrigi") his efforts to untie the knot. 14. In fact, +having no patience, he had become tired. 15. Perhaps the conquering +of Asia did not in any way become possible on account of this, but +at least the story is interesting, whatever actually ("efektive") +happened. 16. Nothing is impossible, whenever one tries enough. 17. In a +tropical country, such as part of Asia is, the landscapes are beautiful. +18. A tropical twilight is very short, however, and the shadows have +scarcely become long when the sun seems to sink suddenly below the +horizon, although the last bright rays continue to shine back through +the atmosphere for a few minutes. + + + + LESSON LI. + + + THE PRONOUN "AMBAUX". + +238. The pronoun (and pronominal adjective) "ambaux", both, indicates +two persons or things considered together. It is invariable in form: + + Ili ambaux venis al la templo, + they both came to the temple. + Ambaux faris oferojn al la dioj, + both made offerings to the gods. + Vidante kaj la plumon kaj la plumingon, mi prenis la ambaux, + seeing both the pen and the penholder, I took both. + +[Footnote: This pronoun must not be confused with the use of "kaj", +translated "both" in the combination "kaj ... kaj ...", "both ... and +..." (26).] + + + FORMATIONS WITH "-IG-" AND "-IGX-". + +239. Some verbs may be used in the simple form, and also with both the +suffix "-ig-" and the suffix "-igx-". Thus from one verb-root three +verbs of distinct meaning may be made, and the formation with "-ig-", +being transitive, may also be used in the passive: + + sidi = to sit, to be sitting. + sidigxi = to become sitting, to take a seat. + sidigi = to cause to sit, to seat. + esti sidigata = to be caused to sit. + silenti = to be silent. + silentigxi = to become silent. + silentigi = to cause to be silent, to silence. + esti silentigita = to be silenced. + kusxi = to lie, to be lying. + kusxigxi = to lie down, to go to bed. + kusxigi = to cause to lie, to lay. + esti kusxigita = to be laid. + stari = to stand, to be standing. + starigxi = to rise, to stand up, to become erect. + starigi = to raise, to cause to stand up, to erect. + esti starigita = to be raised, to be erected. + + + FACTUAL CONDITIONS. + +240. A conditional sentence consists of two parts, an "assumption" and +a "conclusion". The assumption is a clause (introduced usually by the +conjunction "se", "if") which assumes something as true or realized. The +conclusion is a statement whose truth or realization depends upon the +truth or realization of the assumption. "Factual conditions" (conditions +of fact) may deal with the present, past or future time: + + Se li vidas tion, li ploras, + if he sees that, he weeps (is weeping). + Se li vidis tion, li ploris, + if he saw that, he wept. + Li ploros, se li vidos tion, + he will weep, if he sees that. + Se li venis hieraux, li foriros morgaux, + if he came yesterday, he will go away tomorrow. + Se li estas vidinta tion, li nun ploras, + if he has seen that, he now is weeping. + Se tio estas vidota, li estas punota, + if that is going to be seen, he is going to be punished. + Se li estas kaptita, li estos jam punita, + if he has been captured, he will already have been punished. + + + VOCABULARY + + ambaux = both (238). mut-a = dumb, mute. + azen-o = ass, donkey. orel-o = ear. + ben-i = to bless. petol-a = mischievous. + dors-o = back. propr-a = own, one's own. + form-o = form. se = if. + halt-i = to stop (intrans.). spir-i = to breathe. + monahx-o = monk. turment-i = to torment. + + + LA MONAHXOJ KAJ LA AZENO. + +Iam du monahxoj reiris tra la arbaro al la monahxejo, dum grade +krepuskigxis. Ambaux portis pezajn sakojn da terpomoj, kaj baldaux +lacigxis, sed ne sciis kion fari. Okaze ili ekvidis azenon ligitan +al arbo, kaj unu monahxo, haltinte, diris petole al la alia "Se vi +anstatauxos la beston, mi havos portanton por miaj propraj sakoj, kaj +ankaux por la viaj." Lia kunulo respondis "Nu, se la azeno portos miajn +sakojn, mi mem gxoje restos en gxia loko." Jxus dirite, tuj farite ("no +sooner said than done"). Malliginte la ligajxojn kiuj tenis la azenon, +ili jxetis la sakojn trans la dorson de la utila besto. Unu monahxo tuj +forkondukis la azenon, dum ambaux viroj lauxte ridis. Post tio, la dua +monahxo sin ligis per la sama sxnurego kiu antauxe tenis la azenon. +Kiam revenis la kamparano, kies azeno estis jxus sxtelita, li ekhaltis, +multe mirigite, vidante homon tie ligita. La monahxo anoncis al li, +"Cxar mi estis tro mangxema, Dio faris azenon el mi, antaux du jaroj. Mi +jxus rericevis mian propran formon." Tuj la kredema kamparano invitis +la petolan monahxon al sia hejmo. La monahxo restis tiun nokton cxe la +kamparano, kaj la sekvintan tagon li foriris, beninte la kamparanon, sed +kasxe ridante pri la afero. Tiam la kamparano iris vendejon, por acxeti +alian azenon. Li ekvidis sian propran azenon, kiun la unua monahxo estis +sendinta tien, post sia reveno al la monahxejo. La malsagxa kamparano, +klinigxinte al la besto, diris "Ho, bona monahxo, mi vidas ke duan fojon +vi jam estis tro mangxema!" La muta besto forte svingis la orelojn kaj +skuis la kapon, pro la varma elspirajxo apud sia orelo. Tio sxajne +estis respondo al la jxus diritaj vortoj, tial la malsagxa kamparano +ree acxetis sian propran azenon. Cxiam poste li nek turmentis nek ecx +laborigis gxin, kredante la azenon la sankta monahxo mem. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +ancient times, they usually asked the sacred gods about it. 2. If the +gods informed ("sciigis") them that whatever man would come to the +temple first would become their king, they immediately chose the first +comer ("la unuan veninton") king. 3. Whoever was chosen king made the +blessed gods a thank-offering, which consisted of something out of his +own possessions (227, a). 4. Gordius did not offer to the gods merely +the yoke of his wagon, but the whole wagon. 5. A knot of rope was tied +between the yoke and the pole. 6. People soon began to say, "If any one +soever can untie that knot, he will become ruler of Asia." 7. If any +other men tried to untie that rope, they failed. 8. Alexander, though +("tamen"), had scarcely arrived when he drew (out) his sword from the +scabbard, and cut the knot. 9. If you will take-a-seat, I will tell you +about the two mischievous monks, returning to the monastery. 10. Both +were breathing with difficulty, and stopped to rest. 11. Having noticed +a donkey near by, they untied it. 12. One led the long-eared dumb animal +away, while the other tied himself in its own place. 13. The credulous +(192) peasant believed everything which was told (54) him, + + + + LESSON LII. + + + THE CONDITIONAL MOOD. + +241. That indication of the speaker's frame of mind which is given by +the form of the verb is called the "mood" of the verb. All verbs given +so far have been in the "indicative mood", which represents an act or +state as a reality or fact, or in the "infinitive mood", which expresses +the verbal idea in a general way, resembling that of a substantive. +The "conditional mood" does not indicate whether or not the act or +state mentioned is a fact, but merely expresses the speaker's idea of +its likelihood or certainty, or is used in an assumption or conclusion +dealing with suppositions, not with actual facts. The ending of the +conditional mood is "-us". The conjugation of "vidi" in the aoristic +tense of the conditional mood is as follows: + + mi vidus, I should see. + vi vidus, you would see. + li (sxi, gxi) vidus, he (she, it) would see. + ni vidus, we should see. + vi vidus, you would see. + ili vidus, they would see. + + + COMPOUND TENSES OF THE CONDITIONAL MOOD. + +242. In addition to the aoristic tense, the conditional mood has three +active and three passive compound tenses, formed by combining the +participles with the aoristic tense of "esti" in the conditional mood. A +synopsis of "vidi" in these compound tenses is as follows: + + Active Voice. + + Present: mi estus vidanta, I should be seeing. + Past: mi estus vidinta, I should have seen. + Future: mi estus vidonta, I should be about to see. + + Passive Voice. + + Present: mi estus vidata, I should be seen. + Past: mi estus vidita, I should have been seen. + Future: mi estus vidota, I should be about to be seen. + + + LESS VIVID CONDITIONS. + +243. A conditional sentence dealing with "suppositions" concerning +events in present or future time is called a "less vivid condition" +("Less vivid", in contrast to factual conditions (240), which are +"vivid", because they deal with facts.), and the conditional mood +is used in both the assumption and the conclusion: + + Se li vidus tion, li plorus, + if he should see that, he would weep. + Mi gxoje helpus vin, se mi povus, + I would gladly help you, if I could. + Se vi metus ilin sur la dorson de la azeno, gxi portus ilin, + if you should put them on the donkey's back, it would carry them. + La petola junulo turmentus la monahxon, se li revenus, + the mischievous youth would torment the monk, if he should return. + Se li estus kaptata, li estus punata, + if he should be caught, he would be punished. + + + INDEPENDENT USE OF THE CONDITIONAL MOOD. + +244. The conditional mood may be used in a conclusion whose assumption +is merely implied, serving thus to soften or make vague the statement or +question in which it is used: + + Mi gxoje helpus vin, I would gladly help you. + Cxu vi bonvole dirus al mi? Would you kindly tell me? + Kiu volus enspiri tian aeron? Who would wish to inhale such air? + Estus bone reteni vian propran, it would be well to keep your own. + La cxielo vin benus pro tio, Heaven would bless you for that. + + + THE PREFIX "DIS-". + +245. The prefix "dis-" indicates separation or movement in several +different directions at once: + + disdoni = to distribute. disigxi = to separate (intrans.). + dispeli = to dispel. disigxo = separation, schism. + disigi = to separate (trans.). dissendi = to send around. + +[Footnote: Cf. the English prefix "dis-" in "disperse", "disseminate", +"distribute," etc.] + + + VOCABULARY + + cxes-i = to cease, to leave off. kauxz-i = to cause. + dens-a = dense. legx-o = law. + difin-i = to define. natur-o = nature. + ekzist-i = to exist. objekt-o = object. + flu-i = to flow. plu = further, more. + gravit-i = to gravitate. turn-i = to turn (trans.). + +[Footnote: The adverb "plu" gives an idea of continuance to the word +which it modifies. When used with "ne", the two together give an idea of +cessation concerning a previous continuous act or state: "Ambaux parolos +plu morgaux", both will talk further tomorrow. "Mi ne plu haltos", I +shall not stop (any) more. "Li ne plu sxajnis muta", he no longer seemed +mute.] + + + PRI LA GRAVITADO. + +1. Ofte oni parolas pri la pezeco de diversaj objektoj. Tia pezeco estas +kauxzata de la forto kiun oni nomas la gravitado. Pro tiu forto ne nur +objektoj sur la tero, sed ankaux la tero mem, havas konatan pezecon, +kiun la kleruloj jam antaux longe kalkulis. La suno kaj la luno simile +havas pezecon, cxar ili ambaux, same kiel la tero, movigxas laux tiu +sama gravitado kiu efektive regas cxiujn el la cxielaj korpoj. Se la +gravitado cxesus ekzisti, la riveroj ne plu fluus antauxen en siaj +fluejoj ("beds"). Ne fluante de altaj gxis malaltaj lokoj, la akvo +disfluus, aux restus tie, kie ajn gxi okaze estus. Neniom da pluvo +falus; kontrauxe, la malsekajxo en la aero ankoraux restus tie, en la +formo de densaj mallumaj cxiamaj nuboj. Cxiuj vivaj estajxoj ("beings"), +cxiuj konstruajxoj, efektive cxio, baldaux disflugus de la rapide +turnigxanta mondo. Cxiuj cxi ("all these") nun devas resti sur la tero, +tial ke la gravitado restigas ilin cxi tie. Se la gravitado ne plu +ekzistus, nenio restus plu sur la tero. La aero mem ne plu cxirkauxus +nin, sed gxi ankaux forlasus la mondon, tuj maldensigxinte ("having +become rarefied"). La fama angla filozofo Newton estis la unua, kiu +studadis la kialon ("reason") de la falado de objektoj. Li komencis, +laux la rakonto, per okaza ekrigardo al falantaj pomoj en sia propra +pomarbejo. Antaux tri jarcentoj, li eltrovis ke estas tia forto kia la +gravitado, kaj difinis la naturajn legxojn laux kiuj la gravitado sin +montras. Cxi tiu forto, kiu restigas cxion sur la tero, estas tamen +la kauxzo de nia lacigxado, kiam ni marsxas aux kuras, cxar gxi faras +nin pezaj, kaj tial ni ofte deziras halti kaj ripozi. Estas ankaux la +malfacileco en la superado de tiu sama forto, kiu faras tiel malfacila +la konstruadon de utilaj aersxipoj. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Newton was an Englishman who lived three centuries ago. 2. One day he +was walking in his orchard, and, noticing the falling apples, he stood +still ("ekhaltis") and began to wonder why they fall. 3. He studied the +cause of their falling, wishing to discover whatever laws of nature he +could. 4. He watched various falling objects, and tried to calculate +their velocity ("rapideco"). 5. Finally he recognized that force which +is called gravitation. 6. Of course ("kompreneble") gravitation had +always existed, but its laws were not noticed or clearly defined until +Newton studied the matter. 7. If gravitation should not exist any more, +no rain would fall, but instead of condensing, the moisture would remain +above our heads in eternal clouds. 8. But gradually the moisture and +the air itself, becoming rarefied, would fly away from the earth, being +held no longer by the force of gravitation. 9. The water in the rivers +would leave off flowing (cease to flow) on toward the sea, because now +the water flows from high to low places only on account of gravitation. +10. Instead of gravitating toward the sea, in fact, the water would flow +in every direction (245) out of the riverbeds, or would remain there, +without moving at all ("tute ne movante"). 11. Nothing on earth would +remain here very long, but everything would fly off the quickly moving +world, and leave it entirely bare. Soon, also, the earth itself would +break-into-pieces (245). + + + + LESSON LIII. + + + CONDITIONS CONTRARY TO FACT. + +246. A "condition contrary to fact" indicates that the opposite of what +is mentioned has really taken place or is taking place. It expresses the +speaker's certainty that an act or state would have been realized, if +some other act or state were also realized. Such conditions cannot refer +to the future, but only to present or past time. The conditional mood is +used: + + Se vi estus turninta vin, vi estus vidinta tion, + if you had turned, you would have seen that. + Se la malsekajxo ne estus densigxinta, ne estus pluvinte, + if the moisture had not condensed, it would not have rained. + Se li estus kaptita, li estus punita, + if he had been caught, he would have been punished. + Se li estus sidanta tie, mi vidus lin, + if he were (if he should be) sitting there, I should see him. + Se la gravitado ne ekzistus, tiu pluvo ne estus falanta, + if gravitation did not (should not) exist, + that rain would not be falling. + + + THE VERB "DEVI". + +247. The verb "devi" (cf. "devo", duty) is equivalent to the verb "must" +(which in English has no future, past, infinitive, etc.), and to "to +have to", "to be obliged to", etc., carrying the idea of "must" into all +tenses and moods. In the conditional mood its meaning is softened into a +vaguer sense (of "moral" obligation), and carries the idea of "ought": + + Objektoj en la aero devas fali, objects in the air have to fall. + Ni devis agi laux la legxoj, we had to act according to the laws. + Vi devos iri, you must (will have to) go. + Sxi ne volas devi fari tion, she does not wish to have to do that. + Ili devigis min iri, they compelled me to go. + Vi devus iri, you should go (you ought to go). + Oni devus pensi antaux ol paroli, one ought to think before speaking. + Li estus devinta veni, he ought to have come. + Tio devus esti farita, that ought to have been done. + + + THE PREPOSITION "SEN". + +248. The preposition "sen", without, indicates the omission, absence or +exclusion of that which is expressed by its complement. It may be used +as a prefix (160), giving a sense of deprivation or exclusion (like that +given by the English suffix "-less"): + + Li difinis la vorton sen eraro, he defined the word without an error. + La rivero sencxese fluas, the river flows without ceasing. + Tio estas ne nur senutila sed ecx malutila, + that is not only useless but even harmful. + Li ne plu estas senmona, he is no longer penniless. + Li sentime alproksimigxis al gxi, he fearlessly approached it. + +[Footnote: English phrases containing "without" as in "without reading," +must be changed to phrases clearly containing verbal nouns, as "without +the reading of," before translating into an Esperanto phrase with "sen". +Otherwise a participle with "ne" should replace the phrase ("222"): "Sen +la legado de tio, mi ne komprenus", without (the) reading (of) that, +I should not understand. "Ne leginte tion, mi ne komprenus", without +reading (not having read) that, I should not understand.] + + + VOCABULARY + + akuz-i = to accuse. nobl-a = noble. + instru-i = to teach. pardon-i = to pardon. + kondamn-i = to condemn. pek-i = to sin. + konfes-i = to confess, to admit. prav-a = right, correct. + konscienc-o = conscience. sen = without (248). + kulp-o = guilt. So-krato = Socrates. + merit-i = to deserve. venen-o = poison. + + + LA FILOZOFO SOKRATO. + +Unu el la plej famaj grekaj filozofoj estis nomita Sokrato. Li +estis malbela malalta persono, kun senhara kapo kaj dika korpo, sed +malgraux tio li estis treege bona, nobla kaj sagxa. Li instruadis per +interparolado kun la lernantoj. Kutime li komencis per demando pri +io ajn, pri kio la auxskultanto respondos. Fine, la lernanto grade +komprenis cxu liaj propraj opinioj pri la afero estas pravaj. Ankoraux +nun oni nomas tiun metodon de instruado per la interparolado "la Sokrata +metodo." Sokrato diradis tute sen timo cxion, kion li pensis, ecx pri +la dioj kaj pri la nekredeblaj rakontoj pri la dioj. Se li ne estus +tiel multe klariginta, eble li estus vivinta pli longan tempon. Sed +multaj personoj malamis lin, precipe cxar li donis novajn ideojn al +la junuloj, kiuj sekve komencis pensi por si mem, anstataux fari tion +kion faras cxiu alia. Tial oni akuzis Sokraton en la jugxejo, nomante +lin pekanto kaj malbonfaranto, unue, cxar li ne disdonas oferojn al la +dioj, due, cxar li enkondukas novajn diojn (cxar li diris ke supernatura +vocxo, kiu sendube estis lia nomo por la konscienco, parolis mallauxte +cxe lia orelo), trie, cxar li malbonigas la junularon de la urbo. Se +li estus konfesinte la kulpon kaj petinte pardonon, tiam la jugxistoj +eble estus punintaj lin per nura ("mere") monpago ("fine"). Sed li fiere +respondis ke efektive li multe plibonigas la junularon, kaj anstataux +esti malutila, aux ecx neutila, li treege utilas al la urbo. Li diris +ke oni havas nenian rajton puni lin, sed ke, kauxze de sia bonfarado al +la urbo, li efektive meritas cxiutagan mangxon senpagan. Tamen, tute ne +kompreninte kiel prava Sokrato estas, la jugxistoj mortkondamnis lin. +Oni devigis lin trinki la venenon. Iom poste, en la malliberejo, li +trankvile adiauxis siajn plorantajn amikojn, kaj akceptinte la venenan +trinkajxon, sentime gxin trinkis. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Socrates believed that if one knows about good and evil (201) he will +do good, but will not do evil. 2. Therefore he wished to help mankind +("la homaron"), teaching them what the good is. 3. He also wished to +discover for himself what is right and what is wrong. 4. So he asked +every one whom he met (about) his opinions, and the one-talking-with +[him] would also notice whether his own ideas were right or not. 5. But +the fellow-citizens of Socrates were jealous, and hated him, because +they did not understand him. 6. Therefore they accused him, called him a +sinner, and sent around (245) false reports ("falsajn sciigojn") about +him. 7. Because he said that conscience guided him (in the form of a +soft voice at his ear), they accused him of ("pri") introducing (218, +b) new gods. 8. They also said that he was corrupting the youth of the +city. 9. If Socrates had pleaded guilty, and begged for a fine instead +of the death-punishment, without doubt he would have been pardoned and +fined ("monpunita"). 10. But he said "I have never in my life sinned in +any way, and I do not deserve any sort of punishment." So the judges +condemned him to death by the drinking of poison. + + + + LESSON LIV. + + + SUMMARY OF CONDITIONS + +249. The three kinds of conditional sentences, together with the moods +and tenses used in them, may be tabulated as follows: + + Name: Factual Less Vivid Contrary to Fact + + Subject Matter: facts suppositions opposite of facts + + Time: any (usually) future present or past + + Mood: indicative conditional conditional + + Tense: any (usually) aoristic (usually) compound + + + CLAUSES OF IMAGINATIVE COMPARISON. + +250. Clauses of imaginative comparison are introduced by the conjunction +"kvazaux", as though, as if. Sometimes the verb in the comparison may be +left unexpressed or merely implied: + + Li trinkas la venenon kvazaux gxi estus vino, + he drinks the poison as though it were wine. + La kondamnito marsxis kvazaux kun malfacileco, + the condemned man walked as if with difficulty. + Li konfesis kvazaux kulpulo, + he confessed like a culprit. + + + THE USE OF "AL" TO EXPRESS REFERENCE. + +251. Personal pronouns, and less frequently nouns, may be used with the +preposition "al" to express "concern" or "interest" on the part of the +person indicated by the complement of this preposition: + + Li bruligis al si la manon, he burned his hand. + Hi trancxis al li la barbon, they cut his beard (the beard for him). + Sxi preparas al ni bonan mangxon, she is preparing us a good meal. + Cxu vi faros servon al mi? Will you do me a service? + +[Footnote: The use of "al" in this sense, approaching that of "por" but +less purposeful and definite, resembles the "dative of reference" and +"ethical dative" of other languages, as in French "je me suis brule la +langue", I have burned my tongue, German "ich wasche mir die Haende", +I wash my hands, Latin "sese Caesari ad pedes proicerunt", they threw +themselves at the feet of Caesar, Greek "ti soi mathesomai", what am I +to learn for you? etc.] + +252. By an extension of its use in expressing reference, "al" may often +be used in the place of "de" expressing separation (170), when the use +of "de" might seem to indicate agency (169) or possession (49): + + La luno estas kasxata al ni de la nuboj, + the moon is hidden from us (to us) by the clouds. + Gxi estas stelita al mi de li, + it has been stolen from me by him. + +[Footnote: This use resembles the "dative of separation" of other +languages, as in German "es stahl mir das Leben", it stole the life from +me, French "il me prend la vie", it takes my life, Latin "hunc mihi +timorem eripe", remove this fear from me, Greek "dexato oi skaeptron", +he took his sceptre from him, etc.] + + + THE SUFFIX "-ESTR-". + +253. The suffix "-estr-" is used to indicate the "chief", "head", or +"one in control" of that which is expressed in the root: + + lernejestro = (school) principal. urbestro = mayor. + monahxestro = abbot. estraro = governing body. + policestro = chief of police. sxipestro = ship-captain. + + + VOCABULARY + + Aristejd-o = Aristeides. popol-o = a people. + ekzil-i = to exile. pot-o = pot. + enu-i = to be wearied, bored. senc-o = meaning, sense. + gxust-a = exact. signif-i = to signify. + kvazaux = as though, as if (250). son-i = to sound. + ostr-o = oyster. strang-a = strange. + ostracism-o = ostracism. sxel-o = shell, bark, peel. + +[Footnote: Care must be taken to distinguish "gxusta", exact, "gxuste", +exactly, just, from "justa", upright, just, "juste", justly, and also +from the adverb "jxus" just.] + + + LA OSTRACISMO DE ARISTEJDO. + +La vorto ostracismo havas interesan devenon ("origin"). En gxia komenco +oni rekonas la grekan vorton kiu signifas "sxelon de la ostro." En gxia +fino oni vidas la saman "-ismon " kiu, deveninte de la greka, ankoraux +estas uzata kiel vortfino en multaj diversaj lingvoj. La nuna senco de +la vorto, facile trovebla en anglaj vortaroj ("dictionaries"), devenas +de la jena greka kutimo: + +Sepdek jarojn antaux ol vivadis Sokrato, oni faris strangan legxon en +lia urbo. Laux tiu, oni povis ekzili iun ajn estron kies ideoj pri la +administrado de la urbo ne sxajnis pravaj. Cxi tion oni povis fari, +tute sen jugxado aux ecx akuzado, cxar oni havis la jenan metodon: se +cxe popola kunveno ses mil urbanoj vocxdonis ("vote") kontraux iun +ajn, tiu estis devigata foriri de la urbo, kaj forresti dek jarojn. +Li povis neniel havigi ("get") al si pardonon, sed devis tuj foriri +kvazaux konfesinta kulpulo. Por vocxdonoj, oni skribis la nomon de la +kondamnoto sur peco da potajxo ("pottery"), aux pli ofte sur ostrosxelo. +Gxuste tial oni nomas la kutimon ostracismo. Unufoje, kelkaj malamikoj +proponis vocxdonadon pri la ostracismo de tre bona kaj nobla viro, +nomita Aristejdo, kiu tute ne meritis tian punadon. + +Antaux ol la kunveno disigxis, kamparano alproksimigxis al Aristejdo +(kiu mem cxeestis), petante lian helpon, cxar la neinstruita kamparano +ne povis skribi. La sagxulo diris "Kion vi volas skribi sur la sxelo?" +La kamparano, ne sciante ke li parolas al la viro mem, respondis +"Aristejdon." Skribinte gxin, Aristejdo demandis kun trankvila +konscienco "Pro gxuste kiaj pekoj vi malamas Aristejdon?" La kamparano +respondis, "Ho, mi ne kasxos al vi ke mi ecx ne konas lin! Sed mi +deziras ekzili lin nur cxar min enuigas la sono de lia nomo. Mi tre +enuas cxiam auxdante lin nomata Aristejdo la justa!" + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Aristeides had just arrived at the popular assembly when a peasant +approached him. 2. If Aristeides had not had a pleasant countenance +and musical ("belsonan") voice, doubtless the peasant would not have +asked his help. 3. Ought Aristeides to have written his own name on the +oyster-shell or piece of pottery which was going to be used as a vote +against him? 4. Without just (exactly) this help, the peasant could +not have voted. 5. Doing him the service requested, Aristeides said, +as if ("250") he himself were not the man under-discussion ("205"), +"Why do you hate Aristeides? 6. Could you tell me how he has sinned +against the city?" 7. The silly-creature ("132") replied, "Oh, I know +nothing about him, but I am weary [of] always hearing him called the +just." 8. Ought such persons as that ignorant peasant have-the-right +to vote about important affairs? 9. The ancient law about ostracism +was a strange [one]. 10. The name of the person to-be-exiled ("199") +was usually written upon an oyster-shell, and the meaning of the word +signifying the custom comes from that. 11. Through ("per") ostracism, +any leader could be banished, justly or unjustly, without trial of any +kind, or explanation of the reasons. + + + + LESSON LV. + + + THE IMPERATIVE MOOD. + +254. For expressions of command, exhortation, entreaty, etc., there +is an "imperative mood", as in English. The ending of the imperative +mood is "-u". Beside the aoristic tense, six compound tenses are formed +by combining the participles with the imperative mood "estu" of the +auxiliary verb, but these tenses are seldom used. The conjugation of +"vidi" in the aoristic tense of this mood, together with a synopsis in +the compound tenses, is as follows: + + Aoristic Tense. + + mi vidu! = let me see! ni vidu! = let us see! + (vi) vidu! = (you) see! (vi) vidu! = (you) see! + li (sxi, gxi) vidu! = ili vidu! = let them see! + let him (her, it) see! + + Compound Tenses. + + Active. Passive. + + Present: mi estu vidanta Present: mi estu vidata + Past: mi estu vidinta Past: mi estu vidita + Future: mi estu vidonta Future: mi estu vidota + + + RESOLVE AND EXHORTATION. + +255. The "first person singular" of the imperative mood is used +to express the speaker's resolve concerning his own action, or an +exhortation to himself concerning such action. The "first person plural" +is used to express resolve or exhortation concerning the joint action of +the speaker and the person or persons addressed: + + Mi pensu pri tio! Let me think about that! + Mi ne forgesu tion! I must not (do not let me) forget that! + Ni ekzilu lin! Let us exile him! + Ni ne sidigxu tie! Let us not sit down there! + Ni estu grize vestitaj! Let us be dressed in gray! + +[Footnote: This force is usually expressed in English by "let" with an +accusative and infinitive construction.] + + + COMMANDS AND PROHIBITIONS. + +256. The "second" and "third" persons of the imperative are used to +express peremptory commands and prohibitions. + +a. In the second person the pronoun is usually omitted, as in English, +unless special emphasis is placed upon it: + + Estu trankvila! Be calm! (One person is addressed.) + Estu pretaj por akompani min! + Be ready to accompany me! (Two or more persons are addressed.) + Parolu kvazaux vi komprenus! Talk as though you understood! + Ne fermu tiun pordon! Do not shut that door! + Ne estu vidata tie! Do not be seen there! + +b. In the third person a circumlocution in English is necessary in +translation (as "let", "must", "are to", "is to", etc.): + + Li estu zorga! Let him be careful (he must be careful)! + Sxi ne faru tion! Do not let her do that (she is not to do that)! + Cxio estu pardonata! Let everything be forgiven! + Oni lasu min trankvila! People are to let me alone! + Ili neniam revenu! Let them never (do not let them ever) return! + La kulpuloj estu punataj! Let the culprits be punished! + + + LESS PEREMPTORY USES OF THE IMPERATIVE. + +257. By an extension of its use in resolve, exhortation, command +and prohibition, the imperative mood may be employed for less +peremptory expressions, such as "request", "wish", "advice", etc., +and in "questions of deliberation or perplexity", or "requests for +instruction": + +Request: Cxesu tiun bruon, mi petas! Stop that noise, I beg! + Bonvolu fari tion! Please do that! + Pardonu al ni niajn pekojn! Forgive us our sins! +Wish: Ili estu felicxaj! May they be happy! + Dio vin benu! God bless you! + Vivu la regxo! (Long) live the king! +Advice: Pensu antaux ol agi! Think before acting! + Foriru, se vi ne estas kontenta! + Go away, if you are not satisfied! +Consent: Nu, parolu, sed mi ne auxskultos! + Well, talk, but I shall not listen! + Iru tuj, se vi volas. Go at once, if you like. +Question: Cxu mi faru tion aux ne? Am I to do that or not? + Cxu ni disdonu la librojn? Shall we distribute the books? + Cxu li estu kondamnita? Shall he be condemned? + Cxu ili venu cxi tien? Are they to (shall they) come here? + + + THE USE OF "MOSXTO". + +258. The word "mosxto" may be used alone, or after a title, to denote +respect. When used after a title, the title becomes an adjective: + + Lia regxa mosxto, his majesty. + Lia jugxista mosxto, his honor the judge. + Sxia regxina mosxto, her majesty. + Lia urbestra mosxto, his honor the mayor. + Cxu via mosxto lin auxdis? + Did your honor (excellency, etc.) hear him? + + + VOCABULARY + + Afrik-o = Africa. mosxt-o = a title (see 258). + barbar-o = barbarian. ordon-i = to order, to bid. + Damokl-o = Damocles. permes-i = to permit. + flank-o = side. placx-i = to please. + imperi-o = empire. sklav-o = slave. + konsent-i = to consent. sol-a = sole, only. + konsil-i = to advise. volont-e = willingly. + + + LA GLAVO DE DAMOKLO. + +Antaux pli multe ol dumil jaroj vivis en Sirakuzo, sur la insulo +Sikelio, tre kruela tirano. Li diris al si "Mi estu cxiopova +("all-powerful")!" Tial li faris multe da militadoj, kaj venkis ne nur +barbarajn popolojn, sed ankaux multajn urbojn en Italujo kaj norda +Afriko. Detruinte cxion sen kompato, li ordonis "La logxantoj estu +vendataj por sklavoj!" Li deziris fari por si, el la venkitaj kaj +sklavigitaj popoloj, unu grandan imperion. Sed la urboj cxie, ecx en +Grekujo, ne kasxis al li sian grandan malamon al tia tirano. Tial li +cxiam timis pri sia vivo, timante ke iu subite mortigos lin. Unufoje +Damoklo, amiko de la tirano, diris al li, "Se mi estus tiel ricxa +kaj pova kiel via regxa mosxto, mi estus treege felicxa!" La tirano +respondis, "Venu al festo cxe mi, se tio placxas al vi, kaj eltrovu cxu +mi devus esti felicxa aux ne." "Mi venos tre volonte," ekkriis Damoklo, +"kaj mi dankas vian mosxton pro tia afableco!" La tirano gxentile +respondis "Ho, estas nenio (="you are welcome")! Nur ne forgesu la +deciditan horon!" Je la gxusta horo Damoklo iris al la festo, kie oni +donis al li segxon flanke de la tirano mem. "Mangxu kaj trinku kiom ajn +vi volas," konsilis la tirano, "kaj poste ni parolos pri la felicxeco." +Damoklo tuj konsentis al tia propono, kaj agis laux la permeso tiel +afable donita al li. Mangxante bonegan mangxajxon, kaj trinkante dolcxan +vinon, li tute ne enuis cxe la festo. Baldaux la tirano diris "Rigardu +supren, kaj vidu gxuste kian felicxecon mi havas!" Supren rigardinte, +Damoklo ekvidis akran glavon, antauxe kasxitan al li de kurteno. +Subtenate de unu sola haro, la glavo sxajnis kvazaux tuj falonta sur la +kapon de Damoklo. "La dioj min helpu!" li ekkriis, forsaltinte de la +tablo. Pro la jxus dirita stranga rakonto, oni ankoraux nun nomas la +atendadon por io timeginda, kio sxajnas cxiam okazonta sed efektive ne +okazas, "la glavo de Damoklo." + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. The word ostracism comes from the Greek word signifying +"oyster-shell." 2. It has its present meaning because oyster-shells +or pieces of pottery were used for the voting. 3. The story about +Aristeides is interesting, but that about the sword of Damocles is also +interesting. 4. His friend, the Syracusan tyrant, had permitted all +sorts of injustices, against not only barbarians but even Greeks. 5. +His only bidding usually was "Let every inhabitant be sold as a slave!" +6. He thought "Let me make one sole empire out of Africa, Italy and +Sicily!" 7. Damocles said to him "Your royal highness ought to be very +happy!" 8. The tyrant answered, "Come to a feast tomorrow, and find +out. I will give you a seat (214, b) beside me." 9. Damocles willingly +consented, and went thither. 10. The tyrant advised "Let us eat and +drink until midnight, if that would be-pleasing to you. Then let us +discuss the problem about happiness." 11. After a few hours Damocles +heard a slight sound over his head, and the tyrant said to him, "Look +up and you will see what kind of happiness mine is." 12. "Heaven defend +me!" exclaimed Damocles, catching sight of a sharp sword hanging by a +single (sole) hair. + + + + LESSON LVI. + + + THE IMPERATIVE IN SUBORDINATE CLAUSES. + +259. The imperative mood is used in a subordinate clause, with a meaning +similar to that in its independent use, after a main verb expressing +"command", "exhortation", "resolve", "consent", "wish", etc., or after +any word or general expression of "command", "intention", "necessity", +"expedience", etc. Such clauses are introduced by the conjunction ke: + + Command and Prohibition. + + Li diras ke vi iru, he says that you are to go. + Sxi skribis al li ke li venu, she wrote him to come. + Mi malpermesas ke vi restu, I forbid you to remain. + Ni ordonos ke li estu punata, we shall order that he be punished. + + Request and Wish. + + Mi petas ke vi ne lasu min, I beg that you do not leave me. + Mi petegas ke vi estu trankvilaj, I implore you to be calm. + Li deziras ke ili estu sklavigitaj, he desires that they be enslaved. + Ni volis ke li ne forgesu tion, we wished him not to forget that. + + Advice, Consent, Permission. + + Mi konsilis al li ke li iru, I advised him to go. + Mi konsentis ke li restu, I consented that he remain. + Ili permesos ke la barbaroj forkuru, + they will permit the barbarians to escape + (that the barbarians escape). + + Questions. + + Li demandas cxu ili foriru, he inquires whether they are to go away. + Oni demandis cxu lia mosxto eniru, + they asked whether his honor was to enter. + Mi miras cxu mi faru tion, I wonder whether I am to do that. + + Intention, Expedience, Necessity, etc. + + Ni intencas ke vi estu helpata, + we intend that you shall be helped. + Lia propono estas ke ni ricevu la duonon, + his proposal is, that we receive the half. + Lia lasta ordono estis, ke vi venu, + his last order was that you come. + Estos bone ke vi ne plu nomu lin, + it will be well for you not to (that you do not) + mention him any more. + Estas dezirinde ke ni havu bonan imperiestron, + it is desirable that we have a good emperor. + Estis necese ke cxiu starigxu, + it was necessary for everyone to rise. + Placxos al li ke vi iru, + he will be pleased to have you go. + +[Footnote: In English and some other languages an imperative idea may +often be expressed by the infinitive, as "I wish you to go," but in +Esperanto this must be expressed by the equivalent of "I wish that you +go." The infinitive may not be used except when it can itself be the +subject of the verb in such general statements as "it is necessary to +go."] + + + THE PREPOSITION "JE". + +260. Since prepositional uses are not exactly alike in any two +languages, it is not always possible to translate a preposition of +one language by what is its equivalent in some senses in another. In +order to insure some means of translating correctly into Esperanto any +prepositional phrase of the national languages, the preposition "je" +is regarded as of rather indefinite meaning. In addition to its use in +dates and allusions to time (89, 185), it may be employed when no other +preposition gives the exact sense required, especially in protestations +and exclamations, expressions of measure (see also 139), and of +indefinite connection: + + Je la nomo de cxielo! In the name of Heaven! + Je mia honoro mi ja elfaros tion! + On my honor I will accomplish that! + Gxi estas longa je du mejloj, + it is two miles long (long by two miles). + Ili venis je grandaj nombroj, they came in great numbers. + Li estas tenata de la policano, je la brako, per forta sxnurego, + he is held by the policemen, by the arm, with (by) a strong rope. + +The preposition "je" is used to express indefinite connection after +the following words (other prepositions sometimes used are given in +parentheses): + + ekkrii je (pro), to cry out at. (sin) okupi je, busy (oneself) at. + enui je, to be bored with. plena je (de), full of. + fiera je (pri), proud of. preni je, to take by. + fidi je (al), to rely upon. provizi je (per), to provide with. + gxoji je (pri), to rejoice at. ricxigi je (per), to enrich with. + gratuli je (pri), congratulate on. ridi je, to laugh at. + honti je (pri), to be ashamed of. satigxi je, to be sated with. + inda je, worthy of. senigi je, to deprive of. + interesigxi je, take interest in. simila je (al), similar to. + kapti je, to seize by. sopiri je (al), to yearn for. + kontenta je (kun), content with. sxargxi je, to load with. + kredi je, to believe in. teni je, to hold by. + +[Footnote: The translation given for a preposition in any dictionary is +the general one which serves in the majority of cases. The finer shades +of meaning and real or apparent exceptions can merely be touched upon if +mentioned at all.] + + THE SUFFIX "-OP-". + +261. The suffix "-op-" is used to form "collective" numerals: + + duope = by twos, in pairs. milope = by thousands. + kvarope = by fours. sesopigi = to form into groups of six. + + + VOCABULARY + + cel-i = to aim. prokrast-i = to delay (trans.). + Cirus-o = Cyrus. proviz-i = to provide. + fidi = to rely. rezult-i = to result. + gxu-i = to enjoy. sopir-i = to yearn, to sigh. + honor-o = honor. spac-o = space. + krom = beside, save, but. terur-a = terrible. + plen-a = full. ver-o = truth. + + + LA MARSXADO DE LA DEKMIL GREKOJ. + +Iam Ciruso, nepo de Ciruso Granda, sopiris je la imperio de sia pli +maljunafrato, kiu sekvis la patron de ambaux fratoj kiel regxo, aux +pli gxuste imperiestro. Decidinte forigi de la regxeco ("to dethrone") +sian fraton, Ciruso petis la grekojn ke ili partoprenu ("take part") en +kelkaj negravaj militadoj. Multaj tiamaj grekoj tre volonte sin okupis +je la batalado, pro la granda pago ricevata. La venditaj sklavoj kaj la +detruitaj konstruajxoj cxiam provizis ilin je multe da ricxajxo, kaj +krom tio la militistoj sxajnis gxui ecx la militadon mem. Estis tute +indiferente al ili cxu la kauxzo de la militado estas prava kaj justa +aux ne. Unue Ciruso nur petis ke ili helpu liajn proprajn soldatojn +kontraux iuj najbaroj. Li kasxis al ili sian veran celon, cxar se la +grekoj estus suspektintaj tion, kion li intencis fari, ili neniam estus +akompanintaj lin tiel malproksimen de sia patrolando. Grade li kondukis +ilin trans tutan Azion, kaj fine la dekmil grekoj komprenis cxion, kaj +treege kolerigxis. Paroladante al ili, Ciruso tuj diris "Mi ne permesas +ke vi reiru, kaj mi petegas ke vi antauxen marsxadu kun mi, sen plua +("further") prokrasto! Se mi sukcesos kontraux mia frato, mi certigas +vin je mia honoro ke cxiu el vi revenos havante sakojn plenajn je +ricxajxo! Estas nur necese ke vi fidu je mi, kaj cxio estos bona!" Tiam +la soldatoj hontis je sia antauxa timo, kaj kuragxe antauxen marsxadis. +Fine, apud granda urbo, la frato de Ciruso elvenis havante okcentmil +soldatojn, por batali kontraux la centmil de Ciruso. Per la helpo de +siaj grekoj, Ciruso estis preskaux venkinta en terura batalo, kiam +subite li ekvidis sian fraton, je malgranda interspaco. Ekkriante "Mi +vidas la viron!" li rajdis rekte al la regxo, jxetante sian pezan lancon +al li. La sola rezulto estis la morto de Ciruso mem, cxar la amikoj de +la regxo, kvinope kaj sesope atakinte Ciruson, lin tuj mortigis. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Cyrus did not desire that his brother should remain king. 2. He +decided, "Let me myself become ("farigxi") king! I should much enjoy +that!" 3. So he asked the Greeks to help him in some battles against +nearby enemies. 4. Gradually an army (126) of a hundred thousand men, +ten thousand of whom were Greeks, gathered (232, b) around him. 5. He +led them farther and farther, into the middle of Asia, until finally the +Greeks suspected his true aim. 6. They said to each other in terror, "He +did not at first propose that we fight against the Great King. Let us +return home without delay!" 7. Cyrus addressed (218) them as follows: +"Must I permit you to go back? I implore you to be courageous, and I +do advise you not to forget your longing for (260) honor! 8. Only be +worthy of your leader, and rely upon me! Do you not wish to return home +provided with wealth, beside the money which I shall pay to you?" 9. +Immediately the soldiers were ashamed of their fear, and advanced by +hundreds, full of courage. 10. Soon the brother of Cyrus approached, +with ("havante") eight hundred thousand men. 11. By the aid of the +Greeks, Cyrus won the battle, but he himself lost his life. 12. So +neither he nor the Greeks could enjoy the result of their efforts. + + + + LESSON LVII. + + + CLAUSES EXPRESSING PURPOSE. + +262. Purpose may be expressed by a subordinate imperative clause, +introduced by "por ke": + + Mi faras gxin por ke li helpu vin, + I do it in order that he may help you. + Mi ekkriis por ke vi auxdu, + I cried out in order that you should hear. + Li venos por ke ni estu felicxaj, + he will come that we may be happy. + Mi studas por ke mi lernu, + I study that I may learn. + Ili restu por ke ni punu ilin, + let them stay for us to punish them. + +[Footnote: Cf. the expression of purpose by the infinitive with "por" +(98), which however cannot be used except when the subject of the main +verb is the subject of the subordinate verb, or when the object of the +main verb is the subject of the subordinate verb.] + + + FURTHER USES OF THE ACCUSATIVE. + +[Footnote: Cf. the accusative of direct object (23), direction of motion +(46, 121), time (91), and measure (139).] + +263. The accusative of direction of motion is used after nouns from +roots expressing motion: + + Lia eniro en la urbon estis subita, + his entrance into the city was sudden. + La irado tien estos plezuro, + (the) going thither will be a pleasure. + Gxia falado teren timigis min, + its falling earthward terrified me. + +264. a. An intransitive verb may be followed by a noun in the accusative +case, if the meaning of the noun is related to that of the verb: + + Li vivas agrablan vivon, he lives an agreeable life. + Sxi dancis belan dancon, she danced a beautiful dance. + Ili ploris maldolcxajn larmojn, they wept bitter tears. + +b. Verbs of motion ("iri", "veni", "pasi", "marsxi", "veturi", etc.) +compounded with prepositions or adverbs (121) indicating direction, +also compounds of such verbs as "esti" and "stari" with prepositions +expressing situation, may be followed by the accusative, instead of by +a prepositional phrase in which the preposition is repeated: + + La viro preterpasis la domon, + the man passed (by) the house. + Lin antauxvenis du sklavoj, + there preceded (came before) him two slaves. + Ni supreniru la sxtuparon, + let us go up the stairs. + Mi cxeestis la feston, + I attended (was present at) the entertainment. + Mi kontrauxstaras vian opinion, + I oppose (withstand) your opinion. + +c. The slight change in meaning given by "pri" used as a prefix may +render intransitive verbs transitive. The same is true of "el" prefixed +to intransitive verbs not expressing motion: + + Sxi priploris la mortintan birdon, she mourned the dead bird. + Mi pripensos la aferon, I shall consider (think over) the matter. + Ni gxin priparolos, we shall talk it over. + Li klare elparolas la vortojn, he pronounces the words clearly. + +[Footnote: In this use "pri" resembles the English and German +inseparable prefix "be-", as in English "bemoan", "bewail", "bethink", +"bespeak", German "beklagen", "besprechen", "sich" , etc.] + +265. The accusative may be used after verbs of such meaning that either +a prepositional phrase or an accusative would seem correct: + + Mi pardonas lin (al li), I pardon (grant pardon to) him. + Mi helpis lin (al li), I helped (gave aid to) him. + Gxi placxas min (al mi), it pleases (is pleasing to) me. + Li obeis nin (al ni), he obeyed (was obedient to) us. + Sxi ridis mian timon (je mia timo), + she ridiculed (laughed at) my fear. + +[Footnote: When ambiguity would be caused, as by the presence of another +accusative, this construction may not be employed. One may say "pardonu +nin", but must say "pardonu al ni niajn pekojn".] + +266. The accusative may be used after certain adverbs which are normally +followed by a prepositional phrase: + + Rilate tion (rilate al tio), in regard to that. + Escepte tion (escepte de tio), with the exception of that. + Koncerne la aferon (koncerne je la afero), concerning the affair. + Kompare la alian (kompare kun la alia), in comparison with the other. + Konforme la legxon (konforme al la legxo), in conformity to the law. + + + SYNOPSIS OF THE CONJUGATION OF THE VERB. + +267. vidi, to see. + + ACTIVE. PASSIVE. + + INDICATIVE. + + Present. + (Aoristic) mi vidas mi estas vidata + (Progressive) mi estas vidanta + + Past. + (Aoristic) mi vidis mi estis vidata + (Imperfect) mi estis vidanta + + Future. + (Aoristic) mi vidos mi estos vidata + (Progressive) mi estos vidanta + + Perfect. + mi estas vidinta mi estas vidita + + Pluperfect. + mi estis vidinta mi estis vidita + + Future Perfect. + mi estos vidinta mi estos vidita + + Periphrastic Futures. + + (Present). + mi estas vidonta mi estas vidota + + (Past). + mi estis vidonta mi estis vidota + + (Future). + mi estos vidonta mi estos vidota + + CONDITIONAL. + + Present. + (Aoristic) mi vidus mi estus vidata + (Progressive) mi estus vidanta + + Past. + mi estus vidinta mi estus vidita + + Future. + mi estus vidonta mi estus vidota + + IMPERATIVE. + + Present. + (Aoristic) mi vidu mi estu vidata + (Progressive) mi estu vidanta + + Past. + mi estu vidinta mi estu vidita + + Future. + mi estu vidonta mi estu vidota + + INFINITIVE. + + Present. + (Aoristic) vidi esti vidata + (Progressive) esti vidanta + + Perfect. + esti vidinta esti vidita + + Future. + esti vidonta esti vidota + + + THE SUFFIX "-UM-". + +268. The indefinite suffix "-um-" serves the same general purpose in +word formation which "je" serves as an indefinite preposition (260): + + aerumi = to air. kolumo = collar. + busxumo = muzzle. plenumi = to fulfil. + gustumi = to taste. proksimume = approximately. + + + VOCABULARY + + eben-a = level, even. nepr-e = inevitably, certainly. + escept-o = exception. obe-i = to obey. + esper-i = to hope. obstin-a = obstinate. + fremd-a = foreign. promes-i = to promise. + histori-o = history. rilat-o = relation. + kompar-i = to compare. sat-a = satiated. + koncern-i = to concern. sav-i = to save. + konform-i = to conform. verk-i = to compose (books or music). + + + LA REIRADO DE LA DEKMILO. + +La grekaj militistoj sentis grandan teruron kiam Ciruso ne plu vivis. La +celo de la longa marsxado ne povis esti plenumata, pro la morto de la +obstina trokuragxa militestro mem. Kvankam la grekoj estis venkintoj, +ili estis tute solaj en fremda lando, cxirkauxitaj de barbaroj kiuj, +per trompemaj proponoj kaj falsaj promesoj pri amikaj interrilatoj, +tuj okazigis la morton de la grekaj estroj. Senigite je siaj estroj, +la kompatindaj viroj tute malesperis. Sed kelkaj subestroj, rapide +kunveniginte la soldatojn, diris, "Ni mem kondukos vin per kiel eble +plej rekta vojo hejmen! Ni faros nian eblon ("utmost") por ke ni +cxiuj estu savitaj!" Cxar restis nenio alia por fari, la malfacila +malgaja reirado de la grekoj komencigxis sen prokrasto. Ili transiris +varmegajn ebenajxojn ("plains"), supreniris kaj malsupreniris krutajn +negxkovritajn montojn, meze de la vintro, kaj sen pontoj transiris +largxajn riverojn. Cxie la malfidindaj barbaroj atakis ilin, kvazaux +por ke neniu greko restu viva. Krom tio, la grekoj mortis dekope kaj +dudekope cxiutage, pro varmegeco, malvarmegeco, laceco kaj malsateco +("hunger"). Fine, post nekredeblaj suferoj, la restajxo de la dekmil +soldatoj alvenis sur monton, kaj ekvidis la maron. Lauxta ekkriego "La +maro! La maro!" eksonis inter la lacaj viroj, el kiuj multaj ploris +larmojn de gxojo. De infaneco ili alkutimis al la vojagxado per akvo, +kaj post iom da ripozo ili sin provizis je sxipoj, por transiri la maron +al la patrujo je kiu ili estis tiel longe sopirintaj. Treege interesa +historio koncerne la tutan aferon estas verkita de fama greka verkisto +("writer"), kiu estis akompaninta Ciruson por ke li povu gxui kaj studi +cxion interesan sur la vojo. Tiu azia militado de Ciruso nepre estas unu +el la plej rimarkindaj okazintajxoj iam priskribitaj, ecx sen escepto de +la posta irado tien de Aleksandro Granda. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. After the death of Cyrus, the leaders of the Greek warriors did not +know what to do. 2. In the course of the following day, one of the +leaders of the enemy sent a messenger (205) with deceitful promises +about help. 2. He said "Assemble in our leader's tent, in order that +you may all discuss the matter." 3. The Greek leaders went, although +they suspected danger, because they did not know how else to save +their men. 4. But they never returned, and soon the Greeks understood +that the barbarians had killed them. 5. They wept tears of despair, +and said "The barbarians will inevitably destroy us, for we are in +a foreign land, where we know neither the languages nor the roads, +and the peoples are without exception hostile to us." 6. But the +leaders-of-lesser-rank said "Obey us and follow us, and we shall do our +best to save you!" 7. Their return, across hot plains and snow-covered +mountains, made-more-difficult by hunger and by the unceasing attacks +of the barbarians, is related in the history written by a famous Greek +historian. 8. One can still read this interesting narrative, in Greek or +in a translation. + + + + LESSON LVIII. + + + PERMISSION AND POSSIBILITY. + +269. Permission is usually expressed by the use of "permesi", "lasi", or +the imperative mood: + + Cxu vi permesas ke mi restu? May I (do you permit me to) stay? + Jes, mi permesas (jes, restu), yes, you may (yes, stay). + Ne estas permesate eniri tien, it is not allowed to enter there. + Lasu lin veni, let him come. + +270. The idea of possibility or probability is given by the use of some +such adverb as "eble", "kredeble", "versxajne", etc.: + + Eble li obeos al vi, he may (perhaps he will) obey you. + Kredeble li sukcesos, probably he will succeed. + Versxajne vi estas prava, you are probably right. + Eble oni lin savus, they might (possibly they would) save him. + Ili nepre ne batis lin, + they could not have (surely did not) beat him. + Tio estas neebla! That can not be (that is impossible)! + + + THE PREFIX "GE-". + +271. Words formed with the prefix "ge-" indicate the two sexes together: + + gepatroj = parents. gefiloj = son(s) and daughter(s). + geavoj = grandparents. gefratoj = brother(s) and sister(s). + genepoj = grandchildren. geedzoj = husband(s) and wife (wives). + gesinjoroj = Mr. and Mrs., lady (ladies) and gentleman (gentlemen). + + + THE SUFFIX "-ACX-". + +272. The suffix "-acx-" has a disparaging significance: + + domacxo = a hovel. pentracxi = to daub. + hundacxo = a cur. popolacxo = rabble, mob. + obstinacxa = obstinate. ridacxi = to guffaw. + + + INTERJECTIONS. + +273. Interjections are words used to express feeling or call attention. +Among the more common interjections are: + + Adiaux! Farewell! (171). Hura! Hurrah! + Fi! Fie! Nu! Well! + Ho! Oh! Ho! Ve! Woe! (Ho ve! Alas!). + +[Footnote: Verbs in the imperative, and adverbs, are frequently used as +interjections, as "Atentu!", Look out!, "Auxskultu!", Hark!, "Bonvenu!", +Welcome!, "Antauxen!", Forward!, "Bone!", Good!, "For!", Away!, "Ja!", +Indeed!, "Jen!", There!, Behold!] + +[Footnote: The interjection "fi" is sometimes used as a disparaging +prefix, like "-acx-" (272), as "fibirdo", ugly bird, "ficxevalo", a +sorry nag.] + + + VOCABULARY + + Aleksandri-o = Alexandria. fond-i = to found, establish. + Amerik-o = America. hispan-o = Spaniard. + Aristotel-o = Aristotle. kapabl-a = capable. + Auxstrali-o = Australia. komun-a = common, mutual. + bibliotek-o = library. kontinent-o = continent. + eduk-i = to bring up, educate. Krist-o = Christ. + Egipt-o = Egypt. milion-o = million. + estim-i = to esteem. spite = in spite of. + firm-a = firm. vast-a = vast, extensive. + + + ALEKSANDRO GRANDA. + +Permesu ke mi diru kelkajn vortojn pri la vivo de Aleksandro Granda, +kiu ne estis matura viro sed havis nur dudek jarojn kiam li farigxis +regxo. Liaj gepatroj estis tre zorge edukintaj lin, kaj la filozofo +Aristotelo, kiun li tre alte estimis, estis unu el liaj instruistoj. +Aleksandro firme tenadis sian propran regxolandon, kaj ankaux Grekujon, +kiun lia patro estis venkinta; krom tio, li faris militadojn kontraux +diversaj fremdaj landoj, unue en Azio, tiam en Afriko, kie li fondis +urbon, kaj gxin nomis Aleksandrio. Aleksandrio nepre estis belega ricxa +urbo. Tie trovigxis* poste la fama Aleksandria biblioteko. Se gxi ne +estus detruita de fajro, en la dauxro de iuj militadoj, ni sendube konus +multe pli bone la sciadon de la antikvaj grekoj, kiuj versxajne estis la +plej klera popolo iam vivinta en Euxropo. Venkinte Egipton, Aleksandro +reiris en Azion, gxis tre orienta kaj suda partoj, venkante cxiujn cxie, +kvazaux ili estus la plej malkuragxaj popolacxoj en la mondo. Sed spite +cxies petoj li estis obstinacxe nezorgema pri sia sano, kaj subite, +ho ve, li mortis pro febro, tricent dektri jarojn antaux Kristo. Se +li ne estus tiel frue mortinta, kiel multe li estus eble elfarinta! +Li esperis venki Hispanujon, Italujon, kaj, mallongavorte, tiom de la +okcidenta mondo kiom li jam posedis de la orienta. Tiam li celis kunigi +cxion en unu vastan imperion, kvazaux por fari el la mondo unu grandan +familion. Li intencis ke la milionoj da enlogxantoj akceptu komunajn +legxojn kaj kutimojn, ecx komunan lingvon, -- kredeble la grekan. Eble +li ja havis la kapablecon por fari cxion cxi. Estas pro tio ke oni ofte +auxdas la diron "Aleksandro sopiris je aliaj mondoj por venki." Tamen, +kiel malgranda estis tiu mondo kiun li konis! La tiamuloj konis nur +malgrandan parton de Afriko, de Azio, ecx de Euxropo. Ili sciis nenion +pri Anglujo, aux pri la vastaj kontinentoj Auxstralio, norda kaj suda +Amerikoj. + +[Footnote: The use of "trovigxi", and also of "sin trovi", "kusxi", +"stari" and "sidi", in a sense not greatly differing from that of +"esti", avoids the monotonous repetition of forms of "esti", just as +English uses "lie", "sit", "perch", etc., in narration for similar +reasons: +Multaj vilagxoj trovigxas tie, + many villages are (situated) there. +Egipto trovigxas en la nordorienta parto de Afriko, + Egypt is (found) in the northeastern part of Africa. +Li sin trovis sola en la dezerto, + he found himself (he was) alone in the desert. +La urbo kusxis inter du lagoj, + the city lay between two lakes. +Sur la montflanko sidis vilagxeto, + on the mountainside perched a tiny village.] + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Alexander the Great wished to unite the whole world into one vast +empire. 2. He intended that all the different peoples should conform to +common laws and that their sons-and-daughters should speak one common +language, and in spite of their love for their national languages, +should leave-off speaking them. 3. Possibly he might have accomplished +his object to some extent (217), if he had not died suddenly when he +was only thirty-two years old. 4. His soldiers marched weeping past his +tent, to bid farewell to their dying leader. 5. They must have esteemed +him very highly! 6. It was Alexander who founded the city of Alexandria, +in Egypt, where approximately three hundred years before Christ the +famous Alexandrian library was located. 7. It contained an enormous +collection-of-books -- almost seven hundred thousand. 8. Alas, this +extensive library was destroyed by fire! 9. Alexander, who "sighed for +other worlds to conquer," did not even know of the existence of North +and South America, Australia, or even of England and Northern Europe. +10. Beside his Asiatic empire, he knew very little of Asia, even of +China, with its millions of inhabitants. 11. How small the world was in +those days! + + + + LESSON LIX. + + + THE POSITION OF UNEMPHATIC PRONOUNS. + +274. An unemphatic personal, indefinite or demonstrative pronoun +very frequently precedes the verb of which it is the object. This is +especially true if the verb in question is an infinitive: + + Mi volas lin vidi, I wish to see him. + Li povos tion fari, he will be able to do that. + Vi devus ion mangxi, you ought to eat something. + Cxu vi gxin kredis? Did you believe it? + Se li min vidus, li min savus, if he should see me, he would save me. + +[Footnote: Cf. in other languages, as in German "ich moechte ihn +sehen", French "je veux le voir", Latin "se alunt, me defendi", etc. +That such pronouns "are" unemphatic can be seen from English "let +her come" (= "let'er come"), "make him stop" (= "make'im stop"), +etc., in which the unemphatic forms "er, im", replace "him, her", in +pronunciation (cf. the Greek enclitic pronouns "mou, moi, me, son, +soi, se, ou, oi, e,", the Sanskrit enclitic forms "ma, me, tva, te, +nas, vas, enam, enat, enam," also "sim", and the Avestan "i, im"). +The same phenomenon is indicated in "prithee" (= "pray thee"), and in +the spellings "gimme" (= "give me"), "lemme" (= "let me"), in dialect +stories.] + + + SOME INTRANSITIVE VERBS. + +275. Some intransitive verbs have English meanings which do not differ +in form from the transitive English verbs to which they are related. +In Esperanto the suffix "-ig-" (214) must be used when the transitive +meaning is desired. Some examples are given in the following table: + + Verb. Intransitive Use. Transitive Use. + + Boli . . . . La akvo bolas Li boligas la akvon + The water boils He boils the water + + Bruli. . . . La fajro brulas Li bruligis la paperon + The fire burns He burned the paper + + Cxesi. . . . La bruo cxesas Li cxesigas la bruon + The noise stops He stops the noise + + Dauxri . . . La bruo dauxras Li dauxrigas la bruon + The noise continues He continues the noise + + Degeli . . . La glacio degelas Li gxin degeligas per fajro + The ice thaws He thaws it with fire + + Droni. . . . La knabino dronis La viro sxin dronigis + The girl drowned The man drowned her + + Eksplodi . . Pulvo eksplodas Li gxin eksplodigos + Gunpowder explodes He will explode it + + Halti. . . . Li haltis timigite Li haltigis la soldatojn + He halted in alarm He halted the soldiers + + Lumi . . . . La suno lumas Li lumigis la lampon + The sun shines He lighted the lamp + + Pasi . . . . La tempo pasas Tiel li pasigis la tagon + Time passes Thus he passed the day + + Pendi. . . . Gxi pendas de brancxo Li gxin pendigis de brancxo + It hangs on a branch He hung it on a branch + + Soni . . . . La saluta pafo sonis Oni sonigis la salutan pafon + The salute sounded They sounded the salute + + Sonori . . . La sonorilo sonoris Oni sonorigis la sonorilon + The bell rang They rang the bell + +[Footnote: A transitive use of such intransitive verbs would be like +using the English intransitive verb "learn" for the transitive verb +"teach," as in the "I'll learn you" (for "I'll teach you") of illiterate +speech.] + + + THE SUFFIX "-ER-". + +276. The suffix "-er-" is used to form words expressing units or +component parts of that which is indicated in the root: + + fajrero = spark (of fire). negxero = snowflake. + monero = coin. sablero = grain of sand. + + + THE PREFIXES "BO-" AND "DUON-". + +277. The prefix "bo-" indicates relationship by marriage. To indicate +half-blood relationship, or step-relationship, "duon-" (166) is used: + + bopatro = father-in-law. duonpatro = stepfather. + bofratino = sister-in-law. duonfrato = half-brother. + + + CORRESPONDENCE. + +278. a. Letters should be dated as indicated in the following: + + Bostono, je la 24a de decembro, 1912a. + Nov-Jorko, la 24an decembro, 1912a. + Sirakuzo, 24/XII/1912. + +b. The usual methods of address are (to strangers and in business +letters): "Sinjoro, Sinjorino, Estimata Sinjoro, Karaj Sinjoroj, Tre +estimata Frauxlino," etc.; (to friends and relatives) "Kara Frauxlino, +Karaj Gefratoj, Kara Amiko, Kara Mario, Patrino mia," (placing the +possessive adjective after the noun in this way gives an affectionate +sense, as in English "Mother mine," etc) etc.; (to persons whose +opinions on some subject are known to agree with those of the writer) +"Estimata (Kara) Samideano" ("follower of the same idea"). + +c. Among the more usual forms of conclusion are (to strangers and in +business letters): "Tre fidele la via, Tre vere, Kun granda estimo, Kun +plej alta estimo," etc., (to friends): "Kun amika saluto, Kun cxiuj +bondeziroj, Kun samideanaj salutoj, Frate la via," etc. + + + VOCABULARY + + adres-o = address. krajon-o = pencil. + apart-a = separate. mend-i = to order (of stores, etc). + bedaur-i = to regret. Nov-Jorko = New York. + cxef-a = chief. numer-o = number (numeral). + do = so, then. ofic-o = office, employment. + fontan-o = fountain. posxt-o = post (letters, etc.). + hotel-o = hotel. respekt-o = respect. + ink-o = ink. special-a = special. + konven-a = suitable. stat-o = state (political body) + kovert-o = envelope (for letters) tram-o = tram. + +[Footnote: "Cxef-" is often used in descriptive compounds (167, b), +as "cxefkuiristo", chief (head) cook, chef, "cxefurbo", chief city, +capital, "cxefangxelo", archangel.] + + + * * * * * + + + KELKAJ LETEROJ. + + + * * * * * + + + Sirakuzo, la 2an de marto, 1911. + +Kara Amiko, + + Sendube vin surprizos ricevi leteron skribitan de mi cxe hotelo en +cxi tiu urbo, ne tre malproksime de via propra oficejo! Via bofrato, +kiun mi okaze renkontis hieraux en la posxtoficejo, donis al mi vian +adreson. Gxis nun, mi estas tiel okupata ke mi ne havis la tempon ecx +por telefoni al vi. Sed nun mi havas du aux tri minutojn da libera +tempo, kaj mi tuj ekkaptas la okazon por skribi letereton, petante ke +vi vespermangxu kun mi hodiaux vespere, cxe la hotelo kie, kiel vi +vidas, mi logxas de antaux unu tago. (Pardonu, mi petas, "ke" mi finas +cxi tiun leteron per krajono, sed mi jxus eltrovis ke restas neniom +plu da inko en mia fontanplumo.) Venu je la sesa, se tiu horo estas +konvena. Bedauxrinde ("unfortunately"), mi devos forresti de la hotelo +la tutan posttagmezon, pri komercaj aferoj, alie mi vin renkontus cxe +la tramvojo, kie haltas la tramveturiloj ("streetcars"). Estos plej +bone, mi opinias, ke vi iru rekte al mia cxambro, numero 26, kie mi +senprokraste vin renkontos, se mi ne estos efektive jam vin atendanta. +Ni esperu ke la cxefkuiristo preparos al ni bonan mangxon! Mi esperas +ke vi malatentos la falantajn negxerojn, kaj nepre venos, responde al +mia iomete subita invito, cxar ni ja havos multe da komunaj travivajxoj +por priparoli. Do gxis la baldauxa revido je la vespermangxo! + + Kun plej amikaj salutoj, + + Roberto. + + +[Footnote: The word "tial" may be omitted from the combination "tial ke" +(83), if the meaning is obvious.] + + + * * * * * + + + Boston, 13/VII/1911. + +Wilson kaj Jones, + Nov-Jorko. +Estimataj Sinjoroj:-- + Bonvolu sendi al mi per revenanta posxto vian plej novan prezaron +("price-list"). Ni baldaux bezonos iujn novajn meblojn por niaj +oficejoj, precipe skribtablojn, tablojn konvenajn por skribmasxinoj +("typewriters"), kaj specialajn librujojn, farotajn laux niaj bezonoj. +Se viaj prezoj estas konvenaj, ni sendube volos mendi de vi tian +meblaron. Kun respekto, + J. F. Smith, + cxe Brown kaj Brown. + + + * * * * * + + + Nov-Jorko, 17/VII/1911. + +Sinjoro J. F. Smith, + cxe Brown kaj Brown, + Nov-Jorko. +Estimata Sinjoro:-- + Ni havas la honoron sendi al vi en aparta koverto nian plej novan +prezaron, al kiu ni petas ke vi donu vian atenton, precipe al pagxoj +15-29. Tie vi trovos priskribitaj niajn plej bonajn oficejajn meblarojn. +Ni senpage metos cxiujn acxetitajn meblojn sur la vagonaron, sed +kompreneble ni ne pagos la koston de la sendado. + Ni plezure fabrikos specialajn librujojn laux viaj bezonoj, kaj +volonte ricevos viajn ordonojn pri tio. Niaj prezoj estos kiel eble plej +malaltaj. + Esperante ke la meblaroj priskribitaj en nia prezaro, kune kun la +tie-presitaj prezoj, estos plene kontentigaj, kaj certigante al vi ke ni +zorge plenumos cxiun mendon, ni restas, + Tre respekte la viaj, + Wilson kaj Jones. + + + * * * * * + + + Bostono, la 27an Majo. + +Sinjoro B. F. Brown, + Sirakuzo, Nov-Jorka Sxtato. +Kara Sinjoro:-- + Vian adreson ni dankas al niaj komunaj amikoj Sinjoroj Miller kaj +White, kaj per cxi tio ni permesas al ni proponi al vi niajn servojn por +la vendado de tiaj infanludiloj, kiajn vi fabrikas. Ni havas bonegajn +montrajn fenestrojn ("show-windows"), en nia butiko, preskaux meze de la +cxefstrato en la urbo, kaj en nia butiko trovigxas suficxe da grandaj +vitramebloj ("show-cases"). Tial ni povus tre oportune administri +tian aferon. Ni multe gxojos se vi respondos kiel eble plej baldaux, +sciigante al ni kiom da procento vi donos, kaj kiajn arangxojn vi volus +fari. Ni certigas al vi ke en cxiu okazo ni penos fari nian eblon por +via plej bona intereso. + Kun alta estimo, + D. Rose. + + + + LESSON LX. + + + SOME TRANSITIVE VERBS. + +279. Some transitive verbs have English meanings which do not differ in +form from the "intransitive" English verbs to which they are related +(conversely to the use explained in 275). In Esperanto the suffix +"-igx-" (232), or a different root, must be used when an intransitive +meaning is desired. Following are the more common verbs of this +character, together with examples of the intransitive use of several of +them: + + balanci = to balance. renversi = to upset, to overturn. + etendi = to extend, to expand. rompi = to break. + fermi = to close, to shut. ruli = to roll, (wheel, ball, etc.). + fini = to end, to finish. skui = to shake. + fleksi = to bend, to flex. strecxi = to stretch. + hejti = to heat. svingi = to swing. + klini = to incline, to bend. sxanceli = to cause to vacillate. + kolekti = to gather, to collect. sxangxi = to change. + komenci = to begin, to commence. sxiri = to tear. + mezuri = to measure. turni = to turn. + montri = to show. veki = to wake. + movi = to move. versxi = to pour. + pasxti = to pasture, to feed. volvi = to roll (around something). + + La laboro nun finigxas, the work is now coming to an end. + La glavo fleksigxis, the sword bent. + La folioj disvolvigxas, the leaves unroll (develop). + Cxiu kutimo sxangxigxos, every custom will change. + La vintro jam komencigxas, the winter is already beginning. + Mi vekigxos je la sesa, I shall awake at six (o'clock). + La montrilo sxanceligxis, the indicator trembled (vacillated). + Vasta ebenajxo etendigxis antaux li, + a vast plain extended before him. + + + ELISION. + +280. Elision is not common, and its use in writing as well as in +speaking is best avoided. It occurs most frequently in poetry. + +a. The "-a" of the article may be elided before a word beginning with +avowel, or after a preposition ending in a vowel: + + L' espero, l' obstino kaj la pacienco. + De l' montoj riveretoj fluas. + Kaj kantas tra l' pura aero. + +b. The final "-o" of a noun may be elided in poetry. The original accent +of the noun remains unchanged: + + Ho, mia kor', ne batu maltrankvile. + Sur la kampo la rozet'. + +c. The final "-e" of an adverb is very rarely elided (except in the +expression "dank' al", which occurs in prose as well as in poetry): + + Ke povu mi foj' je eterno ekdormi! + Dank' al vi, mi sukcesis. (Thanks to you, I succeeded.) + + + THE PREFIX "EKS-". + +281. The prefix "eks-" is used to form words expressing a previous +incumbent of a position, or removal from such position: + + eksprezidanto, ex-president. + eksregxo, ex-king. + eksigi, to put out of office, to discharge. + eksigxi, to withdraw from one's office, to resign. + + + THE PREFIX "PRA-". + +282. The prefix "pra-" is used to form words expressing precedence in +the line of descent, or general remoteness in past time: + + praavo = great grandfather. prapatroj = forefathers, ancestors. + pranepo = great grandson. pratempa = primeval. + + + THE SUFFIXES "-CXJ-" AND "-NJ-". + +283. The suffix "-cxj-" is used to form affectionate diminutives, from +the first syllable or syllables of masculine names or terms of address. +The suffix "-nj-" forms similar feminine diminutives: + + Jocxjo = Johnnie, Joe. Manjo = May, Mamie. + Pacxjo = Papa. Panjo = Mamma. + + + WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. + +284. National systems of weights and measures translated into +international form (as "mejlo", mile, "funto", pound) cannot convey a +very definite meaning to one not familiar with the particular system +used. Consequently the metric system (already used by scientists +everywhere and by the general public in many countries) is adopted for +the international system of weights and measures: + + Length and Surface. + + milimetro = millimeter (.0394 inch). + centimetro = centimeter (.3937 inch). + decimetro = decimeter (3.937 inches). + metro = meter (39.37 inches). + dekametro = dekameter (393.7 inches). + hektometro = hektometer (328 feet 1 inch). + kilometro = kilometer (3280 feet 10 inches; .62137 mile). + kvadrata metro = square meter (1550 square inches). + hektaro = hektare (2.471 acres). + + Weight. + + gramo = gram (15.432 grains avoirdupois). + dekagramo = dekagram (.3527 ounce avoirdupois). + hektogramo = hektogram (3.5274 ounce avoirdupois). + kilogramo = kilogram (2.2046 pounds avoirdupois). + + Capacity. + + decilitro = deciliter (6.1022 cubic inches; .845 gill). + litro = liter (.908 quart, dry measure; 1.0567 quart, liquid). + dekalitro = dekaliter (9.08 quart, dry measure; 2.6417 gallons). + hektolitro = hektoliter (2 bushels 3.35 pecks; 26.417 gallons). + kilolitro = kiloliter (1.308 cubic yards; 264.17 gallons). + + + THE INTERNATIONAL MONEY SYSTEM. + +285. Names of national coins translated into international form (as +"dolaro", dollar, "cendo", cent) cannot convey a very definite meaning +to persons not familiar with these coins. Consequently the system +devised for international use (not for actual coins, but for calculation +and price quotations) is based upon a unit called the "speso". The +multiples of this unit are the "spesdeko" (10 spesoj), "spescento" (100 +spesoj), and "spesmilo" (1000 spesoj). Ten spesmiloj have approximately +the value of a five-dollar gold piece, twenty marks, twenty-five francs, +one pound sterling, etc. The spesmilo, equivalent to about $0.4875 in +the money of the United States and Canada, is the unit commonly used. +(To reduce dollars to spesmiloj, multiply by 2.051.) + + + ABBREVIATIONS. + +286. The following abbreviations are often used (for those of the metric +system see any English dictionary): + + Dro. = Doktoro, [Dr.] Sm. = spesmilo(j). + Fino. = Frauxlino, [Miss]. Sd. = spesdeko(j). + Pro. = Profesoro, [Prof.] k.t.p. = kaj tiel plu, [and so forth]. + Sro. = Sinjoro, [Mr.] k.c. = kaj ceteraj, [etc.] + Sino. = Sinjorino, [Mrs.] k.sim. = kaj simila(j), [et. sim.] + Ko. = K-io., Kompanio, [Co.] t.e. = tio estas, [i.e.] + No. = N-ro., Numero, [No.] e. = ekzemple, [e.g.] + & = kaj, &. p.s. = postskribajxo, [P.S.] + + + VOCABULARY. + + abon-i = to subscribe to, take. led-o = leather. + aparat-o = apparatus. metal-o = metal. + auxtomat-a = automatic. moment-o = moment. + bov-o = ox. negativ-o = negative. + dimensi-o = dimension. objektiv-o = lens, objective. + ekzempl-o = example. original-o = original. + fokus-o = focus. plat-o = plate (photographic,etc) + fotograf-i = to photograph. prov-i = to try. + funkci-i = to function, work. reklam-i = to advertise. + kamer-o = camera. strecx-i = to stretch (trans.). + +[Footnote: Cf. the difference between "provi", to try, in the sense of +testing, making an essay or endeavor, "peni", to try, in the sense of +taking pains or making an effort, and "jugxi", to try, in a judicial +sense.] + + + * * * * * + + + PRI LA KAMERO. + + Bostono, 12/XI/1910. + +Brown kaj Ko., + Nov-Jorko. +Sinjoroj:-- + Vidinte vian reklamon en gazeto al kiu mi abonas, mi skribas por +peti ke vi sendu al mi priskribajxon de via kamero nomita "La Infaneto," +kiun eble mi deziros provi. + Bonvolu ankaux sendi dekduonon da platoj, 6 x 9 centimetrojn, por kiu +mi cxi* kune sendas spesmilon kaj duonon. + Kun respekto, + J. C. Smith. + +[Footnote: The particle "cxi" (used with "tiu, tio, ties, cxiu, cxio") +may also be used with certain adverbs, as "cxi sube", "here below", "cxi +supre", "here above", "cxi kune", "herewith", etc.] + + + * * * * * + + + Nov-Jorko, 18an novembro, 1910. + +Kara Sinjoro:-- + Respondante al via estimata letero de la 12a, ni donas cxi sube +mallongan priskribajxon de nia bonega fotografilo nomita "La Infaneto." + "La Infaneto" kamero havis neesperitan sukceson, kaj estas vendita +po miloj da ekzempleroj. Cxie oni unuvocxe lauxdas gxian malgrandan +kaj tamen bonegan konstruon, kaj ankaux gxian firman samtempe facilan +funkciadon. Gxi ne estas pli granda ol monujo, tial gxi ne bezonas pli +multe da spaco ol tiu, kaj povas esti portata kaj uzata treege konvene. + La dimensioj de la fermita kamero estas 8 x 5 x 6.5 centimetroj. La +pezo, kun objektivo, tri platingoj, kaj malbrila ("ground") vitro, estas +365 gramoj. "La Infaneto" estas konstruita tute el metalo, kaj kovrita +de bonega bovledo. Kiam oni malfermas la aparaton, la objektivo samtempe +enfokusigxas, tiamaniere ke la kamero estas preta por uzado post unu +sekundo, cxar la objektivfermilo ("shutter") estas cxiam strecxita. +Sekve: neniaj preparadoj, nenia prokrasto je la ekfotografado. + La negativoj estas klaraj gxis la bordo, kaj tial konvenaj por +pligrandigo. Cetere, oni scias ke bona pligrandigo ofte pli kontentigas +ol malgranda originalo. Precipe cxe promenoj kaj vojagxoj oni tial +volonte preferas la malgrandan "Infaneton," por poste pligrandigi la +negativojn. + Por la pligrandigo ni fabrikas specialajn taglum-pligrandigajn +aparatojn, kies prezoj estas malaltaj (vidu en nia prezaro). + Ni ne sxangxis la konstruon de "La Infaneto" de post 1909, cxar +gxis nun gxi estas cxiurilate kontentiga. Sole la rapideca reguligo +de la momenta ("instantaneous") fermilo estas plibonigita, cxar ni +gxin fabrikas kun speciala auxtomata fermilo, kiu estas arangxita por +malfermoj dauxraj ("time exposures"), kaj momentaj, je unu sekundo +gxis unu centono da sekundo. + Esperante ke ni baldaux ricevos mendon de vi, kaj certigante al vi +ke ni tre zorge plenumos iun ajn mendon, ni restas. + Tre respekte la viaj, + Brown & Ko. + Per C. + + + + * * * * * + + + + ESPERANTO-ENGLISH VOCABULARY. + +The following vocabulary includes all roots used in the preceding +Lessons, all primary words of the language, and a large number of +additional roots (to facilitate original composition). No attempt has +been made, however, to include all of the roots in the language, for +which an Esperanto-English Dictionary should be consulted. + +References are to sections, unless the page (p.) is given. For other +parts of speech than those indicated under each root or primary word, +see Word Formation, 116, 120, 159, 171. See also the references given +under each prefix and suffix. For formation of compound words, see 160, +167, 176, 184. The following abbreviations are used: adj. = adjective; +adv. = adverb; conj. = conjunction; intrans. = intransitive; prep. = +preposition; trans. = transitive; -- = repetition of the word. + + A. + +abel-o = bee. +abi-o = fir. +abiturient-o = bachelor of arts (A.B.). +abomen-a = abominable. +abon-i = to subscribe to, take (magazine, etc.). +abrikot-o = apricot. +acer-o = maple (tree). +acid-a = acid, sour. +-acx- = derogatory suffix (272). +acxet-i = to buy. +-ad- = suffix indicating duration (218). +adiaux = (adv. and interjection), farewell, good-bye (171, 273). +adjektiv-o = adjective. +administr-i = to administer, to manage. +admir-i = to admire. +admon-i = to exhort, admonish. +ador-i = to worship, adore. +adres-o = address (on letters, etc.). +adverb-o = adverb. +advokat-o = lawyer, barrister. +aer-o = air. +afabl-a = affable, amiable. +afer-o = affair, matter, thing, cause. +afisx-o = handbill, placard, poster. +afrank-i = to frank (letters), prepay; --ite, post-paid. +Afrik-o = Africa. +ag-i = to act, perform action. +agac-i = to set on edge (of teeth). +agent-o = agent. +agit-i = to agitate. +agl-o = eagle. +agoni-o = agony. +agrabl-a = agreeable, pleasant. +agx-o = age. +ajn = (adv.), ever (236). +-ajx- = (suffix forming concrete words) (227). +akademi-o = academy. +akcel-i = (trans.), to accelerate, hasten. +akcent-o = accent, stress. +akcept-i = to accept, receive, welcome. +akcident-o = accident. +akir-i = to acquire. +akompan-i = to accompany. +akr-a = sharp, acute, shrill. +akrid-o = grasshopper. +aks-o = axis, axle. +akt-o = act (of a play). +aktiv-a = active (grammatical). +aktor-o = actor (player). +akurat-a = accurate, exact. +akuz-i = to accuse. +akuzativ-o = accusative. +akv-o = water. +akvarel-o = water-color painting. +akvari-o = aquarium. +al = (prep.), to, toward (46, 160, 251, 252). +alauxd-o = lark (bird). +ale-o = avenue, walk, path (of garden, park, etc.). +Aleksandri-o = Alexandria. +Aleksandr-o = Alexander. +alfabet-o = alphabet. +Alfred-o = Alfred. +algebr-o = algebra. +ali-a = other. +alk-o = elk. +alkohol-o = alcohol. +alkov-o = alcove, recess. +almanak-o = almanac. +almenaux = (adv.), at least (66). +almoz-o = alms; --ulo, beggar. +alt-a = high, tall. +altar-o = altar. +alud-i = to allude to. +alumet-o = match (for fire). +am-i = to love. +amas-o = crowd, throng, mass. +ambaux = (pronoun), both (of two objects naturally in pairs,or of + persons or things assumed or already known to be thus grouped) (238). +ambos-o = anvil. +amel-o = starch. +Amerik-o = America. +amfibi-a = amphibious. +amfiteatr-o = amphitheatre. +amik-o = friend. +amindum-i = to woo, make love. +ampleks-o = extent, dimension. +amuz-i = to amuse. +-an- = suffix denoting membership, etc. (145). +analiz-i = to analyse. +ananas-o = pineapple. +anas-o = duck. +anekdot-o = anecdote. +Angl-o = Englishman. +angul-o = angle, corner. +angxel-o = angel. +anim-o = soul. +ankaux = (adv.), also. +ankoraux = (adv), still, yet. +ankr-o = anchor. +anonc-i = to announce. +ans-o = latch, door-handle. +anser-o = goose. +anstataux = (prep.), instead of (98, 159). +antaux = (prep.), before (89, 90, 120, 159, 160), + "antaux ol" (conj.), 97, 98. +antikv-a = ancient, antique. +antilop-o = antelope. +antipati-o = antipathy. +aparat-o = apparatus. +apart-a = separate. +apartament-o = apartment, suite (of rooms). +aparten-i = to belong. +apati-o = apathy. +apenaux = (adv.), scarcely, hardly. +aper-i = to appear. +apetit-o = appetite. +aplauxd-i = to applaud. +aplomb-o = assurance, self-command. +apog-i = to lean, to rest (upon). +apologi-o = apology, vindication. +apotek-o = pharmacy, drugstore, chemist's shop. +april-o = April. +aprob-i = to approve. +apud = (prep.), near to, close by (120, 159). +-ar- = suffix forming collectives (126). +Arab-o = Arab. +arane-o = spider. +arangx-i = to arrange. +arb-o = tree. +arbitraci-i = to arbitrate. +ardez-o = slate (stone). +aren-o = arena. +arest-i = to arrest. +argil-o = clay. +argument-i = to argue. +argxent-o = silver (metal). +arhxitektur-o = architecture. +Arhximed-o = Archimedes. +ari-o = tune, air (music). +Aristejd-o = Aristeides. +aristokrat-o = aristocrat. +Aristotel-o = Aristotle. +aritmetik-o = arithmetic. +ark-o = arc. +arkad-o = arcade. +arm-i = to arm. +arme-o = army. +armoraci-o = horse-radish. +arogant-a = arrogant. +arom-o = aroma, fragrance. +art-o = art. +artik-o = joint. +artikol-o = article (grammatical or literary). +Artur-o = Arthur. +asekur-i = to insure (with a company). +asoci-o = association (organization). +asparag-o = asparagus. +aspekt-o = aspect, appearance. +astr-o = heavenly body, star. +atak-i = to attack. +atend-i = to wait, wait for, expect. +atent-a = attentive. +atest-i = to attest, give witness, certify. +ating-i = to attain, reach. +atlas-o = satin. +atlet-o = athlete. +atmosfer-o = atmosphere. +atribut-o = attribute. +aux = (conj.), or, either. +auxd-i = to hear. +auxgust-o = August. +auxskult-i = to listen. +Auxstrali-o = Australia. +auxtomat-a = automatic. +auxtor-o = author. +auxtun-o = autumn. +av-o = grandfather. +avar-a = avaricious, miserly. +avel-o = hazel-nut. +aven-o = oats. +avert-i = to warn, caution. +avid-a = eager. +aviz-i = to give notice. +azen-o = ass, donkey. +Azi-o = Asia. +azot-o = nitrogen. + + B. + +babil-i = to chatter, babble. +bagatel-o = trifle, bagatelle. +bal-o = ball (dance). +bak-i = to bake. +bala-i = to sweep (a floor, etc.). +balanc-i = (trans.), to balance, poise; --i la kapon, to nod the head. +baldaux = (adv.), soon. +balen-o = whale. +ban-i = (trans.), to bathe. +banan-o = banana. +bandagx-i = to bandage. +bank-o = bank (financial). +bankrot-i = to become bankrupt, fail. +bant-o = bow (of ribbon). +bar-i = (trans.), to bar, to obstruct. +barakt-i = to wrestle, struggle. +barb-o = beard. +barbar-o = barbarian. +barel-o = barrel. +bariton-o = barytone. +bas-o = bass (voice). +baston-o = stick. +bat-i = to beat. +batal-i = to fight, battle. +batat-o = sweet potato. +bedauxr-i = to regret. +bek-o = beak, bill. +bel-a = beautiful, handsome. +belg-o = Belgian. +ben-i = to bless. +benk-o = bench. +ber-o = berry. +best-o = animal, beast. +bet-o = beet. +bezon-i = to need, want. +bibliotek-o = library. +bicikl-o = bicycle. +bien-o = land, property, estate. +bier-o = beer. +bifstek-o = beefsteak. +bild-o = picture, image. +bilet-o = ticket, note; bank--, bank-note, bill. +bird-o = bird. +bis = (adv.), once more, a second time, encore. +biskvit-o = biscuit. +blank-a = white. +blek-i = to neigh, bleat, give its cry (of any animal). +blind-a = blind. +blov-i = to blow. +blu-a = blue (color). +bluz-o = blouse. +bo- = prefix expressing relationship by marriage (277). +boat-o = boat. +boj-i = to bark (of dogs). +bol-i = (intrans.), to boil. +bombon-o = bonbon, sweet. +bon-a = good; --veni, to welcome. +bor-i = to bore (holes). +bord-o = shore, bank, edge (of rivers, etc.). +Boston-o = Boston. +bot-o = boot. +botel-o = bottle. +bov-o = ox; --ajxo, beef; --idajxo, veal; --viro, bull. +brak-o = arm (of the body). +brancx-o = branch, bough. +brand-o = brandy. +brasik-o = cabbage; (florbrasiko), cauliflower. +brav-a = brave. +bret-o = shelf, bracket. +brid-o = bridle (of harness). +brik-o = brick, tile. +bril-i = to shine (116). +Brit-o = Briton. +brod-i = to embroider. +bronz-o = bronze. +bros-i = to brush. +brosxur-o = pamphlet, brochure. +brov-o = eyebrow. +bru-o = noise. +brul-i = (intrans.), to burn (275). +brun-a = brown. +brut-o = cattle, dumb animal. +bub-o = street arab, gamin. +bucx-i = to slaughter, butcher. +buf-o = toad. +buk-o = buckle (metal). +buked-o = bouquet. +bukl-o = curl, ringlet (of hair). +bulb-o = onion, bulb. +bulgar-o = Bulgarian. +bulk-o = roll (bread). +bulvard-o = boulevard. +burgxon-o = bud, young shoot. +busx-o = mouth. +buter-o = butter. +butik-o = shop, store. +buton-o = button. + + C. + +cel-i = to aim, have as purpose or goal. +celeri-o = celery. +cend-o = cent (coin). +cent = hundred (142). +centigram-o = centigram (284). +centilitr-o = centiliter (284). +centimetr-o = centimeter (284). +centr-o = center. +cerb-o = brain. +cert-a = certain, sure. +cerv-o = stag, deer. +ceter-a = remaining. +ci = (pronoun), thou (40). +cidoni-o = quince. +cifer-o = cipher. +cigar-o = cigar. +cigared-o = cigarette. +cign-o = swan. +cilindr-o = cylinder. +cinam-o = cinnamon. +cindr-o = ashes. +cir-o = blacking (for shoes). +cirkonstanc-o = circumstance. +cirkuler-o = circular (letter). +Cirus-o = Cyrus. +cit-i = to quote. +citron-o = lemon. +civiliz-i = to civilize. +col-o = inch (measure). + + CX. + +cxagren-i = (trans.), to grieve, vex, annoy. +cxambr-o = room. +cxap-o = cap. +cxapel-o = hat. +cxapitr-o = chapter (of book). +cxar = (conj.), because, since (83). +cxarm-a = charming, delightful. +cxarnir-o = hinge. +cxas-i = to hunt (game or wild animals). +cxe = (prep.), at, in the house or presence of (125, 160). +cxef-a = chief, principal, head. +cxek-o = cheque. +cxemiz-o = shirt, chemise. +cxen-o = chain (for watch, etc.). +cxeriz-o = cherry. +cxes-i = (intrans.), to cease, leave off (275). +cxeval-o = horse; --viro, stallion. +cxi = (adv.), expresses proximity (60, 66). +cxia = of every kind (177). +cxial = (adv.), for every reason (188). +cxiam = (adv.), always (187). +cxie = (adv.), everywhere (182). +cxiel = (adv.), in every way (193). +cxiel-o = heaven, sky. +cxies = (pronoun, possessive), everybody's (174). +cxifon-o = rag. +cxio = (pronoun), everything, all (233). +cxiom = (adv.), all (194). +cxirkaux = (prep.), around, roundabout (89, 120, 159, 160). +cxiu = (pronoun and adj.), every one, each (173). +-cxj- = suffix forming affectionate diminutives (283). +cxokolad-o = chocolate. +cxu = (adv.), whether (when translated) (30, 66). + + D. + +da = (prep.), of (after quantitative noun or adv.) (99, 101, 103). +daktil-o = date (fruit). +Damokl-o = Damocles. +dan-o = Dane. +danc-i = to dance. +dangxer-o = danger. +dank-i = to thank. +dat-o = date (chronological). +dauxr-i = (intrans.), to continue, last. +de = (prep.), of, from, by (49, 89, l00, 160, 169, 170). +dec-i = to be proper, decent; "ne decas ke vi iru", it is not proper + for you to go. +decembr-o = December. +decid-i = to decide. +decigram-o = decigram (284). +decilitr-o = deciliter (284). +decimetr-o = decimeter (284). +defend-i = to defend. +degel-i = (intrans.), to thaw (275). +dejxor-i = to be on duty (of officer, attendant, etc.). +dek = (adj.), ten (136). +dekagram-o = dekagram (284). +dekalitr-o = dekaliter (284). +dekametr-o = dekameter (284). +deklam-i = to declaim, recite. +dekstr-a = right (not left). +deleg-i = to delegate. +delikat-a = delicate, dainty, nice. +demand-i = to ask, inquire. +dens-a = dense, thick, close. +dent-o = tooth. +depesx-o = a dispatch. +des = (adv.), the more (used with "pli", 84). +desert-o = dessert. +detal-o = detail. +detru-i = to destroy. +dev-i = to have to, must (247). +dezert-o = desert, waste. +dezir-i = to desire. +Di-o = God. +diamant-o = diamond. +difekt-i = to damage, spoil. +diferenc-a = different. +difin-i = to define, to destine. +dik-a = thick, corpulent. +dikt-i = to dictate (letters, etc.) +diligent-a = diligent. +dimancx-o = Sunday. +dimensi-o = dimension. +Diogen-o = Diogenes. +diplom-o = diploma. +diplomat-o = diplomat. +dir-i = to say (77). +direkt-i = to direct, guide, manage. +dis- = prefix expressing separation (245). +diskut-i = to discuss. +distanc-o = distance. +disting-i = to distinguish. +distr-i = to distract, take away the attention. +diven-i = to guess. +divers-a = varied, diverse, different. +divid-i = (trans.), to divide. +do = consequently, then, so. +doktor-o = doctor. +dolar-o = dollar. +dolcx-a = sweet, pleasant. +dolor-o = pain, ache. +dom-o = house. +domagx-o = pity, regrettable affair. +don-i = to give. +donac-i = to make a gift, present. +dorlot-i = to caress, fondle, pet. +dorm-i = to sleep. +dorn-o = thorn. +dors-o = back (of the body). +dot-i = to endow. +drap-o = cloth. +drog-o = drug. +dron-i = (intrans.), to drown (275). +du = (adj.), two (136) +dub-i = to doubt. +dum = (prep and conj.), during, while (96, 120, 159). +dung-i = (trans.), to hire (persons). + + E. + +eben-a = even, flat, level. +-ebl- = suffix expressing possibility (161, 162). +ebri-a = inebriate, intoxicated. +-ec- = suffix forming abstracts (202). +ecx = (adv.), even. +eduk-i = to bring up, educate. +edz-o = husband, married man. +efekt-o = effect. +efektiv-a = real, actual. +efik-i = to be efficacious, act (on), produce a result. +-eg- = suffix forming augmentatives (122). +egal-a = equal. +Egipt-o = Egypt. +ehx-o = echo. +-ej- = suffix forming words indicating place (III). +ek- = prefix expressing suddenness or beginning (206). +eks- = prefix expressing former incumbency (281). +ekscit-i = to excite. +eksperiment-i = to experiment. +eksplod-i = (intrans.), to explode. +ekster = (prep.), outside of (120, 121). +ekzamen-i = to examine, test. +ekzempl-o = example. +ekzempler-o = copy (of book or magazine). +ekzerc-i = (trans.), to exercise. +ekzil-i = to exile, banish +ekzist-i = to exist. +el = (prep.), out of, of, out (75, 106, 138, 197, 264, c). +elekt-i = to choose. +elektr-a = electric. +elokvent-a = eloquent. +-em- = suffix expressing propensity or inclination (192). +eminent-a = eminent. +en = (prep.), in (89,160), into (46). +energi-o = energy. +entrepren-i = to undertake. +entuziasm-o = enthusiasm. +enu-i = to be wearied, be bored. +envi-i = to envy. +epok-o = epoch, period, time. +-er- = suffix expressing a component part (276). +erar-i = to err, make a mistake. +escept-i = to except (266). +esper-i = to hope. +esplor-i = to investigate, explore. +esprim-i = to express. +est-i = to be (109). +establ-i = to establish. +estim-i = to esteem. +esting-i = to extinguish. +-estr- = suffix expressing leadership or authority (253). +-et- = suffix forming diminutives (198). +etagx-o = story (of a house); teretagxo, ground floor; + unua etagxo, second story. +etend-i = (trans.), to extend, lengthen, widen. +etern-a = eternal. +Euxrop-o = Europe. +evangeli-o = gospel, evangel. +evit-i = to avoid, shun. +evoluci-o = evolution. + + F. + +fab-o = bean (leguminous fruit). +fabel-o = story, tale. +fabl-o = fable. +fabrik-i = to manufacture. +facil-a = easy. +faden-o = thread. +fajf-i = to whistle. +fajr-o = fire. +fak-o = department, specialty. +fakt-o = fact. +fal-i = to fall. +fald-i = to fold. +fals-i = to falsify, forge, debase. +fam-o = fame, renown, rumor. +famili-o = family. +familiar-a = familiar, accustomed. +fand-i = (trans.), to smelt, fuse (metals, etc.). +fanfaron-i = to boast, vaunt oneself, brag. +fantom-o = phantom, ghost. +far-i = to make, do, render. +faraon-o = pharaoh (Egyptian ruler). +farm-i = to farm (as a tenant). +farmaci-o = pharmacy (knowledge of the use of drugs). +fart-i = to be in (good or bad) health. +farun-o = flour. +fask-o = bundle, bunch. +fason-o = cut, mode, fashion. +fatal-a = fatal, predestined. +fauxk-o = jaw (literal and figurative). +favor-a = favorable. +fazeol-o = bean (garden bean). +fe-o = fairy, fay; --ino, fairy. +febr-o = fever. +februar-o = February. +fel-o = skin, hide (of animals). +felicx-a = happy. +femur-o = thigh. +fend-i = (trans.), to split. +fenestr-o = window. +fer-o = iron; --vojo, railway. +ferdek-o = deck (of ship). +ferm-i = (trans.), to close, shut. +fervor-o = zeal, fervor. +fest-i = to celebrate. +festen-o = banquet. +fi = (interjection), fie! (273). +fiakr-o = cab. +fiancx-o = betrothed man, fiance. +fid-i = to rely upon, trust. +fidel-a = faithful, loyal. +fier-a = proud, haughty. +fil-o = son. +filozof-o = philosopher. +fin-i = (trans.), to finish, end. +fingr-o = finger; "dika fingro", thumb; "montra fingro", index finger; + "longa fingro", middle finger; "ringa fingro", ring-finger; + "malgranda fingro", little finger. +firm-a = firm, steady. +fisx-o = fish. +fizik-o = physics, physical science. +flag-o = flag, banner, small standard. +flank-o = side. +flar-i = (trans.), to smell, scent. +flav-a = yellow. +fleks-i = (trans.), to bend, flex. +flik-i = to patch. +flor-o = flower (116). +flu-i = to flow. +flug-i = to fly. +fluid-a = fluid, liquid. +foj-o = time, occasion (127). +fojn-o = hay. +fokus-o = focus. +foli-o = leaf. +fond-i = to found, establish. +font-o = spring (of water), fount. +fontan-o = fountain (artificial). +for = (adv.), away (71). +forges-i = to forget. +fork-o = fork. +form-o = shape, form. +formik-o = ant. +forn-o = stove. +fort-a = strong. +fos-i = to dig. +fotograf-i = to photograph +frag-o = strawberry. +frak-o = evening dress (for men). +frakas-i = to shatter, break to pieces. +framb-o = raspberry. +franc-o = Frenchman. +frand-i = to be fond of sweets, be an epicure. +frangx-o = fringe. +frap-i = to knock, strike. +frat-o = brother. +frauxl-o = bachelor, unmarried man. +fraz-o = sentence, phrase. +Frederik-o = Frederick. +fremd-a = foreign. +frenez-a = crazy, mad. +fresx-a = fresh, new. +fripon-o = rogue, rascal, knave. +frit-i = (trans.), to fry. +fromagx-o = cheese. +frost-o = frost. +frot-i = to rub. +fru-a = early. +frukt-o = fruit. +frunt-o = forehead. +fulm-o = lightning. +fum-i = to smoke. +fund-o = bottom. +fundament-o = foundation, base. +funebr-o = mourning. +fung-o = mushroom. +funkci-i = to function, work. +funt-o = pound. +furioz-a = furious, raging. +fusx-i = to bungle. +fut-o = foot (measure). + + G. + +gaj-a = gay, merry. +gajn-i = to gain. +galeri-o = gallery. +galop-i = to gallop. +gant-o = glove. +gard-i = to guard, watch over. +gas-o = gas. +gast-o = guest. +gazet-o = gazette, magazine. +ge- = prefix indicating both sexes together (271). +general-o = general (military). +genu-o = knee; --fleksi, to kneel. +geometri-o = geometry. +german-o = German. +Gertrud-o = Gertrude. +gicxet-o = wicket, ticket-window, turnstile. +girland-o = garland, wreath. +glaci-o = ice; --ajxo, an ice (food). +glad-i = to iron (linen, etc.). +glas-o = tumbler, glass. +glat-a = smooth, polished, flat. +glav-o = sword. +glit-i = to glide, slide. +glob-o = globe. +glor-o = glory. +glu-o = glue. +glut-i = to swallow. +gorgx-o = throat. +graci-a = graceful. +grad-o = grade, degree. +graf-o = count; --lando, county. +gram-o = gram (284). +gramatik-o = grammar. +grand-a = great, large, big. +gras-o = fat. +gratul-i = to congratulate. +grav-a = important, serious, grave. +gravit-i = to gravitate. +grek-o = Greek. +gren-o = grain (wheat, corn, etc.). +grimp-i = to climb up, creep up. +grinc-i = to grind, gnash. +griz-a = gray. +grup-o = group. +gurd-o = hurdy-gurdy, barrel organ. +gust-o = taste. +gut-i = to drip. +gvid-i = to guide. + + GX. + +gxarden-o = garden. +gxem-i = to groan. +gxen-i = to disturb, incommode. +gxeneral-a = general, common. +gxentil-a = courteous, polite. +gxi = (pronoun), it (32, 37, 42, 274). +gxis = (prep.), as far as, until (46, 89). +gxoj-i = to rejoice, be glad (116). +gxu-i = to enjoy, find pleasure in. +gxust-a = exact, just. + + H. + +hajl-o = hail (frozen rain). +hak-i = to chop, hack; --ilo, axe. +halt-i = (intrans.), to halt, stop. +har-o = a hair. +hauxt-o = skin (human). +hav-i = to have. +haven-o = harbor, port. +hazard-o = chance, hazard. +hebre-o = Hebrew. +hejm-o = home. +hejt-i = (trans.), to heat (a place). +hektar-o = hektare (284). +hektogram-o = hektogram (284). +hektolitr-o = hektoliter (284). +hektometr-o = hektometer (284). +hel-a = bright, clear. +help-i = to help, aid, assist. +herb-o = grass, herb. +hero-o = hero. +hezit-i = to hesitate. +hieraux = (adv.), yesterday (93, 171). +Hieron-o = Hiero. +hipokrit-i = to play the hypocrite. +hirund-o = swallow (bird). +hispan-o = Spaniard. +histori-o = history. +ho = (interjection), ho, oh (273). +hodiaux = (adv.), today (93, 171). +Holand-o = Holland. +hom-o = human being. +honest-a = honest. +honor-i = to honor. +hont-i = to be ashamed. +hor-o = hour (185). +horizont-o = horizon. +horizontal-a = horizontal. +horlogx-o = clock; posxhorlogxo, watch. +hotel-o = hotel. +humil-a = humble. +humor-o = humor, temper. +hund-o = dog. +hura! = (interjection), hurrah! + + HX. + +hxemi-o = chemistry. +hxin-o = Chinaman. +hxor-o = choir. + + I. + +ia = any kind of (208). +ial = (adv.), for any reason (213). +iam = (adv.), ever, at any time, once (212). +-id- = suffix indicating descendant or young of (207). +ide-o = idea. +ideal-o = ideal. +ident-a = identical. +idiom-o = idiom. +idiot-o = idiot. +ie = (adv.), somewhere (209). +iel = (adv.), somehow (216). +ies = (pronoun, possessive), somebody's (204). +-ig- = suffix forming causative verbs (214, 239, 275). +ignor-i = to ignore. +-igx- = suffix forming inchoative and intransitive verbs + (232, 239, 279). +-il- = suffix forming names of instruments (63). +ili = (pronoun) they (32, 37, 42). +ilustr-i = to illustrate. +iluzi-o = illusion, delusion. +imag-i = to imagine, fancy. +imit-i = to imitate. +imperi-o = empire. +implik-i = to implicate. +impost-o = tax, impost. +impres-i = to impress. +impuls-o = impulse. +-in- = suffix forming feminines (59). +incit-i = to incite, arouse, provoke. +-ind- = suffix expressing worth or merit (154). +indian-o = Indian (American). +indiferent-a = indifferent, unconcerned, unimportant. +industri-o = industry (trade, business). +infan-o = child. +infekt-i = to infect, contaminate. +influ-i = to influence. +inform-i = to give information. +-ing- = suffix expressing a holder or container (237). +ingxenier-o = engineer. +ink-o = ink. +insekt-o = insect. +insist-i = to insist. +inspir-i = to inspire. +instru-i = to instruct, teach. +insul-o = island. +insult-i = to insult. +inteligent-a = intelligent. +intend-i = to intend. +inter = (prep.), between, among (85, 89, 160). +interes-i = (trans.), to interest. +intermit-i = to be intermittent. +intern-a = internal; --e, inside. +interpret-i = to interpret. +intim-a = intimate. +invit-i = to invite. +io = (pronoun), something (233). +iom = (adv.), some, a certain amount; + iom post iom, little by little (217). +ir-i = to go. +-ist- = suffix indicating profession, etc. (172). +ital-o = Italian. +iu = (pronoun), some one, a certain (one) (203). + + J. + +ja = (adv.), indeed, in fact (215). +jak-o = jacket, short coat. +jam = (adv.), already. +januar-o = January. +jar-o = year. +je = prep. of indefinite meaning (89, 185, 260). +jen = (adv.), there, behold (228). +jes = (adv.), yes (171). +Jesu-o = Jesus. +Johano = John. +ju = (adv.), the more (used with "pli", 84). +jug-o = yoke. +jugx-i = to judge. +juli-o = July. +jun-a = young. +jung-i = to harness. +juni-o = June. +jup-o = skirt. +jurist-o = jurist. +just-a = just, upright. +juvel-o = jewel. + + JX. + +jxaluz-a = jealous. +jxauxd-o = Thursday. +jxet-i = to throw, cast, hurl. +jxongl-i = to juggle. +jxur-i = to take oath, swear. +jxurnal-o = newspaper, journal. +jxus = (adv.), a moment before, just. + + K. + +kadavr-o = corpse. +kadr-o = frame (of pictures). +kaduk-a = decaying, in ruin. +kaf-o = coffee. +kagx-o = cage. +kahel-o = tile (for paving). +kaj = (conj.), and; kaj..kaj.., both..and.. (26). +kajer-o = notebook. +kaldron-o = caldron. +kalendar-o = calendar. +kalesx-o = carriage. +kalkan-o = heel (of the foot); --umo, heel of a shoe. +kalkul-i = to calculate, reckon. +kamel-o = camel. +kamen-o = chimney. +kamer-o = camera. +kamp-o = field. +kanajl-o = scoundrel, rascal. +kanap-o = sofa. +kand-o = candy. +kandel-o = candle. +kanot-o = canoe. +kant-i = to sing. +kap-o = head. +kapabl-a = capable. +kapel-o = chapel (for prayer). +kapital-o = capital (money). +kapitol-o = capitol. +kapt-i = to catch, seize. +kar-a = dear, prized. +karakter-o = character. +karb-o = coal. +karcer-o = jail. +kares-i = to caress. +karn-o = flesh. +karot-o = carrot. +kart-o = card; posxtkarto, postcard; vizitkarto, visiting card. +karton-o = pasteboard. +karusel-o = merry-go-round. +kas-o = money-box, treasury; --isto, cashier, treasurer. +kaskad-o = waterfall, cascade. +kastel-o = castle. +kasx-i = to hide, conceal (252). +kasxtan-o = chestnut. +kat-o = cat. +katen-o = fetter, chain. +kauxz-o = cause. +kav-o = cavity, hole. +kaz-o = case (grammatical). +ke = (conj.), that (53, 83, 105, 259, 262). +kel-o = cellar. +kelk-a = some; --aj, several, more than one or two. +kelner-o = waiter (in hotel or restaurant). +kest-o = chest; tirkesto, drawer. +kia = what kind of (112, 150); kiamanier-e, how. +kial = (adv.), why (129). +kiam = (adv.), when (123, 155). +kie = (adv.), where (118, 151). +kiel = (adv.), how, in which way, as (134, 156). +kies = (pronoun, possessive), whose (107, 147). +kilogram-o = kilogram (284). +kilolitr-o = kiloliter (284). +kilometr-o = kilometer (284). +kio = (pronoun), what (233). +kiom = (adv.), how much (140, 164, 185). +kis-i = to kiss. +kiu = (pronoun), who (106, 146). +klak-i = (trans.), to clap, clatter. +klar-a = clear, distinct. +klav-o = key (of piano, etc.). +klas-o = class. +kler-a = enlightened, well-in-formed. +klimat-o = climate. +klin-i = (trans.), to incline, bend. +kling-o = blade (of knife, etc.). +klopod-i = to undertake initiative work, take steps toward, + labor for the success or completion of something. +klub-o = club (organization) +knab-o = boy. +kobold-o = sprite, kobold, brownie. +kofr-o = trunk, chest with a lid. +kok-o = cock (domestic fowl). +koket-a = coquettish. +koks-o = hip. +kol-o = neck. +kolbas-o = sausage. +kolegi-o = college. +kolekt-i = (trans.), to collect, gather. +koler-i = to be angry, lose the temper. +kolomb-o = pigeon, dove. +kolon-o = column, pillar. +kolonel-o = colonel. +kolor-o = color. +kolport-i = to peddle. +komand-i = to command (military and naval). +komb-i = to comb. +komedi-o = comedy. +komenc-i = (trans.), to begin, commence. +komerc-i = to trade, engage in commerce. +komfort-o = comfort (freedom from pain, want, etc.). +komisi-i = to entrust with, put in charge of, give the agency for. +komitat-o = committee. +komiz-o = clerk, employee, assistant. +kompani-o = company (commercial organization). +kompar-i = (trans.) to compare, (266). +kompat-i = to pity, have compassion for. +komplet-o = suit (of clothes). +komplez-o = kindness, courtesy, disposition to oblige. +komplik-i = to complicate. +kompost-i = to compose, set (type); --isto, compositor. +kompot-o = jam, preserve, +kompren-i = to understand. +komun-a = common, mutual. +komunik-i = to communicate. +kon-i = to be acquainted with, know; --atigxi kun, to become acquainted + with (117). +koncern-i = to concern (266). +koncert-o = concert (musical). +kondamn-i = to condemn. +kondicx-o = terms specified, stipulation, condition. +konduk-i = to conduct, lead. +konduktor-o = conductor (of car, train, etc.). +kondut-i = to behave, conduct oneself. +konfes-i = to confess, admit. +konfid-i = to trust, have confidence in. +konfit-i = to preserve, pickle (fruits, etc.). +konform-i = to be in conformity with (266). +konfuz-i = to confuse, confound. +kongres-o = congress (assembly). +konk-o = shell (of mollusk, etc.). +konkur-i = to vie, compete. +konkurenc-o = competition (in business, etc.). +konkurs-o = prearranged trial of skill, formal competition (for + prizes, etc.). +konsci-i = to be conscious. +konscienc-o = conscience. +konsent-i = to consent, agree. +konserv-i = to keep, preserve, save. +konservativ-a = conservative. +konsil-i = to advise, counsel. +konsist-i = to consist. +konsol-i = to console, comfort. +konsonant-o = consonant. +konspir-i = to conspire, plot. +konstant-a = constant. +konstat-i = to verify, ascertain the truth of, certify. +konstituci-o = constitution. +konstru-i = to build. +konsul-o = consul. +konsult-i = to seek advice of, consult. +kont-o = account (book-keeping, commercial). +kontent-a = content, satisfied. +kontinent-o = continent (geographical). +kontrakt-i = to contract, agree. +kontralt-o = contralto. +kontraux = (prep.), against, opposite, opposed to (159, 160). +kontrol-i = to control, inspect, examine and check. +kontur-o = outline, contour. +kontuz-i = to bruise. +konven-i = to be suitable, be fitting or convenient. +konvink-i = to convince, persuade. +kopi-i = to copy. +kor-o = heart (of the body). +korb-o = basket. +korekt-i = to correct. +korespond-i = to exchange letters, correspond. +koridor-o = corridor, passage. +kork-o = cork (bark). +korn-o = horn. +korp-o = body, --a, corporeal. +korpus-o = corps (military). +kort-o = courtyard, court. +kortego = court (royal, etc.). +korv-o = raven. +kost-i = to cost. +kostum-o = costume. +kot-o = mud. +kotiz-i = to pay dues, pay one's share of an assessment. +kotlet-o = cutlet, chop. +koton-o = cotton. +kov-i = to brood (of birds). +kovert-o = envelope +kovr-i = to cover. +krab-o = crab. +krad-o = grating, grate, lattice. +krajon-o = pencil. +krak-i = to clack, crackle. +kran-o = faucet, tap. +kravat-o = cravat. +kre-i = to create. +kred-i = to believe (265). +krem-o = cream. +krepusk-o = twilight, half-light of dawn or evening. +kresk-i = to grow. +krestomati-o = chrestomathy, collection of selected passages. +kret-o = chalk. +krev-i = (intrans.), to burst, crack open (suddenly and with noise). +kri-i = to cry out. +kribr-i = to sift (with a sieve). +krim-o = crime. +kring-o = ring-shaped biscuit. +kripl-a = crippled. +Krist-o = Christ. +kritik-i = to criticise. +krocx-i = to hook. +krom = (prep.), beside, aside from, except, save, but. +kron-o = crown. +kruc-o = cross; --umi, to crucify. +krucx-o = pitcher, jug; tekrucxo, tea-pot. +kruel-a = cruel. +krur-o = leg. +krust-o = crust. +krut-a = steep. +kubut-o = elbow. +kudr-i = to sew. +kugl-o = bullet. +kuir-i = to cook. +kuk-o = cake; --ajxo, pastry. +kukum-o = cucumber. +kukurb-o = pumpkin. +kuler-o = spoon. +kulp-a = guilty. +kultur-i = to cultivate; terkulturi, to till the soil, farm. +kun = (prep.), with (70, 76, 120, 160, 159). +kunikl-o = rabbit. +kupon-o = coupon. +kupr-o = copper (metal). +kur-i = to run. +kurac-i = to treat for illness, cure; --ato, a patient; + --isto, a physician, medical man. +kuragx-o = courage. +kurb-o = curve. +kurioz-a = uncommon, curious. +kurs-o = course (of lessons). +kurten-o = curtain. +kusen-o = cushion. +kusx-i = to lie, recline (239). +kutim-o = custom, habit. +kuv-o = tub, large basin. +kuz-o = cousin. +kvadrat-o = square (equilateral rectangle). +kvalit-o = quality, texture. +kvankam = (conj.), though, although, while (concessive). +kvant-o = quantity, amount. +kvar = (adj.), four (136). +kvartal-o = quarter (of a city). +kvazaux = (conj.), as though, as if (250). +kverk-o = oak. +kviet-a = calm, quiet. +kvin = (adj.), five (136). +kvitanc-o = receipt (for payment). + + L. + +la = (article), the (II, 47, 201, 280, a). +labor-i = to work, labor. +lac-a = tired, weary. +lacx-o = string, lace (of shoe, etc.). +lad-o = tin plate (sheet iron covered with tin). +lag-o = lake. +lakt-o = milk. +laktuk-o = lettuce. +lam-a = lame. +lamp-o = lamp. +lan-o = wool. +lanc-o = lance, spear. +land-o = land, country. +lang-o = tongue (of the body). +lantern-o = lantern. +lanug-o = down (hairs, feathers). +lard-o = bacon. +largx-a = wide, broad. +larm-o = tear (of the eye). +las-i = (trans.), to leave, let, permit. +last-a = last (in a series). +latin-a = Latin. +laux = (prep.), in accordance with, along, by (191). +lauxb-o = arbor, summer-house. +lauxd-i = to praise. +lauxt-a = loud. +lav-i = to wash. +lecion-o = lesson. +led-o = leather. +leg-i = to read. +legom-o = vegetable. +legx-o = law. +lek-i = to lick. +leon-o = lion. +lepor-o = hare. +lern-i = to learn. +lert-a = clever, skilful. +leter-o = letter (epistle). +lev-i = to raise, lift. +li = (pronoun), he, him (32, 37, 42). +liber-a = free. +libr-o = book. +lig-i = to tie, bind, fasten; --ilo, bond; that which ties or fastens; + --ajxo, knot; --o, league, alliance. +lign-o = wood. +lim-o = limit, boundary. +limonad-o = lemonade. +lingv-o = language. +lini-o = line; --ilo, ruler. +lip-o = lip; --haroj, moustache. +lit-o = bed (for sleeping). +liter-o = letter of the alphabet; lauxlitera, literal. +literatur-o = literature. +litr-o = liter (284). +liver-i = to deliver, supply, furnish. +log-i = to allure. +logx-i = to dwell, reside (133). +lok-o = place; --a, local. +lokomotiv-o = locomotive. +long-a = long. +lonicer-o = honeysuckle. +lorn-o = telescope, spyglass; --eto, opera-glasses. +lu-i = to hire, rent (engage and pay rent for). +lud-i = to play. +luks-o = luxury. +lul-i = to lull to sleep; --ilo, cradle. +lum-i = to shine (275). +lun-o = moon. +lunatik-o = lunatic. +lund-o = Monday. +lup-o = wolf. + + M. + +macx-i = to chew, masticate. +magazen-o = warehouse. +magi-o = magic. +magistr-o = master of arts (A.M.). +maiz-o = maize, Indian corn. +maj-o = May. +majest-a = majestic. +majones-a = mayonnaise. +majstr-o = master (of his art or profession). +makaroni-o = macaroni. +maksimum-o = maximum. +makul-o = spot, stain. +makzel-o = jaw; --osto, jawbone. +mal- = prefix forming opposites (67). +maleol-o = ankle. +malgraux = (prep.), notwithstanding. +malic-a = malicious. +man-o = hand. +mandat-o = money-order. +mangx-i = to eat. +manier-o = manner, way. +manik-o = sleeve. +mank-i = (intrans.), to be lacking, wanting. +mantel-o = cloak, mantle. +manuskript-o = manuscript. +mar-o = sea. +marcx-o = swamp, marsh. +mard-o = Tuesday. +Mari-o = Mary. +mark-o = mark. +marmelad-o = marmalade. +marmor-o = marble (stone), +marsx-i = to walk. +mart-o = March. +martel-o = hammer. +mastr-o = master (of a house, etc.) +masxin-o = machine. +maten-o = morning (93). +material-o = material. +matur-a = ripe, mature. +mebl-o = piece of furniture. +medicin-o = medicine (the science). +mehxanik-o = mechanics. +mejl-o = mile. +meleagr-o = turkey. +melk-i = to milk. +melodi-o = melody. +melon-o = melon. +mem = (pronoun), self, selves (219). +membr-o = limb, member. +memor-i = to remember, keep in mind; rememori, to recall to memory. +mend-i = to order (of a store, etc.). +mensog-i = to lie, tell lies. +menton-o = chin. +menu-o = menu. +merit-i = to deserve, merit. +merkred-o = Wednesday. +merl-o = blackbird. +met-i = to put, place. +metal-o = metal. +meti-o = trade, handicraft. +metod-o = method, way. +metr-o = meter (284). +mez-o = middle. +mezur-i = to measure. +mi = (pronoun), I, me (32, 37). +miel-o = honey. +mien-o = appearance, mien. +miks-i = (trans.), to mix. +mil = (adj.), thousand (142). +mild-a = mild. +milimetr-o = millimeter (284). +milion-o = million. +milit-i = to fight, wage war. +min-o = mine (of coal, silver, etc.). +minac-i = to threaten. +mineral-o = mineral. +minimum-o = minimum. +ministr-o = minister (political). +minut-o = minute. +miop-a = shortsighted. +mir-i = to wonder. +mister-o = mystery. +mizer-o = misery. +mod-o = mode, fashion. +model-o = model. +moder-a = moderate. +modest-a = modest. +mok-i = to mock. +mol-a = soft. +moment-o = moment; --a, momentary, instantaneous. +mon-o = money. +monahx-o = monk. +monarhxi-o = monarch. +monat-o = month. +mond-o = world. +mont-o = mountain. +montr-i = (trans.), to show. +mor-o = conduct (in regard to right or wrong); --oj, morals. +moral-a = moral; --eco, morality. +mord-i = to bite. +morgaux = (adv.), tomorrow (171). +mort-i = to die; --igi, to kill. +mosxt-o = title of respect (258). +mov-i = (trans.), to move, put in motion. +muel-o = mill (for grinding). +mugx-i = to roar, bellow. +mult-a = much (81). +mur-o = wall. +murmur-i = to murmur. +mus-o = mouse. +mustard-o = mustard. +musx-o = fly. +mut-a = dumb, mute. +muze-o = museum. +muzik-o = music. + + N. + +naci-o = nation. +nagx-i = to swim. +naiv-a = artless, naive, ingenuous. +najbar-o = neighbor. +najl-o = nail (of metal). +nap-o = turnip. +nask-i = to produce, bring forth, give birth to. +natur-o = nature. +naux = (adj.), nine (136). +naz-o = nose. +ne = (adv.), no, not (27, 66, a, 171). +nebul-o = fog, mist. +neces-a = necessary. +negativ-o = negative (photographic). +negx-o = snow. +nek = (negative conj.), neither, nor (31). +nenia = no kind of (224). +nenial = (adv.), for no reason (229). +neniam = (adv.), never (226). +nenie = (adv.), nowhere (225). +neniel = (adv.), in no way (230). +nenies = (pronoun, possessive), nobody's (221). +nenio = (pronoun), nothing (233). +neniom = (adv.), none, not any (231). +neniu = (pronoun), no one, nobody, no (220). +nep-o = grandson. +nepr-e = inevitably, certainly, unfailingly. +nerv-o = nerve. +nest-o = nest. +neuxtral-a = neutral, non-partisan. +nev-o = nephew. +ni = (pronoun), we, us (32, 37). +nigr-a = black. +nivel-o = level. +-nj- = suffix forming affectionate diminutives (283). +nobel-o = nobleman. +nobl-a = noble (in character). +nokt-o = night. +nom-o = name; --i, to name, mention. +nombr-o = number (quantity). +nord-o = north. +norveg-o = Norwegian. +nostalgi-o = homesickness. +not-o = note. +nov-a = new, recent, novel; denove, anew, again. +novembr-o = November. +nu = (interjection), well! (273). +nuanc-o = shade, tint, hue. +nub-o = cloud. +nud-a = bare, naked, nude. +nuks-o = nut. +nul-o = zero, naught. +numer-o = number, numeral (No.). +nun = (adv.), now (171). +nur = (adv.), merely, only. +nutr-i = to nourish, to feed. + + O. + +obe-i = to obey (265). +objekt-o = object, thing. +objektiv-o = lens, objective. +-obl- = suffix forming multiples (186). +oblikv-a = oblique, slanting. +observ-i = to observe, take note of. +obstin-a = obstinate. +ocean-o = ocean. +odor-i = to smell (good or bad). +ofend-i = to offend. +ofer-i = to sacrifice, offer. +ofic-o = office, employment; --isto, officer (of firm or organization); + --ejo, office (the place). +oficial-a = official. +oficir-o = officer (military or naval). +oft-a = frequent. +ok = (adj.), eight (136). +okaz-i = to happen, occur, take place. +okcident-o = west. +oktobr-o = October. +okul-o = eye. +okup-i = to occupy. +ol = (conj.), than (82, 97, 98). +ole-o = oil. +oliv-o = olive. +ombr-o = shadow, shade. +ombrel-o = umbrella. +-on- = suffix forming fractions (166). +ond-o = wave. +oni = (pronoun), one, they (54). +onkl-o = uncle. +-op- = suffix forming collective numerals (261). +oper-o = opera. +opini-i = to have the opinion, think. +oportun-a = handy, convenient, opportune. +or-o = gold. +orangx-o = orange (fruit). +ord-o = order (methodical or proper arrangement). +ordinar-a = ordinary; eksterordinara, extraordinary. +ordon-i = to order, bid, command. +orel-o = ear (of the body). +orf-o = orphan. +organ-o = organ (physical). +organiz-i = to organize. +orgen-o = organ, (musical instrument). +orient-o = east. +original-o = original. +orkestr-o = orchestra. +ornam-i = to ornament, adorn. +ort-a = right-angled. +osced-i = to gape, yawn. +ost-o = bone. +ostr-o = oyster. +ostracism-o = ostracism. +ov-o = egg. + + P. + +pac-o = peace. +pacienc-o = patience. +padel-i = to paddle. +paf-i = to shoot (with gun, etc.). +pag-i = to pay. +pagx-o = page (of a book, etc.). +pajl-o = straw. +pak-i = to pack. +pal-a = pale. +palac-o = palace. +palis-o = stake; --aro, palisade. +palp-i = to feel (with the fingers, etc.); --ado, touch (the sense). +palpebr-o = eyelid. +pan-o = bread. +pantalon-o = trousers. +pantofl-o = slipper. +paper-o = paper (material). +papili-o = butterfly. +par-o = pair. +paradiz-o = paradise. +paragraf-o = paragraph. +paralel-a = parallel. +pardon-i = to forgive, pardon (265). +parenc-o = relative (person). +parfum-o = perfume. +park-o = park. +parker-e = by rote, by heart, from memory. +parol-i = to speak (77). +part-o = part, share. +particip-o = participle. +pas-i = (intrans.), to pass. +pasagxer-o = passenger. +paser-o = sparrow. +pasi-o = passion. +pasiv-a = passive. +Pask-o = Easter. +pastecx-o = patty, small pie. +pastinak-o = parsnip. +pastr-o = pastor, clergyman, priest. +pasx-i = to step. +pasxt-i = (trans.), to pasture, feed; --isto, shepherd. +pat-o = pan, frying-pan. +patr-o = father. +pauxz-o = pause. +pavim-o = pavement. +pec-o = piece, morsel. +pejzagx-o = landscape. +pek-i = to sin. +pekl-i = to pickle (meat, etc.). +pel-i = to chase away, drive off. +pelt-o = coat or wrap of fur. +pen-i = to strive, try. +pend-i = (intrans.), to hang. +penetr-i = to penetrate. +penik-o = paintbrush, hair pencil. +pens-i = to think. +pent-i = to repent. +pentr-i = to paint. +pep-i = to chirp, twitter. +per = (prep.), by means of, with, by (64). +perd-i = to lose. +pere-i = to perish. +perfekt-a = perfect. +perfid-i = to betray; --a, perfidious, treacherous. +period-a = periodic. +perl-o = pearl. +permes-i = to permit, allow, let. +peron-o = platform (railway), stoop (entrance porch). +persekut-i = to persecute, prosecute. +persik-o = peach. +persist-i = to persist, persevere. +person-o = person. +peruk-o = wig. +pes-i = (trans.), to ascertain the weight of; --ilo, scales, balance. +pet-i = to request, beg, ask. +petol-i = to be mischievous, saucy, roguish. +petrol-o = petroleum, kerosene. +petrosel-o = parsley. +pez-i = (intrans.), to be heavy, weigh. +pi-a = pious. +pice-o = spruce (tree). +pied-o = foot; --iranto, pedestrian. +piedestal-o = pedestal. +pik-i = to prick, sting. +pilgrim-i = to go on a pilgrimage. +pilk-o = ball (to play with). +pin-o = pine (tree). +pinakotek-o = picture gallery. +pincx-i = to pinch. +pingl-o = pin. +pint-o = point, pinnacle, summit. +pionir-o = pioneer. +pip-o = pipe (for smoking). +pipr-o = pepper. +pir-o = pear. +pist-i = to crush, mash; --ajxo, puree. +pitoresk-a = picturesque. +piz-o = pea. +plac-o = public square, place (broad, short street or open space). +placx-i = to please, to be pleasing (265). +plad-o = flat dish. +plafon-o = ceiling. +plan-o = plan, scheme. +pland-o = sole (of the foot). +planed-o = planet. +plank-o = floor. +plant-i = to plant. +plat-a = flat, plane. +plauxd-i = (trans.), to splash, dabble (a liquid). +plej = (adv.), most (74, 79, 81, 162); malplej, least (80). +plekt-i = to weave, plait, braid. +plen-a = full; plenum-i, to fulfil. +plend-i = to complain. +plet-o = tray. +plezur-o = pleasure. +pli = (adv.), more (74, 79, 81); malpli, less (80). +plor-i = to weep, cry. +plu = (adv.), further, more, any more. +plug-i = to plow. +plum-o = pen, feather. +plumb-o = lead (metal); --isto, plumber. +pluv-o = rain. +pneuxmatik-o = pneumatic tire. +po = (prep.), at the rate of (175). +poem-o = poem. +poet-o = poet. +poezi-o = poetry, poesy. +pokal-o = goblet, cup. +pol-o = Pole. +polic-o = police (force). +politik-o = politics. +polm-o = palm (of the hand). +polur-i = to polish, make smooth and glossy. +polus-o = pole (geographical). +polv-o = dust. +pom-o = apple. +pomp-o = pomp, splendor. +pont-o = bridge. +popol-o = a people, folk. +popular-a = popular. +por = (prep.), for (95, 98, 262). +porcelan-o = porcelain, china. +porci-o = portion, share. +pord-o = door. +pork-o = swine, pig, hog. +port-i = to carry, bear. +portret-o = portrait. +posed-i = to possess, own. +post = (prep.), after, behind (89, 120). +postul-i = to require, demand. +posx-o = pocket. +posxt-o = post (mail); --kesto, mailbox; --marko, postage stamp; + --mandato, postal money order. +pot-o = pot. +potenc-a = powerful, mighty. +pov-i = to be able, can (72). +pra- = prefix indicating remoteness in line of descent (282). +praktik-o = practice. +prav-a = right, in the right. +precip-a = principal, chief. +preciz-a = precise. +predik-i = to preach. +prefer-i = to prefer. +prefiks-o = prefix. +pregx-i = to pray; --ejo, church. +prem-i = to press. +premi-o = premium, prize. +pren-i = to take. +prepar-i = to prepare. +pres-i = to print. +preskaux = (adv.), almost. +pret-a = ready. +pretekst-i = to make pretext of, pretend, sham. +pretend-i = to make pretension to, lay claim to. +preter = (prep.), beyond, past, by. +prez-o = price. +prezent-i = to present, offer. +prezid-i = to preside; --anto, presiding officer, president, chairman. +pri = (prep.), concerning, about, of (160, 264, c). +princ-o = prince. +princip-o = principle. +printemp-o = spring (season). +pro = (prep.), on account of, because of, for (86). +problem-o = problem. +procent-o = interest, percentage. +proces-o = lawsuit, legal process. +produkt-i = to produce. +profesi-o = profession, occupation, calling. +profesor-o = professor. +profil-o = profile. +profit-o = profit; --i, to profit (by). +profund-a = deep, profound. +progres-i = to progress. +projekt-o = project. +proklam-i = to proclaim. +prokrast-i = to delay, procrastinate. +proksim-a = near. +promen-i = to go walking, promenade. +promes-i = to promise. +propon-i = to propose, offer. +proporci-o = proportion. +propr-a = own (one's own); malpropra, other people's; + --igi al si, to appropriate, make one's own. +prosper-i = to have success, prosper. +protekt-i = to protect. +protest-i = to protest. +protokol-o = minutes (of a meeting). +prov-i = to try, attempt, test. +proviz-i = to provide. +proz-o = prose; --ajxo, prose composition, piece of prose. +prudent-a = reasonable, sensible, rational. +prujn-o = hoar frost. +prun-o = plum. +prunt-o = loan; --i, --e doni, to lend; --e preni, to borrow. +pruv-i = to prove, give proof of. +psalm-o = psalm. +publik-o = public (the); --igi, to publish. +puding-o = pudding. +pudr-i = to powder. +pugn-o = fist. +pulm-o = lung. +pulv-o = gunpowder. +pump-i = to pump. +pun-i = to punish. +punt-o = lace (point, etc.). +pup-o = doll. +pupitr-o = desk. +pur-a = clean, pure. +purpur-a = purple. +pusx-i = to push; repusxi, to repulse. +put-o = well (for water). + + R. + +rabarb-o = rhubarb. +rab-i = to pillage, plunder; --isto, robber. +rabat-i = to rebate, give a reduction, discount or rebate. +rad-o = wheel. +radi-o = ray (of light), spoke (of wheel), radius. +radik-o = root. +rafan-o = radish. +rafin-i = to refine; --ejo, refinery. +rajd-i = to ride (horse, etc.). +rajt-o = right (to something). +rakont-i = to relate, narrate (77). +ramp-i = to creep, crawl, clamber. +ran-o = frog. +rand-o = edge, border. +rang-o = rank, grade, dignity. +rapid-a = rapid, quick; --o, speed; --emo, haste. +raport-i = to report, give a report. +ras-o = race (tribe, people, nation). +rasp-i = to rasp, grate; --ilo, grater. +rat-o = rat. +rauxk-a = hoarse, raucous. +rav-i = to enchant. +raz-i = to shave. +re- = prefix indicating repetition or return (223). +real-a = real. +reciprok-a = reciprocal, mutual (180). +redakci-o = editorial department. +redakt-i = to edit. +redaktor-o = editor. +redingot-o = frock coat. +refut-i = to refute. +reg-i = to rule, govern, reign. +regal-i = (trans.), to regale, treat (to food or drink). +region-o = region. +registr-i = (trans.), to register, enroll. +regn-o = state, governed body; --ano, citizen, subject. +regul-o = rule, regulation. +regx-o = king. +reklam-i = to advertise. +rekomend-i = to recommend, register (a letter). +rekompenc-i = to recompense, reward. +rekt-a = straight, undeviating, direct. +rel-o = rail. +religi-o = religion. +rem-i = to row. +rembur-i = to upholster, stuff, pad. +renkont-i = (trans.), to meet. +renvers-i = (trans.), to upset. +reprezent-i = to represent. +respekt-i = to respect. +respond-i = to answer. +respublik-o = republic. +rest-i = to remain, stay. +restoraci-o = restaurant. +resum-i = to summarize, give in resume. +ret-o = net, netting. +rev-i = to indulge in revery, dream, fancy. +revu-o = journal, review, magazine. +rezon-i = to reason (exert the power of reasoning). +rezult-i = to result. +ricev-i = to receive. +ricx-a = rich. +rid-i = to laugh (265). +rifuz-i = to refuse. +rigard-i = to look. +rigl-i = to bolt (fasten). +rikolt-i = to harvest, reap. +rilat-i = to have relation (to) (266). +rimark-i = to notice, note. +rimed-o = means, way; vivrimedoj, means of livelihood. +rimen-o = thong, strap. +ring-o = ring. +rip-o = rib. +ripar-i = to mend, repair. +ripet-i = to repeat. +ripoz-i = to repose, rest. +riprocx-i = to reproach. +river-o = river. +riz-o = rice. +rob-o = dress, robe. +Robert-o = Robert. +romp-i = (trans.), to break. +rond-o = circle, ring, round. +ros-o = dew. +rost-i = to roast. +roz-o = rose (flower). +ruband-o = ribbon. +rubus-o = blackberry. +rugx-a = red. +ruin-o = ruin. +rul-i = (trans.), to roll (ball, etc.). +rus-o = Russian. +rust-i = to rust. +rutin-o = routine. +ruz-a = crafty, cunning, sly. + + S. + +sabat-o = Saturday. +sabl-o = sand. +sag-o = arrow. +sagx-a = wise. +sak-o = sack, bag. +sal-o = salt. +salajr-o = salary, wages. +salat-o = salad. +salon-o = parlor, drawing-room. +salt-i = to jump, leap. +salut-i = to salute, greet. +sam-a = same. +san-a = healthy, well. +sang-o = blood. +sankt-a = sacred, holy. +sap-o = soap. +sarden-o = sardine. +sat-a = sated; malsata, hungry. +sauxc-o = sauce, gravy, dressing. +sav-i = to save; rescue. +sci-i = to know (117). +scienc-o = science. +se = (conj.), if (240). +sed = (conj.), but. +seg-i = to saw. +segx-o = chair. +sek-a = dry. +sekret-o = secret. +sekretari-o = secretary. +sekund-o = second (of time). +sekv-i = to follow. +sel-o = saddle. +sem-o = seed; --i, to sow. +semajn-o = week. +sen = (prep.), without (248). +senat-o = senate; --ano, senator. +senc-o = sense, meaning. +send-i = to send. +sent-i = to feel, perceive. +sep = (adj.), seven (136). +septembr-o = September. +sercx-i = to seek, hunt, look for. +serur-o = lock. +serv-i = to serve. +servic-o = course (of a meal). +ses = (adj.), six (136). +sever-a = severe, stern. +sezon-o = season. +si = (pronoun, reflexive), himself, herself, etc. (40, 44, 274). +sibl-i = to hiss, whistle (wind, etc.). +sid-i = to sit (239). +sigel-i = to seal. +sign-o = sign, trace, mark. +signif-i = to signify, mean. +silab-o = syllable. +silent-i = to be silent (239). +silk-o = silk. +simi-o = monkey. +simil-a = like, similar. +simpl-a = simple. +sinjor-o = gentleman, Mr. (163). +Sirakuz-o = Syracuse. +sitel-o = pail, bucket. +skatol-o = small box or case. +skiz-i = to sketch. +sklav-o = slave. +skot-o = Scot, Scotchman. +skrap-i = to scrape. +skrib-i = to write. +sku-i = (trans.), to shake. +skulpt-i = to carve, sculpture. +societ-o = society. +soif-i = to be thirsty. +sojl-o = threshold. +Sokrat-o = Socrates. +sol-a = alone, sole, only. +soldat-o = soldier. +solen-a = formal, solemn. +somer-o = summer. +son-i = (intrans.), to sound. +songx-i = to dream (in sleep). +sonor-i = (intrans.), to ring, sound; --ilo, bell. +sopir-i = to yearn, long, sigh. +sorb-i = to absorb; --papero, blotting-paper. +sorcx-o = witchcraft; ensorcxi, to bewitch; --isto, sorcerer. +sort-o = destiny, fate, lot. +sovagx-a = wild, savage. +spac-o = space. +spec-o = kind, sort, species. +special-a = special. +specimen-o = specimen, sample. +spegul-o = mirror. +spert-a = experienced, expert. +spes-o = speso (international unit of money, 284). +spez-o = clearing (financial); elspezi, to disburse, expend, spend; + enspezi, to take in, receive (funds). +spinac-o = spinach. +spir-i = to breathe; elspiri, to exhale. +spite = (prep.), in spite of. +sprit-a = witty. +staci-o = station (railway, boat, etc.). +stamp-i = to mark officially, stamp. +standard-o = standard, flag. +stan-o = tin (metal). +stang-o = pole. +star-i = to stand (239). +stat-o = state (of being), condition. +stel-o = star. +stenografi-o = shorthand, stenography. +stil-o = style. +stimul-i = to stimulate. +stomak-o = stomach. +strang-a = strange, peculiar. +strat-o = street. +strecx-i = (trans.), to stretch. +strek-i = to make a streak, or line; substreki, to underline; + surstreki, trastreki, to cross off, strike out. +stri-o = streak, stripe, band. +strik-o = strike (of labor). +stud-i = to study. +student-o = student (college, etc.). +stuf-i = (trans.), to stew. +stump-o = stump (of tree, etc.). +sub = (prep.), under, beneath (121, 160). +subit-a = sudden, abrupt. +substanc-o = substance. +sud-o = south. +sufer-i = to suffer, endure. +suficx-i = to suffice; --ega, abundant. +sufiks-o = suffix. +sufok-i = (trans.), to suffocate. +sugesti-i = to suggest. +suk-o = sap, juice (of plants, etc.); --a, succulent. +sukces-i = to succeed. +suker-o = sugar. +sulfur-o = sulphur. +sulk-o = furrow, wrinkle. +sum-o = sum, amount. +sun-o = sun. +sup-o = soup. +super = (prep.), above, over (159); --a, superior. +supersticx-o = superstition. +supoz-i = to suppose. +supr-e = (adv.), above; --a, upper, above; --ajxo, surface. +sur = (prep.), on, upon (160). +surd-a = deaf. +surpriz-i = to surprise. +surtut-o = overcoat. +suspekt-i = to suspect. +sved-o = Swede. +sven-i = to faint, swoon. +sving-i = (trans.), swing, brandish. +svis-o = Swiss. + + SX. + +sxaf-o = sheep; --ajxo, mutton; --ido, lamb; --idajxo, lamb (meat); + --viro, ram. +sxajn-i = to seem, appear. +sxal-o = shawl. +sxanc-o = luck, chance; bonsxance, luckily. +sxancel-i = (trans.), to oscillate, vacillate, make tremble. +sxangx-i = (trans.), to change, alter. +sxargx-i = to burden, load. +sxat-i = to like, prize. +sxauxm-o = foam, froth. +sxel-o = shell, peeling, bark. +sxelk-o = suspender, supporter. +sxerc-i = to joke, jest. +sxi = (pronoun), she, her (32, 37, 42). +sxild-o = shield. +sxink-o = ham. +sxip-o = ship. +sxir-i = to tear. +sxirm-i = to shelter, shield; --ilo, screen. +sxlim-o = slime. +sxlos-i = to lock; --ilo, key. +sxmir-i = to anoint, smear. +sxnur-o = string. +sxose-o = broad roadway, drive. +sxov-i = to shove, push. +sxovel-i = to shovel. +sxpar-i = to spare, be economical of. +sxpin-i = to spin. +sxpruc-i = to gush, spout, spurt (of liquids). +sxrank-o = cupboard, wardrobe. +sxrauxb-o = screw. +sxtal-o = steel. +sxtat-o = state (political). +sxtel-i = to steal (252). +sxtip-o = log, block of wood. +sxtof-o = cloth, stuff. +sxton-o = stone. +sxtop-i = to stop up, cork; --ilo, stopper. +sxtrump-o = stocking. +sxtup-o = step, round; --aro, stair-case. +sxu-o = shoe; supersxuo, overshoe. +sxuld-i = to owe, be indebted. +sxultr-o = shoulder. +sxut-o = chute; --i, to pour (as in a chute). +sxvel-i = to swell, become swollen. +sxvit-i = to perspire. + + T. + +tabak-o = tobacco. +tabel-o = table, index, tabulation. +tabl-o = table (furniture). +tabul-o = board, plank. +tag-o = day; --igxo, dawn; --mezo, noon. +tajlor-o = tailor. +taks-i = to estimate, value, rate. +talent-o = talent. +tali-o = waist; beltalia, shapely, having a good figure. +tambur-o = drum. +tamen = (conj.), nevertheless, however, yet, still. +tantiem-o = percentage of profit, royalty. +tapisx-o = carpet. +tarif-o = tariff, schedule of rates. +tas-o = cup; subtaso, saucer. +task-o = task. +tauxg-i = to be fit for, good for. +tavol-o = layer. +te-o = tea. +teatr-o = theatre; --ajxo, play. +ted-i = to be tedious. +teg-i = to cover, put a covering upon. +tegment-o = roof. +teks-i = to weave. +telefon-i = to telephone. +telegraf-i = to telegraph. +teler-o = plate; --meblo, sideboard. +tem-o = theme, subject. +temp-o = time. +tempi-o = temple (of the head). +templ-o = temple (building). +ten-i = to hold, keep. +tend-o = tent. +tenor-o = tenor (voice). +tent-i = to tempt. +teori-o = theory. +ter-o = earth, soil; enterigi, to inter. +teras-o = terrace. +teritori-o = territory. +termin-o = term, definition (word). +tern-i = to sneeze. +terpom-o = potato. +terur-o = terror. +tia = that kind of, such (65). +tial = (adv.), therefore (78, 83). +tiam = (adv.), then, at that time (73). +tibi-o = shin bone, tibia; --karno, calf (of the leg). +tie = (adv.), there (68). +tiel = (adv.), thus, so (88, 156). +tigr-o = tiger. +tikl-i = to tickle. +tili-o = linden. +tim-i = to fear, be afraid of. +timon-o = pole, tongue, shaft. +tint-i = to jingle, tinkle. +tio = (pronoun), that (233, 234). +tiom = (adv.), that much, so much (104, 164). +tir-i = to pull, draw. +tiran-o = tyrant. +titol-o = title. +tiu = (pronoun), that one, that (56); tiu cxi, this one, this (60). +tost-o = toast (sentiment). +tol-o = linen. +toler-i = to tolerate. +tomat-o = tomato. +tomb-o = tomb, grave. +ton-o = tone. +tond-i = to shear; --ilo, shears, scissors. +tondr-i = to thunder. +tord-i = to twist; --a, crooked, winding. +tra = (prep.), through (46, 160). +trab-o = beam (wooden). +traduk-i = to translate. +traf-i = to reach, attain (that which was aimed at or sought); + maltrafi, to miss. +trajt-o = feature. +trakt-i = to treat of (in essay, speech, etc.); --ato, treatise. +tram-o = tram; --vojo, tramway, street-car line; --veturilo, street-car. +trancx-i = to cut, sever. +trankvil-a = serene, tranquil, calm. +trans = (prep.), across, the other side of (160). +tre = (adv.), very, very much. +trem-i = to tremble. +tremp-i = to drench, dip. +tren-i = to drag, haul, draw; --ajxo, train (of a dress). +trezor-o = treasure. +tri = (adj.), three (136). +trik-i = to knit. +trink-i = to drink. +tritik-o = wheat. +triumf-o = triumph. +tro = (adv.), too, too much. +tromp-i = to deceive. +tron-o = throne. +tropik-o = tropic. +trot-i = to trot. +trotuar-o = sidewalk, pavement. +trov-i = to find. +tru-o = hole. +trud-i = to force upon, impose; altrudema, importunate. +trunk-o = trunk (of tree or body). +tualet-o = toilet. +tub-o = tube, pipe. +tuber-o = bulb, knot, tuber. +tuj = (adv.), at once, immediately +tuk-o = piece of cloth. +tur-o = tower. +turk-o = Turk. +turment-i = to torment. +turn-i = (trans.), to turn. +tus-i = to cough. +tusx-i = to touch; kortusxi, to touch (the heart of). +tut-a = entire, whole, all. + + U. + +-uj- = suffix indicating receptacle, that which bears or contains (181). +-ul- = suffix indicating person characterized by that in the root (132). +ulm-o = elm. +-um- = indefinite suffix (268). +ung-o = nail (of finger); --ego, claw, talon. +univers-o = universe. +universitat-o = university. +unu = (adj.), one (136, 137, 180); unuigxo, union. +uragan-o = hurricane. +urb-o = city; cxefurbo, capital. +urgx-i = to be urgent or pressing. +urs-o = bear. +Uson-o = United States of America. +util-a = useful. +uz-i = to use; trouzi, to abuse. + + V. + +vad-i = to wade. +vafl-o = waffle. +vag-i = to wander, to roam; --isto, vagabond. +vagon-o = car, railway carriage. +vak-i = to be vacant. +vaks-o = wax. +val-o = valley. +valiz-o = valise, satchel, bag. +valor-i = to be worth. +vals-i = to waltz. +van-a = vain, fruitless. +vang-o = cheek. +vant-a = vain, conceited. +vapor-o = steam, vapor. +varb-i = (trans.), to enlist, recruit. +varm-a = warm. +vast-a = vast, spacious, extensive. +vaz-o = vase, basin. +ve! = (interjection), woe! ho ve! alas! (273). +veget-i = to vegetate, grow (as plants). +vegetar-a = vegetarian. +vejn-o = vein. +vek-i = (trans.), to wake, awake. +vel-o = sail. +velk-i = to fade, wither, wilt. +velur-o = velvet. +ven-i = to come. +vend-i = to sell. +vendred-o = Friday. +venen-o = poison. +vengx-i = to avenge. +venk-i = to conquer, vanquish. +vent-o = wind. +ver-o = truth. +verand-o = veranda, porch. +verd-a = green. +verk-i = to compose (music or literature). +verm-o = worm. +vermicxel-o = vermicelli. +vers-o = verse. +versx-i = to pour (a liquid). +vertikal-a = vertical. +vesper-o = evening (93). +vest-i = to clothe, dress. +vesxt-o = vest, waistcoat. +vet-i = to wager, bet. +veter-o = weather. +vetur-i = to ride, go (in vehicle, boat, etc.). +vi = (pronoun), you (32, 37, 274). +viand-o = meat. +vibr-i = to vibrate. +vic-o = turn, place in a series; lauxvice, in turn; siavice, + in his (her, its, their) turn; vicprezidanto, vice-president. +vid-i = to see. +vidv-o = widower; --ino, widow. +vigl-a = alert, brisk. +vilagx-o = village. +vin-o = wine. +vinagr-o = vinegar. +vinber-o = grape; sekvinbero, raisin. +vintr-o = winter. +viol-o = violet. +violon-o = violin. +vip-i = to whip. +vir-o = man +virt-o = virtue. +visx-i = to wipe. +vitr-o = glass (material). +viv-i = to live (133). +vizagx-o = face, visage. +vizit-i = to visit. +vocx-o = voice; --doni, to vote. +voj-o = road, way. +vojagx-i = to journey, travel, voyage. +vok-i = to call. +vokal-o = vowel. +vol-i = to be willing, will, wish. +volont-e = willingly. +volum-o = volume (book). +volumen-o = volume (of a body). +volv-i = to roll (something around something). +vort-o = word; --aro, dictionary. +vost-o = tail. +vual-o = veil. +vulgar-a = common, vulgar. +vulp-o = fox. +vund-i = to wound. + + Z. + +zenit-o = zenith. +zigzag-o = zigzag. +zingibr-o = ginger. +zink-o = zinc. +zon-o = girdle, belt, zone. +zoologi-o = zoology. +zorg-i = to care (for), be anxious (about). +zum-i = to hum, buzz. + + + + * * * * * + + + + ENGLISH-ESPERANTO VOCABULARY. + +The following vocabulary includes all Esperanto roots used in the +preceding lessons, all primary words of the language, and a large number +of additional roots (to facilitate original composition). No attempt +has been made, however, to include all of the roots of the language, +or their various English meanings, for which an English-Esperanto +Dictionary should be consulted. + +References are to sections, unless the page (p.) is given. [Since page +numbers have no relevance in this etext version, such references were +deleted.] For other parts of speech than those indicated, see Word +Formation, 116, 120, 159, 171, also the references under Prefixes and +Suffixes in the Index. For formation of compound words other than +those given, see 160, 167, 176, 184. The following abbreviations are +used: adj. = adjective; adv. = adverb; conj. = conjunction; intrans. = +intransitive; prep. = preposition; trans. = transitive; -- = repetition +of the English word. + + A + +abandon = forlas-i. +abash = hontig-i. +(be) able = pov-i (72). +abominable = abomen-a. +about = (prep.), cxirkaux; (concerning) pri; (adv.), + (approximately, proksimum-e. +above = (prep.), super (159); (adv.), supr-e; cxi supre. +abrupt = subit-a. +absorb = sorb-i. +abundant = suficxeg-a. +academy = akademi-o. +accelerate = (trans.), akcel-i. +accent = akcent-o. +accept = akcept-i. +accident = akcident-o; (chance) okaz-o. +accompany = akompan-i. +(in) accordance with = (prep.), laux (191). +account = kont-o; (bill) kalkul-o; (story) rakont-o. +(on) account of = (prep.), pro (86). +accurate = akurat-a. +accusative = akuzativ-o. +accuse = akuz-i, kulpig-i. +accustomed = familiar-a, kutimit-a. +ache = dolor-o. +acid = acid-o. +(be) acquainted with = kon-i (117); become --, konatigx-i. + acquire, akir-i. +across = (prep.), trans. +act = ag-i; --on, efik-i; (behave) kondut-i; (of play) akt-o. +active = agema; (grammatical), aktiv-a. +actor = aktor-o. +actual = efektiv-a, ver-a. +acute = akr-a. +add = aldon-i (160). +address = (on letters, etc.) adres-o; (lecture) parolad-o. +adequate = suficx-a. +adjacent = apud-a (159). +adjective = adjektiv-o. +administer = (manage), administr-i. +admire = admir-i. +admit = konfes-i; (let in) allas-i. +admonish = admon-i. +adore = ador-i. +adorn = ornam-i. +adverb = adverb-o. +advantage = util-o, profit-o. +advertise = reklam-i. +advise = konsil-i. +affable = afabl-a. +affair = afer-o; regrettable --, domagx-o. +affirmative = jes-a (171). +(be) afraid = tim-i. +Africa = Afrik-o. +after = (prep.), post (89). +afternoon = posttagmez-o. +again = denov-e, re-e (223). +against = (prep.), kontraux. +age = agx-o; of --, plenagx-a; old --, maljunec-o. +(give an) agency = komisi-i. +agent = agent-o. +agitate = agit-i. +agony = agoni-o. +agree = konsent-i; (contract) kontrakt-i. +agreeable = agrabl-a. +aid = help-i. +aim at = cel-i. +air = aer-o; to --, aerum-i; (music) ari-o. +alas! = ho ve (273). +alcohol = alkohol-o. +alcove = alkov-o. +alert = vigl-a. +Alexander = Aleksandr-o. +Alexandria = Aleksandri-o. +Alfred = Alfred-o. +algebra = algebr-o. +alive = viv-a. +all = (pronoun and adj.), cxiuj (173); (indefinite pronoun) cxio (233); + (adv. of quantity) cxiom (194); (whole, entire) tut-a. +alliance = lig-o. +allow = permes-i. +allude = alud-i. +allure = log-i. +almanac = almanak-o. +almost = (adv.), preskaux. +alms = almoz-o. +alone = sol-a. +along = (prep.), laux (191); -- with, kune kun. +aloud = lauxt-e. +alphabet = alfabet-o. +already = (adv.), jam. +also = (adv.), ankaux. +altar = altar-o. +alter = (trans.), sxangx-i, aliig-i. +although = (conj.), kvankam. +always = (adv.), cxiam (187). +America = Amerik-o. +amiable = afabl-a, amind-a. +amid = meze de, inter (85). +among = (prep.), inter (85). +amount = sum-o, kvant-o; a certain --, iom (217). +amphibious = amfibi-a. +amphitheatre = amfiteatr-o. +amuse = amuz-i. +analyse = analiz-i. +ancestor = prapatr-o (282). +anchor = ankr-o. +ancient = antikv-a. +and = (conj.), kaj (26). +anecdote = anekdot-o. +anew = denov-e. +angel = angxel-o. +angle = angul-o. +angry = koler-a. +animal = best-o. +ankle = maleol-o. +announce = anonc-i. +annoy = cxagren-i. +anoint = sxmir-i. +answer = respond-i. +ant = formik-o. +antelope = antilop-o. +antipathy = antipati-o. +antique = antikv-a. +anvil = ambos-o. +anxious = maltrankvil-a. +any = (pronoun and adj.), iu (203); (adv. of quantity) iom (217); + --kind, --time, --thing, etc., see table, 235. +any more = (adv.), plu. +apartment = apartament-o. +apathy = apati-o. +apologise = pardonon pet-i. +apology = (defence), apologi-o. +apparatus = aparat-o. +appear = (come in sight), aper-i; (seem) sxajn-i. +appearance = (aspect), aspekt-o, mien-o, vidigx-o. +appetite = apetit-o. +applaud = aplauxd-i. +apple = pom-o. +apply = (put on), almet-i; -- to (for information, etc.), sin turni al. +approach = alproksimigx-i al. +appropriate = proprigi al si; (suitable), konven-a, dec-a. +approve = aprob-i. +approximate = proksimum-a. +apricot = abrikot-o. +April = april-o. +apron = antauxtuk-o. +aquarium = akvari-o. +Arab = arab-o; street --, bub-o. +arbitrate = arbitraci-i. +arbor = lauxb-o. +arc = ark-o. +arcade = arkad-o. +archer = pafarkist-o. +Archimedes = Arhximed-o. +architecture = arhxitektur-o. +arena = aren-o. +argue = argument-i. +Aristeides = Aristejd-o. +aristocrat = aristokrat-o. +Aristotle = Aristotel-o. +arithmetic = aritmetik-o. +arm = (of the body), brak-o; (weapon) armil-o. +army = arme-o. +aroma = arom-o. +around = (prep.), cxirkaux (89, 160). +arouse = incit-i, vek-i. +arrange = arangx-i. +arrest = arest-i. +arrive = alven-i. +arrogant = arogant-a. +arrow = sag-o. +art = art-o. +Arthur = Artur-o. +article = (grammatical, literary) artikol-o. +artificial = artefarit-a. +artless = naiv-a. +as = (adv.) kiel; as ... as ... tiel ... kiel ... (156); + -- if, -- though, kvazaux (250); -- far as, gxis (prep., 46); + -- much ... as ..., tiom ... kiom (164). +ascertain = certigx-i; -- the truth of, konstat-i. +(be) ashamed = hont-i. +ashes = cindr-o. +Asia = Azi-o. +aside from = (prep.), krom. +ask = (inquire), demand-i; (request), pet-i. +asparagus = asparag-o. +aspect = aspekt-o, mien-o. +ass = azen-o. +assemble = kunven-i, kunvok-i. +assist = help-i. +association = (organization), asoci-o. +assurance = aplomb-o, certigo. +at = (prep.), cxe (125, 160), je (260); -- the rate of, po (175). +athlete = atlet-o. +atmosphere = atmosfer-o. +attack = atak-i. +attain = ating-i, traf-i. +attempt = prov-i. +attentive = atent-a. +attest = atest-i. +attribute = atribut-o. +August = auxgust-o. +Australia = Auxstrali-o. +author = auxtor-o, verkist-o. +automatic = auxtomat-a. +autumn = auxtun-o. +avaricious = avar-a. +avenge = vengx-i. +avenue = ale-o, bulvard-o. +avoid = evit-i. +awake = (trans.), vek-i. +away = (adv.), for (71); (distant), malproksim-e (170). +axe = hakil-o. +axis = (axle), aks-o. + + B. + +babble = babil-i. +baby = infanet-o. +bachelor = frauxl-o; -- of arts (A.B.), abiturient-o. +back = (of the body), dors-o; to the rear (adv.), malantauxen (121). +bacon = lard-o. +bag = sak-o, valiz-o. +bagatelle = bagatel-o. +bake = (trans.), bak-i. +balance = (trans.), balanc-i; (scales), pesil-o. +ball = (to play with), pilk-o; (dance), bal-o; (globe), glob-o. +banana = banan-o. +band = (stripe), stri-o; (music), orkestr-o; (group), ar-o (126). +bandage = bandagx-i. +banish = ekzil-i. +bank = (financial), bank-o; (shore), bord-o. +(become) bankrupt = bankrot-i +banner = flag-o, standard-o. +banquet = festen-o. +bar = bar-i. +barbarian = barbar-o. +bare = nud-a. +bark = (of trees), sxel-o; (of dogs), boj-i. +barrel = barel-o; -- organ, gurd-o. +barren = senfrukt-a. +barrister = advokat-o. +barytone = bariton-o. +base = (foundation), fundament-o, baz-o; (ignoble), malnobl-a. +basin = vaz-o, kuv-o. +basket = korb-o. +bass = (voice), bas-o. +bathe = (trans.), ban-i. +battle = batal-i. +be = est-i (109). +beak = bek-o. +beam = (wooden), trab-o; (light), radi-o. +bean = (leguminous fruit), fab-o; (garden bean), fazeol-o. +bear = (animal), urs-o; (carry), port-i; (endure), elport-i, sufer-i; + (produce, give birth to), nask-i. +beard = barb-o. +beast = best-o. +beat = bat-i; (surpass), super-i, venk-i. +beautiful = bel-a. +because = (conj.), cxar (83), tial ke (83); -- of (prep.), pro (86). +become = igx-i, farigx-i (232); (be suitable), konven-i, dec-i. +bed = lit-o. +bee = abel-o. +beef = bovajx-o (227, c). +beefsteak = bifstek-o. +beet = bet-o. +before = (prep.), antaux (89, 90, 120, 159, 160); (conj.), + antaux ol (97, 98); (adv.), antauxe, jxus antauxe. +beg = (request), pet-i; (ask alms), almozon pet-i. +beggar = almozul-o. +begin = (trans.), komenc-i (see also prefix "ek-", 206). +behave = kondut-i. +behind = (prep.), post. +behold = rigard-i, vid-i; (adv.), jen (228). +Belgian = belg-o. +believe = kred-i (265). +bell = sonoril-o. +belong = aparten-i. +below = (prep.), sub; (adv.), sub-e, malsupr-e. +belt = zon-o. +bench = benk-o. +bend = (trans.), klin-i, fleks-i. +benevolence = bonfar-o. +berry = ber-o. +beside = (prep.), krom; (near), apud; (at the side of), flanke de. +bet = vet-i. +betray = perfid-i. +betrothed = (man), fiancx-o. +between = (prep.), inter (85, 89). +bewitch = ensorcx-i. +beyond = (prep.), preter. +bicycle = bicikl-o. +bid = (order), ordon-i; -- farewell, adiaux-i. +big = grand-a. +bill = (of bird), bek-o; bank --, bankbilet-o; hand--, afisx-o; + (reckoning), kalkul-o. +bind = (fasten), lig-i; (wounds), bandagx-i. +bird = bird-o. +biscuit = biskvit-o; (ring-shaped), kring-o. +bit = (piece), pec-o; (adv.), iom (217). +bite = mord-i. +black = nigr-a; to -- (shoes, etc.), cir-i. +blackberry = rubus-o. +blackbird = merl-o. +blacking = cir-o. +blade = (of knife, etc.), kling-o. +bleat = blek-i. +bless = ben-i. +blind = blind-a. +block = (of wood), stip-o. +blood = sang-o. +bloom = flor-i (116). +blot = (spot), makul-o. +blotter = sorbil-o, sorbpaper-o. +blouse = bluz-o, kitel-o. +blow = blov-i; (stroke), bat-o. +blue = blu-a; --ish, dubeblu-a. +blush = rugxigx-i. +board = (plank), tabul-o; (food), nutrad-o. +boast = fanfaron-i. +boat = boat-o, sxipet-o. +body = korp-o. +boil = (intrans.), bol-i (275). +bolt = (fasten), rigl-i. +bonbon = bombon-o. +bond = (fastening), ligil-o. +bone = ost-o. +book = libr-o; note--, copy--, kajer-o. +boot = bot-o. +border = (edge), rand-o. +bore = (holes), bor-i; (weary), enuig-i. +(be) born = naskigx-i. +borrow = pruntepren-i. +Boston = Boston-o. +both = (pronoun and adj.), ambaux (238); (adv.), kaj (26). +bottle = botel-o. +bottom = fund-o, malsupr-o. +bough = brancx-o. +boulevard = bulvard-o. +boundary = lim-o. +bouquet = buked-o. +bow = (of ribbon), bant-o; (for shooting), pafark-o. +bow = (bend), klinigx-i, salut-i. +box = kest-o; small --, skatol-o. +boy = knab-o. +bracket = (shelf), bret-o. +brag = fanfaron-i. +braid = plekt-i. +brain = cerb-o. +branch = (of tree), brancx-o; (of work or study), fak-o. +brandish = sving-i. +brandy = brand-o. +brave = brav-o. +bread = pan-o. +break = (trans)., romp-i; -- to pieces, frakas-i. +breakfast = matenmangx-o. +breathe = spir-i. +brick = brik-o. +bridge = pont-o. +bridle = brid-o. +bright = (clear), hel-a. +bring = alport-i; -- forth (produce), nask-i; -- up (educate), eduk-i. +brisk = vigl-a. +Briton = Brit-o. +broad = largx-a. +brochure = brosxur-o. +bronze = bronz-o. +brood = (birds), kov-i. +brother = frat-o. +brown = brun-a. +brownie = kobold-o. +bruise = kontuz-i. +brush = bros-i. +brute = brut-o. +bucket = sitel-o. +buckle = buk-o. +bud = burgxon-o. +build = konstru-i. +bulb = tuber-o, bulb-o. +Bulgarian = Bulgar-o. +bull = bovvir-o. +bullet = kugl-o. +bunch = fask-o. +bundle = fask-o, pakajx-o. +bungle = fusx-i. +burden = sxargx-i. +burn = (intrans.), brul-i (275). +burst = (intrans.), krev-i. +bury = enterig-i. +but = (conj.), sed; (prep.), krom. +butcher = bucx-i. +butter = buter-o. +butterfly = papili-o. +button = buton-o; to --, butonum-i. +buy = acxet-i. +buzz = zum-i. +by = (prep.), per (64); de (169, 170); (past), preter; (according to), + laux (191). + + C. + +cab = fiakr-o. +cabbage = brasik-o. +cage = kagx-o. +cake = kuk-o. +calculate = kalkul-i. +caldron = kaldron-o. +calendar = kalendar-o. +calf = bovid-o; (of the leg), tibikarn-o. +call = vok-i; (visit), vizit-i. +calling = (profession), profesi-o. +calm = kviet-a, trankvil-a. +camel = kamel-o. +camera = kamer-o. +can = (be able), pov-i (72); (preserve fruit, etc.), konfit-i. +candle = kandel-o. +candy = kand-o. +canoe = kanot-o. +cap = cxap-o. +capable = kapabl-a. +capital = (money), kapital-o; (excellent), boneg-a; (city), cxefurb-o. +capitol = kapitol-o. +car = vagon-o. +card = kart-o; visiting --, vizitkart-o. +care = (for), zorg-i (pri). +caress = dorlot-i, kares-i. +carpet = tapisx-o. +carriage = kalesx-o, veturil-o. +carrot = karot-o. +carry = port-i. +carve = skulpt-i. +case = (small box), skatol-o; (chest), kest-o; (legal), proces-o; + (holder), uj-o (181), ing-o (237); (occasion), okaz-o; + (grammatical), kaz-o. +cashier = kasist-o. +cascade = kaskad-o. +cast = jxet-i. +castle = kastel-o. +cat = kat-o. +catch = kapt-i. +cattle = brut-o, brutar-o. +cauliflower = florbrasik-o. +cause = ig-i (214); (produce a result), kauxz-i; (motive), kial-o; + tial-o; (espoused or advocated), afer-o; (legal), proces-o. +caution = avert-i. +cavity = kav-o. +cease = (intrans.), cxes-i. +ceiling = plafon-o. +celebrate = fest-i, solenig-i; --ed, fama. +celery = celeri-o. +cellar = kel-o. +cent = cend-o. +center = centr-o. +centigram = centigram-o (284). +centiliter = centilitr-o (284). +centimeter = centimetr-o (284). +certain = cert-a; a -- (one), iu (pronoun and adj., 203); + -- amount, etc., see table, 235. +certainly = nepr-e, cert-e, ja (215). +certify = atest-i, certig-i, konstat-i. +chain = cxen-o; (fetter), katen-o; (of mountains), montar-o. +chair = segx-o. +(be) chairman = prezid-i. +chalk = kret-o. +chance = sxanc-o; (hazard), hazard-o; (opportunity), okazo. +change = (trans.), sxangx-i; (coins), moner-oj. +chapel = kapel-o. +chapter = cxapitr-o. +character = karakter-o. +charge = (commission), komisi-o; (burden), sxargx-o; (price, cost), + prez-o, kost-o. +charm = cxarm-i. +chase = (game, etc.), cxas-i; (drive off), forpel-i. +chatter = babil-i. +check = (on bank), cxek-o. +cheek = vang-o. +cheese = fromagx-o. +chemise = cxemiz-o. +chemistry = hxemi-o. +chemist's shop = apotek-o. +cheque = cxek-o. +cherry = cxeriz-o. +chest = (box), kest-o; (with a lid), kofr-o. +chestnut = kasxtan-o. +chew = macx-i. +chief = cxef-a, precip-a; (leader), estr-o (253). +child = infan-o, id-o (207). +chimney = kamen-o. +chin = menton-o. +china = (porcelain), porcelan-o; (country), Hxinuj-o. +Chinaman = hxin-o. +chirp = pep-i. +chocolate = cxokolad-o. +choir = hxor-o. +choose = elekt-i. +chop = hak-i; (cutlet), kotlet-o. +chrestomathy = krestomati-o. +Christ = Krist-o. +church = (building), pregxej-o. +chute = sxut-o. +cigar = cigar-o. +cigarette = cigared-o. +cinnamon = cinam-o. +cipher = cifer-o. +circle = cirkl-o, rond-o. +circular = (letter, etc.), cirkuler-o. +circumstance = okaz-o, detal-o, cirkonstanc-o. +citizen = regnan-o, urban-o. +city = urb-o. +civilise = civiliz-i. +clack = krak-i. +claim = pretend-i. +clamber = ramp-i. +clap = (trans.), klak-i. +class = klas-o. +clatter = (trans.), klak-i. +claw = ungeg-o. +clay = argil-o. +clean = pur-a. +clear = (bright), hela; (distinct), klar-a. +clearing = (financial), spez-o. +clergyman = pastr-o. +clerk = komiz-o. +clever = lert-a. +climate = klimat-o. +climb up = grimp-i, supren ramp-i. +cloak = mantel-o. +clock = horlogx-o. +close = (trans.), ferm-i; (dense), dens-a; -- to (prep.), apud; + proksim-e de (170). +cloth = (in general), sxtof-o; (woollen, etc.), drap-o; + (piece of), tuk-o; table--, tablotuk-o. +clothe = vest-i. +cloud = nub-o. +club = (organization), klub-o; (weapon), bastoneg-o. +coal = karb-o. +coat = vest-o; (short), jak-o; (frock), redingot-o; over--, surtut-o. +cock = (fowl), kok-o. +coffee = kaf-o. +collect = (trans.), kolekt-i. +college = kolegi-o. +colonel = kolonel-o. +color = kolor-o. +column = kolon-o. +comb = komb-i. +come = ven-i. +comedy = komedi-o. +comfort = (console), konsol-i; (freedom from pain, etc.), komfort-o. +command = ordon-i; (military and naval), komand-i. +commerce = komerc-o. +commission = (entrusted), komisi-o; (percentage of profit), tantiem-o, + komisipag-o. +committee = komitat-o. +common = (general), gxeneral-a; (mutual), komun-a; (vulgar), vulgar-a. +communicate = komunik-i. +company = (commercial), kompanio; (guests), gastar-o; + (presence), cxeest-o. +compare = (trans.), kompar-i (266). +compassion = kompat-o. +compete = konkur-i. +competition = konkurad-o; (for prizes), konkurs-o; + (in business), konkurenc-o. +complain = plend-i. +complicate = komplik-i. +compose = (music or literature), verk-i. +compositor = (of type), kompostist-o. +conceal = kasx-i (252). +concern = koncern-i (266); (anxiety), maltrankvilec-o. +concerning = (prep.), pri. (264, c). +concert = (musical), koncert-o. +condemn = kondamn-i. +condition = cirkonstanc-o; (stipulation), kondicx-o; (state), stat-o. +conduct = (lead), konduk-i; -- oneself (behave), kondut-i. +conduct = (behavior), kondut-o; (in regard to right or wrong), mor-o. +conductor = (of car, etc.), konduktor-o. +confess = konfes-i. +confide = konfid-i. +conform = konform-i (266). +confound = (confuse), konfuz-i. +congratulate = gratul-i. +congress = kongres-o. +conquer = venk-i. +conscience = konscienc-o. +(be) conscious = konsci-i. +consent = konsent-i. +consequently = sekv-e, do; tial (78). +(be) conservative = konservativ-a. +consist = konsist-i. +console = konsol-i. +consonant = (letter), konsonant-o. +conspire = konspir-i. +constant = konstant-a. +constitution = konstituci-o. +consul = konsul-o. +consult = konsult-i, pet-i konsilon de. +contaminate = infekt-i. +content = kontent-a. +continent = (land), kontinent-o. +continue = dauxr-i, dauxrig-i. +contour = kontur-o. +contract = (commercial and legal), kontrakt-i. +contralto = kontralt-o. +contrary = mal-o (67); kontrauxstarem-a. +control = kontrol-i; (govern), reg-i. +convenient = konven-a, oportun-a. +convince = konvink-i. +cook = kuir-i. +copper = kupr-o. +copy = kopi-i; (of a book, etc.), ekzempler-o. +coquettish = koket-a. +cork = sxtop-i; (bark of cork tree), kork-o. +corner = angul-o. +corporal = corporeal, korp-a. +corps = (military), korpus-o. +corpse = kadavr-o. +correct = korekt-i; (right), prav-a. +correspond = korespond-i. +corridor = koridor-o. +cost = kost-i. +costume = kostum-o. +cotton = koton-o. +cough = tus-i. +counsel = konsil-i. +count = kalkul-i, sum-i, nombr-i; (person), graf-o. +county = grafland-o. +country = land-o; (as opposed to city), kampar-o. +coupon = kupon-o. +(be) courageous = kuragx-i. +course = (of lessons), kurs-o; (of a meal), servic-o; + of --, kompreneble; in the -- of, en la dauxro de. +court = kort-o, korteg-o, jugxej-o. +courteous = gxentil-a. +courtesy = gxentilec-o; (kindness), komplez-o. +cousin = kuz-o. +cover = kovr-i; (put covering upon), teg-i. +crab = krab-o. +crack = (split) (trans.), fend-i; (crackle), krak-i; + (burst open) (intrans.), krev-i. +cradle = lulil-o. +crafty = ruz-a. +cravat = kravat-o. +crawl = ramp-i. +crazy = frenez-a. +cream = krem-o. +create = kre-i. +creep = ramp-i; -- up, grimp-i. +crime = krim-o. +crippled = kripl-a. +criticise = kritik-i. +crooked = tord-a, malrekt-a, kurb-a. +cross = kruc-o; (angry), koler-a; -- off, trastrek-i. +crowd = amas-o, anar-o (145, 126). +crown = kron-o. +crucify = krucum-i. +cruel = kruel-a. +crush = pist-i, premeg-i. +crust = krust-o. +cry = (weep), plor-i; (shout), kri-i; (of animals), blek-i. +cucumber = kukum-o. +cultivate = kultur-i; -- the soil, terkultur-i. +cunning = ruz-a. +cup = tas-o; (goblet), pokal-o. +cupboard = sxrank-o. +curious = (odd), kurioz-a; (inquisitive), scivol-a. +curl = (of hair), bukl-o. +curtain = kurten-o. +curve = kurb-o. +cushion = kusen-o. +custom = kutim-o; (tax), impost-o. +cut = trancx-i; (of a garment), fason-o. +cutlet = kotlet-o. +cylinder = cilindr-o. +Cyrus = Cirus-o. + + D. + +dabble = (a liquid), plauxd-i. +dainty = delikat-a. +damage = difekt-i. +Damocles = Damokl-o. +Dane = dan-o. +danger = dangxer-o. +dance = danc-i. +date = (fruit), daktil-o; (time), dat-o. +dawn = tagigx-o. +day = tag-o. +deaf = surd-a. +dear = (prized), kar-a; (expensive), multekost-a. +debase = (adulterate), fals-i; (make bad), malbonig-i. +decay = (mould), sxim-o; (in health), kaduk-i. +deceive = tromp-i. +December = decembr-o. +decide = decid-i. +decigram = decigram-o (284). +deciliter = decilitr-o (284). +decimeter = decimetr-o (284). +deck (of ship) = ferdek-o; (adorn), ornam-i. +declaim = deklam-i. +deep = profund-a. +deer = cerv-o. +defend = defend-i. +define = defin-i, priskrib-i. +degree = grad-o. +dekagram = dekagram-o (284). +dekaliter = dekalitr-o (284). +dekameter = dekametr-o (284). +delay = prokrast-i. +delegate = deleg-i. +delicate = delikat-a. +delightful = cxarm-a, placxeg-a. +deliver (supply) = liver-i; (set free), liberig-i. +delusion = iluzi-o. +demand = postul-i. +dense = dens-a. +deny = ne-i (171). +department (of work, etc.) = fak-o. +desert = dezert-o; (just reward), merit-o. +deserve = merit-i. +desire = dezir-i. +desk = pupitr-o, skribtabl-o. +dessert = desert-o. +destine = destin-i; difin-i. +destiny = destin-o; (lot), sort-o. +destroy = detru-i, neniig-i. +detail = detal-o. +dew = ros-o. +diamond = diamant-o. +dictionary = vortar-o. +dictate (letters) = dikt-i. +die = mort-i. +different = divers-a, malsam-a, diferenc-a. +differentiate = diferencig-i. +dig = fos-i. +dignity (rank) = rang-o. +diligent = diligent-a. +dimension = dimensio; (size), ampleks-o. +Diogenes = Diogen-o. +dip (in liquid) = tremp-i. +diploma = diplom-o; holder of --, diplomit-o. +diplomat = diplomat-o. +direct (guide) = direkt-i; (undeviating), rekt-a. +disburse = elspez-i, elpag-i. +discount = rabat-i. +discuss = diskut-i, priparol-i. +disdain = malsxat-i, malestim-i. +dish (flat) = plad-o. +dispatch (letter) = depesx-o. +distance = distanc-o. +distinct = klar-a. +distinguish = disting-i. +distract (the attention) = distr-i; (confuse), konfuz-i. +disturb = gxen-i, maltrankvilig-i. +diverse = divers-a. +divide = (trans.), divid-i. +do = far-i; (suffice), suficx-i. +doctor = doktor-o; (medical), kuracist-o. +dog = hund-o. +doll = pup-o. +dollar = dolar-o. +donkey = azen-o. +door = pord-o; --handle, ans-o. +doubt = dub-i. +down (hair or feathers) = lanug-o; (downward) (adv.), malsupren. +dove = kolomb-o. +drag = (trans.), tren-i. +draw (pull) = tir-i; (sketch), skiz-i. +drawer = tirkest-o. +drawing-room = salon-o. +dream (in sleep) = songx-i; (fancy), rev-i. +drench = tremp-i. +dress = vest-i (sin); (frock), rob-o; --suit, frak-o. +dressing (sauce) = sauxc-o. +drink = trink-i. +drip = gut-i. +drive (off) = pel-i; (vehicle), veturig-i; (roadway), sxose-o. +drown = (intrans.), dron-i. +drug = drog-o; --store, apotek-o. +drum = tambur-o. +dry = sek-a. +duck = anas-o. +dues = kotizajx-o; pay --, kotiz-i. +dumb = mut-a; -- animal, brut-o. +during = (prep.), dum (96); en la dauxro de-. +dusk = krepusk-o. +dust = polv-o; remove the --, senpolvig-i. +duty = dev-o; be on --, dejxor-i. +dwell = logx-i. + + E. + +each = (adj. and pronoun), cxiu (173). +eager = avid-a. +eagle = agl-o. +ear (of the body) = orel-o. +early = fru-a. +earth = ter-o; (the planet), terglob-o. +east = orient-o. +Easter = Pask-o. +easy = facil-a. +eat = mangx-i. +echo = ehx-o. +economical = sxparem-a. +edge = rand-o; (of rivers, etc.), bord-o. +edit = redakt-i. +editor = redaktor-o. +editorial body = redakci-o. +educate = (rear), eduk-i; (teach), instru-i. +effect = efekt-o. +effective = efektiv-a. +(be) efficacious = efik-i. +egg = ov-o. +Egypt = Egipt-o. +eight = (adj.), ok (136). +either = (pronoun and adj.), iu (203); cxiu (173); unu aux la alia; + (adv.), aux; on -- side (adv.), ambauxflanke (238). +elbow = kubut-o. +electric = elektr-a. +elk = alk-o. +elm = ulm-o. +eloquent = elokvent-a. +embroider = brod-i. +eminent = eminent-a. +empire = imperi-o. +employ = (hire), dung-i; -- oneself, sin okupi; (use), uz-i. +employee = komiz-o, dungit-o, oficist-o. +employment = ofic-o, okupad-o. +enchant = ensorcx-i, rav-i. +encore = (adv.), bis. +end = (trans.), fin-i. +endow = dot-i. +endure = sufer-i, elport-i. +engineer = ingxenier-o. +Englishman = angl-o. +enjoy = gxu-i; -- oneself, sin amuz-i. +enlightened = kler-a. +enlist = (trans.), varb-i. +enroll = (trans.), registr-i, varb-i. +enthusiasm = entuziasm-o. +entire = tut-a. +entrust = komisii, alkonfid-i. +envelope = (of letter), kovert-o. +envy = envi-i. +(be an) epicure = frand-i. +epoch = epok-o. +equal = egal-a. +err = erar-i. +establish = establ-i, fond-i; (prove, etc.), konstat-i. +estate = bien-o. +esteem = estim-i. +estimate = taks-i. +eternal = etern-a, cxiam-a. +Europe = Euxrop-o. +evangel = evangeli-o. +even = (level), eben-a; -- number, parnombro; (actually) (adv.), ecx. +evening = vesper-o (93); -- dress (of man), frak-o. +ever = (adv.), iam (212); (indefinite adv.), ajn (236); + (always), cxiam (187). +every = (one), (pronoun and adv.), cxiu (173); --thing, -- way, etc., + see table, 235. +evolution = evoluci-o. +exact = akurat-a, gxust-a; (demand), postul-i. +examine = ekzamen-i; -- and check, kontrol-i. +example = ekzempl-o; (model), model-o. +Excellency = (title), mosxt-o (258). +except = escept-i (266); (prep.), krom. +excite = ekscit-i. +exercise = (trans.), ekzerc-i. +exhale = elspir-i. +exhort = admon-i. +exile = ekzil-i. +exist = ekzist-i. +expect = atend-i. +expend = (money), elspez-i; (energy, etc.), uz-i, eluz-i. +experienced = spert-a. +experiment = eksperiment-i. +expert = spert-a, lert-a. +explode = (intrans.), eksplod-i (275). +explore = esplor-i. +express = esprim-i; (train), rapida vagonaro. +extend = (trans.), etend-i, pligrandig-i, plilongig-i. +extensive = vast-a, vastampleks-a. +extent = (size), ampleks-o. +extinguish = esting-i. +extraordinary = eksterordinar-a. +eye = okul-o; --brow, brov-o; --lid, palpebr-o. + + F. + +fable = fabel-o. +face = vizagx-o. +fact = fakt-o; in --, fakt-e, efektiv-e, ja (215). +fade = velk-i. +fair = (just), just-a; (beautiful), bel-a. +fairy = fe-o, fein-o. +faint = sven-i. +faithful = fidel-a. +fall = fal-i; (autumn), auxtun-o. +false = fals-a; (treacherous), perfid-a. +fame = fam-o. +familiar = familiar-a, kutim-a. +family = famili-o. +fancy = imag-i, rev-i. +far = malproksim-e; as -- as (prep.), gxis (46). +farm = (as a tenant), farm-i; (till the soil), terkultur-i. +farewell = (adv. and interjection), adiaux (171, 273). +fashion = fason-o, mod-o. +fasten = lig-i. +fat = gras-o; (corpulent), dik-a. +fatal = fatal-a. +fate = sort-o, fatal-o, destin-o. +father = patr-o. +faucet = kran-o. +favor = favor-i; a --, komplezo. +favorable = favor-a. +fay = fe-o, fein-o. +fear = tim-i. +feather = plum-o. +feature = trajt-o. +feed = nutr-i; -- flocks, pasxt-i. +feel = sent-i; (with fingers, etc.), palp-i. +female = in-o (59). +fervor = fervor-o. +fetter = (chain, etc.), katen-o. +fever = febr-o. +fiance = fiancx-o. +fie = (interjection), fi (273). +field = kamp-o. +fight = batal-i, milit-i. +fill = plenig-i. +find = trov-i. +fine = bel-a, delikat-a; (of money), monpun-o. +finger = fingr-o; index --, montra fingro; little --, malgranda fingro; + middle --, longa fingro; ring --, ringa fingro. +finish = (trans.), fin-i. +fir = abi-o. +fire = fajr-o; set -- to, ekbrulig-i. +firm = firm-a. +fish = fisx-o; (catch fish), fisxkapt-i. +fist = pugn-o. +fit = almezur-i; (be) --, tauxg-i. +(be) fitting = konven-i; (decent), dec-i. +five = (adj.), kvin (136). +flag = flag-o; standard-o. +flat = glat-a, eben-a; plat-a. +flesh = karn-o. +flex = (trans.), fleks-i. +floor = plank-o. +flour = farun-o. +flow = flu-i. +flower = flor-o (116). +fluid = fluid-a. +fly = flug-i; (insect), musx-o. +foam = sxauxm-o. +focus = fokus-o. +fog = nebul-o. +fold = fald-i. +folk = popol-o. +follow = sekv-i, postven-i, postir-i. +(be) fond of sweets = frand-i. +fondle = dorlot-i. +foot = (of the body), pied-o; (measure), fut-o. +for = (prep.), por (95, 98, 262); pro (86); (conj.), cxar (83). +force = fort-o; (compel), devig-i; -- (upon), altrud-i (al). +fore- = pra- (282). +forehead = frunt-o. +foreign = fremd-a. +forge = (falsify), fals-i. +forget = forges-i. +forgive = pardon-i. +fork = fork-o. +form = form-i, alform-i, model-i. +formal = solen-a. +found = fond-i. +foundation = fundament-o. +four = (adj.), kvar (136). +fount = font-o. +fountain = fontan-o. +fox = vulp-o. +fragrance = arom-o, bonodor-o. +frame = (of picture), kadr-o. +frank = afrank-i. +Frederick = Frederik-o. +free = liber-a. +Frenchman = franc-o. +frequent = oft-a; (visit often), vizitad-i. +fresh = fresx-a, nov-a. +Friday = vendred-o. +friend = amik-o. +fringe = frangx-o. +frivolous = malserioz-a. +frock coat = redingot-o. +frog = ran-o. +from = (prep.), de (89, 170); el; (cause), pro (86). +frost = frost-o; (hoar), prujn-o. +froth = sxauxm-o. +fruit = frukt-o. +fruitless = (vain), van-a. +fry = (trans.), frit-i. +function = (of machinery, etc.), funkci-i. +funereal = funebr-a. +fulfil = plenum-i. +full = plen-a. +fur = fel-o; (coat or wrap), pelt-o. +furious = furioz-a. +furnish = (supply), liver-i; (provide), proviz-i; (a house), mebl-i. +furniture = (piece of), mebl-o. +furrow = sulk-o. +further = (adv.), plu. +fuse = (trans.), fand-i. +futile = van-a. +future = estontec-o; (grammatical), estont-o; (adj.), estont-a. + + G. + +gain = gajn-i, obten-i. +gallery = galeri-o; (for pictures), pinakotek-o. +gallop = galop-i. +gamin = bub-o. +gape = (yawn), osced-i. +garden = gxarden-o. +garland = girland-o. +gas = gas-o. +gather = (trans.), kolekt-i. +gay = gaj-a. +gaze = fikse rigard-i. +gazette = gazet-o. +general = gxeneral-a, komun-a; (military), general-o. +gentleman = sinjor-o. +geometry = geometri-o. +German = german-o. +Gertrude = Gertrud-o. +ghost = fantom-o. +gift = donac-o. +ginger = zingibr-o. +girdle = zon-o. +give = don-i; (as a gift), donac-i; -- information, inform-i; + -- notice, aviz-i; -- witness, atest-i; -- birth to, nask-i. +(be) glad = gxoj-i (116). +glass = (material), vitr-o; (tumbler), glas-o. +glide = glit-i. +globe = glob-o. +glory = glor-o. +glossy = (polished), polurit-a. +glove = gant-o. +glue = glu-i. +gnash = grinc-i. +go = ir-i; (in vehicle, boat, etc.), vetur-i; + -- on a pilgrimage, pilgrim-i. +goal = cel-o. +goblet = pokal-o. +God = Di-o. +good = bon-a; be -- for, tauxg-i por. +good-bye = (adv. and interjection), adiaux (171, 273). +goose = anser-o. +gospel = evangeli-o. +govern = reg-i. +graceful = graci-a. +grade = grad-o; (rank), rang-o. +grain = (wheat, etc.), gren-o; (unit) er-o (276). +gram = gram-o (284). +grammar = gramatik-o. +grandfather = av-o. +grandson = nep-o. +grape = vinber-o. +grass = herb-o. +grasshopper = akrid-o. +grate = rasp-i; grater, raspil-o. +grating = (bar or lattice), krad-o. +grave = tomb-o; (serious), grav-a. +gravitate = gravit-i. +gravy = sauxc-o. +gray = griz-a. +grieve = (trans.), cxagren-i, malgxojig-i; (intrans.) malgxoj-i. +grind = grinc-i. +great = grand-a; (remote in ancestry), pra- (282). +Greek = grek-o. +green = verd-a; --ish, dubeverd-a. +greet = salut-i. +groan = gxem-i. +group = grup-o, ar-o (126). +ground = ter-o; -- floor, teretagx-o. +grow = kresk-i, veget-i. +guard = gard-i. +guess = diven-i. +guest = gast-o. +guide = gvid-i, direkt-i. +guilty = kulp-a. +gunpowder = pulv-o. +gush = (of liquids), sxpruc-i. + + H. + +habit = kutim-o. +hack = hak-i; (carriage), fiakr-o. +hail = (frozen rain), hajl-o. +(a) hair = har-o; -- pencil, penik-o. +half = duon-o (166, 277). +halt = (intrans.), halt-i. +ham = sxink-o. +hammer = martel-o. +hand = man-o; (of clock), montril-o. +handbill = afisx-o. +handicraft = meti-o. +handsome = bel-a. +hang = (intrans.), pend-i. +handy = oportun-a. +happen = okaz-i. +happy = felicx-a. +harbor = haven-o. +hardly = (adv.), apenaux. +hare = lepor-o. +haricot = (bean), fazeol-o. +harness = jung-i. +harvest = rikolt-i. +hasten = (trans.), akcel-i; (intrans.) rapid-i. +hat = cxapel-o. +haughty = fier-a. +haul = tren-i. +have = hav-i; -- to, dev-i. +hay = fojn-o. +hazard = hazard-o. +hazel-nut = avel-o. +he = (pronoun), li (32, 37, 42). +head = kap-o; (adj.), cxef-a. +health = san-o; state of (good or bad) --, fart-o. +hear = auxd-i. +heart = kor-o; by --, (by rote), parker-e. +heat = (trans.), hejt-i, varmig-i. +heaven = cxiel-o; heavenly body, astr-o. +heavy = pez-a. +Hebrew = hebre-o. +heel = (of foot), kalkan-o; (of shoe), kalkanum-o. +hektare = hektar-o (284). +hektogram = hektogram-o (284). +hektoliter = hektolitr-o (284). +hektometer = hektometr-o (284). +help = help-i (265). +hen = kokin-o. +herb = herb-o. +hero = hero-o. +hesitate = hezit-i. +hide = kasx-i (252); (skin of animals), fel-o. +Hiero = Hieron-o. +high = alt-a. +hinge = cxarnir-o. +hip = koks-o. +hire = (persons), dung-i; (houses, etc.), lu-i. +hiss = sibl-i. +history = histori-o. +ho = (interjection), ho (273). +hoar = (frost), prujn-o. +hoarse = rauxk-a. +hog = pork-o. +hold = ten-i. +holder = (handle), tenil-o, ans-o; (receptacle), uj-o (181); + ing-o (237). +hole = tru-o; (cavity), kav-o. +Holland = Holand-o. +holy = sankt-a. +home = hejm-o; at --, cxehejme. +homesickness = nostalgi-o. +honest = honest-a. +honey = miel-o. +honeysuckle = lonicer-o. +honor = honor-i; (as term of address), mosxt-o (258). +hook = krocx-i. +hope = esper-i. +horizon = horizont-o. +horizontal = horizontal-a. +horn = korn-o. +horse = cxeval-o. +horse-radish = armoraci-o. +hose = sxtrump-oj; -- supporter, sxelk-o. +hotel = hotel-o. +hour = hor-o (185). +house = dom-o; at the -- of (prep.), cxe (125, 160). +how = (adv.), kiel (134); kiamanier-e; -- much, kiom (140, 185). +however = (conj.), tamen; (adv.), ajn (236). +hue = nuanc-o. +hum = zum-i. +human being = hom-o. +humble = humil-a. +humor = humor-o. +hundred = (adj.), cent (142). +hungry = malsat-a. +hunt = sercx-i; (game or wild animals), cxas-i. +hurdy-gurdy = gurd-o. +hurl = jxet-i. +hurrah = (interjection), hura (273). +hurricane = uragan-o. +hurry = rapid-i. +husband = edz-o. +hypocrite = hipokrit-o. + + I. + +I = (pronoun), mi (32, 37, 274). +ice = glaci-o; (food), glaciajx-o. +idea = ide-o. +ideal = ideal-o. +identical = ident-a. +idiom = idiom-o. +idiot = idiot-o. +if = (conj.), se (240); as --, kvazaux (250); (whether), cxu. +ignore = ignor-i. +illusion = iluzi-o. +illustrate = ilustr-i. +image = bild-o. +imagine = imag-i. +imitate = imit-i. +immediate = tuj-a (171). +implicate = implik-i. +important = grav-a, serioz-a. +importunate = altrudem-a. +impose = trud-i. +impost = impost-o. +impress = impres-i. +impulse = impuls-o. +in = (prep.), en (46, 89, 160); -- the presence of, cxe (125, 160). +inch = col-o. +incite = incit-i. +incline = (trans.), klin-i. +incommode = gxen-i. +(be) indebted = sxuld-i. +indeed = (adv.), ja (215); do; efektiv-e. +index = tabel-o. +Indian = (American), indian-o, rugxhauxtul-o; -- corn, maiz-o. +indifferent = indiferent-a. +industry = (trade), industri-o. +inebriate = ebri-a. +inevitable = nepr-a, neevitebl-a. +infect = infekt-i. +influence = influ-i. +inform = inform-i, sciig-i. +ingenuous = naiv-a. +inhabitant = logxant-o, an-o (145). +inhale = enspir-i. +ink = ink-o. +inquire = demand-i. +insect = insekt-o. +inside = (adv.), intern-e; (prep.), en. +insist = insist-i. +inspect = inspekt-i, ekzamen-i, rigard-i, kontrol-i. +inspire = inspir-i. +instantaneous = moment-a. +instead of = (prep.), anstataux (98, 159). +instruct = instru-i; (order), ordon-i. +insult = insult-i. +insure = (with a company), asekur-i; (make certain), certig-i. +intelligent = inteligent-a. +intend = intenc-i. +interest = interes-i; (of money), procent-o. +(be) intermittent = intermit-i. +internal = intern-a. +interpret = interpret-i. +intimate = intim-a. +intoxicated = ebri-a. +investigate = esplor-i, ekzamen-i, elsercx-i. +invite = invit-i. +iron = (metal), fer-o; (linen), glad-i. +island = insul-o. +it = (pronoun), gxi (32, 37, 42, 274); see also 50, 51. +Italian = ital-o. + + J. + +jacket = jak-o. +jail = karcer-o. +jam = kompot-o, fruktajx-o. +January = januar-o. +jaw = (orifice, opening), fauxk-o; (of the skull), makzel-o; + --bone, makzelost-o. +jealous = jxaluz-a. +jest = sxerc-i. +Jesus = Jesu-o. +Jew = hebre-o. +jewel = juvel-o. +jingle = (intrans.), tint-i. +John = Johan-o. +joint = artik-o. +joke = sxerc-i. +journal = jxurnal-o, revu-o. +journey = vojagx-i. +judge = jugx-i. +jug = krucx-o. +juggle = jxongl-i. +July = juli-o. +jump = salt-i. +June = juni-o. +jurist = jurist-o. +just = (upright), just-a; (exact), gxust-a; (adv.), gxust-e, jxus. + + K. + +keep = ten-i, gard-i; (preserve), konserv-i; -- in mind, memor-i. +kerosene = petrol-o. +key = sxlosil-o; (of piano, etc.), klav-o. +kill = mortig-i. +kilogram = kilogram-o (284). +kiloliter = kilolitr-o (284). +kilometer = kilometr-o (284). +kind = (species), spec-o; (good), bon-a, bonkor-a; that --, what --, + etc., see table, 235. +kindness = komplez-o, bonkorec-o. +king = regx-o; --dom, regxolando. +kiss = kis-i. +knave = fripon-o. +knee = genu-o. +kneel = genufleks-i. +knit = trik-i. +knock = frap-i. +knot = tuber-o; (tied), ligajx-o; (of ribbon), bant-o. +know = sci-i; (be acquainted with), kon-i (117). +kobold = kobold-o. + + L. + +labor = labor-i; -- for the success or completion of something, + klopod-i. +lace = punt-o; (of a shoe), lacx-o. +(be) lacking = (intrans.) mank-i. +lake = lag-o. +lamb = sxafid-o; (meat), sxafidajx-o. +lame = lam-a. +lamp = lamp-o. +lance = lanc-o. +land = land-o; (estate), bien-o; (soil), ter-o. +landscape = pejzagx-o. +language = lingv-o. +lantern = lantern-o. +large = grand-a. +lark = (bird), alauxd-o. +last = (intrans.), dauxr-i; (in a series), last-a; (previous) pasint-a, + antaux-a. +latch = ans-o. +late = malfru-a. +Latin = latin-a. +latter = cxi-tiu (61, 62). +lattice = krad-o. +laugh = rid-i (265). +law = legx-o; --suit, proces-o; (rule), regul-o. +lawyer = advokat-o, legxist-o. +lay = meti, kusxig-i; -- aside, demet-i; -- claim, pretend-i. +layer = tavol-o. +lead = konduk-i. +lead = (metal), plumb-o. +leaf = foli-o. +league = (alliance), lig-o. +lean = (trans.), apog-i, klin-i; (not fat), malgras-a. +leap = salt-i; --year, superjar-o. +learn = lern-i; (news, etc.), sciigx-i. +learned = kler-a. +least = (adv.), malplej (80), malpli multe (81); at --, almenaux. +leather = led-o. +leave = (trans.), las-i; -- off (intrans.), cxes-i. +leg = krur-o. +legal = legx-a; -- process, proces-o. +lemon = citron-o. +lemonade = citronajx-o, limonad-o. +lend = prunt-i, pruntedon-i. +lens = objektiv-o. +lengthen = (trans.), etend-i, plilongig-i. +less = (adv.), malpli (80); malpli multe (81). +lesson = lecion-o. +let = (trans.), las-i; (rent), luig-i; (permit), permes-i. +letter = (epistle), leter-o; (of the alphabet), liter-o. +lettuce = laktuk-o. +level = nivel-o; (flat), eben-a. +library = bibliotek-o; (collection of books), librar-o. +lick = lek-i. +lie = (recline), kusx-i (239); (tell falsehoods), mensog-i. +lift = lev-i. +light = lum-a, hel-a; (not heavy), malpez-a. +lightning = fulm-o. +like = sxat-i; (similar), simil-a; see also 250. +limb = membro; (of a tree), brancx-o. +limit = lim-i. +linden = tili-o. +line = lini-o, vic-o, strek-o. +linen = tol-o. +lion = leon-o. +lip = lip-o. +liquid = fluid-a. +listen = auxskult-i. +liter = litr-o (284). +literal = lauxliter-a. +literature = literatur-o. +little = malgrand-a; (with slightly affectionate sense), et-a (198); + (adv.), malmulte, iom (217); -- by --, iom post iom. +live = viv-i; (dwell), logx-i (133). +load = sxargx-i. +loan = prunt-i, pruntedon-i. +local = lok-a. +lock = sxlos-i; (fastening), serur-o. +locomotive = lokomotiv-o. +lodge = logx-i. +log = sxtip-o. +long = long-a; -- for, sopir-i je. +look = rigard-i; -- for, sercx-i. +lose = perd-i; (fail to profit), malgajn-i; -- time, malfru-i. +lot = (fate), sort-o. +loud = lauxt-a. +love = am-i; make --, amindum-i. +loyal = fidel-a, lojal-a. +luck = sxanc-o; lucky, bonsxanc-a. +lull = kvietig-i; (to sleep), lul-i. +lunatic = lunatik-o. +lung = pulm-o. +luxury = luks-o. + + M. + +macaroni = makaroni-o. +machine = masxin-o. +mad = frenez-a. +magazine = gazet-o, jxurnal-o, revu-o. +magic = magi-o. +mail = posxt-o, enposxtig-i; -- box, posxtkest-o. +maize = maiz-o. +majestic = majest-a. +majesty = (term of address), mosxt-o (258). +make = far-i (see also 214); -- mistakes, erar-i; -- love, amindum-i. +malicious = malic-a. +man = vir-o. +manage = administr-i, direkt-i; (a household), mastrum-i. +manner = manier-o; (right or wrong), mor-o; in that --, in every --, + etc., see table, 235. +mantle = mantel-o. +manufacture = fabrik-i. +manuscript = manuskript-o. +maple = acer-o. +marble = (stone), marmor-o. +march = marsxad-i. +March = mart-o. +mark = mark-o, sign-o; (official), stamp-o. +marmalade = marmelad-o. +marry = (become married), edzigx-i. +master = mastr-o; (of his profession or art), majstr-o; + -- of Arts (A.M.), magistr-o. +match = (for fire), alumet-o. +material = material-o; (cloth), sxtof-o. +matter = afer-o. +mature = matur-a. +maximum = maksimum-o. +May = maj-o; (auxiliary verb), see 269, 270. +mayonnaise = majones-a. +mean = signif-i, intenc-i, malnobl-a. +meaning = senc-o. +means = rimed-o; by -- of (prep.), per (64). +measure = (trans.), mezur-i. +meat = viand-o. +mechanics = mehxanik-o. +medical = medicin-a, kuracist-a. +medicine = (drug, etc.), kuracil-o; (science), medicin-o, kuracart-o. +meet = (trans.), renkont-i, traf-i; (assemble), kunven-i. +melody = melodi-o. +melon = melon-o. +melt = fluidig-i, fluidigx-i, degel-i. +member = membr-o, an-o (145). +memory = memor-o; by --, parker-e, memor-e. +mend = ripar-i; (patch), flik-i. +mention = nom-i; cit-i. +menu = menu-o. +merely = (adv.), nur. +merit = merit-i. +merry = gaj-a; make --, festen-i. +merry-go-round = karusel-o. +metal = metal-o. +meter = metr-o (284). +method = metod-o. +middle = mez-o, centr-o. +mien = mien-o. +mild = mild-a. +mile = mejl-o. +milk = lakt-o; (draw the milk of), melk-i. +mill = muel-o. +millimeter = milimetr-o (284). +million = milion-o. +mine = (coal, etc), min-o; (possessive adj.), mi-a (43). +mineral = mineral-o. +minimum = minimum-o. +minister = (political), ministr-o; (clergyman), pastr-o. +minute = (time), minut-o; (adj.), detal-a, malgrand-a. +minutes = (of a meeting), protokol-o. +mirror = spegul-o. +miserly = avar-a. +misery = mizer-o. +miss = (fail to reach), maltraf-i; (be missing), mank-i; + (notice the absence of), senti la foreston de; + (young lady), frauxlin-o (163). +mist = nebul-o. +mistake = erar-o. +Mister = Sinjor-o (163, 286). +mix = (trans.), miks-i. +mock = mok-i. +mode = fason-o, mod-o. +model = model-o. +moderate = moder-a. +modest = modest-a. +moment = moment-o; a -- ago, (adv.), jxus. +monarch = monarhx-o. +Monday = lund-o. +money = mon-o; -- box, kas-o; -- order, mandat-o. +monk = monahx-o. +monkey = simi-o. +month = monat-o. +moon = lun-o. +moral = moral-a, bonmor-a; morals, moroj. +more = (adv.), pli (74, 79); (quantity), pli multe (81); + (further), plu; the --, ju pli, des pli (84). +morning = maten-o (93). +morsel = pec-o. +most = (adv.), plej (74, 79); (quantity), plej multe (81). +mould = sxim-o. +mountain = mont-o. +mourning = funebr-o. +mouse = mus-o. +moustache = lipharoj. +mouth = busx-o; (of river), enflu-o, elflu-o. +move = (trans.), mov-i; (change residence) translogx-i. +much = mult-a (81); (very), tre. +mud = kot-o. +murmur = murmur-i. +museum = muze-o. +mushroom = fung-o. +music = muzik-o. +must = dev-i (247). +mute = mut-a. +mutton = sxafajx-o. +mutual = reciprok-a (180), komun-a. +myopic = miop-a. +mystery = mister-o. + + N. + +nail = (metal), najl-o; (of the finger or toe), ung-o. +naive = naiv-a. +naked = nud-a. +name = nom-o. +narrate = rakont-i. +nation = naci-o. +nature = natur-o. +naught = nul-o; (none), neniom (231). +near = proksim-a (170); (prep.), apud (120, 159). +necessary = neces-a. +neck = kol-o. +need = bezon-i. +needle = kudril-o. +negative = ne-a (171); (photographic), negativ-o. +neighbor = najbar-o. +neither = (conj.), nek (31); (pronoun and adj.), neniu (220). +nephew = nev-o. +nerve = nerv-o. +nest = nest-o. +net = ret-o. +neutral = neuxtral-a. +never = (adv.), neniam (226). +nevertheless = (conj.), tamen. +new = nov-a, fresx-a; news, novajx-o. +newspaper = jxurnal-o, tagjxurnal-o. +nice = delikat-a. +night = nokt-o. +nine = (adj.), naux (136). +nitrogen = azot-o. +no = (adv.), ne (27, 66, a); (adj.), neniu (220); -- one, --where, + etc., see table, 235. +noble = nobl-a, +nobleman = nobel-o. +nobody = (pronoun), neniu (220). +nod = (the head), balanc-i (la kapon). +noise = bru-o. +none = (adj. and pronoun), neniu (220); (adv.), neniom (231). +non-partisan = neuxtral-a. +noon = tagmez-o. +nor = (conj.), nek (31). +north = nord-o. +Norwegian = norveg-o. +not = (adv.), ne (27, 66, a). +note = not-o, bilet-o; --book, kajer-o; (notice), rimark-i, not-i. +nothing = nenio (233). +notice = rimark-i; not-i; give --, aviz-i. +notwithstanding = (prep.), malgraux; (conj.), tamen. +nourish = nutr-i. +novel = nov-a; (book), roman-o. +November = novembr-o. +now = (adv.), nun. +nude = nud-a. +nullify = nulig-i, neniig-i. +number = (quantity), nombr-o; (numeral), numer-o. +nut = nuks-o. + + O. + +oak = kverk-o. +(make) oath = jxur-i. +oats = aven-o. +obey = obe-i (265). +object = objekt-o; (aim), cel-o; (oppose), kontrauxparol-i, + kontrauxstar-i, protest-i. +objective = objektiv-o. +obligation = (financial), sxuld-o; (moral), dev-o. +oblige = (compel), devig-i; (render service), far-i komplezon, serv-i. +oblique = oblikv-a. +observe = observ-i, rimark-i, not-i. +obstinate = obstin-a. +obstruct = bar-i. +occasion = foj-o (127); okaz-o. +occupation = profesi-o, okup-o, meti-o. +occupy = okup-i. +occur = okaz-i. +ocean = ocean-o. +October = oktobr-o. +odor = odor-o. +of = (prep.), de (49, 100, 160, 170); da (99, 101, 103); el; + (concerning), pri (160, 264, c). +offend = ofend-i. +offer = propon-i, prezent-i, ofer-i. +office = ofic-o; (place), oficej-o. +officer = (of organization or firm), oficist-o; + (military or naval), oficir-o. +official = oficial-a. +often = (adv.), oft-e, multfoj-e. +oh = (interjection), ho (273). +oil = ole-o. +olive = oliv-o. +on = (prep.), sur; -- account of, pro (86). +once = (adv.), unufoj-e; -- on a time, iam (212); at --, tuj; + -- more, bis. +one = (adj.), unu (136, 137, 180); (pronoun), oni (54). See 235. +onion = bulb-o. +only = sol-a; (mere), nur-a. +opera = oper-o; -- glasses, lornet-o. +opinion = opini-o. +opportune = oportun-a. +opposed to = (prep.), kontraux. +opposite = (converse), mal-o (67); (prep.), kontraux. +or = (conj.), aux. +orange = (fruit), orangx-o. +orchestra = orkestr-o. +order = ordon-i; (of store, etc.), mend-i; (methodical or proper + arrangement), ord-o; money --, mandat-o. +ordinary = ordinar-a. +organ = (physical), organ-o; (musical), orgen-o. +organize = organiz-i. +original = original-o. +ornament = ornam-i. +orphan = orf-o. +oscillate = (intrans.), balancigx-i. +ostracism = ostracism-o. +other = ali-a; (remaining), ceter-a; -- people's, malpropr-a; + --wise, ali-e. +out of = el. +outline = kontur-o; (profile), profil-o; (sketch), skiz-o. +outside = (prep.), ekster (120, 121). +over = (prep.), super; (across), trans; (concerning), pri; + --coat, surtut-o; --shoe, supersxu-o; (adv.), (too), tro. +owe = sxuld-i. +own = posed-i, propr-a. +ox = bov-o. +oyster = ostr-o. + + P. + +pack = pak-i. +pad = rembur-i. +paddle = padel-i. +page = (of book, etc.), pagx-o. +pail = sitel-o. +pain = dolor-o; (effort), pen-o; take pains, pen-i. +paint = pentr-i; (material), kolorigil-o; --brush, penik-o. +pair = par-o. +palace = palac-o. +pale = pal-a. +palisade = palisar-o. +palm = (of the hand), polm-o. +pamphlet = brosxur-o. +pan = pat-o. +paper = (material), paper-o; news--, jxurnal-o. +paradise = paradiz-o. +paragraph = paragraf-o. +pardon = pardon-i (265). +parallel = paralel-a. +park = park-o. +parlor = salon-o. +parsley = petrosel-o. +parsnip = pastinak-o. +part = part-o; of a work or book, kajer-o; + separate (trans.), disir-i, apartig-i, disdivid-i. +participle = particip-o. +pass = (intrans.), pas-i. +passage = koridor-o. +passenger = pasagxer-o. +passion = pasi-o. +passive = pasiv-a. +past = (prep.), preter; (time), estintec-o; + (grammatical), estint-o; (bygone), estint-a. +paste = (glue), glu-i. +pasteboard = karton-o. +pastor = pastr-o. +pastry = kukajx-o. +pasture = (trans.), pasxt-i. +patch = flik-i. +path = vojet-o. +patience = pacienc-o. +patient = (ill person), kuracat-o. +patty = pastecx-o. +pause = pauxz-i. +pavement = pavim-o; (sidewalk), trotuar-o. +pay = pag-i; -- dues, kotiz-i. +pea = piz-o. +peace = pac-o. +peach = persik-o. +pear = pir-o. +pearl = perl-o. +peculiar = strang-a, kurioz-a. +peddle = kolport-i. +pedestal = piedestal-o. +pedestrian = piedirant-o. +peeling = sxel-o. +pen = plum-o; (enclosure), ej-o (III). +pencil = krajon-o; hair--, penik-o. +penetrate = penetr-i. +people = popol-o; (indefinite pronoun), oni (54). +pepper = pipr-o. +perceive = sent-i; (see), vid-i. +percentage = procent-o; (of profit), tantiem-o. +perfect = perfekt-a. +perfidious = perfid-a. +perform = (act), ag-i; (fulfil), plenum-i; (do), far-i. +perfume = parfum-o; (odor), bonodor-o. +period = period-o; (of time), epok-o; (punctuation), punkt-o. +perish = pere-i. +permit = permes-i. +persecute = persekut-i; (worry), turment-i, gxen-i. +persevere = persist-i. +person = person-o. +perspire = sxvit-i. +persuade = konvink-i. +pet = dorlot-i. +petroleum = petrol-o. +phantom = fantom-o. +Pharaoh = faraon-o. +pharmacy = farmaci-o; (shop), apotek-o. +philosopher = filozof-o. +photograph = fotograf-i. +phrase = fraz-o. +physician = kuracist-o. +physics = fizik-o. +pick = (choose), elekt-i; (gather), kolekt-i. +pickle = pekl-i. +picture = bild-o; (portrait), portret-o; -- gallery, pinakotek-o. +picturesque = pitoresk-a, pentrind-a. +pie = kukajx-o; (patty), pastecx-o. +piece = pec-o. +pig = pork-o. +pigeon = kolomb-o. +(be a) pilgrim = pilgrim-i. +pillage = rab-i. +pillar = kolon-o. +pin = pingl-o. +pinch = pincx-i. +pine = (tree), pin-o; -- for, sopir-i je. +pineapple = ananas-o. +pinnacle = pint-o. +pioneer = pionir-o. +pious = pi-a. +pipe = tub-o; (for smoking), pip-o. +pitcher = krucx-o. +pity = kompat-i; (regrettable affair), domagx-o. +placard = afisx-o. +place = lok-o; (for something), -ej-o (111); + (broad, short street or open space), plac-o; (put), met-i. +plait = plekt-i. +plan = plan-o, projekt-o, skiz-o. +plane = plat-a. +planet = planed-o. +plank = tabul-o. +plant = plant-i; (vegetable growth), kreskajx-o, vegetajx-o. +plate = plat-o; (dish) teler-o. +platform = (railway), peron-o. +play = lud-i; (music), muzik-i; (theatrical), teatrajx-o. +player = (theatrical), aktor-o. +pleasant = agrabl-a, dolcx-a, afabl-a. +please = placx-i (265); kontentig-i, far-i plezuron al; + (in requests), bonvolu, mi petas. +pleasure = plezur-o; take -- in, gxu-i. +plot = konspir-i. +plow = plug-i. +plum = prun-o. +plumber = plumbist-o. +plunder = rab-i. +plural = multenombr-o. +pneumatic = pneumatik-a. +pocket = posx-o. +poem = poem-o. +poet = poet-o. +poetry = poezi-o. +point = punkt-o; (sharp), pint-o; -- out, montr-i. +poise = (trans.), balanc-i; (of manner), aplomb-o. +poison = venen-o. +pole = stang-o; (shaft of vehicle), timon-o; (geographical), polus-o. +Pole = pol-o. +police = polic-o. +polite = gxentil-a. +politics = politik-o. +polish = polur-i; polished, polurit-a, glat-a. +pomp = pomp-o. +popular = popular-o, popol-a. +porcelain = porcelan-o. +porch = verand-o; (stoop), peron-o; (balcony), balkon-o. +pork = porkajx-o. +port = haven-o. +portion = porci-o, part-o. +portrait = portret-o. +possess = posed-i. +possible = ebl-a (161, 162); kredebl-a (270). +post = (pole), stang-o; (mail), posxt-o; --card, posxtkart-o; + --paid, afrankit-e. +postage = (cost), posxtelspezo; -- stamp, posxtmark-o. +poster = afisx-o. +pot = pot-o. +potato = terpom-o; sweet --, batat-o. +pound = pist-i; (measure), funt-o. +pour = (liquids), versx-i; (as in a chute), sxut-i. +powder = pudr-o. +power = pov-o, potenc-o. +practice = praktik-i. +praise = lauxd-i. +pray = pregx-i. +preach = predik-i. +precise = preciz-a, gxust-a. +predestined = fatal-a. +prefer = prefer-i. +prefix = prefiks-o. +premium = premi-o. +prepare = prepar-i. +prepay = afrank-i. +presence = cxeest-o, apudest-o; in the -- of (prep.), cxe (125), antaux. +present = (gift), donac-o; (time), estantec-o, estant-a, nun-a (171); + (in attendance), cxeestant-a. +present = prezent-i, donac-i, don-i. +preserve = (keep), ten-i; (keep safe), konserv-i; + (food), kompot-o, konfitajx-o. +preside = prezid-i. +president = prezidant-o. +press = prem-i; (print), pres-i; (wardrobe), sxrank-o; + (be urgent), urgx-i. +pretend = (make pretext of), pretekst-i; (feign), sxajnig-i; + (lay claim), pretend-i. +price = prez-o, kost-o. +prick = pik-i. +priest = pastr-o. +prince = princ-o, regxid-o. +principal = precip-a, cxef-a. +print = pres-i. +prize = sxat-i; (premium), premi-o. +prized = kar-a, altetaksat-a, sxatat-a. +problem = problem-o. +process = metod-o; (legal), proces-o. +proclaim = proklam-i. +procrastinate = prokrast-i. +produce = produkt-i; -- a result, efik-i; (give birth to), nask-i. +profession = profesi-o. +professor = profesor-o. +profile = profil-o. +profit = profit-i; (percentage), tantiem-o. +profound = profund-a. +progress = progres-i. +project = projekt-o. +promenade = promen-i. +promise = promes-i. +propensity = inklin-o, em-o (192). +(be) proper = dec-i. +property = proprajx-o, posedajx-o; (land), bien-o; + (characteristic), ec-o (202). +proportional = proporci-a. +propose = propon-i, sugesti-i. +prose = prozo; piece of --, prozajxo. +prosecute = persekut-i. +prosper = prosper-i. +protect = protekt-i, gard-i. +protest = protest-i. +proud = fier-a +prove = pruv-i; (test), prov-i. +provoke = incit-i, ekscit-i, kauxz-i, nask-i, kolerig-i. +psalm = psalm-o. +public = publik-o. +publish = publikig-i, eldon-i. +pudding = puding-o. +pull = tir-i. +pump = pump-i. +pumpkin = kukurb-o. +punish = pun-i. +pure = pur-a. +puree = pistajx-o. +purple = purpur-a. +purpose = cel-i, intenc-i. +push = pusx-i; (shove), sxov-i. +put = met-i; -- off, prokrast-i. + + Q. + +quality = ec-o (202); (texture, etc.), kvalito. +quantity = kvant-o; any --, a certain --, iom (217); see table, 235. +quarter = (of a city), kvartal-o; (fourth), kvaron-o; --ly, trimonat-a. +question = demand-o; (problem), problem-o; (doubt), dub-o. +quick = rapid-a; (lively), viv-a. +quiet = kviet-a, trankvil-a, silent-a. +quince = cidoni-o. +quite = (adv.), tut-e. +quote = cit-i. + + R. + +rabbit = kunikl-o. +race = (people), ras-o. +radish = rafan-o; horse--, armoraci-o. +radius = radi-o. +rag = cxifon-o. +raging = furioz-a. +rail = rel-o; --way, fervoj-o; --way carriage, vagon-o; + --way station, stacidom-o. +rain = pluv-o; --bow, cxielark-o. +raise = lev-i. +raisin = sekvinber-o. +rank = rang-o; (grade), grad-o. +rap = frapet-i. +rapid = rapid-a. +rascal = fripon-o, kanajl-o. +rasp = rasp-i. +raspberry = framb-o. +rat = rat-o. +rate = taks-i; (schedule of prices), tarif-o, prezar-o; + (percentage), procent-o; at the -- of (prep.), po (175). +rational = prudent-a, racional-a. +raucous = rauxk-a. +raven = korv-o. +ravishing = rav-a. +raw = nekuirit-a. +ray = (of light), radi-o. +reach = ating-i; (a goal), traf-i. +read = leg-i. +ready = pret-a. +real = efektiv-a, real-a; ver-a. +reap = rikolt-i. +reason = (exert the power of reasoning), rezon-i; (cause), kauxz-o; + (motive), kial-o; for what --, for any --, etc., see table, 235. +reasonable = prudent-a. +rebate = rabat-i. +recall = revok-i; (to memory), rememor-i; + (to another's memory), rememorig-i. +receive = ricev-i; (accept), akcept-i; (money), enspez-i. +receipt = (for payment), kvitanc-o. +reckon = kalkul-i. +recent = nov-a, antauxnelong-a (90). +receptacle = uj-o (237); (for one object), ing-o (181). +recess = (alcove), alkov-o; (vacation), libertemp-o. +reciprocal = reciprok-a (180). +recite = deklam-i. +recline = kusx-i (239). +recommend = rekomend-i. +recompense = rekompensx-i. +recover = (find), retrov-i; (get well), resanigx-i. +red = rugx-a; reddish, duberugx-a. +reduction = (of price), rabat-o. +refine = rafin-i. +refuse = rifuz-i, malpermes-i. +refute = refut-i. +regale = regal-i. +region = region-o. +register = (trans.), registr-i; (letters), rekomend-i. +regret = bedauxr-i; (be penitent for), pent-i. +regrettable = bedauxrind-a; -- affair (pity), domagx-o. +regulation = regul-o, legx-o. +reign = reg-i. +rejoice = gxoj-i (116). +relate = rilat-i (266); (tell), rakont-i. +relative = (person), parenc-o. +religion = religi-o. +rely = konfid-i; fid-i. +remain = rest-i; remaining (other), ceter-a. +remember = memor-i; (recall to memory), rememor-i. +render = far-i, ig-i (214); (an account), don-i, prezent-i, liver-i. +renown = fam-o, glor-o. +rent = lu-i; (let), luig-i; (farm out), farm-i; (price), luprez-o. +repair = ripar-i; (patch), flik-i. +repeat = ripet-i. +repent = pent-i. +report = raport-i. +repose = ripoz-i. +represent = reprezent-i. +reproach = riprocx-i. +republic = respublik-o. +repulse = repusx-i, repel-i. +request = pet-i. +require = postul-i; (need), bezon-i. +rescue = sav-i. +reside = logx-i. +respect = respekt-i. +rest = (repose), ripoz-i; (remain), rest-i; (-- upon), apog-i sur. +restaurant = restoraci-o. +result = rezult-i. +resume = resum-o. +return = (go back), reir-i; (come back), reven-i; (give back), redon-i. +revery = rev-o. +review = (magazine), revu-o. +reward = rekompenc-i. +rhubarb = rabarb-o. +rib = rip-o. +ribbon = ruband-o. +rice = riz-o. +rich = ricx-a. +ride = rajd-i; (in vehicle, boat, etc.), vetur-i. +ridicule = mok-i; worthy of -- (ridiculous), ridind-a. +right = prav-a; (to something), rajt-o; (not left), dekstr-a. +right-angled = ort-a. +ring = (intrans.), sonor-i; (circlet), ring-o. +ringlet = (of hair), bukl-o. +ripe = matur-a. +river = river-o. +road = voj-o; (broad roadway), sxose-o. +roam = vag-i. +roar = mugx-i. +roast = rost-i. +rob = rab-i, sxtel-i. +robber = rabist-o. +robe = rob-o. +Robert = Robert-o. +roguish = petol-a; (rascally), fripon-a. +roll = (trans.), rul-i; (something around something else), volv-i; + (bread), bulk-o; (list), list-o, registr-o. +roof = tegment-o. +room = cxambr-o; (space), spac-o. +root = radik-o. +rose = roz-o. +(by) rote = parker-e. +round = rond-o; (of ladder), sxtupet-o; + (roundabout) (prep.) cxirkaux (89, 120, 159, 160). +routine = rutin-o. +row = (boats), rem-i. +royalty = regxec-o; (share of profit) tantiem-o. +rub = frot-i. +ruin = ruin-o. +rule = reg-i; (draw lines), lini-i; (regulation), regul-o. +rumor = fam-o; rumored, lauxdir-a. +run = kur-i; (of fluids), flu-i. +Russian = rus-o. +rust = rust-i. + + S. + +sack = sak-o; (plunder), rab-i. +sacred = sankt-a. +sacrifice = ofer-i, oferdon-i. +saddle = sel-o. +safe = sendangxer-a, senrisk-a; (chest), monkest-o. +sail = vel-o. +salad = salat-o. +salary = salajr-o. +salt = sal-o. +salute = salut-i. +same = sam-a. +sample = specimen-o. +sand = sabl-o. +sap = suk-o. +sardine = sarden-o. +satchel = valiz-o. +sated = sat-a. +satin = atlas-o. +satisfied = kontent-a; (of hunger), sat-a. +Saturday = sabat-o. +sausage = kolbas-o. +sauce = sauxc-o. +saucer = subtas-o, teleret-o. +saucy = petol-a, malgxentil-a, insultem-a. +savage = sovagx-a. +save = sav-i; (keep), konserv-i; (economize), sxpar-i; + (prep.), krom, escepte de. +saw = seg-i. +say = dir-i (77). +scales = (for weighing), pesil-o. +scarcely = (adv.), apenaux. +scent = (trans.), flar-i. +schedule = (of rates), tarif-o. +science = scienc-o. +scissors = tondil-o. +Scot = (Scotchman), skot-o. +scoundrel = kanajl-o, fripon-o. +scrape = skrap-i. +screen = sxirm-i. +screw = sxrauxb-o; --driver, sxrauxbturnil-o. +sculpture = skulpt-i. +sea = mar-o. +seal = sigel-i. +season = (of the year), sezon-o. +second = (of time), sekund-o; (in order), dua; + a -- time (adv.), duafoje, bis. +secret = sekret-o. +secretary = sekretari-o. +section = sekci-o, part-o, er-o (276). +see = vid-i; -- to, zorg-i pri. +seed = sem-o. +seek = sercx-i; -- advice of, konsult-i. +seem = sxajn-i; --ing, sxajn-a, kvazaux-a. +seize = kapt-i. +select = elekt-i. +self = (reflexive), see 39, 40, 44; (intensive), mem (219). +self-command = aplomb-o. +sell = vend-i. +senate = senat-o. +send = send-i. +sense = prudent-o, sagx-o; (meaning), senc-o; (feeling), sent-o. +sentence = fraz-o; (legal), jugx-o, kondamn-o. +separate = (intrans.), disigx-i, disir-i; (distinct), apart-a. +September = septembr-o. +serene = trankvil-a. +series = seri-o, vic-o. +serious = serioz-a, grav-a. +serve = serv-i; (be good for), tauxg-i por. +set = met-i; (of the sun), subir-i; (type), kompost-i; + -- free, liberig-i; -- out (start), forir-i, ekir-i. +seven = (adj.), sep (136). +several = kelk-aj, kelk-e. +severe = sever-a. +sew = kudr-i. +shade = (shadow), ombr-o; (tint) nuanc-o; (screen), sxirmil-o. +shaft = (of vehicle), timon-o. +shake = (trans.), sku-i; (oscillate), sxancel-i; -- hands, manprem-i. +sham = pretekst-i. +shape = form-o; --ly, beltali-a. +share = partopren-i, divid-i, part-o, porci-o. +sharp = akr-a; (pointed), pint-a. +shatter = frakas-i. +shave = raz-i. +shawl = sxal-o. +she = (pronoun), sxi (32, 37, 42). +shear = tond-i. +sheep = sxaf-o. +shelf = bret-o. +shell = sxel-o; (of mollusk), konk-o; to remove the --, sensxelig-i. +shelter = sxirm-i. +shepherd = pasxtist-o. +shield = sxild-o; (protect), sxirm-i. +shin-bone = tibi-o. +shine = bril-i, lum-i. +ship = sxip-o. +shirt = cxemiz-o. +shoe = sxu-o. +shoot = (with gun, etc.), paf-i. +shop = butik-o. +shore = bord-o, marbord-o. +short = mallong-a; --sighted, miop-a; --hand, stenografi-o. +shoulder = sxultr-o. +shove = sxov-i. +shovel = sxovel-i. +show = (trans.), montr-i. +shrill = akr-a, akrason-a. +shun = evit-i. +shut = (trans.), ferm-i. +side = flank-o; --board, telermebl-o; --walk, trotuar-o; + --wise, oblikv-a. +sift = kribr-i. +sigh = sopir-i. +sign = sign-o; -- the name, subskrib-i. +signify = signif-i. +silent = silent-a (239). +silk = silk-o. +silver = argxent-o. +similar = simil-a. +simple = simpl-a. +sin = pek-i. +since = (conj.), cxar, tial ke (83); (prep.), de, depost (89); + (adv.), de tiam. +sing = kant-i. +single = sol-a, unuop-a; -- man (unmarried man), frauxl-o. +sit = sid-i (239). +six = (adj.), ses (136). +sketch = skiz-i. +skill = lertec-o; trial of --, konkurs-o. +skin = (human), hauxt-o; (of animals), fel-o. +skirt = jup-o. +sky = cxiel-o. +slanting = oblikv-a, klin-a. +slate = (stone), ardez-o. +slaughter = bucx-i. +slave = sklav-o. +sleep = dorm-i; lull to --, lul-i. +sleeve = manik-o. +slide = glit-i. +slime = sxlim-o. +slipper = pantofl-o. +sly = ruz-a. +smear = sxmir-i. +smell = (trans.), flar-i; (intrans.), odor-i. +smile = ridet-i. +smoke = fum-i. +smooth = glat-a; (polished), polurit-a. +sneeze = tern-i. +snow = negx-i. +so = (conj.), do; (adv.), (thus), tiel (88, 156); + (therefore), tial (78); -- much, tiom (104, 164). +society = societ-o. +Socrates = Sokrat-o. +sofa = kanap-o. +soft = mol-a. +soil = ter-o; soiled, malpur-a. +soldier = soldat-o; (professional), militist-o. +sole = sol-a; (of foot), pland-o; (of shoe), ledpland-o. +solemn = solen-a. +some = kelk-a, kelk-e, iom (217); --one, --how, etc., see table, 235. +son = fil-o. +soon = (adv.), baldaux. +sorcerer = sorcxist-o. +sort = spec-o, klas-o; (put in order), ordig-i, enfakig-i. +soul = anim-o. +sound = (intrans.), son-i; (of bells), sonor-i; + (in good condition), bonstat-a. +soup = sup-o. +sour = acid-a, maldolcx-a. +south = sud-o. +sow = sem-i. +space = spac-o. +spacious = vast-a, grandspac-a, grandampleks-a. +Spaniard = hispan-o. +spare = (save), sxpar-i; (pardon), pardon-i. +sparrow = paser-o. +speak = parol-i (77). +spear = lanc-o. +special = special-a, apart-a. +specialty = fak-o. +species = spec-o. +specimen = specimen-o, model-o. +spectre = fantom-o. +speed = rapid-o, rapidec-o. +spell = silab-i; (witchcraft), sorcxajx-o. +spend = (money), elspez-i; (time), pasig-i. +speso = spes-o (285). +spider = arane-o. +spin = sxpin-i. +spinach = spinac-o. +spite = malic-o; in -- of, (prep.), malgraux, spite. +splash = (trans.), plauxd-i. +splendor = pomp-o, bril-o, belegec-o. +split = (trans.), fend-i. +spoil = (trans.), difekt-i. +spoke = (of wheel), radi-o. +spoon = kuler-o. +spot = makul-i. +spout = (liquids), sxpruc-i. +spring = (season), printemp-o; (of water), font-o. +sprite = kobold-o, fe-o. +spruce = (tree), pice-o. +spurt = (of liquids), sxpruc-i. +spy = spion-o; (catch sight of), ekvid-i; --glass, lorn-o. +square = kvadrat-o; (public), plac-o. +stain = makul-i. +stair = (staircase), sxtupar-o. +stag = cerv-o. +stake = (of palisade), palis-o. +stamp = (officially), stamp-i; (with foot), piedfrap-i; + postage --, posxtmark-o. +stand = star-i (239); (endure), sufer-i, elport-i. +standard = (model), model-o; (flag), standard-o. +star = stel-o; (any heavenly body), astr-o. +starch = amel-o. +state = (condition), stat-o; (political), sxtat-o; + (governed body), regn-o. +station = (state), stat-o; (railway, etc.), staci-o, stacidom-o. +stay = rest-i. +steady = firm-a, konstant-a, nemovebl-a. +steal = sxtel-i, rab-i (252). +steam = vapor-o. +steel = sxtal-o. +steep = krut-a. +step = pasx-i; (of stairs), sxtup-o. +stern = sever-a. +stew = (trans.), stuf-i. +stick = baston-o; (adhere), algluigx-i. +still = (silent), silent-a; (adv.), ankoraux; jam; (conj.), tamen. +stimulate = stimul-i, incit-i. +sting = pik-i. +stipulate = kondicx-o. +stocking = sxtrump-o. +stomach = stomak-o. +stone = sxton-o. +stoop = klinigx-i; (entrance porch), peron-o. +stop = (intrans.), halt-i; (leave off), cxes-i; -- up, sxtop-i. +stopper = sxtopil-o. +store = (shop), butik-o; (warehouse), magazen-o, konservej-o, tenej-o. +story = (tale), fabel-o, rakont-o; (of house), etagx-o. +stove = forn-o. +straight = rekt-a. +strange = strang-a, kurioz-a; (foreign), fremd-a. +strap = rimen-o. +straw = pajl-o. +strawberry = frag-o. +streak = stri-o; make a --, strek-i. +street = strat-o; -- arab, bub-o. +street-car = tramveturil-o; -- line, tramvoj-o. +stress = akcent-o; (force), fort-o. +stretch = (trans.), etend-i; (forcibly), strecx-i. +string = sxnur-o; (shoelace), lacx-o; -- bean, fazeol-o. +strike = frap-i, bat-i; (of laborers), strik-o; -- out, trastrek-i. +strip = (of paper, cloth, etc.), banderol-o; -- off, senig-i. +stripe = stri-o. +strive = pen-i. +strong = fort-a. +struggle = barakt-i. +student = student-o; (person studying), studant-o. +study = stud-i. +stuff = sxtof-o; (furniture, etc.), rembur-i. +stump = stump-o. +style = stil-o, mod-o, fason-o. +subject = (theme), tem-o; (grammatical), subjekt-o; (ruled), regat-o. +subscribe = subskrib-i; (to magazine, etc.), abon-i. +substance = substanc-o. +succeed = sukces-i; (fare well), prosper-i; (follow), sekv-i, postven-i. +succulent = suk-a, sukplen-a. +such = tia (65); (adv.), tiel (88). +sudden = subit-a, neatendit-a. +suffer = sufer-i, toler-i; (permit), permes-i. +suffice = suficx-i. +suffix = sufiks-o. +suffocate = (trans.), sufok-i. +sugar = suker-o. +suggest = sugesti-i, propon-i. +suit = (of clothes), vest-oj, komplet-o; (at law), proces-o. +suitable = konven-a, konform-a, tauxg-a, dec-a. +suite = (of rooms), apartament-o. +sulphur = sulfur-o. +sum = sum-o; (total), tut-o. +summarize = resum-i. +summer = somer-o; --house, lauxb-o. +summit = pint-o, supr-o. +sun = sun-o. +Sunday = dimancx-o. +superior = super-a; (person), superul-o. +superstition = supersticx-o. +supply = liver-i, proviz-i. +suppose = supoz-i; opini-i. +sure = cert-a. +surface = suprajx-o. +surprise = surpriz-i. +suspect = suspekt-i. +suspend = pendig-i. +suspenders = sxelk-o. +swallow = glut-i; (bird), hirund-o. +swamp = marcx-o. +swan = cign-o. +swear = jxur-i. +Swede = sved-o. +sweep = (floors, etc.), bala-i. +sweet = dolcx-a; --potato, batat-o. +sweetmeat = bombon-o, sukerajx-o, konfitajx-o; be fond of --, frand-i. +swim = nagx-i. +swine = pork-o. +swing = (trans.), sving-i; (balance), balanc-i (279). +Swiss = svis-o. +swoon = sven-i. +sword = glav-o. +syllable = silab-o. +Syracuse = Sirakuz-o. + + T. + +table = (furniture), tabl-o; (tabulation), tabel-o. +tail = vost-o. +tailor = tajlor-o. +take = pren-i; (magazines, etc.), abon-i; -- in (money), enspez-i; + -- place, okaz-i; -- note of, observ-i, rimark-i; -- oath, jxur-i; + -- steps toward accomplishing, klopod-i; -- pleasure in, gxu-i; + -- the attention of, distr-i. +tale = fabel-o. +talent = talent-o. +tall = alt-a, altkresk-a, grand-a. +talon = ungeg-o. +tap = (rap), frapet-i; (faucet), kran-o. +tariff = tarif-o. +task = task-o. +taste = gust-o, gustum-i. +tax = impost-o. +tea = te-o; -- caddy, teuj-o (181); --pot, tekrucx-o. +teach = instru-i. +tear = sxir-i; (of the eye), larm-o. +tease = turmentet-i, cxagren-i. +tedious = ted-a, enuig-a, lacig-a. +telegraph = telegraf-i. +telephone = telefon-i. +telescope = teleskop-o. +tell = dir-i, rakont-i (77); -- lies, mensog-i. +temper = humor-o; lose the --, koler-i. +temple = (of the head), tempi-o; (building), templ-o. +tempt = tent-i. +ten = (adj.), dek (136). +tender = delikat-a, mol-a, kares-a. +tenor = (voice), tenor-o; (course), dauxr-o. +tent = tend-o. +term = (word), termin-o; (condition), kondicx-o; (time), templim-o. +terrace = teras-o. +territory = teritori-o. +terror = terur-o. +test = prov-i, ekzamen-i. +texture = kvalit-o; (thing woven), teksajx-o. +than = (conj.), ol (82, 97, 98). +thank = dank-i (265). +that = (conj.), ke (53, 83, 105, 259, 262); (pronoun), tiu (56); + tio (233, 234); -- kind, tia (65); (adv.), tiel (88, 156); + -- way, tiamanier-e, tiel (88); -- much, tiel mult-e, tiom + (104, 164); (when) (adv.), kiam (155). +thaw = (intrans.), degel-i. +the = (article), la (11, 47, 201, 280, a); (adv.), ju, des (84). +theatre = teatr-o. +theme = tem-o. +then = (conj.), do; (adv.), tiam (73); (afterwards), post-e. +theory = teori-o. +there = (adv.), tie (68); (adv. calling attention), jen (228); + see also 51. +therefore = (adv.), tial (78); pro tio, sekv-e. +they = (pronoun), ili (32, 37, 42); (indefinite), oni (54). +thick = dik-a, dens-a. +thigh = femur-o. +thing = afer-o, objekt-o, ajx-o (227); any--, what --, etc., + see table, 235. +think = pens-i; (have the opinion), opini-i. +(be) thirsty = soif-i. +this = (pronoun), tio cxi (233, 234); + (pronoun and adj.), tiu cxi (60); all --, cxio cxi. See table, 235. +thong = rimen-o. +thorn = dorn-o. +thou = (pronoun), ci (40). +though = (conj.), kvankam; as --, kvazaux (250). +thousand = (adj.), mil (142). +thread = faden-o; -- a needle, enkudrilig-i fadenon. +threaten = minac-i. +three = (adj.), tri (136). +threshold = sojl-o. +thrifty = sxparem-a. +throat = gorgx-o. +throne = tron-o. +throng = amas-o, ar-o (126). +through = (prep.), tra (46, 160); (by means of), per (64); + (because of), pro (86), de (170). +throw = jxet-i. +thumb = dika fingr-o. +thunder = tondr-i. +Thursday = jxauxd-o. +thus = (adv.), tiel (88, 156), tiamanier-e. +ticket = bilet-o; -- window, gicxet-o. +tickle = tikl-i. +tie = lig-i; (shoes, etc.), lacx-i. +tiger = tigr-o. +tile = kahel-o; (brick), brik-o. +till = (money box), kas-o; (prep.), gxis (46, 89); + -- the soil, terkultur-i. +time = (in general), temp-o; (occasion), foj-o (127); + (epoch), epok-o; (of day), hor-o. +tin = (metal), stan-o; -- plate (sheet iron covered with tin), lad-o. +tinkle = tint-i. +tint = nuanc-o, kolor-o. +tire = (trans.), lacig-i, enuig-i; (pneumatic), pneuxmatik-o. +to = (prep.), al (46, 160, 251, 252); gxis (46, 89). +toad = buf-o. +toast = (bread), panrostajx-o; (sentiment), tost-o. +tobacco = tabak-o. +today = (adv.), hodiaux (93, 171). +toe = piedfingr-o. +toilet = tualet-o. +tolerate = toler-i, sufer-i. +tomato = tomat-o. +tomb = tomb-o. +tomorrow = (adv.), morgaux (93, 171). +tone = ton-o. +tongue = (of the body), lang-o; (of vehicle), timon-o; + (language), lingv-o. +too = (adv.), tro; (too much), tro multe, tro. +tool = il-o (63). +tooth = dent-o. +top = supr-o. +torment = turment-i. +total = tut-o. +touch = tusx-i; (feel with the fingers, etc.), palp-i; + sense of --, palpad-o; -- the heart of, kortusx-i. +toward = (prep.), al (46, 160, 251, 252). +tower = tur-o; -- above, superstar-i. +trace = sign-o, postsign-o. +trade = (occupation), meti-o; (commerce), komerc-o; + (exchange), intersxangx-i. +train = (of cars), vagonar-o; (of dress), trenajx-o. +tram = tram-o; --way, tramvoj-o; -- car, tramveturil-o. +tranquil = trankvil-a; kviet-a. +translate = traduk-i. +travel = vojagx-i; (by vehicle), vetur-i. +tray = plet-o. +treacherous = perfid-a. +treasure = trezor-o. +treasurer = kasist-o. +treasury = kas-o. +treat = (in speech or writing), trakt-i; (for illness), kurac-i; + (act towards), kondut-i kontraux; (regale), regal-i. +treatise = traktat-o. +tree = arb-o. +tremble = trem-i; (vacillate), sxanceligx-i. +trial = jugxa auxskultado, esplorad-o; (of skill), konkurs-o; + (affliction), malgxoj-o, sufer-o; (test), prov-o, ekzamen-o; + (attempt), prov-o. +trifle = bagatel-o. +triumph = triumf-o. +tropic = tropik-o. +trot = trot-i. +trousers = pantalon-o. +trunk = (chest with lid), kofr-o; (of tree), trunk-o. +trust = fid-i, konfid-i; (financial), trust-o. +truth = ver-o. +try = (legally), jugx-i; (strive), pen-i; (attempt, test), prov-i. +tub = kuv-o. +tube = tub-o. +tuber = tuber-o. +Tuesday = mard-o. +tumbler = (for drinking), glas-o; (juggler), jxonglist-o. +tune = ari-o, melodi-o. +Turk = turk-o. +turkey = meleagr-o. +turn = (trans.), turn-i; (in a series), vic-o. +turnip = nap-o. +turnstile = gicxet-o. +twilight = krepusk-o. +twist = (trans.), tord-i. +twitter = pep-i. +two = (adj.), du (136). +tyrant = tiran-o. + + U. + +umbrella = ombrel-o. +uncle = onkl-o. +unanimous = unuvocx-a, unuanim-a. +uncommon = kurioz-a, nekomun-a. +unconcerned = indiferent-a; nezorgem-a. +under = (prep.), sub (121, 160). +underline = substrek-i. +understand = kompren-i. +undertake = entrepren-i; -- initiative work, klopod-i. +undeviating = rekt-a. +unfailing = (adv.), nepr-e, cert-e. +unimportant = indiferent-a, negrav-a. +union = unuig-o, unuigx-o, kunig-o, kunigx-o. +universe = univers-o. +university = universitat-o. +until = (prep.), gxis (89) +up = (adv.), supre, supren (121); -- to, gxis (46). +upholster = rembur-i. +upper = supr-a. +upon = (prep.), sur (160). +upright = just-a; (vertical), vertikal-a. +urge = urgx-i, insiste pet-i. +upset = (trans.), renvers-i. +utmost = ekstrem-a, ebl-o (161, see also 162). + + V. + +(be) vacant = vak-i, esti neokupata. +vacillate = sxanceligx-i. +vagabond = vagist-o. +vain = (futile), van-a; senutil-a, senfrukt-a; + (proud), vant-a, fier-a; in --, vane. +valise = valiz-o. +valley = val-o. +value = (appraise), taks-i; (like), sxat-i; have the -- of, valor-i. +vanquish = venk-i. +vapor = vapor-o. +varied = divers-a, malsimil-a. +vase = vaz-o. +vast = vast-a, grand-a. +vaunt = fanfaron-i, vantparol-i. +veal = bovidajx-o (207, c). +vegetable = (edible), legom-o; (plant growth), vegetajx-o, + kreskajx-o (227, a). +vegetarian = vegetar-a. +vegetate = veget-i. +veil = vual-o. +vein = vejn-o. +velvet = velur-o. +veranda = verand-o. +verify = konstat-i, kontrol-i. +vermicelli = vermicxel-o. +verse = vers-o; (poesy), poezi-o. +vertical = vertikal-a. +very (very much) = (adv.), tre, tre multe; (adj.), sam-a, + ident-a, (intensive) mem (219). +vex = cxagren-i. +vibrate = (intrans.), vibr-i. +vice = (wickedness), malvirt-o; (prefix), vic-. +vie = konkur-i. +village = vilagx-o. +vindication = apologi-o. +vinegar = vinagr-o. +violet = viol-o. +violin = violon-o. +virtue = virt-o. +visage = vizagx-o. +visit = vizit-i. +vivid = hel-a. +voice = vocx-o. +volume = (book), volum-o; (of a body), volumen-o. +vote = vocxdon-i, balot-i. +vowel = vokal-o. +voyage = vojagx-i. + + W. + +wade = vad-i. +waffle = vafl-o. +wager = vet-i. +wages = salajr-o. +wait = (wait for), atend-i; -- on, serv-i. +waiter = (in restaurant, etc.), kelner-o. +waist = tali-o; --coat, vesxt-o +wake = (trans.), vek-i. +walk = marsx-i; (for pleasure), promen-i; (of park, etc.), ale-o; + side--, trotuar-o. +wall = mur-o. +waltz = vals-i. +wander = vag-i. +want = (need), bezon-i; (desire), dezir-i, vol-i; + (be lacking), mank-i; (extremity), mizereg-o. +war = milit-i. +wardrobe = (garments), vestar-o; (furniture), sxrank-o, vestosxrank-o. +warehouse = magazen-o. +warm = varm-a; make --, varmig-i, hejt-i. +warn = avert-i; (give notice), aviz-i, antauxsciig-i. +wash = lav-i. +waste = (prodigality), malsxpar-o; (refuse), forjxetajx-o; + (desert), dezert-o. +watch = (look at), rigardad-i; (timepiece), posxhorlogx-o; + -- over, gard-i. +water = akv-o; -- color, akvarel-o; --fall, kaskad-o. +wave = ond-o; (flutter, brandish), flirt-i, sving-i. +wax = vaks-o. +way = (manner), manier-o; (custom), kutim-o; (method), metod-o; + (means), rimed-o; (road), voj-o; -- in, enirejo; + this --, any--, etc., see table, 235. +we = (pronoun), ni (32, 37). +wear = port-i; -- out, eluz-i. +(be) wearied = enu-i. +weather = veter-o; --cock, ventoflag-o. +weave = teks-i; (plait), plekt-i. +Wednesday = merkred-o. +week = semajn-o. +weep = plor-i. +weigh = (trans.), pes-i; (intrans.), (be heavy), pez-i; + (meditate upon), pripens-i (264, c). +welcome = bonven-i; bone akcept-i; you are --, ("no thanks needed"), + estas nenio, volonte farite. +well = (healthy), san-a; (for water), put-o; (adv.), bon-e; + (interjection), nu (273), bon-e; -- informed, kler-a; + -- nigh (adv.), preskaux. +west = okcident-o. +wet = malsekig-i, tremp-i. +whale = balen-o. +what = (pronoun), kio (233, 234); (pronominal adj.), kiu (106, 146); + -- kind, -- way, -- time, etc., see table, 235. +wheat = tritik-o. +wheel = rad-o. +when = (adv.), kiam (125, 155); (while), dum (96). +where = (adv.), kie (118, 151); --fore, kial (129), tial (78). +whether = (conj.), cxu (30, 66, a). +which = (pronoun), kio (233, 234); (pronoun and adj.), kiu (106, 146); + -- way, -- kind, etc. see table, 235. +while = (prep.), dum (120, 159); (conj.), dum (96); + (concessive), kvankam; a --, iom da tempo. +whip = vip-i. +whistle = fajf-i; (hiss), sibl-i. +white = blank-a; whitish, dubeblank-a. +who = (pronoun), kiu (106, 143); whose, kies (107, 147). +whole = (entire), tut-a. +why = (adv.), kial (129), pro kio. +wicket = gicxet-o. +wide = largx-a; make --, plilargxig-i, etend-i. +widow = vidvin-o; widower, vidv-o. +wig = peruk-o. +wild = sovagx-a. +(be) willing = vol-i. +willingly = volont-e. +wilt = velk-i. +wind = vent-o, survolv-i; (twist), tord-i; (a watch), strecx-i. +winding = tord-a. +window = fenestr-o; ticket --, gicxet-o. +wine = vin-o. +winter = vintr-o. +wipe = visx-i. +wise = sagx-a. +wish = vol-i, dezir-i. +witch = sorcxistin-o; --craft, sorcx-o. +with = (prep.), kun (70, 76, 120, 159, 160); (by means of), per (64); + (agent of the passive), de (169); je (260); + -- regard to, rilate (266); --draw, elir-i, forir-i; + (= having), havante (222). +wither = velk-i. +without = (prep.), sen (248). +(give) witness = atest-i. +witty = sprit-a. +woe = malgxoj-o; (interjection), ve (273). +wolf = lup-o. +wonder = mir-i. +woo = amindum-i. +wood = lign-o. +wool = lan-o. +word = vort-o; (spoken), parol-o. +work = labor-i; (of machinery), funkci-i; + (literary composition), verk-o. +world = mond-o. +worm = verm-o. +worship = ador-i; (divine service), Diserv-o. +(be) worth = valor-i. +worthy = ind-a (154). +wound = vund-i. +wreath = girland-o. +wrestle = barakt-i. +wretch = fripon-o, kanajl-o; --ed, mizer-a, acx-a (272). +wrinkle = sulket-o, faldet-o. +write = skrib-i; (books, articles, music), verk-i. +wrong = malprav-a, erar-a, maljust-a. + + Y. + +yawn = osced-i; (open), fendigx-i. +year = jar-o. +yearn = sopir-i; dezireg-i. +yellow = flav-a; --ish, dubeflav-a. +yes = (adv.), jes (171). +yesterday = (adv.), hieraux (93, 171); day before --, antaux-hieraux. +yet = (adv.), ankoraux; jam; (conj.), tamen. +yoke = jug-o. +you = (pronoun), vi (32, 37, 39); see also oni (54). +young = jun-a; (offspring), id-o (207). + + Z. + +zeal = fervor-o. +zenith = zenit-o. +zero = nul-o. +zigzag = zigzag-o. +zinc = zink-o. +zone = zon-o. +zoology = zoologi-o. + + + + INDEX. + +The references are to sections, unless the page (p.) is given. The +following abbreviations are used: ace. = accusative; adj. = adjective; +adv. = adverb; expr. = expressed; ftn. = footnote; inf. = infinitive; +intrans. = intransitive; prep. = preposition; trans. = transitive. For +Esperanto words whose use or meaning is specially explained, references +are given in the Vocabulary. + + A. + +Abbreviations, 286; of ordinals, p. 107, ftn. +Abstract nouns, 202. +Accent, 8; of elided word, 280, b. +Accompaniment, 70; distinguished from instrumentality and opposition, + p. 49, ftn. +Accordance, expr. by "laux", 191. +Active voice, participles of, 108, 119, 152; tenses of, see Tenses; + synopsis of, 267. +Accusative, ending, 23; of adj., 24; of pronoun, 37; of adv., 69, 121; + of direction, 46, 108; of measure, 139; of time, 91; distinguished + from temporal adv., 94; with temporal adv., 93; when avoided, 92; + after adv., 266; with intrans. verb, 264; with nouns expressing + motion, 263; in composition, p. 132, ftn.; instead of prepositional + phrase, 265, 266; not used after prep., 36, ("al, gxis, tra") 46, + ("preter") p. 139, ftn.; not used with article, 25; not used with + predicates, 25, 210; "cognate," see acc. with intrans. verbs, 264, + a. +Adjectives, defined, 12; ending of, 12; formation of, 116, (from adv.) + 171, (from prep.) 159; attributive, 13; acc. of, 24; plural of, + 17; agreement, (with nouns) 17, 21, 24, (with pronouns) 33, (with + words connected by "nek") 31; comparison of, 74; possessive, 43, + (pronominal use of) 45; predicate, 19, (after trans, verbs) 210; + use of, distinguished from adv. with "da", 103; demonstrative, 65; + distributive, 177; indefinite, 208; interrogative, 112; negative, + 224; reflexive possessive, 44; relative, 150; causative verbs from + roots of, 214, a; intrans. verbs from roots of, 232, c; cardinal, + 136; ordinal, 149. +Adverbs, defined, 66; primary, 66; derived, 79; (from prep.) 120; + demonstrative, ("tie") 68, ("tiam") 73, ("tial") 78, ("tiel") 88, + ("tiom") 104; interrogative, ("kie") 118, ("kiam") 123, ("kial") + 129, ("kiel") 134, ("kiom") 140, ("cxu") 30, p. 38, ftn.; relative, + ("kie") 151, ("kiam") 155, ("kiel") 156, p. 170, ftn., ("kiom") 164; + distributive, ("cxie") 182, ("cxiam") iS7, ("cxial") 188, ("cxiel") + 193, ("cxiom") 194; indefinite, ("ie") 209, ("iam") 212, ("ial") + 213, ("iel") 216, ("iom") 217; negative, ("nenie") 225, ("neniam") + 226, ("nenial") 229, ("neniel") 230, ("neniom") 231, ("ne") 27, + 66, a; generalizing, ("ajn") 236; numeral, 158; position of, 66, + a; expressing direction of motion, 69, 121; with expressions of + time, 93; distinguishing from acc. of time, 94; with acc., 266; with + prep., 87; calling attention, ("jen") 228; causative verbs from, + 214, c; intrans. verbs from, 232, d; as interjections, p. 216, ftn.; + derivation of words from primary, 171. +Adverbial clauses, p. 168, ftn.; participle, 222, (translating + "without") p. 193, ftn. +Adversative conjunctions, p. 32, ftn. +Advice, expression of, 257, 259. +Affectionate diminutives, 283 (also 198, and ftn., p. 221). +Affirmation, 66. +Affixes, see Prefixes, Suffixes. +Agency, expr. by "de", 169. +Agreement, of attributive adj., 17, (with acc.) 24; of predicate noun + and adj., 21; of adj. with two or more nouns, 17; of adj. with words + connected by "nek", 31; of adj. with pronouns, 33; of participle, + 108; of nouns in apposition, 48. +Alphabet, I. +Anticipation, expr. by clause, 97; by inf. with prep., 98. +Aoristic tenses, explained, p. 78, ftn.; conjugation of, (present) 14, + (past) 35, (future) 55, (conditional) 241, (imperative), 254. +Apposition, 48. +Argumentative conjunction, p. 32, ftn. +Article, definite, 11; invariable, 18, 25; for possessive adj., 47; + with possessive adj., 45; generic, 201, 218, b, elision of, 280, a; + no indefinite, II. +Assumption, defined, 240; implied, 244. +Augmentatives, 122. +Auxiliary verbs, 109. + + C. + +Cardinal numerals, 136; formation of, 142. +Case, see Accusative, Dative, Nominative, Possessive. +Causative verbs, 214. +Cause, expr. by clause, 83; by "pro", 86; by "ke", p. 222, ftn. +Characteristic, expr. by "kun", 76; by adverbial participle, 222. + Clauses, defined, p. 34, ftn.; adverbial, p. 168, ftn.; causal, + 83; of anticipation, 97; of duration of time, 96; of imaginative + comparison, 250; of purpose, 262; of result, 105; subordinate + imperative, 259. +"Cognate acc.," see acc. with intrans. verbs, 264. +Collective nouns, 126. +Collective sense given by use of "da", 103. +Commands, expression of, 256; in subordinate clause, 259. +Complement of prep., 36. +Complementary inf., 29. +Comparison, of adj., 74; of adv., 79; of words expressing quantity, 81; + containing "ol", 82; "ju" and "des" in, 84. +Composition, see Compounds. +Compound tenses, explained, 109; of impersonal verbs, 179; conjugation + of, see Tenses. +Compounds, dependent, 176; descriptive, 167; possessive, 184. +Conclusion (of conditions) defined, 240; (of letters), + see Correspondence. +Concrete nouns, formation of, 227. +Conditional mood, 241; compound tenses of, 242; in contrary to fact + conditions, 246; in less vivid conditions, 243; independent use of, + 244; of "devi", 247; conditional sentences, see Conditions. +Conditions, defined, 240; contrary to fact, 246; factual, 240; less + vivid, 243; vivid, p. 189, ftn.; summary of, 249. +Conjugation, 34; synopsis of, 267; of tenses, see Tenses. +Conjunctions, defined, 52; coordinating, 52; subordinating, 53, (not + omitted) p. 34, ftn.; "aux", p. 32, ftn.; "kaj", 26, p. 32, ftn.; + "ke", (in indirect statements), 53, (in causal clauses) 83, p. + 222, ftn.; (in result clause) 105, (in purpose clause) 262, (in + subordinate imperative clause) 259; "kvazaux", 250; "nek", 31, p. 32, + ftn.; "se", 240; "sed", p. 32, ftn.; "tamen", p. 32, ftn.; "do", p. + 32, ftn.; see p. 110, ftn. +Connection, expr. by "de", 49; indefinite, expr. by "je", 260. +Consent, expression of, 257, (in subordinate clauses) 259. +Consonants, combinations of, 6; pronunciation of, 3, names of, 4. +Contrary to fact conditions, 246. +Coordinating conjunctions, 52. +Copulative conjunctions, p. 32, ftn. +Correlative words, 235. +Correspondence, 278. + + D. + +Dates, expr. by acc., 91; expr. by "antaux", 90; expr. by prep., 89; + on letters, see Correspondence, 278. +"Dative," ethical, of reference, of separation, p. 197, ftn. +Definite quantity, nouns of, followed by "de", 100. +Degree, advs. of, 66, ("tiel") 88, ("kiel") 134, 156; highest + possible, 162; see also Comparison. +Deliberation, expression of, 257, (in subordinative clause) 259. +Demonstrative, pronoun, ("tiu") 56, ("cxi tiu") 60, ("tio, cxi tio") + 233; adjective, 65; adv., see Adverbs. +Dependent compounds, 176. +Derivation, of adv., 79, (from prep.) 120; of words from prep., 159; of + words from primary adv., 171. +Descriptive compounds, 167. +Diminutives, 198; affectionate, 283. +Diphthongs, 5. +Direct object, defined, 23; inf. as, see Complementary inf., 29; clause + as, 53, 259; of complementary inf., 29; of participle, 108; of prep., + see Complement, 36. +Direction, expr. by acc. (of noun) 46, 263, (of adv.) 121. +Disjunctive conjunctions, p. 32, ftn. +Distributive, prep., see "po", 175; pronoun, ("cxiu") 173, ("cxio") 233; + adj., 177; adv., see Adverbs. +Double letters, 6, e. + + E. + +Elision, 280. +Emphasis, by "ecx", 66; by "ja", 215. +Emphatic negation, 27. +Ending, of acc., 23; of adj., 12; of adv., 79; of noun, 10; of plural, + 16; of inf., 28; of indicative, 14, 35, 55; of conditional, 241, of + imperative, 254; of participle, see Participles. +"Ethical dative," p. 197, ftn. +Exclamations, 115; use of "je" in, 260. +Exhortation, 255. +Expedience, expressions of, 259. + + F. + +Factual conditions, 240. +Feminine nouns, formation of, 59. +Formation, of words, 116; of opposites, 67, of feminines, 59; with + "-ig-" and "-igx-", 239; from primary words, 159, 171. +Fractions, 166. +Frequentative verbs, 218, a. +Future participle, (active) 152, (passive) 199. +Future tense, 55, (progressive) 114, (passive) 183, periphrastic, 153, + 200. +Future perfect tense, 148, (passive) 196. + + G. + +Generic article, 201. 218, b. +Generalizing adv. "ajn", 236. + + H. + +Highest degree possible, 162. + + I. + +Imaginative comparison, 250. +Imperative mood, 254; in commands and prohibitions, 256; in resolve and + exhortation, 255, in subordinate clauses, 259;. less peremptory uses + of, 257; to express purpose, 262. +Imperfect tense, 113, (passive) 178. +Impersonal verbs, 50, compound tenses of, 179; modifiers of, 141. +Impersonally used verbs, explained, 141; modifiers of, 141. +Inchoative verbs, 232, a. +Indefinite connection, expr. by "je", 260. +Indefinite, pronoun, ("iu") 203, ("io") 233; (personal) 54; adj., 208; + advs., see Adverbs; prep., 260; suffix, 268; quantity, expressions + of, with "da", 99, 101. +Independent use of conditional mood, 244. +Indicative mood, defined, 241; tenses of, see Synopsis, 267. +"Indirect object," see "al". +Indirect quotation, tenses in, 58; statements in, 53; questions in, + p. 38, ftn.; p. 170, ftn. +Infinitive, defined, 28, 241; ending of, 28; complementary, 29; as + subject, 29; modifiers of, 130; synopsis of, 267; with prep., 98; + replaced by noun, 218, b. +Instruction, (orders), requests for, 257, 259. +Instrumentality, expr. by "per", 64; distinguished from accompaniment, + p. 49, ftn. +Instruments, formation of names of, 63. +Intensive pronoun, "mem", 219. +Intention, expr. by clause, 259. +Interjections, 273. +International money system, 285; weights and measures, 284. +Interrogation, 30, 66, a. +Interrogative, pronoun, ("kiu") 106, (kio) 233; adj., 112; advs., + see Adverbs. +Intransitive verbs, defined, 22; no passive, p. 122, ftn.; from adj. + roots, 232, c; from noun roots, advs., preps., suffixes, prefixes, + 232, d; from trans, verb roots, 232, b, (table of), 279. +Introductory particle, not needed, 50, 51. +Invariability, of article, 18; of "mem", 219; of verb, 18; of + cardinals, 136. +Inversion, not needed in questions, 30. + + L. + +Less peremptory uses of imperative, 257. +Less vivid conditions, 243. +Letters, names of, 4; double, pronunciation of, 6, e; see also + Correspondence, 278. +Limitation of third personal pronoun, 42. + + M. + +Manner, expr. by "kun", 76; expr. by. "per", p. 53, ftn.; by + adverbial participle, 222; advs. of, see Adverbs. +Material, expression of, 197. +Means, expression of, 64. +Measure, ace. of, 139; expr. by "je", 260. +Measures, weights and, 284. +Metric system, 284. +Modifiers of impersonally used verbs, 141. +Money system, The international, 285. +Mood, defined, 241; inf., see Infinitive; conditional, 241; imperative, + 254; indicative, see 267; in conditions, see Conditions. +Moral obligation, 247. +Motive or reason, advs. of, see Adverbs; expr. by clause, 83; expr. by + prep., 86. + + N. + +Names, of letters, 4; orthography of proper, 128. +Necessity, expression of, 259. +Negative, pronoun, ("neniu") 220; ("nenio") 233; adj., 224; + advs., see Adverbs; conjunction, 31. +"Nominative absolute," how rendered, p. 169, ftn. +Nominative case, ending of, (for nouns) 10, (for adj.) 12; of predicate + noun and adj., 25, 210; with prep., 36, ("al", "gxis", "tra") 46. +Noun, defined, 10, ending of, 10, plural of, 16; acc. of, 23; elision + of, 280, b; feminine, 59; numeral, 157; participial, 205; predicate, + 20, 211; possessive case of, 49; expressing motion, followed by + acc., 263; expressing quantity, followed by "da", 99, by "de", 100; + replacing inf., 218, b; replacing participial phrase, p. 193, ftn.; + from adv., 171; from prep., 159. +Noun roots, causative verbs from, 214, c; intrans. verbs from, 232, d. +Number, see Plural. +Numeral nouns, 157; advs., 158. +Numerals, cardinal, 136; formation of, 142; fractional, 166; ordinal, + 149; abbreviation of, p. 107, ftn.; followed by "el", 138. + + O. + +Object, see Direct object, Indirect object, Complement. +Obligation, 247, (moral) 247. +Opposites, formation of, 67; of "pli" and "plej", 80. +Opposition, distinguished from accompaniment, p. 49, ftn. +Order, of word endings, p. 10, ftn.; see also Position. +Ordinal numerals, 149; advs., 158; abbreviation of, p. 107, ftn. +Orthography, of proper nouns, 128. + + P. + +Part of the whole, expression of, (after noun) 99, (after adv.) 101. +Participial nouns, 205; advs., 222. +Participle, defined, 108; agreement of, 108; adverbial, 222, + (translating "without") p. 193, ftn.; present, 108, (passive) 165; + past, 119, (passive) 189; future, 152, (passive) 199. +Particle, introductory, not needed, 50, 51. +Partitive construction, p. 74, ftn. +Passive voice, agent of, 169; participles of, see Participles; tenses + of, see Tenses; of "-ig-" formations, 239; distinguished from + "-igx-" formations, 232, b. +Past tense, 35, (passive) see Imperfect; past participle, see + Participles. +Past periphrastic future, 153, (passive) 200. +Past inception, present action with, 131. +Peremptory commands and prohibitions, 256, 259. +Perfect tense, 124, (passive) 190; perfect participle, see Past + participle. +Periphrastic futures, 153, (passive) 200. +Permission, expression of, 269. +Perplexity, expression of, 257, 259. +Personal pronouns, 32; acc. of, 37; indefinite, 54; reflexive, 39, 40; + limitation of third personal, 42; position of unemphatic, 274. +Place, expr. by "cxe", 125; advs. of, see Adverbs; expr. by "-ej-", + III; 128. +Pluperfect tense, 135, (passive), 195. +Plural, of nouns, 16; of pronouns, 56, 106, 203, 173, 220; of adj., 16; + of "unu", 137; none of article, 18; none of pronouns ending in "-o", + 233. +Position, of attributive adj., 13; of adv., 66, a; of emphatic negative, + 27; of unemphatic pronoun, 274; of interrogative adv., 30. +Possession, expr. by "de", 49. +Possessive, adjective, 43; reflexive, 44; article for, 47; ftn., p. 221. +Possessive case of nouns, 49; of pronouns, ("ties") 62, ("kies") 107, + 147, ("cxies") 174, ("ies") 204, ("nenies") 221; see also Possessive + adjective, 43. +Possessive compounds, 184. +"Possessive pronouns," p. 24, ftn. +Possibility, expression of, 270. +Predicate, adj., 19, agreement of, 21; after trans, verbs, 210; noun, + 20; agreement of, 21; after trans. verb, 211; clause as, 259. +Prefixes, causative verbs from, 214, c; intrans. verbs from, 232, d; + prep. as, 160, 248; adverb as, 71, 167, a, interjection as, p. 216, + ftn.; "bo-", 277; "dis-", 245; "duon-", 277; "ek-", 206; "eks-", 281; + "ge-", 271; "mal-", 67; "pra-", 282; "re-", 223. +Prepositions, defined, 36; with inf., 98; with adv., 87; with other + preps., 87; case use with, 36, 46; expressing time relations, 89; as + prefixes, 160; word derivation from, 159; advs. from, 120; causative + verbs from, 214, c; intrans. verbs from, 232, d; making intrans. + verbs trans., 264, b, c; see also references in Vocabulary. +Prepositional phrase, acc. instead of, 265, 266. +Present action with past inception, 131. +Present periphrastic future, 153, (passive) 200. +Present participle, 108, (passive) 165. +Present tense, 14, (progressive) 110, (passive) 168. +Primary adverbs, defined, 66; derivation of words from, 171. +Probability, expression of, 270. +Progressive tenses, present, 110, future, 114; passive, 200. +Prohibition, expression of, 256, 259. +Pronominal adjective, possessive adj. as, 45; pronoun as, ("tiu") + 57, 60, ("kiu") 106, 146, ("cxiu") 173, ("iu") 203, ("neniu") 220, + ("ambaux") 238. +Pronouns, defined, 32; agreement with, 33; personal, 32; indefinite + personal, 54; reflexive, 38, 39, 40, (in composition) p. 132, ftn.; + possessive, p. 24, ftn.; possessive form of, see Possessive case; + limitation of third personal, 42; position of unemphatic, 274; + correlation of predicative or relative, 234; followed by "el", + 173, p. 115, ftn.; series in "-o", 233; demonstrative, 56, 60, + 233; distributive, 173, 233; indefinite, 203, 233; interrogative, + 106, 233; negative, 220, 233; relative, 146; 233; summary, 235; + "ambaux", 238; intensive, 219. +Proper nouns, orthography of, 128. +Protestations, use of "je" in, 260. +Proximity, expr. by "cxi", 60, 66, p. 229, ftn. +Purpose, expr. by inf., 98; by imperative, 262; by prep., 95. + + Q. + +Quantity, construction with nouns expressing, 99, 100; construction with + advs. expressing, 101; advs. of, ("tiom") 104, ("kiom") 140, 164, + ("cxiom") 194, ("iom") 217, ("neniom") 231; comparison of advs. + expressing, 81. +Questions, 30; indirect, p. 38, ftn., p. 170, ftn.; of deliberation, + perplexity, or for instructions, 257, 259. +Quotations, indirect, 53, 58. + + R. + +Reciprocal expressions, 180. +Reference, expr. by "al", 251. +Reflexive pronouns, of first and second persons, 39; of third person, + 40; with substantival inf., 130. +Reflexive possessive adjective, 44. +Reflexive verbs, 41; distinguished from verbs in "-igx-", 232, b. +Relative pronoun, ("kiu") 146, ("kio") 233; not omitted, p. 106, ftn. +Relative adjective, 150; relative adverb, see Adverbs. +Relative clause, see 146, 233, (temporal) 155, (of manner) 156, + (quantitative) 164. +Request, expression of, 257, 259; for instructions, 257, 259. +Resolve, expression of, 255. +Result, clauses of, 105. +Root, defined, p. 42, ftn. +Route, expression of, 191. + + S. + +Salutations, 115. +Separation, expr. by "de", 170; expr. by "al", 252; by "for", 71; by + "dis-", 245. +Situation, expr. by "cxe", 125; by adverbial participle, 222. +Source, expr. by "de", 170. +Statements, indirect, 53; tenses in, 58. +Subject, defined, 15; preceded by verb, 51; inf. as, 130; clause as, + 141, 259; of adverbial participle, 222. +Subordinate clause, defined, 53; imperative in, 259, 262; conditional + in, see Conditions, 243, 246. +Subordinating conjunctions, "ke", 53, 105, 259 ("tial ke") 83, p. 222, + ftn.; ("por ke") 262; (not omitted) p. 34, ftn.; "se", 240; + "kvazaux", 250; "cxu", p. 38, ftn. +Substantive, defined, p. 71, ftn.; inf. as, 98, 130; clause as, 53, 259. +Substitution, expr. by prep., p. 63, ftn.; expr. by prep. with inf., 98; + of noun for inf., 218, b, p. 193, ftn. +Suffixes, causative verbs from, 214, c; intrans. verbs from, 232, d; + "-ad-", 218; "-acx-", 272; "-ajx-", 227; "-an-", 145; "-ar-", 126; + "-cxj-", 283; "-ebl-", 161; "-ec-", 202; "-eg-", 122; "-ej-", 111; + "-em-", 192; "-er-", 276; "-estr-", 253; "-et-", 198; "-id-" 207; + "-ig-", 214, 239, 275; "-igx-", 232, 239, 279; "-il-", 63; "-in-", + 59; "-ind-", 154; "-ing-", 237; "-ist-", 172, p. 154, ftn.; "-nj-", + 283; "-obl-", 186; "-on-", 166; "-op-", 261; "-uj-", 181; "-ul-", + 132; "-um-", 268. +Summary of conditions, 249. +Superlatives, (adj.) 74, (adv.) 79; followed by "el", 75. +Syllables, 7. +Synonyms, apparent, ("diri: paroli: rakonti") 77, ("koni: scii") 117, + ("tempo; fojo") 127, ("logxi: vivi") 133, ("antikva: maljuna: + malnova") p. 128, ftn., 67, ("cxiu: tuta") p. 130, ftn., + ("indiferenta: nezorga") p. 162, ftn., ("provi: peni: jugxi") p. 228, + ftn., ("gxuste: juste: jxus") p. 198, ftn., ("ankoraux: jam") p. 124, + ftn., p. 112, ftn., ("trovigxi: sin trovi: kusxi: sidi)" p. 217, ftn. +Synopsis of the verb, 267. +System, correlative, 235; metric, 284; of money, 285. + + T. + +Temporal clauses, 96, 155. +Temporal adverbs, 66, ("tiam") 73, ("kiam") 123, 155, ("cxiam") 187, + ("iam") 212, ("neniam") 226, ("jam") p. 124, ftn. ("ankoraux") p. + 112, ftn., ("jxus") p. 116, ftn. +Tenses, aoristic, p. 78, ftn.; compound, 109; (of impersonal verbs) 179; + in indirect quotations, 58; in conditions, 249; of inf., 267; + of conditional, 241, 242; of imperative, 254; present, 14, + (progressive) 110, (passive) 168, past, 35, (passive) 178; future, + 55, (progressive) 114; (passive) 183; imperfect, 113, (passive) + 178; perfect, 124, (passive) 190; pluperfect, 135, (passive) 195; + future perfect, 148, (passive) 190; periphrastic, 153, (passive) 200; + synopsis of all, 267. +Terminations, see Endings. +Terms of address, 163; affectionate, 283, p. 221, ftn. +Time, of day, 185; expr. by prep., 89; expr. by acc., 91; expr. by + clause, 96, 155; expr. by adverbial participle, 222; advs. of, see + Temporal adverbs. +Titles, 163; use of "mosxto", 258. +Transitive verbs, defined, 22; formed by "-ig-", 214; from intrans. + roots, 264, b, c; list of some, 275. + + U. + +Unemphatic words, position of, (negative) 27, (pronoun) 274. + + V. + +Verbal nouns in "-ad-", 218, b, p. 193, ftn. +Verbal roots, causative verbs from, 214, b. +Verbs, mood of, 241; invariable, 18; causative, 214; frequentative, + 218, a; inchoative, 232, a; impersonal, 50; reflexive, 41; trans., + defined, 22; trans, from intrans. roots, 275; intrans., defined, + 22; intrans. from trans. roots, 232, b, 279; from prep., 159; from + adv., 171; conjugation of, 34, (synopsis) 267, preceding the subject, + 51; as interjection, p. 216, ftn.; implied, (in comparisons) 82, + 156, 250; (in salutations) 115, (in exclamations) 115, 228; with + prepositional phrase containing "da", 102. +Vivid conditions, p. 189, ftn. +Vowels, pronunciation of, 2. + + W. + +Way, expression of, (manner) 76, (route) 191. +Weights and measures, 284. +Wish, expression of, 257, 259. +Words, correlative, 235; formation of, 116; from prepositions, 159; + from primary advs., 171; composition of, see Compounds; order of, + in question, 30; see also Position. + + + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Complete Grammar of Esperanto, by +Ivy Kellerman Reed + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO *** + +***** This file should be named 7787.txt or 7787.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/7/7/8/7787/ + +Produced by William W. 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Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + https://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. diff --git a/old/7787.zip b/old/7787.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..3c310f1 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/7787.zip diff --git a/old/esper10.txt b/old/esper10.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..3f62c69 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/esper10.txt @@ -0,0 +1,14967 @@ +Project Gutenberg's A Complete Grammar of Esperanto, by Ivy Kellerman + +Copyright laws are changing all over the world. Be sure to check the +copyright laws for your country before downloading or redistributing +this or any other Project Gutenberg eBook. + +This header should be the first thing seen when viewing this Project +Gutenberg file. Please do not remove it. Do not change or edit the +header without written permission. + +Please read the "legal small print," and other information about the +eBook and Project Gutenberg at the bottom of this file. Included is +important information about your specific rights and restrictions in +how the file may be used. You can also find out about how to make a +donation to Project Gutenberg, and how to get involved. + + +**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** + +**eBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** + +*****These eBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers!***** + + +Title: A Complete Grammar of Esperanto + +Author: Ivy Kellerman + +Release Date: March, 2005 [EBook #7787] +[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule] +[This file was first posted on May 25, 2003] +[Date last updated: November 13, 2004] + +Edition: 10 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO *** + + + + +Produced by William W. Patterson, Carlo Traverso, Charles Franks +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team. We thank the Case Western Reserve +University Library Preservation Department that has given us the image files +with which the present e-book has been prepared. + + + + + +TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE: + +The Esperanto alphabet contains 28 characters. These are the +characters of English, but with "q", "w", "x", and "y" removed, and +six diacritical letters added. The diacritical letters are "c", +"g", "h", "j" and "s" with circumflexes (or "hats", as Esperantists +fondly call them), and "u" with a breve. Zamenhof himself suggested +that where the diacritical letters caused difficulty, one could +instead use "ch", "gh", "hh", "jh", "sh" and "u". A plain ASCII +file is one such place; there are no ASCII codes for Esperanto's +special letters. + +However, there are two problems with Zamenhof's "h-method". There +is no difference between "u" and "u" with a breve, and there is no +way to determine (without prior knowledge of the word(s) involved, +and sometimes a bit of context) whether an "h" following one of +those other five letters is really the second half of a diacritical +pair, or just an "h" that happened to find itself next to one of +them. Consequently other, unambiguous, methods have been used over +the years. One is the "x-method", which uses the digraphs "cx", +"gx", "hx", "jx", "sx" and "ux" to represent the special letters. +There is no ambiguity because the letter "x" is not an Esperanto +letter, and each diacritical letter has a unique transliteration. +This is the method used in this Project Gutenberg e-text. + + + + + + + + + A COMPLETE + GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO + + THE INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE + + WITH + GRADED EXERCISES FOR READING AND TRANSLATION + TOGETHER WITH FULL VOCABULARIES + + BY + IVY KELLERMAN, A.M., Ph.D. + + MEMBER OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE AND CHAIRMAN OF EXAMINATIONS + FOR THE ESPERANTO ASSOCIATION OF NORTH AMERICA, MEMBER + OF THE INTERNATIONAL "LINGVA KOMITATO" + + + * * * * * + + + TO + + DR. L. L. ZAMENHOF + + THE AUTHOR OF + ESPERANTO + + + * * * * * + + + PREFACE. + +This volume has been prepared to meet a twofold need. An adequate +presentation of the International Language has become an imperative +necessity. Such presentation, including full and accurate grammatical +explanations, suitably graded reading lessons, and similarly graded +material for translation from English, has not heretofore been +accessible within the compass of a single volume, or in fact within the +compass of any two or three volumes. + +The combination of grammar and reader here offered is therefore +unique. It is to furnish not merely an introduction to Esperanto, or +a superficial acquaintance with it, but a genuine understanding of +the language and mastery of its use without recourse to additional +textbooks, readers, etc. In other words, this one volume affords +as complete a knowledge of Esperanto as several years' study of a +grammar and various readers will accomplish for any national language. +Inflection, word-formation and syntax are presented clearly and +concisely, yet with a degree of completeness and in a systematic order +that constitute a new feature. Other points worthy of note are the +following: + +The reasons for syntactical usages are given, instead of mere statements +that such usages exist. For example, clauses of purpose and of result +are really explained, instead of being dismissed with the unsatisfactory +remark that "the imperative follows 'por ke,'" or the "use of 'tiel ... +ke' and 'tia ... ke' must be distinguished from that of 'tiel ... kiel' +and 'tia ... kia,'" etc., with but little intimation of when and why +"por ke", "tiel ... ke" and "tia ... ke" are likely to occur. + +Affixes are not mentioned until some familiarity with the general +character of the language is assured, as well as the possession of +a fair vocabulary. They are introduced gradually, with adequate +explanation and illustration. Of importance in connection with +word-formation is an element distinctly new--the explanation and +classification of compound words. Such words, like affixes, are +withheld until the use of simple words is familiar. + +Another new feature is the gradual introduction of correlative words in +their logical order, and in their proper grammatical categories, before +they are called "correlatives," or tabulated. The tabulation finally +presented is a real classification, with regard to the meaning and +grammatical character of the words, not merely an arbitrary alphabetical +arrangement. The use of primary adverbs precedes the explanation of +adverb derivation; prepositions, especially "de", "da", "je", etc., +receive careful attention, also the verb system, and the differentiation +of words whose English equivalents are ambiguous. + +A general characteristic of obvious advantage is that almost without +exception new forms and constructions are illustrated by means of +words or roots already familiar. Likewise, the new words or roots of +each lesson recur at least once in the next lesson, and usually in +some lesson thereafter as well. Each reading exercise gives not only a +thorough application of the grammatical principles of the lesson, but a +review of those in the preceding lesson, and no use is made of words or +constructions not yet explained. The comparative ease of the language, +and the lack of necessity for reciting paradigms, permit the reading +exercises to be long enough for the student to feel that he has really +mastered something. These exercises are further unique, in that each +after the fifth is a coherent narrative, and nearly every one is a story +of genuine interest in itself. These stories, if bound separately, would +alone constitute a reader equivalent to those used in first and second +year work in national languages. (For list of titles, see Table of +Contents.) + +The second element of the twofold need which this volume meets is the +necessity for a presentation of Esperanto, not as a thing apart, but +in that form which will make it most serviceable as an introduction to +national tongues. A stepping-stone to both ancient and modern languages, +Esperanto may render invaluable aid, and pave the way for surmounting +the many difficulties confronting both student and teacher. Through +Esperanto, the labor in the acquirement of these languages may be +reduced in the same proportion in which the pleasure and thoroughness +of such acquirement are increased. For this reason, the grammatical +constructions of Esperanto are here explained as consistently as +possible in accordance with the usage of national languages, especially +those in the school curriculum, and precise names are assigned to them. +Such matters as "contrary to fact conditions", "indirect quotations", +"clauses of purpose" and "of result", "accusatives of time" and +"measure", "expressions of separation", "reference", etc., thus +become familiar to the student, long before he meets them in the more +difficult garb of a national tongue, whose exceptions seem to outnumber +its rules, and whose idioms prove more puzzling than its exceptions, +unless approached by the smooth and gradual ascent of the International +Language, Esperanto. + + Ivy Kellerman. + +Washington, D. C., +August 3, 1910. + + + * * * * * + + + TABLE OF CONTENTS. + + LESSON + I. Alphabet.--Vowels.--Consonants.--Names of the Letters.-- + Diphthongs.--Combinations of Consonants.--Syllables.--Accent. + II. Nouns.--The Article.--Adjectives.--Attributive Adjectives.-- + Present Tense of the Verb + III. The Plural Number.--Predicate Adjective and Noun + IV. Transitive Verbs.--The Accusative Case.--The Conjunction + "Kaj".--The Negative "Ne". + V. The Complementary Infinitive.--Interrogation.--The + Conjunction "Nek". + VI. Personal Pronouns.--Agreement with Pronouns.--Conjugation of + the Verb. + VII. The Past Tense.--Prepositions.--Accusative Case of Personal + Pronouns. + VIII. Reflexive Pronouns.--Reflexive Verbs. + IX. Limitation of the Third Personal Pronoun.--Possessive + Adjectives.--Pronominal Use of Possessive Adjectives.--"La + Kato kaj la Pasero". + X. The Accusative of Direction.--The Article for the Possessive + Adjective.--Apposition.--"La Arabo kaj la Kamelo". + XI. Possessive Case of Nouns.--Impersonal Verbs.--Verbs + Preceding their Subjects.--Coordinating Conjunctions.--"La + Arabo en la Dezerto". + XII. Indirect Statements.--The Indefinite Personal Pronoun + "Oni".--The Future Tense.--"La Ventoflago". + XIII. The Demonstrative "Pronoun Tiu".--Tenses in Indirect + Quotations.--Formation of Feminine Nouns.--"En la + Parko". + XIV. The Demonstrative Pronoun "Cxi tiu".--Possessive Form of + the Demonstrative Pronoun.--The Suffix "-Il-".--The + Expression of Means or Instrumentality.--"La Mangxo". + XV. The Demonstrative Adjective.--Adverbs Defined and + Classified.--Formation of Opposites.--"La Ruza Juna + Viro". + XVI. The Demonstrative Adverb of Place.--Accompaniment.--The + Adverb "For".--The Meaning of "Povi".--"Malamikoj en la + Dezerto". + XVII. The Demonstrative Temporal Adverb.--Comparison of + Adjectives.--Manner and Characteristic.--"Diri", + "Paroli" and "Rakonti".--"Frederiko Granda kaj la + Juna Servisto". + XVIII. The Demonstrative Adverb of Motive or Reason.--Derivation + of Adverbs.--Comparison of Words Expressing Quantity.-- + Comparisons Containing "Ol".--Causal Clauses.--"Pri la + Sezonoj". + XIX. "Ju" and "Des" in Comparisons.--The Preposition "Inter".-- + The Preposition "Pro".--Prepositions with Adverbs and Other + Prepositions.--"La Auxtuno kaj la Vintro". + XX. The Demonstrative Adverb of Manner and Degree.--Prepositions + Expressing Time-Relations.--"En Septembro". + XXI. The Accusative of Time.--Adverbs and the Accusative of + Time.--The Preposition "Por".--"La Sezonoj kaj la + Mondo". + XXII. Clauses Expressing Duration of Time.--Clauses Expressing + Anticipation.--The Infinitive with "Anstataux", "Por", + "Antaux ol".--The Expression of a Part of the Whole.-- + "Diogeno kaj Aleksandro Granda". + XXIII. Adverbs Expressing a Part of the Whole.--The Demonstrative + Adverb of Quantity.--Result Clauses.--"En la Butiko". + XXIV. The Interrogative Pronoun.--The Present Active + Participle.--Compound Tenses.--The Progressive Present + Tense.--The Suffix "-Ej-".--"En Nia Domo". + XXV. The Interrogative Adjective.--The Imperfect Tense.-- + Salutations and Exclamations.--Word Formation.--"Koni" and + "Scii".--"La Nepo Vizitas la Avinon". + XXVI. The Interrogative Adverb of Place.--The Past Active + Participle.--Adverb Derivation from Prepositions.--Adverbs + Expressing Direction of Motion.--The Suffix + "-Eg-".--"La Pluvego". + XXVII. The Interrogative Temporal Adverb.--The Perfect Tense.--The + Preposition "Cxe".--The Suffix "-Ar-".--"Tempo" and "Fojo".-- + The Orthography of Proper Names.--"Roberto Bruce kaj la + Araneo". + XXVIII. The Interrogative Adverb of Motive or Reason.-- The + Infinitive as Subject.--Present Action with Past + Inception.--The Suffix "-Ul-".--"Logxi" and "Vivi".--"Pri + la Avo kaj la Avino". + XXIX. The Interrogative Adverb of Manner and Degree.--The + Pluperfect Tense.--Cardinal Numbers.--The Accusative of + Measure.--"Nia Familio". + XXX. The Interrogative Adverb of Quantity.--Modifiers of + Impersonally Used Verbs.--Formation of Cardinal + Numerals.--The Suffix "-An-".--"Leciono Pri Aritmetiko". + XXXI. The Relative Pronoun.--The Future Perfect Tense.--Ordinal + Numerals.--"Alfredo Granda kaj la Libro". + XXXII. "Kia" as a Relative Adjective.--"Kie" as a Relative + Adverb.--The Future Active Participle.--The Periphrastic + Future Tenses.--The Suffix "-Ind-".--"Alfredo Granda + kaj la Kukoj". + XXXIII. "Kiam" as a Relative Adverb.--"Kiel" as a Relative + Adverb.--Numeral Nouns and Adverbs.--Word Derivation from + Prepositions.--"La Invito". + XXXIV. Prepositions as Prefixes.--The Suffix "-Ebl-".--Expression + of the Highest Degree Possible.--Titles and Terms of + Address.--"Cxe la Festo". + XXXV. "Kiom" as a Relative Adverb.--The Present Passive + Participle.--Fractions.--Descriptive Compounds.--"La Hxinoj". + XXXVI. The Present Passive Tense.--The Use of "De" to Express + Agency.--The General Meaning of "De".--Word Derivation + from Primary Adverbs.--The Suffix "-Ist-".--"Antikva + Respubliko". + XXXVII. The Distributive Pronoun.--The Preposition "Po".-- + Dependent Compounds.--"La Cxapelo sur la Stango". + XXXVIII. The Distributive Adjective.--The Imperfect Passive Tense.-- + Compound Tenses of Impersonal Verbs.--Reciprocal + Expressions.--The Suffix "-Uj-".--"Vilhelmo Tell kaj + la Pomo". + XXXIX. The Distributive Adverb of Place.--The Future Passive + Tense.--Possessive Compounds.--The Time of Day.--The + Suffix "-Obl-".--"En la Stacidomo". + XL. The Distributive Temporal Adverb.--The Distributive Adverb + "Cxial".--The Past Passive Participle.--The Perfect + Passive Tense.--The Preposition "Laux".--The Suffix + "-Em-".--"La Perdita Infano". + XLI. The Distributive Adverb "Cxiel".--The Distributive + Adverb "Cxiom".--The Pluperfect Passive Tense.--The + Future Perfect Passive Tense.--The Expression of + Material.--The Suffix "-Et-".--"La Donaco". + XLII. The Future Passive Participle.--The Passive Periphrastic + Future Tenses.--The Generic Article.--The Suffix + "-Ec-".--"Sur la Vaporsxipo". + XLIII. The Indefinite Pronoun.--Participial Nouns.--The Prefix + "Ek-".--The Suffix "-Id-".--"La Nesto sur la + Tendo". + XLIV. The Indefinite Adjective.--The Indefinite Adverb of Place.-- + Predicate Nominatives.--"La Cxevalo kaj la Sonorilo". + XLV. The Indefinite Temporal Adverb.--The Indefinite Adverb + "Ial".--Causative Verbs.--Emphasis by Means of "Ja".-- + "Cxe la Malnova Ponto". + XLVI. The Indefinite Adverb "Iel".--The Indefinite Adverb "Iom".-- + The Suffix "-Ad-".--The Use of "Mem".--"Arhximedo kaj la + Kronoj". + XLVII. The Negative Pronoun.--The Adverbial Participle.--The Prefix + "Re-".--"La Filozofo Arhximedo". + XLVIII. The Negative Adjective.--The Negative Adverb of Place.--The + Negative Temporal Adverb.--The Suffix "-Ajx-".--The Adverb + "Jen".--"Du Artkonkursoj". + XLIX. The Negative Adverbs "Nenial", "Neniel", "Neniom".--The + Suffix "-Igx-".--"La Krepusko". + L. The Pronouns ending in "-O".--Correlative Words.--The Use of + "Ajn".--The Suffix "-Ing-".--"La Gordia Ligajxo". + LI. The Pronoun "Ambaux".--Formations with "-Ig-" and "-Igx-".-- + Factual Conditions.--"La Monahxoj kaj la Azeno". + LII. The Conditional Mood.--Compound Tenses of the Conditional + Mood.--Less Vivid Conditions.--Independent Use of the + Conditional Mood.--The Prefix "Dis-".--"Pri la + Gravitado". + LIII. Conditions Contrary to Fact.--The Verb "Devi".--The + Preposition "Sen".--"La Filozofo Sokrato". + LIV. Summary of Conditions.--Clauses of Imaginative + Comparison.--The Use of "Al" to Express Reference.--The + Suffix "-Estr-".--"La Ostracismo de Aristejdo". + LV. The Imperative Mood.--Resolve and Exhortation.--Commands and + Prohibitions.--Less Peremptory Uses of the Imperative.--The + Use of "Mosxto".--"La Glavo de Damoklo". + LVI. The Imperative in Subordinate Clauses.--The Preposition + "Je".--The Suffix "-Op-".--"La Marsxado de la Dekmil Grekoj". + LVII. Clauses Expressing Purpose.--Further Uses of the + Accusative.--Synopsis of the Conjugation of the Verb.--The + Suffix "-Um-".--"La Reirado de la Dekmilo". + LVIII. Permission and Possibility.--The Prefix "Ge-".--The + Suffix "-Acx-".--Interjections.--"Aleksandro Granda". + LIX. The Position of Unemphatic Pronouns.--Some Intransitive + Verbs.--The Suffix "-Er-".--The Prefixes "Bo-" and + "Duon-".--Correspondence.--"Kelkaj Leteroj". + LX. Some Transitive Verbs.--Elision.--The Prefix "Eks-".--The + Prefix "Pra-".--The Suffixes "-Cxj-" and "-Nj-".--Weights and + Measures.--The International Money System.--Abbreviations.-- + "Pri La Kamero". + + ESPERANTO-ENGLISH VOCABULARY. + + ENGLISH-ESPERANTO VOCABULARY. + + INDEX. + + + * * * * * + + + A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF + ESPERANTO. + + + * * * * * + + + + LESSON I. + + + ALPHABET. + +1. The Esperanto alphabet contains the following letters: a, b, c, cx, +d, e, f, g, gx, h, hx, i, j, jx, k, l, m, n, o, p, r, s, sx, t, u, ux, +v, z. + + + VOWELS. + +2. The vowels of the alphabet are pronounced as follows: + +"a" as in "far". + +"e" as in "fiance", like "a" in "fate". + +[Footnote: This "long a" sound in English frequently ends with a +vanish,--a brief terminal sound of "short i" which makes the vowel +slightly diphthongal, as in "day", "aye". Such a vanish must +not be given to any of the Esperanto vowels.] + +"i" as in "machine". + +"o" as in "toll", "for". + +"u" as in "rude", "rural". + + + CONSONANTS. + +3. The consonants "b", "d", "f", "h", "k", "l", "m", "n", "p", "t", +"v", "z", are pronounced as in English, and the remaining eleven as +follows: + +"c" like "ts" in "hats", "tsetse". + +"cx" like "ch" in "chin", "much". + +"g" like "g" in "go", "big". + +"gx" like "g" in "gem", "j" in "jar". + +"hx" is produced by expelling the breath forcibly, with the throat only +partially open. + +[Footnote: As in pronouncing German and Scotch "ch", Spanish "j", Irish +"gh", Russian "x", Classical Greek Greek: "chi" etc. There are only a +few words containing this consonant.] + +"j" like "y" in "yes", "beyond". + +"jx" like "z" in "azure", "s" in "visual". + +"r" is slightly trilled or rolled. + +"s" like "s" in "see", "basis". + +"sx" like "sh" in "shine", "rash", "ch" in machine". + +"ux" like "w" or consonantal "u". See Diphthongs, 5. + + + NAMES OF THE LETTERS. + +4. The vowels are named by their sounds, as given in (2). The names +of the consonants are "bo", "co", "cxo", "do", "fo", "go", "gxo", +"ho", "hxo", "jo", "jxo", "ko", "lo", "mo", "no", "po", "ro", "so", +"sxo", "to", "uxo", "vo", "zo". These are used in speaking of the +letters, in pronouncing them in abbreviations, as "ko to po" for +"k. t. p." (= etc.), and in spelling words, as "bo, i, ro, do, o, +birdo". + + + DIPHTHONGS. + +5. Diphthongs are combinations of two vowels uttered as a single +sound, by one breath-impulse. The diphthongs in Esperanto contain an +i or u sound as the second element, but in order to avoid confusion +with combinations of vowels not forming diphthongs (as in "naiva", like +English "naive", etc.), they are written with "j" and "ux" instead. +Their pronunciation is as follows: + +"aj" like "ai" in "aisle". + +"ej" like "ei" in "vein", "ey" in "they". + +"oj" like "oi" in "coin", "oy" in "boy". + +"uj" like "ui" in "ruin", "u(e)y" in "gluey". + +"eux" like "ayw" in "wayward", or like E(h)oo" pronounced together. + +"aux" like "ou" in "out", "ow" in "owl". + + + COMBINATIONS OF CONSONANTS. + +6. Each consonant, in a combination of two or more consonants, is +pronounced with its full value, whether within a word or at its +beginning. There are no silent letters. + +a. Thus, both consonants are clearly sounded in the groups "kn", "kv", +"gv", "sv", in such words as "knabo", "kvin", "gvidi", "sviso". + +b. The combination "kz", as in "ekzisti", "ekzameno", must not be +modified to the "gs" or "ks" represented by "x" in "exist", "execute". + +c. The combination "sc", as in "escepte", "scias", is equivalent to the +combination "sts" in "laST Said", "firST Song", pronounced together +rapidly. The "s" in a word beginning with "sc" may be sounded with the +end of the preceding word, if that word ends in a vowel, as "mis-cias" +for "mi scias". + +d. The "n" and "g" are pronounced separately in the combination "ng", in +such words as "lingvo", "angulo", producing the sound of "ng" heard in +"linger", not that in "singer". + +e. Each of two similar letters is clearly sounded, as "interrilato", +"ellasi", like "inter-relate", "well-laid". + + + SYLLABLES. + +7. Each word contains as many syllables as it has vowels and diphthongs. +The division of syllables within a word is as follows: + +a. A single consonant goes with the following vowel, as "pa-no", +"be-la", "a-e-ro". + +b. A consonant followed by "l" or "r" (which are liquids) goes with the +"l" or "r", as in "ta-blo", "a-kra", "a-gra-bla". + +c. Otherwise, the syllable division is made before the last consonant of +the group, as "sus-pek-ti", "sank-ta", "deks-tra". + +d. Prefixes are separated from the words to which they are attached, +as "dis-meti", "mal-akra", and compound words are divided into their +component parts, as "cxef-urbo", "sun-ombrelo". + + + ACCENT. + +8. Words of more than one syllable are accented upon the syllable before +the last, as "TA-blo", "a-GRA-bla", "sus-PEK-ti". + + + WORDS FOR PRACTICE. + +9. (To be pronounced aloud, and correctly accented) Afero, trairi, +najbaro, aero, hodiaux, pacienco, centono, cxielo, ecx, samideano, +treege, obei, obeu, Euxropo, gvidi, gxojo, cxiujn, justa, gxuste, jugxi, +jxauxdo, lingvo, knabo, largxa, pagi, kvieteco, ekzemplo, ellerni, fojo, +krajono, forrajdi, kuirejo, cxevalejo, sankteco, scio, nescio, edzo, +meze, duobla, sxipo, sxargxi, posxo, svingi, sklavo, palaj, sxafajxo, +atmosfero, monahxo, geometrio, lauxdi, vasta, eksplodi, sencxesa, +sensencajxo, malluma, arbaranoj, mangxo, fresxa, auxskulti, dauxri. + + + + LESSON II. + + + NOUNS. + +10. Words which are the names of persons or things are called nouns. +The ending, or final letter, of nouns in Esperanto is "o": + + knabo = boy. pomo = apple. + cxevalo = horse. tablo = table. + + + THE ARTICLE. + +11. The definite article is "la", the, as "la knabo", the boy, "la +cxevalo", the horse, "la tablo", the table, "la pomo", the apple. In +English there is an indefinite article "a, an" for the singular, but +none for the plural. Esperanto has no indefinite article for either +singular or plural. Therefore "knabo" may mean "boy", or "a boy", "pomo" +may mean "apple" or "an apple". + + + ADJECTIVES + +12. A word used with a noun (expressed or understood) to express +a quality or characteristic is called an adjective. The ending of +adjectives in Esperanto is "a": + + bela = beautiful. granda = large. + flava = yellow. forta = strong. + + + ATTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVES. + +13. An adjective is said to modify a noun whose quality it expresses. +When directly preceding or following its noun, it is called an +attributive adjective: + + la granda cxevalo = the large horse. + bela birdo = a beautiful bird. + floro flava = a yellow flower. + forta knabo = a strong boy. + + + PRESENT TENSE OF THE VERB. + +14. Words which express action or condition are called verbs. When +representing an act or condition as a fact, and dealing with the present +time, they are said to be in the present tense. The ending of all +Esperanto verbs in the present tense is "-as": + + kuras = runs, is running. brilas = shines, is shining. + flugas = flies, is flying. dormas = sleeps, is sleeping. + +15. The person or thing whose action or condition the verb expresses is +called the subject of the verb: + + La suno brilas, the sun shines (is shining), subject: suno. + Knabo kuras, a boy runs (is running), subject: knabo. + + + VOCABULARY. + + (To be memorized in this and in all following lessons.) + + bela = beautiful. kaj = and. + birdo = bird. kantas = sings, is singing. + blanka = white. knabo = boy. + bona = good. kuras = runs, is running. + brilas = shines, is shining. la = the. + cxevalo = horse. luno = moon. + dormas = sleeps, is sleeping. marsxas = walks, is walking. + flava = yellow. pomo = apple. + floro = flower. suno = sun. + flugas = flies, is flying. tablo = table. + forta = strong, violo = violet. + granda = large. viro = man. + + + READING LESSON. + +1. Bona viro. 2. La granda tablo. 3. Blanka floro. 4. Flava birdo. 5. La +bela birdo kantas. 6. Forta knabo kuras. 7. La bona viro marsxas. 8. La +bela cxevalo kuras. 9. La suno brilas. 10. Birdo flugas kaj knabo kuras. +11. Cxevalo blanka marsxas. 12. La bela luno brilas. 13. La knabo kantas +kaj la viro dormas. 14. Bela granda pomo. 15. La bona knabo kantas. 16. +La granda cxevalo dormas. 17. La suno brilas kaj la luno brilas. 18. +Granda forta tablo. 19. Violo flava. 20. La bona flava pomo. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. A beautiful flower. 2. A good large table. 3. A yellow violet and +a white violet. 4. The moon is-shining (shines). 5. The good boy +is-walking (walks). 6. The beautiful yellow bird is-flying (flies). +7. The strong man is-sleeping (sleeps). 8. The white bird is-singing +(sings). 9. A strong horse runs, and a man walks. 10. The sun shines, +and the boy is-singing (sings). 11. The large yellow apple. 12. An apple +large and good. + + + + LESSON III. + + + THE PLURAL NUMBER. + +16. The plural number of nouns, that is, the form which indicates +more than one person or thing, is made by adding "-j" to the noun, as +"viroj", men, from "viro", man; "tabloj", tables, from "tablo", table. + +[Footnote: "-oj" is pronounced like "oy" in "boy". See 5.] + +17. An adjective modifying a plural noun agrees with it in number, being +given the plural form by the addition of the ending -j. An adjective +modifying two or more nouns used together is of course given the plural +form: + + bonaj viroj, good men. + grandaj cxevaloj, large horses. + belaj birdo kaj floro (bela birdo kaj bela floro), + beautiful bird and (beautiful) flower. + +[Footnote: "-aj" is pronounced like "ai" in "aisle". See 5.] + +18. The article is invariable, that is, does not change in form when +used with plural nouns, as "la viro", the man, "la viroj", the men. The +verb is also invariable in form: + + La viroj marsxas, the men walk, the men are walking. + La suno kaj la luno brilas, the sun and the moon are shining. + La viro estas, the man is. + La viroj estas, the men are. + + + PREDICATE ADJECTIVE AND NOUN. + +19. When the adjective is a part of that which is told or predicated of +the subject of the verb, as when used with the verbs "to be," "to seem," +etc., it is called a "predicate adjective": + + La birdo estas bela, the bird is beautiful. + La knabo sxajnas bona, the boy seems good. + La viroj estas fortaj, the men are strong. + +20. A noun may also be used as part of the predicate, and is then called +a "predicate noun": + + Violoj estas floroj, violets are flowers. + La kolombo estas birdo, the dove is a bird. + +21. Predicate nouns and adjectives agree in number with the word +or words with which they are in predicate relation: + + Rozoj estas belaj, roses are beautiful. + La knabo kaj la viro sxajnas fortaj, the boy and the man seem strong. + + + VOCABULARY + + alta = high, tall. kolombo = dove. + arbo = tree. kusxas = lies, is lying, lie. + cxambro = room. longa = long. + domo = house. rozo = rose. + en = in. rugxa = red. + estas = is, are. segxo = chair. + folio = leaf. sidas = sits, sit, is sitting. + fresxa = fresh. sur = on. + gxardeno = garden. sxajnas = seems, seem. + kampo = field. verda = green. + + + READING LESSON. + +1. La alta viro estas en la gxardeno. 2. Blanka cxevalo estas en la +kampo. 3. Belaj birdoj sidas sur la verda arbo. 4. La bonaj knaboj estas +en la domo. 5. La cxambroj en la bela domo estas grandaj. 6. Fresxaj +floroj kusxas sur la tablo. 7. La violoj en la kampo estas belaj. 8. La +luno kaj la suno sxajnas grandaj. 9. La kolomboj estas belaj birdoj. +10. La knaboj sxajnas fortaj. 11. Rugxaj pomoj estas sur la tablo en la +cxambro. 12. La fortaj viroj sidas sur segxoj en la longa cxambro. 13. +La arboj estas altaj kaj verdaj. 14. La kolomboj sur la arboj kantas. +15. Fortaj cxevaloj marsxas kaj kuras en la verdaj kampoj. 16. La knaboj +dormas en la granda domo. 17. Rugxaj, flavaj, kaj verdaj folioj estas en +la gxardeno. 18. Longa tablo estas en la domo. 19. Belaj birdoj flugas +kaj kantas en la kampo. 20. Fresxaj rozoj sxajnas belaj. 21. La folioj +estas verdaj kaj rugxaj. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. The trees in the garden are tall and green. 2. The rooms in the house +are long. 3. The flowers on the table are red, yellow and white. 4. The +leaves are long and green. 5. The men are-sitting (sit) on chairs in the +garden. 6. In the garden are yellow roses. 7. The birds in the field are +doves. 8. The boys in the room in the house seem tall. 9. Fresh violets +are beautiful flowers. 10. The horses in the green fields seem strong. +11. Doves are-singing (sing) in the garden. 12. The men in the large +house sleep. 13. The house is long and high, and the rooms in the house +are large. 14. Red and yellow apples lie on the big table. 15. Green +leaves are on the trees in the large garden. + + + + LESSON IV. + + + TRANSITIVE VERBS. + +22. The verbs so far given have been "intransitive verbs", expressing a +state or an action limited to the subject, and not immediately affecting +any other person or thing, as "la knabo kuras", the boy runs. On the +other hand a "transitive verb" expresses an act of the subject upon some +person or thing; as, "la knabo trovas -- --", the boy finds -- --. + + + THE ACCUSATIVE CASE. + +23. The person or thing acted upon is called the "direct object" of +a transitive verb, and is given the ending "-n". This is called the +accusative ending; and the word to which it is attached is said to be +in the "accusative case": + + La viro havas segxon, the man has a chair. + La knabo trovas florojn, the boy finds flowers. + +[Footnote: The ending "-n" follows the ending "-j", if the word to be +put in the accusative case is in the plural number.] + +24. An attributive adjective modifying a noun in the accusative case is +made to agree in case, by addition of the same accusative ending "-n". +This prevents any doubt as to which of two or more nouns in a sentence +is modified by the adjective, and permits of variation in the order of +the words: + + La knabo trovas belan floron, the boy finds a beautiful flower. + Florojn belajn la viro havas, the man has beautiful flowers. + La viro havas grandan segxon, the man has a large chair. + Rugxan rozon la knabo havas, the boy has a red rose. + +25. A predicate adjective or noun (19) is never in the accusative case, +nor is the accusative ending ever attached to the article, which is +invariable as stated in 18. + + + THE CONJUNCTION "KAJ". + +26. In the expression "both ... and ...", the conjunction "kaj" is used +for both words, being merely repeated: + + La viro kaj marsxas kaj kuras, the man both walks and runs. + La cxevalo estas kaj granda kaj forta, + the horse is both large and strong. + La knabo havas kaj rozojn kaj violojn, + the boy has both roses and violets. + Kaj la knabo kaj la viro estas altaj, + both the boy and the man are tall. + + + THE NEGATIVE "NE". + +27. The negative word meaning "not" when forming part of a sentence, +and "no" when used as an answer to a question, is "ne". When used as +a sentence-negative, it usually immediately precedes the verb. For +emphatic negation of some other word than the verb, "ne" may precede +that word: + + Violoj ne estas rugxaj, violets are not red. + La viroj ne sidas sur segxoj, the men are-not-sitting on chairs. + La kolombo kantas, ne flugas, the dove is-singing, not flying. + La domo estas blanka, ne verda, the house is white, not green. + + + VOCABULARY + + apud = near, in the vicinity of. koloro = color. + benko = bench. largxa = wide, broad. + brancxo = branch. mangxas = eat, eats. + diversa = various. mola = soft. + felicxa = happy. nigra = black. + frukto = fruit. ne = not, no. + havas = have, has. rompas = break, breaks. + herbo = grass. sed = but. + ili = they. trovas = find, finds. + kolektas = gather, collect. vidas = see, sees. + + + READING LESSON. + +1. La knaboj ne estas en la cxambro en la blanka domo. 2. Ili estas +en la granda gxardeno. 3. La gxardeno sxajnas kaj longa kaj largxa. +4. La felicxaj knaboj vidas la belan gxardenon. 5. Ili vidas florojn +apud alta arbo. 6. La floroj havas diversajn kolorojn. 7. La knaboj +kolektas kaj rugxajn kaj flavajn florojn. 8. Sed ili ne trovas fruktojn +en la gxardeno. 9. Florojn blankajn ili ne vidas. 10. La alta arbo +havas verdajn foliojn sur la brancxoj. 11. La knaboj rompas brancxon, +kaj kolektas la fruktojn. 12. Ili vidas florojn sur la brancxoj, sed +la florojn ili ne kolektas. 13. La knaboj ne sidas sur benkoj en la +gxardeno, sed kusxas sur la mola herbo. 14. La kolomboj sidas sur la +arboj, kaj ili estas felicxaj. 15. La knaboj vidas la belajn birdojn. +16. Fortaj nigraj cxevaloj mangxas la herbon en la kampo. 17. La knaboj +vidas la cxevalojn, sed la cxevaloj ne vidas la knabojn. 18. La cxevaloj +ne dormas, ili mangxas. 19. La fresxa herbo estas verda kaj mola. 20. +Felicxaj estas kaj la knaboj kaj la cxevaloj. 21. La pomo estas bona +frukto. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Green leaves are on the trees. 2. The boys break branches and gather +the apples. 3. They are near the tall tree in the garden. 4. They find +leaves on the tree, but they do not see the fruit. 5. The house is long, +broad and high. 6. The rooms in the house are both long and wide. 7. The +men have strong black horses. 8. The horses eat the fresh green grass in +the field. 9. The men sit on benches in the garden. 10. The boys do not +sleep, but they lie on the soft grass. 11. They see both the birds and +the flowers, and they seem happy. 12. The flowers have various colors, +but the grass is green. 13. The doves are not sitting on the tree, they +are flying near the trees. 14. Beautiful red roses are lying on the +table in the house. 15. The large red apples are near the yellow roses. + + + + LESSON V. + + + THE COMPLEMENTARY INFINITIVE. + +28. The infinitive is a form of the verb which expresses merely the +general idea of the action or condition indicated, and has some of the +characteristics of a noun. The ending of the infinitive is "-i", as +"kuri", to run, "esti", to be, "havi", to have. + +29. An infinitive used to complete the meaning of another verb, serving +as a direct object to a transitive verb, is called a "complementary +infinitive". If the complementary infinitive is from a transitive verb, +it may itself have a direct object: + + La knabo volas kuri, the boy wishes to run. + Birdoj sxatas kanti, birds like to sing. + La knabo volas havi cxevalon, the boy wishes to have a horse. + Ili volas trovi florojn, they wish to find flowers. + + + INTERROGATION. + +30. An interrogative sentence is one which asks a question. Unless some +directly interrogative word (as "who," "when," "why," etc.) is used, +the sentence is rendered interrogative by use of the word "cxu". This +interrogative particle is placed at the beginning of a sentence, the +words of which are left in the same order as for a statement. Since +there is no inversion of order, there is no necessity for a word like +English "do" or "does," to introduce the verb: + + Cxu la knabo estas bona? Is the boy good? + Cxu ili havas florojn? Have they flowers? + Cxu la kolomboj kantas? Do the doves sing? (Are the doves singing?) + + + THE CONJUNCTION "NEK". + +31. In the expression "neither ... nor ...", the conjunction "nek" +is used for both words. Since an adjective modifier of two or more +words connected by "nek" must necessarily modify them separately, +the adjective remains in the singular number: + + Ili nek marsxas nek kuras, they neither walk nor run. + La viro havas nek domon nek gxardenon, + the man has neither a house nor a garden. + Nek la rozo nek la violo estas verda, + neither the rose nor the violet is green. + + + VOCABULARY + + (Verbs will hereafter be quoted in the infinitive form.) + + bruna = brown. matura = ripe. + cxerizo = cherry. Mario = Mary. + cxu = (30). nek = neither, nor. + dolcxa = sweet. persiko = peach. + gusto = taste. jes = yes. + gxi = it. preferi = to prefer. + Gertrude = Gertrude. sxati = to like. + knabino = girl. voli = to wish. + + + READING LESSON. + +1. Cxu persiko estas rugxa? 2. Jes, gxi estas kaj rugxa kaj dolcxa. 3. +Cxu cxerizoj estas brunaj? 4. Ne, ili estas nek brunaj nek nigraj, sed +flavaj. 5. Cxu la pomo estas frukto? Jes, gxi estas bona frukto. 6. +Cxu la viro kaj la knabo havas pomojn? 7. Ne, ili havas nek pomojn nek +persikojn. 8. Cxu Mario havas la maturan frukton? 9. Mario kaj Gertrudo +havas la frukton. 10. Ili estas en la domo, kaj mangxas la maturan +frukton. 11. La persikoj havas dolcxan guston. 12. La knabinoj volas +havi florojn, sed la knaboj preferas kolekti diversajn fruktojn. 13. Ili +volas trovi maturajn cxerizojn kaj flavajn persikojn. 14. La cxerizoj +havas belan rugxan koloron. 15. La persikoj sxajnas molaj kaj bonaj. 16. +Mario rompas brancxon, kaj vidas cxerizojn sur la brancxoj. 17. Gertrudo +estas felicxa, kaj volas havi la belan frukton. 18. Gertrudo estas alta, +bela knabino. 19. Mario sxatas cxerizojn. 20. La knaboj kaj knabinoj +sidas sur la verda herbo, kaj mangxas la cxerizojn. 21. Ili ne volas +mangxi pomojn, ili preferas la dolcxajn cxerizojn. 22. La folioj apud la +cxerizoj estas nek largxaj nek longaj. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Have the girls beautiful flowers? 2. No, they have fresh fruit. 3. +The boys do not wish to gather flowers. 4. They prefer to break the +branches, and find the sweet cherries. 5. Gertrude wishes to eat apples, +but Mary has neither apples nor peaches. 6. Do the girls like to sit in +the house and eat fruit? 7. Yes, they like to sit in the house, but they +prefer to walk in the field. 8. Are ripe peaches brown? 9. No, they are +red and yellow. 10. Has the peach a sweet taste? 11. Do the girls see +the beautiful black horses in the fields? 12. Yes, they see the horses, +but the horses seem not to see the girls. 13. Mary sits on the soft +green grass, and eats ripe fruit. + + + + LESSON VI. + + + PERSONAL PRONOUNS. + +32. Words which stand in the place of nouns, as "you," "he," "who," +"which," are called "pronouns". Pronouns referring to the person +speaking ("I", "we"), the person addressed ("you", "thou"), or the +person or thing spoken of ("he", "she", "it", "they"), are called +"personal pronouns". They are considered singular or plural, according +to whether they refer to one or more persons. Since the meaning of such +pronouns indicates the number, no plural ending is ever attached to +them. The personal pronouns are: + + Singular. Plural. + + First person: mi, I (me). ni, we (us). + + Second person: vi, you. vi, you. + + li, he (him). + Third person: sxi, she (her). ili, they (them). + gxi, it. + +[Footnote: There is another pronoun "ci" (thou), for the second person +singular, used in solemn style, as in the Bible, in poetry, and also +for intimate or familiar address when desired, like German "du", French +"tu", etc.] + + + AGREEMENT WITH PRONOUNS. + +33. Nouns in predicate relation with pronouns, or adjectives modifying +such pronouns, are made to agree with them in number: + + Ni estas bonaj kaj felicxaj, we are good and happy. + Rozoj estas floroj, ill ne estas fruktoj, + roses are flowers, they are not fruits. + Gertrudo, vi estas bona, Gertrude, you are good. + Knabinoj, cxu vi estas felicxaj? Girls, are you happy? + + + CONJUGATION OF THE VERB. + +34. Any pronoun may serve as the subject of a verb. The combination +of the verb with each of the personal pronouns in succession for its +subject, is called the "conjugation" of the verb. Following is the +conjugation of the present tense of "esti", and of "vidi": + + mi estas = I am. mi vidas = I see. + vi estas = you are. vi vidas = you see. + li (sxi, gxi) estas = li (sxi, gxi) vidas : + he (she, it) is. he (she, it) sees. + ni estas = we are. ni vidas = we see. + vi estas = you (plural) are. vi vidas = you (plural) see. + ili estas = they are. ili vidas = they see. + + + VOCABULARY + + al = to, toward. hodiaux = today. + Arturo = Arthur. kudri = to sew. + aux = or (aux ... aux ..., either ... or ...) Roberto = Robert. + cxar = because. skui = to shake. + doni = to give. stari = to stand. + fali = to fall. sub = under, beneath. + fenestro = window. virino = woman. + + + READING LESSON. + +1. Knaboj, cxu vi volas sidi en la domo, aux en la gxardeno? 2. Ni +preferas sidi hodiaux en la gxardeno, sub la granda arbo. 3. Cxu vi +havas pomojn, aux cxerizojn? 4. Ni havas nek pomojn nek cxerizojn, +sed ni havas dolcxajn persikojn. 5. Arturo donas al vi la maturajn +persikojn, cxar li sxatas kolekti frukton. 6. Arturo, cxu vi rompas la +brancxojn? 7. Ne, sed mi skuas brancxon, kaj la persikoj falas. 8. Mi +staras sub la arbo, kaj kolektas la dolcxan frukton. 9. La frukton mi +donas al Mario kaj Gertrudo. 10. Mi volas doni persikon al Heleno, sed +hodiaux sxi estas en la domo. 11. Sxi sidas apud la fenestro kaj kudras. +12. Sxi preferas kudri, kaj volas nek marsxi nek sidi en la gxardeno. +13. Kaj sxi kaj la virino apud sxi volas kudri hodiaux. 14. Ili estas +felicxaj, cxar ili vidas la birdojn en la arbo apud la fenestro. 15. La +birdoj estas kolomboj, kaj sidas sur la arbo. 16. Sub la arboj en la +kampo staras cxevaloj, kaj ili mangxas la verdan molan herbon. 17. Ni +donas pomojn al ili, cxar ili sxatas pomojn. 18. Ni estas felicxaj, cxar +ni havas belajn persikojn maturajn kaj bonajn. 19. Roberto, vi estas +alta, sed vi, knabinoj, ne estas altaj. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Does Arthur break the branch and gather the apples? 2. No, he shakes +the branch, and the apples fall. 3. They are ripe and sweet. 4. Robert, +do you wish to stand beneath the tree? 5. No, I do not wish to stand +under it, but near it. 6. I wish to give both the peaches and the apples +to the woman. 7. She is sitting in the house, near the window. 8. Mary +is sitting in (on) a chair near her. 9. Both Mary and the woman are +sewing. 10. They prefer to sew, and do not wish to walk in the garden +to-day. 11. They are happy because they like to sew. 12. They do not +wish to gather flowers, or walk, or see the birds. 13. They have neither +apples nor peaches, but they do not wish to eat. 14. They give the fruit +to the boys and girls. + + + + LESSON VII. + + + THE PAST TENSE. + +35. The past tense of the verb expresses an action which took place in +past time, or a condition which existed in past time. The ending of +this tense is "-is", as "kuris", ran, "flugis", flew, "brilis", shone. +The conjugation of "esti" and also of "vidi" in the past tense is as +follows: + + mi estis = I was. mi vidis = I saw. + vi estis = you were. vi vidis = you saw. + li (sxi, gxi) estis = li (sxi, gxi) vidis : + he (she, it) was. he (she, it) saw. + ni estis = we were. ni vidis = we saw. + vi estis = you (plural) were. vi vidis = you (plural) saw. + ili estis = they were. ili vidis = they saw. + + + PREPOSITIONS. + +36. A preposition is a word like "in," "on," placed before a noun or +pronoun to indicate some relation between this and another word. The +preposition is said to "govern" the noun or pronoun, which is called its +"complement". In English, the complement of a preposition seems to be +put in the accusative case if it is a pronoun, but to remain unchanged +in form if it is a noun. In Esperanto the preposition does not affect +the form of the word governed, which remains in the nominative case: + + La arbo estas en la gxardeno, the tree is in the garden. + Bonaj pomoj estas sur gxi, good apples are on it. + Mi donis cxerizojn al li, I gave cherries to him. + La knabo estas apud mi, the boy is near me. + Sub la arbo staris cxevalo, under the tree stood a horse. + + + ACCUSATIVE CASE OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. + +37. For use as the object of a verb, any pronoun may be put in the +accusative case by addition of the accusative ending "-n" (23): + + La viro vidis vin kaj min, the man saw you and me. + Li vidis ilin kaj nin, he saw them and us. + Mi vidis nek lin nek sxin, I saw neither him nor her. + Ni volas havi gxin, we wish to have it. + + + VOCABULARY + + agrabla = pleasant, agreeable. luma = light (not dark). + bildo = picture. muro = wall. + blua = blue. nun = now. + danki = to thank. planko = floor. + de = from. pordo = door. + diri = to say. rigardi = to look (at). + infano = child. tapisxo = carpet. + interesa = interesting. tra = through. + + + READING LESSON. + +1. Hodiaux la knaboj kaj knabinoj estas en la granda domo. 2. Ili staras +apud la tablo, en agrabla luma cxambro. 3. Gxi havas altajn largxajn +fenestrojn. 4. Sub la tablo kaj segxoj, mola tapisxo kusxas sur la +planko. 5. La tapisxo havas belajn kolorojn, rugxan, bluan, flavan, kaj +verdan. 6. Virino marsxis tra la pordo, kaj staris apud la tablo. 7. Sxi +havis interesajn bildojn, kaj donis ilin al la knaboj kaj la knabinoj. +8. Sxi diris "Cxu vi volas rigardi la bildojn?" 9. "Jes, ni dankas +vin," diris la infanoj, kaj sxi donis al ili la bildojn. 10. Granda +bildo falis de la tablo, sed Arturo nun havas gxin. 11. Li donas gxin +al Mario, sxi dankas lin, kaj donas gxin al Roberto. 12. Ili volis doni +gxin al Gertrudo, sed sxi diris "Ne, mi dankas vin, mi ne sxatas rigardi +bildojn." 13. Sxi marsxis de la tablo al la fenestro kaj diris "Mi +preferas kudri." 14. Sxi volis sidi en granda segxo apud la fenestro. +15. La virino rigardis sxin kaj diris "Mi donis la bildojn al vi, knaboj +kaj knabinoj," cxar ili estas interesaj bildoj. 16. Gertrudo diris "Vi +estas bona al ni, sed mi volas sidi apud la pordo aux la fenestro. 17. +Mi kolektis dolcxajn violojn en la gxardeno, kaj nun mi volas rigardi la +dolcxajn florojn, kaj kudri." + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Do the boys and girls wish to be good? 2. They gathered fresh flowers +and gave them to the woman. 3. The happy children were in the garden, +but now they are in the house. 4. The rooms in the house are light, +because they have large wide windows. 5. The doors in the room are +wide and high. 6. The carpets on the floor seem soft, and have various +beautiful colors. 7. A large strong table stands near the door. 8. +We can sit near the table and look through the windows. 9. Gertrude +is-looking-at the various pictures. 10. She looks-at them, and seems +to be happy. 11. She gave a picture to me and I thanked her. 12. Helen +walked near the table and shook it. 13. Arthur did not see the pictures +because they were lying on the floor. 14. He looked-at the pictures on +the wall, but they are neither interesting nor beautiful. 15. Robert +looked through the window, and saw us in the pleasant garden. + + + + LESSON VIII. + + + REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS. + +38. A pronoun which refers to the same person or thing as the subject +of the verb in the sentence, but is used in some other relation than +subject of that verb, is said to be used "reflexively", or to be a +"reflexive pronoun". + + +39. The first and second personal pronouns, "mi", "ni", and "vi", +("ci") are used for the reflexive pronouns of the first and second +persons. There can be no ambiguity, since words such as "me, myself, +us, ourselves," can refer to no one else than the person or persons +speaking; while words such as "you, yourself, yourselves (thee, +thyself)," can refer to no one else than the person or persons +addressed: + + Mi vidas min, I see myself. + Mi diris al mi, I said to myself. + Ni havas tapisxon sub ni, we have a carpet under us. + Ni amuzis nin, we amused ourselves. + (Ci trovas domon apud ci, thou findest a house near thee.) + Vi diras al vi, you say to yourself (yourselves). + Vi amuzas vin, you amuse yourself (yourselves). + +40. When the verb is in the third person, a pronoun of the third person, +used otherwise than as the subject, might or might not refer to the +subject of that verb. For example, "He sees a bird near him," may mean +that the subject sees a bird near himself, or near another person. +If such a pronoun of the third person is intended to refer to the +subject of the verb, Esperanto uses a special reflexive pronoun "si" +(accusative "sin"), which means "him(self)", "her(self)", "it(self)", +"them(selves)", according to the gender and number of the verb: + + Li amuzas sin, he amuses himself. + Arturo vidis birdon apud si, Arthur saw a bird near him(self). + Sxi trovas floron apud si, she finds a flower near her(self). + Mario trovis sin sur blua tapisxo, + Mary found herself on a blue carpet. + La tapisxo havas diversajn kolorojn en si, + the carpet has various colors in it(self). + La birdo kasxas sin sub la folioj, + the bird hides itself under the leaves. + Ili amuzas sin, they amuse themselves. + La viroj havas segxojn apud si, + the men have chairs near them(selves). + La virinoj trovas florojn apud si, + the women find flowers near them(selves). + La arboj havas cxerizojn sur si, + the trees have cherries on them(selves). + Sub si la infanoj trovis molan tapisxon, + under them(selves) the children found a soft carpet. + +[Footnote: From the very fact that "si" always refers to the subject of +the verb, it is evident that "si" can never itself be used as subject or +part of the subject of the verb.] + + + REFLEXIVE VERBS. + +41. A verb having a reflexive pronoun for its direct object is sometimes +called a "reflexive verb", from the fact that some languages have had or +still have a special reflexive or middle form of the verb, to express an +act of the subject on or for itself, or they have certain verbs whose +use is chiefly or exclusively reflexive. The conjugation of a verb +reflexively is therefore as follows: + + mi amuzas min (mi min amuzas), I amuse myself. + vi amuzas vin (vi vin amuzas), you amuse yourself. + li (sxi, gxi) amuzas sin (sin amuzas), + he (she, it) amuses him (her, it)self. + ni amuzas nin (ni nin amuzas), we amuse ourselves. + vi amuzas vin (vi vin amuzas), you amuse yourselves. + ili amuzas sin (ili sin amuzas), they amuse themselves. + +[Footnote: As Greek "etraponto", they turned themselves; Latin +"exerceor", I exercise myself, "vescor", I eat (I feed myself); German +"ich huete mich", I beware (I guard myself); Spanish "me alegro", or +"alegrome", I rejoice (I gladden myself); French "il s'arrete", he halts +(he stops himself).] + + + VOCABULARY + + Alfredo = Alfred. komenci = to begin. + amuzi = to amuse. lauxdi = to praise. + antaux = before, in front of. legi = to read. + aparteni = to belong. libro = book. + griza = gray. perdi = to lose. + iri = to go. skatolo = small box or case. + Johano = John. strato = street. + kasxi = to hide, to conceal. si = himself, etc. (40). + + + READING LESSON. + +1. Johano kaj Alfredo amuzis sin en la gxardeno. 2. Johano kasxis sin, +kaj Alfredo trovis Johanon. 3. Alfredo sin kasxis en alta arbo, kaj +Johano trovis Alberton. 4. Mario kaj Gertrudo sin kasxis apud la floroj, +kaj la knaboj trovis la knabinojn. 5. La knabinoj ne volas perdi sin en +la agrabla kampo. 6. Johano komencis amuzi sin en luma cxambro en la +domo. 7. La muro havas interesajn bildojn sur si. 8. Tra la fenestro +antaux si Johano rigardas la virojn kaj la virinojn sur la strato. 9. +Li havas molan grizan tapisxon sub si, kaj ne volas segxon. 10. Li kaj +Alfredo volis iri al la strato kaj amuzi sin. 11. Ili marsxis al la +pordo, kaj trovis rugxan skatolon antaux si. 12. En la skatolo estis +libro, kaj Johano diris al si "La libro ne apartenas al mi." 13. Li +diris al Alfredo "Cxar ni trovis gxin, mi volas legi la libron." 14. +Virino antaux pordo komencis rigardi la knabojn, kaj ili diris al sxi +"Cxu la libro apartenas al vi? Ni trovis gxin en skatolo." 15. La virino +diris "Jes, ni perdis gxin, kaj mi dankas vin, cxar vi donas al mi la +skatolon kaj la libron." 16. Sxi iris al la strato, kaj la knaboj iris +al la domo. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. The book in the gray box does not belong to me. 2. I found it in +front of me, near the door. 3. You began to praise yourselves, but I do +not praise myself. 4. They hid themselves, and I stood near them. 5. The +birds sit on the tree, because it has ripe cherries on it. 6. Alfred +amused himself on the street, but we like to amuse ourselves in the +house. 7. The trees have good fruit on them. 8. She found herself in a +beautiful light room. 9. The carpet on the floor had various colors in +it, and the high wall had pictures on it. 10. The pictures had boys and +girls in them. 11. The book belongs to her, but it fell from the box. +12. The table has red and blue and yellow flowers on it. 13. Did you see +the doves near the flowers in front of (before) you? 14. The birds saw +the fruit on the tree in front of them, and flew to the branches. 15. I +sat on the bench in the garden, and began to read an interesting book. +16. They hid themselves in the leaves and began to sing. 17. The child +is in a pleasant room. + + + + LESSON IX. + + + LIMITATION OF THE THIRD PERSONAL PRONOUN. + +42. Since there is a special reflexive pronoun of the third person, the +third personal pronouns, "li", "sxi", "gxi", "ili", when used otherwise +than as subjects, never refer to the subject of the verb, but always to +some other person or thing: + + La knabo lauxdas lin, the boy praises him (another person). + Sxi donas pomojn al sxi, she gives apples to her (to another person). + La birdo vidis gxin, the bird saw it (something else than the bird). + La knaboj kasxis ilin, the boys hid them (other persons or things). + Ili trovis ilin apud si, + they found them (other persons or things) near them(selves). + La birdoj flugis al ili, the birds flew to them. + + + POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES. + +43. Words like "my," "his," "your," which indicate ownership or some +possessive relation, are called "possessive adjectives". Possessive +adjectives are formed from the personal pronouns by adding the adjective +ending "-a", as "mia", my, "via", your ("cia", thy), "lia", his, "sxia", +her, "gxia", its, "nia", our, "via", your (plural), "ilia", their. The +limitation in the use of the third personal pronouns ("42") is also true +of the adjectives derived from them: + + Mia domo kaj miaj gxardenoj estas grandaj, + my house and my gardens are large. + Johano sidas sur via segxo, John is sitting in your chair. + Li havas lian cxevalon, he has his (another person's) horse. + Cxu vi legis sxiajn librojn? Did you read her books? + +[Footnote: Sometimes these words are called possessive pronouns, +although really they are not pronouns at all, but pronominal adjectives +with a possessive meaning.] + +44. Reflexive possessive adjectives, like the reflexive pronoun, refer +to the subject of the verb in the sentence. For the first and second +persons, they are the same as the personal possessive adjectives. The +reflexive possessive adjective of the third person is "sia", his, her, +its, their, formed by adding the ending "-a" to the reflexive pronoun +"si": + + Mi havas miajn librojn sur mia tablo, I have my books on my table. + Johano perdis siajn librojn, John lost his (John's) books. + Mario estas en sia cxambro, Mary is in her room. + La birdoj flugis al sia arbo, the birds flew to their tree. + + + PRONOMINAL USE OF POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES. + +45. Possessive adjectives may be used predicatively, as "the book is +mine," or may modify some word or words not expressed, as "mine are +large." Instead of having special forms, like English "mine", "yours", +"hers", etc., Esperanto uses the regular possessive adjectives preceded +by the article: + + La granda libro estas la mia, the large book is mine. + La via estas granda, la miaj estas belaj, + yours is large, mine are beautiful. + Ili havas la sian, sed ne la lian, they have theirs, but not his. + La iliaj sxajnas esti bonaj, theirs seem to be good. + + + + VOCABULARY + + diro = saying, remark. mangxo = meal. + gxis = as far as, up to, down to. nesto = nest. + hieraux = yesterday. pasero = sparrow. + juna = young. patro = father. + kapti = to catch, to seize. post, after, behind. + kato = cat. surprizi = to surprise. + kolera = angry. teni = to hold, to keep. + lavi = to wash. vizagxo = face. + + + READING LESSON. + +1. Hieraux mi perdis mian grizan katon. 2. Ilia kato kaptis nian +birdon. 3. Via kolera diro surprizis mian patron. 4. Cxu la granda +kampo apartenas al sxia patro? 5. Ne, gxi ne estas la lia. 6. La lia +estas bela, sed mi preferas la mian. 7. Cxu vi sxatas vian libron aux +la ilian? 8. Li havas nek siajn cxevalojn nek la iliajn. 9. La knabinoj +sxajnas esti koleraj. 10. Ili komencis legi siajn librojn. 11. La viro +kaptis kaj tenis siajn cxevalojn, sed li ne trovis iliajn cxevalojn. +12. Sxia libro kusxas sur la planko, post sxia segxo. 13. Sxi ne trovis +ilian libron, sed la junaj infanoj trovis la nian. + + + LA KATO KAJ LA PASERO. + +Griza kato iris de la domo gxis la strato. Gxi vidis paseron antaux si, +kaj volis mangxi gxin. La kato staris post granda arbo, kaj kaptis la +paseron. La pasero diris "Bona kato lavas sin antaux sia mangxo, sed vi +ne lavis vian vizagxon." La interesa diro surprizis la katon. La kato +ne tenis la paseron, sed komencis lavi sian vizagxon. La pasero flugis +de la kato gxis la arbo. La kolera kato diris "Mi perdis mian mangxon, +cxar mi komencis lavi min antaux la mangxo!" Nun la katoj ne lavas sin +antaux la mangxoj. Ili havas siajn mangxojn, kaj post la mangxoj ili +lavas la vizagxojn. La paseroj ne surprizas ilin nun, sed ili tenas la +paserojn. La katoj estas felicxaj, sed la paseroj ne estas felicxaj. La +junaj paseroj volas flugi al la nestoj en la arboj. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. The boys are not in their (own) house, but they are in his. 2 Is the +large beautiful house yours? 3. The woman walked through the door of +their house, as far as her room. 4. The room has interesting pictures on +its walls. 5. We praised their flowers yesterday, and they gave them to +us. 6. Their books are in their (the books') box. 7. They are on their +(the boys') table. 8. The gray cat was angry because it did not hold the +bird. 9. The sparrow surprised it, and it commenced to wash its face. +10. The sparrow wished to fly as far as the tall tree, but the cat held +it. 11. The sparrow said "A good cat washes its face, but you are not a +good cat." 12. The sparrow was angry because the cat seized it and held +it. 13. The bird did not lose its meal, but the angry cat lost its meal. +14. Do you see his cat or hers? 15. I see both his and hers, but ours +is not in our garden. 16. My father is a tall strong man. 17. I like to +look at him. 18. The children saw the young birds in the nest. + + + + LESSON X. + + + THE ACCUSATIVE OF DIRECTION. + +46. When the verb in a sentence expresses motion, the word indicating +the place, person or thing toward which the motion is directed is given +the accusative ending. This is also true if the word is the complement +of any preposition which does not itself sufficiently indicate motion +in a certain direction. (The prepositions "al", to, toward, "gxis", +as far as, "tra", through, express motion in the direction of their +complements, and could not well be used except in a sentence whose verb +expresses motion. Consequently the accusative is not used after any of +these three): + + Li iris gxardenon, he went to the garden ("gardenward"). + La viro iros Bostonon, the man will go to Boston ("Bostonward"). + +[Footnote: Cf. English "he went home," "he went homeward," etc.] + + Li estis en la gxardeno, kaj kuris en la domon, + he was in the garden and ran into the house. + Gxi ne estas sur la tablo, gxi falis sur la plankon, + it is not on the table, it fell upon the floor. + Ili falis sub la tablon gxis la planko, + they fell under the table as far as the floor + (direction expressed by whole prepositional phrase). + Mi iris tra la domo en mian cxambron, + I went through the house into my room. + + + THE ARTICLE FOR THE POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE. + +47. In many sentences where the possessor is already sufficiently +indicated, English nevertheless uses a possessive adjective, as in "I +wash my face," "he shakes his head," but on the other hand omits it +entirely with certain words indicating relationship, as in "Brother gave +it to me," etc. In both cases Esperanto uses the article instead of the +possessive adjective, unless the fact of possession is to be emphasized: + + Mi lavas la vizagxon, I wash my face. + Li skuas la kapon, he shakes his head. + La patro estas alta, Father is tall. + Mi donis gxin al la patro, I gave it to Father. + + + APPOSITION. + +48. English often uses the preposition "of" between two words where +no idea of possession really exists, as "the city of Boston." Since +nouns used in apposition refer to the same thing, and are in the same +grammatical construction, Esperanto does not use a preposition: + + La urbo Bostono estas granda, the city (of) Boston is large. + Mia amiko Johano estas alta, my friend John is tall. + Cxu vi ne konas min, vian amikon? do you not know me, your friend? + + + VOCABULARY + + arabo = arab. meti = to put, to place. + baldaux = soon. nazo = nose. + Bostono = Boston. nur = only, merely. + frato = brother. pusxi = to push. + kamelo = camel. trans = across. + kapo = head. tuta = whole, entire, all. + kolo = neck. urbo = city. + korpo = body. varma = warm. + + + LA ARABO KAJ LA KAMELO. + +Arabo sidis en sia domo en la urbo. Apud domo trans la strato li vidis +kamelon. La kamelo iris trans la straton gxis la pordo, kaj diris al la +arabo, "Frato, mi ne estas varma, mi volas meti nur la nazon en vian +varman domon." La arabo skuis la kapon, sed la kamelo metis la nazon tra +la pordo en la cxambron. La kamelo komencis pusxi sian tutan vizagxon +en la domon. Baldaux li havis la kapon gxis la kolo en la domo. Post la +kapo iris la kolo en gxin, kaj baldaux la tuta korpo estis en la domo. +La arabo estis kolera, cxar li ne volis havi tutan kamelon en sia domo. +Li kuris al la kamelo, kaptis lin, tenis lin, kaj diris, "Frato, vi +volis meti nur la nazon en mian domon. La cxambro ne estas granda sed +gxi estas la mia, kaj mi preferas sidi en gxi." "Via diro estas bona," +diris la kamelo, "via domo ne estas granda, sed gxi estas varma, kaj mi +sxatas stari en gxi. Mi preferas stari kaj kusxi en gxi, kaj mi donos +al vi mian arbon trans la strato. Cxu vi ne volas iri sub la arbon?" +Kaj la kamelo pusxis la arabon de lia domo en la straton de la urbo. La +kamelo nun trovis sin en varma cxambro, sed la juna arabo staris trans +la strato kaj ne estis varma. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. The cat ran across the street. 2. Across the street it found a +sparrow. 3. It caught the bird, but began to wash its face, and the +sparrow flew to the nest. 4. I went into the garden as far as the large +tree. 5. I did not hold my book, and it fell upon the floor. 6. It began +to fall under the table, but I seized it. 7. My brother pushed the +books into their box, and put it on the table. 8. We went to the city +of Boston yesterday and into a beautiful house. 9. The arab shook his +head and said, "No." 10. But the camel commenced to go through the door. +11. His remark did not seem to surprise the camel. 12. The camel pushed +its head and neck, and soon its whole body into the warm house. 13. It +wished to put merely its nose into it. 14. The arab was angry, because +it pushed itself into his house. 15. He said, "Brother, the house is +mine, and I do not wish to have you in it." 16. But soon after the +remark, the whole camel was in the house. 17. He pushed the young arab +into the street. 18. He went across the street and stood upon the grass +under a tree. + + + + LESSON XI. + + + POSSESSIVE CASE OF NOUNS. + +49. The preposition "de" is used to express possession or connection: + + La muroj de la domo, the walls of the house. + La koloroj de la floroj, the colors of the flowers. + La libro de la knabo, the book of the boy (the boy's book). + Brancxo de la arbo, a branch of the tree. + La gxardeno de la viroj, the garden of the men (the men's garden). + + + IMPERSONAL VERBS. + +50. Verbs with an impersonal or indeterminate subject, as "it rains," +"it is snowing," are called impersonal, because there is no actual +subject, the word "it" serving merely as an introductory particle. No +such particle is used with impersonal verbs in Esperanto: + + Pluvas, it rains, it is raining. + Negxis hieraux, it snowed yesterday. + + + VERBS PRECEDING THEIR SUBJECTS. + +51. When the verb in a sentence precedes its subject, English often uses +an introductory particle, such as "there," "it." In Esperanto no such +particles are needed: + + Estas floroj sur la tablo, there are flowers on the table. + Estis Johano, ne Alfredo, en la gxardeno, + it was John, not Alfred, in the garden. + Estas domo en la kampo, there is a house in the field. + Estis mi, it was I. + + + COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS. + +52. Words like "aux", "kaj", "nek", "sed", which join words, +word-groups, or sentences together are conjunctions. All the +conjunctions given so far connect words, phrases, or sentences of +similar rank or kind. These are called coordinating conjunctions, +and the words, phrases, or sentences connected by them are said +to be coordinate: + + Cxu vi marsxas aux kuras? + ("Aux" connects the verbs.) + + Sxi iris, kaj ni estis felicxaj. + ("Kaj" connects the sentences.) + + Nek vi nek mi vidis gxin. + (The second "nek" connects the pronouns, + the first being introductory and adverbial.) + + Aux li aux sxi perdis la libron. + (The second "aux" connects the pronouns, + the first being introductory and adverbial.) + + Gxi falis sur la segxon, sed ne sur la plankon. + ("Sed" connects the phrases.) + + Li ne sxatis gxin. Tamen li tenis gxin. + ("Tamen" connects the sentences.) + +[Footnote: A phrase is a word-group forming an expression, but not +containing a verb, as "through the house," "of the man," "before me," +etc.] + +[Footnote: Coordinating conjunctions may be further classified according +to their meaning: "Aux" is disjunctive, connecting alternates, and +expressing separation. "Kaj" is copulative, expressing union. "Nek" +is disjunctive, expressing separation and also negation. "Sed" is +adversative, expressing opposition, contrast, or modification of a +previous statement. "Tamen" is adversative, affirming something in spite +of a previous objection or concession. "Do," "so, then, consequently," +is argumentative, expressing a logical inference or result in a somewhat +conversational manner.] + + + VOCABULARY + + akvo = water. porti = to carry. + amiko = friend. ricxa = rich, wealthy. + ankaux = also. sablo = sand. + bezoni = to need. sako = sack, bag. + dezerto = desert. seka = dry. + fidela = faithful. tamen = nevertheless. + mono = money. trinki = to drink. + negxi = to snow. veni = to come. + pluvi = to rain. vojo = road, way. + + + LA ARABO EN LA DEZERTO. + +Arabo iris trans grandan sekan dezerton. Kamelo, lia fidela amiko, +portis lin. La kamelo ankaux portis belajn tapisxojn, cxar la arabo +estis ricxa viro. La arabo havis ne nur tapisxojn, sed ankaux sakojn. En +la sakoj estis akvo, cxar en la dezerto nek pluvas nek negxas. La viro +trinkis akvon, kaj ankaux donis akvon al sia kamelo. La kamelo marsxis +kaj marsxis, sed ne venis al la domo de la arabo, cxar ili perdis la +vojon. La suno brilis, kaj la sablo de la dezerto sxajnis varma. La +arabo ne trovis la vojon, kaj baldaux li ne havis akvon. Tamen la kamelo +marsxis kaj marsxis, kaj baldaux la arabo vidis sakon antaux si, sur la +seka sablo. Li estis felicxa kaj diris al si "Cxu estas akvo en gxi? +Mi volas trinki, kaj volas doni akvon al mia fidela kamelo." Li ankaux +volis lavi la tutan vizagxon en la akvo, cxar li estis varma. Post sia +diro li kaptis la sakon, kaj komencis rigardi en gxin. Li metis la nazon +en gxin, sed ne trovis akvon en la sako. Nek li nek lia fidela kamelo +havis akvon, cxar estis nur mono en la sako. La arabo estis kolera, cxar +li ne volis monon, li bezonis akvon. Li havis monon en sia domo en la +urbo, kaj volis trovi akvon. Cxu li tamen metis la sakon trans la kolon +de sia kamelo? Ne, li ne volis meti gxin sur sian kamelon, cxar li estis +kolera. Li ne tenis la sakon, sed gxi falis sur la sablon, kaj kusxis +apud li. La sako nun kusxas sur la sablo de la granda dezerto, kaj la +mono estas en gxi. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Today it is raining, but yesterday it was snowing. 2. Did your friend +John carry his chair into the house? 3. I saw your good friends on the +way to the city. 4. Is the large sack behind the door theirs? 5. Neither +she nor her brother saw the whole city. 6. They went to the city of +Boston and lost their way. 7. There are interesting houses across the +street. 8. The body of a camel is large, and its neck is long. 9. The +camel pushed its head into the house of the arab, and he was angry. 10. +On the sand in the desert there lies a sack. 11. In the sack there is +money. 12. The arab was warm, and wished to drink water. 13. He also +wished to give water to the faithful camel. 14. Nevertheless, he found +only money in the sack. 15. He was angry, and did not keep the sack. +16. Yesterday he wished to find money, but today he prefers water. 17. +Nevertheless there is only sand in the desert. 18. He wished to come +from the dry desert to the house of a faithful friend. 19. Both he and +his friends are rich. 20. They went to his house yesterday, and came to +theirs today. 21. They do not need money. + + + + LESSON XII. + + + INDIRECT STATEMENTS. + +53. A statement made indirectly by means of a clause dependent upon a +verb meaning "say," "think," "know," "believe," or a similar expression, +as in "I know that he came," "I hear that he is good," is called an +"indirect statement." (The "direct" statement is "he came," "he is +good.") An indirect statement is joined to the main verb or sentence by +the subordinating conjunction "ke," that. + + Johano diras ke vi venis hieraux, + John says that you came yesterday. + Sxi opinias ke estas mono en la sako, + she thinks that there is money in the bag. + +[Footnote: A clause is a group of words including a verb, which is +dependent upon or subordinate to a main verb or sentence, as "--that he +came," "--when he went," "--that he is good," etc.] + +[Footnote: In English the subordinating conjunction may sometimes be +omitted, either "I think that he is good," or "I think he is good," +being usually permissible. But in Esperanto there is no variation, and +the conjunction "ke" is never omitted.] + + + THE INDEFINITE PERSONAL PRONOUN "ONI". + +54. When an indefinite personal pronoun is desired, as in the +expressions "one knows," "they say," "people say," "you can see," etc., +the indefinite personal pronoun "oni" is used. This pronoun may also be +used in translating such expressions as "it is said," "I am told," etc.: + + Oni diras ke li estas ricxa, they say (one says) that he is rich. + Oni vidas ke ili estas amikoj, one sees that they are friends. + Mi opinias ke oni sxatas lin, + I think that people like him (that he is liked). + Oni diris al mi ke estas sablo en la dezerto, + I was told (people said to me) that there is sand in the desert. + Oni opinias ke sxi estas felicxa, + it is thought (one thinks) that she is happy. + Cxu oni vidis nin en la gxardeno? + Were we seen (did people see us) in the garden? + Oni sxatas agrablajn infanojn, + people like agreeable children (agreeable children are liked). + + + THE FUTURE TENSE. + +55. The future tense of the verb expresses an act or state as about to +take place, or as one that will take place in future time. The ending of +this tense is "-os," as "kuros," will run, "flugos," will fly, "brilos," +will shine. The conjugation of "esti" and also of "vidi" in the future +tense is as follows: + + mi estos = I shall be. mi vidos = I shall see. + vi estos = you will be. vi vidos = you will see. + li (sxi, gxi) estos = li (sxi, gxi) vidos : + he (she, it) will be. he (she, it) will see. + ni estos = we shall be. ni vidos = we shall see. + vi estos = you (plural) will be. vi vidos = you (plural) will see. + ili estos = they will be. ili vidos = they will see. + + + VOCABULARY + + auxdi = to hear. oni = (see 54). + blovi = to blow. opinii = to think, to opine. + greno = grain (wheat, corn, etc.). orienta = east, eastern. + ke = that (conjunction). pluvo = rain. + kontraux = against. suda = south, southern. + montri = to show, to point out. velki = to wilt, to wither. + norda = north, northern. vento = wind. + nova = new. ventoflago = weathercock. + okcidenta = west, western. vetero = weather. + + + LA VENTOFLAGO. + +Estis varma vetero, la suno brilis, kaj suda vento blovis. Tamen la +nova ventoflago sur la domo diris al si, "La sudan venton mi ne sxatas. +Mi preferas orientan venton." La vento orienta auxdis la diron kaj gxi +venis kontraux la ventoflagon. Pluvis kaj pluvis, kaj oni estis kolera +kontraux la ventoflago, cxar gxi montras orientan venton. Gxi diris, +"Pluvas nun, sed la greno en la kampoj bezonos sekan veteron. Oni estos +kolera kontraux mi, cxar mi montras orientan venton." La okcidenta vento +auxdis la ventoflagon, kaj baldaux venis. Gxi ne estis forta, sed gxi +estis seka kaj agrabla vento, kaj ne portis pluvon. La viroj, virinoj, +kaj junaj infanoj volis trinki, sed ili ne havis akvon. La greno kaj la +floroj velkis, kaj la frukto ankaux falis. La nova ventoflago diris, +"Oni estos kolera kontraux mi, cxar ne pluvas. Oni opinios ke, cxar mi +montras okcidentan venton, la frukto falas, kaj la greno kaj floroj +velkas. Mi sxatas montri nek okcidentan nek orientan venton!" Norda +vento auxdis kaj venis al la ventoflago. La vetero ne estis agrabla, +kaj la virinoj kaj la junaj infanoj ne estis varmaj. Negxis, kaj oni +estis kolera. Oni diris "La greno kaj la frukto bezonas varman veteron, +sed hodiaux negxas. Ni preferas la sudan venton. Ni havis gxin, antaux +la orienta, la okcidenta, kaj la norda ventoj. La ventoflago ne estas +fidela amiko al ni. Gxi ne montras bonajn ventojn, kaj ni volas rompi +gxin!" Oni kuris al la domo, kaptis la novan ventoflagon, kaj ankaux +rompis gxin. Gxi falis, kaj kusxis sur la vojo antaux la domo. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. One can see that the weathercock points-out the winds. 2. They say +that the west wind will be a dry wind. 3. The weathercock now shows that +an agreeable south wind blows. 4. People will be angry with (against) +the weathercock, because it points-out a north wind. 5. A north wind is +not warm, and the grain and fruit will need a warm wind. 6. It snowed, +and the young children were not warm, because the north wind blew. 7. +People will like a south wind, but an east wind will carry rain. 8. +Can one find money in the desert? 9. Do you think (that) he is in the +house? 10. He is said to be (they say that he is) on the street. 11. +It is thought (people think) that the camel is a faithful friend. 12. +I am told (people tell me) that the camel has a large body, and a long +neck. 13. One can see that it is not beautiful. 14. People do not like +to drink warm water. 15. Nevertheless we shall drink warm water in the +city. 16. It was beautiful weather yesterday, but today we shall have +good weather also. 17. I think that a warm wind will blow soon. 18. My +friend has a beautiful new house. + + + + LESSON XIII. + + + THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN "TIU". + +56. The demonstrative pronoun "tiu", that, is used to indicate a person +or a definitely specified thing. The plural is "tiuj", those: + + Tiu estas la via, kaj mi volas tiun, + that is yours, and I wish that one. + Tiuj estos koleraj kontraux vi, those will be angry with you. + Li auxdis tiujn, he heard those (persons, or things). + +57. The demonstrative pronoun "tiu" is also used as a "pronominal +adjective", in agreement with a noun: + + Tiu vento estos varma, that wind will be warm. + Mi vidas tiun ventoflagon, I see that weathercock. + Tiuj infanoj estas junaj, those children are young. + Mi trovos tiujn librojn, I shall find those books. + + + TENSES IN INDIRECT QUOTATIONS. + +58. The verb in an indirect statement (53) or an indirect question +remains in the same tense in which it would be if the statement or +question were direct. (In English this is true only if the introductory +verb is present or future, since after an introductory past tense the +tense of the indirect quotation is changed, and "am, is, are, have, +will" become "was, were, had, would," etc.) + + Mi diras ke li estas bona, I say that he is good. + " diris " " " " , I said that he was good. + " diros " " " " , I shall say that he is good. + Li miras cxu mi auxdas, he wonders whether I hear. + " miris " " " , he wondered whether I heard. + " miros " " " , he will wonder whether I hear. + Mi opiniis ke gxi estas bona, I thought that it was good + (I thought "it is good"). + Oni miris cxu li venos, they wondered whether he would come + (they wondered "will he come?"). + +[Footnote: An indirect question is introduced by "cxu", whether, after +verbs meaning "ask," "wonder," "know," etc.: "Mi miras cxu li venis", I +wonder whether he came. "Oni demandas cxu li estas ricxa", people ask +whether he is rich.] + + + FORMATION OF FEMININE NOUNS. + +59. Feminine nouns corresponding to distinctly masculine nouns such as +"frato", "knabo", "viro", may be formed from these by inserting the +suffix "-in-" just before the noun-ending "-o": + + fratino = sister patrino = mother + (from frato, brother). (from patro, father). + knabino = girl virino = woman + (from knabo, boy). (from viro, man). + + +[Footnote: Cf. English names similarly formed from masculine names, +as "Pauline, Josephine, Ernestine, Geraldine," etc., also German +"Koenigin", queen, from "Koenig", king; "Loewin", lioness, from "Loewe", +lion, etc.] + + + VOCABULARY + + almenaux = at least. paroli = to talk, to speak. + cxapelo = hat. parko = park. + cxielo = sky, heaven. preskaux = almost. + filo = son. pri = concerning, about. + konstrui = to build. promeni = to take a walk. + miri = to wonder. super = above. + morgaux = tomorrow. timi = to fear, to be afraid (of). + nubo = cloud. tiu = that (56). + ombrelo = umbrella. zorga = careful. + + + EN LA PARKO. + +Miaj junaj amiko kaj amikino, kaj ankaux ilia patrino, iris hieraux al +la parko. La infanoj diris al la patrino ke la parko estas agrabla, +kaj ke ili volas promeni en gxi. La knabino parolis al sia frato pri +la belaj floroj. Sxi diris al li ke la floroj velkas, kaj ke la herbo +en preskaux la tuta parko bezonas pluvon. La knabo diris hodiaux al +mi ke hieraux li kaj lia fratino auxdis la birdojn en la arboj super +siaj kapoj. Li diris ke li miris pri tiuj birdoj, tamen li opinias ke +la birdoj baldaux konstruos siajn nestojn en tiuj arboj. La infanoj +promenis, kaj baldaux ili vidis ke grizaj nuboj venas sur la cxielon, +kaj mia juna amikino timis ke pluvos. Sxi parolis al la patrino pri la +nuboj kaj la pluvo, montris al sxi la grizajn nubojn, kaj diris ke si +volas iri al la domo. Ili komencis marsxi al la strato, kaj preskaux +kuris, cxar ili ne havis ombrelon. Tra la fenestroj de la domoj oni +rigardis ilin, kaj la knabo miris cxu li kaj liaj patrino kaj fratino +amuzas tiujn virojn kaj virinojn. Tamen la patrino diris ke sxi ne timas +ke sxi amuzos tiujn, sed ke sxi timas la pluvon. Sxi kaj la filino volas +esti zorgaj pri almenaux la novaj cxapeloj. La filo diris al sxi ke li +ankaux estas zorga, sed ke li opinias ke ne pluvos. Baldaux la patro +venis al ili, kaj portis ombrelojn, cxar li ankaux timis la pluvon. +Li miris cxu la infanoj kaj ilia patrino havas ombrelojn. Baldaux +pluvis, sed ili estis sekaj, cxar ili havis la ombrelojn. Morgaux ili ne +promenos en la parko, sed iros al la urbo. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. The east wind is dry and the south wind will be too warm. 2. A +west wind blew against the weathercock, but the grain needed a south +wind. 3 A north wind is blowing and I think that it will soon snow. 4. +It (51) will be beautiful weather tomorrow, because a pleasant wind +is now blowing. 5. The flowers will wither because those children +gathered them. 6. They are talking about that park, but I do not wish to +take-a-walk, because there are clouds in (on) the sky. 7. At least we +shall take an umbrella, and my brother will hold it over our heads. 8. +My sister said "Mother and I are-afraid that it will rain." 9. My young +sister will be careful about that new umbrella. 10. I wonder whether +she will take-a-walk tomorrow. 11. That park is pleasant and the grass +is soft and green. 12. The birds are building their nests now, in those +branches above our heads. 13. The sky above us is blue, and a west wind +is beginning to blow. 14. I can see that weathercock, on that large +house near the park. 15. Mother says that my sister will have a new hat +tomorrow. 16. She will be careful of (about) that hat. 17. My father's +friend is very careful of his son. 18. One sees that he is not a strong +boy. + + + LESSON XIV. + + + THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN "CXI TIU". + +60. The demonstrative pronoun (and pronominal adjective) meaning "this" +is formed by using with "tiu" (56) the word "cxi", which expresses the +general idea of nearness or proximity. (Consequently the literal meaning +of "cxi tiu" is "that one nearby", "that one here".) The word "cxi" may +either precede or follow the pronoun: + + Cxi tiu estas la mia, this is mine. + Mi vidis cxi tiun, I saw this one. + Cxu vi volas tiujn cxi? Do you wish these? + Cxi tiu knabino estas mia fratino, this girl is my sister. + Mi vidis cxi tiujn cxapelojn, I saw these hats. + Cxi tiuj amikoj promenos, these friends will take a walk. + +61. The words "tiu" and "cxi tiu" may be used to distinguish between +persons or things "previously" mentioned and "just" mentioned: + + Gertrude kaj Mario estas en la parko. + Tiu rigardas la florojn, cxi tiu kolektas ilin. + + Gertrude and Mary are in the park. + The former (that one) looks at the flowers, + the latter (this one) gathers them. + + + POSSESSIVE FORM OF THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN. + +62. To express possession, the demonstrative pronouns "tiu" and "cxi +tiu" have the special possessive or genitive forms "ties", that one's, +and "cxi ties", this one's. The use of "ties" and "cxi ties" to mean +"the former" and "the latter" is similar to the use of "tiu" and "cxi +tiu" shown in 61: + + + Mi iris al ties domo, I went to that one's house. + Cxi ties filoj estas junaj, + this person's (this one's) sons are young. + Mi sxatas ties koloron, sed preferas cxi tiun floron, + I like that one's color, but prefer this flower. + La patro kaj lia amiko parolas pri siaj domoj. + Ties estas nova, sed cxi ties sxajnas bela. + Father and his friend are talking about their houses. + The former's is new, but the latter's seems beautiful. + + + THE SUFFIX "-IL-". + +63. Names of instruments, tools or utensils may be formed by adding +the suffix "-il-" (followed by the ending "-o") to roots whose meaning +permits: + + flugilo, wing (from flugi, to fly). + kaptilo, snare, trap (from kapti, to catch). + kudrilo, needle (from kudri, to sew). + montrilo, indicator, (clock) hand (from montri, to point out, show). + tenilo, handle (from teni, to hold). + +[Footnote: The root of a word is that part of it which contains the +essential meaning, and to which the verb endings "-i", "-as", "-is", +"-os", the noun ending "-o", the adjective ending "-a", etc., are +attached, when no suffix intervenes. Thus, "vir-" is the root of "viro" +and of "virino"; "kur-" is the root of "kuri", etc.] + + + THE EXPRESSION OF MEANS OR INSTRUMENTALITY. + +64. The means or instrumentality through which an act is accomplished is +expressed by use of the preposition "per": + + Oni kudras per kudrilo, one sews by means of (with) a needle. + La birdoj flugas per flugiloj, the birds fly by (with) wings. + Li amuzas sin per tiuj bildoj, + he amuses himself with (by) those pictures. + Mi trovis gxin per via helpo, I found it by (through) your help. + + + VOCABULARY + + busxo = mouth. per = by means of (64). + dekstra = right (not left). supo = soup. + cxi (see 60). telero = plate. + forko = fork. terpomo = potato. + helpo = help. ties = that one's (62). + kafo = coffee. trancxi = to cut. + kulero = spoon. tre = very, exceedingly. + mano = hand. viando = meat. + + + LA MANGXO. + +Hieraux mi miris cxu mi havos bonan mangxon en la domo de mia amiko. Sed +mi opiniis ke mi havos tre bonan mangxon, cxar mia amiko sxatas doni +bonajn mangxojn al siaj amikoj. Oni metis tre bonan supon antaux mi, +kaj mi mangxis tiun per granda kulero. Post la supo mi havis viandon. +Cxi tiun mi tenis per forko, kaj trancxis per akra trancxilo. La forko, +trancxilo kaj kulero estas mangxiloj. Mi havis ne nur viandon, sed +ankaux novajn terpomojn. Mi trancxis tiujn cxi per la trancxilo, sed +mi metis ilin en la busxon per forko. Mi tenis la forkon en la dekstra +mano, kaj metis la trancxilon trans mian teleron. Oni bezonas akran +trancxilon, sed oni ne bezonas tre akran forkon. Post la viando kaj la +terpomoj, oni donis al mi fresxajn maturajn cxerizojn. Ili kusxis sur +granda telero, kaj havis belan koloron. Ilia gusto estis ankaux bona. +Mi preskaux ne diris ke mi ankaux havis kafon. Mi parolos morgaux al +mia amiko pri lia kafo, kaj lauxdos gxin. Post la mangxo, najbaro de +mia amiko venis en cxi ties domon, kaj ili parolis al mi pri siaj novaj +domoj. Per la helpo de sia patro, mia amiko konstruos grandan domon. +Lia najbaro volas konstrui belan sed ne tre grandan domon. Ties nova +domo estos bela, sed mi opinias ke mi preferos cxi ties domon. Mia amiko +volis doni almenaux kafon al sia najbaro, sed li diris ke li ne volas +trinki kafon. Tamen li volis persikon. Li tenis tiun en la mano, kaj +mangxis tiun. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. The birds have very strong wings on their bodies, but they do not +have hands. 2. They will build their nests, and sing about the young +birds. 3. Those children were talking to me yesterday about their cat. +4. They said that it likes to catch and eat sparrows. 5. Tomorrow it +will hide (itself) behind a tree, and will catch a young sparrow. 6. The +children will gather peaches in that-person's garden, and will put them +upon a plate. 7. They will shake the whole tree by means of a branch. 8. +The sweet fruit above them will fall upon the soft green grass. 9. The +children wondered whether the cherries were ripe. 10. They seem almost +ripe, and tomorrow the children will pick (gather) them, with the help +of their father. 11. It is said (54) that the grain in that-man's field +very [much] needs rain. 12. People also think that the flowers will +wither, for (because) it did not rain yesterday or today. 13. My careful +young friend will carry an umbrella in his hand tomorrow, because he +fears the rain. 14. He sees those gray clouds in (on) the sky. 15. He +holds the umbrella by its handle. 16. The weathercock is an indicator +concerning the weather. 17. One eats meat with a fork, and soup with a +spoon. 18. One holds the spoon in the right hand. 19. A knife is sharp, +but one does not need a sharp fork. 20. We shall have a very good meal, +and also very good coffee. + + + + LESSON XV. + + + THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVE. + +65. The demonstrative adjective related to the demonstrative pronoun +"tiu" (56) is "tia", that kind of, that sort of, such: + + Tia floro estas bela, that kind of a flower is beautiful. + Mi sxatas tian viandon, I like that sort of meat. + Tiaj najbaroj estas agrablaj, + such (that kind of) neighbors are pleasant. + Mi volas auxdi tiajn birdojn, I wish to hear such birds. + + + ADVERBS DEFINED AND CLASSIFIED. + +66. An adverb is a word which modifies the meaning of a verb, adjective, +another adverb, or phrase. It may express manner, time, degree, +negation, etc. Adverbs are either primary, as "now," "almost," or +derived, as "glad-ly," "sweet-ly," The Esperanto primary adverbs given +in this and in preceding lessons may be classified as follows: + + (a) Temporal Adverbs (expressing time). + + baldaux = soon. morgaux = tomorrow. + hieraux = yesterday. nun = now. + hodiaux = today. tuj = immediately. + + (b) Adverbs of Degree. + + almenaux = at least. preskaux = almost. + nur = merely. tre = very, much. + + (c) Adverbs Expressing Other Ideas. + + addition: ankaux = also. emphasis: ecx = even. + interrogation: cxu, (30). affirmation: jes = yes. + proximity: cxi, (60). negation: ne = not, no, (27). + +a. An adverb usually precedes, but may also follow, the word or words +which it modifies. It must be so placed as to leave no doubt about which +of two words or word-groups it is intended to modify. Thus, "mi preskaux +volis havi tiun" clearly means "I almost wished to have that"; but "mi +volis preskaux havi tiun" might mean either "I almost wished to have +that," or more probably "I wished almost to have that." An example of +permissible variation in the position of adverbs is shown in questions +to which an affirmative answer is expected. Such questions may be put in +the form of a statement, followed by "cxu ne" (instead of having "cxu" +introduce the sentence, with "ne" in its normal position): + + Li venos, cxu ne? He will come, will he not? + La vetero estas bela, cxu ne? The weather is beautiful, is it not? + Vi auxdis tiun diron, cxu ne? You heard that remark, did you not? + + + FORMATION OF OPPOSITES. + +67. If the meaning of a word is such that it can have a direct opposite, +such opposite may be formed from it by use of the prefix "mal-": + + malalta = low, short (from "alta", high, tall). + malamiko = enemy (from "amiko", friend). + maldekstra = left (from "dekstra", right). + malhelpi = to hinder (from "helpi", to help). + maljuna = aged, old (from "juna", young). + malnova = old, not new (from "nova", new). + +[Footnote: Cf. English "malcontent", "discontented," "maladroit", +"clumsy."] + + + VOCABULARY + + dum = during. povi = to be able. + ecx = even. preni = to take. + gardi = to guard. propono = proposal. + helpi = to help, to aid. respondi = to answer. + honti = to be ashamed. ruza = sly, cunning. + kara = dear. sxteli = to steal. + kontenta = satisfied. tia = that kind of (65). + kuragxa = courageous. tuj = immediately. + nokto = night. vocxo = voice. + + + LA RUZA JUNA VIRO. + +Ruza juna viro kaj bona maljuna viro iris trans dezerton. Tiu havis +nigran cxevalon, cxi tiu havis blankan cxevalon. "Vi gardos niajn +cxevalojn dum la nokto, cxu ne?" diris la juna viro per dolcxa vocxo al +sia amiko, "Cxar dum la nokto oni ne povos vidi mian nigran cxevalon, +sed malamikoj povos tuj vidi vian blankan cxevalon. Oni povos sxteli +tian cxevalon, cxar vi estas maljuna kaj malforta, kaj ne povos malhelpi +malamikojn." Tia propono ne sxajnis agrabla al la maljuna viro. Li ne +estis kontenta, tamen li ne volis perdi sian cxevalon, cxar li estis +malricxa. Li diris al si ke li donos sian blankan cxevalon al la juna +viro, kaj prenos ties nigran cxevalon. Tuj li diris al cxi tiu "Sed per +via helpo mi ne perdos mian cxevalon: mi donos la mian al vi, kaj prenos +vian cxevalon. La via estas malbela, sed gxi estas almenaux nigra; vi +donos gxin al mi, cxu ne?" "Jes," respondis la ruza juna viro, kaj li +donis sian nigran cxevalon al tiu, kaj prenis la blankan cxevalon. +"Nun," diris la maljuna viro, "Vi estas kuragxa kaj forta, kaj vi gardos +la cxevalojn, cxu ne? Vi povos malhelpi malamikojn per tiu granda akra +trancxilo, kaj oni ne povos sxteli vian blankan cxevalon." La ruza juna +viro ne hontis. Li respondis "Mia kara amiko, mi nun dormos, cxar oni +ne sxtelos blankan cxevalon. Mi povos vidi tian cxevalon dum la nokto, +kaj malhelpi malamikojn. Sed tiu cxevalo via ("that horse of yours") +havas la koloron de la nokto, kaj ecx nun oni povas sxteli gxin." La +malkontenta maljuna viro diris per kolera vocxo "Cxu vi ne hontas pri +tia propono?" Tamen la ruza juna viro tuj komencis dormi, kaj la maljuna +viro gardis la cxevalojn dum la tuta nokto. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + (Words to be formed with the prefix "mal-" are quoted.) + +1. Does one eat potatoes and meat with a fork or a spoon? 2. One puts +soup into the mouth by means of a spoon. 3. One cuts fruit with a knife, +and puts the fruit upon a plate. 4. The coffee was "cold", and I was +much "dissatisfied". 5. My knife was "dull", nevertheless I almost +immediately cut my (the) "left" hand. 6. I was ashamed, but I think +that the handle of that knife was very "short". 7. The grass is "wet" +today, and I fear that we shall not be able to take a walk, even in that +"small" park. 8. I "dislike" to go-walking upon the "hard" streets. +9. The courageous young man and his "aged" friend talked about their +"enemies". 10. They wished to be careful about their horses. 11. The +young man was very sly, and wished to sleep during the night. 12. He +said that one can steal a black horse during the "dark" night. 13. He +said that either (aux) he or the "old" man would guard the horses. 14. +The "old" man answered that he would give to him his [own] white horse. +15. He took that one's black horse. 16. He was ashamed, and was very +angry at his "faithless" friend. 17. But he "stayed-awake", and guarded +the horses. + + + + LESSON XVI. + + + THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADVERB OF PLACE. + +68. The demonstrative adverbs of place related to the pronouns "tiu" and +"cxi tiu" are "tie", there, in (at) that place, and "cxi tie", here, in +(at) this place: + + La telero estas tie, the plate is there (in that place). + La libroj kusxas cxi tie, the books lie here (in this place). + Mi trovis vin tie kaj lin tie cxi, I found you there and him here. + Tie la vetero sxajnas tre agrabla, + there the weather seems very pleasant. + +69. If the verb in the sentence expresses motion toward the place +indicated by "tie" or "cxi tie", the ending "-n" is added to the adverb +(46), forming "tien", thither, there, and "cxi tien", hither, here: + + Li iros tien, he will go there (thither). + Mi venis cxi tien, I came here (hither). + Ni estis tie, kaj venis cxi tien, + we were there and came here (hither). + + + ACCOMPANIMENT. + +70. Accompaniment or association is expressed by the preposition "kun", +with, along with: + + La viro venis kun sia amiko, the man came with his friend. + Mi promenos kun vi, I shall go walking with you. + La knabo kun tiu viro estas lia frato, + the boy with that man is his brother. + +[Footnote: "Kun" must not be confused with "per" (64), which expresses +instrumentality, although per may often be translated by English "with." +The English preposition "with" may be said to have three rather clearly +defined different meanings. In the linguistic history of this word, +the original meaning was "against," still shown in "fight with, strive +with, contend with, withstand", etc. (Cf. German "widerstreiten", to +strive with, "widerhalten", to resist, etc.) Gradually this word "with" +usurped the meaning of the original preposition "mid," expressing +association or accompaniment (cf. German "mit", with, which it crowded +out of the language except in one unimportant compound). The word +"by" was also encroaching upon "mid" from another direction, and so +"mid's" successor "with" came to be interchangeable with "by" in +expressing instrumentality. Thus, English "with" indicates opposition, +accompaniment, or instrumentality, for which three senses Esperanto has +the three prepositions "kontraux", "kun", and "per", respectively.] + + + THE ADVERB "FOR". + +71. The adverb "for", away, may be used independently, as "Li iris +for de mi", he went away from me, but it is more frequently used as a +prefix to give a sense of departure, loss or somewhat forcible removal: + + foriri = to go away, to depart. + forkuri = to run away, to escape. + forlasi = to leave alone, to abandon, to desert. + formangxi = to eat away, to eat up. + forpreni = to take away, to remove. + fortrinki = to drink away, to drink up. + +[Footnote: Cf. the prefix "for-" in English "forfend," to keep away, +to avert, "forbid," to exclude from, to command against, "forbear," to +refrain from, etc.] + + + THE MEANING OF "POVI". + +72. The verb "povi", to be able, is used to translate English "can", +which is defective, that is, does not occur in all of the forms a verb +may have: + + Mi povas paroli, I am able to talk, I can talk. + Mi povis paroli, I was able to talk, I could talk. + Mi povos paroli, I shall be able to talk, ------. + Mi volas povi paroli, I wish to be able to talk, ------. + + + VOCABULARY + + el = out of, out. peli = to drive, to chase. + cxirkaux = around, roundabout. posxo = pocket. + for = away (71). rajdi = to ride. + frua = early. rapidi = to hasten. + glavo = sword. resti = to remain, to stay. + horo = hour. sagxa = wise. + kun = with (70). tie = there (68). + lasi = to leave. voki = to call. + + + MALAMIKOJ EN LA DEZERTO. + +Juna viro kaj lia sagxa patro volis iri trans la dezerton, kun siaj +amikoj. La amikoj estis fortaj, kaj la juna viro estis tre kuragxa. Ili +restis en malgranda urbo dum la nokto, kaj forrajdis kun tiuj amikoj. +La patro kaj la filo opiniis ke la amikoj kun ili povos helpi per siaj +akraj glavoj. Ili opiniis ke ili povos forpeli la malamikojn. Ecx en +la dezerto oni trovas malamikojn. Tiaj malamikoj forprenas la monon de +bonaj viroj. La juna viro estis kontenta, cxar li estis kun la amikoj. +La maljuna viro estis kontenta cxar li estis kun sia filo. Baldaux la +nokto venis. Estis tre malluma tie en la dezerto, kaj ili preskaux ne +povis vidi. Dum la fruaj horoj de la nokto la patro auxdis vocxojn, kaj +preskaux tuj li vidis la malamikojn. La ruzaj malbonaj viroj rapidis +tien, kaj vokis la maljunan viron. La malkuragxaj amikoj de la patro kaj +filo nek restis tie, nek helpis forpeli la malamikojn. Ili tuj forkuris. +La malamikoj staris cxirkaux la patro, kaj forpusxis lin de lia cxevalo. +La filo volis malhelpi ilin, sed li ne povis. Li povis nur resti kun la +patro, kaj gardi lin tie kontraux la glavoj de la malamikoj. Baldaux la +malamikoj komencis forpreni la monon el la posxoj de la sagxa maljuna +viro. La kolera filo diris per maldolcxa ("bitter") vocxo "Cxu vi ne +hontas? Cxu vi lasos al ni nek la cxevalojn nek nian monon?" Sed la +malamikoj respondis "Ne, ni lasos al vi nek la cxevalojn nek la monon. +Ni ne estas malsagxaj." Post tiu diro ili tuj forrapidis, kaj prenis kun +si la cxevalojn. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. The foolish friends of the young man and his aged father did not stay +with them. 2. They did not help them with their swords, but ran away at +once ("tuj"), and were not ashamed. 3. The old man heard disagreeable +voices behind him, and soon he saw the enemy. 4. The enemy called them, +and hastened there (69). 5. Those sly bad men took the money out of +the pockets of the courageous young man. 6. They stood around him, and +also around his father. 7. The father and son could not even guard +their horses. 8. The enemy did not leave (to) these their horses, but +took both the horses and the money. 9. Soon the enemy rode away, during +the late hours of the night. 10. The father and son were angry and +dissatisfied. 11. They said "We fear and dislike such men." 12. The +father said "By the help of our neighbors we can ("povos") find those +bad men, and drive them away, out of the desert." 13. The son replied, +"Dear Father, such a proposal seems good, and I will help with my long +sharp sword. 14. But we are now in the desert, and the road to the city +is long. 15. We cannot ride thither, but we can walk thither. 16. Can +you not hasten, with ("per") my help?" 17. The wise old man answered, +"Yes, my son, with such help I can walk thither." + + + + LESSON XVII. + + THE DEMONSTRATIVE TEMPORAL ADVERB. + +73. The demonstrative temporal adverb related to the demonstrative +pronoun "tiu" is "tiam", then, at that time: + + Tiam li rajdos al la urbo, then he will ride to the city. + Nun ili estas sagxaj, sed tiam ili estis malsagxaj, + now they are wise, but at that time they were foolish. + + + COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. + +74. An adjective may have three degrees, "positive", "comparative" and +"superlative." English has various ways of forming the comparative +and superlative degrees (as by the suffixes "-er, -est," the adverbs +"more, most," and irregular methods as in "good, better, best," etc.). +Esperanto has only one method, using the adverbs "pli", more, and +"plej", most: + + POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE. + --------------- ------------------------ -------------------------- + bela, beautiful pli bela, more beautiful plej bela, most beautiful + bona, good pli bona, better plej bona, best + malbona, bad pli malbona, worse plej malbona, worst + sagxa, wise pli sagxa, wiser plej sagxa, wisest + +75. The preposition "el" is used with words expressing the group or +class out of which a superlative is selected and mentioned: + + Li estas la plej juna el tiuj, he is the youngest of (out of) those. + Vi estas la plej felicxa el ni, you are the happiest of us. + Tiu estis la plej ruza el la viroj, + that one was the craftiest of the men. + + + MANNER AND CHARACTERISTIC. + +76. The actions or feelings which accompany an act or state, or the +characteristic which permanently accompanies a person or thing, may be +expressed by a substantive with the preposition "kun": + + Li prenis gxin kun la plej granda zorgo, + he took it with the greatest care. + Mi auxdis lin kun intereso kaj plezuro, + I heard him with interest and pleasure. + Sxi estas virino kun bona gusto, + she is a woman with (of) good taste. + Mi havas cxevalon kun forta korpo, + I have a horse with a strong body. + +[Footnote: Sometimes the manner of an action may be expressed by the +instrument of it, expressed by the preposition "per" with a substantive +modified by an adjective: "Li kantis per dolcxa vocxo", he sang with (by +means of) a sweet voice. "Vi pusxis min per forta mano", you pushed me +with a strong hand.] + + + "DIRI", "PAROLI" AND "RAKONTI". + +77. The verbs "diri", to say, "paroli", to talk, to speak, and +"rakonti", to relate, having in common the general idea of speech or +expression, must not be confused in use: + + Mi diris al vi ke pluvas, I said to (told) you that it was raining. + Mi diris gxin al vi, I said it to you (I told you). + Mi parolis al vi pri gxi, I talked (spoke) to you about it. + Mi rakontis gxin al vi, I related (told) it to you. + + + VOCABULARY + + ami = to love. pli = more (74). + ekster = outside (of). plumo = pen. + Frederiko = Frederick. rakonti = to relate (77). + gratuli = to congratulate. regxo = king. + intereso = interest. servisto = servant. + letero = letter. skribi = to write. + plej = most (74). tiam = then (73). + plezuro = pleasure. zorgo = care. + + + FREDERIKO GRANDA KAJ LA JUNA SERVISTO. + +Hieraux mi legis interesan libron pri Frederiko Granda ("the Great"). +En gxi oni rakontas ke la regxo kun plezuro legis aux skribis per sia +plumo, dum malfruaj horoj de la nokto. Agrabla juna knabo, la plej juna +el la servistoj, tiam restis ekster la pordo. Cxar la regxo legis plej +interesan novan libron, li ne opiniis ke la horo estas malfrua. Li vokis +sian malgrandan serviston, sed la knabo, nek venis nek respondis. La +regxo iris tien, kaj trovis la knabon ekster la pordo. Li vidis ke la +knabo dormas sur malalta segxo. Tiam Frederiko Granda ne estis kolera, +sed hontis cxar li vokis la infanon. La regxo Frederiko vidis leteron +en la posxo de la knabo. Tuj li prenis la leteron el lia posxo, kaj +rigardis gxin. Gxi estis letero al la servisto, de lia patrino. Sxi ne +estis ricxa virino, sxi sxajnis esti tre malricxa. En cxi tiu letero la +patrino diris per la plumo ke sxi amas la filon. Sxi dankis lin cxar +li skribis al sxi longan leteron. Sxi ankaux dankis lin cxar li donis +al sxi monon. La regxo volis esti tre bona al tia filo. Kun la plej +granda zorgo li metis monon el sia posxo kun la letero kaj tiam lasis la +leteron en ties posxo. Tiam li formarsxis al sia cxambro, kaj vokis la +malgrandan serviston. La knabo tuj auxdis, kaj rapidis tra la pordo. Li +kuris trans la cxambron, kaj staris antaux la regxo. "Cxu vi dormis?" +diris Frederiko Granda. "Jes, mi timas ke mi preskaux dormis," respondis +la knabo, "kaj mi tre hontas." Tiam li metis la manon en la posxon, +kaj trovis la monon. Li sxajnis pli malfelicxa kaj diris kun granda +timo "Malamiko metis cxi tiun monon en mian posxon! Oni opinios ke mi +sxtelis gxin! Oni malamos min, kaj forpelos min!" Frederiko respondis, +"Ne, mi donis gxin al vi, cxar mi amas bonajn knabojn. Mi gratulas vian +patrinon, cxar sxi havas tian filon." + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. An interesting story is related (54) about Frederick the Great. 2. +His youngest servant stayed outside of the door. 3. The king called him, +and he hastened thither and stood before him. 4. Yesterday he did not +hear the king. 5. The king called him, but he did not answer. 6. The +king thought that the boy had gone away with the older servants, and he +was angry. 7. He left his book on the table, and went to the door. 8. +Then he saw that the little boy was sleeping there. 9. He looked at him +with greater interest, and saw a letter in his pocket. 10. The letter +was from the boy's mother. 11. He had written a letter to her, with his +pen, and had given (to) her money, because she was poor. 12. He wrote +longer letters with pleasure, because he was a most faithful son. 13. +The king congratulated the mother of the boy, concerning such a son. 14. +(The) king Frederick wished to be kinder ("pli bona") to the boy. 15. He +placed his book upon the table, near his sword, and talked to the little +servant. 16. Then the older servants came, and stood around the king. +17. They walked with great care, and the younger servant did not hear +them. 18. They loved the little boy, and wished to help him. + + + + LESSON XVIII. + + + THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADVERB OF MOTIVE OR REASON. + +78. The demonstrative adverb of motive or reason, related to the +demonstrative pronoun "tiu", is "tial", therefore, for that reason, +so: + + Tial la servisto foriris, therefore the servant went away. + Tial mi gratulis lin, for that reason I congratulated him. + Tial oni forpelis lin, so they drove him away. + + + DERIVATION OF ADVERBS. + +79. Adverbs may be derived from roots whose meaning permits, by addition +of the adverb-ending "-e", as "felicxe", happily, "kolere", angrily. The +comparison of adverbs is similar to that of adjectives: + + POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE. + ------------- ---------------------- ----------------------- + sagxe, wisely pli sagxe, more wisely plej sagxe, most wisely + bone, well pli bone, better plej bone, best + malbone, badly pli malbone, worse plej malbone, worst + ruze, slyly pli ruze, more slyly plej ruze, most slyly + + + "MALPLI" AND "MALPLEJ". + +80. The opposites (67) of "pli" and "plej" are "malpli", less, and +"malplej", least. Their use is similar to that of "pli" and "plej". +(These adverbs may also modify verbs): + + Li estas malpli kuragxa, he is less courageous. + Tiuj estis malplej akraj, those were least sharp. + La vento blovis malpli forte, the wind blew less strongly. + Li skribis malplej zorge, he wrote least carefully. + Mi malpli timas ilin, I fear them less. + Vi malplej bezonos helpon, you will need help least. + + + COMPARISON OF WORDS EXPRESSING QUANTITY. + +81. Since in their precise sense the words "pli", "malpli", "plej", +"malplej", express degree, a quantitative meaning is given by "multe", +"much", in the desired degree of comparison: + + multe, much pli multe, more (in amount) plej multe, most + + malpli multe, less " malplej multe, least + + malmulte, little pli malmulte, less " plej malmulte, least + + + COMPARISONS CONTAINING "OL". + +82. In a comparison made by the use of "pli" or "malpli", the case used +after "ol", than, must indicate clearly the sense intended: + + Mi amas ilin pli multe ol sxin, I love them more than (I love) her. + Mi amas ilin pli multe ol sxi, + I love them more than she (loves them). + Vi helpis la viron malpli multe ol la knabo, + you helped the man less than the boy (helped him). + Vi helpis la viron malpli multe ol la knabon, + you helped the man less than (you helped) the boy. + + + CAUSAL CLAUSES. + +83. A clause giving a cause or reason is introduced by "cxar", because, +for, or by the combination "tial ke", for this reason that, because, +for: + + Mi venis frue, cxar mi volis vidi vin, + I came early, for I wished to see you. + La floroj velkis tial, ke ne pluvis, + the flowers wilted for this reason, that it did not rain. + + + VOCABULARY + + anstataux = instead of. multa = much (multaj, many). + aprilo = April. ofta = frequent (ofte, often). + auxgusto = August. ol = than (82). + jaro = year. printempo = spring (season). + junio = June. tago = day. + julio = July. sezono = season. + majo = May. somero = summer. + marto = March. tial = therefore (78). + monato = month. vintro = winter. + + + PRI LA SEZONOJ. + +La vintro estas la malplej agrabla sezono el la tuta jaro. Negxas tre +multe, kaj tial oni nur malofte promenas, cxar la stratoj estas tro +malsekaj. Oni marsxas kun granda zorgo, kaj malrapide ("slowly"), tial +ke oni ne volas fali kaj preskaux rompi la kolon. Oni zorge gardas sin +tiam kontraux la malvarmaj nordaj ventoj. La manojn oni metas en la +posxojn, sed la vizagxon oni ne povas bone gardi. Mi ne sxatas resti +ekster la domo dum tia vetero. Mi multe preferas sidi en varma luma +cxambro, kaj skribi leterojn per bona plumo. La monatoj de la printempo +estas marto, aprilo kaj majo. La bela printempo sxajnas pli agrabla ol +la vintro. Gxiaj tagoj estas pli longaj kaj pli varmaj, gxiaj ventoj +blovas malpli forte. En cxi tiu sezono la kampoj kaj arboj frue komencas +montri plej belajn kolorojn. La birdoj konstruas siajn nestojn, kaj +dolcxe kantas. Oni povas promeni sur la mola herbo, anstataux sur +malsekaj malagrablaj stratoj. Pluvas pli multe en aprilo, tamen post +la pluvo la herbo sxajnas pli verda, kaj la nuboj baldaux forflugas de +la blua cxielo. Dum majo oni trovas violojn, kaj en junio oni vidas +tre multajn rozojn. Sed la plej agrabla el la sezonoj estas la somero. +Anstataux malvarmaj ventoj la somero havas la plej belan veteron, kun +suda aux okcidenta ventoj. La longaj tagoj estas varmaj, sed la noktoj +estas tute agrablaj. Tiam oni havas pli bonajn fruktojn ol dum la +printempo. La monatoj de la somero estas junio, julio kaj auxgusto. Mi +plej sxatas junion. Cxu vi sxatas gxin pli multe ol mi? Cxu vi sxatas +auxguston pli multe ol julion? + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. I read a most interesting book about Frederick the Great. 2. It +relates that he often stayed-awake and read with great interest during +the later hours of the night. 3. His youngest servant was a small boy. +4. The king loved this boy more than [he loved] the older servants. 5. +The winter is a less pleasant season than the spring, but the summer is +more pleasant than that [season]. 6. During March the east winds blow +most strongly, and shake the trees very much. 7. In April one needs his +umbrella, for (the reason that) there are often clouds in the sky and +it rains a great deal (very much). 8. The streets are very wet, but the +water does not seem to wash them. 9. In May one begins to find sweet +violets, and the birds in the trees above our heads sing very sweetly. +10. In June the most beautiful roses are seen (54). 11. July and August +are the warmest months of the whole year. 12. The days are longer than +the nights, and the weathercock shows west and south winds, instead of +those disagreeable north and east winds. 13. One stays outside [of] the +house then with greater pleasure, and goes walking in the parks. 14. +I think that I like the summer better than you [do]. 15. Therefore I +praise the summer more than you [do]. 16. However, I praise you more +than [I praise] your younger brother. 17. He is less wise than you. + + + + LESSON XIX. + + + "JU" AND "DES" IN COMPARISONS. + +84. In clauses expressing a comparison between two objects, acts or +states, the adverbial use of English "the ... the ..." (meaning "by how +much ... by that much ...") is rendered by the adverbs "ju" and "des", +respectively: + + + Ju pli bona li estas, des pli felicxa li estos, + the better he is, the happier he will be. + Ju pli ofte mi rigardas, des pli mi volas rigardi, + the oftener I look, the more I wish to look. + Ju pli bele la luno brilas, des pli oni sxatas la nokton, + the more beautifully the moon shines, the more one likes the night. + Ju malpli pluvas, des pli la floroj velkas, + the less it rains, the more the flowers wither. + Ju malpli multe vi helpas, des malpli multe mi lauxdos vin, + the less you help, the less I shall praise you. + Cxar vi helpis, mi des pli multe lauxdos vin, + because you helped, I shall praise you the (that much) more. + +[Footnote: Cf. Shakespeare, As You Like It, V, II, 49, "By so much the +more shall I tomorrow be at the height of heart-heaviness, by how much I +shall think my brother happy in having what he wishes for."] + + + THE PREPOSITION "INTER". + +85. In English, the preposition "between" is used in reference to two +persons or things, and "among" in reference to three or more. As the +difference in meaning is not essential, Esperanto has but the one +preposition inter to express both "between" and "among": + + Li sidas inter vi kaj mi, he is sitting between you and me. + Li sidas inter siaj amikoj, he is sitting among his friends. + La monato majo estas inter aprilo kaj junio, + the month of May is between April and June. + Inter tiuj libroj estas tre interesa libro, + among those books there is a very interesting book. + + + THE PREPOSITION "PRO". + +86. Cause or reason may be expressed not only by an adverb (78) or a +clause (83), but also by use of the preposition "pro", because of, on +account of, for the sake of, for. It directs the thought away from the +complement toward the action, feeling or state caused by it, or done in +its interest or behalf: + + La floroj velkas pro la seka vetero, + the flowers wilt because of the dry weather. + Mi skribis la leteron pro vi, + I wrote the letter for you (for your sake). + Pro tiuj nuboj mi timas ke pluvos, + on account of those clouds I fear that it will rain. + Oni sxatas cxerizojn pro la dolcxa gusto, + people like cherries because of the sweet taste. + + + PREPOSITIONS WITH ADVERBS AND OTHER PREPOSITIONS. + +87. Prepositions may be used with adverbs or with prepositional phrases +when the meaning permits: + + La kato kuris el sub la tablo, the cat ran out-from under the table. + Li venos el tie, he will come out of there. + De nun li estos zorga, from now he will be careful. + Li staris dekstre de la vojo, he stood on the right of the road. + Mi iros for de cxi tie, I shall go away from here. + + + VOCABULARY + + auxtuno = autumn, fall. negxo = snow. + decembro = December. novembro = November. + des = (see 84). nuda = bare, naked. + februaro = February. oktobro = October. + glacio = ice. pro = because of (86). + inter = between, among (85). rikolti = to harvest. + januaro = January. rivero = river. + ju = (see 84). septembro = September. + kovri = to cover. tero = ground, earth. + + + LA AUXTUNO KAJ LA VINTRO. + +La sezonoj de la jaro estas la vintro, la printempo, la somero, kaj la +auxtuno. La auxtuno estas inter la somero kaj la vintro. Gxiaj monatoj +estas septembro, oktobro kaj novembro. En septembro oni povas kolekti +maturajn fruktojn. Tiam ankaux oni rikoltas la flavan grenon de la +kampoj. Dum cxi tiu monato kaj dum oktobro la folioj sur la brancxoj +komencas esti rugxaj kaj flavaj, anstataux verdaj. La herbo velkas, kaj +bruna tapisxo sxajnas kovri la teron. Baldaux la folioj falas al la +tero, kaj en novembro la arboj estas tute nudaj. Pli aux malpli frue +negxas. La glacio ofte kovras la akvon en la riveroj, kaj restas sur la +stratoj kaj la vojoj. La mola blanka negxo kovras la teron, kaj kusxas +sur la brancxoj de la arboj. Tiam, pro la fortaj ventoj, gxi falas de +la brancxoj al la tero. La birdoj frue lasas tian veteron, kaj flugas +de cxi tie al pli sudaj kampoj kaj arboj. Ili ne povas resti, pro la +malvarmaj tagoj kaj noktoj. Ili malsxatas la negxon kaj la glacion pli +multe ol ni. Ju pli multe negxas; des pli malofte ni volas promeni. Ni +preferas resti en la domo, anstataux ekster gxi. Ju pli ni rigardas la +nudajn brancxojn de la arboj, des pli malagrabla sxajnas la vintro. +Tamen la junaj infanoj tre sxatas tian veteron, kaj ju pli negxas, kaj +ju pli forte la norda vento blovas, des malpli ili estas kontentaj en +la domo. Ili volas kuri sur la negxo, cxirkaux la arboj kaj inter ili, +kun siaj junaj amikoj. Ili povas bone amuzi sin per la negxo. La monatoj +de la vintro estas decembro, januaro kaj februaro. Gxi estas la plej +malvarma sezono. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. September, October and November are the months of autumn. 2. In these +months, people harvest the yellow grain and gather various fruits. 3. +The leaves on the trees around us begin to have red and yellow colors. +4. They begin to fall from the branches and lie upon the ground. 5. The +more strongly the cold north wind blows through the branches, the sooner +the leaves fall from there. 6. They lie under the bare trees, with the +brown grass. 7. The sooner it snows, the sooner the ground will seem +to have a white carpet. 8. The snow will completely ("tute") cover the +grass during the months of the winter. 9. These months are December, +January and February. 10. From that time ("de tiam") the ice and snow +will cover the roads, and altogether ("tute") hide them. 11. There will +often be ice on the water of the river. 12. We like this season of the +year more than March, April and May. 13. We like it even more than the +summer. 14. The months of the latter (62) are June, July and August. 15. +The summer is the warmest season of the entire year. 16. Therefore we +often say that the summer is the pleasantest season. 17. Because of its +many pleasures, the summer is dear to me. 18. It is between the spring +and the autumn. + + + + LESSON XX. + + + THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADVERB OF MANNER AND DEGREE. + +88. The demonstrative adverb of manner and degree, related to the +demonstrative pronoun "tiu", is "tiel", in that (this) manner, in +such a way, thus, so. Like English "thus," "so," "tiel" may modify +adjectives and other adverbs, by indicating degree: + + Cxu oni tiel helpas amikon? + Does one help a friend in that (this) way? + Mi gxin skribis tiel, I wrote it thus (in such a way). + La vetero estas tiel bela, the weather is so beautiful. + Tiel mallonge li parolis, thus briefly he spoke. + Mi trovis tiel belan floron, I found such a beautiful flower. + Li prenis tiel multe, he took that much (so much). + + + PREPOSITIONS EXPRESSING TIME-RELATIONS. + +89. The relations which prepositions express may be of various kinds. +As in English, a certain number of prepositions primarily expressing +place may also express time-relations. Such prepositions are "antaux", +"cxirkaux", "de", "en", "gxis", "inter", "post", and "je" (whose use in +other than time-relations will be explained later): + + Mi foriros cxirkaux junio, I shall depart about June. + De tiu horo mi estis via amiko, from that hour I was your friend. + Li ne parolis al mi de tiu semajno, + he did not speak to me since from) that week. + En la tuta monato ne negxis, + it did not snow in (at any time within) the entire month. + Mi dormis gxis malfrua horo, I slept until (up to) a late hour. + Gxis nun li ne vidis vin, until now he did not see you. + Inter marto kaj junio mi iros tien, + between March and June I shall go there. + Je malfrua horo li foriris, at a late hour he went away. + Mi iros tien je dimancxo, I shall go there on Sunday. + Je tiu horo li vokis min, at that hour he called me. + Sxi ne restis tie post julio, she did not stay there after July. + Post ne longe mi vokos vin, + soon (after not long) I shall call you. + +90. When a definite date or point in time is expressed, "antaux" means +"before." When used with an expression of an "amount" of time, it is +to be translated by "ago" following the expression (not by "before" +preceding it): + + Antaux dimancxo mi foriros, before Sunday I shall go away. + Mi vidis lin antaux tiu horo, I saw him before that hour. + Li skribos gxin antaux la nova jaro, + he will write it before New Year. + Antaux multaj jaroj mi trovis gxin, many years ago I found it. + Mi rompis gxin antaux longa tempo, I broke it a long time ago. + Antaux tre longe vi legis tiun libron, + you read that book very long ago. + Li venis antaux ne longe, he came recently (not long ago). + Antaux malmultaj jaroj li forkuris, a few years ago he escaped. + +[Footnote: As already shown, "kun" expresses accompaniment, "per" +expresses instrumentality, "pro" expresses cause, "kontraux" expresses +opposition, "anstataux" expresses substitution, "sur", "apud", "sub", +etc., express place, "dum" expresses time, etc.] + + + VOCABULARY + + dimancxo = Sunday. mateno = morning. + energia = energetic. promeno = walk, promenade. + frosto = frost. rakonto = story, narrative. + je = at, on (89). ripozi = to rest, to repose. + kota = muddy. semajno = week. + labori = to work, to labor. tempo = time. + laca = tired, weary. tiel = thus, so (88) + lundo = Monday. tro = too, too much. + mardo = Tuesday. vespero = evening. + + + EN SEPTEMBRO. + +Antaux multaj jaroj ni preferis resti en nia malgranda domo trans la +rivero, dum la tuta auxtuno. Sed nun ni restas tie nur gxis oktobro. +De auxgusto gxis oktobro la vetero estas tre agrabla tie, sed baldaux +post tiu monato la fortaj ventoj blovas, kaj la folioj komencas fali. La +frosto kovras la teron, kaj baldaux negxas tre ofte. Ju pli nudaj estas +la arboj, des pli malbelaj ili sxajnas. La vetero antaux novembro ne +estas tro malvarma, sed post tiu monato ni opinias ke la urbo estas pli +agrabla ol domo inter kampoj kaj arboj, trans largxa rivero. La frosto, +negxo kaj glacio kovras la teron en decembro, januaro kaj februaro. Sed +la monato septembro sxajnas tre agrabla, pro siaj multaj plezuroj. La +viroj laboras energie en la kampoj, de la mateno gxis la vespero. Ili +rikoltas la flavan grenon, kaj kolektas la fruktojn. Sed je dimancxo oni +ne laboras tiel energie, sed dormas gxis malfrua horo, tial ke je tiu +tago oni ripozas. Je lundo oni komencas labori tre frue, kaj je mardo +oni ankaux laboras energie. En septembro la vojoj ne estas tro kotaj, +kaj longaj promenoj estas ofte agrablaj. Ju pli ofte mi promenas kun +miaj amikoj, des pli multe mi sxatas tiajn promenojn. Sed hieraux mi +estis tre laca post la promeno, tial mi ripozis sur granda mola segxo. +Antaux ne longe la patro promenis kun mi, sed ni ne estis tiel lacaj je +tiu tago. Sxajnas ke ju pli ofte ni promenas, des malpli lacaj ni estas +post la promenoj. Post ne longe mi estos pli forta. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Many years ago we had a small house across the river. 2. We did not +remain there during the entire year, but only in the warmer months of +the summer. 3. Often we stayed until September or even until October. 4. +My younger brothers and sisters amused themselves very well there from +(the) morning until (the) evening. 5. They amused themselves among the +flowers and trees, or went from there into the large fields. 6. Here the +men work energetically, and harvest the ripe yellow grain. 7. Only on +Sunday do they rest, because on that day one does not work. 8. Between +August and November the men work more than in the winter. 9. In December +and after that month they rest, for (83) from that time the frost, ice +and snow cover the ground. 10. Because of the snow on the ground, long +walks are not pleasant in the winter. 11. Recently (90) we went walking +in the park across the river, but we were so tired after that walk! 12. +The longer the walk is, the sooner one wishes to rest. 13. On Monday it +rained, so (78) we read stories and wrote letters, in a pleasant light +room in our house. 14. Before evening, however, the sun shone, and the +streets were not so muddy. 15. On Tuesday these streets were almost dry, +and soon the roads near the river and between the fields will also be +dry. 16. A few years ago those roads were very good. + + + + LESSON XXI. + + + THE ACCUSATIVE OF TIME. + +91. Duration of time and a date or point in time may be expressed +not only by use of the prepositions "dum", during, and "je", at, on, +but also (as in English) without the use of any preposition. When no +preposition is used, the word or words indicating time are put in the +accusative case: + + Li restis tie la tutan semajnon (dum la tuta semajno), + he stayed there the whole week (during the whole week). + Sxi estis felicxa longan tempon (dum longa tempo), + she was happy a long time (during a long time; for a long time). + Ni rajdos tagon kaj nokton (dum tago kaj nokto), + we shall ride a day and a night (during a day and a night; + for a day and a night). + Mi venis dimancxon (je dimancxo), I came Sunday (on Sunday). + Tiun horon (je tiu horo), li forkuris, + that hour (at that hour) he escaped. + +92. Although generally preferable, an accusative construction must +be carefully placed, or avoided altogether, if confusion with other +accusatives (expressing direction of motion, direct object, etc.) might +result: + + Mi volas iri Bostonon je lundo, I wish to go to Boston on Monday. + Mi volas iri al Bostono lundon, I wish to go to Boston Monday. + Lundon mi volas iri Bostonon, Monday I wish to go to Boston. + + + ADVERBS AND THE ACCUSATIVE OF TIME. + +93. An accusative of time, as well as a temporal adverb, may further +define or be defined by another expression of time: + + Li venis longan tempon antaux tiu horo, + he came a long time before that hour. + Jaron post jaro ili restis tie, + year after year they stayed there. + hodiaux matene, this morning. + hodiaux vespere, this evening. + hodiaux nokte, tonight. + hieraux vespere, last evening. + hieraux nokte, last night. + dimancxon matene, Sunday morning. + lundon vespere, Monday evening. + mardon nokte, Tuesday night. + +94. An accusative of time does not necessarily imply that the act or +state mentioned occurs oftener than the instance cited. An adverb from +the same root usually gives an idea of frequency or repetition: + + Li iros al ilia domo dimancxon, he will go to their house Sunday. + Li iras al ilia domo dimancxe, he goes to their house Sundays. + Li laboris tagon kaj nokton, he worked a day and a night. + Li laboras tage kaj nokte, + he works day and night (by day and by night). + + + THE PREPOSITION "POR". + +95. The object or purpose with reference to which an act is performed +or a condition exists is expressed by the preposition "por", for. It +directs the thought toward its complement, contrasting thus with "pro" +(86): + + Mi havas libron por vi, I have a book for you. + Mi ne havas la tempon por tiel longa promeno, + I have not the time for so long a (such a long) walk. + Ili faris gxin por via plezuro, they did it for your pleasure. + + + VOCABULARY + + brila = brilliant. merkredo = Wednesday. + Dio = God. mezo = middle. + dividi = to divide. mondo = world. + fari = to make. paci = to be at peace. + forgesi = to forget. por = for (95). + gxojo = joy. plori = to weep. + konstanta = constant. preta = ready. + kvieta = quiet, calm. ridi = to laugh. + lando = land, country. riprocxi = to reproach. + + + LA SEZONOJ KAJ LA MONDO. + +Antaux tre longa tempo Dio faris la mondon. Li vidis ke la floroj +havas belajn kolorojn, ke la arboj estas altaj kaj verdaj. Tiam li +vokis la sezonojn kaj diris "Belan mondon mi faris por vi. Cxu vi +gardos gxin tage kaj nokte, kaj estos tre zorgaj pri gxi?" La sezonoj +respondis "Jes," kaj ridis pro gxojo. Mallongan tempon ili sxajnis +esti tre felicxaj inter la arboj kaj floroj de la nova mondo. Sed ne +multajn semajnojn ili tiel zorge gardis la mondon. Ili komencis malpaci +("quarrel") inter si, de la mateno gxis la vespero, kaj ofte forgesis +la arbojn kaj florojn. Ju pli ili malpacis, des malpli zorge ili gardis +la mondon. La malkonstanta printempo ne sxatis la kvietan vintron, kaj +ploris pri la malvarma negxo. La varma brila somero diris ke la auxtuno +estas tro malbrila. La laca auxtuno volis ripozi, kaj riprocxis la +malkonstantan printempon pri cxi ties kota vetero. Pli kaj pli multe ili +malpacis, kaj post ne longe ili tute ne restis amikoj. Tiam la auxtuno +diris "Mi ne povas pli longan tempon labori kun vi pro la mondo. Niaj +gustoj estas tro diversaj. Tial hodiaux matene ni dividos la mondon +inter ni." La vintro respondis "Bone! Mi estas preta," kaj la somero kaj +la printempo ridis pro gxojo. Tiun tagon ili dividis la mondon inter si. +La vintro konstruis sian domon en la plej nordaj kaj sudaj landoj. Tie +la frosto, negxo kaj glacio kovras la tutan landon, dum la tuta jaro. La +brila energia somero prenis por si la mezon de la mondo. Tial la vetero +tie estas plej varma kaj brila. La auxtuno kaj la printempo prenis por +si la landojn inter la vintro kaj la somero. Tial la vetero estas nek +tro varma nek tro malvarma en cxi tiuj landoj. Tiam la sezonoj rakontis +al Dio ke ili tiel dividis la mondon inter si. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Tuesday my brother heard an interesting story, and Wednesday evening +after a pleasant walk he related it to me. 2. The story is, that many +years ago God made the beautiful new world, and gave it to the seasons. +3. They laughed for joy, and said that they would guard it well. 4. +They were ready for pleasure, and also were willing ("volis") to work +energetically for-the-sake-of the new young world. 5. Almost a year +they were happy, but these seasons were too diverse, and could not long +remain friends. 6. The brilliant summer wept and reproached the tired +autumn. 7. The autumn preferred to rest, and disliked the muddy weather +of the inconstant spring. 8. The quiet winter concealed itself beneath +the frost and soft white snow, and wished to sleep. 9. The longer they +kept the world among them, the more they quarreled. 10. Soon the autumn +made the proposition, "We will divide the world." 11. Immediately that +morning the seasons divided the world among themselves. 12. The northern +and southern lands now belong to the winter, and the middle of the world +belongs to the summer. 13. The spring and autumn took for themselves +those lands between the winter and summer. + + + + LESSON XXII. + + + CLAUSES EXPRESSING DURATION OF TIME. + +96. The time during which an act takes place or a condition exists may +be expressed not only by an adverb or accusative of time (91), or by use +of the preposition "dum", but also by a clause introduced by "dum": + + Li venis dum vi forestis, + he came while (during-the-time-that) you were away. + Dum la sezonoj malpacis, ili forgesis pri la mondo, + while the seasons quarreled, they forgot about the world. + Ni ridas pro gxojo dum negxas, + we laugh for joy while it is snowing. + + + CLAUSES EXPRESSING ANTICIPATION. + +97. A clause expressing an action or condition as preceding or +anticipating that of the main verb is introduced by "antaux ol": + + Mi foriros antaux ol vi venos, I shall depart before you (will) come. + Antaux ol vi riprocxis lin, li ne ploris, + before you reproached him, he did not weep. + Vi ploris antaux ol vi ridis, + you wept before (sooner than) you laughed. + + + THE INFINITIVE WITH "ANSTATAUX", "POR", "ANTAUX OL". + +98. An infinitive may be substantively used with "anstataux" to express +substitution, with "por" to express purpose (Cf. Old English "But what +went ye out for to see," Matt. xi, 8), and with "antaux ol" to express +anticipation. It is usually translated by the English infinitive in +"-ing": + + Anstataux resti li foriris, instead of staying he went away. + Vi malhelpas anstataux helpi min, you hinder instead of helping me. + Ni venis por helpi vin, we came to help (in order to help) you. + Mi estas preta por iri merkredon, + I am ready to go (for going) Wednesday. + Li havos tro multe por fari, he will have too much to do. + Mi laboros antaux ol ripozi, I shall work before resting. + Antaux ol foriri, li dankis min, before going away, he thanked me. + Dio faris la mondon antaux ol doni gxin al la sezonoj, + God made the world before giving it to the seasons. + +[Footnote: "Substantive" is the general name for nouns and pronouns, +that is, for words which indicate persons, things, etc., and may be used +as subject or object of a verb, complement of a preposition, etc.] + +[Footnote: The infinitive may be used with "antaux ol" if its subject +is the same as the subject of the main verb. Otherwise the construction +explained in (97) must be used.] + + + THE EXPRESSION OF A PART OF THE WHOLE. + +99. After nouns indicating a quantity or portion of some indefinite +whole, the substantive expressing that indefinite whole is preceded by +the preposition "da", of: + + Estas skatolo da cxerizoj tie, there is a box of cherries there. + Mi trovis grandan sakon da mono, I found a large bag of money. + Li havas teleron da viando, he has a plate of meat. + Post horoj da gxojo ofte venas horoj da malgxojo, + after hours of joy there often come hours of sorrow. + +100. The preposition "da" must not be used if a quantity or portion of a +"definite" or "limited" whole is expressed. If the word indicating the +whole is limited by "la", it is thereby made definite: + + Telero de la maturaj pomoj, a plate of the ripe apples. + Sako de la bona kafo, a sack of the good coffee. + + + VOCABULARY + + Aleksandro = Alexander. koni = to be acquainted with. + barelo = barrel. lauxta = loud. + bruo = noise. lito = bed. + da = of (99). logxi = to dwell, to reside. + demandi = to inquire, to ask. nombro = number (quantity). + Diogeno = Diogenes. pura = clean. + greka = Greek. suficxa = sufficient, enough. + kelkaj = several, some. veki = to wake. + kvankam = although. viziti = to visit. + cxifono = rag. vesto = garment, clothes. + + + DIOGENO KAJ ALEKSANDRO GRANDA. + +Antaux multaj jaroj sagxa greka viro, Diogeno, logxis en granda urbo. Li +opiniis ke ju pli malmulte oni bezonas, des pli felicxa oni estas. Por +montri al la mondo ke li ne bezonas multe, kaj ke tial li havas suficxe +por esti felicxa, li logxis en granda malnova barelo, anstataux havi +domon. Anstataux kusxi nokte sur lito aux almenaux sur mola tapisxo, li +ecx dormis en tiu barelo. Oni multe parolis pri Diogeno en la urbo, ne +nur cxar li tiel logxis, sed ankaux pro liaj sagxaj diroj. Post kelke +da tempo ("some time") la regxo Aleksandro Granda venis tien por viziti +la urbon. Dum li estis tie li auxdis pri Diogeno, kaj demandis pri li. +"Cxu li logxas en la urbo?" Aleksandro diris. "Kvankam vi ne konas lin, +mi opinias ke mi volas vidi tian viron." Oni respondis "Diogeno estas +sagxa viro, sed anstataux logxi en domo, li preferas sidi la tutan +tempon en malnova barelo. Anstataux porti ("wearing") purajn vestojn, li +portas nur malpurajn cxifonojn, cxar li opinias ke ju pli malmulte li +bezonas, des pli felicxa li estos." Aleksandro diris "Antaux ol foriri +de via lando mi vizitos tiun viron." Antaux ol li foriris de la urbo, +Aleksandro iris kun nombro da amikoj por viziti Diogenon, kaj trovis lin +en lia barelo. "Cxu tiu viro volas paroli al mi?" demandis Diogeno per +lauxta vocxo. Aleksandro Granda respondis "Mi estas la regxo Aleksandro, +kaj mi volas koni vin. Mi vidas ke kvankam vi estas sagxa vi estas tre +malricxa. Cxu vi ne volas kelkajn novajn vestojn anstataux tiuj malpuraj +cxifonoj?" Diogeno tuj diris "Antaux ol vi venis kaj staris inter mi kaj +la suno, cxi tiu tre varme brilis sur min. Cxu vi venis por fari bruon +kaj por veki min?" Aleksandro ridis kaj diris "Mi vidas ke vi havas +suficxe por esti felicxa. Tial mi estas preta por foriri." + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Diogenes was a wise man who dwelt in a Greek city, many years ago. 2. +In order to show to the inconstant world that one does not need much in +order to be happy, he did not have even a house or a bed. 3. He stayed +day and night in a big barrel, instead of residing in a house. 4. He +preferred to wear old rags, instead of good clean clothes. 5. He said +"The less one needs, the happier he will be." 6. While Alexander the +Great was visiting that city, people talked to him about Diogenes. 7. +They asked "Are you acquainted-with that wise man?" 8. Soon the king +went with a number of his friends to that-man's big barrel, in the +middle of the city. 9. Diogenes was asleep, but the noise of the loud +voices waked him, and he said angrily "You are standing between me and +the sun! Will you not go away at once?" 10. Although several of the men +laughed, Alexander said "We did not come to quarrel with you. 11. I see +that you have enough to be happy, so instead of talking and making a +noise we shall leave (go away from) you at once." 12. Before Diogenes +could answer, Alexander had quietly walked away. + + + + LESSON XXIII. + + + ADVERBS EXPRESSING A PART OF THE WHOLE. + +101. After adverbs used to indicate a quantity or portion of some +indefinite whole, as well as after nouns of such meaning (99), the +substantive expressing the indefinite whole is preceded by the +preposition "da": + + Multe da bruo, much (a quantity of) noise. + Tiel malmulte da tempo, so little (such a small quantity of) time. + Kelke da pomoj, some (an indefinite number of) apples. + +102. Verbs may be modified by an adverb and prepositional phrase +containing "da": + + Li trinkis malmulte da akvo, he drank little (not much) water. + Estas multe da sablo en la dezerto, there is much sand in the desert. + Ju pli negxas, des pli multe da negxo kusxas sur la vojoj, + the more it snows, the more snow lies on the roads. + +[Footnote: A prepositional phrase containing "da", whether following a +noun or an adverb, is sometimes called a "partitive" construction.] + +103. It is evident from the above examples that an adverb followed +by "da" has a somewhat collective sense, indicating a general sum, +mass, or portion of the whole, without distinction of particulars. +An "adjective" of quantitative meaning, on the other hand, usually +indicates consideration of the individuals composing the sum or mass +named: + + En urbo oni havas multe da bruo, in a city one has much noise. + Ni auxdis multajn bruojn, we heard many (different) noises. + Tie oni havas multe da plezuro, there one has much pleasure. + Oni havas multajn plezurojn tie, + people have many (different) pleasures there. + + + THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADVERB OF QUANTITY. + +104. The demonstrative adverb of quantity related to the demonstrative +pronoun "tiu" is "tiom", that (this) much, that many, that quantity, so +much, etc.:-- + + Mi donis tiom da mono al vi, + I gave that much (that amount of) money to you. + Mi acxetis tiom da viando, I bought that much meat. + Tiom de la libroj mi legis, that many of the books I read. + + RESULT CLAUSES. + +105. A clause of result (also called a consecutive clause) expresses an +action or condition as due to, or resulting from, something indicated +in the main sentence, as "he is so strong that he can do it," "I had so +much pleasure that I laughed heartily." In Esperanto a result clause is +introduced by "ke", preceded (directly or in the main sentence) by an +adverb or adjective of manner, degree, or quantity: + + Diogeno estis tiel sagxa greka viro ke Aleksandro lauxdis lin, + Diogenes was such a wise Greek man that Alexander praised him. + Mi havis tiom da plezuro ke mi tre ridis, + I had so much pleasure that I laughed very much. + Gxi estas tia vilagxo ke mi sxatas logxi tie, + it is such (that sort of) a village that I like to live there. + + + VOCABULARY + + acxeti = to buy. kontuzo = bruise. + asparago = asparagus. lakto = milk. + brasiko = cabbage. legomo = vegetable. + butiko = store, shop. ovo = egg. + frago = strawberry. pizo = pea. + funto = pound. sabato = Saturday. + glaso = glass, tumbler. tiom = that much (104). + jxauxdo = Thursday. vendredo = Friday. + kremo = cream. vilagxo = village. + + + EN LA BUTIKO. + +Hodiaux matene mi iris kun la patrino al la plej granda butiko en nia +vilagxo. Tie sxi acxetis tiom da legomoj kaj fruktoj ke ni tute ne povis +porti ilin. Tial juna knabo venis kun ni, kaj portis kelke da ili por +ni. La patrino ne acxetis tiel multe je vendredo, sed hodiaux estas +sabato, kaj sxi volis acxeti legomojn por dimancxo, cxar dimancxe oni +ne povas iri en la butikojn. Tial sabate oni kutime acxetas suficxe +por la mangxoj de sabato kaj dimancxo. Meze de la butiko staras multe +da bareloj. En cxi tiuj oni trovas grandan nombron da fresxaj puraj +legomoj. La patrino acxetis tiel multe da asparago kaj novaj pizoj, kaj +tiel grandan sakon da terpomoj, ke la tablo restis preskaux nuda. Mi +vidis brasikon tie, sed tiun legomon mi malsxatas, kvankam oni diras +ke gxi estas tre bona legomo. Antaux ol foriri de la butiko la patrino +acxetis kelke da ovoj, kaj rigardis la fruktojn en bareloj apud la +pordo. Ili sxajnis tiel bonaj ke sxi acxetis kelkajn maturajn pomojn +kaj skatolon da fragoj. Dum oni donis al sxi la fruktojn, mi acxetis +kelkajn funtojn da sukero. Tiam ni estis pretaj por foriri el la butiko. +Sur la vojo ni auxdis tiel grandan bruon ke mi lasis la patrinon kaj +kuris trans la straton. Mi trovis tie infanon,la filon de nia najbaro. +Li faris la bruon, cxar li falis de la arbo antaux sia domo, kaj tre +lauxte ploris. Li diris al mi ke li havas multajn kontuzojn sur la kapo. +Cxar mi bone konas la infanon, mi demandis "Cxu vi volas grandan rugxan +pomon? Mi havas tian pomon por vi." Li tuj kaptis la pomon, kaj mi +foriris. Tiam la patrino kaj mi iris al la domo. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. I shall go to the village today with my younger sister. 2. We wish +to buy some eggs, vegetables and fruit for Mother. 3. Mother prefers to +remain in the house, because it is raining. 4. It rained on Thursday and +Friday, but today it is not raining very much. 5. The air is warm and +pleasant, and we shall carry umbrellas with us. 6. We shall buy some +new peas, a box of strawberries and several pounds of sugar. 7. Thus +we shall have enough for the meals of Saturday and Sunday. 8. I wonder +whether we shall see such asparagus and such cabbage on the tables or in +the barrels. 9. Although I do not often eat such vegetables, Father and +Mother are very fond of ("multe sxatas") both cabbage and asparagus. 10. +We shall also buy enough milk for several glasses of milk, and we shall +need much cream for the strawberries. 11. It seems that we shall buy +such a number of vegetables that we cannot carry them. 12. While we were +standing near the door, ready to go toward the village (46), we heard a +loud voice. 13. A child was standing in the street, and crying. 14. He +wished to go with his mother to visit some friends. 15. I suppose that a +noise on the street waked him, and he did not wish to remain in his bed. + + + + LESSON XXIV. + + + THE INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN. + +106. The interrogative pronoun (and pronominal adjective) is "kiu", +who, which. Since the use of this pronoun indicates a question, the +sentence containing it does not need the interrogative adverb "cxu" +(30): + + + Kiu vokas vin? Who calls you? + Kiun vi vokas? Whom do you call? + Kiuj el vi vokis nin? Which (ones) of you called us? + Kiujn li helpis? Whom (which ones) did he help? + Kiun tagon vi venos? What day will you come? + Kiujn legomojn vi preferas? What vegetables do you prefer? + Mi miras kiun libron vi acxetis? I wonder which book you bought? + +107. The interrogative pronoun "kiu" has a possessive or genitive form +"kies", whose: + + En kies domo vi logxas? In whose house do you reside? + Kies amikojn vi vizitis? Whose friends did you visit? + + + THE PRESENT ACTIVE PARTICIPLE. + +108. A participle is a "verbal adjective", as in "a "crying" child." +It agrees like other adjectives with the word modified (19, 24). The +participle from a transitive verb (22) may take a direct object, and a +participle expressing motion may be followed by an accusative indicating +direction of motion (46). The present active participle, expressing what +the word modified "is doing", ends in "-anta," as "vidanta", seeing, +"iranta", going: + + La ploranta infano volas dormi. The crying child wishes to sleep. + Mi vidas la falantajn foliojn, I see the falling leaves. + Kiu estas la virino acxetanta ovojn? Who is the woman buying eggs? + Mi parolis al la viroj irantaj vilagxon. + I talked to the men (who were) going toward the village. + + + COMPOUND TENSES. + +109. A participle may be used predicatively with a form of "esti", as +"Mi estas demandanta", I am asking, "La viro estas acxetanta", the man +is buying. Such combinations are called "compound tenses", in contrast +to the "simple" or "aoristic" tenses. + +[Footnote: An aoristic tense consists of but one word (ending in +"-as", "-os", etc.) and expresses an act or state as a whole, without +specifying whether it is finished, still in progress, or yet begun.] + +Compound tenses occur less often in Esperanto than in English, and an +aoristic Esperanto tense may often be translated by an English compound +tense, as "La birdoj flugas", the birds are flying. When used to +form a compound tense, the verb "esti" is called the "auxiliary verb". +No other verb is ever used as an auxiliary (a simpler method than in +English, which uses "be", "have", "do", "will", "shall", "would", etc.). + + + THE PROGRESSIVE PRESENT TENSE. + +110. The compound tense formed by using the present active participle +with the present tense of "esti" is called the "progressive present +tense". It differs from the aoristic present by expressing an action +as definitely in progress, or a condition as continuously existing, at +the moment of speaking. The conjugation of "vidi" in this tense is as +follows: + + mi estas vidanta, I am seeing. + vi estas vidanta, you are seeing. + li (sxi, gxi) estas vidanta, he (she, it) is seeing. + ni estas vidantaj, we are seeing. + vi estas vidantaj, you (plural) are seeing. + ili estas vidantaj, they are seeing. + + + THE SUFFIX "-EJ-". + +111. Words expressing the place where the action indicated by the root +occurs, or where the object indicated by the root may be found, are +formed by inserting the suffix "-ej-" before the noun-ending: + + cxevalejo, stable (from "cxevalo", horse). + dormejo, dormitory (from "dormi", to sleep). + herbejo, meadow (from "herbo", grass). + logxejo, lodging-place, dwelling (from "logxi", to dwell, to lodge). + +[Footnote: Similar formations are made in English with the suffix "-y", +as "bakery", "bindery", "grocery", etc. This suffix is equivalent to the +"-ei" in German "Baeckerei", bakery, "Druckerei", printing-office, etc., +and to the "-ie" in French "patisserie", pastry-shop, "imprimerie", +printing-shop, etc.] + + + VOCABULARY + + alia = other, another. kuiri = to cook. + baki = to bake. kurteno = curtain. + dika = thick. kutimo = custom. + facila = easy. leciono = lesson. + familio = family. lerni = to learn. + kanapo = sofa. pano = bread. + kies = whose (107). persono = person. + kiu = who (106). salono = parlor. + + + EN NIA DOMO. + +Oni ofte miras kies domo en nia vilagxo estas plej bela, kaj kiu domo +estas la plej agrabla logxejo. Nia domo ne estas tre granda, sed gxi +estas nova kaj ni multe sxatas gxin. Gxia salono estas granda, kun belaj +puraj kurtenoj kovrantaj la fenestrojn, kaj mola dika tapisxo kovranta +la plankon. Cxi tie estas kelkaj segxoj, malgranda tablo, kaj longa +kanapo. Personoj vizitantaj nin kutime sidas en cxi tiu cxambro, kaj +dum ni estas sidantaj tie ni nur parolas, anstataux skribi aux legi. +Alia cxambro en la domo estas tre luma kaj agrabla, sed malpli granda. +Cxi tie staras tablo suficxe granda por nia tuta familio, kaj en tiu +cxambro oni mangxas. Ofte ni restas tie longan tempon post la mangxo, +cxar la patro rakontas interesajn rakontojn al ni, kaj ni multe ridas, +kaj demandas pri tiuj rakontoj, kaj tiel bone amuzas nin ke mi preskaux +forgesas pri miaj lecionoj. Tamen mi havas multe da lecionoj por lerni, +kaj ili tute ne estas facilaj. Je tre frua horo matene mi iras al la +lernejo, kun miaj fratoj kaj fratinoj. Nur sabate kaj dimancxe ni ne +iras tien. La lernejo estas malnova kaj malgranda, sed oni estas nun +konstruanta novan pli grandan lernejon apud nia domo. Dum la infanoj +estas lernantaj siajn lecionojn tie, la patrino kutime iras al la +bakejon, por acxeti suficxe da pano, por la mangxoj de la tago. Ofte +sxi iras ankaux al aliaj butikoj. Jxauxdon sxi acxetis kelke da novaj +pizoj, kaj da asparago. Vendredon sxi acxetis kelkajn funtojn da sukero, +skatolon da fragoj, kaj suficxe da kremo kaj lakto. Hodiaux sxi estas +acxetanta brasikon kaj sakon da terpomoj. Sxi volas kuiri tre bonan +mangxon, tamen sxi havas tro multe por fari en la kuirejo, cxar sxi ne +havas servistinon. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Who is the woman sitting on the sofa in the parlor? 2. I can not +easily see her, but I hear her voice. 3. I wonder whose voice that is. +4. However, I think that it is the voice of a friend of Mother's. 5. Now +I can see her, although she does not see me. 6. I am well acquainted +with her. 7. She is a friend of our whole family, and is visiting a +neighbor of ours ("najbaron nian") in this city. 8. My sister is sitting +on the sofa in another room, and learning her lessons. 9. Soon she +will go to school. 10. Whose book is she reading? 11. That thick book +is mine, but the other books on the table near her are hers. 12. She +prefers to sit in the sewing-room (111) to read or write (98), because +the curtains in front of the windows are not too thick, and so (78) +that room is very light and pleasant. 13. She also likes to look at the +falling snow, and the men and women walking on the muddy streets. 14. On +account of the cold weather, people are wearing thick clothes. 15. The +men and boys are keeping their hands in their pockets while they walk. +16. The girls walking toward the school are friends of my sister's. 17. +In that school they learn to cook. Soon they will be able to bake bread, +and even to cook a whole meal. 18. I think such a custom is very good. +19. Many persons can not cook well enough ("suficxe bone"). + + + + LESSON XXV. + + + THE INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVE. + +112. The interrogative adjective related to the interrogative pronoun +"kiu", is "kia", what kind of, what sort of: + + Kiajn vestojn li portis? What sort of clothes did he wear? + Kian panon vi preferas? What kind of bread do you prefer? + Mi miras kia persono li estas. I wonder what sort of a person he is. + Kia vetero estas? What sort of weather is it? + Kia plezuro! What a pleasure! + + + THE IMPERFECT TENSE. + +113. The compound tense formed by using the present active participle +with the past tense of "esti" represents an act or condition as in +progress in past time, but not perfected, and is called the "imperfect +tense". The conjugation of "vidi" in this tense is as follows: + + mi estis vidanta. I was seeing. + vi estis vidanta. you were seeing. + li (sxi, gxi) estis vidanta. he (she, it) was seeing. + ni estis vidantaj. we were seeing. + vi estis vidantaj. you were seeing. + ili estis vidantaj. they were seeing. + + + THE PROGRESSIVE FUTURE TENSE. + +114. The compound tense formed by using the present active participle +with the future tense of "esti" represents an act or condition as in +progress--or a condition as existing continuously--at a future time, and +is called the "progressive future" tense. The conjugation of "vidi" in +this tense is as follows: + + mi estos vidanta. I shall be seeing. + vi estos vidanta. you will be seeing. + li (sxi, gxi) estos vidanta. he (she, it) will be seeing. + ni estos vidantaj. we shall be seeing. + vi estos vidantaj. you will be seeing. + ili estos vidantaj. they will be seeing. + + + SALUTATIONS AND EXCLAMATIONS. + +exclamation may be regarded as the direct object of a verb which is not +expressed; these words are put in the accusative + + Bonan matenon! Good morning! (I wish you "good morning.") + Bonan nokton! Good night! (I wish you a "good night.") + Multajn salutojn al via patro! + (I send) many greetings to your father! + Dankon! Thanks! (I give to you "thanks.") + Cxielon! Heavens! (I invoke the "heavens.") + + + WORD FORMATION. + +116. The majority of roots have such a meaning that at least two kinds +of words, and often three or four, may be formed from them by use of +the general endings for verbs, nouns, adjectives and adverbs. (Each +root will hereafter be quoted but once in the vocabularies, with a +hyphen separating it from the ending with which it appears first in the +reading lesson, or with which it is most frequently used.) Following are +examples of word formation from roots already familiar: + +VERB. NOUN. ADJECTIVE. ADVERB. + +brili brilo brila brile + to shine shine, brilliance shining, brilliant brilliantly + +flori floro flora flore + to bloom flower, blossom floral florally + +gxoji gxojo gxoja gxoje + to rejoice joy, gladness joyful, glad gladly + +kontuzi kontuzo + to bruise bruise, contusion + + tuto tuta tute + whole entire, whole, all entirely + + + "KONI" AND "SCII". + +117. The verb "koni", which means "to know" in the sense of "to be +acquainted with" is used in speaking of persons, languages, places, etc. +"Koni" always has a direct object. It is never followed by "ke", "cxu", +"kiu", or any other interrogative word. "Scii" means "to know" in the +sense of "to be aware," "to have knowledge." It is not used in speaking +of persons. + +[Footnote: "Koni" is equivalent to German "kennen", French "connaitre", +Spanish "conocer", while "scii" is equivalent to German "wissen", French +"savoir", Spanish "saber".] + + Cxu vi konas tiun personon? Do you know that person? + Mi scias ke li estas nia najbaro. I know that he is our neighbor. + Mi bone konas Bostonon. I am well acquainted with Boston. + Mi ne scias cxu li konas ilin. I do not know whether he knows them. + + + VOCABULARY + + av-o = grandfather. kia = what kind of (112). + buked-o = bouquet. lingv-o = language. + ekzamen-o = examination. nep-o = grandson. + ferm-i = to close. nu! Well! + frap-i = to strike, to knock. paper-o = paper. + geometri-o = geometry. salut-i = to greet. + german-a = German. sci-i = to know (117). + hejm-o = home. stud-i = to study. + + + LA NEPO VIZITAS LA AVINON. + +Hieraux matene mi vizitis la avinon. Sxia hejmo estas apud la granda +nova bakejo. Mi vidis sxin tra la fenestro, cxar la kurtenoj kovrantaj +gxin estas tre maldikaj. Sxi estis sidanta sur la kanapo, kaj skribanta +per plumo sur granda papero. Antaux ol frapi sur la pordo mi vokis sxin +kaj diris "Bonan matenon, kara avino!" Tuj sxi demandis "Kiu estas tie? +Kies vocxon mi auxdas?" Mi respondis "Estas via nepo. Cxu vi ne konas +mian vocxon?" Antaux ol sxi povis veni al la pordo mi estis malfermanta +gxin. Mi iris en la salonon kaj donis al la avino bukedon da floroj. +"La patrino donas cxi tiujn al vi, kun siaj plej bonaj salutoj," mi +diris. La avino respondis "Nu, kia plezuro! Multan dankon al sxi pro la +bela bukedo, kaj ankaux al vi, cxar vi portis gxin cxi tien por mi!" +Dum sxi estis metanta la florojn en glason da akvo la avino diris "Nu, +kiajn lecionojn vi havis hodiaux en la lernejo?" Mi respondis ke mi +bone konis la lecionojn, cxar mi zorge studis ilin. "Ni estas lernantaj +la germanan lingvon," mi diris, "kaj ju pli longe ni studas gxin, des +pli multe mi gxin sxatas, kvankam gxi estas tre malfacila." Mi rakontis +ankaux pri la lecionoj de geometrio, kaj aliaj lecionoj, sed diris ke la +ekzamenoj estos baldaux komencantaj. "Je tiu tempo," mi diris, "mi estos +skribanta la respondojn al la ekzamenoj, preskaux la tutan semajnon." +La avino demandis kun intereso "Cxu la demandoj de la ekzamenoj estos +malfacilaj?" Mi respondis "Mi ne scias, sed mi timas ke ni estos tre +lacaj post tiom da laboro." Post kelke da aliaj demandoj kaj respondoj, +mi opiniis ke estas la horo por foriri. Dum mi estis foriranta, la avino +diris "Multajn salutojn al la tuta familio!" Mi dankis sxin, diris +"Bonan tagon!" kaj tiam foriris. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. What sort of noise do I hear outside the door? 2. Are some of my +friends knocking? 3. We were talking yesterday about the examinations in +our school, and these boys came home to study with me. 4. I shall go to +the door to open it and to greet my friends. 5. Good morning! Did you +come to study geometry, or the German language? 6. Which of these is +usually more difficult, and in which will the examination be the longer? +7. Well, we brought our German books, because we prefer to study these. +8. We wish to know this language thoroughly. 9. We shall go into the +writing-room (111), for (83) some friends of my grandmother are in the +parlor. 10. We can hear their voices here, and we can not study very +well while they are talking. 11. They were carrying many flowers, and +gave a beautiful bouquet to my grandmother. 12. She said "Many thanks +for (86) the sweet violets! In whose garden did they bloom?" 13. Her +friend's granddaughter is a friend of my youngest sister. 14. Well, +shall we begin to study? Have you enough paper, and have you a good pen? +15. I shall close this other door, because they are baking bread in the +kitchen, and cooking meat. 16. We shall be hearing the voices of so many +persons that I know that we can not study. + + + + LESSON XXVI. + + + THE INTERROGATIVE ADVERB OF PLACE. + +118. The interrogative adverb of place, related to the interrogative +pronoun "kiu" is "kie", where, in (at) what place. If the verb in the +sentence expresses motion toward the place indicated by "kie", the +ending "-n" is added, forming "kien", whither (where): + + Kie li estis kaj kien oni forpelis lin? + Where was he and whither did they drive him (away)? + Li miros kie lia nepo estas. He will wonder where his grandson is. + Mi ne scias kien li kuris. I do not know where (whither) he ran. + + + THE PAST ACTIVE PARTICIPLE. + +119. The past active participle, (for the characteristics of a +participle see 108) expressing what the word modified "did" or "has +done", ends in "-inta", as "vidinta", having seen, "irinta", gone, +having gone: + + La falintaj folioj estas brunaj. The fallen leaves are brown. + Kiu estas la viro salutinta nin? + Who is the man having greeted (who greeted) us? + Oni forgesas la foririntajn personojn. + One forgets the departed persons (the persons who have gone away). + + + ADVERB DERIVATION FROM PREPOSITIONS. + +120. Adverbs may be derived from prepositions whose sense permits, by +use of the adverb ending "-e": + + Antauxe li studis la geometrion, previously he studied geometry. + Poste li studis la germanan, afterwards he studied German. + Li marsxis antauxe, ne malantauxe, he walked in front, not behind. + Dume la viroj staris cxirkauxe, meanwhile the men stood roundabout. + Ili venis kune kaj sidis apude, they came together and sat near by. + + + ADVERBS EXPRESSING DIRECTION OF MOTION. + +121. An adverb expressing place or direction is given the ending "-n" +when used with a verb expressing motion toward that place or direction +(69, 118, etc.): + + Cxu li rajdis norden aux suden? Did he ride north or south(ward)? + Ni kuris antauxen, ne malantauxen, we ran forward, not back. + La bukedo falis eksteren kaj suben, + the bouquet fell out and underneath. + Li estis marsxanta hejmen, he was walking home (homeward). + +[Footnote: The adverb may precede the verb and be united with it by +simple juxtaposition, if the resulting word is not too long: "Li +hejmeniris", he went home (he "home-went"). "Ni antauxeniros", we +shall advance (go forward). "La bukedo subenfalis", the bouquet fell +underneath.] + + + THE SUFFIX "-EG-". + +122. The suffix "-eg-" may be added to a root to augment or intensify +its meaning, thus forming an "augmentative" of the root: + + barelego, hogshead (from "barelo", barrel). + bonega, excellent (from "bona", good). + malbonege, wickedly, wretchedly (from "malbone", badly, poorly). + domego, mansion (from "domo", house). + ploregi, to sob, to wail (from "plori", to weep). + treege, exceedingly (from "tre", very). + + + VOCABULARY + + aer-o = air. pez-a = heavy. + danc-i = to dance. polv-o = dust. + fulm-o = lightning. sekv-i = to follow. + gut-o = drop (of water, etc.). sercx-i = to hunt for, to search. + kie = where (118). silent-a = still, silent. + okaz-i = to happen, to occur. subit-a = sudden. + okul-o = eye. tegment-o = roof. + pec-o = piece. tondr-o = thunder. + + + LA PLUVEGO. + +Nu, kia pluvego okazis hieraux vespere! Post kvieta varmega mateno, +subite multaj nuboj kovris la cxielon. La aero sxajnis peza, kaj estis +tute silenta kelkan tempon. Tiam forte blovanta vento frapegis la +arbojn, kaj komencis fortege skui la brancxojn. Multege da polvo kaj +malgrandaj pecoj da papero dancis kaj flugis cxirkauxen en la aero, kaj +ankaux cxielen. Falis tiam kelkaj grandaj gutoj da pluvo, kaj ni sciis +ke la pluvego estas venanta. Ni malfermis niajn ombrelojn, kaj kuris +antauxen, por iri hejmen antaux ol falos multe da pluvo. La fulmo tiel +ofte brilis ke ni fermis la okulojn pro gxi, kaj treege gxin timis. +Preskaux tuj la tondro sekvis gxin. Tondris tiom kaj tiel lauxtege ke la +bruo sxajnis frapi kontraux niajn kapojn. Tiam komencis subite pluvegi, +sed je tiu tempo ni estis preskaux sub la tegmento de nia domo. Dume la +vento pli kaj pli blovegis, kaj ju pli forte gxi blovis, des pli peze +la gutoj da pluvo falis teren, kun multege da bruo. Mi opinias ke mi +malofte antauxe vidis tian pluvegon. La sekvintan tagon mi promenis tre +frue, kaj vidis ke la pordego al la gxardeno de mia avo estas kusxanta +sur la tero. Apude mi vidis ventoflagon falintan de la tegmento de tiu +granda cxevalejo. Velkintaj floroj kusxis sur la tero cxirkaux mi, kaj +inter ili estis brancxoj falintaj de la arboj, cxar la grandega forto +de la vento forrompis ecx cxi tiujn. Sur malgranda brancxo restis +nesto, sed kie estis la birdoj! Mi sercxis la junajn birdojn sed tute +ne povis trovi ilin, tial mi opinias ke ili forflugis antaux ol la +ventoj forrompis de la arbo ilian malgrandan hejmon. Mi ne scias kien +ili flugis, sed mi opinias ke ili flugis suden al la arboj en tiu granda +kampo trans la rivero. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. While we were walking home (121) from school yesterday, it rained +very suddenly. 2. What a storm it was! 3. We were talking about the +lessons in geometry, and were looking at these books about the German +language. 4. So we did not see the clouds in (on) the sky. 5. Well, we +forgot about examinations and began to wonder where to go. 6. We did +not know whether we had enough time to run even to Grandfather's house +before it would rain. 7. Many papers fell out of our books, and the +wind caught them. 8. The wind chased them away from us, and they seemed +to dance around in the air. 9. However, we easily caught and gathered +them, and then we ran forward. 10. Suddenly it thundered very loudly, +and we saw the brilliant lightning in the sky. 11. We almost closed our +eyes for the lightning. 12. Big drops of rain fell heavily and struck +the dust violently. 13. The air was heavy and still then, and the storm +immediately followed the few drops of rain. 14. We hastened across the +street, and ran faster and faster. 15. We were exhausted (122) and our +clothes were exceedingly wet before we were in the house. 16. The rain +was dropping from the roof, but we ran through it, and knocked on the +door. 17. We rested some time here, before going home. + + + + LESSON XXVII. + + + THE INTERROGATIVE TEMPORAL ADVERB + +123. The interrogative temporal adverb, related to the interrogative +pronoun "kiu", is "kiam", when, at what time? + + Kiam li sercxos min? When will he look for me? + Oni miras kiam li venos, they wonder when he is coming (will come). + Kiam falis tiuj gutoj da pluvo? When did those drops of rain fall? + + + THE PERFECT TENSE. + +124. The compound tense formed by using the past active participle +with the present tense of "esti" is called the "perfect tense". It +differs from the aoristic past tense (35) and from the imperfect (113) +by expressing an act or condition as definitely completed or perfected. +The conjugation of "vidi" in the perfect tense is as follows: + + mi estas vidinta, I have seen (I am having-seen). + vi estas vidinta, you have seen (you are having-seen). + li (sxi, gxi) estas vidinta, he (she, it) has seen (is having-seen). + ni estas vidintaj, we have seen (we are having-seen). + vi estas vidintaj, you have seen (you are having-seen). + ili estas vidintaj, they have seen (they are having-seen). + + + THE PREPOSITION "CXE". + +125. The general situation of a person, object or action is expressed by +the use of the preposition "cxe", at, at the house of, in the region or +land of, among, with, etc.: + + Li staris silente cxe la pordego, he stood silently at the gate. + Li logxas cxe mia avo, he lives (dwells) at my grandfather's. + Ili estas cxe la lernejo, they are at the school. + Li restos cxe amikoj, he will stay with (at the house of) friends. + Li vizitos cxe ni morgaux, he will visit at-our-house tomorrow. + + + THE SUFFIX "-AR-". + +126. Words expressing a collection, group or assemblage of similar +persons or things, as "forest" (collection of trees), "army" (assemblage +of soldiers), etc., may be formed by the use of the suffix "-ar-". This +suffix may itself be used as a root to form "aro", "group, flock", etc., +"are", in a group, by throngs, etc. Words formed with the suffix "-ar-" +are called collectives: + + arbaro, forest (from arbo, tree). + cxevalaro, herd of horses (from cxevalo, horse). + kamparo, country (from kampo, field). + libraro, collection of books, library (from libro, book). + amikaro, circle of friends (from amiko, friend). + + "TEMPO" AND "FOJO". + +127. The general word for "time" in the sense of duration, or +suitability (as "the proper time"), is "tempo". The word "fojo", +time, occasion, refers to the performance or occurrence of an +act or event, in repetition or series: + + Mi ne havas multe da tempo, I have not much time. + Li venis multajn fojojn, kaj la lastan fojon li restis longan tempon, + he came many times, and the last time he remained a long time. + Kelkajn fojojn lauxte tondris, several times it thundered loudly. + Multe da fojoj ni fermis la okulojn pro la fulmo, + many times we closed our eyes on account of the lightning. + + THE ORTHOGRAPHY OF PROPER NOUNS. + +128. Proper nouns, that is, nouns which are names of persons, cities, +countries, etc., are given Esperanto spelling if they are names of +continents, countries, large or very well-known cities, or if they +are first (Christian) names of persons, as "Azio", Asia, "Skotlando", +Scotland, "Bostono", Boston, "Johano", John, "Mario", Mary. Surnames +and names of places which are small or not well known are more often +quoted in the national spelling. The pronunciation may be indicated +in parentheses, as "Mt. Vernon" ("Mauxnt Vernon"), "Roberto Bruce" +("Brus"), "Martinique" ("Martinik'"), etc. + + + VOCABULARY + + arane-o = spider. ramp-i = to crawl. + Azi-o = Asia. rekt-a = direct, straight. + cxe = at (125). rimark-i = to notice. + fin-o = end, ending. send-i = to send. + foj-o = time, instance (127). Skotland-o = Scotland. + kiam = when (123). soldat-o = soldier. + pacienc-o = patience. sukces-i = to succeed. + pied-o = foot. supr-e = above. + plafon-o = ceiling. venk-i = to conquer. + + + ROBERTO BRUCE KAJ LA ARANEO. + +Oni rakontas la sekvantan interesan rakonton pri Roberto Bruce, regxo +antaux multaj jaroj en Skotlando. Okazis ke li estis rigardanta la +soldataron de siaj malamikoj, de la fenestro de granda cxevalejo. +Por povi rigardi plej facile, kaj ankaux por sin kasxi, li forsendis +siajn soldatojn kaj restis la tutan tagon sub tiu tegmento. Kvankam la +cxevalejo estis granda gxi estis malnova, kaj li opiniis ke la malamikoj +ne sercxos lin tie. Je la fino de la tago li subite rimarkis araneon +sur la muro apud si. La araneo estis rampanta supren, sed baldaux gxi +falis en la polvon cxe liaj piedoj. Tuj la falinta araneo komencis +alian fojon supren rampi. Alian fojon gxi falis teren, sed post ne +longe gxi komencis rampi alian fojon. "Kia pacienco!" diris la regxo al +si. "Mi ne sciis ke la araneo havas tiel multe da pacienco! Sed kien +gxi nun estas falinta?" Li rigardis cxirkauxen kaj fine ("finally") +li vidis la falintan araneon. Kun granda surprizo li rimarkis ke gxi +estas komencanta supren rampi. Multajn fojojn gxi supren rampis, kaj +tiom da fojoj gxi falis malsupren. Fine, tamen, gxi sukcese rampis +gxis la plafono. La regxo malfermis la busxon pro surprizo, kaj diris +al si "Kiam antauxe mi vidis tiom da pacienco! Mi opinias ke la fina +sukceso de tiu malgranda araneo donas al mi bonegan lecionon. Mi estas +ofte malsukcesinta, sed malpli ofte ol tiu araneo sur la muro. Mi estas +perdinta multe da soldatoj, kaj la malamikoj estas venkintaj multajn +fojojn, cxar ili havas multe pli grandan nombron da soldatoj. Tamen, mi +estos pacienca, cxar oni ne scias kiam li fine sukcesos." La sekvintan +tagon, la regxo Roberto Bruce komencis treege labori kontraux siaj +malamikoj. Post mallonga tempo li bone sukcesis, kaj tute venkis la +malamikoj en granda venko cxe Bannockburn (Banokb'rn). + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Although the enemies of Robert Bruce conquered him many times, he +finally conquered them in Scotland, because he was patient and very +courageous. 2. He was sitting in a large stable, to hide (himself), and +also in order to (98) look directly from its roof (at) the soldiery +(126) of the enemy. 3. At the end of the day he noticed a spider +crawling up (ward) on the wall. 4. The spider fell suddenly into the +dust and lay at the king's feet, but soon began to crawl up. 5. "Where +does it wish to go?" said the king to himself. 6. "What patience it +shows! It has crawled up and fallen down a great many times." 7. Finally +however the spider succeeded, and crawled up to the ceiling. 8. The +king said that he had learned a lesson from the patient spider. 9. He +said "Although the enemy have conquered many times, because they have a +larger number of soldiers, I shall finally succeed against them." 10. +Soon it happened that the wind blew violently, and a rainstorm occurred. +11. The blast shook the foliage (126) on the trees, and broke away many +small branches. 12. A group of soldiers ran right ("rekte") toward the +stable, and Robert Bruce was much afraid that they would find him. 13. +But they merely stole the horses there, and rode away. + + + + LESSON XXVIII. + + + THE INTERROGATIVE ADVERB OF MOTIVE OR REASON. + +129. The interrogative adverb of motive or reason related to the +interrogative pronoun "kiu" is "kial", why, wherefore, for what +reason: + + Kial la araneo supren rampis? why did the spider crawl up? + Mi demandos kial li rimarkis gxin, I will ask why he noticed it. + + + THE INFINITIVE AS SUBJECT. + +130. The infinitive may be used as the subject of a verb. + +[Footnote: Cf. the complementary infinitive (28), equivalent to the +object of a verb, and the use of the infinitive after the prepositions +"por", "anstataux", "antaux ol" (98).] + + +Any modifier of the infinitive is necessarily adverbial. An indefinite +personal object (or pronominal complement of a preposition) after an +infinitive used as subject is expressed by the reflexive pronoun "si": + + Promeni estas granda plezuro, to go walking is a great pleasure. + Promeni estas agrable, to go walking is pleasant. + Cxu estas facile rigardi la plafonon? + Is it easy to look at the ceiling? + Estas bone sin helpi, it is well to help oneself. + Paroli al si estas malsagxe, to talk to oneself is silly. + + + PRESENT ACTION WITH PAST INCEPTION. + +131. A present act or state which began in the past is expressed by the +present tense (instead of by the past as in English): + + Mi estas cxi tie de lundo, I have been (I am) here since Monday. + De Marto mi studas tiun lingvon, + since March I have been (I am) studying that language. + Ili estas amikoj de tiu tago, + they have been (they are) friends from that day. + Ni logxas tie de antaux kelkaj monatoj, + we have been living (we are living) here since some months ago. + +[Footnote: Cf. German "er ist schon lange hier", he has already been +here a long time, French "je suis ici depuis deux ans", I have been here +two years, etc.] + + + THE SUFFIX "-UL-". + +132. The suffix "-ul-" is used to form nouns indicating a person +characterized by or possessing the distinguishing trait, character or +quality in the root: + + junulo, a youth, a young man (from "juna", young). + belulino, a beauty, a belle (from "bela", beautiful). + maljunulo, an old man (from "maljuna", old). + sagxulo, a sage, a wise man (from "saga", wise). + malricxulino, a poor woman (from "malricxa", poor). + +[Footnote: Cf. the English adjectives "quer-ul-ous", "cred-ul-ous", +"garr-ul-ous", etc., and the Latin nouns "fam-ul-us", a servant, +"fig-ul-us", a potter, and "leg-ul-us", a gatherer.] + + + "LOGXI" AND "VIVI". + +133. The verb "logxi", "to reside, to dwell, to lodge", must not be +confused with "vivi", which means "to live" in the sense of "to be +alive": + + Li logxas apude, he lives near by. + Li vivis longan tempon, he lived a long time. + Vivi felicxe estas pli bone ol logxi ricxe, + to live happily is better than to live (lodge) richly. + + + VOCABULARY + + afabl-a = amiable, affable. kial = why (129). + afer-o = thing, matter, affair. mejl-o = mile. + balanc-i = to balance, to nod. okulhar-o = eyelash. + barb-o = beard. okulvitr-oj = spectacles. + batal-o = battle. pens-i = to think, to ponder. + brov-o = eyebrow. vang-o = cheek. + bukl-o = curl (of hair). verand-o = porch, veranda. + har-o = hair. viv-i = to live (133). + + + PRI LA AVO KAJ LA AVINO. + +Mia avo estas tre afabla persono. Li estas maljunulo kun blankaj haroj +kaj blanka barbo. Li havas bluajn okulojn, kaj la brovoj super ili estas +ecx pli blankaj ol liaj haroj. Kvankam li logxas en nia vilagxo de +antaux kelkaj jaroj, li antauxe logxis en Skotlando. Antaux multaj jaroj +li estis soldato, kaj li ofte parolas al mi pri la bataloj kaj venkoj +de tiu tempo. Sidi kviete sur la verando kaj rakonti tiajn rakontojn al +la nepo sxajne donas al li multe da plezuro. Multajn fojojn je la fino +de la tago li sidas tie, kaj parolas pri tiaj aferoj gxis malfrua horo +de la vespero. Sidi cxe liaj piedoj kaj auxdi liajn rakontojn estas +tre interese al mi. Komence, dum mi estas cxe li, mi kutime demandas +"Cxu oni sukcesis en tiu batalo?" Tuj li balancas la kapon kaj komencas +pacience rakonti pri la venkoj kaj malvenkoj ("defeats"). Li malofte +respondas "Mi ne scias," al miaj demandoj "Kiam," kaj "Kial." Kelkajn +fojojn li diras "Mi havas tiun opinion, sed mi ne bone scias pri la +tuta afero, kaj mi miras cxu aliaj personoj scias pli bone." Cxar li +estas multe studinta kaj pensinta, liaj opinioj estas treege interesaj. +Li gxojas tial ke mi demandas pri aferoj okazintaj ("things that have +happened"), cxar tiaj demandoj montras ke mi ankaux pensas pri ili. +Mia avino estas malgranda, kun belaj bukloj da tute blankaj haroj. Sxi +havas belajn brunajn okulojn, kun longaj nigraj okulharoj. Oni diras ke +antaux multaj jaroj sxi estis belulino. Ecx nun estas plezure rigardi +sxin, kaj vidi sxiajn rugxajn vangojn. De antaux kelkaj jaroj sxi portas +okulvitrojn por legi aux skribi aux kudri, kaj sxi bezonas ripozon post +malmulte da laboro. Promeno de ecx mejlo estas tro longa nun por la +avino. Oni diras ke sxi ne vivos tre longan tempon, kaj tia penso donas +malgxojon al ni, cxar ni treege amas la afablan paciencan avinon. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Our grandfather is an old man, and they say that he will not live +much longer. 2. He is not very strong, and can not take ("fari") long +walks. 3. The mile between his house and ours now seems long to him. 4. +He prefers to sit quietly in the house or on the veranda, and think, +nearly all day long (the whole day). 5. He is very amiable, and can tell +exceedingly interesting stories, about the victories and defeats which +happened (119) many years ago. 6. Such things are wicked I think, and I +am very glad that (83) such battles do not happen now. 7. Grandfather +has a long white beard and much white hair. 8. It is very interesting to +hear his stories, and also to look directly at him while he is telling +them. 9. He tells such stories with great pleasure. 10. Although he +has lived with (125) us since February (131), he does not know (117) a +great many of the neighbors, or of the other persons living (133) near. +11. Grandmother has blue eyes, red cheeks, and soft white curls. 12. +She speaks slowly, with a sweet voice, and is very patient. 13. Today +she said to me "Good morning, my dear (132), I have lost my spectacles. +Will you look-for them for me?" I nodded (the head) and soon found the +spectacles. + + + + LESSON XXIX. + + + THE INTERROGATIVE ADVERB OF MANNER AND DEGREE. + +134. The interrogative adverb of manner or degree, related to the +interrogative pronoun "kiu", is "kiel", how, in what way, to what +degree: + + Kiel oni vivas en tia aero? How do people live in such air? + Kiel afabla sxi estas! How amiable she is! + Mi miras kiel la batalo okazis, I wonder how the battle happened. + Kiel longe li pensis pri gxi? How long did he think about it? + + THE PLUPERFECT TENSE. + +135. The compound tense formed by combining the past active participle +with the past tense of "esti" represents an act or condition as having +been completed at some time in the past, and is called the "pluperfect +tense". The conjugation of "vidi" in this tense is as follows: + + mi estis vidinta, I had seen (I was having-seen). + vi estis vidinta, you had seen (you were having-seen). + li (sxi, gxi) estis vidinta, he (she, it) had seen (was having-seen). + ni estis vidintaj, we had seen (we were having-seen). + vi estis vidintaj, you had seen (you were having-seen). + ili estis vidintaj, they had seen (they were having-seen). + + + CARDINAL NUMERALS. + +136. Cardinals are numeral adjectives which answer the question "How +many?" The cardinals from one to twelve are as follows: + + unu = one. sep = seven. + du = two. ok = eight. + tri = three. naux = nine. + kvar = four. dek = ten. + kvin = five. dek unu = eleven. + ses = six. dek du = twelve. + +137. With the exception of "unu", none of the cardinals may receive the +plural ending "-j" or the accusative ending "-n". That is, they are +invariable in form. "Unuj" may be used to mean "some" in contrast to +"aliaj", others: + + Unuj marsxis, aliaj kuris, some walked, others ran. + Mi prenis unujn kaj lasis la aliajn, I took some and left the others. + +138. The preposition "el" is used after numeral adjectives expressing a +number "out of" some larger number or quantity: + + Ses el la knaboj venis, six of the boys came. + Ok el tiuj libroj estas la miaj, eight of those books are mine. + El tiuj cxapeloj mi sxatas nur unu, of those hats I like only one. + +[Footnote: The cardinal "unu" must not be used in the sense of the +English pronominal "one," as in "I am searching for a book, but not the +one on the table", which should be translated "Mi sercxas libron, sed ne +tiun sur la tablo."] + + + THE ACCUSATIVE OF MEASURE. + +139. A substantive in the accusative case may be used, instead of +a prepositional phrase or an adverb, not only to express measure +(duration) of time (91), but also to express measure of weight, price, +length, etc.: + + Li marsxis dek unu mejlojn, he walked eleven miles. + La parko estas largxa tri mejlojn, kaj longa kvar mejlojn, + the park is three miles wide and four miles long. + La tablo pezas dek du funtojn, + the table weighs (is heavy) twelve pounds. + + + NIA FAMILIO. + +Mi rakontos al vi kian familion ni havas. Ni estas ses personoj kaj ni +logxas en cxi tiu domo de antaux preskaux kvar jaroj. Antaux ol veni +cxi tien al la urbo, ni estis logxintaj tri jarojn en kvieta vilagxo +en la kamparo. Mia patro estas alta, kun grizaj haroj kaj griza barbo. +Kvankam li ne estas ricxulo, li tamen havas suficxe da mono por vivi +kontente kaj felicxe. Li sxatas marsxi, kaj ofte li estas marsxinta +kvin aux ses mejlojn por unu promeno. Unu fojon mi demandis "Kiel vi +povas marsxi tiel multe?" Li respondis "Dum mi estis junulo mi estis +soldato, kaj tiam mi estis tre multe marsxanta. Tial mi ne forgesas la +plezurojn de longaj promenoj." La patrino estas malpli alta ol mi, kaj +kiel bluajn okulojn sxi havas, sub nigraj okulharoj kaj nigraj brovoj! +Sxiaj haroj estas nigraj kaj buklaj, kaj sxiaj vangoj estas rugxaj. Sxi +havas dolcxan vocxon, kaj estas plezuro auxdi sxiajn kantojn. Por legi +aux skribi sxi kutime portas okulvitrojn. Mi havas du fratojn kaj unu +fratinon. La fratino havas dek unu jarojn. + +[Footnote: Like French and some other languages, Esperanto commonly uses +the verb "to have" rather than the verb "to be", in expressing age: Li +havas sep jarojn, he is seven years old (he has seven years). Mi havis +dek jarojn tiam, I was ten years old (I had ten years) then.] + +Unu el la fratoj havas ok jarojn, la alia havas dek du jarojn. Ili povas +bonege kuri, rajdi, kaj fari aliajn interesajn aferojn. Ili lernis +siajn lecionojn en la lernejo tiel bone ke ses fojojn en unu monato +oni lauxdis ilin. Ni multe gxojis pri tiom da lauxdo por la fratoj. La +fratino estas malpli forta, tamen sxi ofte promenas kun ni ecx du aux +tri mejlojn. La avino ankaux logxas cxe ni de antaux sep aux ok jaroj. +Unu el ni kutime restas cxe la hejmo kun sxi, dum la aliaj promenas, +cxar sxi ne estas suficxe forta por marsxi ecx unu mejlon. Mi ofte miras +kial sxi preferas sidi sur la verando, kaj mi demandas al sxi "Cxu vi +estas tro laca por marsxi?" Sxi kutime balancas la kapon kaj diras "Jes, +mia nepo, mi estas tro laca." + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Three and four make seven. 2. Two and six make eight. Five and six +make eleven. 3. Seven and five make twelve. 4. I have been studying +geometry since five months ago, and German since January. 5. I have read +three German books, but I shall not be able to talk in this language +until after August. 6. To learn how to speak such a language is a +difficult matter. 7. Nine of the children in our school are now studying +German with me. 8. Some learn it easily, others do not like it. 9. Three +of the boys and two of the girls in that school are German. 10. They +had resided four years in a large city, but I think (that) they live +more contentedly in our quiet village. 11. They can not talk with us +very well, but merely nod their heads when we talk to them. 12. I had +not seen them before they came to school, although they are neighbors +of ours. 13. They are amiable children, with blue eyes, red cheeks, and +yellow hair. 14. They can ride very well, and often ride eight or ten +miles in one day. 15. They usually ride in a park three miles wide and +four miles long, where there is but little ("nur malmulte da") dust. + + + + LESSON XXX. + + + THE INTERROGATIVE ADVERB OF QUANTITY. + +140. The interrogative adverb of quantity related to the interrogative +pronoun "kiu" is "kiom", how much, how many: + + Kiom da tempo vi ripozis? How much time did you rest? + Kiom da sukero kaj kiom da fragoj vi acxetis? + How much sugar and how many strawberries did you buy? + Ni miras kiom da mono li havos, + we wonder how much money he will have. + Kiom de la leciono vi lernis? How much of the lesson did you learn? + + + MODIFIERS OF IMPERSONALLY USED VERBS. + +141. Any modifier of an impersonal verb (50) or of a verb used +impersonally, that is, with an infinitive or clause for its subject, +or without any definitely expressed or personal subject (as in "it is +cold," "it seems too early"), must necessarily be adverbial: + + Estas varme en la domo, it is warm in the house. + Estos malvarme morgaux, it will be cold tomorrow. + Estas bone ke li venis, it is well that he came. + Estas amuze ke ni forgesis lin, it is amusing that we forgot him. + Ke vi venis estis tre sagxe, that you came was very wise. + Estos pli agrable en la salono, it will be pleasanter in the parlor. + + + FORMATION OF CARDINAL NUMERALS. + +142. The cardinal numerals for the tens, hundreds and thousands are +formed by prefixing "du", "tri", "kvar", etc., to "dek", ten, "cent", +hundred, and "mil", thousand, respectively. + + Tens. + --------------------------------------------- + dudek, twenty. sesdek, sixty. + tridek, thirty. sepdek, seventy. + kvardek, forty. okdek, eighty. + kvindek, fifty. nauxdek, ninety. + + Hundreds. Thousands. + ---------------------------- ------------------------- + ducent, two hundred. trimil, three thousand. + kvincent, five hundred. kvarmil, four thousand. + sepcent, seven hundred, etc. sesmil, six thousand, etc. + +143. The cardinals between ten and twenty, twenty and thirty, etc., are +formed by placing "unu, du, tri", etc., after "dek, dudek, tridek", etc. +(Cf. "dek unu", eleven, "dek du", twelve, 136): + + dek kvar = fourteen. tridek kvin = thirty-five. + dek naux = nineteen. sepdek ok = seventy-eight. + dudek tri = twenty-three. nauxdek ses = ninety-six, etc. + +144. Cardinals containing more than two figures begin with the largest +number and descend regularly, as in English: + + cent tridek kvin, one hundred and thirty-five. + kvarcent nauxdek sep, four hundred and ninety-seven. + sescent du, six hundred and two. + mil okdek, one thousand and eighty. + mil naucent dek du, + one thousand nine hundred and twelve + (nineteen hundred and twelve). + + + THE SUFFIX "-AN-". + +145. The suffix "-an-" is used to form words indicating an inhabitant or +resident of the place denoted by the root, or a member or adherent of +the party, organization, etc., denoted by the root. The suffix "-an-" +may itself be used as a root, forming "ano", member, etc. + + bostonano = Bostonian. domano = inmate of a house. + kamparano = countryman, peasant. vilagxano = villager. + +[Footnote: Cf. English "urb-an", "suburb-an", "Rom-an", "republic-an", +"Mohammed-an", etc.] + + + VOCABULARY + + aritmetik-o = arithmetic. memor-i = to remember. + cent = hundred (142). mil = thousand (142). + erar-o = error, mistake. minut-o = minute. + grad-o = grade, degree. ricev-i = to receive. + kalkul-i = to calculate, to reckon. sekund-o = second. + kiom = how much (140). superjar-o = leap-year. + + + LECIONO PRI ARITMETIKO. + +Estas malvarme hodiaux, kaj tute ne agrable ekster la domo. La urbanoj +ne estas promenantaj en la parko, cxar ili preferas resti en la domoj. +Mi ankaux restis en la domo, kaj parolis al mia juna frato. Mi helpis +lin pri la leciono en aritmetiko, tial ke li baldaux havos ekzamenojn, +kaj li volas esti preta por skribi tre bonajn respondojn. Mi demandis +al li "Kiom faras dek tri kaj dek kvar?" Li respondis ke tiuj faras +dudek sep. Tiam mi demandis kiom faras dudek unu kaj tridek kvar. Li +kalkulis kvin aux ses sekundojn, per mallauxta vocxo, kaj diris "Ili +faras kvindek kvin." Mi demandis kiom faras ducent tri kaj sepcent +ok, kaj li respondis ke ili faras nauxcent dek unu. Li tute ne faris +erarojn al mi, kaj fine mi diris al li ke li povas bonege kalkuli. Mi +opinias ke li ricevos bonan gradon en la ekzamenoj. Post kelkaj minutoj +ni komencis paroli pri aliaj aferoj. Mi demandis "Kiom da tagoj en la +monato septembro?" La frato respondis "Septembro, novembro, aprilo kaj +junio havas tridek tagojn. Kvankam tiuj monatoj havas tiom da tagoj, la +aliaj monatoj havas tridek unu tagojn. Sed la monato februaro havas nur +dudek ok tagojn." Estas interese lerni pri cxi tiu monato februaro. Dum +tri jaroj gxi havas dudek ok tagojn, sed en la sekvanta jaro gxi havas +dudek naux tagojn. La jaro havanta tian februaron estas la "superjaro." +Mi rakontis tiun interesan aferon al la frato, kaj li diris ke li bone +memoros gxin. Li diris ke li ne antauxe sciis pri la superjaro. Li +ne sciis ke la superjaro havas tricent sesdek ses tagojn, kvankam la +aliaj jaroj havas nur tricent sesdek kvin tagojn. Li diris ke li ankaux +memoros pri la nombro da tagoj en la superjaro, kaj ke li rakontos la +aferon al la aliaj knaboj. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. (To be written out in full): 14, 18, 42, 86, 79, 236, 431, 687, 788, +1240, 1885, 9872, 4500, 1912. 2. There are twelve months in a year, and +in most of the months of the year there are thirty-one days. 3. There +are only thirty days in the months April, June, September and November. +4. There are seven days in a week, and twenty-four hours in a day. 5. +Twelve of these hours make the day, and the others make the night. 6. +There are sixty minutes in one hour, and sixty seconds in one minute. +7. There are four weeks and also two or three days in one month. 8. +In the year there are fifty-two weeks. 9. How many weeks are there in +ten years? 10. At least one year in ten years is a leap-year. 11. In a +leap-year there are three hundred and sixty-six days, instead of three +hundred and sixty-five. 12. Wise men calculated about this matter, many +years ago. 13. It is well for us that they liked to study arithmetic. +15. I have often received good grades in this study. 16. I remember it +easily, and seldom make mistakes. + + + + LESSON XXXI. + + + THE RELATIVE PRONOUN. + +146. A connecting pronoun referring to something which precedes (or +follows) is called a "relative pronoun". The person or thing to which +it refers is called its "antecedent." The relative pronoun, identical +in form with the interrogative pronoun (106), as in English, is "kiu", +which, who. + +[Footnote: Sometimes English uses "that" for a relative pronoun, as +"I saw the book that you have." This must always be translated by +"kiu". Likewise, English sometimes omits the relative pronoun, as "I +saw the book you have." The relative pronoun is never thus omitted in +Esperanto.] + +The relative pronoun agrees in number with its antecedent. Whether it +is in the accusative case or not depends upon its relation to its own +verb or to other words in its own clause (called the relative clause): + + La junuloj, kiuj venis, estas afablaj, + the youths who came are amiable. + La personoj, kiujn li vidos, estas amikoj miaj, + the persons (whom) he will see are friends of mine. + Mi kalkulis la gradon, kiun li ricevos, + I calculated the grade (which) he will receive. + Mi memoras tiun aferon, pri kiu vi parolas, + I remember that matter about which you speak. + +147. Like English "whose" the genitive form "kies" of the interrogative +pronoun (107) is also used as a relative, referring to a substantive +(singular or plural) for its antecedent: + + Li estas la viro, kies libron vi trovis, + he is the man whose book you found. + Mi konas la infanojn, kies patro estas amiko via, + I know the children whose father is a friend of yours. + + + THE FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. + +148. The compound tense formed by combining the past participle with the +future tense of the auxiliary verb "esti" represents an act or condition +as having been already completed or perfected at a future time, and is +called the "future perfect tense." The conjugation of "vidi" in this +tense is as follows: + + + mi estos vidinta, I shall have seen (I shall be having-seen). + vi estos vidinta, you will have seen (you will be having-seen). + li (sxi, gxi) estos vidinta, + he (she, it) will have seen (will be having-seen). + ni estos vidintaj, we shall have seen (shall be having-seen). + vi estos vidintaj, you will have seen (will be having-seen). + ili estos vidintaj, they will have seen (will be having-seen). + + + ORDINAL NUMERALS. + +149. Ordinal numerals are adjectives which answer the question "Which +in order?" as "first", "third", etc. They are formed by adding the +adjectival suffix "-a" to the cardinals. The various parts of an ordinal +must be connected by hyphens, since it is to the entire cardinal, and +not any part of it, that the adjective ending "-a" is attached: + + unua = first. kvardek-sesa = forty-sixth. + dua = second. cent-okdek-kvina : + tria = third. hundred and eighty-fifth. + oka = eighth. mil-okcent-kvara : + dek-unua = eleventh. one thousand eight hundred and + dek-nauxa = nineteenth. fourth. + dudek-sepa = twenty-seventh. sesmil-sepa : + six thousand and seventh. + +[Footnote: Ordinal numerals may be abbreviated thus: "la", "1st", "2a", +"2nd", "3a", "3rd", "5a", "5th", "1912a", "1912th", "233a", "233rd", +etc. If the ordinal number is used in an accusative construction, the +abbreviation is given the accusative ending, as "lan", "2an", "3an", +"1912an", etc.] + + + VOCABULARY + + angl-a = English. neces-a = necessary. + dezir-i = to desire. paf-i = to shoot. + dolar-o = dollar. pafark-o = bow (for shooting). + gajn-i = to win, to gain. part-o = part, share. + kost-i = to cost. pen-i = to strive, to try. + last-a = last. traduk-i = to translate. + latin-a = Latin. sag-o = arrow. + mar-o = sea. sam-a = same. + + + ALFREDO GRANDA KAJ LA LIBRO. + +Antaux pli multe ol mil jaroj vivis Alfredo Granda, unu el la plej +interesaj personoj pri kiuj ni estas auxdintaj. Li estis la unua angla +regxo, kiu deziris legi librojn. Li estis ankaux la lasta, kiu povis +legi ilin, gxis post multaj jaroj. Unu tagon, dum li estis malgranda +knabo kun flavaj buklaj haroj, lia patrino, tre sagxa regxino, montris +al li kaj al liaj fratoj belegan libron. Sxi diris ke la libro kostis +multe da mono en lando trans la maro, kaj ke gxi nun apartenas al +sxi. Si diris "Miaj filoj, mi donos cxi tiun libron al tiu el vi, kiu +lernos legi gxin. Kiu el vi estos la unua, kiu povos legi? Tiu ricevos +la libron." Nu, Alfredo komencis studi, kaj post ne longe li gajnis +la belegan libron. Liaj fratoj ecx ne penis gajni gxin. Tiam oni tre +malmulte pensis pri libroj. La regxoj kaj iliaj filoj nur malofte povis +legi, kaj treege malofte povis skribi. Oni lauxdis nur personojn, +kiuj bone rajdis kaj batalis per sagoj kaj pafarkoj. Sed oni opiniis +ke tute ne estis necese scii pri la aferoj, kiujn la libroj rakontas. +Tial Alfredo ne ricevis lauxdon pro sia deziro por legi. La sesan +aux sepan jaron post sia ricevo de la libro, Alfredo volis lerni la +latinan lingvon, cxar tiam oni skribis latine ("in Latin") la librojn, +kiuj estis plej bonaj. Oni sercxis gxis la finoj de la lando, kaj iris +multajn mejlojn, sed preskaux ne povis trovi personon, kiu ecx estis +auxdinta pri tia lingvo. Fine oni trovis personon por helpi Alfredon, +kiu tiam lernis la latinan lingvon. Tiu sama Alfredo estis regxo multajn +jarojn, kaj estis unu el la plej bonaj regxoj, kiujn la angla lando +estas havinta. Alfredo skribis librojn en la latina lingvo, kaj ankaux +tradukis latinajn librojn en la anglan lingvon. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. (To be written out in full): 37th, 59th, 73rd, 92nd, 846th, 119th, +1274th, 1910th, 14235th. 2. Before my friend will have finished that +mansion (122), it will have cost twenty thousand dollars. 3. Before +coming to visit you, I shall have ridden twelve miles on my horse. 4. +The grade which you will have received in arithmetic soon after the +first of March will be excellent. 5. You do not make mistakes very often +in the lessons. 6. I shall try after a few minutes to translate that +Latin book, for ("cxar") it seems interesting. 7. It is necessary to +study Latin, for I desire to read the stories which are in my Latin +book. 8. The one thousand nine hundred and fourth year was a leap-year. +9. The fourth year after that year was also a leap-year. 10. The 1912th +year will be a leap-year. There are three hundred and sixty-six days in +such a year. 12. Alfred won the book which his mother had bought. 13. +Such a book now costs four or five hundred dollars. 14. Alfred the Great +was the last king until many years afterward (until after many years) +who could read or write. 15. He was the first king in that land who even +wished to be able to read books. 16. We often talk about this same King +Alfred, and say that he was the father of the English language. 17. +People say so ("diras tiel") because he translated Latin books into the +language of his land, and because he also wrote books in that language. + + + + LESSON XXXII. + + + "KIA" AS A RELATIVE ADJECTIVE. + +150. The interrogative adjective "kia" (112) is also used as a relative +adjective, referring back to "tia," or to some equivalent phrase or word +indicating quality, such as "sama", etc. In this use it may often be +translated "as", or "which": + + Mi havas tian libron, kian mi volas, + I have such a (that kind of) book as (which kind) I wish. + Tiaj amikoj, kiajn vi havas, estas afablaj, + such friends as (of which kind) you have are amiable. + Li deziras tian cxapelon, kia kostas ses dolarojn, + he desires that kind of hat which (kind) costs six dollars. + Mi havas la saman deziron, kian vi, + I have the same desire as you (same kind which you have). + + + "KIE" AS A RELATIVE ADVERB. + +151. The interrogative adverb "kie", "kien" (118) is also used as a +relative adverb of place with "tie", "tien", or some other expression of +place for its antecedent. + +[Footnote: Any interrogative adverb may also be used to introduce an +indirect question, thus serving as a subordinating conjunction (cf. +"cxu").] + +"Kien" is used when the verb in the relative clause expresses motion +toward the place indicated, whether or not its antecedent has this +ending. Similarly, "kie" may refer to "tie" or to "tien": + + Mi iros tien, kie vi estas, + I shall go there where you are. + Mi estis tie, kien vi iros, + I was there (at that place) where you will go. + Mi iros tien, kien vi iris, + I shall go to that place to which you went + (I shall go where you went). + Mi trovis lin en la urbo, kie li logxas, + I found him in the city where he lives. + Cxu vi venos cxi tien, kie ni estas? + Are you coming here where we are? + + + THE FUTURE ACTIVE PARTICIPLE. + +152. The future active participle, expressing what the word modified +will do or is about to do, ends in "-onta," as "vidonta", about to +see, "ironta", about to go: + + + La forironta viro vokis sian serviston, + the man going to depart (the about-to-depart man) + called his servant. + La virino salutonta vin estas tre afabla, + the woman about to greet you is very affable. + La venonta monato estas marto, + the coming month is March. + La venontan semajnon mi foriros, + the coming (next) week I shall depart. + + + THE PERIPHRASTIC FUTURE TENSES. + +153. The compound tenses formed by combining the future active +participle with each of the three aoristic tenses of "esti" represent +an act or state as about to occur in the present, past, or future, +respectively, and are called "periphrastic future tenses." Except when +great accuracy is desired, these tenses are not often used. A synopsis +of "vidi" in the first person singular and plural of these tenses is as +follows: + + Present Periphrastic Future. + + mi estas vidonta, ni estas vidontaj, + I am about to (going we are about to (going + to) see. to) see. + + Past Periphrastic Future. + + mi estis vidonta, ni estis vidontaj, + I was about to (going we were about to (going + to) see. to) see. + + Future Periphrastic Future. + + mi estos vidonta, ni estos vidontaj, + I shall be about to (going we shall be about to (going + to) see. to) see. + + + THE SUFFIX "-IND-". + +154. The suffix "-ind-" is used to form words expressing "worthy of, +deserving of," that which is indicated in the root. It may also be used +as a root, to form "inda", worthy, "malinda", unworthy, "indo", worth, +merit, etc.: + + dezirinda = desirable. rimarkinda = noteworthy, remarkable. + lauxdinda = praiseworthy. ridinde = ridiculously, laughably. + mallauxdinda = blameworthy. tradukinda = worth translating. + + + VOCABULARY + + ankoraux = still, yet. flar-i = to smell. + atak-i = to attack. gast-o = guest. + bat-i = to beat. ho! = Oh! + cert-a = sure, certain. kri-i = to exclaim, to cry. + defend-i = to defend. kruel-a = cruel. + difekt-i = to spoil. kuk-o = cake. + edz-o = husband. lign-o = wood. + fajr-o = fire. suspekt-i = to suspect. + +[Footnote: The adverb "ankoraux" expresses the ideas "until and during +the present time", "in the future as now and before", "in constant or +uniform succession", "in an increasing or additional degree", given +sometimes by English "yet", sometimes by "still": Mi estas ankoraux +sidanta cxi tie, "I am still sitting here." Li ankoraux ne venis, "still +he has not come (he has not come yet)." Li ankoraux restos tie, "he +will still stay there." Ankoraux ili venas, "still they come." Li estos +ankoraux pli ruza, "he will be still (yet) more crafty."] + + + ALFREDO GRANDA KAJ LA KUKOJ. + +Unu fojon antaux pli multe ol mil jaroj, soldatoj venis de trans la maro +por ataki la anglan regxon Alfredon Grandan. Ili nek konis nek malamis +lin, sed ili sciis ke li estas persono kies landon ili deziras gajni. +Cxi tiuj malamikoj estis venintaj tiel subite ke Alfredo ne estis preta +por defendi sian landon kontraux ili. Tial li forkuris kelkajn mejlojn +de la urbo, kaj sin kasxis en granda arbaro malantaux vilagxo. Anstataux +porti regxajn vestojn li acxetis tiajn cxifonojn kiajn kamparanoj kaj +malricxuloj portas. Li logxis cxe malricxa sed lauxdinda kamparano, +kiu ne konis la regxon, kaj tute ne suspektis kia persono lia gasto +estas. Unu memorindan tagon Alfredo estis sidanta apud la fajro, kaj +estis rigardanta siajn sagojn kaj pafarkon dum li pensis malgxoje pri +sia lando. La edzino de la arbarano demandis "Cxu vi ankoraux sidos tie +dekkvin aux dudek minutojn?" "Jes," respondis la regxo. Sxi diris "Nu, +estos necese fari pli varmegan fajron por tiaj kukoj kiajn mi nun estas +bakonta. Cxu vi gardos tiujn kukojn kiuj nun estas super la fajro, dum +mi kolektos pli multe da ligno?" Alfredo respondis "Certe mi gardos ilin +kontraux la fajro." La virino sercxonta lignon foriris en alian parton +de la arbaro, kie estis multe da ligno, kaj la regxo penis zorgi pri la +kukoj. Sed baldaux li forgesis ilin, kaj la fajro ilin difektis. Kiam la +virino venis kaj flaris la kukojn sxi kriis "ho, vi riprocxinda viro! +Kvankam vi ankoraux sidas tie, vi ne pensas pri la kukoj, kaj la fajro +estas difektinta ilin!" Sxi estis kruele batonta la regxon, kiam li +diris al sxi kiu li estas, kaj kial li forgesis la kukojn. Tiam sxi tre +hontis, kaj anstataux mallauxdi lin sxi volis esti ankoraux pli bona al +li. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Alfred the Great was a praiseworthy king who lived more than a +thousand years ago. 2. People still talk about him because he not only +translated many Latin books into the English language, but also wrote in +English. 3. He wished to help the peasants still more. 4. But enemies +often attacked him, and finally they conquered his soldiers. 5. Then +they hastened to where (151) Alfred was. 6. They were about to attack +him, when he rode away secretly ("kasxe") into a large forest. 7. There +he dwelt some time in the house of a poor forester. 8. He wore such +rags as a peasant usually wears, and did not tell the forester who he +was. 9. One day he was sitting near the fire and wondering, "Will the +enemy have conquered my soldiers next week?" 10. The forester's wife +said, "Will you sit there yet a while and take-care of those cakes? I am +about to gather more wood." 11. He replied, "Certainly, I will try to +help you." 12. But when after a few minutes the woman smelled the cakes, +she knew that the fire had spoiled them. 13. She exclaimed "Oh, what a +blame-worthy man!" 14. She commenced to beat the king cruelly, but he +did not defend himself. 15. Instead (120), he told her who he was. + + + + LESSON XXXIII. + + + "KIAM" AS A RELATIVE ADVERB. + +155. The interrogative temporal adverb "kiam" (123) is also used as a +relative temporal adverb, with "tiam" or an equivalent word or phrase +for its antecedent. (It may not be omitted as in English "at the time he +came"): + + Mi suspektis lin je la tempo kiam li venis, + I suspected him at the time when he came (the time that he came). + Li defendis sin tiam, kiam oni atakis lin, + he defended himself then, when he was attacked. + Mi ankoraux sidos tie gxis kiam vi venos, + I shall still sit there until when you come (until you come). + Post kiam li tiel lauxte kriis, li komencis plori, + after he shouted so loudly, he began to cry. + + + "KIEL" AS A RELATIVE ADVERB. + +156. The interrogative adverb "kiel" (134) is also used as a relative +adverb of manner and degree, with "tiel", or "same", or an equivalent +adverb or phrase for its antecedent. It may often be translated "as": + + Mi defendis min tiel, kiel li defendis sin, + I defended myself in that way in which (way) he defended himself. + Vi ne estas tiel kruela kiel li, + you are not so cruel as he (is). + Ili batis lin same kiel vi, + they beat him in the same way as you (did). + Ili batis lin same kiel vin, + they beat him the same as (they did) you. + Kiel mi diris al li, mi estas felicxa, + as I told him, I am happy (antecedent not expressed). + Li parolis tiel mallauxte kiel antauxe, + he spoke as softly as before. + Sxi estas tiel bona kiel sxi estas bela, + she is as good as she is fair. + + + NUMERAL NOUNS AND ADVERBS. + +157. Nouns may be formed from the cardinals by addition of the ending +"-o." After such nouns the preposition "da" or "de" is used: + + dekduo = a dozen. milo = a thousand. + dudeko = a score. unuo = a unit. + deko = a ten, half a score. kvaro = a four, a quartette. + cento = a hundred. trio = a three, a trio. + +[Footnote: The prepositions "da" and "de" follow nouns (99, 100) or +adverbs (101), while "el" follows adjectives in the superlative degree +(75), cardinal numerals (138), and the pronouns tiu, kiu (106), etc.: +"dekduo da ovoj", a dozen (of) eggs. "dekduo de la ovoj", a dozen of the +eggs. "dek du el tiuj ovoj", twelve of those eggs. "kiu el la ovoj?" +which one of the eggs? "tiu el la ovoj", that one of the eggs. "la plej +fresxa el la ovoj", the freshest of the eggs.] + +158. Adverbs may be formed from the cardinals by addition of the ending +"-e": + + unue = firstly, at first. deke = tenthly. + due = secondly, in the second place. sesdeke = sixtiethly. + kvine = fifthly, in the fifth place. okdek-kvare = eighty-fourthly. + + + WORD DERIVATION FROM PREPOSITIONS. + +159. Adjectives, verbs and nouns, as well as adverbs (120), may be +derived from prepositions by addition of the formative endings (116), +with sometimes a special suffix also: + + + anstatauxi = to replace, to take the place of. + anstatauxulo = a substitute. + antauxa = previous, preceding. + apuda = near, contiguous, adjacent. + cxirkauxi = to surround, to encircle. + cxirkauxo = a circuit, a circumference. + kontrauxa = adverse, opposite, contrary. + kontrauxulo = adversary, opponent. + kunulo = comrade, companion. + superi = to surpass, to exceed, to be above. + superege = surpassingly, exceedingly. + + + VOCABULARY + + adiaux = farewell, goodbye. kuz-o = cousin. + akcept-i = to accept, to receive. malgraux = notwithstanding. + elekt-i = to choose, to select. par-o = pair. + fest-i = to celebrate, to entertain. pend-i = to hang. + gant-o = glove. prez-o = price. + gxentil-a = courteous. renkont-i = to meet. + invit-i = to invite. sxu-o = shoe. + jxus = just, at the moment. uz-i = to use. + +[Footnote: The adverb "jxus" indicates the elapsing of the least +possible time since the act or condition indicated, or between the two +acts or conditions indicated. "Ni jxus venis", we just came (we came but +a moment ago). "Mi havas la saman opinion kian vi jxus diris", I have +the same opinion as you just gave (said). "Mi vidis lin jxus kiam li +estis forironta", I saw him just when he was about to depart. "Jxus kiam +vi venis li foriris", just as you came he went away.] + + + LA INVITO. + +Hieraux matene mia kuzo vizitis cxe ni, kaj invitis min al malgranda +festo kiu okazos morgaux vespere. Tiam li festos la lastan tagon de +la jaro. Li diris ke la gastoj sidos cxirkaux la fajrejo kaj rakontos +rakontojn gxis malfrua horo. Mi akceptis lian gxentilan inviton, kaj +diris ke mi certe venos. Mia kuzo logxas en la sama urbo kie nia familio +logxas, sed en alia parto. Lia hejmo estas preskaux du mejlojn de la +nia. Tamen, ni estas bonaj kunuloj, kaj ofte promenas kune. Jxus kiam li +estis elironta el la pordo hieraux, mi uzis la okazon ("opportunity") +por proponi mallongan promenon. Li respondis ke li gxoje promenos kun +mi, malgraux la negxa vetero. Tial ni formarsxis tien, kie la stratoj +estis malplej kotaj. La kuzo havas dek ok jarojn, sed mi estas preskaux +tiel alta kiel li. Mi estas certa ke mi estas ankaux tiel forta kiel li. +Ni parolis pri multaj interesaj aferoj, kaj bonege nin amuzis, gxis kiam +estis necese hejmen iri. La kuzo diris "adiaux," kaj iris rekte hejmen, +sed mi iris al granda butiko. Unue, mi volis acxeti paron da novaj +gantoj, por anstatauxi la malnovajn gantojn kiujn mi ankoraux estis +portanta, kvankam mi acxetis ilin antaux tri monatoj. Due, mi bezonis +paron da novaj sxuoj. Mi iris en la butikon kie pendis tiaj gantoj, +kiajn mi sxatas, kaj oni tuj venis por renkonti min, kaj demandis "Kiajn +vestojn vi volas acxeti?" Oni montris al mi preskaux dudekon da paroj +da gantoj. Mi elektis tre bonan paron, kaj estis jxus acxetonta ilin, +malgraux la tro granda prezo, kiam mi vidis alian pli belan paron. +Tial mi acxetis cxi tiun, kaj poste mi rigardis la sxuojn. Mi trovis +rimarkinde bonan paron, cxar estas centoj da sxuoj en tiu butiko. Mi tuj +acxetis tiun paron, kaj tiam hejmen iris. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. My friend likes to live in the city, but his wife prefers to live in +their little wooden house in the country. 2. There she can see and smell +the flowers, and can take ("fari") long walks in the adjacent fields +and forest. 3. There are often hundreds of persons in a village, but +there are thousands of persons in a city. 4. The larger a city is, the +larger and better its stores are. 5. In the second place, one can buy +better bread, vegetables and cake in the city. 6. Thirdly, one can also +find better gloves, hats and shoes there, and the price is often less. +7. Therefore I make use of the opportunity when I go to the city, and +usually buy a pair of new gloves. 8. I am still wearing a pair of gloves +which the rain spoiled. 9. Notwithstanding their ugly color, they are +still thick and good. 10. But soon I shall buy such a pair as (150) is +hanging in the window of that store. 11. The price is low, and I need a +new pair now, for my cousin has invited me to a small party ("festo") +at his house. 12. I accepted his invitation courteously, and said that +I would gladly be his guest. 13. We are good comrades, although he is +younger than I am. 14. My (girl) cousin, his sister, is older than he +is, but he is as tall as she. 15. I was just about to send a letter to +him at the minute that (155) he knocked on our door. 16. His visit will +take the place of (159) my letter. 17. Just as (just when) he was going +away, I said goodbye to him, and said that I would meet him in the park +tomorrow. 18. I think that we shall have a pleasant walk, although the +weather is still remarkably cold, the same as (156) it was two or three +months ago. + + + + LESSON XXXIV. + + + PREPOSITIONS AS PREFIXES. + +160. Any preposition may be used as a prefix to a verb, provided the +resulting compound is intelligible. A few prepositional compounds are +given below, only verbs being shown, although nouns, adjectives and +adverbs may be formed from these (116): + + alveni = to arrive. interparoli = to converse. + aldoni = to add. kontrauxdiri = to contradict. + antauxdiri = to predict. kunlabori = to collaborate. + cxirkauxpreni = to embrace. kunveni = to assemble. + cxeesti = to be present. priskribi = to describe. + dependi = to hang from, to depend. subteni = to support. + demeti = to lay aside. surmeti = to put on. + depreni = to subtract. traguti = to percolate. + enhavi = to contain. travidi = to see through + eliri = to go out. transiri = to cross. + +[Footnote: Like English "out" the preposition "el" often develops in +composition a secondary sense of "thoroughly" or "completely" (cf. "I am +tired out"): "eltrovi", to find out, to discover. "elpensi", to think +out, to invent. "ellabori", to work out, to elaborate. "ellerni", to +learn thoroughly, to master. "eluzi", to use completely, to wear out +(transitive).] + + + THE SUFFIX "-EBL-". + +161. The suffix "-ebl-" is used to form adjectives, adverbs, etc., +expressing the likelihood or possibility of that which is indicated by +the root. It may be used as a root, to form "ebla", possible, etc. + + eltrovebla = discoverable. rompebla = breakable. + legebla = legible. videbla = visible. + mangxebla = edible. travidebla = transparent. + +[Footnote: The suffix "-ebl-" is often equivalent to the English +suffixes "-able", "-ible", but these suffixes have other meanings also, +as in "readable," "worth reading" (leginda), "lovable," "deserving of +love" (aminda), etc.] + + + EXPRESSION OF THE HIGHEST DEGREE POSSIBLE. + +162. The adverb "plej", "most" (74), modified by "kiel eble" (as +possible), is used to express the highest degree possible: + + Gxi estas kiel eble plej bona, it is the best possible. + Ni estos kiel eble plej sagxaj, we shall be as wise as possible. + Li uzis kiel eble plej malmulte, he used the least possible. + Mi skribis kiel eble plej legeble, I wrote as legibly as possible. + + + TITLES AND TERMS OF ADDRESS. + +163. The words "sinjoro," gentleman, "sinjorino," lady, "frauxlino," +miss, are used like English "Mr., Mrs., Miss," before proper names, +and are also used as terms of address, without being followed by the +name: "Adiaux, Sinjoro. Adiaux, Sinjorino," Goodbye (Sir). Goodbye, +Madam. + + Frauxlino B----, cxu vi konas tiun sinjoron kun Sinjorino C----? + Miss B----, do you know that gentleman with Mrs. C----? + Mi ne konas tiun frauxlinon, I do not know that young lady. + Kien vi volas iri, Frauxlino? Where do you wish to go (Miss)? + Sinjoro A---- estas tre afabla, Mr. A---- is very amiable. + +[Footnote: Cf. English "Doctor, Professor, Madam," as terms of address, +and also German "Mein Herr, gnaedige Frau, gnaediges Fraeulein," French +"Monsieur, Mademoiselle," Spanish, "Senor, Senora," Italian "Signore," +etc.] + + + VOCABULARY + + atent-a = attentive. onkl-o = uncle. + auxskult-i = to listen. san-a = in good health. + babil-i = to chatter. sent-i = to feel. + doktor-o = doctor. sinjor-o = gentleman. + frauxl-o = bachelor. sxtup-o = step (of stairs). + gaj-a = merry, gay. tas-o = cup. + grup-o = group. vojagx-o = voyage, journey. + + + CXE LA FESTO. + +Hieraux vespere mi iris al la hejmo de mia kuzo, kiu estis invitinta +min al malgranda festo cxe li. Cxar mi deziris alveni kiel eble plej +frue, mi foriris de mia logxejo kiel eble plej baldaux, malgraux la +negxa vetero. Mi estis surmetinta paron da dikaj gantoj, kaj mi portis +dikajn sxuojn. Mi ankaux havis mian ombrelon, kvankam pro la vento mi ne +povis uzi tiun. Tuj kiam mi supreniris la sxtuparon cxe la hejmo de la +kuzo, li auxdis min, kaj venis por malfermi la pordon kaj akcepti min. +"Bonan vesperon, kia estas via sano?" li diris. Mi respondis "Mi sanas +bonege, dankon," kaj eniris la domon kun li. Ni supren iris per granda +sxtuparo al cxambro kie mi lasis la cxapelon, gantojn kaj ombrelon, tiam +ni malsupren venis kaj eniris la salonon. Mi salutis la onklinon, kiu +afable parolis al mi, kaj ankaux la du kuzinojn. Unu kuzino estis jxus +priskribonta interesan libron, kiun sxi antaux ne longe tralegis, kiam +la aliaj gastoj komencis alveni. Sinjoro B---- cxeestis, kaj Doktoro +C----, kun sia filino Frauxlino Mario, kaj multe da aliaj sinjoroj +kaj sinjorinoj. La gastoj sidis aux staris en malgrandaj grupoj, kaj +interparolis kun videbla plezuro. Unu rakontis pri vojagxo, kaj tiam +oni komencis priparoli la prezojn de aferoj en aliaj landoj. Mi atente +auxskultis kelkajn minutojn, kaj tiam foriris al alia grupo, kie oni +gaje babilis pri estontaj ("future") promenoj kaj festoj. Post unu aux +du horoj, la servistinoj alportis al ni bonan malgrandan mangxon, kune +kun tasoj da bonega kafo. Fine, je malfrua horo ni gxentile dankis la +familion de mia kuzo, kaj diris adiaux. Tiam ni foriris hejmen, kun +sentoj da granda plezuro pro la agrabla festo. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. There are dozens of edible fruits, but the fruits of hundreds of +trees are not at all ("tute ne estas") edible. 2. The transparent cup +and plate upon the table are very breakable. 3. I predict that you will +break them as soon as you seize them. 4. That letter is worth reading. +5. But it is difficult to read it, for it is not very legible. 6. It is +from my uncle, who wishes to arrive at-our-house as early as possible. +7. He is still in the city, but soon he will be here, and will go up the +steps ("sxtuparon") of our porch and knock on the door. 8. There are +very few persons who contradict his opinions. 9. His opinions, however, +are worthy of attention (154) and usually I listen courteously while he +is talking. 10. Now, however, I prefer to listen to the group of ladies +in the adjacent room. 11. They are chattering gaily, and listening +to the young lady who is about to sing. 12. Madam, do you feel the +wind? I notice that it is blowing the curtains which hang before that +window. 13. I will close the window, because I am not very well ("sana") +today. 14. Is that gentleman across the room a bachelor? 15. Yes. He is +describing a voyage and the people whom he met. + + + + LESSON XXXV. + + + "KIOM" AS A RELATIVE ADVERB. + +164. The interrogative adverb "kiom" (140) is used as a relative adverb +of quantity, with "tiom" or some equivalent word or phrase for its +antecedent. In this use it is commonly translated "as": + + La taso enhavis tiom da kafo, kiom mi povis trinki, + the cup contained as much coffee as I could drink. + Mi havos tiom da tempo, kiom mi bezonos, + I shall have as much time as I shall need. + Li sendis tiom, kiom vi volis, he sent as much as you wished. + + + THE PRESENT PASSIVE PARTICIPLE. + +165. The present passive participle (for the present active participle +see 108), expressing that which is "undergone by" the person or thing +indicated by the word modified, ends in "-ata", as "vidata", being +seen: + +[Footnote: The verb "iri", to go, used to illustrate the active +participles (108, 119, 152), cannot be used to illustrate a passive +participle, since passive participles can be made from transitive verbs +(22) only.] + + La lauxdata knabo estas felicxa, the boy being praised is happy. + Mi sercxos la deziratan libron, I shall look for the desired book. + La vestoj farataj por vi estas belaj, + the clothes being made for you are beautiful. + + + FRACTIONS. + +166. Fractions are formed from the cardinals by the use of the suffix +"-on-" followed by the ending "-o". Adjectives and adverbs may be +derived from these by use of the endings "-a" or "-e": + + La duono de ses estas tri, the half of six is three. + Li estis nur duone atenta, he was only half attentive. + La triona parto de ses estas du, the third part of six is two. + Dek unu dekduonoj, eleven twelfths. + Mi dudekone finis la laboron, I one-twentieth finished the work. + + + DESCRIPTIVE COMPOUNDS. + +167. A compound word whose first element modifies the second in an +adjectival or adverbial relation is called a "descriptive compound". +The final "-a" or "-e" of the first element may be omitted, unless the +resulting combination would be ambiguous or harsh-sounding. + +a. When the first element is adverbial (an adverb or preposition), the +second element may be either an adverb or adjective: + + multekosta, expensive. + duonkolere, half angrily. + nevidebla, invisible. + nevole, involuntarily. + rugxflava (rugxeflava), reddish yellow. + survoje, on the way, en route. + antauxhieraux, day before yesterday. + postmorgaux, day after tomorrow. + +b. An adjective may be used for the first element, if the second is an +adverb or adjective "derived from a noun-root": + + samtempa, contemporaneous. + unufoje, once, one time. + trifoje, thrice, three times. + unutaga, one day's, of one day. + unuataga, the first day's. + frutempe, at an early time. + +c. A noun may be used for the second element, if the resulting word +has not merely unity of form, but also unity of meaning with a +slightly different sense from that expressed by the noun and adjective +uncombined: + +[Footnote: In national languages a change of accent often accompanies +such change in meaning, as "BLACKberry" (not "black BERry"), "BLUEbird" +(not "blue BIRD"), "SWEETheart" (not "sweet HEART"), German "JUNGfrau", +"virgin" (not "jung FRAU", young woman), etc.] + + bonveno, a welcome (not "bona veno", a good coming). + libertempo, a vacation, leisure (not "libera tempo", free time). + superjaro, leap-year (not "super jaro", above a year). + bondeziroj, good wishes, felicitations + (not "bonaj deziroj", good desires). + plimulto, a majority (adverb and noun combined). + + + VOCABULARY + + hxin-o = Chinaman. naci-o = nation. + jam = already. pagx-o = page. + kler-a = enlightened, learned. pres-i = to print. + komerc-o = trade, commerce. pulv-o = gunpowder. + lanc-o = spear, lance. sxangx-i = to change. + liber-a = free. te-o = tea. + metod-o = method, way. ted-a = tiresome, tedious. + +[Footnote: The adverb "jam" indicates a change from some preceding +action or state to the different one expressed in the sentence, clause +or phrase containing "jam". It may often be translated "yet," "now," +etc. "Mi jam vidis lin", I already saw (have already seen) him. "Cxu vi +jam trovis gxin? Ne, mi ankoraux ne trovis gxin". Have you yet (have you +already) found it? No, I have not yet (still not) found it. "Li jam ne +vivas", he no longer lives (he already is-not-alive). "Jam ne negxas", +it is not snowing now (already not snowing).] + + + LA HXINOJ. + +Antaux miloj da jaroj la hxinoj estis la plej klera nacio en la mondo. +Dum aliaj nacioj ankoraux ne konis metodojn por presi librojn, kaj +ankoraux faris ilin skribe, la samtempaj hxinoj jam estis forlasintaj +tiun multekostan kaj tedan metodon. Ili jam estis presantaj la pagxojn +de miloj da libroj. Aliaj nacioj tiam estis batalantaj kiel eble plej +kruele, per sago kaj pafarko, kaj per lanco. Sed ili ankoraux ne havis +pafilojn, cxar pulvo estis tute nekonata al ili. Tamen la hxinoj jam +bone konis metodojn por fari kaj por uzi pulvon, kaj faris tiajn amuzajn +flavrugxajn fajrojn, kiajn ni ankoraux hodiaux acxetas de ili, por uzi +je festaj tagoj. Sed la hxinoj ne multe sxatis la komercon, kaj ne +deziris acxeti aux lerni de aliaj nacioj. Ili ankoraux nun havas la +samajn metodojn por presi librojn kaj por fari pulvon, kiajn ili havis +antaux mil jaroj. Ili malofte sxangxas siajn kutimojn. Tial la aliaj +nacioj, kiuj antauxe ne estis tiel kleraj, antauxeniras pli rapide ol +la hxinoj. La lando de la hxinoj enhavas tiom da personoj, kiom tri aux +kvar aliaj nacioj. Granda parto de tiu lando estas ankoraux nekonata al +okcidentaj nacioj, kvankam plej multe da nia teo elvenas el la hxina +lando. Oni diras ke la parolata lingvo kaj la skribata lingvo de la +hxinoj estas du tre malsamaj aferoj. La lingvo estas almenaux treege +malfacila, kaj post kiam oni estas longe studinta gxin, oni tamen estas +nur duone lerninta gxin. Mi gxojas tial ke la lingvoj studataj en la +lernejoj de nia lando ne estas tiel malfacilaj kiel la hxina lingvo. La +latina kaj germana lingvoj estas suficxe malfacilaj, kvankam ili estas +tre interesaj kaj ankaux konataj de la kleruloj en multaj landoj. La +latina lingvo jam ne estas parolata lingvo. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Why are the persons in that merry group laughing and chattering +instead of listening to Mr. B----? 2. I think that the doctor is telling +stories about a bachelor who was once a good friend of his. 3. The +gentleman being talked about (160, 165) will visit us this evening, +possibly. 4. My aunt and cousin will come down stairs and converse with +him. 5. We shall drink as many cups of tea or of coffee as we wish. 6. +He will say "How is your health, Madam?" My aunt will reply half-angrily +that she is seldom ill. 7. We shall sit on the veranda, for the sun is +still shining, although it is already setting. 8. That young lady who +came with Mrs. C---- relates the best possible stories. 9. She says +that the Chinese were already an enlightened nation hundreds of years +ago, while other nations were still cruelly fighting. 10. A method for +printing the pages of books, instead of writing them, was a discovery +of the Chinese. They printed books in their printing-shops, a thousand +years ago. 12. They also were-acquainted-with gunpowder, which they made +and used for such fires as we use on national days of-celebration, when +we have leisure and wish to enjoy (to amuse) ourselves. 13. But the +Chinese have not changed these methods. 14. Their ways of commerce, work +and pleasure are the same as they were long ago. 15. Such a nation does +not progress rapidly, even though its life is very long. + + + + LESSON XXXVI. + + + THE PRESENT PASSIVE TENSE. + +168. The compound tense formed by combining the present passive +participle with the present tense of the auxiliary verb "esti" expresses +an act or condition as "being undergone" by the subject of the verb, and +is called the "present passive tense". The conjugation of "vidi" in this +tense is as follows: + + mi estas vidata, I am (being) seen. + vi estas vidata, you are (being) seen. + li (sxi, gxi) estas vidata, he (she, it) is (being) seen. + ni estas vidataj, we are (being) seen. + vi estas vidataj, you are (being) seen. + ili estas vidataj, they are (being) seen. + + + THE USE OF "DE" TO EXPRESS AGENCY. + +169. The person by whom (or the thing by which) an act, indicated by a +passive verb or participle, is performed is called the "agent" of the +passive voice, and is expressed by a substantive preceded by "de": + + La lanco estas portata de mi, the spear is carried by me. + La libroj estas jam presataj de li, + the books are already being printed by him. + La vojoj estas kovrataj de negxo, + the roads are being covered by snow. + Sxi estas lauxdata de la sinjoro, + she is being praised by the gentleman. + + + THE GENERAL MEANING OF "DE". + +170. The preposition "de" conveys the general idea of separation from a +source or starting point, in space (literal or figurative), or in time +(89, 131). This meaning develops into that of the source from which +connection or ownership arises (49), and also into that of the agency +from which an act is done or a condition caused (169). The prepositional +phrase containing "de" must be so placed as to avoid ambiguity in its +meaning, or must be reinforced by an adverb or other word: + + La arbo estas malproksima de la domo, the tree is far from the house. + Gxi estas proksima de la gxardeno, it is near to (from) the garden. + Mi prenas la libron for de la knabo, + I take the book away from the boy. + Mi prenas la libron de la knabo, I take the book of the boy. + La afero dependas de vi, the matter depends upon (from) you. + + + WORD DERIVATION FROM PRIMARY ADVERBS. + +171. Adjectives, verbs, and nouns may be derived from primary adverbs +(66), as well as from prepositions (120, 159): + + La nunaj metodoj, the present methods (methods of-now). + Mi adiauxis lin per adiauxa saluto, + I bade farewell to him by a farewell salute (see also 273). + Ni faris tujan intersxangxon, we made an immediate exchange. + Cxu li skribis jesan aux nean respondon? + Did he write an affirmative or a negative answer? + Anstataux nei, li respondis jese, + instead of denying, he answered affirmatively. + La morgauxa festo estos pli agrabla ol la hierauxa, + tomorrow's (the morrow's) celebration will be more pleasant + than that of yesterday. + La tiamaj personoj estis liaj samtempuloj, + the persons of-that-time were his contemporaries. + + + THE SUFFIX "-IST-". + +172. The suffix "-ist-" is added to roots to express the profession, +trade or occupation connected with the idea in the root: + + floristo = florist. okulisto = oculist. + komercisto = trader, merchant. presisto = printer. + servisto = servant. sxtelisto = thief. + + + VOCABULARY + + administr-i = to manage. mont-o = mountain. + antikv-a = ancient nom-o = name. + Euxrop-o = Europe. proksim-a = near. + grav-a = important, serious. reprezent-i = to represent. + ital-a = Italian. respublik-o = republic. + kvadrat-a = square. tiran-o = tyrant. + +[Footnote: The words "antikva", "maljuna", "malnova", all of which may +at times be translated "old," must not be confused in use: Mi havas +malnovan cxapelon, "I have an old hat (a hat which is not new)". Li +estas maljuna sinjoro, "he is an old (aged) gentleman". Li estas malnova +amiko mia, "he is an old friend of mine (a friend of long standing)". La +hxinoj estis kleraj ecx en la antikva tempo, "the Chinese were learned +even in the olden time (in ancient time)". La antikvaj kleruloj jam +sciis tre multe, "the ancient learned (enlightened) men already knew a +great deal". La maljuna sinjoro en la malnovaj vestoj estas antikvisto, +"the old gentleman with the old clothes is an antiquary".] + + + ANTIKVA RESPUBLIKO. + +La plej antikva respubliko en Euxropo kusxas en la norda parto de la +bela itala lando, inter la maro kaj la rivero, proksime de la montoj. +Gxia nomo estas San Marino, kaj gxi estas respubliko de antaux mil +kvarcent jaroj. Kvankam la cxirkauxaj landoj kaj nacioj apartenis en +antikva tempo al la tiamaj regxoj, San Marino jam estis libera. Gxiaj +aferoj estas ankoraux administrataj tiel, kiel la anoj (145) volas, +ne kiel unu aux alia regxo aux tirano deziras. Dufoje en la jaro la +anoj elektas personojn, kiuj administros la gravajn aferojn de la +respubliko dum la sekvontaj ses monatoj. Kvardek ses el tiuj personoj +reprezentas la anojn, kaj unu alia estas regxo tiun duonon da jaro. +Per tia metodo, la anoj estas bone reprezentataj, kaj la aferoj estas +administrataj kiel eble plej sagxe. La tuta respubliko enhavas nur +dudek du kvadratajn mejlojn da tero. En la respubliko kaj la tiea (171) +urbo kiu havas la saman nomon, ne estas tiom da personoj kiom en multaj +italaj urboj. Tamen cxi tiu respubliko estas pli granda ol multaj +antikvaj grekaj respublikoj. La grekaj respublikoj estis bonekonataj, +kaj enhavis multe da kleruloj inter siaj anoj. Sed en la nuna tempo la +grekoj havas regxon. Oni ne trovas tre klerajn personojn en San Marino, +tamen la laboristoj estas energiaj, kaj laboras kiel eble plej multe. +La rikoltistoj plej ofte havas bonajn rikoltojn, kaj la plimulto da +personoj estas treege kontenta kaj felicxa. Oni ne pensas pri komerco +aux eksterlandaj (167, a) aferoj kaj ne volas vojagxi malproksimen de la +bone amata hejmo. Oni preferas gaje amuzi sin cxehejme (167, a), en la +libertempo inter la rikoltoj, kaj la vivo tute ne sxajnas malfacila aux +teda. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. The serious affairs of a republic are managed by persons representing +the persons who live there. 2. The inhabitants are well represented, and +as free as possible. 3. Enlightened persons often prefer to live in a +republic. 4. Persons who have a good king are very happy, but those who +have a bad king are as unhappy as possible. 5. Nowadays ("nuntempe") +there are very few tyrants. 6. The majority of the kings of Europe are +praiseworthy. 7. That nation which was most enlightened a thousand years +ago was the Chinese nation. 8. The Chinese of-that-time already had +good printers among them. 9. It is said (54) that the Chinese drink as +much tea as two or three contemporary nations. 10. The oldest republic +in Europe is named San Marino. 11. It is near the mountains, in the +northern part of the much praised Italian land. 12. It contains only +twenty-two square miles, and is therefore one of the smallest republics +in the world. 13. Fourteen hundred years ago it was already a republic, +and it is still that same republic. 14. The inhabitants are energetic +and patient, and have as much to eat as they need. 15. There are bakers +and shopkeepers (172) and many laborers among them. 16. They do not +think about commerce, or greatly ("multe") change their customs. 17. +They seldom take ("faras") tiresome journeys, but remain peacefully +("pace") at home. + + + + LESSON XXXVII. + + + THE DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUN. + +173. The distributive pronoun (and pronominal adjective) is "cxiu", each +(one), every (one). Sometimes it is equivalent to English "any", as in +"Any one who studies can learn," etc. The plural is "cxiuj", every, all. +The article is never interposed between "cxiuj" and the noun modified +(as in English "all the men"), and is used only if "cxiuj" is pronominal +and followed by "el": + +[Footnote: The use of "cxiu" and "cxiuj" must be distinguished from that +of the adjective "tuta", which means "all" in the sense of "entire": +"Cxiuj viroj laboras la tutan tagon", all men work all (the whole) day. +"Mi vidis cxiun vizagxon, + sed mi ne vidis la tutan vizagxon de cxiu viro", +I saw every face, + but I did not see all the face of each man.] + + Cxiu, kiu studos, lernos, every one who studies will learn. + Mi vidis cxiun el ili, kaj parolis al cxiu knabo, + I saw each of them, and talked to every boy. + Mi dankas vin cxiujn, I thank you all (I thank all of you). + Ni cxiuj estas reprezentataj, we are all (all of us are) represented. + Cxiuj el la maristoj alvenis, all (every one) of the sailors arrived. + +174. The distributive pronoun has a possessive or genitive form "cxies", +every-one's, every-body's: + + Li konas cxies nomon, he knows every-one's name. + Cxies opinio estis diversa, every-body's opinion was different. + Kies vocxojn mi auxdas? Cxies, whose voices do I hear? Everybody's. + + + THE PREPOSITION "PO". + +175. The preposition "po", at the rate of, at, is used chiefly before +cardinals and has a distributive sense: + + Li marsxas po kvar mejloj cxiutage, + he walks at the rate of four miles daily (every-day). + Mi acxetis kafon po malalta prezo, I bought coffee at a low price. + Mi acxetis viandon po kvarono da dolaro por funto, + I bought meat at a quarter of a dollar for (per) pound. + La cxapelisto acxetas cxapelojn pogrande, + the hatter buys hats wholesale. + + + DEPENDENT COMPOUNDS. + +176. A compound word whose first element is a substantive, dependent +upon the second element in some prepositional relation, is called a +"dependent compound". (If the two words were not united into one, the +first element would be preceded by a preposition, or would be in the +accusative case.) The ending "-o" may be omitted from the first element +of a dependent compound: + +[Footnote: A personal pronoun serving as the first element of a +dependent compound may keep the accusative ending, to indicate its +construction: "sinlauxdo", self-praise. "sinekzameno", self-examination. +"sindefendo", self-defence. "sinkontrauxdira", self-contradictory.] + + jarcento, century (cento da jaroj). + mangxocxambro, dining-room (cxambro por mangxoj). + noktomezo, midnight (mezo de la nokto). + paperfaristo, papermaker (faristo de papero). + sunbrilo, sunshine (brilo de la suno). + tagmezo, noon (mezo de la tago). + vespermangxo, supper (mangxo je la vespero). + ventoflago, weathercock (flago por la vento). + + + VOCABULARY + + cxies = every body's (174). lag-o = lake. + cxiu = every-body (173). po = at the rate of (175). + decid-i = to decide. sever-a = severe. + dev-o = duty. stang-o = pole. + fleks-i = to bend. svis-o = Swiss. + genu-o = knee. vend-i = to sell. + intenc-i = to intend. Vilhelm-o = William. + jugx-i = to judge. vort-o = word. + + + LA CXAPELO SUR LA STANGO. + +Antaux ol Svislando estis tiel libera kiel la nuna svisa respubliko, +gxiaj aferoj estis administrataj de personoj kiuj reprezentis aliajn +naciojn. Ofte tiuj personoj estis kiel eble plej severaj jugxistoj al la +svisoj. Unufoje plej kruela tirano estis administranta aferojn svisajn. +Li elpensis rimarkindan metodon por montri sian povon ("power"), kaj por +esti malagrabla al la svisoj. Li decidis meti sian cxapelon sur altan +stangon en la vendejo ("market-place"), en malgranda vilagxo apud bela +lago inter la altaj montoj. Li diris ke de nun tiu cxapelo reprezentas +lin, kaj portos lian nomon. Saluti la cxapelon estos la grava devo de +cxiu persono en la vilagxo. Estos cxies devo ne nur saluti la cxapelon, +sed ankaux genufleksi ("kneel") antaux la stango. La tirano diris ke +li forprenos la domon, la kampojn kaj tiom da mono, kiom li povos, de +cxiu vilagxano aux kamparano kiu forgesos genufleksi. "Mi intencas sendi +gardistojn," li diris, "kiuj rimarkos cxu vi cxiuj genufleksos kiam +vi estas proksimaj de la stango." Je tagmezo alvenis gardistoj, por +rimarki cxu la necesaj salutoj estos farataj de cxiuj, kaj por kapti +cxiujn svisojn kiuj ne genufleksis. Baldaux la kamparanoj komencis eniri +la vendejon, por vendi legomojn po kiel eble altaj prezoj, kaj por +acxeti vestojn kaj aliajn aferojn po treege plej malaltaj prezoj. Cxiu, +kiu iris proksimen de la stango, zorge genufleksis antaux la cxapelo +de la malamata tirano, pro timo pri la hejmoj kaj la familioj. Fine, +kamparano, kies nomo estis Vilhelmo Tell, eniris la vendejon, kaj staris +du aux tri minutojn proksime de la stango, dum li diris kelkajn vortojn +al amiko. Sed anstataux fari tujan saluton, aux genufleksi, li tute ne +rigardis la stangon. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. The day before yesterday my youngest cousin was sitting on my knee, +and I told him that a rainbow ("cxielarko") is made by the sunshine and +the rain. 2. My cousin goes to school every day, after he has breakfast +in the dining-room. 3. A new school is being built, not far from the +home of the judge. 4. It is my cousin's duty to study those books at +the rate of ten pages a day. 5. My cousin and I decided last night +(93) to buy new hats for ourselves. 6. We intend to go to the hatter's +early tomorrow morning. 7. I think that all clothes are being sold +at a low price at-the-present-time. 8. During a visit at a friend's, +I read an interesting book about ancient Europe. 9. It relates that +several centuries ago a severe and cruel tyrant was managing affairs +in Switzerland. 10. Once he put his hat on a pole in the market-place, +and said that it was the duty of-every-one to kneel before it. 11. This +serious affair happened in a village one or two miles square, on ("cxe") +the lake not far from the mountains through which one goes on the way +(167, a) to the Italian land. 12. William Tell did not kneel or even +look at the hat representing the tyrant. + + + + LESSON XXXVIII. + + THE DISTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVE. + +177. The distributive adjective related to the distributive pronoun +"cxiu", giving a comprehensive idea of the quality of some person or +thing, is "cxia", every kind of, every sort of: + + Oni vendas cxiajn fruktojn tie, + they sell every sort of fruit there. + Estas cxiaj personoj en la mondo, + there are all sorts of persons in the world. + + THE IMPERFECT PASSIVE TENSE. + +178. The compound tense formed by combining the present passive +participle with the past tense of the auxiliary verb "esti" expresses +an act or condition as being undergone by the subject of the verb "at +some time in the past". It is called the "imperfect passive tense". The +conjugation of "vidi" in this tense is as follows: + + mi estis vidata, I was (being) seen. + vi estis vidata, you were (being) seen. + li (sxi, gxi) estis vidata, he (she, it) was (being) seen. + ni estis vidataj, we were (being) seen. + vi estis vidataj, you were (being) seen. + ili estis vidataj, they were (being) seen. + + + COMPOUND TENSES OF IMPERSONAL VERBS. + +179. When impersonal verbs, or other verbs used impersonally, are in +compound tenses, the participial element is given the ending "-e", like +other modifiers of impersonally used verbs (141): + + Estis pluvante antaux unu minuto, it was raining a minute ago. + Estis multe negxinte, it had snowed a great deal. + Estis vidate ke cxiu ploras, it was seen that every one wept. + + + RECIPROCAL EXPRESSIONS. + +180. To give a reciprocal sense, when there are two or more subjects and +the action goes from one to the other (expressed in English by "each +other," "one another," "mutually," "reciprocally"), the phrases "unu la +alian", "unu al la alia", etc., or the adverb "reciproke", is used: + + Estas nia devo helpi unu la alian, + it is our duty to help one another. + Ili parolas unu al la alia, + they are talking to each other. + La viroj reciproke uzis siajn pafilojn, + the men used each other's guns. + Ili falis unu sur la alian, + they fell upon each other. + + THE SUFFIX "-UJ-". + +181. The suffix "-uj-" may be used to form words indicating "that which +contains, bears, or is a receptacle for", some number or quantity of +that which is expressed by the root. It may be used instead of "-lando" +to form the name of a region containing any one race or tribe, and +instead of "-arbo" to form the names of fruit trees: + + ujo = a receptacle. patrujo (patrolando) = fatherland. + monujo = purse. sukerujo = sugar-bowl. + supujo = soup-tureen. pomujo (pomarbo) = apple-tree. + leterujo = letter-case. sagujo = quiver. + + + VOCABULARY + + ag-i = to act. mort-i = to die. + ceter-a = remaining. pet-i = to plead, to request. + cxia = of every kind (177). prepar-i = to prepare. + fier-a = proud. pun-i = to punish. + imag-i = to imagine. reciprok-a = reciprocal, mutual. + konduk-i = to lead. simil-a = like, similar. + kor-o = heart. tusx-i = to touch. + + + VILHELMO TELL KAJ LA POMO. + +Tuj kiam la gardistoj rimarkis ke la cxapelo sur la stango ne estis +salutata de Vilhelmo Tell, ili kaptis lin, kaj kondukis lin al la +tirano, por esti jugxata. La tirano demandis de Tell kial li ne +genufleksis antaux la cxapelo, simile al la aliaj vilagxanoj. Tell +respondis fiere ke li ne sciis pri la cxiutagaj genufleksoj de la aliaj +personoj. Li diris ke li tute ne intencis agi kontraux la deziroj de +la jugxistoj. Sed la tirano malamis la altan fortan svison, tial li +decidis puni lin per severa puno, kaj demandis "Kiun el viaj infanoj +vi plej amas?" Vilhelmo Tell ne povis imagi kial la demando estas +farata al li, kaj respondis "Mi amas cxiujn el ili, sinjoro." La tirano +diris "Nu, estas rakontate inter la vilagxanoj ke vi estas rimarkinda +arkpafisto ("archer"). Ni eltrovos kia arkpafisto vi estas. Ni vidos +cxu vi povos forpafi pomon de sur la kapo de via plej juna filo. Aldone +("in addition"), estos via devo forpafi la pomon per la unua sago, alie +("otherwise") mi punos vin kaj vian filon per tuja morto." Tell diris +ke li estas preta por ricevi cxian alian punon, anstataux tia puno, +sed malgraux cxies petoj la tirano estis jam elektanta pomon de apuda +pomarbo. Li kondukis la knabon malproksimen de la ceteraj personoj, kaj +metis la pomon sur lian kapon. Tell kaj la filo reciproke rigardis sin, +dum la patro diris ke li ne tusxos haron de lia kapo. Tiam li elprenis +sagon el la sagujo, faris la necesajn preparojn, kaj rapide pafis. Tuj +la pomo forfalis de la kapo de la infano, kaj cxiu havis felicxan koron. +Dum Tell cxirkauxprenis la filon, la tirano demandis "Kial vi havas tiun +ceteran sagon en la mano." Tell lauxte respondis "Por mortpafi vin, tuj +post la infano, cxar mi treege timis pro la vivo de mia kara filo." + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. William Tell had a strong flexible (161) bow. 2. He could +shoot-with-a-bow ("arkpafi") excellently, therefore he was a well-known +archer. 3. He put six or eight arrows into his quiver, and went with his +sons to the village. 4. Possibly he saw the hat upon the pole, but he +did not kneel before it. 5. It was being noticed already in the village +that Tell hated the tyrant very much. 6. When the guards seized him +for that act, and led him before the tyrant, who was also the judge, +Tell said "I did not know about this new duty, and could not imagine +why the hat was on the pole there." 7. The tyrant replied with ("per") +angry words, for he hated the proud Swiss whom every one else loved. +8. He said severely "It is said that you are a praiseworthy archer. 9. +Therefore I was wondering whether you could shoot an apple from your +son's head. 10. Now we shall see whether you can shoot off the apple, or +whether you will touch the child's head." 11. Amid the pleadings of all, +Tell successfully shot off the apple. 12. A similar second arrow was +ready in his hand. 13. The tyrant saw the remaining arrow, and prepared +to punish Tell by death. 14. But he escaped, and the Swiss congratulated +each other heartily ("kore"). 15. After some time they followed him, at +the rate of six miles an hour. + + + + LESSON XXXIX. + + + THE DISTRIBUTIVE ADVERB OF PLACE. + +182. The distributive adverb of place, related to the distributive +pronoun "cxiu", is "cxie", everywhere. The ending "-n" may be added to +"cxie" to show direction of motion (121): + + Oni trovas tiajn virojn cxie, + such men are found everywhere. + Li iris cxien, kie mi estis estinta, + he went everywhere where I had been. + Mi vidas lin cxie, kien mi iras, + I see him everywhere I go. + + + THE FUTURE PASSIVE TENSE. + +183. The compound tense formed by combining the present passive +participle with the future tense of "esti" indicates that an act or +condition "will be undergone" by the subject of the verb. It is called +the "future passive tense". The conjugation of "vidi" in this tense is +as follows: + + mi estos vidata, I shall be seen. + vi estos vidata, you will be seen. + li (sxi, gxi) estos vidata, he (she, it) will be seen. + ni estos vidataj, we shall be seen. + vi estos vidataj, you will be seen. + ili estos vidataj, they will be seen. + + + POSSESSIVE COMPOUNDS. + +184. Compound adjectives may be formed with an adjectival root for the +first element, and a noun-root for the second element. Such adjectives +have the meaning "possessed of" that which is indicated in the compound. +(Similar adjectives are formed in English, with "-ed" as the final +syllable): + + belbrova = beautiful-browed. longnaza = long-nosed. + bonintenca = good-intentioned. kvarpieda = four-footed. + dumana = two-handed. rugxhara = red-haired. + + + THE TIME OF DAY. + +185. The ordinals are used in expressing the hour of the day, with +"horo" expressed or understood. The minutes are expressed by the +cardinals. In questions the adjective "kioma" (from "kiom", how much) +is used: + + Kioma horo estas? What hour (what o'clock, what time) is it? + Je kioma horo vi venos? At what time (what o'clock) will you come? + Estas la dua horo, it is two o'clock (it is the second hour). + Estas la tria kaj kvin minutoj, it is five minutes past three. + Ni iris je la sesa kaj duono, we went at half past six. + Estas la oka kaj kvardek kvin + (or: estas unu kvarono antaux la nauxa), + it is eight forty-five (a quarter of nine). + + + THE SUFFIX "-OBL-". + +186. The suffix "-obl-" is used to form multiples indicating how many +fold, as "two fold," "double," "triple," etc.: + + duoblo, a double. + duobla, double. + duoble, doubly. + kvarobla, quadruple. + kvindekobla, fifty-fold. + multobla, manifold. + Trioble du estas ses, three times two is six. + + + VOCABULARY + + bilet-o = ticket. pag-i = to pay. + cend-o = cent. preter = beyond, past. + cxie = everywhere (182). staci-o = station. + esprim-o = expression. telefon-i = to telephone. + gicxet-o = wicket, ticket-window. vagon-o = car. + horlogx-o = clock. valiz-o = valise. + +[Footnote: The preposition "preter" indicates the movement of something +alongside of and passing beyond something else. Since it does not +express motion "toward" its complement, it cannot be followed by the +accusative.] + + + EN LA STACIDOMO. + +Du bonkoraj (184) amikoj miaj logxas en la urbo B----. Ni reciproke +konas nin de antaux ses jaroj. Mi estis duoble gxoja hieraux kiam mi +ricevis leteron de ili, cxar en tiu ili petis de mi baldauxan viziton. +Tial mi telefonis hieraux posttagmeze al la stacidomo, por demandi +je kioma horo foriros la vagonaro ("train") al B----. Oni respondis +per la telefono ke la vagonaro foriros je la tria kaj tridek kvin. +Tuj poste mi enmetis kelkajn vestojn en mian jam preskaux eluzitan +valizon, kaj faris cxiujn preparojn por la mallonga vojagxo. Je la dua +horo, tuj post la tagmangxo ("midday meal"), mi marsxis stacidomon. +Survoje mi eniris butikon kaj acxetis paron da novaj gantoj. Kiam mi +eniris la stacidomon, mi kuris preter la aliaj personoj al la gicxeto +kie biletoj estas vendataj. Mi diris al la sinjoro cxe la gicxeto "Mi +deziras bileton al B----. Kiom estos necese pagi?" La brunokula sinjoro +respondis "Tia bileto kostos dolaron dudek cendojn." Mi pusxis tiom da +mono tra la gicxeto, kaj tuj ricevis la bileton, kiun la sinjoro jam +havis en la mano. Tiam mi iris proksimen de la pordego tra kiu oni estos +enlasata al la vagonaro. "Kiom da tempo antaux la foriro de la vagonaro +al B----?" mi demandis al la gardisto. Li lauxtvocxe respondis "Nur sep +minutojn. Cxu vi ne vidas tiun horlogxon?" Mi ne estis rimarkinta la +horlogxon, tial mi almetis la montrilojn de mia posxhorlogxo ("watch") +por montri la saman horon. Mi estis multe tusxata de cxiaj bonintencaj +personoj kurantaj cxien preter mi, kaj pusxantaj unu la alian. Fine oni +malfermis la pordegon. Mi kaj la ceteraj personoj rapidis al la vagonaro +kaj kiel eble plej baldaux eniris gxin. + +[Footnote: "Posttagmezo", afternoon, is a descriptive compound (167, a) +whose second element "tagmezo" is a dependent compound (176).] + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Because of the request of my friend whose brother died recently, I +went last ("la antauxan") week to visit him. 2. The remaining persons of +his family were not at home. 3. I telephoned to find out at what time +the train would depart. 4. I was told (54) that it would leave at four +twenty-seven. 5. I put enough money into my purse, and carried along +("kunportis") a valise into which I had put some clothes. 6. When I +entered the station, I hurried past the other people to the wicket, and +asked for ("petis") a ticket to B----. 7. The ticket seller said "Two +dollars and forty cents." 8. I could not imagine why it was necessary to +pay so much, but I at once pushed that much money through the window, +and received the ticket. 9. Then I looked at my watch and went near the +gate, but the yellowhaired guard who conducts persons to the trains +said "Persons who go through that gate before the train arrives will be +severely punished." 10. So all of us stood near the double gate. 11. The +trains are much like each other, and it is better to act as the guards +request, and not express impatience. + + + + LESSON XL. + + + THE DISTRIBUTIVE TEMPORAL ADVERB. + +187. The distributive adverb of time, related to the distributive +pronoun "cxiu", is "cxiam", always, at all times: + + Vi cxiam pagas tro multe, you always pay too much. + Mi estas cxiam preta por helpi vin, I am always ready to help you. + + + THE DISTRIBUTIVE ADVERB "CXIAL". + +188. The distributive adverb of motive or reason, related to the pronoun +"cxiu", is "cxial", for every reason, for all reasons: + + Cxial li estas felicxa hodiaux, for every reason he is happy today. + La mia cxial estas la plej bona, mine is for all reasons the best. + + + THE PAST PASSIVE PARTICIPLE. + +189. The past passive participle expresses an act or condition as +"having been undergone" by the person or thing indicated by the word +modified. This participle ends in "-ita", as "vidita", having been +seen: + + La prezo pagita de vi estis tro granda, + the price paid by you was too great. + La punita infano ploras, + the (having-been) punished child is crying. + Mi acxetos bonefaritajn gantojn, + I shall buy well-made gloves. + Li sercxis la forgesitan bileton, + he looked for the forgotten ticket. + + + THE PERFECT PASSIVE TENSE. + +190. The compound tense formed by combining the past passive participle +with the present tense of the verb "esti" expresses an act or condition +which "has been undergone" by the subject of the verb. It is called the +"perfect passive tense". The conjugation of the verb "vidi" in this +tense is as follows: + + mi estas vidita, I have been seen (I am having-been-seen). + vi estas vidita, you have been seen. + li (sxi, gxi) estas vidita, he (she, it) has been seen. + ni estas viditaj, we have been seen. + vi estas viditaj, you have been seen. + ili estas viditaj, they have been seen. + + + THE PREPOSITION "LAUX". + +191. In expressing that "in accordance with which" something is done, +takes place, moves, etc., the preposition "laux" is used: + + + Li agis laux sia opinio, + he acted in accordance with his own opinion. + Mi faros gxin laux bona metodo, + I shall do it according to a good method. + Laux kia maniero li agis? + In what manner did he act? + Mi marsxis laux la strato, + I walked down (or up) the street. + Li iris laux la rivero per tiu vojo, + he went along the river by that road. + Nuboj nigraj kuris laux la cxielo, + black clouds raced along the sky. + Gxi kusxas lauxlonge de la domo, + it lies lengthwise of the house. + + + THE SUFFIX "-EM-". + +192. The suffix "-em-" indicates a "tendency" or "inclination" toward +that which is expressed in the root: + + agema = active. pacema = peaceful, pacific. + mallaborema = lazy. pensema = pensive, thoughtful. + + + VOCABULARY + + atend-i = to wait (for), to expect. laux = according to (191). + cxial = for every reason (188). manier-o = manner, way. + cxiam = always (187). mov-i = to move (transitive) + gazet-o = magazine, gazette. okup-i = to occupy. + jxurnal-o = journal, paper. pal-a = pale. + kompat-i = to pity. polic-o = police. + larm-o = tear. trankvil-a = calm, tranquil. + + + LA PERDITA INFANO. + +Dum mi estis atendanta hieraux posttagmeze en la stacidomo, mi subite +rimarkis palan sinjorinon kun larmoj en sxiaj okuloj. Sxi rigardis +cxien kun esprimo de nekasxebla timo, kaj estis videble maltrankvila. +Sxi sercxis du aux tri minutojn inter la personoj cxirkaux si, kaj fine +sxi vidis bluevestitan policanon, kiu estis parolanta al unu el la +gardistoj. Sxi rapide diris kelkajn vortojn al li, kaj tuj li ankaux +komencis sercxi cie. Mi tre kompatis la ploreman sinjorinon, kaj kiam la +policano preteriris, mi demandis cxu mi ne povas helpi. Mi diris ke mi +ne estos okupata ("busy") gxis la alveno de la vagonaro. Li respondis +ke la filo de tiu virino estas perdita, kaj li donis al mi la sekvantan +priskribon de la infano, laux la vortoj de la patrino: la knabo estas +agema brunhara sesjarulo, kun bluaj okuloj, kaj li estas rugxe vestita +("dressed in red"). Lia patrino estis jxus acxetinta sian bileton cxe +la gicxeto, kaj post kiam sxi pagis la nauxdek cendojn por gxi, subite +sxi rimarkis ke la infano ne estis kun sxi. Kvankam sxi jam sercxis +cxie, la filo sxajnas ankoraux netrovebla. Sxi multe timas pro li, +kvankam li cxiam estas bona knabo. Mi tuj komencis marsxi cxien inter +la personoj cxirkaux mi, kaj fine eniris malgrandan cxambron apud la +horlogxo cxe la fino de la stacidomo, kie estas vendataj tagjxurnaloj +("newspapers"), gazetoj kaj libroj. Tie antaux nemovebla tablo kovrita +de brile koloritaj jxurnaloj staris malgranda rugxevestita knabo. Mi +diris al li "Mia studema juna amiko, oni ne vojagxas laux tiu metodo. +Via patrino jam de longe atendas vin. Mi montros al vi kie sxi estas." +Li venis kun mi, kaj proksime de la pordo kie mi estis lasinta mian +valizon staris la sinjorino. Sxi estis cxial gxoja kiam sxi vidis nin, +kaj dankeme cxirkauxprenis la infanon. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +lost in the station yesterday afternoon was very uneasy about him for +every reason. 2. She was pale and tearful ("plorema") when I saw her, +and looked in every direction in a most impatient manner. 3. There was +an expression of fear upon her face and she went as quickly as possible +to a nearby policeman, and said a few ("kelkajn") words to him. 4. I +heard the last words, and at once said to myself "It is now only ten +minutes past two. 5. My train will leave ("foriros") at half-past two, +so I have time to help." 6. I said to the blue-garbed policeman "During +the next ("sekvontajn") twenty minutes I shall not be busy. Do you +desire my help?" 7. He answered "Yes, you are very kind ("gxentila"). +The son of that lady has been lost. 8. According to her description, he +is a yellow-haired blue-eyed five-year-old, and apparently ("sxajne") +too restless ("movema"). 9. I shall find him as soon as possible, +nevertheless I shall gladly accept your help. 10. The child is dressed +in white and wears a red hat." 11. As ("cxar") I am not at all lazy +("mallaborema"), I went along the stationary ("nemoveblaj") tables +as-far-as the end of the station, and there I saw that-sort-of child, +looking at the magazines and newspapers. 12. I led him to the lady, who +with tears in + + + + LESSON XLI. + + + THE DISTRIBUTIVE ADVERB "CXIEL". + +193. The distributive adverb of manner, related to the distributive +pronoun "cxiu", is "cxiel", in every way, in every manner: + + Li povas cxiel prepari gxin, he can prepare it in every manner. + Li estos cxiel helpata, he will be helped in every way. + + + THE DISTRIBUTIVE ADVERB "CXIOM". + +194. The distributive adverb of quantity, related to the distributive +pronoun "cxiu", is "cxiom", every quantity, the whole, all: + + Li prenis multe da sukero, sed ne cxiom da gxi, + he took a great deal of sugar, but not all of it. + Li elprenis cxiom de la teo el la teujo, + he took all of the tea out of the tea caddy. + + + THE PLUPERFECT PASSIVE TENSE. + +195. The compound tense made by combining the past passive participle +with the past tense of the verb "esti" expresses an act or condition +which "had been undergone" by the subject of the verb at some point in +past time. It is called the "pluperfect passive tense". The conjugation +of "vidi" in this tense is as follows: + + mi estis vidita, I had been seen (I was having-been-seen). + vi estis vidita, you had been seen. + li (sxi, gxi) estis vidita, he (she, it) had been seen. + ni estis viditaj, we had been seen. + vi estis viditaj, you had been seen. + ili estis viditaj, they had been seen. + + + THE FUTURE PERFECT PASSIVE TENSE. + +196. The compound tense made by combining the past passive participle +with the future tense of the verb "esti" expresses an act or condition +which "will have been undergone" by the subject of the verb at some +point in future time. It is called the "future perfect passive tense". +The conjugation of "vidi" in this tense is as follows: + + mi estos vidita, I shall have been seen (shall be having-been-seen). + vi estos vidita, you will have been seen. + li (sxi, gxi) estos vidita, he (she, it) will have been seen. + ni estos viditaj, we shall have been seen. + vi estos viditaj, you will have been seen. + ili estos viditaj, they will have been seen. + + + THE EXPRESSION OF MATERIAL. + +197. The material "out of which" something is made or constructed is +expressed by use of the preposition "el". As in English, an adjective +may be used instead of the prepositional phrase unless a verb or +participle lays stress upon the fact of construction: + + La tablo estas farita el ligno, the table is made out of wood. + La tablo estas ligna (el ligno), the table is wooden (of wood). + La infanoj konstruis domon el negxo, + the children built a house of (out of) snow. + Oni faras supon el asparago, they make soup out of asparagus. + + + THE SUFFIX "-ET-". + +198. The suffix "-et-" indicates diminution of degree in that which is +expressed by the root. It is thus in contrast to the augmentative suffix +"-eg-" (122). Sometimes an affectionate significance is given: + + beleta = pretty. libreto = booklet. + dormeti = to doze. monteto = hill. + floreto = floweret, floret. rideti = to smile. + lageto = pond, small lake. vojeto = path. + + + VOCABULARY + + best-o = animal. leon-o = lion. + cxiel = in every way (193). lud-i = to play. + cxiom = the whole, all (194). material-o = material. + donac-o = gift, present. posed-i = to own, to possess. + drap-o = cloth. pup-o = doll. + hund-o = dog. rost-i = to roast. + konsist-i = to consist. versx-i = to pour. + + + LA DONACO. + +Mi volas doni beletan donacon al mia plej juna fratino morgaux, sed ju +pli mi pensas pri gxi, des pli malfacile estas decidi pri la afero. +Estas duoble malfacile, cxar sxi jam posedas cxiun ludilon ("toy") kiun +oni povas imagi. Cxiu el sxiaj amikoj gxoje donacas ("make presents") al +tiel afabla knabino. Tamen mi iris hieraux matene al ludilobutiko, kaj +rigardis la ludilojn tie. Multaj konsistis el diversaj pupoj, grandaj +kaj malgrandaj, kaj belege vestitaj. Sed mi estas certa ke la fratineto +jam posedas suficxe da pupoj--tial mi ne acxetis tian ludilon, kvankam +ili estas cxiam interesaj al knabinetoj. Sur unu tablo kusxis cxiaj +malgrandaj bestoj, faritaj el ligno, drapo, kaj diversaj materialoj. +Estis cxevaletoj, hundetoj, katetoj, kaj flavaj leonetoj. Proksime +de tiuj staris malgrandaj brile koloritaj vagonaroj, kiujn oni povis +rapide movi, laux la maniero de grandaj vagonaroj. Etaj policanoj staris +apude, kaj estis cxial malfacile elekti la plej interesan el tiom da +interesaj ludiloj. Baldaux mi rimarkis knabineton apud mi. Cxiel sxi tre +similis al mia fratino, kaj tial mi decidis elekti tian ludilon, kia +estos elektita plej frue de la nekonata knabineto. Mi atendis trankvile, +kaj ecx legis unu aux du pagxojn de miaj jxus acxetitaj gazetoj kaj +tagjxurnaloj. Fine la beleta infano estis rigardinta preskaux cxiom +de la ludiloj kiuj okupis la tablojn, dum la kompatinda servistino +lace sxin sekvis. Tiam la knabineto kriis "Ho, kiel beleta pupodomo! +Estas litoj en la dormocxambroj; legomoj kaj rostita viando, faritaj +el papero, kusxas sur la tablo en la mangxo-cxambro; kaj mi vidas tie +pupon, kiu certe jxus faris la teon, kaj estas elversxonta gxin en tiujn +tasetojn!" Tuj mi faris decidon laux la plezuro de la knabineto, kaj +baldaux la pupodomo estis acxetita por mia fratineto. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. My pale delicate ("malsanema") little sister is always happy when +she has a new toy. 2. Her dolls were made out of cloth when she was a +very little girl, because otherwise she could too easily break them. +3. But yesterday my grandmother made a present of a doll (presented a +doll) to her, and since that moment she has been as happy as possible. +4. I have not seen tears in her eyes, or heard a cross ("koleretan") +word. 5. This new doll is made out of cloth, and its dress consists of +very pretty material. 6. My sister decided that she likes it better +than her other playthings, and I think that those poor ("kompatindaj") +other dolls will soon have been forgotten. 7. The doll seems in every +way more interesting than the little animals made out of cloth or wood, +which are on the table with her dolls. 8. She possesses a little dog and +a little cat, and a little lion, and until yesterday she had a wooden +pony. 9. The pony is already broken, and has been given away to a poor +("malricxa") child, the daughter of our laundress ("lavistino"). 10. My +sister possesses a small train of cars which she can move everywhere, +and she is very fond of ("ametas") this toy. 11. There are small sacks +of sand in the cars, and usually she is happy when she is pouring the +sand out of one of these into another, or putting all of the sand into +a box, by means of a small spoon. 12. For every reason I am doubly glad +today that she is busied in this manner ("tiamaniere"). 13. I wish to +take a walk along that pleasant path toward the hill, instead of waiting +for my little sister. 14. I must buy the meat to roast for supper, +before I come home from my walk. + + + + LESSON XLII. + + + THE FUTURE PASSIVE PARTICIPLE. + +199. The future passive participle, expressing that which "will be or +is about to be undergone" by the person or thing indicated by the word +modified, ends in "-ota", as "vidota", about to be seen: + + La punota infano mallauxte ploretas, + the child about to be punished whimpers softly. + La formovota tablo estas peza, + the table about to be moved away is heavy. + La domo konstruota de li estos bela, + the house going to be built by him will be beautiful. + + + THE PASSIVE PERIPHRASTIC FUTURE TENSES. + +200. The compound tenses formed by combining the future passive +participle with each of the three aoristic tenses of "esti" represent +an act or condition as "about to be undergone" in the present, past, +or future, respectively. These are called "passive periphrastic future +tenses". Except when great accuracy is desired, these tenses, like those +of the active voice (153) are not often used. A synopsis of "vidi" in +the first person singular of these tenses is as follows: + + Present Periphrastic Future. + mi estas vidota, I am about to be (going to be) seen. + + Past Periphrastic Future. + mi estis vidota, I was about to be (going to be) seen. + + Future Periphrastic Future. + mi estos vidota, I shall be about to be (going to be) seen. + + + THE GENERIC ARTICLE. + +201. The article is placed before nouns used in a comprehensive or +universal sense, indicating a whole class, kind, substance, or abstract +quality. In such use it is called the "generic article": + + La pacienco estas lauxdinda, patience is praiseworthy. + La vivo surtera estas nur parto de la vivo cxiama, + life on earth is merely a part of the life eternal. + La viro estas pli forta ol la virino, + man is stronger than woman. + +[Footnote: Cf. French "La patience est amere, mais son fruit est doux, +patience is bitter, but its fruit is sweet", German "Das Leben ist +kurtz, life is short", Italian "La speranza e il pan de miseri, hope is +the poor man's bread", Spanish "Las riquezas son bagajes de la fortuna, +riches are the baggage of fortune", etc. In English the generic article +(as in "the life eternal" above) may often be replaced by omission of +both "a" and "the."] + + + THE SUFFIX "-EC-". + +202. The suffix "-ec-" is used to form words indicating the "abstract +quality" of that which is expressed in the root, or formation, to which +it is attached: + + amikeco = friendship. fleksebleco = flexibility. + ofteco = frequency. patreco = fatherhood. + indeco = worthiness. patrineco = motherhood. + dankemeco = thankfulness. maltrankvileco = uneasiness. + + + VOCABULARY + + bord-o = bank, shore. pont-o = bridge. + brak-o = arm. sonor-i = to ring (intrans.). + fabrik-i = to manufacture. surtut-o = overcoat. + krut-a = steep. sving-i = to swing, to brandish. + lan-o = wool. sxip-o = ship. + mebl-o = piece of furniture. sxton-o = stone. + pas-i = to pass (intrans.). vapor-o = steam. + pitoresk-a = picturesque. vetur-i = to travel (in a vehicle). + + + SUR LA VAPORSXIPO. + +Unu el la plezuroj de la kampara vivo konsistas el la multenombraj +("numerous") okazoj por veturi cxien, kien oni volas iri, per kvietaj +pitoreskaj vojoj. Ni havas ankoraux unu ("still one, yet another") +okazon por plezuro en nia vilagxo, cxar ni povas veturi per vaporsxipo +sur la bela lago cxe kies bordo kusxas la vilagxo. Hieraux du kuzinoj +venis por viziti cxe ni, kaj tuj post la tagmangxo ni decidis promeni +laux tiu pitoreska vojeto al la lago. Kiam ni alvenis al la lago, +ni rimarkis ke beleta vaporsxipeto estis jxus forironta. Tial mi +acxetis tri biletojn, kaj kiel eble plej rapide ni suriris la sxipeton. +La sonoriloj ("bells") estis jam sonorintaj, kaj tuj post kiam ni +transmarsxis la ponteton, de la tero al la planko de la sxipeto, oni +forprenis la ponteton. Kelkaj personoj kiuj estis ankoraux sur la tero +kuris kun granda rapideco al la ponteto. Ili svingis la brakojn kaj la +ombrelojn tre energie, sed la sxipeto ne atendis ecx unu minuton. La +personoj sxajnis tre koleraj pro sia malfrueco, kaj ankoraux pli koleraj +pro la trankvila foriro de la sxipeto. Cxiu sur la sxipeto ridetis, cxar +la koleremo ("irascibility") estas cxiam amuza. Tiam cxiu komencis sin +amuzi tiel, kiel li deziris. Mi estis kunportinta dikan lanan surtuton, +sed pro la varmeco de la vetero mi ne bezonis gxin, kaj lasis gxin +sur apuda segxo. Ni atendis kun plezuro por vidi la krutajn montetojn +kiuj estos videblaj tuj kiam la sxipeto estos pasinta preter malgranda +arbaro. La pitoreskeco de la belaj montetoj estas difektota, cxar +grandaj fabrikejoj estas jam konstruataj cxe la montpiedoj. La sxtonoj +por la muroj jam kusxas pretaj apude, kune kun grandaj stangoj kaj aliaj +pecoj da ligno. Tie oni fabrikos tablojn, segxojn, kaj aliajn meblojn el +zorge elektita ligno. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. It is difficult in every way to select a present for a child who +already possesses enough toys. 2. In a toy-shop yesterday I examined +the dolls made out of woolen cloth and other material, and also looked +at the various little animals. 3. There were ponies, little dogs and +little lions and camels. 4. There were also little sets of furniture +(126), which consisted of tables, sofas and chairs. 5. On the tables +were small plates containing vegetables, fruits and roast (189) meat, +entirely made out of colored paper. 6. There were also little cups and +tumblers of thin glass, into which one could pour water or milk. 7. As +(cxar) one dollar was all (194) of the money which I had in my purse, +I left the shop. 8. I walked along a stony picturesque path toward the +lake, swinging my overcoat on my arm, while I thought over ("pripensis") +the difficulty, and tried to decide what sort of present to choose. 9. +The steamboat to B---- was just leaving, so I went across the footbridge +("ponteto") on to the pretty little ship, while its bells were ringing, +and rode an hour in the open ("libera") air. 10. The shore which we +passed is very picturesque, but its beauty is about to be spoiled, for a +large furniture factory is going to be built between that steep hill and +the lake. 11. Its proximity to the water is necessary, for water-power +("akvoforto") will be used. + + + + LESSON XLIII. + + + THE INDEFINITE PRONOUN. + +203. The indefinite pronoun (and pronominal adjective) "iu", any one, +a certain one, presents the idea of some person or thing, without +definitely characterizing it: + + Mi parolas pri iu, kiun vi konas, + I am talking about a certain one whom you know. + Mi vizitis iujn el viaj amikoj, + I visited some of your friends. + Mi havas kelkajn pomojn, sed iuj ne estas bonaj, + I have several apples, but certain ones are not good. + Iuj pontoj estas bone faritaj, + some bridges are well made. + +204. The indefinite pronoun "iu" has a possessive or genitive form +"ies", somebody's, someone's, a certain one's: + + Mi tusxis ies brakon, I touched someone's arm. + Cxu ies surtuto kusxas sur la tablo? + Is anybody's overcoat lying on the table? + Ies ludiloj estas rompitaj, someone's playthings are broken. + + + PARTICIPIAL NOUNS. + +205. Nouns may be formed from participles, by substituting the noun +ending "-o" for the adjectival ending "-a". Such participial nouns +indicate persons temporarily or non-professionally performing or +undergoing that which is expressed by the root: + + helpanto, one who is helping, an assistant. + elpensinto, one who has thought out something, an inventor. + legonto, one who is about to read. + vidato, one (being) seen. + sendito, one (having been) sent, an envoy. + la jugxoto, the one about to be judged, the accused. + +[Footnote: Participial nouns must not be confused with nouns formed +by the suffix "-ist-" (172) expressing professional or permanent +occupation: "rajdanto", a rider, "rajdisto", jockey, horseman, +"jugxanto", a judge (of something), "jugxisto", judge (professional), +"laboranto", a person working, "laboristo", laborer.] + + + THE PREFIX "EK-". + +206. Sudden or momentary action, or the beginning of an action or state, +is indicated by the prefix "ek-": + + ekdormi, to fall asleep. + ekkanti, to burst into song. + ekiri, to set out, to start. + ekridi, to burst into a laugh + ekrigardi, to glance at. + + + THE SUFFIX "-ID-". + +207. Words indicating the "young of, the child of, the descendant of," +are formed by use of the suffix "-id-": + + cxevalido, colt (from "cxevalo", horse). + hundido, puppy (from "hundo", dog). + katido, kitten (from "kato", cat). + leonido, a lion's whelp (from "leono", lion). + regxidino, a king's daughter, a princess (from "regxo", king). + + + VOCABULARY + + amas-o = heap, throng. kugl-o = bullet. + dauxr-i = to continue. milit-i = to fight, to make war. + hirund-o = swallow. (bird). ost-o = bone. + hom-o = human being. renvers-i = to upset, to overturn. + humor-o = temper, humor. sign-o = sign, mark. + ies = some one's (204). tend-o = tent. + iu = some one (203). tru-o = hole. + +[Footnote: Cf. the difference between "viro", man (in contrast to +"virino", woman), and "homo", man in the generic sense, including both +men and women.] + + + LA NESTO SUR LA TENDO. + +Unufoje iu regxo estis farinta militon kontraux la homoj de lando cxe la +bordo de pitoreska rivero. La soldatoj ne venis tien per vaporsxipoj, +sed estis konstruintaj ponton trans la rivero, por la veturiloj +("vehicles"). Estis necese resti kelkan tempon apud urbo kiun la regxo +volis ekataki, kaj li havis grandan tendaron ("encampment") antaux tiu +urbo. Unu tagon en la dauxro ("course") de la milito, iuj el la soldatoj +pasis preter la tendo de la regxo, laux la sxtona vojeto laux kiu ili +cxiutage marsxis por gardi la tendaron. Unu el cxi tiuj ekrimarkis ke +hirundo estas konstruinta sian neston sur la regxa tendo. Sur la nesto, +kiu estis bone konstruita el koto, sidis trankvile la hirundo. Dum la +soldatoj svingis la brakojn kaj ekridis unu post la alia, pri la kuragxa +birdo, la regxo auxdis ies vocxon. Li elvenis el sia tendo por eltrovi +kial la parolantoj faras tiom da bruo, kaj kial ili tiel ekkriis kaj +ekridis. Kiam la viroj montris al li la birdon, li diris kun bonhumora +rideto, "Tiu hirundo estos mia gasto. Cxiuj el la militistoj certe +zorgos de nun pri la hirundo kaj la hirundidoj." Tial la nesto restis +netusxata en la dauxro de cxiu batalo. Kelkaj kugloj pasis preter gxi, +sed la trankvileco de la birdo dauxris same kiel antauxe. Fine la regxo +venkis, per kruelega batalo. Tuj la venkintoj forportis la tendojn, kune +kun multaj militkaptitoj ("prisoners of war"). Nur la tendon de la regxo +oni lasis tie, cxar la regxo diris ke gxi nun apartenas al la hirundo. +Gxi jam estis malnova kaj eluzita, tra kiu la pluvo eniris per multe da +truoj. Sed gxi ankoraux staris, gxis iu tago somera kiam la hirundidoj +povis jam bone flugi. Tiam la vento subite renversis gxin, kaj gxi +ekfalis, kaj kusxis, amaso da cxifonoj, inter multe da kugloj, homaj +ostoj, kaj la ceteraj malgajaj postsignoj ("traces") de ies venko sur la +batalejo. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. There is a pretty story about a swallow which built its nest for its +young ("idoj") on the king's tent. 2. The soldiers who were walking +along the steep path past the tent glanced at it, and caught sight +of (206) the bird. 3. Some of them burst into a laugh, and gestured +("svingis la brakon") toward the bird, to point it out to their +comrades. 4. The good-humored king put on a thick woolen overcoat, and +came out of his tent, to inquire why his soldiers were conversing so +noisily there. 5. The tent was an expensive one, and contained handsome +furniture, as well as ("kaj ankau") a bell which always rang as soon +as ("tuj kiam") one touched it. 6. The king immediately noticed the +swallow's nest, and said with an amiable smile "Surely such a courageous +bird is a worthy (154) guest for a king." 7. The warriors (172) cared +for the swallow as much as possible during the course of the war. 8. +When the victors departed, they left that tent there. 9. Finally the +wind upset it, and it fell to the ground. 10. The young swallows already +could fly, by ("je") that time. 11. The battleground is covered with +bullets, piles of human bones, and similar melancholy signs of war. 12. +War (201) is wicked and shameful (154). 13. Why do kings and princes +wish to make war upon each other (180)? 14. When their sons have gone +away to (make) war, the mothers of the soldiers are very uneasy. 15. +Perhaps those sons will be prisoners of war. + + + + LESSON XLIV. + + + THE INDEFINITE ADJECTIVE. + +208. The indefinite adjective, related to the indefinite pronoun "iu", +is "ia", of any kind, some kind of, a certain kind of, expressing +indefinitely the quality of a person or thing: + + Estas ia birdo sur tiu arbo, + there is a bird of some sort on that tree. + Mi vidis iajn ostojn sur la tero, + I saw some kind of bones on the ground. + Estas ia homo en tiu tendo, + there is some sort of human being in that tent. + + + THE INDEFINITE ADVERB OF PLACE. + +209. The indefinite adverb of place, related to the indefinite pronoun +"iu", is "ie", anywhere, somewhere, in (at) a certain place. If the +verb in the sentence expresses motion toward the place indicated by +"ie", the ending "-n" is added (121): + + Ie en tiu arbaro estas leono, + somewhere in that forest is a lion. + Ie malantaux la soldatoj vi trovos amason da kugloj, + somewhere behind the soldiers you will find a heap of bullets. + La hirundo flugis ien, + the swallow flew somewhere (in some direction). + Mi iros ien, sed mi ankoraux ne scias kien, + I am going somewhere, but I do not yet know where. + + + PREDICATE NOMINATIVES. + +210. An adjective may stand in predicate relation to the direct object +of a transitive verb, as well as to the subject of an intransitive verb +(19). Such a predicate adjective, agreeing in number (21) with the +object of the verb, but remaining in the nominative case, indicates the +result produced by the verb upon the object, or the condition, quality +or temporary state in which this object is found: + + Li faris la mondon felicxa, + he made the world happy (made-happy the world). + Mi lasis la knabon trankvila, I left the boy calm (undisturbed). + Mi trovis la truon jam farita, I found the hole already made. + Mi lasis ilin bone punitaj, I left them well punished. + +[Footnote: Cf. the difference between the examples given and sentences +with the same words in an attributive (13) use: +Dio faris la mondon felicxan, + God made the happy world. +Mi lasis la knabon trankvilan, + I left the calm boy. +Mi trovis la jam faritan truon, + I found the already made hole. +Mi lasis ilin bone punitajn, + I left those who had been well punished.] + +211. A noun may be used similarly in predicate relation after a +transitive verb, as well as after an intransitive verb (20): + + Sxi nomis sian filinon Mario, she named her daughter Mary. + Oni elektis tiun reprezentanto, + they elected that one representative. + Mi vidos lin venkinto, I shall see him a conqueror. + Mi trovis lin sxtelisto, I found him a thief. + +[Footnote: Cf. the examples given and the following sentences using the +same words in apposition (48) or attributive relation (13): +Sxi nomis sian filinon Marion, + she named (mentioned) her daughter Mary. +Oni elektis tiun reprezentanton, + they elected that representative.] + + + VOCABULARY + + anonc-i = to announce. pasxt-i = to feed (flocks, etc.). + ia = some kind of (208). plend-i = to complain. + ie = somewhere (209). proces-o = legal process. + just-a = upright, just. rajt-o = right, privilege. + klar-a = distinct, clear. ripar-i = to mend, to repair. + kresk-i = to grow. sufer-i = to suffer. + oportun-a = convenient. sxnur-o = string. + + + LA CXEVALO KAJ LA SONORILO. + +Unufoje en malgranda urbeto ("town") en Italujo, la regxo, kiun oni +estis nominta Johano, metis grandan sonorilon en la vendejon. Li anoncis +ke cxiu plendanto pri maljusteco havos la rajton alvoki ("to summon") +jugxiston per tiu sonorilo. Tiam la jugxisto faros proceson en la +jugxejo pro tiaj plendantoj. Oni multe uzis la sonorilon, laux la anonco +de la regxo, kaj multe da plendantoj ricevis justecon. Sammaniere, +granda nombro da maljustuloj estis punata per gxia helpo. Kiam okazis +ke iu homo montris sin maljusta al alia, cxi tiu anoncis la aferon per +la oportuna sonorilo. Kiam iu faris la edzinon malfelicxa, la sonorilo +tuj sonoris por anonci sxiajn suferojn, kaj por alvoki la jugxiston. +Fine, oni tiom uzis la sonorilon justecan, ke la sxnurego ("rope") +estis tute eluzita, kaj gxia lasta uzinto okaze forrompis gxin. Sed +iu preterpasinto vidis la duonon de la sxnurego kusxanta sur la tero, +kaj riparis gxin per kelkaj brancxetoj de apuda arbo. Li pensis en si +"Iu plendonto nun trovos gxin preta por esti uzata." Rimarkinde, la +brancxetoj ne velkis, sed restis verdaj, kaj kreskis kiel antauxe. + +En la sama urbo logxis ricxulo kiu estis forvendinta preskaux cxiom de +siaj domoj, cxevaloj, cxevaletoj, cxevalidoj, hundoj kaj multekostaj +vestoj, cxar en sia maljuneco li amis nur la monon, kaj tiun li amegis. +Li ankoraux posedis nur unu maljunan cxevalon, kaj fine li forsendis +ecx tiun, por sin pasxti laux la vojo. En la dauxro de la tago, la +cxevalo ekrimarkis la brancxetojn kreskantajn sur la sxnurego de la +sonorilo. Tuj gxi kaptis la brancxetojn, por mangxi ilin, kaj tuj la +jugxisto auxdis la sonorilon klare sonoranta. Li rapidis al la vendejo, +kaj lauxte ekridis kiam li vidis ies cxevalon tie. Li decidis puni +la ricxulon cxar tiu cxi ne donis suficxe por mangxi al la maljuna +militcxevalo. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. The horse caught sight of the twigs with which a passer-by had mended +the bellrope. 2. Because it wished to eat the green leaves, it seized +the rope, and the bell immediately rang loudly and clearly. 3. The horse +almost upset the poles which supported (160) the roof over the bell +of-justice. 4. Any one (173) had the right to use this bell, to announce +any kind of injustice. 5. The judge burst into a laugh as soon as he saw +that sort of plaintiff standing there. 6. More often he saw human beings +as plaintiffs, instead of animals. 7. When a laborer showed himself +unkind to his wife and children, they could announce their sufferings by +means of the convenient bell. 8. People called it the bell of justice. +9. According to everyone's opinion, it is the duty of a just judge +to punish evildoers and unjust persons. 10. He decided that he would +institute proceedings ("faros proceson") against the owner (205) of the +horse. 11. The man had driven away the horse, and it was grazing ("sin +pasxtanta") along the road. 12. It was some one's duty to give some sort +of home to his horse. 13. The judge said, "I will find out whose horse +that poor beast is, and will put a mark opposite the name of that man. +I will not leave him alone ("trankvila"), but will show myself very +severe." + + + + LESSON XLV. + + + THE INDEFINITE TEMPORAL ADVERB. + +212. The indefinite temporal adverb, related to the indefinite pronoun +"iu", is "iam", sometime, any time, ever, once upon a time: + + Iam mi rakontos la aferon al vi, + sometime I will tell you the affair. + Regxo iam logxis tie, + a king once (upon a time) dwelt there. + Cxu vi iam faris proceson kontraux li? + Did you ever go to law against him? + + + THE INDEFINITE ADVERB "IAL". + +213. The indefinite adverb of motive or reason, related to the +indefinite pronoun "iu", is "ial", for any reason, for some reason, +for certain reasons: + + Ial li ne riparis la tendon, + for some reason he did not repair the tent. + Cxu vi opinias ke ial li maljuste suferas? + Do you think that for any reason he is suffering unjustly? + + + CAUSATIVE VERBS. + +214. The suffix "-ig-" is used to form verbs indicating the "causing, +rendering or bringing about" of that which is expressed in the root or +formation to which it is attached. Verbs containing the suffix "-ig-" +are called "causative verbs" and are always transitive (22). + +a. Causative verbs from adjectival roots indicate that the quality or +condition expressed in the root is produced in the object of the verb: + + dolcxigi, to sweeten, to assuage (from "dolcxa", sweet). + moligi, to soften (from "mola", soft). + plilongigi, to lengthen, to make longer (from "pli longa", longer). + faciligi, to facilitate (from "facila", easy). + beligi, to beautify (from "bela", beautiful). + +[Footnote: The meaning often resembles that of the predicate nominative +(210), as: +Li faris la mondon gxoja, + he made the world glad. +Li gxojigis la mondon, + he gladdened the world.] + +b. Causative verbs from verbal roots indicate that the action expressed +in the root is made to take place: + + dormigi, to put to sleep (from dormi, to sleep). + konigi, to make acquainted with (from koni, to know). + mirigi, to astonish (from miri, to wonder). + mortigi, to kill (from morti, to die). + + +c. Causative verbs may be formed from noun-roots, prepositions, adverbs, +prefixes and suffixes whose meaning permits: + + amasigi, to amass, to heap up (from amaso, pile). + kunigi, to unite, to bring together (from kun, with). + forigi, to do away with (from for, away). + ebligi, to render possible (-ebl-, 161). + + + EMPHASIS BY MEANS OF "JA". + +215. The emphatic form of the verb, expressed in English by "do", "did", +as in "I do study", "I did find it", "Do tell me", and by adverbs such +as "certainly", "indeed", etc., is expressed in Esperanto by placing the +adverb "ja", indeed, before the verb: + + Vi ja mirigas min! You do astonish me! + Li ja estas justa jugxisto, he is indeed an upright judge. + Li ja havis tiun rajton, he did have that right. + + + VOCABULARY + + akompan-i = to accompany. indiferent-a = indifferent. + dangxer-o = danger. ja = indeed (215). + gvid-i = to guide. kred-i = to believe. + ial = for some reason (213). salt-i = to leap, to jump. + iam = sometimes (212). tir-i = to draw, to pull. + +[Cf. the difference in meaning and use between "esti indiferenta", to be +indifferent, and "ne esti zorga", not to be careful, both of which may +be translated "not to care for": +Li estas indiferenta al la libro, + he does not care about (is indifferent to) the book. +Li ne zorgas pri la libro, + he does not care for (take care of) the book. +Estas indiferente al mi cxu li venos, aux ne, + I do not care whether he is coming or not.] + + + CXE LA MALNOVA PONTO. + +Iam logxis en nia urbeto junulo kiu havis afablan pli junan fratinon. +Unu tagon en la dauxro de la bela printempa vetero la junulo invitis +la fratinon veturi ien en veturilo tirata de du cxevaloj. La invito +gxojigis la knabinon, kaj sxi respondis ke sxi kun plezuro akompanos +la fraton. Tuj sxi pretigis sin por iri, kaj ili ekveturis. Ili pasis +preter pitoreskaj kampoj kaj arbaretoj, kaj fine alvenis al ponto trans +la rivero. Ili kredis gxin malnova kaj ne tre forta, kaj ial la junulino +estis treege timigita ("frightened"). "Ho, kara frato," sxi ekkriis, +kun eksalteto pro timo, "tiu ponto ja estas dangxera! Mi deziras marsxi +trans gxin, cxar iam la pezeco de unu persono estos tiom tro multe +por veturilo sur malforta ponto!" Sed la timemaj petoj de lia fratino +sxajne kolerigis la junulon, kaj li respondis malafable, "Nu, vi ja +mirigas min! Vi montras vin tre malsagxa, cxar la konstruintoj de tiu +ponto certe faris gxin suficxe forta por tia veturilo kia la nia. Ne +estos necese eksalti de gxi, kaj piede transiri la ponton." Tiamaniere +li penis trankviligi la kompatindan knabinon, sed tiaj vortoj nur +silentigis sxin, kaj sxi komencis mallauxte ploreti. Tamen la frato +montris sin indiferenta al sxiaj timemaj sentoj, kaj tute malatentis +sxiajn larmojn. Li gvidis la cxevalojn rekte trans la ponton, dum la +fratino atendis la bruegon de rompigita ligno, kaj imagis ke sxi estas +tuj mortigota. Tamen, la ponto estis tiel forta kiel la junulo estis +klariginta, kaj tute ne estis dangxera. Sed pro la malafableco de la +frato al la fratino, ili tute ne agrable pasigis la ceterajn horojn de +la posttagmezo, malgraux la beleco de la vetero kaj de la kamparo. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Somewhere in that same town, there lived another youth, who also had +an amiable sister. 2. One convenient day, she accompanied him for a +ride in a vehicle drawn by a fast horse. 3. When they reached ("alvenis +al") the bridge, this girl also was frightened for some reason, the +same as the girl in the other story. 4. She said "I do not intend to +complain, but the carriage will certainly be too heavy while we are +in it. I am afraid that that bridge is dangerous, so I will jump out +and walk. I will also pick ("kolektos") some sort of flowers, among +the flowers growing there, near where someone's horses are grazing. +I will not delay ("atendigi") you long." He replied, "That bridge is +entirely safe ("nedangxera") but instead of explaining ("making-clear") +to you about it, I will lead the horse across the bridge, while you +walk across, for I am not indifferent to your fear." Then he helped his +sister get out ("eliri") of the carriage, and guided the horse across. +Then he said with a pleasant smile, "It was not necessary to cross on +foot." She replied, "No, but you showed yourself a courteous brother, +and were very patient." Then they rode on ("antauxen"), and talked to +each other very amiably. + + + + LESSON XLVI. + + + THE INDEFINITE ADVERB "IEL". + +216. The indefinite adverb of manner, related to the indefinite pronoun +"iu", is "iel", somehow, in any way, in some (any) manner: + + Mi penis vin iel gvidi tien, + I tried somehow to guide you thither. + Iel ni anoncos la decidon, + we shall announce the decision in some way. + + + THE INDEFINITE ADVERB "IOM". + +217. The indefinite adverb of quantity, related to the indefinite +pronoun "iu", is "iom", some, any quantity, a certain amount: + + Cxu vi havas iom da tempo? Have you some time? + Sxi varmigos iom da akvo, she will heat some water. + Tiu metodo estas iomete dangxera, + that way is a little dangerous (198). + La sxnuro estas iom tro longa, the string is somewhat too long. + + + THE SUFFIX "-AD-". + +218. The suffix "-ad-" is used to form words indicating that the action +expressed in the root is continuous, habitual or repeated. + +a. Verbs formed with the suffix "-ad-" are called "frequentative +verbs", and may often be translated by the root meaning, preceded by +"keep (on)", "used to", etc.: + + frapadi, to keep knocking, to knock repeatedly. + rigardadi, to keep on looking, to gaze. + vizitadi, to keep visiting, visit repeatedly, frequent, haunt. + Antaux du jaroj sxi tre dolcxe kantadis, + two years ago she used to sing very sweetly. + +b. Nouns formed with the suffix "-ad-" are often equivalent to English +verbal nouns ending in "-ing", and (with the generic article, 201) may +replace the infinitive as subject (130) and sometimes as object (29): + + kriado, crying, shouting (from krio, cry, shout). + movado, motion, movement in general (from movo, a movement). + pafado, shooting, fusillade (from pafo, a shot). + parolado, a speech, address (from parolo, a word spoken). + pensado, thought, contemplation (from penso, a thought). + La promenado donas plezuron, the taking of walks gives pleasure. + Mi preferas la legadon de tiaj libroj, + I prefer the reading of (to read) such books. + + + THE USE OF "MEM". + +219. The invariable pronoun "mem", self, selves, is intensive, and lays +stress upon the substantive which immediately precedes it, or which it +obviously modifies. (The combination of "mem" with personal pronouns +must not be confused with reflexive pronouns, 39, 40): + + Mi mem akompanos vin, I myself shall accompany you. + La gvidisto mem perdis la vojon, the guide himself lost the way. + Mi kredos al la viro mem, I shall give credence to the man himself. + La viroj mem defendis sin, the men themselves defended themselves. + Gxi pendas sur la muro mem, + it hangs on the very wall (the wall itself). + Sxi venis mem por vidi vin, she came herself to see you. + Mi ekvidis la sxteliston mem, + I caught a glimpse of the thief himself. + + + VOCABULARY + + Arhximed-o = Archimedes. jxet-i = to throw, to cast. + ban-i = to bathe (trans.). kompren-i = to understand. + fals-i = to debase, to forge. kron-o = crown. + Hieron-o = Hiero. lev-i = to lift, to raise. + honest-a = honest. lok-o = place. + ide-o = idea. mem = self, selves (219). + iel = somehow (216). or-o = gold. + iom = some (217). Sikeli-o = Sicily. + + + ARHXIMEDO KAJ LA KRONOJ. + +Iam bonekonata regxo, nomita Hierono, vivadis en granda urbo en Sikelio, +kiu estas sudokcidenta de Italujo. Li suspektis ke iam la kronfaristoj, +kiuj fabrikadis kronojn por li, ne uzis cxiom de la oro donita al ili de +la regxo, sed falsadis gxin per la uzado de iu alia materialo. Tamen, +Hierono ne povis per si mem eltrovi cxu oni falsadas la oron. Tial li +venigis grekan klerulon, kies nomo estis Arhximedo, kaj rakontis al +li sian timon pri la falsita oro. Arhximedo certigis lin ke iel li ja +eltrovos pri la falsado, kaj helpos la regxon kontraux la falsintoj, +kiuj estis tiel indiferentaj al la honesteco. Cxiutage li multe pensadis +pri la afero, sed ju pli longe li pensadis, des malpli sukcesaj estis +liaj penoj, gxis iu tago, kiam li okaze faris interesan eltrovon. Li +estis jxus baninta sin, kaj subite ekrimarkis ke dum li mem restis en la +akvo, ial sxajnis esti iomete pli multe da akvo en la banujo ol antauxe. +Tuj li komprenis ke lia korpo estas forpusxinta iom de la akvo el gxia +loko. Li komprenis ke tiom da akvo estas elpusxita, kiom antauxe estis +en tiu loko kie li mem estas. Tia levado de la akvo per lia korpo donis +al li sagxan ideon, kaj li prenis en la mano du aux tri orajn kronojn. +Li jxetis ilin unu post la alia en la banujon, kaj zorge rimarkis al kiu +alteco cxiu el ili levis la akvon. Tiam li eltiris ilin, kaj enmetis la +kronon pri kiu Hierono estis plej suspektema. Li rimarkis ke cxi tiu ne +tiel alten levis la akvon, tial li estis certa ke la oro en gxi estas +multe falsita. Oni diras ke kiam li eltrovis cxi tiun metodon por montri +la falsadon de la malhonestaj kronfaristoj, li eksaltetis pro gxojo kaj +ekkriis "euxreka," kiu estas la greka vorto por "mi estas trovinta." +Tiun saman vorton oni ankoraux nun uzadas en la angla lingvo. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Several centuries ago, a rich and powerful ("multepova") king, +named Hiero, lived in Sicily. 2. Sometimes he was suspicious about the +crown-makers who wrought ("faris") crowns for him, out of the gold which +he himself gave them. 3. He wondered whether these men were honest. 4. +He suspected that perhaps ("eble") they did not use all of the gold +which was given them, but kept some of it for themselves. 5. He could +not of himself ("per si mem") discover whether they were debasing the +gold in his crowns, so he summoned a wise man from ("el") Greece. 6. To +this well-informed man, whose name was Archimedes, he made clear his +fears. 7. Archimedes assured the king that he would find out somehow +about the matter. 8. He meditated several hours every day, and tried to +discover a satisfactory ("kontentiga") method, but for some reason he +did not succeed. 9. One day, however, when he was bathing (himself), he +noticed that there seemed to be a little more water in the bathtub when +he himself was in it, than before. 10. The rising of the water gave him +an idea. 11. He threw the crowns one after another into the water, and +noticed how much water each displaced. 12. In this manner ("tiamaniere") +he understood how much each had been alloyed by the local ("lokaj") +crown-makers, whom Hiero soon threw into prison ("la malliberejon"). + + + + LESSON XLVII. + + + THE NEGATIVE PRONOUN. + +220. The negative pronoun (and pronominal adjective) is "neniu", no one, +nobody, no (formed of "ne" and "iu", with a medial "n" inserted for the +sake of euphony): + + Neniu el vi komprenas min, no one of you understands me. + Mi trovis neniun preta por iri, I found nobody ready to go. + Li havis neniun honestan serviston, he had no honest servant. + +221. The negative pronoun "neniu" has a possessive or genitive form, +"nenies", nobody's, no one's: + + Cxies afero estas nenies afero, + everybody's affair is nobody's affair. + Li lauxdos nenies ideojn, + he will praise no one's ideas. + + + THE ADVERBIAL PARTICIPLE. + +222. A participle may be equivalent not only to a clause describing or +determining the substantive modified, as in "la parolanta viro", the +man who-is-talking, "la sendota knabo", the boy who-will-be-sent, but +also to an "adverbial" clause. + +[Footnote: An adverbial clause modifies a verb, as in "dum vi atendis, +li foriris", while you waited, he went away; "cxar mi gxojis, mi ridis", +because I was happy, I laughed.] + +Such a participle has for its subject the subject of the verb in the +sentence (though not in attributive or predicate relation with it), and +indicates some relation of time, cause, manner, situation, etc., between +the action of the participle and that of the main verb in the sentence. +An adverbial participle is given the ending "-e": + + Gxojante, mi ridis, + rejoicing, I laughed. + Forironte, ni adiauxis lin, + being about to depart, we bade him farewell. + Baninte la infaneton, sxi dormigis gxin, + after bathing (having bathed) the baby, she put it to sleep. + Estante ruzaj, ili falsis la oron, + being sly, they debased the gold. + Tiel helpate de vi, mi sukcesos, + thus helped by you, I shall succeed. + Silentigite de li, ili ne plendis, + (having been) silenced by him, they did not complain. + Punote, li ekkriis, + being about to be punished, he gave a cry. + Ne parolinte, li foriris, + without speaking (not having spoken), he left. + Li venis, ne vokite, + he came without being (came not-having-been) called. + +[Footnote: The adverbial participle must not be used in rendering the +English "nominative absolute" construction of a participial clause +referring to something else than the subject. In such a sentence a +clause must be used: "The youth being young, everyone watched him", cxar +la junulo estis juna, cxiu rigardadis lin; "the work being finished, he +went away", kiam la lahoro estis finita, li foriris.] + + + THE PREFIX "RE-". + +223. The prefix "re-" indicates the repetition of an action or state, or +the "return" of a person or thing to its original place or state. (Cf. +English prefix "re-"; meaning either "again" or "back.") + + rekapti = to recapture. rebrili = to shine back, to reflect. + renovigi = to renew. reteni = to hold back, to retain. + rekoni = to recognize. reveni = to come back, to return. + gxis la revido = au revoir. reiri = to go back, to return. + ree = again, anew. rejxeti = to throw back, to reject. + + + VOCABULARY + + brul-i = to be in flames, to burn. masxin-o = machine. + cilindr-o = cylinder. nenies = nobody's (221). + detru-i = to destroy. neniu = no one (220). + fam-a = famous. problem-o = problem. + filozof-o = philosopher. Sirakuz-o = Syracuse. + fizik-o = physics. spegul-o = mirror. + insul-o = island. sxrauxb-o = screw. + + + LA FILOZOFO ARHXIMEDO. + +Eble neniu greka klerulo estis pli fama ol la filozofo Arhximedo. Longe +studadinte la problemojn de la geometrio kaj de la fiziko, li faris +multe da eltrovoj. Li tiel multe komprenis pri la uzado de la levilo +("lever") ke oni rakontas la sekvantan rakonteton pri li: Li diris al +la regxo Hierono "Kiam oni donos al mi lokon sur kiu mi povos stari, mi +mem ekmovos la mondon per mia levilo!" Zorge ekzameninte la ecojn (202) +de la sxrauxbo kaj de la cilindro, li elpensis diversajn masxinojn en +kiuj sxrauxboj kaj cilindroj estas iamaniere kunigitaj. Uzante unu el +tiuj masxinoj, oni povis facile pusxi al la akvo la sxipojn (necese +konstruitajn sur la tero); kiujn antauxe la viroj mem enpusxis en la +akvon, kun multe da laboro, aux tiris tien per cxevaloj. Uzante alian +masxinon elpensitan de tiu greko, oni povis levi akvon de unu loko al +alia. Ankoraux nun oni nomas tian masxinon la "sxrauxbo de Arhximedo." +En la dauxro de granda militado kontraux la urbo Sirakuzo, sur la +insulo Sikelio, Arhximedo elpensis diversajn masxinojn por helpi la +Sirakuzanojn. Vidinte ke la sunlumo rebrilas de spegulo, li faris el +speguloj masxinon per kiu li ekbruligis ("set on fire") la sxipojn de +la malamikoj. Cxi tiuj, ne komprenante kiamaniere* la sxipoj ekbrulis, +estis multe timigitaj. Sed ecx helpite de Arhximedo la Sirakuzanoj ne +venkis. Post iom da tempo, la malamikoj kaptis kaj tute detruis la urbon +Sirakuzon. Nenies domo restis netusxita, kaj centoj da personoj estis +mortigataj. Oni ne scias per kia morto Arhximedo mortis, sed eble la +malamikoj, iel rekoninte la elpensinton de la spegulmasxino, jxetis lin +en la maron aux alimaniere lin mortigis. + +[Footnote: The use of "kiamaniere" (in what manner, how) is preferable +to that of "kiel" in indirect questions, as the latter might be confused +with the use of "kiel", meaning "as" (156).] + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. The Greek philosopher Archimedes was not only famous long ago, among +his contemporaries (167, b, 132), but even today his name is well known +everywhere. 2. No one's knowledge about the problems of geometry and +physics was greater. 3. No one understood better the properties of the +cylinder and the screw. 4. Having studied these properties a long time, +and having meditated a great deal about them, he understood them a +little (217) better than any one else ("iu alia"). 5. The story about +the debasing of the gold crowns has already been told. 6. There is +another anecdote, namely ("nome"), that he remarked to Hiero, king of +Syracuse, that with a lever he would move the world, as soon as he +had a place on which he himself could stand. 7. Having discovered how +("kiamaniere") the sunlight is reflected by a mirror, and heats the +wood upon which it shines, he invented a machine made out of mirrors. +8. Aided by this machine, the Syracusans were able to set on fire the +wooden ships of the enemy. 9. The enemy, however, were not repulsed +from the island, but at once rebuilt and repaired their ships, and sent +them back to attack the city again. 10. Finally, having captured the +city, they destroyed it, and killed a large number of the inhabitants +("logxantoj"), also Archimedes himself. + + + + LESSON XLVIII. + + + THE NEGATIVE ADJECTIVE. + +224. The negative adjective, related to the negative pronoun "neniu," is +"nenia", no kind of, no sort of, expressing a negative idea concerning +the quality of a person or thing: + + Mi havas nenian spegulon, I have no sort of mirror. + Nenia problemo estas tro malfacila por li, + no sort of problem is too difficult for him. + + + THE NEGATIVE ADVERB OF PLACE. + +225. The negative adverb of place is "nenie", nowhere. The ending "-n" +may be added, as to other adverbs (121), to indicate direction: + + Nenie estas pli bona masxino, nowhere is there a better machine. + Mi iros nenien morgaux, I shall go nowhere tomorrow. + + + THE NEGATIVE TEMPORAL ADVERB. + +226. The negative adverb of time is "neniam", never, at no time: + + Neniam vivis pli fama filozofo, + there never lived a more famous philosopher. + Vi neniam trovos tiajn sxrauxbojn aux cilindrojn, + you will never find that kind of screws or cylinders. + + + THE SUFFIX "-AJX-". + +227. The suffix "-ajx-" is used to form "concrete" words. It is thus in +contrast to the abstract-forming suffix "-ec-" (202). + + +a. A word formed from a verbal root by means of the suffix "-ajx-" +expresses a concrete example of "a thing which undergoes" (or, in the +case of intransitives, "results from") the action indicated in the root: + + konstruajxo = a building. kreskajxo = a plant, a growth. + sendajxo = consignment, thing sent. rebrilajxo = a reflection. + mangxajxo = food. restajxo = remainder. + +b. A word formed from an adjectival root or formation by means of the +suffix "-ajx-" indicates "a thing characterized by" or "possessing the +quality" expressed in the root or formation to which it is attached: + + belajxo = a thing of beauty. mirindajxo = a marvel. + maljustajxo = an injustice. okazintajxo = an occurrence. + +c. A word formed from a noun-root by means of the suffix "-ajx-" +indicates "a thing made" or "derived from" that which is expressed in +the root: + + sukerajxo = a sweet, confection. orajxo = a gold object. + ovajxo = an omelet. araneajxo = a spider-web. + + + THE ADVERB "JEN". + +228. The adverb "jen", behold, here, there, is used to point out or +call attention to something: + + Jen estas la problemo! There is the problem! + Jen la filozofo! Behold the philosopher! + Jen sxi ludas, jen sxi studas, now she plays, now she studies. + Mi faris gxin jene, I did it as follows. + Mi agis laux la jena metodo, I acted in the following way. + Li diris la jenajn vortojn, he spoke the following words. + + + VOCABULARY + + arangx-i = to arrange. neniam = never (226). + art-o = art. nenie = nowhere (225). + ber-o = berry. pentr-i = to paint. + jen = there, behold (228). postul-i = to demand. + jxaluz-a = jealous. precip-a = principal, chief. + konkurs-o = competition. regul-o = rule. + lert-a = skilled, clever. tromp-i = to deceive. + nenia = no kind of (224). vin-o = wine. + + + DU ARTKONKURSOJ. + +Vivadis en Grekujo antaux multaj jarcentoj du lertaj famaj pentristoj. +Ili estis reciproke jxaluzaj, kaj neniam povis interparoli paceme. +Ne povinte decidi la problemon, kaj eltrovi kiu el ili estas la plej +lerta, ili fine arangxis konkurson pri la pentrado. Laux gxiaj reguloj, +cxiu el ili pentris pentrajxon, por montri sian lertecon. Unu pentris +teleron da vinberoj ("grapes"). Gxi estis tiel mirinde kolorigita ke ecx +la birdoj venis kaj penis gxin mangxi, pensinte gxin ne nur pentrajxo, +sed la vinberoj mem. "Nenia pentrajxo povos superi la mian," gxojege +ekkriis la pentristo, "jen, la birdoj mem rekonas mian lertecon!" Tiam +li diris al la alia artisto, "Nu, kial vi ne fortiras tiun kurtenon? +Mi volas rigardi vian pentrajxon." La dua pentristo respondis kun +rideto, "Jen estas mia pentrajxo. Nenie apud vi estas kurteno, sed vi +vidas nur pentrajxon de kurteno antaux tiu konstruajxo." Tre mirigite, +la pentrinto de la vinberoj diris "Vi ja superas min en la pentrado. +Mi trompis la birdojn per mia pentrajxo, sed vi trompas ecx aliajn +artistojn! Tia lerteco estas ja mirindajxo!" + +Oni rakontas similan okazintajxon pri fama artisto kiu pentris multe +da pentrajxoj por Aleksandro Granda. Malgajninte en konkurso kontraux +iuj aliaj artistoj, li opiniis ke la jugxintoj estas maljustaj al +li, precipe pro la jxaluzeco. Li ekkriis "Cxar niaj pentrajxoj estas +bildoj de cxevaloj, ili certe postulas cxevalajn jugxantojn!" Tial oni +enkondukis du aux tri cxevalojn. La cxevaloj, tute ne rigardinte la +pentrajxojn de la aliaj artistoj, kuris rekte al tiu de la plendinta +artisto, kaj klare montris sian rekonadon de la tie pentritaj cxevaloj. +Surprizite, oni diris "Jen estas justaj jugxantoj!" Tuj oni lauxdis la +pentriston kaj severe punis la malhonestajn homajn jugxintojn. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION + +1. Syracuse was the largest city on the island of Sicily. 2. The famous +philosopher and physicist Archimedes lost his life when that city was +destroyed and entirely burned. 3. At least, no sort of trace of him +seems to have been found after that occurrence. 4. Never, perhaps, was +there a more learned man in Syracuse. 5. Greece was also famous for +its skilled painters, and there are many anecdotes about them. 6. A +painter who failed in a certain competition believed that none of the +judges had been just to him. 7. He exclaimed "Behold this iniquity +(injustice)! Nowhere can I find a human being who is not jealous. 8. +Since the paintings are chiefly of horses, do they not require horses +for judges?" 9. His proposal was accepted (54), and some horses were led +in. 10. Without noticing (222) the other paintings, the horses walked +at once to the picture of the unsuccessful artist, and showed immediate +recognition of the horses painted there. 11. This act showed which +competitor ("konkursinto") was the most skilful. 12. The painter, having +deceived the horses, as another artist had once deceived birds by a +picture of grapes, said "Animals decide not by rules, but by feelings." + + + + LESSON XLIX. + + + THE NEGATIVE ADVERBS "NENIAL", "NENIEL", "NENIOM". + +229. The negative adverb of motive or reason, related to the negative +pronoun "neniu", is "nenial", for no reason: + + Li estas nenial jxaluza, he is jealous for no reason. + Nenial li trompis vin, for no reason he deceived you. + +230. The negative adverb of manner is "neniel", in no way. + + Mi povos neniel arangxi konkurson, + I can in no way arrange a competition. + Tiu ago estas neniel lauxregula, + That act is in no way regular. + +231. The negative adverb of quantity is "neniom", no amount of, not +any, none, no: + + Tiu pentrajxo postulas neniom da lerteco, + such a painting requires no skill. + Estas neniom da vino en lia glaso, + there is no wine in his glass. + + + THE SUFFIX "-IGX-". + +232. The suffix "-igx-" is used to form intransitive verbs of an +"inchoative" nature. + +a. Inchoative verbs from the roots of "intransitive verbs" indicate +the "beginning" or "coming into existence" of the act or condition +expressed in the root: + + sidigxi, to become sitting, to sit down, to take a seat. + starigxi, to become standing, to stand up. + +b. Intransitive verbs may be similarly formed from the roots of +"transitive" verbs, and indicate an action of the verb not immediately +due to the subject's acting upon itself (as in the case of reflexive +verbs, 41) and not caused by any direct agency (as in the case of the +passive voice, 169): + + La pordo fermigxas, the door closes (goes shut). + La veturilo movigxas, the vehicle moves. + La brancxo rompigxas, the branch breaks. + Grupo da personoj kolektigxis, a group of persons gathered. + +[Footnote: Cf. the examples given and the following sentences in which +the same verbal roots are used in the simple form and in the passive +voice: + + Ni fermas la pordon, La pordo estas fermita, + we close the door. the door is (has been) closed. + + Oni movas la veturilon, La veturilo estas movata, + they move the vehicle. the vehicle is being moved. + + Mi rompas la brancxon, La brancxo estas rompita, + I break the branch. the branch is (has been) broken. + + Li kolektis florojn, Floroj estas kolektitaj, + he gathered flowers. flowers have been gathered.] + +c. Intransitive verbs may similarly be formed from "adjectival" roots, +and indicate the acquiring of the characteristic or quality expressed in +the root: + + lacigxi, to become tired, to get tired. + varmigxi, to become warm, to get warm. + maljunigxi, to become old, to age. + +d. Verbs may similarly be formed from noun-roots, adverbs, +prepositions, prefixes and suffixes whose meaning permits: + + amikigxi, to become a friend. kunigxi, to become joined. + forigxi, to go away, to disappear. ebligxi, to become possible. + + + VOCABULARY + + apenaux = hardly, scarcely. nenial = for no reason (229). + atmosfer-o = atmosphere. neniel = in no way (230). + dub-i = to doubt. neniom = none, no (231). + efektiv-a = effective, real. ombr-o = shadow. + hel-a = clear, bright. pejzagx-o = landscape. + horizont-o = horizon. radi-o = ray. + krepusk-o = twilight. tropik-a = tropical. + + + LA KREPUSKO. + +Estas tre agrable sidigxi sur la herbon, kaj rigardi la plilongigxantajn +ombrojn, en la dauxro de bela somera vespero. La suno grade mallevigxas +post la montetoj, la nuboj farigxas ("become") bele kolorigitaj, kaj la +tuta pejzagxo pli kaj pli beligxas. Malrapide la krepusko anstatauxas la +helan sunlumon, kaj fine cxie noktigxas. La krepusko estas la rebrilado +de la sunlumo tra la atmosfero, post la mallevigxo de la suno mem, laux +la jena maniero: la radioj suprenbriladas, en la aeron super niaj kapoj, +en la okcidenta parto de la cxielo. De tie ili rebriladas tiamaniere ke +la cxielo lumigxas. Kiam estas iom da nuboj sur la cxielo okcidenta, +la sunradioj briladas rekte kontraux ilin, belege kolorigante tiujn +nubojn. En tropikaj landoj la krepuskigxo okazas tre rapide. Gxi ne +nur komencigxas subite, sed ankaux dauxras tre mallongan tempon. La +noktigxo preskaux tuj sekvas la taglumon, kun rimarkinda subiteco. +Apenaux komencigxas la krepusko, kiam la subiranta suno sxajnas fali +preter la horizonto. Tute male ("quite on the contrary"), en landoj +treege nordaj, krepuskigxas tre frue en la tago, kaj la krepusko dauxras +longan tempon antaux ol la nokto venas. Efektive ("really"), en tiuj +landoj la krepusko tute anstatauxas la nokton, dum ses monatoj de la +jaro. Tie oni havas krepuskon dum la unua duonjaro, kaj la taglumon +dum la sekvinta duonjaro. Krepusko dauxranta tiom da tempo estas tiel +rimarkinda kiel tago de tia sama longeco. Mi dubas cxu tia dividado +de la tempo inter tago kaj malhela nokto estas agrabla, sed oni povas +neniel malhelpi gxin. Cxiu tre norda lando havas la saman travivajxon +("experience"), cxiujare, kaj efektive oni apenaux rimarkas gxin. Pri +cxiu plendanto oni nur diras "Li estas nenial malkontenta." + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +of ("pri") the two painters who, being mutually (180) jealous, arranged +a competition. 2. One painted a cluster (126) of grapes, so excellently +that the birds flew to it. 3. The other deceived his rival (competitor) +himself, by a painting of a curtain. 4. The most famous artists, +however, often show their skill by painting (222) pictures of the +sunset, chiefly, I think, because of the brilliant colors. 5. In fact +("efektive"), I doubt whether there is a more beautiful sight (227, +b) than the sunset. 6. It is made by the bright rays of the sun, +which shine back through the atmosphere, long after the sun itself +has passed below the horizon. 7. The more moisture ("malsekajxo") +there is in the air, the more brilliant the colors are, and the more +beautiful the entire landscape becomes. 8. In tropical lands, night +falls very suddenly, and there is almost no sort of twilight. 9. In +fact, a twilight scarcely occurs there. 10. In the lands far north, on +the contrary, the twilight lasts six months, and the remainder of the +year is the day. 11. To dwell in such a land is surely a remarkable +experience. 12. It can in no way be understood by persons who have never +lived there. 13. Such things increase (make greater) my desire to visit +those northern lands. 14. For no reason, however, do I + + + + LESSON L. + + + THE PRONOUNS ENDING IN "-O". + +233. In contrast to the pronouns ending in "-u" ("tiu", "kiu", "cxiu", +"iu", "neniu"), a similar series ending in "-o" refers to an object, +fact or action not definitely specified (but never to a person), like +English "what, anything, something, nothing," etc. Because of their +somewhat vague meaning, these pronouns do not occur in the plural, nor +are they ever used as pronominal adjectives: + +Demonstrative: tio = that (thing, fact or action). + cxi tio = this (thing, fact or action). + +Interrogative and Relative: kio = what. + +Distributive: cxio = everything. + cxio cxi = all this. + +Indefinite: io = anything, something. + +Negative: nenio = nothing. + +234. A pronoun (not personal) in predicate or relative relation to a +pronoun ending in "-o" must itself be of the same series: + + Kio estas cxi tio, kion vi diras? What is this, which you say? + Sxi vidis tion, kio jxus okazis, she saw that which just occurred. + Cxio cxi, kion vi vidas, estas farita de ili, + everything here (all this), which you see, was done by them. + Li havas ion por vi, sed nenion por mi, + he has something for you, but nothing for me. + + + CORRELATIVE WORDS. + +235. Pronouns, adjectives and adverbs, which are related to each other +as corresponding demonstratives, interrogatives, relatives, etc., are +called "correlatives". In Esperanto the correlative system is more +complete than in any other language, and may be summarized as follows: + + Demonstrative Interrogative Distributive Indefinite Negative + and Relative + + tio (233) kio (233) cxio (233) io (233) nenio (233) + that (thing) what, which everything anything nothing + + tiu (56) kiu (146) cxiu (173) iu (203) neniu (220) + that (one) who, which every, each any (one) no (one) + + ties (62) kies (147) cxies (174) ies (204) nenies(221) + that one's whose every one's any one's no one's + + tia (65) kia (150) cxia (177) ia (208) nenia (224) + that kind of what kind of every kind any kind no kind of + + tie (68) kie (151) cxie (182) ie (209) nenie (225) + there where everywhere anywhere nowhere + + tiam (73) kiam (155) cxiam (187) iam (212) neniam (226) + then when always any time never + + tial (78) kial (129) cxial (188) ial (213) nenial (229) + therefore, wherefore, for every for any for no + so why reason reason reason + + tiel (88), kiel (156) cxiel (193) iel (216) neniel (230) + (156) thus, so how, as every way any way in no way + + tiom (104) kiom (164) cxiom (194) iom (217) neniom (231) + that much, how much, all, the some, any none, no + so much as whole of amount quantity + + + THE USE OF "AJN". + +236. The word "ajn" may be placed after any interrogative-relative or +indefinite correlative word, to give a generalizing sense. In order +to avoid confusion with the accusative plural ending, "ajn" is "never +attached" to the correlative which it follows: + + kio ajn = whatever. kiam ajn = whenever. + kies ajn = whosesoever. kiom ajn = however much. + kie ajn = wherever. ia ajn = any kind whatever. + + + THE SUFFIX "-ING-". + +237. The suffix "-ing-" is used to form words indicating that which +holds "one" specimen of what is expressed in the root: + + glavingo = scabbard. plumingo = pen-holder. + lumingo = torch-holder. ingo = sheath, case, socket. + + + VOCABULARY + + cxio = everything (233). nenio = nothing (233). + Gordio = Gordius. ofer-o = offering. + io = anything (233). reg-i = to rule, to govern. + jug-o = yoke. sankt-a = sacred, holy. + klin-i = to bend, incline (trans). templ-o = temple. + kio = what (233). tio = that (thing) (233). + lig-i = to tie, to bind. util-a = useful. + + + LA GORDIA LIGAJXO. + +Unufoje en antikva tempo la regatoj de iu regxolando en Azio ne +havis regxon. Ne sciante kion fari, ili demandis de la dioj. La dioj +respondis, "Kiu ajn venos unue en nian sanktan templon hodiaux, por fari +oferojn, estos via regxo." Okaze kamparano nomita Gordio venis al la +templo, jxus post la tagigxo. La regatoj tuj rekonis la estontan regxon, +kvankam li veturis sur peza malbela veturilo. Salutinte la surprizitan +kamparanon, oni nomis lin regxo. Decidinte fari dankoferon al la dioj, +Gordio metis en la templon la veturilon mem sur kiu li tien veturis, +antaux ol li komencis regi kiel la nova regxo. La jugo estis alligita +("tied fast") per granda ligajxo el sxnurego. Post la morto de Gordio +oni grade komencis kredi ion tre interesan pri tio. Oni diris ke tiu, +kiu povos iel ajn malligi tiun ligajxon, farigxos reganto super cxiuj +regxoj de Azio. + +Post kelkaj jaroj Aleksandro Granda decidis fari grandan militadon +kontraux Azio, kaj alproksimigxis al la lando kie estis reginta Gordio. +Kiam li demandis, "Kio estas cxi tie la plej interesa vidindajxo?" +oni rakontis al li tion, kion oni diras pri la sxnurega ligajxo sur +la veturilo de Gordio. Kompreneble ("of course") Aleksandro deziris +fari ion ajn utilan por venki Azion, tial li tuj venigis gvidiston +por konduki lin al la templo. Alveninte tien, li zorge rigardadis la +ligajxon, kaj ekzamenis la sxnuregon el kiu gxi estis farita. Tiam, +elpreninte sian glavon el la glavingo, subite klinigxante li rekte +tratrancxis la tutan ligajxon. "Nenio estas pli facila ol tio," li +diris, "kaj nun mi ne dubas cxu mi certe regos super cxiuj regxoj de +Azio." Pro tio, kion faris Aleksandro Granda, oni ankoraux nuntempe +diras, kiam iu ajn superas malfacilajxon per kia ajn subita metodo, "Li +trancxis la gordian ligajxon." + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. One often hears the remark "I will cut the Gordian knot." 2. There +is an interesting story about this. 3. A wagon whose yoke was tied to +the pole by a large knot had been put in the middle of the temple. +4. It was a thank-offering to the sacred gods, by whose help Gordius +had in olden time become king. 5. It was said that whoever would be +able to untie that rope would no doubt become ruler over the whole of +Asia. 6. Alexander the Great, having begun a campaign against Asia, +approached the city where this temple was. 7. Having heard the story, +he at once had a guide come, and went thither, guided by him. 8. He +desired to do everything which was useful to the conquering of Asia. 9. +Having examined the knot carefully, he bent over and tried for a few +minutes to untie it. 10. Then he chose another method. 11. He seized +his sword, and suddenly cut through the whole knot. 12. Having done +this, he put the sword back into the scabbard. 13. This he did, instead +of continuing ("dauxrigi") his efforts to untie the knot. 14. In fact, +having no patience, he had become tired. 15. Perhaps the conquering +of Asia did not in any way become possible on account of this, but +at least the story is interesting, whatever actually ("efektive") +happened. 16. Nothing is impossible, whenever one tries enough. 17. In a +tropical country, such as part of Asia is, the landscapes are beautiful. +18. A tropical twilight is very short, however, and the shadows have +scarcely become long when the sun seems to sink suddenly below the +horizon, although the last bright rays continue to shine back through +the atmosphere for a few minutes. + + + + LESSON LI. + + + THE PRONOUN "AMBAUX". + +238. The pronoun (and pronominal adjective) "ambaux", both, indicates +two persons or things considered together. It is invariable in form: + + Ili ambaux venis al la templo, + they both came to the temple. + Ambaux faris oferojn al la dioj, + both made offerings to the gods. + Vidante kaj la plumon kaj la plumingon, mi prenis la ambaux, + seeing both the pen and the penholder, I took both. + +[Footnote: This pronoun must not be confused with the use of "kaj", +translated "both" in the combination "kaj ... kaj ...", "both ... and +..." (26).] + + + FORMATIONS WITH "-IG-" AND "-IGX-". + +239. Some verbs may be used in the simple form, and also with both the +suffix "-ig-" and the suffix "-igx-". Thus from one verb-root three +verbs of distinct meaning may be made, and the formation with "-ig-", +being transitive, may also be used in the passive: + + sidi = to sit, to be sitting. + sidigxi = to become sitting, to take a seat. + sidigi = to cause to sit, to seat. + esti sidigata = to be caused to sit. + silenti = to be silent. + silentigxi = to become silent. + silentigi = to cause to be silent, to silence. + esti silentigita = to be silenced. + kusxi = to lie, to be lying. + kusxigxi = to lie down, to go to bed. + kusxigi = to cause to lie, to lay. + esti kusxigita = to be laid. + stari = to stand, to be standing. + starigxi = to rise, to stand up, to become erect. + starigi = to raise, to cause to stand up, to erect. + esti starigita = to be raised, to be erected. + + + FACTUAL CONDITIONS. + +240. A conditional sentence consists of two parts, an "assumption" and +a "conclusion". The assumption is a clause (introduced usually by the +conjunction "se", "if") which assumes something as true or realized. The +conclusion is a statement whose truth or realization depends upon the +truth or realization of the assumption. "Factual conditions" (conditions +of fact) may deal with the present, past or future time: + + Se li vidas tion, li ploras, + if he sees that, he weeps (is weeping). + Se li vidis tion, li ploris, + if he saw that, he wept. + Li ploros, se li vidos tion, + he will weep, if he sees that. + Se li venis hieraux, li foriros morgaux, + if he came yesterday, he will go away tomorrow. + Se li estas vidinta tion, li nun ploras, + if he has seen that, he now is weeping. + Se tio estas vidota, li estas punota, + if that is going to be seen, he is going to be punished. + Se li estas kaptita, li estos jam punita, + if he has been captured, he will already have been punished. + + + VOCABULARY + + ambaux = both (238). mut-a = dumb, mute. + azen-o = ass, donkey. orel-o = ear. + ben-i = to bless. petol-a = mischievous. + dors-o = back. propr-a = own, one's own. + form-o = form. se = if. + halt-i = to stop (intrans.). spir-i = to breathe. + monahx-o = monk. turment-i = to torment. + + + LA MONAHXOJ KAJ LA AZENO. + +Iam du monahxoj reiris tra la arbaro al la monahxejo, dum grade +krepuskigxis. Ambaux portis pezajn sakojn da terpomoj, kaj baldaux +lacigxis, sed ne sciis kion fari. Okaze ili ekvidis azenon ligitan +al arbo, kaj unu monahxo, haltinte, diris petole al la alia "Se vi +anstatauxos la beston, mi havos portanton por miaj propraj sakoj, kaj +ankaux por la viaj." Lia kunulo respondis "Nu, se la azeno portos miajn +sakojn, mi mem gxoje restos en gxia loko." Jxus dirite, tuj farite ("no +sooner said than done"). Malliginte la ligajxojn kiuj tenis la azenon, +ili jxetis la sakojn trans la dorson de la utila besto. Unu monahxo tuj +forkondukis la azenon, dum ambaux viroj lauxte ridis. Post tio, la dua +monahxo sin ligis per la sama sxnurego kiu antauxe tenis la azenon. +Kiam revenis la kamparano, kies azeno estis jxus sxtelita, li ekhaltis, +multe mirigite, vidante homon tie ligita. La monahxo anoncis al li, +"Cxar mi estis tro mangxema, Dio faris azenon el mi, antaux du jaroj. Mi +jxus rericevis mian propran formon." Tuj la kredema kamparano invitis +la petolan monahxon al sia hejmo. La monahxo restis tiun nokton cxe la +kamparano, kaj la sekvintan tagon li foriris, beninte la kamparanon, sed +kasxe ridante pri la afero. Tiam la kamparano iris vendejon, por acxeti +alian azenon. Li ekvidis sian propran azenon, kiun la unua monahxo estis +sendinta tien, post sia reveno al la monahxejo. La malsagxa kamparano, +klinigxinte al la besto, diris "Ho, bona monahxo, mi vidas ke duan fojon +vi jam estis tro mangxema!" La muta besto forte svingis la orelojn kaj +skuis la kapon, pro la varma elspirajxo apud sia orelo. Tio sxajne +estis respondo al la jxus diritaj vortoj, tial la malsagxa kamparano +ree acxetis sian propran azenon. Cxiam poste li nek turmentis nek ecx +laborigis gxin, kredante la azenon la sankta monahxo mem. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +ancient times, they usually asked the sacred gods about it. 2. If the +gods informed ("sciigis") them that whatever man would come to the +temple first would become their king, they immediately chose the first +comer ("la unuan veninton") king. 3. Whoever was chosen king made the +blessed gods a thank-offering, which consisted of something out of his +own possessions (227, a). 4. Gordius did not offer to the gods merely +the yoke of his wagon, but the whole wagon. 5. A knot of rope was tied +between the yoke and the pole. 6. People soon began to say, "If any one +soever can untie that knot, he will become ruler of Asia." 7. If any +other men tried to untie that rope, they failed. 8. Alexander, though +("tamen"), had scarcely arrived when he drew (out) his sword from the +scabbard, and cut the knot. 9. If you will take-a-seat, I will tell you +about the two mischievous monks, returning to the monastery. 10. Both +were breathing with difficulty, and stopped to rest. 11. Having noticed +a donkey near by, they untied it. 12. One led the long-eared dumb animal +away, while the other tied himself in its own place. 13. The credulous +(192) peasant believed everything which was told (54) him, + + + + LESSON LII. + + + THE CONDITIONAL MOOD. + +241. That indication of the speaker's frame of mind which is given by +the form of the verb is called the "mood" of the verb. All verbs given +so far have been in the "indicative mood", which represents an act or +state as a reality or fact, or in the "infinitive mood", which expresses +the verbal idea in a general way, resembling that of a substantive. +The "conditional mood" does not indicate whether or not the act or +state mentioned is a fact, but merely expresses the speaker's idea of +its likelihood or certainty, or is used in an assumption or conclusion +dealing with suppositions, not with actual facts. The ending of the +conditional mood is "-us". The conjugation of "vidi" in the aoristic +tense of the conditional mood is as follows: + + mi vidus, I should see. + vi vidus, you would see. + li (sxi, gxi) vidus, he (she, it) would see. + ni vidus, we should see. + vi vidus, you would see. + ili vidus, they would see. + + + COMPOUND TENSES OF THE CONDITIONAL MOOD. + +242. In addition to the aoristic tense, the conditional mood has three +active and three passive compound tenses, formed by combining the +participles with the aoristic tense of "esti" in the conditional mood. A +synopsis of "vidi" in these compound tenses is as follows: + + Active Voice. + + Present: mi estus vidanta, I should be seeing. + Past: mi estus vidinta, I should have seen. + Future: mi estus vidonta, I should be about to see. + + Passive Voice. + + Present: mi estus vidata, I should be seen. + Past: mi estus vidita, I should have been seen. + Future: mi estus vidota, I should be about to be seen. + + + LESS VIVID CONDITIONS. + +243. A conditional sentence dealing with "suppositions" concerning +events in present or future time is called a "less vivid condition" +("Less vivid", in contrast to factual conditions (240), which are +"vivid", because they deal with facts.), and the conditional mood +is used in both the assumption and the conclusion: + + Se li vidus tion, li plorus, + if he should see that, he would weep. + Mi gxoje helpus vin, se mi povus, + I would gladly help you, if I could. + Se vi metus ilin sur la dorson de la azeno, gxi portus ilin, + if you should put them on the donkey's back, it would carry them. + La petola junulo turmentus la monahxon, se li revenus, + the mischievous youth would torment the monk, if he should return. + Se li estus kaptata, li estus punata, + if he should be caught, he would be punished. + + + INDEPENDENT USE OF THE CONDITIONAL MOOD. + +244. The conditional mood may be used in a conclusion whose assumption +is merely implied, serving thus to soften or make vague the statement or +question in which it is used: + + Mi gxoje helpus vin, I would gladly help you. + Cxu vi bonvole dirus al mi? Would you kindly tell me? + Kiu volus enspiri tian aeron? Who would wish to inhale such air? + Estus bone reteni vian propran, it would be well to keep your own. + La cxielo vin benus pro tio, Heaven would bless you for that. + + + THE PREFIX "DIS-". + +245. The prefix "dis-" indicates separation or movement in several +different directions at once: + + disdoni = to distribute. disigxi = to separate (intrans.). + dispeli = to dispel. disigxo = separation, schism. + disigi = to separate (trans.). dissendi = to send around. + +[Footnote: Cf. the English prefix "dis-" in "disperse", "disseminate", +"distribute," etc.] + + + VOCABULARY + + cxes-i = to cease, to leave off. kauxz-i = to cause. + dens-a = dense. legx-o = law. + difin-i = to define. natur-o = nature. + ekzist-i = to exist. objekt-o = object. + flu-i = to flow. plu = further, more. + gravit-i = to gravitate. turn-i = to turn (trans.). + +[Footnote: The adverb "plu" gives an idea of continuance to the word +which it modifies. When used with "ne", the two together give an idea of +cessation concerning a previous continuous act or state: "Ambaux parolos +plu morgaux", both will talk further tomorrow. "Mi ne plu haltos", I +shall not stop (any) more. "Li ne plu sxajnis muta", he no longer seemed +mute.] + + + PRI LA GRAVITADO. + +1. Ofte oni parolas pri la pezeco de diversaj objektoj. Tia pezeco estas +kauxzata de la forto kiun oni nomas la gravitado. Pro tiu forto ne nur +objektoj sur la tero, sed ankaux la tero mem, havas konatan pezecon, +kiun la kleruloj jam antaux longe kalkulis. La suno kaj la luno simile +havas pezecon, cxar ili ambaux, same kiel la tero, movigxas laux tiu +sama gravitado kiu efektive regas cxiujn el la cxielaj korpoj. Se la +gravitado cxesus ekzisti, la riveroj ne plu fluus antauxen en siaj +fluejoj ("beds"). Ne fluante de altaj gxis malaltaj lokoj, la akvo +disfluus, aux restus tie, kie ajn gxi okaze estus. Neniom da pluvo +falus; kontrauxe, la malsekajxo en la aero ankoraux restus tie, en la +formo de densaj mallumaj cxiamaj nuboj. Cxiuj vivaj estajxoj ("beings"), +cxiuj konstruajxoj, efektive cxio, baldaux disflugus de la rapide +turnigxanta mondo. Cxiuj cxi ("all these") nun devas resti sur la tero, +tial ke la gravitado restigas ilin cxi tie. Se la gravitado ne plu +ekzistus, nenio restus plu sur la tero. La aero mem ne plu cxirkauxus +nin, sed gxi ankaux forlasus la mondon, tuj maldensigxinte ("having +become rarefied"). La fama angla filozofo Newton estis la unua, kiu +studadis la kialon ("reason") de la falado de objektoj. Li komencis, +laux la rakonto, per okaza ekrigardo al falantaj pomoj en sia propra +pomarbejo. Antaux tri jarcentoj, li eltrovis ke estas tia forto kia la +gravitado, kaj difinis la naturajn legxojn laux kiuj la gravitado sin +montras. Cxi tiu forto, kiu restigas cxion sur la tero, estas tamen +la kauxzo de nia lacigxado, kiam ni marsxas aux kuras, cxar gxi faras +nin pezaj, kaj tial ni ofte deziras halti kaj ripozi. Estas ankaux la +malfacileco en la superado de tiu sama forto, kiu faras tiel malfacila +la konstruadon de utilaj aersxipoj. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Newton was an Englishman who lived three centuries ago. 2. One day he +was walking in his orchard, and, noticing the falling apples, he stood +still ("ekhaltis") and began to wonder why they fall. 3. He studied the +cause of their falling, wishing to discover whatever laws of nature he +could. 4. He watched various falling objects, and tried to calculate +their velocity ("rapideco"). 5. Finally he recognized that force which +is called gravitation. 6. Of course ("kompreneble") gravitation had +always existed, but its laws were not noticed or clearly defined until +Newton studied the matter. 7. If gravitation should not exist any more, +no rain would fall, but instead of condensing, the moisture would remain +above our heads in eternal clouds. 8. But gradually the moisture and +the air itself, becoming rarefied, would fly away from the earth, being +held no longer by the force of gravitation. 9. The water in the rivers +would leave off flowing (cease to flow) on toward the sea, because now +the water flows from high to low places only on account of gravitation. +10. Instead of gravitating toward the sea, in fact, the water would flow +in every direction (245) out of the riverbeds, or would remain there, +without moving at all ("tute ne movante"). 11. Nothing on earth would +remain here very long, but everything would fly off the quickly moving +world, and leave it entirely bare. Soon, also, the earth itself would +break-into-pieces (245). + + + + LESSON LIII. + + + CONDITIONS CONTRARY TO FACT. + +246. A "condition contrary to fact" indicates that the opposite of what +is mentioned has really taken place or is taking place. It expresses the +speaker's certainty that an act or state would have been realized, if +some other act or state were also realized. Such conditions cannot refer +to the future, but only to present or past time. The conditional mood is +used: + + Se vi estus turninta vin, vi estus vidinta tion, + if you had turned, you would have seen that. + Se la malsekajxo ne estus densigxinta, ne estus pluvinte, + if the moisture had not condensed, it would not have rained. + Se li estus kaptita, li estus punita, + if he had been caught, he would have been punished. + Se li estus sidanta tie, mi vidus lin, + if he were (if he should be) sitting there, I should see him. + Se la gravitado ne ekzistus, tiu pluvo ne estus falanta, + if gravitation did not (should not) exist, + that rain would not be falling. + + + THE VERB "DEVI". + +247. The verb "devi" (cf. "devo", duty) is equivalent to the verb "must" +(which in English has no future, past, infinitive, etc.), and to "to +have to", "to be obliged to", etc., carrying the idea of "must" into all +tenses and moods. In the conditional mood its meaning is softened into a +vaguer sense (of "moral" obligation), and carries the idea of "ought": + + Objektoj en la aero devas fali, objects in the air have to fall. + Ni devis agi laux la legxoj, we had to act according to the laws. + Vi devos iri, you must (will have to) go. + Sxi ne volas devi fari tion, she does not wish to have to do that. + Ili devigis min iri, they compelled me to go. + Vi devus iri, you should go (you ought to go). + Oni devus pensi antaux ol paroli, one ought to think before speaking. + Li estus devinta veni, he ought to have come. + Tio devus esti farita, that ought to have been done. + + + THE PREPOSITION "SEN". + +248. The preposition "sen", without, indicates the omission, absence or +exclusion of that which is expressed by its complement. It may be used +as a prefix (160), giving a sense of deprivation or exclusion (like that +given by the English suffix "-less"): + + Li difinis la vorton sen eraro, he defined the word without an error. + La rivero sencxese fluas, the river flows without ceasing. + Tio estas ne nur senutila sed ecx malutila, + that is not only useless but even harmful. + Li ne plu estas senmona, he is no longer penniless. + Li sentime alproksimigxis al gxi, he fearlessly approached it. + +[Footnote: English phrases containing "without" as in "without reading," +must be changed to phrases clearly containing verbal nouns, as "without +the reading of," before translating into an Esperanto phrase with "sen". +Otherwise a participle with "ne" should replace the phrase ("222"): "Sen +la legado de tio, mi ne komprenus", without (the) reading (of) that, +I should not understand. "Ne leginte tion, mi ne komprenus", without +reading (not having read) that, I should not understand.] + + + VOCABULARY + + akuz-i = to accuse. nobl-a = noble. + instru-i = to teach. pardon-i = to pardon. + kondamn-i = to condemn. pek-i = to sin. + konfes-i = to confess, to admit. prav-a = right, correct. + konscienc-o = conscience. sen = without (248). + kulp-o = guilt. So-krato = Socrates. + merit-i = to deserve. venen-o = poison. + + + LA FILOZOFO SOKRATO. + +Unu el la plej famaj grekaj filozofoj estis nomita Sokrato. Li +estis malbela malalta persono, kun senhara kapo kaj dika korpo, sed +malgraux tio li estis treege bona, nobla kaj sagxa. Li instruadis per +interparolado kun la lernantoj. Kutime li komencis per demando pri +io ajn, pri kio la auxskultanto respondos. Fine, la lernanto grade +komprenis cxu liaj propraj opinioj pri la afero estas pravaj. Ankoraux +nun oni nomas tiun metodon de instruado per la interparolado "la Sokrata +metodo." Sokrato diradis tute sen timo cxion, kion li pensis, ecx pri +la dioj kaj pri la nekredeblaj rakontoj pri la dioj. Se li ne estus +tiel multe klariginta, eble li estus vivinta pli longan tempon. Sed +multaj personoj malamis lin, precipe cxar li donis novajn ideojn al +la junuloj, kiuj sekve komencis pensi por si mem, anstataux fari tion +kion faras cxiu alia. Tial oni akuzis Sokraton en la jugxejo, nomante +lin pekanto kaj malbonfaranto, unue, cxar li ne disdonas oferojn al la +dioj, due, cxar li enkondukas novajn diojn (cxar li diris ke supernatura +vocxo, kiu sendube estis lia nomo por la konscienco, parolis mallauxte +cxe lia orelo), trie, cxar li malbonigas la junularon de la urbo. Se +li estus konfesinte la kulpon kaj petinte pardonon, tiam la jugxistoj +eble estus punintaj lin per nura ("mere") monpago ("fine"). Sed li fiere +respondis ke efektive li multe plibonigas la junularon, kaj anstataux +esti malutila, aux ecx neutila, li treege utilas al la urbo. Li diris +ke oni havas nenian rajton puni lin, sed ke, kauxze de sia bonfarado al +la urbo, li efektive meritas cxiutagan mangxon senpagan. Tamen, tute ne +kompreninte kiel prava Sokrato estas, la jugxistoj mortkondamnis lin. +Oni devigis lin trinki la venenon. Iom poste, en la malliberejo, li +trankvile adiauxis siajn plorantajn amikojn, kaj akceptinte la venenan +trinkajxon, sentime gxin trinkis. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Socrates believed that if one knows about good and evil (201) he will +do good, but will not do evil. 2. Therefore he wished to help mankind +("la homaron"), teaching them what the good is. 3. He also wished to +discover for himself what is right and what is wrong. 4. So he asked +every one whom he met (about) his opinions, and the one-talking-with +[him] would also notice whether his own ideas were right or not. 5. But +the fellow-citizens of Socrates were jealous, and hated him, because +they did not understand him. 6. Therefore they accused him, called him a +sinner, and sent around (245) false reports ("falsajn sciigojn") about +him. 7. Because he said that conscience guided him (in the form of a +soft voice at his ear), they accused him of ("pri") introducing (218, +b) new gods. 8. They also said that he was corrupting the youth of the +city. 9. If Socrates had pleaded guilty, and begged for a fine instead +of the death-punishment, without doubt he would have been pardoned and +fined ("monpunita"). 10. But he said "I have never in my life sinned in +any way, and I do not deserve any sort of punishment." So the judges +condemned him to death by the drinking of poison. + + + + LESSON LIV. + + + SUMMARY OF CONDITIONS + +249. The three kinds of conditional sentences, together with the moods +and tenses used in them, may be tabulated as follows: + + Name: Factual Less Vivid Contrary to Fact + + Subject Matter: facts suppositions opposite of facts + + Time: any (usually) future present or past + + Mood: indicative conditional conditional + + Tense: any (usually) aoristic (usually) compound + + + CLAUSES OF IMAGINATIVE COMPARISON. + +250. Clauses of imaginative comparison are introduced by the conjunction +"kvazaux", as though, as if. Sometimes the verb in the comparison may be +left unexpressed or merely implied: + + Li trinkas la venenon kvazaux gxi estus vino, + he drinks the poison as though it were wine. + La kondamnito marsxis kvazaux kun malfacileco, + the condemned man walked as if with difficulty. + Li konfesis kvazaux kulpulo, + he confessed like a culprit. + + + THE USE OF "AL" TO EXPRESS REFERENCE. + +251. Personal pronouns, and less frequently nouns, may be used with the +preposition "al" to express "concern" or "interest" on the part of the +person indicated by the complement of this preposition: + + Li bruligis al si la manon, he burned his hand. + Hi trancxis al li la barbon, they cut his beard (the beard for him). + Sxi preparas al ni bonan mangxon, she is preparing us a good meal. + Cxu vi faros servon al mi? Will you do me a service? + +[Footnote: The use of "al" in this sense, approaching that of "por" but +less purposeful and definite, resembles the "dative of reference" and +"ethical dative" of other languages, as in French "je me suis brule la +langue", I have burned my tongue, German "ich wasche mir die Haende", +I wash my hands, Latin "sese Caesari ad pedes proicerunt", they threw +themselves at the feet of Caesar, Greek "ti soi mathesomai", what am I +to learn for you? etc.] + +252. By an extension of its use in expressing reference, "al" may often +be used in the place of "de" expressing separation (170), when the use +of "de" might seem to indicate agency (169) or possession (49): + + La luno estas kasxata al ni de la nuboj, + the moon is hidden from us (to us) by the clouds. + Gxi estas stelita al mi de li, + it has been stolen from me by him. + +[Footnote: This use resembles the "dative of separation" of other +languages, as in German "es stahl mir das Leben", it stole the life from +me, French "il me prend la vie", it takes my life, Latin "hunc mihi +timorem eripe", remove this fear from me, Greek "dexato oi skaeptron", +he took his sceptre from him, etc.] + + + THE SUFFIX "-ESTR-". + +253. The suffix "-estr-" is used to indicate the "chief", "head", or +"one in control" of that which is expressed in the root: + + lernejestro = (school) principal. urbestro = mayor. + monahxestro = abbot. estraro = governing body. + policestro = chief of police. sxipestro = ship-captain. + + + VOCABULARY + + Aristejd-o = Aristeides. popol-o = a people. + ekzil-i = to exile. pot-o = pot. + enu-i = to be wearied, bored. senc-o = meaning, sense. + gxust-a = exact. signif-i = to signify. + kvazaux = as though, as if (250). son-i = to sound. + ostr-o = oyster. strang-a = strange. + ostracism-o = ostracism. sxel-o = shell, bark, peel. + +[Footnote: Care must be taken to distinguish "gxusta", exact, "gxuste", +exactly, just, from "justa", upright, just, "juste", justly, and also +from the adverb "jxus" just.] + + + LA OSTRACISMO DE ARISTEJDO. + +La vorto ostracismo havas interesan devenon ("origin"). En gxia komenco +oni rekonas la grekan vorton kiu signifas "sxelon de la ostro." En gxia +fino oni vidas la saman "-ismon " kiu, deveninte de la greka, ankoraux +estas uzata kiel vortfino en multaj diversaj lingvoj. La nuna senco de +la vorto, facile trovebla en anglaj vortaroj ("dictionaries"), devenas +de la jena greka kutimo: + +Sepdek jarojn antaux ol vivadis Sokrato, oni faris strangan legxon en +lia urbo. Laux tiu, oni povis ekzili iun ajn estron kies ideoj pri la +administrado de la urbo ne sxajnis pravaj. Cxi tion oni povis fari, +tute sen jugxado aux ecx akuzado, cxar oni havis la jenan metodon: se +cxe popola kunveno ses mil urbanoj vocxdonis ("vote") kontraux iun +ajn, tiu estis devigata foriri de la urbo, kaj forresti dek jarojn. +Li povis neniel havigi ("get") al si pardonon, sed devis tuj foriri +kvazaux konfesinta kulpulo. Por vocxdonoj, oni skribis la nomon de la +kondamnoto sur peco da potajxo ("pottery"), aux pli ofte sur ostrosxelo. +Gxuste tial oni nomas la kutimon ostracismo. Unufoje, kelkaj malamikoj +proponis vocxdonadon pri la ostracismo de tre bona kaj nobla viro, +nomita Aristejdo, kiu tute ne meritis tian punadon. + +Antaux ol la kunveno disigxis, kamparano alproksimigxis al Aristejdo +(kiu mem cxeestis), petante lian helpon, cxar la neinstruita kamparano +ne povis skribi. La sagxulo diris "Kion vi volas skribi sur la sxelo?" +La kamparano, ne sciante ke li parolas al la viro mem, respondis +"Aristejdon." Skribinte gxin, Aristejdo demandis kun trankvila +konscienco "Pro gxuste kiaj pekoj vi malamas Aristejdon?" La kamparano +respondis, "Ho, mi ne kasxos al vi ke mi ecx ne konas lin! Sed mi +deziras ekzili lin nur cxar min enuigas la sono de lia nomo. Mi tre +enuas cxiam auxdante lin nomata Aristejdo la justa!" + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Aristeides had just arrived at the popular assembly when a peasant +approached him. 2. If Aristeides had not had a pleasant countenance +and musical ("belsonan") voice, doubtless the peasant would not have +asked his help. 3. Ought Aristeides to have written his own name on the +oyster-shell or piece of pottery which was going to be used as a vote +against him? 4. Without just (exactly) this help, the peasant could +not have voted. 5. Doing him the service requested, Aristeides said, +as if ("250") he himself were not the man under-discussion ("205"), +"Why do you hate Aristeides? 6. Could you tell me how he has sinned +against the city?" 7. The silly-creature ("132") replied, "Oh, I know +nothing about him, but I am weary [of] always hearing him called the +just." 8. Ought such persons as that ignorant peasant have-the-right +to vote about important affairs? 9. The ancient law about ostracism +was a strange [one]. 10. The name of the person to-be-exiled ("199") +was usually written upon an oyster-shell, and the meaning of the word +signifying the custom comes from that. 11. Through ("per") ostracism, +any leader could be banished, justly or unjustly, without trial of any +kind, or explanation of the reasons. + + + + LESSON LV. + + + THE IMPERATIVE MOOD. + +254. For expressions of command, exhortation, entreaty, etc., there +is an "imperative mood", as in English. The ending of the imperative +mood is "-u". Beside the aoristic tense, six compound tenses are formed +by combining the participles with the imperative mood "estu" of the +auxiliary verb, but these tenses are seldom used. The conjugation of +"vidi" in the aoristic tense of this mood, together with a synopsis in +the compound tenses, is as follows: + + Aoristic Tense. + + mi vidu! = let me see! ni vidu! = let us see! + (vi) vidu! = (you) see! (vi) vidu! = (you) see! + li (sxi, gxi) vidu! = ili vidu! = let them see! + let him (her, it) see! + + Compound Tenses. + + Active. Passive. + + Present: mi estu vidanta Present: mi estu vidata + Past: mi estu vidinta Past: mi estu vidita + Future: mi estu vidonta Future: mi estu vidota + + + RESOLVE AND EXHORTATION. + +255. The "first person singular" of the imperative mood is used +to express the speaker's resolve concerning his own action, or an +exhortation to himself concerning such action. The "first person plural" +is used to express resolve or exhortation concerning the joint action of +the speaker and the person or persons addressed: + + Mi pensu pri tio! Let me think about that! + Mi ne forgesu tion! I must not (do not let me) forget that! + Ni ekzilu lin! Let us exile him! + Ni ne sidigxu tie! Let us not sit down there! + Ni estu grize vestitaj! Let us be dressed in gray! + +[Footnote: This force is usually expressed in English by "let" with an +accusative and infinitive construction.] + + + COMMANDS AND PROHIBITIONS. + +256. The "second" and "third" persons of the imperative are used to +express peremptory commands and prohibitions. + +a. In the second person the pronoun is usually omitted, as in English, +unless special emphasis is placed upon it: + + Estu trankvila! Be calm! (One person is addressed.) + Estu pretaj por akompani min! + Be ready to accompany me! (Two or more persons are addressed.) + Parolu kvazaux vi komprenus! Talk as though you understood! + Ne fermu tiun pordon! Do not shut that door! + Ne estu vidata tie! Do not be seen there! + +b. In the third person a circumlocution in English is necessary in +translation (as "let", "must", "are to", "is to", etc.): + + Li estu zorga! Let him be careful (he must be careful)! + Sxi ne faru tion! Do not let her do that (she is not to do that)! + Cxio estu pardonata! Let everything be forgiven! + Oni lasu min trankvila! People are to let me alone! + Ili neniam revenu! Let them never (do not let them ever) return! + La kulpuloj estu punataj! Let the culprits be punished! + + + LESS PEREMPTORY USES OF THE IMPERATIVE. + +257. By an extension of its use in resolve, exhortation, command +and prohibition, the imperative mood may be employed for less +peremptory expressions, such as "request", "wish", "advice", etc., +and in "questions of deliberation or perplexity", or "requests for +instruction": + +Request: Cxesu tiun bruon, mi petas! Stop that noise, I beg! + Bonvolu fari tion! Please do that! + Pardonu al ni niajn pekojn! Forgive us our sins! +Wish: Ili estu felicxaj! May they be happy! + Dio vin benu! God bless you! + Vivu la regxo! (Long) live the king! +Advice: Pensu antaux ol agi! Think before acting! + Foriru, se vi ne estas kontenta! + Go away, if you are not satisfied! +Consent: Nu, parolu, sed mi ne auxskultos! + Well, talk, but I shall not listen! + Iru tuj, se vi volas. Go at once, if you like. +Question: Cxu mi faru tion aux ne? Am I to do that or not? + Cxu ni disdonu la librojn? Shall we distribute the books? + Cxu li estu kondamnita? Shall he be condemned? + Cxu ili venu cxi tien? Are they to (shall they) come here? + + + THE USE OF "MOSXTO". + +258. The word "mosxto" may be used alone, or after a title, to denote +respect. When used after a title, the title becomes an adjective: + + Lia regxa mosxto, his majesty. + Lia jugxista mosxto, his honor the judge. + Sxia regxina mosxto, her majesty. + Lia urbestra mosxto, his honor the mayor. + Cxu via mosxto lin auxdis? + Did your honor (excellency, etc.) hear him? + + + VOCABULARY + + Afrik-o = Africa. mosxt-o = a title (see 258). + barbar-o = barbarian. ordon-i = to order, to bid. + Damokl-o = Damocles. permes-i = to permit. + flank-o = side. placx-i = to please. + imperi-o = empire. sklav-o = slave. + konsent-i = to consent. sol-a = sole, only. + konsil-i = to advise. volont-e = willingly. + + + LA GLAVO DE DAMOKLO. + +Antaux pli multe ol dumil jaroj vivis en Sirakuzo, sur la insulo +Sikelio, tre kruela tirano. Li diris al si "Mi estu cxiopova +("all-powerful")!" Tial li faris multe da militadoj, kaj venkis ne nur +barbarajn popolojn, sed ankaux multajn urbojn en Italujo kaj norda +Afriko. Detruinte cxion sen kompato, li ordonis "La logxantoj estu +vendataj por sklavoj!" Li deziris fari por si, el la venkitaj kaj +sklavigitaj popoloj, unu grandan imperion. Sed la urboj cxie, ecx en +Grekujo, ne kasxis al li sian grandan malamon al tia tirano. Tial li +cxiam timis pri sia vivo, timante ke iu subite mortigos lin. Unufoje +Damoklo, amiko de la tirano, diris al li, "Se mi estus tiel ricxa +kaj pova kiel via regxa mosxto, mi estus treege felicxa!" La tirano +respondis, "Venu al festo cxe mi, se tio placxas al vi, kaj eltrovu cxu +mi devus esti felicxa aux ne." "Mi venos tre volonte," ekkriis Damoklo, +"kaj mi dankas vian mosxton pro tia afableco!" La tirano gxentile +respondis "Ho, estas nenio (="you are welcome")! Nur ne forgesu la +deciditan horon!" Je la gxusta horo Damoklo iris al la festo, kie oni +donis al li segxon flanke de la tirano mem. "Mangxu kaj trinku kiom ajn +vi volas," konsilis la tirano, "kaj poste ni parolos pri la felicxeco." +Damoklo tuj konsentis al tia propono, kaj agis laux la permeso tiel +afable donita al li. Mangxante bonegan mangxajxon, kaj trinkante dolcxan +vinon, li tute ne enuis cxe la festo. Baldaux la tirano diris "Rigardu +supren, kaj vidu gxuste kian felicxecon mi havas!" Supren rigardinte, +Damoklo ekvidis akran glavon, antauxe kasxitan al li de kurteno. +Subtenate de unu sola haro, la glavo sxajnis kvazaux tuj falonta sur la +kapon de Damoklo. "La dioj min helpu!" li ekkriis, forsaltinte de la +tablo. Pro la jxus dirita stranga rakonto, oni ankoraux nun nomas la +atendadon por io timeginda, kio sxajnas cxiam okazonta sed efektive ne +okazas, "la glavo de Damoklo." + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. The word ostracism comes from the Greek word signifying +"oyster-shell." 2. It has its present meaning because oyster-shells +or pieces of pottery were used for the voting. 3. The story about +Aristeides is interesting, but that about the sword of Damocles is also +interesting. 4. His friend, the Syracusan tyrant, had permitted all +sorts of injustices, against not only barbarians but even Greeks. 5. +His only bidding usually was "Let every inhabitant be sold as a slave!" +6. He thought "Let me make one sole empire out of Africa, Italy and +Sicily!" 7. Damocles said to him "Your royal highness ought to be very +happy!" 8. The tyrant answered, "Come to a feast tomorrow, and find +out. I will give you a seat (214, b) beside me." 9. Damocles willingly +consented, and went thither. 10. The tyrant advised "Let us eat and +drink until midnight, if that would be-pleasing to you. Then let us +discuss the problem about happiness." 11. After a few hours Damocles +heard a slight sound over his head, and the tyrant said to him, "Look +up and you will see what kind of happiness mine is." 12. "Heaven defend +me!" exclaimed Damocles, catching sight of a sharp sword hanging by a +single (sole) hair. + + + + LESSON LVI. + + + THE IMPERATIVE IN SUBORDINATE CLAUSES. + +259. The imperative mood is used in a subordinate clause, with a meaning +similar to that in its independent use, after a main verb expressing +"command", "exhortation", "resolve", "consent", "wish", etc., or after +any word or general expression of "command", "intention", "necessity", +"expedience", etc. Such clauses are introduced by the conjunction ke: + + Command and Prohibition. + + Li diras ke vi iru, he says that you are to go. + Sxi skribis al li ke li venu, she wrote him to come. + Mi malpermesas ke vi restu, I forbid you to remain. + Ni ordonos ke li estu punata, we shall order that he be punished. + + Request and Wish. + + Mi petas ke vi ne lasu min, I beg that you do not leave me. + Mi petegas ke vi estu trankvilaj, I implore you to be calm. + Li deziras ke ili estu sklavigitaj, he desires that they be enslaved. + Ni volis ke li ne forgesu tion, we wished him not to forget that. + + Advice, Consent, Permission. + + Mi konsilis al li ke li iru, I advised him to go. + Mi konsentis ke li restu, I consented that he remain. + Ili permesos ke la barbaroj forkuru, + they will permit the barbarians to escape + (that the barbarians escape). + + Questions. + + Li demandas cxu ili foriru, he inquires whether they are to go away. + Oni demandis cxu lia mosxto eniru, + they asked whether his honor was to enter. + Mi miras cxu mi faru tion, I wonder whether I am to do that. + + Intention, Expedience, Necessity, etc. + + Ni intencas ke vi estu helpata, + we intend that you shall be helped. + Lia propono estas ke ni ricevu la duonon, + his proposal is, that we receive the half. + Lia lasta ordono estis, ke vi venu, + his last order was that you come. + Estos bone ke vi ne plu nomu lin, + it will be well for you not to (that you do not) + mention him any more. + Estas dezirinde ke ni havu bonan imperiestron, + it is desirable that we have a good emperor. + Estis necese ke cxiu starigxu, + it was necessary for everyone to rise. + Placxos al li ke vi iru, + he will be pleased to have you go. + +[Footnote: In English and some other languages an imperative idea may +often be expressed by the infinitive, as "I wish you to go," but in +Esperanto this must be expressed by the equivalent of "I wish that you +go." The infinitive may not be used except when it can itself be the +subject of the verb in such general statements as "it is necessary to +go."] + + + THE PREPOSITION "JE". + +260. Since prepositional uses are not exactly alike in any two +languages, it is not always possible to translate a preposition of +one language by what is its equivalent in some senses in another. In +order to insure some means of translating correctly into Esperanto any +prepositional phrase of the national languages, the preposition "je" +is regarded as of rather indefinite meaning. In addition to its use in +dates and allusions to time (89, 185), it may be employed when no other +preposition gives the exact sense required, especially in protestations +and exclamations, expressions of measure (see also 139), and of +indefinite connection: + + Je la nomo de cxielo! In the name of Heaven! + Je mia honoro mi ja elfaros tion! + On my honor I will accomplish that! + Gxi estas longa je du mejloj, + it is two miles long (long by two miles). + Ili venis je grandaj nombroj, they came in great numbers. + Li estas tenata de la policano, je la brako, per forta sxnurego, + he is held by the policemen, by the arm, with (by) a strong rope. + +The preposition "je" is used to express indefinite connection after +the following words (other prepositions sometimes used are given in +parentheses): + + ekkrii je (pro), to cry out at. (sin) okupi je, busy (oneself) at. + enui je, to be bored with. plena je (de), full of. + fiera je (pri), proud of. preni je, to take by. + fidi je (al), to rely upon. provizi je (per), to provide with. + gxoji je (pri), to rejoice at. ricxigi je (per), to enrich with. + gratuli je (pri), congratulate on. ridi je, to laugh at. + honti je (pri), to be ashamed of. satigxi je, to be sated with. + inda je, worthy of. senigi je, to deprive of. + interesigxi je, take interest in. simila je (al), similar to. + kapti je, to seize by. sopiri je (al), to yearn for. + kontenta je (kun), content with. sxargxi je, to load with. + kredi je, to believe in. teni je, to hold by. + +[Footnote: The translation given for a preposition in any dictionary is +the general one which serves in the majority of cases. The finer shades +of meaning and real or apparent exceptions can merely be touched upon if +mentioned at all.] + + THE SUFFIX "-OP-". + +261. The suffix "-op-" is used to form "collective" numerals: + + duope = by twos, in pairs. milope = by thousands. + kvarope = by fours. sesopigi = to form into groups of six. + + + VOCABULARY + + cel-i = to aim. prokrast-i = to delay (trans.). + Cirus-o = Cyrus. proviz-i = to provide. + fidi = to rely. rezult-i = to result. + gxu-i = to enjoy. sopir-i = to yearn, to sigh. + honor-o = honor. spac-o = space. + krom = beside, save, but. terur-a = terrible. + plen-a = full. ver-o = truth. + + + LA MARSXADO DE LA DEKMIL GREKOJ. + +Iam Ciruso, nepo de Ciruso Granda, sopiris je la imperio de sia pli +maljunafrato, kiu sekvis la patron de ambaux fratoj kiel regxo, aux +pli gxuste imperiestro. Decidinte forigi de la regxeco ("to dethrone") +sian fraton, Ciruso petis la grekojn ke ili partoprenu ("take part") en +kelkaj negravaj militadoj. Multaj tiamaj grekoj tre volonte sin okupis +je la batalado, pro la granda pago ricevata. La venditaj sklavoj kaj la +detruitaj konstruajxoj cxiam provizis ilin je multe da ricxajxo, kaj +krom tio la militistoj sxajnis gxui ecx la militadon mem. Estis tute +indiferente al ili cxu la kauxzo de la militado estas prava kaj justa +aux ne. Unue Ciruso nur petis ke ili helpu liajn proprajn soldatojn +kontraux iuj najbaroj. Li kasxis al ili sian veran celon, cxar se la +grekoj estus suspektintaj tion, kion li intencis fari, ili neniam estus +akompanintaj lin tiel malproksimen de sia patrolando. Grade li kondukis +ilin trans tutan Azion, kaj fine la dekmil grekoj komprenis cxion, kaj +treege kolerigxis. Paroladante al ili, Ciruso tuj diris "Mi ne permesas +ke vi reiru, kaj mi petegas ke vi antauxen marsxadu kun mi, sen plua +("further") prokrasto! Se mi sukcesos kontraux mia frato, mi certigas +vin je mia honoro ke cxiu el vi revenos havante sakojn plenajn je +ricxajxo! Estas nur necese ke vi fidu je mi, kaj cxio estos bona!" Tiam +la soldatoj hontis je sia antauxa timo, kaj kuragxe antauxen marsxadis. +Fine, apud granda urbo, la frato de Ciruso elvenis havante okcentmil +soldatojn, por batali kontraux la centmil de Ciruso. Per la helpo de +siaj grekoj, Ciruso estis preskaux venkinta en terura batalo, kiam +subite li ekvidis sian fraton, je malgranda interspaco. Ekkriante "Mi +vidas la viron!" li rajdis rekte al la regxo, jxetante sian pezan lancon +al li. La sola rezulto estis la morto de Ciruso mem, cxar la amikoj de +la regxo, kvinope kaj sesope atakinte Ciruson, lin tuj mortigis. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Cyrus did not desire that his brother should remain king. 2. He +decided, "Let me myself become ("farigxi") king! I should much enjoy +that!" 3. So he asked the Greeks to help him in some battles against +nearby enemies. 4. Gradually an army (126) of a hundred thousand men, +ten thousand of whom were Greeks, gathered (232, b) around him. 5. He +led them farther and farther, into the middle of Asia, until finally the +Greeks suspected his true aim. 6. They said to each other in terror, "He +did not at first propose that we fight against the Great King. Let us +return home without delay!" 7. Cyrus addressed (218) them as follows: +"Must I permit you to go back? I implore you to be courageous, and I +do advise you not to forget your longing for (260) honor! 8. Only be +worthy of your leader, and rely upon me! Do you not wish to return home +provided with wealth, beside the money which I shall pay to you?" 9. +Immediately the soldiers were ashamed of their fear, and advanced by +hundreds, full of courage. 10. Soon the brother of Cyrus approached, +with ("havante") eight hundred thousand men. 11. By the aid of the +Greeks, Cyrus won the battle, but he himself lost his life. 12. So +neither he nor the Greeks could enjoy the result of their efforts. + + + + LESSON LVII. + + + CLAUSES EXPRESSING PURPOSE. + +262. Purpose may be expressed by a subordinate imperative clause, +introduced by "por ke": + + Mi faras gxin por ke li helpu vin, + I do it in order that he may help you. + Mi ekkriis por ke vi auxdu, + I cried out in order that you should hear. + Li venos por ke ni estu felicxaj, + he will come that we may be happy. + Mi studas por ke mi lernu, + I study that I may learn. + Ili restu por ke ni punu ilin, + let them stay for us to punish them. + +[Footnote: Cf. the expression of purpose by the infinitive with "por" +(98), which however cannot be used except when the subject of the main +verb is the subject of the subordinate verb, or when the object of the +main verb is the subject of the subordinate verb.] + + + FURTHER USES OF THE ACCUSATIVE. + +[Footnote: Cf. the accusative of direct object (23), direction of motion +(46, 121), time (91), and measure (139).] + +263. The accusative of direction of motion is used after nouns from +roots expressing motion: + + Lia eniro en la urbon estis subita, + his entrance into the city was sudden. + La irado tien estos plezuro, + (the) going thither will be a pleasure. + Gxia falado teren timigis min, + its falling earthward terrified me. + +264. a. An intransitive verb may be followed by a noun in the accusative +case, if the meaning of the noun is related to that of the verb: + + Li vivas agrablan vivon, he lives an agreeable life. + Sxi dancis belan dancon, she danced a beautiful dance. + Ili ploris maldolcxajn larmojn, they wept bitter tears. + +b. Verbs of motion ("iri", "veni", "pasi", "marsxi", "veturi", etc.) +compounded with prepositions or adverbs (121) indicating direction, +also compounds of such verbs as "esti" and "stari" with prepositions +expressing situation, may be followed by the accusative, instead of by +a prepositional phrase in which the preposition is repeated: + + La viro preterpasis la domon, + the man passed (by) the house. + Lin antauxvenis du sklavoj, + there preceded (came before) him two slaves. + Ni supreniru la sxtuparon, + let us go up the stairs. + Mi cxeestis la feston, + I attended (was present at) the entertainment. + Mi kontrauxstaras vian opinion, + I oppose (withstand) your opinion. + +c. The slight change in meaning given by "pri" used as a prefix may +render intransitive verbs transitive. The same is true of "el" prefixed +to intransitive verbs not expressing motion: + + Sxi priploris la mortintan birdon, she mourned the dead bird. + Mi pripensos la aferon, I shall consider (think over) the matter. + Ni gxin priparolos, we shall talk it over. + Li klare elparolas la vortojn, he pronounces the words clearly. + +[Footnote: In this use "pri" resembles the English and German +inseparable prefix "be-", as in English "bemoan", "bewail", "bethink", +"bespeak", German "beklagen", "besprechen", "sich" , etc.] + +265. The accusative may be used after verbs of such meaning that either +a prepositional phrase or an accusative would seem correct: + + Mi pardonas lin (al li), I pardon (grant pardon to) him. + Mi helpis lin (al li), I helped (gave aid to) him. + Gxi placxas min (al mi), it pleases (is pleasing to) me. + Li obeis nin (al ni), he obeyed (was obedient to) us. + Sxi ridis mian timon (je mia timo), + she ridiculed (laughed at) my fear. + +[Footnote: When ambiguity would be caused, as by the presence of another +accusative, this construction may not be employed. One may say "pardonu +nin", but must say "pardonu al ni niajn pekojn".] + +266. The accusative may be used after certain adverbs which are normally +followed by a prepositional phrase: + + Rilate tion (rilate al tio), in regard to that. + Escepte tion (escepte de tio), with the exception of that. + Koncerne la aferon (koncerne je la afero), concerning the affair. + Kompare la alian (kompare kun la alia), in comparison with the other. + Konforme la legxon (konforme al la legxo), in conformity to the law. + + + SYNOPSIS OF THE CONJUGATION OF THE VERB. + +267. vidi, to see. + + ACTIVE. PASSIVE. + + INDICATIVE. + + Present. + (Aoristic) mi vidas mi estas vidata + (Progressive) mi estas vidanta + + Past. + (Aoristic) mi vidis mi estis vidata + (Imperfect) mi estis vidanta + + Future. + (Aoristic) mi vidos mi estos vidata + (Progressive) mi estos vidanta + + Perfect. + mi estas vidinta mi estas vidita + + Pluperfect. + mi estis vidinta mi estis vidita + + Future Perfect. + mi estos vidinta mi estos vidita + + Periphrastic Futures. + + (Present). + mi estas vidonta mi estas vidota + + (Past). + mi estis vidonta mi estis vidota + + (Future). + mi estos vidonta mi estos vidota + + CONDITIONAL. + + Present. + (Aoristic) mi vidus mi estus vidata + (Progressive) mi estus vidanta + + Past. + mi estus vidinta mi estus vidita + + Future. + mi estus vidonta mi estus vidota + + IMPERATIVE. + + Present. + (Aoristic) mi vidu mi estu vidata + (Progressive) mi estu vidanta + + Past. + mi estu vidinta mi estu vidita + + Future. + mi estu vidonta mi estu vidota + + INFINITIVE. + + Present. + (Aoristic) vidi esti vidata + (Progressive) esti vidanta + + Perfect. + esti vidinta esti vidita + + Future. + esti vidonta esti vidota + + + THE SUFFIX "-UM-". + +268. The indefinite suffix "-um-" serves the same general purpose in +word formation which "je" serves as an indefinite preposition (260): + + aerumi = to air. kolumo = collar. + busxumo = muzzle. plenumi = to fulfil. + gustumi = to taste. proksimume = approximately. + + + VOCABULARY + + eben-a = level, even. nepr-e = inevitably, certainly. + escept-o = exception. obe-i = to obey. + esper-i = to hope. obstin-a = obstinate. + fremd-a = foreign. promes-i = to promise. + histori-o = history. rilat-o = relation. + kompar-i = to compare. sat-a = satiated. + koncern-i = to concern. sav-i = to save. + konform-i = to conform. verk-i = to compose (books or music). + + + LA REIRADO DE LA DEKMILO. + +La grekaj militistoj sentis grandan teruron kiam Ciruso ne plu vivis. La +celo de la longa marsxado ne povis esti plenumata, pro la morto de la +obstina trokuragxa militestro mem. Kvankam la grekoj estis venkintoj, +ili estis tute solaj en fremda lando, cxirkauxitaj de barbaroj kiuj, +per trompemaj proponoj kaj falsaj promesoj pri amikaj interrilatoj, +tuj okazigis la morton de la grekaj estroj. Senigite je siaj estroj, +la kompatindaj viroj tute malesperis. Sed kelkaj subestroj, rapide +kunveniginte la soldatojn, diris, "Ni mem kondukos vin per kiel eble +plej rekta vojo hejmen! Ni faros nian eblon ("utmost") por ke ni +cxiuj estu savitaj!" Cxar restis nenio alia por fari, la malfacila +malgaja reirado de la grekoj komencigxis sen prokrasto. Ili transiris +varmegajn ebenajxojn ("plains"), supreniris kaj malsupreniris krutajn +negxkovritajn montojn, meze de la vintro, kaj sen pontoj transiris +largxajn riverojn. Cxie la malfidindaj barbaroj atakis ilin, kvazaux +por ke neniu greko restu viva. Krom tio, la grekoj mortis dekope kaj +dudekope cxiutage, pro varmegeco, malvarmegeco, laceco kaj malsateco +("hunger"). Fine, post nekredeblaj suferoj, la restajxo de la dekmil +soldatoj alvenis sur monton, kaj ekvidis la maron. Lauxta ekkriego "La +maro! La maro!" eksonis inter la lacaj viroj, el kiuj multaj ploris +larmojn de gxojo. De infaneco ili alkutimis al la vojagxado per akvo, +kaj post iom da ripozo ili sin provizis je sxipoj, por transiri la maron +al la patrujo je kiu ili estis tiel longe sopirintaj. Treege interesa +historio koncerne la tutan aferon estas verkita de fama greka verkisto +("writer"), kiu estis akompaninta Ciruson por ke li povu gxui kaj studi +cxion interesan sur la vojo. Tiu azia militado de Ciruso nepre estas unu +el la plej rimarkindaj okazintajxoj iam priskribitaj, ecx sen escepto de +la posta irado tien de Aleksandro Granda. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. After the death of Cyrus, the leaders of the Greek warriors did not +know what to do. 2. In the course of the following day, one of the +leaders of the enemy sent a messenger (205) with deceitful promises +about help. 2. He said "Assemble in our leader's tent, in order that +you may all discuss the matter." 3. The Greek leaders went, although +they suspected danger, because they did not know how else to save +their men. 4. But they never returned, and soon the Greeks understood +that the barbarians had killed them. 5. They wept tears of despair, +and said "The barbarians will inevitably destroy us, for we are in +a foreign land, where we know neither the languages nor the roads, +and the peoples are without exception hostile to us." 6. But the +leaders-of-lesser-rank said "Obey us and follow us, and we shall do our +best to save you!" 7. Their return, across hot plains and snow-covered +mountains, made-more-difficult by hunger and by the unceasing attacks +of the barbarians, is related in the history written by a famous Greek +historian. 8. One can still read this interesting narrative, in Greek or +in a translation. + + + + LESSON LVIII. + + + PERMISSION AND POSSIBILITY. + +269. Permission is usually expressed by the use of "permesi", "lasi", or +the imperative mood: + + Cxu vi permesas ke mi restu? May I (do you permit me to) stay? + Jes, mi permesas (jes, restu), yes, you may (yes, stay). + Ne estas permesate eniri tien, it is not allowed to enter there. + Lasu lin veni, let him come. + +270. The idea of possibility or probability is given by the use of some +such adverb as "eble", "kredeble", "versxajne", etc.: + + Eble li obeos al vi, he may (perhaps he will) obey you. + Kredeble li sukcesos, probably he will succeed. + Versxajne vi estas prava, you are probably right. + Eble oni lin savus, they might (possibly they would) save him. + Ili nepre ne batis lin, + they could not have (surely did not) beat him. + Tio estas neebla! That can not be (that is impossible)! + + + THE PREFIX "GE-". + +271. Words formed with the prefix "ge-" indicate the two sexes together: + + gepatroj = parents. gefiloj = son(s) and daughter(s). + geavoj = grandparents. gefratoj = brother(s) and sister(s). + genepoj = grandchildren. geedzoj = husband(s) and wife (wives). + gesinjoroj = Mr. and Mrs., lady (ladies) and gentleman (gentlemen). + + + THE SUFFIX "-ACX-". + +272. The suffix "-acx-" has a disparaging significance: + + domacxo = a hovel. pentracxi = to daub. + hundacxo = a cur. popolacxo = rabble, mob. + obstinacxa = obstinate. ridacxi = to guffaw. + + + INTERJECTIONS. + +273. Interjections are words used to express feeling or call attention. +Among the more common interjections are: + + Adiaux! Farewell! (171). Hura! Hurrah! + Fi! Fie! Nu! Well! + Ho! Oh! Ho! Ve! Woe! (Ho ve! Alas!). + +[Footnote: Verbs in the imperative, and adverbs, are frequently used as +interjections, as "Atentu!", Look out!, "Auxskultu!", Hark!, "Bonvenu!", +Welcome!, "Antauxen!", Forward!, "Bone!", Good!, "For!", Away!, "Ja!", +Indeed!, "Jen!", There!, Behold!] + +[Footnote: The interjection "fi" is sometimes used as a disparaging +prefix, like "-acx-" (272), as "fibirdo", ugly bird, "ficxevalo", a +sorry nag.] + + + VOCABULARY + + Aleksandri-o = Alexandria. fond-i = to found, establish. + Amerik-o = America. hispan-o = Spaniard. + Aristotel-o = Aristotle. kapabl-a = capable. + Auxstrali-o = Australia. komun-a = common, mutual. + bibliotek-o = library. kontinent-o = continent. + eduk-i = to bring up, educate. Krist-o = Christ. + Egipt-o = Egypt. milion-o = million. + estim-i = to esteem. spite = in spite of. + firm-a = firm. vast-a = vast, extensive. + + + ALEKSANDRO GRANDA. + +Permesu ke mi diru kelkajn vortojn pri la vivo de Aleksandro Granda, +kiu ne estis matura viro sed havis nur dudek jarojn kiam li farigxis +regxo. Liaj gepatroj estis tre zorge edukintaj lin, kaj la filozofo +Aristotelo, kiun li tre alte estimis, estis unu el liaj instruistoj. +Aleksandro firme tenadis sian propran regxolandon, kaj ankaux Grekujon, +kiun lia patro estis venkinta; krom tio, li faris militadojn kontraux +diversaj fremdaj landoj, unue en Azio, tiam en Afriko, kie li fondis +urbon, kaj gxin nomis Aleksandrio. Aleksandrio nepre estis belega ricxa +urbo. Tie trovigxis* poste la fama Aleksandria biblioteko. Se gxi ne +estus detruita de fajro, en la dauxro de iuj militadoj, ni sendube konus +multe pli bone la sciadon de la antikvaj grekoj, kiuj versxajne estis la +plej klera popolo iam vivinta en Euxropo. Venkinte Egipton, Aleksandro +reiris en Azion, gxis tre orienta kaj suda partoj, venkante cxiujn cxie, +kvazaux ili estus la plej malkuragxaj popolacxoj en la mondo. Sed spite +cxies petoj li estis obstinacxe nezorgema pri sia sano, kaj subite, +ho ve, li mortis pro febro, tricent dektri jarojn antaux Kristo. Se +li ne estus tiel frue mortinta, kiel multe li estus eble elfarinta! +Li esperis venki Hispanujon, Italujon, kaj, mallongavorte, tiom de la +okcidenta mondo kiom li jam posedis de la orienta. Tiam li celis kunigi +cxion en unu vastan imperion, kvazaux por fari el la mondo unu grandan +familion. Li intencis ke la milionoj da enlogxantoj akceptu komunajn +legxojn kaj kutimojn, ecx komunan lingvon, -- kredeble la grekan. Eble +li ja havis la kapablecon por fari cxion cxi. Estas pro tio ke oni ofte +auxdas la diron "Aleksandro sopiris je aliaj mondoj por venki." Tamen, +kiel malgranda estis tiu mondo kiun li konis! La tiamuloj konis nur +malgrandan parton de Afriko, de Azio, ecx de Euxropo. Ili sciis nenion +pri Anglujo, aux pri la vastaj kontinentoj Auxstralio, norda kaj suda +Amerikoj. + +[Footnote: The use of "trovigxi", and also of "sin trovi", "kusxi", +"stari" and "sidi", in a sense not greatly differing from that of +"esti", avoids the monotonous repetition of forms of "esti", just as +English uses "lie", "sit", "perch", etc., in narration for similar +reasons: +Multaj vilagxoj trovigxas tie, + many villages are (situated) there. +Egipto trovigxas en la nordorienta parto de Afriko, + Egypt is (found) in the northeastern part of Africa. +Li sin trovis sola en la dezerto, + he found himself (he was) alone in the desert. +La urbo kusxis inter du lagoj, + the city lay between two lakes. +Sur la montflanko sidis vilagxeto, + on the mountainside perched a tiny village.] + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Alexander the Great wished to unite the whole world into one vast +empire. 2. He intended that all the different peoples should conform to +common laws and that their sons-and-daughters should speak one common +language, and in spite of their love for their national languages, +should leave-off speaking them. 3. Possibly he might have accomplished +his object to some extent (217), if he had not died suddenly when he +was only thirty-two years old. 4. His soldiers marched weeping past his +tent, to bid farewell to their dying leader. 5. They must have esteemed +him very highly! 6. It was Alexander who founded the city of Alexandria, +in Egypt, where approximately three hundred years before Christ the +famous Alexandrian library was located. 7. It contained an enormous +collection-of-books -- almost seven hundred thousand. 8. Alas, this +extensive library was destroyed by fire! 9. Alexander, who "sighed for +other worlds to conquer," did not even know of the existence of North +and South America, Australia, or even of England and Northern Europe. +10. Beside his Asiatic empire, he knew very little of Asia, even of +China, with its millions of inhabitants. 11. How small the world was in +those days! + + + + LESSON LIX. + + + THE POSITION OF UNEMPHATIC PRONOUNS. + +274. An unemphatic personal, indefinite or demonstrative pronoun +very frequently precedes the verb of which it is the object. This is +especially true if the verb in question is an infinitive: + + Mi volas lin vidi, I wish to see him. + Li povos tion fari, he will be able to do that. + Vi devus ion mangxi, you ought to eat something. + Cxu vi gxin kredis? Did you believe it? + Se li min vidus, li min savus, if he should see me, he would save me. + +[Footnote: Cf. in other languages, as in German "ich moechte ihn +sehen", French "je veux le voir", Latin "se alunt, me defendi", etc. +That such pronouns "are" unemphatic can be seen from English "let +her come" (= "let'er come"), "make him stop" (= "make'im stop"), +etc., in which the unemphatic forms "er, im", replace "him, her", in +pronunciation (cf. the Greek enclitic pronouns "mou, moi, me, son, +soi, se, ou, oi, e,", the Sanskrit enclitic forms "ma, me, tva, te, +nas, vas, enam, enat, enam," also "sim", and the Avestan "i, im"). +The same phenomenon is indicated in "prithee" (= "pray thee"), and in +the spellings "gimme" (= "give me"), "lemme" (= "let me"), in dialect +stories.] + + + SOME INTRANSITIVE VERBS. + +275. Some intransitive verbs have English meanings which do not differ +in form from the transitive English verbs to which they are related. +In Esperanto the suffix "-ig-" (214) must be used when the transitive +meaning is desired. Some examples are given in the following table: + + Verb. Intransitive Use. Transitive Use. + + Boli . . . . La akvo bolas Li boligas la akvon + The water boils He boils the water + + Bruli. . . . La fajro brulas Li bruligis la paperon + The fire burns He burned the paper + + Cxesi. . . . La bruo cxesas Li cxesigas la bruon + The noise stops He stops the noise + + Dauxri . . . La bruo dauxras Li dauxrigas la bruon + The noise continues He continues the noise + + Degeli . . . La glacio degelas Li gxin degeligas per fajro + The ice thaws He thaws it with fire + + Droni. . . . La knabino dronis La viro sxin dronigis + The girl drowned The man drowned her + + Eksplodi . . Pulvo eksplodas Li gxin eksplodigos + Gunpowder explodes He will explode it + + Halti. . . . Li haltis timigite Li haltigis la soldatojn + He halted in alarm He halted the soldiers + + Lumi . . . . La suno lumas Li lumigis la lampon + The sun shines He lighted the lamp + + Pasi . . . . La tempo pasas Tiel li pasigis la tagon + Time passes Thus he passed the day + + Pendi. . . . Gxi pendas de brancxo Li gxin pendigis de brancxo + It hangs on a branch He hung it on a branch + + Soni . . . . La saluta pafo sonis Oni sonigis la salutan pafon + The salute sounded They sounded the salute + + Sonori . . . La sonorilo sonoris Oni sonorigis la sonorilon + The bell rang They rang the bell + +[Footnote: A transitive use of such intransitive verbs would be like +using the English intransitive verb "learn" for the transitive verb +"teach," as in the "I'll learn you" (for "I'll teach you") of illiterate +speech.] + + + THE SUFFIX "-ER-". + +276. The suffix "-er-" is used to form words expressing units or +component parts of that which is indicated in the root: + + fajrero = spark (of fire). negxero = snowflake. + monero = coin. sablero = grain of sand. + + + THE PREFIXES "BO-" AND "DUON-". + +277. The prefix "bo-" indicates relationship by marriage. To indicate +half-blood relationship, or step-relationship, "duon-" (166) is used: + + bopatro = father-in-law. duonpatro = stepfather. + bofratino = sister-in-law. duonfrato = half-brother. + + + CORRESPONDENCE. + +278. a. Letters should be dated as indicated in the following: + + Bostono, je la 24a de decembro, 1912a. + Nov-Jorko, la 24an decembro, 1912a. + Sirakuzo, 24/XII/1912. + +b. The usual methods of address are (to strangers and in business +letters): "Sinjoro, Sinjorino, Estimata Sinjoro, Karaj Sinjoroj, Tre +estimata Frauxlino," etc.; (to friends and relatives) "Kara Frauxlino, +Karaj Gefratoj, Kara Amiko, Kara Mario, Patrino mia," (placing the +possessive adjective after the noun in this way gives an affectionate +sense, as in English "Mother mine," etc) etc.; (to persons whose +opinions on some subject are known to agree with those of the writer) +"Estimata (Kara) Samideano" ("follower of the same idea"). + +c. Among the more usual forms of conclusion are (to strangers and in +business letters): "Tre fidele la via, Tre vere, Kun granda estimo, Kun +plej alta estimo," etc., (to friends): "Kun amika saluto, Kun cxiuj +bondeziroj, Kun samideanaj salutoj, Frate la via," etc. + + + VOCABULARY + + adres-o = address. krajon-o = pencil. + apart-a = separate. mend-i = to order (of stores, etc). + bedaur-i = to regret. Nov-Jorko = New York. + cxef-a = chief. numer-o = number (numeral). + do = so, then. ofic-o = office, employment. + fontan-o = fountain. posxt-o = post (letters, etc.). + hotel-o = hotel. respekt-o = respect. + ink-o = ink. special-a = special. + konven-a = suitable. stat-o = state (political body) + kovert-o = envelope (for letters) tram-o = tram. + +[Footnote: "Cxef-" is often used in descriptive compounds (167, b), +as "cxefkuiristo", chief (head) cook, chef, "cxefurbo", chief city, +capital, "cxefangxelo", archangel.] + + + * * * * * + + + KELKAJ LETEROJ. + + + * * * * * + + + Sirakuzo, la 2an de marto, 1911. + +Kara Amiko, + + Sendube vin surprizos ricevi leteron skribitan de mi cxe hotelo en +cxi tiu urbo, ne tre malproksime de via propra oficejo! Via bofrato, +kiun mi okaze renkontis hieraux en la posxtoficejo, donis al mi vian +adreson. Gxis nun, mi estas tiel okupata ke mi ne havis la tempon ecx +por telefoni al vi. Sed nun mi havas du aux tri minutojn da libera +tempo, kaj mi tuj ekkaptas la okazon por skribi letereton, petante ke +vi vespermangxu kun mi hodiaux vespere, cxe la hotelo kie, kiel vi +vidas, mi logxas de antaux unu tago. (Pardonu, mi petas, "ke" mi finas +cxi tiun leteron per krajono, sed mi jxus eltrovis ke restas neniom +plu da inko en mia fontanplumo.) Venu je la sesa, se tiu horo estas +konvena. Bedauxrinde ("unfortunately"), mi devos forresti de la hotelo +la tutan posttagmezon, pri komercaj aferoj, alie mi vin renkontus cxe +la tramvojo, kie haltas la tramveturiloj ("streetcars"). Estos plej +bone, mi opinias, ke vi iru rekte al mia cxambro, numero 26, kie mi +senprokraste vin renkontos, se mi ne estos efektive jam vin atendanta. +Ni esperu ke la cxefkuiristo preparos al ni bonan mangxon! Mi esperas +ke vi malatentos la falantajn negxerojn, kaj nepre venos, responde al +mia iomete subita invito, cxar ni ja havos multe da komunaj travivajxoj +por priparoli. Do gxis la baldauxa revido je la vespermangxo! + + Kun plej amikaj salutoj, + + Roberto. + + +[Footnote: The word "tial" may be omitted from the combination "tial ke" +(83), if the meaning is obvious.] + + + * * * * * + + + Boston, 13/VII/1911. + +Wilson kaj Jones, + Nov-Jorko. +Estimataj Sinjoroj:-- + Bonvolu sendi al mi per revenanta posxto vian plej novan prezaron +("price-list"). Ni baldaux bezonos iujn novajn meblojn por niaj +oficejoj, precipe skribtablojn, tablojn konvenajn por skribmasxinoj +("typewriters"), kaj specialajn librujojn, farotajn laux niaj bezonoj. +Se viaj prezoj estas konvenaj, ni sendube volos mendi de vi tian +meblaron. Kun respekto, + J. F. Smith, + cxe Brown kaj Brown. + + + * * * * * + + + Nov-Jorko, 17/VII/1911. + +Sinjoro J. F. Smith, + cxe Brown kaj Brown, + Nov-Jorko. +Estimata Sinjoro:-- + Ni havas la honoron sendi al vi en aparta koverto nian plej novan +prezaron, al kiu ni petas ke vi donu vian atenton, precipe al pagxoj +15-29. Tie vi trovos priskribitaj niajn plej bonajn oficejajn meblarojn. +Ni senpage metos cxiujn acxetitajn meblojn sur la vagonaron, sed +kompreneble ni ne pagos la koston de la sendado. + Ni plezure fabrikos specialajn librujojn laux viaj bezonoj, kaj +volonte ricevos viajn ordonojn pri tio. Niaj prezoj estos kiel eble plej +malaltaj. + Esperante ke la meblaroj priskribitaj en nia prezaro, kune kun la +tie-presitaj prezoj, estos plene kontentigaj, kaj certigante al vi ke ni +zorge plenumos cxiun mendon, ni restas, + Tre respekte la viaj, + Wilson kaj Jones. + + + * * * * * + + + Bostono, la 27an Majo. + +Sinjoro B. F. Brown, + Sirakuzo, Nov-Jorka Sxtato. +Kara Sinjoro:-- + Vian adreson ni dankas al niaj komunaj amikoj Sinjoroj Miller kaj +White, kaj per cxi tio ni permesas al ni proponi al vi niajn servojn por +la vendado de tiaj infanludiloj, kiajn vi fabrikas. Ni havas bonegajn +montrajn fenestrojn ("show-windows"), en nia butiko, preskaux meze de la +cxefstrato en la urbo, kaj en nia butiko trovigxas suficxe da grandaj +vitramebloj ("show-cases"). Tial ni povus tre oportune administri +tian aferon. Ni multe gxojos se vi respondos kiel eble plej baldaux, +sciigante al ni kiom da procento vi donos, kaj kiajn arangxojn vi volus +fari. Ni certigas al vi ke en cxiu okazo ni penos fari nian eblon por +via plej bona intereso. + Kun alta estimo, + D. Rose. + + + + LESSON LX. + + + SOME TRANSITIVE VERBS. + +279. Some transitive verbs have English meanings which do not differ in +form from the "intransitive" English verbs to which they are related +(conversely to the use explained in 275). In Esperanto the suffix +"-igx-" (232), or a different root, must be used when an intransitive +meaning is desired. Following are the more common verbs of this +character, together with examples of the intransitive use of several of +them: + + balanci = to balance. renversi = to upset, to overturn. + etendi = to extend, to expand. rompi = to break. + fermi = to close, to shut. ruli = to roll, (wheel, ball, etc.). + fini = to end, to finish. skui = to shake. + fleksi = to bend, to flex. strecxi = to stretch. + hejti = to heat. svingi = to swing. + klini = to incline, to bend. sxanceli = to cause to vacillate. + kolekti = to gather, to collect. sxangxi = to change. + komenci = to begin, to commence. sxiri = to tear. + mezuri = to measure. turni = to turn. + montri = to show. veki = to wake. + movi = to move. versxi = to pour. + pasxti = to pasture, to feed. volvi = to roll (around something). + + La laboro nun finigxas, the work is now coming to an end. + La glavo fleksigxis, the sword bent. + La folioj disvolvigxas, the leaves unroll (develop). + Cxiu kutimo sxangxigxos, every custom will change. + La vintro jam komencigxas, the winter is already beginning. + Mi vekigxos je la sesa, I shall awake at six (o'clock). + La montrilo sxanceligxis, the indicator trembled (vacillated). + Vasta ebenajxo etendigxis antaux li, + a vast plain extended before him. + + + ELISION. + +280. Elision is not common, and its use in writing as well as in +speaking is best avoided. It occurs most frequently in poetry. + +a. The "-a" of the article may be elided before a word beginning with +avowel, or after a preposition ending in a vowel: + + L' espero, l' obstino kaj la pacienco. + De l' montoj riveretoj fluas. + Kaj kantas tra l' pura aero. + +b. The final "-o" of a noun may be elided in poetry. The original accent +of the noun remains unchanged: + + Ho, mia kor', ne batu maltrankvile. + Sur la kampo la rozet'. + +c. The final "-e" of an adverb is very rarely elided (except in the +expression "dank' al", which occurs in prose as well as in poetry): + + Ke povu mi foj' je eterno ekdormi! + Dank' al vi, mi sukcesis. (Thanks to you, I succeeded.) + + + THE PREFIX "EKS-". + +281. The prefix "eks-" is used to form words expressing a previous +incumbent of a position, or removal from such position: + + eksprezidanto, ex-president. + eksregxo, ex-king. + eksigi, to put out of office, to discharge. + eksigxi, to withdraw from one's office, to resign. + + + THE PREFIX "PRA-". + +282. The prefix "pra-" is used to form words expressing precedence in +the line of descent, or general remoteness in past time: + + praavo = great grandfather. prapatroj = forefathers, ancestors. + pranepo = great grandson. pratempa = primeval. + + + THE SUFFIXES "-CXJ-" AND "-NJ-". + +283. The suffix "-cxj-" is used to form affectionate diminutives, from +the first syllable or syllables of masculine names or terms of address. +The suffix "-nj-" forms similar feminine diminutives: + + Jocxjo = Johnnie, Joe. Manjo = May, Mamie. + Pacxjo = Papa. Panjo = Mamma. + + + WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. + +284. National systems of weights and measures translated into +international form (as "mejlo", mile, "funto", pound) cannot convey a +very definite meaning to one not familiar with the particular system +used. Consequently the metric system (already used by scientists +everywhere and by the general public in many countries) is adopted for +the international system of weights and measures: + + Length and Surface. + + milimetro = millimeter (.0394 inch). + centimetro = centimeter (.3937 inch). + decimetro = decimeter (3.937 inches). + metro = meter (39.37 inches). + dekametro = dekameter (393.7 inches). + hektometro = hektometer (328 feet 1 inch). + kilometro = kilometer (3280 feet 10 inches; .62137 mile). + kvadrata metro = square meter (1550 square inches). + hektaro = hektare (2.471 acres). + + Weight. + + gramo = gram (15.432 grains avoirdupois). + dekagramo = dekagram (.3527 ounce avoirdupois). + hektogramo = hektogram (3.5274 ounce avoirdupois). + kilogramo = kilogram (2.2046 pounds avoirdupois). + + Capacity. + + decilitro = deciliter (6.1022 cubic inches; .845 gill). + litro = liter (.908 quart, dry measure; 1.0567 quart, liquid). + dekalitro = dekaliter (9.08 quart, dry measure; 2.6417 gallons). + hektolitro = hektoliter (2 bushels 3.35 pecks; 26.417 gallons). + kilolitro = kiloliter (1.308 cubic yards; 264.17 gallons). + + + THE INTERNATIONAL MONEY SYSTEM. + +285. Names of national coins translated into international form (as +"dolaro", dollar, "cendo", cent) cannot convey a very definite meaning +to persons not familiar with these coins. Consequently the system +devised for international use (not for actual coins, but for calculation +and price quotations) is based upon a unit called the "speso". The +multiples of this unit are the "spesdeko" (10 spesoj), "spescento" (100 +spesoj), and "spesmilo" (1000 spesoj). Ten spesmiloj have approximately +the value of a five-dollar gold piece, twenty marks, twenty-five francs, +one pound sterling, etc. The spesmilo, equivalent to about $0.4875 in +the money of the United States and Canada, is the unit commonly used. +(To reduce dollars to spesmiloj, multiply by 2.051.) + + + ABBREVIATIONS. + +286. The following abbreviations are often used (for those of the metric +system see any English dictionary): + + Dro. = Doktoro, [Dr.] Sm. = spesmilo(j). + Fino. = Frauxlino, [Miss]. Sd. = spesdeko(j). + Pro. = Profesoro, [Prof.] k.t.p. = kaj tiel plu, [and so forth]. + Sro. = Sinjoro, [Mr.] k.c. = kaj ceteraj, [etc.] + Sino. = Sinjorino, [Mrs.] k.sim. = kaj simila(j), [et. sim.] + Ko. = K-io., Kompanio, [Co.] t.e. = tio estas, [i.e.] + No. = N-ro., Numero, [No.] e. = ekzemple, [e.g.] + & = kaj, &. p.s. = postskribajxo, [P.S.] + + + VOCABULARY. + + abon-i = to subscribe to, take. led-o = leather. + aparat-o = apparatus. metal-o = metal. + auxtomat-a = automatic. moment-o = moment. + bov-o = ox. negativ-o = negative. + dimensi-o = dimension. objektiv-o = lens, objective. + ekzempl-o = example. original-o = original. + fokus-o = focus. plat-o = plate (photographic,etc) + fotograf-i = to photograph. prov-i = to try. + funkci-i = to function, work. reklam-i = to advertise. + kamer-o = camera. strecx-i = to stretch (trans.). + +[Footnote: Cf. the difference between "provi", to try, in the sense of +testing, making an essay or endeavor, "peni", to try, in the sense of +taking pains or making an effort, and "jugxi", to try, in a judicial +sense.] + + + * * * * * + + + PRI LA KAMERO. + + Bostono, 12/XI/1910. + +Brown kaj Ko., + Nov-Jorko. +Sinjoroj:-- + Vidinte vian reklamon en gazeto al kiu mi abonas, mi skribas por +peti ke vi sendu al mi priskribajxon de via kamero nomita "La Infaneto," +kiun eble mi deziros provi. + Bonvolu ankaux sendi dekduonon da platoj, 6 x 9 centimetrojn, por kiu +mi cxi* kune sendas spesmilon kaj duonon. + Kun respekto, + J. C. Smith. + +[Footnote: The particle "cxi" (used with "tiu, tio, ties, cxiu, cxio") +may also be used with certain adverbs, as "cxi sube", "here below", "cxi +supre", "here above", "cxi kune", "herewith", etc.] + + + * * * * * + + + Nov-Jorko, 18an novembro, 1910. + +Kara Sinjoro:-- + Respondante al via estimata letero de la 12a, ni donas cxi sube +mallongan priskribajxon de nia bonega fotografilo nomita "La Infaneto." + "La Infaneto" kamero havis neesperitan sukceson, kaj estas vendita +po miloj da ekzempleroj. Cxie oni unuvocxe lauxdas gxian malgrandan +kaj tamen bonegan konstruon, kaj ankaux gxian firman samtempe facilan +funkciadon. Gxi ne estas pli granda ol monujo, tial gxi ne bezonas pli +multe da spaco ol tiu, kaj povas esti portata kaj uzata treege konvene. + La dimensioj de la fermita kamero estas 8 x 5 x 6.5 centimetroj. La +pezo, kun objektivo, tri platingoj, kaj malbrila ("ground") vitro, estas +365 gramoj. "La Infaneto" estas konstruita tute el metalo, kaj kovrita +de bonega bovledo. Kiam oni malfermas la aparaton, la objektivo samtempe +enfokusigxas, tiamaniere ke la kamero estas preta por uzado post unu +sekundo, cxar la objektivfermilo ("shutter") estas cxiam strecxita. +Sekve: neniaj preparadoj, nenia prokrasto je la ekfotografado. + La negativoj estas klaraj gxis la bordo, kaj tial konvenaj por +pligrandigo. Cetere, oni scias ke bona pligrandigo ofte pli kontentigas +ol malgranda originalo. Precipe cxe promenoj kaj vojagxoj oni tial +volonte preferas la malgrandan "Infaneton," por poste pligrandigi la +negativojn. + Por la pligrandigo ni fabrikas specialajn taglum-pligrandigajn +aparatojn, kies prezoj estas malaltaj (vidu en nia prezaro). + Ni ne sxangxis la konstruon de "La Infaneto" de post 1909, cxar +gxis nun gxi estas cxiurilate kontentiga. Sole la rapideca reguligo +de la momenta ("instantaneous") fermilo estas plibonigita, cxar ni +gxin fabrikas kun speciala auxtomata fermilo, kiu estas arangxita por +malfermoj dauxraj ("time exposures"), kaj momentaj, je unu sekundo +gxis unu centono da sekundo. + Esperante ke ni baldaux ricevos mendon de vi, kaj certigante al vi +ke ni tre zorge plenumos iun ajn mendon, ni restas. + Tre respekte la viaj, + Brown & Ko. + Per C. + + + + * * * * * + + + + ESPERANTO-ENGLISH VOCABULARY. + +The following vocabulary includes all roots used in the preceding +Lessons, all primary words of the language, and a large number of +additional roots (to facilitate original composition). No attempt has +been made, however, to include all of the roots in the language, for +which an Esperanto-English Dictionary should be consulted. + +References are to sections, unless the page (p.) is given. For other +parts of speech than those indicated under each root or primary word, +see Word Formation, 116, 120, 159, 171. See also the references given +under each prefix and suffix. For formation of compound words, see 160, +167, 176, 184. The following abbreviations are used: adj. = adjective; +adv. = adverb; conj. = conjunction; intrans. = intransitive; prep. = +preposition; trans. = transitive; -- = repetition of the word. + + A. + +abel-o = bee. +abi-o = fir. +abiturient-o = bachelor of arts (A.B.). +abomen-a = abominable. +abon-i = to subscribe to, take (magazine, etc.). +abrikot-o = apricot. +acer-o = maple (tree). +acid-a = acid, sour. +-acx- = derogatory suffix (272). +acxet-i = to buy. +-ad- = suffix indicating duration (218). +adiaux = (adv. and interjection), farewell, good-bye (171, 273). +adjektiv-o = adjective. +administr-i = to administer, to manage. +admir-i = to admire. +admon-i = to exhort, admonish. +ador-i = to worship, adore. +adres-o = address (on letters, etc.). +adverb-o = adverb. +advokat-o = lawyer, barrister. +aer-o = air. +afabl-a = affable, amiable. +afer-o = affair, matter, thing, cause. +afisx-o = handbill, placard, poster. +afrank-i = to frank (letters), prepay; --ite, post-paid. +Afrik-o = Africa. +ag-i = to act, perform action. +agac-i = to set on edge (of teeth). +agent-o = agent. +agit-i = to agitate. +agl-o = eagle. +agoni-o = agony. +agrabl-a = agreeable, pleasant. +agx-o = age. +ajn = (adv.), ever (236). +-ajx- = (suffix forming concrete words) (227). +akademi-o = academy. +akcel-i = (trans.), to accelerate, hasten. +akcent-o = accent, stress. +akcept-i = to accept, receive, welcome. +akcident-o = accident. +akir-i = to acquire. +akompan-i = to accompany. +akr-a = sharp, acute, shrill. +akrid-o = grasshopper. +aks-o = axis, axle. +akt-o = act (of a play). +aktiv-a = active (grammatical). +aktor-o = actor (player). +akurat-a = accurate, exact. +akuz-i = to accuse. +akuzativ-o = accusative. +akv-o = water. +akvarel-o = water-color painting. +akvari-o = aquarium. +al = (prep.), to, toward (46, 160, 251, 252). +alauxd-o = lark (bird). +ale-o = avenue, walk, path (of garden, park, etc.). +Aleksandri-o = Alexandria. +Aleksandr-o = Alexander. +alfabet-o = alphabet. +Alfred-o = Alfred. +algebr-o = algebra. +ali-a = other. +alk-o = elk. +alkohol-o = alcohol. +alkov-o = alcove, recess. +almanak-o = almanac. +almenaux = (adv.), at least (66). +almoz-o = alms; --ulo, beggar. +alt-a = high, tall. +altar-o = altar. +alud-i = to allude to. +alumet-o = match (for fire). +am-i = to love. +amas-o = crowd, throng, mass. +ambaux = (pronoun), both (of two objects naturally in pairs,or of + persons or things assumed or already known to be thus grouped) (238). +ambos-o = anvil. +amel-o = starch. +Amerik-o = America. +amfibi-a = amphibious. +amfiteatr-o = amphitheatre. +amik-o = friend. +amindum-i = to woo, make love. +ampleks-o = extent, dimension. +amuz-i = to amuse. +-an- = suffix denoting membership, etc. (145). +analiz-i = to analyse. +ananas-o = pineapple. +anas-o = duck. +anekdot-o = anecdote. +Angl-o = Englishman. +angul-o = angle, corner. +angxel-o = angel. +anim-o = soul. +ankaux = (adv.), also. +ankoraux = (adv), still, yet. +ankr-o = anchor. +anonc-i = to announce. +ans-o = latch, door-handle. +anser-o = goose. +anstataux = (prep.), instead of (98, 159). +antaux = (prep.), before (89, 90, 120, 159, 160), + "antaux ol" (conj.), 97, 98. +antikv-a = ancient, antique. +antilop-o = antelope. +antipati-o = antipathy. +aparat-o = apparatus. +apart-a = separate. +apartament-o = apartment, suite (of rooms). +aparten-i = to belong. +apati-o = apathy. +apenaux = (adv.), scarcely, hardly. +aper-i = to appear. +apetit-o = appetite. +aplauxd-i = to applaud. +aplomb-o = assurance, self-command. +apog-i = to lean, to rest (upon). +apologi-o = apology, vindication. +apotek-o = pharmacy, drugstore, chemist's shop. +april-o = April. +aprob-i = to approve. +apud = (prep.), near to, close by (120, 159). +-ar- = suffix forming collectives (126). +Arab-o = Arab. +arane-o = spider. +arangx-i = to arrange. +arb-o = tree. +arbitraci-i = to arbitrate. +ardez-o = slate (stone). +aren-o = arena. +arest-i = to arrest. +argil-o = clay. +argument-i = to argue. +argxent-o = silver (metal). +arhxitektur-o = architecture. +Arhximed-o = Archimedes. +ari-o = tune, air (music). +Aristejd-o = Aristeides. +aristokrat-o = aristocrat. +Aristotel-o = Aristotle. +aritmetik-o = arithmetic. +ark-o = arc. +arkad-o = arcade. +arm-i = to arm. +arme-o = army. +armoraci-o = horse-radish. +arogant-a = arrogant. +arom-o = aroma, fragrance. +art-o = art. +artik-o = joint. +artikol-o = article (grammatical or literary). +Artur-o = Arthur. +asekur-i = to insure (with a company). +asoci-o = association (organization). +asparag-o = asparagus. +aspekt-o = aspect, appearance. +astr-o = heavenly body, star. +atak-i = to attack. +atend-i = to wait, wait for, expect. +atent-a = attentive. +atest-i = to attest, give witness, certify. +ating-i = to attain, reach. +atlas-o = satin. +atlet-o = athlete. +atmosfer-o = atmosphere. +atribut-o = attribute. +aux = (conj.), or, either. +auxd-i = to hear. +auxgust-o = August. +auxskult-i = to listen. +Auxstrali-o = Australia. +auxtomat-a = automatic. +auxtor-o = author. +auxtun-o = autumn. +av-o = grandfather. +avar-a = avaricious, miserly. +avel-o = hazel-nut. +aven-o = oats. +avert-i = to warn, caution. +avid-a = eager. +aviz-i = to give notice. +azen-o = ass, donkey. +Azi-o = Asia. +azot-o = nitrogen. + + B. + +babil-i = to chatter, babble. +bagatel-o = trifle, bagatelle. +bal-o = ball (dance). +bak-i = to bake. +bala-i = to sweep (a floor, etc.). +balanc-i = (trans.), to balance, poise; --i la kapon, to nod the head. +baldaux = (adv.), soon. +balen-o = whale. +ban-i = (trans.), to bathe. +banan-o = banana. +bandagx-i = to bandage. +bank-o = bank (financial). +bankrot-i = to become bankrupt, fail. +bant-o = bow (of ribbon). +bar-i = (trans.), to bar, to obstruct. +barakt-i = to wrestle, struggle. +barb-o = beard. +barbar-o = barbarian. +barel-o = barrel. +bariton-o = barytone. +bas-o = bass (voice). +baston-o = stick. +bat-i = to beat. +batal-i = to fight, battle. +batat-o = sweet potato. +bedauxr-i = to regret. +bek-o = beak, bill. +bel-a = beautiful, handsome. +belg-o = Belgian. +ben-i = to bless. +benk-o = bench. +ber-o = berry. +best-o = animal, beast. +bet-o = beet. +bezon-i = to need, want. +bibliotek-o = library. +bicikl-o = bicycle. +bien-o = land, property, estate. +bier-o = beer. +bifstek-o = beefsteak. +bild-o = picture, image. +bilet-o = ticket, note; bank--, bank-note, bill. +bird-o = bird. +bis = (adv.), once more, a second time, encore. +biskvit-o = biscuit. +blank-a = white. +blek-i = to neigh, bleat, give its cry (of any animal). +blind-a = blind. +blov-i = to blow. +blu-a = blue (color). +bluz-o = blouse. +bo- = prefix expressing relationship by marriage (277). +boat-o = boat. +boj-i = to bark (of dogs). +bol-i = (intrans.), to boil. +bombon-o = bonbon, sweet. +bon-a = good; --veni, to welcome. +bor-i = to bore (holes). +bord-o = shore, bank, edge (of rivers, etc.). +Boston-o = Boston. +bot-o = boot. +botel-o = bottle. +bov-o = ox; --ajxo, beef; --idajxo, veal; --viro, bull. +brak-o = arm (of the body). +brancx-o = branch, bough. +brand-o = brandy. +brasik-o = cabbage; (florbrasiko), cauliflower. +brav-a = brave. +bret-o = shelf, bracket. +brid-o = bridle (of harness). +brik-o = brick, tile. +bril-i = to shine (116). +Brit-o = Briton. +brod-i = to embroider. +bronz-o = bronze. +bros-i = to brush. +brosxur-o = pamphlet, brochure. +brov-o = eyebrow. +bru-o = noise. +brul-i = (intrans.), to burn (275). +brun-a = brown. +brut-o = cattle, dumb animal. +bub-o = street arab, gamin. +bucx-i = to slaughter, butcher. +buf-o = toad. +buk-o = buckle (metal). +buked-o = bouquet. +bukl-o = curl, ringlet (of hair). +bulb-o = onion, bulb. +bulgar-o = Bulgarian. +bulk-o = roll (bread). +bulvard-o = boulevard. +burgxon-o = bud, young shoot. +busx-o = mouth. +buter-o = butter. +butik-o = shop, store. +buton-o = button. + + C. + +cel-i = to aim, have as purpose or goal. +celeri-o = celery. +cend-o = cent (coin). +cent = hundred (142). +centigram-o = centigram (284). +centilitr-o = centiliter (284). +centimetr-o = centimeter (284). +centr-o = center. +cerb-o = brain. +cert-a = certain, sure. +cerv-o = stag, deer. +ceter-a = remaining. +ci = (pronoun), thou (40). +cidoni-o = quince. +cifer-o = cipher. +cigar-o = cigar. +cigared-o = cigarette. +cign-o = swan. +cilindr-o = cylinder. +cinam-o = cinnamon. +cindr-o = ashes. +cir-o = blacking (for shoes). +cirkonstanc-o = circumstance. +cirkuler-o = circular (letter). +Cirus-o = Cyrus. +cit-i = to quote. +citron-o = lemon. +civiliz-i = to civilize. +col-o = inch (measure). + + CX. + +cxagren-i = (trans.), to grieve, vex, annoy. +cxambr-o = room. +cxap-o = cap. +cxapel-o = hat. +cxapitr-o = chapter (of book). +cxar = (conj.), because, since (83). +cxarm-a = charming, delightful. +cxarnir-o = hinge. +cxas-i = to hunt (game or wild animals). +cxe = (prep.), at, in the house or presence of (125, 160). +cxef-a = chief, principal, head. +cxek-o = cheque. +cxemiz-o = shirt, chemise. +cxen-o = chain (for watch, etc.). +cxeriz-o = cherry. +cxes-i = (intrans.), to cease, leave off (275). +cxeval-o = horse; --viro, stallion. +cxi = (adv.), expresses proximity (60, 66). +cxia = of every kind (177). +cxial = (adv.), for every reason (188). +cxiam = (adv.), always (187). +cxie = (adv.), everywhere (182). +cxiel = (adv.), in every way (193). +cxiel-o = heaven, sky. +cxies = (pronoun, possessive), everybody's (174). +cxifon-o = rag. +cxio = (pronoun), everything, all (233). +cxiom = (adv.), all (194). +cxirkaux = (prep.), around, roundabout (89, 120, 159, 160). +cxiu = (pronoun and adj.), every one, each (173). +-cxj- = suffix forming affectionate diminutives (283). +cxokolad-o = chocolate. +cxu = (adv.), whether (when translated) (30, 66). + + D. + +da = (prep.), of (after quantitative noun or adv.) (99, 101, 103). +daktil-o = date (fruit). +Damokl-o = Damocles. +dan-o = Dane. +danc-i = to dance. +dangxer-o = danger. +dank-i = to thank. +dat-o = date (chronological). +dauxr-i = (intrans.), to continue, last. +de = (prep.), of, from, by (49, 89, l00, 160, 169, 170). +dec-i = to be proper, decent; "ne decas ke vi iru", it is not proper + for you to go. +decembr-o = December. +decid-i = to decide. +decigram-o = decigram (284). +decilitr-o = deciliter (284). +decimetr-o = decimeter (284). +defend-i = to defend. +degel-i = (intrans.), to thaw (275). +dejxor-i = to be on duty (of officer, attendant, etc.). +dek = (adj.), ten (136). +dekagram-o = dekagram (284). +dekalitr-o = dekaliter (284). +dekametr-o = dekameter (284). +deklam-i = to declaim, recite. +dekstr-a = right (not left). +deleg-i = to delegate. +delikat-a = delicate, dainty, nice. +demand-i = to ask, inquire. +dens-a = dense, thick, close. +dent-o = tooth. +depesx-o = a dispatch. +des = (adv.), the more (used with "pli", 84). +desert-o = dessert. +detal-o = detail. +detru-i = to destroy. +dev-i = to have to, must (247). +dezert-o = desert, waste. +dezir-i = to desire. +Di-o = God. +diamant-o = diamond. +difekt-i = to damage, spoil. +diferenc-a = different. +difin-i = to define, to destine. +dik-a = thick, corpulent. +dikt-i = to dictate (letters, etc.) +diligent-a = diligent. +dimancx-o = Sunday. +dimensi-o = dimension. +Diogen-o = Diogenes. +diplom-o = diploma. +diplomat-o = diplomat. +dir-i = to say (77). +direkt-i = to direct, guide, manage. +dis- = prefix expressing separation (245). +diskut-i = to discuss. +distanc-o = distance. +disting-i = to distinguish. +distr-i = to distract, take away the attention. +diven-i = to guess. +divers-a = varied, diverse, different. +divid-i = (trans.), to divide. +do = consequently, then, so. +doktor-o = doctor. +dolar-o = dollar. +dolcx-a = sweet, pleasant. +dolor-o = pain, ache. +dom-o = house. +domagx-o = pity, regrettable affair. +don-i = to give. +donac-i = to make a gift, present. +dorlot-i = to caress, fondle, pet. +dorm-i = to sleep. +dorn-o = thorn. +dors-o = back (of the body). +dot-i = to endow. +drap-o = cloth. +drog-o = drug. +dron-i = (intrans.), to drown (275). +du = (adj.), two (136) +dub-i = to doubt. +dum = (prep and conj.), during, while (96, 120, 159). +dung-i = (trans.), to hire (persons). + + E. + +eben-a = even, flat, level. +-ebl- = suffix expressing possibility (161, 162). +ebri-a = inebriate, intoxicated. +-ec- = suffix forming abstracts (202). +ecx = (adv.), even. +eduk-i = to bring up, educate. +edz-o = husband, married man. +efekt-o = effect. +efektiv-a = real, actual. +efik-i = to be efficacious, act (on), produce a result. +-eg- = suffix forming augmentatives (122). +egal-a = equal. +Egipt-o = Egypt. +ehx-o = echo. +-ej- = suffix forming words indicating place (III). +ek- = prefix expressing suddenness or beginning (206). +eks- = prefix expressing former incumbency (281). +ekscit-i = to excite. +eksperiment-i = to experiment. +eksplod-i = (intrans.), to explode. +ekster = (prep.), outside of (120, 121). +ekzamen-i = to examine, test. +ekzempl-o = example. +ekzempler-o = copy (of book or magazine). +ekzerc-i = (trans.), to exercise. +ekzil-i = to exile, banish +ekzist-i = to exist. +el = (prep.), out of, of, out (75, 106, 138, 197, 264, c). +elekt-i = to choose. +elektr-a = electric. +elokvent-a = eloquent. +-em- = suffix expressing propensity or inclination (192). +eminent-a = eminent. +en = (prep.), in (89,160), into (46). +energi-o = energy. +entrepren-i = to undertake. +entuziasm-o = enthusiasm. +enu-i = to be wearied, be bored. +envi-i = to envy. +epok-o = epoch, period, time. +-er- = suffix expressing a component part (276). +erar-i = to err, make a mistake. +escept-i = to except (266). +esper-i = to hope. +esplor-i = to investigate, explore. +esprim-i = to express. +est-i = to be (109). +establ-i = to establish. +estim-i = to esteem. +esting-i = to extinguish. +-estr- = suffix expressing leadership or authority (253). +-et- = suffix forming diminutives (198). +etagx-o = story (of a house); teretagxo, ground floor; + unua etagxo, second story. +etend-i = (trans.), to extend, lengthen, widen. +etern-a = eternal. +Euxrop-o = Europe. +evangeli-o = gospel, evangel. +evit-i = to avoid, shun. +evoluci-o = evolution. + + F. + +fab-o = bean (leguminous fruit). +fabel-o = story, tale. +fabl-o = fable. +fabrik-i = to manufacture. +facil-a = easy. +faden-o = thread. +fajf-i = to whistle. +fajr-o = fire. +fak-o = department, specialty. +fakt-o = fact. +fal-i = to fall. +fald-i = to fold. +fals-i = to falsify, forge, debase. +fam-o = fame, renown, rumor. +famili-o = family. +familiar-a = familiar, accustomed. +fand-i = (trans.), to smelt, fuse (metals, etc.). +fanfaron-i = to boast, vaunt oneself, brag. +fantom-o = phantom, ghost. +far-i = to make, do, render. +faraon-o = pharaoh (Egyptian ruler). +farm-i = to farm (as a tenant). +farmaci-o = pharmacy (knowledge of the use of drugs). +fart-i = to be in (good or bad) health. +farun-o = flour. +fask-o = bundle, bunch. +fason-o = cut, mode, fashion. +fatal-a = fatal, predestined. +fauxk-o = jaw (literal and figurative). +favor-a = favorable. +fazeol-o = bean (garden bean). +fe-o = fairy, fay; --ino, fairy. +febr-o = fever. +februar-o = February. +fel-o = skin, hide (of animals). +felicx-a = happy. +femur-o = thigh. +fend-i = (trans.), to split. +fenestr-o = window. +fer-o = iron; --vojo, railway. +ferdek-o = deck (of ship). +ferm-i = (trans.), to close, shut. +fervor-o = zeal, fervor. +fest-i = to celebrate. +festen-o = banquet. +fi = (interjection), fie! (273). +fiakr-o = cab. +fiancx-o = betrothed man, fiance. +fid-i = to rely upon, trust. +fidel-a = faithful, loyal. +fier-a = proud, haughty. +fil-o = son. +filozof-o = philosopher. +fin-i = (trans.), to finish, end. +fingr-o = finger; "dika fingro", thumb; "montra fingro", index finger; + "longa fingro", middle finger; "ringa fingro", ring-finger; + "malgranda fingro", little finger. +firm-a = firm, steady. +fisx-o = fish. +fizik-o = physics, physical science. +flag-o = flag, banner, small standard. +flank-o = side. +flar-i = (trans.), to smell, scent. +flav-a = yellow. +fleks-i = (trans.), to bend, flex. +flik-i = to patch. +flor-o = flower (116). +flu-i = to flow. +flug-i = to fly. +fluid-a = fluid, liquid. +foj-o = time, occasion (127). +fojn-o = hay. +fokus-o = focus. +foli-o = leaf. +fond-i = to found, establish. +font-o = spring (of water), fount. +fontan-o = fountain (artificial). +for = (adv.), away (71). +forges-i = to forget. +fork-o = fork. +form-o = shape, form. +formik-o = ant. +forn-o = stove. +fort-a = strong. +fos-i = to dig. +fotograf-i = to photograph +frag-o = strawberry. +frak-o = evening dress (for men). +frakas-i = to shatter, break to pieces. +framb-o = raspberry. +franc-o = Frenchman. +frand-i = to be fond of sweets, be an epicure. +frangx-o = fringe. +frap-i = to knock, strike. +frat-o = brother. +frauxl-o = bachelor, unmarried man. +fraz-o = sentence, phrase. +Frederik-o = Frederick. +fremd-a = foreign. +frenez-a = crazy, mad. +fresx-a = fresh, new. +fripon-o = rogue, rascal, knave. +frit-i = (trans.), to fry. +fromagx-o = cheese. +frost-o = frost. +frot-i = to rub. +fru-a = early. +frukt-o = fruit. +frunt-o = forehead. +fulm-o = lightning. +fum-i = to smoke. +fund-o = bottom. +fundament-o = foundation, base. +funebr-o = mourning. +fung-o = mushroom. +funkci-i = to function, work. +funt-o = pound. +furioz-a = furious, raging. +fusx-i = to bungle. +fut-o = foot (measure). + + G. + +gaj-a = gay, merry. +gajn-i = to gain. +galeri-o = gallery. +galop-i = to gallop. +gant-o = glove. +gard-i = to guard, watch over. +gas-o = gas. +gast-o = guest. +gazet-o = gazette, magazine. +ge- = prefix indicating both sexes together (271). +general-o = general (military). +genu-o = knee; --fleksi, to kneel. +geometri-o = geometry. +german-o = German. +Gertrud-o = Gertrude. +gicxet-o = wicket, ticket-window, turnstile. +girland-o = garland, wreath. +glaci-o = ice; --ajxo, an ice (food). +glad-i = to iron (linen, etc.). +glas-o = tumbler, glass. +glat-a = smooth, polished, flat. +glav-o = sword. +glit-i = to glide, slide. +glob-o = globe. +glor-o = glory. +glu-o = glue. +glut-i = to swallow. +gorgx-o = throat. +graci-a = graceful. +grad-o = grade, degree. +graf-o = count; --lando, county. +gram-o = gram (284). +gramatik-o = grammar. +grand-a = great, large, big. +gras-o = fat. +gratul-i = to congratulate. +grav-a = important, serious, grave. +gravit-i = to gravitate. +grek-o = Greek. +gren-o = grain (wheat, corn, etc.). +grimp-i = to climb up, creep up. +grinc-i = to grind, gnash. +griz-a = gray. +grup-o = group. +gurd-o = hurdy-gurdy, barrel organ. +gust-o = taste. +gut-i = to drip. +gvid-i = to guide. + + GX. + +gxarden-o = garden. +gxem-i = to groan. +gxen-i = to disturb, incommode. +gxeneral-a = general, common. +gxentil-a = courteous, polite. +gxi = (pronoun), it (32, 37, 42, 274). +gxis = (prep.), as far as, until (46, 89). +gxoj-i = to rejoice, be glad (116). +gxu-i = to enjoy, find pleasure in. +gxust-a = exact, just. + + H. + +hajl-o = hail (frozen rain). +hak-i = to chop, hack; --ilo, axe. +halt-i = (intrans.), to halt, stop. +har-o = a hair. +hauxt-o = skin (human). +hav-i = to have. +haven-o = harbor, port. +hazard-o = chance, hazard. +hebre-o = Hebrew. +hejm-o = home. +hejt-i = (trans.), to heat (a place). +hektar-o = hektare (284). +hektogram-o = hektogram (284). +hektolitr-o = hektoliter (284). +hektometr-o = hektometer (284). +hel-a = bright, clear. +help-i = to help, aid, assist. +herb-o = grass, herb. +hero-o = hero. +hezit-i = to hesitate. +hieraux = (adv.), yesterday (93, 171). +Hieron-o = Hiero. +hipokrit-i = to play the hypocrite. +hirund-o = swallow (bird). +hispan-o = Spaniard. +histori-o = history. +ho = (interjection), ho, oh (273). +hodiaux = (adv.), today (93, 171). +Holand-o = Holland. +hom-o = human being. +honest-a = honest. +honor-i = to honor. +hont-i = to be ashamed. +hor-o = hour (185). +horizont-o = horizon. +horizontal-a = horizontal. +horlogx-o = clock; posxhorlogxo, watch. +hotel-o = hotel. +humil-a = humble. +humor-o = humor, temper. +hund-o = dog. +hura! = (interjection), hurrah! + + HX. + +hxemi-o = chemistry. +hxin-o = Chinaman. +hxor-o = choir. + + I. + +ia = any kind of (208). +ial = (adv.), for any reason (213). +iam = (adv.), ever, at any time, once (212). +-id- = suffix indicating descendant or young of (207). +ide-o = idea. +ideal-o = ideal. +ident-a = identical. +idiom-o = idiom. +idiot-o = idiot. +ie = (adv.), somewhere (209). +iel = (adv.), somehow (216). +ies = (pronoun, possessive), somebody's (204). +-ig- = suffix forming causative verbs (214, 239, 275). +ignor-i = to ignore. +-igx- = suffix forming inchoative and intransitive verbs + (232, 239, 279). +-il- = suffix forming names of instruments (63). +ili = (pronoun) they (32, 37, 42). +ilustr-i = to illustrate. +iluzi-o = illusion, delusion. +imag-i = to imagine, fancy. +imit-i = to imitate. +imperi-o = empire. +implik-i = to implicate. +impost-o = tax, impost. +impres-i = to impress. +impuls-o = impulse. +-in- = suffix forming feminines (59). +incit-i = to incite, arouse, provoke. +-ind- = suffix expressing worth or merit (154). +indian-o = Indian (American). +indiferent-a = indifferent, unconcerned, unimportant. +industri-o = industry (trade, business). +infan-o = child. +infekt-i = to infect, contaminate. +influ-i = to influence. +inform-i = to give information. +-ing- = suffix expressing a holder or container (237). +ingxenier-o = engineer. +ink-o = ink. +insekt-o = insect. +insist-i = to insist. +inspir-i = to inspire. +instru-i = to instruct, teach. +insul-o = island. +insult-i = to insult. +inteligent-a = intelligent. +intend-i = to intend. +inter = (prep.), between, among (85, 89, 160). +interes-i = (trans.), to interest. +intermit-i = to be intermittent. +intern-a = internal; --e, inside. +interpret-i = to interpret. +intim-a = intimate. +invit-i = to invite. +io = (pronoun), something (233). +iom = (adv.), some, a certain amount; + iom post iom, little by little (217). +ir-i = to go. +-ist- = suffix indicating profession, etc. (172). +ital-o = Italian. +iu = (pronoun), some one, a certain (one) (203). + + J. + +ja = (adv.), indeed, in fact (215). +jak-o = jacket, short coat. +jam = (adv.), already. +januar-o = January. +jar-o = year. +je = prep. of indefinite meaning (89, 185, 260). +jen = (adv.), there, behold (228). +jes = (adv.), yes (171). +Jesu-o = Jesus. +Johano = John. +ju = (adv.), the more (used with "pli", 84). +jug-o = yoke. +jugx-i = to judge. +juli-o = July. +jun-a = young. +jung-i = to harness. +juni-o = June. +jup-o = skirt. +jurist-o = jurist. +just-a = just, upright. +juvel-o = jewel. + + JX. + +jxaluz-a = jealous. +jxauxd-o = Thursday. +jxet-i = to throw, cast, hurl. +jxongl-i = to juggle. +jxur-i = to take oath, swear. +jxurnal-o = newspaper, journal. +jxus = (adv.), a moment before, just. + + K. + +kadavr-o = corpse. +kadr-o = frame (of pictures). +kaduk-a = decaying, in ruin. +kaf-o = coffee. +kagx-o = cage. +kahel-o = tile (for paving). +kaj = (conj.), and; kaj..kaj.., both..and.. (26). +kajer-o = notebook. +kaldron-o = caldron. +kalendar-o = calendar. +kalesx-o = carriage. +kalkan-o = heel (of the foot); --umo, heel of a shoe. +kalkul-i = to calculate, reckon. +kamel-o = camel. +kamen-o = chimney. +kamer-o = camera. +kamp-o = field. +kanajl-o = scoundrel, rascal. +kanap-o = sofa. +kand-o = candy. +kandel-o = candle. +kanot-o = canoe. +kant-i = to sing. +kap-o = head. +kapabl-a = capable. +kapel-o = chapel (for prayer). +kapital-o = capital (money). +kapitol-o = capitol. +kapt-i = to catch, seize. +kar-a = dear, prized. +karakter-o = character. +karb-o = coal. +karcer-o = jail. +kares-i = to caress. +karn-o = flesh. +karot-o = carrot. +kart-o = card; posxtkarto, postcard; vizitkarto, visiting card. +karton-o = pasteboard. +karusel-o = merry-go-round. +kas-o = money-box, treasury; --isto, cashier, treasurer. +kaskad-o = waterfall, cascade. +kastel-o = castle. +kasx-i = to hide, conceal (252). +kasxtan-o = chestnut. +kat-o = cat. +katen-o = fetter, chain. +kauxz-o = cause. +kav-o = cavity, hole. +kaz-o = case (grammatical). +ke = (conj.), that (53, 83, 105, 259, 262). +kel-o = cellar. +kelk-a = some; --aj, several, more than one or two. +kelner-o = waiter (in hotel or restaurant). +kest-o = chest; tirkesto, drawer. +kia = what kind of (112, 150); kiamanier-e, how. +kial = (adv.), why (129). +kiam = (adv.), when (123, 155). +kie = (adv.), where (118, 151). +kiel = (adv.), how, in which way, as (134, 156). +kies = (pronoun, possessive), whose (107, 147). +kilogram-o = kilogram (284). +kilolitr-o = kiloliter (284). +kilometr-o = kilometer (284). +kio = (pronoun), what (233). +kiom = (adv.), how much (140, 164, 185). +kis-i = to kiss. +kiu = (pronoun), who (106, 146). +klak-i = (trans.), to clap, clatter. +klar-a = clear, distinct. +klav-o = key (of piano, etc.). +klas-o = class. +kler-a = enlightened, well-in-formed. +klimat-o = climate. +klin-i = (trans.), to incline, bend. +kling-o = blade (of knife, etc.). +klopod-i = to undertake initiative work, take steps toward, + labor for the success or completion of something. +klub-o = club (organization) +knab-o = boy. +kobold-o = sprite, kobold, brownie. +kofr-o = trunk, chest with a lid. +kok-o = cock (domestic fowl). +koket-a = coquettish. +koks-o = hip. +kol-o = neck. +kolbas-o = sausage. +kolegi-o = college. +kolekt-i = (trans.), to collect, gather. +koler-i = to be angry, lose the temper. +kolomb-o = pigeon, dove. +kolon-o = column, pillar. +kolonel-o = colonel. +kolor-o = color. +kolport-i = to peddle. +komand-i = to command (military and naval). +komb-i = to comb. +komedi-o = comedy. +komenc-i = (trans.), to begin, commence. +komerc-i = to trade, engage in commerce. +komfort-o = comfort (freedom from pain, want, etc.). +komisi-i = to entrust with, put in charge of, give the agency for. +komitat-o = committee. +komiz-o = clerk, employee, assistant. +kompani-o = company (commercial organization). +kompar-i = (trans.) to compare, (266). +kompat-i = to pity, have compassion for. +komplet-o = suit (of clothes). +komplez-o = kindness, courtesy, disposition to oblige. +komplik-i = to complicate. +kompost-i = to compose, set (type); --isto, compositor. +kompot-o = jam, preserve, +kompren-i = to understand. +komun-a = common, mutual. +komunik-i = to communicate. +kon-i = to be acquainted with, know; --atigxi kun, to become acquainted + with (117). +koncern-i = to concern (266). +koncert-o = concert (musical). +kondamn-i = to condemn. +kondicx-o = terms specified, stipulation, condition. +konduk-i = to conduct, lead. +konduktor-o = conductor (of car, train, etc.). +kondut-i = to behave, conduct oneself. +konfes-i = to confess, admit. +konfid-i = to trust, have confidence in. +konfit-i = to preserve, pickle (fruits, etc.). +konform-i = to be in conformity with (266). +konfuz-i = to confuse, confound. +kongres-o = congress (assembly). +konk-o = shell (of mollusk, etc.). +konkur-i = to vie, compete. +konkurenc-o = competition (in business, etc.). +konkurs-o = prearranged trial of skill, formal competition (for + prizes, etc.). +konsci-i = to be conscious. +konscienc-o = conscience. +konsent-i = to consent, agree. +konserv-i = to keep, preserve, save. +konservativ-a = conservative. +konsil-i = to advise, counsel. +konsist-i = to consist. +konsol-i = to console, comfort. +konsonant-o = consonant. +konspir-i = to conspire, plot. +konstant-a = constant. +konstat-i = to verify, ascertain the truth of, certify. +konstituci-o = constitution. +konstru-i = to build. +konsul-o = consul. +konsult-i = to seek advice of, consult. +kont-o = account (book-keeping, commercial). +kontent-a = content, satisfied. +kontinent-o = continent (geographical). +kontrakt-i = to contract, agree. +kontralt-o = contralto. +kontraux = (prep.), against, opposite, opposed to (159, 160). +kontrol-i = to control, inspect, examine and check. +kontur-o = outline, contour. +kontuz-i = to bruise. +konven-i = to be suitable, be fitting or convenient. +konvink-i = to convince, persuade. +kopi-i = to copy. +kor-o = heart (of the body). +korb-o = basket. +korekt-i = to correct. +korespond-i = to exchange letters, correspond. +koridor-o = corridor, passage. +kork-o = cork (bark). +korn-o = horn. +korp-o = body, --a, corporeal. +korpus-o = corps (military). +kort-o = courtyard, court. +kortego = court (royal, etc.). +korv-o = raven. +kost-i = to cost. +kostum-o = costume. +kot-o = mud. +kotiz-i = to pay dues, pay one's share of an assessment. +kotlet-o = cutlet, chop. +koton-o = cotton. +kov-i = to brood (of birds). +kovert-o = envelope +kovr-i = to cover. +krab-o = crab. +krad-o = grating, grate, lattice. +krajon-o = pencil. +krak-i = to clack, crackle. +kran-o = faucet, tap. +kravat-o = cravat. +kre-i = to create. +kred-i = to believe (265). +krem-o = cream. +krepusk-o = twilight, half-light of dawn or evening. +kresk-i = to grow. +krestomati-o = chrestomathy, collection of selected passages. +kret-o = chalk. +krev-i = (intrans.), to burst, crack open (suddenly and with noise). +kri-i = to cry out. +kribr-i = to sift (with a sieve). +krim-o = crime. +kring-o = ring-shaped biscuit. +kripl-a = crippled. +Krist-o = Christ. +kritik-i = to criticise. +krocx-i = to hook. +krom = (prep.), beside, aside from, except, save, but. +kron-o = crown. +kruc-o = cross; --umi, to crucify. +krucx-o = pitcher, jug; tekrucxo, tea-pot. +kruel-a = cruel. +krur-o = leg. +krust-o = crust. +krut-a = steep. +kubut-o = elbow. +kudr-i = to sew. +kugl-o = bullet. +kuir-i = to cook. +kuk-o = cake; --ajxo, pastry. +kukum-o = cucumber. +kukurb-o = pumpkin. +kuler-o = spoon. +kulp-a = guilty. +kultur-i = to cultivate; terkulturi, to till the soil, farm. +kun = (prep.), with (70, 76, 120, 160, 159). +kunikl-o = rabbit. +kupon-o = coupon. +kupr-o = copper (metal). +kur-i = to run. +kurac-i = to treat for illness, cure; --ato, a patient; + --isto, a physician, medical man. +kuragx-o = courage. +kurb-o = curve. +kurioz-a = uncommon, curious. +kurs-o = course (of lessons). +kurten-o = curtain. +kusen-o = cushion. +kusx-i = to lie, recline (239). +kutim-o = custom, habit. +kuv-o = tub, large basin. +kuz-o = cousin. +kvadrat-o = square (equilateral rectangle). +kvalit-o = quality, texture. +kvankam = (conj.), though, although, while (concessive). +kvant-o = quantity, amount. +kvar = (adj.), four (136). +kvartal-o = quarter (of a city). +kvazaux = (conj.), as though, as if (250). +kverk-o = oak. +kviet-a = calm, quiet. +kvin = (adj.), five (136). +kvitanc-o = receipt (for payment). + + L. + +la = (article), the (II, 47, 201, 280, a). +labor-i = to work, labor. +lac-a = tired, weary. +lacx-o = string, lace (of shoe, etc.). +lad-o = tin plate (sheet iron covered with tin). +lag-o = lake. +lakt-o = milk. +laktuk-o = lettuce. +lam-a = lame. +lamp-o = lamp. +lan-o = wool. +lanc-o = lance, spear. +land-o = land, country. +lang-o = tongue (of the body). +lantern-o = lantern. +lanug-o = down (hairs, feathers). +lard-o = bacon. +largx-a = wide, broad. +larm-o = tear (of the eye). +las-i = (trans.), to leave, let, permit. +last-a = last (in a series). +latin-a = Latin. +laux = (prep.), in accordance with, along, by (191). +lauxb-o = arbor, summer-house. +lauxd-i = to praise. +lauxt-a = loud. +lav-i = to wash. +lecion-o = lesson. +led-o = leather. +leg-i = to read. +legom-o = vegetable. +legx-o = law. +lek-i = to lick. +leon-o = lion. +lepor-o = hare. +lern-i = to learn. +lert-a = clever, skilful. +leter-o = letter (epistle). +lev-i = to raise, lift. +li = (pronoun), he, him (32, 37, 42). +liber-a = free. +libr-o = book. +lig-i = to tie, bind, fasten; --ilo, bond; that which ties or fastens; + --ajxo, knot; --o, league, alliance. +lign-o = wood. +lim-o = limit, boundary. +limonad-o = lemonade. +lingv-o = language. +lini-o = line; --ilo, ruler. +lip-o = lip; --haroj, moustache. +lit-o = bed (for sleeping). +liter-o = letter of the alphabet; lauxlitera, literal. +literatur-o = literature. +litr-o = liter (284). +liver-i = to deliver, supply, furnish. +log-i = to allure. +logx-i = to dwell, reside (133). +lok-o = place; --a, local. +lokomotiv-o = locomotive. +long-a = long. +lonicer-o = honeysuckle. +lorn-o = telescope, spyglass; --eto, opera-glasses. +lu-i = to hire, rent (engage and pay rent for). +lud-i = to play. +luks-o = luxury. +lul-i = to lull to sleep; --ilo, cradle. +lum-i = to shine (275). +lun-o = moon. +lunatik-o = lunatic. +lund-o = Monday. +lup-o = wolf. + + M. + +macx-i = to chew, masticate. +magazen-o = warehouse. +magi-o = magic. +magistr-o = master of arts (A.M.). +maiz-o = maize, Indian corn. +maj-o = May. +majest-a = majestic. +majones-a = mayonnaise. +majstr-o = master (of his art or profession). +makaroni-o = macaroni. +maksimum-o = maximum. +makul-o = spot, stain. +makzel-o = jaw; --osto, jawbone. +mal- = prefix forming opposites (67). +maleol-o = ankle. +malgraux = (prep.), notwithstanding. +malic-a = malicious. +man-o = hand. +mandat-o = money-order. +mangx-i = to eat. +manier-o = manner, way. +manik-o = sleeve. +mank-i = (intrans.), to be lacking, wanting. +mantel-o = cloak, mantle. +manuskript-o = manuscript. +mar-o = sea. +marcx-o = swamp, marsh. +mard-o = Tuesday. +Mari-o = Mary. +mark-o = mark. +marmelad-o = marmalade. +marmor-o = marble (stone), +marsx-i = to walk. +mart-o = March. +martel-o = hammer. +mastr-o = master (of a house, etc.) +masxin-o = machine. +maten-o = morning (93). +material-o = material. +matur-a = ripe, mature. +mebl-o = piece of furniture. +medicin-o = medicine (the science). +mehxanik-o = mechanics. +mejl-o = mile. +meleagr-o = turkey. +melk-i = to milk. +melodi-o = melody. +melon-o = melon. +mem = (pronoun), self, selves (219). +membr-o = limb, member. +memor-i = to remember, keep in mind; rememori, to recall to memory. +mend-i = to order (of a store, etc.). +mensog-i = to lie, tell lies. +menton-o = chin. +menu-o = menu. +merit-i = to deserve, merit. +merkred-o = Wednesday. +merl-o = blackbird. +met-i = to put, place. +metal-o = metal. +meti-o = trade, handicraft. +metod-o = method, way. +metr-o = meter (284). +mez-o = middle. +mezur-i = to measure. +mi = (pronoun), I, me (32, 37). +miel-o = honey. +mien-o = appearance, mien. +miks-i = (trans.), to mix. +mil = (adj.), thousand (142). +mild-a = mild. +milimetr-o = millimeter (284). +milion-o = million. +milit-i = to fight, wage war. +min-o = mine (of coal, silver, etc.). +minac-i = to threaten. +mineral-o = mineral. +minimum-o = minimum. +ministr-o = minister (political). +minut-o = minute. +miop-a = shortsighted. +mir-i = to wonder. +mister-o = mystery. +mizer-o = misery. +mod-o = mode, fashion. +model-o = model. +moder-a = moderate. +modest-a = modest. +mok-i = to mock. +mol-a = soft. +moment-o = moment; --a, momentary, instantaneous. +mon-o = money. +monahx-o = monk. +monarhxi-o = monarch. +monat-o = month. +mond-o = world. +mont-o = mountain. +montr-i = (trans.), to show. +mor-o = conduct (in regard to right or wrong); --oj, morals. +moral-a = moral; --eco, morality. +mord-i = to bite. +morgaux = (adv.), tomorrow (171). +mort-i = to die; --igi, to kill. +mosxt-o = title of respect (258). +mov-i = (trans.), to move, put in motion. +muel-o = mill (for grinding). +mugx-i = to roar, bellow. +mult-a = much (81). +mur-o = wall. +murmur-i = to murmur. +mus-o = mouse. +mustard-o = mustard. +musx-o = fly. +mut-a = dumb, mute. +muze-o = museum. +muzik-o = music. + + N. + +naci-o = nation. +nagx-i = to swim. +naiv-a = artless, naive, ingenuous. +najbar-o = neighbor. +najl-o = nail (of metal). +nap-o = turnip. +nask-i = to produce, bring forth, give birth to. +natur-o = nature. +naux = (adj.), nine (136). +naz-o = nose. +ne = (adv.), no, not (27, 66, a, 171). +nebul-o = fog, mist. +neces-a = necessary. +negativ-o = negative (photographic). +negx-o = snow. +nek = (negative conj.), neither, nor (31). +nenia = no kind of (224). +nenial = (adv.), for no reason (229). +neniam = (adv.), never (226). +nenie = (adv.), nowhere (225). +neniel = (adv.), in no way (230). +nenies = (pronoun, possessive), nobody's (221). +nenio = (pronoun), nothing (233). +neniom = (adv.), none, not any (231). +neniu = (pronoun), no one, nobody, no (220). +nep-o = grandson. +nepr-e = inevitably, certainly, unfailingly. +nerv-o = nerve. +nest-o = nest. +neuxtral-a = neutral, non-partisan. +nev-o = nephew. +ni = (pronoun), we, us (32, 37). +nigr-a = black. +nivel-o = level. +-nj- = suffix forming affectionate diminutives (283). +nobel-o = nobleman. +nobl-a = noble (in character). +nokt-o = night. +nom-o = name; --i, to name, mention. +nombr-o = number (quantity). +nord-o = north. +norveg-o = Norwegian. +nostalgi-o = homesickness. +not-o = note. +nov-a = new, recent, novel; denove, anew, again. +novembr-o = November. +nu = (interjection), well! (273). +nuanc-o = shade, tint, hue. +nub-o = cloud. +nud-a = bare, naked, nude. +nuks-o = nut. +nul-o = zero, naught. +numer-o = number, numeral (No.). +nun = (adv.), now (171). +nur = (adv.), merely, only. +nutr-i = to nourish, to feed. + + O. + +obe-i = to obey (265). +objekt-o = object, thing. +objektiv-o = lens, objective. +-obl- = suffix forming multiples (186). +oblikv-a = oblique, slanting. +observ-i = to observe, take note of. +obstin-a = obstinate. +ocean-o = ocean. +odor-i = to smell (good or bad). +ofend-i = to offend. +ofer-i = to sacrifice, offer. +ofic-o = office, employment; --isto, officer (of firm or organization); + --ejo, office (the place). +oficial-a = official. +oficir-o = officer (military or naval). +oft-a = frequent. +ok = (adj.), eight (136). +okaz-i = to happen, occur, take place. +okcident-o = west. +oktobr-o = October. +okul-o = eye. +okup-i = to occupy. +ol = (conj.), than (82, 97, 98). +ole-o = oil. +oliv-o = olive. +ombr-o = shadow, shade. +ombrel-o = umbrella. +-on- = suffix forming fractions (166). +ond-o = wave. +oni = (pronoun), one, they (54). +onkl-o = uncle. +-op- = suffix forming collective numerals (261). +oper-o = opera. +opini-i = to have the opinion, think. +oportun-a = handy, convenient, opportune. +or-o = gold. +orangx-o = orange (fruit). +ord-o = order (methodical or proper arrangement). +ordinar-a = ordinary; eksterordinara, extraordinary. +ordon-i = to order, bid, command. +orel-o = ear (of the body). +orf-o = orphan. +organ-o = organ (physical). +organiz-i = to organize. +orgen-o = organ, (musical instrument). +orient-o = east. +original-o = original. +orkestr-o = orchestra. +ornam-i = to ornament, adorn. +ort-a = right-angled. +osced-i = to gape, yawn. +ost-o = bone. +ostr-o = oyster. +ostracism-o = ostracism. +ov-o = egg. + + P. + +pac-o = peace. +pacienc-o = patience. +padel-i = to paddle. +paf-i = to shoot (with gun, etc.). +pag-i = to pay. +pagx-o = page (of a book, etc.). +pajl-o = straw. +pak-i = to pack. +pal-a = pale. +palac-o = palace. +palis-o = stake; --aro, palisade. +palp-i = to feel (with the fingers, etc.); --ado, touch (the sense). +palpebr-o = eyelid. +pan-o = bread. +pantalon-o = trousers. +pantofl-o = slipper. +paper-o = paper (material). +papili-o = butterfly. +par-o = pair. +paradiz-o = paradise. +paragraf-o = paragraph. +paralel-a = parallel. +pardon-i = to forgive, pardon (265). +parenc-o = relative (person). +parfum-o = perfume. +park-o = park. +parker-e = by rote, by heart, from memory. +parol-i = to speak (77). +part-o = part, share. +particip-o = participle. +pas-i = (intrans.), to pass. +pasagxer-o = passenger. +paser-o = sparrow. +pasi-o = passion. +pasiv-a = passive. +Pask-o = Easter. +pastecx-o = patty, small pie. +pastinak-o = parsnip. +pastr-o = pastor, clergyman, priest. +pasx-i = to step. +pasxt-i = (trans.), to pasture, feed; --isto, shepherd. +pat-o = pan, frying-pan. +patr-o = father. +pauxz-o = pause. +pavim-o = pavement. +pec-o = piece, morsel. +pejzagx-o = landscape. +pek-i = to sin. +pekl-i = to pickle (meat, etc.). +pel-i = to chase away, drive off. +pelt-o = coat or wrap of fur. +pen-i = to strive, try. +pend-i = (intrans.), to hang. +penetr-i = to penetrate. +penik-o = paintbrush, hair pencil. +pens-i = to think. +pent-i = to repent. +pentr-i = to paint. +pep-i = to chirp, twitter. +per = (prep.), by means of, with, by (64). +perd-i = to lose. +pere-i = to perish. +perfekt-a = perfect. +perfid-i = to betray; --a, perfidious, treacherous. +period-a = periodic. +perl-o = pearl. +permes-i = to permit, allow, let. +peron-o = platform (railway), stoop (entrance porch). +persekut-i = to persecute, prosecute. +persik-o = peach. +persist-i = to persist, persevere. +person-o = person. +peruk-o = wig. +pes-i = (trans.), to ascertain the weight of; --ilo, scales, balance. +pet-i = to request, beg, ask. +petol-i = to be mischievous, saucy, roguish. +petrol-o = petroleum, kerosene. +petrosel-o = parsley. +pez-i = (intrans.), to be heavy, weigh. +pi-a = pious. +pice-o = spruce (tree). +pied-o = foot; --iranto, pedestrian. +piedestal-o = pedestal. +pik-i = to prick, sting. +pilgrim-i = to go on a pilgrimage. +pilk-o = ball (to play with). +pin-o = pine (tree). +pinakotek-o = picture gallery. +pincx-i = to pinch. +pingl-o = pin. +pint-o = point, pinnacle, summit. +pionir-o = pioneer. +pip-o = pipe (for smoking). +pipr-o = pepper. +pir-o = pear. +pist-i = to crush, mash; --ajxo, puree. +pitoresk-a = picturesque. +piz-o = pea. +plac-o = public square, place (broad, short street or open space). +placx-i = to please, to be pleasing (265). +plad-o = flat dish. +plafon-o = ceiling. +plan-o = plan, scheme. +pland-o = sole (of the foot). +planed-o = planet. +plank-o = floor. +plant-i = to plant. +plat-a = flat, plane. +plauxd-i = (trans.), to splash, dabble (a liquid). +plej = (adv.), most (74, 79, 81, 162); malplej, least (80). +plekt-i = to weave, plait, braid. +plen-a = full; plenum-i, to fulfil. +plend-i = to complain. +plet-o = tray. +plezur-o = pleasure. +pli = (adv.), more (74, 79, 81); malpli, less (80). +plor-i = to weep, cry. +plu = (adv.), further, more, any more. +plug-i = to plow. +plum-o = pen, feather. +plumb-o = lead (metal); --isto, plumber. +pluv-o = rain. +pneuxmatik-o = pneumatic tire. +po = (prep.), at the rate of (175). +poem-o = poem. +poet-o = poet. +poezi-o = poetry, poesy. +pokal-o = goblet, cup. +pol-o = Pole. +polic-o = police (force). +politik-o = politics. +polm-o = palm (of the hand). +polur-i = to polish, make smooth and glossy. +polus-o = pole (geographical). +polv-o = dust. +pom-o = apple. +pomp-o = pomp, splendor. +pont-o = bridge. +popol-o = a people, folk. +popular-a = popular. +por = (prep.), for (95, 98, 262). +porcelan-o = porcelain, china. +porci-o = portion, share. +pord-o = door. +pork-o = swine, pig, hog. +port-i = to carry, bear. +portret-o = portrait. +posed-i = to possess, own. +post = (prep.), after, behind (89, 120). +postul-i = to require, demand. +posx-o = pocket. +posxt-o = post (mail); --kesto, mailbox; --marko, postage stamp; + --mandato, postal money order. +pot-o = pot. +potenc-a = powerful, mighty. +pov-i = to be able, can (72). +pra- = prefix indicating remoteness in line of descent (282). +praktik-o = practice. +prav-a = right, in the right. +precip-a = principal, chief. +preciz-a = precise. +predik-i = to preach. +prefer-i = to prefer. +prefiks-o = prefix. +pregx-i = to pray; --ejo, church. +prem-i = to press. +premi-o = premium, prize. +pren-i = to take. +prepar-i = to prepare. +pres-i = to print. +preskaux = (adv.), almost. +pret-a = ready. +pretekst-i = to make pretext of, pretend, sham. +pretend-i = to make pretension to, lay claim to. +preter = (prep.), beyond, past, by. +prez-o = price. +prezent-i = to present, offer. +prezid-i = to preside; --anto, presiding officer, president, chairman. +pri = (prep.), concerning, about, of (160, 264, c). +princ-o = prince. +princip-o = principle. +printemp-o = spring (season). +pro = (prep.), on account of, because of, for (86). +problem-o = problem. +procent-o = interest, percentage. +proces-o = lawsuit, legal process. +produkt-i = to produce. +profesi-o = profession, occupation, calling. +profesor-o = professor. +profil-o = profile. +profit-o = profit; --i, to profit (by). +profund-a = deep, profound. +progres-i = to progress. +projekt-o = project. +proklam-i = to proclaim. +prokrast-i = to delay, procrastinate. +proksim-a = near. +promen-i = to go walking, promenade. +promes-i = to promise. +propon-i = to propose, offer. +proporci-o = proportion. +propr-a = own (one's own); malpropra, other people's; + --igi al si, to appropriate, make one's own. +prosper-i = to have success, prosper. +protekt-i = to protect. +protest-i = to protest. +protokol-o = minutes (of a meeting). +prov-i = to try, attempt, test. +proviz-i = to provide. +proz-o = prose; --ajxo, prose composition, piece of prose. +prudent-a = reasonable, sensible, rational. +prujn-o = hoar frost. +prun-o = plum. +prunt-o = loan; --i, --e doni, to lend; --e preni, to borrow. +pruv-i = to prove, give proof of. +psalm-o = psalm. +publik-o = public (the); --igi, to publish. +puding-o = pudding. +pudr-i = to powder. +pugn-o = fist. +pulm-o = lung. +pulv-o = gunpowder. +pump-i = to pump. +pun-i = to punish. +punt-o = lace (point, etc.). +pup-o = doll. +pupitr-o = desk. +pur-a = clean, pure. +purpur-a = purple. +pusx-i = to push; repusxi, to repulse. +put-o = well (for water). + + R. + +rabarb-o = rhubarb. +rab-i = to pillage, plunder; --isto, robber. +rabat-i = to rebate, give a reduction, discount or rebate. +rad-o = wheel. +radi-o = ray (of light), spoke (of wheel), radius. +radik-o = root. +rafan-o = radish. +rafin-i = to refine; --ejo, refinery. +rajd-i = to ride (horse, etc.). +rajt-o = right (to something). +rakont-i = to relate, narrate (77). +ramp-i = to creep, crawl, clamber. +ran-o = frog. +rand-o = edge, border. +rang-o = rank, grade, dignity. +rapid-a = rapid, quick; --o, speed; --emo, haste. +raport-i = to report, give a report. +ras-o = race (tribe, people, nation). +rasp-i = to rasp, grate; --ilo, grater. +rat-o = rat. +rauxk-a = hoarse, raucous. +rav-i = to enchant. +raz-i = to shave. +re- = prefix indicating repetition or return (223). +real-a = real. +reciprok-a = reciprocal, mutual (180). +redakci-o = editorial department. +redakt-i = to edit. +redaktor-o = editor. +redingot-o = frock coat. +refut-i = to refute. +reg-i = to rule, govern, reign. +regal-i = (trans.), to regale, treat (to food or drink). +region-o = region. +registr-i = (trans.), to register, enroll. +regn-o = state, governed body; --ano, citizen, subject. +regul-o = rule, regulation. +regx-o = king. +reklam-i = to advertise. +rekomend-i = to recommend, register (a letter). +rekompenc-i = to recompense, reward. +rekt-a = straight, undeviating, direct. +rel-o = rail. +religi-o = religion. +rem-i = to row. +rembur-i = to upholster, stuff, pad. +renkont-i = (trans.), to meet. +renvers-i = (trans.), to upset. +reprezent-i = to represent. +respekt-i = to respect. +respond-i = to answer. +respublik-o = republic. +rest-i = to remain, stay. +restoraci-o = restaurant. +resum-i = to summarize, give in resume. +ret-o = net, netting. +rev-i = to indulge in revery, dream, fancy. +revu-o = journal, review, magazine. +rezon-i = to reason (exert the power of reasoning). +rezult-i = to result. +ricev-i = to receive. +ricx-a = rich. +rid-i = to laugh (265). +rifuz-i = to refuse. +rigard-i = to look. +rigl-i = to bolt (fasten). +rikolt-i = to harvest, reap. +rilat-i = to have relation (to) (266). +rimark-i = to notice, note. +rimed-o = means, way; vivrimedoj, means of livelihood. +rimen-o = thong, strap. +ring-o = ring. +rip-o = rib. +ripar-i = to mend, repair. +ripet-i = to repeat. +ripoz-i = to repose, rest. +riprocx-i = to reproach. +river-o = river. +riz-o = rice. +rob-o = dress, robe. +Robert-o = Robert. +romp-i = (trans.), to break. +rond-o = circle, ring, round. +ros-o = dew. +rost-i = to roast. +roz-o = rose (flower). +ruband-o = ribbon. +rubus-o = blackberry. +rugx-a = red. +ruin-o = ruin. +rul-i = (trans.), to roll (ball, etc.). +rus-o = Russian. +rust-i = to rust. +rutin-o = routine. +ruz-a = crafty, cunning, sly. + + S. + +sabat-o = Saturday. +sabl-o = sand. +sag-o = arrow. +sagx-a = wise. +sak-o = sack, bag. +sal-o = salt. +salajr-o = salary, wages. +salat-o = salad. +salon-o = parlor, drawing-room. +salt-i = to jump, leap. +salut-i = to salute, greet. +sam-a = same. +san-a = healthy, well. +sang-o = blood. +sankt-a = sacred, holy. +sap-o = soap. +sarden-o = sardine. +sat-a = sated; malsata, hungry. +sauxc-o = sauce, gravy, dressing. +sav-i = to save; rescue. +sci-i = to know (117). +scienc-o = science. +se = (conj.), if (240). +sed = (conj.), but. +seg-i = to saw. +segx-o = chair. +sek-a = dry. +sekret-o = secret. +sekretari-o = secretary. +sekund-o = second (of time). +sekv-i = to follow. +sel-o = saddle. +sem-o = seed; --i, to sow. +semajn-o = week. +sen = (prep.), without (248). +senat-o = senate; --ano, senator. +senc-o = sense, meaning. +send-i = to send. +sent-i = to feel, perceive. +sep = (adj.), seven (136). +septembr-o = September. +sercx-i = to seek, hunt, look for. +serur-o = lock. +serv-i = to serve. +servic-o = course (of a meal). +ses = (adj.), six (136). +sever-a = severe, stern. +sezon-o = season. +si = (pronoun, reflexive), himself, herself, etc. (40, 44, 274). +sibl-i = to hiss, whistle (wind, etc.). +sid-i = to sit (239). +sigel-i = to seal. +sign-o = sign, trace, mark. +signif-i = to signify, mean. +silab-o = syllable. +silent-i = to be silent (239). +silk-o = silk. +simi-o = monkey. +simil-a = like, similar. +simpl-a = simple. +sinjor-o = gentleman, Mr. (163). +Sirakuz-o = Syracuse. +sitel-o = pail, bucket. +skatol-o = small box or case. +skiz-i = to sketch. +sklav-o = slave. +skot-o = Scot, Scotchman. +skrap-i = to scrape. +skrib-i = to write. +sku-i = (trans.), to shake. +skulpt-i = to carve, sculpture. +societ-o = society. +soif-i = to be thirsty. +sojl-o = threshold. +Sokrat-o = Socrates. +sol-a = alone, sole, only. +soldat-o = soldier. +solen-a = formal, solemn. +somer-o = summer. +son-i = (intrans.), to sound. +songx-i = to dream (in sleep). +sonor-i = (intrans.), to ring, sound; --ilo, bell. +sopir-i = to yearn, long, sigh. +sorb-i = to absorb; --papero, blotting-paper. +sorcx-o = witchcraft; ensorcxi, to bewitch; --isto, sorcerer. +sort-o = destiny, fate, lot. +sovagx-a = wild, savage. +spac-o = space. +spec-o = kind, sort, species. +special-a = special. +specimen-o = specimen, sample. +spegul-o = mirror. +spert-a = experienced, expert. +spes-o = speso (international unit of money, 284). +spez-o = clearing (financial); elspezi, to disburse, expend, spend; + enspezi, to take in, receive (funds). +spinac-o = spinach. +spir-i = to breathe; elspiri, to exhale. +spite = (prep.), in spite of. +sprit-a = witty. +staci-o = station (railway, boat, etc.). +stamp-i = to mark officially, stamp. +standard-o = standard, flag. +stan-o = tin (metal). +stang-o = pole. +star-i = to stand (239). +stat-o = state (of being), condition. +stel-o = star. +stenografi-o = shorthand, stenography. +stil-o = style. +stimul-i = to stimulate. +stomak-o = stomach. +strang-a = strange, peculiar. +strat-o = street. +strecx-i = (trans.), to stretch. +strek-i = to make a streak, or line; substreki, to underline; + surstreki, trastreki, to cross off, strike out. +stri-o = streak, stripe, band. +strik-o = strike (of labor). +stud-i = to study. +student-o = student (college, etc.). +stuf-i = (trans.), to stew. +stump-o = stump (of tree, etc.). +sub = (prep.), under, beneath (121, 160). +subit-a = sudden, abrupt. +substanc-o = substance. +sud-o = south. +sufer-i = to suffer, endure. +suficx-i = to suffice; --ega, abundant. +sufiks-o = suffix. +sufok-i = (trans.), to suffocate. +sugesti-i = to suggest. +suk-o = sap, juice (of plants, etc.); --a, succulent. +sukces-i = to succeed. +suker-o = sugar. +sulfur-o = sulphur. +sulk-o = furrow, wrinkle. +sum-o = sum, amount. +sun-o = sun. +sup-o = soup. +super = (prep.), above, over (159); --a, superior. +supersticx-o = superstition. +supoz-i = to suppose. +supr-e = (adv.), above; --a, upper, above; --ajxo, surface. +sur = (prep.), on, upon (160). +surd-a = deaf. +surpriz-i = to surprise. +surtut-o = overcoat. +suspekt-i = to suspect. +sved-o = Swede. +sven-i = to faint, swoon. +sving-i = (trans.), swing, brandish. +svis-o = Swiss. + + SX. + +sxaf-o = sheep; --ajxo, mutton; --ido, lamb; --idajxo, lamb (meat); + --viro, ram. +sxajn-i = to seem, appear. +sxal-o = shawl. +sxanc-o = luck, chance; bonsxance, luckily. +sxancel-i = (trans.), to oscillate, vacillate, make tremble. +sxangx-i = (trans.), to change, alter. +sxargx-i = to burden, load. +sxat-i = to like, prize. +sxauxm-o = foam, froth. +sxel-o = shell, peeling, bark. +sxelk-o = suspender, supporter. +sxerc-i = to joke, jest. +sxi = (pronoun), she, her (32, 37, 42). +sxild-o = shield. +sxink-o = ham. +sxip-o = ship. +sxir-i = to tear. +sxirm-i = to shelter, shield; --ilo, screen. +sxlim-o = slime. +sxlos-i = to lock; --ilo, key. +sxmir-i = to anoint, smear. +sxnur-o = string. +sxose-o = broad roadway, drive. +sxov-i = to shove, push. +sxovel-i = to shovel. +sxpar-i = to spare, be economical of. +sxpin-i = to spin. +sxpruc-i = to gush, spout, spurt (of liquids). +sxrank-o = cupboard, wardrobe. +sxrauxb-o = screw. +sxtal-o = steel. +sxtat-o = state (political). +sxtel-i = to steal (252). +sxtip-o = log, block of wood. +sxtof-o = cloth, stuff. +sxton-o = stone. +sxtop-i = to stop up, cork; --ilo, stopper. +sxtrump-o = stocking. +sxtup-o = step, round; --aro, stair-case. +sxu-o = shoe; supersxuo, overshoe. +sxuld-i = to owe, be indebted. +sxultr-o = shoulder. +sxut-o = chute; --i, to pour (as in a chute). +sxvel-i = to swell, become swollen. +sxvit-i = to perspire. + + T. + +tabak-o = tobacco. +tabel-o = table, index, tabulation. +tabl-o = table (furniture). +tabul-o = board, plank. +tag-o = day; --igxo, dawn; --mezo, noon. +tajlor-o = tailor. +taks-i = to estimate, value, rate. +talent-o = talent. +tali-o = waist; beltalia, shapely, having a good figure. +tambur-o = drum. +tamen = (conj.), nevertheless, however, yet, still. +tantiem-o = percentage of profit, royalty. +tapisx-o = carpet. +tarif-o = tariff, schedule of rates. +tas-o = cup; subtaso, saucer. +task-o = task. +tauxg-i = to be fit for, good for. +tavol-o = layer. +te-o = tea. +teatr-o = theatre; --ajxo, play. +ted-i = to be tedious. +teg-i = to cover, put a covering upon. +tegment-o = roof. +teks-i = to weave. +telefon-i = to telephone. +telegraf-i = to telegraph. +teler-o = plate; --meblo, sideboard. +tem-o = theme, subject. +temp-o = time. +tempi-o = temple (of the head). +templ-o = temple (building). +ten-i = to hold, keep. +tend-o = tent. +tenor-o = tenor (voice). +tent-i = to tempt. +teori-o = theory. +ter-o = earth, soil; enterigi, to inter. +teras-o = terrace. +teritori-o = territory. +termin-o = term, definition (word). +tern-i = to sneeze. +terpom-o = potato. +terur-o = terror. +tia = that kind of, such (65). +tial = (adv.), therefore (78, 83). +tiam = (adv.), then, at that time (73). +tibi-o = shin bone, tibia; --karno, calf (of the leg). +tie = (adv.), there (68). +tiel = (adv.), thus, so (88, 156). +tigr-o = tiger. +tikl-i = to tickle. +tili-o = linden. +tim-i = to fear, be afraid of. +timon-o = pole, tongue, shaft. +tint-i = to jingle, tinkle. +tio = (pronoun), that (233, 234). +tiom = (adv.), that much, so much (104, 164). +tir-i = to pull, draw. +tiran-o = tyrant. +titol-o = title. +tiu = (pronoun), that one, that (56); tiu cxi, this one, this (60). +tost-o = toast (sentiment). +tol-o = linen. +toler-i = to tolerate. +tomat-o = tomato. +tomb-o = tomb, grave. +ton-o = tone. +tond-i = to shear; --ilo, shears, scissors. +tondr-i = to thunder. +tord-i = to twist; --a, crooked, winding. +tra = (prep.), through (46, 160). +trab-o = beam (wooden). +traduk-i = to translate. +traf-i = to reach, attain (that which was aimed at or sought); + maltrafi, to miss. +trajt-o = feature. +trakt-i = to treat of (in essay, speech, etc.); --ato, treatise. +tram-o = tram; --vojo, tramway, street-car line; --veturilo, street-car. +trancx-i = to cut, sever. +trankvil-a = serene, tranquil, calm. +trans = (prep.), across, the other side of (160). +tre = (adv.), very, very much. +trem-i = to tremble. +tremp-i = to drench, dip. +tren-i = to drag, haul, draw; --ajxo, train (of a dress). +trezor-o = treasure. +tri = (adj.), three (136). +trik-i = to knit. +trink-i = to drink. +tritik-o = wheat. +triumf-o = triumph. +tro = (adv.), too, too much. +tromp-i = to deceive. +tron-o = throne. +tropik-o = tropic. +trot-i = to trot. +trotuar-o = sidewalk, pavement. +trov-i = to find. +tru-o = hole. +trud-i = to force upon, impose; altrudema, importunate. +trunk-o = trunk (of tree or body). +tualet-o = toilet. +tub-o = tube, pipe. +tuber-o = bulb, knot, tuber. +tuj = (adv.), at once, immediately +tuk-o = piece of cloth. +tur-o = tower. +turk-o = Turk. +turment-i = to torment. +turn-i = (trans.), to turn. +tus-i = to cough. +tusx-i = to touch; kortusxi, to touch (the heart of). +tut-a = entire, whole, all. + + U. + +-uj- = suffix indicating receptacle, that which bears or contains (181). +-ul- = suffix indicating person characterized by that in the root (132). +ulm-o = elm. +-um- = indefinite suffix (268). +ung-o = nail (of finger); --ego, claw, talon. +univers-o = universe. +universitat-o = university. +unu = (adj.), one (136, 137, 180); unuigxo, union. +uragan-o = hurricane. +urb-o = city; cxefurbo, capital. +urgx-i = to be urgent or pressing. +urs-o = bear. +Uson-o = United States of America. +util-a = useful. +uz-i = to use; trouzi, to abuse. + + V. + +vad-i = to wade. +vafl-o = waffle. +vag-i = to wander, to roam; --isto, vagabond. +vagon-o = car, railway carriage. +vak-i = to be vacant. +vaks-o = wax. +val-o = valley. +valiz-o = valise, satchel, bag. +valor-i = to be worth. +vals-i = to waltz. +van-a = vain, fruitless. +vang-o = cheek. +vant-a = vain, conceited. +vapor-o = steam, vapor. +varb-i = (trans.), to enlist, recruit. +varm-a = warm. +vast-a = vast, spacious, extensive. +vaz-o = vase, basin. +ve! = (interjection), woe! ho ve! alas! (273). +veget-i = to vegetate, grow (as plants). +vegetar-a = vegetarian. +vejn-o = vein. +vek-i = (trans.), to wake, awake. +vel-o = sail. +velk-i = to fade, wither, wilt. +velur-o = velvet. +ven-i = to come. +vend-i = to sell. +vendred-o = Friday. +venen-o = poison. +vengx-i = to avenge. +venk-i = to conquer, vanquish. +vent-o = wind. +ver-o = truth. +verand-o = veranda, porch. +verd-a = green. +verk-i = to compose (music or literature). +verm-o = worm. +vermicxel-o = vermicelli. +vers-o = verse. +versx-i = to pour (a liquid). +vertikal-a = vertical. +vesper-o = evening (93). +vest-i = to clothe, dress. +vesxt-o = vest, waistcoat. +vet-i = to wager, bet. +veter-o = weather. +vetur-i = to ride, go (in vehicle, boat, etc.). +vi = (pronoun), you (32, 37, 274). +viand-o = meat. +vibr-i = to vibrate. +vic-o = turn, place in a series; lauxvice, in turn; siavice, + in his (her, its, their) turn; vicprezidanto, vice-president. +vid-i = to see. +vidv-o = widower; --ino, widow. +vigl-a = alert, brisk. +vilagx-o = village. +vin-o = wine. +vinagr-o = vinegar. +vinber-o = grape; sekvinbero, raisin. +vintr-o = winter. +viol-o = violet. +violon-o = violin. +vip-i = to whip. +vir-o = man +virt-o = virtue. +visx-i = to wipe. +vitr-o = glass (material). +viv-i = to live (133). +vizagx-o = face, visage. +vizit-i = to visit. +vocx-o = voice; --doni, to vote. +voj-o = road, way. +vojagx-i = to journey, travel, voyage. +vok-i = to call. +vokal-o = vowel. +vol-i = to be willing, will, wish. +volont-e = willingly. +volum-o = volume (book). +volumen-o = volume (of a body). +volv-i = to roll (something around something). +vort-o = word; --aro, dictionary. +vost-o = tail. +vual-o = veil. +vulgar-a = common, vulgar. +vulp-o = fox. +vund-i = to wound. + + Z. + +zenit-o = zenith. +zigzag-o = zigzag. +zingibr-o = ginger. +zink-o = zinc. +zon-o = girdle, belt, zone. +zoologi-o = zoology. +zorg-i = to care (for), be anxious (about). +zum-i = to hum, buzz. + + + + * * * * * + + + + ENGLISH-ESPERANTO VOCABULARY. + +The following vocabulary includes all Esperanto roots used in the +preceding lessons, all primary words of the language, and a large number +of additional roots (to facilitate original composition). No attempt +has been made, however, to include all of the roots of the language, +or their various English meanings, for which an English-Esperanto +Dictionary should be consulted. + +References are to sections, unless the page (p.) is given. [Since page +numbers have no relevance in this etext version, such references were +deleted.] For other parts of speech than those indicated, see Word +Formation, 116, 120, 159, 171, also the references under Prefixes and +Suffixes in the Index. For formation of compound words other than +those given, see 160, 167, 176, 184. The following abbreviations are +used: adj. = adjective; adv. = adverb; conj. = conjunction; intrans. = +intransitive; prep. = preposition; trans. = transitive; -- = repetition +of the English word. + + A + +abandon = forlas-i. +abash = hontig-i. +(be) able = pov-i (72). +abominable = abomen-a. +about = (prep.), cxirkaux; (concerning) pri; (adv.), + (approximately, proksimum-e. +above = (prep.), super (159); (adv.), supr-e; cxi supre. +abrupt = subit-a. +absorb = sorb-i. +abundant = suficxeg-a. +academy = akademi-o. +accelerate = (trans.), akcel-i. +accent = akcent-o. +accept = akcept-i. +accident = akcident-o; (chance) okaz-o. +accompany = akompan-i. +(in) accordance with = (prep.), laux (191). +account = kont-o; (bill) kalkul-o; (story) rakont-o. +(on) account of = (prep.), pro (86). +accurate = akurat-a. +accusative = akuzativ-o. +accuse = akuz-i, kulpig-i. +accustomed = familiar-a, kutimit-a. +ache = dolor-o. +acid = acid-o. +(be) acquainted with = kon-i (117); become --, konatigx-i. + acquire, akir-i. +across = (prep.), trans. +act = ag-i; --on, efik-i; (behave) kondut-i; (of play) akt-o. +active = agema; (grammatical), aktiv-a. +actor = aktor-o. +actual = efektiv-a, ver-a. +acute = akr-a. +add = aldon-i (160). +address = (on letters, etc.) adres-o; (lecture) parolad-o. +adequate = suficx-a. +adjacent = apud-a (159). +adjective = adjektiv-o. +administer = (manage), administr-i. +admire = admir-i. +admit = konfes-i; (let in) allas-i. +admonish = admon-i. +adore = ador-i. +adorn = ornam-i. +adverb = adverb-o. +advantage = util-o, profit-o. +advertise = reklam-i. +advise = konsil-i. +affable = afabl-a. +affair = afer-o; regrettable --, domagx-o. +affirmative = jes-a (171). +(be) afraid = tim-i. +Africa = Afrik-o. +after = (prep.), post (89). +afternoon = posttagmez-o. +again = denov-e, re-e (223). +against = (prep.), kontraux. +age = agx-o; of --, plenagx-a; old --, maljunec-o. +(give an) agency = komisi-i. +agent = agent-o. +agitate = agit-i. +agony = agoni-o. +agree = konsent-i; (contract) kontrakt-i. +agreeable = agrabl-a. +aid = help-i. +aim at = cel-i. +air = aer-o; to --, aerum-i; (music) ari-o. +alas! = ho ve (273). +alcohol = alkohol-o. +alcove = alkov-o. +alert = vigl-a. +Alexander = Aleksandr-o. +Alexandria = Aleksandri-o. +Alfred = Alfred-o. +algebra = algebr-o. +alive = viv-a. +all = (pronoun and adj.), cxiuj (173); (indefinite pronoun) cxio (233); + (adv. of quantity) cxiom (194); (whole, entire) tut-a. +alliance = lig-o. +allow = permes-i. +allude = alud-i. +allure = log-i. +almanac = almanak-o. +almost = (adv.), preskaux. +alms = almoz-o. +alone = sol-a. +along = (prep.), laux (191); -- with, kune kun. +aloud = lauxt-e. +alphabet = alfabet-o. +already = (adv.), jam. +also = (adv.), ankaux. +altar = altar-o. +alter = (trans.), sxangx-i, aliig-i. +although = (conj.), kvankam. +always = (adv.), cxiam (187). +America = Amerik-o. +amiable = afabl-a, amind-a. +amid = meze de, inter (85). +among = (prep.), inter (85). +amount = sum-o, kvant-o; a certain --, iom (217). +amphibious = amfibi-a. +amphitheatre = amfiteatr-o. +amuse = amuz-i. +analyse = analiz-i. +ancestor = prapatr-o (282). +anchor = ankr-o. +ancient = antikv-a. +and = (conj.), kaj (26). +anecdote = anekdot-o. +anew = denov-e. +angel = angxel-o. +angle = angul-o. +angry = koler-a. +animal = best-o. +ankle = maleol-o. +announce = anonc-i. +annoy = cxagren-i. +anoint = sxmir-i. +answer = respond-i. +ant = formik-o. +antelope = antilop-o. +antipathy = antipati-o. +antique = antikv-a. +anvil = ambos-o. +anxious = maltrankvil-a. +any = (pronoun and adj.), iu (203); (adv. of quantity) iom (217); + --kind, --time, --thing, etc., see table, 235. +any more = (adv.), plu. +apartment = apartament-o. +apathy = apati-o. +apologise = pardonon pet-i. +apology = (defence), apologi-o. +apparatus = aparat-o. +appear = (come in sight), aper-i; (seem) sxajn-i. +appearance = (aspect), aspekt-o, mien-o, vidigx-o. +appetite = apetit-o. +applaud = aplauxd-i. +apple = pom-o. +apply = (put on), almet-i; -- to (for information, etc.), sin turni al. +approach = alproksimigx-i al. +appropriate = proprigi al si; (suitable), konven-a, dec-a. +approve = aprob-i. +approximate = proksimum-a. +apricot = abrikot-o. +April = april-o. +apron = antauxtuk-o. +aquarium = akvari-o. +Arab = arab-o; street --, bub-o. +arbitrate = arbitraci-i. +arbor = lauxb-o. +arc = ark-o. +arcade = arkad-o. +archer = pafarkist-o. +Archimedes = Arhximed-o. +architecture = arhxitektur-o. +arena = aren-o. +argue = argument-i. +Aristeides = Aristejd-o. +aristocrat = aristokrat-o. +Aristotle = Aristotel-o. +arithmetic = aritmetik-o. +arm = (of the body), brak-o; (weapon) armil-o. +army = arme-o. +aroma = arom-o. +around = (prep.), cxirkaux (89, 160). +arouse = incit-i, vek-i. +arrange = arangx-i. +arrest = arest-i. +arrive = alven-i. +arrogant = arogant-a. +arrow = sag-o. +art = art-o. +Arthur = Artur-o. +article = (grammatical, literary) artikol-o. +artificial = artefarit-a. +artless = naiv-a. +as = (adv.) kiel; as ... as ... tiel ... kiel ... (156); + -- if, -- though, kvazaux (250); -- far as, gxis (prep., 46); + -- much ... as ..., tiom ... kiom (164). +ascertain = certigx-i; -- the truth of, konstat-i. +(be) ashamed = hont-i. +ashes = cindr-o. +Asia = Azi-o. +aside from = (prep.), krom. +ask = (inquire), demand-i; (request), pet-i. +asparagus = asparag-o. +aspect = aspekt-o, mien-o. +ass = azen-o. +assemble = kunven-i, kunvok-i. +assist = help-i. +association = (organization), asoci-o. +assurance = aplomb-o, certigo. +at = (prep.), cxe (125, 160), je (260); -- the rate of, po (175). +athlete = atlet-o. +atmosphere = atmosfer-o. +attack = atak-i. +attain = ating-i, traf-i. +attempt = prov-i. +attentive = atent-a. +attest = atest-i. +attribute = atribut-o. +August = auxgust-o. +Australia = Auxstrali-o. +author = auxtor-o, verkist-o. +automatic = auxtomat-a. +autumn = auxtun-o. +avaricious = avar-a. +avenge = vengx-i. +avenue = ale-o, bulvard-o. +avoid = evit-i. +awake = (trans.), vek-i. +away = (adv.), for (71); (distant), malproksim-e (170). +axe = hakil-o. +axis = (axle), aks-o. + + B. + +babble = babil-i. +baby = infanet-o. +bachelor = frauxl-o; -- of arts (A.B.), abiturient-o. +back = (of the body), dors-o; to the rear (adv.), malantauxen (121). +bacon = lard-o. +bag = sak-o, valiz-o. +bagatelle = bagatel-o. +bake = (trans.), bak-i. +balance = (trans.), balanc-i; (scales), pesil-o. +ball = (to play with), pilk-o; (dance), bal-o; (globe), glob-o. +banana = banan-o. +band = (stripe), stri-o; (music), orkestr-o; (group), ar-o (126). +bandage = bandagx-i. +banish = ekzil-i. +bank = (financial), bank-o; (shore), bord-o. +(become) bankrupt = bankrot-i +banner = flag-o, standard-o. +banquet = festen-o. +bar = bar-i. +barbarian = barbar-o. +bare = nud-a. +bark = (of trees), sxel-o; (of dogs), boj-i. +barrel = barel-o; -- organ, gurd-o. +barren = senfrukt-a. +barrister = advokat-o. +barytone = bariton-o. +base = (foundation), fundament-o, baz-o; (ignoble), malnobl-a. +basin = vaz-o, kuv-o. +basket = korb-o. +bass = (voice), bas-o. +bathe = (trans.), ban-i. +battle = batal-i. +be = est-i (109). +beak = bek-o. +beam = (wooden), trab-o; (light), radi-o. +bean = (leguminous fruit), fab-o; (garden bean), fazeol-o. +bear = (animal), urs-o; (carry), port-i; (endure), elport-i, sufer-i; + (produce, give birth to), nask-i. +beard = barb-o. +beast = best-o. +beat = bat-i; (surpass), super-i, venk-i. +beautiful = bel-a. +because = (conj.), cxar (83), tial ke (83); -- of (prep.), pro (86). +become = igx-i, farigx-i (232); (be suitable), konven-i, dec-i. +bed = lit-o. +bee = abel-o. +beef = bovajx-o (227, c). +beefsteak = bifstek-o. +beet = bet-o. +before = (prep.), antaux (89, 90, 120, 159, 160); (conj.), + antaux ol (97, 98); (adv.), antauxe, jxus antauxe. +beg = (request), pet-i; (ask alms), almozon pet-i. +beggar = almozul-o. +begin = (trans.), komenc-i (see also prefix "ek-", 206). +behave = kondut-i. +behind = (prep.), post. +behold = rigard-i, vid-i; (adv.), jen (228). +Belgian = belg-o. +believe = kred-i (265). +bell = sonoril-o. +belong = aparten-i. +below = (prep.), sub; (adv.), sub-e, malsupr-e. +belt = zon-o. +bench = benk-o. +bend = (trans.), klin-i, fleks-i. +benevolence = bonfar-o. +berry = ber-o. +beside = (prep.), krom; (near), apud; (at the side of), flanke de. +bet = vet-i. +betray = perfid-i. +betrothed = (man), fiancx-o. +between = (prep.), inter (85, 89). +bewitch = ensorcx-i. +beyond = (prep.), preter. +bicycle = bicikl-o. +bid = (order), ordon-i; -- farewell, adiaux-i. +big = grand-a. +bill = (of bird), bek-o; bank --, bankbilet-o; hand--, afisx-o; + (reckoning), kalkul-o. +bind = (fasten), lig-i; (wounds), bandagx-i. +bird = bird-o. +biscuit = biskvit-o; (ring-shaped), kring-o. +bit = (piece), pec-o; (adv.), iom (217). +bite = mord-i. +black = nigr-a; to -- (shoes, etc.), cir-i. +blackberry = rubus-o. +blackbird = merl-o. +blacking = cir-o. +blade = (of knife, etc.), kling-o. +bleat = blek-i. +bless = ben-i. +blind = blind-a. +block = (of wood), stip-o. +blood = sang-o. +bloom = flor-i (116). +blot = (spot), makul-o. +blotter = sorbil-o, sorbpaper-o. +blouse = bluz-o, kitel-o. +blow = blov-i; (stroke), bat-o. +blue = blu-a; --ish, dubeblu-a. +blush = rugxigx-i. +board = (plank), tabul-o; (food), nutrad-o. +boast = fanfaron-i. +boat = boat-o, sxipet-o. +body = korp-o. +boil = (intrans.), bol-i (275). +bolt = (fasten), rigl-i. +bonbon = bombon-o. +bond = (fastening), ligil-o. +bone = ost-o. +book = libr-o; note--, copy--, kajer-o. +boot = bot-o. +border = (edge), rand-o. +bore = (holes), bor-i; (weary), enuig-i. +(be) born = naskigx-i. +borrow = pruntepren-i. +Boston = Boston-o. +both = (pronoun and adj.), ambaux (238); (adv.), kaj (26). +bottle = botel-o. +bottom = fund-o, malsupr-o. +bough = brancx-o. +boulevard = bulvard-o. +boundary = lim-o. +bouquet = buked-o. +bow = (of ribbon), bant-o; (for shooting), pafark-o. +bow = (bend), klinigx-i, salut-i. +box = kest-o; small --, skatol-o. +boy = knab-o. +bracket = (shelf), bret-o. +brag = fanfaron-i. +braid = plekt-i. +brain = cerb-o. +branch = (of tree), brancx-o; (of work or study), fak-o. +brandish = sving-i. +brandy = brand-o. +brave = brav-o. +bread = pan-o. +break = (trans)., romp-i; -- to pieces, frakas-i. +breakfast = matenmangx-o. +breathe = spir-i. +brick = brik-o. +bridge = pont-o. +bridle = brid-o. +bright = (clear), hel-a. +bring = alport-i; -- forth (produce), nask-i; -- up (educate), eduk-i. +brisk = vigl-a. +Briton = Brit-o. +broad = largx-a. +brochure = brosxur-o. +bronze = bronz-o. +brood = (birds), kov-i. +brother = frat-o. +brown = brun-a. +brownie = kobold-o. +bruise = kontuz-i. +brush = bros-i. +brute = brut-o. +bucket = sitel-o. +buckle = buk-o. +bud = burgxon-o. +build = konstru-i. +bulb = tuber-o, bulb-o. +Bulgarian = Bulgar-o. +bull = bovvir-o. +bullet = kugl-o. +bunch = fask-o. +bundle = fask-o, pakajx-o. +bungle = fusx-i. +burden = sxargx-i. +burn = (intrans.), brul-i (275). +burst = (intrans.), krev-i. +bury = enterig-i. +but = (conj.), sed; (prep.), krom. +butcher = bucx-i. +butter = buter-o. +butterfly = papili-o. +button = buton-o; to --, butonum-i. +buy = acxet-i. +buzz = zum-i. +by = (prep.), per (64); de (169, 170); (past), preter; (according to), + laux (191). + + C. + +cab = fiakr-o. +cabbage = brasik-o. +cage = kagx-o. +cake = kuk-o. +calculate = kalkul-i. +caldron = kaldron-o. +calendar = kalendar-o. +calf = bovid-o; (of the leg), tibikarn-o. +call = vok-i; (visit), vizit-i. +calling = (profession), profesi-o. +calm = kviet-a, trankvil-a. +camel = kamel-o. +camera = kamer-o. +can = (be able), pov-i (72); (preserve fruit, etc.), konfit-i. +candle = kandel-o. +candy = kand-o. +canoe = kanot-o. +cap = cxap-o. +capable = kapabl-a. +capital = (money), kapital-o; (excellent), boneg-a; (city), cxefurb-o. +capitol = kapitol-o. +car = vagon-o. +card = kart-o; visiting --, vizitkart-o. +care = (for), zorg-i (pri). +caress = dorlot-i, kares-i. +carpet = tapisx-o. +carriage = kalesx-o, veturil-o. +carrot = karot-o. +carry = port-i. +carve = skulpt-i. +case = (small box), skatol-o; (chest), kest-o; (legal), proces-o; + (holder), uj-o (181), ing-o (237); (occasion), okaz-o; + (grammatical), kaz-o. +cashier = kasist-o. +cascade = kaskad-o. +cast = jxet-i. +castle = kastel-o. +cat = kat-o. +catch = kapt-i. +cattle = brut-o, brutar-o. +cauliflower = florbrasik-o. +cause = ig-i (214); (produce a result), kauxz-i; (motive), kial-o; + tial-o; (espoused or advocated), afer-o; (legal), proces-o. +caution = avert-i. +cavity = kav-o. +cease = (intrans.), cxes-i. +ceiling = plafon-o. +celebrate = fest-i, solenig-i; --ed, fama. +celery = celeri-o. +cellar = kel-o. +cent = cend-o. +center = centr-o. +centigram = centigram-o (284). +centiliter = centilitr-o (284). +centimeter = centimetr-o (284). +certain = cert-a; a -- (one), iu (pronoun and adj., 203); + -- amount, etc., see table, 235. +certainly = nepr-e, cert-e, ja (215). +certify = atest-i, certig-i, konstat-i. +chain = cxen-o; (fetter), katen-o; (of mountains), montar-o. +chair = segx-o. +(be) chairman = prezid-i. +chalk = kret-o. +chance = sxanc-o; (hazard), hazard-o; (opportunity), okazo. +change = (trans.), sxangx-i; (coins), moner-oj. +chapel = kapel-o. +chapter = cxapitr-o. +character = karakter-o. +charge = (commission), komisi-o; (burden), sxargx-o; (price, cost), + prez-o, kost-o. +charm = cxarm-i. +chase = (game, etc.), cxas-i; (drive off), forpel-i. +chatter = babil-i. +check = (on bank), cxek-o. +cheek = vang-o. +cheese = fromagx-o. +chemise = cxemiz-o. +chemistry = hxemi-o. +chemist's shop = apotek-o. +cheque = cxek-o. +cherry = cxeriz-o. +chest = (box), kest-o; (with a lid), kofr-o. +chestnut = kasxtan-o. +chew = macx-i. +chief = cxef-a, precip-a; (leader), estr-o (253). +child = infan-o, id-o (207). +chimney = kamen-o. +chin = menton-o. +china = (porcelain), porcelan-o; (country), Hxinuj-o. +Chinaman = hxin-o. +chirp = pep-i. +chocolate = cxokolad-o. +choir = hxor-o. +choose = elekt-i. +chop = hak-i; (cutlet), kotlet-o. +chrestomathy = krestomati-o. +Christ = Krist-o. +church = (building), pregxej-o. +chute = sxut-o. +cigar = cigar-o. +cigarette = cigared-o. +cinnamon = cinam-o. +cipher = cifer-o. +circle = cirkl-o, rond-o. +circular = (letter, etc.), cirkuler-o. +circumstance = okaz-o, detal-o, cirkonstanc-o. +citizen = regnan-o, urban-o. +city = urb-o. +civilise = civiliz-i. +clack = krak-i. +claim = pretend-i. +clamber = ramp-i. +clap = (trans.), klak-i. +class = klas-o. +clatter = (trans.), klak-i. +claw = ungeg-o. +clay = argil-o. +clean = pur-a. +clear = (bright), hela; (distinct), klar-a. +clearing = (financial), spez-o. +clergyman = pastr-o. +clerk = komiz-o. +clever = lert-a. +climate = klimat-o. +climb up = grimp-i, supren ramp-i. +cloak = mantel-o. +clock = horlogx-o. +close = (trans.), ferm-i; (dense), dens-a; -- to (prep.), apud; + proksim-e de (170). +cloth = (in general), sxtof-o; (woollen, etc.), drap-o; + (piece of), tuk-o; table--, tablotuk-o. +clothe = vest-i. +cloud = nub-o. +club = (organization), klub-o; (weapon), bastoneg-o. +coal = karb-o. +coat = vest-o; (short), jak-o; (frock), redingot-o; over--, surtut-o. +cock = (fowl), kok-o. +coffee = kaf-o. +collect = (trans.), kolekt-i. +college = kolegi-o. +colonel = kolonel-o. +color = kolor-o. +column = kolon-o. +comb = komb-i. +come = ven-i. +comedy = komedi-o. +comfort = (console), konsol-i; (freedom from pain, etc.), komfort-o. +command = ordon-i; (military and naval), komand-i. +commerce = komerc-o. +commission = (entrusted), komisi-o; (percentage of profit), tantiem-o, + komisipag-o. +committee = komitat-o. +common = (general), gxeneral-a; (mutual), komun-a; (vulgar), vulgar-a. +communicate = komunik-i. +company = (commercial), kompanio; (guests), gastar-o; + (presence), cxeest-o. +compare = (trans.), kompar-i (266). +compassion = kompat-o. +compete = konkur-i. +competition = konkurad-o; (for prizes), konkurs-o; + (in business), konkurenc-o. +complain = plend-i. +complicate = komplik-i. +compose = (music or literature), verk-i. +compositor = (of type), kompostist-o. +conceal = kasx-i (252). +concern = koncern-i (266); (anxiety), maltrankvilec-o. +concerning = (prep.), pri. (264, c). +concert = (musical), koncert-o. +condemn = kondamn-i. +condition = cirkonstanc-o; (stipulation), kondicx-o; (state), stat-o. +conduct = (lead), konduk-i; -- oneself (behave), kondut-i. +conduct = (behavior), kondut-o; (in regard to right or wrong), mor-o. +conductor = (of car, etc.), konduktor-o. +confess = konfes-i. +confide = konfid-i. +conform = konform-i (266). +confound = (confuse), konfuz-i. +congratulate = gratul-i. +congress = kongres-o. +conquer = venk-i. +conscience = konscienc-o. +(be) conscious = konsci-i. +consent = konsent-i. +consequently = sekv-e, do; tial (78). +(be) conservative = konservativ-a. +consist = konsist-i. +console = konsol-i. +consonant = (letter), konsonant-o. +conspire = konspir-i. +constant = konstant-a. +constitution = konstituci-o. +consul = konsul-o. +consult = konsult-i, pet-i konsilon de. +contaminate = infekt-i. +content = kontent-a. +continent = (land), kontinent-o. +continue = dauxr-i, dauxrig-i. +contour = kontur-o. +contract = (commercial and legal), kontrakt-i. +contralto = kontralt-o. +contrary = mal-o (67); kontrauxstarem-a. +control = kontrol-i; (govern), reg-i. +convenient = konven-a, oportun-a. +convince = konvink-i. +cook = kuir-i. +copper = kupr-o. +copy = kopi-i; (of a book, etc.), ekzempler-o. +coquettish = koket-a. +cork = sxtop-i; (bark of cork tree), kork-o. +corner = angul-o. +corporal = corporeal, korp-a. +corps = (military), korpus-o. +corpse = kadavr-o. +correct = korekt-i; (right), prav-a. +correspond = korespond-i. +corridor = koridor-o. +cost = kost-i. +costume = kostum-o. +cotton = koton-o. +cough = tus-i. +counsel = konsil-i. +count = kalkul-i, sum-i, nombr-i; (person), graf-o. +county = grafland-o. +country = land-o; (as opposed to city), kampar-o. +coupon = kupon-o. +(be) courageous = kuragx-i. +course = (of lessons), kurs-o; (of a meal), servic-o; + of --, kompreneble; in the -- of, en la dauxro de. +court = kort-o, korteg-o, jugxej-o. +courteous = gxentil-a. +courtesy = gxentilec-o; (kindness), komplez-o. +cousin = kuz-o. +cover = kovr-i; (put covering upon), teg-i. +crab = krab-o. +crack = (split) (trans.), fend-i; (crackle), krak-i; + (burst open) (intrans.), krev-i. +cradle = lulil-o. +crafty = ruz-a. +cravat = kravat-o. +crawl = ramp-i. +crazy = frenez-a. +cream = krem-o. +create = kre-i. +creep = ramp-i; -- up, grimp-i. +crime = krim-o. +crippled = kripl-a. +criticise = kritik-i. +crooked = tord-a, malrekt-a, kurb-a. +cross = kruc-o; (angry), koler-a; -- off, trastrek-i. +crowd = amas-o, anar-o (145, 126). +crown = kron-o. +crucify = krucum-i. +cruel = kruel-a. +crush = pist-i, premeg-i. +crust = krust-o. +cry = (weep), plor-i; (shout), kri-i; (of animals), blek-i. +cucumber = kukum-o. +cultivate = kultur-i; -- the soil, terkultur-i. +cunning = ruz-a. +cup = tas-o; (goblet), pokal-o. +cupboard = sxrank-o. +curious = (odd), kurioz-a; (inquisitive), scivol-a. +curl = (of hair), bukl-o. +curtain = kurten-o. +curve = kurb-o. +cushion = kusen-o. +custom = kutim-o; (tax), impost-o. +cut = trancx-i; (of a garment), fason-o. +cutlet = kotlet-o. +cylinder = cilindr-o. +Cyrus = Cirus-o. + + D. + +dabble = (a liquid), plauxd-i. +dainty = delikat-a. +damage = difekt-i. +Damocles = Damokl-o. +Dane = dan-o. +danger = dangxer-o. +dance = danc-i. +date = (fruit), daktil-o; (time), dat-o. +dawn = tagigx-o. +day = tag-o. +deaf = surd-a. +dear = (prized), kar-a; (expensive), multekost-a. +debase = (adulterate), fals-i; (make bad), malbonig-i. +decay = (mould), sxim-o; (in health), kaduk-i. +deceive = tromp-i. +December = decembr-o. +decide = decid-i. +decigram = decigram-o (284). +deciliter = decilitr-o (284). +decimeter = decimetr-o (284). +deck (of ship) = ferdek-o; (adorn), ornam-i. +declaim = deklam-i. +deep = profund-a. +deer = cerv-o. +defend = defend-i. +define = defin-i, priskrib-i. +degree = grad-o. +dekagram = dekagram-o (284). +dekaliter = dekalitr-o (284). +dekameter = dekametr-o (284). +delay = prokrast-i. +delegate = deleg-i. +delicate = delikat-a. +delightful = cxarm-a, placxeg-a. +deliver (supply) = liver-i; (set free), liberig-i. +delusion = iluzi-o. +demand = postul-i. +dense = dens-a. +deny = ne-i (171). +department (of work, etc.) = fak-o. +desert = dezert-o; (just reward), merit-o. +deserve = merit-i. +desire = dezir-i. +desk = pupitr-o, skribtabl-o. +dessert = desert-o. +destine = destin-i; difin-i. +destiny = destin-o; (lot), sort-o. +destroy = detru-i, neniig-i. +detail = detal-o. +dew = ros-o. +diamond = diamant-o. +dictionary = vortar-o. +dictate (letters) = dikt-i. +die = mort-i. +different = divers-a, malsam-a, diferenc-a. +differentiate = diferencig-i. +dig = fos-i. +dignity (rank) = rang-o. +diligent = diligent-a. +dimension = dimensio; (size), ampleks-o. +Diogenes = Diogen-o. +dip (in liquid) = tremp-i. +diploma = diplom-o; holder of --, diplomit-o. +diplomat = diplomat-o. +direct (guide) = direkt-i; (undeviating), rekt-a. +disburse = elspez-i, elpag-i. +discount = rabat-i. +discuss = diskut-i, priparol-i. +disdain = malsxat-i, malestim-i. +dish (flat) = plad-o. +dispatch (letter) = depesx-o. +distance = distanc-o. +distinct = klar-a. +distinguish = disting-i. +distract (the attention) = distr-i; (confuse), konfuz-i. +disturb = gxen-i, maltrankvilig-i. +diverse = divers-a. +divide = (trans.), divid-i. +do = far-i; (suffice), suficx-i. +doctor = doktor-o; (medical), kuracist-o. +dog = hund-o. +doll = pup-o. +dollar = dolar-o. +donkey = azen-o. +door = pord-o; --handle, ans-o. +doubt = dub-i. +down (hair or feathers) = lanug-o; (downward) (adv.), malsupren. +dove = kolomb-o. +drag = (trans.), tren-i. +draw (pull) = tir-i; (sketch), skiz-i. +drawer = tirkest-o. +drawing-room = salon-o. +dream (in sleep) = songx-i; (fancy), rev-i. +drench = tremp-i. +dress = vest-i (sin); (frock), rob-o; --suit, frak-o. +dressing (sauce) = sauxc-o. +drink = trink-i. +drip = gut-i. +drive (off) = pel-i; (vehicle), veturig-i; (roadway), sxose-o. +drown = (intrans.), dron-i. +drug = drog-o; --store, apotek-o. +drum = tambur-o. +dry = sek-a. +duck = anas-o. +dues = kotizajx-o; pay --, kotiz-i. +dumb = mut-a; -- animal, brut-o. +during = (prep.), dum (96); en la dauxro de-. +dusk = krepusk-o. +dust = polv-o; remove the --, senpolvig-i. +duty = dev-o; be on --, dejxor-i. +dwell = logx-i. + + E. + +each = (adj. and pronoun), cxiu (173). +eager = avid-a. +eagle = agl-o. +ear (of the body) = orel-o. +early = fru-a. +earth = ter-o; (the planet), terglob-o. +east = orient-o. +Easter = Pask-o. +easy = facil-a. +eat = mangx-i. +echo = ehx-o. +economical = sxparem-a. +edge = rand-o; (of rivers, etc.), bord-o. +edit = redakt-i. +editor = redaktor-o. +editorial body = redakci-o. +educate = (rear), eduk-i; (teach), instru-i. +effect = efekt-o. +effective = efektiv-a. +(be) efficacious = efik-i. +egg = ov-o. +Egypt = Egipt-o. +eight = (adj.), ok (136). +either = (pronoun and adj.), iu (203); cxiu (173); unu aux la alia; + (adv.), aux; on -- side (adv.), ambauxflanke (238). +elbow = kubut-o. +electric = elektr-a. +elk = alk-o. +elm = ulm-o. +eloquent = elokvent-a. +embroider = brod-i. +eminent = eminent-a. +empire = imperi-o. +employ = (hire), dung-i; -- oneself, sin okupi; (use), uz-i. +employee = komiz-o, dungit-o, oficist-o. +employment = ofic-o, okupad-o. +enchant = ensorcx-i, rav-i. +encore = (adv.), bis. +end = (trans.), fin-i. +endow = dot-i. +endure = sufer-i, elport-i. +engineer = ingxenier-o. +Englishman = angl-o. +enjoy = gxu-i; -- oneself, sin amuz-i. +enlightened = kler-a. +enlist = (trans.), varb-i. +enroll = (trans.), registr-i, varb-i. +enthusiasm = entuziasm-o. +entire = tut-a. +entrust = komisii, alkonfid-i. +envelope = (of letter), kovert-o. +envy = envi-i. +(be an) epicure = frand-i. +epoch = epok-o. +equal = egal-a. +err = erar-i. +establish = establ-i, fond-i; (prove, etc.), konstat-i. +estate = bien-o. +esteem = estim-i. +estimate = taks-i. +eternal = etern-a, cxiam-a. +Europe = Euxrop-o. +evangel = evangeli-o. +even = (level), eben-a; -- number, parnombro; (actually) (adv.), ecx. +evening = vesper-o (93); -- dress (of man), frak-o. +ever = (adv.), iam (212); (indefinite adv.), ajn (236); + (always), cxiam (187). +every = (one), (pronoun and adv.), cxiu (173); --thing, -- way, etc., + see table, 235. +evolution = evoluci-o. +exact = akurat-a, gxust-a; (demand), postul-i. +examine = ekzamen-i; -- and check, kontrol-i. +example = ekzempl-o; (model), model-o. +Excellency = (title), mosxt-o (258). +except = escept-i (266); (prep.), krom. +excite = ekscit-i. +exercise = (trans.), ekzerc-i. +exhale = elspir-i. +exhort = admon-i. +exile = ekzil-i. +exist = ekzist-i. +expect = atend-i. +expend = (money), elspez-i; (energy, etc.), uz-i, eluz-i. +experienced = spert-a. +experiment = eksperiment-i. +expert = spert-a, lert-a. +explode = (intrans.), eksplod-i (275). +explore = esplor-i. +express = esprim-i; (train), rapida vagonaro. +extend = (trans.), etend-i, pligrandig-i, plilongig-i. +extensive = vast-a, vastampleks-a. +extent = (size), ampleks-o. +extinguish = esting-i. +extraordinary = eksterordinar-a. +eye = okul-o; --brow, brov-o; --lid, palpebr-o. + + F. + +fable = fabel-o. +face = vizagx-o. +fact = fakt-o; in --, fakt-e, efektiv-e, ja (215). +fade = velk-i. +fair = (just), just-a; (beautiful), bel-a. +fairy = fe-o, fein-o. +faint = sven-i. +faithful = fidel-a. +fall = fal-i; (autumn), auxtun-o. +false = fals-a; (treacherous), perfid-a. +fame = fam-o. +familiar = familiar-a, kutim-a. +family = famili-o. +fancy = imag-i, rev-i. +far = malproksim-e; as -- as (prep.), gxis (46). +farm = (as a tenant), farm-i; (till the soil), terkultur-i. +farewell = (adv. and interjection), adiaux (171, 273). +fashion = fason-o, mod-o. +fasten = lig-i. +fat = gras-o; (corpulent), dik-a. +fatal = fatal-a. +fate = sort-o, fatal-o, destin-o. +father = patr-o. +faucet = kran-o. +favor = favor-i; a --, komplezo. +favorable = favor-a. +fay = fe-o, fein-o. +fear = tim-i. +feather = plum-o. +feature = trajt-o. +feed = nutr-i; -- flocks, pasxt-i. +feel = sent-i; (with fingers, etc.), palp-i. +female = in-o (59). +fervor = fervor-o. +fetter = (chain, etc.), katen-o. +fever = febr-o. +fiance = fiancx-o. +fie = (interjection), fi (273). +field = kamp-o. +fight = batal-i, milit-i. +fill = plenig-i. +find = trov-i. +fine = bel-a, delikat-a; (of money), monpun-o. +finger = fingr-o; index --, montra fingro; little --, malgranda fingro; + middle --, longa fingro; ring --, ringa fingro. +finish = (trans.), fin-i. +fir = abi-o. +fire = fajr-o; set -- to, ekbrulig-i. +firm = firm-a. +fish = fisx-o; (catch fish), fisxkapt-i. +fist = pugn-o. +fit = almezur-i; (be) --, tauxg-i. +(be) fitting = konven-i; (decent), dec-i. +five = (adj.), kvin (136). +flag = flag-o; standard-o. +flat = glat-a, eben-a; plat-a. +flesh = karn-o. +flex = (trans.), fleks-i. +floor = plank-o. +flour = farun-o. +flow = flu-i. +flower = flor-o (116). +fluid = fluid-a. +fly = flug-i; (insect), musx-o. +foam = sxauxm-o. +focus = fokus-o. +fog = nebul-o. +fold = fald-i. +folk = popol-o. +follow = sekv-i, postven-i, postir-i. +(be) fond of sweets = frand-i. +fondle = dorlot-i. +foot = (of the body), pied-o; (measure), fut-o. +for = (prep.), por (95, 98, 262); pro (86); (conj.), cxar (83). +force = fort-o; (compel), devig-i; -- (upon), altrud-i (al). +fore- = pra- (282). +forehead = frunt-o. +foreign = fremd-a. +forge = (falsify), fals-i. +forget = forges-i. +forgive = pardon-i. +fork = fork-o. +form = form-i, alform-i, model-i. +formal = solen-a. +found = fond-i. +foundation = fundament-o. +four = (adj.), kvar (136). +fount = font-o. +fountain = fontan-o. +fox = vulp-o. +fragrance = arom-o, bonodor-o. +frame = (of picture), kadr-o. +frank = afrank-i. +Frederick = Frederik-o. +free = liber-a. +Frenchman = franc-o. +frequent = oft-a; (visit often), vizitad-i. +fresh = fresx-a, nov-a. +Friday = vendred-o. +friend = amik-o. +fringe = frangx-o. +frivolous = malserioz-a. +frock coat = redingot-o. +frog = ran-o. +from = (prep.), de (89, 170); el; (cause), pro (86). +frost = frost-o; (hoar), prujn-o. +froth = sxauxm-o. +fruit = frukt-o. +fruitless = (vain), van-a. +fry = (trans.), frit-i. +function = (of machinery, etc.), funkci-i. +funereal = funebr-a. +fulfil = plenum-i. +full = plen-a. +fur = fel-o; (coat or wrap), pelt-o. +furious = furioz-a. +furnish = (supply), liver-i; (provide), proviz-i; (a house), mebl-i. +furniture = (piece of), mebl-o. +furrow = sulk-o. +further = (adv.), plu. +fuse = (trans.), fand-i. +futile = van-a. +future = estontec-o; (grammatical), estont-o; (adj.), estont-a. + + G. + +gain = gajn-i, obten-i. +gallery = galeri-o; (for pictures), pinakotek-o. +gallop = galop-i. +gamin = bub-o. +gape = (yawn), osced-i. +garden = gxarden-o. +garland = girland-o. +gas = gas-o. +gather = (trans.), kolekt-i. +gay = gaj-a. +gaze = fikse rigard-i. +gazette = gazet-o. +general = gxeneral-a, komun-a; (military), general-o. +gentleman = sinjor-o. +geometry = geometri-o. +German = german-o. +Gertrude = Gertrud-o. +ghost = fantom-o. +gift = donac-o. +ginger = zingibr-o. +girdle = zon-o. +give = don-i; (as a gift), donac-i; -- information, inform-i; + -- notice, aviz-i; -- witness, atest-i; -- birth to, nask-i. +(be) glad = gxoj-i (116). +glass = (material), vitr-o; (tumbler), glas-o. +glide = glit-i. +globe = glob-o. +glory = glor-o. +glossy = (polished), polurit-a. +glove = gant-o. +glue = glu-i. +gnash = grinc-i. +go = ir-i; (in vehicle, boat, etc.), vetur-i; + -- on a pilgrimage, pilgrim-i. +goal = cel-o. +goblet = pokal-o. +God = Di-o. +good = bon-a; be -- for, tauxg-i por. +good-bye = (adv. and interjection), adiaux (171, 273). +goose = anser-o. +gospel = evangeli-o. +govern = reg-i. +graceful = graci-a. +grade = grad-o; (rank), rang-o. +grain = (wheat, etc.), gren-o; (unit) er-o (276). +gram = gram-o (284). +grammar = gramatik-o. +grandfather = av-o. +grandson = nep-o. +grape = vinber-o. +grass = herb-o. +grasshopper = akrid-o. +grate = rasp-i; grater, raspil-o. +grating = (bar or lattice), krad-o. +grave = tomb-o; (serious), grav-a. +gravitate = gravit-i. +gravy = sauxc-o. +gray = griz-a. +grieve = (trans.), cxagren-i, malgxojig-i; (intrans.) malgxoj-i. +grind = grinc-i. +great = grand-a; (remote in ancestry), pra- (282). +Greek = grek-o. +green = verd-a; --ish, dubeverd-a. +greet = salut-i. +groan = gxem-i. +group = grup-o, ar-o (126). +ground = ter-o; -- floor, teretagx-o. +grow = kresk-i, veget-i. +guard = gard-i. +guess = diven-i. +guest = gast-o. +guide = gvid-i, direkt-i. +guilty = kulp-a. +gunpowder = pulv-o. +gush = (of liquids), sxpruc-i. + + H. + +habit = kutim-o. +hack = hak-i; (carriage), fiakr-o. +hail = (frozen rain), hajl-o. +(a) hair = har-o; -- pencil, penik-o. +half = duon-o (166, 277). +halt = (intrans.), halt-i. +ham = sxink-o. +hammer = martel-o. +hand = man-o; (of clock), montril-o. +handbill = afisx-o. +handicraft = meti-o. +handsome = bel-a. +hang = (intrans.), pend-i. +handy = oportun-a. +happen = okaz-i. +happy = felicx-a. +harbor = haven-o. +hardly = (adv.), apenaux. +hare = lepor-o. +haricot = (bean), fazeol-o. +harness = jung-i. +harvest = rikolt-i. +hasten = (trans.), akcel-i; (intrans.) rapid-i. +hat = cxapel-o. +haughty = fier-a. +haul = tren-i. +have = hav-i; -- to, dev-i. +hay = fojn-o. +hazard = hazard-o. +hazel-nut = avel-o. +he = (pronoun), li (32, 37, 42). +head = kap-o; (adj.), cxef-a. +health = san-o; state of (good or bad) --, fart-o. +hear = auxd-i. +heart = kor-o; by --, (by rote), parker-e. +heat = (trans.), hejt-i, varmig-i. +heaven = cxiel-o; heavenly body, astr-o. +heavy = pez-a. +Hebrew = hebre-o. +heel = (of foot), kalkan-o; (of shoe), kalkanum-o. +hektare = hektar-o (284). +hektogram = hektogram-o (284). +hektoliter = hektolitr-o (284). +hektometer = hektometr-o (284). +help = help-i (265). +hen = kokin-o. +herb = herb-o. +hero = hero-o. +hesitate = hezit-i. +hide = kasx-i (252); (skin of animals), fel-o. +Hiero = Hieron-o. +high = alt-a. +hinge = cxarnir-o. +hip = koks-o. +hire = (persons), dung-i; (houses, etc.), lu-i. +hiss = sibl-i. +history = histori-o. +ho = (interjection), ho (273). +hoar = (frost), prujn-o. +hoarse = rauxk-a. +hog = pork-o. +hold = ten-i. +holder = (handle), tenil-o, ans-o; (receptacle), uj-o (181); + ing-o (237). +hole = tru-o; (cavity), kav-o. +Holland = Holand-o. +holy = sankt-a. +home = hejm-o; at --, cxehejme. +homesickness = nostalgi-o. +honest = honest-a. +honey = miel-o. +honeysuckle = lonicer-o. +honor = honor-i; (as term of address), mosxt-o (258). +hook = krocx-i. +hope = esper-i. +horizon = horizont-o. +horizontal = horizontal-a. +horn = korn-o. +horse = cxeval-o. +horse-radish = armoraci-o. +hose = sxtrump-oj; -- supporter, sxelk-o. +hotel = hotel-o. +hour = hor-o (185). +house = dom-o; at the -- of (prep.), cxe (125, 160). +how = (adv.), kiel (134); kiamanier-e; -- much, kiom (140, 185). +however = (conj.), tamen; (adv.), ajn (236). +hue = nuanc-o. +hum = zum-i. +human being = hom-o. +humble = humil-a. +humor = humor-o. +hundred = (adj.), cent (142). +hungry = malsat-a. +hunt = sercx-i; (game or wild animals), cxas-i. +hurdy-gurdy = gurd-o. +hurl = jxet-i. +hurrah = (interjection), hura (273). +hurricane = uragan-o. +hurry = rapid-i. +husband = edz-o. +hypocrite = hipokrit-o. + + I. + +I = (pronoun), mi (32, 37, 274). +ice = glaci-o; (food), glaciajx-o. +idea = ide-o. +ideal = ideal-o. +identical = ident-a. +idiom = idiom-o. +idiot = idiot-o. +if = (conj.), se (240); as --, kvazaux (250); (whether), cxu. +ignore = ignor-i. +illusion = iluzi-o. +illustrate = ilustr-i. +image = bild-o. +imagine = imag-i. +imitate = imit-i. +immediate = tuj-a (171). +implicate = implik-i. +important = grav-a, serioz-a. +importunate = altrudem-a. +impose = trud-i. +impost = impost-o. +impress = impres-i. +impulse = impuls-o. +in = (prep.), en (46, 89, 160); -- the presence of, cxe (125, 160). +inch = col-o. +incite = incit-i. +incline = (trans.), klin-i. +incommode = gxen-i. +(be) indebted = sxuld-i. +indeed = (adv.), ja (215); do; efektiv-e. +index = tabel-o. +Indian = (American), indian-o, rugxhauxtul-o; -- corn, maiz-o. +indifferent = indiferent-a. +industry = (trade), industri-o. +inebriate = ebri-a. +inevitable = nepr-a, neevitebl-a. +infect = infekt-i. +influence = influ-i. +inform = inform-i, sciig-i. +ingenuous = naiv-a. +inhabitant = logxant-o, an-o (145). +inhale = enspir-i. +ink = ink-o. +inquire = demand-i. +insect = insekt-o. +inside = (adv.), intern-e; (prep.), en. +insist = insist-i. +inspect = inspekt-i, ekzamen-i, rigard-i, kontrol-i. +inspire = inspir-i. +instantaneous = moment-a. +instead of = (prep.), anstataux (98, 159). +instruct = instru-i; (order), ordon-i. +insult = insult-i. +insure = (with a company), asekur-i; (make certain), certig-i. +intelligent = inteligent-a. +intend = intenc-i. +interest = interes-i; (of money), procent-o. +(be) intermittent = intermit-i. +internal = intern-a. +interpret = interpret-i. +intimate = intim-a. +intoxicated = ebri-a. +investigate = esplor-i, ekzamen-i, elsercx-i. +invite = invit-i. +iron = (metal), fer-o; (linen), glad-i. +island = insul-o. +it = (pronoun), gxi (32, 37, 42, 274); see also 50, 51. +Italian = ital-o. + + J. + +jacket = jak-o. +jail = karcer-o. +jam = kompot-o, fruktajx-o. +January = januar-o. +jaw = (orifice, opening), fauxk-o; (of the skull), makzel-o; + --bone, makzelost-o. +jealous = jxaluz-a. +jest = sxerc-i. +Jesus = Jesu-o. +Jew = hebre-o. +jewel = juvel-o. +jingle = (intrans.), tint-i. +John = Johan-o. +joint = artik-o. +joke = sxerc-i. +journal = jxurnal-o, revu-o. +journey = vojagx-i. +judge = jugx-i. +jug = krucx-o. +juggle = jxongl-i. +July = juli-o. +jump = salt-i. +June = juni-o. +jurist = jurist-o. +just = (upright), just-a; (exact), gxust-a; (adv.), gxust-e, jxus. + + K. + +keep = ten-i, gard-i; (preserve), konserv-i; -- in mind, memor-i. +kerosene = petrol-o. +key = sxlosil-o; (of piano, etc.), klav-o. +kill = mortig-i. +kilogram = kilogram-o (284). +kiloliter = kilolitr-o (284). +kilometer = kilometr-o (284). +kind = (species), spec-o; (good), bon-a, bonkor-a; that --, what --, + etc., see table, 235. +kindness = komplez-o, bonkorec-o. +king = regx-o; --dom, regxolando. +kiss = kis-i. +knave = fripon-o. +knee = genu-o. +kneel = genufleks-i. +knit = trik-i. +knock = frap-i. +knot = tuber-o; (tied), ligajx-o; (of ribbon), bant-o. +know = sci-i; (be acquainted with), kon-i (117). +kobold = kobold-o. + + L. + +labor = labor-i; -- for the success or completion of something, + klopod-i. +lace = punt-o; (of a shoe), lacx-o. +(be) lacking = (intrans.) mank-i. +lake = lag-o. +lamb = sxafid-o; (meat), sxafidajx-o. +lame = lam-a. +lamp = lamp-o. +lance = lanc-o. +land = land-o; (estate), bien-o; (soil), ter-o. +landscape = pejzagx-o. +language = lingv-o. +lantern = lantern-o. +large = grand-a. +lark = (bird), alauxd-o. +last = (intrans.), dauxr-i; (in a series), last-a; (previous) pasint-a, + antaux-a. +latch = ans-o. +late = malfru-a. +Latin = latin-a. +latter = cxi-tiu (61, 62). +lattice = krad-o. +laugh = rid-i (265). +law = legx-o; --suit, proces-o; (rule), regul-o. +lawyer = advokat-o, legxist-o. +lay = meti, kusxig-i; -- aside, demet-i; -- claim, pretend-i. +layer = tavol-o. +lead = konduk-i. +lead = (metal), plumb-o. +leaf = foli-o. +league = (alliance), lig-o. +lean = (trans.), apog-i, klin-i; (not fat), malgras-a. +leap = salt-i; --year, superjar-o. +learn = lern-i; (news, etc.), sciigx-i. +learned = kler-a. +least = (adv.), malplej (80), malpli multe (81); at --, almenaux. +leather = led-o. +leave = (trans.), las-i; -- off (intrans.), cxes-i. +leg = krur-o. +legal = legx-a; -- process, proces-o. +lemon = citron-o. +lemonade = citronajx-o, limonad-o. +lend = prunt-i, pruntedon-i. +lens = objektiv-o. +lengthen = (trans.), etend-i, plilongig-i. +less = (adv.), malpli (80); malpli multe (81). +lesson = lecion-o. +let = (trans.), las-i; (rent), luig-i; (permit), permes-i. +letter = (epistle), leter-o; (of the alphabet), liter-o. +lettuce = laktuk-o. +level = nivel-o; (flat), eben-a. +library = bibliotek-o; (collection of books), librar-o. +lick = lek-i. +lie = (recline), kusx-i (239); (tell falsehoods), mensog-i. +lift = lev-i. +light = lum-a, hel-a; (not heavy), malpez-a. +lightning = fulm-o. +like = sxat-i; (similar), simil-a; see also 250. +limb = membro; (of a tree), brancx-o. +limit = lim-i. +linden = tili-o. +line = lini-o, vic-o, strek-o. +linen = tol-o. +lion = leon-o. +lip = lip-o. +liquid = fluid-a. +listen = auxskult-i. +liter = litr-o (284). +literal = lauxliter-a. +literature = literatur-o. +little = malgrand-a; (with slightly affectionate sense), et-a (198); + (adv.), malmulte, iom (217); -- by --, iom post iom. +live = viv-i; (dwell), logx-i (133). +load = sxargx-i. +loan = prunt-i, pruntedon-i. +local = lok-a. +lock = sxlos-i; (fastening), serur-o. +locomotive = lokomotiv-o. +lodge = logx-i. +log = sxtip-o. +long = long-a; -- for, sopir-i je. +look = rigard-i; -- for, sercx-i. +lose = perd-i; (fail to profit), malgajn-i; -- time, malfru-i. +lot = (fate), sort-o. +loud = lauxt-a. +love = am-i; make --, amindum-i. +loyal = fidel-a, lojal-a. +luck = sxanc-o; lucky, bonsxanc-a. +lull = kvietig-i; (to sleep), lul-i. +lunatic = lunatik-o. +lung = pulm-o. +luxury = luks-o. + + M. + +macaroni = makaroni-o. +machine = masxin-o. +mad = frenez-a. +magazine = gazet-o, jxurnal-o, revu-o. +magic = magi-o. +mail = posxt-o, enposxtig-i; -- box, posxtkest-o. +maize = maiz-o. +majestic = majest-a. +majesty = (term of address), mosxt-o (258). +make = far-i (see also 214); -- mistakes, erar-i; -- love, amindum-i. +malicious = malic-a. +man = vir-o. +manage = administr-i, direkt-i; (a household), mastrum-i. +manner = manier-o; (right or wrong), mor-o; in that --, in every --, + etc., see table, 235. +mantle = mantel-o. +manufacture = fabrik-i. +manuscript = manuskript-o. +maple = acer-o. +marble = (stone), marmor-o. +march = marsxad-i. +March = mart-o. +mark = mark-o, sign-o; (official), stamp-o. +marmalade = marmelad-o. +marry = (become married), edzigx-i. +master = mastr-o; (of his profession or art), majstr-o; + -- of Arts (A.M.), magistr-o. +match = (for fire), alumet-o. +material = material-o; (cloth), sxtof-o. +matter = afer-o. +mature = matur-a. +maximum = maksimum-o. +May = maj-o; (auxiliary verb), see 269, 270. +mayonnaise = majones-a. +mean = signif-i, intenc-i, malnobl-a. +meaning = senc-o. +means = rimed-o; by -- of (prep.), per (64). +measure = (trans.), mezur-i. +meat = viand-o. +mechanics = mehxanik-o. +medical = medicin-a, kuracist-a. +medicine = (drug, etc.), kuracil-o; (science), medicin-o, kuracart-o. +meet = (trans.), renkont-i, traf-i; (assemble), kunven-i. +melody = melodi-o. +melon = melon-o. +melt = fluidig-i, fluidigx-i, degel-i. +member = membr-o, an-o (145). +memory = memor-o; by --, parker-e, memor-e. +mend = ripar-i; (patch), flik-i. +mention = nom-i; cit-i. +menu = menu-o. +merely = (adv.), nur. +merit = merit-i. +merry = gaj-a; make --, festen-i. +merry-go-round = karusel-o. +metal = metal-o. +meter = metr-o (284). +method = metod-o. +middle = mez-o, centr-o. +mien = mien-o. +mild = mild-a. +mile = mejl-o. +milk = lakt-o; (draw the milk of), melk-i. +mill = muel-o. +millimeter = milimetr-o (284). +million = milion-o. +mine = (coal, etc), min-o; (possessive adj.), mi-a (43). +mineral = mineral-o. +minimum = minimum-o. +minister = (political), ministr-o; (clergyman), pastr-o. +minute = (time), minut-o; (adj.), detal-a, malgrand-a. +minutes = (of a meeting), protokol-o. +mirror = spegul-o. +miserly = avar-a. +misery = mizer-o. +miss = (fail to reach), maltraf-i; (be missing), mank-i; + (notice the absence of), senti la foreston de; + (young lady), frauxlin-o (163). +mist = nebul-o. +mistake = erar-o. +Mister = Sinjor-o (163, 286). +mix = (trans.), miks-i. +mock = mok-i. +mode = fason-o, mod-o. +model = model-o. +moderate = moder-a. +modest = modest-a. +moment = moment-o; a -- ago, (adv.), jxus. +monarch = monarhx-o. +Monday = lund-o. +money = mon-o; -- box, kas-o; -- order, mandat-o. +monk = monahx-o. +monkey = simi-o. +month = monat-o. +moon = lun-o. +moral = moral-a, bonmor-a; morals, moroj. +more = (adv.), pli (74, 79); (quantity), pli multe (81); + (further), plu; the --, ju pli, des pli (84). +morning = maten-o (93). +morsel = pec-o. +most = (adv.), plej (74, 79); (quantity), plej multe (81). +mould = sxim-o. +mountain = mont-o. +mourning = funebr-o. +mouse = mus-o. +moustache = lipharoj. +mouth = busx-o; (of river), enflu-o, elflu-o. +move = (trans.), mov-i; (change residence) translogx-i. +much = mult-a (81); (very), tre. +mud = kot-o. +murmur = murmur-i. +museum = muze-o. +mushroom = fung-o. +music = muzik-o. +must = dev-i (247). +mute = mut-a. +mutton = sxafajx-o. +mutual = reciprok-a (180), komun-a. +myopic = miop-a. +mystery = mister-o. + + N. + +nail = (metal), najl-o; (of the finger or toe), ung-o. +naive = naiv-a. +naked = nud-a. +name = nom-o. +narrate = rakont-i. +nation = naci-o. +nature = natur-o. +naught = nul-o; (none), neniom (231). +near = proksim-a (170); (prep.), apud (120, 159). +necessary = neces-a. +neck = kol-o. +need = bezon-i. +needle = kudril-o. +negative = ne-a (171); (photographic), negativ-o. +neighbor = najbar-o. +neither = (conj.), nek (31); (pronoun and adj.), neniu (220). +nephew = nev-o. +nerve = nerv-o. +nest = nest-o. +net = ret-o. +neutral = neuxtral-a. +never = (adv.), neniam (226). +nevertheless = (conj.), tamen. +new = nov-a, fresx-a; news, novajx-o. +newspaper = jxurnal-o, tagjxurnal-o. +nice = delikat-a. +night = nokt-o. +nine = (adj.), naux (136). +nitrogen = azot-o. +no = (adv.), ne (27, 66, a); (adj.), neniu (220); -- one, --where, + etc., see table, 235. +noble = nobl-a, +nobleman = nobel-o. +nobody = (pronoun), neniu (220). +nod = (the head), balanc-i (la kapon). +noise = bru-o. +none = (adj. and pronoun), neniu (220); (adv.), neniom (231). +non-partisan = neuxtral-a. +noon = tagmez-o. +nor = (conj.), nek (31). +north = nord-o. +Norwegian = norveg-o. +not = (adv.), ne (27, 66, a). +note = not-o, bilet-o; --book, kajer-o; (notice), rimark-i, not-i. +nothing = nenio (233). +notice = rimark-i; not-i; give --, aviz-i. +notwithstanding = (prep.), malgraux; (conj.), tamen. +nourish = nutr-i. +novel = nov-a; (book), roman-o. +November = novembr-o. +now = (adv.), nun. +nude = nud-a. +nullify = nulig-i, neniig-i. +number = (quantity), nombr-o; (numeral), numer-o. +nut = nuks-o. + + O. + +oak = kverk-o. +(make) oath = jxur-i. +oats = aven-o. +obey = obe-i (265). +object = objekt-o; (aim), cel-o; (oppose), kontrauxparol-i, + kontrauxstar-i, protest-i. +objective = objektiv-o. +obligation = (financial), sxuld-o; (moral), dev-o. +oblige = (compel), devig-i; (render service), far-i komplezon, serv-i. +oblique = oblikv-a. +observe = observ-i, rimark-i, not-i. +obstinate = obstin-a. +obstruct = bar-i. +occasion = foj-o (127); okaz-o. +occupation = profesi-o, okup-o, meti-o. +occupy = okup-i. +occur = okaz-i. +ocean = ocean-o. +October = oktobr-o. +odor = odor-o. +of = (prep.), de (49, 100, 160, 170); da (99, 101, 103); el; + (concerning), pri (160, 264, c). +offend = ofend-i. +offer = propon-i, prezent-i, ofer-i. +office = ofic-o; (place), oficej-o. +officer = (of organization or firm), oficist-o; + (military or naval), oficir-o. +official = oficial-a. +often = (adv.), oft-e, multfoj-e. +oh = (interjection), ho (273). +oil = ole-o. +olive = oliv-o. +on = (prep.), sur; -- account of, pro (86). +once = (adv.), unufoj-e; -- on a time, iam (212); at --, tuj; + -- more, bis. +one = (adj.), unu (136, 137, 180); (pronoun), oni (54). See 235. +onion = bulb-o. +only = sol-a; (mere), nur-a. +opera = oper-o; -- glasses, lornet-o. +opinion = opini-o. +opportune = oportun-a. +opposed to = (prep.), kontraux. +opposite = (converse), mal-o (67); (prep.), kontraux. +or = (conj.), aux. +orange = (fruit), orangx-o. +orchestra = orkestr-o. +order = ordon-i; (of store, etc.), mend-i; (methodical or proper + arrangement), ord-o; money --, mandat-o. +ordinary = ordinar-a. +organ = (physical), organ-o; (musical), orgen-o. +organize = organiz-i. +original = original-o. +ornament = ornam-i. +orphan = orf-o. +oscillate = (intrans.), balancigx-i. +ostracism = ostracism-o. +other = ali-a; (remaining), ceter-a; -- people's, malpropr-a; + --wise, ali-e. +out of = el. +outline = kontur-o; (profile), profil-o; (sketch), skiz-o. +outside = (prep.), ekster (120, 121). +over = (prep.), super; (across), trans; (concerning), pri; + --coat, surtut-o; --shoe, supersxu-o; (adv.), (too), tro. +owe = sxuld-i. +own = posed-i, propr-a. +ox = bov-o. +oyster = ostr-o. + + P. + +pack = pak-i. +pad = rembur-i. +paddle = padel-i. +page = (of book, etc.), pagx-o. +pail = sitel-o. +pain = dolor-o; (effort), pen-o; take pains, pen-i. +paint = pentr-i; (material), kolorigil-o; --brush, penik-o. +pair = par-o. +palace = palac-o. +pale = pal-a. +palisade = palisar-o. +palm = (of the hand), polm-o. +pamphlet = brosxur-o. +pan = pat-o. +paper = (material), paper-o; news--, jxurnal-o. +paradise = paradiz-o. +paragraph = paragraf-o. +pardon = pardon-i (265). +parallel = paralel-a. +park = park-o. +parlor = salon-o. +parsley = petrosel-o. +parsnip = pastinak-o. +part = part-o; of a work or book, kajer-o; + separate (trans.), disir-i, apartig-i, disdivid-i. +participle = particip-o. +pass = (intrans.), pas-i. +passage = koridor-o. +passenger = pasagxer-o. +passion = pasi-o. +passive = pasiv-a. +past = (prep.), preter; (time), estintec-o; + (grammatical), estint-o; (bygone), estint-a. +paste = (glue), glu-i. +pasteboard = karton-o. +pastor = pastr-o. +pastry = kukajx-o. +pasture = (trans.), pasxt-i. +patch = flik-i. +path = vojet-o. +patience = pacienc-o. +patient = (ill person), kuracat-o. +patty = pastecx-o. +pause = pauxz-i. +pavement = pavim-o; (sidewalk), trotuar-o. +pay = pag-i; -- dues, kotiz-i. +pea = piz-o. +peace = pac-o. +peach = persik-o. +pear = pir-o. +pearl = perl-o. +peculiar = strang-a, kurioz-a. +peddle = kolport-i. +pedestal = piedestal-o. +pedestrian = piedirant-o. +peeling = sxel-o. +pen = plum-o; (enclosure), ej-o (III). +pencil = krajon-o; hair--, penik-o. +penetrate = penetr-i. +people = popol-o; (indefinite pronoun), oni (54). +pepper = pipr-o. +perceive = sent-i; (see), vid-i. +percentage = procent-o; (of profit), tantiem-o. +perfect = perfekt-a. +perfidious = perfid-a. +perform = (act), ag-i; (fulfil), plenum-i; (do), far-i. +perfume = parfum-o; (odor), bonodor-o. +period = period-o; (of time), epok-o; (punctuation), punkt-o. +perish = pere-i. +permit = permes-i. +persecute = persekut-i; (worry), turment-i, gxen-i. +persevere = persist-i. +person = person-o. +perspire = sxvit-i. +persuade = konvink-i. +pet = dorlot-i. +petroleum = petrol-o. +phantom = fantom-o. +Pharaoh = faraon-o. +pharmacy = farmaci-o; (shop), apotek-o. +philosopher = filozof-o. +photograph = fotograf-i. +phrase = fraz-o. +physician = kuracist-o. +physics = fizik-o. +pick = (choose), elekt-i; (gather), kolekt-i. +pickle = pekl-i. +picture = bild-o; (portrait), portret-o; -- gallery, pinakotek-o. +picturesque = pitoresk-a, pentrind-a. +pie = kukajx-o; (patty), pastecx-o. +piece = pec-o. +pig = pork-o. +pigeon = kolomb-o. +(be a) pilgrim = pilgrim-i. +pillage = rab-i. +pillar = kolon-o. +pin = pingl-o. +pinch = pincx-i. +pine = (tree), pin-o; -- for, sopir-i je. +pineapple = ananas-o. +pinnacle = pint-o. +pioneer = pionir-o. +pious = pi-a. +pipe = tub-o; (for smoking), pip-o. +pitcher = krucx-o. +pity = kompat-i; (regrettable affair), domagx-o. +placard = afisx-o. +place = lok-o; (for something), -ej-o (111); + (broad, short street or open space), plac-o; (put), met-i. +plait = plekt-i. +plan = plan-o, projekt-o, skiz-o. +plane = plat-a. +planet = planed-o. +plank = tabul-o. +plant = plant-i; (vegetable growth), kreskajx-o, vegetajx-o. +plate = plat-o; (dish) teler-o. +platform = (railway), peron-o. +play = lud-i; (music), muzik-i; (theatrical), teatrajx-o. +player = (theatrical), aktor-o. +pleasant = agrabl-a, dolcx-a, afabl-a. +please = placx-i (265); kontentig-i, far-i plezuron al; + (in requests), bonvolu, mi petas. +pleasure = plezur-o; take -- in, gxu-i. +plot = konspir-i. +plow = plug-i. +plum = prun-o. +plumber = plumbist-o. +plunder = rab-i. +plural = multenombr-o. +pneumatic = pneumatik-a. +pocket = posx-o. +poem = poem-o. +poet = poet-o. +poetry = poezi-o. +point = punkt-o; (sharp), pint-o; -- out, montr-i. +poise = (trans.), balanc-i; (of manner), aplomb-o. +poison = venen-o. +pole = stang-o; (shaft of vehicle), timon-o; (geographical), polus-o. +Pole = pol-o. +police = polic-o. +polite = gxentil-a. +politics = politik-o. +polish = polur-i; polished, polurit-a, glat-a. +pomp = pomp-o. +popular = popular-o, popol-a. +porcelain = porcelan-o. +porch = verand-o; (stoop), peron-o; (balcony), balkon-o. +pork = porkajx-o. +port = haven-o. +portion = porci-o, part-o. +portrait = portret-o. +possess = posed-i. +possible = ebl-a (161, 162); kredebl-a (270). +post = (pole), stang-o; (mail), posxt-o; --card, posxtkart-o; + --paid, afrankit-e. +postage = (cost), posxtelspezo; -- stamp, posxtmark-o. +poster = afisx-o. +pot = pot-o. +potato = terpom-o; sweet --, batat-o. +pound = pist-i; (measure), funt-o. +pour = (liquids), versx-i; (as in a chute), sxut-i. +powder = pudr-o. +power = pov-o, potenc-o. +practice = praktik-i. +praise = lauxd-i. +pray = pregx-i. +preach = predik-i. +precise = preciz-a, gxust-a. +predestined = fatal-a. +prefer = prefer-i. +prefix = prefiks-o. +premium = premi-o. +prepare = prepar-i. +prepay = afrank-i. +presence = cxeest-o, apudest-o; in the -- of (prep.), cxe (125), antaux. +present = (gift), donac-o; (time), estantec-o, estant-a, nun-a (171); + (in attendance), cxeestant-a. +present = prezent-i, donac-i, don-i. +preserve = (keep), ten-i; (keep safe), konserv-i; + (food), kompot-o, konfitajx-o. +preside = prezid-i. +president = prezidant-o. +press = prem-i; (print), pres-i; (wardrobe), sxrank-o; + (be urgent), urgx-i. +pretend = (make pretext of), pretekst-i; (feign), sxajnig-i; + (lay claim), pretend-i. +price = prez-o, kost-o. +prick = pik-i. +priest = pastr-o. +prince = princ-o, regxid-o. +principal = precip-a, cxef-a. +print = pres-i. +prize = sxat-i; (premium), premi-o. +prized = kar-a, altetaksat-a, sxatat-a. +problem = problem-o. +process = metod-o; (legal), proces-o. +proclaim = proklam-i. +procrastinate = prokrast-i. +produce = produkt-i; -- a result, efik-i; (give birth to), nask-i. +profession = profesi-o. +professor = profesor-o. +profile = profil-o. +profit = profit-i; (percentage), tantiem-o. +profound = profund-a. +progress = progres-i. +project = projekt-o. +promenade = promen-i. +promise = promes-i. +propensity = inklin-o, em-o (192). +(be) proper = dec-i. +property = proprajx-o, posedajx-o; (land), bien-o; + (characteristic), ec-o (202). +proportional = proporci-a. +propose = propon-i, sugesti-i. +prose = prozo; piece of --, prozajxo. +prosecute = persekut-i. +prosper = prosper-i. +protect = protekt-i, gard-i. +protest = protest-i. +proud = fier-a +prove = pruv-i; (test), prov-i. +provoke = incit-i, ekscit-i, kauxz-i, nask-i, kolerig-i. +psalm = psalm-o. +public = publik-o. +publish = publikig-i, eldon-i. +pudding = puding-o. +pull = tir-i. +pump = pump-i. +pumpkin = kukurb-o. +punish = pun-i. +pure = pur-a. +puree = pistajx-o. +purple = purpur-a. +purpose = cel-i, intenc-i. +push = pusx-i; (shove), sxov-i. +put = met-i; -- off, prokrast-i. + + Q. + +quality = ec-o (202); (texture, etc.), kvalito. +quantity = kvant-o; any --, a certain --, iom (217); see table, 235. +quarter = (of a city), kvartal-o; (fourth), kvaron-o; --ly, trimonat-a. +question = demand-o; (problem), problem-o; (doubt), dub-o. +quick = rapid-a; (lively), viv-a. +quiet = kviet-a, trankvil-a, silent-a. +quince = cidoni-o. +quite = (adv.), tut-e. +quote = cit-i. + + R. + +rabbit = kunikl-o. +race = (people), ras-o. +radish = rafan-o; horse--, armoraci-o. +radius = radi-o. +rag = cxifon-o. +raging = furioz-a. +rail = rel-o; --way, fervoj-o; --way carriage, vagon-o; + --way station, stacidom-o. +rain = pluv-o; --bow, cxielark-o. +raise = lev-i. +raisin = sekvinber-o. +rank = rang-o; (grade), grad-o. +rap = frapet-i. +rapid = rapid-a. +rascal = fripon-o, kanajl-o. +rasp = rasp-i. +raspberry = framb-o. +rat = rat-o. +rate = taks-i; (schedule of prices), tarif-o, prezar-o; + (percentage), procent-o; at the -- of (prep.), po (175). +rational = prudent-a, racional-a. +raucous = rauxk-a. +raven = korv-o. +ravishing = rav-a. +raw = nekuirit-a. +ray = (of light), radi-o. +reach = ating-i; (a goal), traf-i. +read = leg-i. +ready = pret-a. +real = efektiv-a, real-a; ver-a. +reap = rikolt-i. +reason = (exert the power of reasoning), rezon-i; (cause), kauxz-o; + (motive), kial-o; for what --, for any --, etc., see table, 235. +reasonable = prudent-a. +rebate = rabat-i. +recall = revok-i; (to memory), rememor-i; + (to another's memory), rememorig-i. +receive = ricev-i; (accept), akcept-i; (money), enspez-i. +receipt = (for payment), kvitanc-o. +reckon = kalkul-i. +recent = nov-a, antauxnelong-a (90). +receptacle = uj-o (237); (for one object), ing-o (181). +recess = (alcove), alkov-o; (vacation), libertemp-o. +reciprocal = reciprok-a (180). +recite = deklam-i. +recline = kusx-i (239). +recommend = rekomend-i. +recompense = rekompensx-i. +recover = (find), retrov-i; (get well), resanigx-i. +red = rugx-a; reddish, duberugx-a. +reduction = (of price), rabat-o. +refine = rafin-i. +refuse = rifuz-i, malpermes-i. +refute = refut-i. +regale = regal-i. +region = region-o. +register = (trans.), registr-i; (letters), rekomend-i. +regret = bedauxr-i; (be penitent for), pent-i. +regrettable = bedauxrind-a; -- affair (pity), domagx-o. +regulation = regul-o, legx-o. +reign = reg-i. +rejoice = gxoj-i (116). +relate = rilat-i (266); (tell), rakont-i. +relative = (person), parenc-o. +religion = religi-o. +rely = konfid-i; fid-i. +remain = rest-i; remaining (other), ceter-a. +remember = memor-i; (recall to memory), rememor-i. +render = far-i, ig-i (214); (an account), don-i, prezent-i, liver-i. +renown = fam-o, glor-o. +rent = lu-i; (let), luig-i; (farm out), farm-i; (price), luprez-o. +repair = ripar-i; (patch), flik-i. +repeat = ripet-i. +repent = pent-i. +report = raport-i. +repose = ripoz-i. +represent = reprezent-i. +reproach = riprocx-i. +republic = respublik-o. +repulse = repusx-i, repel-i. +request = pet-i. +require = postul-i; (need), bezon-i. +rescue = sav-i. +reside = logx-i. +respect = respekt-i. +rest = (repose), ripoz-i; (remain), rest-i; (-- upon), apog-i sur. +restaurant = restoraci-o. +result = rezult-i. +resume = resum-o. +return = (go back), reir-i; (come back), reven-i; (give back), redon-i. +revery = rev-o. +review = (magazine), revu-o. +reward = rekompenc-i. +rhubarb = rabarb-o. +rib = rip-o. +ribbon = ruband-o. +rice = riz-o. +rich = ricx-a. +ride = rajd-i; (in vehicle, boat, etc.), vetur-i. +ridicule = mok-i; worthy of -- (ridiculous), ridind-a. +right = prav-a; (to something), rajt-o; (not left), dekstr-a. +right-angled = ort-a. +ring = (intrans.), sonor-i; (circlet), ring-o. +ringlet = (of hair), bukl-o. +ripe = matur-a. +river = river-o. +road = voj-o; (broad roadway), sxose-o. +roam = vag-i. +roar = mugx-i. +roast = rost-i. +rob = rab-i, sxtel-i. +robber = rabist-o. +robe = rob-o. +Robert = Robert-o. +roguish = petol-a; (rascally), fripon-a. +roll = (trans.), rul-i; (something around something else), volv-i; + (bread), bulk-o; (list), list-o, registr-o. +roof = tegment-o. +room = cxambr-o; (space), spac-o. +root = radik-o. +rose = roz-o. +(by) rote = parker-e. +round = rond-o; (of ladder), sxtupet-o; + (roundabout) (prep.) cxirkaux (89, 120, 159, 160). +routine = rutin-o. +row = (boats), rem-i. +royalty = regxec-o; (share of profit) tantiem-o. +rub = frot-i. +ruin = ruin-o. +rule = reg-i; (draw lines), lini-i; (regulation), regul-o. +rumor = fam-o; rumored, lauxdir-a. +run = kur-i; (of fluids), flu-i. +Russian = rus-o. +rust = rust-i. + + S. + +sack = sak-o; (plunder), rab-i. +sacred = sankt-a. +sacrifice = ofer-i, oferdon-i. +saddle = sel-o. +safe = sendangxer-a, senrisk-a; (chest), monkest-o. +sail = vel-o. +salad = salat-o. +salary = salajr-o. +salt = sal-o. +salute = salut-i. +same = sam-a. +sample = specimen-o. +sand = sabl-o. +sap = suk-o. +sardine = sarden-o. +satchel = valiz-o. +sated = sat-a. +satin = atlas-o. +satisfied = kontent-a; (of hunger), sat-a. +Saturday = sabat-o. +sausage = kolbas-o. +sauce = sauxc-o. +saucer = subtas-o, teleret-o. +saucy = petol-a, malgxentil-a, insultem-a. +savage = sovagx-a. +save = sav-i; (keep), konserv-i; (economize), sxpar-i; + (prep.), krom, escepte de. +saw = seg-i. +say = dir-i (77). +scales = (for weighing), pesil-o. +scarcely = (adv.), apenaux. +scent = (trans.), flar-i. +schedule = (of rates), tarif-o. +science = scienc-o. +scissors = tondil-o. +Scot = (Scotchman), skot-o. +scoundrel = kanajl-o, fripon-o. +scrape = skrap-i. +screen = sxirm-i. +screw = sxrauxb-o; --driver, sxrauxbturnil-o. +sculpture = skulpt-i. +sea = mar-o. +seal = sigel-i. +season = (of the year), sezon-o. +second = (of time), sekund-o; (in order), dua; + a -- time (adv.), duafoje, bis. +secret = sekret-o. +secretary = sekretari-o. +section = sekci-o, part-o, er-o (276). +see = vid-i; -- to, zorg-i pri. +seed = sem-o. +seek = sercx-i; -- advice of, konsult-i. +seem = sxajn-i; --ing, sxajn-a, kvazaux-a. +seize = kapt-i. +select = elekt-i. +self = (reflexive), see 39, 40, 44; (intensive), mem (219). +self-command = aplomb-o. +sell = vend-i. +senate = senat-o. +send = send-i. +sense = prudent-o, sagx-o; (meaning), senc-o; (feeling), sent-o. +sentence = fraz-o; (legal), jugx-o, kondamn-o. +separate = (intrans.), disigx-i, disir-i; (distinct), apart-a. +September = septembr-o. +serene = trankvil-a. +series = seri-o, vic-o. +serious = serioz-a, grav-a. +serve = serv-i; (be good for), tauxg-i por. +set = met-i; (of the sun), subir-i; (type), kompost-i; + -- free, liberig-i; -- out (start), forir-i, ekir-i. +seven = (adj.), sep (136). +several = kelk-aj, kelk-e. +severe = sever-a. +sew = kudr-i. +shade = (shadow), ombr-o; (tint) nuanc-o; (screen), sxirmil-o. +shaft = (of vehicle), timon-o. +shake = (trans.), sku-i; (oscillate), sxancel-i; -- hands, manprem-i. +sham = pretekst-i. +shape = form-o; --ly, beltali-a. +share = partopren-i, divid-i, part-o, porci-o. +sharp = akr-a; (pointed), pint-a. +shatter = frakas-i. +shave = raz-i. +shawl = sxal-o. +she = (pronoun), sxi (32, 37, 42). +shear = tond-i. +sheep = sxaf-o. +shelf = bret-o. +shell = sxel-o; (of mollusk), konk-o; to remove the --, sensxelig-i. +shelter = sxirm-i. +shepherd = pasxtist-o. +shield = sxild-o; (protect), sxirm-i. +shin-bone = tibi-o. +shine = bril-i, lum-i. +ship = sxip-o. +shirt = cxemiz-o. +shoe = sxu-o. +shoot = (with gun, etc.), paf-i. +shop = butik-o. +shore = bord-o, marbord-o. +short = mallong-a; --sighted, miop-a; --hand, stenografi-o. +shoulder = sxultr-o. +shove = sxov-i. +shovel = sxovel-i. +show = (trans.), montr-i. +shrill = akr-a, akrason-a. +shun = evit-i. +shut = (trans.), ferm-i. +side = flank-o; --board, telermebl-o; --walk, trotuar-o; + --wise, oblikv-a. +sift = kribr-i. +sigh = sopir-i. +sign = sign-o; -- the name, subskrib-i. +signify = signif-i. +silent = silent-a (239). +silk = silk-o. +silver = argxent-o. +similar = simil-a. +simple = simpl-a. +sin = pek-i. +since = (conj.), cxar, tial ke (83); (prep.), de, depost (89); + (adv.), de tiam. +sing = kant-i. +single = sol-a, unuop-a; -- man (unmarried man), frauxl-o. +sit = sid-i (239). +six = (adj.), ses (136). +sketch = skiz-i. +skill = lertec-o; trial of --, konkurs-o. +skin = (human), hauxt-o; (of animals), fel-o. +skirt = jup-o. +sky = cxiel-o. +slanting = oblikv-a, klin-a. +slate = (stone), ardez-o. +slaughter = bucx-i. +slave = sklav-o. +sleep = dorm-i; lull to --, lul-i. +sleeve = manik-o. +slide = glit-i. +slime = sxlim-o. +slipper = pantofl-o. +sly = ruz-a. +smear = sxmir-i. +smell = (trans.), flar-i; (intrans.), odor-i. +smile = ridet-i. +smoke = fum-i. +smooth = glat-a; (polished), polurit-a. +sneeze = tern-i. +snow = negx-i. +so = (conj.), do; (adv.), (thus), tiel (88, 156); + (therefore), tial (78); -- much, tiom (104, 164). +society = societ-o. +Socrates = Sokrat-o. +sofa = kanap-o. +soft = mol-a. +soil = ter-o; soiled, malpur-a. +soldier = soldat-o; (professional), militist-o. +sole = sol-a; (of foot), pland-o; (of shoe), ledpland-o. +solemn = solen-a. +some = kelk-a, kelk-e, iom (217); --one, --how, etc., see table, 235. +son = fil-o. +soon = (adv.), baldaux. +sorcerer = sorcxist-o. +sort = spec-o, klas-o; (put in order), ordig-i, enfakig-i. +soul = anim-o. +sound = (intrans.), son-i; (of bells), sonor-i; + (in good condition), bonstat-a. +soup = sup-o. +sour = acid-a, maldolcx-a. +south = sud-o. +sow = sem-i. +space = spac-o. +spacious = vast-a, grandspac-a, grandampleks-a. +Spaniard = hispan-o. +spare = (save), sxpar-i; (pardon), pardon-i. +sparrow = paser-o. +speak = parol-i (77). +spear = lanc-o. +special = special-a, apart-a. +specialty = fak-o. +species = spec-o. +specimen = specimen-o, model-o. +spectre = fantom-o. +speed = rapid-o, rapidec-o. +spell = silab-i; (witchcraft), sorcxajx-o. +spend = (money), elspez-i; (time), pasig-i. +speso = spes-o (285). +spider = arane-o. +spin = sxpin-i. +spinach = spinac-o. +spite = malic-o; in -- of, (prep.), malgraux, spite. +splash = (trans.), plauxd-i. +splendor = pomp-o, bril-o, belegec-o. +split = (trans.), fend-i. +spoil = (trans.), difekt-i. +spoke = (of wheel), radi-o. +spoon = kuler-o. +spot = makul-i. +spout = (liquids), sxpruc-i. +spring = (season), printemp-o; (of water), font-o. +sprite = kobold-o, fe-o. +spruce = (tree), pice-o. +spurt = (of liquids), sxpruc-i. +spy = spion-o; (catch sight of), ekvid-i; --glass, lorn-o. +square = kvadrat-o; (public), plac-o. +stain = makul-i. +stair = (staircase), sxtupar-o. +stag = cerv-o. +stake = (of palisade), palis-o. +stamp = (officially), stamp-i; (with foot), piedfrap-i; + postage --, posxtmark-o. +stand = star-i (239); (endure), sufer-i, elport-i. +standard = (model), model-o; (flag), standard-o. +star = stel-o; (any heavenly body), astr-o. +starch = amel-o. +state = (condition), stat-o; (political), sxtat-o; + (governed body), regn-o. +station = (state), stat-o; (railway, etc.), staci-o, stacidom-o. +stay = rest-i. +steady = firm-a, konstant-a, nemovebl-a. +steal = sxtel-i, rab-i (252). +steam = vapor-o. +steel = sxtal-o. +steep = krut-a. +step = pasx-i; (of stairs), sxtup-o. +stern = sever-a. +stew = (trans.), stuf-i. +stick = baston-o; (adhere), algluigx-i. +still = (silent), silent-a; (adv.), ankoraux; jam; (conj.), tamen. +stimulate = stimul-i, incit-i. +sting = pik-i. +stipulate = kondicx-o. +stocking = sxtrump-o. +stomach = stomak-o. +stone = sxton-o. +stoop = klinigx-i; (entrance porch), peron-o. +stop = (intrans.), halt-i; (leave off), cxes-i; -- up, sxtop-i. +stopper = sxtopil-o. +store = (shop), butik-o; (warehouse), magazen-o, konservej-o, tenej-o. +story = (tale), fabel-o, rakont-o; (of house), etagx-o. +stove = forn-o. +straight = rekt-a. +strange = strang-a, kurioz-a; (foreign), fremd-a. +strap = rimen-o. +straw = pajl-o. +strawberry = frag-o. +streak = stri-o; make a --, strek-i. +street = strat-o; -- arab, bub-o. +street-car = tramveturil-o; -- line, tramvoj-o. +stress = akcent-o; (force), fort-o. +stretch = (trans.), etend-i; (forcibly), strecx-i. +string = sxnur-o; (shoelace), lacx-o; -- bean, fazeol-o. +strike = frap-i, bat-i; (of laborers), strik-o; -- out, trastrek-i. +strip = (of paper, cloth, etc.), banderol-o; -- off, senig-i. +stripe = stri-o. +strive = pen-i. +strong = fort-a. +struggle = barakt-i. +student = student-o; (person studying), studant-o. +study = stud-i. +stuff = sxtof-o; (furniture, etc.), rembur-i. +stump = stump-o. +style = stil-o, mod-o, fason-o. +subject = (theme), tem-o; (grammatical), subjekt-o; (ruled), regat-o. +subscribe = subskrib-i; (to magazine, etc.), abon-i. +substance = substanc-o. +succeed = sukces-i; (fare well), prosper-i; (follow), sekv-i, postven-i. +succulent = suk-a, sukplen-a. +such = tia (65); (adv.), tiel (88). +sudden = subit-a, neatendit-a. +suffer = sufer-i, toler-i; (permit), permes-i. +suffice = suficx-i. +suffix = sufiks-o. +suffocate = (trans.), sufok-i. +sugar = suker-o. +suggest = sugesti-i, propon-i. +suit = (of clothes), vest-oj, komplet-o; (at law), proces-o. +suitable = konven-a, konform-a, tauxg-a, dec-a. +suite = (of rooms), apartament-o. +sulphur = sulfur-o. +sum = sum-o; (total), tut-o. +summarize = resum-i. +summer = somer-o; --house, lauxb-o. +summit = pint-o, supr-o. +sun = sun-o. +Sunday = dimancx-o. +superior = super-a; (person), superul-o. +superstition = supersticx-o. +supply = liver-i, proviz-i. +suppose = supoz-i; opini-i. +sure = cert-a. +surface = suprajx-o. +surprise = surpriz-i. +suspect = suspekt-i. +suspend = pendig-i. +suspenders = sxelk-o. +swallow = glut-i; (bird), hirund-o. +swamp = marcx-o. +swan = cign-o. +swear = jxur-i. +Swede = sved-o. +sweep = (floors, etc.), bala-i. +sweet = dolcx-a; --potato, batat-o. +sweetmeat = bombon-o, sukerajx-o, konfitajx-o; be fond of --, frand-i. +swim = nagx-i. +swine = pork-o. +swing = (trans.), sving-i; (balance), balanc-i (279). +Swiss = svis-o. +swoon = sven-i. +sword = glav-o. +syllable = silab-o. +Syracuse = Sirakuz-o. + + T. + +table = (furniture), tabl-o; (tabulation), tabel-o. +tail = vost-o. +tailor = tajlor-o. +take = pren-i; (magazines, etc.), abon-i; -- in (money), enspez-i; + -- place, okaz-i; -- note of, observ-i, rimark-i; -- oath, jxur-i; + -- steps toward accomplishing, klopod-i; -- pleasure in, gxu-i; + -- the attention of, distr-i. +tale = fabel-o. +talent = talent-o. +tall = alt-a, altkresk-a, grand-a. +talon = ungeg-o. +tap = (rap), frapet-i; (faucet), kran-o. +tariff = tarif-o. +task = task-o. +taste = gust-o, gustum-i. +tax = impost-o. +tea = te-o; -- caddy, teuj-o (181); --pot, tekrucx-o. +teach = instru-i. +tear = sxir-i; (of the eye), larm-o. +tease = turmentet-i, cxagren-i. +tedious = ted-a, enuig-a, lacig-a. +telegraph = telegraf-i. +telephone = telefon-i. +telescope = teleskop-o. +tell = dir-i, rakont-i (77); -- lies, mensog-i. +temper = humor-o; lose the --, koler-i. +temple = (of the head), tempi-o; (building), templ-o. +tempt = tent-i. +ten = (adj.), dek (136). +tender = delikat-a, mol-a, kares-a. +tenor = (voice), tenor-o; (course), dauxr-o. +tent = tend-o. +term = (word), termin-o; (condition), kondicx-o; (time), templim-o. +terrace = teras-o. +territory = teritori-o. +terror = terur-o. +test = prov-i, ekzamen-i. +texture = kvalit-o; (thing woven), teksajx-o. +than = (conj.), ol (82, 97, 98). +thank = dank-i (265). +that = (conj.), ke (53, 83, 105, 259, 262); (pronoun), tiu (56); + tio (233, 234); -- kind, tia (65); (adv.), tiel (88, 156); + -- way, tiamanier-e, tiel (88); -- much, tiel mult-e, tiom + (104, 164); (when) (adv.), kiam (155). +thaw = (intrans.), degel-i. +the = (article), la (11, 47, 201, 280, a); (adv.), ju, des (84). +theatre = teatr-o. +theme = tem-o. +then = (conj.), do; (adv.), tiam (73); (afterwards), post-e. +theory = teori-o. +there = (adv.), tie (68); (adv. calling attention), jen (228); + see also 51. +therefore = (adv.), tial (78); pro tio, sekv-e. +they = (pronoun), ili (32, 37, 42); (indefinite), oni (54). +thick = dik-a, dens-a. +thigh = femur-o. +thing = afer-o, objekt-o, ajx-o (227); any--, what --, etc., + see table, 235. +think = pens-i; (have the opinion), opini-i. +(be) thirsty = soif-i. +this = (pronoun), tio cxi (233, 234); + (pronoun and adj.), tiu cxi (60); all --, cxio cxi. See table, 235. +thong = rimen-o. +thorn = dorn-o. +thou = (pronoun), ci (40). +though = (conj.), kvankam; as --, kvazaux (250). +thousand = (adj.), mil (142). +thread = faden-o; -- a needle, enkudrilig-i fadenon. +threaten = minac-i. +three = (adj.), tri (136). +threshold = sojl-o. +thrifty = sxparem-a. +throat = gorgx-o. +throne = tron-o. +throng = amas-o, ar-o (126). +through = (prep.), tra (46, 160); (by means of), per (64); + (because of), pro (86), de (170). +throw = jxet-i. +thumb = dika fingr-o. +thunder = tondr-i. +Thursday = jxauxd-o. +thus = (adv.), tiel (88, 156), tiamanier-e. +ticket = bilet-o; -- window, gicxet-o. +tickle = tikl-i. +tie = lig-i; (shoes, etc.), lacx-i. +tiger = tigr-o. +tile = kahel-o; (brick), brik-o. +till = (money box), kas-o; (prep.), gxis (46, 89); + -- the soil, terkultur-i. +time = (in general), temp-o; (occasion), foj-o (127); + (epoch), epok-o; (of day), hor-o. +tin = (metal), stan-o; -- plate (sheet iron covered with tin), lad-o. +tinkle = tint-i. +tint = nuanc-o, kolor-o. +tire = (trans.), lacig-i, enuig-i; (pneumatic), pneuxmatik-o. +to = (prep.), al (46, 160, 251, 252); gxis (46, 89). +toad = buf-o. +toast = (bread), panrostajx-o; (sentiment), tost-o. +tobacco = tabak-o. +today = (adv.), hodiaux (93, 171). +toe = piedfingr-o. +toilet = tualet-o. +tolerate = toler-i, sufer-i. +tomato = tomat-o. +tomb = tomb-o. +tomorrow = (adv.), morgaux (93, 171). +tone = ton-o. +tongue = (of the body), lang-o; (of vehicle), timon-o; + (language), lingv-o. +too = (adv.), tro; (too much), tro multe, tro. +tool = il-o (63). +tooth = dent-o. +top = supr-o. +torment = turment-i. +total = tut-o. +touch = tusx-i; (feel with the fingers, etc.), palp-i; + sense of --, palpad-o; -- the heart of, kortusx-i. +toward = (prep.), al (46, 160, 251, 252). +tower = tur-o; -- above, superstar-i. +trace = sign-o, postsign-o. +trade = (occupation), meti-o; (commerce), komerc-o; + (exchange), intersxangx-i. +train = (of cars), vagonar-o; (of dress), trenajx-o. +tram = tram-o; --way, tramvoj-o; -- car, tramveturil-o. +tranquil = trankvil-a; kviet-a. +translate = traduk-i. +travel = vojagx-i; (by vehicle), vetur-i. +tray = plet-o. +treacherous = perfid-a. +treasure = trezor-o. +treasurer = kasist-o. +treasury = kas-o. +treat = (in speech or writing), trakt-i; (for illness), kurac-i; + (act towards), kondut-i kontraux; (regale), regal-i. +treatise = traktat-o. +tree = arb-o. +tremble = trem-i; (vacillate), sxanceligx-i. +trial = jugxa auxskultado, esplorad-o; (of skill), konkurs-o; + (affliction), malgxoj-o, sufer-o; (test), prov-o, ekzamen-o; + (attempt), prov-o. +trifle = bagatel-o. +triumph = triumf-o. +tropic = tropik-o. +trot = trot-i. +trousers = pantalon-o. +trunk = (chest with lid), kofr-o; (of tree), trunk-o. +trust = fid-i, konfid-i; (financial), trust-o. +truth = ver-o. +try = (legally), jugx-i; (strive), pen-i; (attempt, test), prov-i. +tub = kuv-o. +tube = tub-o. +tuber = tuber-o. +Tuesday = mard-o. +tumbler = (for drinking), glas-o; (juggler), jxonglist-o. +tune = ari-o, melodi-o. +Turk = turk-o. +turkey = meleagr-o. +turn = (trans.), turn-i; (in a series), vic-o. +turnip = nap-o. +turnstile = gicxet-o. +twilight = krepusk-o. +twist = (trans.), tord-i. +twitter = pep-i. +two = (adj.), du (136). +tyrant = tiran-o. + + U. + +umbrella = ombrel-o. +uncle = onkl-o. +unanimous = unuvocx-a, unuanim-a. +uncommon = kurioz-a, nekomun-a. +unconcerned = indiferent-a; nezorgem-a. +under = (prep.), sub (121, 160). +underline = substrek-i. +understand = kompren-i. +undertake = entrepren-i; -- initiative work, klopod-i. +undeviating = rekt-a. +unfailing = (adv.), nepr-e, cert-e. +unimportant = indiferent-a, negrav-a. +union = unuig-o, unuigx-o, kunig-o, kunigx-o. +universe = univers-o. +university = universitat-o. +until = (prep.), gxis (89) +up = (adv.), supre, supren (121); -- to, gxis (46). +upholster = rembur-i. +upper = supr-a. +upon = (prep.), sur (160). +upright = just-a; (vertical), vertikal-a. +urge = urgx-i, insiste pet-i. +upset = (trans.), renvers-i. +utmost = ekstrem-a, ebl-o (161, see also 162). + + V. + +(be) vacant = vak-i, esti neokupata. +vacillate = sxanceligx-i. +vagabond = vagist-o. +vain = (futile), van-a; senutil-a, senfrukt-a; + (proud), vant-a, fier-a; in --, vane. +valise = valiz-o. +valley = val-o. +value = (appraise), taks-i; (like), sxat-i; have the -- of, valor-i. +vanquish = venk-i. +vapor = vapor-o. +varied = divers-a, malsimil-a. +vase = vaz-o. +vast = vast-a, grand-a. +vaunt = fanfaron-i, vantparol-i. +veal = bovidajx-o (207, c). +vegetable = (edible), legom-o; (plant growth), vegetajx-o, + kreskajx-o (227, a). +vegetarian = vegetar-a. +vegetate = veget-i. +veil = vual-o. +vein = vejn-o. +velvet = velur-o. +veranda = verand-o. +verify = konstat-i, kontrol-i. +vermicelli = vermicxel-o. +verse = vers-o; (poesy), poezi-o. +vertical = vertikal-a. +very (very much) = (adv.), tre, tre multe; (adj.), sam-a, + ident-a, (intensive) mem (219). +vex = cxagren-i. +vibrate = (intrans.), vibr-i. +vice = (wickedness), malvirt-o; (prefix), vic-. +vie = konkur-i. +village = vilagx-o. +vindication = apologi-o. +vinegar = vinagr-o. +violet = viol-o. +violin = violon-o. +virtue = virt-o. +visage = vizagx-o. +visit = vizit-i. +vivid = hel-a. +voice = vocx-o. +volume = (book), volum-o; (of a body), volumen-o. +vote = vocxdon-i, balot-i. +vowel = vokal-o. +voyage = vojagx-i. + + W. + +wade = vad-i. +waffle = vafl-o. +wager = vet-i. +wages = salajr-o. +wait = (wait for), atend-i; -- on, serv-i. +waiter = (in restaurant, etc.), kelner-o. +waist = tali-o; --coat, vesxt-o +wake = (trans.), vek-i. +walk = marsx-i; (for pleasure), promen-i; (of park, etc.), ale-o; + side--, trotuar-o. +wall = mur-o. +waltz = vals-i. +wander = vag-i. +want = (need), bezon-i; (desire), dezir-i, vol-i; + (be lacking), mank-i; (extremity), mizereg-o. +war = milit-i. +wardrobe = (garments), vestar-o; (furniture), sxrank-o, vestosxrank-o. +warehouse = magazen-o. +warm = varm-a; make --, varmig-i, hejt-i. +warn = avert-i; (give notice), aviz-i, antauxsciig-i. +wash = lav-i. +waste = (prodigality), malsxpar-o; (refuse), forjxetajx-o; + (desert), dezert-o. +watch = (look at), rigardad-i; (timepiece), posxhorlogx-o; + -- over, gard-i. +water = akv-o; -- color, akvarel-o; --fall, kaskad-o. +wave = ond-o; (flutter, brandish), flirt-i, sving-i. +wax = vaks-o. +way = (manner), manier-o; (custom), kutim-o; (method), metod-o; + (means), rimed-o; (road), voj-o; -- in, enirejo; + this --, any--, etc., see table, 235. +we = (pronoun), ni (32, 37). +wear = port-i; -- out, eluz-i. +(be) wearied = enu-i. +weather = veter-o; --cock, ventoflag-o. +weave = teks-i; (plait), plekt-i. +Wednesday = merkred-o. +week = semajn-o. +weep = plor-i. +weigh = (trans.), pes-i; (intrans.), (be heavy), pez-i; + (meditate upon), pripens-i (264, c). +welcome = bonven-i; bone akcept-i; you are --, ("no thanks needed"), + estas nenio, volonte farite. +well = (healthy), san-a; (for water), put-o; (adv.), bon-e; + (interjection), nu (273), bon-e; -- informed, kler-a; + -- nigh (adv.), preskaux. +west = okcident-o. +wet = malsekig-i, tremp-i. +whale = balen-o. +what = (pronoun), kio (233, 234); (pronominal adj.), kiu (106, 146); + -- kind, -- way, -- time, etc., see table, 235. +wheat = tritik-o. +wheel = rad-o. +when = (adv.), kiam (125, 155); (while), dum (96). +where = (adv.), kie (118, 151); --fore, kial (129), tial (78). +whether = (conj.), cxu (30, 66, a). +which = (pronoun), kio (233, 234); (pronoun and adj.), kiu (106, 146); + -- way, -- kind, etc. see table, 235. +while = (prep.), dum (120, 159); (conj.), dum (96); + (concessive), kvankam; a --, iom da tempo. +whip = vip-i. +whistle = fajf-i; (hiss), sibl-i. +white = blank-a; whitish, dubeblank-a. +who = (pronoun), kiu (106, 143); whose, kies (107, 147). +whole = (entire), tut-a. +why = (adv.), kial (129), pro kio. +wicket = gicxet-o. +wide = largx-a; make --, plilargxig-i, etend-i. +widow = vidvin-o; widower, vidv-o. +wig = peruk-o. +wild = sovagx-a. +(be) willing = vol-i. +willingly = volont-e. +wilt = velk-i. +wind = vent-o, survolv-i; (twist), tord-i; (a watch), strecx-i. +winding = tord-a. +window = fenestr-o; ticket --, gicxet-o. +wine = vin-o. +winter = vintr-o. +wipe = visx-i. +wise = sagx-a. +wish = vol-i, dezir-i. +witch = sorcxistin-o; --craft, sorcx-o. +with = (prep.), kun (70, 76, 120, 159, 160); (by means of), per (64); + (agent of the passive), de (169); je (260); + -- regard to, rilate (266); --draw, elir-i, forir-i; + (= having), havante (222). +wither = velk-i. +without = (prep.), sen (248). +(give) witness = atest-i. +witty = sprit-a. +woe = malgxoj-o; (interjection), ve (273). +wolf = lup-o. +wonder = mir-i. +woo = amindum-i. +wood = lign-o. +wool = lan-o. +word = vort-o; (spoken), parol-o. +work = labor-i; (of machinery), funkci-i; + (literary composition), verk-o. +world = mond-o. +worm = verm-o. +worship = ador-i; (divine service), Diserv-o. +(be) worth = valor-i. +worthy = ind-a (154). +wound = vund-i. +wreath = girland-o. +wrestle = barakt-i. +wretch = fripon-o, kanajl-o; --ed, mizer-a, acx-a (272). +wrinkle = sulket-o, faldet-o. +write = skrib-i; (books, articles, music), verk-i. +wrong = malprav-a, erar-a, maljust-a. + + Y. + +yawn = osced-i; (open), fendigx-i. +year = jar-o. +yearn = sopir-i; dezireg-i. +yellow = flav-a; --ish, dubeflav-a. +yes = (adv.), jes (171). +yesterday = (adv.), hieraux (93, 171); day before --, antaux-hieraux. +yet = (adv.), ankoraux; jam; (conj.), tamen. +yoke = jug-o. +you = (pronoun), vi (32, 37, 39); see also oni (54). +young = jun-a; (offspring), id-o (207). + + Z. + +zeal = fervor-o. +zenith = zenit-o. +zero = nul-o. +zigzag = zigzag-o. +zinc = zink-o. +zone = zon-o. +zoology = zoologi-o. + + + + INDEX. + +The references are to sections, unless the page (p.) is given. The +following abbreviations are used: ace. = accusative; adj. = adjective; +adv. = adverb; expr. = expressed; ftn. = footnote; inf. = infinitive; +intrans. = intransitive; prep. = preposition; trans. = transitive. For +Esperanto words whose use or meaning is specially explained, references +are given in the Vocabulary. + + A. + +Abbreviations, 286; of ordinals, p. 107, ftn. +Abstract nouns, 202. +Accent, 8; of elided word, 280, b. +Accompaniment, 70; distinguished from instrumentality and opposition, + p. 49, ftn. +Accordance, expr. by "laux", 191. +Active voice, participles of, 108, 119, 152; tenses of, see Tenses; + synopsis of, 267. +Accusative, ending, 23; of adj., 24; of pronoun, 37; of adv., 69, 121; + of direction, 46, 108; of measure, 139; of time, 91; distinguished + from temporal adv., 94; with temporal adv., 93; when avoided, 92; + after adv., 266; with intrans. verb, 264; with nouns expressing + motion, 263; in composition, p. 132, ftn.; instead of prepositional + phrase, 265, 266; not used after prep., 36, ("al, gxis, tra") 46, + ("preter") p. 139, ftn.; not used with article, 25; not used with + predicates, 25, 210; "cognate," see acc. with intrans. verbs, 264, + a. +Adjectives, defined, 12; ending of, 12; formation of, 116, (from adv.) + 171, (from prep.) 159; attributive, 13; acc. of, 24; plural of, + 17; agreement, (with nouns) 17, 21, 24, (with pronouns) 33, (with + words connected by "nek") 31; comparison of, 74; possessive, 43, + (pronominal use of) 45; predicate, 19, (after trans, verbs) 210; + use of, distinguished from adv. with "da", 103; demonstrative, 65; + distributive, 177; indefinite, 208; interrogative, 112; negative, + 224; reflexive possessive, 44; relative, 150; causative verbs from + roots of, 214, a; intrans. verbs from roots of, 232, c; cardinal, + 136; ordinal, 149. +Adverbs, defined, 66; primary, 66; derived, 79; (from prep.) 120; + demonstrative, ("tie") 68, ("tiam") 73, ("tial") 78, ("tiel") 88, + ("tiom") 104; interrogative, ("kie") 118, ("kiam") 123, ("kial") + 129, ("kiel") 134, ("kiom") 140, ("cxu") 30, p. 38, ftn.; relative, + ("kie") 151, ("kiam") 155, ("kiel") 156, p. 170, ftn., ("kiom") 164; + distributive, ("cxie") 182, ("cxiam") iS7, ("cxial") 188, ("cxiel") + 193, ("cxiom") 194; indefinite, ("ie") 209, ("iam") 212, ("ial") + 213, ("iel") 216, ("iom") 217; negative, ("nenie") 225, ("neniam") + 226, ("nenial") 229, ("neniel") 230, ("neniom") 231, ("ne") 27, + 66, a; generalizing, ("ajn") 236; numeral, 158; position of, 66, + a; expressing direction of motion, 69, 121; with expressions of + time, 93; distinguishing from acc. of time, 94; with acc., 266; with + prep., 87; calling attention, ("jen") 228; causative verbs from, + 214, c; intrans. verbs from, 232, d; as interjections, p. 216, ftn.; + derivation of words from primary, 171. +Adverbial clauses, p. 168, ftn.; participle, 222, (translating + "without") p. 193, ftn. +Adversative conjunctions, p. 32, ftn. +Advice, expression of, 257, 259. +Affectionate diminutives, 283 (also 198, and ftn., p. 221). +Affirmation, 66. +Affixes, see Prefixes, Suffixes. +Agency, expr. by "de", 169. +Agreement, of attributive adj., 17, (with acc.) 24; of predicate noun + and adj., 21; of adj. with two or more nouns, 17; of adj. with words + connected by "nek", 31; of adj. with pronouns, 33; of participle, + 108; of nouns in apposition, 48. +Alphabet, I. +Anticipation, expr. by clause, 97; by inf. with prep., 98. +Aoristic tenses, explained, p. 78, ftn.; conjugation of, (present) 14, + (past) 35, (future) 55, (conditional) 241, (imperative), 254. +Apposition, 48. +Argumentative conjunction, p. 32, ftn. +Article, definite, 11; invariable, 18, 25; for possessive adj., 47; + with possessive adj., 45; generic, 201, 218, b, elision of, 280, a; + no indefinite, II. +Assumption, defined, 240; implied, 244. +Augmentatives, 122. +Auxiliary verbs, 109. + + C. + +Cardinal numerals, 136; formation of, 142. +Case, see Accusative, Dative, Nominative, Possessive. +Causative verbs, 214. +Cause, expr. by clause, 83; by "pro", 86; by "ke", p. 222, ftn. +Characteristic, expr. by "kun", 76; by adverbial participle, 222. + Clauses, defined, p. 34, ftn.; adverbial, p. 168, ftn.; causal, + 83; of anticipation, 97; of duration of time, 96; of imaginative + comparison, 250; of purpose, 262; of result, 105; subordinate + imperative, 259. +"Cognate acc.," see acc. with intrans. verbs, 264. +Collective nouns, 126. +Collective sense given by use of "da", 103. +Commands, expression of, 256; in subordinate clause, 259. +Complement of prep., 36. +Complementary inf., 29. +Comparison, of adj., 74; of adv., 79; of words expressing quantity, 81; + containing "ol", 82; "ju" and "des" in, 84. +Composition, see Compounds. +Compound tenses, explained, 109; of impersonal verbs, 179; conjugation + of, see Tenses. +Compounds, dependent, 176; descriptive, 167; possessive, 184. +Conclusion (of conditions) defined, 240; (of letters), + see Correspondence. +Concrete nouns, formation of, 227. +Conditional mood, 241; compound tenses of, 242; in contrary to fact + conditions, 246; in less vivid conditions, 243; independent use of, + 244; of "devi", 247; conditional sentences, see Conditions. +Conditions, defined, 240; contrary to fact, 246; factual, 240; less + vivid, 243; vivid, p. 189, ftn.; summary of, 249. +Conjugation, 34; synopsis of, 267; of tenses, see Tenses. +Conjunctions, defined, 52; coordinating, 52; subordinating, 53, (not + omitted) p. 34, ftn.; "aux", p. 32, ftn.; "kaj", 26, p. 32, ftn.; + "ke", (in indirect statements), 53, (in causal clauses) 83, p. + 222, ftn.; (in result clause) 105, (in purpose clause) 262, (in + subordinate imperative clause) 259; "kvazaux", 250; "nek", 31, p. 32, + ftn.; "se", 240; "sed", p. 32, ftn.; "tamen", p. 32, ftn.; "do", p. + 32, ftn.; see p. 110, ftn. +Connection, expr. by "de", 49; indefinite, expr. by "je", 260. +Consent, expression of, 257, (in subordinate clauses) 259. +Consonants, combinations of, 6; pronunciation of, 3, names of, 4. +Contrary to fact conditions, 246. +Coordinating conjunctions, 52. +Copulative conjunctions, p. 32, ftn. +Correlative words, 235. +Correspondence, 278. + + D. + +Dates, expr. by acc., 91; expr. by "antaux", 90; expr. by prep., 89; + on letters, see Correspondence, 278. +"Dative," ethical, of reference, of separation, p. 197, ftn. +Definite quantity, nouns of, followed by "de", 100. +Degree, advs. of, 66, ("tiel") 88, ("kiel") 134, 156; highest + possible, 162; see also Comparison. +Deliberation, expression of, 257, (in subordinative clause) 259. +Demonstrative, pronoun, ("tiu") 56, ("cxi tiu") 60, ("tio, cxi tio") + 233; adjective, 65; adv., see Adverbs. +Dependent compounds, 176. +Derivation, of adv., 79, (from prep.) 120; of words from prep., 159; of + words from primary adv., 171. +Descriptive compounds, 167. +Diminutives, 198; affectionate, 283. +Diphthongs, 5. +Direct object, defined, 23; inf. as, see Complementary inf., 29; clause + as, 53, 259; of complementary inf., 29; of participle, 108; of prep., + see Complement, 36. +Direction, expr. by acc. (of noun) 46, 263, (of adv.) 121. +Disjunctive conjunctions, p. 32, ftn. +Distributive, prep., see "po", 175; pronoun, ("cxiu") 173, ("cxio") 233; + adj., 177; adv., see Adverbs. +Double letters, 6, e. + + E. + +Elision, 280. +Emphasis, by "ecx", 66; by "ja", 215. +Emphatic negation, 27. +Ending, of acc., 23; of adj., 12; of adv., 79; of noun, 10; of plural, + 16; of inf., 28; of indicative, 14, 35, 55; of conditional, 241, of + imperative, 254; of participle, see Participles. +"Ethical dative," p. 197, ftn. +Exclamations, 115; use of "je" in, 260. +Exhortation, 255. +Expedience, expressions of, 259. + + F. + +Factual conditions, 240. +Feminine nouns, formation of, 59. +Formation, of words, 116; of opposites, 67, of feminines, 59; with + "-ig-" and "-igx-", 239; from primary words, 159, 171. +Fractions, 166. +Frequentative verbs, 218, a. +Future participle, (active) 152, (passive) 199. +Future tense, 55, (progressive) 114, (passive) 183, periphrastic, 153, + 200. +Future perfect tense, 148, (passive) 196. + + G. + +Generic article, 201. 218, b. +Generalizing adv. "ajn", 236. + + H. + +Highest degree possible, 162. + + I. + +Imaginative comparison, 250. +Imperative mood, 254; in commands and prohibitions, 256; in resolve and + exhortation, 255, in subordinate clauses, 259;. less peremptory uses + of, 257; to express purpose, 262. +Imperfect tense, 113, (passive) 178. +Impersonal verbs, 50, compound tenses of, 179; modifiers of, 141. +Impersonally used verbs, explained, 141; modifiers of, 141. +Inchoative verbs, 232, a. +Indefinite connection, expr. by "je", 260. +Indefinite, pronoun, ("iu") 203, ("io") 233; (personal) 54; adj., 208; + advs., see Adverbs; prep., 260; suffix, 268; quantity, expressions + of, with "da", 99, 101. +Independent use of conditional mood, 244. +Indicative mood, defined, 241; tenses of, see Synopsis, 267. +"Indirect object," see "al". +Indirect quotation, tenses in, 58; statements in, 53; questions in, + p. 38, ftn.; p. 170, ftn. +Infinitive, defined, 28, 241; ending of, 28; complementary, 29; as + subject, 29; modifiers of, 130; synopsis of, 267; with prep., 98; + replaced by noun, 218, b. +Instruction, (orders), requests for, 257, 259. +Instrumentality, expr. by "per", 64; distinguished from accompaniment, + p. 49, ftn. +Instruments, formation of names of, 63. +Intensive pronoun, "mem", 219. +Intention, expr. by clause, 259. +Interjections, 273. +International money system, 285; weights and measures, 284. +Interrogation, 30, 66, a. +Interrogative, pronoun, ("kiu") 106, (kio) 233; adj., 112; advs., + see Adverbs. +Intransitive verbs, defined, 22; no passive, p. 122, ftn.; from adj. + roots, 232, c; from noun roots, advs., preps., suffixes, prefixes, + 232, d; from trans, verb roots, 232, b, (table of), 279. +Introductory particle, not needed, 50, 51. +Invariability, of article, 18; of "mem", 219; of verb, 18; of + cardinals, 136. +Inversion, not needed in questions, 30. + + L. + +Less peremptory uses of imperative, 257. +Less vivid conditions, 243. +Letters, names of, 4; double, pronunciation of, 6, e; see also + Correspondence, 278. +Limitation of third personal pronoun, 42. + + M. + +Manner, expr. by "kun", 76; expr. by. "per", p. 53, ftn.; by + adverbial participle, 222; advs. of, see Adverbs. +Material, expression of, 197. +Means, expression of, 64. +Measure, ace. of, 139; expr. by "je", 260. +Measures, weights and, 284. +Metric system, 284. +Modifiers of impersonally used verbs, 141. +Money system, The international, 285. +Mood, defined, 241; inf., see Infinitive; conditional, 241; imperative, + 254; indicative, see 267; in conditions, see Conditions. +Moral obligation, 247. +Motive or reason, advs. of, see Adverbs; expr. by clause, 83; expr. by + prep., 86. + + N. + +Names, of letters, 4; orthography of proper, 128. +Necessity, expression of, 259. +Negative, pronoun, ("neniu") 220; ("nenio") 233; adj., 224; + advs., see Adverbs; conjunction, 31. +"Nominative absolute," how rendered, p. 169, ftn. +Nominative case, ending of, (for nouns) 10, (for adj.) 12; of predicate + noun and adj., 25, 210; with prep., 36, ("al", "gxis", "tra") 46. +Noun, defined, 10, ending of, 10, plural of, 16; acc. of, 23; elision + of, 280, b; feminine, 59; numeral, 157; participial, 205; predicate, + 20, 211; possessive case of, 49; expressing motion, followed by + acc., 263; expressing quantity, followed by "da", 99, by "de", 100; + replacing inf., 218, b; replacing participial phrase, p. 193, ftn.; + from adv., 171; from prep., 159. +Noun roots, causative verbs from, 214, c; intrans. verbs from, 232, d. +Number, see Plural. +Numeral nouns, 157; advs., 158. +Numerals, cardinal, 136; formation of, 142; fractional, 166; ordinal, + 149; abbreviation of, p. 107, ftn.; followed by "el", 138. + + O. + +Object, see Direct object, Indirect object, Complement. +Obligation, 247, (moral) 247. +Opposites, formation of, 67; of "pli" and "plej", 80. +Opposition, distinguished from accompaniment, p. 49, ftn. +Order, of word endings, p. 10, ftn.; see also Position. +Ordinal numerals, 149; advs., 158; abbreviation of, p. 107, ftn. +Orthography, of proper nouns, 128. + + P. + +Part of the whole, expression of, (after noun) 99, (after adv.) 101. +Participial nouns, 205; advs., 222. +Participle, defined, 108; agreement of, 108; adverbial, 222, + (translating "without") p. 193, ftn.; present, 108, (passive) 165; + past, 119, (passive) 189; future, 152, (passive) 199. +Particle, introductory, not needed, 50, 51. +Partitive construction, p. 74, ftn. +Passive voice, agent of, 169; participles of, see Participles; tenses + of, see Tenses; of "-ig-" formations, 239; distinguished from + "-igx-" formations, 232, b. +Past tense, 35, (passive) see Imperfect; past participle, see + Participles. +Past periphrastic future, 153, (passive) 200. +Past inception, present action with, 131. +Peremptory commands and prohibitions, 256, 259. +Perfect tense, 124, (passive) 190; perfect participle, see Past + participle. +Periphrastic futures, 153, (passive) 200. +Permission, expression of, 269. +Perplexity, expression of, 257, 259. +Personal pronouns, 32; acc. of, 37; indefinite, 54; reflexive, 39, 40; + limitation of third personal, 42; position of unemphatic, 274. +Place, expr. by "cxe", 125; advs. of, see Adverbs; expr. by "-ej-", + III; 128. +Pluperfect tense, 135, (passive), 195. +Plural, of nouns, 16; of pronouns, 56, 106, 203, 173, 220; of adj., 16; + of "unu", 137; none of article, 18; none of pronouns ending in "-o", + 233. +Position, of attributive adj., 13; of adv., 66, a; of emphatic negative, + 27; of unemphatic pronoun, 274; of interrogative adv., 30. +Possession, expr. by "de", 49. +Possessive, adjective, 43; reflexive, 44; article for, 47; ftn., p. 221. +Possessive case of nouns, 49; of pronouns, ("ties") 62, ("kies") 107, + 147, ("cxies") 174, ("ies") 204, ("nenies") 221; see also Possessive + adjective, 43. +Possessive compounds, 184. +"Possessive pronouns," p. 24, ftn. +Possibility, expression of, 270. +Predicate, adj., 19, agreement of, 21; after trans, verbs, 210; noun, + 20; agreement of, 21; after trans. verb, 211; clause as, 259. +Prefixes, causative verbs from, 214, c; intrans. verbs from, 232, d; + prep. as, 160, 248; adverb as, 71, 167, a, interjection as, p. 216, + ftn.; "bo-", 277; "dis-", 245; "duon-", 277; "ek-", 206; "eks-", 281; + "ge-", 271; "mal-", 67; "pra-", 282; "re-", 223. +Prepositions, defined, 36; with inf., 98; with adv., 87; with other + preps., 87; case use with, 36, 46; expressing time relations, 89; as + prefixes, 160; word derivation from, 159; advs. from, 120; causative + verbs from, 214, c; intrans. verbs from, 232, d; making intrans. + verbs trans., 264, b, c; see also references in Vocabulary. +Prepositional phrase, acc. instead of, 265, 266. +Present action with past inception, 131. +Present periphrastic future, 153, (passive) 200. +Present participle, 108, (passive) 165. +Present tense, 14, (progressive) 110, (passive) 168. +Primary adverbs, defined, 66; derivation of words from, 171. +Probability, expression of, 270. +Progressive tenses, present, 110, future, 114; passive, 200. +Prohibition, expression of, 256, 259. +Pronominal adjective, possessive adj. as, 45; pronoun as, ("tiu") + 57, 60, ("kiu") 106, 146, ("cxiu") 173, ("iu") 203, ("neniu") 220, + ("ambaux") 238. +Pronouns, defined, 32; agreement with, 33; personal, 32; indefinite + personal, 54; reflexive, 38, 39, 40, (in composition) p. 132, ftn.; + possessive, p. 24, ftn.; possessive form of, see Possessive case; + limitation of third personal, 42; position of unemphatic, 274; + correlation of predicative or relative, 234; followed by "el", + 173, p. 115, ftn.; series in "-o", 233; demonstrative, 56, 60, + 233; distributive, 173, 233; indefinite, 203, 233; interrogative, + 106, 233; negative, 220, 233; relative, 146; 233; summary, 235; + "ambaux", 238; intensive, 219. +Proper nouns, orthography of, 128. +Protestations, use of "je" in, 260. +Proximity, expr. by "cxi", 60, 66, p. 229, ftn. +Purpose, expr. by inf., 98; by imperative, 262; by prep., 95. + + Q. + +Quantity, construction with nouns expressing, 99, 100; construction with + advs. expressing, 101; advs. of, ("tiom") 104, ("kiom") 140, 164, + ("cxiom") 194, ("iom") 217, ("neniom") 231; comparison of advs. + expressing, 81. +Questions, 30; indirect, p. 38, ftn., p. 170, ftn.; of deliberation, + perplexity, or for instructions, 257, 259. +Quotations, indirect, 53, 58. + + R. + +Reciprocal expressions, 180. +Reference, expr. by "al", 251. +Reflexive pronouns, of first and second persons, 39; of third person, + 40; with substantival inf., 130. +Reflexive possessive adjective, 44. +Reflexive verbs, 41; distinguished from verbs in "-igx-", 232, b. +Relative pronoun, ("kiu") 146, ("kio") 233; not omitted, p. 106, ftn. +Relative adjective, 150; relative adverb, see Adverbs. +Relative clause, see 146, 233, (temporal) 155, (of manner) 156, + (quantitative) 164. +Request, expression of, 257, 259; for instructions, 257, 259. +Resolve, expression of, 255. +Result, clauses of, 105. +Root, defined, p. 42, ftn. +Route, expression of, 191. + + S. + +Salutations, 115. +Separation, expr. by "de", 170; expr. by "al", 252; by "for", 71; by + "dis-", 245. +Situation, expr. by "cxe", 125; by adverbial participle, 222. +Source, expr. by "de", 170. +Statements, indirect, 53; tenses in, 58. +Subject, defined, 15; preceded by verb, 51; inf. as, 130; clause as, + 141, 259; of adverbial participle, 222. +Subordinate clause, defined, 53; imperative in, 259, 262; conditional + in, see Conditions, 243, 246. +Subordinating conjunctions, "ke", 53, 105, 259 ("tial ke") 83, p. 222, + ftn.; ("por ke") 262; (not omitted) p. 34, ftn.; "se", 240; + "kvazaux", 250; "cxu", p. 38, ftn. +Substantive, defined, p. 71, ftn.; inf. as, 98, 130; clause as, 53, 259. +Substitution, expr. by prep., p. 63, ftn.; expr. by prep. with inf., 98; + of noun for inf., 218, b, p. 193, ftn. +Suffixes, causative verbs from, 214, c; intrans. verbs from, 232, d; + "-ad-", 218; "-acx-", 272; "-ajx-", 227; "-an-", 145; "-ar-", 126; + "-cxj-", 283; "-ebl-", 161; "-ec-", 202; "-eg-", 122; "-ej-", 111; + "-em-", 192; "-er-", 276; "-estr-", 253; "-et-", 198; "-id-" 207; + "-ig-", 214, 239, 275; "-igx-", 232, 239, 279; "-il-", 63; "-in-", + 59; "-ind-", 154; "-ing-", 237; "-ist-", 172, p. 154, ftn.; "-nj-", + 283; "-obl-", 186; "-on-", 166; "-op-", 261; "-uj-", 181; "-ul-", + 132; "-um-", 268. +Summary of conditions, 249. +Superlatives, (adj.) 74, (adv.) 79; followed by "el", 75. +Syllables, 7. +Synonyms, apparent, ("diri: paroli: rakonti") 77, ("koni: scii") 117, + ("tempo; fojo") 127, ("logxi: vivi") 133, ("antikva: maljuna: + malnova") p. 128, ftn., 67, ("cxiu: tuta") p. 130, ftn., + ("indiferenta: nezorga") p. 162, ftn., ("provi: peni: jugxi") p. 228, + ftn., ("gxuste: juste: jxus") p. 198, ftn., ("ankoraux: jam") p. 124, + ftn., p. 112, ftn., ("trovigxi: sin trovi: kusxi: sidi)" p. 217, ftn. +Synopsis of the verb, 267. +System, correlative, 235; metric, 284; of money, 285. + + T. + +Temporal clauses, 96, 155. +Temporal adverbs, 66, ("tiam") 73, ("kiam") 123, 155, ("cxiam") 187, + ("iam") 212, ("neniam") 226, ("jam") p. 124, ftn. ("ankoraux") p. + 112, ftn., ("jxus") p. 116, ftn. +Tenses, aoristic, p. 78, ftn.; compound, 109; (of impersonal verbs) 179; + in indirect quotations, 58; in conditions, 249; of inf., 267; + of conditional, 241, 242; of imperative, 254; present, 14, + (progressive) 110, (passive) 168, past, 35, (passive) 178; future, + 55, (progressive) 114; (passive) 183; imperfect, 113, (passive) + 178; perfect, 124, (passive) 190; pluperfect, 135, (passive) 195; + future perfect, 148, (passive) 190; periphrastic, 153, (passive) 200; + synopsis of all, 267. +Terminations, see Endings. +Terms of address, 163; affectionate, 283, p. 221, ftn. +Time, of day, 185; expr. by prep., 89; expr. by acc., 91; expr. by + clause, 96, 155; expr. by adverbial participle, 222; advs. of, see + Temporal adverbs. +Titles, 163; use of "mosxto", 258. +Transitive verbs, defined, 22; formed by "-ig-", 214; from intrans. + roots, 264, b, c; list of some, 275. + + U. + +Unemphatic words, position of, (negative) 27, (pronoun) 274. + + V. + +Verbal nouns in "-ad-", 218, b, p. 193, ftn. +Verbal roots, causative verbs from, 214, b. +Verbs, mood of, 241; invariable, 18; causative, 214; frequentative, + 218, a; inchoative, 232, a; impersonal, 50; reflexive, 41; trans., + defined, 22; trans, from intrans. roots, 275; intrans., defined, + 22; intrans. from trans. roots, 232, b, 279; from prep., 159; from + adv., 171; conjugation of, 34, (synopsis) 267, preceding the subject, + 51; as interjection, p. 216, ftn.; implied, (in comparisons) 82, + 156, 250; (in salutations) 115, (in exclamations) 115, 228; with + prepositional phrase containing "da", 102. +Vivid conditions, p. 189, ftn. +Vowels, pronunciation of, 2. + + W. + +Way, expression of, (manner) 76, (route) 191. +Weights and measures, 284. +Wish, expression of, 257, 259. +Words, correlative, 235; formation of, 116; from prepositions, 159; + from primary advs., 171; composition of, see Compounds; order of, + in question, 30; see also Position. + + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's A Complete Grammar of Esperanto, by Ivy Kellerman + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO *** + +This file should be named esper10.txt or esper10.zip +Corrected EDITIONS of our eBooks get a new NUMBER, esper11.txt +VERSIONS based on separate sources get new LETTER, esper10a.txt + +Produced by William W. 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Also, I substituted +dashes for the File: part of those lines because it upset Vim's syntax +highlighting.File names correspond to page numbers of the original +with an offset of 18: page n. 100 corresponds to image 118.png. + +I wanted to keep the code in here as simple and straightforward as +possible, and resisted style for quite some time... But some of the +formatting cried out for a touch of CSS, so there it is. + +For a long time Internet Explorer didn't handle small-caps properly; +it produced all small uppercase, not respecting the case of the input +(uppercase should be uppercased, lowercase should be small uppercased). +It doesn't look too bad, it's just wrong, that's all. + +Some sections in the book use a kind of inverse indent; that is, the +first line of a paragraph is shifted *leftward* relative to the rest. +I wanted to apply a margin-left and an equal but opposite (negative) +text-indent, and that worked well, but only in certain versions of +certain browsers. Maybe in a future edition of this project, eh? (On +the other hand, since the character width of a browser is larger than +that of the book, I found that such sections usually looked better on +the screen formatted as multiple lines, or a table... or simply ended +up spanning only a single line anyway.) + +As is my wont, I used Vim (http://www.vim.org/) for most editing, but +I used UniRed (http://www.esperanto.mv.ru/UniRed/) for spellchecking +of larger blocks of Esperanto text. Be aware of some UniRed features +I discovered: 1) All hexadecimal Unicode entities are converted to +decimal (*throughout the file*) when it is saved. That may be good or +bad, depending on your personal preference. I prefer hexadecimal, but +decimal doesn't bother me too much, and one can still enter them as +hexadecimal. 2) Windowy ASCII characters with the high bit set, that +is, in the range [128..255] may be corrupted. Specifically, "naive" +with an i-dieresis was converted to "naﶥ". Be sure to convert +such characters to Unicode *before* your first UniRed save! + +In some tables I set border to "1" if that made things easier to read. + +Note concerning HR width: 38% = 1 - GoldenRatio. + + - William W. Patterson, AKA Ailanto + +--> + +<head> + <title>A Complete Grammar of Esperanto</title> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8"> + <style type="text/css"> + hr { margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em } + center { margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em } + p.rightjustified0, p.rightjustified, div.rightjustified0, div.rightjustified { text-align: right } + p.rightjustified1, div.rightjustified1 { text-align: right; margin-right: 4% } + p.rightjustified2, div.rightjustified2 { text-align: right; margin-right: 8% } + p.rightjustified3, div.rightjustified3 { text-align: right; margin-right: 16% } + p.rightjustified4, div.rightjustified4 { text-align: right; margin-right: 32% } + p.leftjustified0, p.leftjustified, div.leftjustified0, div.leftjustified { text-align: left } + p.leftjustified1, div.leftjustified1 { text-align: left; margin-left: 4% } + p.leftjustified2, div.leftjustified2 { text-align: left; margin-left: 8% } + p.leftjustified3, div.leftjustified3 { text-align: left; margin-left: 16% } + p.leftjustified4, div.leftjustified4 { text-align: left; margin-left: 32% } + p.footnote { margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 2em; font-size: smaller } + p.indented0, p.indented, div.indented0, div.indented { text-indent: 4% } + p.indented1, div.indented1 { text-indent: 8% } + center.lesson { margin-top: 4em } + .novmargins { margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0 } + </style> +</head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +Project Gutenberg's A Complete Grammar of Esperanto, by Ivy Kellerman + +Copyright laws are changing all over the world. Be sure to check the +copyright laws for your country before downloading or redistributing +this or any other Project Gutenberg eBook. + +This header should be the first thing seen when viewing this Project +Gutenberg file. Please do not remove it. Do not change or edit the +header without written permission. + +Please read the "legal small print," and other information about the +eBook and Project Gutenberg at the bottom of this file. Included is +important information about your specific rights and restrictions in +how the file may be used. You can also find out about how to make a +donation to Project Gutenberg, and how to get involved. + + +**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** + +**eBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** + +*****These eBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers!***** + + +Title: A Complete Grammar of Esperanto + +Author: Ivy Kellerman + +Release Date: March, 2005 [EBook #7787] +[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule] +[This file was first posted on May 25, 2003] +[Date last updated: November 13, 2004] + +Edition: 10 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO *** + + + + +Produced by William W. Patterson, Carlo Traverso, Charles Franks +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team. We thank the Case Western Reserve +University Library Preservation Department that has given us the image files +with which the present e-book has been prepared. + + + + + +TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE: + +The Esperanto alphabet contains 28 characters. These are the +characters of English, but with "q", "w", "x", and "y" removed, and +six diacritical letters added. The diacritical letters are "c", +"g", "h", "j" and "s" with circumflexes (or "hats", as Esperantists +fondly call them), and "u" with a breve. Zamenhof himself suggested +that where the diacritical letters caused difficulty, one could +instead use "ch", "gh", "hh", "jh", "sh" and "u". A plain ASCII +file is one such place; there are no ASCII codes for Esperanto's +special letters. + +However, there are two problems with Zamenhof's "h-method". There +is no difference between "u" and "u" with a breve, and there is no +way to determine (without prior knowledge of the word(s) involved, +and sometimes a bit of context) whether an "h" following one of +those other five letters is really the second half of a diacritical +pair, or just an "h" that happened to find itself next to one of +them. Consequently other, unambiguous, methods have been used over +the years. One is the "x-method", which uses the digraphs "cx", +"gx", "hx", "jx", "sx" and "ux" to represent the special letters. +There is no ambiguity because the letter "x" is not an Esperanto +letter, and each diacritical letter has a unique transliteration. +This is the method used in this Project Gutenberg e-text. + + + + + +</pre> + + +<!-- -----------------------------001.png---------------------------- --> + +<!-- I omitted the "extra" title page. --> + +<!-- -----------------------------002.png---------------------------- --> + +<!-- -----------------------------003.png---------------------------- --> + +<center style="font-weight: bold"> + <p> + A COMPLETE + </p> + <p> + <big>GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO</big> + </p> + <p> + THE INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE + </p> + <p> + <small>WITH</small><br> + GRADED EXERCISES FOR READING AND TRANSLATION<br> + TOGETHER WITH FULL VOCABULARIES + </p> + <p> + <small>BY</small><br> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">IVY KELLERMAN, A.M., Ph.D.</span> + </p> + <p style="font-size: smaller"> + MEMBER OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE AND CHAIRMAN OF EXAMINATIONS<br> + FOR THE ESPERANTO ASSOCIATION OF NORTH AMERICA, MEMBER<br> + OF THE INTERNATIONAL <i>LINGVA KOMITATO</i> + </p> +</center> + +<!-- -----------------------------004.png---------------------------- --> + +<hr align="center" width="38%"> + +<!-- -----------------------------005.png---------------------------- --> + +<center> + <p> + TO + </p> + <p> + <big>DR. L. L. ZAMENHOF</big> + </p> + <p> + THE AUTHOR OF<br> + ESPERANTO + </p> +</center> + +<!-- -----------------------------006.png---------------------------- --> + +<hr align="center" width="38%"> + +<!-- -----------------------------007.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>PREFACE.</b></center> + +<p> +This volume has been prepared to meet a twofold need. An adequate +presentation of the International Language has become an imperative +necessity. Such presentation, including full and accurate grammatical +explanations, suitably graded reading lessons, and similarly graded +material for translation from English, has not heretofore been +accessible within the compass of a single volume, or in fact within the +compass of any two or three volumes. +</p> + +<p> +The combination of grammar and reader here offered is therefore +unique. It is to furnish not merely an introduction to Esperanto, or +a superficial acquaintance with it, but a genuine understanding of +the language and mastery of its use without recourse to additional +textbooks, readers, etc. In other words, this one volume affords +as complete a knowledge of Esperanto as several years' study of a +grammar and various readers will accomplish for any national language. +Inflection, word-formation and syntax are presented clearly and +concisely, yet with a degree of completeness and in a systematic order +that constitute a new feature. Other points worthy of note are the +following: +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------008.png---------------------------- --> + +<p> +The <i>reasons</i> for syntactical usages are given, instead of mere +statements that such usages exist. For example, clauses of purpose and +of result are really explained, instead of being dismissed with the +unsatisfactory remark that "the imperative follows <i>por ke,</i>" or +the "use of <i>tiel ... ke</i> and <i>tia ... ke</i> +must be distinguished from that of <i>tiel ... kiel</i> +and <i>tia ... kia,</i>" etc., with but little intimation +of when and why <i>por ke</i>, <i>tiel ... ke</i> and +<i>tia ... ke</i> are likely to +occur. +</p> + +<p> +Affixes are not mentioned until some familiarity with the general +character of the language is assured, as well as the possession of +a fair vocabulary. They are introduced gradually, with adequate +explanation and illustration. Of importance in connection with +word-formation is an element distinctly new—the explanation and +classification of compound words. Such words, like affixes, are +withheld until the use of <i>simple</i> words is familiar. +</p> + +<p> +Another new feature is the gradual introduction of correlative words +in their logical order, and in their proper grammatical categories, +before they are called "correlatives," or tabulated. The tabulation +finally presented is a real classification, with regard to the meaning +and grammatical character of the words, not merely an arbitrary +alphabetical arrangement. The use of primary adverbs precedes the +explanation of adverb derivation; prepositions, especially <i>de</i>, +<i>da</i>, <i>je</i>, etc., receive careful attention, also the verb +system, and the differentiation of words whose English equivalents are +ambiguous. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------009.png---------------------------- --> + +<p> +A general characteristic of obvious advantage is that almost without +exception new forms and constructions are illustrated by means of +words or roots already familiar. Likewise, the new words or roots of +each lesson recur at least once in the next lesson, and usually in +some lesson thereafter as well. Each reading exercise gives not only a +thorough application of the grammatical principles of the lesson, but a +review of those in the preceding lesson, and no use is made of words or +constructions not yet explained. The comparative ease of the language, +and the lack of necessity for reciting paradigms, permit the reading +exercises to be long enough for the student to feel that he has really +mastered something. These exercises are further unique, in that each +after the fifth is a coherent narrative, and nearly every one is a story +of genuine interest in itself. These stories, if bound separately, would +alone constitute a reader equivalent to those used in first and second +year work in national languages. (For list of titles, see Table of +Contents.) +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------010.png---------------------------- --> + +<p> +The second element of the twofold need which this volume meets is the +necessity for a presentation of Esperanto, not as a thing apart, but +in that form which will make it most serviceable as an introduction to +national tongues. A stepping-stone to both ancient and modern languages, +Esperanto may render invaluable aid, and pave the way for surmounting +the many difficulties confronting both student and teacher. Through +Esperanto, the labor in the acquirement of these languages may be +reduced in the same proportion in which the pleasure and thoroughness +of such acquirement are increased. For this reason, the grammatical +constructions of Esperanto are here explained as consistently as +possible in accordance with the usage of national languages, especially +those in the school curriculum, and precise names are assigned to +them. Such matters as <i>contrary to fact conditions</i>, <i>indirect +quotations</i>, <i>clauses of purpose</i> and <i>of result</i>, +<i>accusatives of time</i> and <i>measure</i>, <i>expressions of +separation</i>, <i>reference</i>, etc., thus become familiar to the +student, long before he meets them in the more difficult garb of a +national tongue, whose exceptions seem to outnumber its rules, and whose +idioms prove more puzzling than its exceptions, unless approached by the +smooth and gradual ascent of the International Language, Esperanto. +</p> + +<p align="right"> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Ivy Kellerman.</span> +</p> + +<table> + <tr> + <td> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Washington, D. C.,</span><br> + August 3, 1910. + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<!-- -----------------------------011.png---------------------------- --> + +<hr align="center" width="38%"> + +<center><b>TABLE OF CONTENTS.</b></center> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="4"> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">LESSON</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">I.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + Alphabet.—Vowels.—Consonants.—Names + of the Letters.—Diphthongs.—Combinations of + Consonants.—Syllables.—Accent. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">II.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + Nouns.—The Article.—Adjectives.—Attributive + Adjectives.—Present Tense of the Verb + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">III.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Plural Number.—Predicate Adjective and Noun + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">IV.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + Transitive Verbs.—The Accusative Case.—The Conjunction + <b>Kaj</b>.—The Negative <b>Ne</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">V.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Complementary Infinitive.—Interrogation.—The + Conjunction <b>Nek</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">VI.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + Personal Pronouns.—Agreement with Pronouns.—Conjugation of + the Verb. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">VII.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Past Tense.—Prepositions.—Accusative Case of Personal + Pronouns. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">VIII.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + Reflexive Pronouns.—Reflexive Verbs. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">IX.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + Limitation of the Third Personal Pronoun.—Possessive + Adjectives.—Pronominal Use of Possessive Adjectives.—<b>La + Kato kaj la Pasero</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">X.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Accusative of Direction.—The Article for the Possessive + Adjective.—Apposition.—<b>La Arabo kaj la Kamelo</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XI.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + Possessive Case of Nouns.—Impersonal Verbs.—Verbs + Preceding their Subjects.—Coordinating Conjunctions.—<b>La + Arabo en la Dezerto</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XII.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + Indirect Statements.—The Indefinite Personal Pronoun + <b>Oni</b>.—The Future Tense.—<b>La Ventoflago</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XIII.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Demonstrative Pronoun <b>Tiu</b>.—Tenses in Indirect + Quotations.—Formation of Feminine Nouns.—<b>En la + Parko</b>. + </td> + </tr> +<!-- -----------------------------012.png---------------------------- --> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XIV.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Demonstrative Pronoun <b>Ĉi tiu</b>.—Possessive Form of + the Demonstrative Pronoun.—The Suffix <b>-Il-</b>.—The + Expression of Means or Instrumentality.—<b>La Manĝo</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XV.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Demonstrative Adjective.—Adverbs Defined and + Classified.—Formation of Opposites.—<b>La Ruza Juna + Viro</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XVI.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Demonstrative Adverb of Place.—Accompaniment.—The + Adverb <b>For</b>.—The Meaning of + <b>Povi</b>.—<b>Malamikoj en la Dezerto</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XVII.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Demonstrative Temporal Adverb.—Comparison of + Adjectives.—Manner and Characteristic.—<b>Diri</b>, + <b>Paroli</b> and <b>Rakonti</b>.—<b>Frederiko Granda kaj la + Juna Servisto</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XVIII.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Demonstrative Adverb of Motive or Reason.—Derivation of + Adverbs.—Comparison of Words Expressing + Quantity.—Comparisons Containing <b>Ol</b>.—Causal + Clauses.—<b>Pri la Sezonoj</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XIX.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + <b>Ju</b> and <b>Des</b> in Comparisons.—The Preposition + <b>Inter</b>.—The Preposition <b>Pro</b>.—Prepositions + with Adverbs and Other Prepositions.—<b>La Aŭtuno kaj la + Vintro</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XX.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Demonstrative Adverb of Manner and Degree.—Prepositions + Expressing Time-Relations.—<b>En Septembro</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XXI.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Accusative of Time.—Adverbs and the Accusative of + Time.—The Preposition <b>Por</b>.—<b>La Sezonoj kaj la + Mondo</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XXII.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + Clauses Expressing Duration of Time.—Clauses Expressing + Anticipation.—The Infinitive with <b>Anstataŭ</b>, + <b>Por</b>, <b>Antaŭ ol</b>.—The Expression of a Part of + the Whole.—<b>Diogeno kaj Aleksandro Granda</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XXIII.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + Adverbs Expressing a Part of the Whole.—The Demonstrative Adverb + of Quantity.—Result Clauses.—<b>En la Butiko</b>. + </td> + </tr> +<!-- -----------------------------013.png---------------------------- --> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XXIV.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Interrogative Pronoun.—The Present Active + Participle.—Compound Tenses.—The Progressive Present + Tense.—The Suffix <b>-Ej-</b>.—<b>En Nia Domo</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XXV.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Interrogative Adjective.—The Imperfect + Tense.—Salutations and Exclamations.—Word + Formation.—<b>Koni</b> and <b>Scii</b>.—<b>La Nepo Vizitas + la Avinon</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XXVI.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Interrogative Adverb of Place.—The Past Active + Participle.—Adverb Derivation from Prepositions.—Adverbs + Expressing Direction of Motion.—The Suffix + <b>-Eg-</b>.—<b>La Pluvego</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XXVII.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Interrogative Temporal Adverb.—The Perfect Tense.—The + Preposition <b>Ĉe</b>.—The Suffix + <b>-Ar-</b>.—<b>Tempo</b> and <b>Fojo</b>.—The Orthography + of Proper Names.—<b>Roberto Bruce kaj la Araneo</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XXVIII.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Interrogative Adverb of Motive or Reason.— The Infinitive as + Subject.—Present Action with Past Inception.—The Suffix + <b>-Ul-</b>.—<b>Loĝi</b> and <b>Vivi</b>.—<b>Pri la + Avo kaj la Avino</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XXIX.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Interrogative Adverb of Manner and Degree.—The Pluperfect + Tense.—Cardinal Numbers.—The Accusative of + Measure.—<b>Nia Familio</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XXX.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Interrogative Adverb of Quantity.—Modifiers of Impersonally + Used Verbs.—Formation of Cardinal Numerals.—The Suffix + <b>-An-</b>.—<b>Leciono Pri Aritmetiko</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XXXI.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Relative Pronoun.—The Future Perfect Tense.—Ordinal + Numerals.—<b>Alfredo Granda kaj la Libro</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XXXII.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + <b>Kia</b> as a Relative Adjective.—<b>Kie</b> as a Relative + Adverb.—The Future Active Participle.—The Periphrastic + Future Tenses.—The Suffix <b>-Ind-</b>.—<b>Alfredo Granda + kaj la Kukoj</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XXXIII.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + <b>Kiam</b> as a Relative Adverb.—<b>Kiel</b> as a Relative + Adverb.—Numeral Nouns and Adverbs.—Word Derivation from + Prepositions.—<b>La Invito</b>. + </td> + </tr> +<!-- -----------------------------014.png---------------------------- --> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XXXIV.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + Prepositions as Prefixes.—The Suffix + <b>-Ebl-</b>.—Expression of the Highest Degree + Possible.—Titles and Terms of Address.—<b>Ĉe la + Festo</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XXXV.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + <b>Kiom</b> as a Relative Adverb.—The Present Passive + Participle.—Fractions.—Descriptive Compounds.—<b>La + Ĥinoj</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XXXVI.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Present Passive Tense.—The Use of <b>De</b> to Express + Agency.—The General Meaning of <b>De</b>.—Word Derivation + from Primary Adverbs.—The Suffix <b>-Ist-</b>.—<b>Antikva + Respubliko</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XXXVII.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Distributive Pronoun.—The Preposition + <b>Po</b>.—Dependent Compounds.—<b>La Ĉapelo sur la + Stango</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XXXVIII.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Distributive Adjective.—The Imperfect Passive + Tense.—Compound Tenses of Impersonal Verbs.—Reciprocal + Expressions.—The Suffix <b>-Uj-</b>.—<b>Vilhelmo Tell kaj + la Pomo</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XXXIX.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Distributive Adverb of Place.—The Future Passive + Tense.—Possessive Compounds.—The Time of Day.—The + Suffix <b>-Obl-</b>.—<b>En la Stacidomo</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XL.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Distributive Temporal Adverb.—The Distributive Adverb + <b>Ĉial</b>.—The Past Passive Participle.—The Perfect + Passive Tense.—The Preposition <b>Laŭ</b>.—The Suffix + <b>-Em-</b>.—<b>La Perdita Infano</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XLI.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Distributive Adverb <b>Ĉiel</b>.—The Distributive + Adverb <b>Ĉiom</b>.—The Pluperfect Passive Tense.—The + Future Perfect Passive Tense.—The Expression of + Material.—The Suffix <b>-Et-</b>.—<b>La Donaco</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XLII.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Future Passive Participle.—The Passive Periphrastic Future + Tenses.—The Generic Article.—The Suffix + <b>-Ec-</b>.—<b>Sur la Vaporŝipo</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XLIII.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Indefinite Pronoun.—Participial Nouns.—The Prefix + <b>Ek-</b>.—The Suffix <b>-Id-</b>.—<b>La Nesto sur la + Tendo</b>. + </td> + </tr> +<!-- -----------------------------015.png---------------------------- --> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XLIV.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Indefinite Adjective.—The Indefinite Adverb of + Place.—Predicate Nominatives.—<b>La Ĉevalo kaj la + Sonorilo</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XLV.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Indefinite Temporal Adverb.—The Indefinite Adverb + <b>Ial</b>.—Causative Verbs.—Emphasis by Means of + <b>Ja</b>.—<b>Ĉe la Malnova Ponto</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XLVI.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Indefinite Adverb <b>Iel</b>.—The Indefinite Adverb + <b>Iom</b>.—The Suffix <b>-Ad-</b>.—The Use of + <b>Mem</b>.—<b>Arĥimedo kaj la Kronoj</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XLVII.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Negative Pronoun.—The Adverbial Participle.—The Prefix + <b>Re-</b>.—<b>La Filozofo Arĥimedo</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XLVIII.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Negative Adjective.—The Negative Adverb of Place.—The + Negative Temporal Adverb.—The Suffix <b>-Aĵ-</b>.—The + Adverb <b>Jen</b>.—<b>Du Artkonkursoj</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">XLIX.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Negative Adverbs <b>Nenial</b>, <b>Neniel</b>, + <b>Neniom</b>.—The Suffix <b>-Iĝ-</b>.—<b>La + Krepusko</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">L.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Pronouns ending in <b>-O</b>.—Correlative Words.—The + Use of <b>Ajn</b>.—The Suffix <b>-Ing-</b>.—<b>La Gordia + Ligaĵo</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">LI.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Pronoun <b>Ambaŭ</b>.—Formations with <b>-Ig-</b> and + <b>-Iĝ-</b>.—Factual Conditions.—<b>La Monaĥoj + kaj la Azeno</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">LII.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Conditional Mood.—Compound Tenses of the Conditional + Mood.—Less Vivid Conditions.—Independent Use of the + Conditional Mood.—The Prefix <b>Dis-</b>.—<b>Pri la + Gravitado</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">LIII.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + Conditions Contrary to Fact.—The Verb <b>Devi</b>.—The + Preposition <b>Sen</b>.—<b>La Filozofo Sokrato</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">LIV.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + Summary of Conditions.—Clauses of Imaginative + Comparison.—The Use of <b>Al</b> to Express Reference.—The + Suffix <b>-Estr-</b>.—<b>La Ostracismo de Aristejdo</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">LV.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Imperative Mood.—Resolve and Exhortation.—Commands and + Prohibitions.—Less Peremptory Uses of the Imperative.—The + Use of <b>Moŝto</b>.—<b>La Glavo de Damoklo</b>. + </td> + </tr> +<!-- -----------------------------016.png---------------------------- --> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">LVI.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Imperative in Subordinate Clauses.—The Preposition + <b>Je</b>.—The Suffix <b>-Op-</b>.—<b>La Marŝado de + la Dekmil Grekoj</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">LVII.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + Clauses Expressing Purpose.—Further Uses of the + Accusative.—Synopsis of the Conjugation of the Verb.—The + Suffix <b>-Um-</b>.—<b>La Reirado de la Dekmilo</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">LVIII.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + Permission and Possibility.—The Prefix <b>Ge-</b>.—The + Suffix <b>-Aĉ-</b>.—Interjections.—<b>Aleksandro + Granda</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">LIX.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The Position of Unemphatic Pronouns.—Some Intransitive + Verbs.—The Suffix <b>-Er-</b>.—The Prefixes <b>Bo-</b> and + <b>Duon-</b>.—Correspondence.—<b>Kelkaj Leteroj</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top">LX.</td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + Some Transitive Verbs.—Elision.—The Prefix + <b>Eks-</b>.—The Prefix <b>Pra-</b>.—The Suffixes + <b>-Ĉj-</b> and <b>-Nj-</b>.—Weights and + Measures.—The International Money + System.—Abbreviations.—<b>Pri La Kamero</b>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td><td>ESPERANTO-ENGLISH VOCABULARY.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td><td>ENGLISH-ESPERANTO VOCABULARY.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td><td>INDEX.</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<!-- -----------------------------017.png---------------------------- --> + +<hr align="center" width="38%"> + +<center> + <big>A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF</big><br> + <big>ESPERANTO.</big> +</center> + +<hr align="center" width="38%"> + +<!-- -----------------------------018.png---------------------------- --> + +<!-- -----------------------------019.png---------------------------- --> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON I.</b></center> + +<center>ALPHABET.</center> + +<p> +<b>1.</b> The Esperanto alphabet contains the following letters: <b>a</b>, +<b>b</b>, <b>c</b>, <b>ĉ</b>, <b>d</b>, <b>e</b>, <b>f</b>, <b>g</b>, +<b>ĝ</b>, <b>h</b>, <b>ĥ</b>, <b>i</b>, <b>j</b>, <b>ĵ</b>, +<b>k</b>, <b>l</b>, <b>m</b>, <b>n</b>, <b>o</b>, <b>p</b>, <b>r</b>, <b>s</b>, +<b>ŝ</b>, <b>t</b>, <b>u</b>, <b>ŭ</b>, <b>v</b>, <b>z</b>. +</p> + +<center>VOWELS.</center> + +<p> +<b>2.</b> The vowels of the alphabet are pronounced as follows: +</p> + +<p> +<b>a</b> as in <i>far</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>e</b> as in <i>fiancé</i>, like <i>a</i> in <i>fate</i>. +</p> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +This "long a" sound in English frequently ends with a vanish,—a +brief terminal sound of <!-- short i --> <i>ĭ</i>, which makes +the vowel slightly diphthongal, as in <i>day</i>, <i>aye</i>. Such a +vanish must not be given to any of the Esperanto vowels. +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<p> +<b>i</b> as in <i>machine</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>o</b> as in <i>toll</i>, <i>for</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>u</b> as in <i>rude</i>, <i>rural</i>. +</p> + +<center>CONSONANTS.</center> + +<p> +<b>3.</b> The consonants <b>b</b>, <b>d</b>, <b>f</b>, <b>h</b>, +<b>k</b>, <b>l</b>, <b>m</b>, <b>n</b>, <b>p</b>, <b>t</b>, <b>v</b>, +<b>z</b>, are pronounced as in English, and the remaining eleven as +follows: +</p> + +<p> +<b>c</b> like <i>ts</i> in <i>hats</i>, <i>tsetse</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>ĉ</b> like <i>ch</i> in <i>chin</i>, <i>much</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>g</b> like <i>g</i> in <i>go</i>, <i>big</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>ĝ</b> like <i>g</i> in <i>gem</i>, <i>j</i> in <i>jar</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>ĥ</b> is produced by expelling the breath forcibly, with the +throat only partially open. +</p> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +As in pronouncing German and Scotch <i>ch</i>, Spanish +<i>j</i>, Irish <i>gh</i>, Russian <i>x</i>, Classical Greek +<!-- [Greek: chi] --> χ +etc. There are only a few words containing +this consonant. +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<p> +<b>j</b> like <i>y</i> in <i>yes</i>, <i>beyond</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>ĵ</b> like <i>z</i> in <i>azure</i>, <i>s</i> in <i>visual</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>r</b> is slightly trilled or rolled. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------020.png---------------------------- --> + +<p> +<b>s</b> like <i>s</i> in <i>see</i>, <i>basis</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>ŝ</b> like <i>sh</i> in <i>shine</i>, <i>rash</i>, <i>ch</i> in +<i>machine</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>ŭ</b> like <i>w</i> or consonantal <i>u</i>. See Diphthongs, +<b>5</b>. +</p> + +<center>NAMES OF THE LETTERS.</center> + +<p> +<b>4.</b> The vowels are named by their sounds, as given in <b>2</b>. +The names of the consonants are <b>bo</b>, <b>co</b>, <b>ĉo</b>, +<b>do</b>, <b>fo</b>, <b>go</b>, <b>ĝo</b>, <b>ho</b>, +<b>ĥo</b>, <b>jo</b>, <b>ĵo</b>, <b>ko</b>, <b>lo</b>, +<b>mo</b>, <b>no</b>, <b>po</b>, <b>ro</b>, <b>so</b>, <b>ŝo</b>, +<b>to</b>, <b>ŭo</b>, <b>vo</b>, <b>zo</b>. These are used in +speaking of the letters, in pronouncing them in abbreviations, as <b>ko +to po</b> for <b>k. t. p.</b> (= etc.), and in spelling words, as <b>bo, +i, ro, do, o, birdo</b>. +</p> + +<center>DIPHTHONGS.</center> + +<p> +<b>5.</b> Diphthongs are combinations of two vowels uttered as a single +sound, by one breath-impulse. The diphthongs in Esperanto contain an +i or u sound as the second element, but in order to avoid confusion +with combinations of vowels not forming diphthongs (as in <b>naiva</b>, +like English <i>naïve</i>, etc.), they are written with <b>j</b> and +<b>ŭ</b> instead. Their pronunciation is as follows: +</p> + +<p> +<b>aj</b> like <i>ai</i> in <i>aisle</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>ej</b> like <i>ei</i> in <i>vein</i>, <i>ey</i> in <i>they</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>oj</b> like <i>oi</i> in <i>coin</i>, <i>oy</i> in <i>boy</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>uj</b> like <i>ui</i> in <i>ruin</i>, <i>u(e)y</i> in <i>gluey</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>eŭ</b> like <i>ayw</i> in <i>wayward</i>, or like +<i>é(h)oo</i> pronounced together. +</p> + +<p> +<b>aŭ</b> like <i>ou</i> in <i>out</i>, <i>ow</i> in <i>owl</i>. +</p> + +<center>COMBINATIONS OF CONSONANTS.</center> + +<!-- -----------------------------021.png---------------------------- --> + +<p> +<b>6.</b> Each consonant, in a combination of two or more consonants, +is pronounced with its full value, whether within a word or at its +beginning. There are no silent letters. +</p> + +<p> +<b>a.</b> Thus, both consonants are clearly sounded in the groups +<b>kn</b>, <b>kv</b>, <b>gv</b>, <b>sv</b>, in such words as +<b>knabo</b>, <b>kvin</b>, <b>gvidi</b>, <b>sviso</b>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>b.</b> The combination <b>kz</b>, as in <b>ekzisti</b>, +<b>ekzameno</b>, must not be modified to the <i>gs</i> or <i>ks</i> +represented by <i>x</i> in <i>exist</i>, <i>execute</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>c.</b> The combination <b>sc</b>, as in <b>escepte</b>, <b>scias</b>, +is equivalent to the combination <i>sts</i> in <i>la</i><b>st +s</b><i>aid</i>, <i>fir</i><b>st s</b><i>ong</i>, pronounced together +rapidly. The <b>s</b> in a word beginning with <b>sc</b> may be sounded +with the end of the preceding word, if that word ends in a vowel, as +<b>mis-cias</b> for <b>mi scias</b>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>d.</b> The <b>n</b> and <b>g</b> are pronounced separately in the +combination <b>ng</b>, in such words as <b>lingvo</b>, <b>angulo</b>, +producing the sound of <i>ng</i> heard in <i>linger</i>, not that in +<i>singer</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>e.</b> Each of two similar letters is clearly sounded, +as <b>interrilato</b>, <b>ellasi</b>, like <i>inter-relate</i>, +<i>well-laid</i>. +</p> + +<center>SYLLABLES.</center> + +<p> +<b>7.</b> Each word contains as many syllables as it has vowels and +diphthongs. The division of syllables within a word is as follows: +</p> + +<p> +<b>a.</b> A single consonant goes with the following vowel, as +<b>pa-no</b>, <b>be-la</b>, <b>a-e-ro</b>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>b.</b> A consonant followed by <b>l</b> or <b>r</b> (which are +liquids) goes with the <b>l</b> or <b>r</b>, as in <b>ta-blo</b>, +<b>a-kra</b>, <b>a-gra-bla</b>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>c.</b> Otherwise, the syllable division is made before the last +consonant of the group, as <b>sus-pek-ti</b>, <b>sank-ta</b>, +<b>deks-tra</b>. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------022.png---------------------------- --> + +<p> +<b>d.</b> Prefixes are separated from the words to which they are +attached, as <b>dis-meti</b>, <b>mal-akra</b>, and compound words +are divided into their component parts, as <b>ĉef-urbo</b>, +<b>sun-ombrelo</b>. +</p> + +<center>ACCENT.</center> + +<p> +<b>8.</b> Words of more than one syllable are accented upon the syllable +before the last, as <b>tá-blo</b>, <b>a-grá-bla</b>, +<b>sus-pék-ti</b>. +</p> + +<center>WORDS FOR PRACTICE.</center> + +<p> +<b>9.</b> (To be pronounced aloud, and correctly accented) Afero, +trairi, najbaro, aero, hodiaŭ, pacienco, centono, ĉielo, +eĉ, samideano, treege, obei, obeu, Eŭropo, gvidi, ĝojo, +ĉiujn, justa, ĝuste, juĝi, ĵaŭdo, lingvo, +knabo, larĝa, pagi, kvieteco, ekzemplo, ellerni, fojo, krajono, +forrajdi, kuirejo, ĉevalejo, sankteco, scio, nescio, edzo, meze, +duobla, ŝipo, ŝarĝi, poŝo, svingi, sklavo, palaj, +ŝafaĵo, atmosfero, monaĥo, geometrio, laŭdi, vasta, +eksplodi, senĉesa, sensencaĵo, malluma, arbaranoj, manĝo, +freŝa, aŭskulti, daŭri. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON II.</b></center> + +<center>NOUNS.</center> + +<p> +<b>10.</b> Words which are the names of persons or things are called +nouns. The ending, or final letter, of nouns in Esperanto is <b>o</b>: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>knabo</b>, <i>boy</i>.<br> + <b>ĉevalo</b>, <i>horse</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>pomo</b>, <i>apple</i>.<br> + <b>tablo</b>, <i>table</i>. + </td> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- -----------------------------023.png---------------------------- --> + +<center>THE ARTICLE.</center> + +<p> +<b>11.</b> The definite article is <b>la</b>, <i>the</i>, as <b>la +knabo</b>, <i>the boy</i>, <b>la ĉevalo</b>, <i>the horse</i>, +<b>la tablo</b>, <i>the table</i>, <b>la pomo</b>, <i>the apple</i>. In +English there is an indefinite article "a, an" for the singular, but +none for the plural. Esperanto has no indefinite article for either +singular or plural. Therefore <b>knabo</b> may mean <i>boy</i>, or <i>a +boy</i>, <b>pomo</b> may mean <i>apple</i> or <i>an apple</i>. +</p> + +<center>ADJECTIVES</center> + +<p> +<b>12.</b> A word used with a noun (expressed or understood) to express +a quality or characteristic is called an adjective. The ending of +adjectives in Esperanto is <b>a</b>: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>bela</b>, <i>beautiful</i>.<br> + <b>flava</b>, <i>yellow</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>granda</b>, <i>large</i>.<br> + <b>forta</b>, <i>strong</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center>ATTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVES.</center> + +<p> +<b>13.</b> An adjective is said to modify a noun whose quality it +expresses. When directly preceding or following its noun, it is called +an attributive adjective: +</p> + +<p> +<b>la granda ĉevalo</b>, <i>the large horse</i>.<br> +<b>bela birdo</b>, <i>a beautiful bird</i>.<br> +<b>floro flava</b>, <i>a yellow flower</i>.<br> +<b>forta knabo</b>, <i>a strong boy</i>.<br> +</p> + +<center>PRESENT TENSE OF THE VERB.</center> + +<p> +<b>14.</b> Words which express action or condition are called verbs. +When representing an act or condition as a fact, and dealing with the +present time, they are said to be in the present tense. The ending of +all Esperanto verbs in the present tense is <b>-as</b>: +</p> + + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>kuras</b>, <i>runs, is running</i>.<br> + <b>flugas</b>, <i>flies, is flying</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>brilas</b>, <i>shines, is shining</i>.<br> + <b>dormas</b>, <i>sleeps, is sleeping</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<p> +<b>15.</b> The person or thing whose action or condition the verb +expresses is called the subject of the verb: +</p> + +<p> +<b>La suno brilas</b>, <i>the sun shines (is shining)</i>, subject: <b>suno</b>.<br> +<b>Knabo kuras</b>, <i>a boy runs (is running)</i>, subject: <b>knabo</b>. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------024.png---------------------------- --> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span><br> + (To be memorized in this and in all following lessons.) + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>bela</b>, <i>beautiful</i>.<br> + <b>birdo</b>, <i>bird</i>.<br> + <b>blanka</b>, <i>white</i>.<br> + <b>bona</b>, <i>good</i>.<br> + <b>brilas</b>, <i>shines, is shining</i>.<br> + <b>ĉevalo</b>, <i>horse</i>.<br> + <b>dormas</b>, <i>sleeps, is sleeping</i>.<br> + <b>flava</b>, <i>yellow</i>.<br> + <b>floro</b>, <i>flower</i>.<br> + <b>flugas</b>, <i>flies, is flying</i>.<br> + <b>forta</b>, <i>strong</i>,<br> + <b>granda</b>, <i>large</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>kaj</b>, <i>and</i>.<br> + <b>kantas</b>, <i>sings, is singing</i>.<br> + <b>knabo</b>, <i>boy</i>.<br> + <b>kuras</b>, <i>runs, is running</i>.<br> + <b>la</b>, <i>the</i>.<br> + <b>luno</b>, <i>moon</i>.<br> + <b>marŝas</b>, <i>walks, is walking</i>.<br> + <b>pomo</b>, <i>apple</i>.<br> + <b>suno</b>, <i>sun</i>.<br> + <b>tablo</b>, <i>table</i>.<br> + <b>violo</b>, <i>violet</i>.<br> + <b>viro</b>, <i>man</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center><b>READING LESSON.</b></center> + +<p> +1. Bona viro. 2. La granda tablo. 3. Blanka floro. 4. Flava birdo. 5. La +bela birdo kantas. 6. Forta knabo kuras. 7. La bona viro marŝas. 8. +La bela ĉevalo kuras. 9. La suno brilas. 10. Birdo flugas kaj knabo +kuras. 11. Ĉevalo blanka marŝas. 12. La bela luno brilas. 13. +La knabo kantas kaj la viro dormas. 14. Bela granda pomo. 15. La bona +knabo kantas. 16. La granda ĉevalo dormas. 17. La suno brilas kaj +la luno brilas. 18. Granda forta tablo. 19. Violo flava. 20. La bona +flava pomo. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------025.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. A beautiful flower. 2. A good large table. 3. A yellow violet and +a white violet. 4. The moon is-shining (shines). 5. The good boy +is-walking (walks). 6. The beautiful yellow bird is-flying (flies). +7. The strong man is-sleeping (sleeps). 8. The white bird is-singing +(sings). 9. A strong horse runs, and a man walks. 10. The sun shines, +and the boy is-singing (sings). 11. The large yellow apple. 12. An apple +large and good. +</p> + + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON III.</b></center> + +<center>THE PLURAL NUMBER.</center> + +<p> +<b>16.</b> The plural number of nouns, that is, the form which indicates +more than one person or thing, is made by adding <b>-j</b> to the +noun, as <b>viroj</b>, <i>men</i>, from <b>viro</b>, <i>man</i>; +<b>tabloj</b>, <i>tables</i>, from <b>tablo</b>, <i>table</i>. +</p> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +<b>-oj</b> is pronounced like <i>oy</i> in <i>boy</i>. See 5. +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<p> +<b>17.</b> An adjective modifying a plural noun agrees with it in +number, being given the plural form by the addition of the ending -j. An +adjective modifying two or more nouns used together is of course given +the plural form: +</p> + +<p> +<b>bonaj viroj</b>, <i>good men</i>.<br> +<b>grandaj ĉevaloj</b>, <i>large horses</i>.<br> +<b>belaj birdo kaj floro (bela birdo kaj bela floro)</b>, <i>beautiful bird and (beautiful) flower</i>. +</p> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +<b>-aj</b> is pronounced like <i>ai</i> in <i>aisle</i>. See 5. +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<p> +<b>18.</b> The article is <i>invariable</i>, that is, does not change +in form when used with plural nouns, as <b>la viro</b>, <i>the man</i>, +<b>la viroj</b>, <i>the men</i>. The verb is also invariable in form: +</p> + +<p> +<b>La viroj marŝas</b>, <i>the men walk</i>, <i>the men are walking</i>.<br> +<b>La suno kaj la luno brilas</b>, <i>the sun and the moon are shining</i>.<br> +<b>La viro estas</b>, <i>the man is</i>.<br> +<b>La viroj estas</b>, <i>the men are</i>. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------026.png---------------------------- --> + +<center>PREDICATE ADJECTIVE AND NOUN.</center> + +<p> +<b>19.</b> When the adjective is a part of that which is told or +predicated of the subject of the verb, as when used with the verbs "to +be," "to seem," etc., it is called a <i>predicate adjective</i>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>La birdo estas bela</b>, <i>the bird is beautiful</i>.<br> +<b>La knabo ŝajnas bona</b>, <i>the boy seems good</i>.<br> +<b>La viroj estas fortaj</b>, <i>the men are strong</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>20.</b> A noun may also be used as part of the predicate, and is then +called a <i>predicate noun</i>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Violoj estas floroj</b>, <i>violets are flowers</i>.<br> +<b>La kolombo estas birdo</b>, <i>the dove is a bird</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>21.</b> Predicate nouns and adjectives agree in number with the word +or words with which they are in predicate relation: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Rozoj estas belaj</b>, <i>roses are beautiful</i>.<br> +<b>La knabo kaj la viro ŝajnas fortaj</b>, <i>the boy and the man seem strong</i>. +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>alta</b>, <i>high, tall</i>.<br> + <b>arbo</b>, <i>tree</i>.<br> + <b>ĉambro</b>, <i>room</i>.<br> + <b>domo</b>, <i>house</i>.<br> + <b>en</b>, <i>in</i>.<br> + <b>estas</b>, <i>is, are</i>.<br> + <b>folio</b>, <i>leaf</i>.<br> + <b>freŝa</b>, <i>fresh</i>.<br> + <b>ĝardeno</b>, <i>garden</i>.<br> + <b>kampo</b>, <i>field</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>kolombo</b>, <i>dove</i>.<br> + <b>kuŝas</b>, <i>lies, is lying, lie</i>.<br> + <b>longa</b>, <i>long</i>.<br> + <b>rozo</b>, <i>rose</i>.<br> + <b>ruĝa</b>, <i>red</i>.<br> + <b>seĝo</b>, <i>chair</i>.<br> + <b>sidas</b>, <i>sits, sit, is sitting</i>.<br> + <b>sur</b>, <i>on</i>.<br> + <b>ŝajnas</b>, <i>seems, seem</i>.<br> + <b>verda</b>, <i>green</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- -----------------------------027.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>READING LESSON.</b></center> + +<p> +1. La alta viro estas en la ĝardeno. 2. Blanka ĉevalo estas en +la kampo. 3. Belaj birdoj sidas sur la verda arbo. 4. La bonaj knaboj +estas en la domo. 5. La ĉambroj en la bela domo estas grandaj. 6. +Freŝaj floroj kuŝas sur la tablo. 7. La violoj en la kampo +estas belaj. 8. La luno kaj la suno ŝajnas grandaj. 9. La kolomboj +estas belaj birdoj. 10. La knaboj ŝajnas fortaj. 11. Ruĝaj +pomoj estas sur la tablo en la ĉambro. 12. La fortaj viroj sidas +sur seĝoj en la longa ĉambro. 13. La arboj estas altaj kaj +verdaj. 14. La kolomboj sur la arboj kantas. 15. Fortaj ĉevaloj +marŝas kaj kuras en la verdaj kampoj. 16. La knaboj dormas en la +granda domo. 17. Ruĝaj, flavaj, kaj verdaj folioj estas en la +ĝardeno. 18. Longa tablo estas en la domo. 19. Belaj birdoj flugas +kaj kantas en la kampo. 20. Freŝaj rozoj ŝajnas belaj. 21. La +folioj estas verdaj kaj ruĝaj. +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. The trees in the garden are tall and green. 2. The rooms in the house +are long. 3. The flowers on the table are red, yellow and white. 4. The +leaves are long and green. 5. The men are-sitting (sit) on chairs in the +garden. 6. In the garden are yellow roses. 7. The birds in the field are +doves. 8. The boys in the room in the house seem tall. 9. Fresh violets +are beautiful flowers. 10. The horses in the green fields seem strong. +11. Doves are-singing (sing) in the garden. 12. The men in the large +house sleep. 13. The house is long and high, and the rooms in the house +are large. 14. Red and yellow apples lie on the big table. 15. Green +leaves are on the trees in the large garden. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------028.png---------------------------- --> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON IV.</b></center> + +<center>TRANSITIVE VERBS.</center> + +<p> +<b>22.</b> The verbs so far given have been <i>intransitive verbs</i>, +expressing a state or an action limited to the subject, and not +immediately affecting any other person or thing, as <b>la knabo +kuras</b>, <i>the boy runs</i>. On the other hand a <i>transitive +verb</i> expresses an act of the subject upon some person or thing; +as, <b>la knabo trovas — —</b>, <i>the boy finds — +—</i>. +</p> + +<center>THE ACCUSATIVE CASE.</center> + +<p> +<b>23.</b> The person or thing acted upon is called the <i>direct +object</i> of a transitive verb, and is given the ending <b>-n</b>. This +is called the accusative ending; and the word to which it is attached is +said to be in the <i>accusative case</i>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>La viro havas seĝon</b>, <i>the man has a chair</i>.<br> +<b>La knabo trovas florojn</b>, <i>the boy finds flowers</i>. +</p> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +The ending <b>-n</b> follows the ending <b>-j</b>, if the word +to be put in the accusative case is in the plural number. +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<p> +<b>24.</b> An attributive adjective modifying a noun in the accusative +case is made to agree in case, by addition of the same accusative ending +<b>-n</b>. This prevents any doubt as to which of two or more nouns in a +sentence is modified by the adjective, and permits of variation in the +order of the words: +</p> + +<p> +<b>La knabo trovas belan floron</b>, <i>the boy finds a beautiful flower</i>.<br> +<b>Florojn belajn la viro havas</b>, <i>the man has beautiful flowers</i>.<br> +<b>La viro havas grandan seĝon</b>, <i>the man has a large chair</i>.<br> +<b>Ruĝan rozon la knabo havas</b>, <i>the boy has a red rose</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>25.</b> A predicate adjective or noun (19) is never in the accusative +case, nor is the accusative ending ever attached to the article, which +is invariable as stated in 18. +</p> + +<center>THE CONJUNCTION <b>KAJ</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>26.</b> In the expression <i>both ... and ...</i>, the conjunction +<b>kaj</b> is used for both words, being merely repeated: +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------029.png---------------------------- --> + +<p> +<b>La viro kaj marŝas kaj kuras</b>, <i>the man both walks and runs</i>.<br> +<b>La ĉevalo estas kaj granda kaj forta</b>, <i>the horse is both large and strong</i>.<br> +<b>La knabo havas kaj rozojn kaj violojn</b>, <i>the boy has both roses and violets</i>.<br> +<b>Kaj la knabo kaj la viro estas altaj</b>, <i>both the boy and the man are tall</i>. +</p> + +<center>THE NEGATIVE <b>NE</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>27.</b> The negative word meaning "not" when forming part of a +sentence, and "no" when used as an answer to a question, is <b>ne</b>. +When used as a sentence-negative, it usually immediately precedes the +verb. For emphatic negation of some other word than the verb, <b>ne</b> +may precede that word: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Violoj ne estas ruĝaj</b>, <i>violets are not red</i>.<br> +<b>La viroj ne sidas sur seĝoj</b>, <i>the men are-not-sitting on chairs</i>.<br> +<b>La kolombo kantas, ne flugas</b>, <i>the dove is-singing, not flying</i>.<br> +<b>La domo estas blanka, ne verda</b>, <i>the house is white, not green</i>. +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>apud</b>, <i>near, in the vicinity of</i>.<br> + <b>benko</b>, <i>bench</i>.<br> + <b>branĉo</b>, <i>branch</i>.<br> + <b>diversa</b>, <i>various</i>.<br> + <b>feliĉa</b>, <i>happy</i>.<br> + <b>frukto</b>, <i>fruit</i>.<br> + <b>havas</b>, <i>have, has</i>.<br> + <b>herbo</b>, <i>grass</i>.<br> + <b>ili</b>, <i>they</i>.<br> + <b>kolektas</b>, <i>gather, collect</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>koloro</b>, <i>color</i>.<br> + <b>larĝa</b>, <i>wide, broad</i>.<br> + <b>manĝas</b>, <i>eat, eats</i>.<br> + <b>mola</b>, <i>soft</i>.<br> + <b>nigra</b>, <i>black</i>.<br> + <b>ne</b>, <i>not, no</i>.<br> + <b>rompas</b>, <i>break, breaks</i>.<br> + <b>sed</b>, <i>but</i>.<br> + <b>trovas</b>, <i>find, finds</i>.<br> + <b>vidas</b>, <i>see, sees</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- -----------------------------030.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>READING LESSON.</b></center> + +<p> +1. La knaboj ne estas en la ĉambro en la blanka domo. 2. Ili estas +en la granda ĝardeno. 3. La ĝardeno ŝajnas kaj longa kaj +larĝa. 4. La feliĉaj knaboj vidas la belan ĝardenon. +5. Ili vidas florojn apud alta arbo. 6. La floroj havas diversajn +kolorojn. 7. La knaboj kolektas kaj ruĝajn kaj flavajn florojn. 8. +Sed ili ne trovas fruktojn en la ĝardeno. 9. Florojn blankajn ili +ne vidas. 10. La alta arbo havas verdajn foliojn sur la branĉoj. +11. La knaboj rompas branĉon, kaj kolektas la fruktojn. 12. Ili +vidas florojn sur la branĉoj, sed la florojn ili ne kolektas. +13. La knaboj ne sidas sur benkoj en la ĝardeno, sed kuŝas +sur la mola herbo. 14. La kolomboj sidas sur la arboj, kaj ili estas +feliĉaj. 15. La knaboj vidas la belajn birdojn. 16. Fortaj nigraj +ĉevaloj manĝas la herbon en la kampo. 17. La knaboj vidas +la ĉevalojn, sed la ĉevaloj ne vidas la knabojn. 18. La +ĉevaloj ne dormas, ili manĝas. 19. La freŝa herbo +estas verda kaj mola. 20. Feliĉaj estas kaj la knaboj kaj la +ĉevaloj. 21. La pomo estas bona frukto. +</p> + + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. Green leaves are on the trees. 2. The boys break branches and gather +the apples. 3. They are near the tall tree in the garden. 4. They find +leaves on the tree, but they do not see the fruit. 5. The house is long, +broad and high. 6. The rooms in the house are both long and wide. 7. The +men have strong black horses. 8. The horses eat the fresh green grass in +the field. 9. The men sit on benches in the garden. 10. The boys do not +sleep, but they lie on the soft grass. 11. They see both the birds and +the flowers, and they seem happy. 12. The flowers have various colors, +but the grass is green. 13. The doves are not sitting on the tree, they +are flying near the trees. 14. Beautiful red roses are lying on the +table in the house. 15. The large red apples are near the yellow roses. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------031.png---------------------------- --> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON V.</b></center> + +<center>THE COMPLEMENTARY INFINITIVE.</center> + +<p> +<b>28.</b> The infinitive is a form of the verb which expresses merely +the general idea of the action or condition indicated, and has some +of the characteristics of a noun. The ending of the infinitive is +<b>-i</b>, as <b>kuri</b>, <i>to run</i>, <b>esti</b>, <i>to be</i>, +<b>havi</b>, <i>to have</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>29.</b> An infinitive used to complete the meaning of another +verb, serving as a direct object to a transitive verb, is called a +<i>complementary infinitive</i>. If the complementary infinitive is from +a transitive verb, it may itself have a direct object: +</p> + +<p> +<b>La knabo volas kuri</b>, <i>the boy wishes to run</i>.<br> +<b>Birdoj ŝatas kanti</b>, <i>birds like to sing</i>.<br> +<b>La knabo volas havi ĉevalon</b>, <i>the boy wishes to have a horse</i>.<br> +<b>Ili volas trovi florojn</b>, <i>they wish to find flowers</i>. +</p> + +<center>INTERROGATION.</center> + +<p> +<b>30.</b> An interrogative sentence is one which asks a question. +Unless some directly interrogative word (as "who," "when," "why," etc.) +is used, the sentence is rendered interrogative by use of the word +<b>ĉu</b>. This interrogative particle is placed at the beginning +of a sentence, the words of which are left in the same order as for a +statement. Since there is no inversion of order, there is no necessity +for a word like English "do" or "does," to introduce the verb: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Ĉu la knabo estas bona?</b> <i>Is the boy good?</i><br> +<b>Ĉu ili havas florojn?</b> <i>Have they flowers?</i><br> +<b>Ĉu la kolomboj kantas?</b> <i>Do the doves sing? (Are the doves singing?)</i> +</p> + + +<center>THE CONJUNCTION <b>NEK</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>31.</b> In the expression <i>neither ... nor ...</i>, the conjunction +<b>nek</b> is used for both words. Since an adjective modifier of two +or more words connected by <b>nek</b> must necessarily modify them +separately, the adjective remains in the singular number: +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------032.png---------------------------- --> + +<p> +<b>Ili nek marŝas nek kuras</b>, <i>they neither walk nor run</i>.<br> +<b>La viro havas nek domon nek ĝardenon</b>, <i>the man has neither a house nor a garden</i>.<br> +<b>Nek la rozo nek la violo estas verda</b>, <i>neither the rose nor the violet is green</i>. +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span><br> + (Verbs will hereafter be quoted in the infinitive form.) + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>bruna</b>, <i>brown</i>.<br> + <b>ĉerizo</b>, <i>cherry</i>.<br> + <b>ĉu</b>, (<b>30</b>).<br> + <b>dolĉa</b>, <i>sweet</i>.<br> + <b>gusto</b>, <i>taste</i>.<br> + <b>ĝi</b>, <i>it</i>.<br> + <b>Gertrude</b>, <i>Gertrude</i>.<br> + <b>knabino</b>, <i>girl</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>matura</b>, <i>ripe</i>.<br> + <b>Mario</b>, <i>Mary</i>.<br> + <b>nek</b>, <i>neither, nor</i>.<br> + <b>persiko</b>, <i>peach</i>.<br> + <b>jes</b>, <i>yes</i>.<br> + <b>preferi</b>, <i>to prefer</i>.<br> + <b>ŝati</b>, <i>to like</i>.<br> + <b>voli</b>, <i>to wish</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center><b>READING LESSON.</b></center> + +<p> +1. Ĉu persiko estas ruĝa? 2. Jes, ĝi estas kaj ruĝa +kaj dolĉa. 3. Ĉu ĉerizoj estas brunaj? 4. Ne, ili estas +nek brunaj nek nigraj, sed flavaj. 5. Ĉu la pomo estas frukto? Jes, +ĝi estas bona frukto. 6. Ĉu la viro kaj la knabo havas pomojn? +7. Ne, ili havas nek pomojn nek persikojn. 8. Ĉu Mario havas la +maturan frukton? 9. Mario kaj Gertrudo havas la frukton. 10. Ili estas +en la domo, kaj manĝas la maturan frukton. 11. La persikoj havas +dolĉan guston. 12. La knabinoj volas havi florojn, sed la knaboj +preferas kolekti diversajn fruktojn. 13. Ili volas trovi maturajn +ĉerizojn kaj flavajn persikojn. 14. La ĉerizoj havas belan +ruĝan koloron. 15. La persikoj ŝajnas molaj kaj bonaj. 16. +Mario rompas branĉon, kaj vidas ĉerizojn sur la branĉoj. +17. Gertrudo estas feliĉa, kaj volas havi la belan frukton. 18. +Gertrudo estas alta, bela knabino. 19. Mario ŝatas ĉerizojn. +20. La knaboj kaj knabinoj sidas sur la verda herbo, kaj manĝas +la ĉerizojn. 21. Ili ne volas manĝi pomojn, ili preferas la +dolĉajn ĉerizojn. 22. La folioj apud la ĉerizoj estas nek +larĝaj nek longaj. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------033.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. Have the girls beautiful flowers? 2. No, they have fresh fruit. 3. +The boys do not wish to gather flowers. 4. They prefer to break the +branches, and find the sweet cherries. 5. Gertrude wishes to eat apples, +but Mary has neither apples nor peaches. 6. Do the girls like to sit in +the house and eat fruit? 7. Yes, they like to sit in the house, but they +prefer to walk in the field. 8. Are ripe peaches brown? 9. No, they are +red and yellow. 10. Has the peach a sweet taste? 11. Do the girls see +the beautiful black horses in the fields? 12. Yes, they see the horses, +but the horses seem not to see the girls. 13. Mary sits on the soft +green grass, and eats ripe fruit. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON VI.</b></center> + +<center>PERSONAL PRONOUNS.</center> + +<p> +<b>32.</b> Words which stand in the place of nouns, as "you," "he," +"who," "which," are called <i>pronouns</i>. Pronouns referring to the +person speaking (<i>I</i>, <i>we</i>), the person addressed (<i>you</i>, +<i>thou</i>), or the person or thing spoken of (<i>he</i>, <i>she</i>, +<i>it</i>, <i>they</i>), are called <i>personal pronouns</i>. They are +considered singular or plural, according to whether they refer to one or +more persons. Since the meaning of such pronouns indicates the number, +no plural ending is ever attached to them. The personal pronouns are: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="1" cellpadding="8"> + <tr><td nowrap> </td><td nowrap align="center">Singular.</td><td nowrap align="center">Plural.</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap align="right">First person:</td><td nowrap><b>mi</b>, <i>I</i> (<i>me</i>).</td><td nowrap><b>ni</b>, <i>we</i> (<i>us</i>).</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap align="right">Second person:</td><td nowrap><b>vi</b>, <i>you</i>.</td><td nowrap><b>vi</b>, <i>you</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap align="right" valign="middle">Third person:</td><td nowrap><b>li</b>, <i>he</i> (<i>him</i>).<br><b>ŝi</b>, <i>she</i> (<i>her</i>).<br><b>ĝi</b>, <i>it</i>.</td><td nowrap valign="middle"><b>ili</b>, <i>they</i> (<i>them</i>).</td></tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +There is another pronoun <b>ci</b>, <i>thou</i>, for the second person +singular, used in solemn style, as in the Bible, in poetry, and also for +intimate or familiar address when desired, like German <i>du</i>, French +<i>tu</i>, etc. +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<!-- -----------------------------034.png---------------------------- --> + +<center>AGREEMENT WITH PRONOUNS.</center> + +<p> +<b>33.</b> Nouns in predicate relation with pronouns, or adjectives +modifying such pronouns, are made to agree with them in number: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Ni estas bonaj kaj feliĉaj</b>, <i>we are good and happy</i>.<br> +<b>Rozoj estas floroj, ill ne estas fruktoj</b>, <i>roses are flowers, they are not fruits</i>.<br> +<b>Gertrudo, vi estas bona</b>, <i>Gertrude, you are good</i>.<br> +<b>Knabinoj, ĉu vi estas feliĉaj?</b> <i>Girls, are you happy?</i> +</p> + +<center>CONJUGATION OF THE VERB.</center> + +<p> +<b>34.</b> Any pronoun may serve as the subject of a verb. The +combination of the verb with each of the personal pronouns in succession +for its subject, is called the <i>conjugation</i> of the verb. Following +is the conjugation of the present tense of <b>esti</b>, and of +<b>vidi</b>: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>mi estas</b>, <i>I am</i>.<br> + <b>vi estas</b>, <i>you are</i>.<br> + <b>li (ŝi, ĝi) estas</b>, <i>he (she, it) is</i>.<br> + <b>ni estas</b>, <i>we are</i>.<br> + <b>vi estas</b>, <i>you (plural) are</i>.<br> + <b>ili estas</b>, <i>they are</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>mi vidas</b>, <i>I see</i>.<br> + <b>vi vidas</b>, <i>you see</i>.<br> + <b>li (ŝi, ĝi) vidas</b>, <i>he (she, it) sees.</i><br> + <b>ni vidas</b>, <i>we see</i>.<br> + <b>vi vidas</b>, <i>you (plural) see</i>.<br> + <b>ili vidas</b>, <i>they see</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>al</b>, <i>to, toward</i>.<br> + <b>Arturo</b>, <i>Arthur</i>.<br> + <b>aŭ</b>, <i>or</i> (aŭ.. aŭ.., <i>either.. or..</i>)<br> + <b>ĉar</b>, <i>because</i>.<br> + <b>doni</b>, <i>to give</i>.<br> + <b>fali</b>, <i>to fall</i>.<br> + <b>fenestro</b>, <i>window</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>hodiaŭ</b>, <i>today</i>.<br> + <b>kudri</b>, <i>to sew</i>.<br> + <b>Roberto</b>, <i>Robert</i>.<br> + <b>skui</b>, <i>to shake</i>.<br> + <b>stari</b>, <i>to stand</i>.<br> + <b>sub</b>, <i>under, beneath</i>.<br> + <b>virino</b>, <i>woman</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- -----------------------------035.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>READING LESSON.</b></center> + +<p> +1. Knaboj, ĉu vi volas sidi en la domo, aŭ en la ĝardeno? +2. Ni preferas sidi hodiaŭ en la ĝardeno, sub la granda +arbo. 3. Ĉu vi havas pomojn, aŭ ĉerizojn? 4. Ni havas +nek pomojn nek ĉerizojn, sed ni havas dolĉajn persikojn. 5. +Arturo donas al vi la maturajn persikojn, ĉar li ŝatas kolekti +frukton. 6. Arturo, ĉu vi rompas la branĉojn? 7. Ne, sed mi +skuas branĉon, kaj la persikoj falas. 8. Mi staras sub la arbo, +kaj kolektas la dolĉan frukton. 9. La frukton mi donas al Mario +kaj Gertrudo. 10. Mi volas doni persikon al Heleno, sed hodiaŭ +ŝi estas en la domo. 11. Ŝi sidas apud la fenestro kaj kudras. +12. Ŝi preferas kudri, kaj volas nek marŝi nek sidi en la +ĝardeno. 13. Kaj ŝi kaj la virino apud ŝi volas kudri +hodiaŭ. 14. Ili estas feliĉaj, ĉar ili vidas la birdojn +en la arbo apud la fenestro. 15. La birdoj estas kolomboj, kaj sidas +sur la arbo. 16. Sub la arboj en la kampo staras ĉevaloj, kaj ili +manĝas la verdan molan herbon. 17. Ni donas pomojn al ili, ĉar +ili ŝatas pomojn. 18. Ni estas feliĉaj, ĉar ni havas +belajn persikojn maturajn kaj bonajn. 19. Roberto, vi estas alta, sed +vi, knabinoj, ne estas altaj. +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. Does Arthur break the branch and gather the apples? 2. No, he shakes +the branch, and the apples fall. 3. They are ripe and sweet. 4. Robert, +do you wish to stand beneath the tree? 5. No, I do not wish to stand +under it, but near it. 6. I wish to give both the peaches and the apples +to the woman. 7. She is sitting in the house, near the window. 8. Mary +is sitting in (on) a chair near her. 9. Both Mary and the woman are +sewing. 10. They prefer to sew, and do not wish to walk in the garden +to-day. 11. They are happy because they like to sew. 12. They do not +wish to gather flowers, or walk, or see the birds. 13. They have neither +apples nor peaches, but they do not wish to eat. 14. They give the fruit +to the boys and girls. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------036.png---------------------------- --> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON VII.</b></center> + +<center>THE PAST TENSE.</center> + +<p> +<b>35.</b> The past tense of the verb expresses an action which took +place in past time, or a condition which existed in past time. The +ending of this tense is <b>-is</b>, as <b>kuris</b>, ran, <b>flugis</b>, +flew, <b>brilis</b>, shone. The conjugation of <b>esti</b> and also of +<b>vidi</b> in the past tense is as follows: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>mi estis</b>, <i>I was</i>.<br> + <b>vi estis</b>, <i>you were</i>.<br> + <b>li (ŝi, ĝi) estis</b>, <i>he (she, it) was</i>.<br> + <b>ni estis</b>, <i>we were</i>.<br> + <b>vi estis</b>, <i>you (plural) were</i>.<br> + <b>ili estis</b>, <i>they were</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>mi vidis</b>, <i>I saw</i>.<br> + <b>vi vidis</b>, <i>you saw</i>.<br> + <b>li (ŝi, ĝi) vidis</b>, <i>he (she, it) saw</i>.<br> + <b>ni vidis</b>, <i>we saw</i>.<br> + <b>vi vidis</b>, <i>you (plural) saw</i>.<br> + <b>ili vidis</b>, <i>they saw</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center>PREPOSITIONS.</center> + +<p> +<b>36.</b> A preposition is a word like "in," "on," placed before a +noun or pronoun to indicate some relation between this and another +word. The preposition is said to <i>govern</i> the noun or pronoun, +which is called its <i>complement</i>. In English, the complement of a +preposition seems to be put in the accusative case if it is a pronoun, +but to remain unchanged in form if it is a noun. In Esperanto the +preposition does not affect the form of the word governed, which remains +in the nominative case: +</p> + +<p> +<b>La arbo estas en la ĝardeno</b>, <i>the tree is in the garden</i>.<br> +<b>Bonaj pomoj estas sur ĝi</b>, <i>good apples are on it</i>.<br> +<b>Mi donis ĉerizojn al li</b>, <i>I gave cherries to him</i>.<br> +<b>La knabo estas apud mi</b>, <i>the boy is near me</i>.<br> +<b>Sub la arbo staris ĉevalo</b>, <i>under the tree stood a horse</i>. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------037.png---------------------------- --> + +<center>ACCUSATIVE CASE OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS.</center> + +<p> +<b>37.</b> For use as the object of a verb, any pronoun may be put in +the accusative case by addition of the accusative ending <b>-n</b> (23): +</p> + +<p> +<b>La viro vidis vin kaj min</b>, <i>the man saw you and me</i>.<br> +<b>Li vidis ilin kaj nin</b>, <i>he saw them and us</i>.<br> +<b>Mi vidis nek lin nek ŝin</b>, <i>I saw neither him nor her</i>.<br> +<b>Ni volas havi ĝin</b>, <i>we wish to have it</i>. +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>agrabla</b>, <i>pleasant, agreeable</i>.<br> + <b>bildo</b>, <i>picture</i>.<br> + <b>blua</b>, <i>blue</i>.<br> + <b>danki</b>, <i>to thank</i>.<br> + <b>de</b>, <i>from</i>.<br> + <b>diri</b>, <i>to say</i>.<br> + <b>infano</b>, <i>child</i>.<br> + <b>interesa</b>, <i>interesting</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>luma</b>, <i>light (not dark)</i>.<br> + <b>muro</b>, <i>wall</i>.<br> + <b>nun</b>, <i>now</i>.<br> + <b>planko</b>, <i>floor</i>.<br> + <b>pordo</b>, <i>door</i>.<br> + <b>rigardi</b>, <i>to look (at)</i>.<br> + <b>tapiŝo</b>, <i>carpet</i>.<br> + <b>tra</b>, <i>through</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- -----------------------------038.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>READING LESSON.</b></center> + +<p> +1. Hodiaŭ la knaboj kaj knabinoj estas en la granda domo. 2. Ili +staras apud la tablo, en agrabla luma ĉambro. 3. Ĝi havas +altajn larĝajn fenestrojn. 4. Sub la tablo kaj seĝoj, mola +tapiŝo kuŝas sur la planko. 5. La tapiŝo havas belajn +kolorojn, ruĝan, bluan, flavan, kaj verdan. 6. Virino marŝis +tra la pordo, kaj staris apud la tablo. 7. Ŝi havis interesajn +bildojn, kaj donis ilin al la knaboj kaj la knabinoj. 8. Ŝi diris +"Ĉu vi volas rigardi la bildojn?" 9. "Jes, ni dankas vin," diris +la infanoj, kaj ŝi donis al ili la bildojn. 10. Granda bildo falis +de la tablo, sed Arturo nun havas ĝin. 11. Li donas ĝin al +Mario, ŝi dankas lin, kaj donas ĝin al Roberto. 12. Ili volis +doni ĝin al Gertrudo, sed ŝi diris "Ne, mi dankas vin, mi ne +ŝatas rigardi bildojn." 13. Ŝi marŝis de la tablo al la +fenestro kaj diris "Mi preferas kudri." 14. Ŝi volis sidi en granda +seĝo apud la fenestro. 15. La virino rigardis ŝin kaj diris +"Mi donis la bildojn al vi, knaboj kaj knabinoj," ĉar ili estas +interesaj bildoj. 16. Gertrudo diris "Vi estas bona al ni, sed mi volas +sidi apud la pordo aŭ la fenestro. 17. Mi kolektis dolĉajn +violojn en la ĝardeno, kaj nun mi volas rigardi la dolĉajn +florojn, kaj kudri." +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. Do the boys and girls wish to be good? 2. They gathered fresh flowers +and gave them to the woman. 3. The happy children were in the garden, +but now they are in the house. 4. The rooms in the house are light, +because they have large wide windows. 5. The doors in the room are +wide and high. 6. The carpets on the floor seem soft, and have various +beautiful colors. 7. A large strong table stands near the door. 8. +We can sit near the table and look through the windows. 9. Gertrude +is-looking-at the various pictures. 10. She looks-at them, and seems +to be happy. 11. She gave a picture to me and I thanked her. 12. Helen +walked near the table and shook it. 13. Arthur did not see the pictures +because they were lying on the floor. 14. He looked-at the pictures on +the wall, but they are neither interesting nor beautiful. 15. Robert +looked through the window, and saw us in the pleasant garden. +</p> + + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON VIII.</b></center> + +<center>REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS.</center> + +<p> +<b>38.</b> A pronoun which refers to the same person or thing as the +subject of the verb in the sentence, but is used in some other relation +than subject of that verb, is said to be used <i>reflexively</i>, or to +be a <i>reflexive pronoun</i>. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------039.png---------------------------- --> + +<p> +<b>39.</b> The first and second personal pronouns, <b>mi</b>, <b>ni</b>, +and <b>vi</b>, (<b>ci</b>) are used for the reflexive pronouns of the +first and second persons. There can be no ambiguity, since words such as +"me, myself, us, ourselves," can refer to no one else than the person +or persons speaking; while words such as "you, yourself, yourselves +(thee, thyself)," can refer to no one else than the person or persons +addressed: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Mi vidas min</b>, <i>I see myself</i>.<br> +<b>Mi diris al mi</b>, <i>I said to myself</i>.<br> +<b>Ni havas tapiŝon sub ni</b>, <i>we have a carpet under us</i>.<br> +<b>Ni amuzis nin</b>, <i>we amused ourselves</i>.<br> +(<b>Ci trovas domon apud ci</b>, <i>thou findest a house near thee</i>.)<br> +<b>Vi diras al vi</b>, <i>you say to yourself (yourselves)</i>.<br> +<b>Vi amuzas vin</b>, <i>you amuse yourself (yourselves)</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>40.</b> When the verb is in the third person, a pronoun of the +third person, used otherwise than as the subject, might or might not +refer to the subject of that verb. For example, "He sees a bird near +him," may mean that the subject sees a bird near himself, or near +another person. If such a pronoun of the third person is intended to +refer to the subject of the verb, Esperanto uses a special reflexive +pronoun <b>si</b> (accusative <b>sin</b>), which means <i>him(self)</i>, +<i>her(self)</i>, <i>it(self)</i>, <i>them(selves)</i>, according to the +gender and number of the verb: +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------040.png---------------------------- --> + +<p> +<b>Li amuzas sin</b>, <i>he amuses himself</i>.<br> +<b>Arturo vidis birdon apud si</b>, <i>Arthur saw a bird near him(self)</i>.<br> +<b>Ŝi trovas floron apud si</b>, <i>she finds a flower near her(self)</i>.<br> +<b>Mario trovis sin sur blua tapiŝo</b>, <i>Mary found herself on a blue carpet</i>.<br> +<b>La tapiŝo havas diversajn kolorojn en si</b>, <i>the carpet has various colors in it(self)</i>.<br> +<b>La birdo kaŝas sin sub la folioj</b>, <i>the bird hides itself under the leaves</i>.<br> +<b>Ili amuzas sin</b>, <i>they amuse themselves</i>.<br> +<b>La viroj havas seĝojn apud si</b>, <i>the men have chairs near them(selves)</i>.<br> +<b>La virinoj trovas florojn apud si</b>, <i>the women find flowers near them(selves)</i>.<br> +<b>La arboj havas ĉerizojn sur si</b>, <i>the trees have cherries on them(selves)</i>.<br> +<b>Sub si la infanoj trovis molan tapiŝon</b>, <i>under them(selves) the children found a soft carpet</i>. +</p> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +From the very fact that <b>si</b> always <i>refers to</i> the subject +of the verb, it is evident that <b>si</b> can never itself be used as +subject or part of the subject of the verb. +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<center>REFLEXIVE VERBS.</center> + +<p> +<b>41.</b> A verb having a reflexive pronoun for its direct object +is sometimes called a <i>reflexive verb</i>, from the fact that some +languages have had or still have a special reflexive or middle form of +the verb, to express an act of the subject on or for itself, or they +have certain verbs whose use is chiefly or exclusively reflexive. The +conjugation of a verb reflexively is therefore as follows: +</p> + +<p> +<b>mi amuzas min (mi min amuzas)</b>, <i>I amuse myself</i>.<br> +<b>vi amuzas vin (vi vin amuzas)</b>, <i>you amuse yourself</i>.<br> +<b>li (ŝi, ĝi) amuzas sin (sin amuzas)</b>, <i>he (she, it) amuses him (her, it)self</i>.<br> +<b>ni amuzas nin (ni nin amuzas)</b>, <i>we amuse ourselves</i>.<br> +<b>vi amuzas vin (vi vin amuzas)</b>, <i>you amuse yourselves</i>.<br> +<b>ili amuzas sin (ili sin amuzas)</b>, <i>they amuse themselves</i>. +</p> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +As Greek +<!-- <i>[Greek: etraponto]</i>, --> <i>ετράποντο</i>, +<i>they turned themselves</i>; +Latin <i>exerceor</i>, <i>I exercise myself</i>, <i>vescor</i>, <i>I +eat</i> (<i>I feed myself</i>); German <i>ich hüte mich</i>, +<i>I beware</i> (<i>I guard myself</i>); Spanish <i>me alegro</i>, or +<i>alégrome</i>, <i>I rejoice</i> (<i>I gladden myself</i>); French +<i>il s'arrête</i>, <i>he halts</i> (<i>he stops himself</i>). +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>Alfredo</b>, <i>Alfred</i>.<br> + <b>amuzi</b>, <i>to amuse</i>.<br> + <b>antaŭ</b>, <i>before, in front of</i>.<br> + <b>aparteni</b>, <i>to belong</i>.<br> + <b>griza</b>, <i>gray</i>.<br> + <b>iri</b>, <i>to go</i>.<br> + <b>Johano</b>, <i>John</i>.<br> + <b>kaŝi</b>, <i>to hide, to conceal</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>komenci</b>, <i>to begin</i>.<br> + <b>laŭdi</b>, <i>to praise</i>.<br> + <b>legi</b>, <i>to read</i>.<br> + <b>libro</b>, <i>book</i>.<br> + <b>perdi</b>, <i>to lose</i>.<br> + <b>skatolo</b>, <i>small box or case</i>.<br> + <b>strato</b>, <i>street</i>.<br> + <b>si</b>, <i>himself, etc.</i> (40). + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- -----------------------------041.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>READING LESSON.</b></center> + +<p> +1. Johano kaj Alfredo amuzis sin en la ĝardeno. 2. Johano +kaŝis sin, kaj Alfredo trovis Johanon. 3. Alfredo sin kaŝis +en alta arbo, kaj Johano trovis Alberton. 4. Mario kaj Gertrudo sin +kaŝis apud la floroj, kaj la knaboj trovis la knabinojn. 5. La +knabinoj ne volas perdi sin en la agrabla kampo. 6. Johano komencis +amuzi sin en luma ĉambro en la domo. 7. La muro havas interesajn +bildojn sur si. 8. Tra la fenestro antaŭ si Johano rigardas +la virojn kaj la virinojn sur la strato. 9. Li havas molan grizan +tapiŝon sub si, kaj ne volas seĝon. 10. Li kaj Alfredo volis +iri al la strato kaj amuzi sin. 11. Ili marŝis al la pordo, kaj +trovis ruĝan skatolon antaŭ si. 12. En la skatolo estis libro, +kaj Johano diris al si "La libro ne apartenas al mi." 13. Li diris al +Alfredo "Ĉar ni trovis ĝin, mi volas legi la libron." 14. +Virino antaŭ pordo komencis rigardi la knabojn, kaj ili diris +al ŝi "Ĉu la libro apartenas al vi? Ni trovis ĝin en +skatolo." 15. La virino diris "Jes, ni perdis ĝin, kaj mi dankas +vin, ĉar vi donas al mi la skatolon kaj la libron." 16. Ŝi +iris al la strato, kaj la knaboj iris al la domo. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------042.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. The book in the gray box does not belong to me. 2. I found it in +front of me, near the door. 3. You began to praise yourselves, but I do +not praise myself. 4. They hid themselves, and I stood near them. 5. The +birds sit on the tree, because it has ripe cherries on it. 6. Alfred +amused himself on the street, but we like to amuse ourselves in the +house. 7. The trees have good fruit on them. 8. She found herself in a +beautiful light room. 9. The carpet on the floor had various colors in +it, and the high wall had pictures on it. 10. The pictures had boys and +girls in them. 11. The book belongs to her, but it fell from the box. +12. The table has red and blue and yellow flowers on it. 13. Did you see +the doves near the flowers in front of (before) you? 14. The birds saw +the fruit on the tree in front of them, and flew to the branches. 15. I +sat on the bench in the garden, and began to read an interesting book. +16. They hid themselves in the leaves and began to sing. 17. The child +is in a pleasant room. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON IX.</b></center> + +<center>LIMITATION OF THE THIRD PERSONAL PRONOUN.</center> + +<p> +<b>42.</b> Since there is a special reflexive pronoun of the third +person, the third personal pronouns, <b>li</b>, <b>ŝi</b>, +<b>ĝi</b>, <b>ili</b>, when used otherwise than as subjects, never +refer to the subject of the verb, but always to some other person or +thing: +</p> + +<p> +<b>La knabo laŭdas lin</b>, <i>the boy praises him</i> (another person).<br> +<b>Ŝi donas pomojn al ŝi</b>, <i>she gives apples to her</i> (to another person).<br> +<b>La birdo vidis ĝin</b>, <i>the bird saw it</i> (something else than the bird).<br> +<b>La knaboj kaŝis ilin</b>, <i>the boys hid them</i> (other persons or things).<br> +<b>Ili trovis ilin apud si</b>, <i>they found them</i> (other persons or things) <i>near them(selves)</i>.<br> +<b>La birdoj flugis al ili</b>, <i>the birds flew to them</i>. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------043.png---------------------------- --> + +<center>POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES.</center> + +<p> +<b>43.</b> Words like "my," "his," "your," which indicate ownership +or some possessive relation, are called <i>possessive adjectives</i>. +Possessive adjectives are formed from the personal pronouns by adding +the adjective ending <b>-a</b>, as <b>mia</b>, <i>my</i>, <b>via</b>, +<i>your</i> (<b>cia</b>, <i>thy</i>), <b>lia</b>, <i>his</i>, +<b>ŝia</b>, <i>her</i>, <b>ĝia</b>, <i>its</i>, <b>nia</b>, +<i>our</i>, <b>via</b>, <i>your (plural)</i>, <b>ilia</b>, <i>their</i>. +The limitation in the use of the third personal pronouns (<b>42</b>) is +also true of the adjectives derived from them: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Mia domo kaj miaj ĝardenoj estas grandaj</b>, <i>my house and my gardens are large</i>.<br> +<b>Johano sidas sur via seĝo</b>, <i>John is sitting in your chair</i>.<br> +<b>Li havas lian ĉevalon</b>, <i>he has his</i> (another person's) <i>horse</i>.<br> +<b>Ĉu vi legis ŝiajn librojn?</b> <i>Did you read her books</i>? +</p> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +Sometimes these words are called possessive pronouns, although really +they are not pronouns at all, but pronominal adjectives with a +possessive meaning. +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<p> +<b>44.</b> Reflexive possessive adjectives, like the reflexive pronoun, +refer to the subject of the verb in the sentence. For the first and +second persons, they are the same as the personal possessive adjectives. +The reflexive possessive adjective of the third person is <b>sia</b>, +<i>his</i>, <i>her</i>, <i>its</i>, <i>their</i>, formed by adding the +ending <b>-a</b> to the reflexive pronoun <b>si</b>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Mi havas miajn librojn sur mia tablo</b>, <i>I have my books on my table</i>.<br> +<b>Johano perdis siajn librojn</b>, <i>John lost his (John's) books</i>.<br> +<b>Mario estas en sia ĉambro</b>, <i>Mary is in her room</i>.<br> +<b>La birdoj flugis al sia arbo</b>, <i>the birds flew to their tree</i>. +</p> + +<center>PRONOMINAL USE OF POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES.</center> + +<p> +<b>45.</b> Possessive adjectives may be used predicatively, as "the +book is mine," or may modify some word or words not expressed, as "mine +are large." Instead of having special forms, like English <i>mine</i>, +<i>yours</i>, <i>hers</i>, etc., Esperanto uses the regular possessive +adjectives preceded by the article: +</p> + +<p> +<b>La granda libro estas la mia</b>, <i>the large book is mine</i>.<br> +<b>La via estas granda, la miaj estas belaj</b>, <i>yours is large, mine are beautiful</i>.<br> +<b>Ili havas la sian, sed ne la lian</b>, <i>they have theirs, but not his</i>.<br> +<b>La iliaj ŝajnas esti bonaj</b>, <i>theirs seem to be good</i>. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------044.png---------------------------- --> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>diro</b>, <i>saying, remark</i>.<br> + <b>ĝis</b>, <i>as far as, up to, down to</i>.<br> + <b>hieraŭ</b>, <i>yesterday</i>.<br> + <b>juna</b>, <i>young</i>.<br> + <b>kapti</b>, <i>to catch, to seize</i>.<br> + <b>kato</b>, <i>cat</i>.<br> + <b>kolera</b>, <i>angry</i>.<br> + <b>lavi</b>, <i>to wash</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>manĝo</b>, <i>meal</i>.<br> + <b>nesto</b>, <i>nest</i>.<br> + <b>pasero</b>, <i>sparrow</i>.<br> + <b>patro</b>, <i>father</i>.<br> + <b>post,</b> <i>after, behind</i>.<br> + <b>surprizi</b>, <i>to surprise</i>.<br> + <b>teni</b>, <i>to hold, to keep</i>.<br> + <b>vizaĝo</b>, <i>face</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center><b>READING LESSON.</b></center> + +<p> +1. Hieraŭ mi perdis mian grizan katon. 2. Ilia kato kaptis nian +birdon. 3. Via kolera diro surprizis mian patron. 4. Ĉu la granda +kampo apartenas al ŝia patro? 5. Ne, ĝi ne estas la lia. 6. +La lia estas bela, sed mi preferas la mian. 7. Ĉu vi ŝatas +vian libron aŭ la ilian? 8. Li havas nek siajn ĉevalojn nek la +iliajn. 9. La knabinoj ŝajnas esti koleraj. 10. Ili komencis legi +siajn librojn. 11. La viro kaptis kaj tenis siajn ĉevalojn, sed li +ne trovis iliajn ĉevalojn. 12. Ŝia libro kuŝas sur la +planko, post ŝia seĝo. 13. Ŝi ne trovis ilian libron, sed +la junaj infanoj trovis la nian. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------045.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>LA KATO KAJ LA PASERO.</b></center> + +<p> +Griza kato iris de la domo ĝis la strato. Ĝi vidis paseron +antaŭ si, kaj volis manĝi ĝin. La kato staris post +granda arbo, kaj kaptis la paseron. La pasero diris "Bona kato lavas +sin antaŭ sia manĝo, sed vi ne lavis vian vizaĝon." La +interesa diro surprizis la katon. La kato ne tenis la paseron, sed +komencis lavi sian vizaĝon. La pasero flugis de la kato ĝis +la arbo. La kolera kato diris "Mi perdis mian manĝon, ĉar mi +komencis lavi min antaŭ la manĝo!" Nun la katoj ne lavas sin +antaŭ la manĝoj. Ili havas siajn manĝojn, kaj post la +manĝoj ili lavas la vizaĝojn. La paseroj ne surprizas ilin +nun, sed ili tenas la paserojn. La katoj estas feliĉaj, sed la +paseroj ne estas feliĉaj. La junaj paseroj volas flugi al la nestoj +en la arboj. +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. The boys are not in their (own) house, but they are in his. 2 Is the +large beautiful house yours? 3. The woman walked through the door of +their house, as far as her room. 4. The room has interesting pictures on +its walls. 5. We praised their flowers yesterday, and they gave them to +us. 6. Their books are in their (the books') box. 7. They are on their +(the boys') table. 8. The gray cat was angry because it did not hold the +bird. 9. The sparrow surprised it, and it commenced to wash its face. +10. The sparrow wished to fly as far as the tall tree, but the cat held +it. 11. The sparrow said "A good cat washes its face, but you are not a +good cat." 12. The sparrow was angry because the cat seized it and held +it. 13. The bird did not lose its meal, but the angry cat lost its meal. +14. Do you see his cat or hers? 15. I see both his and hers, but ours +is not in our garden. 16. My father is a tall strong man. 17. I like to +look at him. 18. The children saw the young birds in the nest. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------046.png---------------------------- --> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON X.</b></center> + +<center>THE ACCUSATIVE OF DIRECTION.</center> + +<p> +<b>46.</b> When the verb in a sentence expresses motion, the word +indicating the place, person or thing toward which the motion is +directed is given the accusative ending. This is also true if the word +is the complement of any preposition which does not itself sufficiently +indicate motion in a certain direction. (The prepositions <b>al</b>, +<i>to, toward,</i> <b>ĝis</b>, <i>as far as,</i> <b>tra</b>, +<i>through,</i> express motion in the direction of their complements, +and could not well be used except in a sentence whose verb expresses +motion. Consequently the accusative is not used after any of these +three): +</p> + +<p> +<b>Li iris ĝardenon</b>, <i>he went to the garden ("gardenward").</i><br> +<b>La viro iros Bostonon</b>, <i>the man will go to Boston ("Bostonward").</i> +</p> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote" style="margin-top: 0; text-align: right"> +<i>Cf.</i> English "he went home," "he went homeward," etc. +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<p> +<b>Li estis en la ĝardeno</b>, kaj kuris en la domon, <i>he was in the garden and ran into the house.</i><br> +<b>Ĝi ne estas sur la tablo</b>, ĝi falis sur la plankon, <i>it is not on the table, it fell upon the floor.</i><br> +<b>Ili falis sub la tablon ĝis la planko</b>, <i>they fell under the table as far as the floor</i> (direction expressed by whole prepositional phrase).<br> +<b>Mi iris tra la domo en mian ĉambron</b>, <i>I went through the house into my room.</i> +</p> + +<center>THE ARTICLE FOR THE POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE.</center> + +<p> +<b>47.</b> In many sentences where the possessor is already sufficiently +indicated, English nevertheless uses a possessive adjective, as in "I +wash my face," "he shakes his head," but on the other hand omits it +entirely with certain words indicating relationship, as in "Brother gave +it to me," etc. In both cases Esperanto uses the article instead of the +possessive adjective, unless the fact of possession is to be emphasized: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Mi lavas la vizaĝon</b>, <i>I wash my face.</i><br> +<b>Li skuas la kapon</b>, <i>he shakes his head.</i><br> +<b>La patro estas alta</b>, <i>Father is tall.</i><br> +<b>Mi donis ĝin al la patro</b>, <i>I gave it to Father.</i> +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------047.png---------------------------- --> + +<center>APPOSITION.</center> + +<p> +<b>48.</b> English often uses the preposition "of" between two words +where no idea of possession really exists, as "the city of Boston." +Since nouns used in apposition refer to the same thing, and are in the +same grammatical construction, Esperanto does not use a preposition: +</p> + +<p> +<b>La urbo Bostono estas granda</b>, <i>the city</i> (of) <i>Boston is large.</i><br> +<b>Mia amiko Johano estas alta</b>, <i>my friend John is tall.</i><br> +<b>Ĉu vi ne konas min</b>, vian amikon? <i>do you not know me, your friend?</i> +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>arabo</b>, <i>arab.</i><br> + <b>baldaŭ</b>, <i>soon.</i><br> + <b>Bostono</b>, <i>Boston.</i><br> + <b>frato</b>, <i>brother.</i><br> + <b>kamelo</b>, <i>camel.</i><br> + <b>kapo</b>, <i>head.</i><br> + <b>kolo</b>, <i>neck.</i><br> + <b>korpo</b>, <i>body.</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>meti</b>, <i>to put, to place.</i><br> + <b>nazo</b>, <i>nose.</i><br> + <b>nur</b>, <i>only, merely.</i><br> + <b>puŝi</b>, <i>to push.</i><br> + <b>trans</b>, <i>across.</i><br> + <b>tuta</b>, <i>whole, entire, all.</i><br> + <b>urbo</b>, <i>city.</i><br> + <b>varma</b>, <i>warm.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- -----------------------------048.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>LA ARABO KAJ LA KAMELO.</b></center> + +<p> +Arabo sidis en sia domo en la urbo. Apud domo trans la strato li vidis +kamelon. La kamelo iris trans la straton ĝis la pordo, kaj diris al +la arabo, "Frato, mi ne estas varma, mi volas meti nur la nazon en vian +varman domon." La arabo skuis la kapon, sed la kamelo metis la nazon tra +la pordo en la ĉambron. La kamelo komencis puŝi sian tutan +vizaĝon en la domon. Baldaŭ li havis la kapon ĝis la +kolo en la domo. Post la kapo iris la kolo en ĝin, kaj baldaŭ +la tuta korpo estis en la domo. La arabo estis kolera, ĉar li ne +volis havi tutan kamelon en sia domo. Li kuris al la kamelo, kaptis +lin, tenis lin, kaj diris, "Frato, vi volis meti nur la nazon en mian +domon. La ĉambro ne estas granda sed ĝi estas la mia, kaj mi +preferas sidi en ĝi." "Via diro estas bona," diris la kamelo, "via +domo ne estas granda, sed ĝi estas varma, kaj mi ŝatas stari +en ĝi. Mi preferas stari kaj kuŝi en ĝi, kaj mi donos al +vi mian arbon trans la strato. Ĉu vi ne volas iri sub la arbon?" +Kaj la kamelo puŝis la arabon de lia domo en la straton de la urbo. +La kamelo nun trovis sin en varma ĉambro, sed la juna arabo staris +trans la strato kaj ne estis varma. +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. The cat ran across the street. 2. Across the street it found a +sparrow. 3. It caught the bird, but began to wash its face, and the +sparrow flew to the nest. 4. I went into the garden as far as the large +tree. 5. I did not hold my book, and it fell upon the floor. 6. It began +to fall under the table, but I seized it. 7. My brother pushed the +books into their box, and put it on the table. 8. We went to the city +of Boston yesterday and into a beautiful house. 9. The arab shook his +head and said, "No." 10. But the camel commenced to go through the door. +11. His remark did not seem to surprise the camel. 12. The camel pushed +its head and neck, and soon its whole body into the warm house. 13. It +wished to put merely its nose into it. 14. The arab was angry, because +it pushed itself into his house. 15. He said, "Brother, the house is +mine, and I do not wish to have you in it." 16. But soon after the +remark, the whole camel was in the house. 17. He pushed the young arab +into the street. 18. He went across the street and stood upon the grass +under a tree. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------049.png---------------------------- --> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XI.</b></center> + +<center>POSSESSIVE CASE OF NOUNS.</center> + +<p> +<b>49.</b> The preposition <b>de</b> is used to express possession or +connection: +</p> + +<p> +<b>La muroj de la domo</b>, <i>the walls of the house.</i><br> +<b>La koloroj de la floroj</b>, <i>the colors of the flowers.</i><br> +<b>La libro de la knabo</b>, <i>the book of the boy (the boy's book).</i><br> +<b>Branĉo de la arbo</b>, <i>a branch of the tree.</i><br> +<b>La ĝardeno de la viroj</b>, <i>the garden of the men (the men's garden).</i> +</p> + +<center>IMPERSONAL VERBS.</center> + +<p> +<b>50.</b> Verbs with an impersonal or indeterminate subject, as "it +rains," "it is snowing," are called impersonal, because there is +no actual subject, the word "it" serving merely as an introductory +particle. No such particle is used with impersonal verbs in Esperanto: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Pluvas</b>, <i>it rains, it is raining.</i><br> +<b>Neĝis hieraŭ</b>, <i>it snowed yesterday.</i> +</p> + +<center>VERBS PRECEDING THEIR SUBJECTS.</center> + +<p> +<b>51.</b> When the verb in a sentence precedes its subject, English +often uses an introductory particle, such as "there," "it." In Esperanto +no such particles are needed: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Estas floroj sur la tablo</b>, <i>there are flowers on the table.</i><br> +<b>Estis Johano, ne Alfredo, en la ĝardeno</b>, <i>it was John, not Alfred, in the garden.</i><br> +<b>Estas domo en la kampo</b>, <i>there is a house in the field.</i><br> +<b>Estis mi</b>, <i>it was I.</i> +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------050.png---------------------------- --> + +<center>COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS.</center> + +<p> +<b>52.</b> Words like <b>aŭ, kaj, nek, sed,</b> which join words, +word-groups, or sentences together are conjunctions. All the +conjunctions given so far connect words, phrases, or sentences of +similar rank or kind. These are called coordinating conjunctions, and +the words, phrases, or sentences connected by them are said to be +coordinate: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Ĉu vi marŝas aŭ kuras?</b><br> +(<b>Aŭ</b> connects the verbs.) +</p> + +<p> +<b>Ŝi iris, kaj ni estis feliĉaj.</b><br> +(<b>Kaj</b> connects the sentences.) +</p> + +<p> +<b>Nek vi nek mi vidis ĝin.</b><br> +(The second <b>nek</b> connects the pronouns, the first being introductory and adverbial.) +</p> + +<p> +<b>Aŭ li aŭ ŝi perdis la libron.</b><br> +(The second <b>aŭ</b> connects the pronouns, the first being introductory and adverbial.) +</p> + +<p> +<b>Ĝi falis sur la seĝon, sed ne sur la plankon.</b><br> +(<b>Sed</b> connects the phrases.) +</p> + +<p> +<b>Li ne ŝatis ĝin. Tamen li tenis ĝin.</b><br> +(<b>Tamen</b> connects the sentences.) +</p> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +A phrase is a word-group forming an expression, but not containing a +verb, as "through the house," "of the man," "before me," etc. +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +Coordinating conjunctions may be further classified according to +their meaning: <b>Aŭ</b> is disjunctive, connecting alternates, +and expressing separation. <b>Kaj</b> is copulative, expressing +union. <b>Nek</b> is disjunctive, expressing separation and also +negation. <b>Sed</b> is adversative, expressing opposition, contrast, +or modification of a previous statement. <b>Tamen</b> is adversative, +affirming something in spite of a previous objection or concession. +<b>Do,</b> <i>so, then, consequently,</i> is argumentative, expressing a +logical inference or result in a somewhat conversational manner. +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>akvo</b>, <i>water.</i><br> + <b>amiko</b>, <i>friend.</i><br> + <b>ankaŭ</b>, <i>also.</i><br> + <b>bezoni</b>, <i>to need.</i><br> + <b>dezerto</b>, <i>desert.</i><br> + <b>fidela</b>, <i>faithful.</i><br> + <b>mono</b>, <i>money.</i><br> + <b>neĝi</b>, <i>to snow.</i><br> + <b>pluvi</b>, <i>to rain.</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>porti</b>, <i>to carry.</i><br> + <b>riĉa</b>, <i>rich, wealthy.</i><br> + <b>sablo</b>, <i>sand.</i><br> + <b>sako</b>, <i>sack, bag.</i><br> + <b>seka</b>, <i>dry.</i><br> + <b>tamen</b>, <i>nevertheless.</i><br> + <b>trinki</b>, <i>to drink.</i><br> + <b>veni</b>, <i>to come.</i><br> + <b>vojo</b>, <i>road, way.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- -----------------------------051.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>LA ARABO EN LA DEZERTO.</b></center> + +<p> +Arabo iris trans grandan sekan dezerton. Kamelo, lia fidela amiko, +portis lin. La kamelo ankaŭ portis belajn tapiŝojn, ĉar +la arabo estis riĉa viro. La arabo havis ne nur tapiŝojn, sed +ankaŭ sakojn. En la sakoj estis akvo, ĉar en la dezerto nek +pluvas nek neĝas. La viro trinkis akvon, kaj ankaŭ donis akvon +al sia kamelo. La kamelo marŝis kaj marŝis, sed ne venis al +la domo de la arabo, ĉar ili perdis la vojon. La suno brilis, kaj +la sablo de la dezerto ŝajnis varma. La arabo ne trovis la vojon, +kaj baldaŭ li ne havis akvon. Tamen la kamelo marŝis kaj +marŝis, kaj baldaŭ la arabo vidis sakon antaŭ si, sur la +seka sablo. Li estis feliĉa kaj diris al si "Ĉu estas akvo en +ĝi? Mi volas trinki, kaj volas doni akvon al mia fidela kamelo." +Li ankaŭ volis lavi la tutan vizaĝon en la akvo, ĉar li +estis varma. Post sia diro li kaptis la sakon, kaj komencis rigardi en +ĝin. Li metis la nazon en ĝin, sed ne trovis akvon en la sako. +Nek li nek lia fidela kamelo havis akvon, ĉar estis nur mono en +la sako. La arabo estis kolera, ĉar li ne volis monon, li bezonis +akvon. Li havis monon en sia domo en la urbo, kaj volis trovi akvon. +Ĉu li tamen metis la sakon trans la kolon de sia kamelo? Ne, li ne +volis meti ĝin sur sian kamelon, ĉar li estis kolera. Li ne +tenis la sakon, sed ĝi falis sur la sablon, kaj kuŝis apud li. +La sako nun kuŝas sur la sablo de la granda dezerto, kaj la mono +estas en ĝi. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------052.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. Today it is raining, but yesterday it was snowing. 2. Did your friend +John carry his chair into the house? 3. I saw your good friends on the +way to the city. 4. Is the large sack behind the door theirs? 5. Neither +she nor her brother saw the whole city. 6. They went to the city of +Boston and lost their way. 7. There are interesting houses across the +street. 8. The body of a camel is large, and its neck is long. 9. The +camel pushed its head into the house of the arab, and he was angry. 10. +On the sand in the desert there lies a sack. 11. In the sack there is +money. 12. The arab was warm, and wished to drink water. 13. He also +wished to give water to the faithful camel. 14. Nevertheless, he found +only money in the sack. 15. He was angry, and did not keep the sack. +16. Yesterday he wished to find money, but today he prefers water. 17. +Nevertheless there is only sand in the desert. 18. He wished to come +from the dry desert to the house of a faithful friend. 19. Both he and +his friends are rich. 20. They went to his house yesterday, and came to +theirs today. 21. They do not need money. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XII.</b></center> + +<center>INDIRECT STATEMENTS.</center> + +<p> +<b>53.</b> A statement made indirectly by means of a clause dependent upon a +verb meaning "say," "think," "know," "believe," or a similar expression, +as in "I know that he came," "I hear that he is good," is called an +<i>indirect statement.</i> (The <i>direct</i> statement is "he came," +"he is good.") An indirect statement is joined to the main verb or +sentence by the subordinating conjunction <b>ke,</b> <i>that.</i> +</p> + +<b>Mi diras ke li estas bona</b>, <i>I say that he is good.</i><br> +<b>Johano diras ke vi venis hieraŭ</b>, <i>John says that you came yesterday.</i><br> +<b>Ŝi opinias ke estas mono en la sako</b>, <i>she thinks that there is money in the bag.</i><br> +<b>Ni vidas ke neĝas</b>, <i>we see that it is snowing.</i> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +A clause is a group of words including a verb, which is dependent upon +or subordinate to a main verb or sentence, as "—that he came," +"—when he went," "—that he is good," etc. +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +In English the subordinating conjunction may sometimes be omitted, +either "I think that he is good," or "I think he is good," being usually +permissible. But in Esperanto there is no variation, and the conjunction +<b>ke</b> is never omitted. +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<!-- -----------------------------053.png---------------------------- --> + +<center>THE INDEFINITE PERSONAL PRONOUN <b>ONI</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>54.</b> When an indefinite personal pronoun is desired, as in the +expressions "one knows," "they say," "people say," "you can see," etc., +the indefinite personal pronoun <b>oni</b> is used. This pronoun may +also be used in translating such expressions as "it is said," "I am +told," etc.: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Oni diras ke li estas riĉa</b>, <i>they say (one says) that he is rich.</i><br> +<b>Oni vidas ke ili estas amikoj</b>, <i>one sees that they are friends.</i><br> +<b>Mi opinias ke oni ŝatas lin</b>, <i>I think that people like him (that he is liked).</i><br> +<b>Oni diris al mi ke estas sablo en la dezerto</b>, <i>I was told (people said to me) that there is sand in the desert.</i><br> +<b>Oni opinias ke ŝi estas feliĉa</b>, <i>it is thought (one thinks) that she is happy.</i><br> +<b>Ĉu oni vidis nin en la ĝardeno?</b> <i>Were we seen (did people see us) in the garden?</i><br> +<b>Oni ŝatas agrablajn infanojn</b>, <i>people like agreeable children (agreeable children are liked).</i> +</p> + +<center>THE FUTURE TENSE.</center> + +<p> +<b>55.</b> The future tense of the verb expresses an act or state as +about to take place, or as one that will take place in future time. The +ending of this tense is <b>-os,</b> as <b>kuros,</b> <i>will run,</i> +<b>flugos,</b> <i>will fly,</i> <b>brilos,</b> <i>will shine.</i> The +conjugation of <b>esti</b> and also of <b>vidi</b> in the future tense +is as follows: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>mi estos</b>, <i>I shall be.</i><br> + <b>vi estos</b>, <i>you will be.</i><br> + <b>li (ŝi, ĝi) estos</b>, <i>he (she, it) will be.</i><br> + <b>ni estos</b>, <i>we shall be.</i><br> + <b>vi estos</b>, <i>you (plural) will be.</i><br> + <b>ili estos</b>, <i>they will be.</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>mi vidos</b>, <i>I shall see.</i><br> + <b>vi vidos</b>, <i>you will see.</i><br> + <b>li (ŝi, ĝi) vidos</b>, <i>he (she, it) will see.</i><br> + <b>ni vidos</b>, <i>we shall see.</i><br> + <b>vi vidos</b>, <i>you (plural) will see.</i><br> + <b>ili vidos</b>, <i>they will see.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- -----------------------------054.png---------------------------- --> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>aŭdi</b>, <i>to hear.</i><br> + <b>blovi</b>, <i>to blow.</i><br> + <b>greno</b>, <i>grain</i> (wheat, corn, etc.).<br> + <b>ke</b>, <i>that</i> (conjunction).<br> + <b>kontraŭ</b>, <i>against</i>.<br> + <b>montri</b>, <i>to show, to point out</i>.<br> + <b>norda</b>, <i>north, northern</i>.<br> + <b>nova</b>, <i>new</i>.<br> + <b>okcidenta</b>, <i>west, western</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>oni</b>, (see <b>54</b>).<br> + <b>opinii</b>, <i>to think, to opine</i>.<br> + <b>orienta</b>, <i>east, eastern</i>.<br> + <b>pluvo</b>, <i>rain</i>.<br> + <b>suda</b>, <i>south, southern</i>.<br> + <b>velki</b>, <i>to wilt, to wither</i>.<br> + <b>vento</b>, <i>wind</i>.<br> + <b>ventoflago</b>, <i>weathercock</i>.<br> + <b>vetero</b>, <i>weather</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- -----------------------------055.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>LA VENTOFLAGO.</b></center> + +<p> +Estis varma vetero, la suno brilis, kaj suda vento blovis. Tamen la nova +ventoflago sur la domo diris al si, "La sudan venton mi ne ŝatas. +Mi preferas orientan venton." La vento orienta aŭdis la diron +kaj ĝi venis kontraŭ la ventoflagon. Pluvis kaj pluvis, kaj +oni estis kolera kontraŭ la ventoflago, ĉar ĝi montras +orientan venton. Ĝi diris, "Pluvas nun, sed la greno en la kampoj +bezonos sekan veteron. Oni estos kolera kontraŭ mi, ĉar mi +montras orientan venton." La okcidenta vento aŭdis la ventoflagon, +kaj baldaŭ venis. Ĝi ne estis forta, sed ĝi estis seka +kaj agrabla vento, kaj ne portis pluvon. La viroj, virinoj, kaj junaj +infanoj volis trinki, sed ili ne havis akvon. La greno kaj la floroj +velkis, kaj la frukto ankaŭ falis. La nova ventoflago diris, "Oni +estos kolera kontraŭ mi, ĉar ne pluvas. Oni opinios ke, +ĉar mi montras okcidentan venton, la frukto falas, kaj la greno +kaj floroj velkas. Mi ŝatas montri nek okcidentan nek orientan +venton!" Norda vento aŭdis kaj venis al la ventoflago. La vetero +ne estis agrabla, kaj la virinoj kaj la junaj infanoj ne estis varmaj. +Neĝis, kaj oni estis kolera. Oni diris "La greno kaj la frukto +bezonas varman veteron, sed hodiaŭ neĝas. Ni preferas la +sudan venton. Ni havis ĝin, antaŭ la orienta, la okcidenta, +kaj la norda ventoj. La ventoflago ne estas fidela amiko al ni. Ĝi +ne montras bonajn ventojn, kaj ni volas rompi ĝin!" Oni kuris al +la domo, kaptis la novan ventoflagon, kaj ankaŭ rompis ĝin. +Ĝi falis, kaj kuŝis sur la vojo antaŭ la domo. +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. One can see that the weathercock points-out the winds. 2. They say +that the west wind will be a dry wind. 3. The weathercock now shows that +an agreeable south wind blows. 4. People will be angry with (against) +the weathercock, because it points-out a north wind. 5. A north wind is +not warm, and the grain and fruit will need a warm wind. 6. It snowed, +and the young children were not warm, because the north wind blew. 7. +People will like a south wind, but an east wind will carry rain. 8. +Can one find money in the desert? 9. Do you think (that) he is in the +house? 10. He is said to be (they say that he is) on the street. 11. +It is thought (people think) that the camel is a faithful friend. 12. +I am told (people tell me) that the camel has a large body, and a long +neck. 13. One can see that it is not beautiful. 14. People do not like +to drink warm water. 15. Nevertheless we shall drink warm water in the +city. 16. It was beautiful weather yesterday, but today we shall have +good weather also. 17. I think that a warm wind will blow soon. 18. My +friend has a beautiful new house. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XIII.</b></center> + +<center>THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN <b>TIU</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>56.</b> The demonstrative pronoun <b>tiu</b>, <i>that,</i> is used +to indicate a person or a definitely specified thing. The plural is +<b>tiuj</b>, <i>those:</i> +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------056.png---------------------------- --> + +<p> +<b>Tiu estas la via, kaj mi volas tiun</b>, <i>that is yours, and I wish that one.</i><br> +<b>Tiuj estos koleraj kontraŭ vi</b>, <i>those will be angry with you.</i><br> +<b>Li aŭdis tiujn</b>, <i>he heard those (persons, or things).</i> +</p> + +<p> +<b>57.</b> The demonstrative pronoun <b>tiu</b> is also used as a +<i>pronominal adjective</i>, in agreement with a noun: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Tiu vento estos varma</b>, <i>that wind will be warm.</i><br> +<b>Mi vidas tiun ventoflagon</b>, <i>I see that weathercock.</i><br> +<b>Tiuj infanoj estas junaj</b>, <i>those children are young.</i><br> +<b>Mi trovos tiujn librojn</b>, <i>I shall find those books.</i> +</p> + +<center>TENSES IN INDIRECT QUOTATIONS.</center> + +<p> +<b>58.</b> The verb in an indirect statement (53) or an indirect question +remains in the same tense in which it would be if the statement or +question were direct. (In English this is true only if the introductory +verb is present or future, since after an introductory past tense the +tense of the indirect quotation is changed, and <i>am, is, are, have, +will</i> become <i>was, were, had, would,</i> etc.) +</p> + +<table class="novmargins"> + <tr><td align="center"><b>Mi</b></td> <td align="center"><b>diras</b></td> <td align="center"><b>ke</b></td> <td align="center"><b>li</b></td> <td align="center"><b>estas</b></td> <td align="center"><b>bona</b></td> <td align="left" nowrap>, <i>I say that he is good.</i></td></tr> + <tr><td align="center"><b>"</b></td> <td align="center"><b>diris</b></td> <td align="center"><b>"</b></td> <td align="center"><b>"</b></td> <td align="center"><b>"</b></td> <td align="center"><b>"</b></td> <td align="left" nowrap>, <i>I said that he was good.</i></td></tr> + <tr><td align="center"><b>"</b></td> <td align="center"><b>diros</b></td> <td align="center"><b>"</b></td> <td align="center"><b>"</b></td> <td align="center"><b>"</b></td> <td align="center"><b>"</b></td> <td align="left" nowrap>, <i>I shall say that he is good.</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<table class="novmargins"> + <tr><td align="center"><b>Li</b></td> <td align="center"><b>miras</b></td> <td align="center"><b>ĉu</b></td> <td align="center"><b>mi</b></td> <td align="center"><b>aŭdas</b></td> <td align="left" nowrap>, <i>he wonders whether I hear.</i></td></tr> + <tr><td align="center"><b>"</b></td> <td align="center"><b>miris</b></td> <td align="center"><b>"</b></td> <td align="center"><b>"</b></td> <td align="center"><b>"</b></td> <td align="left" nowrap>, <i>he wondered whether I heard.</i></td></tr> + <tr><td align="center"><b>"</b></td> <td align="center"><b>miros</b></td> <td align="center"><b>"</b></td> <td align="center"><b>"</b></td> <td align="center"><b>"</b></td> <td align="left" nowrap>, <i>he will wonder whether I hear.</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<!-- The next two lines don't really need to be in tables, but it keeps the spacing consistent here --> + +<table class="novmargins"> + <tr><td nowrap><b>Mi opiniis ke ĝi estas bona</b>,</td><td nowrap><i>I thought that it was good</i> (I thought "<i>it is good</i>").</td></tr> +</table> + +<table class="novmargins"> + <tr><td nowrap><b>Oni miris ĉu li venos</b>,</td><td nowrap><i>they wondered whether he would come</i> (they wondered "<i>will he come?</i>").</td></tr> +</table> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +An indirect question is introduced by <b>ĉu</b>, whether, after +verbs meaning "ask," "wonder," "know," etc.: Mi miras ĉu li +venis, <i>I wonder whether he came.</i> Oni demandas ĉu li estas +riĉa, <i>people ask whether he is rich.</i> +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<!-- -----------------------------057.png---------------------------- --> + +<center>FORMATION OF FEMININE NOUNS.</center> + +<p> +<b>59.</b> Feminine nouns corresponding to distinctly masculine nouns +such as <b>frato</b>, <b>knabo</b>, <b>viro</b>, may be formed from +these by inserting the suffix <b>-in-</b> just before the noun-ending +<b>-o:</b> +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>fratino</b>, <i>sister</i> (from frato, <i>brother</i>).<br> + <b>knabino</b>, <i>girl</i> (from knabo, <i>boy</i>). + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>patrino</b>, <i>mother</i> (from patro, <i>father</i>).<br> + <b>virino</b>, <i>woman</i> (from viro, <i>man</i>). + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +<i>Cf.</i> English names similarly formed from masculine names, +as <i>Pauline, Josephine, Ernestine, Geraldine,</i> etc., also +German <i>Königin</i>, queen, from <i>König</i>, king; +<i>Löwin</i>, lioness, from <i>Löwe</i>, lion, etc. +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>almenaŭ</b>, <i>at least.</i><br> + <b>ĉapelo</b>, <i>hat.</i><br> + <b>ĉielo</b>, <i>sky, heaven.</i><br> + <b>filo</b>, <i>son.</i><br> + <b>konstrui</b>, <i>to build.</i><br> + <b>miri</b>, <i>to wonder.</i><br> + <b>morgaŭ</b>, <i>tomorrow.</i><br> + <b>nubo</b>, <i>cloud.</i><br> + <b>ombrelo</b>, <i>umbrella.</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>paroli</b>, <i>to talk, to speak.</i><br> + <b>parko</b>, <i>park.</i><br> + <b>preskaŭ</b>, <i>almost.</i><br> + <b>pri</b>, <i>concerning, about.</i><br> + <b>promeni</b>, <i>to take a walk.</i><br> + <b>super</b>, <i>above.</i><br> + <b>timi</b>, <i>to fear, to be afraid (of).</i><br> + <b>tiu</b>, <i>that (56).</i><br> + <b>zorga</b>, <i>careful.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + + +<!-- -----------------------------058.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>EN LA PARKO.</b></center> + +<p> +Miaj junaj amiko kaj amikino, kaj ankaŭ ilia patrino, iris +hieraŭ al la parko. La infanoj diris al la patrino ke la parko +estas agrabla, kaj ke ili volas promeni en ĝi. La knabino parolis +al sia frato pri la belaj floroj. Ŝi diris al li ke la floroj +velkas, kaj ke la herbo en preskaŭ la tuta parko bezonas pluvon. +La knabo diris hodiaŭ al mi ke hieraŭ li kaj lia fratino +aŭdis la birdojn en la arboj super siaj kapoj. Li diris ke li +miris pri tiuj birdoj, tamen li opinias ke la birdoj baldaŭ +konstruos siajn nestojn en tiuj arboj. La infanoj promenis, kaj +baldaŭ ili vidis ke grizaj nuboj venas sur la ĉielon, kaj +mia juna amikino timis ke pluvos. Ŝi parolis al la patrino pri la +nuboj kaj la pluvo, montris al ŝi la grizajn nubojn, kaj diris +ke si volas iri al la domo. Ili komencis marŝi al la strato, kaj +preskaŭ kuris, ĉar ili ne havis ombrelon. Tra la fenestroj +de la domoj oni rigardis ilin, kaj la knabo miris ĉu li kaj +liaj patrino kaj fratino amuzas tiujn virojn kaj virinojn. Tamen la +patrino diris ke ŝi ne timas ke ŝi amuzos tiujn, sed ke +ŝi timas la pluvon. Ŝi kaj la filino volas esti zorgaj pri +almenaŭ la novaj ĉapeloj. La filo diris al ŝi ke li +ankaŭ estas zorga, sed ke li opinias ke ne pluvos. Baldaŭ +la patro venis al ili, kaj portis ombrelojn, ĉar li ankaŭ +timis la pluvon. Li miris ĉu la infanoj kaj ilia patrino havas +ombrelojn. Baldaŭ pluvis, sed ili estis sekaj, ĉar ili havis +la ombrelojn. Morgaŭ ili ne promenos en la parko, sed iros al la +urbo. +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. The east wind is dry and the south wind will be too warm. 2. A +west wind blew against the weathercock, but the grain needed a south +wind. 3 A north wind is blowing and I think that it will soon snow. 4. +It (51) will be beautiful weather tomorrow, because a pleasant wind +is now blowing. 5. The flowers will wither because those children +gathered them. 6. They are talking about that park, but I do not wish to +take-a-walk, because there are clouds in (on) the sky. 7. At least we +shall take an umbrella, and my brother will hold it over our heads. 8. +My sister said "Mother and I are-afraid that it will rain." 9. My young +sister will be careful about that new umbrella. 10. I wonder whether +she will take-a-walk tomorrow. 11. That park is pleasant and the grass +is soft and green. 12. The birds are building their nests now, in those +branches above our heads. 13. The sky above us is blue, and a west wind +is beginning to blow. 14. I can see that weathercock, on that large +house near the park. 15. Mother says that my sister will have a new hat +tomorrow. 16. She will be careful of (about) that hat. 17. My father's +friend is very careful of his son. 18. One sees that he is not a strong +boy. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------059.png---------------------------- --> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XIV.</b></center> + +<center>THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN <b>ĈI TIU</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>60.</b> The demonstrative pronoun (and pronominal adjective) meaning +"this" is formed by using with <b>tiu</b> (56) the word <b>ĉi</b>, +which expresses the general idea of nearness or proximity. (Consequently +the literal meaning of <b>ĉi tiu</b> is <i>that one nearby</i>, +<i>that one here</i>.) The word <b>ĉi</b> may either precede or +follow the pronoun: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Ĉi tiu estas la mia</b>, <i>this is mine</i>.<br> +<b>Mi vidis ĉi tiun</b>, <i>I saw this one</i>.<br> +<b>Ĉu vi volas tiujn ĉi?</b> <i>Do you wish these?</i><br> +<b>Ĉi tiu knabino estas mia fratino</b>, <i>this girl is my sister</i>.<br> +<b>Mi vidis ĉi tiujn ĉapelojn</b>, <i>I saw these hats</i>.<br> +<b>Ĉi tiuj amikoj promenos</b>, <i>these friends will take a walk</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>61.</b> The words <b>tiu</b> and <b>ĉi tiu</b> may be used to +distinguish between persons or things <i>previously</i> mentioned and +<i>just</i> mentioned: +</p> + +<p class="leftjustified1"> +<b>Gertrude kaj Mario estas en la parko. Tiu rigardas la florojn, ĉi tiu kolektas ilin.</b><br> +<i>Gertrude and Mary are in the park. The former (that one) looks at the flowers, the latter (this one) gathers them.</i> +</p> + +<center>POSSESSIVE FORM OF THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN.</center> + +<p> +<b>62.</b> To express possession, the demonstrative pronouns <b>tiu</b> +and <b>ĉi tiu</b> have the special possessive or genitive forms +<b>ties</b>, <i>that one's</i>, and <b>ĉi ties</b>, <i>this +one's</i>. The use of <b>ties</b> and <b>ĉi ties</b> to mean +"the former" and "the latter" is similar to the use of <b>tiu</b> and +<b>ĉi tiu</b> shown in 61: +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------060.png---------------------------- --> + +<p> +<b>Mi iris al ties domo</b>, <i>I went to that one's house</i>.<br> +<b>Ĉi ties filoj estas junaj</b>, <i>this person's (this one's) sons are young</i>.<br> +<b>Mi ŝatas ties koloron, sed preferas ĉi tiun floron</b>, <i>I like that one's color, but prefer this flower</i>.<br> +<b>La patro kaj lia amiko parolas pri siaj domoj. Ties estas nova, sed ĉi ties ŝajnas bela</b>, <i>Father and his friend are talking about their houses. The former's is new, but the latter's seems beautiful</i>. +</p> + +<center>THE SUFFIX <b>-IL-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>63.</b> Names of instruments, tools or utensils may be formed by +adding the suffix <b>-il-</b> (followed by the ending <b>-o</b>) to +roots whose meaning permits: +</p> + +<p> +<b>flugilo</b>, <i>wing</i> (from <b>flugi</b>, <i>to fly</i>).<br> +<b>kaptilo</b>, <i>snare, trap</i> (from <b>kapti</b>, <i>to catch</i>).<br> +<b>kudrilo</b>, <i>needle</i> (from <b>kudri</b>, <i>to sew</i>).<br> +<b>montrilo</b>, <i>indicator, (clock) hand</i> (from <b>montri</b>, <i>to point out, show</i>).<br> +<b>tenilo</b>, <i>handle</i> (from <b>teni</b>, <i>to hold</i>). +</p> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +The root of a word is that part of it which contains the essential +meaning, and to which the verb endings <b>-i</b>, <b>-as</b>, +<b>-is</b>, <b>-os</b>, the noun ending <b>-o</b>, the adjective +ending <b>-a</b>, etc., are attached, when no suffix intervenes. Thus, +<b>vir-</b> is the root of <b>viro</b> and of <b>virino</b>; <b>kur-</b> +is the root of <b>kuri</b>, etc. +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<center>THE EXPRESSION OF MEANS OR INSTRUMENTALITY.</center> + +<p> +<b>64.</b> The means or instrumentality through which an act is +accomplished is expressed by use of the preposition <b>per</b>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Oni kudras per kudrilo</b>, <i>one sews by means of (with) a needle</i>.<br> +<b>La birdoj flugas per flugiloj</b>, <i>the birds fly by (with) wings</i>.<br> +<b>Li amuzas sin per tiuj bildoj</b>, <i>he amuses himself with (by) those pictures</i>.<br> +<b>Mi trovis ĝin per via helpo</b>, <i>I found it by (through) your help</i>. +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>buŝo</b>, <i>mouth</i>.<br> + <b>dekstra</b>, <i>right (not left)</i>.<br> + <b>ĉi</b> (see 60).<br> + <b>forko</b>, <i>fork</i>.<br> + <b>helpo</b>, <i>help</i>.<br> + <b>kafo</b>, <i>coffee</i>.<br> + <b>kulero</b>, <i>spoon</i>.<br> + <b>mano</b>, <i>hand</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>per</b>, <i>by means of</i> (64).<br> + <b>supo</b>, <i>soup</i>.<br> + <b>telero</b>, <i>plate</i>.<br> + <b>terpomo</b>, <i>potato</i>.<br> + <b>ties</b>, <i>that one's</i> (62).<br> + <b>tranĉi</b>, <i>to cut</i>.<br> + <b>tre</b>, <i>very, exceedingly</i>.<br> + <b>viando</b>, <i>meat</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- -----------------------------061.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>LA MANĜO.</b></center> + +<p> +Hieraŭ mi miris ĉu mi havos bonan manĝon en la domo de +mia amiko. Sed mi opiniis ke mi havos tre bonan manĝon, ĉar +mia amiko ŝatas doni bonajn manĝojn al siaj amikoj. Oni metis +tre bonan supon antaŭ mi, kaj mi manĝis tiun per granda +kulero. Post la supo mi havis viandon. Ĉi tiun mi tenis per forko, +kaj tranĉis per akra tranĉilo. La forko, tranĉilo kaj +kulero estas manĝiloj. Mi havis ne nur viandon, sed ankaŭ +novajn terpomojn. Mi tranĉis tiujn ĉi per la tranĉilo, +sed mi metis ilin en la buŝon per forko. Mi tenis la forkon en +la dekstra mano, kaj metis la tranĉilon trans mian teleron. Oni +bezonas akran tranĉilon, sed oni ne bezonas tre akran forkon. +Post la viando kaj la terpomoj, oni donis al mi freŝajn maturajn +ĉerizojn. Ili kuŝis sur granda telero, kaj havis belan +koloron. Ilia gusto estis ankaŭ bona. Mi preskaŭ ne diris +ke mi ankaŭ havis kafon. Mi parolos morgaŭ al mia amiko pri +lia kafo, kaj laŭdos ĝin. Post la manĝo, najbaro de mia +amiko venis en ĉi ties domon, kaj ili parolis al mi pri siaj novaj +domoj. Per la helpo de sia patro, mia amiko konstruos grandan domon. Lia +najbaro volas konstrui belan sed ne tre grandan domon. Ties nova domo +estos bela, sed mi opinias ke mi preferos ĉi ties domon. Mia amiko +volis doni almenaŭ kafon al sia najbaro, sed li diris ke li ne +volas trinki kafon. Tamen li volis persikon. Li tenis tiun en la mano, +kaj manĝis tiun. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------062.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. The birds have very strong wings on their bodies, but they do not +have hands. 2. They will build their nests, and sing about the young +birds. 3. Those children were talking to me yesterday about their cat. +4. They said that it likes to catch and eat sparrows. 5. Tomorrow it +will hide (itself) behind a tree, and will catch a young sparrow. 6. The +children will gather peaches in that-person's garden, and will put them +upon a plate. 7. They will shake the whole tree by means of a branch. 8. +The sweet fruit above them will fall upon the soft green grass. 9. The +children wondered whether the cherries were ripe. 10. They seem almost +ripe, and tomorrow the children will pick (gather) them, with the help +of their father. 11. It is said (54) that the grain in that-man's field +very [much] needs rain. 12. People also think that the flowers will +wither, for (because) it did not rain yesterday or today. 13. My careful +young friend will carry an umbrella in his hand tomorrow, because he +fears the rain. 14. He sees those gray clouds in (on) the sky. 15. He +holds the umbrella by its handle. 16. The weathercock is an indicator +concerning the weather. 17. One eats meat with a fork, and soup with a +spoon. 18. One holds the spoon in the right hand. 19. A knife is sharp, +but one does not need a sharp fork. 20. We shall have a very good meal, +and also very good coffee. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XV.</b></center> + +<center>THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVE.</center> + +<p> +<b>65.</b> The demonstrative adjective related to the demonstrative +pronoun <b>tiu</b> (56) is <b>tia</b>, <i>that kind of, that sort of, +such:</i> +</p> + +<p> +<b>Tia floro estas bela</b>, <i>that kind of a flower is beautiful.</i><br> +<b>Mi ŝatas tian viandon</b>, <i>I like that sort of meat.</i><br> +<b>Tiaj najbaroj estas agrablaj</b>, <i>such (that kind of) neighbors are pleasant.</i><br> +<b>Mi volas aŭdi tiajn birdojn</b>, <i>I wish to hear such birds.</i> +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------063.png---------------------------- --> + +<center>ADVERBS DEFINED AND CLASSIFIED.</center> + +<p> +<b>66.</b> An adverb is a word which modifies the meaning of a verb, +adjective, another adverb, or phrase. It may express manner, time, +degree, negation, etc. Adverbs are either primary, as "now," "almost," +or derived, as "glad-ly," "sweet-ly," The Esperanto primary adverbs +given in this and in preceding lessons may be classified as follows: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr><td nowrap colspan="2" align="center">(<i>a</i>) Temporal Adverbs (expressing time).</td></tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>baldaŭ</b>, <i>soon</i>.<br> + <b>hieraŭ</b>, <i>yesterday</i>.<br> + <b>hodiaŭ</b>, <i>today</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>morgaŭ</b>, <i>tomorrow</i>.<br> + <b>nun</b>, <i>now</i>.<br> + <b>tuj</b>, <i>immediately</i>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr><td nowrap colspan="2" align="center">(<i>b</i>) Adverbs of Degree.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>almenaŭ</b>, <i>at least</i>.<br> + <b>nur</b>, <i>merely</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>preskaŭ</b>, <i>almost</i>.<br> + <b>tre</b>, <i>very, much</i>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr><td nowrap colspan="2" align="center">(<i>c</i>) Adverbs Expressing Other Ideas.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + addition: <b>ankaŭ</b>, <i>also</i>.<br> + interrogation: <b>ĉu</b>, (<b>30</b>).<br> + proximity: <b>ĉi</b>, (<b>60</b>). + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + emphasis: <b>eĉ</b>, <i>even</i>.<br> + affirmation: <b>jes</b>, <i>yes</i>.<br> + negation: <b>ne</b>, <i>not, no</i>, (<b>27</b>). + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<p> +<b>a.</b> An adverb usually precedes, but may also follow, the word +or words which it modifies. It must be so placed as to leave no doubt +about which of two words or word-groups it is intended to modify. Thus, +<b>mi preskaŭ volis havi tiun</b> clearly means <i>I almost wished +to have that</i>; but <b>mi volis preskaŭ havi tiun</b> might +mean either "I <i>almost wished</i> to have that," or more probably +"I wished <i>almost to have</i> that." An example of permissible +variation in the position of adverbs is shown in questions to which +an affirmative answer is expected. Such questions may be put in the +form of a statement, followed by <b>ĉu ne</b> (instead of having +<b>ĉu</b> introduce the sentence, with <b>ne</b> in its normal +position): +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------064.png---------------------------- --> + +<p> +<b>Li venos, ĉu ne?</b> <i>He will come, will he not?</i><br> +<b>La vetero estas bela, ĉu ne?</b> <i>The weather is beautiful, is it not?</i><br> +<b>Vi aŭdis tiun diron, ĉu ne?</b> <i>You heard that remark, did you not?</i> +</p> + +<center>FORMATION OF OPPOSITES.</center> + +<p> +<b>67.</b> If the meaning of a word is such that it can have a direct +opposite, such opposite may be formed from it by use of the prefix +<b>mal-</b>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>malalta</b>, <i>low, short</i> (from <b>alta</b>, <i>high, tall</i>).<br> +<b>malamiko</b>, <i>enemy</i> (from <b>amiko</b>, <i>friend</i>).<br> +<b>maldekstra</b>, <i>left</i> (from <b>dekstra</b>, <i>right</i>).<br> +<b>malhelpi</b>, <i>to hinder</i> (from <b>helpi</b>, <i>to help</i>).<br> +<b>maljuna</b>, <i>aged, old</i> (from <b>juna</b>, <i>young</i>).<br> +<b>malnova</b>, <i>old, not new</i> (from <b>nova</b>, <i>new</i>). +</p> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +<i>Cf.</i> English <i>malcontent</i>, "discontented," <i>maladroit</i>, +"clumsy." +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>dum</b>, <i>during</i>.<br> + <b>eĉ</b>, <i>even</i>.<br> + <b>gardi</b>, <i>to guard</i>.<br> + <b>helpi</b>, <i>to help, to aid</i>.<br> + <b>honti</b>, <i>to be ashamed</i>.<br> + <b>kara</b>, <i>dear</i>.<br> + <b>kontenta</b>, <i>satisfied</i>.<br> + <b>kuraĝa</b>, <i>courageous</i>.<br> + <b>nokto</b>, <i>night</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>povi</b>, <i>to be able</i>.<br> + <b>preni</b>, <i>to take</i>.<br> + <b>propono</b>, <i>proposal</i>.<br> + <b>respondi</b>, <i>to answer</i>.<br> + <b>ruza</b>, <i>sly, cunning</i>.<br> + <b>ŝteli</b>, <i>to steal</i>.<br> + <b>tia</b>, <i>that kind of</i> (65).<br> + <b>tuj</b>, <i>immediately</i>.<br> + <b>voĉo</b>, <i>voice</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- -----------------------------065.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>LA RUZA JUNA VIRO.</b></center> + +<p> +Ruza juna viro kaj bona maljuna viro iris trans dezerton. Tiu havis +nigran ĉevalon, ĉi tiu havis blankan ĉevalon. "Vi gardos +niajn ĉevalojn dum la nokto, ĉu ne?" diris la juna viro per +dolĉa voĉo al sia amiko, "Ĉar dum la nokto oni ne povos +vidi mian nigran ĉevalon, sed malamikoj povos tuj vidi vian blankan +ĉevalon. Oni povos ŝteli tian ĉevalon, ĉar vi estas +maljuna kaj malforta, kaj ne povos malhelpi malamikojn." Tia propono +ne ŝajnis agrabla al la maljuna viro. Li ne estis kontenta, tamen +li ne volis perdi sian ĉevalon, ĉar li estis malriĉa. +Li diris al si ke li donos sian blankan ĉevalon al la juna viro, +kaj prenos ties nigran ĉevalon. Tuj li diris al ĉi tiu "Sed +per via helpo mi ne perdos mian ĉevalon: mi donos la mian al vi, +kaj prenos vian ĉevalon. La via estas malbela, sed ĝi estas +almenaŭ nigra; vi donos ĝin al mi, ĉu ne?" "Jes," +respondis la ruza juna viro, kaj li donis sian nigran ĉevalon al +tiu, kaj prenis la blankan ĉevalon. "Nun," diris la maljuna viro, +"Vi estas kuraĝa kaj forta, kaj vi gardos la ĉevalojn, ĉu +ne? Vi povos malhelpi malamikojn per tiu granda akra tranĉilo, kaj +oni ne povos ŝteli vian blankan ĉevalon." La ruza juna viro +ne hontis. Li respondis "Mia kara amiko, mi nun dormos, ĉar oni +ne ŝtelos blankan ĉevalon. Mi povos vidi tian ĉevalon +dum la nokto, kaj malhelpi malamikojn. Sed tiu ĉevalo via (<i>that +horse of yours</i>) havas la koloron de la nokto, kaj eĉ nun oni +povas ŝteli ĝin." La malkontenta maljuna viro diris per kolera +voĉo "Ĉu vi ne hontas pri tia propono?" Tamen la ruza juna +viro tuj komencis dormi, kaj la maljuna viro gardis la ĉevalojn dum +la tuta nokto. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------066.png---------------------------- --> + +<center> + <b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b><br> + (Words to be formed with the prefix mal- are italicised.) +</center> + +<p> +1. Does one eat potatoes and meat with a fork or a spoon? 2. One puts +soup into the mouth by means of a spoon. 3. One cuts fruit with a knife, +and puts the fruit upon a plate. 4. The coffee was <i>cold</i>, and I +was much <i>dissatisfied</i>. 5. My knife was <i>dull</i>, nevertheless +I almost immediately cut my (the) <i>left</i> hand. 6. I was ashamed, +but I think that the handle of that knife was very <i>short</i>. 7. +The grass is <i>wet</i> today, and I fear that we shall not be able +to take a walk, even in that <i>small</i> park. 8. I <i>dislike</i> +to go-walking upon the <i>hard</i> streets. 9. The courageous young +man and his <i>aged</i> friend talked about their <i>enemies</i>. 10. +They wished to be careful about their horses. 11. The young man was +very sly, and wished to sleep during the night. 12. He said that one +can steal a black horse during the <i>dark</i> night. 13. He said +that either (<i>aŭ</i>) he or the <i>old</i> man would guard the +horses. 14. The <i>old</i> man answered that he would give to him his +[own] white horse. 15. He took that one's black horse. 16. He was +ashamed, and was very angry at his <i>faithless</i> friend. 17. But he +<i>stayed-awake</i>, and guarded the horses. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XVI.</b></center> + +<center>THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADVERB OF PLACE.</center> + +<p> +<b>68.</b> The demonstrative adverbs of place related to the pronouns +<b>tiu</b> and <b>ĉi tiu</b> are <b>tie</b>, <i>there, in (at) that +place</i>, and <b>ĉi tie</b>, <i>here, in (at) this place</i>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>La telero estas tie</b>, <i>the plate is there (in that place)</i>.<br> +<b>La libroj kuŝas ĉi tie</b>, <i>the books lie here (in this place)</i>.<br> +<b>Mi trovis vin tie kaj lin tie ĉi</b>, <i>I found you there and him here.</i><br> +<b>Tie la vetero ŝajnas tre agrabla</b>, <i>there the weather seems very pleasant.</i> +</p> + +<p> +<b>69.</b> If the verb in the sentence expresses motion toward the place +indicated by <b>tie</b> or <b>ĉi tie</b>, the ending <b>-n</b> is +added to the adverb (46), forming <b>tien</b>, <i>thither, there</i>, +and <b>ĉi tien</b>, <i>hither, here</i>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Li iros tien</b>, <i>he will go there (thither)</i>.<br> +<b>Mi venis ĉi tien</b>, <i>I came here (hither)</i>.<br> +<b>Ni estis tie, kaj venis ĉi tien</b>, <i>we were there and came here +(hither)</i>. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------067.png---------------------------- --> + +<center>ACCOMPANIMENT.</center> + +<p> +<b>70.</b> Accompaniment or association is expressed by the preposition +<b>kun</b>, <i>with, along with</i>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>La viro venis kun sia amiko</b>, <i>the man came with his friend</i>.<br> +<b>Mi promenos kun vi</b>, <i>I shall go walking with you</i>.<br> +<b>La knabo kun tiu viro estas lia frato</b>, <i>the boy with that man is his brother</i>. +</p> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +<b>Kun</b> must not be confused with <b>per</b> (64), which expresses +instrumentality, although per may often be translated by English +"with." The English preposition "with" may be said to have three rather +clearly defined different meanings. In the linguistic history of this +word, the original meaning was "against," still shown in <i>fight +with, strive with, contend with, withstand</i>, etc. (<i>Cf.</i> +German <i>widerstreiten</i>, to strive with, <i>widerhalten</i>, to +resist, etc.) Gradually this word "with" usurped the meaning of the +original preposition "mid," expressing association or accompaniment +(<i>cf.</i> German <i>mit</i>, "with", which it crowded out of +the language except in one unimportant compound). The word "by" +was also encroaching upon "mid" from another direction, and so +"mid's" successor "with" came to be interchangeable with "by" in +expressing instrumentality. Thus, English "with" indicates opposition, +accompaniment, or instrumentality, for which three senses Esperanto has +the three prepositions <b>kontraŭ</b>, <b>kun</b>, and <b>per</b>, +respectively. +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<center>THE ADVERB <b>FOR</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>71.</b> The adverb <b>for</b>, <i>away</i>, may be used +independently, as <b>Li iris for de mi</b>, <i>he went away from me</i>, +but it is more frequently used as a prefix to give a sense of departure, +loss or somewhat forcible removal: +</p> + +<p> +<b>foriri</b>, <i>to go away, to depart</i>.<br> +<b>forkuri</b>, <i>to run away, to escape</i>.<br> +<b>forlasi</b>, <i>to leave alone, to abandon, to desert</i>.<br> +<b>formanĝi</b>, <i>to eat away, to eat up</i>.<br> +<b>forpreni</b>, <i>to take away, to remove</i>.<br> +<b>fortrinki</b>, <i>to drink away, to drink up</i>. +</p> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +<i>Cf</i>. the prefix <i>for-</i> in English "forfend," <i>to keep away, +to avert</i>, "forbid," <i>to exclude from, to command against</i>, +"forbear," <i>to refrain from</i>, etc. +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<!-- -----------------------------068.png---------------------------- --> + +<center>THE MEANING OF <b>POVI</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>72.</b> The verb <b>povi</b>, to be able, is used to translate +English <i>can</i>, which is defective, that is, does not occur in all +of the forms a verb may have: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Mi povas paroli</b>, <i>I am able to talk, I can talk.</i><br> +<b>Mi povis paroli</b>, <i>I was able to talk, I could talk.</i><br> +<b>Mi povos paroli</b>, <i>I shall be able to talk,</i> ———.<br> +<b>Mi volas povi paroli</b>, <i>I wish to be able to talk,</i> ———. +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>el</b>, <i>out of, out</i>.<br> + <b>ĉirkaŭ</b>, <i>around, roundabout</i>.<br> + <b>for</b>, <i>away</i> (71).<br> + <b>frua</b>, <i>early</i>.<br> + <b>glavo</b>, <i>sword</i>.<br> + <b>horo</b>, <i>hour</i>.<br> + <b>kun</b>, <i>with</i> (70).<br> + <b>lasi</b>, <i>to leave</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>peli</b>, <i>to drive, to chase</i>.<br> + <b>poŝo</b>, <i>pocket</i>.<br> + <b>rajdi</b>, <i>to ride</i>.<br> + <b>rapidi</b>, <i>to hasten</i>.<br> + <b>resti</b>, <i>to remain, to stay</i>.<br> + <b>saĝa</b>, <i>wise</i>.<br> + <b>tie</b>, <i>there</i> (68).<br> + <b>voki</b>, <i>to call</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- -----------------------------069.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>MALAMIKOJ EN LA DEZERTO.</b></center> + +<p> +Juna viro kaj lia saĝa patro volis iri trans la dezerton, kun siaj +amikoj. La amikoj estis fortaj, kaj la juna viro estis tre kuraĝa. +Ili restis en malgranda urbo dum la nokto, kaj forrajdis kun tiuj +amikoj. La patro kaj la filo opiniis ke la amikoj kun ili povos helpi +per siaj akraj glavoj. Ili opiniis ke ili povos forpeli la malamikojn. +Eĉ en la dezerto oni trovas malamikojn. Tiaj malamikoj forprenas +la monon de bonaj viroj. La juna viro estis kontenta, ĉar li +estis kun la amikoj. La maljuna viro estis kontenta ĉar li estis +kun sia filo. Baldaŭ la nokto venis. Estis tre malluma tie en la +dezerto, kaj ili preskaŭ ne povis vidi. Dum la fruaj horoj de la +nokto la patro aŭdis voĉojn, kaj preskaŭ tuj li vidis la +malamikojn. La ruzaj malbonaj viroj rapidis tien, kaj vokis la maljunan +viron. La malkuraĝaj amikoj de la patro kaj filo nek restis tie, +nek helpis forpeli la malamikojn. Ili tuj forkuris. La malamikoj staris +ĉirkaŭ la patro, kaj forpuŝis lin de lia ĉevalo. +La filo volis malhelpi ilin, sed li ne povis. Li povis nur resti kun +la patro, kaj gardi lin tie kontraŭ la glavoj de la malamikoj. +Baldaŭ la malamikoj komencis forpreni la monon el la poŝoj +de la saĝa maljuna viro. La kolera filo diris per maldolĉa +(<i>bitter</i>) voĉo "Ĉu vi ne hontas? Ĉu vi lasos al +ni nek la ĉevalojn nek nian monon?" Sed la malamikoj respondis +"Ne, ni lasos al vi nek la ĉevalojn nek la monon. Ni ne estas +malsaĝaj." Post tiu diro ili tuj forrapidis, kaj prenis kun si la +ĉevalojn. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------070.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. The foolish friends of the young man and his aged father did not +stay with them. 2. They did not help them with their swords, but ran +away at once (<i>tuj</i>), and were not ashamed. 3. The old man heard +disagreeable voices behind him, and soon he saw the enemy. 4. The enemy +called them, and hastened there (69). 5. Those sly bad men took the +money out of the pockets of the courageous young man. 6. They stood +around him, and also around his father. 7. The father and son could not +even guard their horses. 8. The enemy did not leave (to) these their +horses, but took both the horses and the money. 9. Soon the enemy rode +away, during the late hours of the night. 10. The father and son were +angry and dissatisfied. 11. They said "We fear and dislike such men." +12. The father said "By the help of our neighbors we can (<i>povos</i>) +find those bad men, and drive them away, out of the desert." 13. The son +replied, "Dear Father, such a proposal seems good, and I will help with +my long sharp sword. 14. But we are now in the desert, and the road to +the city is long. 15. We cannot ride thither, but we can walk thither. +16. Can you not hasten, with (<i>per</i>) my help?" 17. The wise old man +answered, "Yes, my son, with such help I can walk thither." +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XVII.</b></center> + +<center>THE DEMONSTRATIVE TEMPORAL ADVERB.</center> + +<p> +<b>73.</b> The demonstrative temporal adverb related to the +demonstrative pronoun <b>tiu</b> is <b>tiam</b>, <i>then, at that +time:</i> +</p> + +<p> +<b>Tiam li rajdos al la urbo</b>, <i>then he will ride to the city.</i><br> +<b>Nun ili estas saĝaj, sed tiam ili estis malsaĝaj</b>, <i>now they are wise, but at that time they were foolish.</i> +</p> + +<center>COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.</center> + +<p> +<b>74.</b> An adjective may have three degrees, <i>positive</i>, +<i>comparative</i> and <i>superlative.</i> English has various ways of +forming the comparative and superlative degrees (as by the suffixes +<i>-er, -est,</i> the adverbs <i>more, most,</i> and irregular methods +as in <i>good, better, best,</i> etc.). Esperanto has only one method, +using the adverbs <b>pli</b>, <i>more</i>, and <b>plej</b>, <i>most:</i> +</p> + +<center> + <table border="1" cellpadding="8"> + <tr><td nowrap align="center">Positive.</td><td nowrap align="center">Comparative.</td><td nowrap align="center">Superlative.</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap><b>bela</b>, <i>beautiful</i></td><td nowrap><b>pli bela</b>, <i>more beautiful</i></td><td nowrap><b>plej bela</b>, <i>most beautiful.</i></td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap><b>bona</b>, <i>good</i></td><td nowrap><b>pli bona</b>, <i>better</i></td><td nowrap><b>plej bona</b>, <i>best</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap><b>malbona</b>, <i>bad</i></td><td nowrap><b>pli malbona</b>, <i>worse</i></td><td nowrap><b>plej malbona</b>, <i>worst</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap><b>saĝa</b>, <i>wise</i></td><td nowrap><b>pli saĝa</b>, <i>wiser</i></td><td nowrap><b>plej saĝa</b>, <i>wisest</i>.</td></tr> + </table> +</center> + +<p> +<b>75.</b> The preposition <b>el</b> is used with words expressing the +group or class out of which a superlative is selected and mentioned: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Li estas la plej juna el tiuj</b>, <i>he is the youngest of (out of) those.</i><br> +<b>Vi estas la plej feliĉa el ni</b>, <i>you are the happiest of us.</i><br> +<b>Tiu estis la plej ruza el la viroj</b>, <i>that one was the craftiest of the men.</i> +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------071.png---------------------------- --> + +<center>MANNER AND CHARACTERISTIC.</center> + +<p> +<b>76.</b> The actions or feelings which accompany an act or state, or +the characteristic which permanently accompanies a person or thing, may +be expressed by a substantive with the preposition <b>kun</b>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Li prenis ĝin kun la plej granda zorgo</b>, <i>he took it with the greatest care</i>.<br> +<b>Mi aŭdis lin kun intereso kaj plezuro</b>, <i>I heard him with interest and pleasure</i>.<br> +<b>Ŝi estas virino kun bona gusto</b>, <i>she is a woman with (of) good taste</i>.<br> +<b>Mi havas ĉevalon kun forta korpo</b>, <i>I have a horse with a strong body</i>. +</p> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +Sometimes the manner of an action may be expressed by the instrument of +it, expressed by the preposition <b>per</b> with a substantive modified +by an adjective: <b>Li kantis per dolĉa voĉo</b>, <i>he sang +with (by means of) a sweet voice</i>. <b>Vi puŝis min per forta +mano</b>, <i>you pushed me with a strong hand</i>. +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<center><b>DIRI</b>, <b>PAROLI</b> AND <b>RAKONTI</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>77.</b> The verbs <b>diri</b>, <i>to say</i>, <b>paroli</b>, <i>to +talk, to speak</i>, and <b>rakonti</b>, <i>to relate</i>, having in +common the general idea of speech or expression, must not be confused in +use: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Mi diris al vi ke pluvas</b>, <i>I said to (told) you that it was raining</i>.<br> +<b>Mi diris ĝin al vi</b>, <i>I said it to you (I told you)</i>.<br> +<b>Mi parolis al vi pri ĝi</b>, <i>I talked (spoke) to you about it</i>.<br> +<b>Mi rakontis ĝin al vi</b>, <i>I related (told) it to you</i>. +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>ami</b>, <i>to love</i>.<br> + <b>ekster</b>, <i>outside (of)</i>.<br> + <b>Frederiko</b>, <i>Frederick</i>.<br> + <b>gratuli</b>, <i>to congratulate</i>.<br> + <b>intereso</b>, <i>interest</i>.<br> + <b>letero</b>, <i>letter</i>.<br> + <b>plej</b>, <i>most</i> (<b>74</b>).<br> + <b>plezuro</b>, <i>pleasure</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>pli</b>, <i>more</i> (<b>74</b>).<br> + <b>plumo</b>, <i>pen</i>.<br> + <b>rakonti</b>, <i>to relate</i> (<b>77</b>).<br> + <b>reĝo</b>, <i>king</i>.<br> + <b>servisto</b>, <i>servant</i>.<br> + <b>skribi</b>, <i>to write</i>.<br> + <b>tiam</b>, <i>then</i> (<b>73</b>).<br> + <b>zorgo</b>, <i>care</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- -----------------------------072.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>FREDERIKO GRANDA KAJ LA JUNA SERVISTO.</b></center> + +<p> +Hieraŭ mi legis interesan libron pri Frederiko Granda (<i>the +Great</i>). En ĝi oni rakontas ke la reĝo kun plezuro legis +aŭ skribis per sia plumo, dum malfruaj horoj de la nokto. Agrabla +juna knabo, la plej juna el la servistoj, tiam restis ekster la pordo. +Ĉar la reĝo legis plej interesan novan libron, li ne opiniis +ke la horo estas malfrua. Li vokis sian malgrandan serviston, sed la +knabo, nek venis nek respondis. La reĝo iris tien, kaj trovis +la knabon ekster la pordo. Li vidis ke la knabo dormas sur malalta +seĝo. Tiam Frederiko Granda ne estis kolera, sed hontis ĉar li +vokis la infanon. La reĝo Frederiko vidis leteron en la poŝo +de la knabo. Tuj li prenis la leteron el lia poŝo, kaj rigardis +ĝin. Ĝi estis letero al la servisto, de lia patrino. Ŝi ne +estis riĉa virino, ŝi ŝajnis esti tre malriĉa. En +ĉi tiu letero la patrino diris per la plumo ke ŝi amas la +filon. Ŝi dankis lin ĉar li skribis al ŝi longan leteron. +Ŝi ankaŭ dankis lin ĉar li donis al ŝi monon. La +reĝo volis esti tre bona al tia filo. Kun la plej granda zorgo li +metis monon el sia poŝo kun la letero kaj tiam lasis la leteron en +ties poŝo. Tiam li formarŝis al sia ĉambro, kaj vokis la +malgrandan serviston. La knabo tuj aŭdis, kaj rapidis tra la pordo. +Li kuris trans la ĉambron, kaj staris antaŭ la reĝo. "Ĉu +vi dormis?" diris Frederiko Granda. "Jes, mi timas ke mi preskaŭ +dormis," respondis la knabo, "kaj mi tre hontas." Tiam li metis la manon +en la poŝon, kaj trovis la monon. Li ŝajnis pli malfeliĉa +kaj diris kun granda timo "Malamiko metis ĉi tiun monon en mian +poŝon! Oni opinios ke mi ŝtelis ĝin! Oni malamos min, +kaj forpelos min!" Frederiko respondis, "Ne, mi donis ĝin al vi, +ĉar mi amas bonajn knabojn. Mi gratulas vian patrinon, ĉar +ŝi havas tian filon." +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------073.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. An interesting story is related (54) about Frederick the Great. 2. +His youngest servant stayed outside of the door. 3. The king called him, +and he hastened thither and stood before him. 4. Yesterday he did not +hear the king. 5. The king called him, but he did not answer. 6. The +king thought that the boy had gone away with the older servants, and he +was angry. 7. He left his book on the table, and went to the door. 8. +Then he saw that the little boy was sleeping there. 9. He looked at him +with greater interest, and saw a letter in his pocket. 10. The letter +was from the boy's mother. 11. He had written a letter to her, with his +pen, and had given (to) her money, because she was poor. 12. He wrote +longer letters with pleasure, because he was a most faithful son. 13. +The king congratulated the mother of the boy, concerning such a son. 14. +(The) king Frederick wished to be kinder (<i>pli bona</i>) to the boy. +15. He placed his book upon the table, near his sword, and talked to the +little servant. 16. Then the older servants came, and stood around the +king. 17. They walked with great care, and the younger servant did not +hear them. 18. They loved the little boy, and wished to help him. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XVIII.</b></center> + +<center>THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADVERB OF MOTIVE OR REASON.</center> + +<p> +<b>78.</b> The demonstrative adverb of motive or reason, related to the +demonstrative pronoun <b>tiu</b>, is <b>tial</b>, <i>therefore</i>, +<i>for that reason</i>, <i>so</i>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Tial la servisto foriris</b>, <i>therefore the servant went away</i>.<br> +<b>Tial mi gratulis lin</b>, <i>for that reason I congratulated him</i>.<br> +<b>Tial oni forpelis lin</b>, <i>so they drove him away</i>. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------074.png---------------------------- --> + +<center>DERIVATION OF ADVERBS.</center> + +<p> +<b>79.</b> Adverbs may be derived from roots whose meaning permits, +by addition of the adverb-ending <b>-e</b>, as <b>feliĉe</b>, +<i>happily</i>, <b>kolere</b>, <i>angrily</i>. The comparison of adverbs +is similar to that of adjectives: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="1" cellpadding="8"> + <tr><td nowrap align="center">Positive.</td><td nowrap align="center">Comparative.</td><td nowrap align="center">Superlative.</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap><b>saĝe</b>, <i>wisely</i></td><td nowrap><b>pli saĝe</b>, <i>more wisely</i></td><td nowrap><b>plej saĝe</b>, <i>most wisely</i></td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap><b>bone</b>, <i>well</i></td><td nowrap><b>pli bone</b>, <i>better</i></td><td nowrap><b>plej bone</b>, <i>best</i></td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap><b>malbone</b>, <i>badly</i></td><td nowrap><b>pli malbone</b>, <i>worse</i></td><td nowrap><b>plej malbone</b>, <i>worst</i></td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap><b>ruze</b>, <i>slyly</i></td><td nowrap><b>pli ruze</b>, <i>more slyly</i></td><td nowrap><b>plej ruze</b>, <i>most slyly</i></td></tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center><b>MALPLI</b> AND <b>MALPLEJ</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>80.</b> The opposites (67) of <b>pli</b> and <b>plej</b> are +<b>malpli</b>, <i>less</i>, and <b>malplej</b>, <i>least</i>. Their use +is similar to that of <b>pli</b> and <b>plej</b>. (These adverbs may +also modify verbs): +</p> + +<p> +<b>Li estas malpli kuraĝa</b>, <i>he is less courageous</i>.<br> +<b>Tiuj estis malplej akraj</b>, <i>those were least sharp</i>.<br> +<b>La vento blovis malpli forte</b>, <i>the wind blew less strongly</i>.<br> +<b>Li skribis malplej zorge</b>, <i>he wrote least carefully</i>.<br> +<b>Mi malpli timas ilin</b>, <i>I fear them less</i>.<br> +<b>Vi malplej bezonos helpon</b>, <i>you will need help least</i>. +</p> + +<center>COMPARISON OF WORDS EXPRESSING QUANTITY.</center> + +<p> +<b>81.</b> Since in their precise sense the words <b>pli</b>, +<b>malpli</b>, <b>plej</b>, <b>malplej</b>, express <i>degree</i>, a +<i>quantitative</i> meaning is given by <b>multe</b>, <i>much</i>, in +the desired degree of comparison: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="1" cellpadding="8"> + <tr><td nowrap>multe, much</td><td nowrap>pli multe, more (in amount)</td><td nowrap>plej multe, most</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap> </td><td nowrap>malpli multe, less "</td><td nowrap>malplej multe, least</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap>malmulte, little</td><td nowrap>pli malmulte, less "</td><td nowrap>plej malmulte, least</td></tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- -----------------------------075.png---------------------------- --> + +<center>COMPARISONS CONTAINING <b>OL</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>82.</b> In a comparison made by the use of <b>pli</b> or +<b>malpli</b>, the case used after <b>ol</b>, <i>than</i>, must indicate +clearly the sense intended: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Mi amas ilin pli multe ol ŝin</b>, <i>I love them more than</i> (I love) <i>her</i>.<br> +<b>Mi amas ilin pli multe ol ŝi</b>, <i>I love them more than she</i> (loves them).<br> +<b>Vi helpis la viron malpli multe ol la knabo</b>, <i>you helped the man less than the boy</i> (helped him).<br> +<b>Vi helpis la viron malpli multe ol la knabon</b>, <i>you helped the man less than</i> (you helped) <i>the boy</i>. +</p> + +<center>CAUSAL CLAUSES.</center> + +<p> +<b>83.</b> A clause giving a cause or reason is introduced by +<b>ĉar</b>, <i>because, for</i>, or by the combination <b>tial +ke</b>, <i>for this reason that, because, for</i>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Mi venis frue, ĉar mi volis vidi vin</b>, <i>I came early, for I wished to see you</i>.<br> +<b>La floroj velkis tial, ke ne pluvis</b>, <i>the flowers wilted for this reason, that it did not rain</i>. +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>anstataŭ</b>, <i>instead of</i>.<br> + <b>aprilo</b>, <i>April</i>.<br> + <b>aŭgusto</b>, <i>August</i>.<br> + <b>jaro</b>, <i>year</i>.<br> + <b>junio</b>, <i>June</i>.<br> + <b>julio</b>, <i>July</i>.<br> + <b>majo</b>, <i>May</i>.<br> + <b>marto</b>, <i>March</i>.<br> + <b>monato</b>, <i>month</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>multa</b>, <i>much</i> (<b>multaj</b>, <i>many</i>).<br> + <b>ofta</b>, <i>frequent</i> (<b>ofte</b>, <i>often</i>).<br> + <b>ol</b>, <i>than</i> (<b>82</b>).<br> + <b>printempo</b>, <i>spring</i> (season).<br> + <b>tago</b>, <i>day</i>.<br> + <b>sezono</b>, <i>season</i>.<br> + <b>somero</b>, <i>summer</i>.<br> + <b>tial</b>, <i>therefore</i> (<b>78</b>).<br> + <b>vintro</b>, <i>winter</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- -----------------------------076.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>PRI LA SEZONOJ.</b></center> + +<p> +La vintro estas la malplej agrabla sezono el la tuta jaro. Neĝas +tre multe, kaj tial oni nur malofte promenas, ĉar la stratoj +estas tro malsekaj. Oni marŝas kun granda zorgo, kaj malrapide +(<i>slowly</i>), tial ke oni ne volas fali kaj preskaŭ rompi la +kolon. Oni zorge gardas sin tiam kontraŭ la malvarmaj nordaj +ventoj. La manojn oni metas en la poŝojn, sed la vizaĝon oni +ne povas bone gardi. Mi ne ŝatas resti ekster la domo dum tia +vetero. Mi multe preferas sidi en varma luma ĉambro, kaj skribi +leterojn per bona plumo. La monatoj de la printempo estas marto, aprilo +kaj majo. La bela printempo ŝajnas pli agrabla ol la vintro. +Ĝiaj tagoj estas pli longaj kaj pli varmaj, ĝiaj ventoj blovas +malpli forte. En ĉi tiu sezono la kampoj kaj arboj frue komencas +montri plej belajn kolorojn. La birdoj konstruas siajn nestojn, kaj +dolĉe kantas. Oni povas promeni sur la mola herbo, anstataŭ +sur malsekaj malagrablaj stratoj. Pluvas pli multe en aprilo, tamen +post la pluvo la herbo ŝajnas pli verda, kaj la nuboj baldaŭ +forflugas de la blua ĉielo. Dum majo oni trovas violojn, kaj en +junio oni vidas tre multajn rozojn. Sed la plej agrabla el la sezonoj +estas la somero. Anstataŭ malvarmaj ventoj la somero havas la plej +belan veteron, kun suda aŭ okcidenta ventoj. La longaj tagoj estas +varmaj, sed la noktoj estas tute agrablaj. Tiam oni havas pli bonajn +fruktojn ol dum la printempo. La monatoj de la somero estas junio, julio +kaj aŭgusto. Mi plej ŝatas junion. Ĉu vi ŝatas ĝin +pli multe ol mi? Ĉu vi ŝatas aŭguston pli multe ol +julion? +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------077.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. I read a most interesting book about Frederick the Great. 2. It +relates that he often stayed-awake and read with great interest during +the later hours of the night. 3. His youngest servant was a small boy. +4. The king loved this boy more than [he loved] the older servants. 5. +The winter is a less pleasant season than the spring, but the summer is +more pleasant than that [season]. 6. During March the east winds blow +most strongly, and shake the trees very much. 7. In April one needs his +umbrella, for (the reason that) there are often clouds in the sky and +it rains a great deal (very much). 8. The streets are very wet, but the +water does not seem to wash them. 9. In May one begins to find sweet +violets, and the birds in the trees above our heads sing very sweetly. +10. In June the most beautiful roses are seen (54). 11. July and August +are the warmest months of the whole year. 12. The days are longer than +the nights, and the weathercock shows west and south winds, instead of +those disagreeable north and east winds. 13. One stays outside [of] the +house then with greater pleasure, and goes walking in the parks. 14. +I think that I like the summer better than you [do]. 15. Therefore I +praise the summer more than you [do]. 16. However, I praise you more +than [I praise] your younger brother. 17. He is less wise than you. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XIX.</b></center> + +<center><b>JU</b> AND <b>DES</b> IN COMPARISONS.</center> + +<p> +<b>84.</b> In clauses expressing a comparison between two objects, acts +or states, the adverbial use of English "the ... the ..." (meaning "by +how much ... by that much ...") is rendered by the adverbs <b>ju</b> and +<b>des</b>, respectively: +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------078.png---------------------------- --> + +<p> +<b>Ju pli bona li estas, des pli feliĉa li estos</b>, <i>the better he is, the happier he will be.</i><br> +<b>Ju pli ofte mi rigardas, des pli mi volas rigardi</b>, <i>the oftener I look, the more I wish to look.</i><br> +<b>Ju pli bele la luno brilas, des pli oni ŝatas la nokton</b>, <i>the more beautifully the moon shines, the more one likes the night.</i><br> +<b>Ju malpli pluvas, des pli la floroj velkas</b>, <i>the less it rains, the more the flowers wither.</i><br> +<b>Ju malpli multe vi helpas, des malpli multe mi laŭdos vin</b>, <i>the less you help, the less I shall praise you.</i><br> +<b>Ĉar vi helpis, mi des pli multe laŭdos vin</b>, <i>because you helped, I shall praise you the (that much) more.</i> +</p> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +<i>Cf.</i> Shakespeare, As You Like It, V, II, 49, <i>By so much the more +shall I tomorrow be at the height of heart-heaviness, by how much I +shall think my brother happy in having what he wishes for.</i> +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<center>THE PREPOSITION <b>INTER</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>85.</b> In English, the preposition "between" is used in reference +to two persons or things, and "among" in reference to three or more. As +the difference in meaning is not essential, Esperanto has but the one +preposition inter to express both <i>between</i> and <i>among:</i> +</p> + +<p> +<b>Li sidas inter vi kaj mi</b>, <i>he is sitting between you and me.</i><br> +<b>Li sidas inter siaj amikoj</b>, <i>he is sitting among his friends.</i><br> +<b>La monato majo estas inter aprilo kaj junio</b>, <i>the month of May is between April and June.</i><br> +<b>Inter tiuj libroj estas tre interesa libro</b>, <i>among those books there is a very interesting book.</i> +</p> + +<center>THE PREPOSITION <b>PRO</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>86.</b> Cause or reason may be expressed not only by an adverb +(78) or a clause (83), but also by use of the preposition <b>pro</b>, +<i>because of, on account of, for the sake of, for</i>. It directs the +thought away from the complement toward the action, feeling or state +caused by it, or done in its interest or behalf: +</p> + +<p> +<b>La floroj velkas pro la seka vetero</b>, <i>the flowers wilt because of the dry weather.</i><br> +<b>Mi skribis la leteron pro vi</b>, <i>I wrote the letter for you (for your sake).</i><br> +<b>Pro tiuj nuboj mi timas ke pluvos</b>, <i>on account of those clouds I fear that it will rain.</i><br> +<b>Oni ŝatas ĉerizojn pro la dolĉa gusto</b>, <i>people like cherries because of the sweet taste.</i> +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------079.png---------------------------- --> + +<center>PREPOSITIONS WITH ADVERBS AND OTHER PREPOSITIONS.</center> + +<p> +<b>87.</b> Prepositions may be used with adverbs or with prepositional +phrases when the meaning permits: +</p> + +<p> +<b>La kato kuris el sub la tablo</b>, <i>the cat ran out-from under the table</i>.<br> +<b>Li venos el tie</b>, <i>he will come out of there</i>.<br> +<b>De nun li estos zorga</b>, <i>from now he will be careful</i>.<br> +<b>Li staris dekstre de la vojo</b>, <i>he stood on the right of the road</i>.<br> +<b>Mi iros for de ĉi tie</b>, <i>I shall go away from here</i>. +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>aŭtuno</b>, <i>autumn, fall</i>.<br> + <b>decembro</b>, <i>December</i>.<br> + <b>des</b>, (see <b>84</b>).<br> + <b>februaro</b>, <i>February</i>.<br> + <b>glacio</b>, <i>ice</i>.<br> + <b>inter</b>, <i>between, among</i> (<b>85</b>).<br> + <b>januaro</b>, <i>January</i>.<br> + <b>ju</b>, (see <b>84</b>).<br> + <b>kovri</b>, <i>to cover</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>neĝo</b>, <i>snow</i>.<br> + <b>novembro</b>, <i>November</i>.<br> + <b>nuda</b>, <i>bare, naked</i>.<br> + <b>oktobro</b>, <i>October</i>.<br> + <b>pro</b>, <i>because of</i> (<b>86</b>).<br> + <b>rikolti</b>, <i>to harvest</i>.<br> + <b>rivero</b>, <i>river</i>.<br> + <b>septembro</b>, <i>September</i>.<br> + <b>tero</b>, <i>ground, earth</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- -----------------------------080.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>LA AŬTUNO KAJ LA VINTRO.</b></center> + +<p> +La sezonoj de la jaro estas la vintro, la printempo, la somero, kaj +la aŭtuno. La aŭtuno estas inter la somero kaj la vintro. +Ĝiaj monatoj estas septembro, oktobro kaj novembro. En septembro +oni povas kolekti maturajn fruktojn. Tiam ankaŭ oni rikoltas la +flavan grenon de la kampoj. Dum ĉi tiu monato kaj dum oktobro +la folioj sur la branĉoj komencas esti ruĝaj kaj flavaj, +anstataŭ verdaj. La herbo velkas, kaj bruna tapiŝo ŝajnas +kovri la teron. Baldaŭ la folioj falas al la tero, kaj en novembro +la arboj estas tute nudaj. Pli aŭ malpli frue neĝas. La glacio +ofte kovras la akvon en la riveroj, kaj restas sur la stratoj kaj la +vojoj. La mola blanka neĝo kovras la teron, kaj kuŝas sur la +branĉoj de la arboj. Tiam, pro la fortaj ventoj, ĝi falas +de la branĉoj al la tero. La birdoj frue lasas tian veteron, kaj +flugas de ĉi tie al pli sudaj kampoj kaj arboj. Ili ne povas resti, +pro la malvarmaj tagoj kaj noktoj. Ili malŝatas la neĝon kaj +la glacion pli multe ol ni. Ju pli multe neĝas; des pli malofte +ni volas promeni. Ni preferas resti en la domo, anstataŭ ekster +ĝi. Ju pli ni rigardas la nudajn branĉojn de la arboj, des pli +malagrabla ŝajnas la vintro. Tamen la junaj infanoj tre ŝatas +tian veteron, kaj ju pli neĝas, kaj ju pli forte la norda vento +blovas, des malpli ili estas kontentaj en la domo. Ili volas kuri sur +la neĝo, ĉirkaŭ la arboj kaj inter ili, kun siaj junaj +amikoj. Ili povas bone amuzi sin per la neĝo. La monatoj de la +vintro estas decembro, januaro kaj februaro. Ĝi estas la plej +malvarma sezono. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------081.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. September, October and November are the months of autumn. 2. In these +months, people harvest the yellow grain and gather various fruits. 3. +The leaves on the trees around us begin to have red and yellow colors. +4. They begin to fall from the branches and lie upon the ground. 5. The +more strongly the cold north wind blows through the branches, the sooner +the leaves fall from there. 6. They lie under the bare trees, with the +brown grass. 7. The sooner it snows, the sooner the ground will seem to +have a white carpet. 8. The snow will completely (<i>tute</i>) cover the +grass during the months of the winter. 9. These months are December, +January and February. 10. From that time (<i>de tiam</i>) the ice and +snow will cover the roads, and altogether (<i>tute</i>) hide them. 11. +There will often be ice on the water of the river. 12. We like this +season of the year more than March, April and May. 13. We like it even +more than the summer. 14. The months of the latter (62) are June, July +and August. 15. The summer is the warmest season of the entire year. +16. Therefore we often say that the summer is the pleasantest season. +17. Because of its many pleasures, the summer is dear to me. 18. It is +between the spring and the autumn. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XX.</b></center> + +<center>THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADVERB OF MANNER AND DEGREE.</center> + +<p> +<b>88.</b> The demonstrative adverb of manner and degree, related +to the demonstrative pronoun <b>tiu</b>, is <b>tiel</b>, <i>in that +(this) manner, in such a way, thus, so</i>. Like English "thus," "so," +<b>tiel</b> may modify adjectives and other adverbs, by indicating +degree: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Ĉu oni tiel helpas amikon?</b> <i>Does one help a friend in that (this) way?</i><br> +<b>Mi ĝin skribis tiel</b>, <i>I wrote it thus (in such a way).</i><br> +<b>La vetero estas tiel bela</b>, <i>the weather is so beautiful.</i><br> +<b>Tiel mallonge li parolis</b>, <i>thus briefly he spoke.</i><br> +<b>Mi trovis tiel belan floron</b>, <i>I found such a beautiful flower.</i><br> +<b>Li prenis tiel multe</b>, <i>he took that much (so much).</i> +</p> + +<center>PREPOSITIONS EXPRESSING TIME-RELATIONS.</center> + +<p> +<b>89.</b> The relations which prepositions express may be of various +kinds. As in English, a certain number of prepositions primarily +expressing place may also express time-relations. Such prepositions +are <b>antaŭ</b>, <b>ĉirkaŭ</b>, <b>de</b>, <b>en</b>, +<b>ĝis</b>, <b>inter</b>, <b>post</b>, and <b>je</b> (whose use in +other than time-relations will be explained later): +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------082.png---------------------------- --> + +<p> +<b>Mi foriros ĉirkaŭ junio</b>, <i>I shall depart about June.</i><br> +<b>De tiu horo mi estis via amiko</b>, <i>from that hour I was your friend.</i><br> +<b>Li ne parolis al mi de tiu semajno</b>, <i>he did not speak to me since from) that week.</i><br> +<b>En la tuta monato ne neĝis</b>, <i>it did not snow in (at any time within) the entire month.</i><br> +<b>Mi dormis ĝis malfrua horo</b>, <i>I slept until (up to) a late hour.</i><br> +<b>Ĝis nun li ne vidis vin</b>, <i>until now he did not see you.</i><br> +<b>Inter marto kaj junio mi iros tien</b>, <i>between March and June I shall go there.</i><br> +<b>Je malfrua horo li foriris</b>, <i>at a late hour he went away.</i><br> +<b>Mi iros tien je dimanĉo</b>, <i>I shall go there on Sunday.</i><br> +<b>Je tiu horo li vokis min</b>, <i>at that hour he called me.</i><br> +<b>Ŝi ne restis tie post julio</b>, <i>she did not stay there after July.</i><br> +<b>Post ne longe mi vokos vin</b>, <i>soon (after not long) I shall call you.</i> +</p> + +<p> +<b>90.</b> When a definite date or point in time is expressed, +<b>antaŭ</b> means "before." When used with an expression of an +<i>amount</i> of time, it is to be translated by "ago" following the +expression (not by "before" preceding it): +</p> + +<p> +<b>Antaŭ dimanĉo mi foriros</b>, <i>before Sunday I shall go away.</i><br> +<b>Mi vidis lin antaŭ tiu horo</b>, <i>I saw him before that hour.</i><br> +<b>Li skribos ĝin antaŭ la nova jaro</b>, <i>he will write it before New Year.</i><br> +<b>Antaŭ multaj jaroj mi trovis ĝin</b>, <i>many years ago I found it.</i><br> +<b>Mi rompis ĝin antaŭ longa tempo</b>, <i>I broke it a long time ago.</i><br> +<b>Antaŭ tre longe vi legis tiun libron</b>, <i>you read that book very long ago.</i><br> +<b>Li venis antaŭ ne longe</b>, <i>he came recently (not long ago).</i><br> +<b>Antaŭ malmultaj jaroj li forkuris</b>, <i>a few years ago he escaped.</i> +</p> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +As already shown, <b>kun</b> expresses accompaniment, <b>per</b> +expresses instrumentality, <b>pro</b> expresses cause, +<b>kontraŭ</b> expresses opposition, <b>anstataŭ</b> expresses +substitution, <b>sur</b>, <b>apud</b>, <b>sub</b>, etc., express place, +<b>dum</b> expresses time, etc. +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>dimanĉo</b>, <i>Sunday.</i><br> + <b>energia</b>, <i>energetic.</i><br> + <b>frosto</b>, <i>frost.</i><br> + <b>je</b>, <i>at, on</i> (89).<br> + <b>kota</b>, <i>muddy.</i><br> + <b>labori</b>, <i>to work, to labor</i>.<br> + <b>laca</b>, <i>tired, weary.</i><br> + <b>lundo</b>, <i>Monday.</i><br> + <b>mardo</b>, <i>Tuesday.</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>mateno</b>, <i>morning.</i><br> + <b>promeno</b>, <i>walk, promenade.</i><br> + <b>rakonto</b>, <i>story, narrative.</i><br> + <b>ripozi</b>, <i>to rest, to repose.</i><br> + <b>semajno</b>, <i>week.</i><br> + <b>tempo</b>, time.<br> + <b>tiel</b>, <i>thus, so</i> (88)<br> + <b>tro</b>, <i>too, too much.</i><br> + <b>vespero</b>, <i>evening.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- -----------------------------083.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>EN SEPTEMBRO.</b></center> + +<p> +Antaŭ multaj jaroj ni preferis resti en nia malgranda domo trans +la rivero, dum la tuta aŭtuno. Sed nun ni restas tie nur ĝis +oktobro. De aŭgusto ĝis oktobro la vetero estas tre agrabla +tie, sed baldaŭ post tiu monato la fortaj ventoj blovas, kaj +la folioj komencas fali. La frosto kovras la teron, kaj baldaŭ +neĝas tre ofte. Ju pli nudaj estas la arboj, des pli malbelaj ili +ŝajnas. La vetero antaŭ novembro ne estas tro malvarma, sed +post tiu monato ni opinias ke la urbo estas pli agrabla ol domo inter +kampoj kaj arboj, trans larĝa rivero. La frosto, neĝo kaj +glacio kovras la teron en decembro, januaro kaj februaro. Sed la monato +septembro ŝajnas tre agrabla, pro siaj multaj plezuroj. La viroj +laboras energie en la kampoj, de la mateno ĝis la vespero. Ili +rikoltas la flavan grenon, kaj kolektas la fruktojn. Sed je dimanĉo +oni ne laboras tiel energie, sed dormas ĝis malfrua horo, tial ke +je tiu tago oni ripozas. Je lundo oni komencas labori tre frue, kaj je +mardo oni ankaŭ laboras energie. En septembro la vojoj ne estas +tro kotaj, kaj longaj promenoj estas ofte agrablaj. Ju pli ofte mi +promenas kun miaj amikoj, des pli multe mi ŝatas tiajn promenojn. +Sed hieraŭ mi estis tre laca post la promeno, tial mi ripozis sur +granda mola seĝo. Antaŭ ne longe la patro promenis kun mi, +sed ni ne estis tiel lacaj je tiu tago. Ŝajnas ke ju pli ofte ni +promenas, des malpli lacaj ni estas post la promenoj. Post ne longe mi +estos pli forta. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------084.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. Many years ago we had a small house across the river. 2. We did not +remain there during the entire year, but only in the warmer months of +the summer. 3. Often we stayed until September or even until October. 4. +My younger brothers and sisters amused themselves very well there from +(the) morning until (the) evening. 5. They amused themselves among the +flowers and trees, or went from there into the large fields. 6. Here the +men work energetically, and harvest the ripe yellow grain. 7. Only on +Sunday do they rest, because on that day one does not work. 8. Between +August and November the men work more than in the winter. 9. In December +and after that month they rest, for (83) from that time the frost, ice +and snow cover the ground. 10. Because of the snow on the ground, long +walks are not pleasant in the winter. 11. Recently (90) we went walking +in the park across the river, but we were so tired after that walk! 12. +The longer the walk is, the sooner one wishes to rest. 13. On Monday it +rained, so (78) we read stories and wrote letters, in a pleasant light +room in our house. 14. Before evening, however, the sun shone, and the +streets were not so muddy. 15. On Tuesday these streets were almost dry, +and soon the roads near the river and between the fields will also be +dry. 16. A few years ago those roads were very good. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------085.png---------------------------- --> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XXI.</b></center> + +<center>THE ACCUSATIVE OF TIME.</center> + +<p> +<b>91.</b> Duration of time and a date or point in time may be expressed +not only by use of the prepositions <b>dum</b>, <i>during</i>, and +<b>je</b>, <i>at, on</i>, but also (as in English) without the use +of any preposition. When no preposition is used, the word or words +indicating time are put in the accusative case: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Li restis tie la tutan semajnon (dum la tuta semajno)</b>, <i>he stayed there the whole week (during the whole week)</i>.<br> +<b>Ŝi estis feliĉa longan tempon (dum longa tempo)</b>, <i>she was happy a long time</i> (<i>during a long time</i>; <i>for a long time</i>).<br> +<b>Ni rajdos tagon kaj nokton (dum tago kaj nokto)</b>, <i>we shall ride a day and a night</i> (<i>during a day and a night</i>; <i>for a day and a night</i>).<br> +<b>Mi venis dimanĉon (je dimanĉo)</b>, <i>I came Sunday</i> (<i>on Sunday</i>).<br> +<b>Tiun horon (je tiu horo), li forkuris</b>, <i>that hour</i> (<i>at that hour</i>) <i>he escaped</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>92.</b> Although generally preferable, an accusative construction +must be carefully placed, or avoided altogether, if confusion with other +accusatives (expressing direction of motion, direct object, etc.) might +result: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Mi volas iri Bostonon je lundo</b>, <i>I wish to go to Boston on Monday</i>.<br> +<b>Mi volas iri al Bostono lundon</b>, <i>I wish to go to Boston Monday</i>.<br> +<b>Lundon mi volas iri Bostonon</b>, <i>Monday I wish to go to Boston</i>. +</p> + +<center>ADVERBS AND THE ACCUSATIVE OF TIME.</center> + +<p> +<b>93.</b> An accusative of time, as well as a temporal adverb, may +further define or be defined by another expression of time: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Li venis longan tempon antaŭ tiu horo</b>, <i>he came a long time before that hour</i>.<br> +<b>Jaron post jaro ili restis tie</b>, <i>year after year they stayed there</i>.<br> +<b>hodiaŭ matene</b>, <i>this morning</i>.<br> +<b>hodiaŭ vespere</b>, <i>this evening</i>.<br> +<b>hodiaŭ nokte</b>, <i>tonight</i>.<br> +<b>hieraŭ vespere</b>, <i>last evening</i>.<br> +<b>hieraŭ nokte</b>, <i>last night</i>.<br> +<b>dimanĉon matene</b>, <i>Sunday morning</i>.<br> +<b>lundon vespere</b>, <i>Monday evening</i>.<br> +<b>mardon nokte</b>, <i>Tuesday night</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>94.</b> An accusative of time does not necessarily imply that the act +or state mentioned occurs oftener than the instance cited. An adverb +from the same root usually gives an idea of frequency or repetition: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Li iros al ilia domo dimanĉon</b>, <i>he will go to their house Sunday</i>.<br> +<b>Li iras al ilia domo dimanĉe</b>, <i>he goes to their house Sundays</i>.<br> +<b>Li laboris tagon kaj nokton</b>, <i>he worked a day and a night</i>.<br> +<b>Li laboras tage kaj nokte</b>, <i>he works day and night</i> (<i>by day and by night</i>). +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------086.png---------------------------- --> + +<center>THE PREPOSITION <b>POR</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>95.</b> The object or purpose with reference to which an act is +performed or a condition exists is expressed by the preposition +<b>por</b>, <i>for</i>. It directs the thought toward its complement, +contrasting thus with <b>pro</b> (86): +</p> + +<p> +<b>Mi havas libron por vi</b>, <i>I have a book for you</i>.<br> +<b>Mi ne havas la tempon por tiel longa promeno</b>, <i>I have not the time for so long a (such a long) walk</i>.<br> +<b>Ili faris ĝin por via plezuro</b>, <i>they did it for your pleasure</i>. +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>brila</b>, <i>brilliant</i>.<br> + <b>Dio</b>, <i>God</i>.<br> + <b>dividi</b>, <i>to divide</i>.<br> + <b>fari</b>, <i>to make</i>.<br> + <b>forgesi</b>, <i>to forget</i>.<br> + <b>ĝojo</b>, <i>joy</i>.<br> + <b>konstanta</b>, <i>constant</i>.<br> + <b>kvieta</b>, <i>quiet, calm</i>.<br> + <b>lando</b>, <i>land, country</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>merkredo</b>, <i>Wednesday</i>.<br> + <b>mezo</b>, <i>middle</i>.<br> + <b>mondo</b>, <i>world</i>.<br> + <b>paci</b>, <i>to be at peace</i>.<br> + <b>por</b>, <i>for</i> (95).<br> + <b>plori</b>, <i>to weep</i>.<br> + <b>preta</b>, <i>ready</i>.<br> + <b>ridi</b>, <i>to laugh</i>.<br> + <b>riproĉi</b>, <i>to reproach</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- -----------------------------087.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>LA SEZONOJ KAJ LA MONDO.</b></center> + +<p> +Antaŭ tre longa tempo Dio faris la mondon. Li vidis ke la floroj +havas belajn kolorojn, ke la arboj estas altaj kaj verdaj. Tiam li +vokis la sezonojn kaj diris "Belan mondon mi faris por vi. Ĉu vi +gardos ĝin tage kaj nokte, kaj estos tre zorgaj pri ĝi?" La +sezonoj respondis "Jes," kaj ridis pro ĝojo. Mallongan tempon ili +ŝajnis esti tre feliĉaj inter la arboj kaj floroj de la nova +mondo. Sed ne multajn semajnojn ili tiel zorge gardis la mondon. Ili +komencis malpaci (<i>quarrel</i>) inter si, de la mateno ĝis la +vespero, kaj ofte forgesis la arbojn kaj florojn. Ju pli ili malpacis, +des malpli zorge ili gardis la mondon. La malkonstanta printempo ne +ŝatis la kvietan vintron, kaj ploris pri la malvarma neĝo. La +varma brila somero diris ke la aŭtuno estas tro malbrila. La laca +aŭtuno volis ripozi, kaj riproĉis la malkonstantan printempon +pri ĉi ties kota vetero. Pli kaj pli multe ili malpacis, kaj post +ne longe ili tute ne restis amikoj. Tiam la aŭtuno diris "Mi ne +povas pli longan tempon labori kun vi pro la mondo. Niaj gustoj estas +tro diversaj. Tial hodiaŭ matene ni dividos la mondon inter ni." La +vintro respondis "Bone! Mi estas preta," kaj la somero kaj la printempo +ridis pro ĝojo. Tiun tagon ili dividis la mondon inter si. La +vintro konstruis sian domon en la plej nordaj kaj sudaj landoj. Tie la +frosto, neĝo kaj glacio kovras la tutan landon, dum la tuta jaro. +La brila energia somero prenis por si la mezon de la mondo. Tial la +vetero tie estas plej varma kaj brila. La aŭtuno kaj la printempo +prenis por si la landojn inter la vintro kaj la somero. Tial la vetero +estas nek tro varma nek tro malvarma en ĉi tiuj landoj. Tiam la +sezonoj rakontis al Dio ke ili tiel dividis la mondon inter si. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------088.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. Tuesday my brother heard an interesting story, and Wednesday evening +after a pleasant walk he related it to me. 2. The story is, that many +years ago God made the beautiful new world, and gave it to the seasons. +3. They laughed for joy, and said that they would guard it well. 4. They +were ready for pleasure, and also were willing (<i>volis</i>) to work +energetically for-the-sake-of the new young world. 5. Almost a year +they were happy, but these seasons were too diverse, and could not long +remain friends. 6. The brilliant summer wept and reproached the tired +autumn. 7. The autumn preferred to rest, and disliked the muddy weather +of the inconstant spring. 8. The quiet winter concealed itself beneath +the frost and soft white snow, and wished to sleep. 9. The longer they +kept the world among them, the more they quarreled. 10. Soon the autumn +made the proposition, "We will divide the world." 11. Immediately that +morning the seasons divided the world among themselves. 12. The northern +and southern lands now belong to the winter, and the middle of the world +belongs to the summer. 13. The spring and autumn took for themselves +those lands between the winter and summer. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XXII.</b></center> + +<center>CLAUSES EXPRESSING DURATION OF TIME.</center> + +<p> +<b>96.</b> The time during which an act takes place or a condition +exists may be expressed not only by an adverb or accusative of time +(91), or by use of the preposition <b>dum</b>, but also by a clause +introduced by <b>dum</b>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Li venis dum vi forestis</b>, <i>he came while (during-the-time-that) you were away</i>.<br> +<b>Dum la sezonoj malpacis, ili forgesis pri la mondo</b>, <i>while the seasons quarreled, they forgot about the world</i>.<br> +<b>Ni ridas pro ĝojo dum neĝas</b>, <i>we laugh for joy while it is snowing</i>. +</p> + +<center>CLAUSES EXPRESSING ANTICIPATION.</center> + +<p> +<b>97.</b> A clause expressing an action or condition as preceding +or anticipating that of the main verb is introduced by <b>antaŭ +ol</b>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Mi foriros antaŭ ol vi venos</b>, <i>I shall depart before you (will) come</i>.<br> +<b>Antaŭ ol vi riproĉis lin, li ne ploris</b>, <i>before you reproached him, he did not weep</i>.<br> +<b>Vi ploris antaŭ ol vi ridis</b>, <i>you wept before (sooner than) you laughed</i>. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------089.png---------------------------- --> + +<center>THE INFINITIVE WITH <b>ANSTATAŬ</b>, <b>POR</b>, <b>ANTAŬ OL</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>98.</b> An infinitive may be substantively used with +<b>anstataŭ</b> to express substitution, with <b>por</b> to +express purpose (<i>Cf.</i> Old English "But what went ye out <i>for to +see</i>," <i>Matt. xi, 8</i>), and with <b>antaŭ ol</b> to express +anticipation. It is usually translated by the English infinitive in +<i>-ing</i>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Anstataŭ resti li foriris</b>, <i>instead of staying he went away</i>.<br> +<b>Vi malhelpas anstataŭ helpi min</b>, <i>you hinder instead of helping me</i>.<br> +<b>Ni venis por helpi vin</b>, <i>we came to help (in order to help) you</i>.<br> +<b>Mi estas preta por iri merkredon</b>, <i>I am ready to go (for going) Wednesday</i>.<br> +<b>Li havos tro multe por fari</b>, <i>he will have too much to do</i>.<br> +<b>Mi laboros antaŭ ol ripozi</b>, <i>I shall work before resting</i>.<br> +<b>Antaŭ ol foriri, li dankis min</b>, <i>before going away, he thanked me</i>.<br> +<b>Dio faris la mondon antaŭ ol doni ĝin al la sezonoj</b>, <i>God made the world before giving it to the seasons</i>. +</p> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +<i>Substantive</i> is the general name for nouns and pronouns, +that is, for words which indicate persons, things, etc., and may be +used as subject or object of a verb, complement of a preposition, +etc. +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +The infinitive may be used with <b>antaŭ ol</b> if its subject +is the same as the subject of the main verb. Otherwise the +construction explained in <b>97</b> must be used. +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<center>THE EXPRESSION OF A PART OF THE WHOLE.</center> + +<p> +<b>99.</b> After nouns indicating a quantity or portion of some +indefinite whole, the substantive expressing that indefinite whole is +preceded by the preposition <b>da</b>, <i>of</i>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Estas skatolo da ĉerizoj tie</b>, <i>there is a box of cherries there</i>.<br> +<b>Mi trovis grandan sakon da mono</b>, <i>I found a large bag of money</i>.<br> +<b>Li havas teleron da viando</b>, <i>he has a plate of meat</i>.<br> +<b>Post horoj da ĝojo ofte venas horoj da malĝojo</b>, <i>after hours of joy there often come hours of sorrow</i>. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------090.png---------------------------- --> + +<p> +<b>100.</b> The preposition <b>da</b> must not be used if a quantity or +portion of a <i>definite</i> or <i>limited</i> whole is expressed. If +the word indicating the whole is limited by <b>la</b>, it is thereby +made definite: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Telero de la maturaj pomoj</b>, <i>a plate of the ripe apples</i>.<br> +<b>Sako de la bona kafo</b>, <i>a sack of the good coffee</i>. +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>Aleksandro</b>, <i>Alexander</i>.<br> + <b>barelo</b>, <i>barrel</i>.<br> + <b>bruo</b>, <i>noise</i>.<br> + <b>da</b>, <i>of</i> (99).<br> + <b>demandi</b>, <i>to inquire, to ask</i>.<br> + <b>Diogeno</b>, <i>Diogenes</i>.<br> + <b>greka</b>, <i>Greek</i>.<br> + <b>kelkaj</b>, <i>several, some</i>.<br> + <b>kvankam</b>, <i>although</i>.<br> + <b>ĉifono</b>, <i>rag</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>koni</b>, <i>to be acquainted with</i>.<br> + <b>laŭta</b>, <i>loud</i>.<br> + <b>lito</b>, <i>bed</i>.<br> + <b>loĝi</b>, <i>to dwell, to reside</i>.<br> + <b>nombro</b>, <i>number (quantity)</i>.<br> + <b>pura</b>, <i>clean</i>.<br> + <b>sufiĉa</b>, <i>sufficient, enough</i>.<br> + <b>veki</b>, <i>to wake</i>.<br> + <b>viziti</b>, <i>to visit</i>.<br> + <b>vesto</b>, <i>garment, clothes</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- -----------------------------091.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>DIOGENO KAJ ALEKSANDRO GRANDA.</b></center> + +<p> +Antaŭ multaj jaroj saĝa greka viro, Diogeno, loĝis +en granda urbo. Li opiniis ke ju pli malmulte oni bezonas, des pli +feliĉa oni estas. Por montri al la mondo ke li ne bezonas multe, +kaj ke tial li havas sufiĉe por esti feliĉa, li loĝis +en granda malnova barelo, anstataŭ havi domon. Anstataŭ +kuŝi nokte sur lito aŭ almenaŭ sur mola tapiŝo, li +eĉ dormis en tiu barelo. Oni multe parolis pri Diogeno en la urbo, +ne nur ĉar li tiel loĝis, sed ankaŭ pro liaj saĝaj +diroj. Post kelke da tempo (<i>some time</i>) la reĝo Aleksandro +Granda venis tien por viziti la urbon. Dum li estis tie li aŭdis +pri Diogeno, kaj demandis pri li. "Ĉu li loĝas en la urbo?" +Aleksandro diris. "Kvankam vi ne konas lin, mi opinias ke mi volas +vidi tian viron." Oni respondis "Diogeno estas saĝa viro, sed +anstataŭ loĝi en domo, li preferas sidi la tutan tempon en +malnova barelo. Anstataŭ porti (<i>wearing</i>) purajn vestojn, +li portas nur malpurajn ĉifonojn, ĉar li opinias ke ju pli +malmulte li bezonas, des pli feliĉa li estos." Aleksandro diris +"Antaŭ ol foriri de via lando mi vizitos tiun viron." Antaŭ +ol li foriris de la urbo, Aleksandro iris kun nombro da amikoj por +viziti Diogenon, kaj trovis lin en lia barelo. "Ĉu tiu viro volas +paroli al mi?" demandis Diogeno per laŭta voĉo. Aleksandro +Granda respondis "Mi estas la reĝo Aleksandro, kaj mi volas koni +vin. Mi vidas ke kvankam vi estas saĝa vi estas tre malriĉa. +Ĉu vi ne volas kelkajn novajn vestojn anstataŭ tiuj malpuraj +ĉifonoj?" Diogeno tuj diris "Antaŭ ol vi venis kaj staris +inter mi kaj la suno, ĉi tiu tre varme brilis sur min. Ĉu vi +venis por fari bruon kaj por veki min?" Aleksandro ridis kaj diris "Mi +vidas ke vi havas sufiĉe por esti feliĉa. Tial mi estas preta +por foriri." +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------092.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. Diogenes was a wise man who dwelt in a Greek city, many years ago. 2. +In order to show to the inconstant world that one does not need much in +order to be happy, he did not have even a house or a bed. 3. He stayed +day and night in a big barrel, instead of residing in a house. 4. He +preferred to wear old rags, instead of good clean clothes. 5. He said +"The less one needs, the happier he will be." 6. While Alexander the +Great was visiting that city, people talked to him about Diogenes. 7. +They asked "Are you acquainted-with that wise man?" 8. Soon the king +went with a number of his friends to that-man's big barrel, in the +middle of the city. 9. Diogenes was asleep, but the noise of the loud +voices waked him, and he said angrily "You are standing between me and +the sun! Will you not go away at once?" 10. Although several of the men +laughed, Alexander said "We did not come to quarrel with you. 11. I see +that you have enough to be happy, so instead of talking and making a +noise we shall leave (go away from) you at once." 12. Before Diogenes +could answer, Alexander had quietly walked away. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XXIII.</b></center> + +<center>ADVERBS EXPRESSING A PART OF THE WHOLE.</center> + + +<p> +<b>101.</b> After adverbs used to indicate a quantity or portion of +some indefinite whole, as well as after nouns of such meaning (99), +the substantive expressing the indefinite whole is preceded by the +preposition <b>da</b>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Multe da bruo</b>, <i>much (a quantity of) noise</i>.<br> +<b>Tiel malmulte da tempo</b>, <i>so little (such a small quantity of) time</i>.<br> +<b>Kelke da pomoj</b>, <i>some (an indefinite number of) apples</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>102.</b> Verbs may be modified by an adverb and prepositional phrase +containing <b>da</b>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Li trinkis malmulte da akvo</b>, <i>he drank little (not much) water</i>.<br> +<b>Estas multe da sablo en la dezerto</b>, <i>there is much sand in the desert</i>.<br> +<b>Ju pli neĝas, des pli multe da neĝo kuŝas sur la vojoj</b>, <i>the more it snows, the more snow lies on the roads</i>. +</p> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +A prepositional phrase containing <b>da</b>, whether following a noun or +an adverb, is sometimes called a <i>partitive</i> construction. +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<p> +<b>103.</b> It is evident from the above examples that an adverb +followed by <b>da</b> has a somewhat collective sense, indicating a +general sum, mass, or portion of the whole, without distinction of +particulars. An <i>adjective</i> of quantitative meaning, on the other +hand, usually indicates consideration of the individuals composing the +sum or mass named: +</p> + +<p> +<b>En urbo oni havas multe da bruo</b>, <i>in a city one has much noise</i>.<br> +<b>Ni aŭdis multajn bruojn</b>, <i>we heard many (different) noises</i>.<br> +<b>Tie oni havas multe da plezuro</b>, <i>there one has much pleasure</i>.<br> +<b>Oni havas multajn plezurojn tie</b>, <i>people have many (different) pleasures there</i>. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------093.png---------------------------- --> + +<center>THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADVERB OF QUANTITY.</center> + +<p> +<b>104.</b> The demonstrative adverb of quantity related to the +demonstrative pronoun <b>tiu</b> is <b>tiom</b>, <i>that (this) much, +that many, that quantity, so much</i>, etc.:— +</p> + +<p> +<b>Mi donis tiom da mono al vi</b>, <i>I gave that much (that amount of) money to you.</i><br> +<b>Mi aĉetis tiom da viando</b>, <i>I bought that much meat</i>.<br> +<b>Tiom de la libroj mi legis</b>, <i>that many of the books I read</i>. +</p> + +<center>RESULT CLAUSES.</center> + +<p> +<b>105.</b> A clause of result (also called a consecutive clause) +expresses an action or condition as due to, or resulting from, something +indicated in the main sentence, as "he is so strong that he can do it," +"I had so much pleasure that I laughed heartily." In Esperanto a result +clause is introduced by <b>ke</b>, preceded (directly or in the main +sentence) by an adverb or adjective of manner, degree, or quantity: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Diogeno estis tiel saĝa greka viro ke Aleksandro laŭdis lin</b>, <i>Diogenes was such a wise Greek man that Alexander praised him</i>.<br> +<b>Mi havis tiom da plezuro ke mi tre ridis</b>, <i>I had so much pleasure that I laughed very much</i>.<br> +<b>Ĝi estas tia vilaĝo ke mi ŝatas loĝi tie</b>, <i>it is such (that sort of) a village that I like to live there</i>. +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>aĉeti</b>, <i>to buy</i>.<br> + <b>asparago</b>, <i>asparagus</i>.<br> + <b>brasiko</b>, <i>cabbage</i>.<br> + <b>butiko</b>, <i>store, shop</i>.<br> + <b>frago</b>, <i>strawberry</i>.<br> + <b>funto</b>, <i>pound</i>.<br> + <b>glaso</b>, <i>glass, tumbler</i>.<br> + <b>ĵaŭdo</b>, <i>Thursday</i>.<br> + <b>kremo</b>, <i>cream</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>kontuzo</b>, <i>bruise</i>.<br> + <b>lakto</b>, <i>milk</i>.<br> + <b>legomo</b>, <i>vegetable</i>.<br> + <b>ovo</b>, <i>egg</i>.<br> + <b>pizo</b>, <i>pea</i>.<br> + <b>sabato</b>, <i>Saturday</i>.<br> + <b>tiom</b>, <i>that much</i> (104).<br> + <b>vendredo</b>, <i>Friday</i>.<br> + <b>vilaĝo</b>, <i>village</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- -----------------------------094.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>EN LA BUTIKO.</b></center> + +<p> +Hodiaŭ matene mi iris kun la patrino al la plej granda butiko en +nia vilaĝo. Tie ŝi aĉetis tiom da legomoj kaj fruktoj ke +ni tute ne povis porti ilin. Tial juna knabo venis kun ni, kaj portis +kelke da ili por ni. La patrino ne aĉetis tiel multe je vendredo, +sed hodiaŭ estas sabato, kaj ŝi volis aĉeti legomojn por +dimanĉo, ĉar dimanĉe oni ne povas iri en la butikojn. +Tial sabate oni kutime aĉetas sufiĉe por la manĝoj de +sabato kaj dimanĉo. Meze de la butiko staras multe da bareloj. En +ĉi tiuj oni trovas grandan nombron da freŝaj puraj legomoj. +La patrino aĉetis tiel multe da asparago kaj novaj pizoj, kaj +tiel grandan sakon da terpomoj, ke la tablo restis preskaŭ nuda. +Mi vidis brasikon tie, sed tiun legomon mi malŝatas, kvankam oni +diras ke ĝi estas tre bona legomo. Antaŭ ol foriri de la +butiko la patrino aĉetis kelke da ovoj, kaj rigardis la fruktojn en +bareloj apud la pordo. Ili ŝajnis tiel bonaj ke ŝi aĉetis +kelkajn maturajn pomojn kaj skatolon da fragoj. Dum oni donis al ŝi +la fruktojn, mi aĉetis kelkajn funtojn da sukero. Tiam ni estis +pretaj por foriri el la butiko. Sur la vojo ni aŭdis tiel grandan +bruon ke mi lasis la patrinon kaj kuris trans la straton. Mi trovis tie +infanon,la filon de nia najbaro. Li faris la bruon, ĉar li falis +de la arbo antaŭ sia domo, kaj tre laŭte ploris. Li diris al +mi ke li havas multajn kontuzojn sur la kapo. Ĉar mi bone konas +la infanon, mi demandis "Ĉu vi volas grandan ruĝan pomon? Mi +havas tian pomon por vi." Li tuj kaptis la pomon, kaj mi foriris. Tiam +la patrino kaj mi iris al la domo. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------095.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. I shall go to the village today with my younger sister. 2. We wish +to buy some eggs, vegetables and fruit for Mother. 3. Mother prefers to +remain in the house, because it is raining. 4. It rained on Thursday and +Friday, but today it is not raining very much. 5. The air is warm and +pleasant, and we shall carry umbrellas with us. 6. We shall buy some +new peas, a box of strawberries and several pounds of sugar. 7. Thus +we shall have enough for the meals of Saturday and Sunday. 8. I wonder +whether we shall see such asparagus and such cabbage on the tables or +in the barrels. 9. Although I do not often eat such vegetables, Father +and Mother are very fond of (<i>multe ŝatas</i>) both cabbage and +asparagus. 10. We shall also buy enough milk for several glasses of +milk, and we shall need much cream for the strawberries. 11. It seems +that we shall buy such a number of vegetables that we cannot carry them. +12. While we were standing near the door, ready to go toward the village +(46), we heard a loud voice. 13. A child was standing in the street, and +crying. 14. He wished to go with his mother to visit some friends. 15. +I suppose that a noise on the street waked him, and he did not wish to +remain in his bed. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XXIV.</b></center> + +<center>THE INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN.</center> + +<p> +<b>106.</b> The interrogative pronoun (and pronominal adjective) is +<b>kiu</b>, <i>who, which</i>. Since the use of this pronoun indicates +a question, the sentence containing it does not need the interrogative +adverb <b>ĉu</b> (30): +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------096.png---------------------------- --> + +<p> +<b>Kiu vokas vin?</b> <i>Who calls you?</i><br> +<b>Kiun vi vokas?</b> <i>Whom do you call?</i><br> +<b>Kiuj el vi vokis nin?</b> <i>Which (ones) of you called us?</i><br> +<b>Kiujn li helpis?</b> <i>Whom (which ones) did he help?</i><br> +<b>Kiun tagon vi venos?</b> <i>What day will you come?</i><br> +<b>Kiujn legomojn vi preferas?</b> <i>What vegetables do you prefer?</i><br> +<b>Mi miras kiun libron vi aĉetis</b>, <i>I wonder which book you bought?</i> +</p> + +<p> +<b>107.</b> The interrogative pronoun <b>kiu</b> has a possessive or +genitive form <b>kies</b>, <i>whose</i>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>En kies domo vi loĝas?</b> <i>In whose house do you reside?</i><br> +<b>Kies amikojn vi vizitis?</b> <i>Whose friends did you visit?</i> +</p> + +<center>THE PRESENT ACTIVE PARTICIPLE.</center> + +<p> +<b>108.</b> A participle is a <i>verbal adjective</i>, as in "a +<i>crying</i> child." It agrees like other adjectives with the word +modified (19, 24). The participle from a transitive verb (22) may take +a direct object, and a participle expressing motion may be followed by +an accusative indicating direction of motion (46). The present active +participle, expressing what the word modified <i>is doing</i>, ends +in <b>-anta,</b> as <b>vidanta</b>, <i>seeing</i>, <b>iranta</b>, +<i>going:</i> +</p> + +<p> +<b>La ploranta infano volas dormi</b>, <i>the crying child wishes to sleep.</i><br> +<b>Mi vidas la falantajn foliojn</b>, <i>I see the falling leaves.</i><br> +<b>Kiu estas la virino aĉetanta ovojn?</b> <i>Who is the woman buying eggs?</i><br> +<b>Mi parolis al la viroj irantaj vilaĝon</b>, <i>I talked to the men (who were) going toward the village.</i> +</p> + +<center>COMPOUND TENSES.</center> + +<p> +<b>109.</b> A participle may be used predicatively with a form of +<b>esti</b>, as <b>Mi estas demandanta</b>, <i>I am asking</i>, +<b>La viro estas aĉetanta</b>, <i>the man is buying</i>. Such +combinations are called <i>compound tenses</i>, in contrast to the +<i>simple</i> or <i>aoristic</i> tenses. +</p> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +An aoristic tense consists of but one word (ending in <b>-as</b>, +<b>-os</b>, etc.) and expresses an act or state as a whole, without +specifying whether it is finished, still in progress, or yet begun. +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<!-- -----------------------------097.png---------------------------- --> + +<p> +Compound tenses occur less often in Esperanto than in English, and an +aoristic Esperanto tense may often be translated by an English compound +tense, as <b>La birdoj flugas</b>, <i>the birds are flying</i>. When +used to form a compound tense, the verb <b>esti</b> is called the +<i>auxiliary verb</i>. No other verb is ever used as an auxiliary (a +simpler method than in English, which uses <i>be</i>, <i>have</i>, +<i>do</i>, <i>will</i>, <i>shall</i>, <i>would</i>, etc.). +</p> + +<center>THE PROGRESSIVE PRESENT TENSE.</center> + +<p> +<b>110.</b> The compound tense formed by using the present active +participle with the present tense of <b>esti</b> is called the +<i>progressive present tense</i>. It differs from the aoristic present +by expressing an action as definitely in progress, or a condition as +continuously existing, at the moment of speaking. The conjugation of +<b>vidi</b> in this tense is as follows: +</p> + +<p> +<b>mi estas vidanta</b>, <i>I am seeing</i>.<br> +<b>vi estas vidanta</b>, <i>you are seeing</i>.<br> +<b>li (ŝi, ĝi) estas vidanta</b>, <i>he (she, it) is seeing</i>.<br> +<b>ni estas vidantaj</b>, <i>we are seeing</i>.<br> +<b>vi estas vidantaj</b>, <i>you (plural) are seeing</i>.<br> +<b>ili estas vidantaj</b>, <i>they are seeing</i>. +</p> + +<center>THE SUFFIX <b>-EJ-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>111.</b> Words expressing the place where the action indicated by the +root occurs, or where the object indicated by the root may be found, are +formed by inserting the suffix <b>-ej-</b> before the noun-ending: +</p> + +<p> +<b>ĉevalejo</b>, <i>stable</i> (from <b>ĉevalo</b>, <i>horse</i>).<br> +<b>dormejo</b>, <i>dormitory</i> (from <b>dormi</b>, <i>to sleep</i>).<br> +<b>herbejo</b>, <i>meadow</i> (from <b>herbo</b>, <i>grass</i>).<br> +<b>loĝejo</b>, <i>lodging-place, dwelling</i> (from <b>loĝi</b>, <i>to dwell, to lodge</i>). +</p> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +Similar formations are made in English with the suffix <i>-y</i>, as +<i>bakery</i>, <i>bindery</i>, <i>grocery</i>, etc. This suffix is +equivalent to the <i>-ei</i> in German <i>Bäckerei</i>, bakery, +<i>Druckerei</i>, printing-office, etc., and to the <i>-ie</i> in French +<i>patisserie</i>, pastry-shop, <i>imprimerie</i>, printing-shop, etc. +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<!-- -----------------------------098.png---------------------------- --> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>alia</b>, <i>other, another.</i><br> + <b>baki</b>, <i>to bake.</i><br> + <b>dika</b>, <i>thick.</i><br> + <b>facila</b>, <i>easy.</i><br> + <b>familio</b>, <i>family.</i><br> + <b>kanapo</b>, <i>sofa.</i><br> + <b>kies</b>, <i>whose</i> (107).<br> + <b>kiu</b>, <i>who</i> (106). + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>kuiri</b>, <i>to cook.</i><br> + <b>kurteno</b>, <i>curtain.</i><br> + <b>kutimo</b>, <i>custom.</i><br> + <b>leciono</b>, <i>lesson.</i><br> + <b>lerni</b>, <i>to learn.</i><br> + <b>pano</b>, <i>bread.</i><br> + <b>persono</b>, <i>person.</i><br> + <b>salono</b>, <i>parlor.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- -----------------------------099.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>EN NIA DOMO.</b></center> + +<p> +Oni ofte miras kies domo en nia vilaĝo estas plej bela, kaj kiu +domo estas la plej agrabla loĝejo. Nia domo ne estas tre granda, +sed ĝi estas nova kaj ni multe ŝatas ĝin. Ĝia salono +estas granda, kun belaj puraj kurtenoj kovrantaj la fenestrojn, kaj +mola dika tapiŝo kovranta la plankon. Ĉi tie estas kelkaj +seĝoj, malgranda tablo, kaj longa kanapo. Personoj vizitantaj nin +kutime sidas en ĉi tiu ĉambro, kaj dum ni estas sidantaj tie +ni nur parolas, anstataŭ skribi aŭ legi. Alia ĉambro +en la domo estas tre luma kaj agrabla, sed malpli granda. Ĉi +tie staras tablo sufiĉe granda por nia tuta familio, kaj en tiu +ĉambro oni manĝas. Ofte ni restas tie longan tempon post la +manĝo, ĉar la patro rakontas interesajn rakontojn al ni, kaj +ni multe ridas, kaj demandas pri tiuj rakontoj, kaj tiel bone amuzas +nin ke mi preskaŭ forgesas pri miaj lecionoj. Tamen mi havas multe +da lecionoj por lerni, kaj ili tute ne estas facilaj. Je tre frua +horo matene mi iras al la lernejo, kun miaj fratoj kaj fratinoj. Nur +sabate kaj dimanĉe ni ne iras tien. La lernejo estas malnova kaj +malgranda, sed oni estas nun konstruanta novan pli grandan lernejon apud +nia domo. Dum la infanoj estas lernantaj siajn lecionojn tie, la patrino +kutime iras al la bakejon, por aĉeti sufiĉe da pano, por la +manĝoj de la tago. Ofte ŝi iras ankaŭ al aliaj butikoj. +Ĵaŭdon ŝi aĉetis kelke da novaj pizoj, kaj da +asparago. Vendredon ŝi aĉetis kelkajn funtojn da sukero, skatolon +da fragoj, kaj sufiĉe da kremo kaj lakto. Hodiaŭ ŝi estas +aĉetanta brasikon kaj sakon da terpomoj. Ŝi volas kuiri tre +bonan manĝon, tamen ŝi havas tro multe por fari en la kuirejo, +ĉar ŝi ne havas servistinon. +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. Who is the woman sitting on the sofa in the parlor? 2. I can not +easily see her, but I hear her voice. 3. I wonder whose voice that is. +4. However, I think that it is the voice of a friend of Mother's. 5. Now +I can see her, although she does not see me. 6. I am well acquainted +with her. 7. She is a friend of our whole family, and is visiting a +neighbor of ours (<i>najbaron nian</i>) in this city. 8. My sister is +sitting on the sofa in another room, and learning her lessons. 9. Soon +she will go to school. 10. Whose book is she reading? 11. That thick +book is mine, but the other books on the table near her are hers. 12. +She prefers to sit in the sewing-room (111) to read or write (98), +because the curtains in front of the windows are not too thick, and so +(78) that room is very light and pleasant. 13. She also likes to look at +the falling snow, and the men and women walking on the muddy streets. +14. On account of the cold weather, people are wearing thick clothes. +15. The men and boys are keeping their hands in their pockets while +they walk. 16. The girls walking toward the school are friends of my +sister's. 17. In that school they learn to cook. Soon they will be able +to bake bread, and even to cook a whole meal. 18. I think such a custom +is very good. 19. Many persons can not cook well enough (<i>sufiĉe +bone</i>). +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------100.png---------------------------- --> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XXV.</b></center> + +<center>THE INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVE.</center> + +<p> +<b>112.</b> The interrogative adjective related to the interrogative +pronoun <b>kiu</b>, is <b>kia</b>, <i>what kind of</i>, <i>what sort +of</i>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Kiajn vestojn li portis?</b> <i>What sort of clothes did he wear?</i><br> +<b>Kian panon vi preferas?</b> <i>What kind of bread do you prefer?</i><br> +<b>Mi miras kia persono li estas</b>, <i>I wonder what sort of a person he is</i>.<br> +<b>Kia vetero estas?</b> <i>What sort of weather is it?</i><br> +<b>Kia plezuro!</b> <i>What a pleasure!</i> +</p> + +<center>THE IMPERFECT TENSE.</center> + +<p> +<b>113.</b> The compound tense formed by using the present active +participle with the past tense of <b>esti</b> represents an act or +condition as in progress in past time, but not perfected, and is called +the <i>imperfect tense</i>. The conjugation of <b>vidi</b> in this tense +is as follows: +</p> + +<p> +<b>mi estis vidanta</b>, <i>I was seeing</i>.<br> +<b>vi estis vidanta</b>, <i>you were seeing</i>.<br> +<b>li (ŝi, ĝi) estis vidanta</b>, <i>he (she, it) was seeing</i>.<br> +<b>ni estis vidantaj</b>, <i>we were seeing</i>.<br> +<b>vi estis vidantaj</b>, <i>you were seeing</i>.<br> +<b>ili estis vidantaj</b>, <i>they were seeing</i>. +</p> + +<center>THE PROGRESSIVE FUTURE TENSE.</center> + +<p> +<b>114.</b> The compound tense formed by using the present active +participle with the future tense of <b>esti</b> represents an +act or condition as in progress—or a condition as existing +continuously—at a future time, and is called the <i>progressive +future</i> tense. The conjugation of <b>vidi</b> in this tense is as +follows: +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------101.png---------------------------- --> + +<p> +<b>mi estos vidanta</b>, <i>I shall be seeing</i>.<br> +<b>vi estos vidanta</b>, <i>you will be seeing</i>.<br> +<b>li (ŝi, ĝi) estos vidanta</b>, <i>he (she, it) will be seeing</i>.<br> +<b>ni estos vidantaj</b>, <i>we shall be seeing</i>.<br> +<b>vi estos vidantaj</b>, <i>you will be seeing</i>.<br> +<b>ili estos vidantaj</b>, <i>they will be seeing</i>. +</p> + +<center>SALUTATIONS AND EXCLAMATIONS.</center> + +<b>115.</b> When the word or words expressing a salutation or +exclamation may be regarded as the direct object of a verb +which is not expressed; these words are put in the accusative +case: + +<p> +<b>Bonan matenon!</b> <i>Good morning!</i> (I wish you "good morning.")<br> +<b>Bonan nokton!</b> <i>Good night!</i> (I wish you a "good night.")<br> +<b>Multajn salutojn al via patro!</b> (I send) <i>many greetings to your father!</i><br> +<b>Dankon!</b> <i>Thanks!</i> (I give to you "thanks.")<br> +<b>Ĉielon!</b> <i>Heavens!</i> (I invoke the "heavens.") +</p> + +<center>WORD FORMATION.</center> + +<p> +<b>116.</b> The majority of roots have such a meaning that at least two +kinds of words, and often three or four, may be formed from them by +use of the general endings for verbs, nouns, adjectives and adverbs. +(Each root will hereafter be quoted but once in the vocabularies, with a +hyphen separating it from the ending with which it appears first in the +reading lesson, or with which it is most frequently used.) Following are +examples of word formation from roots already familiar: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="1" cellpadding="8"> + <tr><td align="center">Verb.</td><td align="center">Noun.</td><td align="center">Adjective.</td><td align="center">Adverb.</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap><b>brili</b>, <i>to shine</i></td><td nowrap><b>brilo</b>, <i>shine, brilliance</i></td><td nowrap><b>brila</b>, <i>shining, brilliant</i></td><td nowrap><b>brile</b>, <i>brilliantly</i></td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap><b>flori</b>, <i>to bloom</i></td><td nowrap><b>floro</b>, <i>flower, blossom</i></td><td nowrap><b>flora</b>, <i>floral</i></td><td nowrap><b>flore</b>, <i>florally</i></td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap><b>ĝoji</b>, <i>to rejoice</i></td><td nowrap><b>ĝojo</b>, <i>joy, gladness</i></td><td nowrap><b>ĝoja</b>, <i>joyful, glad</i></td><td nowrap><b>ĝoje</b>, <i>gladly</i></td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap><b>kontuzi</b>, <i>to bruise</i></td><td nowrap><b>kontuzo</b>, <i>bruise, contusion</i></td><td> </td><td> </td></tr> + <tr><td> </td><td nowrap><b>tuto</b>, <i>whole</i></td><td nowrap><b>tuta</b>, <i>entire, whole, all</i></td><td nowrap><b>tute</b>, <i>entirely</i></td></tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- -----------------------------102.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>KONI</b> AND <b>SCII</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>117.</b> The verb <b>koni</b>, which means "to know" in the sense of "to +be acquainted with" is used in speaking of persons, languages, places, +etc. <b>Koni</b> always has a direct object. It is never followed by +<b>ke</b>, <b>ĉu</b>, <b>kiu</b>, or any other interrogative word. +<b>Scii</b> means "to know" in the sense of "to be aware," "to have +knowledge." It is not used in speaking of persons. +</p> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +<b>Koni</b> is equivalent to German <i>kennen</i>, French +<i>connaitre</i>, Spanish <i>conocer</i>, while <b>scii</b> is +equivalent to German <i>wissen</i>, French <i>savoir</i>, Spanish +<i>saber</i>. +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<p> +<b>Ĉu vi konas tiun personon?</b> <i>Do you know that person?</i><br> +<b>Mi scias ke li estas nia najbaro</b>, <i>I know that he is our neighbor.</i><br> +<b>Mi bone konas Bostonon</b>, <i>I am well acquainted with Boston.</i><br> +<b>Mi ne scias ĉu li konas ilin</b>, <i>I do not know whether he knows them.</i> +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>av-o</b>, <i>grandfather</i>.<br> + <b>buked-o</b>, <i>bouquet</i>.<br> + <b>ekzamen-o</b>, <i>examination</i>.<br> + <b>ferm-i</b>, <i>to close</i>.<br> + <b>frap-i</b>, <i>to strike, to knock</i>.<br> + <b>geometri-o</b>, <i>geometry</i>.<br> + <b>german-a</b>, <i>German</i>.<br> + <b>hejm-o</b>, <i>home</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>kia</b>, <i>what kind of</i> (112).<br> + <b>lingv-o</b>, <i>language</i>.<br> + <b>nep-o</b>, <i>grandson</i>.<br> + <b>nu!</b> <i>Well!</i><br> + <b>paper-o</b>, <i>paper</i>.<br> + <b>salut-i</b>, <i>to greet</i>.<br> + <b>sci-i</b>, <i>to know</i> (117).<br> + <b>stud-i</b>, <i>to study</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- -----------------------------103.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>LA NEPO VIZITAS LA AVINON.</b></center> + +<p> +Hieraŭ matene mi vizitis la avinon. Ŝia hejmo estas apud la +granda nova bakejo. Mi vidis ŝin tra la fenestro, ĉar la +kurtenoj kovrantaj ĝin estas tre maldikaj. Ŝi estis sidanta +sur la kanapo, kaj skribanta per plumo sur granda papero. Antaŭ +ol frapi sur la pordo mi vokis ŝin kaj diris "Bonan matenon, +kara avino!" Tuj ŝi demandis "Kiu estas tie? Kies voĉon mi +aŭdas?" Mi respondis "Estas via nepo. Ĉu vi ne konas mian +voĉon?" Antaŭ ol ŝi povis veni al la pordo mi estis +malfermanta ĝin. Mi iris en la salonon kaj donis al la avino +bukedon da floroj. "La patrino donas ĉi tiujn al vi, kun siaj plej +bonaj salutoj," mi diris. La avino respondis "Nu, kia plezuro! Multan +dankon al ŝi pro la bela bukedo, kaj ankaŭ al vi, ĉar +vi portis ĝin ĉi tien por mi!" Dum ŝi estis metanta la +florojn en glason da akvo la avino diris "Nu, kiajn lecionojn vi havis +hodiaŭ en la lernejo?" Mi respondis ke mi bone konis la lecionojn, +ĉar mi zorge studis ilin. "Ni estas lernantaj la germanan lingvon," +mi diris, "kaj ju pli longe ni studas ĝin, des pli multe mi +ĝin ŝatas, kvankam ĝi estas tre malfacila." Mi rakontis +ankaŭ pri la lecionoj de geometrio, kaj aliaj lecionoj, sed diris +ke la ekzamenoj estos baldaŭ komencantaj. "Je tiu tempo," mi diris, +"mi estos skribanta la respondojn al la ekzamenoj, preskaŭ la tutan +semajnon." La avino demandis kun intereso "Ĉu la demandoj de la +ekzamenoj estos malfacilaj?" Mi respondis "Mi ne scias, sed mi timas ke +ni estos tre lacaj post tiom da laboro." Post kelke da aliaj demandoj +kaj respondoj, mi opiniis ke estas la horo por foriri. Dum mi estis +foriranta, la avino diris "Multajn salutojn al la tuta familio!" Mi +dankis ŝin, diris "Bonan tagon!" kaj tiam foriris. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------104.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. What sort of noise do I hear outside the door? 2. Are some of my +friends knocking? 3. We were talking yesterday about the examinations in +our school, and these boys came home to study with me. 4. I shall go to +the door to open it and to greet my friends. 5. Good morning! Did you +come to study geometry, or the German language? 6. Which of these is +usually more difficult, and in which will the examination be the longer? +7. Well, we brought our German books, because we prefer to study these. +8. We wish to know this language thoroughly. 9. We shall go into the +writing-room (111), for (83) some friends of my grandmother are in the +parlor. 10. We can hear their voices here, and we can not study very +well while they are talking. 11. They were carrying many flowers, and +gave a beautiful bouquet to my grandmother. 12. She said "Many thanks +for (86) the sweet violets! In whose garden did they bloom?" 13. Her +friend's granddaughter is a friend of my youngest sister. 14. Well, +shall we begin to study? Have you enough paper, and have you a good pen? +15. I shall close this other door, because they are baking bread in the +kitchen, and cooking meat. 16. We shall be hearing the voices of so many +persons that I know that we can not study. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XXVI.</b></center> + +<center>THE INTERROGATIVE ADVERB OF PLACE.</center> + +<p> +<b>118.</b> The interrogative adverb of place, related to the +interrogative pronoun <b>kiu</b> is <b>kie</b>, <i>where</i>, <i>in (at) +what place</i>. If the verb in the sentence expresses motion toward the +place indicated by <b>kie</b>, the ending <b>-n</b> is added, forming +<b>kien</b>, <i>whither</i> (<i>where</i>): +</p> + +<p> +<b>Kie li estis kaj kien oni forpelis lin?</b> <i>Where was he and whither did they drive him (away)?</i><br> +<b>Li miros kie lia nepo estas</b>, <i>he will wonder where his grandson is</i>.<br> +<b>Mi ne scias kien li kuris</b>, <i>I do not know where (whither) he ran</i>. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------105.png---------------------------- --> + +<center>THE PAST ACTIVE PARTICIPLE.</center> + +<p> +<b>119.</b> The past active participle, (for the characteristics of a +participle see 108) expressing what the word modified <i>did</i> or +<i>has done</i>, ends in <b>-inta</b>, as <b>vidinta</b>, <i>having +seen</i>, <b>irinta</b>, <i>gone, having gone</i>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>La falintaj folioj estas brunaj</b>, <i>the fallen leaves are brown</i>.<br> +<b>Kiu estas la viro salutinta nin?</b> <i>who is the man having greeted (who greeted) us?</i><br> +<b>Oni forgesas la foririntajn personojn</b>, <i>one forgets the departed persons (the persons who have gone away)</i>. +</p> + +<center>ADVERB DERIVATION FROM PREPOSITIONS.</center> + +<p> +<b>120.</b> Adverbs may be derived from prepositions whose sense +permits, by use of the adverb ending <b>-e</b>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Antaŭe li studis la geometrion</b>, <i>previously he studied geometry</i>.<br> +<b>Poste li studis la germanan</b>, <i>afterwards he studied German</i>.<br> +<b>Li marŝis antaŭe, ne malantaŭe</b>, <i>he walked in front, not behind</i>.<br> +<b>Dume la viroj staris ĉirkaŭe</b>, <i>meanwhile the men stood roundabout</i>.<br> +<b>Ili venis kune kaj sidis apude</b>, <i>they came together and sat near by</i>. +</p> + +<center>ADVERBS EXPRESSING DIRECTION OF MOTION.</center> + +<p> +<b>121.</b> An adverb expressing place or direction is given the ending +<b>-n</b> when used with a verb expressing motion toward that place or +direction (<b>69</b>, <b>118</b>, etc.): +</p> + +<p> +<b>Ĉu li rajdis norden aŭ suden?</b> <i>Did he ride north or south(ward)?</i><br> +<b>Ni kuris antaŭen, ne malantaŭen</b>, <i>we ran forward, not back</i>.<br> +<b>La bukedo falis eksteren kaj suben</b>, <i>the bouquet fell out and underneath</i>.<br> +<b>Li estis marŝanta hejmen</b>, <i>he was walking home (homeward)</i>. +</p> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +The adverb may precede the verb and be united with it by simple +juxtaposition, if the resulting word is not too long: <b>Li +hejmeniris</b>, <i>he went home (he "home-went")</i>. <b>Ni +antaŭeniros</b>, <i>we shall advance (go forward)</i>. <b>La bukedo +subenfalis</b>, <i>the bouquet fell underneath</i>. +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<!-- -----------------------------106.png---------------------------- --> + +<center>THE SUFFIX <b>-EG-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>122.</b> The suffix <b>-eg-</b> may be added to a root to augment or +intensify its meaning, thus forming an <i>augmentative</i> of the root: +</p> + +<p> +<b>barelego</b>, <i>hogshead</i> (from <b>barelo</b>, <i>barrel</i>).<br> +<b>bonega</b>, <i>excellent</i> (from <b>bona</b>, <i>good</i>).<br> +<b>malbonege</b>, <i>wickedly, wretchedly</i> (from <b>malbone</b>, <i>badly, poorly</i>).<br> +<b>domego</b>, <i>mansion</i> (from <b>domo</b>, <i>house</i>).<br> +<b>ploregi</b>, <i>to sob, to wail</i> (from <b>plori</b>, <i>to weep</i>).<br> +<b>treege</b>, <i>exceedingly</i> (from <b>tre</b>, <i>very</i>). +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>aer-o</b>, <i>air.</i><br> + <b>danc-i</b>, <i>to dance.</i><br> + <b>fulm-o</b>, <i>lightning.</i><br> + <b>gut-o</b>, <i>drop</i> (of water, etc.).<br> + <b>kie</b>, <i>where</i> (118).<br> + <b>okaz-i</b>, <i>to happen, to occur.</i><br> + <b>okul-o</b>, <i>eye.</i><br> + <b>pec-o</b>, <i>piece.</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>pez-a</b>, <i>heavy.</i><br> + <b>polv-o</b>, <i>dust.</i><br> + <b>sekv-i</b>, <i>to follow.</i><br> + <b>serĉ-i</b>, <i>to hunt for, to search.</i><br> + <b>silent-a</b>, <i>still, silent.</i><br> + <b>subit-a</b>, <i>sudden.</i><br> + <b>tegment-o</b>, <i>roof.</i><br> + <b>tondr-o</b>, <i>thunder.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- -----------------------------107.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>LA PLUVEGO.</b></center> + +<p> +Nu, kia pluvego okazis hieraŭ vespere! Post kvieta varmega mateno, +subite multaj nuboj kovris la ĉielon. La aero ŝajnis peza, kaj +estis tute silenta kelkan tempon. Tiam forte blovanta vento frapegis la +arbojn, kaj komencis fortege skui la branĉojn. Multege da polvo +kaj malgrandaj pecoj da papero dancis kaj flugis ĉirkaŭen en +la aero, kaj ankaŭ ĉielen. Falis tiam kelkaj grandaj gutoj +da pluvo, kaj ni sciis ke la pluvego estas venanta. Ni malfermis niajn +ombrelojn, kaj kuris antaŭen, por iri hejmen antaŭ ol falos +multe da pluvo. La fulmo tiel ofte brilis ke ni fermis la okulojn pro +ĝi, kaj treege ĝin timis. Preskaŭ tuj la tondro sekvis +ĝin. Tondris tiom kaj tiel laŭtege ke la bruo ŝajnis +frapi kontraŭ niajn kapojn. Tiam komencis subite pluvegi, sed je +tiu tempo ni estis preskaŭ sub la tegmento de nia domo. Dume la +vento pli kaj pli blovegis, kaj ju pli forte ĝi blovis, des pli +peze la gutoj da pluvo falis teren, kun multege da bruo. Mi opinias +ke mi malofte antaŭe vidis tian pluvegon. La sekvintan tagon mi +promenis tre frue, kaj vidis ke la pordego al la ĝardeno de mia avo +estas kuŝanta sur la tero. Apude mi vidis ventoflagon falintan de +la tegmento de tiu granda ĉevalejo. Velkintaj floroj kuŝis sur +la tero ĉirkaŭ mi, kaj inter ili estis branĉoj falintaj +de la arboj, ĉar la grandega forto de la vento forrompis eĉ +ĉi tiujn. Sur malgranda branĉo restis nesto, sed kie estis la +birdoj! Mi serĉis la junajn birdojn sed tute ne povis trovi ilin, +tial mi opinias ke ili forflugis antaŭ ol la ventoj forrompis de +la arbo ilian malgrandan hejmon. Mi ne scias kien ili flugis, sed mi +opinias ke ili flugis suden al la arboj en tiu granda kampo trans la +rivero. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------108.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. While we were walking home (121) from school yesterday, it rained +very suddenly. 2. What a storm it was! 3. We were talking about the +lessons in geometry, and were looking at these books about the German +language. 4. So we did not see the clouds in (on) the sky. 5. Well, we +forgot about examinations and began to wonder where to go. 6. We did +not know whether we had enough time to run even to Grandfather's house +before it would rain. 7. Many papers fell out of our books, and the +wind caught them. 8. The wind chased them away from us, and they seemed +to dance around in the air. 9. However, we easily caught and gathered +them, and then we ran forward. 10. Suddenly it thundered very loudly, +and we saw the brilliant lightning in the sky. 11. We almost closed our +eyes for the lightning. 12. Big drops of rain fell heavily and struck +the dust violently. 13. The air was heavy and still then, and the storm +immediately followed the few drops of rain. 14. We hastened across the +street, and ran faster and faster. 15. We were exhausted (<b>122</b>) +and our clothes were exceedingly wet before we were in the house. 16. +The rain was dropping from the roof, but we ran through it, and knocked +on the door. 17. We rested some time here, before going home. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XXVII.</b></center> + +<center>THE INTERROGATIVE TEMPORAL ADVERB</center> + +<p> +<b>123.</b> The interrogative temporal adverb, related to the +interrogative pronoun <b>kiu</b>, is <b>kiam</b>, <i>when, at what +time?</i> +</p> + +<p> +<b>Kiam li serĉos min?</b> <i>When will he look for me?</i><br> +<b>Oni miras kiam li venos</b>, <i>they wonder when he is coming (will come).</i><br> +<b>Kiam falis tiuj gutoj da pluvo?</b> <i>When did those drops of rain fall?</i> +</p> + +<center>THE PERFECT TENSE.</center> + +<p> +<b>124.</b> The compound tense formed by using the past active +participle with the present tense of <b>esti</b> is called the +<i>perfect tense</i>. It differs from the aoristic past tense +(<b>35</b>) and from the imperfect (<b>113</b>) by expressing an act +or condition as definitely completed or perfected. The conjugation of +<b>vidi</b> in the perfect tense is as follows: +</p> + +<p> +<b>mi estas vidinta</b>, <i>I have seen (I am having-seen)</i>.<br> +<b>vi estas vidinta</b>, <i>you have seen (you are having-seen)</i>.<br> +<b>li (ŝi, ĝi) estas vidinta</b>, <i>he (she, it) has seen (is having-seen)</i>.<br> +<b>ni estas vidintaj</b>, <i>we have seen (we are having-seen)</i>.<br> +<b>vi estas vidintaj</b>, <i>you have seen (you are having-seen)</i>.<br> +<b>ili estas vidintaj</b>, <i>they have seen (they are having-seen)</i>. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------109.png---------------------------- --> + +<center>THE PREPOSITION <b>ĈE</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>125.</b> The general situation of a person, object or action is +expressed by the use of the preposition <b>ĉe</b>, <i>at, at the +house of, in the region or land of, among, with</i>, etc.: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Li staris silente ĉe la pordego</b>, <i>he stood silently at the gate</i>.<br> +<b>Li loĝas ĉe mia avo</b>, <i>he lives (dwells) at my grandfather's</i>.<br> +<b>Ili estas ĉe la lernejo</b>, <i>they are at the school</i>.<br> +<b>Li restos ĉe amikoj</b>, <i>he will stay with (at the house of) friends</i>.<br> +<b>Li vizitos ĉe ni morgaŭ</b>, <i>he will visit at-our-house tomorrow</i>. +</p> + +<center>THE SUFFIX <b>-AR-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>126.</b> Words expressing a collection, group or assemblage of +similar persons or things, as <i>forest</i> (collection of trees), +<i>army</i> (assemblage of soldiers), etc., may be formed by the use +of the suffix <b>-ar-</b>. This suffix may itself be used as a root to +form <b>aro</b>, <i>group, flock</i>, etc., <b>are</b>, <i>in a group, +by throngs</i>, etc. Words formed with the suffix <b>-ar-</b> are called +collectives: +</p> + +<p> +<b>arbaro</b>, <i>forest</i> (from <b>arbo</b>, <i>tree</i>).<br> +<b>ĉevalaro</b>, <i>herd of horses</i> (from <b>ĉevalo</b>, <i>horse</i>).<br> +<b>kamparo</b>, <i>country</i> (from <b>kampo</b>, <i>field</i>).<br> +<b>libraro</b>, <i>collection of books, library</i> (from <b>libro</b>, <i>book</i>).<br> +<b>amikaro</b>, <i>circle of friends</i> (from <b>amiko</b>, <i>friend</i>). +</p> + +<center><b>TEMPO</b> AND <b>FOJO</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>127.</b> The general word for "time" in the sense of duration, +or suitability (as "the proper time"), is <b>tempo</b>. The word +<b>fojo</b>, <i>time, occasion</i>, refers to the performance or +occurrence of an act or event, in repetition or series: +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------110.png---------------------------- --> + +<p> +<b>Mi ne havas multe da tempo</b>, <i>I have not much time</i>.<br> +<b>Li venis multajn fojojn, kaj la lastan fojon li restis longan tempon</b>, <i>he came many times, and the last time he remained a long time</i>.<br> +<b>Kelkajn fojojn laŭte tondris</b>, <i>several times it thundered loudly</i>.<br> +<b>Multe da fojoj ni fermis la okulojn pro la fulmo</b>, <i>many times we closed our eyes on account of the lightning</i>. +</p> + +<center>THE ORTHOGRAPHY OF PROPER NOUNS.</center> + +<p> +<b>128.</b> Proper nouns, that is, nouns which are names of persons, +cities, countries, etc., are given Esperanto spelling if they are names +of continents, countries, large or very well-known cities, or if they +are first (Christian) names of persons, as <b>Azio</b>, <i>Asia</i>, +<b>Skotlando</b>, <i>Scotland</i>, <b>Bostono</b>, <i>Boston</i>, +<b>Johano</b>, <i>John</i>, <b>Mario</b>, <i>Mary</i>. Surnames and +names of places which are small or not well known are more often +quoted in the national spelling. The pronunciation may be indicated in +parentheses, as <b>Mt. Vernon</b> (<b>Maŭnt Vernon</b>), <b>Roberto +Bruce</b> (<b>Brus</b>), <b>Martinique</b> (<b>Martinik'</b>), etc. +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>arane-o</b>, <i>spider</i>.<br> + <b>Azi-o</b>, <i>Asia</i>.<br> + <b>ĉe</b>, <i>at</i> (125).<br> + <b>fin-o</b>, <i>end, ending</i>.<br> + <b>foj-o</b>, <i>time, instance</i> (127).<br> + <b>kiam</b>, <i>when</i> (123).<br> + <b>pacienc-o</b>, <i>patience</i>.<br> + <b>pied-o</b>, <i>foot</i>.<br> + <b>plafon-o</b>, <i>ceiling</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>ramp-i</b>, <i>to crawl</i>.<br> + <b>rekt-a</b>, <i>direct, straight</i>.<br> + <b>rimark-i</b>, <i>to notice</i>.<br> + <b>send-i</b>, <i>to send</i>.<br> + <b>Skotland-o</b>, <i>Scotland</i>.<br> + <b>soldat-o</b>, <i>soldier</i>.<br> + <b>sukces-i</b>, <i>to succeed</i>.<br> + <b>supr-e</b>, <i>above</i>.<br> + <b>venk-i</b>, <i>to conquer</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- -----------------------------111.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>ROBERTO BRUCE KAJ LA ARANEO.</b></center> + +<p> +Oni rakontas la sekvantan interesan rakonton pri Roberto Bruce, +reĝo antaŭ multaj jaroj en Skotlando. Okazis ke li estis +rigardanta la soldataron de siaj malamikoj, de la fenestro de granda +ĉevalejo. Por povi rigardi plej facile, kaj ankaŭ por sin +kaŝi, li forsendis siajn soldatojn kaj restis la tutan tagon sub +tiu tegmento. Kvankam la ĉevalejo estis granda ĝi estis +malnova, kaj li opiniis ke la malamikoj ne serĉos lin tie. Je +la fino de la tago li subite rimarkis araneon sur la muro apud si. +La araneo estis rampanta supren, sed baldaŭ ĝi falis en +la polvon ĉe liaj piedoj. Tuj la falinta araneo komencis alian +fojon supren rampi. Alian fojon ĝi falis teren, sed post ne longe +ĝi komencis rampi alian fojon. "Kia pacienco!" diris la reĝo +al si. "Mi ne sciis ke la araneo havas tiel multe da pacienco! Sed +kien ĝi nun estas falinta?" Li rigardis ĉirkaŭen +kaj fine (<i>finally</i>) li vidis la falintan araneon. Kun granda +surprizo li rimarkis ke ĝi estas komencanta supren rampi. +Multajn fojojn ĝi supren rampis, kaj tiom da fojoj ĝi falis +malsupren. Fine, tamen, ĝi sukcese rampis ĝis la plafono. La +reĝo malfermis la buŝon pro surprizo, kaj diris al si "Kiam +antaŭe mi vidis tiom da pacienco! Mi opinias ke la fina sukceso +de tiu malgranda araneo donas al mi bonegan lecionon. Mi estas ofte +malsukcesinta, sed malpli ofte ol tiu araneo sur la muro. Mi estas +perdinta multe da soldatoj, kaj la malamikoj estas venkintaj multajn +fojojn, ĉar ili havas multe pli grandan nombron da soldatoj. +Tamen, mi estos pacienca, ĉar oni ne scias kiam li fine sukcesos." +La sekvintan tagon, la reĝo Roberto Bruce komencis treege labori +kontraŭ siaj malamikoj. Post mallonga tempo li bone sukcesis, +kaj tute venkis la malamikoj en granda venko ĉe Bannockburn +(Banokb'rn). +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------112.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. Although the enemies of Robert Bruce conquered him many times, he +finally conquered them in Scotland, because he was patient and very +courageous. 2. He was sitting in a large stable, to hide (himself), and +also in order to (98) look directly from its roof (at) the soldiery +(126) of the enemy. 3. At the end of the day he noticed a spider +crawling up (ward) on the wall. 4. The spider fell suddenly into the +dust and lay at the king's feet, but soon began to crawl up. 5. "Where +does it wish to go?" said the king to himself. 6. "What patience it +shows! It has crawled up and fallen down a great many times." 7. Finally +however the spider succeeded, and crawled up to the ceiling. 8. The +king said that he had learned a lesson from the patient spider. 9. He +said "Although the enemy have conquered many times, because they have a +larger number of soldiers, I shall finally succeed against them." 10. +Soon it happened that the wind blew violently, and a rainstorm occurred. +11. The blast shook the foliage (126) on the trees, and broke away many +small branches. 12. A group of soldiers ran right (<i>rekte</i>) toward +the stable, and Robert Bruce was much afraid that they would find him. +13. But they merely stole the horses there, and rode away. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XXVIII.</b></center> + +<center>THE INTERROGATIVE ADVERB OF MOTIVE OR REASON.</center> + +<p> +<b>129.</b> The interrogative adverb of motive or reason related to the +interrogative pronoun <b>kiu</b> is <b>kial</b>, <i>why, wherefore, for +what reason</i>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Kial la araneo supren rampis?</b> <i>why did the spider crawl up?</i><br> +<b>Mi demandos kial li rimarkis ĝin</b>, <i>I will ask why he noticed it.</i> +</p> + +<center>THE INFINITIVE AS SUBJECT.</center> + +<p> +<b>130.</b> The infinitive may be used as the subject of a verb. +</p> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +<i>Cf</i>. the complementary infinitive (28), equivalent to the object +of a verb, and the use of the infinitive after the prepositions +<b>por</b>, <b>anstataŭ</b>, <b>antaŭ ol</b> (98). +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<!-- -----------------------------113.png---------------------------- --> + +<p> +Any modifier of the infinitive is necessarily adverbial. An indefinite +personal object (or pronominal complement of a preposition) after +an infinitive used as subject is expressed by the reflexive pronoun +<b>si</b>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Promeni estas granda plezuro</b>, <i>to go walking is a great pleasure</i>.<br> +<b>Promeni estas agrable</b>, <i>to go walking is pleasant</i>.<br> +<b>Ĉu estas facile rigardi la plafonon?</b> <i>Is it easy to look at the ceiling?</i><br> +<b>Estas bone sin helpi</b>, <i>it is well to help oneself</i>.<br> +<b>Paroli al si estas malsaĝe</b>, <i>to talk to oneself is silly</i>. +</p> + +<center>PRESENT ACTION WITH PAST INCEPTION.</center> + +<p> +<b>131.</b> A present act or state which began in the past is expressed +by the present tense (instead of by the past as in English): +</p> + +<p> +<b>Mi estas ĉi tie de lundo</b>, <i>I have been (I am) here since Monday</i>.<br> +<b>De Marto mi studas tiun lingvon</b>, <i>since March I have been (I am) studying that language</i>.<br> +<b>Ili estas amikoj de tiu tago</b>, <i>they have been (they are) friends from that day</i>.<br> +<b>Ni loĝas tie de antaŭ kelkaj monatoj</b>, <i>we have been living (we are living) here since some months ago</i>. +</p> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +<i>Cf.</i> German <i>er ist schon lange hier</i>, he has already been +here a long time, French <i>je suis ici depuis deux ans</i>, I have been +here two years, etc. +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<center>THE SUFFIX <b>-UL-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>132.</b> The suffix <b>-ul-</b> is used to form nouns indicating +a person characterized by or possessing the distinguishing trait, +character or quality in the root: +</p> + +<p> +<b>junulo</b>, <i>a youth, a young man</i> (from <b>juna</b>, <i>young</i>).<br> +<b>belulino</b>, <i>a beauty, a belle</i> (from <b>bela</b>, <i>beautiful</i>).<br> +<b>maljunulo</b>, <i>an old man</i> (from <b>maljuna</b>, <i>old</i>).<br> +<b>saĝulo</b>, <i>a sage, a wise man</i> (from <b>saga</b>, <i>wise</i>).<br> +<b>malriĉulino</b>, <i>a poor woman</i> (from <b>malriĉa</b>, <i>poor</i>). +</p> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +<i>Cf</i>. the English adjectives <i>quer-ul-ous</i>, <i>cred-ul-ous</i>, +<i>garr-ul-ous</i>, etc., and the Latin nouns <i>fam-ul-us</i>, a servant, +<i>fig-ul-us</i>, a potter, and <i>leg-ul-us</i>, a gatherer. +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<!-- -----------------------------114.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>LOĜI</b> AND <b>VIVI</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>133.</b> The verb <b>loĝi</b>, <i>to reside, to dwell, to +lodge</i>, must not be confused with <b>vivi</b>, which means <i>to +live</i> in the sense of "to be alive:" +</p> + +<p> +<b>Li loĝas apude</b>, <i>he lives near by</i>.<br> +<b>Li vivis longan tempon</b>, <i>he lived a long time</i>.<br> +<b>Vivi feliĉe estas pli bone ol loĝi riĉe</b>, <i>to live happily is better than to live (lodge) richly</i>. +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>afabl-a</b>, <i>amiable, affable</i>.<br> + <b>afer-o</b>, <i>thing, matter, affair</i>.<br> + <b>balanc-i</b>, <i>to balance, to nod</i>.<br> + <b>barb-o</b>, <i>beard</i>.<br> + <b>batal-o</b>, <i>battle</i>.<br> + <b>brov-o</b>, <i>eyebrow</i>.<br> + <b>bukl-o</b>, <i>curl</i> (of hair).<br> + <b>har-o</b>, <i>hair</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>kial</b>, <i>why</i> (129).<br> + <b>mejl-o</b>, <i>mile</i>.<br> + <b>okulhar-o</b>, <i>eyelash</i>.<br> + <b>okulvitr-oj</b>, <i>spectacles</i>.<br> + <b>pens-i</b>, <i>to think, to ponder</i>.<br> + <b>vang-o</b>, <i>cheek</i>.<br> + <b>verand-o</b>, <i>porch, veranda</i>.<br> + <b>viv-i</b>, <i>to live</i> (133). + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- -----------------------------115.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>PRI LA AVO KAJ LA AVINO.</b></center> + +<p> +Mia avo estas tre afabla persono. Li estas maljunulo kun blankaj haroj +kaj blanka barbo. Li havas bluajn okulojn, kaj la brovoj super ili +estas eĉ pli blankaj ol liaj haroj. Kvankam li loĝas en nia +vilaĝo de antaŭ kelkaj jaroj, li antaŭe loĝis en +Skotlando. Antaŭ multaj jaroj li estis soldato, kaj li ofte parolas +al mi pri la bataloj kaj venkoj de tiu tempo. Sidi kviete sur la verando +kaj rakonti tiajn rakontojn al la nepo ŝajne donas al li multe da +plezuro. Multajn fojojn je la fino de la tago li sidas tie, kaj parolas +pri tiaj aferoj ĝis malfrua horo de la vespero. Sidi ĉe liaj +piedoj kaj aŭdi liajn rakontojn estas tre interese al mi. Komence, +dum mi estas ĉe li, mi kutime demandas "Ĉu oni sukcesis en +tiu batalo?" Tuj li balancas la kapon kaj komencas pacience rakonti pri +la venkoj kaj malvenkoj (<i>defeats</i>). Li malofte respondas "Mi ne +scias," al miaj demandoj "Kiam," kaj "Kial." Kelkajn fojojn li diras "Mi +havas tiun opinion, sed mi ne bone scias pri la tuta afero, kaj mi miras +ĉu aliaj personoj scias pli bone." Ĉar li estas multe studinta +kaj pensinta, liaj opinioj estas treege interesaj. Li ĝojas tial +ke mi demandas pri aferoj okazintaj (<i>things that have happened</i>), +ĉar tiaj demandoj montras ke mi ankaŭ pensas pri ili. Mia +avino estas malgranda, kun belaj bukloj da tute blankaj haroj. Ŝi +havas belajn brunajn okulojn, kun longaj nigraj okulharoj. Oni diras +ke antaŭ multaj jaroj ŝi estis belulino. Eĉ nun estas +plezure rigardi ŝin, kaj vidi ŝiajn ruĝajn vangojn. De +antaŭ kelkaj jaroj ŝi portas okulvitrojn por legi aŭ +skribi aŭ kudri, kaj ŝi bezonas ripozon post malmulte da +laboro. Promeno de eĉ mejlo estas tro longa nun por la avino. +Oni diras ke ŝi ne vivos tre longan tempon, kaj tia penso donas +malĝojon al ni, ĉar ni treege amas la afablan paciencan +avinon. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------116.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. Our grandfather is an old man, and they say that he will not live +much longer. 2. He is not very strong, and can not take (<i>fari</i>) +long walks. 3. The mile between his house and ours now seems long to +him. 4. He prefers to sit quietly in the house or on the veranda, and +think, nearly all day long (the whole day). 5. He is very amiable, +and can tell exceedingly interesting stories, about the victories and +defeats which happened (119) many years ago. 6. Such things are wicked I +think, and I am very glad that (83) such battles do not happen now. 7. +Grandfather has a long white beard and much white hair. 8. It is very +interesting to hear his stories, and also to look directly at him while +he is telling them. 9. He tells such stories with great pleasure. 10. +Although he has lived with (125) us since February (131), he does not +know (117) a great many of the neighbors, or of the other persons living +(133) near. 11. Grandmother has blue eyes, red cheeks, and soft white +curls. 12. She speaks slowly, with a sweet voice, and is very patient. +13. Today she said to me "Good morning, my dear (132), I have lost my +spectacles. Will you look-for them for me?" I nodded (the head) and soon +found the spectacles. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XXIX.</b></center> + +<center>THE INTERROGATIVE ADVERB OF MANNER AND DEGREE.</center> + +<p> +<b>134.</b> The interrogative adverb of manner or degree, related to the +interrogative pronoun <b>kiu</b>, is <b>kiel</b>, <i>how, in what way, +to what degree:</i> +</p> + +<p> +<b>Kiel oni vivas en tia aero?</b> <i>How do people live in such air?</i><br> +<b>Kiel afabla ŝi estas!</b> <i>How amiable she is!</i><br> +<b>Mi miras kiel la batalo okazis</b>, <i>I wonder how the battle happened.</i><br> +<b>Kiel longe li pensis pri ĝi?</b> <i>How long did he think about it?</i> +</p> + +<center>THE PLUPERFECT TENSE.</center> + +<p> +<b>135.</b> The compound tense formed by combining the past active +participle with the past tense of <b>esti</b> represents an act or +condition as having been completed at some time in the past, and is +called the <i>pluperfect tense</i>. The conjugation of <b>vidi</b> in +this tense is as follows: +</p> + +<p> +<b>mi estis vidinta</b>, <i>I had seen (I was having-seen).</i><br> +<b>vi estis vidinta</b>, <i>you had seen (you were having-seen).</i><br> +<b>li (ŝi, ĝi) estis vidinta</b>, <i>he (she, it) had seen (was having-seen).</i><br> +<b>ni estis vidintaj</b>, <i>we had seen (we were having-seen).</i><br> +<b>vi estis vidintaj</b>, <i>you had seen (you were having-seen).</i><br> +<b>ili estis vidintaj</b>, <i>they had seen (they were having-seen).</i> +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------117.png---------------------------- --> + +<center>CARDINAL NUMERALS.</center> + +<p> +<b>136.</b> Cardinals are numeral adjectives which answer the question +"How many?" The cardinals from one to twelve are as follows: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>unu</b>, <i>one.</i><br> + <b>du</b>, <i>two.</i><br> + <b>tri</b>, <i>three.</i><br> + <b>kvar</b>, <i>four.</i><br> + <b>kvin</b>, <i>five.</i><br> + <b>ses</b>, <i>six.</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>sep</b>, <i>seven.</i><br> + <b>ok</b>, <i>eight.</i><br> + <b>naŭ</b>, <i>nine.</i><br> + <b>dek</b>, <i>ten.</i><br> + <b>dek unu</b>, <i>eleven.</i><br> + <b>dek du</b>, <i>twelve.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<p> +<b>137.</b> With the exception of <b>unu</b>, none of the cardinals may +receive the plural ending <b>-j</b> or the accusative ending <b>-n</b>. +That is, they are invariable in form. <b>Unuj</b> may be used to mean +<i>some</i> in contrast to <b>aliaj</b>, <i>others:</i> +</p> + +<p> +<b>Unuj marŝis</b>, aliaj kuris, <i>some walked, others ran.</i><br> +<b>Mi prenis unujn kaj lasis la aliajn</b>, <i>I took some and left the others.</i> +</p> + +<p> +<b>138.</b> The preposition <b>el</b> is used after numeral adjectives +expressing a number <i>out of</i> some larger number or quantity: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Ses el la knaboj venis</b>, <i>six of the boys came.</i><br> +<b>Ok el tiuj libroj estas la miaj</b>, <i>eight of those books are mine.</i><br> +<b>El tiuj ĉapeloj mi ŝatas nur unu</b>, <i>of those hats I like only one.</i> +</p> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +The cardinal <b>unu</b> must not be used in the sense of the English +pronominal "one," as in <i>I am searching for a book, but not the one on +the table</i>, which should be translated <b>Mi serĉas libron, sed +ne tiun sur la tablo.</b> +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<!-- -----------------------------118.png---------------------------- --> + +<center>THE ACCUSATIVE OF MEASURE.</center> + +<p> +<b>139.</b> A substantive in the accusative case may be used, instead +of a prepositional phrase or an adverb, not only to express measure +(duration) of time (91), but also to express measure of weight, price, +length, etc.: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Li marŝis dek unu mejlojn</b>, <i>he walked eleven miles</i>.<br> +<b>La parko estas larĝa tri mejlojn, kaj longa kvar mejlojn</b>, <i>the park is three miles wide and four miles long</i>.<br> +<b>La tablo pezas dek du funtojn</b>, <i>the table weighs (is heavy) twelve pounds</i>. +</p> + +<center><b>NIA FAMILIO.</b></center> + +<p> +Mi rakontos al vi kian familion ni havas. Ni estas ses personoj kaj ni +loĝas en ĉi tiu domo de antaŭ preskaŭ kvar jaroj. +Antaŭ ol veni ĉi tien al la urbo, ni estis loĝintaj +tri jarojn en kvieta vilaĝo en la kamparo. Mia patro estas alta, +kun grizaj haroj kaj griza barbo. Kvankam li ne estas riĉulo, li +tamen havas sufiĉe da mono por vivi kontente kaj feliĉe. Li +ŝatas marŝi, kaj ofte li estas marŝinta kvin aŭ ses +mejlojn por unu promeno. Unu fojon mi demandis "Kiel vi povas marŝi +tiel multe?" Li respondis "Dum mi estis junulo mi estis soldato, kaj +tiam mi estis tre multe marŝanta. Tial mi ne forgesas la plezurojn +de longaj promenoj." La patrino estas malpli alta ol mi, kaj kiel bluajn +okulojn ŝi havas, sub nigraj okulharoj kaj nigraj brovoj! Ŝiaj +haroj estas nigraj kaj buklaj, kaj ŝiaj vangoj estas ruĝaj. +Ŝi havas dolĉan voĉon, kaj estas plezuro aŭdi +ŝiajn kantojn. Por legi aŭ skribi ŝi kutime portas +okulvitrojn. Mi havas du fratojn kaj unu fratinon. La fratino havas dek +unu jarojn. +</p> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +Like French and some other languages, Esperanto commonly uses the verb +<i>to have</i> rather than the verb <i>to be</i>, in expressing age: Li +havas sep jarojn, <i>he is seven years old (he has seven years)</i>. +Mi havis dek jarojn tiam, <i>I was ten years old (I had ten years) +then</i>. +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<!-- -----------------------------119.png---------------------------- --> + +<p> +Unu el la fratoj havas ok jarojn, la alia havas dek du jarojn. Ili povas +bonege kuri, rajdi, kaj fari aliajn interesajn aferojn. Ili lernis +siajn lecionojn en la lernejo tiel bone ke ses fojojn en unu monato +oni laŭdis ilin. Ni multe ĝojis pri tiom da laŭdo por +la fratoj. La fratino estas malpli forta, tamen ŝi ofte promenas +kun ni eĉ du aŭ tri mejlojn. La avino ankaŭ loĝas +ĉe ni de antaŭ sep aŭ ok jaroj. Unu el ni kutime restas +ĉe la hejmo kun ŝi, dum la aliaj promenas, ĉar ŝi ne +estas sufiĉe forta por marŝi eĉ unu mejlon. Mi ofte miras +kial ŝi preferas sidi sur la verando, kaj mi demandas al ŝi +"Ĉu vi estas tro laca por marŝi?" Ŝi kutime balancas la +kapon kaj diras "Jes, mia nepo, mi estas tro laca." +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. Three and four make seven. 2. Two and six make eight. Five and six +make eleven. 3. Seven and five make twelve. 4. I have been studying +geometry since five months ago, and German since January. 5. I have read +three German books, but I shall not be able to talk in this language +until after August. 6. To learn how to speak such a language is a +difficult matter. 7. Nine of the children in our school are now studying +German with me. 8. Some learn it easily, others do not like it. 9. Three +of the boys and two of the girls in that school are German. 10. They +had resided four years in a large city, but I think (that) they live +more contentedly in our quiet village. 11. They can not talk with us +very well, but merely nod their heads when we talk to them. 12. I had +not seen them before they came to school, although they are neighbors +of ours. 13. They are amiable children, with blue eyes, red cheeks, and +yellow hair. 14. They can ride very well, and often ride eight or ten +miles in one day. 15. They usually ride in a park three miles wide and +four miles long, where there is but little (<i>nur malmulte da</i>) +dust. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------120.png---------------------------- --> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XXX.</b></center> + +<center>THE INTERROGATIVE ADVERB OF QUANTITY.</center> + +<p> +<b>140.</b> The interrogative adverb of quantity related to the +interrogative pronoun <b>kiu</b> is <b>kiom</b>, <i>how much, how +many</i>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Kiom da tempo vi ripozis?</b> <i>How much time did you rest?</i><br> +<b>Kiom da sukero kaj kiom da fragoj vi aĉetis?</b> <i>How much sugar and how many strawberries did you buy?</i><br> +<b>Ni miras kiom da mono li havos</b>, <i>we wonder how much money he will have</i>.<br> +<b>Kiom de la leciono vi lernis?</b> <i>How much of the lesson did you learn?</i> +</p> + +<center>MODIFIERS OF IMPERSONALLY USED VERBS.</center> + +<p> +<b>141.</b> Any modifier of an impersonal verb (<b>50</b>) or of a +verb used impersonally, that is, with an infinitive or clause for its +subject, or without any definitely expressed or personal subject (as in +"it is cold," "it seems too early"), must necessarily be adverbial: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Estas varme en la domo</b>, <i>it is warm in the house.</i><br> +<b>Estos malvarme morgaŭ</b>, <i>it will be cold tomorrow.</i><br> +<b>Estas bone ke li venis</b>, <i>it is well that he came.</i><br> +<b>Estas amuze ke ni forgesis lin</b>, <i>it is amusing that we forgot him.</i><br> +<b>Ke vi venis estis tre saĝe</b>, <i>that you came was very wise.</i><br> +<b>Estos pli agrable en la salono</b>, <i>it will be pleasanter in the parlor.</i> +</p> + +<center>FORMATION OF CARDINAL NUMERALS.</center> + +<p> +<b>142.</b> The cardinal numerals for the tens, hundreds and thousands +are formed by prefixing <b>du</b>, <b>tri</b>, <b>kvar</b>, etc., to +<b>dek</b>, <i>ten</i>, <b>cent</b>, <i>hundred</i>, and <b>mil</b>, +<i>thousand</i>, respectively. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------121.png---------------------------- --> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellpadding="8"> + <tr><td nowrap colspan="2" align="center">Tens.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>dudek</b>, <i>twenty</i>.<br> + <b>tridek</b>, <i>thirty</i>.<br> + <b>kvardek</b>, <i>forty</i>.<br> + <b>kvindek</b>, <i>fifty</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>sesdek</b>, <i>sixty</i>.<br> + <b>sepdek</b>, <i>seventy</i>.<br> + <b>okdek</b>, <i>eighty</i>.<br> + <b>naŭdek</b>, <i>ninety</i>. + </td> + </tr> + <tr><td nowrap align="center">Hundreds.</td><td nowrap align="center">Thousands.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>ducent</b>, <i>two hundred</i>.<br> + <b>kvincent</b>, <i>five hundred</i>.<br> + <b>sepcent</b>, <i>seven hundred</i>, etc. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>trimil</b>, <i>three thousand</i>.<br> + <b>kvarmil</b>, <i>four thousand</i>.<br> + <b>sesmil</b>, <i>six thousand</i>, etc. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<p> +<b>143.</b> The cardinals between ten and twenty, twenty and thirty, +etc., are formed by placing <b>unu, du, tri</b>, etc., after <b>dek, +dudek, tridek</b>, etc. (<i>Cf</i>. <b>dek unu</b>, <i>eleven</i>, +<b>dek du</b>, <i>twelve</i>, <b>136</b>): +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>dek kvar</b>, <i>fourteen</i>.<br> + <b>dek naŭ</b>, <i>nineteen</i>.<br> + <b>dudek tri</b>, <i>twenty-three</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>tridek kvin</b>, <i>thirty-five</i>.<br> + <b>sepdek ok</b>, <i>seventy-eight</i>.<br> + <b>naŭdek ses</b>, <i>ninety-six</i>, etc. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<p> +<b>144.</b> Cardinals containing more than two figures begin with the +largest number and descend regularly, as in English: +</p> + +<p> +<b>cent tridek kvin</b>, <i>one hundred and thirty-five</i>.<br> +<b>kvarcent naŭdek sep</b>, <i>four hundred and ninety-seven</i>.<br> +<b>sescent du</b>, <i>six hundred and two</i>.<br> +<b>mil okdek</b>, <i>one thousand and eighty</i>.<br> +<b>mil naucent dek du</b>, <i>one thousand nine hundred and twelve (nineteen hundred and twelve)</i>. +</p> + +<center>THE SUFFIX <b>-AN-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>145.</b> The suffix <b>-an-</b> is used to form words indicating an +inhabitant or resident of the place denoted by the root, or a member +or adherent of the party, organization, etc., denoted by the root. The +suffix <b>-an-</b> may itself be used as a root, forming <b>ano</b>, +<i>member</i>, etc. +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>bostonano</b>, <i>Bostonian</i>.<br> + <b>kamparano</b>, <i>countryman, peasant</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>domano</b>, <i>inmate of a house</i>.<br> + <b>vilaĝano</b>, <i>villager</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +<i>Cf</i>. English <i>urb-an</i>, <i>suburb-an</i>, <i>Rom-an</i>, +<i>republic-an</i>, <i>Mohammed-an</i>, etc. +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<!-- -----------------------------122.png---------------------------- --> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>aritmetik-o</b>, <i>arithmetic.</i><br> + <b>cent</b>, <i>hundred</i> (142).<br> + <b>erar-o</b>, <i>error, mistake.</i><br> + <b>grad-o</b>, <i>grade, degree. </i><br> + <b>kalkul-i</b>, <i>to calculate, to reckon.</i><br> + <b>kiom</b>, <i>how much (140).</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>memor-i</b>, <i>to remember.</i><br> + <b>mil</b>, <i>thousand</i> (142).<br> + <b>minut-o</b>, <i>minute.</i><br> + <b>ricev-i</b>, <i>to receive.</i><br> + <b>sekund-o</b>, <i>second.</i><br> + <b>superjar-o</b>, <i>leap-year.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- -----------------------------123.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>LECIONO PRI ARITMETIKO.</b></center> + +<p> +Estas malvarme hodiaŭ, kaj tute ne agrable ekster la domo. La +urbanoj ne estas promenantaj en la parko, ĉar ili preferas resti +en la domoj. Mi ankaŭ restis en la domo, kaj parolis al mia +juna frato. Mi helpis lin pri la leciono en aritmetiko, tial ke li +baldaŭ havos ekzamenojn, kaj li volas esti preta por skribi tre +bonajn respondojn. Mi demandis al li "Kiom faras dek tri kaj dek kvar?" +Li respondis ke tiuj faras dudek sep. Tiam mi demandis kiom faras +dudek unu kaj tridek kvar. Li kalkulis kvin aŭ ses sekundojn, +per mallaŭta voĉo, kaj diris "Ili faras kvindek kvin." Mi +demandis kiom faras ducent tri kaj sepcent ok, kaj li respondis ke ili +faras naŭcent dek unu. Li tute ne faris erarojn al mi, kaj fine mi +diris al li ke li povas bonege kalkuli. Mi opinias ke li ricevos bonan +gradon en la ekzamenoj. Post kelkaj minutoj ni komencis paroli pri aliaj +aferoj. Mi demandis "Kiom da tagoj en la monato septembro?" La frato +respondis "Septembro, novembro, aprilo kaj junio havas tridek tagojn. +Kvankam tiuj monatoj havas tiom da tagoj, la aliaj monatoj havas tridek +unu tagojn. Sed la monato februaro havas nur dudek ok tagojn." Estas +interese lerni pri ĉi tiu monato februaro. Dum tri jaroj ĝi +havas dudek ok tagojn, sed en la sekvanta jaro ĝi havas dudek +naŭ tagojn. La jaro havanta tian februaron estas la "superjaro." +Mi rakontis tiun interesan aferon al la frato, kaj li diris ke li bone +memoros ĝin. Li diris ke li ne antaŭe sciis pri la superjaro. +Li ne sciis ke la superjaro havas tricent sesdek ses tagojn, kvankam +la aliaj jaroj havas nur tricent sesdek kvin tagojn. Li diris ke li +ankaŭ memoros pri la nombro da tagoj en la superjaro, kaj ke li +rakontos la aferon al la aliaj knaboj. +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. (To be written out in full): 14, 18, 42, 86, 79, 236, 431, 687, 788, +1240, 1885, 9872, 4500, 1912. 2. There are twelve months in a year, and +in most of the months of the year there are thirty-one days. 3. There +are only thirty days in the months April, June, September and November. +4. There are seven days in a week, and twenty-four hours in a day. 5. +Twelve of these hours make the day, and the others make the night. 6. +There are sixty minutes in one hour, and sixty seconds in one minute. +7. There are four weeks and also two or three days in one month. 8. +In the year there are fifty-two weeks. 9. How many weeks are there in +ten years? 10. At least one year in ten years is a leap-year. 11. In a +leap-year there are three hundred and sixty-six days, instead of three +hundred and sixty-five. 12. Wise men calculated about this matter, many +years ago. 13. It is well for us that they liked to study arithmetic. +15. I have often received good grades in this study. 16. I remember it +easily, and seldom make mistakes. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------124.png---------------------------- --> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XXXI.</b></center> + +<center>THE RELATIVE PRONOUN.</center> + +<p> +<b>146.</b> A connecting pronoun referring to something which precedes +(or follows) is called a <i>relative pronoun</i>. The person or thing to +which it refers is called its <i>antecedent.</i> The relative pronoun, +identical in form with the interrogative pronoun (106), as in English, +is <b>kiu</b>, <i>which, who.</i> +</p> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +Sometimes English uses "that" for a relative pronoun, as "I saw the book +<i>that</i> you have." This must always be translated by <b>kiu</b>. +Likewise, English sometimes omits the relative pronoun, as "I saw the +book you have." The relative pronoun is never thus omitted in Esperanto. +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<p> +The relative pronoun agrees <i>in number</i> with its antecedent. +Whether it is in the accusative case or not depends upon its relation to +its own verb or to other words in its own clause (called the relative +clause): +</p> + +<p> +<b>La junuloj, kiuj venis, estas afablaj</b>, <i>the youths who came are amiable.</i><br> +<b>La personoj, kiujn li vidos, estas amikoj miaj</b>, <i>the persons (whom) he will see are friends of mine.</i><br> +<b>Mi kalkulis la gradon, kiun li ricevos</b>, <i>I calculated the grade (which) he will receive.</i><br> +<b>Mi memoras tiun aferon, pri kiu vi parolas</b>, <i>I remember that matter about which you speak.</i> +</p> + +<p> +<b>147.</b> Like English "whose" the genitive form <b>kies</b> of the +interrogative pronoun (107) is also used as a relative, referring to a +substantive (singular or plural) for its antecedent: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Li estas la viro, kies libron vi trovis</b>, <i>he is the man whose book you found.</i><br> +<b>Mi konas la infanojn, kies patro estas amiko via</b>, <i>I know the children whose father is a friend of yours.</i> +</p> + +<center>THE FUTURE PERFECT TENSE.</center> + +<p> +<b>148.</b> The compound tense formed by combining the past participle +with the future tense of the auxiliary verb <b>esti</b> represents +an act or condition as having been already completed or perfected at +a future time, and is called the <i>future perfect tense.</i> The +conjugation of <b>vidi</b> in this tense is as follows: +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------125.png---------------------------- --> + +<p> +<b>mi estos vidinta</b>, <i>I shall have seen (I shall be having-seen).</i><br> +<b>vi estos vidinta</b>, <i>you will have seen (you will be having-seen).</i><br> +<b>li (ŝi, ĝi) estos vidinta</b>, <i>he (she, it) will have seen (will be having-seen).</i><br> +<b>ni estos vidintaj</b>, <i>we shall have seen (shall be having-seen).</i><br> +<b>vi estos vidintaj</b>, <i>you will have seen (will be having-seen).</i><br> +<b>ili estos vidintaj</b>, <i>they will have seen (will be having-seen).</i> +</p> + +<center>ORDINAL NUMERALS.</center> + +<p> +<b>149.</b> Ordinal numerals are adjectives which answer the question +"Which in order?" as "first", "third", etc. They are formed by adding +the adjectival suffix <b>-a</b> to the cardinals. The various parts +of an ordinal must be connected by hyphens, since it is to the entire +cardinal, and not any part of it, that the adjective ending <b>-a</b> is +attached: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>unua</b>, <i>first.</i><br> + <b>dua</b>, <i>second.</i><br> + <b>tria</b>, <i>third.</i><br> + <b>oka</b>, <i>eighth.</i><br> + <b>dek-unua</b>, <i>eleventh.</i><br> + <b>dek-naŭa</b>, <i>nineteenth.</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>dudek-sepa</b>, <i>twenty-seventh.</i><br> + <b>kvardek-sesa</b>, <i>forty-sixth.</i><br> + <b>cent-okdek-kvina</b>, <i>hundred and eighty-fifth.</i><br> + <b>mil-okcent-kvara</b>, <i>one thousand eight hundred and fourth.</i><br> + <b>sesmil-sepa</b>, <i>six thousand and seventh.</i><br> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +Ordinal numerals may be abbreviated thus: <b>la</b>, <i>1st</i>, +<b>2a</b>, <i>2nd</i>, <b>3a</b>, <i>3rd</i>, <b>5a</b>, <i>5th</i>, +<b>1912a</b>, <i>1912th</i>, <b>233a</b>, <i>233rd</i>, etc. If the +ordinal number is used in an accusative construction, the abbreviation +is given the accusative ending, as <b>lan</b>, <b>2an</b>, <b>3an</b>, +<b>1912an</b>, etc. +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>angl-a</b>, <i>English.</i><br> + <b>dezir-i</b>, <i>to desire.</i><br> + <b>dolar-o</b>, <i>dollar.</i><br> + <b>gajn-i</b>, <i>to win, to gain.</i><br> + <b>kost-i</b>, <i>to cost.</i><br> + <b>last-a</b>, <i>last.</i><br> + <b>latin-a</b>, <i>Latin.</i><br> + <b>mar-o</b>, <i>sea.</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>neces-a</b>, <i>necessary.</i><br> + <b>paf-i</b>, <i>to shoot.</i><br> + <b>pafark-o</b>, <i>bow</i> (for shooting).<br> + <b>part-o</b>, <i>part, share.</i><br> + <b>pen-i</b>, <i>to strive, to try.</i><br> + <b>traduk-i</b>, <i>to translate.</i><br> + <b>sag-o</b>, <i>arrow.</i><br> + <b>sam-a</b>, <i>same.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center><b>ALFREDO GRANDA KAJ LA LIBRO.</b></center> + +<!-- -----------------------------126.png---------------------------- --> + +<p> +Antaŭ pli multe ol mil jaroj vivis Alfredo Granda, unu el la +plej interesaj personoj pri kiuj ni estas aŭdintaj. Li estis la +unua angla reĝo, kiu deziris legi librojn. Li estis ankaŭ +la lasta, kiu povis legi ilin, ĝis post multaj jaroj. Unu tagon, +dum li estis malgranda knabo kun flavaj buklaj haroj, lia patrino, +tre saĝa reĝino, montris al li kaj al liaj fratoj belegan +libron. Ŝi diris ke la libro kostis multe da mono en lando trans +la maro, kaj ke ĝi nun apartenas al ŝi. Si diris "Miaj filoj, +mi donos ĉi tiun libron al tiu el vi, kiu lernos legi ĝin. +Kiu el vi estos la unua, kiu povos legi? Tiu ricevos la libron." Nu, +Alfredo komencis studi, kaj post ne longe li gajnis la belegan libron. +Liaj fratoj eĉ ne penis gajni ĝin. Tiam oni tre malmulte +pensis pri libroj. La reĝoj kaj iliaj filoj nur malofte povis +legi, kaj treege malofte povis skribi. Oni laŭdis nur personojn, +kiuj bone rajdis kaj batalis per sagoj kaj pafarkoj. Sed oni opiniis +ke tute ne estis necese scii pri la aferoj, kiujn la libroj rakontas. +Tial Alfredo ne ricevis laŭdon pro sia deziro por legi. La sesan +aŭ sepan jaron post sia ricevo de la libro, Alfredo volis lerni +la latinan lingvon, ĉar tiam oni skribis latine (<i>in Latin</i>) +la librojn, kiuj estis plej bonaj. Oni serĉis ĝis la finoj +de la lando, kaj iris multajn mejlojn, sed preskaŭ ne povis trovi +personon, kiu eĉ estis aŭdinta pri tia lingvo. Fine oni trovis +personon por helpi Alfredon, kiu tiam lernis la latinan lingvon. Tiu +sama Alfredo estis reĝo multajn jarojn, kaj estis unu el la plej +bonaj reĝoj, kiujn la angla lando estas havinta. Alfredo skribis +librojn en la latina lingvo, kaj ankaŭ tradukis latinajn librojn en +la anglan lingvon. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------127.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. (To be written out in full): 37th, 59th, 73rd, 92nd, 846th, 119th, +1274th, 1910th, 14235th. 2. Before my friend will have finished that +mansion (122), it will have cost twenty thousand dollars. 3. Before +coming to visit you, I shall have ridden twelve miles on my horse. 4. +The grade which you will have received in arithmetic soon after the +first of March will be excellent. 5. You do not make mistakes very +often in the lessons. 6. I shall try after a few minutes to translate +that Latin book, for (<i>ĉar</i>) it seems interesting. 7. It is +necessary to study Latin, for I desire to read the stories which are +in my Latin book. 8. The one thousand nine hundred and fourth year was +a leap-year. 9. The fourth year after that year was also a leap-year. +10. The 1912th year will be a leap-year. There are three hundred and +sixty-six days in such a year. 12. Alfred won the book which his mother +had bought. 13. Such a book now costs four or five hundred dollars. 14. +Alfred the Great was the last king until many years afterward (until +after many years) who could read or write. 15. He was the first king +in that land who even wished to be able to read books. 16. We often +talk about this same King Alfred, and say that he was the father of +the English language. 17. People say so (<i>diras tiel</i>) because he +translated Latin books into the language of his land, and because he +also wrote books in that language. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XXXII.</b></center> + +<center><b>KIA</b> AS A RELATIVE ADJECTIVE.</center> + +<p> +<b>150.</b> The interrogative adjective <b>kia</b> (112) is also used +as a relative adjective, referring back to <b>tia,</b> or to some +equivalent phrase or word indicating quality, such as <b>sama</b>, etc. +In this use it may often be translated "as", or "which": +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------128.png---------------------------- --> + +<p> +<b>Mi havas tian libron, kian mi volas</b>, <i>I have such a (that kind of) book as (which kind) I wish.</i><br> +<b>Tiaj amikoj, kiajn vi havas, estas afablaj</b>, <i>such friends as (of which kind) you have are amiable.</i><br> +<b>Li deziras tian ĉapelon, kia kostas ses dolarojn</b>, <i>he desires that kind of hat which (kind) costs six dollars.</i><br> +<b>Mi havas la saman deziron, kian vi</b>, <i>I have the same desire as you (same kind which you have).</i> +</p> + +<center><b>KIE</b> AS A RELATIVE ADVERB.</center> + +<p> +<b>151.</b> The interrogative adverb <b>kie</b>, <b>kien</b> (118) is +also used as a relative adverb of place with <b>tie</b>, <b>tien</b>, or +some other expression of place for its antecedent. +</p> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +Any interrogative adverb may also be used to introduce an indirect +question, thus serving as a subordinating conjunction (<i>cf.</i> +<b>ĉu</b>). +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<p> +<b>Kien</b> is used when the verb in the relative clause expresses +motion toward the place indicated, whether or not its antecedent has +this ending. Similarly, <b>kie</b> may refer to <b>tie</b> or to +<b>tien</b>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Mi iros tien, kie vi estas</b>, <i>I shall go there where you are.</i><br> +<b>Mi estis tie, kien vi iros</b>, <i>I was there (at that place) where you will go.</i><br> +<b>Mi iros tien, kien vi iris</b>, <i>I shall go to that place to which you went (I shall go where you went).</i><br> +<b>Mi trovis lin en la urbo, kie li loĝas</b>, <i>I found him in the city where he lives.</i><br> +<b>Ĉu vi venos ĉi tien, kie ni estas?</b> <i>Are you coming here where we are?</i> +</p> + +<center>THE FUTURE ACTIVE PARTICIPLE.</center> + +<p> +<b>152.</b> The future active participle, expressing what the +word modified will do or is about to do, ends in <b>-onta,</b> as +<b>vidonta</b>, <i>about to see</i>, <b>ironta</b>, <i>about to go</i>: +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------129.png---------------------------- --> + +<p> +<b>La forironta viro vokis sian serviston</b>, <i>the man going to depart (the about-to-depart man) called his servant.</i><br> +<b>La virino salutonta vin estas tre afabla</b>, <i>the woman about to greet you is very affable.</i><br> +<b>La venonta monato estas marto</b>, <i>the coming month is March.</i><br> +<b>La venontan semajnon mi foriros</b>, <i>the coming (next) week I shall depart.</i> +</p> + +<center>THE PERIPHRASTIC FUTURE TENSES.</center> + +<p> +<b>153.</b> The compound tenses formed by combining the future active +participle with each of the three aoristic tenses of <b>esti</b> +represent an act or state as about to occur in the present, past, or +future, respectively, and are called <i>periphrastic future tenses.</i> +Except when great accuracy is desired, these tenses are not often used. +A synopsis of <b>vidi</b> in the first person singular and plural of +these tenses is as follows: +</p> + +<!-- + + Present Periphrastic Future. + + mi estas vidonta, ni estas vidontaj, + I am about to (going we are about to (going + to) see. to) see. + + Past Periphrastic Future. + + mi estis vidonta, ni estis vidontaj, + I was about to (going we were about to (going + to) see. to) see. + + Future Periphrastic Future. + + mi estos vidonta, ni estos vidontaj, + I shall be about to (going we shall be about to (going + to) see. to) see. + +--> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr><td nowrap align="center" colspan="2">Present Periphrastic Future.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>mi estas vidonta</b>,<br> + <i>I am about to (going to) see.</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>ni estas vidontaj</b>,<br> + <i>we are about to (going to) see.</i> + </td> + </tr> + <tr><td nowrap align="center" colspan="2">Past Periphrastic Future.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>mi estis vidonta</b>,<br> + <i>I was about to (going to) see.</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>ni estis vidontaj</b>,<br> + <i>we were about to (going to) see.</i> + </td> + </tr> + <tr><td nowrap align="center" colspan="2">Future Periphrastic Future.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>mi estos vidonta</b>,<br> + <i>I shall be about to (going to) see.</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>ni estos vidontaj</b>,<br> + <i>we shall be about to (going to) see.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center>THE SUFFIX <b>-IND-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>154.</b> The suffix <b>-ind-</b> is used to form words expressing +<i>worthy of, deserving of,</i> that which is indicated in the root. +It may also be used as a root, to form <b>inda</b>, <i>worthy</i>, +<b>malinda</b>, <i>unworthy</i>, <b>indo</b>, <i>worth, merit,</i> etc.: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>dezirinda</b>, <i>desirable.</i><br> + <b>laŭdinda</b>, <i>praiseworthy. </i><br> + <b>mallaŭdinda</b>, <i>blameworthy.</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>rimarkinda</b>, <i>noteworthy, remarkable.</i><br> + <b>ridinde</b>, <i>ridiculously, laughably.</i><br> + <b>tradukinda</b>, <i>worth translating.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- -----------------------------130.png---------------------------- --> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>ankoraŭ</b>, <i>still, yet.</i><br> + <b>atak-i</b>, <i>to attack.</i><br> + <b>bat-i</b>, <i>to beat.</i><br> + <b>cert-a</b>, <i>sure, certain.</i><br> + <b>defend-i</b>, <i>to defend.</i><br> + <b>difekt-i</b>, <i>to spoil.</i><br> + <b>edz-o</b>, <i>husband.</i><br> + <b>fajr-o</b>, <i>fire.</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>flar-i</b>, <i>to smell.</i><br> + <b>gast-o</b>, <i>guest.</i><br> + <b>ho!</b> <i>Oh!</i><br> + <b>kri-i</b>, <i>to exclaim, to cry.</i><br> + <b>kruel-a</b>, <i>cruel.</i><br> + <b>kuk-o</b>, <i>cake.</i><br> + <b>lign-o</b>, <i>wood.</i><br> + <b>suspekt-i</b>, <i>to suspect.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +The adverb <b>ankoraŭ</b> expresses the ideas "until and during +the present time", "in the future as now and before", "in constant or +uniform succession", "in an increasing or additional degree", given +sometimes by English <i>yet</i>, sometimes by <i>still</i>: Mi estas +ankoraŭ sidanta ĉi tie, <i>I am still sitting here.</i> +Li ankoraŭ ne venis, <i>still he has not come (he has not come +yet).</i> Li ankoraŭ restos tie, <i>he will still stay there.</i> +Ankoraŭ ili venas, <i>still they come.</i> Li estos ankoraŭ +pli ruza, <i>he will be still (yet) more crafty.</i> +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<!-- -----------------------------131.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>ALFREDO GRANDA KAJ LA KUKOJ.</b></center> + +<p> +Unu fojon antaŭ pli multe ol mil jaroj, soldatoj venis de trans +la maro por ataki la anglan reĝon Alfredon Grandan. Ili nek konis +nek malamis lin, sed ili sciis ke li estas persono kies landon ili +deziras gajni. Ĉi tiuj malamikoj estis venintaj tiel subite ke +Alfredo ne estis preta por defendi sian landon kontraŭ ili. Tial li +forkuris kelkajn mejlojn de la urbo, kaj sin kaŝis en granda arbaro +malantaŭ vilaĝo. Anstataŭ porti reĝajn vestojn li +aĉetis tiajn ĉifonojn kiajn kamparanoj kaj malriĉuloj +portas. Li loĝis ĉe malriĉa sed laŭdinda kamparano, +kiu ne konis la reĝon, kaj tute ne suspektis kia persono lia +gasto estas. Unu memorindan tagon Alfredo estis sidanta apud la +fajro, kaj estis rigardanta siajn sagojn kaj pafarkon dum li pensis +malĝoje pri sia lando. La edzino de la arbarano demandis "Ĉu +vi ankoraŭ sidos tie dekkvin aŭ dudek minutojn?" "Jes," +respondis la reĝo. Ŝi diris "Nu, estos necese fari pli +varmegan fajron por tiaj kukoj kiajn mi nun estas bakonta. Ĉu vi +gardos tiujn kukojn kiuj nun estas super la fajro, dum mi kolektos pli +multe da ligno?" Alfredo respondis "Certe mi gardos ilin kontraŭ +la fajro." La virino serĉonta lignon foriris en alian parton de la +arbaro, kie estis multe da ligno, kaj la reĝo penis zorgi pri la +kukoj. Sed baldaŭ li forgesis ilin, kaj la fajro ilin difektis. +Kiam la virino venis kaj flaris la kukojn ŝi kriis "ho, vi +riproĉinda viro! Kvankam vi ankoraŭ sidas tie, vi ne pensas +pri la kukoj, kaj la fajro estas difektinta ilin!" Ŝi estis kruele +batonta la reĝon, kiam li diris al ŝi kiu li estas, kaj kial +li forgesis la kukojn. Tiam ŝi tre hontis, kaj anstataŭ +mallaŭdi lin ŝi volis esti ankoraŭ pli bona al li. +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<!-- -----------------------------132.png---------------------------- --> + +<p> +1. Alfred the Great was a praiseworthy king who lived more than a +thousand years ago. 2. People still talk about him because he not only +translated many Latin books into the English language, but also wrote in +English. 3. He wished to help the peasants still more. 4. But enemies +often attacked him, and finally they conquered his soldiers. 5. Then +they hastened to where (151) Alfred was. 6. They were about to attack +him, when he rode away secretly (<i>kaŝe</i>) into a large forest. +7. There he dwelt some time in the house of a poor forester. 8. He wore +such rags as a peasant usually wears, and did not tell the forester who +he was. 9. One day he was sitting near the fire and wondering, "Will the +enemy have conquered my soldiers next week?" 10. The forester's wife +said, "Will you sit there yet a while and take-care of those cakes? I am +about to gather more wood." 11. He replied, "Certainly, I will try to +help you." 12. But when after a few minutes the woman smelled the cakes, +she knew that the fire had spoiled them. 13. She exclaimed "Oh, what a +blame-worthy man!" 14. She commenced to beat the king cruelly, but he +did not defend himself. 15. Instead (120), he told her who he was. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XXXIII.</b></center> + +<center><b>KIAM</b> AS A RELATIVE ADVERB.</center> + +<p> +<b>155.</b> The interrogative temporal adverb <b>kiam</b> (123) is also +used as a relative temporal adverb, with <b>tiam</b> or an equivalent +word or phrase for its antecedent. (It may not be omitted as in English +"at the time he came"): +</p> + +<p> +<b>Mi suspektis lin je la tempo kiam li venis</b>, <i>I suspected him at the time when he came (the time that he came)</i>.<br> +<b>Li defendis sin tiam, kiam oni atakis lin</b>, <i>he defended himself then, when he was attacked</i>.<br> +<b>Mi ankoraŭ sidos tie ĝis kiam vi venos</b>, <i>I shall still sit there until when you come (until you come)</i>.<br> +<b>Post kiam li tiel laŭte kriis, li komencis plori</b>, <i>after he shouted so loudly, he began to cry</i>. +</p> + +<center><b>KIEL</b> AS A RELATIVE ADVERB.</center> + +<p> +<b>156.</b> The interrogative adverb <b>kiel</b> (134) is also used as a +relative adverb of manner and degree, with <b>tiel</b>, or <b>same</b>, +or an equivalent adverb or phrase for its antecedent. It may often be +translated "as:" +</p> + +<p> +<b>Mi defendis min tiel, kiel li defendis sin</b>, <i>I defended myself in that way in which (way) he defended himself</i>.<br> +<b>Vi ne estas tiel kruela kiel li</b>, <i>you are not so cruel as he (is)</i>.<br> +<b>Ili batis lin same kiel vi</b>, <i>they beat him in the same way as you (did)</i>.<br> +<b>Ili batis lin same kiel vin</b>, <i>they beat him the same as (they did) you</i>.<br> +<b>Kiel mi diris al li, mi estas feliĉa</b>, <i>as I told him, I am happy</i> (antecedent not expressed).<br> +<b>Li parolis tiel mallaŭte kiel antaŭe</b>, <i>he spoke as softly as before</i>.<br> +<b>Ŝi estas tiel bona kiel ŝi estas bela</b>, <i>she is as good as she is fair</i>. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------133.png---------------------------- --> + +<center>NUMERAL NOUNS AND ADVERBS.</center> + +<p> +<b>157.</b> Nouns may be formed from the cardinals by addition of +the ending <b>-o.</b> After such nouns the preposition <b>da</b> or +<b>de</b> is used: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>dekduo</b>, <i>a dozen.</i><br> + <b>dudeko</b>, <i>a score.</i><br> + <b>deko</b>, <i>a ten, half a score.</i><br> + <b>cento</b>, <i>a hundred.</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>milo</b>, <i>a thousand.</i><br> + <b>unuo</b>, <i>a unit.</i><br> + <b>kvaro</b>, <i>a four, a quartette.</i><br> + <b>trio</b>, <i>a three, a trio.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +The prepositions <b>da</b> and <b>de</b> follow nouns (<b>99, 100</b>) +or adverbs (<b>101</b>), while <b>el</b> follows adjectives in the +superlative degree (<b>75</b>), cardinal numerals (<b>138</b>), and +the pronouns tiu, kiu (<b>106</b>), etc.: dekduo da ovoj, <i>a dozen +(of) eggs.</i> dekduo de la ovoj, <i>a dozen of the eggs.</i> dek du el +tiuj ovoj, <i>twelve of those eggs.</i> kiu el la ovoj? <i>which one +of the eggs?</i> tiu el la ovoj, <i>that one of the eggs.</i> la plej +freŝa el la ovoj, <i>the freshest of the eggs.</i> +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<p> +<b>158.</b> Adverbs may be formed from the cardinals by addition of the +ending <b>-e</b>: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>unue</b>, <i>firstly, at first.</i><br> + <b>due</b>, <i>secondly, in the second place.</i><br> + <b>kvine</b>, <i>fifthly, in the fifth place.</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>deke</b>, <i>tenthly.</i><br> + <b>sesdeke</b>, <i>sixtiethly.</i><br> + <b>okdek-kvare</b>, <i>eighty-fourthly.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center>WORD DERIVATION FROM PREPOSITIONS.</center> + +<p> +<b>159.</b> Adjectives, verbs and nouns, as well as adverbs +(<b>120</b>), may be derived from prepositions by addition of the +formative endings (<b>116</b>), with sometimes a special suffix also: +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------134.png---------------------------- --> + +<p> +<b>anstataŭi</b>, <i>to replace, to take the place of.</i><br> +<b>anstataŭulo</b>, <i>a substitute.</i><br> +<b>antaŭa</b>, <i>previous, preceding.</i><br> +<b>apuda</b>, <i>near, contiguous, adjacent.</i><br> +<b>ĉirkaŭi</b>, <i>to surround, to encircle.</i><br> +<b>ĉirkaŭo</b>, <i>a circuit, a circumference.</i><br> +<b>kontraŭa</b>, <i>adverse, opposite, contrary.</i><br> +<b>kontraŭulo</b>, <i>adversary, opponent.</i><br> +<b>kunulo</b>, <i>comrade, companion.</i><br> +<b>superi</b>, <i>to surpass, to exceed, to be above.</i><br> +<b>superege</b>, <i>surpassingly, exceedingly.</i> +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>adiaŭ</b>, <i>farewell, goodbye.</i><br> + <b>akcept-i</b>, <i>to accept, to receive.</i><br> + <b>elekt-i</b>, <i>to choose, to select.</i><br> + <b>fest-i</b>, <i>to celebrate, to entertain.</i><br> + <b>gant-o</b>, <i>glove.</i><br> + <b>ĝentil-a</b>, <i>courteous.</i><br> + <b>invit-i</b>, <i>to invite.</i><br> + <b>ĵus</b>, <i>just, at the moment.</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>kuz-o</b>, <i>cousin.</i><br> + <b>malgraŭ</b>, <i>notwithstanding.</i><br> + <b>par-o</b>, <i>pair.</i><br> + <b>pend-i</b>, <i>to hang.</i><br> + <b>prez-o</b>, <i>price.</i><br> + <b>renkont-i</b>, <i>to meet.</i><br> + <b>ŝu-o</b>, <i>shoe.</i><br> + <b>uz-i</b>, <i>to use.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +The adverb <b>ĵus</b> indicates the elapsing of the least possible +time since the act or condition indicated, or between the two acts or +conditions indicated. Ni ĵus venis, <i>we just came (we came but +a moment ago).</i> Mi havas la saman opinion kian vi ĵus diris, +<i>I have the same opinion as you just gave (said).</i> Mi vidis lin +ĵus kiam li estis forironta, <i>I saw him just when he was about to +depart.</i> Ĵus kiam vi venis li foriris, <i>just as you came he +went away.</i> +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<!-- -----------------------------135.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>LA INVITO.</b></center> + +<p> +Hieraŭ matene mia kuzo vizitis ĉe ni, kaj invitis min al +malgranda festo kiu okazos morgaŭ vespere. Tiam li festos la +lastan tagon de la jaro. Li diris ke la gastoj sidos ĉirkaŭ +la fajrejo kaj rakontos rakontojn ĝis malfrua horo. Mi akceptis +lian ĝentilan inviton, kaj diris ke mi certe venos. Mia kuzo +loĝas en la sama urbo kie nia familio loĝas, sed en alia +parto. Lia hejmo estas preskaŭ du mejlojn de la nia. Tamen, ni +estas bonaj kunuloj, kaj ofte promenas kune. Ĵus kiam li estis +elironta el la pordo hieraŭ, mi uzis la okazon (<i>opportunity</i>) +por proponi mallongan promenon. Li respondis ke li ĝoje promenos +kun mi, malgraŭ la neĝa vetero. Tial ni formarŝis tien, +kie la stratoj estis malplej kotaj. La kuzo havas dek ok jarojn, sed +mi estas preskaŭ tiel alta kiel li. Mi estas certa ke mi estas +ankaŭ tiel forta kiel li. Ni parolis pri multaj interesaj aferoj, +kaj bonege nin amuzis, ĝis kiam estis necese hejmen iri. La kuzo +diris "adiaŭ," kaj iris rekte hejmen, sed mi iris al granda butiko. +Unue, mi volis aĉeti paron da novaj gantoj, por anstataŭi +la malnovajn gantojn kiujn mi ankoraŭ estis portanta, kvankam +mi aĉetis ilin antaŭ tri monatoj. Due, mi bezonis paron da +novaj ŝuoj. Mi iris en la butikon kie pendis tiaj gantoj, kiajn +mi ŝatas, kaj oni tuj venis por renkonti min, kaj demandis "Kiajn +vestojn vi volas aĉeti?" Oni montris al mi preskaŭ dudekon +da paroj da gantoj. Mi elektis tre bonan paron, kaj estis ĵus +aĉetonta ilin, malgraŭ la tro granda prezo, kiam mi vidis +alian pli belan paron. Tial mi aĉetis ĉi tiun, kaj poste mi +rigardis la ŝuojn. Mi trovis rimarkinde bonan paron, ĉar estas +centoj da ŝuoj en tiu butiko. Mi tuj aĉetis tiun paron, kaj +tiam hejmen iris. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------136.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. My friend likes to live in the city, but his wife prefers to live +in their little wooden house in the country. 2. There she can see and +smell the flowers, and can take (<i>fari</i>) long walks in the adjacent +fields and forest. 3. There are often hundreds of persons in a village, +but there are thousands of persons in a city. 4. The larger a city is, +the larger and better its stores are. 5. In the second place, one can +buy better bread, vegetables and cake in the city. 6. Thirdly, one can +also find better gloves, hats and shoes there, and the price is often +less. 7. Therefore I make use of the opportunity when I go to the city, +and usually buy a pair of new gloves. 8. I am still wearing a pair of +gloves which the rain spoiled. 9. Notwithstanding their ugly color, +they are still thick and good. 10. But soon I shall buy such a pair as +(150) is hanging in the window of that store. 11. The price is low, and +I need a new pair now, for my cousin has invited me to a small party +(<i>festo</i>) at his house. 12. I accepted his invitation courteously, +and said that I would gladly be his guest. 13. We are good comrades, +although he is younger than I am. 14. My (girl) cousin, his sister, is +older than he is, but he is as tall as she. 15. I was just about to send +a letter to him at the minute that (155) he knocked on our door. 16. His +visit will take the place of (159) my letter. 17. Just as (just when) he +was going away, I said goodbye to him, and said that I would meet him +in the park tomorrow. 18. I think that we shall have a pleasant walk, +although the weather is still remarkably cold, the same as (156) it was +two or three months ago. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XXXIV.</b></center> + +<center>PREPOSITIONS AS PREFIXES.</center> + +<p> +<b>160.</b> Any preposition may be used as a prefix to a verb, provided +the resulting compound is intelligible. A few prepositional compounds +are given below, only verbs being shown, although nouns, adjectives and +adverbs may be formed from these (116): +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------137.png---------------------------- --> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>alveni</b>, <i>to arrive.</i><br> + <b>aldoni</b>, <i>to add.</i><br> + <b>antaŭdiri</b>, <i>to predict.</i><br> + <b>ĉirkaŭpreni</b>, <i>to embrace.</i><br> + <b>ĉeesti</b>, <i>to be present.</i><br> + <b>dependi</b>, <i>to hang from, to depend.</i><br> + <b>demeti</b>, <i>to lay aside.</i><br> + <b>depreni</b>, <i>to subtract.</i><br> + <b>enhavi</b>, <i>to contain.</i><br> + <b>eliri</b>, <i>to go out.</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>interparoli</b>, <i>to converse.</i><br> + <b>kontraŭdiri</b>, <i>to contradict.</i><br> + <b>kunlabori</b>, <i>to collaborate.</i><br> + <b>kunveni</b>, <i>to assemble.</i><br> + <b>priskribi</b>, <i>to describe.</i><br> + <b>subteni</b>, <i>to support.</i><br> + <b>surmeti</b>, <i>to put on.</i><br> + <b>traguti</b>, <i>to percolate.</i><br> + <b>travidi</b>, <i>to see through</i><br> + <b>transiri</b>, <i>to cross.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +Like English "out" the preposition <b>el</b> often develops in +composition a secondary sense of "thoroughly" or "completely" +(<i>cf.</i> "I am tired out"): eltrovi, <i>to find out, to discover.</i> +elpensi, <i>to think out, to invent.</i> ellabori, <i>to work out, to +elaborate.</i> ellerni, <i>to learn thoroughly, to master.</i> eluzi, +<i>to use completely, to wear out</i> (transitive). +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<center>THE SUFFIX <b>-EBL-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>161.</b> The suffix <b>-ebl-</b> is used to form adjectives, adverbs, +etc., expressing the likelihood or possibility of that which is +indicated by the root. It may be used as a root, to form <b>ebla</b>, +<i>possible,</i> etc. +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>eltrovebla</b>, <i>discoverable.</i><br> + <b>legebla</b>, <i>legible.</i><br> + <b>manĝebla</b>, <i>edible.</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>rompebla</b>, <i>breakable.</i><br> + <b>videbla</b>, <i>visible.</i><br> + <b>travidebla</b>, <i>transparent.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +The suffix <b>-ebl-</b> is often equivalent to the English suffixes +<i>-able</i>, <i>-ible</i>, but these suffixes have other meanings also, +as in "readable," <i>worth reading</i> (<b>leginda</b>), "lovable," +<i>deserving of love</i> (<b>aminda</b>), etc. +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<center>EXPRESSION OF THE HIGHEST DEGREE POSSIBLE.</center> + +<p> +<b>162.</b> The adverb <b>plej</b>, <i>most</i> (74), modified by +<b>kiel eble</b> (<i>as possible</i>), is used to express the highest +degree possible: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Ĝi estas kiel eble plej bona</b>, <i>it is the best possible.</i><br> +<b>Ni estos kiel eble plej saĝaj</b>, <i>we shall be as wise as possible.</i><br> +<b>Li uzis kiel eble plej malmulte</b>, <i>he used the least possible.</i><br> +<b>Mi skribis kiel eble plej legeble</b>, <i>I wrote as legibly as possible.</i> +</p> + +<center>TITLES AND TERMS OF ADDRESS.</center> + +<p> +<b>163.</b> The words <b>sinjoro,</b> <i>gentleman,</i> +<b>sinjorino,</b> <i>lady,</i> <b>fraŭlino,</b> <i>miss,</i> are +used like English <i>Mr., Mrs., Miss,</i> before proper names, and are +also used as terms of address, without being followed by the name: +Adiaŭ, Sinjoro. Adiaŭ, Sinjorino, <i>Goodbye (Sir). Goodbye, +Madam.</i> +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------138.png---------------------------- --> + +<p> +<b>Fraŭlino B——, ĉu vi konas tiun sinjoron kun Sinjorino C——?</b> <i>Miss B——, do you know that gentleman with Mrs. C——?</i><br> +<b>Mi ne konas tiun fraŭlinon</b>, <i>I do not know that young lady.</i><br> +<b>Kien vi volas iri, Fraŭlino?</b> <i>Where do you wish to go (Miss)?</i><br> +<b>Sinjoro A—— estas tre afabla</b>, <i>Mr. A—— is very amiable.</i> +</p> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +<i>Cf.</i> English <i>Doctor, Professor, Madam,</i> as terms of +address, and also German <i>Mein Herr, gnädige Frau, gnädiges +Fräulein,</i> French <i>Monsieur, Mademoiselle,</i> Spanish, +<i>Señor, Señora,</i> Italian <i>Signore,</i> etc. +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>atent-a</b>, <i>attentive.</i><br> + <b>aŭskult-i</b>, <i>to listen.</i><br> + <b>babil-i</b>, <i>to chatter.</i><br> + <b>doktor-o</b>, <i>doctor.</i><br> + <b>fraŭl-o</b>, <i>bachelor.</i><br> + <b>gaj-a</b>, <i>merry, gay.</i><br> + <b>grup-o</b>, <i>group.</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>onkl-o</b>, <i>uncle.</i><br> + <b>san-a</b>, <i>in good health.</i><br> + <b>sent-i</b>, <i>to feel.</i><br> + <b>sinjor-o</b>, <i>gentleman.</i><br> + <b>ŝtup-o</b>, <i>step (of stairs).</i><br> + <b>tas-o</b>, <i>cup.</i><br> + <b>vojaĝ-o</b>, <i>voyage, journey.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- -----------------------------139.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>ĈE LA FESTO.</b></center> + +<p> +Hieraŭ vespere mi iris al la hejmo de mia kuzo, kiu estis invitinta +min al malgranda festo ĉe li. Ĉar mi deziris alveni kiel eble +plej frue, mi foriris de mia loĝejo kiel eble plej baldaŭ, +malgraŭ la neĝa vetero. Mi estis surmetinta paron da dikaj +gantoj, kaj mi portis dikajn ŝuojn. Mi ankaŭ havis mian +ombrelon, kvankam pro la vento mi ne povis uzi tiun. Tuj kiam mi +supreniris la ŝtuparon ĉe la hejmo de la kuzo, li aŭdis +min, kaj venis por malfermi la pordon kaj akcepti min. "Bonan vesperon, +kia estas via sano?" li diris. Mi respondis "Mi sanas bonege, dankon," +kaj eniris la domon kun li. Ni supren iris per granda ŝtuparo al +ĉambro kie mi lasis la ĉapelon, gantojn kaj ombrelon, tiam +ni malsupren venis kaj eniris la salonon. Mi salutis la onklinon, kiu +afable parolis al mi, kaj ankaŭ la du kuzinojn. Unu kuzino estis +ĵus priskribonta interesan libron, kiun ŝi antaŭ ne longe +tralegis, kiam la aliaj gastoj komencis alveni. Sinjoro B—— +ĉeestis, kaj Doktoro C——, kun sia filino Fraŭlino +Mario, kaj multe da aliaj sinjoroj kaj sinjorinoj. La gastoj sidis +aŭ staris en malgrandaj grupoj, kaj interparolis kun videbla +plezuro. Unu rakontis pri vojaĝo, kaj tiam oni komencis priparoli +la prezojn de aferoj en aliaj landoj. Mi atente aŭskultis kelkajn +minutojn, kaj tiam foriris al alia grupo, kie oni gaje babilis pri +estontaj (<i>future</i>) promenoj kaj festoj. Post unu aŭ du horoj, +la servistinoj alportis al ni bonan malgrandan manĝon, kune kun +tasoj da bonega kafo. Fine, je malfrua horo ni ĝentile dankis la +familion de mia kuzo, kaj diris adiaŭ. Tiam ni foriris hejmen, kun +sentoj da granda plezuro pro la agrabla festo. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------140.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. There are dozens of edible fruits, but the fruits of hundreds of +trees are not at all (<i>tute ne estas</i>) edible. 2. The transparent +cup and plate upon the table are very breakable. 3. I predict that you +will break them as soon as you seize them. 4. That letter is worth +reading. 5. But it is difficult to read it, for it is not very legible. +6. It is from my uncle, who wishes to arrive at-our-house as early as +possible. 7. He is still in the city, but soon he will be here, and will +go up the steps (<i>ŝtuparon</i>) of our porch and knock on the +door. 8. There are very few persons who contradict his opinions. 9. His +opinions, however, are worthy of attention (154) and usually I listen +courteously while he is talking. 10. Now, however, I prefer to listen +to the group of ladies in the adjacent room. 11. They are chattering +gaily, and listening to the young lady who is about to sing. 12. Madam, +do you feel the wind? I notice that it is blowing the curtains which +hang before that window. 13. I will close the window, because I am not +very well (<i>sana</i>) today. 14. Is that gentleman across the room a +bachelor? 15. Yes. He is describing a voyage and the people whom he met. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XXXV.</b></center> + +<center><b>KIOM</b> AS A RELATIVE ADVERB.</center> + +<p> +<b>164.</b> The interrogative adverb <b>kiom</b> (140) is used as a +relative adverb of quantity, with <b>tiom</b> or some equivalent word or +phrase for its antecedent. In this use it is commonly translated "as": +</p> + +<p> +<b>La taso enhavis tiom da kafo, kiom mi povis trinki</b>, <i>the cup contained as much coffee as I could drink</i>.<br> +<b>Mi havos tiom da tempo, kiom mi bezonos</b>, <i>I shall have as much time as I shall need</i>.<br> +<b>Li sendis tiom, kiom vi volis</b>, <i>he sent as much as you wished</i>. +</p> + +<center>THE PRESENT PASSIVE PARTICIPLE.</center> + +<p> +<b>165.</b> The present passive participle (for the present +<i>active</i> participle see 108), expressing that which is <i>undergone +by</i> the person or thing indicated by the word modified, ends in +<b>-ata</b>, as <b>vidata</b>, <i>being seen</i>: +</p> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +The verb <b>iri</b>, <i>to go</i>, used to illustrate the active +participles (108, 119, 152), cannot be used to illustrate a +<i>passive</i> participle, since passive participles can be made from +<i>transitive verbs</i> (<b>22</b>) <i>only</i>. +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<p> +<b>La laŭdata knabo estas feliĉa</b>, <i>the boy being praised is happy</i>.<br> +<b>Mi serĉos la deziratan libron</b>, <i>I shall look for the desired book</i>.<br> +<b>La vestoj farataj por vi estas belaj</b>, <i>the clothes being made for you are beautiful</i>. +</p> + +<center>FRACTIONS.</center> + +<p> +<b>166.</b> Fractions are formed from the cardinals by the use of the +suffix <b>-on-</b> followed by the ending <b>-o</b>. Adjectives and +adverbs may be derived from these by use of the endings <b>-a</b> or +<b>-e</b>: +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------141.png---------------------------- --> + +<p> +<b>La duono de ses estas tri</b>, <i>the half of six is three</i>.<br> +<b>Li estis nur duone atenta</b>, <i>he was only half attentive</i>.<br> +<b>La triona parto de ses estas du</b>, <i>the third part of six is two</i>.<br> +<b>Dek unu dekduonoj</b>, <i>eleven twelfths</i>.<br> +<b>Mi dudekone finis la laboron</b>, <i>I one-twentieth finished the work</i>. +</p> + +<center>DESCRIPTIVE COMPOUNDS.</center> + +<p> +<b>167.</b> A compound word whose first element <i>modifies</i> the +second in an adjectival or adverbial relation is called a <i>descriptive +compound</i>. The final <b>-a</b> or <b>-e</b> of the first element +may be omitted, unless the resulting combination would be ambiguous or +harsh-sounding. +</p> + +<p> +<b>a.</b> When the first element is adverbial (an adverb or +preposition), the second element may be either an adverb or adjective: +</p> + +<p> +<b>multekosta</b>, <i>expensive</i>.<br> +<b>duonkolere</b>, <i>half angrily</i>.<br> +<b>nevidebla</b>, <i>invisible</i>.<br> +<b>nevole</b>, <i>involuntarily</i>.<br> +<b>ruĝflava (ruĝeflava)</b>, <i>reddish yellow</i>.<br> +<b>survoje</b>, <i>on the way, en route</i>.<br> +<b>antaŭhieraŭ</b>, <i>day before yesterday</i>.<br> +<b>postmorgaŭ</b>, <i>day after tomorrow</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>b.</b> An <i>adjective</i> may be used for the first element, if the +second is an adverb or adjective <i>derived from a noun-root</i>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>samtempa</b>, <i>contemporaneous</i>.<br> +<b>unufoje</b>, <i>once, one time</i>.<br> +<b>trifoje</b>, <i>thrice, three times</i>.<br> +<b>unutaga</b>, <i>one day's, of one day</i>.<br> +<b>unuataga</b>, <i>the first day's</i>.<br> +<b>frutempe</b>, <i>at an early time</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>c.</b> A <i>noun</i> may be used for the second element, if the +resulting word has not merely unity of form, but also unity of meaning +with a slightly different sense from that expressed by the noun and +adjective uncombined: +</p> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +In national languages a change of accent often accompanies such +change in meaning, as <i>bla'ckberry</i> (not <i>black be'rry</i>), +<i>blu'ebird</i> (not <i>blue bi'rd</i>), <i>swee'theart</i> (not +<i>sweet hea'rt</i>), German <i>ju'ngfrau</i>, <i>virgin</i> (not +<i>jung frau'</i>, <i>young woman</i>), etc. +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<!-- -----------------------------142.png---------------------------- --> + +<p> +<b>bonveno</b>, <i>a welcome</i> (not "bona veno", <i>a good coming</i>).<br> +<b>libertempo</b>, <i>a vacation, leisure</i> (not "libera tempo", <i>free time</i>).<br> +<b>superjaro</b>, <i>leap-year</i> (not "super jaro", <i>above a year</i>).<br> +<b>bondeziroj</b>, <i>good wishes, felicitations</i> (not "bonaj deziroj", <i>good desires</i>).<br> +<b>plimulto</b>, <i>a majority</i> (adverb and noun combined). +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>ĥin-o</b>, <i>Chinaman</i>.<br> + <b>jam</b>, <i>already</i>.<br> + <b>kler-a</b>, <i>enlightened, learned</i>.<br> + <b>komerc-o</b>, <i>trade, commerce</i>.<br> + <b>lanc-o</b>, <i>spear, lance</i>.<br> + <b>liber-a</b>, <i>free</i>.<br> + <b>metod-o</b>, <i>method, way</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>naci-o</b>, <i>nation</i>.<br> + <b>paĝ-o</b>, <i>page</i>.<br> + <b>pres-i</b>, <i>to print</i>.<br> + <b>pulv-o</b>, <i>gunpowder</i>.<br> + <b>ŝanĝ-i</b>, <i>to change</i>.<br> + <b>te-o</b>, <i>tea</i>.<br> + <b>ted-a</b>, <i>tiresome, tedious</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +The adverb <b>jam</b> indicates a change from some preceding action +or state to the different one expressed in the sentence, clause or +phrase containing <b>jam</b>. It may often be translated "yet," "now," +etc. Mi jam vidis lin, <i>I already saw (have already seen) him</i>. +Ĉu vi jam trovis ĝin? Ne, mi ankoraŭ ne trovis ĝin. +<i>Have you yet (have you already) found it? No, I have not yet (still +not) found it</i>. Li jam ne vivas, <i>he no longer lives (he already +is-not-alive)</i>. Jam ne neĝas, <i>it is not snowing now (already +not snowing)</i>. +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<!-- -----------------------------143.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>LA ĤINOJ.</b></center> + +<p> +Antaŭ miloj da jaroj la ĥinoj estis la plej klera nacio en +la mondo. Dum aliaj nacioj ankoraŭ ne konis metodojn por presi +librojn, kaj ankoraŭ faris ilin skribe, la samtempaj ĥinoj +jam estis forlasintaj tiun multekostan kaj tedan metodon. Ili jam estis +presantaj la paĝojn de miloj da libroj. Aliaj nacioj tiam estis +batalantaj kiel eble plej kruele, per sago kaj pafarko, kaj per lanco. +Sed ili ankoraŭ ne havis pafilojn, ĉar pulvo estis tute +nekonata al ili. Tamen la ĥinoj jam bone konis metodojn por fari +kaj por uzi pulvon, kaj faris tiajn amuzajn flavruĝajn fajrojn, +kiajn ni ankoraŭ hodiaŭ aĉetas de ili, por uzi je festaj +tagoj. Sed la ĥinoj ne multe ŝatis la komercon, kaj ne deziris +aĉeti aŭ lerni de aliaj nacioj. Ili ankoraŭ nun havas la +samajn metodojn por presi librojn kaj por fari pulvon, kiajn ili havis +antaŭ mil jaroj. Ili malofte ŝanĝas siajn kutimojn. Tial +la aliaj nacioj, kiuj antaŭe ne estis tiel kleraj, antaŭeniras +pli rapide ol la ĥinoj. La lando de la ĥinoj enhavas tiom da +personoj, kiom tri aŭ kvar aliaj nacioj. Granda parto de tiu lando +estas ankoraŭ nekonata al okcidentaj nacioj, kvankam plej multe da +nia teo elvenas el la ĥina lando. Oni diras ke la parolata lingvo +kaj la skribata lingvo de la ĥinoj estas du tre malsamaj aferoj. +La lingvo estas almenaŭ treege malfacila, kaj post kiam oni estas +longe studinta ĝin, oni tamen estas nur duone lerninta ĝin. Mi +ĝojas tial ke la lingvoj studataj en la lernejoj de nia lando ne +estas tiel malfacilaj kiel la ĥina lingvo. La latina kaj germana +lingvoj estas sufiĉe malfacilaj, kvankam ili estas tre interesaj +kaj ankaŭ konataj de la kleruloj en multaj landoj. La latina lingvo +jam ne estas parolata lingvo. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------144.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. Why are the persons in that merry group laughing and chattering +instead of listening to Mr. B——? 2. I think that the doctor +is telling stories about a bachelor who was once a good friend of +his. 3. The gentleman being talked about (160, 165) will visit us +this evening, possibly. 4. My aunt and cousin will come down stairs +and converse with him. 5. We shall drink as many cups of tea or of +coffee as we wish. 6. He will say "How is your health, Madam?" My +aunt will reply half-angrily that she is seldom ill. 7. We shall sit +on the veranda, for the sun is still shining, although it is already +setting. 8. That young lady who came with Mrs. C—— relates +the best possible stories. 9. She says that the Chinese were already +an enlightened nation hundreds of years ago, while other nations were +still cruelly fighting. 10. A method for printing the pages of books, +instead of writing them, was a discovery of the Chinese. They printed +books in their printing-shops, a thousand years ago. 12. They also +were-acquainted-with gunpowder, which they made and used for such fires +as we use on national days of-celebration, when we have leisure and wish +to enjoy (to amuse) ourselves. 13. But the Chinese have not changed +these methods. 14. Their ways of commerce, work and pleasure are the +same as they were long ago. 15. Such a nation does not progress rapidly, +even though its life is very long. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XXXVI.</b></center> + +<center>THE PRESENT PASSIVE TENSE.</center> + +<p> +<b>168.</b> The compound tense formed by combining the present passive +participle with the present tense of the auxiliary verb <b>esti</b> +expresses an act or condition as <i>being undergone</i> by the subject +of the verb, and is called the <i>present passive tense</i>. The +conjugation of <b>vidi</b> in this tense is as follows: +</p> + +<p> +<b>mi estas vidata</b>, <i>I am (being) seen</i>.<br> +<b>vi estas vidata</b>, <i>you are (being) seen</i>.<br> +<b>li (ŝi, ĝi) estas vidata</b>, <i>he (she, it) is (being) seen</i>.<br> +<b>ni estas vidataj</b>, <i>we are (being) seen</i>.<br> +<b>vi estas vidataj</b>, <i>you are (being) seen</i>.<br> +<b>ili estas vidataj</b>, <i>they are (being) seen</i>. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------145.png---------------------------- --> + +<center>THE USE OF <b>DE</b> TO EXPRESS AGENCY.</center> + +<p> +<b>169.</b> The person by whom (or the thing by which) an act, indicated +by a passive verb or participle, is performed is called the <i>agent</i> +of the passive voice, and is expressed by a substantive preceded by +<b>de</b>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>La lanco estas portata de mi</b>, <i>the spear is carried by me</i>.<br> +<b>La libroj estas jam presataj de li</b>, <i>the books are already being printed by him</i>.<br> +<b>La vojoj estas kovrataj de neĝo</b>, <i>the roads are being covered by snow</i>.<br> +<b>Ŝi estas laŭdata de la sinjoro</b>, <i>she is being praised by the gentleman</i>. +</p> + +<center>THE GENERAL MEANING OF <b>DE</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>170.</b> The preposition <b>de</b> conveys the general idea of +separation from a source or starting point, in space (literal or +figurative), or in time (89, 131). This meaning develops into that of +the source from which connection or ownership arises (49), and also +into that of the agency from which an act is done or a condition caused +(169). The prepositional phrase containing <b>de</b> must be so placed +as to avoid ambiguity in its meaning, or must be reinforced by an adverb +or other word: +</p> + +<p> +<b>La arbo estas malproksima de la domo</b>, <i>the tree is far from the house</i>.<br> +<b>Ĝi estas proksima de la ĝardeno</b>, <i>it is near to (from) the garden</i>.<br> +<b>Mi prenas la libron for de la knabo</b>, <i>I take the book away from the boy</i>.<br> +<b>Mi prenas la libron de la knabo</b>, <i>I take the book of the boy</i>.<br> +<b>La afero dependas de vi</b>, <i>the matter depends upon (from) you</i>. +</p> + +<center>WORD DERIVATION FROM PRIMARY ADVERBS.</center> + +<p> +<b>171.</b> Adjectives, verbs, and nouns may be derived from primary +adverbs (66), as well as from prepositions (120, 159): +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------146.png---------------------------- --> + +<p> +<b>La nunaj metodoj</b>, <i>the present methods (methods of-now)</i>.<br> +<b>Mi adiaŭis lin per adiaŭa saluto</b>, <i>I bade farewell to him by a farewell salute</i> (see also 273).<br> +<b>Ni faris tujan interŝanĝon</b>, <i>we made an immediate exchange</i>.<br> +<b>Ĉu li skribis jesan aŭ nean respondon?</b> <i>Did he write an affirmative or a negative answer</i>?<br> +<b>Anstataŭ nei, li respondis jese</b>, <i>instead of denying, he answered affirmatively</i>.<br> +<b>La morgaŭa festo estos pli agrabla ol la hieraŭa</b>, <i>tomorrow's (the morrow's) celebration will be more pleasant than that of yesterday</i>.<br> +<b>La tiamaj personoj estis liaj samtempuloj</b>, <i>the persons of-that-time were his contemporaries</i>. +</p> + +<center>THE SUFFIX <b>-IST-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>172.</b> The suffix <b>-ist-</b> is added to roots to express the +profession, trade or occupation connected with the idea in the root: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>floristo</b>, <i>florist</i>.<br> + <b>komercisto</b>, <i>trader, merchant</i>.<br> + <b>servisto</b>, <i>servant</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>okulisto</b>, <i>oculist</i>.<br> + <b>presisto</b>, <i>printer</i>.<br> + <b>ŝtelisto</b>, <i>thief</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>administr-i</b>, <i>to manage</i>.<br> + <b>antikv-a</b>, <i>ancient</i><br> + <b>Eŭrop-o</b>, <i>Europe</i>.<br> + <b>grav-a</b>, <i>important, serious</i>.<br> + <b>ital-a</b>, <i>Italian</i>.<br> + <b>kvadrat-a</b>, <i>square</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>mont-o</b>, <i>mountain</i>.<br> + <b>nom-o</b>, <i>name</i>.<br> + <b>proksim-a</b>, <i>near</i>.<br> + <b>reprezent-i</b>, <i>to represent</i>.<br> + <b>respublik-o</b>, <i>republic</i>.<br> + <b>tiran-o</b>, <i>tyrant</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +The words <b>antikva</b>, <b>maljuna</b>, <b>malnova</b>, all of +which may at times be translated "old," must not be confused in use: +Mi havas malnovan ĉapelon, <i>I have an old hat (a hat which +is not new)</i>. Li estas maljuna sinjoro, <i>he is an old (aged) +gentleman</i>. Li estas malnova amiko mia, <i>he is an old friend of +mine (a friend of long standing)</i>. La ĥinoj estis kleraj eĉ +en la antikva tempo, <i>the Chinese were learned even in the olden +time (in ancient time)</i>. La antikvaj kleruloj jam sciis tre multe, +<i>the ancient learned (enlightened) men already knew a great deal</i>. +La maljuna sinjoro en la malnovaj vestoj estas antikvisto, <i>the old +gentleman with the old clothes is an antiquary</i>. +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<!-- -----------------------------147.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>ANTIKVA RESPUBLIKO.</b></center> + +<p> +La plej antikva respubliko en Eŭropo kuŝas en la norda parto +de la bela itala lando, inter la maro kaj la rivero, proksime de la +montoj. Ĝia nomo estas San Marino, kaj ĝi estas respubliko de +antaŭ mil kvarcent jaroj. Kvankam la ĉirkaŭaj landoj kaj +nacioj apartenis en antikva tempo al la tiamaj reĝoj, San Marino +jam estis libera. Ĝiaj aferoj estas ankoraŭ administrataj +tiel, kiel la anoj (145) volas, ne kiel unu aŭ alia reĝo +aŭ tirano deziras. Dufoje en la jaro la anoj elektas personojn, +kiuj administros la gravajn aferojn de la respubliko dum la sekvontaj +ses monatoj. Kvardek ses el tiuj personoj reprezentas la anojn, kaj unu +alia estas reĝo tiun duonon da jaro. Per tia metodo, la anoj estas +bone reprezentataj, kaj la aferoj estas administrataj kiel eble plej +saĝe. La tuta respubliko enhavas nur dudek du kvadratajn mejlojn da +tero. En la respubliko kaj la tiea (171) urbo kiu havas la saman nomon, +ne estas tiom da personoj kiom en multaj italaj urboj. Tamen ĉi +tiu respubliko estas pli granda ol multaj antikvaj grekaj respublikoj. +La grekaj respublikoj estis bonekonataj, kaj enhavis multe da kleruloj +inter siaj anoj. Sed en la nuna tempo la grekoj havas reĝon. Oni +ne trovas tre klerajn personojn en San Marino, tamen la laboristoj +estas energiaj, kaj laboras kiel eble plej multe. La rikoltistoj plej +ofte havas bonajn rikoltojn, kaj la plimulto da personoj estas treege +kontenta kaj feliĉa. Oni ne pensas pri komerco aŭ eksterlandaj +(167, a) aferoj kaj ne volas vojaĝi malproksimen de la bone +amata hejmo. Oni preferas gaje amuzi sin ĉehejme (167, a), en la +libertempo inter la rikoltoj, kaj la vivo tute ne ŝajnas malfacila +aŭ teda. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------148.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. The serious affairs of a republic are managed by persons representing +the persons who live there. 2. The inhabitants are well represented, +and as free as possible. 3. Enlightened persons often prefer to live +in a republic. 4. Persons who have a good king are very happy, but +those who have a bad king are as unhappy as possible. 5. Nowadays +(<i>nuntempe</i>) there are very few tyrants. 6. The majority of +the kings of Europe are praiseworthy. 7. That nation which was most +enlightened a thousand years ago was the Chinese nation. 8. The Chinese +of-that-time already had good printers among them. 9. It is said (54) +that the Chinese drink as much tea as two or three contemporary nations. +10. The oldest republic in Europe is named San Marino. 11. It is near +the mountains, in the northern part of the much praised Italian land. +12. It contains only twenty-two square miles, and is therefore one of +the smallest republics in the world. 13. Fourteen hundred years ago it +was already a republic, and it is still that same republic. 14. The +inhabitants are energetic and patient, and have as much to eat as they +need. 15. There are bakers and shopkeepers (172) and many laborers among +them. 16. They do not think about commerce, or greatly (<i>multe</i>) +change their customs. 17. They seldom take (<i>faras</i>) tiresome +journeys, but remain peacefully (<i>pace</i>) at home. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------149.png---------------------------- --> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XXXVII.</b></center> + +<center>THE DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUN.</center> + +<p> +<b>173.</b> The distributive pronoun (and pronominal adjective) is +<b>ĉiu</b>, <i>each (one)</i>, <i>every (one)</i>. Sometimes it +is equivalent to English <i>any</i>, as in "Any one who studies can +learn," etc. The plural is <b>ĉiuj</b>, <i>every</i>, <i>all</i>. +The article is never interposed between <b>ĉiuj</b> and the +noun modified (as in English "all the men"), and is used only if +<b>ĉiuj</b> is pronominal and followed by <b>el</b>: +</p> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +The use of <b>ĉiu</b> and <b>ĉiuj</b> must be distinguished +from that of the adjective <b>tuta</b>, which means "all" in the sense +of "entire": Ĉiuj viroj laboras la tutan tagon, <i>all men work all +(the whole) day</i>. Mi vidis ĉiun vizaĝon, sed mi ne vidis la +tutan vizaĝon de ĉiu viro, <i>I saw every face, but I did not +see all the face of each man</i>. +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<p> +<b>Ĉiu, kiu studos, lernos</b>, <i>every one who studies will learn</i>.<br> +<b>Mi vidis ĉiun el ili, kaj parolis al ĉiu knabo</b>, <i>I saw each of them, and talked to every boy</i>.<br> +<b>Mi dankas vin ĉiujn</b>, <i>I thank you all (I thank all of you)</i>.<br> +<b>Ni ĉiuj estas reprezentataj</b>, <i>we are all (all of us are) represented</i>.<br> +<b>Ĉiuj el la maristoj alvenis</b>, <i>all (every one) of the sailors arrived</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>174.</b> The distributive pronoun has a possessive or genitive form +<b>ĉies</b>, <i>every-one's</i>, <i>every-body's</i>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Li konas ĉies nomon</b>, <i>he knows every-one's name</i>.<br> +<b>Ĉies opinio estis diversa</b>, <i>every-body's opinion was different</i>.<br> +<b>Kies voĉojn mi aŭdas? Ĉies</b>, <i>whose voices do I hear? Everybody's</i>. +</p> + +<center>THE PREPOSITION <b>PO</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>175.</b> The preposition <b>po</b>, <i>at the rate of</i>, <i>at</i>, +is used chiefly before cardinals and has a distributive sense: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Li marŝas po kvar mejloj ĉiutage</b>, <i>he walks at the rate of four miles daily (every-day)</i>.<br> +<b>Mi aĉetis kafon po malalta prezo</b>, <i>I bought coffee at a low price</i>.<br> +<b>Mi aĉetis viandon po kvarono da dolaro por funto</b>, <i>I bought meat at a quarter of a dollar for (per) pound</i>.<br> +<b>La ĉapelisto aĉetas ĉapelojn pogrande</b>, <i>the hatter buys hats wholesale</i>. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------150.png---------------------------- --> + +<center>DEPENDENT COMPOUNDS.</center> + +<p> +<b>176.</b> A compound word whose first element is a substantive, +dependent upon the second element in some prepositional relation, is +called a <i>dependent compound</i>. (If the two words were not united +into one, the first element would be preceded by a preposition, or would +be in the accusative case.) The ending <b>-o</b> may be omitted from the +first element of a dependent compound: +</p> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +A personal pronoun serving as the first element of a dependent +compound may keep the accusative ending, to indicate its +construction: sinlaŭdo, <i>self-praise</i>. sinekzameno, +<i>self-examination</i>. sindefendo, <i>self-defence</i>. +sinkontraŭdira, <i>self-contradictory</i>. +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<p> +<b>jarcento</b>, <i>century</i> (cento da jaroj).<br> +<b>manĝoĉambro</b>, <i>dining-room</i> (ĉambro por manĝoj).<br> +<b>noktomezo</b>, <i>midnight</i> (mezo de la nokto).<br> +<b>paperfaristo</b>, <i>papermaker</i> (faristo de papero).<br> +<b>sunbrilo</b>, <i>sunshine</i> (brilo de la suno).<br> +<b>tagmezo</b>, <i>noon</i> (mezo de la tago).<br> +<b>vespermanĝo</b>, <i>supper</i> (manĝo je la vespero).<br> +<b>ventoflago</b>, <i>weathercock</i> (flago por la vento). +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>ĉies</b>, <i>every body's</i> (174).<br> + <b>ĉiu</b>, <i>every-body</i> (173).<br> + <b>decid-i</b>, <i>to decide</i>.<br> + <b>dev-o</b>, <i>duty</i>.<br> + <b>fleks-i</b>, <i>to bend</i>.<br> + <b>genu-o</b>, <i>knee</i>.<br> + <b>intenc-i</b>, <i>to intend</i>.<br> + <b>juĝ-i</b>, to <i>judge</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>lag-o</b>, <i>lake</i>.<br> + <b>po</b>, <i>at the rate of</i> (175).<br> + <b>sever-a</b>, <i>severe</i>.<br> + <b>stang-o</b>, <i>pole</i>.<br> + <b>svis-o</b>, <i>Swiss</i>.<br> + <b>vend-i</b>, <i>to sell</i>.<br> + <b>Vilhelm-o</b>, <i>William</i>.<br> + <b>vort-o</b>, <i>word</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + + +<!-- -----------------------------151.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>LA ĈAPELO SUR LA STANGO.</b></center> + +<p> +Antaŭ ol Svislando estis tiel libera kiel la nuna svisa respubliko, +ĝiaj aferoj estis administrataj de personoj kiuj reprezentis aliajn +naciojn. Ofte tiuj personoj estis kiel eble plej severaj juĝistoj +al la svisoj. Unufoje plej kruela tirano estis administranta aferojn +svisajn. Li elpensis rimarkindan metodon por montri sian povon +(<i>power</i>), kaj por esti malagrabla al la svisoj. Li decidis meti +sian ĉapelon sur altan stangon en la vendejo (<i>market-place</i>), +en malgranda vilaĝo apud bela lago inter la altaj montoj. Li diris +ke de nun tiu ĉapelo reprezentas lin, kaj portos lian nomon. +Saluti la ĉapelon estos la grava devo de ĉiu persono en la +vilaĝo. Estos ĉies devo ne nur saluti la ĉapelon, sed +ankaŭ genufleksi (<i>kneel</i>) antaŭ la stango. La tirano +diris ke li forprenos la domon, la kampojn kaj tiom da mono, kiom +li povos, de ĉiu vilaĝano aŭ kamparano kiu forgesos +genufleksi. "Mi intencas sendi gardistojn," li diris, "kiuj rimarkos +ĉu vi ĉiuj genufleksos kiam vi estas proksimaj de la stango." +Je tagmezo alvenis gardistoj, por rimarki ĉu la necesaj salutoj +estos farataj de ĉiuj, kaj por kapti ĉiujn svisojn kiuj ne +genufleksis. Baldaŭ la kamparanoj komencis eniri la vendejon, por +vendi legomojn po kiel eble altaj prezoj, kaj por aĉeti vestojn +kaj aliajn aferojn po treege plej malaltaj prezoj. Ĉiu, kiu iris +proksimen de la stango, zorge genufleksis antaŭ la ĉapelo +de la malamata tirano, pro timo pri la hejmoj kaj la familioj. Fine, +kamparano, kies nomo estis Vilhelmo Tell, eniris la vendejon, kaj +staris du aŭ tri minutojn proksime de la stango, dum li diris +kelkajn vortojn al amiko. Sed anstataŭ fari tujan saluton, aŭ +genufleksi, li tute ne rigardis la stangon. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------152.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. The day before yesterday my youngest cousin was sitting on my knee, +and I told him that a rainbow (<i>ĉielarko</i>) is made by the +sunshine and the rain. 2. My cousin goes to school every day, after +he has breakfast in the dining-room. 3. A new school is being built, +not far from the home of the judge. 4. It is my cousin's duty to study +those books at the rate of ten pages a day. 5. My cousin and I decided +last night (93) to buy new hats for ourselves. 6. We intend to go +to the hatter's early tomorrow morning. 7. I think that all clothes +are being sold at a low price at-the-present-time. 8. During a visit +at a friend's, I read an interesting book about ancient Europe. 9. +It relates that several centuries ago a severe and cruel tyrant was +managing affairs in Switzerland. 10. Once he put his hat on a pole in +the market-place, and said that it was the duty of-every-one to kneel +before it. 11. This serious affair happened in a village one or two +miles square, on (<i>ĉe</i>) the lake not far from the mountains +through which one goes on the way (167, a) to the Italian land. 12. +William Tell did not kneel or even look at the hat representing the +tyrant. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XXXVIII.</b></center> + +<center>THE DISTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVE.</center> + +<p> +<b>177.</b> The distributive adjective related to the distributive +pronoun <b>ĉiu</b>, giving a comprehensive idea of the quality of +some person or thing, is <b>ĉia</b>, <i>every kind of, every sort +of</i>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Oni vendas ĉiajn fruktojn tie</b>, <i>they sell every sort of fruit there.</i><br> +<b>Estas ĉiaj personoj en la mondo</b>, <i>there are all sorts of persons in the world.</i> +</p> + +<center>THE IMPERFECT PASSIVE TENSE.</center> + +<p> +<b>178.</b> The compound tense formed by combining the present passive +participle with the past tense of the auxiliary verb <b>esti</b> +expresses an act or condition as being undergone by the subject of the +verb <i>at some time in the past</i>. It is called the <i>imperfect +passive tense</i>. The conjugation of <b>vidi</b> in this tense is as +follows: +</p> + +<p> +<b>mi estis vidata</b>, <i>I was (being) seen.</i><br> +<b>vi estis vidata</b>, <i>you were (being) seen.</i><br> +<b>li (ŝi, ĝi) estis vidata</b>, <i>he (she, it) was (being) seen.</i><br> +<b>ni estis vidataj</b>, <i>we were (being) seen.</i><br> +<b>vi estis vidataj</b>, <i>you were (being) seen.</i><br> +<b>ili estis vidataj</b>, <i>they were (being) seen.</i> +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------153.png---------------------------- --> + +<center>COMPOUND TENSES OF IMPERSONAL VERBS.</center> + +<p> +<b>179.</b> When impersonal verbs, or other verbs used impersonally, +are in compound tenses, the participial element is given the ending +<b>-e</b>, like other modifiers of impersonally used verbs (141): +</p> + +<p> +<b>Estis pluvante antaŭ unu minuto</b>, <i>it was raining a minute ago.</i><br> +<b>Estis multe neĝinte</b>, <i>it had snowed a great deal.</i><br> +<b>Estis vidate ke ĉiu ploras</b>, <i>it was seen that every one wept.</i> +</p> + +<center>RECIPROCAL EXPRESSIONS.</center> + +<p> +<b>180.</b> To give a reciprocal sense, when there are two or more +subjects and the action goes from one to the other (expressed in English +by "each other," "one another," "mutually," "reciprocally"), the +phrases <b>unu la alian</b>, <b>unu al la alia</b>, etc., or the adverb +<b>reciproke</b>, is used: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Estas nia devo helpi unu la alian</b>, <i>it is our duty to help one another.</i><br> +<b>Ili parolas unu al la alia</b>, <i>they are talking to each other.</i><br> +<b>La viroj reciproke uzis siajn pafilojn</b>, <i>the men used each other's guns.</i><br> +<b>Ili falis unu sur la alian</b>, <i>they fell upon each other.</i> +</p> + +<center>THE SUFFIX <b>-UJ-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>181.</b> The suffix <b>-uj-</b> may be used to form words indicating +<i>that which contains, bears, or is a receptacle for</i>, some number +or quantity of that which is expressed by the root. It may be used +instead of <b>-lando</b> to form the name of a region containing any one +race or tribe, and instead of <b>-arbo</b> to form the names of fruit +trees: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>ujo</b>, <i>a receptacle</i>.<br> + <b>monujo</b>, <i>purse</i>.<br> + <b>supujo</b>, <i>soup-tureen</i>.<br> + <b>leterujo</b>, <i>letter-case</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>patrujo (patrolando)</b>, <i>fatherland</i>.<br> + <b>sukerujo</b>, <i>sugar-bowl</i>.<br> + <b>pomujo (pomarbo)</b>, <i>apple-tree</i>.<br> + <b>sagujo</b>, <i>quiver</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> +<!-- -----------------------------154.png---------------------------- --> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>ag-i</b>, <i>to act</i>.<br> + <b>ceter-a</b>, <i>remaining</i>.<br> + <b>ĉia</b>, <i>of every kind</i> (177).<br> + <b>fier-a</b>, <i>proud</i>.<br> + <b>imag-i</b>, <i>to imagine</i>.<br> + <b>konduk-i</b>, <i>to lead</i>.<br> + <b>kor-o</b>, <i>heart</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>mort-i</b>, <i>to die</i>.<br> + <b>pet-i</b>, <i>to plead, to request</i>.<br> + <b>prepar-i</b>, <i>to prepare</i>.<br> + <b>pun-i</b>, <i>to punish</i>.<br> + <b>reciprok-a</b>, <i>reciprocal, mutual</i>.<br> + <b>simil-a</b>, <i>like, similar</i>.<br> + <b>tuŝ-i</b>, <i>to touch</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- -----------------------------155.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>VILHELMO TELL KAJ LA POMO.</b></center> + +<p> +Tuj kiam la gardistoj rimarkis ke la ĉapelo sur la stango ne +estis salutata de Vilhelmo Tell, ili kaptis lin, kaj kondukis lin +al la tirano, por esti juĝata. La tirano demandis de Tell kial +li ne genufleksis antaŭ la ĉapelo, simile al la aliaj +vilaĝanoj. Tell respondis fiere ke li ne sciis pri la ĉiutagaj +genufleksoj de la aliaj personoj. Li diris ke li tute ne intencis agi +kontraŭ la deziroj de la juĝistoj. Sed la tirano malamis +la altan fortan svison, tial li decidis puni lin per severa puno, +kaj demandis "Kiun el viaj infanoj vi plej amas?" Vilhelmo Tell +ne povis imagi kial la demando estas farata al li, kaj respondis +"Mi amas ĉiujn el ili, sinjoro." La tirano diris "Nu, estas +rakontate inter la vilaĝanoj ke vi estas rimarkinda arkpafisto +(<i>archer</i>). Ni eltrovos kia arkpafisto vi estas. Ni vidos ĉu +vi povos forpafi pomon de sur la kapo de via plej juna filo. Aldone +(<i>in addition</i>), estos via devo forpafi la pomon per la unua +sago, alie (<i>otherwise</i>) mi punos vin kaj vian filon per tuja +morto." Tell diris ke li estas preta por ricevi ĉian alian punon, +anstataŭ tia puno, sed malgraŭ ĉies petoj la tirano +estis jam elektanta pomon de apuda pomarbo. Li kondukis la knabon +malproksimen de la ceteraj personoj, kaj metis la pomon sur lian kapon. +Tell kaj la filo reciproke rigardis sin, dum la patro diris ke li ne +tuŝos haron de lia kapo. Tiam li elprenis sagon el la sagujo, +faris la necesajn preparojn, kaj rapide pafis. Tuj la pomo forfalis de +la kapo de la infano, kaj ĉiu havis feliĉan koron. Dum Tell +ĉirkaŭprenis la filon, la tirano demandis "Kial vi havas tiun +ceteran sagon en la mano." Tell laŭte respondis "Por mortpafi vin, +tuj post la infano, ĉar mi treege timis pro la vivo de mia kara +filo." +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. William Tell had a strong flexible (161) bow. 2. He could +shoot-with-a-bow (<i>arkpafi</i>) excellently, therefore he was a +well-known archer. 3. He put six or eight arrows into his quiver, and +went with his sons to the village. 4. Possibly he saw the hat upon the +pole, but he did not kneel before it. 5. It was being noticed already +in the village that Tell hated the tyrant very much. 6. When the guards +seized him for that act, and led him before the tyrant, who was also +the judge, Tell said "I did not know about this new duty, and could not +imagine why the hat was on the pole there." 7. The tyrant replied with +(<i>per</i>) angry words, for he hated the proud Swiss whom every one +else loved. 8. He said severely "It is said that you are a praiseworthy +archer. 9. Therefore I was wondering whether you could shoot an apple +from your son's head. 10. Now we shall see whether you can shoot off +the apple, or whether you will touch the child's head." 11. Amid the +pleadings of all, Tell successfully shot off the apple. 12. A similar +second arrow was ready in his hand. 13. The tyrant saw the remaining +arrow, and prepared to punish Tell by death. 14. But he escaped, and the +Swiss congratulated each other heartily (<i>kore</i>). 15. After some +time they followed him, at the rate of six miles an hour. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------156.png---------------------------- --> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XXXIX.</b></center> + +<center>THE DISTRIBUTIVE ADVERB OF PLACE.</center> + +<p> +<b>182.</b> The distributive adverb of place, related to the +distributive pronoun <b>ĉiu</b>, is <b>ĉie</b>, everywhere. +The ending <b>-n</b> may be added to <b>ĉie</b> to show direction +of motion (121): +</p> + +<p> +<b>Oni trovas tiajn virojn ĉie</b>, <i>such men are found everywhere</i>.<br> +<b>Li iris ĉien, kie mi estis estinta</b>, <i>he went everywhere where I had been</i>.<br> +<b>Mi vidas lin ĉie, kien mi iras</b>, <i>I see him everywhere I go</i>. +</p> + +<center>THE FUTURE PASSIVE TENSE.</center> + +<p> +<b>183.</b> The compound tense formed by combining the present passive +participle with the future tense of <b>esti</b> indicates that an act +or condition <i>will be undergone</i> by the subject of the verb. It is +called the <i>future passive tense</i>. The conjugation of <b>vidi</b> +in this tense is as follows: +</p> + +<p> +<b>mi estos vidata</b>, <i>I shall be seen</i>.<br> +<b>vi estos vidata</b>, <i>you will be seen</i>.<br> +<b>li (ŝi, ĝi) estos vidata</b>, <i>he (she, it) will be seen</i>.<br> +<b>ni estos vidataj</b>, <i>we shall be seen</i>.<br> +<b>vi estos vidataj</b>, <i>you will be seen</i>.<br> +<b>ili estos vidataj</b>, <i>they will be seen</i>. +</p> + +<center>POSSESSIVE COMPOUNDS.</center> + +<p> +<b>184.</b> Compound adjectives may be formed with an adjectival root +for the first element, and a noun-root for the second element. Such +adjectives have the meaning "possessed of" that which is indicated in +the compound. (Similar adjectives are formed in English, with <i>-ed</i> +as the final syllable): +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>belbrova</b>, <i>beautiful-browed</i>.<br> + <b>bonintenca</b>, <i>good-intentioned</i>.<br> + <b>dumana</b>, <i>two-handed</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>longnaza</b>, <i>long-nosed</i>.<br> + <b>kvarpieda</b>, <i>four-footed</i>.<br> + <b>ruĝhara</b>, <i>red-haired</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- -----------------------------157.png---------------------------- --> + +<center>THE TIME OF DAY.</center> + +<p> +<b>185.</b> The ordinals are used in expressing the hour of the day, +with <b>horo</b> expressed or understood. The minutes are expressed +by the cardinals. In questions the adjective <b>kioma</b> (from +<b>kiom</b>, <i>how much</i>) is used: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Kioma horo estas?</b> <i>What hour (what o'clock, what time) is it?</i><br> +<b>Je kioma horo vi venos?</b> <i>At what time (what o'clock) will you come?</i><br> +<b>Estas la dua horo</b>, <i>it is two o'clock (it is the second hour)</i>.<br> +<b>Estas la tria kaj kvin minutoj</b>, <i>it is five minutes past three</i>.<br> +<b>Ni iris je la sesa kaj duono</b>, <i>we went at half past six</i>.<br> +<b>Estas la oka kaj kvardek kvin (</b><i>or:</i><b> estas unu kvarono antaŭ la naŭa)</b>, <i>it is eight forty-five (a quarter of nine)</i>. +</p> + +<center>THE SUFFIX <b>-OBL-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>186.</b> The suffix <b>-obl-</b> is used to form multiples indicating +how many fold, as "two fold," "double," "triple," etc.: +</p> + +<p> +<b>duoblo</b>, <i>a double</i>.<br> +<b>duobla</b>, <i>double</i>.<br> +<b>duoble</b>, <i>doubly</i>.<br> +<b>kvarobla</b>, <i>quadruple</i>.<br> +<b>kvindekobla</b>, <i>fifty-fold</i>.<br> +<b>multobla</b>, <i>manifold</i>.<br> +<b>Trioble du estas ses</b>, <i>three times two is six</i>. +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>bilet-o</b>, <i>ticket</i>.<br> + <b>cend-o</b>, <i>cent</i>.<br> + <b>ĉie</b>, <i>everywhere</i> (182).<br> + <b>esprim-o</b>, <i>expression</i>.<br> + <b>giĉet-o</b>, <i>wicket, ticket-window</i>.<br> + <b>horloĝ-o</b>, <i>clock</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>pag-i</b>, <i>to pay</i>.<br> + <b>preter</b>, <i>beyond, past</i>.<br> + <b>staci-o</b>, <i>station</i>.<br> + <b>telefon-i</b>, <i>to telephone</i>.<br> + <b>vagon-o</b>, <i>car</i>.<br> + <b>valiz-o</b>, <i>valise</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +The preposition <b>preter</b> indicates the movement of something +alongside of and passing beyond something else. Since it does not +express motion <i>toward</i> its complement, it cannot be followed by +the accusative. +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<!-- -----------------------------158.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>EN LA STACIDOMO.</b></center> + +<p> +Du bonkoraj (184) amikoj miaj loĝas en la urbo B——. +Ni reciproke konas nin de antaŭ ses jaroj. Mi estis duoble +ĝoja hieraŭ kiam mi ricevis leteron de ili, ĉar en tiu +ili petis de mi baldaŭan viziton. Tial mi telefonis hieraŭ +posttagmeze al la stacidomo, por demandi je kioma horo foriros la +vagonaro (<i>train</i>) al B——. Oni respondis per la +telefono ke la vagonaro foriros je la tria kaj tridek kvin. Tuj poste +mi enmetis kelkajn vestojn en mian jam preskaŭ eluzitan valizon, +kaj faris ĉiujn preparojn por la mallonga vojaĝo. Je la dua +horo, tuj post la tagmanĝo (<i>midday meal</i>), mi marŝis +stacidomon. Survoje mi eniris butikon kaj aĉetis paron da novaj +gantoj. Kiam mi eniris la stacidomon, mi kuris preter la aliaj personoj +al la giĉeto kie biletoj estas vendataj. Mi diris al la sinjoro +ĉe la giĉeto "Mi deziras bileton al B——. Kiom +estos necese pagi?" La brunokula sinjoro respondis "Tia bileto kostos +dolaron dudek cendojn." Mi puŝis tiom da mono tra la giĉeto, +kaj tuj ricevis la bileton, kiun la sinjoro jam havis en la mano. +Tiam mi iris proksimen de la pordego tra kiu oni estos enlasata al +la vagonaro. "Kiom da tempo antaŭ la foriro de la vagonaro al +B——?" mi demandis al la gardisto. Li laŭtvoĉe +respondis "Nur sep minutojn. Ĉu vi ne vidas tiun horloĝon?" +Mi ne estis rimarkinta la horloĝon, tial mi almetis la montrilojn +de mia poŝhorloĝo (<i>watch</i>) por montri la saman horon. +Mi estis multe tuŝata de ĉiaj bonintencaj personoj kurantaj +ĉien preter mi, kaj puŝantaj unu la alian. Fine oni malfermis +la pordegon. Mi kaj la ceteraj personoj rapidis al la vagonaro kaj kiel +eble plej baldaŭ eniris ĝin. +</p> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +<b>Posttagmezo</b>, <i>afternoon</i>, is a descriptive compound (167, a) +whose second element <b>tagmezo</b> is a dependent compound (176). +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<!-- -----------------------------159.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. Because of the request of my friend whose brother died recently, I +went last (<i>la antaŭan</i>) week to visit him. 2. The remaining +persons of his family were not at home. 3. I telephoned to find out at +what time the train would depart. 4. I was told (54) that it would leave +at four twenty-seven. 5. I put enough money into my purse, and carried +along (<i>kunportis</i>) a valise into which I had put some clothes. +6. When I entered the station, I hurried past the other people to the +wicket, and asked for (<i>petis</i>) a ticket to B——. 7. The +ticket seller said "Two dollars and forty cents." 8. I could not imagine +why it was necessary to pay so much, but I at once pushed that much +money through the window, and received the ticket. 9. Then I looked at +my watch and went near the gate, but the yellowhaired guard who conducts +persons to the trains said "Persons who go through that gate before the +train arrives will be severely punished." 10. So all of us stood near +the double gate. 11. The trains are much like each other, and it is +better to act as the guards request, and not express impatience. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XL.</b></center> + +<center>THE DISTRIBUTIVE TEMPORAL ADVERB.</center> + +<p> +<b>187.</b> The distributive adverb of time, related to the distributive +pronoun <b>ĉiu</b>, is <b>ĉiam</b>, <i>always</i>, <i>at all +times</i>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Vi ĉiam pagas tro multe</b>, <i>you always pay too much</i>.<br> +<b>Mi estas ĉiam preta por helpi vin</b>, <i>I am always ready to help you</i>. +</p> + +<center>THE DISTRIBUTIVE ADVERB <b>ĈIAL</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>188.</b> The distributive adverb of motive or reason, related to the +pronoun <b>ĉiu</b>, is <b>ĉial</b>, <i>for every reason</i>, +<i>for all reasons</i>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Ĉial li estas feliĉa hodiaŭ</b>, <i>for every reason he is happy today</i>.<br> +<b>La mia ĉial estas la plej bona</b>, <i>mine is for all reasons the best</i>. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------160.png---------------------------- --> + +<center>THE PAST PASSIVE PARTICIPLE.</center> + +<p> +<b>189.</b> The past passive participle expresses an act or condition +as <i>having been undergone</i> by the person or thing indicated by the +word modified. This participle ends in <b>-ita</b>, as <b>vidita</b>, +<i>having been seen</i>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>La prezo pagita de vi estis tro granda</b>, <i>the price paid by you was too great</i>.<br> +<b>La punita infano ploras</b>, <i>the (having-been) punished child is crying</i>.<br> +<b>Mi aĉetos bonefaritajn gantojn</b>, <i>I shall buy well-made gloves</i>.<br> +<b>Li serĉis la forgesitan bileton</b>, <i>he looked for the forgotten ticket</i>. +</p> + +<center>THE PERFECT PASSIVE TENSE.</center> + +<p> +<b>190.</b> The compound tense formed by combining the past passive +participle with the present tense of the verb <b>esti</b> expresses an +act or condition which <i>has been undergone</i> by the subject of the +verb. It is called the <i>perfect passive tense</i>. The conjugation of +the verb <b>vidi</b> in this tense is as follows: +</p> + +<p> +<b>mi estas vidita</b>, <i>I have been seen</i> (<i>I am having-been-seen</i>).<br> +<b>vi estas vidita</b>, <i>you have been seen</i>.<br> +<b>li (ŝi, ĝi) estas vidita</b>, <i>he</i> (<i>she, it</i>) <i>has been seen</i>.<br> +<b>ni estas viditaj</b>, <i>we have been seen</i>.<br> +<b>vi estas viditaj</b>, <i>you have been seen</i>.<br> +<b>ili estas viditaj</b>, <i>they have been seen</i>. +</p> + +<center>THE PREPOSITION <b>LAŬ</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>191.</b> In expressing that <i>in accordance with which</i> something +is done, takes place, moves, etc., the preposition <b>laŭ</b> is +used: +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------161.png---------------------------- --> + +<p> +<b>Li agis laŭ sia opinio</b>, <i>he acted in accordance with his own opinion</i>.<br> +<b>Mi faros ĝin laŭ bona metodo</b>, <i>I shall do it according to a good method</i>.<br> +<b>Laŭ kia maniero li agis?</b> <i>In what manner did he act?</i><br> +<b>Mi marŝis laŭ la strato</b>, <i>I walked down (or up) the street</i>.<br> +<b>Li iris laŭ la rivero per tiu vojo</b>, <i>he went along the river by that road</i>.<br> +<b>Nuboj nigraj kuris laŭ la ĉielo</b>, <i>black clouds raced along the sky</i>.<br> +<b>Ĝi kuŝas laŭlonge de la domo</b>, <i>it lies lengthwise of the house</i>. +</p> + +<center>THE SUFFIX <b>-EM-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>192.</b> The suffix <b>-em-</b> indicates a <i>tendency</i> or +<i>inclination</i> toward that which is expressed in the root: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>agema</b>, <i>active</i>.<br> + <b>mallaborema</b>, <i>lazy</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>pacema</b>, <i>peaceful, pacific</i>.<br> + <b>pensema</b>, <i>pensive, thoughtful</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>atend-i</b>, <i>to wait (for), to expect</i>.<br> + <b>ĉial</b>, <i>for every reason</i> (188).<br> + <b>ĉiam</b>, <i>always</i> (187).<br> + <b>gazet-o</b>, <i>magazine, gazette</i>.<br> + <b>ĵurnal-o</b>, <i>journal, paper</i>.<br> + <b>kompat-i</b>, <i>to pity</i>.<br> + <b>larm-o</b>, <i>tear</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>laŭ</b>, <i>according to</i> (191).<br> + <b>manier-o</b>, <i>manner, way</i>.<br> + <b>mov-i</b>, <i>to move</i> (transitive)<br> + <b>okup-i</b>, <i>to occupy</i>.<br> + <b>pal-a</b>, <i>pale</i>.<br> + <b>polic-o</b>, <i>police</i>.<br> + <b>trankvil-a</b>, <i>calm, tranquil</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- -----------------------------162.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>LA PERDITA INFANO.</b></center> + +<p> +Dum mi estis atendanta hieraŭ posttagmeze en la stacidomo, mi +subite rimarkis palan sinjorinon kun larmoj en ŝiaj okuloj. Ŝi +rigardis ĉien kun esprimo de nekaŝebla timo, kaj estis videble +maltrankvila. Ŝi serĉis du aŭ tri minutojn inter la +personoj ĉirkaŭ si, kaj fine ŝi vidis bluevestitan +policanon, kiu estis parolanta al unu el la gardistoj. Ŝi rapide +diris kelkajn vortojn al li, kaj tuj li ankaŭ komencis serĉi +cie. Mi tre kompatis la ploreman sinjorinon, kaj kiam la policano +preteriris, mi demandis ĉu mi ne povas helpi. Mi diris ke mi ne +estos okupata (<i>busy</i>) ĝis la alveno de la vagonaro. Li +respondis ke la filo de tiu virino estas perdita, kaj li donis al mi la +sekvantan priskribon de la infano, laŭ la vortoj de la patrino: la +knabo estas agema brunhara sesjarulo, kun bluaj okuloj, kaj li estas +ruĝe vestita (<i>dressed in red</i>). Lia patrino estis ĵus +aĉetinta sian bileton ĉe la giĉeto, kaj post kiam ŝi +pagis la naŭdek cendojn por ĝi, subite ŝi rimarkis +ke la infano ne estis kun ŝi. Kvankam ŝi jam serĉis +ĉie, la filo ŝajnas ankoraŭ netrovebla. Ŝi multe +timas pro li, kvankam li ĉiam estas bona knabo. Mi tuj komencis +marŝi ĉien inter la personoj ĉirkaŭ mi, kaj fine +eniris malgrandan ĉambron apud la horloĝo ĉe la fino de +la stacidomo, kie estas vendataj tagĵurnaloj (<i>newspapers</i>), +gazetoj kaj libroj. Tie antaŭ nemovebla tablo kovrita de brile +koloritaj ĵurnaloj staris malgranda ruĝevestita knabo. Mi +diris al li "Mia studema juna amiko, oni ne vojaĝas laŭ tiu +metodo. Via patrino jam de longe atendas vin. Mi montros al vi kie +ŝi estas." Li venis kun mi, kaj proksime de la pordo kie mi estis +lasinta mian valizon staris la sinjorino. Ŝi estis ĉial +ĝoja kiam ŝi vidis nin, kaj dankeme ĉirkaŭprenis la +infanon. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------163.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +1. The poor (to-be-pitied) lady whose little boy (son) was +lost in the station yesterday afternoon was very uneasy +about him for every reason. 2. She was pale and tearful +(<i>plorema</i>) when I saw her, and looked in every direction +in a most impatient manner. 3. There was an expression +of fear upon her face and she went as quickly as possible +to a nearby policeman, and said a few (<i>kelkajn</i>) words +to him. 4. I heard the last words, and at once said to myself +"It is now only ten minutes past two. 5. My train +will leave (<i>foriros</i>) at half-past two, so I have time to help." +6. I said to the blue-garbed policeman "During the next +(<i>sekvontajn</i>) twenty minutes I shall not be busy. Do you +desire my help?" 7. He answered "Yes, you are very +kind (<i>ĝentila</i>). The son of that lady has been lost. 8. +According to her description, he is a yellow-haired blue-eyed +five-year-old, and apparently (<i>ŝajne</i>) too restless +(<i>movema</i>). 9. I shall find him as soon as possible, nevertheless +I shall gladly accept your help. 10. The child is +dressed in white and wears a red hat." 11. As (<i>ĉar</i>) I am +not at all lazy (<i>mallaborema</i>), I went along the stationary +(<i>nemoveblaj</i>) tables as-far-as the end of the station, and +there I saw that-sort-of child, looking at the magazines and +newspapers. 12. I led him to the lady, who with tears in +her eyes was just going to telephone to her husband. + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XLI.</b></center> + +<center>THE DISTRIBUTIVE ADVERB <b>ĈIEL</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>193.</b> The distributive adverb of manner, related to the +distributive pronoun <b>ĉiu</b>, is <b>ĉiel</b>, <i>in every +way, in every manner</i>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Li povas ĉiel prepari ĝin</b>, <i>he can prepare it in every manner</i>.<br> +<b>Li estos ĉiel helpata</b>, <i>he will be helped in every way</i>. +</p> + +<center>THE DISTRIBUTIVE ADVERB <b>ĈIOM</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>194.</b> The distributive adverb of quantity, related to the +distributive pronoun <b>ĉiu</b>, is <b>ĉiom</b>, <i>every +quantity, the whole, all</i>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Li prenis multe da sukero, sed ne ĉiom da ĝi</b>, <i>he took a great deal of sugar, but not all of it</i>.<br> +<b>Li elprenis ĉiom de la teo el la teujo</b>, <i>he took all of the tea out of the tea caddy</i>. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------164.png---------------------------- --> + +<center>THE PLUPERFECT PASSIVE TENSE.</center> + +<p> +<b>195.</b> The compound tense made by combining the past passive +participle with the past tense of the verb <b>esti</b> expresses an +act or condition which <i>had been undergone</i> by the subject of the +verb at some point in past time. It is called the <i>pluperfect passive +tense</i>. The conjugation of <b>vidi</b> in this tense is as follows: +</p> + +<p> +<b>mi estis vidita</b>, <i>I had been seen (I was having-been-seen)</i>.<br> +<b>vi estis vidita</b>, <i>you had been seen</i>.<br> +<b>li (ŝi, ĝi) estis vidita</b>, <i>he (she, it) had been seen</i>.<br> +<b>ni estis viditaj</b>, <i>we had been seen</i>.<br> +<b>vi estis viditaj</b>, <i>you had been seen</i>.<br> +<b>ili estis viditaj</b>, <i>they had been seen</i>. +</p> + +<center>THE FUTURE PERFECT PASSIVE TENSE.</center> + +<p> +<b>196.</b> The compound tense made by combining the past passive +participle with the future tense of the verb <b>esti</b> expresses an +act or condition which <i>will have been undergone</i> by the subject +of the verb at some point in future time. It is called the <i>future +perfect passive tense</i>. The conjugation of <b>vidi</b> in this tense +is as follows: +</p> + +<p> +<b>mi estos vidita</b>, <i>I shall have been seen (shall be having-been-seen)</i>.<br> +<b>vi estos vidita</b>, <i>you will have been seen</i>.<br> +<b>li (ŝi, ĝi) estos vidita</b>, <i>he (she, it) will have been seen</i>.<br> +<b>ni estos viditaj</b>, <i>we shall have been seen</i>.<br> +<b>vi estos viditaj</b>, <i>you will have been seen</i>.<br> +<b>ili estos viditaj</b>, <i>they will have been seen</i>. +</p> + +<center>THE EXPRESSION OF MATERIAL.</center> + +<p> +<b>197.</b> The material <i>out of which</i> something is made or +constructed is expressed by use of the preposition <b>el</b>. As in +English, an adjective may be used instead of the prepositional phrase +unless a verb or participle lays stress upon the fact of construction: +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------165.png---------------------------- --> + +<p> +<b>La tablo estas farita el ligno</b>, <i>the table is made out of wood</i>.<br> +<b>La tablo estas ligna (el ligno)</b>, <i>the table is wooden (of wood)</i>.<br> +<b>La infanoj konstruis domon el neĝo</b>, <i>the children built a house of (out of) snow.</i><br> +<b>Oni faras supon el asparago</b>, <i>they make soup out of asparagus.</i> +</p> + +<center>THE SUFFIX <b>-ET-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>198.</b> The suffix <b>-et-</b> indicates diminution of degree +in that which is expressed by the root. It is thus in contrast to +the augmentative suffix <b>-eg-</b> (122). Sometimes an affectionate +significance is given: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>beleta</b>, <i>pretty.</i><br> + <b>dormeti</b>, <i>to doze.</i><br> + <b>floreto</b>, <i>floweret, floret.</i><br> + <b>lageto</b>, <i>pond, small lake.</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>libreto</b>, <i>booklet.</i><br> + <b>monteto</b>, <i>hill.</i><br> + <b>rideti</b>, <i>to smile.</i><br> + <b>vojeto</b>, <i>path.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>best-o</b>, <i>animal</i>.<br> + <b>ĉiel</b>, <i>in every way</i> (193).<br> + <b>ĉiom</b>, <i>the whole, all</i> (194).<br> + <b>donac-o</b>, <i>gift, present</i>.<br> + <b>drap-o</b>, <i>cloth</i>.<br> + <b>hund-o</b>, <i>dog</i>.<br> + <b>konsist-i</b>, <i>to consist</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>leon-o</b>, <i>lion</i>.<br> + <b>lud-i</b>, <i>to play</i>.<br> + <b>material-o</b>, <i>material</i>.<br> + <b>posed-i</b>, <i>to own, to possess</i>.<br> + <b>pup-o</b>, <i>doll</i>.<br> + <b>rost-i</b>, <i>to roast</i>.<br> + <b>verŝ-i</b>, <i>to pour</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- -----------------------------166.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>LA DONACO.</b></center> + +<p> +Mi volas doni beletan donacon al mia plej juna fratino morgaŭ, +sed ju pli mi pensas pri ĝi, des pli malfacile estas decidi +pri la afero. Estas duoble malfacile, ĉar ŝi jam posedas +ĉiun ludilon (<i>toy</i>) kiun oni povas imagi. Ĉiu el +ŝiaj amikoj ĝoje donacas (<i>make presents</i>) al tiel afabla +knabino. Tamen mi iris hieraŭ matene al ludilobutiko, kaj rigardis +la ludilojn tie. Multaj konsistis el diversaj pupoj, grandaj kaj +malgrandaj, kaj belege vestitaj. Sed mi estas certa ke la fratineto jam +posedas sufiĉe da pupoj—tial mi ne aĉetis tian ludilon, +kvankam ili estas ĉiam interesaj al knabinetoj. Sur unu tablo +kuŝis ĉiaj malgrandaj bestoj, faritaj el ligno, drapo, kaj +diversaj materialoj. Estis ĉevaletoj, hundetoj, katetoj, kaj flavaj +leonetoj. Proksime de tiuj staris malgrandaj brile koloritaj vagonaroj, +kiujn oni povis rapide movi, laŭ la maniero de grandaj vagonaroj. +Etaj policanoj staris apude, kaj estis ĉial malfacile elekti la +plej interesan el tiom da interesaj ludiloj. Baldaŭ mi rimarkis +knabineton apud mi. Ĉiel ŝi tre similis al mia fratino, kaj +tial mi decidis elekti tian ludilon, kia estos elektita plej frue de +la nekonata knabineto. Mi atendis trankvile, kaj eĉ legis unu +aŭ du paĝojn de miaj ĵus aĉetitaj gazetoj kaj +tagĵurnaloj. Fine la beleta infano estis rigardinta preskaŭ +ĉiom de la ludiloj kiuj okupis la tablojn, dum la kompatinda +servistino lace ŝin sekvis. Tiam la knabineto kriis "Ho, kiel +beleta pupodomo! Estas litoj en la dormoĉambroj; legomoj kaj +rostita viando, faritaj el papero, kuŝas sur la tablo en la +manĝo-ĉambro; kaj mi vidas tie pupon, kiu certe ĵus faris +la teon, kaj estas elverŝonta ĝin en tiujn tasetojn!" Tuj mi +faris decidon laŭ la plezuro de la knabineto, kaj baldaŭ la +pupodomo estis aĉetita por mia fratineto. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------167.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. My pale delicate (<i>malsanema</i>) little sister is always happy +when she has a new toy. 2. Her dolls were made out of cloth when +she was a very little girl, because otherwise she could too easily +break them. 3. But yesterday my grandmother made a present of a doll +(presented a doll) to her, and since that moment she has been as happy +as possible. 4. I have not seen tears in her eyes, or heard a cross +(<i>koleretan</i>) word. 5. This new doll is made out of cloth, and its +dress consists of very pretty material. 6. My sister decided that she +likes it better than her other playthings, and I think that those poor +(<i>kompatindaj</i>) other dolls will soon have been forgotten. 7. The +doll seems in every way more interesting than the little animals made +out of cloth or wood, which are on the table with her dolls. 8. She +possesses a little dog and a little cat, and a little lion, and until +yesterday she had a wooden pony. 9. The pony is already broken, and has +been given away to a poor (<i>malriĉa</i>) child, the daughter +of our laundress (<i>lavistino</i>). 10. My sister possesses a small +train of cars which she can move everywhere, and she is very fond of +(<i>ametas</i>) this toy. 11. There are small sacks of sand in the cars, +and usually she is happy when she is pouring the sand out of one of +these into another, or putting all of the sand into a box, by means of +a small spoon. 12. For every reason I am doubly glad today that she is +busied in this manner (<i>tiamaniere</i>). 13. I wish to take a walk +along that pleasant path toward the hill, instead of waiting for my +little sister. 14. I must buy the meat to roast for supper, before I +come home from my walk. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XLII.</b></center> + +<center>THE FUTURE PASSIVE PARTICIPLE.</center> + +<p> +<b>199.</b> The future passive participle, expressing that which <i>will +be or is about to be undergone</i> by the person or thing indicated by +the word modified, ends in <b>-ota</b>, as <b>vidota</b>, about to be +seen: +</p> + +<p> +<b>La punota infano mallaŭte ploretas</b>, <i>the child about to be punished whimpers softly.</i><br> +<b>La formovota tablo estas peza</b>, <i>the table about to be moved away is heavy.</i><br> +<b>La domo konstruota de li estos bela</b>, <i>the house going to be built by him will be beautiful</i>. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------168.png---------------------------- --> + +<center>THE PASSIVE PERIPHRASTIC FUTURE TENSES.</center> + +<p> +<b>200.</b> The compound tenses formed by combining the future passive +participle with each of the three aoristic tenses of <b>esti</b> +represent an act or condition as <i>about to be undergone</i> in the +present, past, or future, respectively. These are called <i>passive +periphrastic future tenses</i>. Except when great accuracy is desired, +these tenses, like those of the active voice (153) are not often used. A +synopsis of <b>vidi</b> in the first person singular of these tenses is +as follows: +</p> + +<!-- + + Present Periphrastic Future. + + mi estas vidota, I am about to be (going to be) seen. + + Past Periphrastic Future. + + mi estis vidota, I was about to be (going to be) seen. + + Future Periphrastic Future. + + mi estos vidota, I shall be about to be (going to be) seen. + +--> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr><td nowrap align="center">Present Periphrastic Future.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap> + <b>mi estas vidota</b>, <i>I am about to be (going to be) seen.</i> + </td> + </tr> + <tr><td nowrap align="center">Past Periphrastic Future.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap> + <b>mi estis vidota</b>, <i>I was about to be (going to be) seen.</i> + </td> + </tr> + <tr><td nowrap align="center">Future Periphrastic Future.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap> + <b>mi estos vidota</b>, <i>I shall be about to be (going to be) seen.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center>THE GENERIC ARTICLE.</center> + +<p> +<b>201.</b> The article is placed before nouns used in a comprehensive +or universal sense, indicating a whole class, kind, substance, or +abstract quality. In such use it is called the <i>generic article:</i> +</p> + +<p> +<b>La pacienco estas laŭdinda</b>, <i>patience is praiseworthy.</i><br> +<b>La vivo surtera estas nur parto de la vivo ĉiama</b>, <i>life on earth is merely a part of the life eternal.</i><br> +<b>La viro estas pli forta ol la virino</b>, <i>man is stronger than woman.</i> +</p> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +<i>Cf.</i> French <i>La patience est amère, mais son fruit est +doux, patience is bitter, but its fruit is sweet</i>, German <i>Das +Leben ist kurtz, life is short</i>, Italian <i>La speranza è il +pan de miseri, hope is the poor man's bread</i>, Spanish <i>Las riquezas +son bagajes de la fortuna, riches are the baggage of fortune</i>, etc. +In English the generic article (as in "the life eternal" above) may +often be replaced by omission of both "a" and "the." +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<center>THE SUFFIX <b>-EC-</b>.</center> + +<!-- -----------------------------169.png---------------------------- --> + +<p> +<b>202.</b> The suffix <b>-ec-</b> is used to form words indicating +the <i>abstract quality</i> of that which is expressed in the root, or +formation, to which it is attached: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>amikeco</b>, <i>friendship</i>.<br> + <b>ofteco</b>, <i>frequency</i>.<br> + <b>indeco</b>, <i>worthiness</i>.<br> + <b>dankemeco</b>, <i>thankfulness</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>fleksebleco</b>, <i>flexibility</i>.<br> + <b>patreco</b>, <i>fatherhood</i>.<br> + <b>patrineco</b>, <i>motherhood</i>.<br> + <b>maltrankvileco</b>, <i>uneasiness</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>bord-o</b>, <i>bank, shore</i>.<br> + <b>brak-o</b>, <i>arm</i>.<br> + <b>fabrik-i</b>, <i>to manufacture</i>.<br> + <b>krut-a</b>, <i>steep</i>.<br> + <b>lan-o</b>, <i>wool</i>.<br> + <b>mebl-o</b>, <i>piece of furniture</i>.<br> + <b>pas-i</b>, <i>to pass</i> (intrans.).<br> + <b>pitoresk-a</b>, <i>picturesque</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>pont-o</b>, <i>bridge</i>.<br> + <b>sonor-i</b>, <i>to ring</i> (intrans.).<br> + <b>surtut-o</b>, <i>overcoat</i>.<br> + <b>sving-i</b>, <i>to swing, to brandish</i>.<br> + <b>ŝip-o</b>, <i>ship</i>.<br> + <b>ŝton-o</b>, <i>stone</i>.<br> + <b>vapor-o</b>, <i>steam</i>.<br> + <b>vetur-i</b>, <i>to travel</i> (in a vehicle). + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- -----------------------------170.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>SUR LA VAPORŜIPO.</b></center> + +<p> +Unu el la plezuroj de la kampara vivo konsistas el la multenombraj +(<i>numerous</i>) okazoj por veturi ĉien, kien oni volas iri, +per kvietaj pitoreskaj vojoj. Ni havas ankoraŭ unu (<i>still +one, yet another</i>) okazon por plezuro en nia vilaĝo, ĉar +ni povas veturi per vaporŝipo sur la bela lago ĉe kies +bordo kuŝas la vilaĝo. Hieraŭ du kuzinoj venis por +viziti ĉe ni, kaj tuj post la tagmanĝo ni decidis promeni +laŭ tiu pitoreska vojeto al la lago. Kiam ni alvenis al la lago, +ni rimarkis ke beleta vaporŝipeto estis ĵus forironta. Tial +mi aĉetis tri biletojn, kaj kiel eble plej rapide ni suriris la +ŝipeton. La sonoriloj (<i>bells</i>) estis jam sonorintaj, kaj tuj +post kiam ni transmarŝis la ponteton, de la tero al la planko de +la ŝipeto, oni forprenis la ponteton. Kelkaj personoj kiuj estis +ankoraŭ sur la tero kuris kun granda rapideco al la ponteto. Ili +svingis la brakojn kaj la ombrelojn tre energie, sed la ŝipeto ne +atendis eĉ unu minuton. La personoj ŝajnis tre koleraj pro sia +malfrueco, kaj ankoraŭ pli koleraj pro la trankvila foriro de la +ŝipeto. Ĉiu sur la ŝipeto ridetis, ĉar la koleremo +(<i>irascibility</i>) estas ĉiam amuza. Tiam ĉiu komencis sin +amuzi tiel, kiel li deziris. Mi estis kunportinta dikan lanan surtuton, +sed pro la varmeco de la vetero mi ne bezonis ĝin, kaj lasis +ĝin sur apuda seĝo. Ni atendis kun plezuro por vidi la krutajn +montetojn kiuj estos videblaj tuj kiam la ŝipeto estos pasinta +preter malgranda arbaro. La pitoreskeco de la belaj montetoj estas +difektota, ĉar grandaj fabrikejoj estas jam konstruataj ĉe la +montpiedoj. La ŝtonoj por la muroj jam kuŝas pretaj apude, +kune kun grandaj stangoj kaj aliaj pecoj da ligno. Tie oni fabrikos +tablojn, seĝojn, kaj aliajn meblojn el zorge elektita ligno. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------171.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. It is difficult in every way to select a present for a child who +already possesses enough toys. 2. In a toy-shop yesterday I examined the +dolls made out of woolen cloth and other material, and also looked at +the various little animals. 3. There were ponies, little dogs and little +lions and camels. 4. There were also little sets of furniture (126), +which consisted of tables, sofas and chairs. 5. On the tables were small +plates containing vegetables, fruits and roast (189) meat, entirely made +out of colored paper. 6. There were also little cups and tumblers of +thin glass, into which one could pour water or milk. 7. As (ĉar) +one dollar was all (194) of the money which I had in my purse, I left +the shop. 8. I walked along a stony picturesque path toward the lake, +swinging my overcoat on my arm, while I thought over (<i>pripensis</i>) +the difficulty, and tried to decide what sort of present to choose. 9. +The steamboat to B—— was just leaving, so I went across the +footbridge (<i>ponteto</i>) on to the pretty little ship, while its +bells were ringing, and rode an hour in the open (<i>libera</i>) air. +10. The shore which we passed is very picturesque, but its beauty is +about to be spoiled, for a large furniture factory is going to be built +between that steep hill and the lake. 11. Its proximity to the water is +necessary, for water-power (<i>akvoforto</i>) will be used. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XLIII.</b></center> + +<center>THE INDEFINITE PRONOUN.</center> + +<p> +<b>203.</b> The indefinite pronoun (and pronominal adjective) <b>iu</b>, +<i>any one, a certain one</i>, presents the idea of some person or +thing, without definitely characterizing it: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Mi parolas pri iu, kiun vi konas</b>, <i>I am talking about a certain one whom you know</i>.<br> +<b>Mi vizitis iujn el viaj amikoj</b>, <i>I visited some of your friends</i>.<br> +<b>Mi havas kelkajn pomojn, sed iuj ne estas bonaj</b>, <i>I have several apples, but certain ones are not good</i>.<br> +<b>Iuj pontoj estas bone faritaj</b>, <i>some bridges are well made</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>204.</b> The indefinite pronoun <b>iu</b> has a possessive or +genitive form <b>ies</b>, <i>somebody's, someone's, a certain one's</i>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Mi tuŝis ies brakon</b>, <i>I touched someone's arm</i>.<br> +<b>Ĉu ies surtuto kuŝas sur la tablo?</b> <i>Is anybody's overcoat lying on the table?</i><br> +<b>Ies ludiloj estas rompitaj</b>, <i>someone's playthings are broken</i>. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------172.png---------------------------- --> + +<center>PARTICIPIAL NOUNS.</center> + +<p> +<b>205.</b> Nouns may be formed from participles, by substituting +the noun ending <b>-o</b> for the adjectival ending <b>-a</b>. Such +participial nouns indicate persons temporarily or non-professionally +performing or undergoing that which is expressed by the root: +</p> + +<p> +<b>helpanto</b>, <i>one who is helping, an assistant.</i><br> +<b>elpensinto</b>, <i>one who has thought out something, an inventor.</i><br> +<b>legonto</b>, <i>one who is about to read.</i><br> +<b>vidato</b>, <i>one (being) seen.</i><br> +<b>sendito</b>, <i>one (having been) sent, an envoy.</i><br> +<b>la juĝoto</b>, <i>the one about to be judged, the accused.</i> +</p> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +Participial nouns must not be confused with nouns formed by the +suffix <b>-ist-</b> (172) expressing professional or permanent +occupation: <b>rajdanto</b>, <i>a rider</i>, <b>rajdisto</b>, +<i>jockey, horseman</i>, <b>juĝanto</b>, <i>a judge</i> (of +something), <b>juĝisto</b>, <i>judge</i> (professional), +<b>laboranto</b>, <i>a person working</i>, <b>laboristo</b>, +<i>laborer</i>. +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<center>THE PREFIX <b>EK-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>206.</b> Sudden or momentary action, or the beginning of an action or +state, is indicated by the prefix <b>ek-</b>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>ekdormi</b>, <i>to fall asleep.</i><br> +<b>ekkanti</b>, <i>to burst into song.</i><br> +<b>ekiri</b>, <i>to set out, to start.</i><br> +<b>ekridi</b>, <i>to burst into a laugh</i><br> +<b>ekrigardi</b>, <i>to glance at.</i> +</p> + +<center>THE SUFFIX <b>-ID-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>207.</b> Words indicating the <i>young of, the child of, the +descendant of,</i> are formed by use of the suffix <b>-id-</b>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>ĉevalido</b>, <i>colt</i> (from <b>ĉevalo</b>, <i>horse</i>).<br> +<b>hundido</b>, <i>puppy</i> (from <b>hundo</b>, <i>dog</i>).<br> +<b>katido</b>, <i>kitten</i> (from <b>kato</b>, <i>cat</i>).<br> +<b>leonido</b>, <i>a lion's whelp</i> (from <b>leono</b>, <i>lion</i>).<br> +<b>reĝidino</b>, <i>a king's daughter, a princess</i> (from <b>reĝo</b>, <i>king</i>). +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------173.png---------------------------- --> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>amas-o</b>, <i>heap, throng.</i><br> + <b>daŭr-i</b>, <i>to continue.</i><br> + <b>hirund-o</b>, <i>swallow.</i> (bird).<br> + <b>hom-o</b>, <i>human being.</i><br> + <b>humor-o</b>, <i>temper, humor.</i><br> + <b>ies</b>, <i>some one's</i> (204).<br> + <b>iu</b>, <i>some one</i> (203). + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>kugl-o</b>, <i>bullet.</i><br> + <b>milit-i</b>, <i>to fight, to make war.</i><br> + <b>ost-o</b>, <i>bone.</i><br> + <b>renvers-i</b>, <i>to upset, to overturn.</i><br> + <b>sign-o</b>, <i>sign, mark.</i><br> + <b>tend-o</b>, <i>tent.</i><br> + <b>tru-o</b>, <i>hole.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +<i>Cf</i>. the difference between <b>viro</b>, <i>man</i> (in contrast +to <b>virino</b>, <i>woman</i>), and <b>homo</b>, <i>man in the generic +sense</i>, including both men and women. +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<!-- -----------------------------174.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>LA NESTO SUR LA TENDO.</b></center> + +<p> +Unufoje iu reĝo estis farinta militon kontraŭ la homoj de +lando ĉe la bordo de pitoreska rivero. La soldatoj ne venis tien +per vaporŝipoj, sed estis konstruintaj ponton trans la rivero, por +la veturiloj (<i>vehicles</i>). Estis necese resti kelkan tempon apud +urbo kiun la reĝo volis ekataki, kaj li havis grandan tendaron +(<i>encampment</i>) antaŭ tiu urbo. Unu tagon en la daŭro +(<i>course</i>) de la milito, iuj el la soldatoj pasis preter la +tendo de la reĝo, laŭ la ŝtona vojeto laŭ kiu ili +ĉiutage marŝis por gardi la tendaron. Unu el ĉi tiuj +ekrimarkis ke hirundo estas konstruinta sian neston sur la reĝa +tendo. Sur la nesto, kiu estis bone konstruita el koto, sidis trankvile +la hirundo. Dum la soldatoj svingis la brakojn kaj ekridis unu post la +alia, pri la kuraĝa birdo, la reĝo aŭdis ies voĉon. +Li elvenis el sia tendo por eltrovi kial la parolantoj faras tiom da +bruo, kaj kial ili tiel ekkriis kaj ekridis. Kiam la viroj montris al +li la birdon, li diris kun bonhumora rideto, "Tiu hirundo estos mia +gasto. Ĉiuj el la militistoj certe zorgos de nun pri la hirundo kaj +la hirundidoj." Tial la nesto restis netuŝata en la daŭro de +ĉiu batalo. Kelkaj kugloj pasis preter ĝi, sed la trankvileco +de la birdo daŭris same kiel antaŭe. Fine la reĝo +venkis, per kruelega batalo. Tuj la venkintoj forportis la tendojn, +kune kun multaj militkaptitoj (<i>prisoners of war</i>). Nur la tendon +de la reĝo oni lasis tie, ĉar la reĝo diris ke ĝi +nun apartenas al la hirundo. Ĝi jam estis malnova kaj eluzita, +tra kiu la pluvo eniris per multe da truoj. Sed ĝi ankoraŭ +staris, ĝis iu tago somera kiam la hirundidoj povis jam bone flugi. +Tiam la vento subite renversis ĝin, kaj ĝi ekfalis, kaj +kuŝis, amaso da ĉifonoj, inter multe da kugloj, homaj ostoj, +kaj la ceteraj malgajaj postsignoj (<i>traces</i>) de ies venko sur la +batalejo. +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. There is a pretty story about a swallow which built its nest for its +young (<i>idoj</i>) on the king's tent. 2. The soldiers who were walking +along the steep path past the tent glanced at it, and caught sight +of (206) the bird. 3. Some of them burst into a laugh, and gestured +(<i>svingis la brakon</i>) toward the bird, to point it out to their +comrades. 4. The good-humored king put on a thick woolen overcoat, and +came out of his tent, to inquire why his soldiers were conversing so +noisily there. 5. The tent was an expensive one, and contained handsome +furniture, as well as (<i>kaj ankau</i>) a bell which always rang as +soon as (<i>tuj kiam</i>) one touched it. 6. The king immediately +noticed the swallow's nest, and said with an amiable smile "Surely such +a courageous bird is a worthy (154) guest for a king." 7. The warriors +(172) cared for the swallow as much as possible during the course of the +war. 8. When the victors departed, they left that tent there. 9. Finally +the wind upset it, and it fell to the ground. 10. The young swallows +already could fly, by (<i>je</i>) that time. 11. The battleground is +covered with bullets, piles of human bones, and similar melancholy signs +of war. 12. War (201) is wicked and shameful (154). 13. Why do kings and +princes wish to make war upon each other (180)? 14. When their sons have +gone away to (make) war, the mothers of the soldiers are very uneasy. +15. Perhaps those sons will be prisoners of war. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------175.png---------------------------- --> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XLIV.</b></center> + +<center>THE INDEFINITE ADJECTIVE.</center> + +<p> +<b>208.</b> The indefinite adjective, related to the indefinite pronoun +<b>iu</b>, is <b>ia</b>, <i>of any kind, some kind of, a certain kind +of,</i> expressing indefinitely the quality of a person or thing: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Estas ia birdo sur tiu arbo</b>, <i>there is a bird of some sort on that tree.</i><br> +<b>Mi vidis iajn ostojn sur la tero</b>, <i>I saw some kind of bones on the ground.</i><br> +<b>Estas ia homo en tiu tendo</b>, <i>there is some sort of human being in that tent.</i> +</p> + +<center>THE INDEFINITE ADVERB OF PLACE.</center> + +<p> +<b>209.</b> The indefinite adverb of place, related to the indefinite +pronoun <b>iu</b>, is <b>ie</b>, <i>anywhere, somewhere, in (at) a +certain place.</i> If the verb in the sentence expresses motion toward +the place indicated by <b>ie</b>, the ending <b>-n</b> is added (121): +</p> + +<p> +<b>Ie en tiu arbaro estas leono</b>, <i>somewhere in that forest is a lion.</i><br> +<b>Ie malantaŭ la soldatoj vi trovos amason da kugloj</b>, <i>somewhere behind the soldiers you will find a heap of bullets.</i><br> +<b>La hirundo flugis ien</b>, <i>the swallow flew somewhere (in some direction).</i><br> +<b>Mi iros ien, sed mi ankoraŭ ne scias kien</b>, <i>I am going somewhere, but I do not yet know where.</i> +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------176.png---------------------------- --> + +<center>PREDICATE NOMINATIVES.</center> + +<p> +<b>210.</b> An adjective may stand in predicate relation to the +<i>direct object of a transitive verb,</i> as well as to the subject +of an intransitive verb (19). Such a predicate adjective, agreeing +in number (21) with the object of the verb, <i>but remaining in the +nominative case,</i> indicates the result produced by the verb upon +the object, or the condition, quality or temporary state in which this +object is found: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Li faris la mondon feliĉa</b>, <i>he made the world happy (made-happy the world).</i><br> +<b>Mi lasis la knabon trankvila</b>, <i>I left the boy calm (undisturbed).</i><br> +<b>Mi trovis la truon jam farita</b>, <i>I found the hole already made.</i><br> +<b>Mi lasis ilin bone punitaj</b>, <i>I left them well punished.</i> +<p> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +<i>Cf.</i> the difference between the examples given and sentences with +the same words in an attributive (13) use: +</p> +<p class="footnote"> +Dio faris la mondon feliĉan, <i>God made the happy world.</i><br> +Mi lasis la knabon trankvilan, <i>I left the calm boy.</i><br> +Mi trovis la jam faritan truon, <i>I found the already made hole.</i><br> +Mi lasis ilin bone punitajn, <i>I left those who had been well punished.</i> +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<p> +<b>211.</b> A <i>noun</i> may be used similarly in predicate relation +after a transitive verb, as well as after an intransitive verb (20): +</p> + +<p> +<b>Ŝi nomis sian filinon Mario</b>, <i>she named her daughter Mary.</i><br> +<b>Oni elektis tiun reprezentanto</b>, <i>they elected that one representative.</i><br> +<b>Mi vidos lin venkinto</b>, <i>I shall see him a conqueror.</i><br> +<b>Mi trovis lin ŝtelisto</b>, <i>I found him a thief.</i> +</p> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +<i>Cf.</i> the examples given and the following sentences using the same +words in apposition (48) or attributive relation (13): +</p> +<p class="footnote"> +<b>Ŝi nomis sian filinon Marion</b>, <i>she named (mentioned) her daughter Mary.</i><br> +<b>Oni elektis tiun reprezentanton</b>, <i>they elected that representative.</i> +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>anonc-i</b>, <i>to announce.</i><br> + <b>ia</b>, <i>some kind of</i> (208).<br> + <b>ie</b>, <i>somewhere</i> (209).<br> + <b>just-a</b>, <i>upright, just</i>.<br> + <b>klar-a</b>, <i>distinct, clear.</i><br> + <b>kresk-i</b>, <i>to grow.</i><br> + <b>oportun-a</b>, <i>convenient.</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>paŝt-i</b>, <i>to feed</i> (flocks, etc.).<br> + <b>plend-i</b>, <i>to complain.</i><br> + <b>proces-o</b>, <i>legal process.</i><br> + <b>rajt-o</b>, <i>right, privilege.</i><br> + <b>ripar-i</b>, <i>to mend, to repair.</i><br> + <b>sufer-i</b>, <i>to suffer.</i><br> + <b>ŝnur-o</b>, <i>string.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- -----------------------------177.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>LA ĈEVALO KAJ LA SONORILO.</b></center> + +<p> +Unufoje en malgranda urbeto (<i>town</i>) en Italujo, la reĝo, +kiun oni estis nominta Johano, metis grandan sonorilon en la vendejon. +Li anoncis ke ĉiu plendanto pri maljusteco havos la rajton alvoki +(<i>to summon</i>) juĝiston per tiu sonorilo. Tiam la juĝisto +faros proceson en la juĝejo pro tiaj plendantoj. Oni multe uzis la +sonorilon, laŭ la anonco de la reĝo, kaj multe da plendantoj +ricevis justecon. Sammaniere, granda nombro da maljustuloj estis punata +per ĝia helpo. Kiam okazis ke iu homo montris sin maljusta al +alia, ĉi tiu anoncis la aferon per la oportuna sonorilo. Kiam iu +faris la edzinon malfeliĉa, la sonorilo tuj sonoris por anonci +ŝiajn suferojn, kaj por alvoki la juĝiston. Fine, oni tiom +uzis la sonorilon justecan, ke la ŝnurego (<i>rope</i>) estis tute +eluzita, kaj ĝia lasta uzinto okaze forrompis ĝin. Sed iu +preterpasinto vidis la duonon de la ŝnurego kuŝanta sur la +tero, kaj riparis ĝin per kelkaj branĉetoj de apuda arbo. Li +pensis en si "Iu plendonto nun trovos ĝin preta por esti uzata." +Rimarkinde, la branĉetoj ne velkis, sed restis verdaj, kaj kreskis +kiel antaŭe. +</p> + +<p> +En la sama urbo loĝis riĉulo kiu estis forvendinta +preskaŭ ĉiom de siaj domoj, ĉevaloj, ĉevaletoj, +ĉevalidoj, hundoj kaj multekostaj vestoj, ĉar en sia maljuneco +li amis nur la monon, kaj tiun li amegis. Li ankoraŭ posedis nur +unu maljunan ĉevalon, kaj fine li forsendis eĉ tiun, por sin +paŝti laŭ la vojo. En la daŭro de la tago, la ĉevalo +ekrimarkis la branĉetojn kreskantajn sur la ŝnurego de la +sonorilo. Tuj ĝi kaptis la branĉetojn, por manĝi ilin, +kaj tuj la juĝisto aŭdis la sonorilon klare sonoranta. +Li rapidis al la vendejo, kaj laŭte ekridis kiam li vidis ies +ĉevalon tie. Li decidis puni la riĉulon ĉar tiu ĉi +ne donis sufiĉe por manĝi al la maljuna militĉevalo. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------178.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. The horse caught sight of the twigs with which a passer-by had mended +the bellrope. 2. Because it wished to eat the green leaves, it seized +the rope, and the bell immediately rang loudly and clearly. 3. The horse +almost upset the poles which supported (160) the roof over the bell +of-justice. 4. Any one (173) had the right to use this bell, to announce +any kind of injustice. 5. The judge burst into a laugh as soon as he saw +that sort of plaintiff standing there. 6. More often he saw human beings +as plaintiffs, instead of animals. 7. When a laborer showed himself +unkind to his wife and children, they could announce their sufferings by +means of the convenient bell. 8. People called it the bell of justice. +9. According to everyone's opinion, it is the duty of a just judge +to punish evildoers and unjust persons. 10. He decided that he would +institute proceedings (<i>faros proceson</i>) against the owner (205) +of the horse. 11. The man had driven away the horse, and it was grazing +(<i>sin paŝtanta</i>) along the road. 12. It was some one's duty to +give some sort of home to his horse. 13. The judge said, "I will find +out whose horse that poor beast is, and will put a mark opposite the +name of that man. I will not leave him alone (<i>trankvila</i>), but +will show myself very severe." +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XLV.</b></center> + +<center>THE INDEFINITE TEMPORAL ADVERB.</center> + +<p> +<b>212.</b> The indefinite temporal adverb, related to the indefinite +pronoun <b>iu</b>, is <b>iam</b>, <i>sometime, any time, ever, once upon +a time</i>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Iam mi rakontos la aferon al vi</b>, <i>sometime I will tell you the affair.</i><br> +<b>Reĝo iam loĝis tie</b>, <i>a king once (upon a time) dwelt there.</i><br> +<b>Ĉu vi iam faris proceson kontraŭ li?</b> <i>Did you ever go to law against him?</i> +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------179.png---------------------------- --> + +<center>THE INDEFINITE ADVERB <b>IAL</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>213.</b> The indefinite adverb of motive or reason, related to the +indefinite pronoun <b>iu</b>, is <b>ial</b>, <i>for any reason, for some +reason, for certain reasons:</i> +</p> + +<p> +<b>Ial li ne riparis la tendon</b>, <i>for some reason he did not repair the tent.</i><br> +<b>Ĉu vi opinias ke ial li maljuste suferas?</b> <i>Do you think that for any reason he is suffering unjustly?</i> +</p> + +<center>CAUSATIVE VERBS.</center> + +<p> +<b>214.</b> The suffix <b>-ig-</b> is used to form verbs indicating the +<i>causing, rendering or bringing about</i> of that which is expressed +in the root or formation to which it is attached. Verbs containing the +suffix <b>-ig-</b> are called <i>causative verbs</i> and are always +transitive (22). +</p> + +<p> +<b>a.</b> Causative verbs from <i>adjectival</i> roots indicate that the +quality or condition expressed in the root is produced in the object of +the verb: +</p> + +<p> +<b>dolĉigi</b>, <i>to sweeten, to assuage</i> (from <b>dolĉa</b>, <i>sweet</i>).<br> +<b>moligi</b>, <i>to soften</i> (from <b>mola</b>, <i>soft</i>).<br> +<b>plilongigi</b>, <i>to lengthen, to make longer</i> (from <b>pli longa</b>, <i>longer</i>).<br> +<b>faciligi</b>, <i>to facilitate</i> (from <b>facila</b>, <i>easy</i>).<br> +<b>beligi</b>, <i>to beautify</i> (from <b>bela</b>, <i>beautiful</i>). +</p> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +The meaning often resembles that of the predicate nominative (210), as: +</p> +<p class="footnote"> +<b>Li faris la mondon ĝoja</b>, <i>he made the world glad.</i><br> +<b>Li ĝojigis la mondon</b>, <i>he gladdened the world.</i> +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<p> +<b>b.</b> Causative verbs from <i>verbal</i> roots indicate that the +action expressed in the root is made to take place: +</p> + +<p> +<b>dormigi</b>, <i>to put to sleep</i> (from <b>dormi</b>, <i>to sleep</i>).<br> +<b>konigi</b>, <i>to make acquainted with</i> (from <b>koni</b>, <i>to know</i>).<br> +<b>mirigi</b>, <i>to astonish</i> (from <b>miri</b>, <i>to wonder</i>).<br> +<b>mortigi</b>, <i>to kill</i> (from <b>morti</b>, <i>to die</i>). +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------180.png---------------------------- --> + +<p> +<b>c.</b> Causative verbs may be formed from noun-roots, prepositions, +adverbs, prefixes and suffixes whose meaning permits: +</p> + +<p> +<b>amasigi</b>, <i>to amass, to heap up</i> (from <b>amaso</b>, <i>pile</i>).<br> +<b>kunigi</b>, <i>to unite, to bring together</i> (from <b>kun</b>, <i>with</i>).<br> +<b>forigi</b>, <i>to do away with</i> (from <b>for</b>, <i>away</i>).<br> +<b>ebligi</b>, <i>to render possible</i> (<b>-ebl-</b>, 161). +</p> + +<center>EMPHASIS BY MEANS OF <b>JA</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>215.</b> The emphatic form of the verb, expressed in English by +"do", "did", as in "I do study", "I did find it", "Do tell me", and by +adverbs such as "certainly", "indeed", etc., is expressed in Esperanto +by placing the adverb <b>ja</b>, <i>indeed</i>, before the verb: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Vi ja mirigas min!</b> <i>You do astonish me!</i><br> +<b>Li ja estas justa juĝisto</b>, <i>he is indeed an upright judge</i>.<br> +<b>Li ja havis tiun rajton</b>, <i>he did have that right</i>. +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>akompan-i</b>, <i>to accompany</i>.<br> + <b>danĝer-o</b>, <i>danger</i>.<br> + <b>gvid-i</b>, <i>to guide</i>.<br> + <b>ial</b>, <i>for some reason</i> (213).<br> + <b>iam</b>, <i>sometimes</i> (212). + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>indiferent-a</b>, <i>indifferent</i>.<br> + <b>ja</b>, <i>indeed</i> (215).<br> + <b>kred-i</b>, <i>to believe</i>.<br> + <b>salt-i</b>, <i>to leap, to jump</i>.<br> + <b>tir-i</b>, <i>to draw, to pull</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +<i>Cf.</i> the difference in meaning and use between <b>esti +indiferenta</b>, <i>to be indifferent</i>, and <b>ne esti zorga</b>, +<i>not to be careful</i>, both of which may be translated "not to +care for": +</p> +<p class="footnote"> +<b>Li estas indiferenta al la libro</b>, <i>he does not care about (is indifferent to) the book</i>.<br> +<b>Li ne zorgas pri la libro</b>, <i>he does not care for (take care of) the book</i>.<br> +<b>Estas indiferente al mi ĉu li venos, aŭ ne</b>, <i>I do not care whether he is coming or not</i>. +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<!-- -----------------------------181.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>ĈE LA MALNOVA PONTO.</b></center> + +<p> +Iam loĝis en nia urbeto junulo kiu havis afablan pli junan +fratinon. Unu tagon en la daŭro de la bela printempa vetero +la junulo invitis la fratinon veturi ien en veturilo tirata de du +ĉevaloj. La invito ĝojigis la knabinon, kaj ŝi respondis +ke ŝi kun plezuro akompanos la fraton. Tuj ŝi pretigis sin +por iri, kaj ili ekveturis. Ili pasis preter pitoreskaj kampoj kaj +arbaretoj, kaj fine alvenis al ponto trans la rivero. Ili kredis +ĝin malnova kaj ne tre forta, kaj ial la junulino estis treege +timigita (<i>frightened</i>). "Ho, kara frato," ŝi ekkriis, kun +eksalteto pro timo, "tiu ponto ja estas danĝera! Mi deziras +marŝi trans ĝin, ĉar iam la pezeco de unu persono estos +tiom tro multe por veturilo sur malforta ponto!" Sed la timemaj petoj de +lia fratino ŝajne kolerigis la junulon, kaj li respondis malafable, +"Nu, vi ja mirigas min! Vi montras vin tre malsaĝa, ĉar la +konstruintoj de tiu ponto certe faris ĝin sufiĉe forta por +tia veturilo kia la nia. Ne estos necese eksalti de ĝi, kaj piede +transiri la ponton." Tiamaniere li penis trankviligi la kompatindan +knabinon, sed tiaj vortoj nur silentigis ŝin, kaj ŝi komencis +mallaŭte ploreti. Tamen la frato montris sin indiferenta al +ŝiaj timemaj sentoj, kaj tute malatentis ŝiajn larmojn. Li +gvidis la ĉevalojn rekte trans la ponton, dum la fratino atendis la +bruegon de rompigita ligno, kaj imagis ke ŝi estas tuj mortigota. +Tamen, la ponto estis tiel forta kiel la junulo estis klariginta, +kaj tute ne estis danĝera. Sed pro la malafableco de la frato +al la fratino, ili tute ne agrable pasigis la ceterajn horojn de la +posttagmezo, malgraŭ la beleco de la vetero kaj de la kamparo. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------182.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. Somewhere in that same town, there lived another youth, who also had +an amiable sister. 2. One convenient day, she accompanied him for a ride +in a vehicle drawn by a fast horse. 3. When they reached (<i>alvenis +al</i>) the bridge, this girl also was frightened for some reason, the +same as the girl in the other story. 4. She said "I do not intend to +complain, but the carriage will certainly be too heavy while we are in +it. I am afraid that that bridge is dangerous, so I will jump out and +walk. I will also pick (<i>kolektos</i>) some sort of flowers, among +the flowers growing there, near where someone's horses are grazing. I +will not delay (<i>atendigi</i>) you long." He replied, "That bridge +is entirely safe (<i>nedanĝera</i>) but instead of explaining +(<i>making-clear</i>) to you about it, I will lead the horse across +the bridge, while you walk across, for I am not indifferent to your +fear." Then he helped his sister get out (<i>eliri</i>) of the carriage, +and guided the horse across. Then he said with a pleasant smile, "It +was not necessary to cross on foot." She replied, "No, but you showed +yourself a courteous brother, and were very patient." Then they rode on +(<i>antaŭen</i>), and talked to each other very amiably. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XLVI.</b></center> + +<center>THE INDEFINITE ADVERB <b>IEL</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>216.</b> The indefinite adverb of manner, related to the indefinite +pronoun <b>iu</b>, is <b>iel</b>, <i>somehow, in any way, in some (any) +manner:</i> +</p> + +<p> +<b>Mi penis vin iel gvidi tien</b>, <i>I tried somehow to guide you thither.</i><br> +<b>Iel ni anoncos la decidon</b>, <i>we shall announce the decision in some way.</i> +</p> + +<center>THE INDEFINITE ADVERB <b>IOM</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>217.</b> The indefinite adverb of quantity, related to the indefinite +pronoun <b>iu</b>, is <b>iom</b>, <i>some, any quantity, a certain +amount:</i> +</p> + +<p> +<b>Ĉu vi havas iom da tempo?</b> <i>Have you some time?</i><br> +<b>Ŝi varmigos iom da akvo</b>, <i>she will heat some water.</i><br> +<b>Tiu metodo estas iomete danĝera</b>, <i>that way is a little dangerous</i> (198).<br> +<b>La ŝnuro estas iom tro longa</b>, <i>the string is somewhat too long.</i> +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------183.png---------------------------- --> + +<center>THE SUFFIX <b>-AD-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>218.</b> The suffix <b>-ad-</b> is used to form words indicating +that the action expressed in the root is <i>continuous, habitual or +repeated.</i> +</p> + +<p> +<b>a.</b> Verbs formed with the suffix <b>-ad-</b> are called +<i>frequentative verbs</i>, and may often be translated by the root +meaning, preceded by "keep (on)", "used to", etc.: +</p> + +<p> +<b>frapadi</b>, <i>to keep knocking, to knock repeatedly.</i><br> +<b>rigardadi</b>, <i>to keep on looking, to gaze.</i><br> +<b>vizitadi</b>, <i>to keep visiting, visit repeatedly, frequent, haunt.</i><br> +<b>Antaŭ du jaroj ŝi tre dolĉe kantadis</b>, <i>two years ago she used to sing very sweetly.</i> +</p> + +<p> +<b>b.</b> Nouns formed with the suffix <b>-ad-</b> are often equivalent +to English verbal nouns ending in <i>-ing</i>, and (with the generic +article, 201) may replace the infinitive as subject (130) and sometimes +as object (29): +</p> + +<p> +<b>kriado</b>, <i>crying, shouting</i> (from <b>krio</b>, <i>cry, shout</i>).<br> +<b>movado</b>, <i>motion, movement in general</i> (from <b>movo</b>, <i>a movement</i>).<br> +<b>pafado</b>, <i>shooting, fusillade</i> (from <b>pafo</b>, <i>a shot</i>).<br> +<b>parolado</b>, <i>a speech, address</i> (from <b>parolo</b>, <i>a word spoken</i>).<br> +<b>pensado</b>, <i>thought, contemplation</i> (from <b>penso</b>, <i>a thought</i>).<br> +<b>La promenado donas plezuron</b>, <i>the taking of walks gives pleasure.</i><br> +<b>Mi preferas la legadon de tiaj libroj</b>, <i>I prefer the reading of (to read) such books.</i> +</p> + +<center>THE USE OF <b>MEM</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>219.</b> The invariable pronoun <b>mem</b>, <i>self, selves</i>, +is intensive, and lays stress upon the substantive which immediately +precedes it, or which it obviously modifies. (The combination of +<b>mem</b> with personal pronouns must not be confused with reflexive +pronouns, 39, 40): +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------184.png---------------------------- --> + +<p> +<b>Mi mem akompanos vin</b>, <i>I myself shall accompany you.</i><br> +<b>La gvidisto mem perdis la vojon</b>, <i>the guide himself lost the way.</i><br> +<b>Mi kredos al la viro mem</b>, <i>I shall give credence to the man himself.</i><br> +<b>La viroj mem defendis sin</b>, <i>the men themselves defended themselves.</i><br> +<b>Ĝi pendas sur la muro mem</b>, <i>it hangs on the very wall (the wall itself).</i><br> +<b>Ŝi venis mem por vidi vin</b>, <i>she came herself to see you.</i><br> +<b>Mi ekvidis la ŝteliston mem</b>, <i>I caught a glimpse of the thief himself.</i> +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>Arĥimed-o</b>, <i>Archimedes.</i><br> + <b>ban-i</b>, <i>to bathe</i> (trans.).<br> + <b>fals-i</b>, <i>to debase, to forge.</i><br> + <b>Hieron-o</b>, <i>Hiero.</i><br> + <b>honest-a</b>, <i>honest.</i><br> + <b>ide-o</b>, <i>idea.</i><br> + <b>iel</b>, <i>somehow</i> (216).<br> + <b>iom</b>, <i>some</i> (217). + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>ĵet-i</b>, <i>to throw, to cast.</i><br> + <b>kompren-i</b>, <i>to understand.</i><br> + <b>kron-o</b>, <i>crown.</i><br> + <b>lev-i</b>, <i>to lift, to raise.</i><br> + <b>lok-o</b>, <i>place.</i><br> + <b>mem</b>, <i>self, selves</i> (219).<br> + <b>or-o</b>, <i>gold.</i><br> + <b>Sikeli-o</b>, <i>Sicily.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- -----------------------------185.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>ARĤIMEDO KAJ LA KRONOJ.</b></center> + +<p> +Iam bonekonata reĝo, nomita Hierono, vivadis en granda urbo en +Sikelio, kiu estas sudokcidenta de Italujo. Li suspektis ke iam la +kronfaristoj, kiuj fabrikadis kronojn por li, ne uzis ĉiom de +la oro donita al ili de la reĝo, sed falsadis ĝin per la +uzado de iu alia materialo. Tamen, Hierono ne povis per si mem eltrovi +ĉu oni falsadas la oron. Tial li venigis grekan klerulon, kies +nomo estis Arĥimedo, kaj rakontis al li sian timon pri la falsita +oro. Arĥimedo certigis lin ke iel li ja eltrovos pri la falsado, +kaj helpos la reĝon kontraŭ la falsintoj, kiuj estis tiel +indiferentaj al la honesteco. Ĉiutage li multe pensadis pri la +afero, sed ju pli longe li pensadis, des malpli sukcesaj estis liaj +penoj, ĝis iu tago, kiam li okaze faris interesan eltrovon. Li +estis ĵus baninta sin, kaj subite ekrimarkis ke dum li mem restis +en la akvo, ial ŝajnis esti iomete pli multe da akvo en la banujo +ol antaŭe. Tuj li komprenis ke lia korpo estas forpuŝinta +iom de la akvo el ĝia loko. Li komprenis ke tiom da akvo estas +elpuŝita, kiom antaŭe estis en tiu loko kie li mem estas. Tia +levado de la akvo per lia korpo donis al li saĝan ideon, kaj li +prenis en la mano du aŭ tri orajn kronojn. Li ĵetis ilin unu +post la alia en la banujon, kaj zorge rimarkis al kiu alteco ĉiu +el ili levis la akvon. Tiam li eltiris ilin, kaj enmetis la kronon pri +kiu Hierono estis plej suspektema. Li rimarkis ke ĉi tiu ne tiel +alten levis la akvon, tial li estis certa ke la oro en ĝi estas +multe falsita. Oni diras ke kiam li eltrovis ĉi tiun metodon por +montri la falsadon de la malhonestaj kronfaristoj, li eksaltetis pro +ĝojo kaj ekkriis "eŭreka," kiu estas la greka vorto por "mi +estas trovinta." Tiun saman vorton oni ankoraŭ nun uzadas en la +angla lingvo. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------186.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. Several centuries ago, a rich and powerful (<i>multepova</i>) king, +named Hiero, lived in Sicily. 2. Sometimes he was suspicious about +the crown-makers who wrought (<i>faris</i>) crowns for him, out of +the gold which he himself gave them. 3. He wondered whether these men +were honest. 4. He suspected that perhaps (<i>eble</i>) they did not +use all of the gold which was given them, but kept some of it for +themselves. 5. He could not of himself (<i>per si mem</i>) discover +whether they were debasing the gold in his crowns, so he summoned +a wise man from (<i>el</i>) Greece. 6. To this well-informed man, +whose name was Archimedes, he made clear his fears. 7. Archimedes +assured the king that he would find out somehow about the matter. +8. He meditated several hours every day, and tried to discover a +satisfactory (<i>kontentiga</i>) method, but for some reason he did +not succeed. 9. One day, however, when he was bathing (himself), he +noticed that there seemed to be a little more water in the bathtub +when he himself was in it, than before. 10. The rising of the water +gave him an idea. 11. He threw the crowns one after another into the +water, and noticed how much water each displaced. 12. In this manner +(<i>tiamaniere</i>) he understood how much each had been alloyed by the +local (<i>lokaj</i>) crown-makers, whom Hiero soon threw into prison +(<i>la malliberejon</i>). +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XLVII.</b></center> + +<center>THE NEGATIVE PRONOUN.</center> + +<p> +<b>220.</b> The negative pronoun (and pronominal adjective) is +<b>neniu</b>, <i>no one</i>, <i>nobody</i>, <i>no</i> (formed of +<b>ne</b> and <b>iu</b>, with a medial <b>n</b> inserted for the sake of +euphony): +</p> + +<p> +<b>Neniu el vi komprenas min</b>, <i>no one of you understands me</i>.<br> +<b>Mi trovis neniun preta por iri</b>, <i>I found nobody ready to go</i>.<br> +<b>Li havis neniun honestan serviston</b>, <i>he had no honest servant</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>221.</b> The negative pronoun <b>neniu</b> has a possessive or +genitive form, <b>nenies</b>, <i>nobody's</i>, <i>no one's</i>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Ĉies afero estas nenies afero</b>, <i>everybody's affair is nobody's affair</i>.<br> +<b>Li laŭdos nenies ideojn</b>, <i>he will praise no one's ideas</i>. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------187.png---------------------------- --> + +<center>THE ADVERBIAL PARTICIPLE.</center> + +<p> +<b>222.</b> A participle may be equivalent not only to a clause +describing or determining the substantive modified, as in <b>la +parolanta viro</b>, <i>the man who-is-talking</i>, <b>la sendota +knabo</b>, <i>the boy who-will-be-sent</i>, but also to an +<i>adverbial</i> clause. +</p> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +An adverbial clause modifies a verb, as in <b>dum vi atendis, li +foriris</b>, <i>while you waited, he went away</i>; <b>ĉar mi +ĝojis, mi ridis</b>, <i>because I was happy, I laughed</i>. +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<p> +Such a participle has for its subject the subject of the verb in the +sentence (though not in attributive or predicate relation with it), and +indicates some relation of time, cause, manner, situation, etc., between +the action of the participle and that of the main verb in the sentence. +An <i>adverbial participle</i> is given the ending <b>-e</b>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Ĝojante, mi ridis</b>, <i>rejoicing, I laughed</i>.<br> +<b>Forironte, ni adiaŭis lin</b>, <i>being about to depart, we bade him farewell</i>.<br> +<b>Baninte la infaneton, ŝi dormigis ĝin</b>, <i>after bathing (having bathed) the baby, she put it to sleep</i>.<br> +<b>Estante ruzaj, ili falsis la oron</b>, <i>being sly, they debased the gold</i>.<br> +<b>Tiel helpate de vi, mi sukcesos</b>, <i>thus helped by you, I shall succeed</i>.<br> +<b>Silentigite de li, ili ne plendis</b>, <i>(having been) silenced by him, they did not complain</i>.<br> +<b>Punote, li ekkriis</b>, <i>being about to be punished, he gave a cry</i>.<br> +<b>Ne parolinte, li foriris</b>, <i>without speaking (not having spoken), he left</i>.<br> +<b>Li venis, ne vokite</b>, <i>he came without being (came not-having-been) called</i>. +</p> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +The adverbial participle must not be used in rendering the English +"nominative absolute" construction of a participial clause referring +to something else than the subject. In such a sentence a clause +must be used: <i>The youth being young, everyone watched him</i>, +<b>ĉar la junulo estis juna, ĉiu rigardadis lin</b>; <i>the +work being finished, he went away</i>, <b>kiam la lahoro estis finita, +li foriris</b>. +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<center>THE PREFIX <b>RE-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>223.</b> The prefix <b>re-</b> indicates the repetition of an action +or state, or the <i>return</i> of a person or thing to its original +place or state. (<i>Cf.</i> English prefix <b>re-</b>; meaning either +"again" or "back.") +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>rekapti</b>, <i>to recapture</i>.<br> + <b>renovigi</b>, <i>to renew</i>.<br> + <b>rekoni</b>, <i>to recognize</i>.<br> + <b>ĝis la revido</b>, <i>au revoir</i>.<br> + <b>ree</b>, <i>again, anew</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>rebrili</b>, <i>to shine back, to reflect</i>.<br> + <b>reteni</b>, <i>to hold back, to retain</i>.<br> + <b>reveni</b>, <i>to come back, to return</i>.<br> + <b>reiri</b>, <i>to go back, to return</i>.<br> + <b>reĵeti</b>, <i>to throw back, to reject</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- -----------------------------188.png---------------------------- --> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>brul-i</b>, <i>to be in flames, to burn</i>.<br> + <b>cilindr-o</b>, <i>cylinder</i>.<br> + <b>detru-i</b>, <i>to destroy</i>.<br> + <b>fam-a</b>, <i>famous</i>.<br> + <b>filozof-o</b>, <i>philosopher</i>.<br> + <b>fizik-o</b>, <i>physics</i>.<br> + <b>insul-o</b>, <i>island</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>maŝin-o</b>, <i>machine</i>.<br> + <b>nenies</b>, <i>nobody's</i> (221).<br> + <b>neniu</b>, <i>no one</i> (220).<br> + <b>problem-o</b>, <i>problem</i>.<br> + <b>Sirakuz-o</b>, <i>Syracuse</i>.<br> + <b>spegul-o</b>, <i>mirror</i>.<br> + <b>ŝraŭb-o</b>, <i>screw</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- -----------------------------189.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>LA FILOZOFO ARĤIMEDO.</b></center> + +<p> +Eble neniu greka klerulo estis pli fama ol la filozofo Arĥimedo. +Longe studadinte la problemojn de la geometrio kaj de la fiziko, li +faris multe da eltrovoj. Li tiel multe komprenis pri la uzado de la +levilo (<i>lever</i>) ke oni rakontas la sekvantan rakonteton pri li: +Li diris al la reĝo Hierono "Kiam oni donos al mi lokon sur kiu mi +povos stari, mi mem ekmovos la mondon per mia levilo!" Zorge ekzameninte +la ecojn (202) de la ŝraŭbo kaj de la cilindro, li elpensis +diversajn maŝinojn en kiuj ŝraŭboj kaj cilindroj estas +iamaniere kunigitaj. Uzante unu el tiuj maŝinoj, oni povis facile +puŝi al la akvo la ŝipojn (necese konstruitajn sur la tero); +kiujn antaŭe la viroj mem enpuŝis en la akvon, kun multe da +laboro, aŭ tiris tien per ĉevaloj. Uzante alian maŝinon +elpensitan de tiu greko, oni povis levi akvon de unu loko al alia. +Ankoraŭ nun oni nomas tian maŝinon la "ŝraŭbo de +Arĥimedo." En la daŭro de granda militado kontraŭ la +urbo Sirakuzo, sur la insulo Sikelio, Arĥimedo elpensis diversajn +maŝinojn por helpi la Sirakuzanojn. Vidinte ke la sunlumo rebrilas +de spegulo, li faris el speguloj maŝinon per kiu li ekbruligis +(<i>set on fire</i>) la ŝipojn de la malamikoj. Ĉi tiuj, +ne komprenante <b>kiamaniere</b> la ŝipoj ekbrulis, estis multe +timigitaj. Sed eĉ helpite de Arĥimedo la Sirakuzanoj ne +venkis. Post iom da tempo, la malamikoj kaptis kaj tute detruis la urbon +Sirakuzon. Nenies domo restis netuŝita, kaj centoj da personoj +estis mortigataj. Oni ne scias per kia morto Arĥimedo mortis, sed +eble la malamikoj, iel rekoninte la elpensinton de la spegulmaŝino, +ĵetis lin en la maron aŭ alimaniere lin mortigis. +</p> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<!-- I treated this footnote a little bit differently. I didn't want +to break the flow of the text, but the footnote did refer specifically +to a particular word in the text. So I bolded it in the text, and since +it is the only bolded word in the text, I'm hoping the link will be +obvious! --> +<p class="footnote"> +The use of <b>kiamaniere</b>, <i>in what manner</i>, <i>how</i>, is +preferable to that of <b>kiel</b> in indirect questions, as the latter +might be confused with the use of <b>kiel</b>, meaning "as" (156). +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. The Greek philosopher Archimedes was not only famous long ago, among +his contemporaries (167, b, 132), but even today his name is well known +everywhere. 2. No one's knowledge about the problems of geometry and +physics was greater. 3. No one understood better the properties of +the cylinder and the screw. 4. Having studied these properties a long +time, and having meditated a great deal about them, he understood them +a little (217) better than any one else (<i>iu alia</i>). 5. The story +about the debasing of the gold crowns has already been told. 6. There is +another anecdote, namely (<i>nome</i>), that he remarked to Hiero, king +of Syracuse, that with a lever he would move the world, as soon as he +had a place on which he himself could stand. 7. Having discovered how +(<i>kiamaniere</i>) the sunlight is reflected by a mirror, and heats the +wood upon which it shines, he invented a machine made out of mirrors. +8. Aided by this machine, the Syracusans were able to set on fire the +wooden ships of the enemy. 9. The enemy, however, were not repulsed +from the island, but at once rebuilt and repaired their ships, and sent +them back to attack the city again. 10. Finally, having captured the +city, they destroyed it, and killed a large number of the inhabitants +(<i>loĝantoj</i>), also Archimedes himself. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------190.png---------------------------- --> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XLVIII.</b></center> + +<center>THE NEGATIVE ADJECTIVE.</center> + +<p> +<b>224.</b> The negative adjective, related to the negative pronoun +<b>neniu,</b> is <b>nenia</b>, <i>no kind of, no sort of</i>, expressing +a negative idea concerning the quality of a person or thing: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Mi havas nenian spegulon</b>, <i>I have no sort of mirror.</i><br> +<b>Nenia problemo estas tro malfacila por li</b>, <i>no sort of problem is too difficult for him.</i> +</p> + +<center>THE NEGATIVE ADVERB OF PLACE.</center> + +<p> +<b>225.</b> The negative adverb of place is <b>nenie</b>, +<i>nowhere.</i> The ending <b>-n</b> may be added, as to other adverbs +(121), to indicate direction: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Nenie estas pli bona maŝino</b>, <i>nowhere is there a better machine.</i><br> +<b>Mi iros nenien morgaŭ</b>, <i>I shall go nowhere tomorrow.</i> +</p> + +<center>THE NEGATIVE TEMPORAL ADVERB.</center> + +<p> +<b>226.</b> The negative adverb of time is <b>neniam</b>, <i>never, at +no time</i>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Neniam vivis pli fama filozofo</b>, <i>there never lived a more famous philosopher.</i><br> +<b>Vi neniam trovos tiajn ŝraŭbojn aŭ cilindrojn</b>, <i>you will never find that kind of screws or cylinders.</i> +</p> + +<center>THE SUFFIX <b>-AĴ-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>227.</b> The suffix <b>-aĵ-</b> is used to form <i>concrete</i> +words. It is thus in contrast to the abstract-forming suffix <b>-ec-</b> +(202). +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------191.png---------------------------- --> + +<p> +<b>a.</b> A word formed from a <i>verbal</i> root by means of the suffix +<b>-aĵ-</b> expresses a concrete example of <i>a thing which +undergoes</i> (or, in the case of intransitives, <i>results from</i>) +the action indicated in the root: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>konstruaĵo</b>, <i>a building.</i><br> + <b>sendaĵo</b>, <i>consignment, thing sent.</i><br> + <b>manĝaĵo</b>, <i>food.</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>kreskaĵo</b>, <i>a plant, a growth.</i><br> + <b>rebrilaĵo</b>, <i>a reflection.</i><br> + <b>restaĵo</b>, <i>remainder.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<p> +<b>b.</b> A word formed from an <i>adjectival</i> root or formation by +means of the suffix <b>-aĵ-</b> indicates <i>a thing characterized +by</i> or <i>possessing the quality</i> expressed in the root or +formation to which it is attached: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>belaĵo</b>, <i>a thing of beauty.</i><br> + <b>maljustaĵo</b>, <i>an injustice.</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>mirindaĵo</b>, <i>a marvel.</i><br> + <b>okazintaĵo</b>, <i>an occurrence.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<p> +<b>c.</b> A word formed from a <i>noun-root</i> by means of the suffix +<b>-aĵ-</b> indicates <i>a thing made</i> or <i>derived from</i> +that which is expressed in the root: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>sukeraĵo</b>, <i>a sweet, confection.</i><br> + <b>ovaĵo</b>, <i>an omelet.</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>oraĵo</b>, <i>a gold object.</i><br> + <b>araneaĵo</b>, <i>a spider-web.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center>THE ADVERB <b>JEN</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>228.</b> The adverb <b>jen</b>, <i>behold, here, there</i>, is used +to point out or call attention to something: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Jen estas la problemo!</b> <i>There is the problem!</i><br> +<b>Jen la filozofo!</b> <i>Behold the philosopher!</i><br> +<b>Jen ŝi ludas, jen ŝi studas</b>, <i>now she plays, now she studies.</i><br> +<b>Mi faris ĝin jene</b>, <i>I did it as follows.</i><br> +<b>Mi agis laŭ la jena metodo</b>, <i>I acted in the following way.</i><br> +<b>Li diris la jenajn vortojn</b>, <i>he spoke the following words.</i> +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------192.png---------------------------- --> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>aranĝ-i</b>, <i>to arrange.</i><br> + <b>art-o</b>, <i>art.</i><br> + <b>ber-o</b>, <i>berry.</i><br> + <b>jen</b>, <i>there, behold</i> (228).<br> + <b>ĵaluz-a</b>, <i>jealous.</i><br> + <b>konkurs-o</b>, <i>competition.</i><br> + <b>lert-a</b>, <i>skilled, clever.</i><br> + <b>nenia</b>, <i>no kind of</i> (224). + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>neniam</b>, <i>never</i> (226).<br> + <b>nenie</b>, <i>nowhere</i> (225).<br> + <b>pentr-i</b>, <i>to paint.</i><br> + <b>postul-i</b>, <i>to demand.</i><br> + <b>precip-a</b>, <i>principal, chief.</i><br> + <b>regul-o</b>, <i>rule.</i><br> + <b>tromp-i</b>, <i>to deceive.</i><br> + <b>vin-o</b>, wine. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center><b>DU ARTKONKURSOJ.</b></center> + +<p> +Vivadis en Grekujo antaŭ multaj jarcentoj du lertaj famaj +pentristoj. Ili estis reciproke ĵaluzaj, kaj neniam povis +interparoli paceme. Ne povinte decidi la problemon, kaj eltrovi kiu +el ili estas la plej lerta, ili fine aranĝis konkurson pri +la pentrado. Laŭ ĝiaj reguloj, ĉiu el ili pentris +pentraĵon, por montri sian lertecon. Unu pentris teleron da +vinberoj (<i>grapes</i>). Ĝi estis tiel mirinde kolorigita ke +eĉ la birdoj venis kaj penis ĝin manĝi, pensinte ĝin +ne nur pentraĵo, sed la vinberoj mem. "Nenia pentraĵo povos +superi la mian," ĝojege ekkriis la pentristo, "jen, la birdoj mem +rekonas mian lertecon!" Tiam li diris al la alia artisto, "Nu, kial vi +ne fortiras tiun kurtenon? Mi volas rigardi vian pentraĵon." La dua +pentristo respondis kun rideto, "Jen estas mia pentraĵo. Nenie apud +vi estas kurteno, sed vi vidas nur pentraĵon de kurteno antaŭ +tiu konstruaĵo." Tre mirigite, la pentrinto de la vinberoj diris +"Vi ja superas min en la pentrado. Mi trompis la birdojn per mia +pentraĵo, sed vi trompas eĉ aliajn artistojn! Tia lerteco +estas ja mirindaĵo!" +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------193.png---------------------------- --> + +<p> +Oni rakontas similan okazintaĵon pri fama artisto kiu pentris +multe da pentraĵoj por Aleksandro Granda. Malgajninte en konkurso +kontraŭ iuj aliaj artistoj, li opiniis ke la juĝintoj estas +maljustaj al li, precipe pro la ĵaluzeco. Li ekkriis "Ĉar +niaj pentraĵoj estas bildoj de ĉevaloj, ili certe postulas +ĉevalajn juĝantojn!" Tial oni enkondukis du aŭ tri +ĉevalojn. La ĉevaloj, tute ne rigardinte la pentraĵojn de +la aliaj artistoj, kuris rekte al tiu de la plendinta artisto, kaj klare +montris sian rekonadon de la tie pentritaj ĉevaloj. Surprizite, +oni diris "Jen estas justaj juĝantoj!" Tuj oni laŭdis la +pentriston kaj severe punis la malhonestajn homajn juĝintojn. +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION</b></center> + +<p> +1. Syracuse was the largest city on the island of Sicily. 2. The famous +philosopher and physicist Archimedes lost his life when that city was +destroyed and entirely burned. 3. At least, no sort of trace of him +seems to have been found after that occurrence. 4. Never, perhaps, was +there a more learned man in Syracuse. 5. Greece was also famous for +its skilled painters, and there are many anecdotes about them. 6. A +painter who failed in a certain competition believed that none of the +judges had been just to him. 7. He exclaimed "Behold this iniquity +(injustice)! Nowhere can I find a human being who is not jealous. 8. +Since the paintings are chiefly of horses, do they not require horses +for judges?" 9. His proposal was accepted (54), and some horses were +led in. 10. Without noticing (222) the other paintings, the horses +walked at once to the picture of the unsuccessful artist, and showed +immediate recognition of the horses painted there. 11. This act showed +which competitor (<i>konkursinto</i>) was the most skilful. 12. The +painter, having deceived the horses, as another artist had once deceived +birds by a picture of grapes, said "Animals decide not by rules, but by +feelings." +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------194.png---------------------------- --> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON XLIX.</b></center> + +<center>THE NEGATIVE ADVERBS <b>NENIAL</b>, <b>NENIEL</b>, <b>NENIOM</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>229.</b> The negative adverb of motive or reason, related to the +negative pronoun <b>neniu</b>, is <b>nenial</b>, <i>for no reason:</i> +</p> + +<p> +<b>Li estas nenial ĵaluza</b>, <i>he is jealous for no reason.</i><br> +<b>Nenial li trompis vin</b>, <i>for no reason he deceived you.</i> +</p> + +<p> +<b>230.</b> The negative adverb of manner is <b>neniel</b>, <i>in no +way.</i> +</p> + +<p> +<b>Mi povos neniel aranĝi konkurson</b>, <i>I can in no way arrange a competition.</i><br> +<b>Tiu ago estas neniel laŭregula</b>, <i>That act is in no way regular.</i> +</p> + +<p> +<b>231.</b> The negative adverb of quantity is <b>neniom</b>, <i>no +amount of, not any, none, no:</i> +</p> + +<p> +<b>Tiu pentraĵo postulas neniom da lerteco</b>, <i>such a painting requires no skill.</i><br> +<b>Estas neniom da vino en lia glaso</b>, <i>there is no wine in his glass.</i> +</p> + +<center>THE SUFFIX <b>-IĜ-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>232.</b> The suffix <b>-iĝ-</b> is used to form intransitive +verbs of an <i>inchoative</i> nature. +</p> + +<p> +<b>a.</b> Inchoative verbs from the roots of <i>intransitive verbs</i> +indicate the <i>beginning</i> or <i>coming into existence</i> of the act +or condition expressed in the root: +</p> + +<p> +<b>sidiĝi</b>, <i>to become sitting, to sit down, to take a seat.</i><br> +<b>stariĝi</b>, <i>to become standing, to stand up.</i> +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------195.png---------------------------- --> + +<p> +<b>b.</b> Intransitive verbs may be similarly formed from the roots +of <i>transitive</i> verbs, and indicate an action of the verb not +immediately due to the subject's acting upon itself (as in the case of +reflexive verbs, 41) and not caused by any direct agency (as in the case +of the passive voice, 169): +</p> + +<p> +<b>La pordo fermiĝas</b>, <i>the door closes (goes shut).</i><br> +<b>La veturilo moviĝas</b>, <i>the vehicle moves.</i><br> +<b>La branĉo rompiĝas</b>, <i>the branch breaks.</i><br> +<b>Grupo da personoj kolektiĝis</b>, <i>a group of persons gathered.</i> +</p> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +<i>Cf.</i> the examples given and the following sentences in which the +same verbal roots are used in the simple form and in the passive voice: +</p> +<p class="footnote"> +<b>Ni fermas la pordon</b>, <i>we close the door.</i> <b>La pordo estas fermita</b>, <i>the door is (has been) closed.</i><br> +<b>Oni movas la veturilon</b>, <i>they move the vehicle.</i> <b>La veturilo estas movata</b>, <i>the vehicle is being moved.</i><br> +<b>Mi rompas la branĉon</b>, <i>I break the branch.</i> <b>La branĉo estas rompita</b>, <i>the branch is (has been) broken.</i><br> +<b>Li kolektis florojn</b>, <i>he gathered flowers.</i> <b>Floroj estas kolektitaj</b>, <i>flowers have been gathered.</i> +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<p> +<b>c.</b> Intransitive verbs may similarly be formed from +<i>adjectival</i> roots, and indicate the acquiring of the +characteristic or quality expressed in the root: +</p> + +<p> +<b>laciĝi</b>, <i>to become tired, to get tired.</i><br> +<b>varmiĝi</b>, <i>to become warm, to get warm.</i><br> +<b>maljuniĝi</b>, <i>to become old, to age.</i> +</p> + +<p> +<b>d.</b> Verbs may similarly be formed from noun-roots, adverbs, +prepositions, prefixes and suffixes whose meaning permits: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>amikiĝi</b>, <i>to become a friend.</i><br> + <b>foriĝi</b>, <i>to go away, to disappear.</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>kuniĝi</b>, <i>to become joined.</i><br> + <b>ebliĝi</b>, <i>to become possible.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>apenaŭ</b>, <i>hardly, scarcely.</i><br> + <b>atmosfer-o</b>, <i>atmosphere.</i><br> + <b>dub-i</b>, <i>to doubt.</i><br> + <b>efektiv-a</b>, <i>effective, real.</i><br> + <b>hel-a</b>, <i>clear, bright.</i><br> + <b>horizont-o</b>, <i>horizon.</i><br> + <b>krepusk-o</b>, <i>twilight.</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>nenial</b>, <i>for no reason</i> (229).<br> + <b>neniel</b>, <i>in no way</i> (230).<br> + <b>neniom</b>, <i>none, no</i> (231).<br> + <b>ombr-o</b>, <i>shadow.</i><br> + <b>pejzaĝ-o</b>, <i>landscape.</i><br> + <b>radi-o</b>, <i>ray.</i><br> + <b>tropik-a</b>, <i>tropical.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- -----------------------------196.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>LA KREPUSKO.</b></center> + +<p> +Estas tre agrable sidiĝi sur la herbon, kaj rigardi la +plilongiĝantajn ombrojn, en la daŭro de bela somera vespero. +La suno grade malleviĝas post la montetoj, la nuboj fariĝas +(<i>become</i>) bele kolorigitaj, kaj la tuta pejzaĝo pli kaj +pli beliĝas. Malrapide la krepusko anstataŭas la helan +sunlumon, kaj fine ĉie noktiĝas. La krepusko estas la +rebrilado de la sunlumo tra la atmosfero, post la malleviĝo de +la suno mem, laŭ la jena maniero: la radioj suprenbriladas, en +la aeron super niaj kapoj, en la okcidenta parto de la ĉielo. +De tie ili rebriladas tiamaniere ke la ĉielo lumiĝas. +Kiam estas iom da nuboj sur la ĉielo okcidenta, la sunradioj +briladas rekte kontraŭ ilin, belege kolorigante tiujn nubojn. En +tropikaj landoj la krepuskiĝo okazas tre rapide. Ĝi ne nur +komenciĝas subite, sed ankaŭ daŭras tre mallongan tempon. +La noktiĝo preskaŭ tuj sekvas la taglumon, kun rimarkinda +subiteco. Apenaŭ komenciĝas la krepusko, kiam la subiranta +suno ŝajnas fali preter la horizonto. Tute male (<i>quite on the +contrary</i>), en landoj treege nordaj, krepuskiĝas tre frue en +la tago, kaj la krepusko daŭras longan tempon antaŭ ol la +nokto venas. Efektive (<i>really</i>), en tiuj landoj la krepusko +tute anstataŭas la nokton, dum ses monatoj de la jaro. Tie oni +havas krepuskon dum la unua duonjaro, kaj la taglumon dum la sekvinta +duonjaro. Krepusko daŭranta tiom da tempo estas tiel rimarkinda +kiel tago de tia sama longeco. Mi dubas ĉu tia dividado de la +tempo inter tago kaj malhela nokto estas agrabla, sed oni povas +neniel malhelpi ĝin. Ĉiu tre norda lando havas la saman +travivaĵon (<i>experience</i>), ĉiujare, kaj efektive oni +apenaŭ rimarkas ĝin. Pri ĉiu plendanto oni nur diras "Li +estas nenial malkontenta." +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------197.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +1. Nowhere have I read a more amusing story than that +of (<i>pri</i>) the two painters who, being mutually (180) jealous, +arranged a competition. 2. One painted a cluster (126) +of grapes, so excellently that the birds flew to it. 3. The +other deceived his rival (competitor) himself, by a painting +of a curtain. 4. The most famous artists, however, often +show their skill by painting (222) pictures of the sunset, +chiefly, I think, because of the brilliant colors. 5. In fact +(<i>efektive</i>), I doubt whether there is a more beautiful sight +(227, b) than the sunset. 6. It is made by the bright rays +of the sun, which shine back through the atmosphere, long +after the sun itself has passed below the horizon. 7. The +more moisture (<i>malsekaĵo</i>) there is in the air, the more +brilliant the colors are, and the more beautiful the entire +landscape becomes. 8. In tropical lands, night falls very +suddenly, and there is almost no sort of twilight. 9. In +fact, a twilight scarcely occurs there. 10. In the lands far +north, on the contrary, the twilight lasts six months, and +the remainder of the year is the day. 11. To dwell in such +a land is surely a remarkable experience. 12. It can in no +way be understood by persons who have never lived there. +13. Such things increase (make greater) my desire to visit +those northern lands. 14. For no reason, however, do I +wish to reside in the tropical countries. + +<!-- -----------------------------198.png---------------------------- --> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON L.</b></center> + +<center>THE PRONOUNS ENDING IN <b>-O</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>233.</b> In contrast to the pronouns ending in <b>-u</b> (<b>tiu</b>, +<b>kiu</b>, <b>ĉiu</b>, <b>iu</b>, <b>neniu</b>), a similar series +ending in <b>-o</b> refers to an object, fact or action not definitely +specified (but never to a person), like English <i>what, anything, +something, nothing,</i> etc. Because of their somewhat vague meaning, +these pronouns do not occur in the plural, nor are they ever used as +pronominal adjectives: +</p> + +<!-- Tables weren't really needed for all five blocks below, +but consistency improves alignment. --> + +<table> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + Demonstrative: + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>tio</b>, <i>that (thing, fact or action)</i>.<br> + <b>ĉi tio</b>, <i>this (thing, fact or action)</i>. + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + Interrogative and Relative: + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>kio</b>, <i>what.</i> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + Distributive: + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>ĉio</b>, <i>everything.</i><br> + <b>ĉio ĉi</b>, <i>all this.</i> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + Indefinite: + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>io</b>, <i>anything, something.</i> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + Negative: + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>nenio</b>, <i>nothing.</i> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p> +<b>234.</b> A pronoun (not personal) in predicate or relative relation +to a pronoun ending in <b>-o</b> must itself be of the same series: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Kio estas ĉi tio, kion vi diras?</b> <i>What is this, which you say?</i><br> +<b>Ŝi vidis tion, kio ĵus okazis</b>, <i>she saw that which just occurred.</i><br> +<b>Ĉio ĉi, kion vi vidas, estas farita de ili</b>, <i>everything here (all this), which you see, was done by them.</i><br> +<b>Li havas ion por vi, sed nenion por mi</b>, <i>he has something for you, but nothing for me.</i> +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------199.png---------------------------- --> + +<center>CORRELATIVE WORDS.</center> + +<p> +<b>235.</b> Pronouns, adjectives and adverbs, which are related to each +other as corresponding demonstratives, interrogatives, relatives, etc., +are called <i>correlatives</i>. In Esperanto the correlative system +is more complete than in any other language, and may be summarized as +follows: +</p> + +<!-- +Demonstrative Interrogative Distributive Indefinite Negative + and Relative + +tio (233) kio (233) ĉio (233) io (233) nenio (233) +<i>that (thing)</i> <i>what, which</i> <i>everything</i> <i>anything</i> <i>nothing</i> + +tiu (56) kiu (146) ĉiu (173) iu (203) neniu (220) +<i>that (one)</i> <i>who, which</i> <i>every, each</i> <i>any (one)</i> <i>no (one)</i> + +ties (62) kies (147) ĉies (174) ies (204) nenies(221) +<i>that one's</i> <i>whose</i> <i>every one's</i> <i>any one's</i> <i>no one's</i> + +tia (65) kia (150) ĉia (177) ia (208) nenia (224) +<i>that kind of</i> <i>what kind of</i> <i>every kind</i> <i>any kind</i> <i>no kind of</i> + +tie (68) kie (151) ĉie (182) ie (209) nenie (225) +<i>there</i> <i>where</i> <i>everywhere</i> <i>anywhere</i> <i>nowhere</i> + +tiam (73) kiam (155) ĉiam (187) iam (212) neniam (226) +<i>then</i> <i>when</i> <i>always</i> <i>any time</i> <i>never</i> + +tial (78) kial (129) ĉial (188) ial (213) nenial (229) +<i>therefore,</i> <i>wherefore,</i> <i>for every</i> <i>for any</i> <i>for no</i> + <i>so</i> <i>why</i> <i>reason</i> <i>reason</i> <i>reason</i> + +tiel (88), (156) kiel (156) ĉiel (193) iel (216) neniel (230) +<i>thus, so</i> <i>how, as</i> <i>every way</i> <i>any way</i> <i>in no way</i> + + +tiom (104) kiom (164) ĉiom (194) iom (217) neniom (231) +<i>that much,</i> <i>how much,</i> <i>all, the</i> <i>some, any</i> <i>none, no</i> + <i>so much</i> <i>as</i> <i>whole of</i> <i>amount</i> <i>quantity</i> +--> + +<center> + <table border="1" cellpadding="8"> + <tr><td align="center" valign="top">Demonstrative</td><td align="center" valign="top">Interrogative<br>and<br>Relative</td><td align="center" valign="top"> Distributive</td><td align="center" valign="top"> Indefinite</td><td align="center" valign="top"> Negative</tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>tio (233)</b><br> + <i>that (thing)</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>kio (233)</b><br> + <i>what, which</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>ĉio (233)</b><br> + <i>everything</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>io (233)</b><br> + <i>anything</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>nenio (233)</b><br> + <i>nothing</i> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>tiu (56)</b><br> + <i>that (one)</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>kiu (146)</b><br> + <i>who, which</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>ĉiu (173)</b><br> + <i>every, each</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>iu (203)</b><br> + <i>any (one)</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>neniu (220)</b><br> + <i>no (one)</i> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>ties (62)</b><br> + <i>that one's</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>kies (147)</b><br> + <i>whose</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>ĉies (174)</b><br> + <i>every one's</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>ies (204)</b><br> + <i>any one's</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>nenies (221)</b><br> + <i>no one's</i> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>tia (65)</b><br> + <i>that kind of</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>kia (150)</b><br> + <i>what kind of</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>ĉia (177)</b><br> + <i>every kind</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>ia (208)</b><br> + <i>any kind</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>nenia (224)</b><br> + <i>no kind of</i> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>tie (68)</b><br> + <i>there</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>kie (151)</b><br> + <i>where</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>ĉie (182)</b><br> + <i>everywhere</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>ie (209)</b><br> + <i>anywhere</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>nenie (225)</b><br> + <i>nowhere</i> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>tiam (73)</b><br> + <i>then</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>kiam (155)</b><br> + <i>when</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>ĉiam (187)</b><br> + <i>always</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>iam (212)</b><br> + <i>any time</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>neniam (226)</b><br> + <i>never</i> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>tial (78)</b><br> + <i>therefore,</i><br> + <i>so</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>kial (129)</b><br> + <i>wherefore,</i><br> + <i>why</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>ĉial (188)</b><br> + <i>for every</i><br> + <i>reason</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>ial (213)</b><br> + <i>for any</i><br> + <i>reason</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>nenial (229)</b><br> + <i>for no</i><br> + <i>reason</i> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>tiel (88), (156)</b>,<br> + <i>thus, so</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>kiel (156)</b><br> + <i>how, as</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>ĉiel (193)</b><br> + <i>every way</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>iel (216)</b><br> + <i>any way</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>neniel (230)</b><br> + <i>in no way</i> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>tiom (104)</b><br> + <i>that much,</i><br> + <i>so much</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>kiom (164)</b><br> + <i>how much,</i><br> + <i>as</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>ĉiom (194)</b><br> + <i>all, the</i><br> + <i>whole of</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>iom (217)</b><br> + <i>some, any</i><br> + <i>amount</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>neniom (231)</b><br> + <i>none, no</i><br> + <i>quantity</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- -----------------------------200.png---------------------------- --> + +<center>THE USE OF <b>AJN</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>236.</b> The word <b>ajn</b> may be placed after any +interrogative-relative or indefinite correlative word, to give a +generalizing sense. In order to avoid confusion with the accusative +plural ending, <b>ajn</b> is <i>never attached</i> to the correlative +which it follows: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>kio ajn</b>, <i>whatever</i>.<br> + <b>kies ajn</b>, <i>whosesoever</i>.<br> + <b>kie ajn</b>, <i>wherever</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>kiam ajn</b>, <i>whenever</i>.<br> + <b>kiom ajn</b>, <i>however much</i>.<br> + <b>ia ajn</b>, <i>any kind whatever</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center>THE SUFFIX <b>-ING-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>237.</b> The suffix <b>-ing-</b> is used to form words indicating +that which holds <i>one</i> specimen of what is expressed in the root: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>glavingo</b>, <i>scabbard</i>.<br> + <b>lumingo</b>, <i>torch-holder</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>plumingo</b>, <i>pen-holder</i>.<br> + <b>ingo</b>, <i>sheath, case, socket</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>ĉio</b>, <i>everything</i> (233).<br> + <b>Gordio</b>, <i>Gordius</i>.<br> + <b>io</b>, <i>anything</i> (233).<br> + <b>jug-o</b>, <i>yoke</i>.<br> + <b>klin-i</b>, <i>to bend, incline</i> (trans).<br> + <b>kio</b>, <i>what</i> (233).<br> + <b>lig-i</b>, <i>to tie, to bind</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>nenio</b>, <i>nothing</i> (233).<br> + <b>ofer-o</b>, <i>offering</i>.<br> + <b>reg-i</b>, <i>to rule, to govern</i>.<br> + <b>sankt-a</b>, <i>sacred, holy</i>.<br> + <b>templ-o</b>, <i>temple</i>.<br> + <b>tio</b>, <i>that (thing)</i> (233).<br> + <b>util-a</b>, <i>useful</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- -----------------------------201.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>LA GORDIA LIGAĴO.</b></center> + +<p> +Unufoje en antikva tempo la regatoj de iu reĝolando en Azio ne +havis reĝon. Ne sciante kion fari, ili demandis de la dioj. La dioj +respondis, "Kiu ajn venos unue en nian sanktan templon hodiaŭ, +por fari oferojn, estos via reĝo." Okaze kamparano nomita Gordio +venis al la templo, ĵus post la tagiĝo. La regatoj tuj +rekonis la estontan reĝon, kvankam li veturis sur peza malbela +veturilo. Salutinte la surprizitan kamparanon, oni nomis lin reĝo. +Decidinte fari dankoferon al la dioj, Gordio metis en la templon la +veturilon mem sur kiu li tien veturis, antaŭ ol li komencis regi +kiel la nova reĝo. La jugo estis alligita (<i>tied fast</i>) per +granda ligaĵo el ŝnurego. Post la morto de Gordio oni grade +komencis kredi ion tre interesan pri tio. Oni diris ke tiu, kiu povos +iel ajn malligi tiun ligaĵon, fariĝos reganto super ĉiuj +reĝoj de Azio. +</p> + +<p> +Post kelkaj jaroj Aleksandro Granda decidis fari grandan militadon +kontraŭ Azio, kaj alproksimiĝis al la lando kie estis reginta +Gordio. Kiam li demandis, "Kio estas ĉi tie la plej interesa +vidindaĵo?" oni rakontis al li tion, kion oni diras pri la +ŝnurega ligaĵo sur la veturilo de Gordio. Kompreneble (<i>of +course</i>) Aleksandro deziris fari ion ajn utilan por venki Azion, tial +li tuj venigis gvidiston por konduki lin al la templo. Alveninte tien, +li zorge rigardadis la ligaĵon, kaj ekzamenis la ŝnuregon el +kiu ĝi estis farita. Tiam, elpreninte sian glavon el la glavingo, +subite kliniĝante li rekte tratranĉis la tutan ligaĵon. +"Nenio estas pli facila ol tio," li diris, "kaj nun mi ne dubas ĉu +mi certe regos super ĉiuj reĝoj de Azio." Pro tio, kion faris +Aleksandro Granda, oni ankoraŭ nuntempe diras, kiam iu ajn superas +malfacilaĵon per kia ajn subita metodo, "Li tranĉis la gordian +ligaĵon." +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------202.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. One often hears the remark "I will cut the Gordian knot." 2. There +is an interesting story about this. 3. A wagon whose yoke was tied to +the pole by a large knot had been put in the middle of the temple. 4. +It was a thank-offering to the sacred gods, by whose help Gordius had +in olden time become king. 5. It was said that whoever would be able to +untie that rope would no doubt become ruler over the whole of Asia. 6. +Alexander the Great, having begun a campaign against Asia, approached +the city where this temple was. 7. Having heard the story, he at once +had a guide come, and went thither, guided by him. 8. He desired to +do everything which was useful to the conquering of Asia. 9. Having +examined the knot carefully, he bent over and tried for a few minutes +to untie it. 10. Then he chose another method. 11. He seized his sword, +and suddenly cut through the whole knot. 12. Having done this, he put +the sword back into the scabbard. 13. This he did, instead of continuing +(<i>daŭrigi</i>) his efforts to untie the knot. 14. In fact, +having no patience, he had become tired. 15. Perhaps the conquering +of Asia did not in any way become possible on account of this, but at +least the story is interesting, whatever actually (<i>efektive</i>) +happened. 16. Nothing is impossible, whenever one tries enough. 17. In a +tropical country, such as part of Asia is, the landscapes are beautiful. +18. A tropical twilight is very short, however, and the shadows have +scarcely become long when the sun seems to sink suddenly below the +horizon, although the last bright rays continue to shine back through +the atmosphere for a few minutes. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON LI.</b></center> + +<center>THE PRONOUN <b>AMBAŬ</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>238.</b> The pronoun (and pronominal adjective) <b>ambaŭ</b>, +<i>both</i>, indicates two persons or things considered together. It is +invariable in form: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Ili ambaŭ venis al la templo</b>, <i>they both came to the temple</i>.<br> +<b>Ambaŭ faris oferojn al la dioj</b>, <i>both made offerings to the gods</i>.<br> +<b>Vidante kaj la plumon kaj la plumingon, mi prenis la ambaŭ</b>, <i>seeing both the pen and the penholder, I took both</i>. +</p> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +This pronoun must not be confused with the use of <b>kaj</b>, translated +<i>both</i> in the combination <b>kaj ... kaj ...</b>, <i>both ... and +...</i> (26). +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<!-- -----------------------------203.png---------------------------- --> + +<center>FORMATIONS WITH <b>-IG-</b> AND <b>-IĜ-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>239.</b> Some verbs may be used in the simple form, and also with +both the suffix <b>-ig-</b> and the suffix <b>-iĝ-</b>. Thus from +one verb-root three verbs of distinct meaning may be made, and the +formation with <b>-ig-</b>, being transitive, may also be used in the +passive: +</p> + +<!-- +sidi, <i>to sit, to be sitting</i>. + sidiĝi, <i>to become sitting, to take a seat</i>. + sidigi, <i>to cause to sit, to seat</i>. + esti sidigata, <i>to be caused to sit</i>. +silenti, <i>to be silent</i>. + silentiĝi, <i>to become silent</i>. + silentigi, <i>to cause to be silent, to silence</i>. + esti silentigita, <i>to be silenced</i>. +kuŝi, <i>to lie, to be lying</i>. + kuŝiĝi, <i>to lie down, to go to bed</i>. + kuŝigi, <i>to cause to lie, to lay</i>. + esti kuŝigita, <i>to be laid</i>. +stari, <i>to stand, to be standing</i>. + stariĝi, <i>to rise, to stand up, to become erect</i>. + starigi, <i>to raise, to cause to stand up, to erect</i>. + esti starigita, <i>to be raised, to be erected</i>. +--> + +<table> + <tr><td nowrap><b>sidi</b>,</td><td nowrap><i>to sit, to be sitting</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td> </td><td nowrap><b>sidiĝi</b>, <i>to become sitting, to take a seat</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td> </td><td nowrap><b>sidigi</b>, <i>to cause to sit, to seat</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td> </td><td nowrap><b>esti sidigata</b>, <i>to be caused to sit</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap colspan="2"><b>silenti</b>, <i>to be silent</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td> </td><td nowrap><b>silentiĝi</b>, <i>to become silent</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td> </td><td nowrap><b>silentigi</b>, <i>to cause to be silent, to silence</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td> </td><td nowrap><b>esti silentigita</b>, <i>to be silenced</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap colspan="2"><b>kuŝi</b>, <i>to lie, to be lying</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td> </td><td nowrap><b>kuŝiĝi</b>, <i>to lie down, to go to bed</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td> </td><td nowrap><b>kuŝigi</b>, <i>to cause to lie, to lay</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td> </td><td nowrap><b>esti kuŝigita</b>, <i>to be laid</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap colspan="2"><b>stari</b>, <i>to stand, to be standing</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td> </td><td nowrap><b>stariĝi</b>, <i>to rise, to stand up, to become erect</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td> </td><td nowrap><b>starigi</b>, <i>to raise, to cause to stand up, to erect</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td> </td><td nowrap><b>esti starigita</b>, <i>to be raised, to be erected</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + +<center>FACTUAL CONDITIONS.</center> + +<p> +<b>240.</b> A conditional sentence consists of two parts, an +<i>assumption</i> and a <i>conclusion</i>. The assumption is a clause +(introduced usually by the conjunction <b>se</b>, <i>if</i>) which +assumes something as true or realized. The conclusion is a statement +whose truth or realization depends upon the truth or realization of the +assumption. <i>Factual conditions</i> (conditions of fact) may deal with +the present, past or future time: +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------204.png---------------------------- --> + +<p> +<b>Se li vidas tion, li ploras</b>, <i>if he sees that, he weeps (is weeping)</i>.<br> +<b>Se li vidis tion, li ploris</b>, <i>if he saw that, he wept</i>.<br> +<b>Li ploros, se li vidos tion</b>, <i>he will weep, if he sees that</i>.<br> +<b>Se li venis hieraŭ, li foriros morgaŭ</b>, <i>if he came yesterday, he will go away tomorrow</i>.<br> +<b>Se li estas vidinta tion, li nun ploras</b>, <i>if he has seen that, he now is weeping</i>.<br> +<b>Se tio estas vidota, li estas punota</b>, <i>if that is going to be seen, he is going to be punished</i>.<br> +<b>Se li estas kaptita, li estos jam punita</b>, <i>if he has been captured, he will already have been punished</i>. +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>ambaŭ</b>, <i>both</i> (238).<br> + <b>azen-o</b>, <i>ass, donkey</i>.<br> + <b>ben-i</b>, <i>to bless</i>.<br> + <b>dors-o</b>, <i>back</i>.<br> + <b>form-o</b>, <i>form</i>.<br> + <b>halt-i</b>, <i>to stop</i> (intrans.).<br> + <b>monaĥ-o</b>, <i>monk</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>mut-a</b>, <i>dumb, mute</i>.<br> + <b>orel-o</b>, <i>ear</i>.<br> + <b>petol-a</b>, <i>mischievous</i>.<br> + <b>propr-a</b>, <i>own, one's own</i>.<br> + <b>se</b>, <i>if</i>.<br> + <b>spir-i</b>, <i>to breathe</i>.<br> + <b>turment-i</b>, <i>to torment</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- -----------------------------205.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>LA MONAĤOJ KAJ LA AZENO.</b></center> + +<p> +Iam du monaĥoj reiris tra la arbaro al la monaĥejo, dum grade +krepuskiĝis. Ambaŭ portis pezajn sakojn da terpomoj, kaj +baldaŭ laciĝis, sed ne sciis kion fari. Okaze ili ekvidis +azenon ligitan al arbo, kaj unu monaĥo, haltinte, diris petole al +la alia "Se vi anstataŭos la beston, mi havos portanton por miaj +propraj sakoj, kaj ankaŭ por la viaj." Lia kunulo respondis "Nu, +se la azeno portos miajn sakojn, mi mem ĝoje restos en ĝia +loko." Ĵus dirite, tuj farite (<i>no sooner said than done</i>). +Malliginte la ligaĵojn kiuj tenis la azenon, ili ĵetis +la sakojn trans la dorson de la utila besto. Unu monaĥo tuj +forkondukis la azenon, dum ambaŭ viroj laŭte ridis. Post tio, +la dua monaĥo sin ligis per la sama ŝnurego kiu antaŭe +tenis la azenon. Kiam revenis la kamparano, kies azeno estis ĵus +ŝtelita, li ekhaltis, multe mirigite, vidante homon tie ligita. +La monaĥo anoncis al li, "Ĉar mi estis tro manĝema, +Dio faris azenon el mi, antaŭ du jaroj. Mi ĵus rericevis +mian propran formon." Tuj la kredema kamparano invitis la petolan +monaĥon al sia hejmo. La monaĥo restis tiun nokton ĉe la +kamparano, kaj la sekvintan tagon li foriris, beninte la kamparanon, sed +kaŝe ridante pri la afero. Tiam la kamparano iris vendejon, por +aĉeti alian azenon. Li ekvidis sian propran azenon, kiun la unua +monaĥo estis sendinta tien, post sia reveno al la monaĥejo. +La malsaĝa kamparano, kliniĝinte al la besto, diris "Ho, bona +monaĥo, mi vidas ke duan fojon vi jam estis tro manĝema!" La +muta besto forte svingis la orelojn kaj skuis la kapon, pro la varma +elspiraĵo apud sia orelo. Tio ŝajne estis respondo al la +ĵus diritaj vortoj, tial la malsaĝa kamparano ree aĉetis +sian propran azenon. Ĉiam poste li nek turmentis nek eĉ +laborigis ĝin, kredante la azenon la sankta monaĥo mem. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------206.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +1. If the subjects of any kingdom whatever did not have a king, in +ancient times, they usually asked the sacred gods about it. 2. If the +gods informed (<i>sciigis</i>) them that whatever man would come to the +temple first would become their king, they immediately chose the first +comer (<i>la unuan veninton</i>) king. 3. Whoever was chosen king made +the blessed gods a thank-offering, which consisted of something out +of his own possessions (227, a). 4. Gordius did not offer to the gods +merely the yoke of his wagon, but the whole wagon. 5. A knot of rope was +tied between the yoke and the pole. 6. People soon began to say, "If +any one soever can untie that knot, he will become ruler of Asia." 7. +If any other men tried to untie that rope, they failed. 8. Alexander, +though (<i>tamen</i>), had scarcely arrived when he drew (out) his sword +from the scabbard, and cut the knot. 9. If you will take-a-seat, I will +tell you about the two mischievous monks, returning to the monastery. +10. Both were breathing with difficulty, and stopped to rest. 11. Having +noticed a donkey near by, they untied it. 12. One led the long-eared +dumb animal away, while the other tied himself in its own place. 13. The +credulous (192) peasant believed everything which was told (54) him, +even that the monk had formerly had the form of an ass. + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON LII.</b></center> + +<center>THE CONDITIONAL MOOD.</center> + +<p> +<b>241.</b> That indication of the speaker's frame of mind which +is given by the form of the verb is called the <i>mood</i> of the +verb. All verbs given so far have been in the <i>indicative mood</i>, +which represents an act or state as a reality or fact, or in the +<i>infinitive mood</i>, which expresses the verbal idea in a general +way, resembling that of a substantive. The <i>conditional mood</i> does +not indicate whether or not the act or state mentioned is a fact, but +merely expresses the speaker's idea of its likelihood or certainty, or +is used in an assumption or conclusion dealing with suppositions, not +with actual facts. The ending of the conditional mood is <b>-us</b>. The +conjugation of <b>vidi</b> in the aoristic tense of the conditional mood +is as follows: +</p> + +<p> +<b>mi vidus</b>, <i>I should see.</i><br> +<b>vi vidus</b>, <i>you would see.</i><br> +<b>li (ŝi, ĝi) vidus</b>, <i>he (she, it) would see.</i><br> +<b>ni vidus</b>, <i>we should see.</i><br> +<b>vi vidus</b>, <i>you would see.</i><br> +<b>ili vidus</b>, <i>they would see.</i> +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------207.png---------------------------- --> + +<center>COMPOUND TENSES OF THE CONDITIONAL MOOD.</center> + +<p> +<b>242.</b> In addition to the aoristic tense, the conditional mood has +three active and three passive compound tenses, formed by combining the +participles with the aoristic tense of <b>esti</b> in the conditional +mood. A synopsis of <b>vidi</b> in these compound tenses is as follows: +</p> + +<!-- + Active Voice. + Present: mi estus vidanta, <i>I should be seeing</i>. + Past: mi estus vidinta, <i>I should have seen</i>. + Future: mi estus vidonta, <i>I should be about to see</i>. + Passive Voice. + Present: mi estus vidata, <i>I should be seen</i>. + Past: mi estus vidita, <i>I should have been seen</i>. + Future: mi estus vidota, <i>I should be about to be seen</i>. +--> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr><td nowrap colspan="3" align="center">Active Voice.</td></tr> + <tr><td>Present:</td><td nowrap><b>mi estus vidanta</b>,</td><td nowrap><i>I should be seeing</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td>Past:</td><td nowrap><b>mi estus vidinta</b>,</td><td nowrap><i>I should have seen</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td>Future:</td><td nowrap><b>mi estus vidonta</b>,</td><td nowrap><i>I should be about to see</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap colspan="3" align="center">Passive Voice.</td></tr> + <tr><td>Present:</td><td nowrap><b>mi estus vidata</b>,</td><td nowrap><i>I should be seen</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td>Past:</td><td nowrap><b>mi estus vidita</b>,</td><td nowrap><i>I should have been seen</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td>Future:</td><td nowrap><b>mi estus vidota</b>,</td><td nowrap><i>I should be about to be seen</i>.</td></tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center>LESS VIVID CONDITIONS.</center> + +<p> +<b>243.</b> A conditional sentence dealing with <i>suppositions</i> +concerning events in <i>present</i> or <i>future</i> time is called +a <i>less vivid condition</i> (<i>Less vivid</i>, in contrast to +factual conditions (240), which are <i>vivid</i>, because they deal +with facts.), and the conditional mood is used in both the assumption +and the conclusion: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Se li vidus tion, li plorus</b>, <i>if he should see that, he would weep</i>.<br> +<b>Mi ĝoje helpus vin, se mi povus</b>, <i>I would gladly help you, if I could</i>.<br> +<b>Se vi metus ilin sur la dorson de la azeno, ĝi portus ilin</b>, <i>if you should put them on the donkey's back, it would carry them</i>.<br> +<b>La petola junulo turmentus la monaĥon, se li revenus</b>, <i>the mischievous youth would torment the monk, if he should return</i>.<br> +<b>Se li estus kaptata, li estus punata</b>, <i>if he should be caught, he would be punished</i>. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------208.png---------------------------- --> + +<center>INDEPENDENT USE OF THE CONDITIONAL MOOD.</center> + +<p> +<b>244.</b> The conditional mood may be used in a conclusion whose +assumption is merely <i>implied</i>, serving thus to soften or make +vague the statement or question in which it is used: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Mi ĝoje helpus vin</b>, <i>I would gladly help you.</i><br> +<b>Ĉu vi bonvole dirus al mi?</b> <i>Would you kindly tell me?</i><br> +<b>Kiu volus enspiri tian aeron?</b> <i>Who would wish to inhale such air?</i><br> +<b>Estus bone reteni vian propran</b>, <i>it would be well to keep your own.</i><br> +<b>La ĉielo vin benus pro tio</b>, <i>Heaven would bless you for that.</i> +</p> + +<center>THE PREFIX <b>DIS-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>245.</b> The prefix <b>dis-</b> indicates separation or movement in +several different directions at once: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>disdoni</b>, <i>to distribute.</i><br> + <b>dispeli</b>, <i>to dispel.</i><br> + <b>disigi</b>, <i>to separate</i> (trans.). + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>disiĝi</b>, <i>to separate</i> (intrans.).<br> + <b>disiĝo</b>, <i>separation, schism.</i><br> + <b>dissendi</b>, <i>to send around.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +<i>Cf.</i> the English prefix <i>dis-</i> in <i>disperse</i>, +<i>disseminate</i>, <i>distribute,</i> etc. +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>ĉes-i</b>, <i>to cease, to leave off.</i><br> + <b>dens-a</b>, <i>dense.</i><br> + <b>difin-i</b>, <i>to define.</i><br> + <b>ekzist-i</b>, <i>to exist.</i><br> + <b>flu-i</b>, <i>to flow.</i><br> + <b>gravit-i</b>, <i>to gravitate.</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>kaŭz-i</b>, <i>to cause.</i><br> + <b>leĝ-o</b>, <i>law.</i><br> + <b>natur-o</b>, <i>nature.</i><br> + <b>objekt-o</b>, <i>object.</i><br> + <b>plu</b>, further, <i>more.</i><br> + <b>turn-i</b>, <i>to turn</i> (trans.). + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +The adverb <b>plu</b> gives an idea of <i>continuance</i> to the word +which it modifies. When used with <b>ne</b>, the two together give +an idea of cessation concerning a previous continuous act or state: +<b>Ambaŭ parolos plu morgaŭ</b>, <i>both will talk further +tomorrow.</i> <b>Mi ne plu haltos</b>, <i>I shall not stop (any) +more.</i> <b>Li ne plu ŝajnis muta</b>, <i>he no longer seemed +mute.</i> +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<!-- -----------------------------209.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>PRI LA GRAVITADO.</b></center> + +<p> +1. Ofte oni parolas pri la pezeco de diversaj objektoj. Tia pezeco estas +kaŭzata de la forto kiun oni nomas la gravitado. Pro tiu forto ne +nur objektoj sur la tero, sed ankaŭ la tero mem, havas konatan +pezecon, kiun la kleruloj jam antaŭ longe kalkulis. La suno kaj la +luno simile havas pezecon, ĉar ili ambaŭ, same kiel la tero, +moviĝas laŭ tiu sama gravitado kiu efektive regas ĉiujn +el la ĉielaj korpoj. Se la gravitado ĉesus ekzisti, la riveroj +ne plu fluus antaŭen en siaj fluejoj (<i>beds</i>). Ne fluante de +altaj ĝis malaltaj lokoj, la akvo disfluus, aŭ restus tie, +kie ajn ĝi okaze estus. Neniom da pluvo falus; kontraŭe, +la malsekaĵo en la aero ankoraŭ restus tie, en la formo +de densaj mallumaj ĉiamaj nuboj. Ĉiuj vivaj estaĵoj +(<i>beings</i>), ĉiuj konstruaĵoj, efektive ĉio, +baldaŭ disflugus de la rapide turniĝanta mondo. Ĉiuj +ĉi (<i>all these</i>) nun devas resti sur la tero, tial ke la +gravitado restigas ilin ĉi tie. Se la gravitado ne plu ekzistus, +nenio restus plu sur la tero. La aero mem ne plu ĉirkaŭus +nin, sed ĝi ankaŭ forlasus la mondon, tuj maldensiĝinte +(<i>having become rarefied</i>). La fama angla filozofo Newton estis +la unua, kiu studadis la kialon (<i>reason</i>) de la falado de objektoj. +Li komencis, laŭ la rakonto, per okaza ekrigardo al falantaj pomoj en +sia propra pomarbejo. Antaŭ tri jarcentoj, li eltrovis ke estas tia +forto kia la gravitado, kaj difinis la naturajn leĝojn laŭ +kiuj la gravitado sin montras. Ĉi tiu forto, kiu restigas ĉion +sur la tero, estas tamen la kaŭzo de nia laciĝado, kiam ni +marŝas aŭ kuras, ĉar ĝi faras nin pezaj, kaj tial +ni ofte deziras halti kaj ripozi. Estas ankaŭ la malfacileco en la +superado de tiu sama forto, kiu faras tiel malfacila la konstruadon de +utilaj aerŝipoj. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------210.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. Newton was an Englishman who lived three centuries ago. 2. One day he +was walking in his orchard, and, noticing the falling apples, he stood +still (<i>ekhaltis</i>) and began to wonder why they fall. 3. He studied +the cause of their falling, wishing to discover whatever laws of nature +he could. 4. He watched various falling objects, and tried to calculate +their velocity (<i>rapideco</i>). 5. Finally he recognized that +force which is called gravitation. 6. Of course (<i>kompreneble</i>) +gravitation had always existed, but its laws were not noticed or clearly +defined until Newton studied the matter. 7. If gravitation should +not exist any more, no rain would fall, but instead of condensing, +the moisture would remain above our heads in eternal clouds. 8. But +gradually the moisture and the air itself, becoming rarefied, would fly +away from the earth, being held no longer by the force of gravitation. +9. The water in the rivers would leave off flowing (cease to flow) on +toward the sea, because now the water flows from high to low places +only on account of gravitation. 10. Instead of gravitating toward the +sea, in fact, the water would flow in every direction (245) out of the +riverbeds, or would remain there, without moving at all (<i>tute ne +movante</i>). 11. Nothing on earth would remain here very long, but +everything would fly off the quickly moving world, and leave it entirely +bare. Soon, also, the earth itself would break-into-pieces (245). +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON LIII.</b></center> + +<center>CONDITIONS CONTRARY TO FACT.</center> + +<p> +<b>246.</b> A <i>condition contrary to fact</i> indicates that the +opposite of what is mentioned has really taken place or is taking place. +It expresses the speaker's certainty that an act or state would have +been realized, if some other act or state were also realized. Such +conditions cannot refer to the future, but only to present or past time. +The conditional mood is used: +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------211.png---------------------------- --> + +<p> +<b>Se vi estus turninta vin, vi estus vidinta tion</b>, <i>if you had turned, you would have seen that</i>.<br> +<b>Se la malsekaĵo ne estus densiĝinta, ne estus pluvinte</b>, <i>if the moisture had not condensed, it would not have rained</i>.<br> +<b>Se li estus kaptita, li estus punita</b>, <i>if he had been caught, he would have been punished</i>.<br> +<b>Se li estus sidanta tie, mi vidus lin</b>, <i>if he were (if he should be) sitting there, I should see him</i>.<br> +<b>Se la gravitado ne ekzistus, tiu pluvo ne estus falanta</b>, <i>if gravitation did not (should not) exist, that rain would not be falling</i>. +</p> + +<center>THE VERB <b>DEVI</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>247.</b> The verb <b>devi</b> (<i>cf.</i> devo, <i>duty</i>) is +equivalent to the verb <i>must</i> (which in English has no future, +past, infinitive, etc.), and to <i>to have to</i>, <i>to be obliged +to</i>, etc., carrying the idea of <i>must</i> into all tenses +and moods. In the conditional mood its meaning is softened into a +vaguer sense (of <i>moral</i> obligation), and carries the idea of +<i>ought</i>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Objektoj en la aero devas fali</b>, <i>objects in the air have to fall</i>.<br> +<b>Ni devis agi laŭ la leĝoj</b>, <i>we had to act according to the laws</i>.<br> +<b>Vi devos iri</b>, <i>you must (will have to) go</i>.<br> +<b>Ŝi ne volas devi fari tion</b>, <i>she does not wish to have to do that</i>.<br> +<b>Ili devigis min iri</b>, <i>they compelled me to go</i>.<br> +<b>Vi devus iri</b>, <i>you should go (you ought to go)</i>.<br> +<b>Oni devus pensi antaŭ ol paroli</b>, <i>one ought to think before speaking</i>.<br> +<b>Li estus devinta veni</b>, <i>he ought to have come</i>.<br> +<b>Tio devus esti farita</b>, <i>that ought to have been done</i>. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------212.png---------------------------- --> + +<center>THE PREPOSITION <b>SEN</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>248.</b> The preposition <b>sen</b>, <i>without</i>, indicates +the omission, absence or exclusion of that which is expressed by +its complement. It may be used as a prefix (160), giving a sense +of deprivation or exclusion (like that given by the English suffix +<i>-less</i>): +</p> + +<p> +<b>Li difinis la vorton sen eraro</b>, <i>he defined the word without an error</i>.<br> +<b>La rivero senĉese fluas</b>, <i>the river flows without ceasing</i>.<br> +<b>Tio estas ne nur senutila sed eĉ malutila</b>, <i>that is not only useless but even harmful</i>.<br> +<b>Li ne plu estas senmona</b>, <i>he is no longer penniless</i>.<br> +<b>Li sentime alproksimiĝis al ĝi</b>, <i>he fearlessly approached it</i>. +</p> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +English phrases containing "without" as in "without reading," must +be changed to phrases clearly containing verbal nouns, as "without +the reading of," before translating into an Esperanto phrase with +<b>sen</b>. Otherwise a participle with <b>ne</b> should replace the +phrase (<b>222</b>): <b>Sen la legado de tio, mi ne komprenus</b>, +<i>without (the) reading (of) that, I should not understand</i>. <b>Ne +leginte tion, mi ne komprenus</b>, <i>without reading (not having read) +that, I should not understand</i>. +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>akuz-i</b>, <i>to accuse</i>.<br> + <b>instru-i</b>, <i>to teach</i>.<br> + <b>kondamn-i</b>, <i>to condemn</i>.<br> + <b>konfes-i</b>, <i>to confess, to admit</i>.<br> + <b>konscienc-o</b>, <i>conscience</i>.<br> + <b>kulp-o</b>, <i>guilt</i>.<br> + <b>merit-i</b>, <i>to deserve</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>nobl-a</b>, <i>noble</i>.<br> + <b>pardon-i</b>, <i>to pardon</i>.<br> + <b>pek-i</b>, <i>to sin</i>.<br> + <b>prav-a</b>, <i>right, correct</i>.<br> + <b>sen</b>, <i>without</i> (248).<br> + <b>So-krato</b>, <i>Socrates</i>.<br> + <b>venen-o</b>, <i>poison</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- -----------------------------213.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>LA FILOZOFO SOKRATO.</b></center> + +<p> +Unu el la plej famaj grekaj filozofoj estis nomita Sokrato. Li +estis malbela malalta persono, kun senhara kapo kaj dika korpo, +sed malgraŭ tio li estis treege bona, nobla kaj saĝa. Li +instruadis per interparolado kun la lernantoj. Kutime li komencis per +demando pri io ajn, pri kio la aŭskultanto respondos. Fine, la +lernanto grade komprenis ĉu liaj propraj opinioj pri la afero +estas pravaj. Ankoraŭ nun oni nomas tiun metodon de instruado per +la interparolado "la Sokrata metodo." Sokrato diradis tute sen timo +ĉion, kion li pensis, eĉ pri la dioj kaj pri la nekredeblaj +rakontoj pri la dioj. Se li ne estus tiel multe klariginta, eble li +estus vivinta pli longan tempon. Sed multaj personoj malamis lin, +precipe ĉar li donis novajn ideojn al la junuloj, kiuj sekve +komencis pensi por si mem, anstataŭ fari tion kion faras ĉiu +alia. Tial oni akuzis Sokraton en la juĝejo, nomante lin pekanto +kaj malbonfaranto, unue, ĉar li ne disdonas oferojn al la dioj, +due, ĉar li enkondukas novajn diojn (ĉar li diris ke +supernatura voĉo, kiu sendube estis lia nomo por la konscienco, +parolis mallaŭte ĉe lia orelo), trie, ĉar li malbonigas +la junularon de la urbo. Se li estus konfesinte la kulpon kaj petinte +pardonon, tiam la juĝistoj eble estus punintaj lin per nura +(<i>mere</i>) monpago (<i>fine</i>). Sed li fiere respondis ke efektive +li multe plibonigas la junularon, kaj anstataŭ esti malutila, +aŭ eĉ neutila, li treege utilas al la urbo. Li diris ke oni +havas nenian rajton puni lin, sed ke, kaŭze de sia bonfarado +al la urbo, li efektive meritas ĉiutagan manĝon senpagan. +Tamen, tute ne kompreninte kiel prava Sokrato estas, la juĝistoj +mortkondamnis lin. Oni devigis lin trinki la venenon. Iom poste, en la +malliberejo, li trankvile adiaŭis siajn plorantajn amikojn, kaj +akceptinte la venenan trinkaĵon, sentime ĝin trinkis. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------214.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. Socrates believed that if one knows about good and evil (201) he +will do good, but will not do evil. 2. Therefore he wished to help +mankind (<i>la homaron</i>), teaching them what the good is. 3. He +also wished to discover for himself what is right and what is wrong. +4. So he asked every one whom he met (about) his opinions, and the +one-talking-with [him] would also notice whether his own ideas were +right or not. 5. But the fellow-citizens of Socrates were jealous, +and hated him, because they did not understand him. 6. Therefore they +accused him, called him a sinner, and sent around (245) false reports +(<i>falsajn sciigojn</i>) about him. 7. Because he said that conscience +guided him (in the form of a soft voice at his ear), they accused him +of (<i>pri</i>) introducing (218, b) new gods. 8. They also said that +he was corrupting the youth of the city. 9. If Socrates had pleaded +guilty, and begged for a fine instead of the death-punishment, without +doubt he would have been pardoned and fined (<i>monpunita</i>). 10. But +he said "I have never in my life sinned in any way, and I do not deserve +any sort of punishment." So the judges condemned him to death by the +drinking of poison. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON LIV.</b></center> + +<center>SUMMARY OF CONDITIONS</center> + +<b>249.</b> The three kinds of conditional sentences, together +with the moods and tenses used in them, may be tabulated +as follows: + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr><td nowrap><i>Name</i></td><td nowrap><b>Factual</b></td><td nowrap><b>Less Vivid</b></td><td nowrap><b>Contrary to Fact</b></td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap><i>Subject Matter</i></td><td nowrap>facts</td><td nowrap>suppositions</td><td nowrap>opposite of facts</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap><i>Time</i></td><td nowrap>any</td><td nowrap>(usually) future</td><td nowrap>present or past</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap><i>Mood</i></td><td nowrap>indicative</td><td nowrap>conditional</td><td nowrap>conditional</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap><i>Tense</i></td><td nowrap>any</td><td nowrap>(usually) aoristic</td><td nowrap>(usually) compound</td></tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center>CLAUSES OF IMAGINATIVE COMPARISON.</center> + +<p> +<b>250.</b> Clauses of imaginative comparison are introduced by the +conjunction <b>kvazaŭ</b>, <i>as though</i>, <i>as if</i>. +Sometimes the verb in the comparison may be left unexpressed or merely +implied: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Li trinkas la venenon kvazaŭ ĝi estus vino</b>, <i>he drinks the poison as though it were wine</i>.<br> +<b>La kondamnito marŝis kvazaŭ kun malfacileco</b>, <i>the condemned man walked as if with difficulty</i>.<br> +<b>Li konfesis kvazaŭ kulpulo</b>, <i>he confessed like a culprit</i>. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------215.png---------------------------- --> + +<center>THE USE OF <b>AL</b> TO EXPRESS REFERENCE.</center> + +<p> +<b>251.</b> Personal pronouns, and less frequently nouns, may be +used with the preposition <b>al</b> to express <i>concern</i> or +<i>interest</i> on the part of the person indicated by the complement of +this preposition: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Li bruligis al si la manon</b>, <i>he burned his hand</i>.<br> +<b>Hi tranĉis al li la barbon</b>, <i>they cut his beard (the beard for him)</i>.<br> +<b>Ŝi preparas al ni bonan manĝon</b>, <i>she is preparing us a good meal</i>.<br> +<b>Ĉu vi faros servon al mi?</b> <i>Will you do me a service?</i> +</p> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +The use of <b>al</b> in this sense, approaching that of <b>por</b> +but less purposeful and definite, resembles the "dative of reference" +and "ethical dative" of other languages, as in French <i>je me +suis brulé la langue</i>, <i>I have burned my tongue</i>, +German <i>ich wasche mir die Hände</i>, <i>I wash my hands</i>, +Latin <i>sese Caesari ad pedes proicerunt</i>, <i>they threw +themselves at the feet of Cæsar</i>, Greek +<!-- [Greek: ti soi mathesomai]; --> <i>τί σοι μαθήσομαι</i>, +<i>what am I to learn for you?</i> etc. +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<p> +<b>252.</b> By an extension of its use in expressing reference, +<b>al</b> may often be used in the place of <b>de</b> expressing +separation (170), when the use of <b>de</b> might seem to indicate +agency (169) or possession (49): +</p> + +<p> +<b>La luno estas kaŝata al ni de la nuboj</b>, <i>the moon is hidden from us (to us) by the clouds</i>.<br> +<b>Ĝi estas stelita al mi de li</b>, <i>it has been stolen from me by him</i>. +</p> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +This use resembles the "dative of separation" of other languages, as in +German <i>es stahl mir das Leben</i>, <i>it stole the life from me</i>, +French <i>il me prend la vie</i>, <i>it takes my life</i>, Latin <i>hunc +mihi timorem eripe</i>, <i>remove this fear from me</i>, Greek +<!-- [Greek: dexato oi skaeptron], --> <i>δέξατό οι σκήπτρον</i>, +<i>he took his sceptre from him</i>, etc. +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<center>THE SUFFIX <b>-ESTR-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>253.</b> The suffix <b>-estr-</b> is used to indicate the +<i>chief</i>, <i>head</i>, or <i>one in control</i> of that which is +expressed in the root: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>lernejestro</b>, <i>(school) principal</i>.<br> + <b>monaĥestro</b>, <i>abbot</i>.<br> + <b>policestro</b>, <i>chief of police</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>urbestro</b>, <i>mayor</i>.<br> + <b>estraro</b>, <i>governing body</i>.<br> + <b>ŝipestro</b>, <i>ship-captain</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- -----------------------------216.png---------------------------- --> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>Aristejd-o</b>, <i>Aristeides.</i><br> + <b>ekzil-i</b>, <i>to exile.</i><br> + <b>enu-i</b>, <i>to be wearied, bored.</i><br> + <b>ĝust-a</b>, <i>exact.</i><br> + <b>kvazaŭ</b>, <i>as though, as if</i> (250).<br> + <b>ostr-o</b>, <i>oyster.</i><br> + <b>ostracism-o</b>, <i>ostracism.</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>popol-o</b>, <i>a people.</i><br> + <b>pot-o</b>, <i>pot.</i><br> + <b>senc-o</b>, <i>meaning, sense.</i><br> + <b>signif-i</b>, <i>to signify.</i><br> + <b>son-i</b>, <i>to sound.</i><br> + <b>strang-a</b>, <i>strange.</i><br> + <b>ŝel-o</b>, <i>shell, bark, peel.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +Care must be taken to distinguish <b>ĝusta</b>, <i>exact</i>, +<b>ĝuste</b>, <i>exactly, just</i>, from <b>justa</b>, <i>upright, +just</i>, <b>juste</b>, <i>justly,</i> and also from the adverb +<b>ĵus</b> <i>just</i>. +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<center><b>LA OSTRACISMO DE ARISTEJDO.</b></center> + +<p> +La vorto ostracismo havas interesan devenon (<i>origin</i>). En ĝia +komenco oni rekonas la grekan vorton kiu signifas "ŝelon de la +ostro." En ĝia fino oni vidas la saman "-ismon " kiu, deveninte +de la greka, ankoraŭ estas uzata kiel vortfino en multaj diversaj +lingvoj. La nuna senco de la vorto, facile trovebla en anglaj vortaroj +(<i>dictionaries</i>), devenas de la jena greka kutimo: +</p> + +<p> +Sepdek jarojn antaŭ ol vivadis Sokrato, oni faris strangan +leĝon en lia urbo. Laŭ tiu, oni povis ekzili iun ajn estron +kies ideoj pri la administrado de la urbo ne ŝajnis pravaj. Ĉi +tion oni povis fari, tute sen juĝado aŭ eĉ akuzado, +ĉar oni havis la jenan metodon: se ĉe popola kunveno ses mil +urbanoj voĉdonis (<i>vote</i>) kontraŭ iun ajn, tiu estis +devigata foriri de la urbo, kaj forresti dek jarojn. Li povis neniel +havigi (<i>get</i>) al si pardonon, sed devis tuj foriri kvazaŭ +konfesinta kulpulo. Por voĉdonoj, oni skribis la nomon de la +kondamnoto sur peco da potaĵo (<i>pottery</i>), aŭ pli ofte +sur ostroŝelo. Ĝuste tial oni nomas la kutimon ostracismo. +Unufoje, kelkaj malamikoj proponis voĉdonadon pri la ostracismo +de tre bona kaj nobla viro, nomita Aristejdo, kiu tute ne meritis tian +punadon. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------217.png---------------------------- --> + +<p> +Antaŭ ol la kunveno disiĝis, kamparano alproksimiĝis +al Aristejdo (kiu mem ĉeestis), petante lian helpon, ĉar la +neinstruita kamparano ne povis skribi. La saĝulo diris "Kion vi +volas skribi sur la ŝelo?" La kamparano, ne sciante ke li parolas +al la viro mem, respondis "Aristejdon." Skribinte ĝin, Aristejdo +demandis kun trankvila konscienco "Pro ĝuste kiaj pekoj vi malamas +Aristejdon?" La kamparano respondis, "Ho, mi ne kaŝos al vi ke mi +eĉ ne konas lin! Sed mi deziras ekzili lin nur ĉar min enuigas +la sono de lia nomo. Mi tre enuas ĉiam aŭdante lin nomata +Aristejdo la justa!" +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------218.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. Aristeides had just arrived at the popular assembly when a peasant +approached him. 2. If Aristeides had not had a pleasant countenance +and musical (<i>belsonan</i>) voice, doubtless the peasant would not +have asked his help. 3. Ought Aristeides to have written his own name +on the oyster-shell or piece of pottery which was going to be used as +a vote against him? 4. Without just (exactly) this help, the peasant +could not have voted. 5. Doing him the service requested, Aristeides +said, as if (<b>250</b>) he himself were not the man under-discussion +(<b>205</b>), "Why do you hate Aristeides? 6. Could you tell me how +he has sinned against the city?" 7. The silly-creature (<b>132</b>) +replied, "Oh, I know nothing about him, but I am weary [of] always +hearing him called the just." 8. Ought such persons as that ignorant +peasant have-the-right to vote about important affairs? 9. The ancient +law about ostracism was a strange [one]. 10. The name of the person +to-be-exiled (<b>199</b>) was usually written upon an oyster-shell, +and the meaning of the word signifying the custom comes from that. 11. +Through (<i>per</i>) ostracism, any leader could be banished, justly or +unjustly, without trial of any kind, or explanation of the reasons. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON LV.</b></center> + +<center>THE IMPERATIVE MOOD.</center> + +<p> +<b>254.</b> For expressions of command, exhortation, entreaty, etc., +there is an <i>imperative mood</i>, as in English. The ending of the +imperative mood is <b>-u</b>. Beside the aoristic tense, six compound +tenses are formed by combining the participles with the imperative mood +<b>estu</b> of the auxiliary verb, but these tenses are seldom used. The +conjugation of <b>vidi</b> in the aoristic tense of this mood, together +with a synopsis in the compound tenses, is as follows: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr><td nowrap align="center" colspan="4">Aoristic Tense.</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap><b>mi vidu!</b></td><td nowrap><i>let me see!</i></td><td nowrap><b>ni vidu!</b></td><td nowrap><i>let us see!</i></td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap><b>(vi) vidu!</b></td><td nowrap><i>(you) see!</i></td><td nowrap><b>(vi) vidu!</b></td><td nowrap><i>(you) see!</i></td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap><b>li (ŝi, ĝi) vidu!</b></td><td nowrap><i>let him (her, it) see!</i></td><td nowrap><b>ili vidu!</b></td><td nowrap><i>let them see!</i></td></tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr><td nowrap align="center" colspan="4">Compound Tenses.</td></tr> + <tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><i>Active.</i></td><td align="center" colspan="2"><i>Passive.</i></td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap>Present:</td><td nowrap><b>mi estu vidanta</b>,</td><td nowrap>Present:</td><td nowrap><b>mi estu vidata</b>,</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap>Past:</td><td nowrap><b>mi estu vidinta</b>,</td><td nowrap>Past:</td><td nowrap><b>mi estu vidita</b>,</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap>Future:</td><td nowrap><b>mi estu vidonta</b>.</td><td nowrap>Future:</td><td nowrap><b>mi estu vidota</b>.</td></tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- -----------------------------219.png---------------------------- --> + +<center>RESOLVE AND EXHORTATION.</center> + +<p> +<b>255.</b> The <i>first person singular</i> of the imperative mood is +used to express the speaker's resolve concerning his own action, or +an exhortation to himself concerning such action. The <i>first person +plural</i> is used to express resolve or exhortation concerning the +joint action of the speaker and the person or persons addressed: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Mi pensu pri tio!</b> <i>Let me think about that!</i><br> +<b>Mi ne forgesu tion!</b> <i>I must not (do not let me) forget that!</i><br> +<b>Ni ekzilu lin!</b> <i>Let us exile him!</i><br> +<b>Ni ne sidiĝu tie!</b> <i>Let us not sit down there!</i><br> +<b>Ni estu grize vestitaj!</b> <i>Let us be dressed in gray!</i> +</p> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +This force is usually expressed in English by "let" with an accusative +and infinitive construction. +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<center>COMMANDS AND PROHIBITIONS.</center> + +<p> +<b>256.</b> The <i>second and third</i> persons of the imperative are +used to express peremptory commands and prohibitions. +</p> + +<b>a.</b> In the <i>second</i> person the pronoun is usually omitted, as +in English, unless special emphasis is placed upon it: + +<p> +<b>Estu trankvila!</b> <i>Be calm!</i> (One person is addressed.)<br> +<b>Estu pretaj por akompani min!</b> <i>Be ready to accompany me!</i> (Two or more persons are addressed.)<br> +<b>Parolu kvazaŭ vi komprenus!</b> <i>Talk as though you understood!</i><br> +<b>Ne fermu tiun pordon!</b> <i>Do not shut that door!</i><br> +<b>Ne estu vidata tie!</b> <i>Do not be seen there!</i> +</p> + +<b>b.</b> In the <i>third</i> person a circumlocution in English is +necessary in translation (as <i>let</i>, <i>must</i>, <i>are to</i>, +<i>is to</i>, etc.): + +<p> +<b>Li estu zorga!</b> <i>Let him be careful (he must be careful)!</i><br> +<b>Ŝi ne faru tion!</b> <i>Do not let her do that (she is not to do that)!</i><br> +<b>Ĉio estu pardonata!</b> <i>Let everything be forgiven!</i><br> +<b>Oni lasu min trankvila!</b> <i>People are to let me alone!</i><br> +<b>Ili neniam revenu!</b> <i>Let them never (do not let them ever) return!</i><br> +<b>La kulpuloj estu punataj!</b> <i>Let the culprits be punished!</i> +</p> + +<center>LESS PEREMPTORY USES OF THE IMPERATIVE.</center> + +<p> +<b>257.</b> By an extension of its use in resolve, exhortation, command +and prohibition, the imperative mood may be employed for less peremptory +expressions, such as <i>request</i>, <i>wish</i>, <i>advice</i>, etc., +and in <i>questions of deliberation or perplexity</i>, or <i>requests +for instruction</i>: +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------220.png---------------------------- --> + +<table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td valign="top"> + Request: + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>Ĉesu tiun bruon, mi petas!</b> <i>Stop that noise, I beg!</i><br> + <b>Bonvolu fari tion!</b> <i>Please do that!</i><br> + <b>Pardonu al ni niajn pekojn!</b> <i>Forgive us our sins!</i> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"> + Wish: + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>Ili estu feliĉaj!</b> <i>May they be happy!</i><br> + <b>Dio vin benu!</b> <i>God bless you!</i><br> + <b>Vivu la reĝo!</b> <i>(Long) live the king!</i> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"> + Advice: + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>Pensu antaŭ ol agi!</b> <i>Think before acting!</i><br> + <b>Foriru, se vi ne estas kontenta!</b> <i>Go away, if you are not satisfied!</i> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"> + Consent: + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>Nu, parolu, sed mi ne aŭskultos!</b> <i>Well, talk, but I shall not listen!</i><br> + <b>Iru tuj, se vi volas.</b> <i>Go at once, if you like.</i> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"> + Question: + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>Ĉu mi faru tion aŭ ne?</b> <i>Am I to do that or not?</i><br> + <b>Ĉu ni disdonu la librojn?</b> <i>Shall we distribute the books?</i><br> + <b>Ĉu li estu kondamnita?</b> <i>Shall he be condemned?</i><br> + <b>Ĉu ili venu ĉi tien?</b> <i>Are they to (shall they) come here?</i> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<center>THE USE OF <b>MOŜTO</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>258.</b> The word <b>moŝto</b> may be used alone, or after a +title, to denote respect. When used after a title, the title becomes an +adjective: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Lia reĝa moŝto</b>, <i>his majesty</i>.<br> +<b>Lia juĝista moŝto</b>, <i>his honor the judge.</i><br> +<b>Ŝia reĝina moŝto</b>, <i>her majesty</i>.<br> +<b>Lia urbestra moŝto</b>, <i>his honor the mayor.</i><br> +<b>Ĉu via moŝto lin aŭdis?</b> <i>Did your honor (excellency, etc.) hear him?</i> +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>Afrik-o</b>, <i>Africa.</i><br> + <b>barbar-o</b>, <i>barbarian.</i><br> + <b>Damokl-o</b>, <i>Damocles.</i><br> + <b>flank-o</b>, <i>side.</i><br> + <b>imperi-o</b>, <i>empire.</i><br> + <b>konsent-i</b>, <i>to consent.</i><br> + <b>konsil-i</b>, <i>to advise.</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>moŝt-o</b>, a title (see 258).<br> + <b>ordon-i</b>, <i>to order, to bid.</i><br> + <b>permes-i</b>, <i>to permit.</i><br> + <b>plaĉ-i</b>, <i>to please.</i><br> + <b>sklav-o</b>, <i>slave.</i><br> + <b>sol-a</b>, <i>sole, only.</i><br> + <b>volont-e</b>, <i>willingly.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- -----------------------------221.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>LA GLAVO DE DAMOKLO.</b></center> + +<p> +Antaŭ pli multe ol dumil jaroj vivis en Sirakuzo, sur la insulo +Sikelio, tre kruela tirano. Li diris al si "Mi estu ĉiopova +(<i>all-powerful</i>)!" Tial li faris multe da militadoj, kaj venkis +ne nur barbarajn popolojn, sed ankaŭ multajn urbojn en Italujo +kaj norda Afriko. Detruinte ĉion sen kompato, li ordonis "La +loĝantoj estu vendataj por sklavoj!" Li deziris fari por si, el la +venkitaj kaj sklavigitaj popoloj, unu grandan imperion. Sed la urboj +ĉie, eĉ en Grekujo, ne kaŝis al li sian grandan malamon +al tia tirano. Tial li ĉiam timis pri sia vivo, timante ke iu +subite mortigos lin. Unufoje Damoklo, amiko de la tirano, diris al li, +"Se mi estus tiel riĉa kaj pova kiel via reĝa moŝto, +mi estus treege feliĉa!" La tirano respondis, "Venu al festo +ĉe mi, se tio plaĉas al vi, kaj eltrovu ĉu mi devus esti +feliĉa aŭ ne." "Mi venos tre volonte," ekkriis Damoklo, "kaj +mi dankas vian moŝton pro tia afableco!" La tirano ĝentile +respondis "Ho, estas nenio (=<i>you are welcome</i>)! Nur ne forgesu +la deciditan horon!" Je la ĝusta horo Damoklo iris al la festo, +kie oni donis al li seĝon flanke de la tirano mem. "Manĝu kaj +trinku kiom ajn vi volas," konsilis la tirano, "kaj poste ni parolos +pri la feliĉeco." Damoklo tuj konsentis al tia propono, kaj agis +laŭ la permeso tiel afable donita al li. Manĝante bonegan +manĝaĵon, kaj trinkante dolĉan vinon, li tute ne enuis +ĉe la festo. Baldaŭ la tirano diris "Rigardu supren, kaj vidu +ĝuste kian feliĉecon mi havas!" Supren rigardinte, Damoklo +ekvidis akran glavon, antaŭe kaŝitan al li de kurteno. +Subtenate de unu sola haro, la glavo ŝajnis kvazaŭ tuj falonta +sur la kapon de Damoklo. "La dioj min helpu!" li ekkriis, forsaltinte de +la tablo. Pro la ĵus dirita stranga rakonto, oni ankoraŭ nun +nomas la atendadon por io timeginda, kio ŝajnas ĉiam okazonta +sed efektive ne okazas, "la glavo de Damoklo." +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------222.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. The word ostracism comes from the Greek word signifying +"oyster-shell." 2. It has its present meaning because oyster-shells +or pieces of pottery were used for the voting. 3. The story about +Aristeides is interesting, but that about the sword of Damocles is also +interesting. 4. His friend, the Syracusan tyrant, had permitted all +sorts of injustices, against not only barbarians but even Greeks. 5. +His only bidding usually was "Let every inhabitant be sold as a slave!" +6. He thought "Let me make one sole empire out of Africa, Italy and +Sicily!" 7. Damocles said to him "Your royal highness ought to be very +happy!" 8. The tyrant answered, "Come to a feast tomorrow, and find +out. I will give you a seat (214, b) beside me." 9. Damocles willingly +consented, and went thither. 10. The tyrant advised "Let us eat and +drink until midnight, if that would be-pleasing to you. Then let us +discuss the problem about happiness." 11. After a few hours Damocles +heard a slight sound over his head, and the tyrant said to him, "Look +up and you will see what kind of happiness mine is." 12. "Heaven defend +me!" exclaimed Damocles, catching sight of a sharp sword hanging by a +single (sole) hair. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON LVI.</b></center> + +<center>THE IMPERATIVE IN SUBORDINATE CLAUSES.</center> + +<p> +<b>259.</b> The imperative mood is used in a subordinate clause, +with a meaning similar to that in its independent use, after a main +verb expressing <i>command</i>, <i>exhortation</i>, <i>resolve</i>, +<i>consent</i>, <i>wish</i>, etc., or after any word or general +expression of <i>command</i>, <i>intention</i>, <i>necessity</i>, +<i>expedience</i>, etc. Such clauses are introduced by the conjunction +ke: +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------223.png---------------------------- --> + +<p> +<!-- This title is centered in book; center in textfile. Looks best *not* centered in HTML --> +Command and Prohibition.<br> +<b>Li diras ke vi iru</b>, <i>he says that you are to go</i>.<br> +<b>Ŝi skribis al li ke li venu</b>, <i>she wrote him to come</i>.<br> +<b>Mi malpermesas ke vi restu</b>, <i>I forbid you to remain</i>.<br> +<b>Ni ordonos ke li estu punata</b>, <i>we shall order that he be punished.</i> +</p> + +<p> +<!-- This title is centered in book; center in textfile. Looks best *not* centered in HTML --> +Request and Wish.<br> +<b>Mi petas ke vi ne lasu min</b>, <i>I beg that you do not leave me.</i><br> +<b>Mi petegas ke vi estu trankvilaj</b>, <i>I implore you to be calm.</i><br> +<b>Li deziras ke ili estu sklavigitaj</b>, <i>he desires that they be enslaved</i>.<br> +<b>Ni volis ke li ne forgesu tion</b>, <i>we wished him not to forget that</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<!-- This title is centered in book; center in textfile. Looks best *not* centered in HTML --> +Advice, Consent, Permission.<br> +<b>Mi konsilis al li ke li iru</b>, <i>I advised him to go</i>.<br> +<b>Mi konsentis ke li restu</b>, <i>I consented that he remain.</i><br> +<b>Ili permesos ke la barbaroj forkuru</b>, <i>they will permit the barbarians to escape (that the barbarians escape)</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<!-- This title is centered in book; center in textfile. Looks best *not* centered in HTML --> +Questions.<br> +<b>Li demandas ĉu ili foriru</b>, <i>he inquires whether they are to go away</i>.<br> +<b>Oni demandis ĉu lia moŝto eniru</b>, <i>they asked whether his honor was to enter</i>.<br> +<b>Mi miras ĉu mi faru tion</b>, <i>I wonder whether I am to do that</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<!-- This title is centered in book; center in textfile. Looks best *not* centered in HTML --> +Intention, Expedience, Necessity, etc.<br> +<b>Ni intencas ke vi estu helpata</b>, <i>we intend that you shall be helped</i>.<br> +<b>Lia propono estas ke ni ricevu la duonon</b>, <i>his proposal is, that we receive the half</i>.<br> +<b>Lia lasta ordono estis</b>, ke vi venu, <i>his last order was that you come</i>.<br> +<b>Estos bone ke vi ne plu nomu lin</b>, <i>it will be well for you not to (that you do not) mention him any more</i>.<br> +<b>Estas dezirinde ke ni havu bonan imperiestron</b>, <i>it is desirable that we have a good emperor</i>.<br> +<b>Estis necese ke ĉiu stariĝu</b>, <i>it was necessary for everyone to rise</i>.<br> +<b>Plaĉos al li ke vi iru</b>, <i>he will be pleased to have you go</i>. +</p> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +In English and some other languages an imperative idea may often be +expressed by the infinitive, as "I wish you to go," but in Esperanto +this must be expressed by the equivalent of "I wish <i>that</i> you go." +The infinitive may not be used except when it can itself be the subject +of the verb in such general statements as "it is necessary to go." +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<!-- -----------------------------224.png---------------------------- --> + +<center>THE PREPOSITION <b>JE</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>260.</b> Since prepositional uses are not exactly alike in any two +languages, it is not always possible to translate a preposition of +one language by what is its equivalent in some senses in another. In +order to insure some means of translating correctly into Esperanto +any prepositional phrase of the national languages, the preposition +<b>je</b> is regarded as of rather indefinite meaning. In addition to +its use in dates and allusions to time (<b>89</b>, <b>185</b>), it may +be employed when no other preposition gives the exact sense required, +especially in protestations and exclamations, expressions of measure +(see also <b>139</b>), and of indefinite connection: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Je la nomo de ĉielo!</b> <i>In the name of Heaven!</i><br> +<b>Je mia honoro mi ja elfaros tion!</b> <i>On my honor I will accomplish that!</i><br> +<b>Ĝi estas longa je du mejloj</b>, <i>it is two miles long (long by two miles)</i>.<br> +<b>Ili venis je grandaj nombroj</b>, <i>they came in great numbers</i>.<br> +<b>Li estas tenata de la policano, je la brako, per forta ŝnurego</b>, <i>he is held by the policemen, by the arm, with (by) a strong rope</i>. +</p> + +<p> +The preposition <b>je</b> is used to express indefinite connection after +the following words (other prepositions sometimes used are given in +parentheses): +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>ekkrii je (pro)</b>, <i>to cry out at</i>.<br> + <b>enui je</b>, <i>to be bored with</i>.<br> + <b>fiera je (pri)</b>, <i>proud of</i>.<br> + <b>fidi je (al)</b>, <i>to rely upon</i>.<br> + <b>ĝoji je (pri)</b>, <i>to rejoice at</i>.<br> + <b>gratuli je (pri)</b>, <i>congratulate on</i>.<br> + <b>honti je (pri)</b>, <i>to be ashamed of</i>.<br> + <b>inda je</b>, <i>worthy of</i>.<br> + <b>interesiĝi je</b>, <i>to take interest in</i>.<br> + <b>kapti je</b>, <i>to seize by</i>.<br> + <b>kontenta je (kun)</b>, <i>content with</i>.<br> + <b>kredi je</b>, <i>to believe in</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>(sin) okupi je</b>, <i>to busy (oneself) at</i>.<br> + <b>plena je (de)</b>, <i>full of</i>.<br> + <b>preni je</b>, <i>to take by</i>.<br> + <b>provizi je (per)</b>, <i>to provide with</i>.<br> + <b>riĉigi je (per)</b>, <i>to enrich with</i>.<br> + <b>ridi je</b>, <i>to laugh at</i>.<br> + <b>satiĝi je</b>, <i>to be sated with</i>.<br> + <b>senigi je</b>, <i>to deprive of</i>.<br> + <b>simila je (al)</b>, <i>similar to</i>.<br> + <b>sopiri je (al)</b>, <i>to yearn for</i>.<br> + <b>ŝarĝi je</b>, <i>to load with</i>.<br> + <b>teni je</b>, <i>to hold by</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +The translation given for a preposition in any dictionary is the general +one which serves in the majority of cases. The finer shades of meaning +and real or apparent exceptions can merely be touched upon if mentioned +at all. +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<center>THE SUFFIX <b>-OP-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>261.</b> The suffix <b>-op-</b> is used to form <i>collective</i> +numerals: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>duope</b>, <i>by twos</i>, <i>in pairs</i>.<br> + <b>kvarope</b>, <i>by fours</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>milope</b>, <i>by thousands</i>.<br> + <b>sesopigi</b>, <i>to form into groups of six</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- -----------------------------225.png---------------------------- --> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>cel-i</b>, <i>to aim.</i><br> + <b>Cirus-o</b>, <i>Cyrus.</i><br> + <b>fidi</b>, <i>to rely.</i><br> + <b>ĝu-i</b>, <i>to enjoy.</i><br> + <b>honor-o</b>, <i>honor.</i><br> + <b>krom</b>, <i>beside, save, but.</i><br> + <b>plen-a</b>, <i>full.</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>prokrast-i</b>, <i>to delay</i> (trans.).<br> + <b>proviz-i</b>, <i>to provide.</i><br> + <b>rezult-i</b>, <i>to result.</i><br> + <b>sopir-i</b>, <i>to yearn, to sigh.</i><br> + <b>spac-o</b>, <i>space.</i><br> + <b>terur-a</b>, <i>terrible.</i><br> + <b>ver-o</b>, <i>truth.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- -----------------------------226.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>LA MARŜADO DE LA DEKMIL GREKOJ.</b></center> + +<p> +Iam Ciruso, nepo de Ciruso Granda, sopiris je la imperio de sia pli +maljunafrato, kiu sekvis la patron de ambaŭ fratoj kiel reĝo, +aŭ pli ĝuste imperiestro. Decidinte forigi de la reĝeco +(<i>to dethrone</i>) sian fraton, Ciruso petis la grekojn ke ili +partoprenu (<i>take part</i>) en kelkaj negravaj militadoj. Multaj +tiamaj grekoj tre volonte sin okupis je la batalado, pro la granda +pago ricevata. La venditaj sklavoj kaj la detruitaj konstruaĵoj +ĉiam provizis ilin je multe da riĉaĵo, kaj krom tio la +militistoj ŝajnis ĝui eĉ la militadon mem. Estis tute +indiferente al ili ĉu la kaŭzo de la militado estas prava kaj +justa aŭ ne. Unue Ciruso nur petis ke ili helpu liajn proprajn +soldatojn kontraŭ iuj najbaroj. Li kaŝis al ili sian veran +celon, ĉar se la grekoj estus suspektintaj tion, kion li intencis +fari, ili neniam estus akompanintaj lin tiel malproksimen de sia +patrolando. Grade li kondukis ilin trans tutan Azion, kaj fine la dekmil +grekoj komprenis ĉion, kaj treege koleriĝis. Paroladante al +ili, Ciruso tuj diris "Mi ne permesas ke vi reiru, kaj mi petegas ke vi +antaŭen marŝadu kun mi, sen plua (<i>further</i>) prokrasto! +Se mi sukcesos kontraŭ mia frato, mi certigas vin je mia honoro +ke ĉiu el vi revenos havante sakojn plenajn je riĉaĵo! +Estas nur necese ke vi fidu je mi, kaj ĉio estos bona!" Tiam la +soldatoj hontis je sia antaŭa timo, kaj kuraĝe antaŭen +marŝadis. Fine, apud granda urbo, la frato de Ciruso elvenis +havante okcentmil soldatojn, por batali kontraŭ la centmil de +Ciruso. Per la helpo de siaj grekoj, Ciruso estis preskaŭ venkinta +en terura batalo, kiam subite li ekvidis sian fraton, je malgranda +interspaco. Ekkriante "Mi vidas la viron!" li rajdis rekte al la +reĝo, ĵetante sian pezan lancon al li. La sola rezulto estis +la morto de Ciruso mem, ĉar la amikoj de la reĝo, kvinope kaj +sesope atakinte Ciruson, lin tuj mortigis. +</p> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. Cyrus did not desire that his brother should remain king. 2. He +decided, "Let me myself become (<i>fariĝi</i>) king! I should much +enjoy that!" 3. So he asked the Greeks to help him in some battles +against nearby enemies. 4. Gradually an army (126) of a hundred thousand +men, ten thousand of whom were Greeks, gathered (232, b) around him. 5. +He led them farther and farther, into the middle of Asia, until finally +the Greeks suspected his true aim. 6. They said to each other in terror, +"He did not at first propose that we fight against the Great King. Let +us return home without delay!" 7. Cyrus addressed (218) them as follows: +"Must I permit you to go back? I implore you to be courageous, and I +do advise you not to forget your longing for (260) honor! 8. Only be +worthy of your leader, and rely upon me! Do you not wish to return home +provided with wealth, beside the money which I shall pay to you?" 9. +Immediately the soldiers were ashamed of their fear, and advanced by +hundreds, full of courage. 10. Soon the brother of Cyrus approached, +with (<i>havante</i>) eight hundred thousand men. 11. By the aid of +the Greeks, Cyrus won the battle, but he himself lost his life. 12. So +neither he nor the Greeks could enjoy the result of their efforts. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------227.png---------------------------- --> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON LVII.</b></center> + +<center>CLAUSES EXPRESSING PURPOSE.</center> + +<p> +<b>262.</b> <i>Purpose</i> may be expressed by a subordinate imperative +clause, introduced by <b>por ke</b>: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Mi faras ĝin por ke li helpu vin</b>, <i>I do it in order that he may help you</i>.<br> +<b>Mi ekkriis por ke vi aŭdu</b>, <i>I cried out in order that you should hear</i>.<br> +<b>Li venos por ke ni estu feliĉaj</b>, <i>he will come that we may be happy</i>.<br> +<b>Mi studas por ke mi lernu</b>, <i>I study that I may learn</i>.<br> +<b>Ili restu por ke ni punu ilin</b>, <i>let them stay for us to punish them</i>. +</p> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +<i>Cf.</i> the expression of purpose by the <i>infinitive</i> with +<b>por</b> (<b>98</b>), which however cannot be used except when the +subject of the main verb is the subject of the subordinate verb, or when +the object of the main verb is the subject of the subordinate verb. +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<center>FURTHER USES OF THE ACCUSATIVE.</center> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +<i>Cf.</i> the accusative of direct object (<b>23</b>), direction +of motion (<b>46</b>, <b>121</b>), time (<b>91</b>), and measure +(<b>139</b>). +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<p> +<b>263.</b> The accusative of direction of motion is used after +<i>nouns</i> from roots expressing motion: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Lia eniro en la urbon estis subita</b>, <i>his entrance into the city was sudden</i>.<br> +<b>La irado tien estos plezuro</b>, <i>(the) going thither will be a pleasure</i>.<br> +<b>Ĝia falado teren timigis min</b>, <i>its falling earthward terrified me</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>264. a.</b> An intransitive verb may be followed by a noun in the +accusative case, if the meaning of the noun is related to that of the +verb: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Li vivas agrablan vivon</b>, <i>he lives an agreeable life</i>.<br> +<b>Ŝi dancis belan dancon</b>, <i>she danced a beautiful dance</i>.<br> +<b>Ili ploris maldolĉajn larmojn</b>, <i>they wept bitter tears</i>. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------228.png---------------------------- --> + +<p> +<b>b.</b> Verbs of motion (<b>iri</b>, <b>veni</b>, <b>pasi</b>, +<b>marŝi</b>, <b>veturi</b>, etc.) compounded with prepositions or +adverbs (<b>121</b>) indicating direction, also compounds of such verbs +as <b>esti</b> and <b>stari</b> with prepositions expressing situation, +may be followed by the accusative, instead of by a prepositional phrase +in which the preposition is repeated: +</p> + +<p> +<b>La viro preterpasis la domon</b>, <i>the man passed (by) the house</i>.<br> +<b>Lin antaŭvenis du sklavoj</b>, <i>there preceded (came before) him two slaves</i>.<br> +<b>Ni supreniru la ŝtuparon</b>, <i>let us go up the stairs</i>.<br> +<b>Mi ĉeestis la feston</b>, <i>I attended (was present at) the entertainment</i>.<br> +<b>Mi kontraŭstaras vian opinion</b>, <i>I oppose (withstand) your opinion</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<b>c.</b> The slight change in meaning given by <b>pri</b> used as a +prefix may render intransitive verbs transitive. The same is true of +<b>el</b> prefixed to intransitive verbs not expressing motion: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Ŝi priploris la mortintan birdon</b>, <i>she mourned the dead bird</i>.<br> +<b>Mi pripensos la aferon</b>, <i>I shall consider (think over) the matter</i>.<br> +<b>Ni ĝin priparolos</b>, <i>we shall talk it over</i>.<br> +<b>Li klare elparolas la vortojn</b>, <i>he pronounces the words clearly</i>. +</p> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +In this use <b>pri</b> resembles the English and German inseparable +prefix <i>be-</i>, as in English <i>bemoan</i>, <i>bewail</i>, +<i>bethink</i>, <i>bespeak</i>, German <i>beklagen</i>, +<i>besprechen</i>, <i>sich</i> , etc. +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<p> +<b>265.</b> The accusative may be used after verbs of such meaning that +either a prepositional phrase or an accusative would seem correct: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Mi pardonas lin (al li)</b>, <i>I pardon (grant pardon to) him</i>.<br> +<b>Mi helpis lin (al li)</b>, <i>I helped (gave aid to) him</i>.<br> +<b>Ĝi plaĉas min (al mi)</b>, <i>it pleases (is pleasing to) me</i>.<br> +<b>Li obeis nin (al ni)</b>, <i>he obeyed (was obedient to) us</i>.<br> +<b>Ŝi ridis mian timon (je mia timo)</b>, <i>she ridiculed (laughed at) my fear</i>. +</p> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +When ambiguity would be caused, as by the presence of another +accusative, this construction may not be employed. One may say +<b>pardonu nin</b>, but must say <b>pardonu al ni niajn pekojn</b>. +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<p> +<b>266.</b> The accusative may be used after certain adverbs which are +normally followed by a prepositional phrase: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Rilate tion (rilate al tio)</b>, <i>in regard to that</i>.<br> +<b>Escepte tion (escepte de tio)</b>, <i>with the exception of that</i>.<br> +<b>Koncerne la aferon (koncerne je la afero)</b>, <i>concerning the affair</i>.<br> +<b>Kompare la alian (kompare kun la alia)</b>, <i>in comparison with the other</i>.<br> +<b>Konforme la leĝon (konforme al la leĝo)</b>, <i>in conformity to the law</i>. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------229.png---------------------------- --> + +<!-- -----------------------------230.png---------------------------- --> + +<table border="0" width="100%" style="margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 0"> + <tr><td nowrap align="center" colspan="3">SYNOPSIS OF THE CONJUGATION OF THE VERB.</td></tr> + <tr><td width="20%" align="left"><b>267.</b></td><td nowrap width="60%" align="center"><b>vidi</b>, to see.</td><td width="20%"> </td></tr> +</table> + +<!-- + + ACTIVE. PASSIVE. + + INDICATIVE. + + <i>Present.</i> +(<i>Aoristic</i>) mi vidas mi estas vidata +(<i>Progressive</i>) mi estas vidanta + + <i>Past.</i> +(<i>Aoristic</i>) mi vidis mi estis vidata +(<i>Imperfect</i>) mi estis vidanta + + <i>Future.</i> +(<i>Aoristic</i>) mi vidos mi estos vidata +(<i>Progressive</i>) mi estos vidanta + + <i>Perfect.</i> +mi estas vidinta mi estas vidita + + <i>Pluperfect.</i> +mi estis vidinta mi estis vidita + + <i>Future Perfect.</i> +mi estos vidinta mi estos vidita + + <i>Periphrastic Futures.</i> + + <i>(Present).</i> +mi estas vidonta mi estas vidota + + <i>(Past).</i> +mi estis vidonta mi estis vidota + + <i>(Future).</i> +mi estos vidonta mi estos vidota + + + CONDITIONAL. + + <i>Present.</i> +(<i>Aoristic</i>) mi vidus mi estus vidata +(<i>Progressive</i>) mi estus vidanta + + <i>Past.</i> +mi estus vidinta mi estus vidita + + <i>Future.</i> +mi estus vidonta mi estus vidota + + IMPERATIVE. + + <i>Present.</i> +(<i>Aoristic</i>) mi vidu mi estu vidata +(<i>Progressive</i>) mi estu vidanta + + <i>Past.</i> +mi estu vidinta mi estu vidita + + <i>Future.</i> +mi estu vidonta mi estu vidota + + INFINITIVE. + + <i>Present.</i> +(<i>Aoristic</i>) vidi esti vidata +(<i>Progressive</i>) esti vidanta + + <i>Perfect.</i> +esti vidinta esti vidita + + <i>Future.</i> +esti vidonta esti vidota + +--> + +<center style="margin-top: 0"> + <table border="1" style="margin-top: 0" cellpadding="8"> + <tr><td align="center" width="50%">ACTIVE.</td><td align="center" width="50%">PASSIVE.</td></tr> + <tr><td align="center" colspan="2">INDICATIVE.</td></tr> + <tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><i>Present.</i></td></tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + (<i>Aoristic</i>) <b>mi vidas</b><br> + (<i>Progressive</i>) <b>mi estas vidanta</b> + </td> + <td nowrap align="center" valign="top"> + <b>mi estas vidata</b> + </td> + </tr> + <tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><i>Past.</i></td></tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + (<i>Aoristic</i>) <b>mi vidis</b><br> + (<i>Imperfect</i>) <b>mi estis vidanta</b> + </td> + <td nowrap align="center" valign="top"> + <b>mi estis vidata</b> + </td> + </tr> + <tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><i>Future.</i></td></tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + (<i>Aoristic</i>) <b>mi vidos</b><br> + (<i>Progressive</i>) <b>mi estos vidanta</b> + </td> + <td nowrap align="center" valign="top"> + <b>mi estos vidata</b> + </td> + </tr> + <tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><i>Perfect.</i></td></tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap> + <b>mi estas vidinta</b> + </td> + <td nowrap align="center"> + <b>mi estas vidita</b> + </td> + </tr> + <tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><i>Pluperfect.</i></td></tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap> + <b>mi estis vidinta</b> + </td> + <td nowrap align="center"> + <b>mi estis vidita</b> + </td> + </tr> + <tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><i>Future Perfect.</i></td></tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap> + <b>mi estos vidinta</b> + </td> + <td nowrap align="center"> + <b>mi estos vidita</b> + </td> + </tr> + <tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><i>Periphrastic Futures.</i></td></tr> + <tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><i>(Present).</i></td></tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap> + <b>mi estas vidonta</b> + </td> + <td nowrap align="center"> + <b>mi estas vidota</b> + </td> + </tr> + <tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><i>(Past).</i></td></tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap> + <b>mi estis vidonta</b> + </td> + <td nowrap align="center"> + <b>mi estis vidota</b> + </td> + </tr> + <tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><i>(Future).</i></td></tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap> + <b>mi estos vidonta</b> + </td> + <td nowrap align="center"> + <b>mi estos vidota</b> + </td> + </tr> + <tr><td align="center" colspan="2">CONDITIONAL.</td></tr> + <tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><i>Present.</i></td></tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + (<i>Aoristic</i>) <b>mi vidus</b><br> + (<i>Progressive</i>) <b>mi estus vidanta</b> + </td> + <td nowrap align="center" valign="top"> + <b>mi estus vidata</b> + </td> + </tr> + <tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><i>Past.</i></td></tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap> + <b>mi estus vidinta</b> + </td> + <td nowrap align="center"> + <b>mi estus vidita</b> + </td> + </tr> + <tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><i>Future.</i></td></tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap> + <b>mi estus vidonta</b> + </td> + <td nowrap align="center"> + <b>mi estus vidota</b> + </td> + </tr> + <tr><td align="center" colspan="2">IMPERATIVE.</td></tr> + <tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><i>Present.</i></td></tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + (<i>Aoristic</i>) <b>mi vidu</b><br> + (<i>Progressive</i>) <b>mi estu vidanta</b> + </td> + <td nowrap align="center" valign="top"> + <b>mi estu vidata</b> + </td> + </tr> + <tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><i>Past.</i></td></tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap> + <b>mi estu vidinta</b> + </td> + <td nowrap align="center"> + <b>mi estu vidita</b> + </td> + </tr> + <tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><i>Future.</i></td></tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap> + <b>mi estu vidonta</b> + </td> + <td nowrap align="center"> + <b>mi estu vidota</b> + </td> + </tr> + <tr><td align="center" colspan="2">INFINITIVE.</td></tr> + <tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><i>Present.</i></td></tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + (<i>Aoristic</i>) <b>vidi</b><br> + (<i>Progressive</i>) <b>esti vidanta</b> + </td> + <td nowrap align="center" valign="top"> + <b>esti vidata</b> + </td> + </tr> + <tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><i>Perfect.</i></td></tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap> + <b>esti vidinta</b> + </td> + <td nowrap align="center"> + <b>esti vidita</b> + </td> + </tr> + <tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><i>Future.</i></td></tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap> + <b>esti vidonta</b> + </td> + <td nowrap align="center"> + <b>esti vidota</b> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- -----------------------------231.png---------------------------- --> + +<center>THE SUFFIX <b>-UM-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>268.</b> The indefinite suffix <b>-um-</b> serves the same general +purpose in word formation which <b>je</b> serves as an indefinite +preposition (260): +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>aerumi</b>, <i>to air</i>.<br> + <b>buŝumo</b>, <i>muzzle</i>.<br> + <b>gustumi</b>, <i>to taste</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>kolumo</b>, <i>collar</i>.<br> + <b>plenumi</b>, <i>to fulfil</i>.<br> + <b>proksimume</b>, <i>approximately</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>eben-a</b>, <i>level, even</i>.<br> + <b>escept-o</b>, <i>exception</i>.<br> + <b>esper-i</b>, <i>to hope</i>.<br> + <b>fremd-a</b>, <i>foreign</i>.<br> + <b>histori-o</b>, <i>history</i>.<br> + <b>kompar-i</b>, <i>to compare</i>.<br> + <b>koncern-i</b>, <i>to concern</i>.<br> + <b>konform-i</b>, <i>to conform</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>nepr-e</b>, <i>inevitably, certainly</i>.<br> + <b>obe-i</b>, <i>to obey</i>.<br> + <b>obstin-a</b>, <i>obstinate</i>.<br> + <b>promes-i</b>, <i>to promise</i>.<br> + <b>rilat-o</b>, <i>relation</i>.<br> + <b>sat-a</b>, <i>satiated</i>.<br> + <b>sav-i</b>, <i>to save</i>.<br> + <b>verk-i</b>, <i>to compose</i> (books or music). + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- -----------------------------232.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>LA REIRADO DE LA DEKMILO.</b></center> + +<p> +La grekaj militistoj sentis grandan teruron kiam Ciruso ne plu vivis. +La celo de la longa marŝado ne povis esti plenumata, pro la morto +de la obstina trokuraĝa militestro mem. Kvankam la grekoj estis +venkintoj, ili estis tute solaj en fremda lando, ĉirkaŭitaj +de barbaroj kiuj, per trompemaj proponoj kaj falsaj promesoj pri amikaj +interrilatoj, tuj okazigis la morton de la grekaj estroj. Senigite je +siaj estroj, la kompatindaj viroj tute malesperis. Sed kelkaj subestroj, +rapide kunveniginte la soldatojn, diris, "Ni mem kondukos vin per +kiel eble plej rekta vojo hejmen! Ni faros nian eblon (<i>utmost</i>) +por ke ni ĉiuj estu savitaj!" Ĉar restis nenio alia por +fari, la malfacila malgaja reirado de la grekoj komenciĝis sen +prokrasto. Ili transiris varmegajn ebenaĵojn (<i>plains</i>), +supreniris kaj malsupreniris krutajn neĝkovritajn montojn, meze de +la vintro, kaj sen pontoj transiris larĝajn riverojn. Ĉie la +malfidindaj barbaroj atakis ilin, kvazaŭ por ke neniu greko restu +viva. Krom tio, la grekoj mortis dekope kaj dudekope ĉiutage, +pro varmegeco, malvarmegeco, laceco kaj malsateco (<i>hunger</i>). +Fine, post nekredeblaj suferoj, la restaĵo de la dekmil soldatoj +alvenis sur monton, kaj ekvidis la maron. Laŭta ekkriego "La maro! +La maro!" eksonis inter la lacaj viroj, el kiuj multaj ploris larmojn +de ĝojo. De infaneco ili alkutimis al la vojaĝado per akvo, +kaj post iom da ripozo ili sin provizis je ŝipoj, por transiri +la maron al la patrujo je kiu ili estis tiel longe sopirintaj. Treege +interesa historio koncerne la tutan aferon estas verkita de fama greka +verkisto (<i>writer</i>), kiu estis akompaninta Ciruson por ke li povu +ĝui kaj studi ĉion interesan sur la vojo. Tiu azia militado +de Ciruso nepre estas unu el la plej rimarkindaj okazintaĵoj iam +priskribitaj, eĉ sen escepto de la posta irado tien de Aleksandro +Granda. +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------233.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. After the death of Cyrus, the leaders of the Greek warriors did not +know what to do. 2. In the course of the following day, one of the +leaders of the enemy sent a messenger (205) with deceitful promises +about help. 2. He said "Assemble in our leader's tent, in order that +you may all discuss the matter." 3. The Greek leaders went, although +they suspected danger, because they did not know how else to save +their men. 4. But they never returned, and soon the Greeks understood +that the barbarians had killed them. 5. They wept tears of despair, +and said "The barbarians will inevitably destroy us, for we are in +a foreign land, where we know neither the languages nor the roads, +and the peoples are without exception hostile to us." 6. But the +leaders-of-lesser-rank said "Obey us and follow us, and we shall do our +best to save you!" 7. Their return, across hot plains and snow-covered +mountains, made-more-difficult by hunger and by the unceasing attacks +of the barbarians, is related in the history written by a famous Greek +historian. 8. One can still read this interesting narrative, in Greek or +in a translation. +</p> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON LVIII.</b></center> + +<center>PERMISSION AND POSSIBILITY.</center> + +<p> +<b>269.</b> Permission is usually expressed by the use of +<b>permesi</b>, <b>lasi</b>, or the imperative mood: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Ĉu vi permesas ke mi restu?</b> <i>May I</i> (<i>do you permit me to</i>) <i>stay?</i><br> +<b>Jes, mi permesas (jes, restu)</b>, <i>yes, you may</i> (<i>yes, stay</i>).<br> +<b>Ne estas permesate eniri tien</b>, <i>it is not allowed to enter there.</i><br> +<b>Lasu lin veni</b>, <i>let him come.</i> +</p> + +<p> +<b>270.</b> The idea of possibility or probability is given by +the use of some such adverb as <b>eble</b>, <b>kredeble</b>, +<b>verŝajne</b>, etc.: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Eble li obeos al vi</b>, <i>he may</i> (<i>perhaps he will</i>) <i>obey you.</i><br> +<b>Kredeble li sukcesos</b>, <i>probably he will succeed.</i><br> +<b>Verŝajne vi estas prava</b>, <i>you are probably right.</i><br> +<b>Eble oni lin savus</b>, <i>they might</i> (<i>possibly they would</i>) <i>save him.</i><br> +<b>Ili nepre ne batis lin</b>, <i>they could not have</i> (<i>surely did not</i>) <i>beat him.</i><br> +<b>Tio estas neebla!</b> <i>That can not be</i> (<i>that is impossible</i>)! +</p> + +<center>THE PREFIX <b>GE-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>271.</b> Words formed with the prefix <b>ge-</b> indicate the two +sexes together: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>gepatroj</b>, <i>parents.</i><br> + <b>geavoj</b>, <i>grandparents.</i><br> + <b>genepoj</b>, <i>grandchildren.</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>gefiloj</b>, <i>son(s) and daughter(s)</i>.<br> + <b>gefratoj</b>, <i>brother(s) and sister(s).</i><br> + <b>geedzoj</b>, <i>husband(s) and wife (wives).</i> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap colspan="2"> + <b>gesinjoroj</b>, <i>Mr. and Mrs., lady (ladies) and gentleman (gentlemen).</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- -----------------------------234.png---------------------------- --> + +<center>THE SUFFIX <b>-AĈ-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>272.</b> The suffix <b>-aĉ-</b> has a disparaging significance: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>domaĉo</b>, <i>a hovel</i>.<br> + <b>hundaĉo</b>, <i>a cur</i>.<br> + <b>obstinaĉa</b>, <i>obstinate</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>pentraĉi</b>, <i>to daub</i>.<br> + <b>popolaĉo</b>, <i>rabble, mob</i>.<br> + <b>ridaĉi</b>, <i>to guffaw</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center>INTERJECTIONS.</center> + +<p> +<b>273.</b> Interjections are words used to express feeling or call +attention. Among the more common interjections are: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>Adiaŭ!</b> <i>Farewell!</i> (171).<br> + <b>Fi!</b> <i>Fie!</i><br> + <b>Ho!</b> <i>Oh! Ho!</i> + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>Hura!</b> <i>Hurrah!</i><br> + <b>Nu!</b> <i>Well!</i><br> + <b>Ve!</b> <i>Woe!</i> (Ho ve! <i>Alas!</i>). + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +Verbs in the imperative, and adverbs, are frequently used as +interjections, as <b>Atentu!</b> <i>Look out!</i> <b>Aŭskultu!</b> +<i>Hark!</i> <b>Bonvenu!</b> <i>Welcome!</i> <b>Antaŭen!</b> +<i>Forward!</i> <b>Bone!</b> <i>Good!</i> <b>For!</b> <i>Away!</i> +<b>Ja!</b> <i>Indeed!</i> <b>Jen!</b> <i>There! Behold!</i> +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +The interjection <b>fi</b> is sometimes used as a disparaging prefix, +like <b>-aĉ-</b> (272), as <b>fibirdo</b>, <i>ugly bird</i>, +<b>fiĉevalo</b>, <i>a sorry nag</i>. +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>Aleksandri-o</b>, <i>Alexandria</i>.<br> + <b>Amerik-o</b>, <i>America</i>.<br> + <b>Aristotel-o</b>, <i>Aristotle</i>.<br> + <b>Aŭstrali-o</b>, <i>Australia</i>.<br> + <b>bibliotek-o</b>, <i>library</i>.<br> + <b>eduk-i</b>, <i>to bring up, educate</i>.<br> + <b>Egipt-o</b>, <i>Egypt</i>.<br> + <b>estim-i</b>, <i>to esteem</i>.<br> + <b>firm-a</b>, <i>firm</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>fond-i</b>, <i>to found, establish</i>.<br> + <b>hispan-o</b>, <i>Spaniard</i>.<br> + <b>kapabl-a</b>, <i>capable</i>.<br> + <b>komun-a</b>, <i>common, mutual</i>.<br> + <b>kontinent-o</b>, <i>continent</i>.<br> + <b>Krist-o</b>, <i>Christ</i>.<br> + <b>milion-o</b>, <i>million</i>.<br> + <b>spite</b>, <i>in spite of</i>.<br> + <b>vast-a</b>, <i>vast, extensive</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- -----------------------------235.png---------------------------- --> + +<!-- -----------------------------236.png---------------------------- --> + +<center><b>ALEKSANDRO GRANDA.</b></center> + +<p> +Permesu ke mi diru kelkajn vortojn pri la vivo de Aleksandro Granda, kiu +ne estis matura viro sed havis nur dudek jarojn kiam li fariĝis +reĝo. Liaj gepatroj estis tre zorge edukintaj lin, kaj la filozofo +Aristotelo, kiun li tre alte estimis, estis unu el liaj instruistoj. +Aleksandro firme tenadis sian propran reĝolandon, kaj ankaŭ +Grekujon, kiun lia patro estis venkinta; krom tio, li faris militadojn +kontraŭ diversaj fremdaj landoj, unue en Azio, tiam en Afriko, +kie li fondis urbon, kaj ĝin nomis Aleksandrio. Aleksandrio nepre +estis belega riĉa urbo. Tie <b>troviĝis</b> poste la fama +Aleksandria biblioteko. Se ĝi ne estus detruita de fajro, en la +daŭro de iuj militadoj, ni sendube konus multe pli bone la sciadon +de la antikvaj grekoj, kiuj verŝajne estis la plej klera popolo iam +vivinta en Eŭropo. Venkinte Egipton, Aleksandro reiris en Azion, +ĝis tre orienta kaj suda partoj, venkante ĉiujn ĉie, +kvazaŭ ili estus la plej malkuraĝaj popolaĉoj en la +mondo. Sed spite ĉies petoj li estis obstinaĉe nezorgema +pri sia sano, kaj subite, ho ve, li mortis pro febro, tricent dektri +jarojn antaŭ Kristo. Se li ne estus tiel frue mortinta, kiel +multe li estus eble elfarinta! Li esperis venki Hispanujon, Italujon, +kaj, mallongavorte, tiom de la okcidenta mondo kiom li jam posedis de +la orienta. Tiam li celis kunigi ĉion en unu vastan imperion, +kvazaŭ por fari el la mondo unu grandan familion. Li intencis +ke la milionoj da enloĝantoj akceptu komunajn leĝojn kaj +kutimojn, eĉ komunan lingvon, — kredeble la grekan. Eble +li ja havis la kapablecon por fari ĉion ĉi. Estas pro tio +ke oni ofte aŭdas la diron "Aleksandro sopiris je aliaj mondoj +por venki." Tamen, kiel malgranda estis tiu mondo kiun li konis! La +tiamuloj konis nur malgrandan parton de Afriko, de Azio, eĉ de +Eŭropo. Ili sciis nenion pri Anglujo, aŭ pri la vastaj +kontinentoj Aŭstralio, norda kaj suda Amerikoj. +</p> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<!-- I treated this footnote a little bit differently. I didn't want +to break the flow of the text, but the footnote did refer specifically +to a particular word in the text. So I bolded it in the text, and since +it is the only bolded word in the text, I'm hoping the link will be +obvious! --> +<p class="footnote"> +The use of <b>troviĝi</b>, and also of <b>sin trovi</b>, +<b>kuŝi</b>, <b>stari</b> and <b>sidi</b>, in a sense not greatly +differing from that of <b>esti</b>, avoids the monotonous repetition +of forms of <b>esti</b>, just as English uses <i>lie</i>, <i>sit</i>, +<i>perch</i>, etc., in narration for similar reasons: +</p> +<p class="footnote"> +<b>Multaj vilaĝoj troviĝas tie</b>, <i>many villages are (situated) there</i>.<br> +<b>Egipto troviĝas en la nordorienta parto de Afriko</b>, <i>Egypt is (found) in the northeastern part of Africa</i>.<br> +<b>Li sin trovis sola en la dezerto</b>, <i>he found himself (he was) alone in the desert</i>.<br> +<b>La urbo kuŝis inter du lagoj</b>, <i>the city lay between two lakes</i>.<br> +<b>Sur la montflanko sidis vilaĝeto</b>, <i>on the mountainside perched a tiny village</i>. +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<center><b>SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.</b></center> + +<p> +1. Alexander the Great wished to unite the whole world into one vast +empire. 2. He intended that all the different peoples should conform to +common laws and that their sons-and-daughters should speak one common +language, and in spite of their love for their national languages, +should leave-off speaking them. 3. Possibly he might have accomplished +his object to some extent (217), if he had not died suddenly when he +was only thirty-two years old. 4. His soldiers marched weeping past his +tent, to bid farewell to their dying leader. 5. They must have esteemed +him very highly! 6. It was Alexander who founded the city of Alexandria, +in Egypt, where approximately three hundred years before Christ the +famous Alexandrian library was located. 7. It contained an enormous +collection-of-books — almost seven hundred thousand. 8. Alas, this +extensive library was destroyed by fire! 9. Alexander, who "sighed for +other worlds to conquer," did not even know of the existence of North +and South America, Australia, or even of England and Northern Europe. +10. Beside his Asiatic empire, he knew very little of Asia, even of +China, with its millions of inhabitants. 11. How small the world was in +those days! +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------237.png---------------------------- --> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON LIX.</b></center> + +<center>THE POSITION OF UNEMPHATIC PRONOUNS.</center> + +<p> +<b>274.</b> An unemphatic personal, indefinite or demonstrative pronoun +very frequently precedes the verb of which it is the object. This is +especially true if the verb in question is an infinitive: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Mi volas lin vidi</b>, <i>I wish to see him.</i><br> +<b>Li povos tion fari</b>, <i>he will be able to do that.</i><br> +<b>Vi devus ion manĝi</b>, <i>you ought to eat something.</i><br> +<b>Ĉu vi ĝin kredis?</b> <i>Did you believe it?</i><br> +<b>Se li min vidus</b>, li min savus, <i>if he should see me, he would save me.</i> +</p> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +<i>Cf</i>. in other languages, as in German <i>ich möchte ihn +sehen</i>, French <i>je veux le voir</i>, Latin <i>se alunt, me +defendi</i>, etc. That such pronouns <i>are</i> unemphatic can be seen +from English <i>let her come</i> (= <i>let'er come</i>), <i>make him +stop</i> (= <i>make'im stop</i>), etc., in which the unemphatic forms +<i>er, im</i>, replace <i>him, her</i>, in pronunciation (<i>cf</i>. +the Greek enclitic pronouns +<!-- [Greek: <i>mou, moi, me, son, soi, se, ou, oi, e,</i>,] --> <i>μοϋ, μοί, μέ, σον, σοι, σέ, οϋ, οι, έ</i>, +the Sanskrit enclitic forms +<!-- [Sanskrit: <i>ma, me, tva, te, nas, vas, enam, enat, enam,</i> also <i>sim</i>, ] --> <i>mā, me, tvā, te, nas, vas, enam, enat, enām,</i> also <i>sīm</i>, +and the Avestan +<!-- [Avestan: <i>i, im</i>). ] --> <i>ī, īm</i>). +The same +phenomenon is indicated in <i>prithee</i> (= <i>pray thee</i>), and in +the spellings <i>gimme</i> (= <i>give me</i>), <i>lemme</i> (= <i>let +me</i>), in dialect stories. +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<center>SOME INTRANSITIVE VERBS.</center> + +<p> +<b>275.</b> Some intransitive verbs have English meanings which do not +differ in form from the <i>transitive</i> English verbs to which they +are related. In Esperanto the suffix <b>-ig-</b> (214) must be used +when the transitive meaning is desired. Some examples are given in the +following table: +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------238.png---------------------------- --> + +<center> + <table border="1" cellpadding="8"> + <tr><td nowrap align="center">Verb.</td><td nowrap align="center">Intransitive Use.</td><td nowrap align="center">Transitive Use.</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap valign="top"><b>Boli . . .</b></td><td nowrap valign="top"><b>La akvo bolas</b><br><i>The water boils</i></td><td nowrap valign="top"><b>Li boligas la akvon</b><br><i>He boils the water</i></td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap valign="top"><b>Bruli . . .</b></td><td nowrap valign="top"><b>La fajro brulas</b><br><i>The fire burns</i></td><td nowrap valign="top"><b>Li bruligis la paperon</b><br><i>He burned the paper</i></td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap valign="top"><b>Ĉesi . . .</b></td><td nowrap valign="top"><b>La bruo ĉesas</b><br><i>The noise stops</i></td><td nowrap valign="top"><b>Li ĉesigas la bruon</b><br><i>He stops the noise</i></td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap valign="top"><b>Daŭri . . .</b></td><td nowrap valign="top"><b>La bruo daŭras</b><br><i>The noise continues</i></td><td nowrap valign="top"><b>Li daŭrigas la bruon</b><br><i>He continues the noise</i></td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap valign="top"><b>Degeli . . .</b></td><td nowrap valign="top"><b>La glacio degelas</b><br><i>The ice thaws</i></td><td nowrap valign="top"><b>Li ĝin degeligas per fajro</b><br><i>He thaws it with fire</i></td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap valign="top"><b>Droni . . .</b></td><td nowrap valign="top"><b>La knabino dronis</b><br><i>The girl drowned</i></td><td nowrap valign="top"><b>La viro ŝin dronigis</b><br><i>The man drowned her</i></td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap valign="top"><b>Eksplodi . . .</b></td><td nowrap valign="top"><b>Pulvo eksplodas</b><br><i>Gunpowder explodes</i></td><td nowrap valign="top"><b>Li ĝin eksplodigos</b><br><i>He will explode it</i></td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap valign="top"><b>Halti . . .</b></td><td nowrap valign="top"><b>Li haltis timigite</b><br><i>He halted in alarm</i></td><td nowrap valign="top"><b>Li haltigis la soldatojn</b><br><i>He halted the soldiers</i></td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap valign="top"><b>Lumi . . .</b></td><td nowrap valign="top"><b>La suno lumas</b><br><i>The sun shines</i></td><td nowrap valign="top"><b>Li lumigis la lampon</b><br><i>He lighted the lamp</i></td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap valign="top"><b>Pasi . . .</b></td><td nowrap valign="top"><b>La tempo pasas</b><br><i>Time passes</i></td><td nowrap valign="top"><b>Tiel li pasigis la tagon</b><br><i>Thus he passed the day</i></td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap valign="top"><b>Pendi . . .</b></td><td nowrap valign="top"><b>Ĝi pendas de branĉo</b><br><i>It hangs on a branch</i></td><td nowrap valign="top"><b>Li ĝin pendigis de branĉo</b><br><i>He hung it on a branch</i></td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap valign="top"><b>Soni . . .</b></td><td nowrap valign="top"><b>La saluta pafo sonis</b><br><i>The salute sounded</i></td><td nowrap valign="top"><b>Oni sonigis la salutan pafon</b><br><i>They sounded the salute</i></td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap valign="top"><b>Sonori . . .</b></td><td nowrap valign="top"><b>La sonorilo sonoris</b><br><i>The bell rang</i></td><td nowrap valign="top"><b>Oni sonorigis la sonorilon</b><br><i>They rang the bell</i></td></tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +A transitive use of such intransitive verbs would be like using the +English intransitive verb "learn" for the transitive verb "teach," as in +the "I'll learn you" (for "I'll teach you") of illiterate speech. +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<center>THE SUFFIX <b>-ER-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>276.</b> The suffix <b>-er-</b> is used to form words expressing +units or component parts of that which is indicated in the root: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>fajrero</b>, <i>spark</i> (of fire).<br> + <b>monero</b>, <i>coin</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>neĝero</b>, <i>snowflake</i>.<br> + <b>sablero</b>, <i>grain of sand</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center>THE PREFIXES <b>BO-</b> AND <b>DUON-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>277.</b> The prefix <b>bo-</b> indicates relationship by marriage. +To indicate half-blood relationship, or step-relationship, <b>duon-</b> +(166) is used: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>bopatro</b>, <i>father-in-law</i>.<br> + <b>bofratino</b>, <i>sister-in-law</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>duonpatro</b>, <i>stepfather</i>.<br> + <b>duonfrato</b>, <i>half-brother</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- -----------------------------239.png---------------------------- --> + +CORRESPONDENCE. + +<p> +<b>278.</b> a. Letters should be dated as indicated in the following: +</p> + +<p> +<b>Bostono, je la 24a de decembro, 1912a.</b><br> +<b>Nov-Jorko, la 24an decembro, 1912a.</b><br> +<b>Sirakuzo, 24/XII/1912.</b> +</p> + +<p> +<b>b.</b> The usual methods of address are (to strangers and in business +letters): <b>Sinjoro, Sinjorino, Estimata Sinjoro, Karaj Sinjoroj, Tre +estimata Fraŭlino,</b> etc.; (to friends and relatives) <b>Kara +Fraŭlino, Karaj Gefratoj, Kara Amiko, Kara Mario, Patrino mia,</b> +(placing the possessive adjective after the noun in this way gives +an affectionate sense, as in English "Mother mine," etc) etc.; (to +persons whose opinions on some subject are known to agree with those of +the writer) <b>Estimata (Kara) Samideano</b> (<i>follower of the same +idea</i>). +</p> + +<p> +<b>c.</b> Among the more usual forms of conclusion are (to strangers and +in business letters): <b>Tre fidele la via, Tre vere, Kun granda estimo, +Kun plej alta estimo,</b> etc., (to friends): <b>Kun amika saluto, Kun +ĉiuj bondeziroj, Kun samideanaj salutoj, Frate la via,</b> etc. +</p> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>adres-o</b>, <i>address.</i><br> + <b>apart-a</b>, <i>separate.</i><br> + <b>bedaur-i</b>, <i>to regret.</i><br> + <b>ĉef-a</b>, <i>chief.</i><br> + <b>do</b>, <i>so, then.</i><br> + <b>fontan-o</b>, <i>fountain.</i><br> + <b>hotel-o</b>, <i>hotel.</i><br> + <b>ink-o</b>, <i>ink.</i><br> + <b>konven-a</b>, <i>suitable.</i><br> + <b>kovert-o</b>, <i>envelope</i> (for letters). + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>krajon-o</b>, <i>pencil.</i><br> + <b>mend-i</b>, <i>to order</i> (of stores, etc).<br> + <b>Nov-Jorko</b>, <i>New York.</i><br> + <b>numer-o</b>, <i>number</i> (numeral).<br> + <b>ofic-o</b>, <i>office, employment.</i><br> + <b>poŝt-o</b>, <i>post</i> (letters, etc.).<br> + <b>respekt-o</b>, <i>respect.</i><br> + <b>special-a</b>, <i>special.</i><br> + <b>stat-o</b>, <i>state</i> (political body)<br> + <b>tram-o</b>, <i>tram.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +<b>Ĉef-</b> is often used in descriptive compounds +(167, b), as <b>ĉefkuiristo</b>, <i>chief (head) cook, +chef</i>, <b>ĉefurbo</b>, <i>chief city, capital</i>, +<b>ĉefanĝelo</b>, <i>archangel</i>. +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<!-- -----------------------------240.png---------------------------- --> + +<!-- +Internet Explorer has a bit of trouble handling vertical spacing +between adjacent blocks, wants to add it all up instead of figuring +the proper smallest amount that will satisfy everybody. The style +adjustments below should look reasonable even in IE. +--> + +<hr align="center" width="38%" style="margin-bottom: 0"> + +<center style="margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em">KELKAJ LETEROJ.</center> + +<hr align="center" width="38%" style="margin-top: 0"> + +<p class="rightjustified2">Sirakuzo, la 2an de marto, 1911.</p> + +<p> +Kara Amiko, +</p> + +<p class="indented"> +Sendube vin surprizos ricevi leteron skribitan de mi ĉe hotelo +en ĉi tiu urbo, ne tre malproksime de via propra oficejo! Via +bofrato, kiun mi okaze renkontis hieraŭ en la poŝtoficejo, +donis al mi vian adreson. Ĝis nun, mi estas tiel okupata ke mi ne +havis la tempon eĉ por telefoni al vi. Sed nun mi havas du aŭ +tri minutojn da libera tempo, kaj mi tuj ekkaptas la okazon por skribi +letereton, petante ke vi vespermanĝu kun mi hodiaŭ vespere, +ĉe la hotelo kie, kiel vi vidas, mi loĝas de antaŭ unu +tago. (Pardonu, mi petas, <b>ke</b> mi finas ĉi tiun leteron +per krajono, sed mi ĵus eltrovis ke restas neniom plu da inko +en mia fontanplumo.) Venu je la sesa, se tiu horo estas konvena. +Bedaŭrinde (<i>unfortunately</i>), mi devos forresti de la hotelo +la tutan posttagmezon, pri komercaj aferoj, alie mi vin renkontus +ĉe la tramvojo, kie haltas la tramveturiloj (<i>streetcars</i>). +Estos plej bone, mi opinias, ke vi iru rekte al mia ĉambro, numero +26, kie mi senprokraste vin renkontos, se mi ne estos efektive jam +vin atendanta. Ni esperu ke la ĉefkuiristo preparos al ni bonan +manĝon! Mi esperas ke vi malatentos la falantajn neĝerojn, +kaj nepre venos, responde al mia iomete subita invito, ĉar ni ja +havos multe da komunaj travivaĵoj por priparoli. Do ĝis la +baldaŭa revido je la vespermanĝo! +</p> + +<p class="rightjustified2">Kun plej amikaj salutoj,</p> + +<p class="rightjustified1">Roberto.</p> + + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +The word <b>tial</b> may be omitted from the combination <b>tial ke</b> +(83), if the meaning is obvious. +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<!-- -----------------------------241.png---------------------------- --> + +<hr align="center" width="38%"> + +<p class="rightjustified2">Boston, 13/VII/1911.</p> + +<div>Wilson kaj Jones,</div> <!-- This div seems silly, but it makes Opera happy. --> +<div class="leftjustified1">Nov-Jorko.</div> +Estimataj Sinjoroj:— +<div class="indented"> +Bonvolu sendi al mi per revenanta poŝto vian plej novan prezaron +(<i>price-list</i>). Ni baldaŭ bezonos iujn novajn meblojn por niaj +oficejoj, precipe skribtablojn, tablojn konvenajn por skribmaŝinoj +(<i>typewriters</i>), kaj specialajn librujojn, farotajn laŭ niaj +bezonoj. Se viaj prezoj estas konvenaj, ni sendube volos mendi de vi +tian meblaron. +</div> +<div style="text-align: center">Kun respekto,</div> +<div class="rightjustified3">J. F. Smith,</div> +<div class="rightjustified2">ĉe Brown kaj Brown.</div> + +<hr align="center" width="38%"> + +<p class="rightjustified2">Nov-Jorko, 17/VII/1911.</p> + +<div>Sinjoro J. F. Smith,</div> <!-- This div seems silly, but it makes Opera happy. --> +<div class="leftjustified1">ĉe Brown kaj Brown,</div> +<div class="leftjustified2">Nov-Jorko.</div> +Estimata Sinjoro:— +<div class="indented"> +Ni havas la honoron sendi al vi en aparta koverto nian plej novan +prezaron, al kiu ni petas ke vi donu vian atenton, precipe al paĝoj +15-29. Tie vi trovos priskribitaj niajn plej bonajn oficejajn meblarojn. +Ni senpage metos ĉiujn aĉetitajn meblojn sur la vagonaron, sed +kompreneble ni ne pagos la koston de la sendado. +</div> +<div class="indented"> +Ni plezure fabrikos specialajn librujojn laŭ viaj bezonoj, kaj +volonte ricevos viajn ordonojn pri tio. Niaj prezoj estos kiel eble plej +malaltaj. +</div> +<div class="indented"> +Esperante ke la meblaroj priskribitaj en nia prezaro, kune kun la +tie-presitaj prezoj, estos plene kontentigaj, kaj certigante al vi ke ni +zorge plenumos ĉiun mendon, ni restas, +</div> +<div style="text-align: center">Tre respekte la viaj,</div> +<div class="rightjustified4">Wilson kaj Jones.</div> + +<!-- -----------------------------242.png---------------------------- --> + +<hr align="center" width="38%"> + +<p class="rightjustified2">Bostono, la 27an Majo.</p> + +<div>Sinjoro B. F. Brown,</div> <!-- This div seems silly, but it makes Opera happy. --> +<div class="leftjustified2">Sirakuzo, Nov-Jorka Ŝtato.</div> +Kara Sinjoro:— +<div class="indented"> +Vian adreson ni dankas al niaj komunaj amikoj Sinjoroj Miller kaj White, +kaj per ĉi tio ni permesas al ni proponi al vi niajn servojn por +la vendado de tiaj infanludiloj, kiajn vi fabrikas. Ni havas bonegajn +montrajn fenestrojn (<i>show-windows</i>), en nia butiko, preskaŭ +meze de la ĉefstrato en la urbo, kaj en nia butiko troviĝas +sufiĉe da grandaj vitramebloj (<i>show-cases</i>). Tial ni povus +tre oportune administri tian aferon. Ni multe ĝojos se vi respondos +kiel eble plej baldaŭ, sciigante al ni kiom da procento vi donos, +kaj kiajn aranĝojn vi volus fari. Ni certigas al vi ke en ĉiu +okazo ni penos fari nian eblon por via plej bona intereso. +</div> +<div style="text-align: center">Kun alta estimo,</div> +<div class="rightjustified4">D. Rose.</div> + +<!-- -----------------------------243.png---------------------------- --> + +<center class="lesson"><b>LESSON LX.</b></center> + +<center>SOME TRANSITIVE VERBS.</center> + +<p> +<b>279.</b> Some transitive verbs have English meanings which do not +differ in form from the <i>intransitive</i> English verbs to which they +are related (conversely to the use explained in 275). In Esperanto the +suffix <b>-iĝ-</b> (232), or a different root, must be used when +an intransitive meaning is desired. Following are the more common verbs +of this character, together with examples of the intransitive use of +several of them: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>balanci</b>, <i>to balance</i>.<br> + <b>etendi</b>, <i>to extend, to expand</i>.<br> + <b>fermi</b>, <i>to close, to shut</i>.<br> + <b>fini</b>, <i>to end, to finish</i>.<br> + <b>fleksi</b>, <i>to bend, to flex</i>.<br> + <b>hejti</b>, <i>to heat</i>.<br> + <b>klini</b>, <i>to incline, to bend</i>.<br> + <b>kolekti</b>, <i>to gather</i>, <i>to collect</i>.<br> + <b>komenci</b>, <i>to begin</i>, <i>to commence</i>.<br> + <b>mezuri</b>, <i>to measure</i>.<br> + <b>montri</b>, <i>to show</i>.<br> + <b>movi</b>, <i>to move</i>.<br> + <b>paŝti</b>, <i>to pasture, to feed</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>renversi</b>, <i>to upset</i>, <i>to overturn</i>.<br> + <b>rompi</b>, <i>to break</i>.<br> + <b>ruli</b>, <i>to roll, (a wheel,</i> <i>ball, etc.)</i>.<br> + <b>skui</b>, <i>to shake</i>.<br> + <b>streĉi</b>, <i>to stretch</i>.<br> + <b>svingi</b>, <i>to swing</i>.<br> + <b>ŝanceli</b>, <i>to cause to</i> <i>vacillate</i>.<br> + <b>ŝanĝi</b>, <i>to change</i>.<br> + <b>ŝiri</b>, <i>to tear</i>.<br> + <b>turni</b>, <i>to turn</i>.<br> + <b>veki</b>, <i>to wake</i>.<br> + <b>verŝi</b>, <i>to pour</i>.<br> + <b>volvi</b>, <i>to roll</i> (around something). + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<p> +<b>La laboro nun finiĝas</b>, <i>the work is now coming to an end</i>.<br> +<b>La glavo fleksiĝis</b>, <i>the sword bent</i>.<br> +<b>La folioj disvolviĝas</b>, <i>the leaves unroll (develop)</i>.<br> +<b>Ĉiu kutimo ŝanĝiĝos</b>, <i>every custom will change</i>.<br> +<b>La vintro jam komenciĝas</b>, <i>the winter is already beginning</i>.<br> +<b>Mi vekiĝos je la sesa</b>, <i>I shall awake at six (o'clock)</i>.<br> +<b>La montrilo ŝanceliĝis</b>, <i>the indicator trembled (vacillated)</i>.<br> +<b>Vasta ebenaĵo etendiĝis antaŭ li</b>, <i>a vast plain extended before him</i>. +</p> + +<center>ELISION.</center> + +<p> +<b>280.</b> Elision is not common, and its use in writing as well as in +speaking is best avoided. It occurs most frequently in poetry. +</p> + +<p> +<b>a.</b> The <b>-a</b> of the article may be elided before a word +beginning with a vowel, or after a preposition ending in a vowel: +</p> + +<p> +<b>"L' espero, l' obstino kaj la pacienco."</b><br> +<b>"De l' montoj riveretoj fluas."</b><br> +<b>"Kaj kantas tra l' pura aero."</b> +</p> + +<p> +<b>b.</b> The final <b>-o</b> of a noun may be elided in poetry. The +original accent of the noun remains unchanged: +</p> + +<p> +<b>"Ho, mia kor', ne batu maltrankvile."</b><br> +<b>"Sur la kampo la rozet'."</b> +</p> + +<!-- -----------------------------244.png---------------------------- --> + +<p> +<b>c.</b> The final <b>-e</b> of an adverb is very rarely elided (except +in the expression <b>dank' al</b>, which occurs in prose as well as in +poetry): +</p> + +<p> +<b>"Ke povu mi foj' je eterno ekdormi!"</b><br> +<b>Dank' al vi, mi sukcesis</b>, <i>thanks to you, I succeeded</i>. +</p> + +<center>THE PREFIX <b>EKS-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>281.</b> The prefix <b>eks-</b> is used to form words expressing a +previous incumbent of a position, or removal from such position: +</p> + +<p> +<b>eksprezidanto</b>, <i>ex-president</i>.<br> +<b>eksreĝo</b>, <i>ex-king</i>.<br> +<b>eksigi</b>, <i>to put out of office, to discharge</i>.<br> +<b>eksiĝi</b>, <i>to withdraw from one's office, to resign</i>. +</p> + +<center>THE PREFIX <b>PRA-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>282.</b> The prefix <b>pra-</b> is used to form words expressing +precedence in the line of descent, or general remoteness in past time: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>praavo</b>, <i>great grandfather</i>.<br> + <b>pranepo</b>, <i>great grandson</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>prapatroj</b>, <i>forefathers, ancestors</i>.<br> + <b>pratempa</b>, <i>primeval</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center>THE SUFFIXES <b>-ĈJ-</b> AND <b>-NJ-</b>.</center> + +<p> +<b>283.</b> The suffix <b>-ĉj-</b> is used to form affectionate +diminutives, from the first syllable or syllables of masculine names +or terms of address. The suffix <b>-nj-</b> forms similar feminine +diminutives: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>Joĉjo</b>, <i>Johnnie, Joe</i>.<br> + <b>Paĉjo</b>, <i>Papa</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>Manjo</b>, <i>May, Mamie</i>.<br> + <b>Panjo</b>, <i>Mamma</i>. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- -----------------------------245.png---------------------------- --> + +<center>WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.</center> + +<b>284.</b> National systems of weights and measures translated into +international form (as <b>mejlo</b>, <i>mile</i>, <b>funto</b>, +<i>pound</i>) cannot convey a very definite meaning to one not familiar +with the particular system used. Consequently the metric system +(already used by scientists everywhere and by the general public in +many countries) is adopted for the international system of weights and +measures: + +<center>Length and Surface.</center> + +<center> <!-- leftjustified in book --> + <table> + <tr> + <td> + <b>milimetro</b>, <i>millimeter</i> (.0394 inch).<br> + <b>centimetro</b>, <i>centimeter</i> (.3937 inch).<br> + <b>decimetro</b>, <i>decimeter</i> (3.937 inches).<br> + <b>metro</b>, <i>meter</i> (39.37 inches).<br> + <b>dekametro</b>, <i>dekameter</i> (393.7 inches).<br> + <b>hektometro</b>, <i>hektometer</i> (328 feet 1 inch).<br> + <b>kilometro</b>, <i>kilometer</i> (3280 feet 10 inches; .62137 mile).<br> + <b>kvadrata metro</b>, <i>square meter</i> (1550 square inches).<br> + <b>hektaro</b>, <i>hektare</i> (2.471 acres). + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center>Weight.</center> + +<center> <!-- leftjustified in book --> + <table> + <tr> + <td> + <b>gramo</b>, <i>gram</i> (15.432 grains avoirdupois).<br> + <b>dekagramo</b>, <i>dekagram</i> (.3527 ounce avoirdupois).<br> + <b>hektogramo</b>, <i>hektogram</i> (3.5274 ounce avoirdupois).<br> + <b>kilogramo</b>, <i>kilogram</i> (2.2046 pounds avoirdupois). + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center>Capacity.</center> + +<center> <!-- leftjustified in book --> + <table> + <tr> + <td> + <b>decilitro</b>, <i>deciliter</i> (6.1022 cubic inches; .845 gill).<br> + <b>litro</b>, <i>liter</i> (.908 quart, dry measure; 1.0567 quart, liquid).<br> + <b>dekalitro</b>, <i>dekaliter</i> (9.08 quart, dry measure; 2.6417 gallons).<br> + <b>hektolitro</b>, <i>hektoliter</i> (2 bushels 3.35 pecks; 26.417 gallons).<br> + <b>kilolitro</b>, <i>kiloliter</i> (1.308 cubic yards; 264.17 gallons). + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- -----------------------------246.png---------------------------- --> + +<center>THE INTERNATIONAL MONEY SYSTEM.</center> + +<p> +<b>285.</b> Names of national coins translated into international +form (as <b>dolaro</b>, <i>dollar</i>, <b>cendo</b>, <i>cent</i>) +cannot convey a very definite meaning to persons not familiar with +these coins. Consequently the system devised for international use +(not for actual coins, but for calculation and price quotations) is +based upon a unit called the <b>speso</b>. The multiples of this +unit are the <b>spesdeko</b> (10 <b>spesoj</b>), <b>spescento</b> +(100 <b>spesoj</b>), and <b>spesmilo</b> (1000 <b>spesoj</b>). Ten +<i>spesmiloj</i> have approximately the value of a five-dollar gold +piece, twenty marks, twenty-five francs, one pound sterling, etc. The +<i>spesmilo</i>, equivalent to about $0.4875 in the money of the United +States and Canada, is the unit commonly used. (To reduce dollars to +<i>spesmiloj</i>, multiply by 2.051.) +</p> + +<center>ABBREVIATIONS.</center> + +<p> +<b>286.</b> The following abbreviations are often used (for those of the +metric system see any English dictionary): +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>Dro.</b>, Doktoro, <i>Dr.</i><br> + <b>Fino.</b>, Fraŭlino, <i>Miss</i>.<br> + <b>Pro.</b>, Profesoro, <i>Prof.</i><br> + <b>Sro.</b>, Sinjoro, <i>Mr.</i><br> + <b>Sino.</b>, Sinjorino, <i>Mrs.</i><br> + <b>Ko.</b>, K-io., Kompanio, <i>Co.</i><br> + <b>No.</b>, N-ro., Numero, <i>No.</i><br> + <b>&</b>, kaj, &. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>Sm.</b>, spesmilo(j).<br> + <b>Sd.</b>, spesdeko(j).<br> + <b>k. t. p.</b>, kaj tiel plu, <i>and so forth</i>.<br> + <b>k. c.</b>, kaj ceteraj, <i>etc.</i><br> + <b>k. sim.</b>, kaj simila(j), <i>et. sim.</i><br> + <b>t. e.</b>, tio estas, <i>i.e.</i><br> + <b>e.</b>, ekzemple, <i>e.g.</i><br> + <b>p.s.</b>, postskribaĵo, <i>P.S.</i> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<center> + <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vocabulary.</span> + <table border="0" cellspacing="8"> + <tr> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>abon-i</b>, <i>to subscribe to, take</i>.<br> + <b>aparat-o</b>, <i>apparatus</i>.<br> + <b>aŭtomat-a</b>, <i>automatic</i>.<br> + <b>bov-o</b>, <i>ox</i>.<br> + <b>dimensi-o</b>, <i>dimension</i>.<br> + <b>ekzempl-o</b>, <i>example</i>.<br> + <b>fokus-o</b>, <i>focus</i>.<br> + <b>fotograf-i</b>, <i>to photograph</i>.<br> + <b>funkci-i</b>, <i>to function, work</i>.<br> + <b>kamer-o</b>, <i>camera</i>. + </td> + <td nowrap valign="top"> + <b>led-o</b>, <i>leather</i>.<br> + <b>metal-o</b>, <i>metal</i>.<br> + <b>moment-o</b>, <i>moment</i>.<br> + <b>negativ-o</b>, <i>negative</i>.<br> + <b>objektiv-o</b>, <i>lens, objective</i>.<br> + <b>original-o</b>, <i>original</i>.<br> + <b>plat-o</b>, <i>plate</i> (photographic, etc)<br> + <b>prov-i</b>, <i>to try</i>.<br> + <b>reklam-i</b>, <i>to advertise</i>.<br> + <b>streĉ-i</b>, <i>to stretch</i> (trans.). + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +<i>Cf.</i> the difference between <b>provi</b>, <i>to try</i> in +the sense of testing, making an essay or endeavor, <b>peni</b>, +<i>to try</i> in the sense of taking pains or making an effort, and +<b>juĝi</b>, <i>to try</i> in a judicial sense. +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<!-- -----------------------------247.png---------------------------- --> + +<hr align="center" width="38%"> + +<center>PRI LA KAMERO.</center> + +<p class="rightjustified1">Bostono, 12/XI/1910.</p> + +<div>Brown kaj Ko.,</div> <!-- This div seems silly, but it makes Opera happy. --> +<div class="leftjustified2">Nov-Jorko.</div> +Sinjoroj:— +<div class="indented1"> +Vidinte vian reklamon en gazeto al kiu mi abonas, mi skribas por peti +ke vi sendu al mi priskribaĵon de via kamero nomita "La Infaneto," +kiun eble mi deziros provi. +</div> +<div class="indented"> +Bonvolu ankaŭ sendi dekduonon da platoj, 6 x 9 centimetrojn, por +kiu mi <b>ĉi</b> kune sendas spesmilon kaj duonon. +</div> +<div style="text-align: center">Kun respekto,</div> +<div class="rightjustified4">J. C. Smith.</div> + +<!-- [Footnote: --> +<p class="footnote"> +The particle <b>ĉi</b> (used with <b>tiu, tio, ties, ĉiu, +ĉio</b>) may also be used with certain adverbs, as <b>ĉi +sube</b>, <i>here below</i>, <b>ĉi supre</b>, <i>here above</i>, +<b>ĉi kune</b>, <i>herewith</i>, etc. +</p> +<!-- ] --> + +<hr align="center" width="38%"> + +<p class="rightjustified1">Nov-Jorko, 18an novembro, 1910.</p> + +<div>Kara Sinjoro:—</div> <!-- This div seems silly, but it makes Opera happy. --> +<div class="indented"> +Respondante al via estimata letero de la 12a, ni donas ĉi sube +mallongan priskribaĵon de nia bonega fotografilo nomita "La +Infaneto." +</div> +<div class="indented"> +"La Infaneto" kamero havis neesperitan sukceson, kaj estas vendita po +miloj da ekzempleroj. Ĉie oni unuvoĉe laŭdas ĝian +malgrandan kaj tamen bonegan konstruon, kaj ankaŭ ĝian firman +samtempe facilan funkciadon. Ĝi ne estas pli granda ol monujo, tial +ĝi ne bezonas pli multe da spaco ol tiu, kaj povas esti portata kaj +uzata treege konvene. +</div> + +<!-- -----------------------------248.png---------------------------- --> + +<div class="indented"> +La dimensioj de la fermita kamero estas 8 x 5 x 6.5 centimetroj. La +pezo, kun objektivo, tri platingoj, kaj malbrila (<i>ground</i>) vitro, +estas 365 gramoj. "La Infaneto" estas konstruita tute el metalo, kaj +kovrita de bonega bovledo. Kiam oni malfermas la aparaton, la objektivo +samtempe enfokusiĝas, tiamaniere ke la kamero estas preta por uzado +post unu sekundo, ĉar la objektivfermilo (<i>shutter</i>) estas +ĉiam streĉita. Sekve: neniaj preparadoj, nenia prokrasto je la +ekfotografado. +</div> +<div class="indented"> +La negativoj estas klaraj ĝis la bordo, kaj tial konvenaj por +pligrandigo. Cetere, oni scias ke bona pligrandigo ofte pli kontentigas +ol malgranda originalo. Precipe ĉe promenoj kaj vojaĝoj oni +tial volonte preferas la malgrandan "Infaneton," por poste pligrandigi +la negativojn. +</div> +<div class="indented"> +Por la pligrandigo ni fabrikas specialajn taglum-pligrandigajn +aparatojn, kies prezoj estas malaltaj (vidu en nia prezaro). +</div> +<div class="indented"> +Ni ne ŝanĝis la konstruon de "La Infaneto" de post 1909, +ĉar ĝis nun ĝi estas ĉiurilate kontentiga. Sole la +rapideca reguligo de la momenta (<i>instantaneous</i>) fermilo estas +plibonigita, ĉar ni ĝin fabrikas kun speciala aŭtomata +fermilo, kiu estas aranĝita por malfermoj daŭraj (<i>time +exposures</i>), kaj momentaj, je unu sekundo ĝis unu centono da +sekundo. +</div> +<div class="indented"> +Esperante ke ni baldaŭ ricevos mendon de vi, kaj certigante al vi +ke ni tre zorge plenumos iun ajn mendon, ni restas. +</div> +<div class="rightjustified4">Tre respekte la viaj,</div> +<div class="rightjustified3">Brown & Ko.</div> +<div class="rightjustified2">Per C.</div> + +<!-- -----------------------------249.png---------------------------- --> + +<!-- <center style="font-variant: small-caps; font-size: large">Vocabulary.</center> --> + +<!-- -----------------------------250.png---------------------------- --> + +<!-- -----------------------------251.png---------------------------- --> + +<hr align="center" width="38%"> + +<center><b>ESPERANTO-ENGLISH VOCABULARY.</b></center> + +<p> +The following vocabulary includes all roots used in the preceding +Lessons, all primary words of the language, and a large number of +additional roots (to facilitate original composition). No attempt has +been made, however, to include all of the roots in the language, for +which an Esperanto-English Dictionary should be consulted. +</p> + +<p> +References are to sections, unless the page (p.) is given. For other +parts of speech than those indicated under each root or primary word, +see Word Formation, <b>116</b>, <b>120</b>, <b>159</b>, <b>171</b>. See +also the references given under each prefix and suffix. For formation of +compound words, see <b>160</b>, <b>167</b>, <b>176</b>, <b>184</b>. The +following abbreviations are used: adj. = adjective; adv. = adverb; conj. += conjunction; intrans. = intransitive; prep. = preposition; trans. = +transitive; — = repetition of the word. +</p> + +<!-- This title is centered in book; center in textfile. --> +<!-- But in HTML, it looks better leftjustified. --> +<p><b>A.</b></p> + +<b>abel-o</b>, bee.<br> +<b>abi-o</b>, fir.<br> +<b>abiturient-o</b>, bachelor of arts (A.B.).<br> +<b>abomen-a</b>, abominable.<br> +<b>abon-i</b>, to subscribe to, take (magazine, etc.).<br> +<b>abrikot-o</b>, apricot.<br> +<b>acer-o</b>, maple (tree).<br> +<b>acid-a</b>, acid, sour.<br> +<b>-aĉ-</b>, <i>derogatory suffix</i> (<b>272</b>).<br> +<b>aĉet-i</b>, to buy.<br> +<b>-ad-</b>, <i>suffix indicating duration</i> (<b>218</b>).<br> +<b>adiaŭ</b>, (<i>adv. and interjection</i>), farewell, good-bye (<b>171</b>, <b>273</b>).<br> +<b>adjektiv-o</b>, adjective.<br> +<b>administr-i</b>, to administer, to manage.<br> +<b>admir-i</b>, to admire.<br> +<b>admon-i</b>, to exhort, admonish.<br> +<b>ador-i</b>, to worship, adore.<br> +<b>adres-o</b>, address (on letters, etc.).<br> +<b>adverb-o</b>, adverb.<br> +<b>advokat-o</b>, lawyer, barrister.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------252.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>aer-o</b>, air.<br> +<b>afabl-a</b>, affable, amiable.<br> +<b>afer-o</b>, affair, matter, thing, cause.<br> +<b>afiŝ-o</b>, handbill, placard, poster.<br> +<b>afrank-i</b>, to frank (letters), prepay; <b>—ite</b>, post-paid.<br> +<b>Afrik-o</b>, Africa.<br> +<b>ag-i</b>, to act, perform action.<br> +<b>agac-i</b>, to set on edge (of teeth).<br> +<b>agent-o</b>, agent.<br> +<b>agit-i</b>, to agitate.<br> +<b>agl-o</b>, eagle.<br> +<b>agoni-o</b>, agony.<br> +<b>agrabl-a</b>, agreeable, pleasant.<br> +<b>aĝ-o</b>, age.<br> +<b>ajn</b> (<i>adv.</i>), ever (<b>236</b>).<br> +<b>-aĵ-</b>, <i>suffix forming concrete words</i> (<b>227</b>).<br> +<b>akademi-o</b>, academy.<br> +<b>akcel-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to accelerate, hasten.<br> +<b>akcent-o</b>, accent, stress.<br> +<b>akcept-i</b>, to accept, receive, welcome.<br> +<b>akcident-o</b>, accident.<br> +<b>akir-i</b>, to acquire.<br> +<b>akompan-i</b>, to accompany.<br> +<b>akr-a</b>, sharp, acute, shrill.<br> +<b>akrid-o</b>, grasshopper.<br> +<b>aks-o</b>, axis, axle.<br> +<b>akt-o</b>, act (of a play).<br> +<b>aktiv-a</b>, active (grammatical).<br> +<b>aktor-o</b>, actor (player).<br> +<b>akurat-a</b>, accurate, exact.<br> +<b>akuz-i</b>, to accuse.<br> +<b>akuzativ-o</b>, accusative.<br> +<b>akv-o</b>, water.<br> +<b>akvarel-o</b>, water-color painting.<br> +<b>akvari-o</b>, aquarium.<br> +<b>al</b> (<i>prep.</i>), to, toward (<b>46, 160, 251, 252</b>).<br> +<b>alaŭd-o</b>, lark (bird).<br> +<b>ale-o</b>, avenue, walk, path (of garden, park, etc.).<br> +<b>Aleksandri-o</b>, Alexandria.<br> +<b>Aleksandr-o</b>, Alexander.<br> +<b>alfabet-o</b>, alphabet.<br> +<b>Alfred-o</b>, Alfred.<br> +<b>algebr-o</b>, algebra.<br> +<b>ali-a</b>, other.<br> +<b>alk-o</b>, elk.<br> +<b>alkohol-o</b>, alcohol.<br> +<b>alkov-o</b>, alcove, recess.<br> +<b>almanak-o</b>, almanac.<br> +<b>almenaŭ</b>, (<i>adv.</i>), at least (<b>66</b>).<br> +<b>almoz-o</b>, alms; <b>—ulo</b>, beggar.<br> +<b>alt-a</b>, high, tall.<br> +<b>altar-o</b>, altar.<br> +<b>alud-i</b>, to allude to.<br> +<b>alumet-o</b>, match (for fire).<br> +<b>am-i</b>, to love.<br> +<b>amas-o</b>, crowd, throng, mass.<br> +<b>ambaŭ</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), both (of two objects naturally in pairs, or of persons or things assumed or already known to be thus grouped) (<b>238</b>).<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------253.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>ambos-o</b>, anvil.<br> +<b>amel-o</b>, starch.<br> +<b>Amerik-o</b>, America.<br> +<b>amfibi-a</b>, amphibious.<br> +<b>amfiteatr-o</b>, amphitheatre.<br> +<b>amik-o</b>, friend.<br> +<b>amindum-i</b>, to woo, make love.<br> +<b>ampleks-o</b>, extent, dimension.<br> +<b>amuz-i</b>, to amuse.<br> +<b>-an-</b>, <i>suffix denoting membership, etc.</i> (<b>145</b>).<br> +<b>analiz-i</b>, to analyse.<br> +<b>ananas-o</b>, pineapple.<br> +<b>anas-o</b>, duck.<br> +<b>anekdot-o</b>, anecdote.<br> +<b>Angl-o</b>, Englishman.<br> +<b>angul-o</b>, angle, corner.<br> +<b>anĝel-o</b>, angel.<br> +<b>anim-o</b>, soul.<br> +<b>ankaŭ</b> (<i>adv.</i>), also.<br> +<b>ankoraŭ</b> (<i>adv</i>), still, yet.<br> +<b>ankr-o</b>, anchor.<br> +<b>anonc-i</b>, to announce.<br> +<b>ans-o</b>, latch, door-handle.<br> +<b>anser-o</b>, goose.<br> +<b>anstataŭ</b> (<i>prep.</i>), instead of (<b>98, 159</b>).<br> +<b>antaŭ</b> (<i>prep.</i>), before (<b>89, 90, 120, 159, 160</b>), <b>antaŭ ol</b> (<i>conj.</i>), <b>97, 98</b>.<br> +<b>antikv-a</b>, ancient, antique.<br> +<b>antilop-o</b>, antelope.<br> +<b>antipati-o</b>, antipathy.<br> +<b>aparat-o</b>, apparatus.<br> +<b>apart-a</b>, separate.<br> +<b>apartament-o</b>, apartment, suite (of rooms).<br> +<b>aparten-i</b>, to belong.<br> +<b>apati-o</b>, apathy.<br> +<b>apenaŭ</b> (<i>adv.</i>), scarcely, hardly.<br> +<b>aper-i</b>, to appear.<br> +<b>apetit-o</b>, appetite.<br> +<b>aplaŭd-i</b>, to applaud.<br> +<b>aplomb-o</b>, assurance, self-command.<br> +<b>apog-i</b>, to lean, to rest (upon).<br> +<b>apologi-o</b>, apology, vindication.<br> +<b>apotek-o</b>, pharmacy, drugstore, chemist's shop.<br> +<b>april-o</b>, April.<br> +<b>aprob-i</b>, to approve.<br> +<b>apud</b> (<i>prep.</i>), near to, close by (<b>120, 159</b>).<br> +<b>-ar-</b>, <i>suffix forming collectives</i> (<b>126</b>).<br> +<b>Arab-o</b>, Arab.<br> +<b>arane-o</b>, spider.<br> +<b>aranĝ-i</b>, to arrange.<br> +<b>arb-o</b>, tree.<br> +<b>arbitraci-i</b>, to arbitrate.<br> +<b>ardez-o</b>, slate (stone).<br> +<b>aren-o</b>, arena.<br> +<b>arest-i</b>, to arrest.<br> +<b>argil-o</b>, clay.<br> +<b>argument-i</b>, to argue.<br> +<b>arĝent-o</b>, silver (metal).<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------254.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>arĥitektur-o</b>, architecture.<br> +<b>Arĥimed-o</b>, Archimedes.<br> +<b>ari-o</b>, tune, air (music).<br> +<b>Aristejd-o</b>, Aristeides.<br> +<b>aristokrat-o</b>, aristocrat.<br> +<b>Aristotel-o</b>, Aristotle.<br> +<b>aritmetik-o</b>, arithmetic.<br> +<b>ark-o</b>, arc.<br> +<b>arkad-o</b>, arcade.<br> +<b>arm-i</b>, to arm.<br> +<b>arme-o</b>, army.<br> +<b>armoraci-o</b>, horse-radish.<br> +<b>arogant-a</b>, arrogant.<br> +<b>arom-o</b>, aroma, fragrance.<br> +<b>art-o</b>, art.<br> +<b>artik-o</b>, joint.<br> +<b>artikol-o</b>, article (grammatical or literary).<br> +<b>Artur-o</b>, Arthur.<br> +<b>asekur-i</b>, to insure (with a company).<br> +<b>asoci-o</b>, association (organization).<br> +<b>asparag-o</b>, asparagus.<br> +<b>aspekt-o</b>, aspect, appearance.<br> +<b>astr-o</b>, heavenly body, star.<br> +<b>atak-i</b>, to attack.<br> +<b>atend-i</b>, to wait, wait for, expect.<br> +<b>atent-a</b>, attentive.<br> +<b>atest-i</b>, to attest, give witness, certify.<br> +<b>ating-i</b>, to attain, reach.<br> +<b>atlas-o</b>, satin.<br> +<b>atlet-o</b>, athlete.<br> +<b>atmosfer-o</b>, atmosphere.<br> +<b>atribut-o</b>, attribute.<br> +<b>aŭ</b> (<i>conj.</i>), or, either.<br> +<b>aŭd-i</b>, to hear.<br> +<b>aŭgust-o</b>, August.<br> +<b>aŭskult-i</b>, to listen.<br> +<b>Aŭstrali-o</b>, Australia.<br> +<b>aŭtomat-a</b>, automatic.<br> +<b>aŭtor-o</b>, author.<br> +<b>aŭtun-o</b>, autumn.<br> +<b>av-o</b>, grandfather.<br> +<b>avar-a</b>, avaricious, miserly.<br> +<b>avel-o</b>, hazel-nut.<br> +<b>aven-o</b>, oats.<br> +<b>avert-i</b>, to warn, caution.<br> +<b>avid-a</b>, eager.<br> +<b>aviz-i</b>, to give notice.<br> +<b>azen-o</b>, ass, donkey.<br> +<b>Azi-o</b>, Asia.<br> +<b>azot-o</b>, nitrogen.<br> + +<!-- This title is centered in book; center in textfile. --> +<!-- But in HTML, it looks better leftjustified. --> +<p><b>B.</b></p> + +<b>babil-i</b>, to chatter, babble.<br> +<b>bagatel-o</b>, trifle, bagatelle.<br> +<b>bal-o</b>, ball (dance).<br> +<b>bak-i</b>, to bake.<br> +<b>bala-i</b>, to sweep (a floor, etc.).<br> +<b>balanc-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to balance, poise; <b>—i la kapon</b>, to nod the head.<br> +<b>baldaŭ</b> (<i>adv.</i>), soon.<br> +<b>balen-o</b>, whale.<br> +<b>ban-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to bathe.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------255.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>banan-o</b>, banana.<br> +<b>bandaĝ-i</b>, to bandage.<br> +<b>bank-o</b>, bank (financial).<br> +<b>bankrot-i</b>, to become bankrupt, fail.<br> +<b>bant-o</b>, bow (of ribbon).<br> +<b>bar-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to bar, to obstruct.<br> +<b>barakt-i</b>, to wrestle, struggle.<br> +<b>barb-o</b>, beard.<br> +<b>barbar-o</b>, barbarian.<br> +<b>barel-o</b>, barrel.<br> +<b>bariton-o</b>, barytone.<br> +<b>bas-o</b>, bass (voice).<br> +<b>baston-o</b>, stick.<br> +<b>bat-i</b>, to beat.<br> +<b>batal-i</b>, to fight, battle.<br> +<b>batat-o</b>, sweet potato.<br> +<b>bedaŭr-i</b>, to regret.<br> +<b>bek-o</b>, beak, bill.<br> +<b>bel-a</b>, beautiful, handsome.<br> +<b>belg-o</b>, Belgian.<br> +<b>ben-i</b>, to bless.<br> +<b>benk-o</b>, bench.<br> +<b>ber-o</b>, berry.<br> +<b>best-o</b>, animal, beast.<br> +<b>bet-o</b>, beet.<br> +<b>bezon-i</b>, to need, want.<br> +<b>bibliotek-o</b>, library.<br> +<b>bicikl-o</b>, bicycle.<br> +<b>bien-o</b>, land, property, estate.<br> +<b>bier-o</b>, beer.<br> +<b>bifstek-o</b>, beefsteak.<br> +<b>bild-o</b>, picture, image.<br> +<b>bilet-o</b>, ticket, note; <b>bank—</b>, bank-note, bill.<br> +<b>bird-o</b>, bird.<br> +<b>bis</b> (<i>adv.</i>), once more, a second time, encore.<br> +<b>biskvit-o</b>, biscuit.<br> +<b>blank-a</b>, white.<br> +<b>blek-i</b>, to neigh, bleat, give its cry (of any animal).<br> +<b>blind-a</b>, blind.<br> +<b>blov-i</b>, to blow.<br> +<b>blu-a</b>, blue (color).<br> +<b>bluz-o</b>, blouse.<br> +<b>bo-</b>, <i>prefix expressing relationship by marriage</i> (<b>277</b>).<br> +<b>boat-o</b>, boat.<br> +<b>boj-i</b>, to bark (of dogs).<br> +<b>bol-i</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), to boil.<br> +<b>bombon-o</b>, bonbon, sweet.<br> +<b>bon-a</b>, good; <b>—veni</b>, to welcome.<br> +<b>bor-i</b>, to bore (holes).<br> +<b>bord-o</b>, shore, bank, edge (of rivers, etc.).<br> +<b>Boston-o</b>, Boston.<br> +<b>bot-o</b>, boot.<br> +<b>botel-o</b>, bottle.<br> +<b>bov-o</b>, ox; <b>—aĵo</b>, beef; <b>—idaĵo</b>, veal; <b>—viro</b>, bull.<br> +<b>brak-o</b>, arm (of the body).<br> +<b>branĉ-o</b>, branch, bough.<br> +<b>brand-o</b>, brandy.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------256.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>brasik-o</b>, cabbage; <b>florbrasiko</b>, cauliflower.<br> +<b>brav-a</b>, brave.<br> +<b>bret-o</b>, shelf, bracket.<br> +<b>brid-o</b>, bridle (of harness).<br> +<b>brik-o</b>, brick, tile.<br> +<b>bril-i</b>, to shine (<b>116</b>).<br> +<b>Brit-o</b>, Briton.<br> +<b>brod-i</b>, to embroider.<br> +<b>bronz-o</b>, bronze.<br> +<b>bros-i</b>, to brush.<br> +<b>broŝur-o</b>, pamphlet, brochure.<br> +<b>brov-o</b>, eyebrow.<br> +<b>bru-o</b>, noise.<br> +<b>brul-i</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), to burn (<b>275</b>).<br> +<b>brun-a</b>, brown.<br> +<b>brut-o</b>, cattle, dumb animal.<br> +<b>bub-o</b>, street arab, gamin.<br> +<b>buĉ-i</b>, to slaughter, butcher.<br> +<b>buf-o</b>, toad.<br> +<b>buk-o</b>, buckle (metal).<br> +<b>buked-o</b>, bouquet.<br> +<b>bukl-o</b>, curl, ringlet (of hair).<br> +<b>bulb-o</b>, onion, bulb.<br> +<b>bulgar-o</b>, Bulgarian.<br> +<b>bulk-o</b>, roll (bread).<br> +<b>bulvard-o</b>, boulevard.<br> +<b>burĝon-o</b>, bud, young shoot.<br> +<b>buŝ-o</b>, mouth.<br> +<b>buter-o</b>, butter.<br> +<b>butik-o</b>, shop, store.<br> +<b>buton-o</b>, button.<br> + +<!-- This title is centered in book; center in textfile. --> +<!-- But in HTML, it looks better leftjustified. --> +<p><b>C.</b></p> + +<b>cel-i</b>, to aim, have as purpose or goal.<br> +<b>celeri-o</b>, celery.<br> +<b>cend-o</b>, cent (coin).<br> +<b>cent</b>, hundred (<b>142</b>).<br> +<b>centigram-o</b>, centigram (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>centilitr-o</b>, centiliter (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>centimetr-o</b>, centimeter (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>centr-o</b>, center.<br> +<b>cerb-o</b>, brain.<br> +<b>cert-a</b>, certain, sure.<br> +<b>cerv-o</b>, stag, deer.<br> +<b>ceter-a</b>, remaining.<br> +<b>ci</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), thou (<b>40</b>).<br> +<b>cidoni-o</b>, quince.<br> +<b>cifer-o</b>, cipher.<br> +<b>cigar-o</b>, cigar.<br> +<b>cigared-o</b>, cigarette.<br> +<b>cign-o</b>, swan.<br> +<b>cilindr-o</b>, cylinder.<br> +<b>cinam-o</b>, cinnamon.<br> +<b>cindr-o</b>, ashes.<br> +<b>cir-o</b>, blacking (for shoes).<br> +<b>cirkonstanc-o</b>, circumstance.<br> +<b>cirkuler-o</b>, circular (letter).<br> +<b>Cirus-o</b>, Cyrus.<br> +<b>cit-i</b>, to quote.<br> +<b>citron-o</b>, lemon.<br> +<b>civiliz-i</b>, to civilize.<br> +<b>col-o</b>, inch (measure).<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------257.png---------------------------- --> + +<!-- This title is centered in book; center in textfile. --> +<!-- But in HTML, it looks better leftjustified. --> +<p><b>Ĉ.</b></p> + +<b>ĉagren-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to grieve, vex, annoy.<br> +<b>ĉambr-o</b>, room.<br> +<b>ĉap-o</b>, cap.<br> +<b>ĉapel-o</b>, hat.<br> +<b>ĉapitr-o</b>, chapter (of book).<br> +<b>ĉar</b> (<i>conj.</i>), because, since (<b>83</b>).<br> +<b>ĉarm-a</b>, charming, delightful.<br> +<b>ĉarnir-o</b>, hinge.<br> +<b>ĉas-i</b>, to hunt (game or wild animals).<br> +<b>ĉe</b> (<i>prep.</i>), at, in the house or presence of (<b>125, 160</b>).<br> +<b>ĉef-a</b>, chief, principal, head.<br> +<b>ĉek-o</b>, cheque.<br> +<b>ĉemiz-o</b>, shirt, chemise.<br> +<b>ĉen-o</b>, chain (for watch, etc.).<br> +<b>ĉeriz-o</b>, cherry.<br> +<b>ĉes-i</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), to cease, leave off (<b>275</b>).<br> +<b>ĉeval-o</b>, horse; <b>—viro</b>, stallion.<br> +<b>ĉi</b> (<i>adv.</i>), <i>expresses proximity</i> (<b>60, 66</b>).<br> +<b>ĉia</b>, of every kind (<b>177</b>).<br> +<b>ĉial</b> (<i>adv.</i>), for every reason (<b>188</b>).<br> +<b>ĉiam</b> (<i>adv.</i>), always (<b>187</b>).<br> +<b>ĉie</b> (<i>adv.</i>), everywhere (<b>182</b>).<br> +<b>ĉiel</b> (<i>adv.</i>), in every way (<b>193</b>).<br> +<b>ĉiel-o</b>, heaven, sky.<br> +<b>ĉies</b> (<i>pronoun, possessive</i>), everybody's (<b>174</b>).<br> +<b>ĉifon-o</b>, rag.<br> +<b>ĉio</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), everything, all (<b>233</b>).<br> +<b>ĉiom</b> (<i>adv.</i>), all (<b>194</b>).<br> +<b>ĉirkaŭ</b> (<i>prep.</i>), around, roundabout (<b>89, 120, 159, 160</b>).<br> +<b>ĉiu</b> (<i>pronoun and adj.</i>), every one, each (<b>173</b>).<br> +<b>-ĉj-</b>, <i>suffix forming affectionate diminutives</i> (<b>283</b>).<br> +<b>ĉokolad-o</b>, chocolate.<br> +<b>ĉu</b> (<i>adv.</i>), whether (<i>when translated</i>) (<b>30, 66</b>).<br> + +<!-- This title is centered in book; center in textfile. --> +<!-- But in HTML, it looks better leftjustified. --> +<p><b>D.</b></p> + +<b>da</b> (<i>prep.</i>), of (<i>after quantitative noun or adv.</i>) (<b>99, 101, 103</b>).<br> +<b>daktil-o</b>, date (fruit).<br> +<b>Damokl-o</b>, Damocles.<br> +<b>dan-o</b>, Dane.<br> +<b>danc-i</b>, to dance.<br> +<b>danĝer-o</b>, danger.<br> +<b>dank-i</b>, to thank.<br> +<b>dat-o</b>, date (chronological).<br> +<b>daŭr-i</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), to continue, last.<br> +<b>de</b> (<i>prep.</i>), of, from, by (49, 89, l00, 160, 169, 170).<br> +<b>dec-i</b>, to be proper, decent; <b>ne decas ke vi iru</b>, it is not proper for you to go.<br> +<b>decembr-o</b>, December.<br> +<b>decid-i</b>, to decide.<br> +<b>decigram-o</b>, decigram (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>decilitr-o</b>, deciliter (<b>284</b>).<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------258.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>decimetr-o</b>, decimeter (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>defend-i</b>, to defend.<br> +<b>degel-i</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), to thaw (<b>275</b>).<br> +<b>deĵor-i</b>, to be on duty (of officer, attendant, etc.).<br> +<b>dek</b> (<i>adj.</i>), ten (<b>136</b>).<br> +<b>dekagram-o</b>, dekagram (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>dekalitr-o</b>, dekaliter (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>dekametr-o</b>, dekameter (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>deklam-i</b>, to declaim, recite.<br> +<b>dekstr-a</b>, right (not left).<br> +<b>deleg-i</b>, to delegate.<br> +<b>delikat-a</b>, delicate, dainty, nice.<br> +<b>demand-i</b>, to ask, inquire.<br> +<b>dens-a</b>, dense, thick, close.<br> +<b>dent-o</b>, tooth.<br> +<b>depeŝ-o</b>, a dispatch.<br> +<b>des</b> (<i>adv.</i>), the more (<i>used with</i> pli, 84).<br> +<b>desert-o</b>, dessert.<br> +<b>detal-o</b>, detail.<br> +<b>detru-i</b>, to destroy.<br> +<b>dev-i</b>, to have to, must (<b>247</b>).<br> +<b>dezert-o</b>, desert, waste.<br> +<b>dezir-i</b>, to desire.<br> +<b>Di-o</b>, God.<br> +<b>diamant-o</b>, diamond.<br> +<b>difekt-i</b>, to damage, spoil.<br> +<b>diferenc-a</b>, different.<br> +<b>difin-i</b>, to define, to destine.<br> +<b>dik-a</b>, thick, corpulent.<br> +<b>dikt-i</b>, to dictate (letters, etc.)<br> +<b>diligent-a</b>, diligent.<br> +<b>dimanĉ-o</b>, Sunday.<br> +<b>dimensi-o</b>, dimension.<br> +<b>Diogen-o</b>, Diogenes.<br> +<b>diplom-o</b>, diploma.<br> +<b>diplomat-o</b>, diplomat.<br> +<b>dir-i</b>, to say (<b>77</b>).<br> +<b>direkt-i</b>, to direct, guide, manage.<br> +<b>dis-</b>, <i>prefix expressing separation</i> (<b>245</b>).<br> +<b>diskut-i</b>, to discuss.<br> +<b>distanc-o</b>, distance.<br> +<b>disting-i</b>, to distinguish.<br> +<b>distr-i</b>, to distract, take away the attention.<br> +<b>diven-i</b>, to guess.<br> +<b>divers-a</b>, varied, diverse, different.<br> +<b>divid-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to divide.<br> +<b>do</b>, consequently, then, so.<br> +<b>doktor-o</b>, doctor.<br> +<b>dolar-o</b>, dollar.<br> +<b>dolĉ-a</b>, sweet, pleasant.<br> +<b>dolor-o</b>, pain, ache.<br> +<b>dom-o</b>, house.<br> +<b>domaĝ-o</b>, pity, regrettable affair.<br> +<b>don-i</b>, to give.<br> +<b>donac-i</b>, to make a gift, present.<br> +<b>dorlot-i</b>, to caress, fondle, pet.<br> +<b>dorm-i</b>, to sleep.<br> +<b>dorn-o</b>, thorn.<br> +<b>dors-o</b>, back (of the body).<br> +<b>dot-i</b>, to endow.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------259.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>drap-o</b>, cloth.<br> +<b>drog-o</b>, drug.<br> +<b>dron-i</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), to drown (<b>275</b>).<br> +<b>du</b> (<i>adj.</i>), two (<b>136</b>)<br> +<b>dub-i</b>, to doubt.<br> +<b>dum</b> (<i>prep and conj.</i>), during, while (<b>96, 120, 159</b>).<br> +<b>dung-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to hire (persons).<br> + +<!-- This title is centered in book; center in textfile. --> +<!-- But in HTML, it looks better leftjustified. --> +<p><b>E.</b></p> + +<b>eben-a</b>, even, flat, level.<br> +<b>-ebl-</b>, <i>suffix expressing possibility</i> (<b>161, 162</b>).<br> +<b>ebri-a</b>, inebriate, intoxicated.<br> +<b>-ec-</b>, <i>suffix forming abstracts</i> (<b>202</b>).<br> +<b>eĉ</b> (<i>adv.</i>), even.<br> +<b>eduk-i</b>, to bring up, educate.<br> +<b>edz-o</b>, husband, married man.<br> +<b>efekt-o</b>, effect.<br> +<b>efektiv-a</b>, real, actual.<br> +<b>efik-i</b>, to be efficacious, act (on), produce a result.<br> +<b>-eg-</b>, <i>suffix forming augmentatives</i> (<b>122</b>).<br> +<b>egal-a</b>, equal.<br> +<b>Egipt-o</b>, Egypt.<br> +<b>eĥ-o</b>, echo.<br> +<b>-ej-</b>, <i>suffix forming words indicating place</i> (<b>III</b>).<br> +<b>ek-</b>, <i>prefix expressing suddenness or beginning</i> (<b>206</b>).<br> +<b>eks-</b>, <i>prefix expressing former incumbency</i> (<b>281</b>).<br> +<b>ekscit-i</b>, to excite.<br> +<b>eksperiment-i</b>, to experiment.<br> +<b>eksplod-i</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), to explode.<br> +<b>ekster</b> (<i>prep.</i>), outside of (<b>120, 121</b>).<br> +<b>ekzamen-i</b>, to examine, test.<br> +<b>ekzempl-o</b>, example.<br> +<b>ekzempler-o</b>, copy (of book or magazine).<br> +<b>ekzerc-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to exercise.<br> +<b>ekzil-i</b>, to exile, banish<br> +<b>ekzist-i</b>, to exist.<br> +<b>el</b> (<i>prep.</i>), out of, of, out (75, 106, 138, 197, 264, c).<br> +<b>elekt-i</b>, to choose.<br> +<b>elektr-a</b>, electric.<br> +<b>elokvent-a</b>, eloquent.<br> +<b>-em-</b>, <i>suffix expressing propensity or inclination</i> (<b>192</b>).<br> +<b>eminent-a</b>, eminent.<br> +<b>en</b> (<i>prep.</i>), in (<b>89,160</b>), into (<b>46</b>).<br> +<b>energi-o</b>, energy.<br> +<b>entrepren-i</b>, to undertake.<br> +<b>entuziasm-o</b>, enthusiasm.<br> +<b>enu-i</b>, to be wearied, be bored.<br> +<b>envi-i</b>, to envy.<br> +<b>epok-o</b>, epoch, period, time.<br> +<b>-er-</b>, <i>suffix expressing a component part</i> (<b>276</b>).<br> +<b>erar-i</b>, to err, make a mistake.<br> +<b>escept-i</b>, to except (<b>266</b>).<br> +<b>esper-i</b>, to hope.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------260.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>esplor-i</b>, to investigate, explore.<br> +<b>esprim-i</b>, to express.<br> +<b>est-i</b>, to be (<b>109</b>).<br> +<b>establ-i</b>, to establish.<br> +<b>estim-i</b>, to esteem.<br> +<b>esting-i</b>, to extinguish.<br> +<b>-estr-</b>, <i>suffix expressing leadership or authority</i> (<b>253</b>).<br> +<b>-et-</b>, <i>suffix forming diminutives</i> (<b>198</b>).<br> +<b>etaĝ-o</b>, story (of a house); teretaĝo, ground floor; unua etaĝo, second story.<br> +<b>etend-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to extend, lengthen, widen.<br> +<b>etern-a</b>, eternal.<br> +<b>Eŭrop-o</b>, Europe.<br> +<b>evangeli-o</b>, gospel, evangel.<br> +<b>evit-i</b>, to avoid, shun.<br> +<b>evoluci-o</b>, evolution.<br> + +<!-- This title is centered in book; center in textfile. --> +<!-- But in HTML, it looks better leftjustified. --> +<p><b>F.</b></p> + +<b>fab-o</b>, bean (leguminous fruit).<br> +<b>fabel-o</b>, story, tale.<br> +<b>fabl-o</b>, fable.<br> +<b>fabrik-i</b>, to manufacture.<br> +<b>facil-a</b>, easy.<br> +<b>faden-o</b>, thread.<br> +<b>fajf-i</b>, to whistle.<br> +<b>fajr-o</b>, fire.<br> +<b>fak-o</b>, department, specialty.<br> +<b>fakt-o</b>, fact.<br> +<b>fal-i</b>, to fall.<br> +<b>fald-i</b>, to fold.<br> +<b>fals-i</b>, to falsify, forge, debase.<br> +<b>fam-o</b>, fame, renown, rumor.<br> +<b>famili-o</b>, family.<br> +<b>familiar-a</b>, familiar, accustomed.<br> +<b>fand-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to smelt, fuse (metals, etc.).<br> +<b>fanfaron-i</b>, to boast, vaunt oneself, brag.<br> +<b>fantom-o</b>, phantom, ghost.<br> +<b>far-i</b>, to make, do, render.<br> +<b>faraon-o</b>, pharaoh (Egyptian ruler).<br> +<b>farm-i</b>, to farm (as a tenant).<br> +<b>farmaci-o</b>, pharmacy (knowledge of the use of drugs).<br> +<b>fart-i</b>, to be in (good or bad) health.<br> +<b>farun-o</b>, flour.<br> +<b>fask-o</b>, bundle, bunch.<br> +<b>fason-o</b>, cut, mode, fashion.<br> +<b>fatal-a</b>, fatal, predestined.<br> +<b>faŭk-o</b>, jaw (literal and figurative).<br> +<b>favor-a</b>, favorable.<br> +<b>fazeol-o</b>, bean (garden bean).<br> +<b>fe-o</b>, fairy, fay; <b>—ino</b>, fairy.<br> +<b>febr-o</b>, fever.<br> +<b>februar-o</b>, February.<br> +<b>fel-o</b>, skin, hide (of animals).<br> +<b>feliĉ-a</b>, happy.<br> +<b>femur-o</b>, thigh.<br> +<b>fend-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to split.<br> +<b>fenestr-o</b>, window.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------261.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>fer-o</b>, iron; <b>—vojo</b>, railway.<br> +<b>ferdek-o</b>, deck (of ship).<br> +<b>ferm-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to close, shut.<br> +<b>fervor-o</b>, zeal, fervor.<br> +<b>fest-i</b>, to celebrate.<br> +<b>festen-o</b>, banquet.<br> +<b>fi</b> (<i>interjection</i>), fie! (<b>273</b>).<br> +<b>fiakr-o</b>, cab.<br> +<b>fianĉ-o</b>, betrothed man, fiance.<br> +<b>fid-i</b>, to rely upon, trust.<br> +<b>fidel-a</b>, faithful, loyal.<br> +<b>fier-a</b>, proud, haughty.<br> +<b>fil-o</b>, son.<br> +<b>filozof-o</b>, philosopher.<br> +<b>fin-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to finish, end.<br> +<b>fingr-o</b>, finger; <b>dika fingro</b>, thumb; <b>montra fingro</b>, index finger; <b>longa fingro</b>, middle finger; <b>ringa fingro</b>, ring-finger; <b>malgranda fingro</b>, little finger.<br> +<b>firm-a</b>, firm, steady.<br> +<b>fiŝ-o</b>, fish.<br> +<b>fizik-o</b>, physics, physical science.<br> +<b>flag-o</b>, flag, banner, small standard.<br> +<b>flank-o</b>, side.<br> +<b>flar-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to smell, scent.<br> +<b>flav-a</b>, yellow.<br> +<b>fleks-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to bend, flex.<br> +<b>flik-i</b>, to patch.<br> +<b>flor-o</b>, flower (<b>116</b>).<br> +<b>flu-i</b>, to flow.<br> +<b>flug-i</b>, to fly.<br> +<b>fluid-a</b>, fluid, liquid.<br> +<b>foj-o</b>, time, occasion (<b>127</b>).<br> +<b>fojn-o</b>, hay.<br> +<b>fokus-o</b>, focus.<br> +<b>foli-o</b>, leaf.<br> +<b>fond-i</b>, to found, establish.<br> +<b>font-o</b>, spring (of water), fount.<br> +<b>fontan-o</b>, fountain (artificial).<br> +<b>for</b> (<i>adv.</i>), away (<b>71</b>).<br> +<b>forges-i</b>, to forget.<br> +<b>fork-o</b>, fork.<br> +<b>form-o</b>, shape, form.<br> +<b>formik-o</b>, ant.<br> +<b>forn-o</b>, stove.<br> +<b>fort-a</b>, strong.<br> +<b>fos-i</b>, to dig.<br> +<b>fotograf-i</b>, to photograph<br> +<b>frag-o</b>, strawberry.<br> +<b>frak-o</b>, evening dress (for men).<br> +<b>frakas-i</b>, to shatter, break to pieces.<br> +<b>framb-o</b>, raspberry.<br> +<b>franc-o</b>, Frenchman.<br> +<b>frand-i</b>, to be fond of sweets, be an epicure.<br> +<b>franĝ-o</b>, fringe.<br> +<b>frap-i</b>, to knock, strike.<br> +<b>frat-o</b>, brother.<br> +<b>fraŭl-o</b>, bachelor, unmarried man.<br> +<b>fraz-o</b>, sentence, phrase.<br> +<b>Frederik-o</b>, Frederick.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------262.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>fremd-a</b>, foreign.<br> +<b>frenez-a</b>, crazy, mad.<br> +<b>freŝ-a</b>, fresh, new.<br> +<b>fripon-o</b>, rogue, rascal, knave.<br> +<b>frit-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to fry.<br> +<b>fromaĝ-o</b>, cheese.<br> +<b>frost-o</b>, frost.<br> +<b>frot-i</b>, to rub.<br> +<b>fru-a</b>, early.<br> +<b>frukt-o</b>, fruit.<br> +<b>frunt-o</b>, forehead.<br> +<b>fulm-o</b>, lightning.<br> +<b>fum-i</b>, to smoke.<br> +<b>fund-o</b>, bottom.<br> +<b>fundament-o</b>, foundation, base.<br> +<b>funebr-o</b>, mourning.<br> +<b>fung-o</b>, mushroom.<br> +<b>funkci-i</b>, to function, work.<br> +<b>funt-o</b>, pound.<br> +<b>furioz-a</b>, furious, raging.<br> +<b>fuŝ-i</b>, to bungle.<br> +<b>fut-o</b>, foot (measure).<br> + +<!-- This title is centered in book; center in textfile. --> +<!-- But in HTML, it looks better leftjustified. --> +<p><b>G.</b></p> + +<b>gaj-a</b>, gay, merry.<br> +<b>gajn-i</b>, to gain.<br> +<b>galeri-o</b>, gallery.<br> +<b>galop-i</b>, to gallop.<br> +<b>gant-o</b>, glove.<br> +<b>gard-i</b>, to guard, watch over.<br> +<b>gas-o</b>, gas.<br> +<b>gast-o</b>, guest.<br> +<b>gazet-o</b>, gazette, magazine.<br> +<b>ge-</b>, <i>prefix indicating both sexes together</i> (<b>271</b>).<br> +<b>general-o</b>, general (military).<br> +<b>genu-o</b>, knee; <b>—fleksi</b>, to kneel.<br> +<b>geometri-o</b>, geometry.<br> +<b>german-o</b>, German.<br> +<b>Gertrud-o</b>, Gertrude.<br> +<b>giĉet-o</b>, wicket, ticket-window, turnstile.<br> +<b>girland-o</b>, garland, wreath.<br> +<b>glaci-o</b>, ice; <b>—aĵo</b>, an ice (food).<br> +<b>glad-i</b>, to iron (linen, etc.).<br> +<b>glas-o</b>, tumbler, glass.<br> +<b>glat-a</b>, smooth, polished, flat.<br> +<b>glav-o</b>, sword.<br> +<b>glit-i</b>, to glide, slide.<br> +<b>glob-o</b>, globe.<br> +<b>glor-o</b>, glory.<br> +<b>glu-o</b>, glue.<br> +<b>glut-i</b>, to swallow.<br> +<b>gorĝ-o</b>, throat.<br> +<b>graci-a</b>, graceful.<br> +<b>grad-o</b>, grade, degree.<br> +<b>graf-o</b>, count; <b>—lando</b>, county.<br> +<b>gram-o</b>, gram (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>gramatik-o</b>, grammar.<br> +<b>grand-a</b>, great, large, big.<br> +<b>gras-o</b>, fat.<br> +<b>gratul-i</b>, to congratulate.<br> +<b>grav-a</b>, important, serious, grave.<br> +<b>gravit-i</b>, to gravitate.<br> +<b>grek-o</b>, Greek.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------263.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>gren-o</b>, grain (wheat, corn, etc.).<br> +<b>grimp-i</b>, to climb up, creep up.<br> +<b>grinc-i</b>, to grind, gnash.<br> +<b>griz-a</b>, gray.<br> +<b>grup-o</b>, group.<br> +<b>gurd-o</b>, hurdy-gurdy, barrel organ.<br> +<b>gust-o</b>, taste.<br> +<b>gut-i</b>, to drip.<br> +<b>gvid-i</b>, to guide.<br> + +<!-- This title is centered in book; center in textfile. --> +<!-- But in HTML, it looks better leftjustified. --> +<p><b>Ĝ.</b></p> + +<b>ĝarden-o</b>, garden.<br> +<b>ĝem-i</b>, to groan.<br> +<b>ĝen-i</b>, to disturb, incommode.<br> +<b>ĝeneral-a</b>, general, common.<br> +<b>ĝentil-a</b>, courteous, polite.<br> +<b>ĝi</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), it (<b>32, 37, 42, 274</b>).<br> +<b>ĝis</b> (<i>prep.</i>), as far as, until (<b>46, 89</b>).<br> +<b>ĝoj-i</b>, to rejoice, be glad (<b>116</b>).<br> +<b>ĝu-i</b>, to enjoy, find pleasure in.<br> +<b>ĝust-a</b>, exact, just.<br> + +<!-- This title is centered in book; center in textfile. --> +<!-- But in HTML, it looks better leftjustified. --> +<p><b>H.</b></p> + +<b>hajl-o</b>, hail (frozen rain).<br> +<b>hak-i</b>, to chop, hack; <b>—ilo</b>, axe.<br> +<b>halt-i</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), to halt, stop.<br> +<b>har-o</b>, a hair.<br> +<b>haŭt-o</b>, skin (human).<br> +<b>hav-i</b>, to have.<br> +<b>haven-o</b>, harbor, port.<br> +<b>hazard-o</b>, chance, hazard.<br> +<b>hebre-o</b>, Hebrew.<br> +<b>hejm-o</b>, home.<br> +<b>hejt-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to heat (a place).<br> +<b>hektar-o</b>, hektare (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>hektogram-o</b>, hektogram (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>hektolitr-o</b>, hektoliter (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>hektometr-o</b>, hektometer (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>hel-a</b>, bright, clear.<br> +<b>help-i</b>, to help, aid, assist.<br> +<b>herb-o</b>, grass, herb.<br> +<b>hero-o</b>, hero.<br> +<b>hezit-i</b>, to hesitate.<br> +<b>hieraŭ</b> (<i>adv.</i>), yesterday (<b>93, 171</b>).<br> +<b>Hieron-o</b>, Hiero.<br> +<b>hipokrit-i</b>, to play the hypocrite.<br> +<b>hirund-o</b>, swallow (bird).<br> +<b>hispan-o</b>, Spaniard.<br> +<b>histori-o</b>, history.<br> +<b>ho</b> (<i>interjection</i>), ho, oh (<b>273</b>).<br> +<b>hodiaŭ</b> (<i>adv.</i>), today (<b>93, 171</b>).<br> +<b>Holand-o</b>, Holland.<br> +<b>hom-o</b>, human being.<br> +<b>honest-a</b>, honest.<br> +<b>honor-i</b>, to honor.<br> +<b>hont-i</b>, to be ashamed.<br> +<b>hor-o</b>, hour (<b>185</b>).<br> +<b>horizont-o</b>, horizon.<br> +<b>horizontal-a</b>, horizontal.<br> +<b>horloĝ-o</b>, clock; poŝhorloĝo, watch.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------264.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>hotel-o</b>, hotel.<br> +<b>humil-a</b>, humble.<br> +<b>humor-o</b>, humor, temper.<br> +<b>hund-o</b>, dog.<br> +<b>hura!</b> (<i>interjection</i>), hurrah!<br> + +<!-- This title is centered in book; center in textfile. --> +<!-- But in HTML, it looks better leftjustified. --> +<p><b>Ĥ.</b></p> + +<b>ĥemi-o</b>, chemistry.<br> +<b>ĥin-o</b>, Chinaman.<br> +<b>ĥor-o</b>, choir.<br> + +<!-- This title is centered in book; center in textfile. --> +<!-- But in HTML, it looks better leftjustified. --> +<p><b>I.</b></p> + +<b>ia</b>, any kind of (<b>208</b>).<br> +<b>ial</b> (<i>adv.</i>), for any reason (<b>213</b>).<br> +<b>iam</b> (<i>adv.</i>), ever, at any time, once (<b>212</b>).<br> +<b>-id-</b>, <i>suffix indicating descendant or young of</i> (<b>207</b>).<br> +<b>ide-o</b>, idea.<br> +<b>ideal-o</b>, ideal.<br> +<b>ident-a</b>, identical.<br> +<b>idiom-o</b>, idiom.<br> +<b>idiot-o</b>, idiot.<br> +<b>ie</b> (<i>adv.</i>), somewhere (<b>209</b>).<br> +<b>iel</b> (<i>adv.</i>), somehow (<b>216</b>).<br> +<b>ies</b> (<i>pronoun, possessive</i>), somebody's (<b>204</b>).<br> +<b>-ig-</b>, <i>suffix forming causative verbs</i> (<b>214, 239, 275</b>).<br> +<b>ignor-i</b>, to ignore.<br> +<b>-iĝ-</b>, <i>suffix forming inchoative and intransitive verbs</i> (<b>232, 239, 279</b>).<br> +<b>-il-</b>, <i>suffix forming names of instruments</i> (<b>63</b>).<br> +<b>ili</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), they (<b>32, 37, 42</b>).<br> +<b>ilustr-i</b>, to illustrate.<br> +<b>iluzi-o</b>, illusion, delusion.<br> +<b>imag-i</b>, to imagine, fancy.<br> +<b>imit-i</b>, to imitate.<br> +<b>imperi-o</b>, empire.<br> +<b>implik-i</b>, to implicate.<br> +<b>impost-o</b>, tax, impost.<br> +<b>impres-i</b>, to impress.<br> +<b>impuls-o</b>, impulse.<br> +<b>-in-</b>, <i>suffix forming feminines</i> (<b>59</b>).<br> +<b>incit-i</b>, to incite, arouse, provoke.<br> +<b>-ind-</b>, <i>suffix expressing worth or merit</i> (<b>154</b>).<br> +<b>indian-o</b>, Indian (American).<br> +<b>indiferent-a</b>, indifferent, unconcerned, unimportant.<br> +<b>industri-o</b>, industry (trade, business).<br> +<b>infan-o</b>, child.<br> +<b>infekt-i</b>, to infect, contaminate.<br> +<b>influ-i</b>, to influence.<br> +<b>inform-i</b>, to give information.<br> +<b>-ing-</b>, <i>suffix expressing a holder or container</i> (<b>237</b>).<br> +<b>inĝenier-o</b>, engineer.<br> +<b>ink-o</b>, ink.<br> +<b>insekt-o</b>, insect.<br> +<b>insist-i</b>, to insist.<br> +<b>inspir-i</b>, to inspire.<br> +<b>instru-i</b>, to instruct, teach.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------265.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>insul-o</b>, island.<br> +<b>insult-i</b>, to insult.<br> +<b>inteligent-a</b>, intelligent.<br> +<b>intend-i</b>, to intend.<br> +<b>inter</b> (<i>prep.</i>), between, among (<b>85, 89, 160</b>).<br> +<b>interes-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to interest.<br> +<b>intermit-i</b>, to be intermittent.<br> +<b>intern-a</b>, internal; <b>—e</b>, inside.<br> +<b>interpret-i</b>, to interpret.<br> +<b>intim-a</b>, intimate.<br> +<b>invit-i</b>, to invite.<br> +<b>io</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), something (<b>233</b>).<br> +<b>iom</b> (<i>adv.</i>), some, a certain amount; iom post iom, little by little (<b>217</b>).<br> +<b>ir-i</b>, to go.<br> +<b>-ist-</b>, <i>suffix indicating profession, etc.</i> (<b>172</b>).<br> +<b>ital-o</b>, Italian.<br> +<b>iu</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), some one, a certain (one) (<b>203</b>).<br> + +<!-- This title is centered in book; center in textfile. --> +<!-- But in HTML, it looks better leftjustified. --> +<p><b>J.</b></p> + +<b>ja</b> (<i>adv.</i>), indeed, in fact (<b>215</b>).<br> +<b>jak-o</b>, jacket, short coat.<br> +<b>jam</b> (<i>adv.</i>), already.<br> +<b>januar-o</b>, January.<br> +<b>jar-o</b>, year.<br> +<b>je</b>, <i>prep. of indefinite meaning</i> (<b>89, 185, 260</b>).<br> +<b>jen</b> (<i>adv.</i>), there, behold (<b>228</b>).<br> +<b>jes</b> (<i>adv.</i>), yes (<b>171</b>).<br> +<b>Jesu-o</b>, Jesus.<br> +<b>Johano</b>, John.<br> +<b>ju</b> (<i>adv.</i>), the more (<i>used with</i> pli, 84).<br> +<b>jug-o</b>, yoke.<br> +<b>juĝ-i</b>, to judge.<br> +<b>juli-o</b>, July.<br> +<b>jun-a</b>, young.<br> +<b>jung-i</b>, to harness.<br> +<b>juni-o</b>, June.<br> +<b>jup-o</b>, skirt.<br> +<b>jurist-o</b>, jurist.<br> +<b>just-a</b>, just, upright.<br> +<b>juvel-o</b>, jewel.<br> + +<!-- This title is centered in book; center in textfile. --> +<!-- But in HTML, it looks better leftjustified. --> +<p><b>Ĵ.</b></p> + +<b>ĵaluz-a</b>, jealous.<br> +<b>ĵaŭd-o</b>, Thursday.<br> +<b>ĵet-i</b>, to throw, cast, hurl.<br> +<b>ĵongl-i</b>, to juggle.<br> +<b>ĵur-i</b>, to take oath, swear.<br> +<b>ĵurnal-o</b>, newspaper, journal.<br> +<b>ĵus</b> (<i>adv.</i>), a moment before, just.<br> + +<!-- This title is centered in book; center in textfile. --> +<!-- But in HTML, it looks better leftjustified. --> +<p><b>K.</b></p> + +<b>kadavr-o</b>, corpse.<br> +<b>kadr-o</b>, frame (of pictures).<br> +<b>kaduk-a</b>, decaying, in ruin.<br> +<b>kaf-o</b>, coffee.<br> +<b>kaĝ-o</b>, cage.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------266.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>kahel-o</b>, tile (for paving).<br> +<b>kaj</b> (<i>conj.</i>), and; kaj..kaj.., both..and.. (<b>26</b>).<br> +<b>kajer-o</b>, notebook.<br> +<b>kaldron-o</b>, caldron.<br> +<b>kalendar-o</b>, calendar.<br> +<b>kaleŝ-o</b>, carriage.<br> +<b>kalkan-o</b>, heel (of the foot); <b>—umo</b>, heel of a shoe.<br> +<b>kalkul-i</b>, to calculate, reckon.<br> +<b>kamel-o</b>, camel.<br> +<b>kamen-o</b>, chimney.<br> +<b>kamer-o</b>, camera.<br> +<b>kamp-o</b>, field.<br> +<b>kanajl-o</b>, scoundrel, rascal.<br> +<b>kanap-o</b>, sofa.<br> +<b>kand-o</b>, candy.<br> +<b>kandel-o</b>, candle.<br> +<b>kanot-o</b>, canoe.<br> +<b>kant-i</b>, to sing.<br> +<b>kap-o</b>, head.<br> +<b>kapabl-a</b>, capable.<br> +<b>kapel-o</b>, chapel (for prayer).<br> +<b>kapital-o</b>, capital (money).<br> +<b>kapitol-o</b>, capitol.<br> +<b>kapt-i</b>, to catch, seize.<br> +<b>kar-a</b>, dear, prized.<br> +<b>karakter-o</b>, character.<br> +<b>karb-o</b>, coal.<br> +<b>karcer-o</b>, jail.<br> +<b>kares-i</b>, to caress.<br> +<b>karn-o</b>, flesh.<br> +<b>karot-o</b>, carrot.<br> +<b>kart-o</b>, card; poŝtkarto, postcard; vizitkarto, visiting card.<br> +<b>karton-o</b>, pasteboard.<br> +<b>karusel-o</b>, merry-go-round.<br> +<b>kas-o</b>, money-box, treasury; <b>—isto</b>, cashier, treasurer.<br> +<b>kaskad-o</b>, waterfall, cascade.<br> +<b>kastel-o</b>, castle.<br> +<b>kaŝ-i</b>, to hide, conceal (<b>252</b>).<br> +<b>kaŝtan-o</b>, chestnut.<br> +<b>kat-o</b>, cat.<br> +<b>katen-o</b>, fetter, chain.<br> +<b>kaŭz-o</b>, cause.<br> +<b>kav-o</b>, cavity, hole.<br> +<b>kaz-o</b>, case (grammatical).<br> +<b>ke</b> (<i>conj.</i>), that (<b>53, 83, 105, 259, 262</b>).<br> +<b>kel-o</b>, cellar.<br> +<b>kelk-a</b>, some; <b>—aj</b>, several, more than one or two.<br> +<b>kelner-o</b>, waiter (in hotel or restaurant).<br> +<b>kest-o</b>, chest; tirkesto, drawer.<br> +<b>kia</b>, what kind of (<b>112, 150</b>); kiamanier-e, how.<br> +<b>kial</b> (<i>adv.</i>), why (<b>129</b>).<br> +<b>kiam</b> (<i>adv.</i>), when (<b>123, 155</b>).<br> +<b>kie</b> (<i>adv.</i>), where (<b>118, 151</b>).<br> +<b>kiel</b> (<i>adv.</i>), how, in which way, as (<b>134, 156</b>).<br> +<b>kies</b> (<i>pronoun, possessive</i>), whose (<b>107, 147</b>).<br> +<b>kilogram-o</b>, kilogram (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>kilolitr-o</b>, kiloliter (<b>284</b>).<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------267.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>kilometr-o</b>, kilometer (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>kio</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), what (<b>233</b>).<br> +<b>kiom</b> (<i>adv.</i>), how much (<b>140, 164, 185</b>).<br> +<b>kis-i</b>, to kiss.<br> +<b>kiu</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), who (<b>106, 146</b>).<br> +<b>klak-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to clap, clatter.<br> +<b>klar-a</b>, clear, distinct.<br> +<b>klav-o</b>, key (of piano, etc.).<br> +<b>klas-o</b>, class.<br> +<b>kler-a</b>, enlightened, well-in-formed.<br> +<b>klimat-o</b>, climate.<br> +<b>klin-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to incline, bend.<br> +<b>kling-o</b>, blade (of knife, etc.).<br> +<b>klopod-i</b>, to undertake initiative work, take steps toward, labor for the success or completion of something.<br> +<b>klub-o</b>, club (organization)<br> +<b>knab-o</b>, boy.<br> +<b>kobold-o</b>, sprite, kobold, brownie.<br> +<b>kofr-o</b>, trunk, chest with a lid.<br> +<b>kok-o</b>, cock (domestic fowl).<br> +<b>koket-a</b>, coquettish.<br> +<b>koks-o</b>, hip.<br> +<b>kol-o</b>, neck.<br> +<b>kolbas-o</b>, sausage.<br> +<b>kolegi-o</b>, college.<br> +<b>kolekt-i</b> (trans.), to collect, gather.<br> +<b>koler-i</b>, to be angry, lose the temper.<br> +<b>kolomb-o</b>, pigeon, dove.<br> +<b>kolon-o</b>, column, pillar.<br> +<b>kolonel-o</b>, colonel.<br> +<b>kolor-o</b>, color.<br> +<b>kolport-i</b>, to peddle.<br> +<b>komand-i</b>, to command (military and naval).<br> +<b>komb-i</b>, to comb.<br> +<b>komedi-o</b>, comedy.<br> +<b>komenc-i</b> (trans.), to begin, commence.<br> +<b>komerc-i</b>, to trade, engage in commerce.<br> +<b>komfort-o</b>, comfort (freedom from pain, want, etc.).<br> +<b>komisi-i</b>, to entrust with, put in charge of, give the agency for.<br> +<b>komitat-o</b>, committee.<br> +<b>komiz-o</b>, clerk, employee, assistant.<br> +<b>kompani-o</b>, company (commercial organization).<br> +<b>kompar-i</b>, (<i>trans.</i>) to compare, (<b>266</b>).<br> +<b>kompat-i</b>, to pity, have compassion for.<br> +<b>komplet-o</b>, suit (of clothes).<br> +<b>komplez-o</b>, kindness, courtesy, disposition to oblige.<br> +<b>komplik-i</b>, to complicate.<br> +<b>kompost-i</b>, to compose, set (type); <b>—isto</b>, compositor.<br> +<b>kompot-o</b>, jam, preserve,<br> +<b>kompren-i</b>, to understand.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------268.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>komun-a</b>, common, mutual.<br> +<b>komunik-i</b>, to communicate.<br> +<b>kon-i</b>, to be acquainted with, know; <b>—atiĝi kun</b>, to become acquainted with (<b>117</b>).<br> +<b>koncern-i</b>, to concern (<b>266</b>).<br> +<b>koncert-o</b>, concert (musical).<br> +<b>kondamn-i</b>, to condemn.<br> +<b>kondiĉ-o</b>, terms specified, stipulation, condition.<br> +<b>konduk-i</b>, to conduct, lead.<br> +<b>konduktor-o</b>, conductor (of car, train, etc.).<br> +<b>kondut-i</b>, to behave, conduct oneself.<br> +<b>konfes-i</b>, to confess, admit.<br> +<b>konfid-i</b>, to trust, have confidence in.<br> +<b>konfit-i</b>, to preserve, pickle (fruits, etc.).<br> +<b>konform-i</b>, to be in conformity with (<b>266</b>).<br> +<b>konfuz-i</b>, to confuse, confound.<br> +<b>kongres-o</b>, congress (assembly).<br> +<b>konk-o</b>, shell (of mollusk, etc.).<br> +<b>konkur-i</b>, to vie, compete.<br> +<b>konkurenc-o</b>, competition (in business, etc.).<br> +<b>konkurs-o</b>, prearranged trial of skill, formal competition (for prizes, etc.).<br> +<b>konsci-i</b>, to be conscious.<br> +<b>konscienc-o</b>, conscience.<br> +<b>konsent-i</b>, to consent, agree.<br> +<b>konserv-i</b>, to keep, preserve, save.<br> +<b>konservativ-a</b>, conservative.<br> +<b>konsil-i</b>, to advise, counsel.<br> +<b>konsist-i</b>, to consist.<br> +<b>konsol-i</b>, to console, comfort.<br> +<b>konsonant-o</b>, consonant.<br> +<b>konspir-i</b>, to conspire, plot.<br> +<b>konstant-a</b>, constant.<br> +<b>konstat-i</b>, to verify, ascertain the truth of, certify.<br> +<b>konstituci-o</b>, constitution.<br> +<b>konstru-i</b>, to build.<br> +<b>konsul-o</b>, consul.<br> +<b>konsult-i</b>, to seek advice of, consult.<br> +<b>kont-o</b>, account (book-keeping, commercial).<br> +<b>kontent-a</b>, content, satisfied.<br> +<b>kontinent-o</b>, continent (geographical).<br> +<b>kontrakt-i</b>, to contract, agree.<br> +<b>kontralt-o</b>, contralto.<br> +<b>kontraŭ</b> (<i>prep.</i>), against, opposite, opposed to (<b>159, 160</b>).<br> +<b>kontrol-i</b>, to control, inspect, examine and check.<br> +<b>kontur-o</b>, outline, contour.<br> +<b>kontuz-i</b>, to bruise.<br> +<b>konven-i</b>, to be suitable, be fitting or convenient.<br> +<b>konvink-i</b>, to convince, persuade.<br> +<b>kopi-i</b>, to copy.<br> +<b>kor-o</b>, heart (of the body).<br> +<b>korb-o</b>, basket.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------269.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>korekt-i</b>, to correct.<br> +<b>korespond-i</b>, to exchange letters, correspond.<br> +<b>koridor-o</b>, corridor, passage.<br> +<b>kork-o</b>, cork (bark).<br> +<b>korn-o</b>, horn.<br> +<b>korp-o</b>, body, <b>—a</b>, corporeal.<br> +<b>korpus-o</b>, corps (military).<br> +<b>kort-o</b>, courtyard, court.<br> +<b>kortego</b>, court (royal, etc.).<br> +<b>korv-o</b>, raven.<br> +<b>kost-i</b>, to cost.<br> +<b>kostum-o</b>, costume.<br> +<b>kot-o</b>, mud.<br> +<b>kotiz-i</b>, to pay dues, pay one's share of an assessment.<br> +<b>kotlet-o</b>, cutlet, chop.<br> +<b>koton-o</b>, cotton.<br> +<b>kov-i</b>, to brood (of birds).<br> +<b>kovert-o</b>, envelope<br> +<b>kovr-i</b>, to cover.<br> +<b>krab-o</b>, crab.<br> +<b>krad-o</b>, grating, grate, lattice.<br> +<b>krajon-o</b>, pencil.<br> +<b>krak-i</b>, to clack, crackle.<br> +<b>kran-o</b>, faucet, tap.<br> +<b>kravat-o</b>, cravat.<br> +<b>kre-i</b>, to create.<br> +<b>kred-i</b>, to believe (<b>265</b>).<br> +<b>krem-o</b>, cream.<br> +<b>krepusk-o</b>, twilight, half-light of dawn or evening.<br> +<b>kresk-i</b>, to grow.<br> +<b>krestomati-o</b>, chrestomathy, collection of selected passages.<br> +<b>kret-o</b>, chalk.<br> +<b>krev-i</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), to burst, crack open (suddenly and with noise).<br> +<b>kri-i</b>, to cry out.<br> +<b>kribr-i</b>, to sift (with a sieve).<br> +<b>krim-o</b>, crime.<br> +<b>kring-o</b>, ring-shaped biscuit.<br> +<b>kripl-a</b>, crippled.<br> +<b>Krist-o</b>, Christ.<br> +<b>kritik-i</b>, to criticise.<br> +<b>kroĉ-i</b>, to hook.<br> +<b>krom</b> (<i>prep.</i>), beside, aside from, except, save, but.<br> +<b>kron-o</b>, crown.<br> +<b>kruc-o</b>, cross; <b>—umi</b>, to crucify.<br> +<b>kruĉ-o</b>, pitcher, jug; tekruĉo, tea-pot.<br> +<b>kruel-a</b>, cruel.<br> +<b>krur-o</b>, leg.<br> +<b>krust-o</b>, crust.<br> +<b>krut-a</b>, steep.<br> +<b>kubut-o</b>, elbow.<br> +<b>kudr-i</b>, to sew.<br> +<b>kugl-o</b>, bullet.<br> +<b>kuir-i</b>, to cook.<br> +<b>kuk-o</b>, cake; <b>—aĵo</b>, pastry.<br> +<b>kukum-o</b>, cucumber.<br> +<b>kukurb-o</b>, pumpkin.<br> +<b>kuler-o</b>, spoon.<br> +<b>kulp-a</b>, guilty.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------270.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>kultur-i</b>, to cultivate; terkulturi, to till the soil, farm.<br> +<b>kun</b> (<i>prep.</i>), with (<b>70, 76, 120, 160, 159</b>).<br> +<b>kunikl-o</b>, rabbit.<br> +<b>kupon-o</b>, coupon.<br> +<b>kupr-o</b>, copper (metal).<br> +<b>kur-i</b>, to run.<br> +<b>kurac-i</b>, to treat for illness, cure; <b>—ato</b>, a patient; <b>—isto</b>, a physician, medical man.<br> +<b>kuraĝ-o</b>, courage.<br> +<b>kurb-o</b>, curve.<br> +<b>kurioz-a</b>, uncommon, curious.<br> +<b>kurs-o</b>, course (of lessons).<br> +<b>kurten-o</b>, curtain.<br> +<b>kusen-o</b>, cushion.<br> +<b>kuŝ-i</b>, to lie, recline (<b>239</b>).<br> +<b>kutim-o</b>, custom, habit.<br> +<b>kuv-o</b>, tub, large basin.<br> +<b>kuz-o</b>, cousin.<br> +<b>kvadrat-o</b>, square (equilateral rectangle).<br> +<b>kvalit-o</b>, quality, texture.<br> +<b>kvankam</b> (<i>conj.</i>), though, although, while (concessive).<br> +<b>kvant-o</b>, quantity, amount.<br> +<b>kvar</b>, (<i>adj.</i>), four (<b>136</b>).<br> +<b>kvartal-o</b>, quarter (of a city).<br> +<b>kvazaŭ</b> (<i>conj.</i>), as though, as if (<b>250</b>).<br> +<b>kverk-o</b>, oak.<br> +<b>kviet-a</b>, calm, quiet.<br> +<b>kvin</b>, (<i>adj.</i>), five (<b>136</b>).<br> +<b>kvitanc-o</b>, receipt (for payment).<br> + +<!-- This title is centered in book; center in textfile. --> +<!-- But in HTML, it looks better leftjustified. --> +<p><b>L.</b></p> + +<b>la</b> (article), the (<b>II, 47, 201, 280, a</b>).<br> +<b>labor-i</b>, to work, labor.<br> +<b>lac-a</b>, tired, weary.<br> +<b>laĉ-o</b>, string, lace (of shoe, etc.).<br> +<b>lad-o</b>, tin plate (sheet iron covered with tin).<br> +<b>lag-o</b>, lake.<br> +<b>lakt-o</b>, milk.<br> +<b>laktuk-o</b>, lettuce.<br> +<b>lam-a</b>, lame.<br> +<b>lamp-o</b>, lamp.<br> +<b>lan-o</b>, wool.<br> +<b>lanc-o</b>, lance, spear.<br> +<b>land-o</b>, land, country.<br> +<b>lang-o</b>, tongue (of the body).<br> +<b>lantern-o</b>, lantern.<br> +<b>lanug-o</b>, down (hairs, feathers).<br> +<b>lard-o</b>, bacon.<br> +<b>larĝ-a</b>, wide, broad.<br> +<b>larm-o</b>, tear (of the eye).<br> +<b>las-i</b>, (<i>trans.</i>), to leave, let, permit.<br> +<b>last-a</b>, last (in a series).<br> +<b>latin-a</b>, Latin.<br> +<b>laŭ</b> (<i>prep.</i>), in accordance with, along, by (<b>191</b>).<br> +<b>laŭb-o</b>, arbor, summer-house.<br> +<b>laŭd-i</b>, to praise.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------271.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>laŭt-a</b>, loud.<br> +<b>lav-i</b>, to wash.<br> +<b>lecion-o</b>, lesson.<br> +<b>led-o</b>, leather.<br> +<b>leg-i</b>, to read.<br> +<b>legom-o</b>, vegetable.<br> +<b>leĝ-o</b>, law.<br> +<b>lek-i</b>, to lick.<br> +<b>leon-o</b>, lion.<br> +<b>lepor-o</b>, hare.<br> +<b>lern-i</b>, to learn.<br> +<b>lert-a</b>, clever, skilful.<br> +<b>leter-o</b>, letter (epistle).<br> +<b>lev-i</b>, to raise, lift.<br> +<b>li</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), he, him (<b>32, 37, 42</b>).<br> +<b>liber-a</b>, free.<br> +<b>libr-o</b>, book.<br> +<b>lig-i</b>, to tie, bind, fasten; <b>—ilo</b>, bond; that which ties or fastens; <b>—aĵo</b>, knot; <b>—o</b>, league, alliance.<br> +<b>lign-o</b>, wood.<br> +<b>lim-o</b>, limit, boundary.<br> +<b>limonad-o</b>, lemonade.<br> +<b>lingv-o</b>, language.<br> +<b>lini-o</b>, line; <b>—ilo</b>, ruler.<br> +<b>lip-o</b>, lip; <b>—haroj</b>, moustache.<br> +<b>lit-o</b>, bed (for sleeping).<br> +<b>liter-o</b>, letter of the alphabet; laŭlitera, literal.<br> +<b>literatur-o</b>, literature.<br> +<b>litr-o</b>, liter (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>liver-i</b>, to deliver, supply, furnish.<br> +<b>log-i</b>, to allure.<br> +<b>loĝ-i</b>, to dwell, reside (<b>133</b>).<br> +<b>lok-o</b>, place; <b>—a</b>, local.<br> +<b>lokomotiv-o</b>, locomotive.<br> +<b>long-a</b>, long.<br> +<b>lonicer-o</b>, honeysuckle.<br> +<b>lorn-o</b>, telescope, spyglass; <b>—eto</b>, opera-glasses.<br> +<b>lu-i</b>, to hire, rent (engage and pay rent for).<br> +<b>lud-i</b>, to play.<br> +<b>luks-o</b>, luxury.<br> +<b>lul-i</b>, to lull to sleep; <b>—ilo</b>, cradle.<br> +<b>lum-i</b>, to shine (<b>275</b>).<br> +<b>lun-o</b>, moon.<br> +<b>lunatik-o</b>, lunatic.<br> +<b>lund-o</b>, Monday.<br> +<b>lup-o</b>, wolf.<br> + +<!-- This title is centered in book; center in textfile. --> +<!-- But in HTML, it looks better leftjustified. --> +<p><b>M.</b></p> + +<b>maĉ-i</b>, to chew, masticate.<br> +<b>magazen-o</b>, warehouse.<br> +<b>magi-o</b>, magic.<br> +<b>magistr-o</b>, master of arts (A.M.).<br> +<b>maiz-o</b>, maize, Indian corn.<br> +<b>maj-o</b>, May.<br> +<b>majest-a</b>, majestic.<br> +<b>majones-a</b>, mayonnaise.<br> +<b>majstr-o</b>, master (of his art or profession).<br> +<b>makaroni-o</b>, macaroni.<br> +<b>maksimum-o</b>, maximum.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------272.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>makul-o</b>, spot, stain.<br> +<b>makzel-o</b>, jaw; <b>—osto</b>, jawbone.<br> +<b>mal-</b>, <i>prefix forming opposites</i> (<b>67</b>).<br> +<b>maleol-o</b>, ankle.<br> +<b>malgraŭ</b> (<i>prep.</i>), notwithstanding.<br> +<b>malic-a</b>, malicious.<br> +<b>man-o</b>, hand.<br> +<b>mandat-o</b>, money-order.<br> +<b>manĝ-i</b>, to eat.<br> +<b>manier-o</b>, manner, way.<br> +<b>manik-o</b>, sleeve.<br> +<b>mank-i</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), to be lacking, wanting.<br> +<b>mantel-o</b>, cloak, mantle.<br> +<b>manuskript-o</b>, manuscript.<br> +<b>mar-o</b>, sea.<br> +<b>marĉ-o</b>, swamp, marsh.<br> +<b>mard-o</b>, Tuesday.<br> +<b>Mari-o</b>, Mary.<br> +<b>mark-o</b>, mark.<br> +<b>marmelad-o</b>, marmalade.<br> +<b>marmor-o</b>, marble (stone),<br> +<b>marŝ-i</b>, to walk.<br> +<b>mart-o</b>, March.<br> +<b>martel-o</b>, hammer.<br> +<b>mastr-o</b>, master (of a house, etc.)<br> +<b>maŝin-o</b>, machine.<br> +<b>maten-o</b>, morning (<b>93</b>).<br> +<b>material-o</b>, material.<br> +<b>matur-a</b>, ripe, mature.<br> +<b>mebl-o</b>, piece of furniture.<br> +<b>medicin-o</b>, medicine (the science).<br> +<b>meĥanik-o</b>, mechanics.<br> +<b>mejl-o</b>, mile.<br> +<b>meleagr-o</b>, turkey.<br> +<b>melk-i</b>, to milk.<br> +<b>melodi-o</b>, melody.<br> +<b>melon-o</b>, melon.<br> +<b>mem</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), self, selves (<b>219</b>).<br> +<b>membr-o</b>, limb, member.<br> +<b>memor-i</b>, to remember, keep in mind; rememori, to recall to memory.<br> +<b>mend-i</b>, to order (of a store, etc.).<br> +<b>mensog-i</b>, to lie, tell lies.<br> +<b>menton-o</b>, chin.<br> +<b>menu-o</b>, menu.<br> +<b>merit-i</b>, to deserve, merit.<br> +<b>merkred-o</b>, Wednesday.<br> +<b>merl-o</b>, blackbird.<br> +<b>met-i</b>, to put, place.<br> +<b>metal-o</b>, metal.<br> +<b>meti-o</b>, trade, handicraft.<br> +<b>metod-o</b>, method, way.<br> +<b>metr-o</b>, meter (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>mez-o</b>, middle.<br> +<b>mezur-i</b>, to measure.<br> +<b>mi</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), I, me (<b>32, 37</b>).<br> +<b>miel-o</b>, honey.<br> +<b>mien-o</b>, appearance, mien.<br> +<b>miks-i</b> (trans.), to mix.<br> +<b>mil</b> (<i>adj.</i>), thousand (<b>142</b>).<br> +<b>mild-a</b>, mild.<br> +<b>milimetr-o</b>, millimeter (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>milion-o</b>, million.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------273.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>milit-i</b>, to fight, wage war.<br> +<b>min-o</b>, mine (of coal, silver, etc.).<br> +<b>minac-i</b>, to threaten.<br> +<b>mineral-o</b>, mineral.<br> +<b>minimum-o</b>, minimum.<br> +<b>ministr-o</b>, minister (political).<br> +<b>minut-o</b>, minute.<br> +<b>miop-a</b>, shortsighted.<br> +<b>mir-i</b>, to wonder.<br> +<b>mister-o</b>, mystery.<br> +<b>mizer-o</b>, misery.<br> +<b>mod-o</b>, mode, fashion.<br> +<b>model-o</b>, model.<br> +<b>moder-a</b>, moderate.<br> +<b>modest-a</b>, modest.<br> +<b>mok-i</b>, to mock.<br> +<b>mol-a</b>, soft.<br> +<b>moment-o</b>, moment; <b>—a</b>, momentary, instantaneous.<br> +<b>mon-o</b>, money.<br> +<b>monaĥ-o</b>, monk.<br> +<b>monarĥi-o</b>, monarch.<br> +<b>monat-o</b>, month.<br> +<b>mond-o</b>, world.<br> +<b>mont-o</b>, mountain.<br> +<b>montr-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to show.<br> +<b>mor-o</b>, conduct (in regard to right or wrong); <b>—oj</b>, morals.<br> +<b>moral-a</b>, moral; <b>—eco</b>, morality.<br> +<b>mord-i</b>, to bite.<br> +<b>morgaŭ</b> (<i>adv.</i>), tomorrow (<b>171</b>).<br> +<b>mort-i</b>, to die; <b>—igi</b>, to kill.<br> +<b>moŝt-o</b>, <i>title of respect</i> (<b>258</b>).<br> +<b>mov-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to move, put in motion.<br> +<b>muel-o</b>, mill (for grinding).<br> +<b>muĝ-i</b>, to roar, bellow.<br> +<b>mult-a</b>, much (<b>81</b>).<br> +<b>mur-o</b>, wall.<br> +<b>murmur-i</b>, to murmur.<br> +<b>mus-o</b>, mouse.<br> +<b>mustard-o</b>, mustard.<br> +<b>muŝ-o</b>, fly.<br> +<b>mut-a</b>, dumb, mute.<br> +<b>muze-o</b>, museum.<br> +<b>muzik-o</b>, music.<br> + +<!-- This title is centered in book; center in textfile. --> +<!-- But in HTML, it looks better leftjustified. --> +<p><b>N.</b></p> + +<b>naci-o</b>, nation.<br> +<b>naĝ-i</b>, to swim.<br> +<b>naiv-a</b>, artless, naive, ingenuous.<br> +<b>najbar-o</b>, neighbor.<br> +<b>najl-o</b>, nail (of metal).<br> +<b>nap-o</b>, turnip.<br> +<b>nask-i</b>, to produce, bring forth, give birth to.<br> +<b>natur-o</b>, nature.<br> +<b>naŭ</b> (<i>adj.</i>), nine (<b>136</b>).<br> +<b>naz-o</b>, nose.<br> +<b>ne</b> (<i>adv.</i>), no, not (27, 66, a, 171).<br> +<b>nebul-o</b>, fog, mist.<br> +<b>neces-a</b>, necessary.<br> +<b>negativ-o</b>, negative (photographic).<br> +<b>neĝ-o</b>, snow.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------274.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>nek</b> (<i>negative conj.</i>), neither, nor (<b>31</b>).<br> +<b>nenia</b>, no kind of (<b>224</b>).<br> +<b>nenial</b> (<i>adv.</i>), for no reason (<b>229</b>).<br> +<b>neniam</b> (<i>adv.</i>), never (<b>226</b>).<br> +<b>nenie</b> (<i>adv.</i>), nowhere (<b>225</b>).<br> +<b>neniel</b> (<i>adv.</i>), in no way (<b>230</b>).<br> +<b>nenies</b> (<i>pronoun, possessive</i>), nobody's (<b>221</b>).<br> +<b>nenio</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), nothing (<b>233</b>).<br> +<b>neniom</b> (<i>adv.</i>), none, not any (<b>231</b>).<br> +<b>neniu</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), no one, nobody, no (<b>220</b>).<br> +<b>nep-o</b>, grandson.<br> +<b>nepr-e</b>, inevitably, certainly, unfailingly.<br> +<b>nerv-o</b>, nerve.<br> +<b>nest-o</b>, nest.<br> +<b>neŭtral-a</b>, neutral, non-partisan.<br> +<b>nev-o</b>, nephew.<br> +<b>ni</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), we, us (<b>32, 37</b>).<br> +<b>nigr-a</b>, black.<br> +<b>nivel-o</b>, level.<br> +<b>-nj-</b>, <i>suffix forming affectionate diminutives</i> (<b>283</b>).<br> +<b>nobel-o</b>, nobleman.<br> +<b>nobl-a</b>, noble (in character).<br> +<b>nokt-o</b>, night.<br> +<b>nom-o</b>, name; <b>—i</b>, to name, mention.<br> +<b>nombr-o</b>, number (quantity).<br> +<b>nord-o</b>, north.<br> +<b>norveg-o</b>, Norwegian.<br> +<b>nostalgi-o</b>, homesickness.<br> +<b>not-o</b>, note.<br> +<b>nov-a</b>, new, recent, novel; denove, anew, again.<br> +<b>novembr-o</b>, November.<br> +<b>nu</b> (<i>interjection</i>), well! (<b>273</b>).<br> +<b>nuanc-o</b>, shade, tint, hue.<br> +<b>nub-o</b>, cloud.<br> +<b>nud-a</b>, bare, naked, nude.<br> +<b>nuks-o</b>, nut.<br> +<b>nul-o</b>, zero, naught.<br> +<b>numer-o</b>, number, numeral (No.).<br> +<b>nun</b> (<i>adv.</i>), now (<b>171</b>).<br> +<b>nur</b> (<i>adv.</i>), merely, only.<br> +<b>nutr-i</b>, to nourish, to feed.<br> + +<!-- This title is centered in book; center in textfile. --> +<!-- But in HTML, it looks better leftjustified. --> +<p><b>O.</b></p> + +<b>obe-i</b>, to obey (<b>265</b>).<br> +<b>objekt-o</b>, object, thing.<br> +<b>objektiv-o</b>, lens, objective.<br> +<b>-obl-</b>, <i>suffix forming multiples</i> (<b>186</b>).<br> +<b>oblikv-a</b>, oblique, slanting.<br> +<b>observ-i</b>, to observe, take note of.<br> +<b>obstin-a</b>, obstinate.<br> +<b>ocean-o</b>, ocean.<br> +<b>odor-i</b>, to smell (good or bad).<br> +<b>ofend-i</b>, to offend.<br> +<b>ofer-i</b>, to sacrifice, offer.<br> +<b>ofic-o</b>, office, employment; <b>—isto</b>, officer (of firm or organization); <b>—ejo</b>, office (the place).<br> +<b>oficial-a</b>, official.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------275.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>oficir-o</b>, officer (military or naval).<br> +<b>oft-a</b>, frequent.<br> +<b>ok</b> (<i>adj.</i>), eight (<b>136</b>).<br> +<b>okaz-i</b>, to happen, occur, take place.<br> +<b>okcident-o</b>, west.<br> +<b>oktobr-o</b>, October.<br> +<b>okul-o</b>, eye.<br> +<b>okup-i</b>, to occupy.<br> +<b>ol</b> (<i>conj.</i>), than (<b>82, 97, 98</b>).<br> +<b>ole-o</b>, oil.<br> +<b>oliv-o</b>, olive.<br> +<b>ombr-o</b>, shadow, shade.<br> +<b>ombrel-o</b>, umbrella.<br> +<b>-on-</b>, <i>suffix forming fractions</i> (<b>166</b>).<br> +<b>ond-o</b>, wave.<br> +<b>oni</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), one, they (<b>54</b>).<br> +<b>onkl-o</b>, uncle.<br> +<b>-op-</b>, <i>suffix forming collective numerals</i> (<b>261</b>).<br> +<b>oper-o</b>, opera.<br> +<b>opini-i</b>, to have the opinion, think.<br> +<b>oportun-a</b>, handy, convenient, opportune.<br> +<b>or-o</b>, gold.<br> +<b>oranĝ-o</b>, orange (fruit).<br> +<b>ord-o</b>, order (methodical or proper arrangement).<br> +<b>ordinar-a</b>, ordinary; eksterordinara, extraordinary.<br> +<b>ordon-i</b>, to order, bid, command.<br> +<b>orel-o</b>, ear (of the body).<br> +<b>orf-o</b>, orphan.<br> +<b>organ-o</b>, organ (physical).<br> +<b>organiz-i</b>, to organize.<br> +<b>orgen-o</b>, organ, (musical instrument).<br> +<b>orient-o</b>, east.<br> +<b>original-o</b>, original.<br> +<b>orkestr-o</b>, orchestra.<br> +<b>ornam-i</b>, to ornament, adorn.<br> +<b>ort-a</b>, right-angled.<br> +<b>osced-i</b>, to gape, yawn.<br> +<b>ost-o</b>, bone.<br> +<b>ostr-o</b>, oyster.<br> +<b>ostracism-o</b>, ostracism.<br> +<b>ov-o</b>, egg.<br> + +<!-- This title is centered in book; center in textfile. --> +<!-- But in HTML, it looks better leftjustified. --> +<p><b>P.</b></p> + +<b>pac-o</b>, peace.<br> +<b>pacienc-o</b>, patience.<br> +<b>padel-i</b>, to paddle.<br> +<b>paf-i</b>, to shoot (with gun, etc.).<br> +<b>pag-i</b>, to pay.<br> +<b>paĝ-o</b>, page (of a book, etc.).<br> +<b>pajl-o</b>, straw.<br> +<b>pak-i</b>, to pack.<br> +<b>pal-a</b>, pale.<br> +<b>palac-o</b>, palace.<br> +<b>palis-o</b>, stake; <b>—aro</b>, palisade.<br> +<b>palp-i</b>, to feel (with the fingers, etc.); <b>—ado</b>, touch (the sense).<br> +<b>palpebr-o</b>, eyelid.<br> +<b>pan-o</b>, bread.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------276.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>pantalon-o</b>, trousers.<br> +<b>pantofl-o</b>, slipper.<br> +<b>paper-o</b>, paper (material).<br> +<b>papili-o</b>, butterfly.<br> +<b>par-o</b>, pair.<br> +<b>paradiz-o</b>, paradise.<br> +<b>paragraf-o</b>, paragraph.<br> +<b>paralel-a</b>, parallel.<br> +<b>pardon-i</b>, to forgive, pardon (<b>265</b>).<br> +<b>parenc-o</b>, relative (person).<br> +<b>parfum-o</b>, perfume.<br> +<b>park-o</b>, park.<br> +<b>parker-e</b>, by rote, by heart, from memory.<br> +<b>parol-i</b>, to speak (<b>77</b>).<br> +<b>part-o</b>, part, share.<br> +<b>particip-o</b>, participle.<br> +<b>pas-i</b>, (<i>intrans.</i>), to pass.<br> +<b>pasaĝer-o</b>, passenger.<br> +<b>paser-o</b>, sparrow.<br> +<b>pasi-o</b>, passion.<br> +<b>pasiv-a</b>, passive.<br> +<b>Pask-o</b>, Easter.<br> +<b>pasteĉ-o</b>, patty, small pie.<br> +<b>pastinak-o</b>, parsnip.<br> +<b>pastr-o</b>, pastor, clergyman, priest.<br> +<b>paŝ-i</b>, to step.<br> +<b>paŝt-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to pasture, feed; <b>—isto</b>, shepherd.<br> +<b>pat-o</b>, pan, frying-pan.<br> +<b>patr-o</b>, father.<br> +<b>paŭz-o</b>, pause.<br> +<b>pavim-o</b>, pavement.<br> +<b>pec-o</b>, piece, morsel.<br> +<b>pejzaĝ-o</b>, landscape.<br> +<b>pek-i</b>, to sin.<br> +<b>pekl-i</b>, to pickle (meat, etc.).<br> +<b>pel-i</b>, to chase away, drive off.<br> +<b>pelt-o</b>, coat or wrap of fur.<br> +<b>pen-i</b>, to strive, try.<br> +<b>pend-i</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), to hang.<br> +<b>penetr-i</b>, to penetrate.<br> +<b>penik-o</b>, paintbrush, hair pencil.<br> +<b>pens-i</b>, to think.<br> +<b>pent-i</b>, to repent.<br> +<b>pentr-i</b>, to paint.<br> +<b>pep-i</b>, to chirp, twitter.<br> +<b>per</b> (<i>prep.</i>), by means of, with, by (<b>64</b>).<br> +<b>perd-i</b>, to lose.<br> +<b>pere-i</b>, to perish.<br> +<b>perfekt-a</b>, perfect.<br> +<b>perfid-i</b>, to betray; <b>—a</b>, perfidious, treacherous.<br> +<b>period-a</b>, periodic.<br> +<b>perl-o</b>, pearl.<br> +<b>permes-i</b>, to permit, allow, let.<br> +<b>peron-o</b>, platform (railway), stoop (entrance porch).<br> +<b>persekut-i</b>, to persecute, prosecute.<br> +<b>persik-o</b>, peach.<br> +<b>persist-i</b>, to persist, persevere.<br> +<b>person-o</b>, person.<br> +<b>peruk-o</b>, wig.<br> +<b>pes-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to ascertain the weight of; <b>—ilo</b>, scales, balance.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------277.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>pet-i</b>, to request, beg, ask.<br> +<b>petol-i</b>, to be mischievous, saucy, roguish.<br> +<b>petrol-o</b>, petroleum, kerosene.<br> +<b>petrosel-o</b>, parsley.<br> +<b>pez-i</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), to be heavy, weigh.<br> +<b>pi-a</b>, pious.<br> +<b>pice-o</b>, spruce (tree).<br> +<b>pied-o</b>, foot; <b>—iranto</b>, pedestrian.<br> +<b>piedestal-o</b>, pedestal.<br> +<b>pik-i</b>, to prick, sting.<br> +<b>pilgrim-i</b>, to go on a pilgrimage.<br> +<b>pilk-o</b>, ball (to play with).<br> +<b>pin-o</b>, pine (tree).<br> +<b>pinakotek-o</b>, picture gallery.<br> +<b>pinĉ-i</b>, to pinch.<br> +<b>pingl-o</b>, pin.<br> +<b>pint-o</b>, point, pinnacle, summit.<br> +<b>pionir-o</b>, pioneer.<br> +<b>pip-o</b>, pipe (for smoking).<br> +<b>pipr-o</b>, pepper.<br> +<b>pir-o</b>, pear.<br> +<b>pist-i</b>, to crush, mash; <b>—aĵo</b>, purée.<br> +<b>pitoresk-a</b>, picturesque.<br> +<b>piz-o</b>, pea.<br> +<b>plac-o</b>, public square, place (broad, short street or open space).<br> +<b>plaĉ-i</b>, to please, to be pleasing (<b>265</b>).<br> +<b>plad-o</b>, flat dish.<br> +<b>plafon-o</b>, ceiling.<br> +<b>plan-o</b>, plan, scheme.<br> +<b>pland-o</b>, sole (of the foot).<br> +<b>planed-o</b>, planet.<br> +<b>plank-o</b>, floor.<br> +<b>plant-i</b>, to plant.<br> +<b>plat-a</b>, flat, plane.<br> +<b>plaŭd-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to splash, dabble (a liquid).<br> +<b>plej</b> (<i>adv.</i>), most (<b>74, 79, 81, 162</b>); malplej, least (<b>80</b>).<br> +<b>plekt-i</b>, to weave, plait, braid.<br> +<b>plen-a</b>, full; plenum-i, to fulfil.<br> +<b>plend-i</b>, to complain.<br> +<b>plet-o</b>, tray.<br> +<b>plezur-o</b>, pleasure.<br> +<b>pli</b> (<i>adv.</i>), more (<b>74, 79, 81</b>); malpli, less (<b>80</b>).<br> +<b>plor-i</b>, to weep, cry.<br> +<b>plu</b> (<i>adv.</i>), further, more, any more.<br> +<b>plug-i</b>, to plow.<br> +<b>plum-o</b>, pen, feather.<br> +<b>plumb-o</b>, lead (metal); <b>—isto</b>, plumber.<br> +<b>pluv-o</b>, rain.<br> +<b>pneŭmatik-o</b>, pneumatic tire.<br> +<b>po</b> (<i>prep.</i>), at the rate of (<b>175</b>).<br> +<b>poem-o</b>, poem.<br> +<b>poet-o</b>, poet.<br> +<b>poezi-o</b>, poetry, poesy.<br> +<b>pokal-o</b>, goblet, cup.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------278.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>pol-o</b>, Pole.<br> +<b>polic-o</b>, police (force).<br> +<b>politik-o</b>, politics.<br> +<b>polm-o</b>, palm (of the hand).<br> +<b>polur-i</b>, to polish, make smooth and glossy.<br> +<b>polus-o</b>, pole (geographical).<br> +<b>polv-o</b>, dust.<br> +<b>pom-o</b>, apple.<br> +<b>pomp-o</b>, pomp, splendor.<br> +<b>pont-o</b>, bridge.<br> +<b>popol-o</b>, a people, folk.<br> +<b>popular-a</b>, popular.<br> +<b>por</b> (<i>prep.</i>), for (<b>95, 98, 262</b>).<br> +<b>porcelan-o</b>, porcelain, china.<br> +<b>porci-o</b>, portion, share.<br> +<b>pord-o</b>, door.<br> +<b>pork-o</b>, swine, pig, hog.<br> +<b>port-i</b>, to carry, bear.<br> +<b>portret-o</b>, portrait.<br> +<b>posed-i</b>, to possess, own.<br> +<b>post</b> (<i>prep.</i>), after, behind (<b>89, 120</b>).<br> +<b>postul-i</b>, to require, demand.<br> +<b>poŝ-o</b>, pocket.<br> +<b>poŝt-o</b>, post (mail); <b>—kesto</b>, mailbox; <b>—marko</b>, postage stamp; <b>—mandato</b>, postal money order.<br> +<b>pot-o</b>, pot.<br> +<b>potenc-a</b>, powerful, mighty.<br> +<b>pov-i</b>, to be able, can (<b>72</b>).<br> +<b>pra-</b>, <i>prefix indicating remoteness in line of descent</i> (<b>282</b>).<br> +<b>praktik-o</b>, practice.<br> +<b>prav-a</b>, right, in the right.<br> +<b>precip-a</b>, principal, chief.<br> +<b>preciz-a</b>, precise.<br> +<b>predik-i</b>, to preach.<br> +<b>prefer-i</b>, to prefer.<br> +<b>prefiks-o</b>, prefix.<br> +<b>preĝ-i</b>, to pray; <b>—ejo</b>, church.<br> +<b>prem-i</b>, to press.<br> +<b>premi-o</b>, premium, prize.<br> +<b>pren-i</b>, to take.<br> +<b>prepar-i</b>, to prepare.<br> +<b>pres-i</b>, to print.<br> +<b>preskaŭ</b> (<i>adv.</i>), almost.<br> +<b>pret-a</b>, ready.<br> +<b>pretekst-i</b>, to make pretext of, pretend, sham.<br> +<b>pretend-i</b>, to make pretension to, lay claim to.<br> +<b>preter</b> (<i>prep.</i>), beyond, past, by.<br> +<b>prez-o</b>, price.<br> +<b>prezent-i</b>, to present, offer.<br> +<b>prezid-i</b>, to preside; <b>—anto</b>, presiding officer, president, chairman.<br> +<b>pri</b> (<i>prep.</i>), concerning, about, of (160, 264, c).<br> +<b>princ-o</b>, prince.<br> +<b>princip-o</b>, principle.<br> +<b>printemp-o</b>, spring (season).<br> +<b>pro</b> (<i>prep.</i>), on account of, because of, for (<b>86</b>).<br> +<b>problem-o</b>, problem.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------279.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>procent-o</b>, interest, percentage.<br> +<b>proces-o</b>, lawsuit, legal process.<br> +<b>produkt-i</b>, to produce.<br> +<b>profesi-o</b>, profession, occupation, calling.<br> +<b>profesor-o</b>, professor.<br> +<b>profil-o</b>, profile.<br> +<b>profit-o</b>, profit; <b>—i</b>, to profit (by).<br> +<b>profund-a</b>, deep, profound.<br> +<b>progres-i</b>, to progress.<br> +<b>projekt-o</b>, project.<br> +<b>proklam-i</b>, to proclaim.<br> +<b>prokrast-i</b>, to delay, procrastinate.<br> +<b>proksim-a</b>, near.<br> +<b>promen-i</b>, to go walking, promenade.<br> +<b>promes-i</b>, to promise.<br> +<b>propon-i</b>, to propose, offer.<br> +<b>proporci-o</b>, proportion.<br> +<b>propr-a</b>, own (one's own); malpropra, other people's; <b>—igi al si</b>, to appropriate, make one's own.<br> +<b>prosper-i</b>, to have success, prosper.<br> +<b>protekt-i</b>, to protect.<br> +<b>protest-i</b>, to protest.<br> +<b>protokol-o</b>, minutes (of a meeting).<br> +<b>prov-i</b>, to try, attempt, test.<br> +<b>proviz-i</b>, to provide.<br> +<b>proz-o</b>, prose; <b>—aĵo</b>, prose composition, piece of prose.<br> +<b>prudent-a</b>, reasonable, sensible, rational.<br> +<b>prujn-o</b>, hoar frost.<br> +<b>prun-o</b>, plum.<br> +<b>prunt-o</b>, loan; <b>—i</b>, (<b>—e doni)</b>, to lend; <b>—e preni</b>, to borrow.<br> +<b>pruv-i</b>, to prove, give proof of.<br> +<b>psalm-o</b>, psalm.<br> +<b>publik-o</b>, public (the); <b>—igi</b>, to publish.<br> +<b>puding-o</b>, pudding.<br> +<b>pudr-i</b>, to powder.<br> +<b>pugn-o</b>, fist.<br> +<b>pulm-o</b>, lung.<br> +<b>pulv-o</b>, gunpowder.<br> +<b>pump-i</b>, to pump.<br> +<b>pun-i</b>, to punish.<br> +<b>punt-o</b>, lace (point, etc.).<br> +<b>pup-o</b>, doll.<br> +<b>pupitr-o</b>, desk.<br> +<b>pur-a</b>, clean, pure.<br> +<b>purpur-a</b>, purple.<br> +<b>puŝ-i</b>, to push; repuŝi, to repulse.<br> +<b>put-o</b>, well (for water).<br> + +<!-- This title is centered in book; center in textfile. --> +<!-- But in HTML, it looks better leftjustified. --> +<p><b>R.</b></p> + +<b>rabarb-o</b>, rhubarb.<br> +<b>rab-i</b>, to pillage, plunder; <b>—isto</b>, robber.<br> +<b>rabat-i</b>, to rebate, give a reduction, discount or rebate.<br> +<b>rad-o</b>, wheel.<br> +<b>radi-o</b>, ray (of light), spoke (of wheel), radius.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------280.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>radik-o</b>, root.<br> +<b>rafan-o</b>, radish.<br> +<b>rafin-i</b>, to refine; <b>—ejo</b>, refinery.<br> +<b>rajd-i</b>, to ride (horse, etc.).<br> +<b>rajt-o</b>, right (to something).<br> +<b>rakont-i</b>, to relate, narrate (<b>77</b>).<br> +<b>ramp-i</b>, to creep, crawl, clamber.<br> +<b>ran-o</b>, frog.<br> +<b>rand-o</b>, edge, border.<br> +<b>rang-o</b>, rank, grade, dignity.<br> +<b>rapid-a</b>, rapid, quick; <b>—o</b>, speed; <b>—emo</b>, haste.<br> +<b>raport-i</b>, to report, give a report.<br> +<b>ras-o</b>, race (tribe, people, nation).<br> +<b>rasp-i</b>, to rasp, grate; <b>—ilo</b>, grater.<br> +<b>rat-o</b>, rat.<br> +<b>raŭk-a</b>, hoarse, raucous.<br> +<b>rav-i</b>, to enchant.<br> +<b>raz-i</b>, to shave.<br> +<b>re-</b>, <i>prefix indicating repetition or return</i> (<b>223</b>).<br> +<b>real-a</b>, real.<br> +<b>reciprok-a</b>, reciprocal, mutual (<b>180</b>).<br> +<b>redakci-o</b>, editorial department.<br> +<b>redakt-i</b>, to edit.<br> +<b>redaktor-o</b>, editor.<br> +<b>redingot-o</b>, frock coat.<br> +<b>refut-i</b>, to refute.<br> +<b>reg-i</b>, to rule, govern, reign.<br> +<b>regal-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to regale, treat (to food or drink).<br> +<b>region-o</b>, region.<br> +<b>registr-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to register, enroll.<br> +<b>regn-o</b>, state, governed body; <b>—ano</b>, citizen, subject.<br> +<b>regul-o</b>, rule, regulation.<br> +<b>reĝ-o</b>, king.<br> +<b>reklam-i</b>, to advertise.<br> +<b>rekomend-i</b>, to recommend, register (a letter).<br> +<b>rekompenc-i</b>, to recompense, reward.<br> +<b>rekt-a</b>, straight, undeviating, direct.<br> +<b>rel-o</b>, rail.<br> +<b>religi-o</b>, religion.<br> +<b>rem-i</b>, to row.<br> +<b>rembur-i</b>, to upholster, stuff, pad.<br> +<b>renkont-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to meet.<br> +<b>renvers-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to upset.<br> +<b>reprezent-i</b>, to represent.<br> +<b>respekt-i</b>, to respect.<br> +<b>respond-i</b>, to answer.<br> +<b>respublik-o</b>, republic.<br> +<b>rest-i</b>, to remain, stay.<br> +<b>restoraci-o</b>, restaurant.<br> +<b>resum-i</b>, to summarize, give in resumé.<br> +<b>ret-o</b>, net, netting.<br> +<b>rev-i</b>, to indulge in revery, dream, fancy.<br> +<b>revu-o</b>, journal, review, magazine.<br> +<b>rezon-i</b>, to reason (exert the power of reasoning).<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------281.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>rezult-i</b>, to result.<br> +<b>ricev-i</b>, to receive.<br> +<b>riĉ-a</b>, rich.<br> +<b>rid-i</b>, to laugh (<b>265</b>).<br> +<b>rifuz-i</b>, to refuse.<br> +<b>rigard-i</b>, to look.<br> +<b>rigl-i</b>, to bolt (fasten).<br> +<b>rikolt-i</b>, to harvest, reap.<br> +<b>rilat-i</b>, to have relation (to) (<b>266</b>).<br> +<b>rimark-i</b>, to notice, note.<br> +<b>rimed-o</b>, means, way; vivrimedoj, means of livelihood.<br> +<b>rimen-o</b>, thong, strap.<br> +<b>ring-o</b>, ring.<br> +<b>rip-o</b>, rib.<br> +<b>ripar-i</b>, to mend, repair.<br> +<b>ripet-i</b>, to repeat.<br> +<b>ripoz-i</b>, to repose, rest.<br> +<b>riproĉ-i</b>, to reproach.<br> +<b>river-o</b>, river.<br> +<b>riz-o</b>, rice.<br> +<b>rob-o</b>, dress, robe.<br> +<b>Robert-o</b>, Robert.<br> +<b>romp-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to break.<br> +<b>rond-o</b>, circle, ring, round.<br> +<b>ros-o</b>, dew.<br> +<b>rost-i</b>, to roast.<br> +<b>roz-o</b>, rose (flower).<br> +<b>ruband-o</b>, ribbon.<br> +<b>rubus-o</b>, blackberry.<br> +<b>ruĝ-a</b>, red.<br> +<b>ruin-o</b>, ruin.<br> +<b>rul-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to roll (ball, etc.).<br> +<b>rus-o</b>, Russian.<br> +<b>rust-i</b>, to rust.<br> +<b>rutin-o</b>, routine.<br> +<b>ruz-a</b>, crafty, cunning, sly.<br> + +<!-- This title is centered in book; center in textfile. --> +<!-- But in HTML, it looks better leftjustified. --> +<p><b>S.</b></p> + +<b>sabat-o</b>, Saturday.<br> +<b>sabl-o</b>, sand.<br> +<b>sag-o</b>, arrow.<br> +<b>saĝ-a</b>, wise.<br> +<b>sak-o</b>, sack, bag.<br> +<b>sal-o</b>, salt.<br> +<b>salajr-o</b>, salary, wages.<br> +<b>salat-o</b>, salad.<br> +<b>salon-o</b>, parlor, drawing-room.<br> +<b>salt-i</b>, to jump, leap.<br> +<b>salut-i</b>, to salute, greet.<br> +<b>sam-a</b>, same.<br> +<b>san-a</b>, healthy, well.<br> +<b>sang-o</b>, blood.<br> +<b>sankt-a</b>, sacred, holy.<br> +<b>sap-o</b>, soap.<br> +<b>sarden-o</b>, sardine.<br> +<b>sat-a</b>, sated; malsata, hungry.<br> +<b>saŭc-o</b>, sauce, gravy, dressing.<br> +<b>sav-i</b>, to save; rescue.<br> +<b>sci-i</b>, to know (<b>117</b>).<br> +<b>scienc-o</b>, science.<br> +<b>se</b> (<i>conj.</i>), if (<b>240</b>).<br> +<b>sed</b> (<i>conj.</i>), but.<br> +<b>seg-i</b>, to saw.<br> +<b>seĝ-o</b>, chair.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------282.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>sek-a</b>, dry.<br> +<b>sekret-o</b>, secret.<br> +<b>sekretari-o</b>, secretary.<br> +<b>sekund-o</b>, second (of time).<br> +<b>sekv-i</b>, to follow.<br> +<b>sel-o</b>, saddle.<br> +<b>sem-o</b>, seed; <b>—i</b>, to sow.<br> +<b>semajn-o</b>, week.<br> +<b>sen</b> (<i>prep.</i>), without (<b>248</b>).<br> +<b>senat-o</b>, senate; <b>—ano</b>, senator.<br> +<b>senc-o</b>, sense, meaning.<br> +<b>send-i</b>, to send.<br> +<b>sent-i</b>, to feel, perceive.<br> +<b>sep</b> (<i>adj.</i>), seven (<b>136</b>).<br> +<b>septembr-o</b>, September.<br> +<b>serĉ-i</b>, to seek, hunt, look for.<br> +<b>serur-o</b>, lock.<br> +<b>serv-i</b>, to serve.<br> +<b>servic-o</b>, course (of a meal).<br> +<b>ses</b> (<i>adj.</i>), six (<b>136</b>).<br> +<b>sever-a</b>, severe, stern.<br> +<b>sezon-o</b>, season.<br> +<b>si</b> (<i>pronoun, reflexive</i>), himself, herself, etc. (<b>40, 44, 274</b>).<br> +<b>sibl-i</b>, to hiss, whistle (wind, etc.).<br> +<b>sid-i</b>, to sit (<b>239</b>).<br> +<b>sigel-i</b>, to seal.<br> +<b>sign-o</b>, sign, trace, mark.<br> +<b>signif-i</b>, to signify, mean.<br> +<b>silab-o</b>, syllable.<br> +<b>silent-i</b>, to be silent (<b>239</b>).<br> +<b>silk-o</b>, silk.<br> +<b>simi-o</b>, monkey.<br> +<b>simil-a</b>, like, similar.<br> +<b>simpl-a</b>, simple.<br> +<b>sinjor-o</b>, gentleman, Mr. (<b>163</b>).<br> +<b>Sirakuz-o</b>, Syracuse.<br> +<b>sitel-o</b>, pail, bucket.<br> +<b>skatol-o</b>, small box or case.<br> +<b>skiz-i</b>, to sketch.<br> +<b>sklav-o</b>, slave.<br> +<b>skot-o</b>, Scot, Scotchman.<br> +<b>skrap-i</b>, to scrape.<br> +<b>skrib-i</b>, to write.<br> +<b>sku-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to shake.<br> +<b>skulpt-i</b>, to carve, sculpture.<br> +<b>societ-o</b>, society.<br> +<b>soif-i</b>, to be thirsty.<br> +<b>sojl-o</b>, threshold.<br> +<b>Sokrat-o</b>, Socrates.<br> +<b>sol-a</b>, alone, sole, only.<br> +<b>soldat-o</b>, soldier.<br> +<b>solen-a</b>, formal, solemn.<br> +<b>somer-o</b>, summer.<br> +<b>son-i</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), to sound.<br> +<b>sonĝ-i</b>, to dream (in sleep).<br> +<b>sonor-i</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), to ring, sound; <b>—ilo</b>, bell.<br> +<b>sopir-i</b>, to yearn, long, sigh.<br> +<b>sorb-i</b>, to absorb; <b>—papero</b>, blotting-paper.<br> +<b>sorĉ-o</b>, witchcraft; ensorĉi, to bewitch; <b>—isto</b>, sorcerer.<br> +<b>sort-o</b>, destiny, fate, lot.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------283.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>sovaĝ-a</b>, wild, savage.<br> +<b>spac-o</b>, space.<br> +<b>spec-o</b>, kind, sort, species.<br> +<b>special-a</b>, special.<br> +<b>specimen-o</b>, specimen, sample.<br> +<b>spegul-o</b>, mirror.<br> +<b>spert-a</b>, experienced, expert.<br> +<b>spes-o</b>, speso (international unit of money, 284).<br> +<b>spez-o</b>, clearing (financial); elspezi, to disburse, expend, spend; enspezi, to take in, receive (funds).<br> +<b>spinac-o</b>, spinach.<br> +<b>spir-i</b>, to breathe; elspiri, to exhale.<br> +<b>spite</b> (<i>prep.</i>), in spite of.<br> +<b>sprit-a</b>, witty.<br> +<b>staci-o</b>, station (railway, boat, etc.).<br> +<b>stamp-i</b>, to mark officially, stamp.<br> +<b>standard-o</b>, standard, flag.<br> +<b>stan-o</b>, tin (metal).<br> +<b>stang-o</b>, pole.<br> +<b>star-i</b>, to stand (<b>239</b>).<br> +<b>stat-o</b>, state (of being), condition.<br> +<b>stel-o</b>, star.<br> +<b>stenografi-o</b>, shorthand, stenography.<br> +<b>stil-o</b>, style.<br> +<b>stimul-i</b>, to stimulate.<br> +<b>stomak-o</b>, stomach.<br> +<b>strang-a</b>, strange, peculiar.<br> +<b>strat-o</b>, street.<br> +<b>streĉ-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to stretch.<br> +<b>strek-i</b>, to make a streak, or line; substreki, to underline; surstreki, trastreki, to cross off, strike out.<br> +<b>stri-o</b>, streak, stripe, band.<br> +<b>strik-o</b>, strike (of labor).<br> +<b>stud-i</b>, to study.<br> +<b>student-o</b>, student (college, etc.).<br> +<b>stuf-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to stew.<br> +<b>stump-o</b>, stump (of tree, etc.).<br> +<b>sub</b> (<i>prep.</i>), under, beneath (<b>121, 160</b>).<br> +<b>subit-a</b>, sudden, abrupt.<br> +<b>substanc-o</b>, substance.<br> +<b>sud-o</b>, south.<br> +<b>sufer-i</b>, to suffer, endure.<br> +<b>sufiĉ-i</b>, to suffice; <b>—ega</b>, abundant.<br> +<b>sufiks-o</b>, suffix.<br> +<b>sufok-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to suffocate.<br> +<b>sugesti-i</b>, to suggest.<br> +<b>suk-o</b>, sap, juice (of plants, etc.); <b>—a</b>, succulent.<br> +<b>sukces-i</b>, to succeed.<br> +<b>suker-o</b>, sugar.<br> +<b>sulfur-o</b>, sulphur.<br> +<b>sulk-o</b>, furrow, wrinkle.<br> +<b>sum-o</b>, sum, amount.<br> +<b>sun-o</b>, sun.<br> +<b>sup-o</b>, soup.<br> +<b>super</b> (<i>prep.</i>), above, over (<b>159</b>); <b>—a</b>, superior.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------284.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>superstiĉ-o</b>, superstition.<br> +<b>supoz-i</b>, to suppose.<br> +<b>supr-e</b> (<i>adv.</i>), above; <b>—a</b>, upper, above; <b>—aĵo</b>, surface.<br> +<b>sur</b> (<i>prep.</i>), on, upon (<b>160</b>).<br> +<b>surd-a</b>, deaf.<br> +<b>surpriz-i</b>, to surprise.<br> +<b>surtut-o</b>, overcoat.<br> +<b>suspekt-i</b>, to suspect.<br> +<b>sved-o</b>, Swede.<br> +<b>sven-i</b>, to faint, swoon.<br> +<b>sving-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), swing, brandish.<br> +<b>svis-o</b>, Swiss.<br> + +<!-- This title is centered in book; center in textfile. --> +<!-- But in HTML, it looks better leftjustified. --> +<p><b>Ŝ.</b></p> + +<b>ŝaf-o</b>, sheep; <b>—aĵo</b>, mutton; <b>—ido</b>, lamb; <b>—idaĵo</b>, lamb (meat); <b>—viro</b>, ram.<br> +<b>ŝajn-i</b>, to seem, appear.<br> +<b>ŝal-o</b>, shawl.<br> +<b>ŝanc-o</b>, luck, chance; bonŝance, luckily.<br> +<b>ŝancel-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to oscillate, vacillate, make tremble.<br> +<b>ŝanĝ-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to change, alter.<br> +<b>ŝarĝ-i</b>, to burden, load.<br> +<b>ŝat-i</b>, to like, prize.<br> +<b>ŝaŭm-o</b>, foam, froth.<br> +<b>ŝel-o</b>, shell, peeling, bark.<br> +<b>ŝelk-o</b>, suspender, supporter.<br> +<b>ŝerc-i</b>, to joke, jest.<br> +<b>ŝi</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), she, her (<b>32, 37, 42</b>).<br> +<b>ŝild-o</b>, shield.<br> +<b>ŝink-o</b>, ham.<br> +<b>ŝip-o</b>, ship.<br> +<b>ŝir-i</b>, to tear.<br> +<b>ŝirm-i</b>, to shelter, shield; <b>—ilo</b>, screen.<br> +<b>ŝlim-o</b>, slime.<br> +<b>ŝlos-i</b>, to lock; <b>—ilo</b>, key.<br> +<b>ŝmir-i</b>, to anoint, smear.<br> +<b>ŝnur-o</b>, string.<br> +<b>ŝose-o</b>, broad roadway, drive.<br> +<b>ŝov-i</b>, to shove, push.<br> +<b>ŝovel-i</b>, to shovel.<br> +<b>ŝpar-i</b>, to spare, be economical of.<br> +<b>ŝpin-i</b>, to spin.<br> +<b>ŝpruc-i</b>, to gush, spout, spurt (of liquids).<br> +<b>ŝrank-o</b>, cupboard, wardrobe.<br> +<b>ŝraŭb-o</b>, screw.<br> +<b>ŝtal-o</b>, steel.<br> +<b>ŝtat-o</b>, state (political).<br> +<b>ŝtel-i</b>, to steal (<b>252</b>).<br> +<b>ŝtip-o</b>, log, block of wood.<br> +<b>ŝtof-o</b>, cloth, stuff.<br> +<b>ŝton-o</b>, stone.<br> +<b>ŝtop-i</b>, to stop up, cork; <b>—ilo</b>, stopper.<br> +<b>ŝtrump-o</b>, stocking.<br> +<b>ŝtup-o</b>, step, round; <b>—aro</b>, stair-case.<br> +<b>ŝu-o</b>, shoe; superŝuo, overshoe.<br> +<b>ŝuld-i</b>, to owe, be indebted.<br> +<b>ŝultr-o</b>, shoulder.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------285.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>ŝut-o</b>, chute; <b>—i</b>, to pour (as in a chute).<br> +<b>ŝvel-i</b>, to swell, become swollen.<br> +<b>ŝvit-i</b>, to perspire.<br> + +<!-- This title is centered in book; center in textfile. --> +<!-- But in HTML, it looks better leftjustified. --> +<p><b>T.</b></p> + +<b>tabak-o</b>, tobacco.<br> +<b>tabel-o</b>, table, index, tabulation.<br> +<b>tabl-o</b>, table (furniture).<br> +<b>tabul-o</b>, board, plank.<br> +<b>tag-o</b>, day; <b>—iĝo</b>, dawn; <b>—mezo</b>, noon.<br> +<b>tajlor-o</b>, tailor.<br> +<b>taks-i</b>, to estimate, value, rate.<br> +<b>talent-o</b>, talent.<br> +<b>tali-o</b>, waist; beltalia, shapely, having a good figure.<br> +<b>tambur-o</b>, drum.<br> +<b>tamen</b> (<i>conj.</i>), nevertheless, however, yet, still.<br> +<b>tantiem-o</b>, percentage of profit, royalty.<br> +<b>tapiŝ-o</b>, carpet.<br> +<b>tarif-o</b>, tariff, schedule of rates.<br> +<b>tas-o</b>, cup; subtaso, saucer.<br> +<b>task-o</b>, task.<br> +<b>taŭg-i</b>, to be fit for, good for.<br> +<b>tavol-o</b>, layer.<br> +<b>te-o</b>, tea.<br> +<b>teatr-o</b>, theatre; <b>—aĵo</b>, play.<br> +<b>ted-i</b>, to be tedious.<br> +<b>teg-i</b>, to cover, put a covering upon.<br> +<b>tegment-o</b>, roof.<br> +<b>teks-i</b>, to weave.<br> +<b>telefon-i</b>, to telephone.<br> +<b>telegraf-i</b>, to telegraph.<br> +<b>teler-o</b>, plate; <b>—meblo</b>, sideboard.<br> +<b>tem-o</b>, theme, subject.<br> +<b>temp-o</b>, time.<br> +<b>tempi-o</b>, temple (of the head).<br> +<b>templ-o</b>, temple (building).<br> +<b>ten-i</b>, to hold, keep.<br> +<b>tend-o</b>, tent.<br> +<b>tenor-o</b>, tenor (voice).<br> +<b>tent-i</b>, to tempt.<br> +<b>teori-o</b>, theory.<br> +<b>ter-o</b>, earth, soil; enterigi, to inter.<br> +<b>teras-o</b>, terrace.<br> +<b>teritori-o</b>, territory.<br> +<b>termin-o</b>, term, definition (word).<br> +<b>tern-i</b>, to sneeze.<br> +<b>terpom-o</b>, potato.<br> +<b>terur-o</b>, terror.<br> +<b>tia</b>, that kind of, such (<b>65</b>).<br> +<b>tial</b> (<i>adv.</i>), therefore (<b>78, 83</b>).<br> +<b>tiam</b> (<i>adv.</i>), then, at that time (<b>73</b>).<br> +<b>tibi-o</b>, shin bone, tibia; <b>—karno</b>, calf (of the leg).<br> +<b>tie</b> (<i>adv.</i>), there (<b>68</b>).<br> +<b>tiel</b> (<i>adv.</i>), thus, so (<b>88, 156</b>).<br> +<b>tigr-o</b>, tiger.<br> +<b>tikl-i</b>, to tickle.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------286.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>tili-o</b>, linden.<br> +<b>tim-i</b>, to fear, be afraid of.<br> +<b>timon-o</b>, pole, tongue, shaft.<br> +<b>tint-i</b>, to jingle, tinkle.<br> +<b>tio</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), that (<b>233, 234</b>).<br> +<b>tiom</b> (<i>adv.</i>), that much, so much (<b>104, 164</b>).<br> +<b>tir-i</b>, to pull, draw.<br> +<b>tiran-o</b>, tyrant.<br> +<b>titol-o</b>, title.<br> +<b>tiu</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), that one, that (<b>56</b>); tiu ĉi, this one, this (<b>60</b>).<br> +<b>tost-o</b>, toast (sentiment).<br> +<b>tol-o</b>, linen.<br> +<b>toler-i</b>, to tolerate.<br> +<b>tomat-o</b>, tomato.<br> +<b>tomb-o</b>, tomb, grave.<br> +<b>ton-o</b>, tone.<br> +<b>tond-i</b>, to shear; <b>—ilo</b>, shears, scissors.<br> +<b>tondr-i</b>, to thunder.<br> +<b>tord-i</b>, to twist; <b>—a</b>, crooked, winding.<br> +<b>tra</b> (<i>prep.</i>), through (<b>46, 160</b>).<br> +<b>trab-o</b>, beam (wooden).<br> +<b>traduk-i</b>, to translate.<br> +<b>traf-i</b>, to reach, attain (that which was aimed at or sought); maltrafi, to miss.<br> +<b>trajt-o</b>, feature.<br> +<b>trakt-i</b>, to treat of (in essay, speech, etc.); <b>—ato</b>, treatise.<br> +<b>tram-o</b>, tram; <b>—vojo</b>, tramway, street-car line; <b>—veturilo</b>, street-car.<br> +<b>tranĉ-i</b>, to cut, sever.<br> +<b>trankvil-a</b>, serene, tranquil, calm.<br> +<b>trans</b> (<i>prep.</i>), across, the other side of (<b>160</b>).<br> +<b>tre</b> (<i>adv.</i>), very, very much.<br> +<b>trem-i</b>, to tremble.<br> +<b>tremp-i</b>, to drench, dip.<br> +<b>tren-i</b>, to drag, haul, draw; <b>—aĵo</b>, train (of a dress).<br> +<b>trezor-o</b>, treasure.<br> +<b>tri</b> (<i>adj.</i>), three (<b>136</b>).<br> +<b>trik-i</b>, to knit.<br> +<b>trink-i</b>, to drink.<br> +<b>tritik-o</b>, wheat.<br> +<b>triumf-o</b>, triumph.<br> +<b>tro</b> (<i>adv.</i>), too, too much.<br> +<b>tromp-i</b>, to deceive.<br> +<b>tron-o</b>, throne.<br> +<b>tropik-o</b>, tropic.<br> +<b>trot-i</b>, to trot.<br> +<b>trotuar-o</b>, sidewalk, pavement.<br> +<b>trov-i</b>, to find.<br> +<b>tru-o</b>, hole.<br> +<b>trud-i</b>, to force upon, impose; altrudema, importunate.<br> +<b>trunk-o</b>, trunk (of tree or body).<br> +<b>tualet-o</b>, toilet.<br> +<b>tub-o</b>, tube, pipe.<br> +<b>tuber-o</b>, bulb, knot, tuber.<br> +<b>tuj</b> (<i>adv.</i>), at once, immediately<br> +<b>tuk-o</b>, piece of cloth.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------287.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>tur-o</b>, tower.<br> +<b>turk-o</b>, Turk.<br> +<b>turment-i</b>, to torment.<br> +<b>turn-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to turn.<br> +<b>tus-i</b>, to cough.<br> +<b>tuŝ-i</b>, to touch; kortuŝi, to touch (the heart of).<br> +<b>tut-a</b>, entire, whole, all.<br> + +<!-- This title is centered in book; center in textfile. --> +<!-- But in HTML, it looks better leftjustified. --> +<p><b>U.</b></p> + +<b>-uj-</b>, <i>suffix indicating receptacle, that which bears or contains</i> (<b>181</b>).<br> +<b>-ul-</b>, <i>suffix indicating person characterized by that in the root</i> (<b>132</b>).<br> +<b>ulm-o</b>, elm.<br> +<b>-um-</b>, indefinite suffix (<b>268</b>).<br> +<b>ung-o</b>, nail (of finger); <b>—ego</b>, claw, talon.<br> +<b>univers-o</b>, universe.<br> +<b>universitat-o</b>, university.<br> +<b>unu</b> (<i>adj.</i>), one (<b>136, 137, 180</b>); unuiĝo, union.<br> +<b>uragan-o</b>, hurricane.<br> +<b>urb-o</b>, city; ĉefurbo, capital.<br> +<b>urĝ-i</b>, to be urgent or pressing.<br> +<b>urs-o</b>, bear.<br> +<b>Uson-o</b>, United States of America.<br> +<b>util-a</b>, useful.<br> +<b>uz-i</b>, to use; trouzi, to abuse.<br> + +<!-- This title is centered in book; center in textfile. --> +<!-- But in HTML, it looks better leftjustified. --> +<p><b>V.</b></p> + +<b>vad-i</b>, to wade.<br> +<b>vafl-o</b>, waffle.<br> +<b>vag-i</b>, to wander, to roam; <b>—isto</b>, vagabond.<br> +<b>vagon-o</b>, car, railway carriage.<br> +<b>vak-i</b>, to be vacant.<br> +<b>vaks-o</b>, wax.<br> +<b>val-o</b>, valley.<br> +<b>valiz-o</b>, valise, satchel, bag.<br> +<b>valor-i</b>, to be worth.<br> +<b>vals-i</b>, to waltz.<br> +<b>van-a</b>, vain, fruitless.<br> +<b>vang-o</b>, cheek.<br> +<b>vant-a</b>, vain, conceited.<br> +<b>vapor-o</b>, steam, vapor.<br> +<b>varb-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to enlist, recruit.<br> +<b>varm-a</b>, warm.<br> +<b>vast-a</b>, vast, spacious, extensive.<br> +<b>vaz-o</b>, vase, basin.<br> +<b>ve!</b> (<i>interjection</i>), woe! ho ve! alas! (<b>273</b>).<br> +<b>veget-i</b>, to vegetate, grow (as plants).<br> +<b>vegetar-a</b>, vegetarian.<br> +<b>vejn-o</b>, vein.<br> +<b>vek-i</b> (<i>trans.</i>), to wake, awake.<br> +<b>vel-o</b>, sail.<br> +<b>velk-i</b>, to fade, wither, wilt.<br> +<b>velur-o</b>, velvet.<br> +<b>ven-i</b>, to come.<br> +<b>vend-i</b>, to sell.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------288.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>vendred-o</b>, Friday.<br> +<b>venen-o</b>, poison.<br> +<b>venĝ-i</b>, to avenge.<br> +<b>venk-i</b>, to conquer, vanquish.<br> +<b>vent-o</b>, wind.<br> +<b>ver-o</b>, truth.<br> +<b>verand-o</b>, veranda, porch.<br> +<b>verd-a</b>, green.<br> +<b>verk-i</b>, to compose (music or literature).<br> +<b>verm-o</b>, worm.<br> +<b>vermiĉel-o</b>, vermicelli.<br> +<b>vers-o</b>, verse.<br> +<b>verŝ-i</b>, to pour (a liquid).<br> +<b>vertikal-a</b>, vertical.<br> +<b>vesper-o</b>, evening (<b>93</b>).<br> +<b>vest-i</b>, to clothe, dress.<br> +<b>veŝt-o</b>, vest, waistcoat.<br> +<b>vet-i</b>, to wager, bet.<br> +<b>veter-o</b>, weather.<br> +<b>vetur-i</b>, to ride, go (in vehicle, boat, etc.).<br> +<b>vi</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), you (<b>32, 37, 274</b>).<br> +<b>viand-o</b>, meat.<br> +<b>vibr-i</b>, to vibrate.<br> +<b>vic-o</b>, turn, place in a series; laŭvice, in turn; siavice, in his (her, its, their) turn; vicprezidanto, vice-president.<br> +<b>vid-i</b>, to see.<br> +<b>vidv-o</b>, widower; <b>—ino</b>, widow.<br> +<b>vigl-a</b>, alert, brisk.<br> +<b>vilaĝ-o</b>, village.<br> +<b>vin-o</b>, wine.<br> +<b>vinagr-o</b>, vinegar.<br> +<b>vinber-o</b>, grape; sekvinbero, raisin.<br> +<b>vintr-o</b>, winter.<br> +<b>viol-o</b>, violet.<br> +<b>violon-o</b>, violin.<br> +<b>vip-i</b>, to whip.<br> +<b>vir-o</b>, man<br> +<b>virt-o</b>, virtue.<br> +<b>viŝ-i</b>, to wipe.<br> +<b>vitr-o</b>, glass (material).<br> +<b>viv-i</b>, to live (<b>133</b>).<br> +<b>vizaĝ-o</b>, face, visage.<br> +<b>vizit-i</b>, to visit.<br> +<b>voĉ-o</b>, voice; <b>—doni</b>, to vote.<br> +<b>voj-o</b>, road, way.<br> +<b>vojaĝ-i</b>, to journey, travel, voyage.<br> +<b>vok-i</b>, to call.<br> +<b>vokal-o</b>, vowel.<br> +<b>vol-i</b>, to be willing, will, wish.<br> +<b>volont-e</b>, willingly.<br> +<b>volum-o</b>, volume (book).<br> +<b>volumen-o</b>, volume (of a body).<br> +<b>volv-i</b>, to roll (something around something).<br> +<b>vort-o</b>, word; <b>—aro</b>, dictionary.<br> +<b>vost-o</b>, tail.<br> +<b>vual-o</b>, veil.<br> +<b>vulgar-a</b>, common, vulgar.<br> +<b>vulp-o</b>, fox.<br> +<b>vund-i</b>, to wound.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------289.png---------------------------- --> + +<!-- This title is centered in book; center in textfile. --> +<!-- But in HTML, it looks better leftjustified. --> +<p><b>Z.</b></p> + +<b>zenit-o</b>, zenith.<br> +<b>zigzag-o</b>, zigzag.<br> +<b>zingibr-o</b>, ginger.<br> +<b>zink-o</b>, zinc.<br> +<b>zon-o</b>, girdle, belt, zone.<br> +<b>zoologi-o</b>, zoology.<br> +<b>zorg-i</b>, to care (for), be anxious (about).<br> +<b>zum-i</b>, to hum, buzz.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------290.png---------------------------- --> + +<!-- -----------------------------291.png---------------------------- --> + +<hr align="center" width="38%"> + +<center><b>ENGLISH-ESPERANTO VOCABULARY.</b></center> + +<p> +The following vocabulary includes all Esperanto roots used in the +preceding lessons, all primary words of the language, and a large number +of additional roots (to facilitate original composition). No attempt +has been made, however, to include all of the roots of the language, +or their various English meanings, for which an English-Esperanto +Dictionary should be consulted. +</p> + +<p> +References are to sections, unless the page (p.) is given. <!-- Since +page numbers have no relevance in this etext version, such references +were deleted. --> For other parts of speech than those indicated, see +Word Formation, 116, 120, 159, 171, also the references under Prefixes +and Suffixes in the Index. For formation of compound words other than +those given, see 160, 167, 176, 184. The following abbreviations are +used: adj. = adjective; adv. = adverb; conj. = conjunction; intrans. += intransitive; prep. = preposition; trans. = transitive; — = +repetition of the English word. +</p> + +<!-- This title is centered in book; center in textfile. --> +<!-- But in HTML, it looks better leftjustified. --> +<p><b>A.</b></p> + +<b>abandon</b>, forlas-i.<br> +<b>abash</b>, hontig-i.<br> +<b>(be) able</b>, pov-i (<b>72</b>).<br> +<b>abominable</b>, abomen-a.<br> +<b>about</b> (<i>prep.</i>), ĉirkaŭ; (<b>concerning</b>) pri; (<i>adv.</i>), (approximately, proksimum-e.<br> +<b>above</b> (<i>prep.</i>), super (<b>159</b>); (<i>adv.</i>), supr-e; ĉi supre.<br> +<b>abrupt</b>, subit-a.<br> +<b>absorb</b>, sorb-i.<br> +<b>abundant</b>, sufiĉeg-a.<br> +<b>academy</b>, akademi-o.<br> +<b>accelerate</b> (<i>trans.</i>), akcel-i.<br> +<b>accent</b>, akcent-o.<br> +<b>accept</b>, akcept-i.<br> +<b>accident</b>, akcident-o; (<b>chance</b>) okaz-o.<br> +<b>accompany</b>, akompan-i.<br> +<b>(in) accordance with</b> (<i>prep.</i>), laŭ (<b>191</b>).<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------292.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>account</b>, kont-o; (<b>bill</b>) kalkul-o; (<b>story</b>) rakont-o.<br> +<b>(on) account of</b> (<i>prep.</i>), pro (<b>86</b>).<br> +<b>accurate</b>, akurat-a.<br> +<b>accusative</b>, akuzativ-o.<br> +<b>accuse</b>, akuz-i, kulpig-i.<br> +<b>accustomed</b>, familiar-a, kutimit-a.<br> +<b>ache</b>, dolor-o.<br> +<b>acid</b>, acid-o.<br> +<b>(be) acquainted with</b>, kon-i (<b>117</b>); <b>become —</b>, konatiĝ-i. acquire, akir-i.<br> +<b>across</b> (<i>prep.</i>), trans.<br> +<b>act</b>, ag-i; <b>—on</b>, efik-i; (<b>behave</b>) kondut-i; (<b>of play</b>) akt-o.<br> +<b>active</b>, agema; (<b>grammatical</b>), aktiv-a.<br> +<b>actor</b>, aktor-o.<br> +<b>actual</b>, efektiv-a, ver-a.<br> +<b>acute</b>, akr-a.<br> +<b>add</b>, aldon-i (<b>160</b>).<br> +<b>address</b> (<b>on letters, etc.</b>) adres-o; (<b>lecture</b>) parolad-o.<br> +<b>adequate</b>, sufiĉ-a.<br> +<b>adjacent</b>, apud-a (<b>159</b>).<br> +<b>adjective</b>, adjektiv-o.<br> +<b>administer</b> (<b>manage</b>), administr-i.<br> +<b>admire</b>, admir-i.<br> +<b>admit</b>, konfes-i; (<b>let in</b>) allas-i.<br> +<b>admonish</b>, admon-i.<br> +<b>adore</b>, ador-i.<br> +<b>adorn</b>, ornam-i.<br> +<b>adverb</b>, adverb-o.<br> +<b>advantage</b>, util-o, profit-o.<br> +<b>advertise</b>, reklam-i.<br> +<b>advise</b>, konsil-i.<br> +<b>affable</b>, afabl-a.<br> +<b>affair</b>, afer-o; <b>regrettable —</b>, domaĝ-o.<br> +<b>affirmative</b>, jes-a (<b>171</b>).<br> +<b>(be) afraid</b>, tim-i.<br> +<b>Africa</b>, Afrik-o.<br> +<b>after</b> (<i>prep.</i>), post (<b>89</b>).<br> +<b>afternoon</b>, posttagmez-o.<br> +<b>again</b>, denov-e, re-e (<b>223</b>).<br> +<b>against</b> (<i>prep.</i>), kontraŭ.<br> +<b>age</b>, aĝ-o; <b>of —</b>, plenaĝ-a; <b>old —</b>, maljunec-o.<br> +<b>(give an) agency</b>, komisi-i.<br> +<b>agent</b>, agent-o.<br> +<b>agitate</b>, agit-i.<br> +<b>agony</b>, agoni-o.<br> +<b>agree</b>, konsent-i; (<b>contract</b>) kontrakt-i.<br> +<b>agreeable</b>, agrabl-a.<br> +<b>aid</b>, help-i.<br> +<b>aim at</b>, cel-i.<br> +<b>air</b>, aer-o; <b>to —</b>, aerum-i; (<b>music</b>) ari-o.<br> +<b>alas!</b>, ho ve (<b>273</b>).<br> +<b>alcohol</b>, alkohol-o.<br> +<b>alcove</b>, alkov-o.<br> +<b>alert</b>, vigl-a.<br> +<b>Alexander</b>, Aleksandr-o.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------293.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>Alexandria</b>, Aleksandri-o.<br> +<b>Alfred</b>, Alfred-o.<br> +<b>algebra</b>, algebr-o.<br> +<b>alive</b>, viv-a.<br> +<b>all</b> (<i>pronoun and adj.</i>), ĉiuj (<b>173</b>); (<i>indefinite pronoun</i>) ĉio (<b>233</b>); (<i>adv. of quantity</i>) ĉiom (<b>194</b>); (<b>whole, entire</b>) tut-a.<br> +<b>alliance</b>, lig-o.<br> +<b>allow</b>, permes-i.<br> +<b>allude</b>, alud-i.<br> +<b>allure</b>, log-i.<br> +<b>almanac</b>, almanak-o.<br> +<b>almost</b> (<i>adv.</i>), preskaŭ.<br> +<b>alms</b>, almoz-o.<br> +<b>alone</b>, sol-a.<br> +<b>along</b> (<i>prep.</i>), laŭ (<b>191</b>); <b>— with</b>, kune kun.<br> +<b>aloud</b>, laŭt-e.<br> +<b>alphabet</b>, alfabet-o.<br> +<b>already</b> (<i>adv.</i>), jam.<br> +<b>also</b> (<i>adv.</i>), ankaŭ.<br> +<b>altar</b>, altar-o.<br> +<b>alter</b> (<i>trans.</i>), ŝanĝ-i, aliig-i.<br> +<b>although</b> (<i>conj.</i>), kvankam.<br> +<b>always</b> (<i>adv.</i>), ĉiam (<b>187</b>).<br> +<b>America</b>, Amerik-o.<br> +<b>amiable</b>, afabl-a, amind-a.<br> +<b>amid</b>, meze de, inter (<b>85</b>).<br> +<b>among</b> (<i>prep.</i>), inter (<b>85</b>).<br> +<b>amount</b>, sum-o, kvant-o; <b>a certain —</b>, iom (<b>217</b>).<br> +<b>amphibious</b>, amfibi-a.<br> +<b>amphitheatre</b>, amfiteatr-o.<br> +<b>amuse</b>, amuz-i.<br> +<b>analyse</b>, analiz-i.<br> +<b>ancestor</b>, prapatr-o (<b>282</b>).<br> +<b>anchor</b>, ankr-o.<br> +<b>ancient</b>, antikv-a.<br> +<b>and</b> (<i>conj.</i>), kaj (<b>26</b>).<br> +<b>anecdote</b>, anekdot-o.<br> +<b>anew</b>, denov-e.<br> +<b>angel</b>, anĝel-o.<br> +<b>angle</b>, angul-o.<br> +<b>angry</b>, koler-a.<br> +<b>animal</b>, best-o.<br> +<b>ankle</b>, maleol-o.<br> +<b>announce</b>, anonc-i.<br> +<b>annoy</b>, ĉagren-i.<br> +<b>anoint</b>, ŝmir-i.<br> +<b>answer</b>, respond-i.<br> +<b>ant</b>, formik-o.<br> +<b>antelope</b>, antilop-o.<br> +<b>antipathy</b>, antipati-o.<br> +<b>antique</b>, antikv-a.<br> +<b>anvil</b>, ambos-o.<br> +<b>anxious</b>, maltrankvil-a.<br> +<b>any</b> (<i>pronoun and adj.</i>), iu (<b>203</b>); (<i>adv. of quantity</i>) iom (<b>217</b>); <b>—kind</b>, <b>—time</b>, <b>—thing</b>, etc., see table, 235.<br> +<b>any more</b> (<i>adv.</i>), plu.<br> +<b>apartment</b>, apartament-o.<br> +<b>apathy</b>, apati-o.<br> +<b>apologise</b>, pardonon pet-i.<br> +<b>apology</b> (<b>defence</b>), apologi-o.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------294.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>apparatus</b>, aparat-o.<br> +<b>appear</b> (<b>come in sight</b>), aper-i; (<b>seem</b>) ŝajn-i.<br> +<b>appearance</b> (<b>aspect</b>), aspekt-o, mien-o, vidiĝ-o.<br> +<b>appetite</b>, apetit-o.<br> +<b>applaud</b>, aplaŭd-i.<br> +<b>apple</b>, pom-o.<br> +<b>apply</b> (<b>put on</b>), almet-i; <b>— to</b> (<b>for information, etc.</b>), sin turni al.<br> +<b>approach</b>, alproksimiĝ-i al.<br> +<b>appropriate</b>, proprigi al si; (<b>suitable</b>), konven-a, dec-a.<br> +<b>approve</b>, aprob-i.<br> +<b>approximate</b>, proksimum-a.<br> +<b>apricot</b>, abrikot-o.<br> +<b>April</b>, april-o.<br> +<b>apron</b>, antaŭtuk-o.<br> +<b>aquarium</b>, akvari-o.<br> +<b>Arab</b>, arab-o; <b>street —</b>, bub-o.<br> +<b>arbitrate</b>, arbitraci-i.<br> +<b>arbor</b>, laŭb-o.<br> +<b>arc</b>, ark-o.<br> +<b>arcade</b>, arkad-o.<br> +<b>archer</b>, pafarkist-o.<br> +<b>Archimedes</b>, Arĥimed-o.<br> +<b>architecture</b>, arĥitektur-o.<br> +<b>arena</b>, aren-o.<br> +<b>argue</b>, argument-i.<br> +<b>Aristeides</b>, Aristejd-o.<br> +<b>aristocrat</b>, aristokrat-o.<br> +<b>Aristotle</b>, Aristotel-o.<br> +<b>arithmetic</b>, aritmetik-o.<br> +<b>arm</b> (<b>of the body</b>), brak-o; (<b>weapon</b>) armil-o.<br> +<b>army</b>, arme-o.<br> +<b>aroma</b>, arom-o.<br> +<b>around</b> (<i>prep.</i>), ĉirkaŭ (<b>89, 160</b>).<br> +<b>arouse</b>, incit-i, vek-i.<br> +<b>arrange</b>, aranĝ-i.<br> +<b>arrest</b>, arest-i.<br> +<b>arrive</b>, alven-i.<br> +<b>arrogant</b>, arogant-a.<br> +<b>arrow</b>, sag-o.<br> +<b>art</b>, art-o.<br> +<b>Arthur</b>, Artur-o.<br> +<b>article</b> (<b>grammatical, literary</b>) artikol-o.<br> +<b>artificial</b>, artefarit-a.<br> +<b>artless</b>, naiv-a.<br> +<b>as</b> (<i>adv.</i>) kiel; as ... as ... tiel ... kiel ... (<b>156</b>); <b>— if</b>, <b>— though</b>, kvazaŭ (<b>250</b>); <b>— far as</b>, ĝis (prep., 46); <b>— much ... as ...</b>, tiom ... kiom (<b>164</b>).<br> +<b>ascertain</b>, certiĝ-i; <b>— the truth of</b>, konstat-i.<br> +<b>(be) ashamed</b>, hont-i.<br> +<b>ashes</b>, cindr-o.<br> +<b>Asia</b>, Azi-o.<br> +<b>aside from</b> (<i>prep.</i>), krom.<br> +<b>ask</b> (<b>inquire</b>), demand-i; (<b>request</b>), pet-i.<br> +<b>asparagus</b>, asparag-o.<br> +<b>aspect</b>, aspekt-o, mien-o.<br> +<b>ass</b>, azen-o.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------295.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>assemble</b>, kunven-i, kunvok-i.<br> +<b>assist</b>, help-i.<br> +<b>association</b> (<b>organization</b>), asoci-o.<br> +<b>assurance</b>, aplomb-o, certigo.<br> +<b>at</b> (<i>prep.</i>), ĉe (<b>125, 160</b>), je (<b>260</b>); <b>— the rate of</b>, po (<b>175</b>).<br> +<b>athlete</b>, atlet-o.<br> +<b>atmosphere</b>, atmosfer-o.<br> +<b>attack</b>, atak-i.<br> +<b>attain</b>, ating-i, traf-i.<br> +<b>attempt</b>, prov-i.<br> +<b>attentive</b>, atent-a.<br> +<b>attest</b>, atest-i.<br> +<b>attribute</b>, atribut-o.<br> +<b>August</b>, aŭgust-o.<br> +<b>Australia</b>, Aŭstrali-o.<br> +<b>author</b>, aŭtor-o, verkist-o.<br> +<b>automatic</b>, aŭtomat-a.<br> +<b>autumn</b>, aŭtun-o.<br> +<b>avaricious</b>, avar-a.<br> +<b>avenge</b>, venĝ-i.<br> +<b>avenue</b>, ale-o, bulvard-o.<br> +<b>avoid</b>, evit-i.<br> +<b>awake</b> (<i>trans.</i>), vek-i.<br> +<b>away</b> (<i>adv.</i>), for (<b>71</b>); (<b>distant</b>), malproksim-e (<b>170</b>).<br> +<b>axe</b>, hakil-o.<br> +<b>axis</b> (<b>axle</b>), aks-o.<br> + +<!-- This title is centered in book; center in textfile. --> +<!-- But in HTML, it looks better leftjustified. --> +<p><b>B.</b></p> + +<b>babble</b>, babil-i.<br> +<b>baby</b>, infanet-o.<br> +<b>bachelor</b>, fraŭl-o; <b>— of arts (A.B.)</b>, abiturient-o.<br> +<b>back</b> (<b>of the body</b>), dors-o; to the rear (<i>adv.</i>), malantaŭen (<b>121</b>).<br> +<b>bacon</b>, lard-o.<br> +<b>bag</b>, sak-o, valiz-o.<br> +<b>bagatelle</b>, bagatel-o.<br> +<b>bake</b> (<i>trans.</i>), bak-i.<br> +<b>balance</b> (<i>trans.</i>), balanc-i; (<b>scales</b>), pesil-o.<br> +<b>ball</b> (<b>to play with</b>), pilk-o; (<b>dance</b>), bal-o; (<b>globe</b>), glob-o.<br> +<b>banana</b>, banan-o.<br> +<b>band</b> (<b>stripe</b>), stri-o; (<b>music</b>), orkestr-o; (<b>group</b>), ar-o (<b>126</b>).<br> +<b>bandage</b>, bandaĝ-i.<br> +<b>banish</b>, ekzil-i.<br> +<b>bank</b> (<b>financial</b>), bank-o; (<b>shore</b>), bord-o.<br> +<b>(become) bankrupt</b>, bankrot-i<br> +<b>banner</b>, flag-o, standard-o.<br> +<b>banquet</b>, festen-o.<br> +<b>bar</b>, bar-i.<br> +<b>barbarian</b>, barbar-o.<br> +<b>bare</b>, nud-a.<br> +<b>bark</b> (<b>of trees</b>), ŝel-o; (<b>of dogs</b>), boj-i.<br> +<b>barrel</b>, barel-o; <b>— organ</b>, gurd-o.<br> +<b>barren</b>, senfrukt-a.<br> +<b>barrister</b>, advokat-o.<br> +<b>barytone</b>, bariton-o.<br> +<b>base</b> (<b>foundation</b>), fundament-o, baz-o; (<b>ignoble</b>), malnobl-a.<br> +<b>basin</b>, vaz-o, kuv-o.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------296.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>basket</b>, korb-o.<br> +<b>bass</b> (<b>voice</b>), bas-o.<br> +<b>bathe</b> (<i>trans.</i>), ban-i.<br> +<b>battle</b>, batal-i.<br> +<b>be</b>, est-i (<b>109</b>).<br> +<b>beak</b>, bek-o.<br> +<b>beam</b> (<b>wooden</b>), trab-o; (<b>light</b>), radi-o.<br> +<b>bean</b> (<b>leguminous fruit</b>), fab-o; (<b>garden bean</b>), fazeol-o.<br> +<b>bear</b> (<b>animal</b>), urs-o; (<b>carry</b>), port-i; (<b>endure</b>), elport-i, sufer-i; (<b>produce, give birth to</b>), nask-i.<br> +<b>beard</b>, barb-o.<br> +<b>beast</b>, best-o.<br> +<b>beat</b>, bat-i; (<b>surpass</b>), super-i, venk-i.<br> +<b>beautiful</b>, bel-a.<br> +<b>because</b> (<i>conj.</i>), ĉar (<b>83</b>), tial ke (<b>83</b>); <b>— of</b> (<i>prep.</i>), pro (<b>86</b>).<br> +<b>become</b>, iĝ-i, fariĝ-i (<b>232</b>); (<b>be suitable</b>), konven-i, dec-i.<br> +<b>bed</b>, lit-o.<br> +<b>bee</b>, abel-o.<br> +<b>beef</b>, bovaĵ-o (227, c).<br> +<b>beefsteak</b>, bifstek-o.<br> +<b>beet</b>, bet-o.<br> +<b>before</b> (<i>prep.</i>), antaŭ (<b>89, 90, 120, 159, 160</b>); (<i>conj.</i>), antaŭ ol (<b>97, 98</b>); (<i>adv.</i>), antaŭe, ĵus antaŭe.<br> +<b>beg</b> (request), pet-i; (ask alms), almozon pet-i.<br> +<b>beggar</b>, almozul-o.<br> +<b>begin</b> (<i>trans.</i>), komenc-i (<i>see also prefix</i> ek-, 206).<br> +<b>behave</b>, kondut-i.<br> +<b>behind</b> (<i>prep.</i>), post.<br> +<b>behold</b>, rigard-i, vid-i; (<i>adv.</i>), jen (<b>228</b>).<br> +<b>Belgian</b>, belg-o.<br> +<b>believe</b>, kred-i (<b>265</b>).<br> +<b>bell</b>, sonoril-o.<br> +<b>belong</b>, aparten-i.<br> +<b>below</b> (<i>prep.</i>), sub; (<i>adv.</i>), sub-e, malsupr-e.<br> +<b>belt</b>, zon-o.<br> +<b>bench</b>, benk-o.<br> +<b>bend</b> (<i>trans.</i>), klin-i, fleks-i.<br> +<b>benevolence</b>, bonfar-o.<br> +<b>berry</b>, ber-o.<br> +<b>beside</b> (<i>prep.</i>), krom; (near), apud; (<b>at the side of</b>), flanke de.<br> +<b>bet</b>, vet-i.<br> +<b>betray</b>, perfid-i.<br> +<b>betrothed</b> (<b>man</b>), fianĉ-o.<br> +<b>between</b> (<i>prep.</i>), inter (<b>85, 89</b>).<br> +<b>bewitch</b>, ensorĉ-i.<br> +<b>beyond</b> (<i>prep.</i>), preter.<br> +<b>bicycle</b>, bicikl-o.<br> +<b>bid</b> (<b>order</b>), ordon-i; <b>— farewell</b>, adiaŭ-i.<br> +<b>big</b>, grand-a.<br> +<b>bill</b> (<b>of bird</b>), bek-o; <b>bank —</b>, bankbilet-o; <b>hand—</b>, afiŝ-o; (<b>reckoning</b>), kalkul-o.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------297.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>bind</b> (<b>fasten</b>), lig-i; (<b>wounds</b>), bandaĝ-i.<br> +<b>bird</b>, bird-o.<br> +<b>biscuit</b>, biskvit-o; (<b>ring-shaped</b>), kring-o.<br> +<b>bit</b> (<b>piece</b>), pec-o; (<i>adv.</i>), iom (<b>217</b>).<br> +<b>bite</b>, mord-i.<br> +<b>black</b>, nigr-a; <b>to —</b> (<b>shoes, etc.</b>), cir-i.<br> +<b>blackberry</b>, rubus-o.<br> +<b>blackbird</b>, merl-o.<br> +<b>blacking</b>, cir-o.<br> +<b>blade</b> (<b>of knife, etc.</b>), kling-o.<br> +<b>bleat</b>, blek-i.<br> +<b>bless</b>, ben-i.<br> +<b>blind</b>, blind-a.<br> +<b>block</b> (<b>of wood</b>), stip-o.<br> +<b>blood</b>, sang-o.<br> +<b>bloom</b>, flor-i (<b>116</b>).<br> +<b>blot</b> (<b>spot</b>), makul-o.<br> +<b>blotter</b>, sorbil-o, sorbpaper-o.<br> +<b>blouse</b>, bluz-o, kitel-o.<br> +<b>blow</b>, blov-i; (<b>stroke</b>), bat-o.<br> +<b>blue</b>, blu-a; <b>—ish</b>, dubeblu-a.<br> +<b>blush</b>, ruĝiĝ-i.<br> +<b>board</b> (<b>plank</b>), tabul-o; (<b>food</b>), nutrad-o.<br> +<b>boast</b>, fanfaron-i.<br> +<b>boat</b>, boat-o, ŝipet-o.<br> +<b>body</b>, korp-o.<br> +<b>boil</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), bol-i (<b>275</b>).<br> +<b>bolt</b> (<b>fasten</b>), rigl-i.<br> +<b>bonbon</b>, bombon-o.<br> +<b>bond</b> (<b>fastening</b>), ligil-o.<br> +<b>bone</b>, ost-o.<br> +<b>book</b>, libr-o; <b>note—</b>, <b>copy—</b>, kajer-o.<br> +<b>boot</b>, bot-o.<br> +<b>border</b> (<b>edge</b>), rand-o.<br> +<b>bore</b> (<b>holes</b>), bor-i; (<b>weary</b>), enuig-i.<br> +<b>(be) born</b>, naskiĝ-i.<br> +<b>borrow</b>, pruntepren-i.<br> +<b>Boston</b>, Boston-o.<br> +<b>both</b> (<i>pronoun and adj.</i>), ambaŭ (<b>238</b>); (<i>adv.</i>), kaj (<b>26</b>).<br> +<b>bottle</b>, botel-o.<br> +<b>bottom</b>, fund-o, malsupr-o.<br> +<b>bough</b>, branĉ-o.<br> +<b>boulevard</b>, bulvard-o.<br> +<b>boundary</b>, lim-o.<br> +<b>bouquet</b>, buked-o.<br> +<b>bow</b> (<b>of ribbon</b>), bant-o; (<b>for shooting</b>), pafark-o.<br> +<b>bow</b> (<b>bend</b>), kliniĝ-i, salut-i.<br> +<b>box</b>, kest-o; <b>small —</b>, skatol-o.<br> +<b>boy</b>, knab-o.<br> +<b>bracket</b> (<b>shelf</b>), bret-o.<br> +<b>brag</b>, fanfaron-i.<br> +<b>braid</b>, plekt-i.<br> +<b>brain</b>, cerb-o.<br> +<b>branch</b> (<b>of tree</b>), branĉ-o; (<b>of work or study</b>), fak-o.<br> +<b>brandish</b>, sving-i.<br> +<b>brandy</b>, brand-o.<br> +<b>brave</b>, brav-o.<br> +<b>bread</b>, pan-o.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------298.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>break</b> (<i>trans</i>)., romp-i; <b>— to pieces</b>, frakas-i.<br> +<b>breakfast</b>, matenmanĝ-o.<br> +<b>breathe</b>, spir-i.<br> +<b>brick</b>, brik-o.<br> +<b>bridge</b>, pont-o.<br> +<b>bridle</b>, brid-o.<br> +<b>bright</b> (<b>clear</b>), hel-a.<br> +<b>bring</b>, alport-i; <b>— forth</b> (<b>produce</b>), nask-i; <b>— up</b> (<b>educate</b>), eduk-i.<br> +<b>brisk</b>, vigl-a.<br> +<b>Briton</b>, Brit-o.<br> +<b>broad</b>, larĝ-a.<br> +<b>brochure</b>, broŝur-o.<br> +<b>bronze</b>, bronz-o.<br> +<b>brood</b> (<b>birds</b>), kov-i.<br> +<b>brother</b>, frat-o.<br> +<b>brown</b>, brun-a.<br> +<b>brownie</b>, kobold-o.<br> +<b>bruise</b>, kontuz-i.<br> +<b>brush</b>, bros-i.<br> +<b>brute</b>, brut-o.<br> +<b>bucket</b>, sitel-o.<br> +<b>buckle</b>, buk-o.<br> +<b>bud</b>, burĝon-o.<br> +<b>build</b>, konstru-i.<br> +<b>bulb</b>, tuber-o, bulb-o.<br> +<b>Bulgarian</b>, Bulgar-o.<br> +<b>bull</b>, bovvir-o.<br> +<b>bullet</b>, kugl-o.<br> +<b>bunch</b>, fask-o.<br> +<b>bundle</b>, fask-o, pakaĵ-o.<br> +<b>bungle</b>, fuŝ-i.<br> +<b>burden</b>, ŝarĝ-i.<br> +<b>burn</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), brul-i (<b>275</b>).<br> +<b>burst</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), krev-i.<br> +<b>bury</b>, enterig-i.<br> +<b>but</b> (<i>conj.</i>), sed; (<i>prep.</i>), krom.<br> +<b>butcher</b>, buĉ-i.<br> +<b>butter</b>, buter-o.<br> +<b>butterfly</b>, papili-o.<br> +<b>button</b>, buton-o; <b>to —</b>, butonum-i.<br> +<b>buy</b>, aĉet-i.<br> +<b>buzz</b>, zum-i.<br> +<b>by</b> (<i>prep.</i>), per (<b>64</b>); de (<b>169, 170</b>); (<b>past</b>), preter; (<b>according to</b>), laŭ (<b>191</b>).<br> + +<!-- This title is centered in book; center in textfile. --> +<!-- But in HTML, it looks better leftjustified. --> +<p><b>C.</b></p> + +<b>cab</b>, fiakr-o.<br> +<b>cabbage</b>, brasik-o.<br> +<b>cage</b>, kaĝ-o.<br> +<b>cake</b>, kuk-o.<br> +<b>calculate</b>, kalkul-i.<br> +<b>caldron</b>, kaldron-o.<br> +<b>calendar</b>, kalendar-o.<br> +<b>calf</b>, bovid-o; (<b>of the leg</b>), tibikarn-o.<br> +<b>call</b>, vok-i; (<b>visit</b>), vizit-i.<br> +<b>calling</b> (<b>profession</b>), profesi-o.<br> +<b>calm</b>, kviet-a, trankvil-a.<br> +<b>camel</b>, kamel-o.<br> +<b>camera</b>, kamer-o.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------299.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>can</b> (be able), pov-i (<b>72</b>); (<b>preserve fruit, etc.</b>), konfit-i.<br> +<b>candle</b>, kandel-o.<br> +<b>candy</b>, kand-o.<br> +<b>canoe</b>, kanot-o.<br> +<b>cap</b>, ĉap-o.<br> +<b>capable</b>, kapabl-a.<br> +<b>capital</b> (<b>money</b>), kapital-o; (<b>excellent</b>), boneg-a; (<b>city</b>), ĉefurb-o.<br> +<b>capitol</b>, kapitol-o.<br> +<b>car</b>, vagon-o.<br> +<b>card</b>, kart-o; <b>visiting —</b>, vizitkart-o.<br> +<b>care</b> (<b>for</b>), zorg-i (pri).<br> +<b>caress</b>, dorlot-i, kares-i.<br> +<b>carpet</b>, tapiŝ-o.<br> +<b>carriage</b>, kaleŝ-o, veturil-o.<br> +<b>carrot</b>, karot-o.<br> +<b>carry</b>, port-i.<br> +<b>carve</b>, skulpt-i.<br> +<b>case</b> (<b>small box</b>), skatol-o; (<b>chest</b>), kest-o; (<b>legal</b>), proces-o; (<b>holder</b>), uj-o (<b>181</b>), ing-o (<b>237</b>); (<b>occasion</b>), okaz-o; (<b>grammatical</b>), kaz-o.<br> +<b>cashier</b>, kasist-o.<br> +<b>cascade</b>, kaskad-o.<br> +<b>cast</b>, ĵet-i.<br> +<b>castle</b>, kastel-o.<br> +<b>cat</b>, kat-o.<br> +<b>catch</b>, kapt-i.<br> +<b>cattle</b>, brut-o, brutar-o.<br> +<b>cauliflower</b>, florbrasik-o.<br> +<b>cause</b>, ig-i (<b>214</b>); (<b>produce a result</b>), kaŭz-i; (<b>motive</b>), kial-o; tial-o; (<b>espoused or advocated</b>), afer-o; (<b>legal</b>), proces-o.<br> +<b>caution</b>, avert-i.<br> +<b>cavity</b>, kav-o.<br> +<b>cease</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), ĉes-i.<br> +<b>ceiling</b>, plafon-o.<br> +<b>celebrate</b>, fest-i, solenig-i; <b>—ed</b>, fama.<br> +<b>celery</b>, celeri-o.<br> +<b>cellar</b>, kel-o.<br> +<b>cent</b>, cend-o.<br> +<b>center</b>, centr-o.<br> +<b>centigram</b>, centigram-o (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>centiliter</b>, centilitr-o (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>centimeter</b>, centimetr-o (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>certain</b>, cert-a; <b>a —</b> (<b>one</b>), iu (<i>pronoun and adj.</i>, 203); <b>— amount, etc.</b>, <i>see table</i>, 235.<br> +<b>certainly</b>, nepr-e, cert-e, ja (<b>215</b>).<br> +<b>certify</b>, atest-i, certig-i, konstat-i.<br> +<b>chain</b>, ĉen-o; (<b>fetter</b>), katen-o; (<b>of mountains</b>), montar-o.<br> +<b>chair</b>, seĝ-o.<br> +<b>(be) chairman</b>, prezid-i.<br> +<b>chalk</b>, kret-o.<br> +<b>chance</b>, ŝanc-o; (<b>hazard</b>), hazard-o; (<b>opportunity</b>), okazo.<br> +<b>change</b> (<i>trans.</i>), ŝanĝ-i; (<b>coins</b>), moner-oj.<br> +<b>chapel</b>, kapel-o.<br> +<b>chapter</b>, ĉapitr-o.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------300.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>character</b>, karakter-o.<br> +<b>charge</b> (<b>commission</b>), komisi-o; (<b>burden</b>), ŝarĝ-o; (<b>price, cost</b>), prez-o, kost-o.<br> +<b>charm</b>, ĉarm-i.<br> +<b>chase</b> (<b>game, etc.</b>), ĉas-i; (<b>drive off</b>), forpel-i.<br> +<b>chatter</b>, babil-i.<br> +<b>check</b> (<b>on bank</b>), ĉek-o.<br> +<b>cheek</b>, vang-o.<br> +<b>cheese</b>, fromaĝ-o.<br> +<b>chemise</b>, ĉemiz-o.<br> +<b>chemistry</b>, ĥemi-o.<br> +<b>chemist's shop</b>, apotek-o.<br> +<b>cheque</b>, ĉek-o.<br> +<b>cherry</b>, ĉeriz-o.<br> +<b>chest</b> (<b>box</b>), kest-o; (<b>with a lid</b>), kofr-o.<br> +<b>chestnut</b>, kaŝtan-o.<br> +<b>chew</b>, maĉ-i.<br> +<b>chief</b>, ĉef-a, precip-a; (<b>leader</b>), estr-o (<b>253</b>).<br> +<b>child</b>, infan-o, id-o (<b>207</b>).<br> +<b>chimney</b>, kamen-o.<br> +<b>chin</b>, menton-o.<br> +<b>china</b> (<b>porcelain</b>), porcelan-o; (<b>country</b>), Ĥinuj-o.<br> +<b>Chinaman</b>, ĥin-o.<br> +<b>chirp</b>, pep-i.<br> +<b>chocolate</b>, ĉokolad-o.<br> +<b>choir</b>, ĥor-o.<br> +<b>choose</b>, elekt-i.<br> +<b>chop</b>, hak-i; (<b>cutlet</b>), kotlet-o.<br> +<b>chrestomathy</b>, krestomati-o.<br> +<b>Christ</b>, Krist-o.<br> +<b>church</b> (<b>building</b>), preĝej-o.<br> +<b>chute</b>, ŝut-o.<br> +<b>cigar</b>, cigar-o.<br> +<b>cigarette</b>, cigared-o.<br> +<b>cinnamon</b>, cinam-o.<br> +<b>cipher</b>, cifer-o.<br> +<b>circle</b>, cirkl-o, rond-o.<br> +<b>circular</b> (<b>letter, etc.</b>), cirkuler-o.<br> +<b>circumstance</b>, okaz-o, detal-o, cirkonstanc-o.<br> +<b>citizen</b>, regnan-o, urban-o.<br> +<b>city</b>, urb-o.<br> +<b>civilise</b>, civiliz-i.<br> +<b>clack</b>, krak-i.<br> +<b>claim</b>, pretend-i.<br> +<b>clamber</b>, ramp-i.<br> +<b>clap</b> (<i>trans.</i>), klak-i.<br> +<b>class</b>, klas-o.<br> +<b>clatter</b>, (<i>trans.</i>), klak-i.<br> +<b>claw</b>, ungeg-o.<br> +<b>clay</b>, argil-o.<br> +<b>clean</b>, pur-a.<br> +<b>clear</b> (<b>bright</b>), hela; (<b>distinct</b>), klar-a.<br> +<b>clearing</b> (<b>financial</b>), spez-o.<br> +<b>clergyman</b>, pastr-o.<br> +<b>clerk</b>, komiz-o.<br> +<b>clever</b>, lert-a.<br> +<b>climate</b>, klimat-o.<br> +<b>climb up</b>, grimp-i, supren ramp-i.<br> +<b>cloak</b>, mantel-o.<br> +<b>clock</b>, horloĝ-o.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------301.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>close</b> (<i>trans.</i>), ferm-i; (<b>dense</b>), dens-a; <b>— to</b> (<i>prep.</i>), apud; proksim-e de (<b>170</b>).<br> +<b>cloth</b> (<b>in general</b>), ŝtof-o; (woollen, etc.), drap-o; (<b>piece of</b>), tuk-o; <b>table—</b>, tablotuk-o.<br> +<b>clothe</b>, vest-i.<br> +<b>cloud</b>, nub-o.<br> +<b>club</b> (<b>organization</b>), klub-o; (<b>weapon</b>), bastoneg-o.<br> +<b>coal</b>, karb-o.<br> +<b>coat</b>, vest-o; (<b>short</b>), jak-o; (<b>frock</b>), redingot-o; <b>over—</b>, surtut-o.<br> +<b>cock</b> (<b>fowl</b>), kok-o.<br> +<b>coffee</b>, kaf-o.<br> +<b>collect</b> (<i>trans.</i>), kolekt-i.<br> +<b>college</b>, kolegi-o.<br> +<b>colonel</b>, kolonel-o.<br> +<b>color</b>, kolor-o.<br> +<b>column</b>, kolon-o.<br> +<b>comb</b>, komb-i.<br> +<b>come</b>, ven-i.<br> +<b>comedy</b>, komedi-o.<br> +<b>comfort</b> (<b>console</b>), konsol-i; (<b>freedom from pain, etc.</b>), komfort-o.<br> +<b>command</b>, ordon-i; (<b>military and naval</b>), komand-i.<br> +<b>commerce</b>, komerc-o.<br> +<b>commission</b> (<b>entrusted</b>), komisi-o; (<b>percentage of profit</b>), tantiem-o, komisipag-o.<br> +<b>committee</b>, komitat-o.<br> +<b>common</b> (<b>general</b>), ĝeneral-a; (<b>mutual</b>), komun-a; (<b>vulgar</b>), vulgar-a.<br> +<b>communicate</b>, komunik-i.<br> +<b>company</b> (<b>commercial</b>), kompanio; (<b>guests</b>), gastar-o; (<b>presence</b>), ĉeest-o.<br> +<b>compare</b> (<i>trans.</i>), kompar-i (<b>266</b>).<br> +<b>compassion</b>, kompat-o.<br> +<b>compete</b>, konkur-i.<br> +<b>competition</b>, konkurad-o; (<b>for prizes</b>), konkurs-o; (<b>in business</b>), konkurenc-o.<br> +<b>complain</b>, plend-i.<br> +<b>complicate</b>, komplik-i.<br> +<b>compose</b> (<b>music or literature</b>), verk-i.<br> +<b>compositor</b> (<b>of type</b>), kompostist-o.<br> +<b>conceal</b>, kaŝ-i (<b>252</b>).<br> +<b>concern</b>, koncern-i (<b>266</b>); (<b>anxiety</b>), maltrankvilec-o.<br> +<b>concerning</b> (<i>prep.</i>), pri. (264, c).<br> +<b>concert</b> (<b>musical</b>), koncert-o.<br> +<b>condemn</b>, kondamn-i.<br> +<b>condition</b>, cirkonstanc-o; (<b>stipulation</b>), kondiĉ-o; (<b>state</b>), stat-o.<br> +<b>conduct</b> (<b>lead</b>), konduk-i; <b>— oneself</b> (<b>behave</b>), kondut-i.<br> +<b>conduct</b> (<b>behavior</b>), kondut-o; (<b>in regard to right or wrong</b>), mor-o.<br> +<b>conductor</b> (<b>of car, etc.</b>), konduktor-o.<br> +<b>confess</b>, konfes-i.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------302.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>confide</b>, konfid-i.<br> +<b>conform</b>, konform-i (<b>266</b>).<br> +<b>confound</b> (<b>confuse</b>), konfuz-i.<br> +<b>congratulate</b>, gratul-i.<br> +<b>congress</b>, kongres-o.<br> +<b>conquer</b>, venk-i.<br> +<b>conscience</b>, konscienc-o.<br> +<b>(be) conscious</b>, konsci-i.<br> +<b>consent</b>, konsent-i.<br> +<b>consequently</b>, sekv-e, do; tial (<b>78</b>).<br> +<b>(be) conservative</b>, konservativ-a.<br> +<b>consist</b>, konsist-i.<br> +<b>console</b>, konsol-i.<br> +<b>consonant</b> (<b>letter</b>), konsonant-o.<br> +<b>conspire</b>, konspir-i.<br> +<b>constant</b>, konstant-a.<br> +<b>constitution</b>, konstituci-o.<br> +<b>consul</b>, konsul-o.<br> +<b>consult</b>, konsult-i, pet-i konsilon de.<br> +<b>contaminate</b>, infekt-i.<br> +<b>content</b>, kontent-a.<br> +<b>continent</b> (<b>land</b>), kontinent-o.<br> +<b>continue</b>, daŭr-i, daŭrig-i.<br> +<b>contour</b>, kontur-o.<br> +<b>contract</b> (<b>commercial and legal</b>), kontrakt-i.<br> +<b>contralto</b>, kontralt-o.<br> +<b>contrary</b>, mal-o (<b>67</b>); kontraŭstarem-a.<br> +<b>control</b>, kontrol-i; (<b>govern</b>), reg-i.<br> +<b>convenient</b>, konven-a, oportun-a.<br> +<b>convince</b>, konvink-i.<br> +<b>cook</b>, kuir-i.<br> +<b>copper</b>, kupr-o.<br> +<b>copy</b>, kopi-i; (<b>of a book, etc.</b>), ekzempler-o.<br> +<b>coquettish</b>, koket-a.<br> +<b>cork</b>, ŝtop-i; (<b>bark of cork tree</b>), kork-o.<br> +<b>corner</b>, angul-o.<br> +<b>corporal</b>, corporeal, korp-a.<br> +<b>corps</b> (<b>military</b>), korpus-o.<br> +<b>corpse</b>, kadavr-o.<br> +<b>correct</b>, korekt-i; (<b>right</b>), prav-a.<br> +<b>correspond</b>, korespond-i.<br> +<b>corridor</b>, koridor-o.<br> +<b>cost</b>, kost-i.<br> +<b>costume</b>, kostum-o.<br> +<b>cotton</b>, koton-o.<br> +<b>cough</b>, tus-i.<br> +<b>counsel</b>, konsil-i.<br> +<b>count</b>, kalkul-i, sum-i, nombr-i; (<b>person</b>), graf-o.<br> +<b>county</b>, grafland-o.<br> +<b>country</b>, land-o; (<b>as opposed to city</b>), kampar-o.<br> +<b>coupon</b>, kupon-o.<br> +<b>(be) courageous</b>, kuraĝ-i.<br> +<b>course</b> (<b>of lessons</b>), kurs-o; (<b>of a meal</b>), servic-o; <b>of —</b>, kompreneble; <b>in the — of</b>, en la daŭro de.<br> +<b>court</b>, kort-o, korteg-o, juĝej-o.<br> +<b>courteous</b>, ĝentil-a.<br> +<b>courtesy</b>, ĝentilec-o; (<b>kindness</b>), komplez-o.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------303.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>cousin</b>, kuz-o.<br> +<b>cover</b>, kovr-i; (<b>put covering upon</b>), teg-i.<br> +<b>crab</b>, krab-o.<br> +<b>crack</b> (<b>split</b>) (<i>trans.</i>), fend-i; (<b>crackle</b>), krak-i; (<b>burst open</b>) (<i>intrans.</i>), krev-i.<br> +<b>cradle</b>, lulil-o.<br> +<b>crafty</b>, ruz-a.<br> +<b>cravat</b>, kravat-o.<br> +<b>crawl</b>, ramp-i.<br> +<b>crazy</b>, frenez-a.<br> +<b>cream</b>, krem-o.<br> +<b>create</b>, kre-i.<br> +<b>creep</b>, ramp-i; <b>— up</b>, grimp-i.<br> +<b>crime</b>, krim-o.<br> +<b>crippled</b>, kripl-a.<br> +<b>criticise</b>, kritik-i.<br> +<b>crooked</b>, tord-a, malrekt-a, kurb-a.<br> +<b>cross</b>, kruc-o; (<b>angry</b>), koler-a; <b>— off</b>, trastrek-i.<br> +<b>crowd</b>, amas-o, anar-o (<b>145, 126</b>).<br> +<b>crown</b>, kron-o.<br> +<b>crucify</b>, krucum-i.<br> +<b>cruel</b>, kruel-a.<br> +<b>crush</b>, pist-i, premeg-i.<br> +<b>crust</b>, krust-o.<br> +<b>cry</b> (<b>weep</b>), plor-i; (<b>shout</b>), kri-i; (<b>of animals</b>), blek-i.<br> +<b>cucumber</b>, kukum-o.<br> +<b>cultivate</b>, kultur-i; <b>— the soil</b>, terkultur-i.<br> +<b>cunning</b>, ruz-a.<br> +<b>cup</b>, tas-o; (<b>goblet</b>), pokal-o.<br> +<b>cupboard</b>, ŝrank-o.<br> +<b>curious</b> (<b>odd</b>), kurioz-a; (<b>inquisitive</b>), scivol-a.<br> +<b>curl</b> (<b>of hair</b>), bukl-o.<br> +<b>curtain</b>, kurten-o.<br> +<b>curve</b>, kurb-o.<br> +<b>cushion</b>, kusen-o.<br> +<b>custom</b>, kutim-o; (<b>tax</b>), impost-o.<br> +<b>cut</b>, tranĉ-i; (<b>of a garment</b>), fason-o.<br> +<b>cutlet</b>, kotlet-o.<br> +<b>cylinder</b>, cilindr-o.<br> +<b>Cyrus</b>, Cirus-o.<br> + +<!-- This title is centered in book; center in textfile. --> +<!-- But in HTML, it looks better leftjustified. --> +<p><b>D.</b></p> + +<b>dabble</b> (<b>a liquid</b>), plaŭd-i.<br> +<b>dainty</b>, delikat-a.<br> +<b>damage</b>, difekt-i.<br> +<b>Damocles</b>, Damokl-o.<br> +<b>Dane</b>, dan-o.<br> +<b>danger</b>, danĝer-o.<br> +<b>dance</b>, danc-i.<br> +<b>date</b> (<b>fruit</b>), daktil-o; (<b>time</b>), dat-o.<br> +<b>dawn</b>, tagiĝ-o.<br> +<b>day</b>, tag-o.<br> +<b>deaf</b>, surd-a.<br> +<b>dear</b> (<b>prized</b>), kar-a; (<b>expensive</b>), multekost-a.<br> +<b>debase</b> (<b>adulterate</b>), fals-i; (<b>make bad</b>), malbonig-i.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------304.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>decay</b> (<b>mould</b>), ŝim-o; (<b>in health</b>), kaduk-i.<br> +<b>deceive</b>, tromp-i.<br> +<b>December</b>, decembr-o.<br> +<b>decide</b>, decid-i.<br> +<b>decigram</b>, decigram-o (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>deciliter</b>, decilitr-o (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>decimeter</b>, decimetr-o (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>deck (of ship)</b>, ferdek-o; (<b>adorn</b>), ornam-i.<br> +<b>declaim</b>, deklam-i.<br> +<b>deep</b>, profund-a.<br> +<b>deer</b>, cerv-o.<br> +<b>defend</b>, defend-i.<br> +<b>define</b>, defin-i, priskrib-i.<br> +<b>degree</b>, grad-o.<br> +<b>dekagram</b>, dekagram-o (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>dekaliter</b>, dekalitr-o (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>dekameter</b>, dekametr-o (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>delay</b>, prokrast-i.<br> +<b>delegate</b>, deleg-i.<br> +<b>delicate</b>, delikat-a.<br> +<b>delightful</b>, ĉarm-a, plaĉeg-a.<br> +<b>deliver (supply)</b>, liver-i; (<b>set free</b>), liberig-i.<br> +<b>delusion</b>, iluzi-o.<br> +<b>demand</b>, postul-i.<br> +<b>dense</b>, dens-a.<br> +<b>deny</b>, ne-i (<b>171</b>).<br> +<b>department (of work, etc.)</b>, fak-o.<br> +<b>desert</b>, dezert-o; (<b>just reward</b>), merit-o.<br> +<b>deserve</b>, merit-i.<br> +<b>desire</b>, dezir-i.<br> +<b>desk</b>, pupitr-o, skribtabl-o.<br> +<b>dessert</b>, desert-o.<br> +<b>destine</b>, destin-i; difin-i.<br> +<b>destiny</b>, destin-o; (<b>lot</b>), sort-o.<br> +<b>destroy</b>, detru-i, neniig-i.<br> +<b>detail</b>, detal-o.<br> +<b>dew</b>, ros-o.<br> +<b>diamond</b>, diamant-o.<br> +<b>dictionary</b>, vortar-o.<br> +<b>dictate (letters)</b>, dikt-i.<br> +<b>die</b>, mort-i.<br> +<b>different</b>, divers-a, malsam-a, diferenc-a.<br> +<b>differentiate</b>, diferencig-i.<br> +<b>dig</b>, fos-i.<br> +<b>dignity (rank)</b>, rang-o.<br> +<b>diligent</b>, diligent-a.<br> +<b>dimension</b>, dimensio; (<b>size</b>), ampleks-o.<br> +<b>Diogenes</b>, Diogen-o.<br> +<b>dip (in liquid)</b>, tremp-i.<br> +<b>diploma</b>, diplom-o; <b>holder of —</b>, diplomit-o.<br> +<b>diplomat</b>, diplomat-o.<br> +<b>direct (guide)</b>, direkt-i; (<b>undeviating</b>), rekt-a.<br> +<b>disburse</b>, elspez-i, elpag-i.<br> +<b>discount</b>, rabat-i.<br> +<b>discuss</b>, diskut-i, priparol-i.<br> +<b>disdain</b>, malŝat-i, malestim-i.<br> +<b>dish (flat)</b>, plad-o.<br> +<b>dispatch (letter)</b>, depeŝ-o.<br> +<b>distance</b>, distanc-o.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------305.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>distinct</b>, klar-a.<br> +<b>distinguish</b>, disting-i.<br> +<b>distract (the attention)</b>, distr-i; (<b>confuse</b>), konfuz-i.<br> +<b>disturb</b>, ĝen-i, maltrankvilig-i.<br> +<b>diverse</b>, divers-a.<br> +<b>divide</b> (<i>trans.</i>), divid-i.<br> +<b>do</b>, far-i; (<b>suffice</b>), sufiĉ-i.<br> +<b>doctor</b>, doktor-o; (<b>medical</b>), kuracist-o.<br> +<b>dog</b>, hund-o.<br> +<b>doll</b>, pup-o.<br> +<b>dollar</b>, dolar-o.<br> +<b>donkey</b>, azen-o.<br> +<b>door</b>, pord-o; <b>—handle,</b> ans-o.<br> +<b>doubt</b>, dub-i.<br> +<b>down (hair or feathers)</b>, lanug-o; (<b>downward</b>) (<i>adv.</i>), malsupren.<br> +<b>dove</b>, kolomb-o.<br> +<b>drag</b> (<i>trans.</i>), tren-i.<br> +<b>draw (pull)</b>, tir-i; (<b>sketch</b>), skiz-i.<br> +<b>drawer</b>, tirkest-o.<br> +<b>drawing-room</b>, salon-o.<br> +<b>dream (in sleep)</b>, sonĝ-i; (<b>fancy</b>), rev-i.<br> +<b>drench</b>, tremp-i.<br> +<b>dress</b>, vest-i (sin); (<b>frock</b>), rob-o; <b>—suit</b>, frak-o.<br> +<b>dressing (sauce)</b>, saŭc-o.<br> +<b>drink</b>, trink-i.<br> +<b>drip</b>, gut-i.<br> +<b>drive (off)</b>, pel-i; (<b>vehicle</b>), veturig-i; (<b>roadway</b>), ŝose-o.<br> +<b>drown</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), dron-i.<br> +<b>drug</b>, drog-o; <b>—store</b>, apotek-o.<br> +<b>drum</b>, tambur-o.<br> +<b>dry</b>, sek-a.<br> +<b>duck</b>, anas-o.<br> +<b>dues</b>, kotizaĵ-o; <b>pay —</b>, kotiz-i.<br> +<b>dumb</b>, mut-a; <b>— animal</b>, brut-o.<br> +<b>during</b> (<i>prep.</i>), dum (<b>96</b>); en la daŭro de-.<br> +<b>dusk</b>, krepusk-o.<br> +<b>dust</b>, polv-o; <b>remove the —</b>, senpolvig-i.<br> +<b>duty</b>, dev-o; <b>be on —</b>, deĵor-i.<br> +<b>dwell</b>, loĝ-i.<br> + +<!-- This title is centered in book; center in textfile. --> +<!-- But in HTML, it looks better leftjustified. --> +<p><b>E.</b></p> + +<b>each</b> (<i>adj. and pronoun</i>), ĉiu (<b>173</b>).<br> +<b>eager</b>, avid-a.<br> +<b>eagle</b>, agl-o.<br> +<b>ear (of the body)</b>, orel-o.<br> +<b>early</b>, fru-a.<br> +<b>earth</b>, ter-o; (<b>the planet</b>), terglob-o.<br> +<b>east</b>, orient-o.<br> +<b>Easter</b>, Pask-o.<br> +<b>easy</b>, facil-a.<br> +<b>eat</b>, manĝ-i.<br> +<b>echo</b>, eĥ-o.<br> +<b>economical</b>, ŝparem-a.<br> +<b>edge</b>, rand-o; (<b>of rivers, etc.</b>), bord-o.<br> +<b>edit</b>, redakt-i.<br> +<b>editor</b>, redaktor-o.<br> +<b>editorial body</b>, redakci-o.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------306.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>educate</b>, (<b>rear</b>), eduk-i; (<b>teach</b>), instru-i.<br> +<b>effect</b>, efekt-o.<br> +<b>effective</b>, efektiv-a.<br> +<b>(be) efficacious</b>, efik-i.<br> +<b>egg</b>, ov-o.<br> +<b>Egypt</b>, Egipt-o.<br> +<b>eight</b> (<i>adj.</i>), ok (<b>136</b>).<br> +<b>either</b> (<i>pronoun and adj.</i>), iu (<b>203</b>); ĉiu (<b>173</b>); unu aŭ la alia; (<i>adv.</i>), aŭ; <b>on — side</b> (<i>adv.</i>), ambaŭflanke (<b>238</b>).<br> +<b>elbow</b>, kubut-o.<br> +<b>electric</b>, elektr-a.<br> +<b>elk</b>, alk-o.<br> +<b>elm</b>, ulm-o.<br> +<b>eloquent</b>, elokvent-a.<br> +<b>embroider</b>, brod-i.<br> +<b>eminent</b>, eminent-a.<br> +<b>empire</b>, imperi-o.<br> +<b>employ</b> (<b>hire</b>), dung-i; <b>— oneself</b>, sin okupi; (<b>use</b>), uz-i.<br> +<b>employee</b>, komiz-o, dungit-o, oficist-o.<br> +<b>employment</b>, ofic-o, okupad-o.<br> +<b>enchant</b>, ensorĉ-i, rav-i.<br> +<b>encore</b> (<i>adv.</i>), bis.<br> +<b>end</b> (<i>trans.</i>), fin-i.<br> +<b>endow</b>, dot-i.<br> +<b>endure</b>, sufer-i, elport-i.<br> +<b>engineer</b>, inĝenier-o.<br> +<b>Englishman</b>, angl-o.<br> +<b>enjoy</b>, ĝu-i; <b>— oneself</b>, sin amuz-i.<br> +<b>enlightened</b>, kler-a.<br> +<b>enlist</b> (<i>trans.</i>), varb-i.<br> +<b>enroll</b> (<i>trans.</i>), registr-i, varb-i.<br> +<b>enthusiasm</b>, entuziasm-o.<br> +<b>entire</b>, tut-a.<br> +<b>entrust</b>, komisii, alkonfid-i.<br> +<b>envelope</b> (<b>of letter</b>), kovert-o.<br> +<b>envy</b>, envi-i.<br> +<b>(be an) epicure</b>, frand-i.<br> +<b>epoch</b>, epok-o.<br> +<b>equal</b>, egal-a.<br> +<b>err</b>, erar-i.<br> +<b>establish</b>, establ-i, fond-i; (<b>prove, etc.</b>), konstat-i.<br> +<b>estate</b>, bien-o.<br> +<b>esteem</b>, estim-i.<br> +<b>estimate</b>, taks-i.<br> +<b>eternal</b>, etern-a, ĉiam-a.<br> +<b>Europe</b>, Eŭrop-o.<br> +<b>evangel</b>, evangeli-o.<br> +<b>even</b> (<b>level</b>), eben-a; <b>— number</b>, parnombro; (<b>actually</b>) (<i>adv.</i>), eĉ.<br> +<b>evening</b>, vesper-o (<b>93</b>); <b>— dress (of man)</b>, frak-o.<br> +<b>ever</b> (<i>adv.</i>), iam (<b>212</b>); (<i>indefinite adv.</i>), ajn (<b>236</b>); (<b>always</b>), ĉiam (<b>187</b>).<br> +<b>every</b> (<b>one</b>), (<i>pronoun and adv.</i>), ĉiu (<b>173</b>); <b>—thing</b>, <b>— way</b>, etc., <i>see table</i>, 235.<br> +<b>evolution</b>, evoluci-o.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------307.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>exact</b>, akurat-a, ĝust-a; (<b>demand</b>), postul-i.<br> +<b>examine</b>, ekzamen-i; <b>— and check</b>, kontrol-i.<br> +<b>example</b>, ekzempl-o; (<b>model</b>), model-o.<br> +<b>Excellency</b> (<i>title</i>), moŝt-o (<b>258</b>).<br> +<b>except</b>, escept-i (<b>266</b>); (<i>prep.</i>), krom.<br> +<b>excite</b>, ekscit-i.<br> +<b>exercise</b> (<i>trans.</i>), ekzerc-i.<br> +<b>exhale</b>, elspir-i.<br> +<b>exhort</b>, admon-i.<br> +<b>exile</b>, ekzil-i.<br> +<b>exist</b>, ekzist-i.<br> +<b>expect</b>, atend-i.<br> +<b>expend</b> (<b>money</b>), elspez-i; (<b>energy, etc.</b>), uz-i, eluz-i.<br> +<b>experienced</b>, spert-a.<br> +<b>experiment</b>, eksperiment-i.<br> +<b>expert</b>, spert-a, lert-a.<br> +<b>explode</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), eksplod-i (<b>275</b>).<br> +<b>explore</b>, esplor-i.<br> +<b>express</b>, esprim-i; (train), rapida vagonaro.<br> +<b>extend</b> (<i>trans.</i>), etend-i, pligrandig-i, plilongig-i.<br> +<b>extensive</b>, vast-a, vastampleks-a.<br> +<b>extent</b> (size), ampleks-o.<br> +<b>extinguish</b>, esting-i.<br> +<b>extraordinary</b>, eksterordinar-a.<br> +<b>eye</b>, okul-o; <b>—brow</b>, brov-o; <b>—lid</b>, palpebr-o.<br> + +<!-- This title is centered in book; center in textfile. --> +<!-- But in HTML, it looks better leftjustified. --> +<p><b>F.</b></p> + +<b>fable</b>, fabel-o.<br> +<b>face</b>, vizaĝ-o.<br> +<b>fact</b>, fakt-o; <b>in —</b>, fakt-e, efektiv-e, ja (<b>215</b>).<br> +<b>fade</b>, velk-i.<br> +<b>fair</b> (just), just-a; (<b>beautiful</b>), bel-a.<br> +<b>fairy</b>, fe-o, fein-o.<br> +<b>faint</b>, sven-i.<br> +<b>faithful</b>, fidel-a.<br> +<b>fall</b>, fal-i; (<b>autumn</b>), aŭtun-o.<br> +<b>false</b>, fals-a; (<b>treacherous</b>), perfid-a.<br> +<b>fame</b>, fam-o.<br> +<b>familiar</b>, familiar-a, kutim-a.<br> +<b>family</b>, famili-o.<br> +<b>fancy</b>, imag-i, rev-i.<br> +<b>far</b>, malproksim-e; <b>as — as</b> (<i>prep.</i>), ĝis (<b>46</b>).<br> +<b>farm</b> (<b>as a tenant</b>), farm-i; (<b>till the soil</b>), terkultur-i.<br> +<b>farewell</b> (<i>adv. and interjection</i>), adiaŭ (<b>171, 273</b>).<br> +<b>fashion</b>, fason-o, mod-o.<br> +<b>fasten</b>, lig-i.<br> +<b>fat</b>, gras-o; (<b>corpulent</b>), dik-a.<br> +<b>fatal</b>, fatal-a.<br> +<b>fate</b>, sort-o, fatal-o, destin-o.<br> +<b>father</b>, patr-o.<br> +<b>faucet</b>, kran-o.<br> +<b>favor</b>, favor-i; <b>a —</b>, komplezo.<br> +<b>favorable</b>, favor-a.<br> +<b>fay</b>, fe-o, fein-o.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------308.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>fear</b>, tim-i.<br> +<b>feather</b>, plum-o.<br> +<b>feature</b>, trajt-o.<br> +<b>feed</b>, nutr-i; <b>— flocks</b>, paŝt-i.<br> +<b>feel</b>, sent-i; (<b>with fingers, etc.</b>), palp-i.<br> +<b>female</b>, in-o (<b>59</b>).<br> +<b>fervor</b>, fervor-o.<br> +<b>fetter</b> (<b>chain, etc.</b>), katen-o.<br> +<b>fever</b>, febr-o.<br> +<b>fiancé</b>, fianĉ-o.<br> +<b>fie</b> (<i>interjection</i>), fi (<b>273</b>).<br> +<b>field</b>, kamp-o.<br> +<b>fight</b>, batal-i, milit-i.<br> +<b>fill</b>, plenig-i.<br> +<b>find</b>, trov-i.<br> +<b>fine</b>, bel-a, delikat-a; (<b>of money</b>), monpun-o.<br> +<b>finger</b>, fingr-o; <b>index —</b>, montra fingro; <b>little —</b>, malgranda fingro; <b>middle —</b>, longa fingro; <b>ring —</b>, ringa fingro.<br> +<b>finish</b> (<i>trans.</i>), fin-i.<br> +<b>fir</b>, abi-o.<br> +<b>fire</b>, fajr-o; <b>set — to</b>, ekbrulig-i.<br> +<b>firm</b>, firm-a.<br> +<b>fish</b>, fiŝ-o; (<b>catch fish</b>), fiŝkapt-i.<br> +<b>fist</b>, pugn-o.<br> +<b>fit</b>, almezur-i; <b>(be) —</b>, taŭg-i.<br> +<b>(be) fitting</b>, konven-i; (<b>decent</b>), dec-i.<br> +<b>five</b> (<i>adj.</i>), kvin (<b>136</b>).<br> +<b>flag</b>, flag-o; standard-o.<br> +<b>flat</b>, glat-a, eben-a; plat-a.<br> +<b>flesh</b>, karn-o.<br> +<b>flex</b> (<i>trans.</i>), fleks-i.<br> +<b>floor</b>, plank-o.<br> +<b>flour</b>, farun-o.<br> +<b>flow</b>, flu-i.<br> +<b>flower</b>, flor-o (<b>116</b>).<br> +<b>fluid</b>, fluid-a.<br> +<b>fly</b>, flug-i; (<b>insect</b>), muŝ-o.<br> +<b>foam</b>, ŝaŭm-o.<br> +<b>focus</b>, fokus-o.<br> +<b>fog</b>, nebul-o.<br> +<b>fold</b>, fald-i.<br> +<b>folk</b>, popol-o.<br> +<b>follow</b>, sekv-i, postven-i, postir-i.<br> +<b>(be) fond of sweets</b>, frand-i.<br> +<b>fondle</b>, dorlot-i.<br> +<b>foot</b> (<b>of the body</b>), pied-o; (<b>measure</b>), fut-o.<br> +<b>for</b> (<i>prep.</i>), por (<b>95, 98, 262</b>); pro (<b>86</b>); (<i>conj.</i>), ĉar (<b>83</b>).<br> +<b>force</b>, fort-o; (compel), devig-i; <b>— (upon)</b>, altrud-i (al).<br> +<b>fore-</b>, pra- (<b>282</b>).<br> +<b>forehead</b>, frunt-o.<br> +<b>foreign</b>, fremd-a.<br> +<b>forge</b> (<b>falsify</b>), fals-i.<br> +<b>forget</b>, forges-i.<br> +<b>forgive</b>, pardon-i.<br> +<b>fork</b>, fork-o.<br> +<b>form</b>, form-i, alform-i, model-i.<br> +<b>formal</b>, solen-a.<br> +<b>found</b>, fond-i.<br> +<b>foundation</b>, fundament-o.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------309.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>four</b> (<i>adj.</i>), kvar (<b>136</b>).<br> +<b>fount</b>, font-o.<br> +<b>fountain</b>, fontan-o.<br> +<b>fox</b>, vulp-o.<br> +<b>fragrance</b>, arom-o, bonodor-o.<br> +<b>frame</b> (<b>of picture</b>), kadr-o.<br> +<b>frank</b>, afrank-i.<br> +<b>Frederick</b>, Frederik-o.<br> +<b>free</b>, liber-a.<br> +<b>Frenchman</b>, franc-o.<br> +<b>frequent</b>, oft-a; (<b>visit often</b>), vizitad-i.<br> +<b>fresh</b>, freŝ-a, nov-a.<br> +<b>Friday</b>, vendred-o.<br> +<b>friend</b>, amik-o.<br> +<b>fringe</b>, franĝ-o.<br> +<b>frivolous</b>, malserioz-a.<br> +<b>frock coat</b>, redingot-o.<br> +<b>frog</b>, ran-o.<br> +<b>from</b> (<i>prep.</i>), de (<b>89, 170</b>); el; (<b>cause</b>), pro (<b>86</b>).<br> +<b>frost</b>, frost-o; (<b>hoar</b>), prujn-o.<br> +<b>froth</b>, ŝaŭm-o.<br> +<b>fruit</b>, frukt-o.<br> +<b>fruitless</b> (<b>vain</b>), van-a.<br> +<b>fry</b> (<i>trans.</i>), frit-i.<br> +<b>function</b> (<b>of machinery, etc.</b>), funkci-i.<br> +<b>funereal</b>, funebr-a.<br> +<b>fulfil</b>, plenum-i.<br> +<b>full</b>, plen-a.<br> +<b>fur</b>, fel-o; (<b>coat or wrap</b>), pelt-o.<br> +<b>furious</b>, furioz-a.<br> +<b>furnish</b> (<b>supply</b>), liver-i; (<b>provide</b>), proviz-i; (<b>a house</b>), mebl-i.<br> +<b>furniture</b> (<b>piece of</b>), mebl-o.<br> +<b>furrow</b>, sulk-o.<br> +<b>further</b> (<i>adv.</i>), plu.<br> +<b>fuse</b> (<i>trans.</i>), fand-i.<br> +<b>futile</b>, van-a.<br> +<b>future</b>, estontec-o; (<b>grammatical</b>), estont-o; (<i>adj.</i>), estont-a.<br> + +<!-- This title is centered in book; center in textfile. --> +<!-- But in HTML, it looks better leftjustified. --> +<p><b>G.</b></p> + +<b>gain</b>, gajn-i, obten-i.<br> +<b>gallery</b>, galeri-o; (<b>for pictures</b>), pinakotek-o.<br> +<b>gallop</b>, galop-i.<br> +<b>gamin</b>, bub-o.<br> +<b>gape</b> (<b>yawn</b>), osced-i.<br> +<b>garden</b>, ĝarden-o.<br> +<b>garland</b>, girland-o.<br> +<b>gas</b>, gas-o.<br> +<b>gather</b> (<i>trans.</i>), kolekt-i.<br> +<b>gay</b>, gaj-a.<br> +<b>gaze</b>, fikse rigard-i.<br> +<b>gazette</b>, gazet-o.<br> +<b>general</b>, ĝeneral-a, komun-a; (<b>military</b>), general-o.<br> +<b>gentleman</b>, sinjor-o.<br> +<b>geometry</b>, geometri-o.<br> +<b>German</b>, german-o.<br> +<b>Gertrude</b>, Gertrud-o.<br> +<b>ghost</b>, fantom-o.<br> +<b>gift</b>, donac-o.<br> +<b>ginger</b>, zingibr-o.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------310.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>girdle</b>, zon-o.<br> +<b>give</b>, don-i; (<b>as a gift</b>), donac-i; <b>— information</b>, inform-i; <b>— notice</b>, aviz-i; <b>— witness</b>, atest-i; <b>— birth to</b>, nask-i.<br> +<b>(be) glad</b>, ĝoj-i (<b>116</b>).<br> +<b>glass</b> (<b>material</b>), vitr-o; (<b>tumbler</b>), glas-o.<br> +<b>glide</b>, glit-i.<br> +<b>globe</b>, glob-o.<br> +<b>glory</b>, glor-o.<br> +<b>glossy</b> (<b>polished</b>), polurit-a.<br> +<b>glove</b>, gant-o.<br> +<b>glue</b>, glu-i.<br> +<b>gnash</b>, grinc-i.<br> +<b>go</b>, ir-i; (<b>in vehicle, boat, etc.</b>), vetur-i; <b>— on a pilgrimage</b>, pilgrim-i.<br> +<b>goal</b>, cel-o.<br> +<b>goblet</b>, pokal-o.<br> +<b>God</b>, Di-o.<br> +<b>good</b>, bon-a; <b>be — for</b>, taŭg-i por.<br> +<b>good-bye</b> (<i>adv. and interjection</i>), adiaŭ (<b>171, 273</b>).<br> +<b>goose</b>, anser-o.<br> +<b>gospel</b>, evangeli-o.<br> +<b>govern</b>, reg-i.<br> +<b>graceful</b>, graci-a.<br> +<b>grade</b>, grad-o; (<b>rank</b>), rang-o.<br> +<b>grain</b> (<b>wheat, etc.</b>), gren-o; (<b>unit</b>) er-o (<b>276</b>).<br> +<b>gram</b>, gram-o (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>grammar</b>, gramatik-o.<br> +<b>grandfather</b>, av-o.<br> +<b>grandson</b>, nep-o.<br> +<b>grape</b>, vinber-o.<br> +<b>grass</b>, herb-o.<br> +<b>grasshopper</b>, akrid-o.<br> +<b>grate</b>, rasp-i; grater, raspil-o.<br> +<b>grating</b> (<b>bar or lattice</b>), krad-o.<br> +<b>grave</b>, tomb-o; (<b>serious</b>), grav-a.<br> +<b>gravitate</b>, gravit-i.<br> +<b>gravy</b>, saŭc-o.<br> +<b>gray</b>, griz-a.<br> +<b>grieve</b> (<i>trans.</i>), ĉagren-i, malĝojig-i; (<i>intrans.</i>) malĝoj-i.<br> +<b>grind</b>, grinc-i.<br> +<b>great</b>, grand-a; (<b>remote in ancestry</b>), pra- (<b>282</b>).<br> +<b>Greek</b>, grek-o.<br> +<b>green</b>, verd-a; <b>—ish</b>, dubeverd-a.<br> +<b>greet</b>, salut-i.<br> +<b>groan</b>, ĝem-i.<br> +<b>group</b>, grup-o, ar-o (<b>126</b>).<br> +<b>ground</b>, ter-o; <b>— floor</b>, teretaĝ-o.<br> +<b>grow</b>, kresk-i, veget-i.<br> +<b>guard</b>, gard-i.<br> +<b>guess</b>, diven-i.<br> +<b>guest</b>, gast-o.<br> +<b>guide</b>, gvid-i, direkt-i.<br> +<b>guilty</b>, kulp-a.<br> +<b>gunpowder</b>, pulv-o.<br> +<b>gush</b> (<b>of liquids</b>), ŝpruc-i.<br> + +<!-- This title is centered in book; center in textfile. --> +<!-- But in HTML, it looks better leftjustified. --> +<p><b>H.</b></p> + +<b>habit</b>, kutim-o.<br> +<b>hack</b>, hak-i; (<b>carriage</b>), fiakr-o.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------311.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>hail</b> (<b>frozen rain</b>), hajl-o.<br> +<b>(a) hair</b>, har-o; <b>— pencil</b>, penik-o.<br> +<b>half</b>, duon-o (<b>166, 277</b>).<br> +<b>halt</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), halt-i.<br> +<b>ham</b>, ŝink-o.<br> +<b>hammer</b>, martel-o.<br> +<b>hand</b>, man-o; (<b>of clock</b>), montril-o.<br> +<b>handbill</b>, afiŝ-o.<br> +<b>handicraft</b>, meti-o.<br> +<b>handsome</b>, bel-a.<br> +<b>hang</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), pend-i.<br> +<b>handy</b>, oportun-a.<br> +<b>happen</b>, okaz-i.<br> +<b>happy</b>, feliĉ-a.<br> +<b>harbor</b>, haven-o.<br> +<b>hardly</b> (<i>adv.</i>), apenaŭ.<br> +<b>hare</b>, lepor-o.<br> +<b>haricot</b> (<b>bean</b>), fazeol-o.<br> +<b>harness</b>, jung-i.<br> +<b>harvest</b>, rikolt-i.<br> +<b>hasten</b> (<i>trans.</i>), akcel-i; (<i>intrans.</i>) rapid-i.<br> +<b>hat</b>, ĉapel-o.<br> +<b>haughty</b>, fier-a.<br> +<b>haul</b>, tren-i.<br> +<b>have</b>, hav-i; <b>— to</b>, dev-i.<br> +<b>hay</b>, fojn-o.<br> +<b>hazard</b>, hazard-o.<br> +<b>hazel-nut</b>, avel-o.<br> +<b>he</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), li (<b>32, 37, 42</b>).<br> +<b>head</b>, kap-o; (<i>adj.</i>), ĉef-a.<br> +<b>health</b>, san-o; <b>state of (good or bad) —</b>, fart-o.<br> +<b>hear</b>, aŭd-i.<br> +<b>heart</b>, kor-o;<b> by —</b>, (<b>by rote</b>), parker-e.<br> +<b>heat</b> (<i>trans.</i>), hejt-i, varmig-i.<br> +<b>heaven</b>, ĉiel-o; heavenly body, astr-o.<br> +<b>heavy</b>, pez-a.<br> +<b>Hebrew</b>, hebre-o.<br> +<b>heel</b> (<b>of foot</b>), kalkan-o; (<b>of shoe</b>), kalkanum-o.<br> +<b>hektare</b>, hektar-o (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>hektogram</b>, hektogram-o (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>hektoliter</b>, hektolitr-o (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>hektometer</b>, hektometr-o (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>help</b>, help-i (<b>265</b>).<br> +<b>hen</b>, kokin-o.<br> +<b>herb</b>, herb-o.<br> +<b>hero</b>, hero-o.<br> +<b>hesitate</b>, hezit-i.<br> +<b>hide</b>, kaŝ-i (<b>252</b>); (<b>skin of animals</b>), fel-o.<br> +<b>Hiero</b>, Hieron-o.<br> +<b>high</b>, alt-a.<br> +<b>hinge</b>, ĉarnir-o.<br> +<b>hip</b>, koks-o.<br> +<b>hire</b> (<b>persons</b>), dung-i; (<b>houses, etc.</b>), lu-i.<br> +<b>hiss</b>, sibl-i.<br> +<b>history</b>, histori-o.<br> +<b>ho</b> (<i>interjection</i>), ho (<b>273</b>).<br> +<b>hoar</b> (frost), prujn-o.<br> +<b>hoarse</b>, raŭk-a.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------312.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>hog</b>, pork-o.<br> +<b>hold</b>, ten-i.<br> +<b>holder</b> (<b>handle</b>), tenil-o, ans-o; (<b>receptacle</b>), uj-o (<b>181</b>); ing-o (<b>237</b>).<br> +<b>hole</b>, tru-o; (<b>cavity</b>), kav-o.<br> +<b>Holland</b>, Holand-o.<br> +<b>holy</b>, sankt-a.<br> +<b>home</b>, hejm-o; <b>at —</b>, ĉehejme.<br> +<b>homesickness</b>, nostalgi-o.<br> +<b>honest</b>, honest-a.<br> +<b>honey</b>, miel-o.<br> +<b>honeysuckle</b>, lonicer-o.<br> +<b>honor</b>, honor-i; (<i>as term of address</i>), moŝt-o (<b>258</b>).<br> +<b>hook</b>, kroĉ-i.<br> +<b>hope</b>, esper-i.<br> +<b>horizon</b>, horizont-o.<br> +<b>horizontal</b>, horizontal-a.<br> +<b>horn</b>, korn-o.<br> +<b>horse</b>, ĉeval-o.<br> +<b>horse-radish</b>, armoraci-o.<br> +<b>hose</b>, ŝtrump-oj; <b>— supporter</b>, ŝelk-o.<br> +<b>hotel</b>, hotel-o.<br> +<b>hour</b>, hor-o (<b>185</b>).<br> +<b>house</b>, dom-o; <b>at the — of</b> (<i>prep.</i>), ĉe (<b>125, 160</b>).<br> +<b>how</b> (<i>adv.</i>), kiel (<b>134</b>); kiamanier-e; <b>— much</b>, kiom (<b>140, 185</b>).<br> +<b>however</b> (<i>conj.</i>), tamen; (<i>adv.</i>), ajn (<b>236</b>).<br> +<b>hue</b>, nuanc-o.<br> +<b>hum</b>, zum-i.<br> +<b>human being</b>, hom-o.<br> +<b>humble</b>, humil-a.<br> +<b>humor</b>, humor-o.<br> +<b>hundred</b> (<i>adj.</i>), cent (<b>142</b>).<br> +<b>hungry</b>, malsat-a.<br> +<b>hunt</b>, serĉ-i; (<b>game or wild animals</b>), ĉas-i.<br> +<b>hurdy-gurdy</b>, gurd-o.<br> +<b>hurl</b>, ĵet-i.<br> +<b>hurrah</b> (<i>interjection</i>), hura (<b>273</b>).<br> +<b>hurricane</b>, uragan-o.<br> +<b>hurry</b>, rapid-i.<br> +<b>husband</b>, edz-o.<br> +<b>hypocrite</b>, hipokrit-o.<br> + +<!-- This title is centered in book; center in textfile. --> +<!-- But in HTML, it looks better leftjustified. --> +<p><b>I.</b></p> + +<b>I</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), mi (<b>32, 37, 274</b>).<br> +<b>ice</b>, glaci-o; (<b>food</b>), glaciaĵ-o.<br> +<b>idea</b>, ide-o.<br> +<b>ideal</b>, ideal-o.<br> +<b>identical</b>, ident-a.<br> +<b>idiom</b>, idiom-o.<br> +<b>idiot</b>, idiot-o.<br> +<b>if</b> (<i>conj.</i>), se (<b>240</b>); <b>as —</b>, kvazaŭ (<b>250</b>); (<b>whether</b>), ĉu.<br> +<b>ignore</b>, ignor-i.<br> +<b>illusion</b>, iluzi-o.<br> +<b>illustrate</b>, ilustr-i.<br> +<b>image</b>, bild-o.<br> +<b>imagine</b>, imag-i.<br> +<b>imitate</b>, imit-i.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------313.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>immediate</b>, tuj-a (<b>171</b>).<br> +<b>implicate</b>, implik-i.<br> +<b>important</b>, grav-a, serioz-a.<br> +<b>importunate</b>, altrudem-a.<br> +<b>impose</b>, trud-i.<br> +<b>impost</b>, impost-o.<br> +<b>impress</b>, impres-i.<br> +<b>impulse</b>, impuls-o.<br> +<b>in</b> (<i>prep.</i>), en (<b>46, 89, 160</b>); <b>— the presence of</b>, ĉe (<b>125, 160</b>).<br> +<b>inch</b>, col-o.<br> +<b>incite</b>, incit-i.<br> +<b>incline</b> (<i>trans.</i>), klin-i.<br> +<b>incommode</b>, ĝen-i.<br> +<b>(be) indebted</b>, ŝuld-i.<br> +<b>indeed</b> (<i>adv.</i>), ja (<b>215</b>); do; efektiv-e.<br> +<b>index</b>, tabel-o.<br> +<b>Indian</b> (<b>American</b>), indian-o, ruĝhaŭtul-o; <b>— corn</b>, maiz-o.<br> +<b>indifferent</b>, indiferent-a.<br> +<b>industry</b> (<b>trade</b>), industri-o.<br> +<b>inebriate</b>, ebri-a.<br> +<b>inevitable</b>, nepr-a, neevitebl-a.<br> +<b>infect</b>, infekt-i.<br> +<b>influence</b>, influ-i.<br> +<b>inform</b>, inform-i, sciig-i.<br> +<b>ingenuous</b>, naiv-a.<br> +<b>inhabitant</b>, loĝant-o, an-o (<b>145</b>).<br> +<b>inhale</b>, enspir-i.<br> +<b>ink</b>, ink-o.<br> +<b>inquire</b>, demand-i.<br> +<b>insect</b>, insekt-o.<br> +<b>inside</b> (<i>adv.</i>), intern-e; (<i>prep.</i>), en.<br> +<b>insist</b>, insist-i.<br> +<b>inspect</b>, inspekt-i, ekzamen-i, rigard-i, kontrol-i.<br> +<b>inspire</b>, inspir-i.<br> +<b>instantaneous</b>, moment-a.<br> +<b>instead of</b> (<i>prep.</i>), anstataŭ (<b>98, 159</b>).<br> +<b>instruct</b>, instru-i; (<b>order</b>), ordon-i.<br> +<b>insult</b>, insult-i.<br> +<b>insure</b> (<b>with a company</b>), asekur-i; (<b>make certain</b>), certig-i.<br> +<b>intelligent</b>, inteligent-a.<br> +<b>intend</b>, intenc-i.<br> +<b>interest</b>, interes-i; (<b>of money</b>), procent-o.<br> +<b>(be) intermittent</b>, intermit-i.<br> +<b>internal</b>, intern-a.<br> +<b>interpret</b>, interpret-i.<br> +<b>intimate</b>, intim-a.<br> +<b>intoxicated</b>, ebri-a.<br> +<b>investigate</b>, esplor-i, ekzamen-i, elserĉ-i.<br> +<b>invite</b>, invit-i.<br> +<b>iron</b> (<b>metal</b>), fer-o; (<b>linen</b>), glad-i.<br> +<b>island</b>, insul-o.<br> +<b>it</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), ĝi (<b>32, 37, 42, 274</b>); <i>see also</i> 50, 51.<br> +<b>Italian</b>, ital-o.<br> + +<!-- This title is centered in book; center in textfile. --> +<!-- But in HTML, it looks better leftjustified. --> +<p><b>J.</b></p> + +<b>jacket</b>, jak-o.<br> +<b>jail</b>, karcer-o.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------314.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>jam</b>, kompot-o, fruktaĵ-o.<br> +<b>January</b>, januar-o.<br> +<b>jaw</b> (<b>orifice, opening</b>), faŭk-o; (<b>of the skull</b>), makzel-o; <b>—bone</b>, makzelost-o.<br> +<b>jealous</b>, ĵaluz-a.<br> +<b>jest</b>, ŝerc-i.<br> +<b>Jesus</b>, Jesu-o.<br> +<b>Jew</b>, hebre-o.<br> +<b>jewel</b>, juvel-o.<br> +<b>jingle</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), tint-i.<br> +<b>John</b>, Johan-o.<br> +<b>joint</b>, artik-o.<br> +<b>joke</b>, ŝerc-i.<br> +<b>journal</b>, ĵurnal-o, revu-o.<br> +<b>journey</b>, vojaĝ-i.<br> +<b>judge</b>, juĝ-i.<br> +<b>jug</b>, kruĉ-o.<br> +<b>juggle</b>, ĵongl-i.<br> +<b>July</b>, juli-o.<br> +<b>jump</b>, salt-i.<br> +<b>June</b>, juni-o.<br> +<b>jurist</b>, jurist-o.<br> +<b>just</b> (<b>upright</b>), just-a; (<b>exact</b>), ĝust-a; (<i>adv.</i>), ĝust-e, ĵus.<br> + +<!-- This title is centered in book; center in textfile. --> +<!-- But in HTML, it looks better leftjustified. --> +<p><b>K.</b></p> + +<b>keep</b>, ten-i, gard-i; (<b>preserve</b>), konserv-i;<b> — in mind</b>, memor-i.<br> +<b>kerosene</b>, petrol-o.<br> +<b>key</b>, ŝlosil-o; (<b>of piano, etc.</b>), klav-o.<br> +<b>kill</b>, mortig-i.<br> +<b>kilogram</b>, kilogram-o (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>kiloliter</b>, kilolitr-o (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>kilometer</b>, kilometr-o (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>kind</b> (<b>species</b>), spec-o; (<b>good</b>), bon-a, bonkor-a; <b>that —</b>, <b>what —</b>, etc., <i>see table</i>, 235.<br> +<b>kindness</b>, komplez-o, bonkorec-o.<br> +<b>king</b>, reĝ-o; <b>—dom</b>, reĝolando.<br> +<b>kiss</b>, kis-i.<br> +<b>knave</b>, fripon-o.<br> +<b>knee</b>, genu-o.<br> +<b>kneel</b>, genufleks-i.<br> +<b>knit</b>, trik-i.<br> +<b>knock</b>, frap-i.<br> +<b>knot</b>, tuber-o; (<b>tied</b>), ligaĵ-o; (<b>of ribbon</b>), bant-o.<br> +<b>know</b>, sci-i; (<b>be acquainted with</b>), kon-i (<b>117</b>).<br> +<b>kobold</b>, kobold-o.<br> + +<!-- This title is centered in book; center in textfile. --> +<!-- But in HTML, it looks better leftjustified. --> +<p><b>L.</b></p> + +<b>labor</b>, labor-i; <b>— for the success or completion of something</b>, klopod-i.<br> +<b>lace</b>, punt-o; (<b>of a shoe</b>), laĉ-o.<br> +<b>(be) lacking</b> (<i>intrans.</i>) mank-i.<br> +<b>lake</b>, lag-o.<br> +<b>lamb</b>, ŝafid-o; (<b>meat</b>), ŝafidaĵ-o.<br> +<b>lame</b>, lam-a.<br> +<b>lamp</b>, lamp-o.<br> +<b>lance</b>, lanc-o.<br> +<b>land</b>, land-o; (<b>estate</b>), bien-o; (<b>soil</b>), ter-o.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------315.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>landscape</b>, pejzaĝ-o.<br> +<b>language</b>, lingv-o.<br> +<b>lantern</b>, lantern-o.<br> +<b>large</b>, grand-a.<br> +<b>lark</b> (<b>bird</b>), alaŭd-o.<br> +<b>last</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), daŭr-i; (<b>in a series</b>), last-a; (<b>previous</b>) pasint-a, antaŭ-a.<br> +<b>latch</b>, ans-o.<br> +<b>late</b>, malfru-a.<br> +<b>Latin</b>, latin-a.<br> +<b>latter</b>, ĉi-tiu (<b>61, 62</b>).<br> +<b>lattice</b>, krad-o.<br> +<b>laugh</b>, rid-i (<b>265</b>).<br> +<b>law</b>, leĝ-o; <b>—suit</b>, proces-o; (<b>rule</b>), regul-o.<br> +<b>lawyer</b>, advokat-o, leĝist-o.<br> +<b>lay</b>, meti, kuŝig-i; <b>— aside</b>, demet-i; <b>— claim</b>, pretend-i.<br> +<b>layer</b>, tavol-o.<br> +<b>lead</b>, konduk-i.<br> +<b>lead</b> (<b>metal</b>), plumb-o.<br> +<b>leaf</b>, foli-o.<br> +<b>league</b> (<b>alliance</b>), lig-o.<br> +<b>lean</b> (<i>trans.</i>), apog-i, klin-i; (<b>not fat</b>), malgras-a.<br> +<b>leap</b>, salt-i; <b>—year</b>, superjar-o.<br> +<b>learn</b>, lern-i; (<b>news, etc.</b>), sciiĝ-i.<br> +<b>learned</b>, kler-a.<br> +<b>least</b> (<i>adv.</i>), malplej (<b>80</b>), malpli multe (<b>81</b>); <b>at —</b>, almenaŭ.<br> +<b>leather</b>, led-o.<br> +<b>leave</b> (<i>trans.</i>), las-i; <b>— off</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), ĉes-i.<br> +<b>leg</b>, krur-o.<br> +<b>legal</b>, leĝ-a; <b>— process</b>, proces-o.<br> +<b>lemon</b>, citron-o.<br> +<b>lemonade</b>, citronaĵ-o, limonad-o.<br> +<b>lend</b>, prunt-i, pruntedon-i.<br> +<b>lens</b>, objektiv-o.<br> +<b>lengthen</b> (<i>trans.</i>), etend-i, plilongig-i.<br> +<b>less</b> (<i>adv.</i>), malpli (<b>80</b>); malpli multe (<b>81</b>).<br> +<b>lesson</b>, lecion-o.<br> +<b>let</b> (<i>trans.</i>), las-i; (<b>rent</b>), luig-i; (<b>permit</b>), permes-i.<br> +<b>letter</b> (<b>epistle</b>), leter-o; (<b>of the alphabet</b>), liter-o.<br> +<b>lettuce</b>, laktuk-o.<br> +<b>level</b>, nivel-o; (<b>flat</b>), eben-a.<br> +<b>library</b>, bibliotek-o; (<b>collection of books</b>), librar-o.<br> +<b>lick</b>, lek-i.<br> +<b>lie</b> (<b>recline</b>), kuŝ-i (<b>239</b>); (<b>tell falsehoods</b>), mensog-i.<br> +<b>lift</b>, lev-i.<br> +<b>light</b>, lum-a, hel-a; (<b>not heavy</b>), malpez-a.<br> +<b>lightning</b>, fulm-o.<br> +<b>like</b>, ŝat-i; (<b>similar</b>), simil-a; see also 250.<br> +<b>limb</b>, membro; (<b>of a tree</b>), branĉ-o.<br> +<b>limit</b>, lim-i.<br> +<b>linden</b>, tili-o.<br> +<b>line</b>, lini-o, vic-o, strek-o.<br> +<b>linen</b>, tol-o.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------316.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>lion</b>, leon-o.<br> +<b>lip</b>, lip-o.<br> +<b>liquid</b>, fluid-a.<br> +<b>listen</b>, aŭskult-i.<br> +<b>liter</b>, litr-o (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>literal</b>, laŭliter-a.<br> +<b>literature</b>, literatur-o.<br> +<b>little</b>, malgrand-a; (<i>with slightly affectionate sense</i>), et-a (<b>198</b>); (<i>adv.</i>), malmulte, iom (<b>217</b>); <b>— by —</b>, iom post iom.<br> +<b>live</b>, viv-i; (<b>dwell</b>), loĝ-i (<b>133</b>).<br> +<b>load</b>, ŝarĝ-i.<br> +<b>loan</b>, prunt-i, pruntedon-i.<br> +<b>local</b>, lok-a.<br> +<b>lock</b>, ŝlos-i; (<b>fastening</b>), serur-o.<br> +<b>locomotive</b>, lokomotiv-o.<br> +<b>lodge</b>, loĝ-i.<br> +<b>log</b>, ŝtip-o.<br> +<b>long</b>, long-a; <b>— for</b>, sopir-i je.<br> +<b>look</b>, rigard-i; <b>— for</b>, serĉ-i.<br> +<b>lose</b>, perd-i; (<b>fail to profit</b>), malgajn-i; <b>— time</b>, malfru-i.<br> +<b>lot</b> (<b>fate</b>), sort-o.<br> +<b>loud</b>, laŭt-a.<br> +<b>love</b>, am-i; <b>make —</b>, amindum-i.<br> +<b>loyal</b>, fidel-a, lojal-a.<br> +<b>luck</b>, ŝanc-o; lucky, bonŝanc-a.<br> +<b>lull</b>, kvietig-i; (<b>to sleep</b>), lul-i.<br> +<b>lunatic</b>, lunatik-o.<br> +<b>lung</b>, pulm-o.<br> +<b>luxury</b>, luks-o.<br> + +<!-- This title is centered in book; center in textfile. --> +<!-- But in HTML, it looks better leftjustified. --> +<p><b>M.</b></p> + +<b>macaroni</b>, makaroni-o.<br> +<b>machine</b>, maŝin-o.<br> +<b>mad</b>, frenez-a.<br> +<b>magazine</b>, gazet-o, ĵurnal-o, revu-o.<br> +<b>magic</b>, magi-o.<br> +<b>mail</b>, poŝt-o, enpoŝtig-i; <b>— box</b>, poŝtkest-o.<br> +<b>maize</b>, maiz-o.<br> +<b>majestic</b>, majest-a.<br> +<b>majesty</b> (<i>term of address</i>), moŝt-o (<b>258</b>).<br> +<b>make</b>, far-i (see also 214); <b>— mistakes</b>, erar-i; <b>— love</b>, amindum-i.<br> +<b>malicious</b>, malic-a.<br> +<b>man</b>, vir-o.<br> +<b>manage</b>, administr-i, direkt-i; (<b>a household</b>), mastrum-i.<br> +<b>manner</b>, manier-o; (<b>right or wrong</b>), mor-o; <b>in that —</b>, <b>in every —</b>, etc., <i>see table</i>, 235.<br> +<b>mantle</b>, mantel-o.<br> +<b>manufacture</b>, fabrik-i.<br> +<b>manuscript</b>, manuskript-o.<br> +<b>maple</b>, acer-o.<br> +<b>marble</b> (stone), marmor-o.<br> +<b>march</b>, marŝad-i.<br> +<b>March</b>, mart-o.<br> +<b>mark</b>, mark-o, sign-o; (<b>official</b>), stamp-o.<br> +<b>marmalade</b>, marmelad-o.<br> +<b>marry</b> (<b>become married</b>), edziĝ-i.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------317.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>master</b>, mastr-o; (<b>of his profession or art</b>), majstr-o; <b>— of Arts (A.M.)</b>, magistr-o.<br> +<b>match</b> (<b>for fire</b>), alumet-o.<br> +<b>material</b>, material-o; (<b>cloth</b>), ŝtof-o.<br> +<b>matter</b>, afer-o.<br> +<b>mature</b>, matur-a.<br> +<b>maximum</b>, maksimum-o.<br> +<b>May</b>, maj-o; (<b>auxiliary verb</b>), <i>see</i> 269, 270.<br> +<b>mayonnaise</b>, majones-a.<br> +<b>mean</b>, signif-i, intenc-i, malnobl-a.<br> +<b>meaning</b>, senc-o.<br> +<b>means</b>, rimed-o; <b>by — of</b> (<i>prep.</i>), per (<b>64</b>).<br> +<b>measure</b> (<i>trans.</i>), mezur-i.<br> +<b>meat</b>, viand-o.<br> +<b>mechanics</b>, meĥanik-o.<br> +<b>medical</b>, medicin-a, kuracist-a.<br> +<b>medicine</b> (<b>drug, etc.</b>), kuracil-o; (<b>science</b>), medicin-o, kuracart-o.<br> +<b>meet</b> (<i>trans.</i>), renkont-i, traf-i; (<b>assemble</b>), kunven-i.<br> +<b>melody</b>, melodi-o.<br> +<b>melon</b>, melon-o.<br> +<b>melt</b>, fluidig-i, fluidiĝ-i, degel-i.<br> +<b>member</b>, membr-o, an-o (<b>145</b>).<br> +<b>memory</b>, memor-o; <b>by —</b>, parker-e, memor-e.<br> +<b>mend</b>, ripar-i; (<b>patch</b>), flik-i.<br> +<b>mention</b>, nom-i; cit-i.<br> +<b>menu</b>, menu-o.<br> +<b>merely</b> (<i>adv.</i>), nur.<br> +<b>merit</b>, merit-i.<br> +<b>merry</b>, gaj-a; <b>make —</b>, festen-i.<br> +<b>merry-go-round</b>, karusel-o.<br> +<b>metal</b>, metal-o.<br> +<b>meter</b>, metr-o (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>method</b>, metod-o.<br> +<b>middle</b>, mez-o, centr-o.<br> +<b>mien</b>, mien-o.<br> +<b>mild</b>, mild-a.<br> +<b>mile</b>, mejl-o.<br> +<b>milk</b>, lakt-o; (<b>draw the milk of</b>), melk-i.<br> +<b>mill</b>, muel-o.<br> +<b>millimeter</b>, milimetr-o (<b>284</b>).<br> +<b>million</b>, milion-o.<br> +<b>mine</b> (<b>coal, etc</b>), min-o; (<i>possessive adj.</i>), mi-a (<b>43</b>).<br> +<b>mineral</b>, mineral-o.<br> +<b>minimum</b>, minimum-o.<br> +<b>minister</b> (<b>political</b>), ministr-o; (<b>clergyman</b>), pastr-o.<br> +<b>minute</b> (time), minut-o; (<i>adj.</i>), detal-a, malgrand-a.<br> +<b>minutes</b> (of a meeting), protokol-o.<br> +<b>mirror</b>, spegul-o.<br> +<b>miserly</b>, avar-a.<br> +<b>misery</b>, mizer-o.<br> +<b>miss</b> (<b>fail to reach</b>), maltraf-i; (<b>be missing</b>), mank-i; (<b>notice the absence of</b>), senti la foreston de; (<b>young lady</b>), fraŭlin-o (<b>163</b>).<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------318.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>mist</b>, nebul-o.<br> +<b>mistake</b>, erar-o.<br> +<b>Mister</b>, Sinjor-o (<b>163, 286</b>).<br> +<b>mix</b> (<i>trans.</i>), miks-i.<br> +<b>mock</b>, mok-i.<br> +<b>mode</b>, fason-o, mod-o.<br> +<b>model</b>, model-o.<br> +<b>moderate</b>, moder-a.<br> +<b>modest</b>, modest-a.<br> +<b>moment</b>, moment-o; <b>a — ago</b>, (<i>adv.</i>), ĵus.<br> +<b>monarch</b>, monarĥ-o.<br> +<b>Monday</b>, lund-o.<br> +<b>money</b>, mon-o; <b>— box</b>, kas-o; <b>— order</b>, mandat-o.<br> +<b>monk</b>, monaĥ-o.<br> +<b>monkey</b>, simi-o.<br> +<b>month</b>, monat-o.<br> +<b>moon</b>, lun-o.<br> +<b>moral</b>, moral-a, bonmor-a; morals, moroj.<br> +<b>more</b> (<i>adv.</i>), pli (<b>74, 79</b>); (<b>quantity</b>), pli multe (<b>81</b>); (<b>further</b>), plu; <b>the —</b>, ju pli, des pli (<b>84</b>).<br> +<b>morning</b>, maten-o (<b>93</b>).<br> +<b>morsel</b>, pec-o.<br> +<b>most</b> (<i>adv.</i>), plej (<b>74, 79</b>); (<b>quantity</b>), plej multe (<b>81</b>).<br> +<b>mould</b>, ŝim-o.<br> +<b>mountain</b>, mont-o.<br> +<b>mourning</b>, funebr-o.<br> +<b>mouse</b>, mus-o.<br> +<b>moustache</b>, lipharoj.<br> +<b>mouth</b>, buŝ-o; (<b>of river</b>), enflu-o, elflu-o.<br> +<b>move</b> (<i>trans.</i>), mov-i; (<b>change residence</b>) transloĝ-i.<br> +<b>much</b>, mult-a (<b>81</b>); (<b>very</b>), tre.<br> +<b>mud</b>, kot-o.<br> +<b>murmur</b>, murmur-i.<br> +<b>museum</b>, muze-o.<br> +<b>mushroom</b>, fung-o.<br> +<b>music</b>, muzik-o.<br> +<b>must</b>, dev-i (<b>247</b>).<br> +<b>mute</b>, mut-a.<br> +<b>mutton</b>, ŝafaĵ-o.<br> +<b>mutual</b>, reciprok-a (<b>180</b>), komun-a.<br> +<b>myopic</b>, miop-a.<br> +<b>mystery</b>, mister-o.<br> + +<!-- This title is centered in book; center in textfile. --> +<!-- But in HTML, it looks better leftjustified. --> +<p><b>N.</b></p> + +<b>nail</b> (<b>metal</b>), najl-o; (<b>of the finger or toe</b>), ung-o.<br> +<b>naive</b>, naiv-a.<br> +<b>naked</b>, nud-a.<br> +<b>name</b>, nom-o.<br> +<b>narrate</b>, rakont-i.<br> +<b>nation</b>, naci-o.<br> +<b>nature</b>, natur-o.<br> +<b>naught</b>, nul-o; (<b>none</b>), neniom (<b>231</b>).<br> +<b>near</b>, proksim-a (<b>170</b>); (<i>prep.</i>), apud (<b>120, 159</b>).<br> +<b>necessary</b>, neces-a.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------319.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>neck</b>, kol-o.<br> +<b>need</b>, bezon-i.<br> +<b>needle</b>, kudril-o.<br> +<b>negative</b>, ne-a (<b>171</b>); (<b>photographic</b>), negativ-o.<br> +<b>neighbor</b>, najbar-o.<br> +<b>neither</b> (<i>conj.</i>), nek (<b>31</b>); (<i>pronoun and adj.</i>), neniu (<b>220</b>).<br> +<b>nephew</b>, nev-o.<br> +<b>nerve</b>, nerv-o.<br> +<b>nest</b>, nest-o.<br> +<b>net</b>, ret-o.<br> +<b>neutral</b>, neŭtral-a.<br> +<b>never</b> (<i>adv.</i>), neniam (<b>226</b>).<br> +<b>nevertheless</b> (<i>conj.</i>), tamen.<br> +<b>new</b>, nov-a, freŝ-a; news, novaĵ-o.<br> +<b>newspaper</b>, ĵurnal-o, tagĵurnal-o.<br> +<b>nice</b>, delikat-a.<br> +<b>night</b>, nokt-o.<br> +<b>nine</b> (<i>adj.</i>), naŭ (<b>136</b>).<br> +<b>nitrogen</b>, azot-o.<br> +<b>no</b> (<i>adv.</i>), ne (<b>27, 66, a</b>); (<i>adj.</i>), neniu (<b>220</b>); <b>— one</b>, <b>—where</b>, etc., <i>see table</i>, 235.<br> +<b>noble</b>, nobl-a,<br> +<b>nobleman</b>, nobel-o.<br> +<b>nobody</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), neniu (<b>220</b>).<br> +<b>nod</b> (<b>the head</b>), balanc-i (<b>la kapon</b>).<br> +<b>noise</b>, bru-o.<br> +<b>none</b> (<i>adj. and pronoun</i>), neniu (<b>220</b>); (<i>adv.</i>), neniom (<b>231</b>).<br> +<b>non-partisan</b>, neŭtral-a.<br> +<b>noon</b>, tagmez-o.<br> +<b>nor</b> (<i>conj.</i>), nek (<b>31</b>).<br> +<b>north</b>, nord-o.<br> +<b>Norwegian</b>, norveg-o.<br> +<b>not</b> (<i>adv.</i>), ne (<b>27, 66, a</b>).<br> +<b>note</b>, not-o, bilet-o; <b>—book</b>, kajer-o; (<b>notice</b>), rimark-i, not-i.<br> +<b>nothing</b>, nenio (<b>233</b>).<br> +<b>notice</b>, rimark-i; not-i; <b>give —</b>, aviz-i.<br> +<b>notwithstanding</b> (<i>prep.</i>), malgraŭ; (<b>conj.</b>), tamen.<br> +<b>nourish</b>, nutr-i.<br> +<b>novel</b>, nov-a; (<b>book</b>), roman-o.<br> +<b>November</b>, novembr-o.<br> +<b>now</b> (<i>adv.</i>), nun.<br> +<b>nude</b>, nud-a.<br> +<b>nullify</b>, nulig-i, neniig-i.<br> +<b>number</b> (<b>quantity</b>), nombr-o; (<b>numeral</b>), numer-o.<br> +<b>nut</b>, nuks-o.<br> + +<!-- This title is centered in book; center in textfile. --> +<!-- But in HTML, it looks better leftjustified. --> +<p><b>O.</b></p> + +<b>oak</b>, kverk-o.<br> +<b>(make) oath</b>, ĵur-i.<br> +<b>oats</b>, aven-o.<br> +<b>obey</b>, obe-i (<b>265</b>).<br> +<b>object</b>, objekt-o; (<b>aim</b>), cel-o; (<b>oppose</b>), kontraŭparol-i, kontraŭstar-i, protest-i.<br> +<b>objective</b>, objektiv-o.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------320.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>obligation</b> (<b>financial</b>), ŝuld-o; (<b>moral</b>), dev-o.<br> +<b>oblige</b> (<b>compel</b>), devig-i; (<b>render service</b>), far-i komplezon, serv-i.<br> +<b>oblique</b>, oblikv-a.<br> +<b>observe</b>, observ-i, rimark-i, not-i.<br> +<b>obstinate</b>, obstin-a.<br> +<b>obstruct</b>, bar-i.<br> +<b>occasion</b>, foj-o (<b>127</b>); okaz-o.<br> +<b>occupation</b>, profesi-o, okup-o, meti-o.<br> +<b>occupy</b>, okup-i.<br> +<b>occur</b>, okaz-i.<br> +<b>ocean</b>, ocean-o.<br> +<b>October</b>, oktobr-o.<br> +<b>odor</b>, odor-o.<br> +<b>of</b> (<i>prep.</i>), de (<b>49, 100, 160, 170</b>); da (<b>99, 101, 103</b>); el; (<b>concerning</b>), pri (160, 264, c).<br> +<b>offend</b>, ofend-i.<br> +<b>offer</b>, propon-i, prezent-i, ofer-i.<br> +<b>office</b>, ofic-o; (<b>place</b>), oficej-o.<br> +<b>officer</b> (<b>of organization or firm</b>), oficist-o; (<b>military or naval</b>), oficir-o.<br> +<b>official</b>, oficial-a.<br> +<b>often</b> (<i>adv.</i>), oft-e, multfoj-e.<br> +<b>oh</b> (<i>interjection</i>), ho (<b>273</b>).<br> +<b>oil</b>, ole-o.<br> +<b>olive</b>, oliv-o.<br> +<b>on</b> (<i>prep.</i>), sur; <b>— account of</b>, pro (<b>86</b>).<br> +<b>once</b> (<i>adv.</i>), unufoj-e; <b>— on a time</b>, iam (<b>212</b>); <b>at —</b>, tuj; <b>— more</b>, bis.<br> +<b>one</b> (<i>adj.</i>), unu (<b>136, 137, 180</b>); (<i>pronoun</i>), oni (<b>54</b>). See 235.<br> +<b>onion</b>, bulb-o.<br> +<b>only</b>, sol-a; (<b>mere</b>), nur-a.<br> +<b>opera</b>, oper-o; <b>— glasses</b>, lornet-o.<br> +<b>opinion</b>, opini-o.<br> +<b>opportune</b>, oportun-a.<br> +<b>opposed to</b> (<i>prep.</i>), kontraŭ.<br> +<b>opposite</b> (<b>converse</b>), mal-o (<b>67</b>); (<i>prep.</i>), kontraŭ.<br> +<b>or</b> (<i>conj.</i>), aŭ.<br> +<b>orange</b> (fruit), oranĝ-o.<br> +<b>orchestra</b>, orkestr-o.<br> +<b>order</b>, ordon-i; (<b>of store, etc.</b>), mend-i; (<b>methodical or proper arrangement</b>), ord-o; <b>money —</b>, mandat-o.<br> +<b>ordinary</b>, ordinar-a.<br> +<b>organ</b> (<b>physical</b>), organ-o; (<b>musical</b>), orgen-o.<br> +<b>organize</b>, organiz-i.<br> +<b>original</b>, original-o.<br> +<b>ornament</b>, ornam-i.<br> +<b>orphan</b>, orf-o.<br> +<b>oscillate</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), balanciĝ-i.<br> +<b>ostracism</b>, ostracism-o.<br> +<b>other</b>, ali-a; (<b>remaining</b>), ceter-a; <b>— people's</b>, malpropr-a; <b>—wise</b>, ali-e.<br> +<b>out of</b>, el.<br> +<b>outline</b>, kontur-o; (<b>profile</b>), profil-o; (<b>sketch</b>), skiz-o.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------321.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>outside</b> (<i>prep.</i>), ekster (<b>120, 121</b>).<br> +<b>over</b> (<i>prep.</i>), super; (<b>across</b>), trans; (<b>concerning</b>), pri; <b>—coat</b>, surtut-o; <b>—shoe</b>, superŝu-o; (<i>adv.</i>), (<b>too</b>), tro.<br> +<b>owe</b>, ŝuld-i.<br> +<b>own</b>, posed-i, propr-a.<br> +<b>ox</b>, bov-o.<br> +<b>oyster</b>, ostr-o.<br> + +<!-- This title is centered in book; center in textfile. --> +<!-- But in HTML, it looks better leftjustified. --> +<p><b>P.</b></p> + +<b>pack</b>, pak-i.<br> +<b>pad</b>, rembur-i.<br> +<b>paddle</b>, padel-i.<br> +<b>page</b> (<b>of book, etc.</b>), paĝ-o.<br> +<b>pail</b>, sitel-o.<br> +<b>pain</b>, dolor-o; (<b>effort</b>), pen-o; take pains, pen-i.<br> +<b>paint</b>, pentr-i; (<b>material</b>), kolorigil-o; <b>—brush</b>, penik-o.<br> +<b>pair</b>, par-o.<br> +<b>palace</b>, palac-o.<br> +<b>pale</b>, pal-a.<br> +<b>palisade</b>, palisar-o.<br> +<b>palm</b> (<b>of the hand</b>), polm-o.<br> +<b>pamphlet</b>, broŝur-o.<br> +<b>pan</b>, pat-o.<br> +<b>paper</b> (<b>material</b>), paper-o; <b>news—</b>, ĵurnal-o.<br> +<b>paradise</b>, paradiz-o.<br> +<b>paragraph</b>, paragraf-o.<br> +<b>pardon</b>, pardon-i (<b>265</b>).<br> +<b>parallel</b>, paralel-a.<br> +<b>park</b>, park-o.<br> +<b>parlor</b>, salon-o.<br> +<b>parsley</b>, petrosel-o.<br> +<b>parsnip</b>, pastinak-o.<br> +<b>part</b>, part-o; of a work or book, kajer-o; separate (<i>trans.</i>), disir-i, apartig-i, disdivid-i.<br> +<b>participle</b>, particip-o.<br> +<b>pass</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), pas-i.<br> +<b>passage</b>, koridor-o.<br> +<b>passenger</b>, pasaĝer-o.<br> +<b>passion</b>, pasi-o.<br> +<b>passive</b>, pasiv-a.<br> +<b>past</b> (<i>prep.</i>), preter; (<b>time</b>), estintec-o; (<b>grammatical</b>), estint-o; (<b>bygone</b>), estint-a.<br> +<b>paste</b> (<b>glue</b>), glu-i.<br> +<b>pasteboard</b>, karton-o.<br> +<b>pastor</b>, pastr-o.<br> +<b>pastry</b>, kukaĵ-o.<br> +<b>pasture</b> (<i>trans.</i>), paŝt-i.<br> +<b>patch</b>, flik-i.<br> +<b>path</b>, vojet-o.<br> +<b>patience</b>, pacienc-o.<br> +<b>patient</b> (<b>ill person</b>), kuracat-o.<br> +<b>patty</b>, pasteĉ-o.<br> +<b>pause</b>, paŭz-i.<br> +<b>pavement</b>, pavim-o; (<b>sidewalk</b>), trotuar-o.<br> +<b>pay</b>, pag-i; — dues, kotiz-i.<br> +<b>pea</b>, piz-o.<br> +<b>peace</b>, pac-o.<br> +<b>peach</b>, persik-o.<br> +<b>pear</b>, pir-o.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------322.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>pearl</b>, perl-o.<br> +<b>peculiar</b>, strang-a, kurioz-a.<br> +<b>peddle</b>, kolport-i.<br> +<b>pedestal</b>, piedestal-o.<br> +<b>pedestrian</b>, piedirant-o.<br> +<b>peeling</b>, ŝel-o.<br> +<b>pen</b>, plum-o; (<b>enclosure</b>), ej-o (<b>III</b>).<br> +<b>pencil</b>, krajon-o; <b>hair—</b>, penik-o.<br> +<b>penetrate</b>, penetr-i.<br> +<b>people</b>, popol-o; (<i>indefinite pronoun</i>), oni (<b>54</b>).<br> +<b>pepper</b>, pipr-o.<br> +<b>perceive</b>, sent-i; (<b>see</b>), vid-i.<br> +<b>percentage</b>, procent-o; (<b>of profit</b>), tantiem-o.<br> +<b>perfect</b>, perfekt-a.<br> +<b>perfidious</b>, perfid-a.<br> +<b>perform</b> (act), ag-i; (<b>fulfil</b>), plenum-i; (<b>do</b>), far-i.<br> +<b>perfume</b>, parfum-o; (<b>odor</b>), bonodor-o.<br> +<b>period</b>, period-o; (<b>of time</b>), epok-o; (<b>punctuation</b>), punkt-o.<br> +<b>perish</b>, pere-i.<br> +<b>permit</b>, permes-i.<br> +<b>persecute</b>, persekut-i; (<b>worry</b>), turment-i, ĝen-i.<br> +<b>persevere</b>, persist-i.<br> +<b>person</b>, person-o.<br> +<b>perspire</b>, ŝvit-i.<br> +<b>persuade</b>, konvink-i.<br> +<b>pet</b>, dorlot-i.<br> +<b>petroleum</b>, petrol-o.<br> +<b>phantom</b>, fantom-o.<br> +<b>Pharaoh</b>, faraon-o.<br> +<b>pharmacy</b>, farmaci-o; (<b>shop</b>), apotek-o.<br> +<b>philosopher</b>, filozof-o.<br> +<b>photograph</b>, fotograf-i.<br> +<b>phrase</b>, fraz-o.<br> +<b>physician</b>, kuracist-o.<br> +<b>physics</b>, fizik-o.<br> +<b>pick</b> (<b>choose</b>), elekt-i; (<b>gather</b>), kolekt-i.<br> +<b>pickle</b>, pekl-i.<br> +<b>picture</b>, bild-o; (<b>portrait</b>), portret-o; <b>— gallery</b>, pinakotek-o.<br> +<b>picturesque</b>, pitoresk-a, pentrind-a.<br> +<b>pie</b>, kukaĵ-o; (<b>patty</b>), pasteĉ-o.<br> +<b>piece</b>, pec-o.<br> +<b>pig</b>, pork-o.<br> +<b>pigeon</b>, kolomb-o.<br> +<b>(be a) pilgrim</b>, pilgrim-i.<br> +<b>pillage</b>, rab-i.<br> +<b>pillar</b>, kolon-o.<br> +<b>pin</b>, pingl-o.<br> +<b>pinch</b>, pinĉ-i.<br> +<b>pine</b> (<b>tree</b>), pin-o; <b>— for</b>, sopir-i je.<br> +<b>pineapple</b>, ananas-o.<br> +<b>pinnacle</b>, pint-o.<br> +<b>pioneer</b>, pionir-o.<br> +<b>pious</b>, pi-a.<br> +<b>pipe</b>, tub-o; (<b>for smoking</b>), pip-o.<br> +<b>pitcher</b>, kruĉ-o.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------323.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>pity</b>, kompat-i; (<b>regrettable affair</b>), domaĝ-o.<br> +<b>placard</b>, afiŝ-o.<br> +<b>place</b>, lok-o; (<b>for something</b>), -ej-o (<b>111</b>); (<b>broad, short street or open space</b>), plac-o; (<b>put</b>), met-i.<br> +<b>plait</b>, plekt-i.<br> +<b>plan</b>, plan-o, projekt-o, skiz-o.<br> +<b>plane</b>, plat-a.<br> +<b>planet</b>, planed-o.<br> +<b>plank</b>, tabul-o.<br> +<b>plant</b>, plant-i; (<b>vegetable growth</b>), kreskaĵ-o, vegetaĵ-o.<br> +<b>plate</b>, plat-o; (<b>dish</b>) teler-o.<br> +<b>platform</b> (<b>railway</b>), peron-o.<br> +<b>play</b>, lud-i; (<b>music</b>), muzik-i; (<b>theatrical</b>), teatraĵ-o.<br> +<b>player</b> (<b>theatrical</b>), aktor-o.<br> +<b>pleasant</b>, agrabl-a, dolĉ-a, afabl-a.<br> +<b>please</b>, plaĉ-i (<b>265</b>); kontentig-i, far-i plezuron al; (<b>in requests</b>), bonvolu, mi petas.<br> +<b>pleasure</b>, plezur-o; <b>take — in</b>, ĝu-i.<br> +<b>plot</b>, konspir-i.<br> +<b>plow</b>, plug-i.<br> +<b>plum</b>, prun-o.<br> +<b>plumber</b>, plumbist-o.<br> +<b>plunder</b>, rab-i.<br> +<b>plural</b>, multenombr-o.<br> +<b>pneumatic</b>, pneumatik-a.<br> +<b>pocket</b>, poŝ-o.<br> +<b>poem</b>, poem-o.<br> +<b>poet</b>, poet-o.<br> +<b>poetry</b>, poezi-o.<br> +<b>point</b>, punkt-o; (<b>sharp</b>), pint-o; <b>— out</b>, montr-i.<br> +<b>poise</b> (<i>trans.</i>), balanc-i; (of manner), aplomb-o.<br> +<b>poison</b>, venen-o.<br> +<b>pole</b>, stang-o; (<b>shaft of vehicle</b>), timon-o; (<b>geographical</b>), polus-o.<br> +<b>Pole</b>, pol-o.<br> +<b>police</b>, polic-o.<br> +<b>polite</b>, ĝentil-a.<br> +<b>politics</b>, politik-o.<br> +<b>polish</b>, polur-i; polished, polurit-a, glat-a.<br> +<b>pomp</b>, pomp-o.<br> +<b>popular</b>, popular-o, popol-a.<br> +<b>porcelain</b>, porcelan-o.<br> +<b>porch</b>, verand-o; (<b>stoop</b>), peron-o; (<b>balcony</b>), balkon-o.<br> +<b>pork</b>, porkaĵ-o.<br> +<b>port</b>, haven-o.<br> +<b>portion</b>, porci-o, part-o.<br> +<b>portrait</b>, portret-o.<br> +<b>possess</b>, posed-i.<br> +<b>possible</b>, ebl-a (<b>161, 162</b>); kredebl-a (<b>270</b>).<br> +<b>post</b> (<b>pole</b>), stang-o; (<b>mail</b>), poŝt-o; <b>—card</b>, poŝtkart-o; <b>—paid</b>, afrankit-e.<br> +<b>postage</b> (<b>cost</b>), poŝtelspezo; <b>— stamp</b>, poŝtmark-o.<br> +<b>poster</b>, afiŝ-o.<br> +<b>pot</b>, pot-o.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------324.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>potato</b>, terpom-o; <b>sweet —</b>, batat-o.<br> +<b>pound</b>, pist-i; (<b>measure</b>), funt-o.<br> +<b>pour</b> (liquids), verŝ-i; (<b>as in a chute</b>), ŝut-i.<br> +<b>powder</b>, pudr-o.<br> +<b>power</b>, pov-o, potenc-o.<br> +<b>practice</b>, praktik-i.<br> +<b>praise</b>, laŭd-i.<br> +<b>pray</b>, preĝ-i.<br> +<b>preach</b>, predik-i.<br> +<b>precise</b>, preciz-a, ĝust-a.<br> +<b>predestined</b>, fatal-a.<br> +<b>prefer</b>, prefer-i.<br> +<b>prefix</b>, prefiks-o.<br> +<b>premium</b>, premi-o.<br> +<b>prepare</b>, prepar-i.<br> +<b>prepay</b>, afrank-i.<br> +<b>presence</b>, ĉeest-o, apudest-o; <b>in the — of</b> (<i>prep.</i>), ĉe (<b>125</b>), antaŭ.<br> +<b>present</b> (<b>gift</b>), donac-o; (<b>time</b>), estantec-o, estant-a, nun-a (<b>171</b>); (<b>in attendance</b>), ĉeestant-a.<br> +<b>present</b>, prezent-i, donac-i, don-i.<br> +<b>preserve</b> (<b>keep</b>), ten-i; (<b>keep safe</b>), konserv-i; (<b>food</b>), kompot-o, konfitaĵ-o.<br> +<b>preside</b>, prezid-i.<br> +<b>president</b>, prezidant-o.<br> +<b>press</b>, prem-i; (<b>print</b>), pres-i; (<b>wardrobe</b>), ŝrank-o; (<b>be urgent</b>), urĝ-i.<br> +<b>pretend</b> (<b>make pretext of</b>), pretekst-i; (<b>feign</b>), ŝajnig-i; (<b>lay claim</b>), pretend-i.<br> +<b>price</b>, prez-o, kost-o.<br> +<b>prick</b>, pik-i.<br> +<b>priest</b>, pastr-o.<br> +<b>prince</b>, princ-o, reĝid-o.<br> +<b>principal</b>, precip-a, ĉef-a.<br> +<b>print</b>, pres-i.<br> +<b>prize</b>, ŝat-i; (<b>premium</b>), premi-o.<br> +<b>prized</b>, kar-a, altetaksat-a, ŝatat-a.<br> +<b>problem</b>, problem-o.<br> +<b>process</b>, metod-o; (<b>legal</b>), proces-o.<br> +<b>proclaim</b>, proklam-i.<br> +<b>procrastinate</b>, prokrast-i.<br> +<b>produce</b>, produkt-i; <b>— a result</b>, efik-i; (<b>give birth to</b>), nask-i.<br> +<b>profession</b>, profesi-o.<br> +<b>professor</b>, profesor-o.<br> +<b>profile</b>, profil-o.<br> +<b>profit</b>, profit-i; (<b>percentage</b>), tantiem-o.<br> +<b>profound</b>, profund-a.<br> +<b>progress</b>, progres-i.<br> +<b>project</b>, projekt-o.<br> +<b>promenade</b>, promen-i.<br> +<b>promise</b>, promes-i.<br> +<b>propensity</b>, inklin-o, em-o (<b>192</b>).<br> +<b>(be) proper</b>, dec-i.<br> +<b>property</b>, propraĵ-o, posedaĵ-o; (<b>land</b>), bien-o; (<b>characteristic</b>), ec-o (<b>202</b>).<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------325.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>proportional</b>, proporci-a.<br> +<b>propose</b>, propon-i, sugesti-i.<br> +<b>prose</b>, prozo; <b>piece of —</b>, prozaĵo.<br> +<b>prosecute</b>, persekut-i.<br> +<b>prosper</b>, prosper-i.<br> +<b>protect</b>, protekt-i, gard-i.<br> +<b>protest</b>, protest-i.<br> +<b>proud</b>, fier-a<br> +<b>prove</b>, pruv-i; (<b>test</b>), prov-i.<br> +<b>provoke</b>, incit-i, ekscit-i, kaŭz-i, nask-i, kolerig-i.<br> +<b>psalm</b>, psalm-o.<br> +<b>public</b>, publik-o.<br> +<b>publish</b>, publikig-i, eldon-i.<br> +<b>pudding</b>, puding-o.<br> +<b>pull</b>, tir-i.<br> +<b>pump</b>, pump-i.<br> +<b>pumpkin</b>, kukurb-o.<br> +<b>punish</b>, pun-i.<br> +<b>pure</b>, pur-a.<br> +<b>puree</b>, pistaĵ-o.<br> +<b>purple</b>, purpur-a.<br> +<b>purpose</b>, cel-i, intenc-i.<br> +<b>push</b>, puŝ-i; (<b>shove</b>), ŝov-i.<br> +<b>put</b>, met-i; <b>— off</b>, prokrast-i.<br> + +<!-- This title is centered in book; center in textfile. --> +<!-- But in HTML, it looks better leftjustified. --> +<p><b>Q.</b></p> + +<b>quality</b>, ec-o (<b>202</b>); (<b>texture, etc.</b>), kvalito.<br> +<b>quantity</b>, kvant-o; <b>any —</b>, <b>a certain —</b>, iom (<b>217</b>); <i>see table</i>, 235.<br> +<b>quarter</b> (<b>of a city</b>), kvartal-o; (<b>fourth</b>), kvaron-o; <b>—ly</b>, trimonat-a.<br> +<b>question</b>, demand-o; (<b>problem</b>), problem-o; (<b>doubt</b>), dub-o.<br> +<b>quick</b>, rapid-a; (<b>lively</b>), viv-a.<br> +<b>quiet</b>, kviet-a, trankvil-a, silent-a.<br> +<b>quince</b>, cidoni-o.<br> +<b>quite</b> (<i>adv.</i>), tut-e.<br> +<b>quote</b>, cit-i.<br> + +<!-- This title is centered in book; center in textfile. --> +<!-- But in HTML, it looks better leftjustified. --> +<p><b>R.</b></p> + +<b>rabbit</b>, kunikl-o.<br> +<b>race</b> (<b>people</b>), ras-o.<br> +<b>radish</b>, rafan-o; <b>horse—</b>, armoraci-o.<br> +<b>radius</b>, radi-o.<br> +<b>rag</b>, ĉifon-o.<br> +<b>raging</b>, furioz-a.<br> +<b>rail</b>, rel-o; <b>—way</b>, fervoj-o; <b>—way carriage</b>, vagon-o; <b>—way station</b>, stacidom-o.<br> +<b>rain</b>, pluv-o; <b>—bow</b>, ĉielark-o.<br> +<b>raise</b>, lev-i.<br> +<b>raisin</b>, sekvinber-o.<br> +<b>rank</b>, rang-o; (<b>grade</b>), grad-o.<br> +<b>rap</b>, frapet-i.<br> +<b>rapid</b>, rapid-a.<br> +<b>rascal</b>, fripon-o, kanajl-o.<br> +<b>rasp</b>, rasp-i.<br> +<b>raspberry</b>, framb-o.<br> +<b>rat</b>, rat-o.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------326.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>rate</b>, taks-i; (<b>schedule of prices</b>), tarif-o, prezar-o; (<b>percentage</b>), procent-o; <b>at the — of</b> (<i>prep.</i>), po (<b>175</b>).<br> +<b>rational</b>, prudent-a, racional-a.<br> +<b>raucous</b>, raŭk-a.<br> +<b>raven</b>, korv-o.<br> +<b>ravishing</b>, rav-a.<br> +<b>raw</b>, nekuirit-a.<br> +<b>ray</b> (<b>of light</b>), radi-o.<br> +<b>reach</b>, ating-i; (<b>a goal</b>), traf-i.<br> +<b>read</b>, leg-i.<br> +<b>ready</b>, pret-a.<br> +<b>real</b>, efektiv-a, real-a; ver-a.<br> +<b>reap</b>, rikolt-i.<br> +<b>reason</b> (<b>exert the power of reasoning</b>), rezon-i; (<b>cause</b>), kaŭz-o; (<b>motive</b>), kial-o; <b>for what —, for any —, etc.</b>, <i>see table</i>, 235.<br> +<b>reasonable</b>, prudent-a.<br> +<b>rebate</b>, rabat-i.<br> +<b>recall</b>, revok-i; (<b>to memory</b>), rememor-i; (<b>to another's memory</b>), rememorig-i.<br> +<b>receive</b>, ricev-i; (<b>accept</b>), akcept-i; (<b>money</b>), enspez-i.<br> +<b>receipt</b> (<b>for payment</b>), kvitanc-o.<br> +<b>reckon</b>, kalkul-i.<br> +<b>recent</b>, nov-a, antaŭnelong-a (<b>90</b>).<br> +<b>receptacle</b>, uj-o (<b>237</b>); (<b>for one object</b>), ing-o (<b>181</b>).<br> +<b>recess</b> (<b>alcove</b>), alkov-o; (<b>vacation</b>), libertemp-o.<br> +<b>reciprocal</b>, reciprok-a (<b>180</b>).<br> +<b>recite</b>, deklam-i.<br> +<b>recline</b>, kuŝ-i (<b>239</b>).<br> +<b>recommend</b>, rekomend-i.<br> +<b>recompense</b>, rekompenŝ-i.<br> +<b>recover</b> (<b>find</b>), retrov-i; (<b>get well</b>), resaniĝ-i.<br> +<b>red</b>, ruĝ-a; reddish, duberuĝ-a.<br> +<b>reduction</b> (<b>of price</b>), rabat-o.<br> +<b>refine</b>, rafin-i.<br> +<b>refuse</b>, rifuz-i, malpermes-i.<br> +<b>refute</b>, refut-i.<br> +<b>regale</b>, regal-i.<br> +<b>region</b>, region-o.<br> +<b>register</b> (<i>trans.</i>), registr-i; (<b>letters</b>), rekomend-i.<br> +<b>regret</b>, bedaŭr-i; (<b>be penitent for</b>), pent-i.<br> +<b>regrettable</b>, bedaŭrind-a; <b>— affair (pity)</b>, domaĝ-o.<br> +<b>regulation</b>, regul-o, leĝ-o.<br> +<b>reign</b>, reg-i.<br> +<b>rejoice</b>, ĝoj-i (<b>116</b>).<br> +<b>relate</b>, rilat-i (<b>266</b>); (<b>tell</b>), rakont-i.<br> +<b>relative</b> (<b>person</b>), parenc-o.<br> +<b>religion</b>, religi-o.<br> +<b>rely</b>, konfid-i; fid-i.<br> +<b>remain</b>, rest-i; remaining (<b>other</b>), ceter-a.<br> +<b>remember</b>, memor-i; (<b>recall to memory</b>), rememor-i.<br> +<b>render</b>, far-i, ig-i (<b>214</b>); (<b>an account</b>), don-i, prezent-i, liver-i.<br> +<b>renown</b>, fam-o, glor-o.<br> +<b>rent</b>, lu-i; (<b>let</b>), luig-i; (<b>farm out</b>), farm-i; (<b>price</b>), luprez-o.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------327.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>repair</b>, ripar-i; (<b>patch</b>), flik-i.<br> +<b>repeat</b>, ripet-i.<br> +<b>repent</b>, pent-i.<br> +<b>report</b>, raport-i.<br> +<b>repose</b>, ripoz-i.<br> +<b>represent</b>, reprezent-i.<br> +<b>reproach</b>, riproĉ-i.<br> +<b>republic</b>, respublik-o.<br> +<b>repulse</b>, repuŝ-i, repel-i.<br> +<b>request</b>, pet-i.<br> +<b>require</b>, postul-i; (<b>need</b>), bezon-i.<br> +<b>rescue</b>, sav-i.<br> +<b>reside</b>, loĝ-i.<br> +<b>respect</b>, respekt-i.<br> +<b>rest</b> (<b>repose</b>), ripoz-i; (<b>remain</b>), rest-i; (<b>— upon</b>), apog-i sur.<br> +<b>restaurant</b>, restoraci-o.<br> +<b>result</b>, rezult-i.<br> +<b>resume</b>, resum-o.<br> +<b>return</b> (<b>go back</b>), reir-i; (<b>come back</b>), reven-i; (<b>give back</b>), redon-i.<br> +<b>revery</b>, rev-o.<br> +<b>review</b> (<b>magazine</b>), revu-o.<br> +<b>reward</b>, rekompenc-i.<br> +<b>rhubarb</b>, rabarb-o.<br> +<b>rib</b>, rip-o.<br> +<b>ribbon</b>, ruband-o.<br> +<b>rice</b>, riz-o.<br> +<b>rich</b>, riĉ-a.<br> +<b>ride</b>, rajd-i; (<b>in vehicle, boat, etc.</b>), vetur-i.<br> +<b>ridicule</b>, mok-i; worthy of — (ridiculous), ridind-a.<br> +<b>right</b>, prav-a; (<b>to something</b>), rajt-o; (<b>not left</b>), dekstr-a.<br> +<b>right-angled</b>, ort-a.<br> +<b>ring</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), sonor-i; (<b>circlet</b>), ring-o.<br> +<b>ringlet</b> (<b>of hair</b>), bukl-o.<br> +<b>ripe</b>, matur-a.<br> +<b>river</b>, river-o.<br> +<b>road</b>, voj-o; (<b>broad roadway</b>), ŝose-o.<br> +<b>roam</b>, vag-i.<br> +<b>roar</b>, muĝ-i.<br> +<b>roast</b>, rost-i.<br> +<b>rob</b>, rab-i, ŝtel-i.<br> +<b>robber</b>, rabist-o.<br> +<b>robe</b>, rob-o.<br> +<b>Robert</b>, Robert-o.<br> +<b>roguish</b>, petol-a; (<b>rascally</b>), fripon-a.<br> +<b>roll</b> (<i>trans.</i>), rul-i; (<b>something around something else</b>), volv-i; (<b>bread</b>), bulk-o; (<b>list</b>), list-o, registr-o.<br> +<b>roof</b>, tegment-o.<br> +<b>room</b>, ĉambr-o; (<b>space</b>), spac-o.<br> +<b>root</b>, radik-o.<br> +<b>rose</b>, roz-o.<br> +<b>(by) rote</b>, parker-e.<br> +<b>round</b>, rond-o; (<b>of ladder</b>), ŝtupet-o; (<b>roundabout</b>) (<i>prep.</i>) ĉirkaŭ (<b>89, 120, 159, 160</b>).<br> +<b>routine</b>, rutin-o.<br> +<b>row</b> (boats), rem-i.<br> +<b>royalty</b>, reĝec-o; (<b>share of profit</b>) tantiem-o.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------328.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>rub</b>, frot-i.<br> +<b>ruin</b>, ruin-o.<br> +<b>rule</b>, reg-i; (<b>draw lines</b>), lini-i; (<b>regulation</b>), regul-o.<br> +<b>rumor</b>, fam-o; rumored, laŭdir-a.<br> +<b>run</b>, kur-i; (<b>of fluids</b>), flu-i.<br> +<b>Russian</b>, rus-o.<br> +<b>rust</b>, rust-i.<br> + +<!-- This title is centered in book; center in textfile. --> +<!-- But in HTML, it looks better leftjustified. --> +<p><b>S.</b></p> + +<b>sack</b>, sak-o; (<b>plunder</b>), rab-i.<br> +<b>sacred</b>, sankt-a.<br> +<b>sacrifice</b>, ofer-i, oferdon-i.<br> +<b>saddle</b>, sel-o.<br> +<b>safe</b>, sendanĝer-a, senrisk-a; (<b>chest</b>), monkest-o.<br> +<b>sail</b>, vel-o.<br> +<b>salad</b>, salat-o.<br> +<b>salary</b>, salajr-o.<br> +<b>salt</b>, sal-o.<br> +<b>salute</b>, salut-i.<br> +<b>same</b>, sam-a.<br> +<b>sample</b>, specimen-o.<br> +<b>sand</b>, sabl-o.<br> +<b>sap</b>, suk-o.<br> +<b>sardine</b>, sarden-o.<br> +<b>satchel</b>, valiz-o.<br> +<b>sated</b>, sat-a.<br> +<b>satin</b>, atlas-o.<br> +<b>satisfied</b>, kontent-a; (<b>of hunger</b>), sat-a.<br> +<b>Saturday</b>, sabat-o.<br> +<b>sausage</b>, kolbas-o.<br> +<b>sauce</b>, saŭc-o.<br> +<b>saucer</b>, subtas-o, teleret-o.<br> +<b>saucy</b>, petol-a, malĝentil-a, insultem-a.<br> +<b>savage</b>, sovaĝ-a.<br> +<b>save</b>, sav-i; (<b>keep</b>), konserv-i; (<b>economize</b>), ŝpar-i; (<i>prep.</i>), krom, escepte de.<br> +<b>saw</b>, seg-i.<br> +<b>say</b>, dir-i (<b>77</b>).<br> +<b>scales</b> (<b>for weighing</b>), pesil-o.<br> +<b>scarcely</b> (<i>adv.</i>), apenaŭ.<br> +<b>scent</b> (<i>trans.</i>), flar-i.<br> +<b>schedule</b> (<b>of rates</b>), tarif-o.<br> +<b>science</b>, scienc-o.<br> +<b>scissors</b>, tondil-o.<br> +<b>Scot</b> (<b>Scotchman</b>), skot-o.<br> +<b>scoundrel</b>, kanajl-o, fripon-o.<br> +<b>scrape</b>, skrap-i.<br> +<b>screen</b>, ŝirm-i.<br> +<b>screw</b>, ŝraŭb-o; <b>—driver</b>, ŝraŭbturnil-o.<br> +<b>sculpture</b>, skulpt-i.<br> +<b>sea</b>, mar-o.<br> +<b>seal</b>, sigel-i.<br> +<b>season</b> (<b>of the year</b>), sezon-o.<br> +<b>second</b> (<b>of time</b>), sekund-o; (<b>in order</b>), dua; <b>a — time</b> (<i>adv.</i>), duafoje, bis.<br> +<b>secret</b>, sekret-o.<br> +<b>secretary</b>, sekretari-o.<br> +<b>section</b>, sekci-o, part-o, er-o (<b>276</b>).<br> +<b>see</b>, vid-i; <b>— to</b>, zorg-i pri.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------329.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>seed</b>, sem-o.<br> +<b>seek</b>, serĉ-i; <b>— advice of</b>, konsult-i.<br> +<b>seem</b>, ŝajn-i; <b>—ing</b>, ŝajn-a, kvazaŭ-a.<br> +<b>seize</b>, kapt-i.<br> +<b>select</b>, elekt-i.<br> +<b>self</b> (<i>reflexive</i>), <i>see</i> 39, 40, 44; (<i>intensive</i>), mem (<b>219</b>).<br> +<b>self-command</b>, aplomb-o.<br> +<b>sell</b>, vend-i.<br> +<b>senate</b>, senat-o.<br> +<b>send</b>, send-i.<br> +<b>sense</b>, prudent-o, saĝ-o; (<b>meaning</b>), senc-o; (<b>feeling</b>), sent-o.<br> +<b>sentence</b>, fraz-o; (<b>legal</b>), juĝ-o, kondamn-o.<br> +<b>separate</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), disiĝ-i, disir-i; (<b>distinct</b>), apart-a.<br> +<b>September</b>, septembr-o.<br> +<b>serene</b>, trankvil-a.<br> +<b>series</b>, seri-o, vic-o.<br> +<b>serious</b>, serioz-a, grav-a.<br> +<b>serve</b>, serv-i; (<b>be good for</b>), taŭg-i por.<br> +<b>set</b>, met-i; (<b>of the sun</b>), subir-i; (<b>type</b>), kompost-i; <b>— free</b>, liberig-i; <b>— out (start)</b>, forir-i, ekir-i.<br> +<b>seven</b> (<i>adj.</i>), sep (<b>136</b>).<br> +<b>several</b>, kelk-aj, kelk-e.<br> +<b>severe</b>, sever-a.<br> +<b>sew</b>, kudr-i.<br> +<b>shade</b> (<b>shadow</b>), ombr-o; (<b>tint</b>) nuanc-o; (<b>screen</b>), ŝirmil-o.<br> +<b>shaft</b> (<b>of vehicle</b>), timon-o.<br> +<b>shake</b> (<i>trans.</i>), sku-i; (<b>oscillate</b>), ŝancel-i; <b>— hands</b>, manprem-i.<br> +<b>sham</b>, pretekst-i.<br> +<b>shape</b>, form-o; <b>—ly</b>, beltali-a.<br> +<b>share</b>, partopren-i, divid-i, part-o, porci-o.<br> +<b>sharp</b>, akr-a; (<b>pointed</b>), pint-a.<br> +<b>shatter</b>, frakas-i.<br> +<b>shave</b>, raz-i.<br> +<b>shawl</b>, ŝal-o.<br> +<b>she</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), ŝi (<b>32, 37, 42</b>).<br> +<b>shear</b>, tond-i.<br> +<b>sheep</b>, ŝaf-o.<br> +<b>shelf</b>, bret-o.<br> +<b>shell</b>, ŝel-o; (<b>of mollusk</b>), konk-o; <b>to remove the —</b>, senŝelig-i.<br> +<b>shelter</b>, ŝirm-i.<br> +<b>shepherd</b>, paŝtist-o.<br> +<b>shield</b>, ŝild-o; (<b>protect</b>), ŝirm-i.<br> +<b>shin-bone</b>, tibi-o.<br> +<b>shine</b>, bril-i, lum-i.<br> +<b>ship</b>, ŝip-o.<br> +<b>shirt</b>, ĉemiz-o.<br> +<b>shoe</b>, ŝu-o.<br> +<b>shoot</b> (<b>with gun, etc.</b>), paf-i.<br> +<b>shop</b>, butik-o.<br> +<b>shore</b>, bord-o, marbord-o.<br> +<b>short</b>, mallong-a; <b>—sighted</b>, miop-a; <b>—hand</b>, stenografi-o.<br> +<b>shoulder</b>, ŝultr-o.<br> +<b>shove</b>, ŝov-i.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------330.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>shovel</b>, ŝovel-i.<br> +<b>show</b> (<i>trans.</i>), montr-i.<br> +<b>shrill</b>, akr-a, akrason-a.<br> +<b>shun</b>, evit-i.<br> +<b>shut</b> (trans.), ferm-i.<br> +<b>side</b>, flank-o; <b>—board</b>, telermebl-o; <b>—walk</b>, trotuar-o; <b>—wise</b>, oblikv-a.<br> +<b>sift</b>, kribr-i.<br> +<b>sigh</b>, sopir-i.<br> +<b>sign</b>, sign-o; <b>— the name</b>, subskrib-i.<br> +<b>signify</b>, signif-i.<br> +<b>silent</b>, silent-a (<b>239</b>).<br> +<b>silk</b>, silk-o.<br> +<b>silver</b>, arĝent-o.<br> +<b>similar</b>, simil-a.<br> +<b>simple</b>, simpl-a.<br> +<b>sin</b>, pek-i.<br> +<b>since</b> (<i>conj.</i>), ĉar, tial ke (<b>83</b>); (<i>prep.</i>), de, depost (<b>89</b>); (<i>adv.</i>), de tiam.<br> +<b>sing</b>, kant-i.<br> +<b>single</b>, sol-a, unuop-a; <b>— man (unmarried man)</b>, fraŭl-o.<br> +<b>sit</b>, sid-i (<b>239</b>).<br> +<b>six</b> (<i>adj.</i>), ses (<b>136</b>).<br> +<b>sketch</b>, skiz-i.<br> +<b>skill</b>, lertec-o; <b>trial of —</b>, konkurs-o.<br> +<b>skin</b> (<b>human</b>), haŭt-o; (<b>of animals</b>), fel-o.<br> +<b>skirt</b>, jup-o.<br> +<b>sky</b>, ĉiel-o.<br> +<b>slanting</b>, oblikv-a, klin-a.<br> +<b>slate</b> (<b>stone</b>), ardez-o.<br> +<b>slaughter</b>, buĉ-i.<br> +<b>slave</b>, sklav-o.<br> +<b>sleep</b>, dorm-i; <b>lull to —</b>, lul-i.<br> +<b>sleeve</b>, manik-o.<br> +<b>slide</b>, glit-i.<br> +<b>slime</b>, ŝlim-o.<br> +<b>slipper</b>, pantofl-o.<br> +<b>sly</b>, ruz-a.<br> +<b>smear</b>, ŝmir-i.<br> +<b>smell</b> (<i>trans.</i>), flar-i; (<i>intrans.</i>), odor-i.<br> +<b>smile</b>, ridet-i.<br> +<b>smoke</b>, fum-i.<br> +<b>smooth</b>, glat-a; (<b>polished</b>), polurit-a.<br> +<b>sneeze</b>, tern-i.<br> +<b>snow</b>, neĝ-i.<br> +<b>so</b> (<i>conj.</i>), do; (<i>adv.</i>), (<b>thus</b>), tiel (<b>88, 156</b>); (<b>therefore</b>), tial (<b>78</b>); <b>— much</b>, tiom (<b>104, 164</b>).<br> +<b>society</b>, societ-o.<br> +<b>Socrates</b>, Sokrat-o.<br> +<b>sofa</b>, kanap-o.<br> +<b>soft</b>, mol-a.<br> +<b>soil</b>, ter-o; soiled, malpur-a.<br> +<b>soldier</b>, soldat-o; (<b>professional</b>), militist-o.<br> +<b>sole</b>, sol-a; (<b>of foot</b>), pland-o; (<b>of shoe</b>), ledpland-o.<br> +<b>solemn</b>, solen-a.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------331.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>some</b>, kelk-a, kelk-e, iom (<b>217</b>); <b>—one</b>, <b>—how</b>, etc., <i>see table</i>, 235.<br> +<b>son</b>, fil-o.<br> +<b>soon</b> (<i>adv.</i>), baldaŭ.<br> +<b>sorcerer</b>, sorĉist-o.<br> +<b>sort</b>, spec-o, klas-o; (<b>put in order</b>), ordig-i, enfakig-i.<br> +<b>soul</b>, anim-o.<br> +<b>sound</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), son-i; (<b>of bells</b>), sonor-i; (<b>in good condition</b>), bonstat-a.<br> +<b>soup</b>, sup-o.<br> +<b>sour</b>, acid-a, maldolĉ-a.<br> +<b>south</b>, sud-o.<br> +<b>sow</b>, sem-i.<br> +<b>space</b>, spac-o.<br> +<b>spacious</b>, vast-a, grandspac-a, grandampleks-a.<br> +<b>Spaniard</b>, hispan-o.<br> +<b>spare</b> (save), ŝpar-i; (<b>pardon</b>), pardon-i.<br> +<b>sparrow</b>, paser-o.<br> +<b>speak</b>, parol-i (<b>77</b>).<br> +<b>spear</b>, lanc-o.<br> +<b>special</b>, special-a, apart-a.<br> +<b>specialty</b>, fak-o.<br> +<b>species</b>, spec-o.<br> +<b>specimen</b>, specimen-o, model-o.<br> +<b>spectre</b>, fantom-o.<br> +<b>speed</b>, rapid-o, rapidec-o.<br> +<b>spell</b>, silab-i; (<b>witchcraft</b>), sorĉaĵ-o.<br> +<b>spend</b> (<b>money</b>), elspez-i; (<b>time</b>), pasig-i.<br> +<b>speso</b>, spes-o (<b>285</b>).<br> +<b>spider</b>, arane-o.<br> +<b>spin</b>, ŝpin-i.<br> +<b>spinach</b>, spinac-o.<br> +<b>spite</b>, malic-o; <b>in — of</b>, (<i>prep.</i>), malgraŭ, spite.<br> +<b>splash</b> (<i>trans.</i>), plaŭd-i.<br> +<b>splendor</b>, pomp-o, bril-o, belegec-o.<br> +<b>split</b> (<i>trans.</i>), fend-i.<br> +<b>spoil</b> (<i>trans.</i>), difekt-i.<br> +<b>spoke</b> (<b>of wheel</b>), radi-o.<br> +<b>spoon</b>, kuler-o.<br> +<b>spot</b>, makul-i.<br> +<b>spout</b> (<b>liquids</b>), ŝpruc-i.<br> +<b>spring</b> (<b>season</b>), printemp-o; (<b>of water</b>), font-o.<br> +<b>sprite</b>, kobold-o, fe-o.<br> +<b>spruce</b> (<b>tree</b>), pice-o.<br> +<b>spurt</b> (<b>of liquids</b>), ŝpruc-i.<br> +<b>spy</b>, spion-o; (<b>catch sight of</b>), ekvid-i; <b>—glass</b>, lorn-o.<br> +<b>square</b>, kvadrat-o; (<b>public</b>), plac-o.<br> +<b>stain</b>, makul-i.<br> +<b>stair</b> (<b>staircase</b>), ŝtupar-o.<br> +<b>stag</b>, cerv-o.<br> +<b>stake</b> (<b>of palisade</b>), palis-o.<br> +<b>stamp</b> (<b>officially</b>), stamp-i; (<b>with foot</b>), piedfrap-i; <b>postage —</b>, poŝtmark-o.<br> +<b>stand</b>, star-i (<b>239</b>); (<b>endure</b>), sufer-i, elport-i.<br> +<b>standard</b> (<b>model</b>), model-o; (<b>flag</b>), standard-o.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------332.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>star</b>, stel-o; (<b>any heavenly body</b>), astr-o.<br> +<b>starch</b>, amel-o.<br> +<b>state</b> (<b>condition</b>), stat-o; (<b>political</b>), ŝtat-o; (<b>governed body</b>), regn-o.<br> +<b>station</b> (<b>state</b>), stat-o; (<b>railway, etc.</b>), staci-o, stacidom-o.<br> +<b>stay</b>, rest-i.<br> +<b>steady</b>, firm-a, konstant-a, nemovebl-a.<br> +<b>steal</b>, ŝtel-i, rab-i (<b>252</b>).<br> +<b>steam</b>, vapor-o.<br> +<b>steel</b>, ŝtal-o.<br> +<b>steep</b>, krut-a.<br> +<b>step</b>, paŝ-i; (<b>of stairs</b>), ŝtup-o.<br> +<b>stern</b>, sever-a.<br> +<b>stew</b> (<i>trans.</i>), stuf-i.<br> +<b>stick</b>, baston-o; (<b>adhere</b>), algluiĝ-i.<br> +<b>still</b> (<b>silent</b>), silent-a; (<i>adv.</i>), ankoraŭ; jam; (<i>conj.</i>), tamen.<br> +<b>stimulate</b>, stimul-i, incit-i.<br> +<b>sting</b>, pik-i.<br> +<b>stipulate</b>, kondiĉ-o.<br> +<b>stocking</b>, ŝtrump-o.<br> +<b>stomach</b>, stomak-o.<br> +<b>stone</b>, ŝton-o.<br> +<b>stoop</b>, kliniĝ-i; (<b>entrance porch</b>), peron-o.<br> +<b>stop</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), halt-i; (<b>leave off</b>), ĉes-i; <b>— up</b>, ŝtop-i.<br> +<b>stopper</b>, ŝtopil-o.<br> +<b>store</b> (<b>shop</b>), butik-o; (<b>warehouse</b>), magazen-o, konservej-o, tenej-o.<br> +<b>story</b> (<b>tale</b>), fabel-o, rakont-o; (<b>of house</b>), etaĝ-o.<br> +<b>stove</b>, forn-o.<br> +<b>straight</b>, rekt-a.<br> +<b>strange</b>, strang-a, kurioz-a; (<b>foreign</b>), fremd-a.<br> +<b>strap</b>, rimen-o.<br> +<b>straw</b>, pajl-o.<br> +<b>strawberry</b>, frag-o.<br> +<b>streak</b>, stri-o; <b>make a —</b>, strek-i.<br> +<b>street</b>, strat-o; <b>— arab</b>, bub-o.<br> +<b>street-car</b>, tramveturil-o; <b>— line</b>, tramvoj-o.<br> +<b>stress</b>, akcent-o; (<b>force</b>), fort-o.<br> +<b>stretch</b> (<i>trans.</i>), etend-i; (<b>forcibly</b>), streĉ-i.<br> +<b>string</b>, ŝnur-o; (<b>shoelace</b>), laĉ-o; <b>— bean</b>, fazeol-o.<br> +<b>strike</b>, frap-i, bat-i; (<b>of laborers</b>), strik-o; <b>— out</b>, trastrek-i.<br> +<b>strip</b> (<b>of paper, cloth, etc.</b>), banderol-o; <b>— off</b>, senig-i.<br> +<b>stripe</b>, stri-o.<br> +<b>strive</b>, pen-i.<br> +<b>strong</b>, fort-a.<br> +<b>struggle</b>, barakt-i.<br> +<b>student</b>, student-o; (<b>person studying</b>), studant-o.<br> +<b>study</b>, stud-i.<br> +<b>stuff</b>, ŝtof-o; (<b>furniture, etc.</b>), rembur-i.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------333.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>stump</b>, stump-o.<br> +<b>style</b>, stil-o, mod-o, fason-o.<br> +<b>subject</b> (<b>theme</b>), tem-o; (<b>grammatical</b>), subjekt-o; (<b>ruled</b>), regat-o.<br> +<b>subscribe</b>, subskrib-i; (<b>to magazine, etc.</b>), abon-i.<br> +<b>substance</b>, substanc-o.<br> +<b>succeed</b>, sukces-i; (<b>fare well</b>), prosper-i; (<b>follow</b>), sekv-i, postven-i.<br> +<b>succulent</b>, suk-a, sukplen-a.<br> +<b>such</b>, tia (<b>65</b>); (<i>adv.</i>), tiel (<b>88</b>).<br> +<b>sudden</b>, subit-a, neatendit-a.<br> +<b>suffer</b>, sufer-i, toler-i; (<b>permit</b>), permes-i.<br> +<b>suffice</b>, sufiĉ-i.<br> +<b>suffix</b>, sufiks-o.<br> +<b>suffocate</b> (<i>trans.</i>), sufok-i.<br> +<b>sugar</b>, suker-o.<br> +<b>suggest</b>, sugesti-i, propon-i.<br> +<b>suit</b> (<b>of clothes</b>), vest-oj, komplet-o; (<b>at law</b>), proces-o.<br> +<b>suitable</b>, konven-a, konform-a, taŭg-a, dec-a.<br> +<b>suite</b> (<b>of rooms</b>), apartament-o.<br> +<b>sulphur</b>, sulfur-o.<br> +<b>sum</b>, sum-o; (<b>total</b>), tut-o.<br> +<b>summarize</b>, resum-i.<br> +<b>summer</b>, somer-o; <b>—house</b>, laŭb-o.<br> +<b>summit</b>, pint-o, supr-o.<br> +<b>sun</b>, sun-o.<br> +<b>Sunday</b>, dimanĉ-o.<br> +<b>superior</b>, super-a; (<b>person</b>), superul-o.<br> +<b>superstition</b>, superstiĉ-o.<br> +<b>supply</b>, liver-i, proviz-i.<br> +<b>suppose</b>, supoz-i; opini-i.<br> +<b>sure</b>, cert-a.<br> +<b>surface</b>, supraĵ-o.<br> +<b>surprise</b>, surpriz-i.<br> +<b>suspect</b>, suspekt-i.<br> +<b>suspend</b>, pendig-i.<br> +<b>suspenders</b>, ŝelk-o.<br> +<b>swallow</b>, glut-i; (<b>bird</b>), hirund-o.<br> +<b>swamp</b>, marĉ-o.<br> +<b>swan</b>, cign-o.<br> +<b>swear</b>, ĵur-i.<br> +<b>Swede</b>, sved-o.<br> +<b>sweep</b> (<b>floors, etc.</b>), bala-i.<br> +<b>sweet</b>, dolĉ-a; <b>—potato</b>, batat-o.<br> +<b>sweetmeat</b>, bombon-o, sukeraĵ-o, konfitaĵ-o; <b>be fond of —</b>, frand-i.<br> +<b>swim</b>, naĝ-i.<br> +<b>swine</b>, pork-o.<br> +<b>swing</b> (<i>trans.</i>), sving-i; (<b>balance</b>), balanc-i (<b>279</b>).<br> +<b>Swiss</b>, svis-o.<br> +<b>swoon</b>, sven-i.<br> +<b>sword</b>, glav-o.<br> +<b>syllable</b>, silab-o.<br> +<b>Syracuse</b>, Sirakuz-o.<br> + +<!-- This title is centered in book; center in textfile. --> +<!-- But in HTML, it looks better leftjustified. --> +<p><b>T.</b></p> + +<b>table</b> (<b>furniture</b>), tabl-o; (<b>tabulation</b>), tabel-o.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------334.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>tail</b>, vost-o.<br> +<b>tailor</b>, tajlor-o.<br> +<b>take</b>, pren-i; (<b>magazines, etc.</b>), abon-i; <b>— in (money)</b>, enspez-i; <b>— place</b>, okaz-i; <b>— note of</b>, observ-i, rimark-i; <b>— oath</b>, ĵur-i; <b>— steps toward accomplishing</b>, klopod-i; <b>— pleasure in</b>, ĝu-i; <b>— the attention of</b>, distr-i.<br> +<b>tale</b>, fabel-o.<br> +<b>talent</b>, talent-o.<br> +<b>tall</b>, alt-a, altkresk-a, grand-a.<br> +<b>talon</b>, ungeg-o.<br> +<b>tap</b> (rap), frapet-i; (<b>faucet</b>), kran-o.<br> +<b>tariff</b>, tarif-o.<br> +<b>task</b>, task-o.<br> +<b>taste</b>, gust-o, gustum-i.<br> +<b>tax</b>, impost-o.<br> +<b>tea</b>, te-o; <b>— caddy</b>, teuj-o (<b>181</b>); <b>—pot</b>, tekruĉ-o.<br> +<b>teach</b>, instru-i.<br> +<b>tear</b>, ŝir-i; (<b>of the eye</b>), larm-o.<br> +<b>tease</b>, turmentet-i, ĉagren-i.<br> +<b>tedious</b>, ted-a, enuig-a, lacig-a.<br> +<b>telegraph</b>, telegraf-i.<br> +<b>telephone</b>, telefon-i.<br> +<b>telescope</b>, teleskop-o.<br> +<b>tell</b>, dir-i, rakont-i (<b>77</b>); <b>— lies</b>, mensog-i.<br> +<b>temper</b>, humor-o; <b>lose the —</b>, koler-i.<br> +<b>temple</b> (<b>of the head</b>), tempi-o; (<b>building</b>), templ-o.<br> +<b>tempt</b>, tent-i.<br> +<b>ten</b> (<i>adj.</i>), dek (<b>136</b>).<br> +<b>tender</b>, delikat-a, mol-a, kares-a.<br> +<b>tenor</b> (<b>voice</b>), tenor-o; (<b>course</b>), daŭr-o.<br> +<b>tent</b>, tend-o.<br> +<b>term</b> (<b>word</b>), termin-o; (<b>condition</b>), kondiĉ-o; (<b>time</b>), templim-o.<br> +<b>terrace</b>, teras-o.<br> +<b>territory</b>, teritori-o.<br> +<b>terror</b>, terur-o.<br> +<b>test</b>, prov-i, ekzamen-i.<br> +<b>texture</b>, kvalit-o; (<b>thing woven</b>), teksaĵ-o.<br> +<b>than</b> (<i>conj.</i>), ol (<b>82, 97, 98</b>).<br> +<b>thank</b>, dank-i (<b>265</b>).<br> +<b>that</b> (<i>conj.</i>), ke (<b>53, 83, 105, 259, 262</b>); (<i>pronoun</i>), tiu (<b>56</b>); tio (<b>233, 234</b>); <b>— kind</b>, tia (<b>65</b>); (<i>adv.</i>), tiel (<b>88, 156</b>); <b>— way</b>, tiamanier-e, tiel (<b>88</b>); <b>— much</b>, tiel mult-e, tiom (<b>104, 164</b>); (<b>when</b>) (<i>adv.</i>), kiam (<b>155</b>).<br> +<b>thaw</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), degel-i.<br> +<b>the</b> (<i>article</i>), la (11, 47, 201, 280, a); (<i>adv.</i>), ju, des (<b>84</b>).<br> +<b>theatre</b>, teatr-o.<br> +<b>theme</b>, tem-o.<br> +<b>then</b> (<i>conj.</i>), do; (<i>adv.</i>), tiam (<b>73</b>); (<b>afterwards</b>), post-e.<br> +<b>theory</b>, teori-o.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------335.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>there</b> (<i>adv.</i>), tie (<b>68</b>); (<i>adv. calling attention</i>), jen (<b>228</b>); <i>see also</i> 51.<br> +<b>therefore</b> (<i>adv.</i>), tial (<b>78</b>); pro tio, sekv-e.<br> +<b>they</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), ili (<b>32, 37, 42</b>); (<i>indefinite</i>), oni (<b>54</b>).<br> +<b>thick</b>, dik-a, dens-a.<br> +<b>thigh</b>, femur-o.<br> +<b>thing</b>, afer-o, objekt-o, aĵ-o (<b>227</b>); <b>any—</b>, <b>what —</b>, etc., <i>see table</i>, 235.<br> +<b>think</b>, pens-i; (<b>have the opinion</b>), opini-i.<br> +<b>(be) thirsty</b>, soif-i.<br> +<b>this</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), tio ĉi (<b>233, 234</b>); (<i>pronoun and adj.</i>), tiu ĉi (<b>60</b>); <b>all —</b>, ĉio ĉi. <i>See table</i>, 235.<br> +<b>thong</b>, rimen-o.<br> +<b>thorn</b>, dorn-o.<br> +<b>thou</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), ci (<b>40</b>).<br> +<b>though</b> (<i>conj.</i>), kvankam; <b>as —</b>, kvazaŭ (<b>250</b>).<br> +<b>thousand</b> (<i>adj.</i>), mil (<b>142</b>).<br> +<b>thread</b>, faden-o; <b>— a needle</b>, enkudrilig-i fadenon.<br> +<b>threaten</b>, minac-i.<br> +<b>three</b> (<i>adj.</i>), tri (<b>136</b>).<br> +<b>threshold</b>, sojl-o.<br> +<b>thrifty</b>, ŝparem-a.<br> +<b>throat</b>, gorĝ-o.<br> +<b>throne</b>, tron-o.<br> +<b>throng</b>, amas-o, ar-o (<b>126</b>).<br> +<b>through</b> (<i>prep.</i>), tra (<b>46, 160</b>); (<b>by means of</b>), per (<b>64</b>); (<b>because of</b>), pro (<b>86</b>), de (<b>170</b>).<br> +<b>throw</b>, ĵet-i.<br> +<b>thumb</b>, dika fingr-o.<br> +<b>thunder</b>, tondr-i.<br> +<b>Thursday</b>, ĵaŭd-o.<br> +<b>thus</b> (<i>adv.</i>), tiel (<b>88, 156</b>), tiamanier-e.<br> +<b>ticket</b>, bilet-o; <b>— window</b>, giĉet-o.<br> +<b>tickle</b>, tikl-i.<br> +<b>tie</b>, lig-i; (<b>shoes, etc.</b>), laĉ-i.<br> +<b>tiger</b>, tigr-o.<br> +<b>tile</b>, kahel-o; (<b>brick</b>), brik-o.<br> +<b>till</b> (<b>money box</b>), kas-o; (<i>prep.</i>), ĝis (<b>46, 89</b>); <b>— the soil</b>, terkultur-i.<br> +<b>time</b> (<b>in general</b>), temp-o; (<b>occasion</b>), foj-o (<b>127</b>); (<b>epoch</b>), epok-o; (<b>of day</b>), hor-o.<br> +<b>tin</b> (<b>metal</b>), stan-o; <b>— plate (sheet iron covered with tin</b>), lad-o.<br> +<b>tinkle</b>, tint-i.<br> +<b>tint</b>, nuanc-o, kolor-o.<br> +<b>tire</b> (<i>trans.</i>), lacig-i, enuig-i; (<b>pneumatic</b>), pneŭmatik-o.<br> +<b>to</b> (<i>prep.</i>), al (<b>46, 160, 251, 252</b>); ĝis (<b>46, 89</b>).<br> +<b>toad</b>, buf-o.<br> +<b>toast</b> (<b>bread</b>), panrostaĵ-o; (<b>sentiment</b>), tost-o.<br> +<b>tobacco</b>, tabak-o.<br> +<b>today</b> (<i>adv.</i>), hodiaŭ (<b>93, 171</b>).<br> +<b>toe</b>, piedfingr-o.<br> +<b>toilet</b>, tualet-o.<br> +<b>tolerate</b>, toler-i, sufer-i.<br> +<b>tomato</b>, tomat-o.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------336.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>tomb</b>, tomb-o.<br> +<b>tomorrow</b> (<i>adv.</i>), morgaŭ (<b>93, 171</b>).<br> +<b>tone</b>, ton-o.<br> +<b>tongue</b> (<b>of the body</b>), lang-o; (<b>of vehicle</b>), timon-o; (<b>language</b>), lingv-o.<br> +<b>too</b> (<i>adv.</i>), tro; (<b>too much</b>), tro multe, tro.<br> +<b>tool</b>, il-o (<b>63</b>).<br> +<b>tooth</b>, dent-o.<br> +<b>top</b>, supr-o.<br> +<b>torment</b>, turment-i.<br> +<b>total</b>, tut-o.<br> +<b>touch</b>, tuŝ-i; (<b>feel with the fingers, etc.</b>), palp-i; <b>sense of —</b>, palpad-o; <b>— the heart of</b>, kortuŝ-i.<br> +<b>toward</b> (<i>prep.</i>), al (<b>46, 160, 251, 252</b>).<br> +<b>tower</b>, tur-o; <b>— above</b>, superstar-i.<br> +<b>trace</b>, sign-o, postsign-o.<br> +<b>trade</b> (<b>occupation</b>), meti-o; (<b>commerce</b>), komerc-o; (<b>exchange</b>), interŝanĝ-i.<br> +<b>train</b> (<b>of cars</b>), vagonar-o; (<b>of dress</b>), trenaĵ-o.<br> +<b>tram</b>, tram-o; <b>—way</b>, tramvoj-o; <b>— car</b>, tramveturil-o.<br> +<b>tranquil</b>, trankvil-a; kviet-a.<br> +<b>translate</b>, traduk-i.<br> +<b>travel</b>, vojaĝ-i; (<b>by vehicle</b>), vetur-i.<br> +<b>tray</b>, plet-o.<br> +<b>treacherous</b>, perfid-a.<br> +<b>treasure</b>, trezor-o.<br> +<b>treasurer</b>, kasist-o.<br> +<b>treasury</b>, kas-o.<br> +<b>treat</b> (<b>in speech or writing</b>), trakt-i; (<b>for illness</b>), kurac-i; (<b>act towards</b>), kondut-i kontraŭ; (<b>regale</b>), regal-i.<br> +<b>treatise</b>, traktat-o.<br> +<b>tree</b>, arb-o.<br> +<b>tremble</b>, trem-i; (<b>vacillate</b>), ŝanceliĝ-i.<br> +<b>trial</b>, juĝa aŭskultado, esplorad-o; (<b>of skill</b>), konkurs-o; (<b>affliction</b>), malĝoj-o, sufer-o; (<b>test</b>), prov-o, ekzamen-o; (<b>attempt</b>), prov-o.<br> +<b>trifle</b>, bagatel-o.<br> +<b>triumph</b>, triumf-o.<br> +<b>tropic</b>, tropik-o.<br> +<b>trot</b>, trot-i.<br> +<b>trousers</b>, pantalon-o.<br> +<b>trunk</b> (<b>chest with lid</b>), kofr-o; (<b>of tree</b>), trunk-o.<br> +<b>trust</b>, fid-i, konfid-i; (<b>financial</b>), trust-o.<br> +<b>truth</b>, ver-o.<br> +<b>try</b> (<b>legally</b>), juĝ-i; (<b>strive</b>), pen-i; (<b>attempt, test</b>), prov-i.<br> +<b>tub</b>, kuv-o.<br> +<b>tube</b>, tub-o.<br> +<b>tuber</b>, tuber-o.<br> +<b>Tuesday</b>, mard-o.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------337.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>tumbler</b> (<b>for drinking</b>), glas-o; (<b>juggler</b>), ĵonglist-o.<br> +<b>tune</b>, ari-o, melodi-o.<br> +<b>Turk</b>, turk-o.<br> +<b>turkey</b>, meleagr-o.<br> +<b>turn</b> (<i>trans.</i>), turn-i; (<b>in a series</b>), vic-o.<br> +<b>turnip</b>, nap-o.<br> +<b>turnstile</b>, giĉet-o.<br> +<b>twilight</b>, krepusk-o.<br> +<b>twist</b> (<i>trans.</i>), tord-i.<br> +<b>twitter</b>, pep-i.<br> +<b>two</b> (<i>adj.</i>), du (<b>136</b>).<br> +<b>tyrant</b>, tiran-o.<br> + +<!-- This title is centered in book; center in textfile. --> +<!-- But in HTML, it looks better leftjustified. --> +<p><b>U.</b></p> + +<b>umbrella</b>, ombrel-o.<br> +<b>uncle</b>, onkl-o.<br> +<b>unanimous</b>, unuvoĉ-a, unuanim-a.<br> +<b>uncommon</b>, kurioz-a, nekomun-a.<br> +<b>unconcerned</b>, indiferent-a; nezorgem-a.<br> +<b>under</b> (<i>prep.</i>), sub (<b>121, 160</b>).<br> +<b>underline</b>, substrek-i.<br> +<b>understand</b>, kompren-i.<br> +<b>undertake</b>, entrepren-i; <b>— initiative work</b>, klopod-i.<br> +<b>undeviating</b>, rekt-a.<br> +<b>unfailing</b> (<i>adv.</i>), nepr-e, cert-e.<br> +<b>unimportant</b>, indiferent-a, negrav-a.<br> +<b>union</b>, unuig-o, unuiĝ-o, kunig-o, kuniĝ-o.<br> +<b>universe</b>, univers-o.<br> +<b>university</b>, universitat-o.<br> +<b>until</b> (<i>prep.</i>), ĝis (<b>89</b>)<br> +<b>up</b> (<i>adv.</i>), supre, supren (<b>121</b>); <b>— to</b>, ĝis (<b>46</b>).<br> +<b>upholster</b>, rembur-i.<br> +<b>upper</b>, supr-a.<br> +<b>upon</b> (<i>prep.</i>), sur (<b>160</b>).<br> +<b>upright</b>, just-a; (<b>vertical</b>), vertikal-a.<br> +<b>urge</b>, urĝ-i, insiste pet-i.<br> +<b>upset</b> (<i>trans.</i>), renvers-i.<br> +<b>utmost</b>, ekstrem-a, ebl-o (161, <i>see also</i> 162).<br> + +<!-- This title is centered in book; center in textfile. --> +<!-- But in HTML, it looks better leftjustified. --> +<p><b>V.</b></p> + +<b>(be) vacant</b>, vak-i, esti neokupata.<br> +<b>vacillate</b>, ŝanceliĝ-i.<br> +<b>vagabond</b>, vagist-o.<br> +<b>vain</b> (<b>futile</b>), van-a; senutil-a, senfrukt-a; (<b>proud</b>), vant-a, fier-a; <b>in —</b>, vane.<br> +<b>valise</b>, valiz-o.<br> +<b>valley</b>, val-o.<br> +<b>value</b> (<b>appraise</b>), taks-i; (<b>like</b>), ŝat-i; <b>have the — of</b>, valor-i.<br> +<b>vanquish</b>, venk-i.<br> +<b>vapor</b>, vapor-o.<br> +<b>varied</b>, divers-a, malsimil-a.<br> +<b>vase</b>, vaz-o.<br> +<b>vast</b>, vast-a, grand-a.<br> +<b>vaunt</b>, fanfaron-i, vantparol-i.<br> +<b>veal</b>, bovidaĵ-o (207, c).<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------338.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>vegetable</b> (<b>edible</b>), legom-o; (<b>plant growth</b>), vegetaĵ-o, kreskaĵ-o (227, a).<br> +<b>vegetarian</b>, vegetar-a.<br> +<b>vegetate</b>, veget-i.<br> +<b>veil</b>, vual-o.<br> +<b>vein</b>, vejn-o.<br> +<b>velvet</b>, velur-o.<br> +<b>veranda</b>, verand-o.<br> +<b>verify</b>, konstat-i, kontrol-i.<br> +<b>vermicelli</b>, vermiĉel-o.<br> +<b>verse</b>, vers-o; (<b>poesy</b>), poezi-o.<br> +<b>vertical</b>, vertikal-a.<br> +<b>very (very much)</b> (<i>adv.</i>), tre, tre multe; (<i>adj.</i>), sam-a, ident-a, (<i>intensive</i>) mem (<b>219</b>).<br> +<b>vex</b>, ĉagren-i.<br> +<b>vibrate</b> (<i>intrans.</i>), vibr-i.<br> +<b>vice</b> (<b>wickedness</b>), malvirt-o; (<i>prefix</i>), vic-.<br> +<b>vie</b>, konkur-i.<br> +<b>village</b>, vilaĝ-o.<br> +<b>vindication</b>, apologi-o.<br> +<b>vinegar</b>, vinagr-o.<br> +<b>violet</b>, viol-o.<br> +<b>violin</b>, violon-o.<br> +<b>virtue</b>, virt-o.<br> +<b>visage</b>, vizaĝ-o.<br> +<b>visit</b>, vizit-i.<br> +<b>vivid</b>, hel-a.<br> +<b>voice</b>, voĉ-o.<br> +<b>volume</b> (<b>book</b>), volum-o; (<b>of a body</b>), volumen-o.<br> +<b>vote</b>, voĉdon-i, balot-i.<br> +<b>vowel</b>, vokal-o.<br> +<b>voyage</b>, vojaĝ-i.<br> + +<!-- This title is centered in book; center in textfile. --> +<!-- But in HTML, it looks better leftjustified. --> +<p><b>W.</b></p> + +<b>wade</b>, vad-i.<br> +<b>waffle</b>, vafl-o.<br> +<b>wager</b>, vet-i.<br> +<b>wages</b>, salajr-o.<br> +<b>wait</b> (<b>wait for</b>), atend-i; <b>— on</b>, serv-i.<br> +<b>waiter</b> (<b>in restaurant, etc.</b>), kelner-o.<br> +<b>waist</b>, tali-o; <b>—coat</b>, veŝt-o<br> +<b>wake</b> (<i>trans.</i>), vek-i.<br> +<b>walk</b>, marŝ-i; (<b>for pleasure</b>), promen-i; (<b>of park, etc.</b>), ale-o; <b>side—</b>, trotuar-o.<br> +<b>wall</b>, mur-o.<br> +<b>waltz</b>, vals-i.<br> +<b>wander</b>, vag-i.<br> +<b>want</b> (<b>need</b>), bezon-i; (<b>desire</b>), dezir-i, vol-i; (<b>be lacking</b>), mank-i; (<b>extremity</b>), mizereg-o.<br> +<b>war</b>, milit-i.<br> +<b>wardrobe</b> (<b>garments</b>), vestar-o; (<b>furniture</b>), ŝrank-o, vestoŝrank-o.<br> +<b>warehouse</b>, magazen-o.<br> +<b>warm</b>, varm-a; <b>make —</b>, varmig-i, hejt-i.<br> +<b>warn</b>, avert-i; (<b>give notice</b>), aviz-i, antaŭsciig-i.<br> +<b>wash</b>, lav-i.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------339.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>waste</b> (<b>prodigality</b>), malŝpar-o; (<b>refuse</b>), forĵetaĵ-o; (<b>desert</b>), dezert-o.<br> +<b>watch</b> (<b>look at</b>), rigardad-i; (<b>timepiece</b>), poŝhorloĝ-o; <b>— over</b>, gard-i.<br> +<b>water</b>, akv-o; <b>— color</b>, akvarel-o; <b>—fall</b>, kaskad-o.<br> +<b>wave</b>, ond-o; (<b>flutter, brandish</b>), flirt-i, sving-i.<br> +<b>wax</b>, vaks-o.<br> +<b>way</b> (<b>manner</b>), manier-o; (<b>custom</b>), kutim-o; (<b>method</b>), metod-o; (<b>means</b>), rimed-o; (<b>road</b>), voj-o; <b>— in</b>, enirejo; <b>this —</b>, <b>any—, etc.</b>, <i>see table</i>, 235.<br> +<b>we</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), ni (<b>32, 37</b>).<br> +<b>wear</b>, port-i; <b>— out</b>, eluz-i.<br> +<b>(be) wearied</b>, enu-i.<br> +<b>weather</b>, veter-o; <b>—cock</b>, ventoflag-o.<br> +<b>weave</b>, teks-i; (<b>plait</b>), plekt-i.<br> +<b>Wednesday</b>, merkred-o.<br> +<b>week</b>, semajn-o.<br> +<b>weep</b>, plor-i.<br> +<b>weigh</b> (<i>trans.</i>), pes-i; (<i>intrans.</i>), (<b>be heavy</b>), pez-i; (<b>meditate upon</b>), pripens-i (264, c).<br> +<b>welcome</b>, bonven-i; bone akcept-i; <b>you are —</b>, (<b>"no thanks needed"</b>), estas nenio, volonte farite.<br> +<b>well</b> (<b>healthy</b>), san-a; (<b>for water</b>), put-o; (<i>adv.</i>), bon-e; (<i>interjection</i>), nu (<b>273</b>), bon-e; <b>— informed</b>, kler-a; <b>— nigh</b> (<i>adv.</i>), preskaŭ.<br> +<b>west</b>, okcident-o.<br> +<b>wet</b>, malsekig-i, tremp-i.<br> +<b>whale</b>, balen-o.<br> +<b>what</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), kio (<b>233, 234</b>); (<i>pronominal adj.</i>), kiu (106, 146); <b>— kind</b>, <b>— way</b>, <b>— time</b>, <b>etc.</b>, <i>see table</i>, 235.<br> +<b>wheat</b>, tritik-o.<br> +<b>wheel</b>, rad-o.<br> +<b>when</b> (<i>adv.</i>), kiam (<b>125, 155</b>); (<b>while</b>), dum (<b>96</b>).<br> +<b>where</b> (<i>adv.</i>), kie (<b>118, 151</b>); <b>—fore</b>, kial (<b>129</b>), tial (<b>78</b>).<br> +<b>whether</b> (<i>conj.</i>), ĉu (30, 66, a).<br> +<b>which</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), kio (<b>233, 234</b>); (<i>pronoun and adj.</i>), kiu (106, 146); <b>— way</b>, <b>— kind</b>, <b>etc</b>. <i>see table</i>, 235.<br> +<b>while</b> (<i>prep.</i>), dum (<b>120, 159</b>); (<i>conj.</i>), dum (<b>96</b>); (concessive), kvankam; a —, iom da tempo.<br> +<b>whip</b>, vip-i.<br> +<b>whistle</b>, fajf-i; (<b>hiss</b>), sibl-i.<br> +<b>white</b>, blank-a; whitish, dubeblank-a.<br> +<b>who</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), kiu (<b>106, 143</b>); whose, kies (<b>107, 147</b>).<br> +<b>whole</b> (<b>entire</b>), tut-a.<br> +<b>why</b> (<i>adv.</i>), kial (<b>129</b>), pro kio.<br> +<b>wicket</b>, giĉet-o.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------340.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>wide</b>, larĝ-a; <b>make —</b>, plilarĝig-i, etend-i.<br> +<b>widow</b>, vidvin-o; widower, vidv-o.<br> +<b>wig</b>, peruk-o.<br> +<b>wild</b>, sovaĝ-a.<br> +<b>(be) willing</b>, vol-i.<br> +<b>willingly</b>, volont-e.<br> +<b>wilt</b>, velk-i.<br> +<b>wind</b>, vent-o, survolv-i; (<b>twist</b>), tord-i; (<b>a watch</b>), streĉ-i.<br> +<b>winding</b>, tord-a.<br> +<b>window</b>, fenestr-o; <b>ticket —</b>, giĉet-o.<br> +<b>wine</b>, vin-o.<br> +<b>winter</b>, vintr-o.<br> +<b>wipe</b>, viŝ-i.<br> +<b>wise</b>, saĝ-a.<br> +<b>wish</b>, vol-i, dezir-i.<br> +<b>witch</b>, sorĉistin-o; <b>—craft</b>, sorĉ-o.<br> +<b>with</b> (<i>prep.</i>), kun (<b>70, 76, 120, 159, 160</b>); (<b>by means of</b>), per (<b>64</b>); (<i>agent of the passive</i>), de (<b>169</b>); je (<b>260</b>); <b>— regard to</b>, rilate (<b>266</b>); <b>—draw</b>, elir-i, forir-i; <b>(= having)</b>, havante (<b>222</b>).<br> +<b>wither</b>, velk-i.<br> +<b>without</b> (<i>prep.</i>), sen (<b>248</b>).<br> +<b>(give) witness</b>, atest-i.<br> +<b>witty</b>, sprit-a.<br> +<b>woe</b>, malĝoj-o; (<i>interjection</i>), ve (<b>273</b>).<br> +<b>wolf</b>, lup-o.<br> +<b>wonder</b>, mir-i.<br> +<b>woo</b>, amindum-i.<br> +<b>wood</b>, lign-o.<br> +<b>wool</b>, lan-o.<br> +<b>word</b>, vort-o; (<b>spoken</b>), parol-o.<br> +<b>work</b>, labor-i; (<b>of machinery</b>), funkci-i; (<b>literary composition</b>), verk-o.<br> +<b>world</b>, mond-o.<br> +<b>worm</b>, verm-o.<br> +<b>worship</b>, ador-i; (<b>divine service</b>), Diserv-o.<br> +<b>(be) worth</b>, valor-i.<br> +<b>worthy</b>, ind-a (<b>154</b>).<br> +<b>wound</b>, vund-i.<br> +<b>wreath</b>, girland-o.<br> +<b>wrestle</b>, barakt-i.<br> +<b>wretch</b>, fripon-o, kanajl-o; <b>—ed</b>, mizer-a, aĉ-a (<b>272</b>).<br> +<b>wrinkle</b>, sulket-o, faldet-o.<br> +<b>write</b>, skrib-i; (<b>books, articles, music</b>), verk-i.<br> +<b>wrong</b>, malprav-a, erar-a, maljust-a.<br> + +<!-- This title is centered in book; center in textfile. --> +<!-- But in HTML, it looks better leftjustified. --> +<p><b>Y.</b></p> + +<b>yawn</b>, osced-i; (<b>open</b>), fendiĝ-i.<br> +<b>year</b>, jar-o.<br> +<b>yearn</b>, sopir-i; dezireg-i.<br> +<b>yellow</b>, flav-a; <b>—ish</b>, dubeflav-a.<br> +<b>yes</b> (<i>adv.</i>), jes (<b>171</b>).<br> +<b>yesterday</b> (<i>adv.</i>), hieraŭ (<b>93, 171</b>); <b>day before —</b>, antaŭ-hieraŭ.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------341.png---------------------------- --> + +<b>yet</b> (<i>adv.</i>), ankoraŭ; jam; (<i>conj.</i>), tamen.<br> +<b>yoke</b>, jug-o.<br> +<b>you</b> (<i>pronoun</i>), vi (<b>32, 37, 39</b>); <i>see also</i> oni (<b>54</b>).<br> +<b>young</b>, jun-a; (<b>offspring</b>), id-o (<b>207</b>).<br> + +<!-- This title is centered in book; center in textfile. --> +<!-- But in HTML, it looks better leftjustified. --> +<p><b>Z.</b></p> + +<b>zeal</b>, fervor-o.<br> +<b>zenith</b>, zenit-o.<br> +<b>zero</b>, nul-o.<br> +<b>zigzag</b>, zigzag-o.<br> +<b>zinc</b>, zink-o.<br> +<b>zone</b>, zon-o.<br> +<b>zoology</b>, zoologi-o.<br> + +<!-- -----------------------------342.png---------------------------- --> + +<!-- -----------------------------343.png---------------------------- --> + +<!-- INDEX. --> + +<!-- -----------------------------344.png---------------------------- --> + +<!-- -----------------------------345.png---------------------------- --> + +<!-- +*** PRESERVE THE PAGE NUMBERS IN THESE PAGES *** + (do not erase this header.....) +--> + +<!-- In the book, the Index is two columns/page, with titles centered, +pretty much like the Vocabularies. So my first thought was to format +the index as I did the vocabularies. But generally speaking, Index +entries are longer, and therefore more likely to run to multiple lines. +So in the book, subsequent lines are indented (another instance of that +"inverse indent" I mentioned earlier). While contemplating my course of +action, I happened to look at the unformatted Index in my browser. Since +the Index is much smaller than a Vocabulary, and the Lettered sections +within are also much smaller, it really looks pretty good with the +sections all run together unlinebroken... if only the entry names could +be spotted easily somehow. Well, how about bolding them? And viola, as +Kelly Bundy would say, that was my solution! And to make generation of +the textfile easier, and since we won't be able to bold in there, I +formatted this Index pretty much as if it were plain old vanilla ASCII +itself; we'll let the browser do the running-together. - Ailanto --> + +<center><b>INDEX.</b></center> + +<p> +The references are to sections, unless the page (p.) is given. The +following abbreviations are used: ace. = accusative; adj. = adjective; +adv. = adverb; expr. = expressed; ftn. = footnote; inf. = infinitive; +intrans. = intransitive; prep. = preposition; trans. = transitive. For +Esperanto words whose use or meaning is specially explained, references +are given in the Vocabulary. +</p> + +<center><b>A.</b></center> + +<b>Abbreviations</b>, 286; of ordinals, p. 107, ftn. +<b>Abstract nouns</b>, 202. +<b>Accent</b>, 8; of elided word, 280, b. +<b>Accompaniment</b>, 70; distinguished from instrumentality and opposition, + p. 49, ftn. +<b>Accordance</b>, expr. by <i>laŭ</i>, 191. +<b>Active voice</b>, participles of, 108, 119, 152; tenses of, see Tenses; + synopsis of, 267. +<b>Accusative</b>, ending, 23; of adj., 24; of pronoun, 37; of adv., 69, 121; + of direction, 46, 108; of measure, 139; of time, 91; distinguished + from temporal adv., 94; with temporal adv., 93; when avoided, 92; + after adv., 266; with intrans. verb, 264; with nouns expressing + motion, 263; in composition, p. 132, ftn.; instead of prepositional + phrase, 265, 266; not used after prep., 36, (<i>al, ĝis, + tra</i>) 46, (<i>preter</i>) p. 139, ftn.; not used with article, 25; + not used with predicates, 25, 210; "cognate," see acc. with intrans. + verbs, 264, a. +<b>Adjectives</b>, defined, 12; ending of, 12; formation of, 116, (from adv.) + 171, (from prep.) 159; attributive, 13; acc. of, 24; plural of, 17; + agreement, (with nouns) 17, 21, 24, (with pronouns) 33, (with words + connected by <i>nek</i>) 31; comparison of, 74; possessive, 43, + (pronominal use of) 45; predicate, 19, (after trans, verbs) 210; use + of, distinguished from adv. with <i>da</i>, 103; demonstrative, 65; + distributive, 177; indefinite, 208; interrogative, 112; negative, + 224; reflexive possessive, 44; relative, 150; causative verbs from + roots of, 214, a; intrans. verbs from roots of, 232, c; cardinal, + 136; ordinal, 149. + +<!-- -----------------------------346.png---------------------------- --> + +<!-- +*** PRESERVE THE PAGE NUMBERS IN THESE PAGES *** + (do not erase this header.....) +--> + +<b>Adverbs</b>, defined, 66; primary, 66; derived, 79; (from prep.) 120; + demonstrative, (<i>tie</i>) 68, (<i>tiam</i>) 73, (<i>tial</i>) 78, + (<i>tiel</i>) 88, (<i>tiom</i>) 104; interrogative, (<i>kie</i>) + 118, (<i>kiam</i>) 123, (<i>kial</i>) 129, (<i>kiel</i>) 134, + (<i>kiom</i>) 140, (<i>ĉu</i>) 30, p. 38, ftn.; relative, + (<i>kie</i>) 151, (<i>kiam</i>) 155, (<i>kiel</i>) 156, p. 170, + ftn., (<i>kiom</i>) 164; distributive, (<i>ĉie</i>) 182, + (<i>ĉiam</i>) iS7, (<i>ĉial</i>) 188, (<i>ĉiel</i>) + 193, (<i>ĉiom</i>) 194; indefinite, (<i>ie</i>) 209, + (<i>iam</i>) 212, (<i>ial</i>) 213, (<i>iel</i>) 216, (<i>iom</i>) + 217; negative, (<i>nenie</i>) 225, (<i>neniam</i>) 226, + (<i>nenial</i>) 229, (<i>neniel</i>) 230, (<i>neniom</i>) 231, + (<i>ne</i>) 27, 66, a; generalizing, (<i>ajn</i>) 236; numeral, + 158; position of, 66, a; expressing direction of motion, 69, 121; + with expressions of time, 93; distinguishing from acc. of time, 94; + with acc., 266; with prep., 87; calling attention, (<i>jen</i>) + 228; causative verbs from, 214, c; intrans. verbs from, 232, d; as + interjections, p. 216, ftn.; derivation of words from primary, 171. +<b>Adverbial clauses</b>, p. 168, ftn.; participle, 222, (translating + "without") p. 193, ftn. +<b>Adversative conjunctions</b>, p. 32, ftn. +<b>Advice</b>, expression of, 257, 259. +<b>Affectionate diminutives</b>, 283 (also 198, and ftn., p. 221). +<b>Affirmation</b>, 66. +<b>Affixes</b>, see Prefixes, Suffixes. +<b>Agency</b>, expr. by <i>de</i>, 169. +<b>Agreement</b>, of attributive adj., 17, (with acc.) 24; of predicate noun + and adj., 21; of adj. with two or more nouns, 17; of adj. with + words connected by <i>nek</i>, 31; of adj. with pronouns, 33; of + participle, 108; of nouns in apposition, 48. +<b>Alphabet</b>, I. +<b>Anticipation</b>, expr. by clause, 97; by inf. with prep., 98. +<b>Aoristic tenses</b>, explained, p. 78, ftn.; conjugation of, (present) 14, + (past) 35, (future) 55, (conditional) 241, (imperative), 254. +<b>Apposition</b>, 48. +<b>Argumentative conjunction</b>, p. 32, ftn. +<b>Article</b>, definite, 11; invariable, 18, 25; for possessive adj., 47; + with possessive adj., 45; generic, 201, 218, b, elision of, 280, a; + no indefinite, II. +<b>Assumption</b>, defined, 240; implied, 244. +<b>Augmentatives</b>, 122. +<b>Auxiliary verbs</b>, 109. + +<center><b>C.</b></center> + +<b>Cardinal numerals</b>, 136; formation of, 142. +<b>Case</b>, see Accusative, Dative, Nominative, Possessive. +<b>Causative verbs</b>, 214. +<b>Cause</b>, expr. by clause, 83; by <i>pro</i>, 86; by <i>ke</i>, p. 222, + ftn. +<b>Characteristic</b>, expr. by <i>kun</i>, 76; by adverbial participle, 222. + Clauses, defined, p. 34, ftn.; adverbial, p. 168, ftn.; causal, + 83; of anticipation, 97; of duration of time, 96; of imaginative + comparison, 250; of purpose, 262; of result, 105; subordinate + imperative, 259. +<b>"Cognate acc.</b>," see acc. with intrans. verbs, 264. +<b>Collective nouns</b>, 126. +<b>Collective sense given by use of <i>da</i></b>, 103. +<b>Commands</b>, expression of, 256; in subordinate clause, 259. +<b>Complement of prep.</b>, 36. +<b>Complementary inf.</b>, 29. +<b>Comparison</b>, of adj., 74; of adv., 79; of words expressing quantity, 81; + containing <i>ol</i>, 82; <i>ju</i> and <i>des</i> in, 84. +<b>Composition</b>, see Compounds. +<b>Compound tenses</b>, explained, 109; of impersonal verbs, 179; conjugation + of, see Tenses. +<b>Compounds</b>, dependent, 176; descriptive, 167; possessive, 184. +<b>Conclusion (of conditions) defined</b>, 240; (of letters), + see Correspondence. +<b>Concrete nouns</b>, formation of, 227. +<b>Conditional mood</b>, 241; compound tenses of, 242; in contrary to fact + conditions, 246; in less vivid conditions, 243; independent use of, + 244; of <i>devi</i>, 247; conditional sentences, see Conditions. +Conditions, defined, 240; contrary to fact, 246; factual, 240; less + vivid, 243; vivid, p. 189, ftn.; summary of, 249. + +<!-- -----------------------------347.png---------------------------- --> + +<!-- +*** PRESERVE THE PAGE NUMBERS IN THESE PAGES *** + (do not erase this header.....) +--> + + +<b>Conjugation</b>, 34; synopsis of, 267; of tenses, see Tenses. +<b>Conjunctions</b>, defined, 52; coordinating, 52; subordinating, 53, (not + omitted) p. 34, ftn.; <i>aŭ</i>, p. 32, ftn.; <i>kaj</i>, + 26, p. 32, ftn.; <i>ke</i>, (in indirect statements), 53, (in + causal clauses) 83, p. 222, ftn.; (in result clause) 105, (in + purpose clause) 262, (in subordinate imperative clause) 259; + <i>kvazaŭ</i>, 250; <i>nek</i>, 31, p. 32, ftn.; <i>se</i>, 240; + <i>sed</i>, p. 32, ftn.; <i>tamen</i>, p. 32, ftn.; <i>do</i>, p. 32, + ftn.; see p. 110, ftn. +<b>Connection</b>, expr. by <i>de</i>, 49; indefinite, expr. by <i>je</i>, 260. +<b>Consent</b>, expression of, 257, (in subordinate clauses) 259. +<b>Consonants</b>, combinations of, 6; pronunciation of, 3, names of, 4. +<b>Contrary to fact conditions</b>, 246. +<b>Coordinating conjunctions</b>, 52. +<b>Copulative conjunctions</b>, p. 32, ftn. +<b>Correlative words</b>, 235. +<b>Correspondence</b>, 278. + +<center><b>D.</b></center> + +<b>Dates</b>, expr. by acc., 91; expr. by <i>antaŭ</i>, 90; expr. by + prep., 89; on letters, see Correspondence, 278. +<b>"Dative</b>," ethical, of reference, of separation, p. 197, ftn. +<b>Definite quantity</b>, nouns of, followed by <i>de</i>, 100. +<b>Degree</b>, advs. of, 66, (<i>tiel</i>) 88, (<i>kiel</i>) 134, 156; highest + possible, 162; see also Comparison. +<b>Deliberation</b>, expression of, 257, (in subordinative clause) 259. +<b>Demonstrative</b>, pronoun, (<i>tiu</i>) 56, (<i>ĉi tiu</i>) 60, + (<i>tio, ĉi tio</i>) 233; adjective, 65; adv., see Adverbs. +<b>Dependent compounds</b>, 176. +<b>Derivation</b>, of adv., 79, (from prep.) 120; of words from prep., 159; of + words from primary adv., 171. +<b>Descriptive compounds</b>, 167. +<b>Diminutives</b>, 198; affectionate, 283. +<b>Diphthongs</b>, 5. +<b>Direct object</b>, defined, 23; inf. as, see Complementary inf., 29; clause + as, 53, 259; of complementary inf., 29; of participle, 108; of prep., + see Complement, 36. +<b>Direction</b>, expr. by acc. (of noun) 46, 263, (of adv.) 121. +<b>Disjunctive conjunctions</b>, p. 32, ftn. +<b>Distributive</b>, prep., see <i>po</i>, 175; pronoun, (<i>ĉiu</i>) 173, + (<i>ĉio</i>) 233; adj., 177; adv., see Adverbs. +<b>Double letters</b>, 6, e. + +<center><b>E.</b></center> + +<b>Elision</b>, 280. +<b>Emphasis</b>, by <i>eĉ</i>, 66; by <i>ja</i>, 215. +<b>Emphatic negation</b>, 27. +<b>Ending</b>, of acc., 23; of adj., 12; of adv., 79; of noun, 10; of plural, + 16; of inf., 28; of indicative, 14, 35, 55; of conditional, 241, of + imperative, 254; of participle, see Participles. +<b>"Ethical dative</b>," p. 197, ftn. +<b>Exclamations</b>, 115; use of <i>je</i> in, 260. +<b>Exhortation</b>, 255. +<b>Expedience</b>, expressions of, 259. + +<center><b>F.</b></center> + +<b>Factual conditions</b>, 240. +<b>Feminine nouns</b>, formation of, 59. +<b>Formation</b>, of words, 116; of opposites, 67, of feminines, 59; with + <i>-ig-</i> and <i>-iĝ-</i>, 239; from primary words, 159, 171. +<b>Fractions</b>, 166. +<b>Frequentative verbs</b>, 218, a. +<b>Future participle</b>, (active) 152, (passive) 199. +<b>Future tense</b>, 55, (progressive) 114, (passive) 183, periphrastic, 153, + 200. +<b>Future perfect tense</b>, 148, (passive) 196. + +<center><b>G.</b></center> + +<b>Generic article</b>, 201. 218, b. +<b>Generalizing adv. <i>ajn</i></b>, 236. + +<!-- -----------------------------348.png---------------------------- --> + +<!-- +*** PRESERVE THE PAGE NUMBERS IN THESE PAGES *** + (do not erase this header.....) +--> + +<center><b>H.</b></center> + +<b>Highest degree possible</b>, 162. + +<center><b>I.</b></center> + +<b>Imaginative comparison</b>, 250. +<b>Imperative mood</b>, 254; in commands and prohibitions, 256; in resolve and + exhortation, 255, in subordinate clauses, 259;. less peremptory uses + of, 257; to express purpose, 262. +<b>Imperfect tense</b>, 113, (passive) 178. +<b>Impersonal verbs</b>, 50, compound tenses of, 179; modifiers of, 141. +<b>Impersonally used verbs</b>, explained, 141; modifiers of, 141. +<b>Inchoative verbs</b>, 232, a. +<b>Indefinite connection</b>, expr. by <i>je</i>, 260. +<b>Indefinite</b>, pronoun, (<i>iu</i>) 203, (<i>io</i>) 233; (personal) 54; + adj., 208; advs., see Adverbs; prep., 260; suffix, 268; quantity, + expressions of, with <i>da</i>, 99, 101. +<b>Independent use of conditional mood</b>, 244. +<b>Indicative mood</b>, defined, 241; tenses of, see Synopsis, 267. +<b>"Indirect object</b>," see <i>al</i>. +<b>Indirect quotation</b>, tenses in, 58; statements in, 53; questions in, + p. 38, ftn.; p. 170, ftn. +<b>Infinitive</b>, defined, 28, 241; ending of, 28; complementary, 29; as + subject, 29; modifiers of, 130; synopsis of, 267; with prep., 98; + replaced by noun, 218, b. +<b>Instruction</b>, (orders), requests for, 257, 259. +<b>Instrumentality</b>, expr. by <i>per</i>, 64; distinguished from + accompaniment, p. 49, ftn. +<b>Instruments</b>, formation of names of, 63. +<b>Intensive pronoun</b>, <i>mem</i>, 219. +<b>Intention</b>, expr. by clause, 259. +<b>Interjections</b>, 273. +<b>International money system</b>, 285; weights and measures, 284. +<b>Interrogation</b>, 30, 66, a. +<b>Interrogative</b>, pronoun, (<i>kiu</i>) 106, (kio) 233; adj., 112; advs., + see Adverbs. +<b>Intransitive verbs</b>, defined, 22; no passive, p. 122, ftn.; from adj. + roots, 232, c; from noun roots, advs., preps., suffixes, prefixes, + 232, d; from trans, verb roots, 232, b, (table of), 279. +<b>Introductory particle</b>, not needed, 50, 51. +<b>Invariability</b>, of article, 18; of <i>mem</i>, 219; of verb, 18; of + cardinals, 136. +<b>Inversion</b>, not needed in questions, 30. + +<center><b>L.</b></center> + +<b>Less peremptory uses of imperative</b>, 257. +<b>Less vivid conditions</b>, 243. +<b>Letters</b>, names of, 4; double, pronunciation of, 6, e; see also + Correspondence, 278. +<b>Limitation of third personal pronoun</b>, 42. + +<center><b>M.</b></center> + +<b>Manner</b>, expr. by <i>kun</i>, 76; expr. by. <i>per</i>, p. 53, ftn.; by + adverbial participle, 222; advs. of, see Adverbs. +<b>Material</b>, expression of, 197. +<b>Means</b>, expression of, 64. +<b>Measure</b>, ace. of, 139; expr. by <i>je</i>, 260. +<b>Measures</b>, weights and, 284. +<b>Metric system</b>, 284. +<b>Modifiers of impersonally used verbs</b>, 141. +<b>Money system</b>, The international, 285. +<b>Mood</b>, defined, 241; inf., see Infinitive; conditional, 241; imperative, + 254; indicative, see 267; in conditions, see Conditions. +<b>Moral obligation</b>, 247. +<b>Motive or reason</b>, advs. of, see Adverbs; expr. by clause, 83; expr. by + prep., 86. + +<!-- -----------------------------349.png---------------------------- --> + +<!-- +*** PRESERVE THE PAGE NUMBERS IN THESE PAGES *** + (do not erase this header.....) +--> + +<center><b>N.</b></center> + +<b>Names</b>, of letters, 4; orthography of proper, 128. +<b>Necessity</b>, expression of, 259. +<b>Negative</b>, pronoun, (<i>neniu</i>) 220; (<i>nenio</i>) 233; adj., 224; + advs., see Adverbs; conjunction, 31. +<b>"Nominative absolute</b>," how rendered, p. 169, ftn. +<b>Nominative case</b>, ending of, (for nouns) 10, (for adj.) 12; of predicate + noun and adj., 25, 210; with prep., 36, (<i>al</i>, <i>ĝis</i>, + <i>tra</i>) 46. +<b>Noun</b>, defined, 10, ending of, 10, plural of, 16; acc. of, 23; elision + of, 280, b; feminine, 59; numeral, 157; participial, 205; predicate, + 20, 211; possessive case of, 49; expressing motion, followed by acc., + 263; expressing quantity, followed by <i>da</i>, 99, by <i>de</i>, + 100; replacing inf., 218, b; replacing participial phrase, p. 193, + ftn.; from adv., 171; from prep., 159. +<b>Noun roots</b>, causative verbs from, 214, c; intrans. verbs from, 232, d. +<b>Number</b>, see Plural. +<b>Numeral nouns</b>, 157; advs., 158. +<b>Numerals</b>, cardinal, 136; formation of, 142; fractional, 166; ordinal, + 149; abbreviation of, p. 107, ftn.; followed by <i>el</i>, 138. + +<center><b>O.</b></center> + +<b>Object</b>, see Direct object, Indirect object, Complement. +<b>Obligation</b>, 247, (moral) 247. +<b>Opposites</b>, formation of, 67; of <i>pli</i> and <i>plej</i>, 80. +<b>Opposition</b>, distinguished from accompaniment, p. 49, ftn. +<b>Order</b>, of word endings, p. 10, ftn.; see also Position. +<b>Ordinal numerals</b>, 149; advs., 158; abbreviation of, p. 107, ftn. +<b>Orthography</b>, of proper nouns, 128. + +<center><b>P.</b></center> + +<b>Part of the whole</b>, expression of, (after noun) 99, (after adv.) 101. +<b>Participial nouns</b>, 205; advs., 222. +<b>Participle</b>, defined, 108; agreement of, 108; adverbial, 222, + (translating "without") p. 193, ftn.; present, 108, (passive) 165; + past, 119, (passive) 189; future, 152, (passive) 199. +<b>Particle</b>, introductory, not needed, 50, 51. +<b>Partitive construction</b>, p. 74, ftn. +<b>Passive voice</b>, agent of, 169; participles of, see Participles; tenses + of, see Tenses; of <i>-ig-</i> formations, 239; distinguished from + <i>-iĝ-</i> formations, 232, b. +<b>Past tense</b>, 35, (passive) see Imperfect; past participle, see + Participles. +<b>Past periphrastic future</b>, 153, (passive) 200. +<b>Past inception</b>, present action with, 131. +<b>Peremptory commands and prohibitions</b>, 256, 259. +<b>Perfect tense</b>, 124, (passive) 190; perfect participle, see Past + participle. +<b>Periphrastic futures</b>, 153, (passive) 200. +<b>Permission</b>, expression of, 269. +<b>Perplexity</b>, expression of, 257, 259. +<b>Personal pronouns</b>, 32; acc. of, 37; indefinite, 54; reflexive, 39, 40; + limitation of third personal, 42; position of unemphatic, 274. +<b>Place</b>, expr. by <i>ĉe</i>, 125; advs. of, see Adverbs; expr. by + <i>-ej-</i>, III; 128. +<b>Pluperfect tense</b>, 135, (passive), 195. +<b>Plural</b>, of nouns, 16; of pronouns, 56, 106, 203, 173, 220; of adj., 16; + of <i>unu</i>, 137; none of article, 18; none of pronouns ending in + <i>-o</i>, 233. +<b>Position</b>, of attributive adj., 13; of adv., 66, a; of emphatic negative, + 27; of unemphatic pronoun, 274; of interrogative adv., 30. +<b>Possession</b>, expr. by <i>de</i>, 49. + +<!-- -----------------------------350.png---------------------------- --> + +<!-- +*** PRESERVE THE PAGE NUMBERS IN THESE PAGES *** + (do not erase this header.....) +--> + +<b>Possessive</b>, adjective, 43; reflexive, 44; article for, 47; ftn., p. 221. +<b>Possessive case of nouns</b>, 49; of pronouns, (<i>ties</i>) 62, + (<i>kies</i>) 107, 147, (<i>ĉies</i>) 174, (<i>ies</i>) 204, + (<i>nenies</i>) 221; see also Possessive adjective, 43. +<b>Possessive compounds</b>, 184. +<b>"Possessive pronouns</b>," p. 24, ftn. +<b>Possibility</b>, expression of, 270. +<b>Predicate</b>, adj., 19, agreement of, 21; after trans, verbs, 210; noun, + 20; agreement of, 21; after trans. verb, 211; clause as, 259. +<b>Prefixes</b>, causative verbs from, 214, c; intrans. verbs from, 232, d; + prep. as, 160, 248; adverb as, 71, 167, a, interjection as, p. + 216, ftn.; <i>bo-</i>, 277; <i>dis-</i>, 245; <i>duon-</i>, 277; + <i>ek-</i>, 206; <i>eks-</i>, 281; <i>ge-</i>, 271; <i>mal-</i>, 67; + <i>pra-</i>, 282; <i>re-</i>, 223. +<b>Prepositions</b>, defined, 36; with inf., 98; with adv., 87; with other + preps., 87; case use with, 36, 46; expressing time relations, 89; as + prefixes, 160; word derivation from, 159; advs. from, 120; causative + verbs from, 214, c; intrans. verbs from, 232, d; making intrans. + verbs trans., 264, b, c; see also references in Vocabulary. +<b>Prepositional phrase</b>, acc. instead of, 265, 266. +<b>Present action with past inception</b>, 131. +<b>Present periphrastic future</b>, 153, (passive) 200. +<b>Present participle</b>, 108, (passive) 165. +<b>Present tense</b>, 14, (progressive) 110, (passive) 168. +<b>Primary adverbs</b>, defined, 66; derivation of words from, 171. +<b>Probability</b>, expression of, 270. +<b>Progressive tenses</b>, present, 110, future, 114; passive, 200. +<b>Prohibition</b>, expression of, 256, 259. +<b>Pronominal adjective</b>, possessive adj. as, 45; pronoun as, (<i>tiu</i>) + 57, 60, (<i>kiu</i>) 106, 146, (<i>ĉiu</i>) 173, (<i>iu</i>) + 203, (<i>neniu</i>) 220, (<i>ambaŭ</i>) 238. +<b>Pronouns</b>, defined, 32; agreement with, 33; personal, 32; indefinite + personal, 54; reflexive, 38, 39, 40, (in composition) p. 132, ftn.; + possessive, p. 24, ftn.; possessive form of, see Possessive case; + limitation of third personal, 42; position of unemphatic, 274; + correlation of predicative or relative, 234; followed by <i>el</i>, + 173, p. 115, ftn.; series in <i>-o</i>, 233; demonstrative, 56, 60, + 233; distributive, 173, 233; indefinite, 203, 233; interrogative, + 106, 233; negative, 220, 233; relative, 146; 233; summary, 235; + <i>ambaŭ</i>, 238; intensive, 219. +<b>Proper nouns</b>, orthography of, 128. +<b>Protestations</b>, use of <i>je</i> in, 260. +<b>Proximity</b>, expr. by <i>ĉi</i>, 60, 66, p. 229, ftn. +<b>Purpose</b>, expr. by inf., 98; by imperative, 262; by prep., 95. + +<center><b>Q.</b></center> + +<b>Quantity</b>, construction with nouns expressing, 99, 100; construction with + advs. expressing, 101; advs. of, (<i>tiom</i>) 104, (<i>kiom</i>) + 140, 164, (<i>ĉiom</i>) 194, (<i>iom</i>) 217, (<i>neniom</i>) + 231; comparison of advs. expressing, 81. +<b>Questions</b>, 30; indirect, p. 38, ftn., p. 170, ftn.; of deliberation, + perplexity, or for instructions, 257, 259. +<b>Quotations</b>, indirect, 53, 58. + +<center><b>R.</b></center> + +<b>Reciprocal expressions</b>, 180. +<b>Reference</b>, expr. by <i>al</i>, 251. +<b>Reflexive pronouns</b>, of first and second persons, 39; of third person, + 40; with substantival inf., 130. +<b>Reflexive possessive adjective</b>, 44. +<b>Reflexive verbs</b>, 41; distinguished from verbs in <i>-iĝ-</i>, 232, + b. +<b>Relative pronoun</b>, (<i>kiu</i>) 146, (<i>kio</i>) 233; not omitted, p. + 106, ftn. + +<!-- -----------------------------351.png---------------------------- --> + +<!-- +*** PRESERVE THE PAGE NUMBERS IN THESE PAGES *** + (do not erase this header.....) +--> + +<b>Relative adjective</b>, 150; relative adverb, see Adverbs. +<b>Relative clause</b>, see 146, 233, (temporal) 155, (of manner) 156, + (quantitative) 164. +<b>Request</b>, expression of, 257, 259; for instructions, 257, 259. +<b>Resolve</b>, expression of, 255. +<b>Result</b>, clauses of, 105. +<b>Root</b>, defined, p. 42, ftn. +<b>Route</b>, expression of, 191. + +<center><b>S.</b></center> + +<b>Salutations</b>, 115. +<b>Separation</b>, expr. by <i>de</i>, 170; expr. by <i>al</i>, 252; by + <i>for</i>, 71; by <i>dis-</i>, 245. +<b>Situation</b>, expr. by <i>ĉe</i>, 125; by adverbial participle, 222. +<b>Source</b>, expr. by <i>de</i>, 170. +<b>Statements</b>, indirect, 53; tenses in, 58. +<b>Subject</b>, defined, 15; preceded by verb, 51; inf. as, 130; clause as, + 141, 259; of adverbial participle, 222. +<b>Subordinate clause</b>, defined, 53; imperative in, 259, 262; conditional + in, see Conditions, 243, 246. +<b>Subordinating conjunctions</b>, <i>ke</i>, 53, 105, 259 (<i>tial ke</i>) 83, + p. 222, ftn.; (<i>por ke</i>) 262; (not omitted) p. 34, ftn.; + <i>se</i>, 240; <i>kvazaŭ</i>, 250; <i>ĉu</i>, p. 38, ftn. +<b>Substantive</b>, defined, p. 71, ftn.; inf. as, 98, 130; clause as, 53, 259. +<b>Substitution</b>, expr. by prep., p. 63, ftn.; expr. by prep. with inf., 98; + of noun for inf., 218, b, p. 193, ftn. +<b>Suffixes</b>, causative verbs from, 214, c; intrans. verbs from, 232, + d; <i>-ad-</i>, 218; <i>-aĉ-</i>, 272; <i>-aĵ-</i>, + 227; <i>-an-</i>, 145; <i>-ar-</i>, 126; <i>-ĉj-</i>, 283; + <i>-ebl-</i>, 161; <i>-ec-</i>, 202; <i>-eg-</i>, 122; <i>-ej-</i>, + 111; <i>-em-</i>, 192; <i>-er-</i>, 276; <i>-estr-</i>, 253; + <i>-et-</i>, 198; <i>-id-</i> 207; <i>-ig-</i>, 214, 239, 275; + <i>-iĝ-</i>, 232, 239, 279; <i>-il-</i>, 63; <i>-in-</i>, + 59; <i>-ind-</i>, 154; <i>-ing-</i>, 237; <i>-ist-</i>, 172, p. + 154, ftn.; <i>-nj-</i>, 283; <i>-obl-</i>, 186; <i>-on-</i>, 166; + <i>-op-</i>, 261; <i>-uj-</i>, 181; <i>-ul-</i>, 132; <i>-um-</i>, + 268. +<b>Summary of conditions</b>, 249. +<b>Superlatives</b>, (adj.) 74, (adv.) 79; followed by <i>el</i>, 75. +<b>Syllables</b>, 7. +<b>Synonyms</b>, apparent, (<i>diri: paroli: rakonti</i>) 77, (<i>koni: + scii</i>) 117, (<i>tempo; fojo</i>) 127, (<i>loĝi: vivi</i>) + 133, (<i>antikva: maljuna: malnova</i>) p. 128, ftn., 67, + (<i>ĉiu: tuta</i>) p. 130, ftn., (<i>indiferenta: nezorga</i>) + p. 162, ftn., (<i>provi: peni: juĝi</i>) p. 228, ftn., + (<i>ĝuste: juste: ĵus</i>) p. 198, ftn., (<i>ankoraŭ: + jam</i>) p. 124, ftn., p. 112, ftn., (<i>troviĝi: sin trovi: + kuŝi: sidi)</i> p. 217, ftn. +<b>Synopsis of the verb</b>, 267. +<b>System</b>, correlative, 235; metric, 284; of money, 285. + +<center><b>T.</b></center> + +<b>Temporal clauses</b>, 96, 155. +<b>Temporal adverbs</b>, 66, (<i>tiam</i>) 73, (<i>kiam</i>) 123, 155, + (<i>ĉiam</i>) 187, (<i>iam</i>) 212, (<i>neniam</i>) 226, + (<i>jam</i>) p. 124, ftn. (<i>ankoraŭ</i>) p. 112, ftn., + (<i>ĵus</i>) p. 116, ftn. +<b>Tenses</b>, aoristic, p. 78, ftn.; compound, 109; (of impersonal verbs) + 179; in indirect quotations, 58; in conditions, 249; of inf., + 267; of conditional, 241, 242; of imperative, 254; present, 14, + (progressive) 110, (passive) 168, past, 35, (passive) 178; future, + 55, (progressive) 114; (passive) 183; imperfect, 113, (passive) + 178; perfect, 124, (passive) 190; pluperfect, 135, (passive) 195; + future perfect, 148, (passive) 190; periphrastic, 153, (passive) 200; + synopsis of all, 267. +<b>Terminations</b>, see Endings. +<b>Terms of address</b>, 163; affectionate, 283, p. 221, ftn. +<b>Time</b>, of day, 185; expr. by prep., 89; expr. by acc., 91; expr. by + clause, 96, 155; expr. by adverbial participle, 222; advs. of, see + Temporal adverbs. +<b>Titles</b>, 163; use of <i>moŝto</i>, 258. + +<!-- -----------------------------352.png---------------------------- --> + +<!-- +*** PRESERVE THE PAGE NUMBERS IN THESE PAGES *** + (do not erase this header.....) +--> + +<b>Transitive verbs</b>, defined, 22; formed by <i>-ig-</i>, 214; from intrans. + roots, 264, b, c; list of some, 275. + +<center><b>U.</b></center> + +<b>Unemphatic words</b>, position of, (negative) 27, (pronoun) 274. + +<center><b>V.</b></center> + +<b>Verbal nouns in <i>-ad-</i></b>, 218, b, p. 193, ftn. +<b>Verbal roots</b>, causative verbs from, 214, b. +<b>Verbs</b>, mood of, 241; invariable, 18; causative, 214; frequentative, + 218, a; inchoative, 232, a; impersonal, 50; reflexive, 41; trans., + defined, 22; trans, from intrans. roots, 275; intrans., defined, + 22; intrans. from trans. roots, 232, b, 279; from prep., 159; from + adv., 171; conjugation of, 34, (synopsis) 267, preceding the subject, + 51; as interjection, p. 216, ftn.; implied, (in comparisons) 82, + 156, 250; (in salutations) 115, (in exclamations) 115, 228; with + prepositional phrase containing <i>da</i>, 102. +<b>Vivid conditions</b>, p. 189, ftn. +<b>Vowels</b>, pronunciation of, 2. + +<center><b>W.</b></center> + +<b>Way</b>, expression of, (manner) 76, (route) 191. +<b>Weights and measures</b>, 284. +<b>Wish</b>, expression of, 257, 259. +<b>Words</b>, correlative, 235; formation of, 116; from prepositions, 159; + from primary advs., 171; composition of, see Compounds; order of, in + question, 30; see also Position. + + + <pre> + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's A Complete Grammar of Esperanto, by Ivy Kellerman + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO *** + +This file should be named esper10h.txt or esper10h.zip +Corrected EDITIONS of our eBooks get a new NUMBER, esper11h.txt +VERSIONS based on separate sources get new LETTER, esper10ah.txt + +Produced by William W. 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