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diff --git a/7787-0.txt b/7787-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..34b7014 --- /dev/null +++ b/7787-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,14965 @@ +The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Complete Grammar of Esperanto, by Ivy Kellerman Reed + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and +most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions +whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms +of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at +www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you +will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before +using this eBook. + +Title: A Complete Grammar of Esperanto + +Author: Ivy Kellerman Reed + +Release Date: May 25, 2003 [eBook #7787] +[Most recently updated: December 4, 2022] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +Produced by: William W. Patterson, Carlo Traverso, Charles Franks and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team. + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO *** + + + + +TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE: + +The Esperanto alphabet contains 28 characters. These are the +characters of English, but with "q", "w", "x", and "y" removed, and +six diacritical letters added. The diacritical letters are "c", +"g", "h", "j" and "s" with circumflexes (or "hats", as Esperantists +fondly call them), and "u" with a breve. Zamenhof himself suggested +that where the diacritical letters caused difficulty, one could +instead use "ch", "gh", "hh", "jh", "sh" and "u". A plain ASCII +file is one such place; there are no ASCII codes for Esperanto's +special letters. + +However, there are two problems with Zamenhof's "h-method". There +is no difference between "u" and "u" with a breve, and there is no +way to determine (without prior knowledge of the word(s) involved, +and sometimes a bit of context) whether an "h" following one of +those other five letters is really the second half of a diacritical +pair, or just an "h" that happened to find itself next to one of +them. Consequently other, unambiguous, methods have been used over +the years. One is the "x-method", which uses the digraphs "cx", +"gx", "hx", "jx", "sx" and "ux" to represent the special letters. +There is no ambiguity because the letter "x" is not an Esperanto +letter, and each diacritical letter has a unique transliteration. +This is the method used in this Project Gutenberg e-text. + + + + + + + + + A COMPLETE + GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO + + THE INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE + + WITH + GRADED EXERCISES FOR READING AND TRANSLATION + TOGETHER WITH FULL VOCABULARIES + + BY + IVY KELLERMAN, A.M., Ph.D. + + MEMBER OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE AND CHAIRMAN OF EXAMINATIONS + FOR THE ESPERANTO ASSOCIATION OF NORTH AMERICA, MEMBER + OF THE INTERNATIONAL "LINGVA KOMITATO" + + + * * * * * + + + TO + + DR. L. L. ZAMENHOF + + THE AUTHOR OF + ESPERANTO + + + * * * * * + + + PREFACE. + +This volume has been prepared to meet a twofold need. An adequate +presentation of the International Language has become an imperative +necessity. Such presentation, including full and accurate grammatical +explanations, suitably graded reading lessons, and similarly graded +material for translation from English, has not heretofore been +accessible within the compass of a single volume, or in fact within the +compass of any two or three volumes. + +The combination of grammar and reader here offered is therefore +unique. It is to furnish not merely an introduction to Esperanto, or +a superficial acquaintance with it, but a genuine understanding of +the language and mastery of its use without recourse to additional +textbooks, readers, etc. In other words, this one volume affords +as complete a knowledge of Esperanto as several years' study of a +grammar and various readers will accomplish for any national language. +Inflection, word-formation and syntax are presented clearly and +concisely, yet with a degree of completeness and in a systematic order +that constitute a new feature. Other points worthy of note are the +following: + +The reasons for syntactical usages are given, instead of mere statements +that such usages exist. For example, clauses of purpose and of result +are really explained, instead of being dismissed with the unsatisfactory +remark that "the imperative follows 'por ke,'" or the "use of 'tiel ... +ke' and 'tia ... ke' must be distinguished from that of 'tiel ... kiel' +and 'tia ... kia,'" etc., with but little intimation of when and why +"por ke", "tiel ... ke" and "tia ... ke" are likely to occur. + +Affixes are not mentioned until some familiarity with the general +character of the language is assured, as well as the possession of +a fair vocabulary. They are introduced gradually, with adequate +explanation and illustration. Of importance in connection with +word-formation is an element distinctly new--the explanation and +classification of compound words. Such words, like affixes, are +withheld until the use of simple words is familiar. + +Another new feature is the gradual introduction of correlative words in +their logical order, and in their proper grammatical categories, before +they are called "correlatives," or tabulated. The tabulation finally +presented is a real classification, with regard to the meaning and +grammatical character of the words, not merely an arbitrary alphabetical +arrangement. The use of primary adverbs precedes the explanation of +adverb derivation; prepositions, especially "de", "da", "je", etc., +receive careful attention, also the verb system, and the differentiation +of words whose English equivalents are ambiguous. + +A general characteristic of obvious advantage is that almost without +exception new forms and constructions are illustrated by means of +words or roots already familiar. Likewise, the new words or roots of +each lesson recur at least once in the next lesson, and usually in +some lesson thereafter as well. Each reading exercise gives not only a +thorough application of the grammatical principles of the lesson, but a +review of those in the preceding lesson, and no use is made of words or +constructions not yet explained. The comparative ease of the language, +and the lack of necessity for reciting paradigms, permit the reading +exercises to be long enough for the student to feel that he has really +mastered something. These exercises are further unique, in that each +after the fifth is a coherent narrative, and nearly every one is a story +of genuine interest in itself. These stories, if bound separately, would +alone constitute a reader equivalent to those used in first and second +year work in national languages. (For list of titles, see Table of +Contents.) + +The second element of the twofold need which this volume meets is the +necessity for a presentation of Esperanto, not as a thing apart, but +in that form which will make it most serviceable as an introduction to +national tongues. A stepping-stone to both ancient and modern languages, +Esperanto may render invaluable aid, and pave the way for surmounting +the many difficulties confronting both student and teacher. Through +Esperanto, the labor in the acquirement of these languages may be +reduced in the same proportion in which the pleasure and thoroughness +of such acquirement are increased. For this reason, the grammatical +constructions of Esperanto are here explained as consistently as +possible in accordance with the usage of national languages, especially +those in the school curriculum, and precise names are assigned to them. +Such matters as "contrary to fact conditions", "indirect quotations", +"clauses of purpose" and "of result", "accusatives of time" and +"measure", "expressions of separation", "reference", etc., thus +become familiar to the student, long before he meets them in the more +difficult garb of a national tongue, whose exceptions seem to outnumber +its rules, and whose idioms prove more puzzling than its exceptions, +unless approached by the smooth and gradual ascent of the International +Language, Esperanto. + + Ivy Kellerman. + +Washington, D. C., +August 3, 1910. + + + * * * * * + + + TABLE OF CONTENTS. + + LESSON + I. Alphabet.--Vowels.--Consonants.--Names of the Letters.-- + Diphthongs.--Combinations of Consonants.--Syllables.--Accent. + II. Nouns.--The Article.--Adjectives.--Attributive Adjectives.-- + Present Tense of the Verb + III. The Plural Number.--Predicate Adjective and Noun + IV. Transitive Verbs.--The Accusative Case.--The Conjunction + "Kaj".--The Negative "Ne". + V. The Complementary Infinitive.--Interrogation.--The + Conjunction "Nek". + VI. Personal Pronouns.--Agreement with Pronouns.--Conjugation of + the Verb. + VII. The Past Tense.--Prepositions.--Accusative Case of Personal + Pronouns. + VIII. Reflexive Pronouns.--Reflexive Verbs. + IX. Limitation of the Third Personal Pronoun.--Possessive + Adjectives.--Pronominal Use of Possessive Adjectives.--"La + Kato kaj la Pasero". + X. The Accusative of Direction.--The Article for the Possessive + Adjective.--Apposition.--"La Arabo kaj la Kamelo". + XI. Possessive Case of Nouns.--Impersonal Verbs.--Verbs + Preceding their Subjects.--Coordinating Conjunctions.--"La + Arabo en la Dezerto". + XII. Indirect Statements.--The Indefinite Personal Pronoun + "Oni".--The Future Tense.--"La Ventoflago". + XIII. The Demonstrative "Pronoun Tiu".--Tenses in Indirect + Quotations.--Formation of Feminine Nouns.--"En la + Parko". + XIV. The Demonstrative Pronoun "Cxi tiu".--Possessive Form of + the Demonstrative Pronoun.--The Suffix "-Il-".--The + Expression of Means or Instrumentality.--"La Mangxo". + XV. The Demonstrative Adjective.--Adverbs Defined and + Classified.--Formation of Opposites.--"La Ruza Juna + Viro". + XVI. The Demonstrative Adverb of Place.--Accompaniment.--The + Adverb "For".--The Meaning of "Povi".--"Malamikoj en la + Dezerto". + XVII. The Demonstrative Temporal Adverb.--Comparison of + Adjectives.--Manner and Characteristic.--"Diri", + "Paroli" and "Rakonti".--"Frederiko Granda kaj la + Juna Servisto". + XVIII. The Demonstrative Adverb of Motive or Reason.--Derivation + of Adverbs.--Comparison of Words Expressing Quantity.-- + Comparisons Containing "Ol".--Causal Clauses.--"Pri la + Sezonoj". + XIX. "Ju" and "Des" in Comparisons.--The Preposition "Inter".-- + The Preposition "Pro".--Prepositions with Adverbs and Other + Prepositions.--"La Auxtuno kaj la Vintro". + XX. The Demonstrative Adverb of Manner and Degree.--Prepositions + Expressing Time-Relations.--"En Septembro". + XXI. The Accusative of Time.--Adverbs and the Accusative of + Time.--The Preposition "Por".--"La Sezonoj kaj la + Mondo". + XXII. Clauses Expressing Duration of Time.--Clauses Expressing + Anticipation.--The Infinitive with "Anstataux", "Por", + "Antaux ol".--The Expression of a Part of the Whole.-- + "Diogeno kaj Aleksandro Granda". + XXIII. Adverbs Expressing a Part of the Whole.--The Demonstrative + Adverb of Quantity.--Result Clauses.--"En la Butiko". + XXIV. The Interrogative Pronoun.--The Present Active + Participle.--Compound Tenses.--The Progressive Present + Tense.--The Suffix "-Ej-".--"En Nia Domo". + XXV. The Interrogative Adjective.--The Imperfect Tense.-- + Salutations and Exclamations.--Word Formation.--"Koni" and + "Scii".--"La Nepo Vizitas la Avinon". + XXVI. The Interrogative Adverb of Place.--The Past Active + Participle.--Adverb Derivation from Prepositions.--Adverbs + Expressing Direction of Motion.--The Suffix + "-Eg-".--"La Pluvego". + XXVII. The Interrogative Temporal Adverb.--The Perfect Tense.--The + Preposition "Cxe".--The Suffix "-Ar-".--"Tempo" and "Fojo".-- + The Orthography of Proper Names.--"Roberto Bruce kaj la + Araneo". + XXVIII. The Interrogative Adverb of Motive or Reason.-- The + Infinitive as Subject.--Present Action with Past + Inception.--The Suffix "-Ul-".--"Logxi" and "Vivi".--"Pri + la Avo kaj la Avino". + XXIX. The Interrogative Adverb of Manner and Degree.--The + Pluperfect Tense.--Cardinal Numbers.--The Accusative of + Measure.--"Nia Familio". + XXX. The Interrogative Adverb of Quantity.--Modifiers of + Impersonally Used Verbs.--Formation of Cardinal + Numerals.--The Suffix "-An-".--"Leciono Pri Aritmetiko". + XXXI. The Relative Pronoun.--The Future Perfect Tense.--Ordinal + Numerals.--"Alfredo Granda kaj la Libro". + XXXII. "Kia" as a Relative Adjective.--"Kie" as a Relative + Adverb.--The Future Active Participle.--The Periphrastic + Future Tenses.--The Suffix "-Ind-".--"Alfredo Granda + kaj la Kukoj". + XXXIII. "Kiam" as a Relative Adverb.--"Kiel" as a Relative + Adverb.--Numeral Nouns and Adverbs.--Word Derivation from + Prepositions.--"La Invito". + XXXIV. Prepositions as Prefixes.--The Suffix "-Ebl-".--Expression + of the Highest Degree Possible.--Titles and Terms of + Address.--"Cxe la Festo". + XXXV. "Kiom" as a Relative Adverb.--The Present Passive + Participle.--Fractions.--Descriptive Compounds.--"La Hxinoj". + XXXVI. The Present Passive Tense.--The Use of "De" to Express + Agency.--The General Meaning of "De".--Word Derivation + from Primary Adverbs.--The Suffix "-Ist-".--"Antikva + Respubliko". + XXXVII. The Distributive Pronoun.--The Preposition "Po".-- + Dependent Compounds.--"La Cxapelo sur la Stango". + XXXVIII. The Distributive Adjective.--The Imperfect Passive Tense.-- + Compound Tenses of Impersonal Verbs.--Reciprocal + Expressions.--The Suffix "-Uj-".--"Vilhelmo Tell kaj + la Pomo". + XXXIX. The Distributive Adverb of Place.--The Future Passive + Tense.--Possessive Compounds.--The Time of Day.--The + Suffix "-Obl-".--"En la Stacidomo". + XL. The Distributive Temporal Adverb.--The Distributive Adverb + "Cxial".--The Past Passive Participle.--The Perfect + Passive Tense.--The Preposition "Laux".--The Suffix + "-Em-".--"La Perdita Infano". + XLI. The Distributive Adverb "Cxiel".--The Distributive + Adverb "Cxiom".--The Pluperfect Passive Tense.--The + Future Perfect Passive Tense.--The Expression of + Material.--The Suffix "-Et-".--"La Donaco". + XLII. The Future Passive Participle.--The Passive Periphrastic + Future Tenses.--The Generic Article.--The Suffix + "-Ec-".--"Sur la Vaporsxipo". + XLIII. The Indefinite Pronoun.--Participial Nouns.--The Prefix + "Ek-".--The Suffix "-Id-".--"La Nesto sur la + Tendo". + XLIV. The Indefinite Adjective.--The Indefinite Adverb of Place.-- + Predicate Nominatives.--"La Cxevalo kaj la Sonorilo". + XLV. The Indefinite Temporal Adverb.--The Indefinite Adverb + "Ial".--Causative Verbs.--Emphasis by Means of "Ja".-- + "Cxe la Malnova Ponto". + XLVI. The Indefinite Adverb "Iel".--The Indefinite Adverb "Iom".-- + The Suffix "-Ad-".--The Use of "Mem".--"Arhximedo kaj la + Kronoj". + XLVII. The Negative Pronoun.--The Adverbial Participle.--The Prefix + "Re-".--"La Filozofo Arhximedo". + XLVIII. The Negative Adjective.--The Negative Adverb of Place.--The + Negative Temporal Adverb.--The Suffix "-Ajx-".--The Adverb + "Jen".--"Du Artkonkursoj". + XLIX. The Negative Adverbs "Nenial", "Neniel", "Neniom".--The + Suffix "-Igx-".--"La Krepusko". + L. The Pronouns ending in "-O".--Correlative Words.--The Use of + "Ajn".--The Suffix "-Ing-".--"La Gordia Ligajxo". + LI. The Pronoun "Ambaux".--Formations with "-Ig-" and "-Igx-".-- + Factual Conditions.--"La Monahxoj kaj la Azeno". + LII. The Conditional Mood.--Compound Tenses of the Conditional + Mood.--Less Vivid Conditions.--Independent Use of the + Conditional Mood.--The Prefix "Dis-".--"Pri la + Gravitado". + LIII. Conditions Contrary to Fact.--The Verb "Devi".--The + Preposition "Sen".--"La Filozofo Sokrato". + LIV. Summary of Conditions.--Clauses of Imaginative + Comparison.--The Use of "Al" to Express Reference.--The + Suffix "-Estr-".--"La Ostracismo de Aristejdo". + LV. The Imperative Mood.--Resolve and Exhortation.--Commands and + Prohibitions.--Less Peremptory Uses of the Imperative.--The + Use of "Mosxto".--"La Glavo de Damoklo". + LVI. The Imperative in Subordinate Clauses.--The Preposition + "Je".--The Suffix "-Op-".--"La Marsxado de la Dekmil Grekoj". + LVII. Clauses Expressing Purpose.--Further Uses of the + Accusative.--Synopsis of the Conjugation of the Verb.--The + Suffix "-Um-".--"La Reirado de la Dekmilo". + LVIII. Permission and Possibility.--The Prefix "Ge-".--The + Suffix "-Acx-".--Interjections.--"Aleksandro Granda". + LIX. The Position of Unemphatic Pronouns.--Some Intransitive + Verbs.--The Suffix "-Er-".--The Prefixes "Bo-" and + "Duon-".--Correspondence.--"Kelkaj Leteroj". + LX. Some Transitive Verbs.--Elision.--The Prefix "Eks-".--The + Prefix "Pra-".--The Suffixes "-Cxj-" and "-Nj-".--Weights and + Measures.--The International Money System.--Abbreviations.-- + "Pri La Kamero". + + ESPERANTO-ENGLISH VOCABULARY. + + ENGLISH-ESPERANTO VOCABULARY. + + INDEX. + + + * * * * * + + + A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF + ESPERANTO. + + + * * * * * + + + + LESSON I. + + + ALPHABET. + +1. The Esperanto alphabet contains the following letters: a, b, c, cx, +d, e, f, g, gx, h, hx, i, j, jx, k, l, m, n, o, p, r, s, sx, t, u, ux, +v, z. + + + VOWELS. + +2. The vowels of the alphabet are pronounced as follows: + +"a" as in "far". + +"e" as in "fiance", like "a" in "fate". + +[Footnote: This "long a" sound in English frequently ends with a +vanish,--a brief terminal sound of "short i" which makes the vowel +slightly diphthongal, as in "day", "aye". Such a vanish must +not be given to any of the Esperanto vowels.] + +"i" as in "machine". + +"o" as in "toll", "for". + +"u" as in "rude", "rural". + + + CONSONANTS. + +3. The consonants "b", "d", "f", "h", "k", "l", "m", "n", "p", "t", +"v", "z", are pronounced as in English, and the remaining eleven as +follows: + +"c" like "ts" in "hats", "tsetse". + +"cx" like "ch" in "chin", "much". + +"g" like "g" in "go", "big". + +"gx" like "g" in "gem", "j" in "jar". + +"hx" is produced by expelling the breath forcibly, with the throat only +partially open. + +[Footnote: As in pronouncing German and Scotch "ch", Spanish "j", Irish +"gh", Russian "x", Classical Greek Greek: "chi" etc. There are only a +few words containing this consonant.] + +"j" like "y" in "yes", "beyond". + +"jx" like "z" in "azure", "s" in "visual". + +"r" is slightly trilled or rolled. + +"s" like "s" in "see", "basis". + +"sx" like "sh" in "shine", "rash", "ch" in machine". + +"ux" like "w" or consonantal "u". See Diphthongs, 5. + + + NAMES OF THE LETTERS. + +4. The vowels are named by their sounds, as given in (2). The names +of the consonants are "bo", "co", "cxo", "do", "fo", "go", "gxo", +"ho", "hxo", "jo", "jxo", "ko", "lo", "mo", "no", "po", "ro", "so", +"sxo", "to", "uxo", "vo", "zo". These are used in speaking of the +letters, in pronouncing them in abbreviations, as "ko to po" for +"k. t. p." (= etc.), and in spelling words, as "bo, i, ro, do, o, +birdo". + + + DIPHTHONGS. + +5. Diphthongs are combinations of two vowels uttered as a single +sound, by one breath-impulse. The diphthongs in Esperanto contain an +i or u sound as the second element, but in order to avoid confusion +with combinations of vowels not forming diphthongs (as in "naiva", like +English "naive", etc.), they are written with "j" and "ux" instead. +Their pronunciation is as follows: + +"aj" like "ai" in "aisle". + +"ej" like "ei" in "vein", "ey" in "they". + +"oj" like "oi" in "coin", "oy" in "boy". + +"uj" like "ui" in "ruin", "u(e)y" in "gluey". + +"eux" like "ayw" in "wayward", or like E(h)oo" pronounced together. + +"aux" like "ou" in "out", "ow" in "owl". + + + COMBINATIONS OF CONSONANTS. + +6. Each consonant, in a combination of two or more consonants, is +pronounced with its full value, whether within a word or at its +beginning. There are no silent letters. + +a. Thus, both consonants are clearly sounded in the groups "kn", "kv", +"gv", "sv", in such words as "knabo", "kvin", "gvidi", "sviso". + +b. The combination "kz", as in "ekzisti", "ekzameno", must not be +modified to the "gs" or "ks" represented by "x" in "exist", "execute". + +c. The combination "sc", as in "escepte", "scias", is equivalent to the +combination "sts" in "laST Said", "firST Song", pronounced together +rapidly. The "s" in a word beginning with "sc" may be sounded with the +end of the preceding word, if that word ends in a vowel, as "mis-cias" +for "mi scias". + +d. The "n" and "g" are pronounced separately in the combination "ng", in +such words as "lingvo", "angulo", producing the sound of "ng" heard in +"linger", not that in "singer". + +e. Each of two similar letters is clearly sounded, as "interrilato", +"ellasi", like "inter-relate", "well-laid". + + + SYLLABLES. + +7. Each word contains as many syllables as it has vowels and diphthongs. +The division of syllables within a word is as follows: + +a. A single consonant goes with the following vowel, as "pa-no", +"be-la", "a-e-ro". + +b. A consonant followed by "l" or "r" (which are liquids) goes with the +"l" or "r", as in "ta-blo", "a-kra", "a-gra-bla". + +c. Otherwise, the syllable division is made before the last consonant of +the group, as "sus-pek-ti", "sank-ta", "deks-tra". + +d. Prefixes are separated from the words to which they are attached, +as "dis-meti", "mal-akra", and compound words are divided into their +component parts, as "cxef-urbo", "sun-ombrelo". + + + ACCENT. + +8. Words of more than one syllable are accented upon the syllable before +the last, as "TA-blo", "a-GRA-bla", "sus-PEK-ti". + + + WORDS FOR PRACTICE. + +9. (To be pronounced aloud, and correctly accented) Afero, trairi, +najbaro, aero, hodiaux, pacienco, centono, cxielo, ecx, samideano, +treege, obei, obeu, Euxropo, gvidi, gxojo, cxiujn, justa, gxuste, jugxi, +jxauxdo, lingvo, knabo, largxa, pagi, kvieteco, ekzemplo, ellerni, fojo, +krajono, forrajdi, kuirejo, cxevalejo, sankteco, scio, nescio, edzo, +meze, duobla, sxipo, sxargxi, posxo, svingi, sklavo, palaj, sxafajxo, +atmosfero, monahxo, geometrio, lauxdi, vasta, eksplodi, sencxesa, +sensencajxo, malluma, arbaranoj, mangxo, fresxa, auxskulti, dauxri. + + + + LESSON II. + + + NOUNS. + +10. Words which are the names of persons or things are called nouns. +The ending, or final letter, of nouns in Esperanto is "o": + + knabo = boy. pomo = apple. + cxevalo = horse. tablo = table. + + + THE ARTICLE. + +11. The definite article is "la", the, as "la knabo", the boy, "la +cxevalo", the horse, "la tablo", the table, "la pomo", the apple. In +English there is an indefinite article "a, an" for the singular, but +none for the plural. Esperanto has no indefinite article for either +singular or plural. Therefore "knabo" may mean "boy", or "a boy", "pomo" +may mean "apple" or "an apple". + + + ADJECTIVES + +12. A word used with a noun (expressed or understood) to express +a quality or characteristic is called an adjective. The ending of +adjectives in Esperanto is "a": + + bela = beautiful. granda = large. + flava = yellow. forta = strong. + + + ATTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVES. + +13. An adjective is said to modify a noun whose quality it expresses. +When directly preceding or following its noun, it is called an +attributive adjective: + + la granda cxevalo = the large horse. + bela birdo = a beautiful bird. + floro flava = a yellow flower. + forta knabo = a strong boy. + + + PRESENT TENSE OF THE VERB. + +14. Words which express action or condition are called verbs. When +representing an act or condition as a fact, and dealing with the present +time, they are said to be in the present tense. The ending of all +Esperanto verbs in the present tense is "-as": + + kuras = runs, is running. brilas = shines, is shining. + flugas = flies, is flying. dormas = sleeps, is sleeping. + +15. The person or thing whose action or condition the verb expresses is +called the subject of the verb: + + La suno brilas, the sun shines (is shining), subject: suno. + Knabo kuras, a boy runs (is running), subject: knabo. + + + VOCABULARY. + + (To be memorized in this and in all following lessons.) + + bela = beautiful. kaj = and. + birdo = bird. kantas = sings, is singing. + blanka = white. knabo = boy. + bona = good. kuras = runs, is running. + brilas = shines, is shining. la = the. + cxevalo = horse. luno = moon. + dormas = sleeps, is sleeping. marsxas = walks, is walking. + flava = yellow. pomo = apple. + floro = flower. suno = sun. + flugas = flies, is flying. tablo = table. + forta = strong, violo = violet. + granda = large. viro = man. + + + READING LESSON. + +1. Bona viro. 2. La granda tablo. 3. Blanka floro. 4. Flava birdo. 5. La +bela birdo kantas. 6. Forta knabo kuras. 7. La bona viro marsxas. 8. La +bela cxevalo kuras. 9. La suno brilas. 10. Birdo flugas kaj knabo kuras. +11. Cxevalo blanka marsxas. 12. La bela luno brilas. 13. La knabo kantas +kaj la viro dormas. 14. Bela granda pomo. 15. La bona knabo kantas. 16. +La granda cxevalo dormas. 17. La suno brilas kaj la luno brilas. 18. +Granda forta tablo. 19. Violo flava. 20. La bona flava pomo. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. A beautiful flower. 2. A good large table. 3. A yellow violet and +a white violet. 4. The moon is-shining (shines). 5. The good boy +is-walking (walks). 6. The beautiful yellow bird is-flying (flies). +7. The strong man is-sleeping (sleeps). 8. The white bird is-singing +(sings). 9. A strong horse runs, and a man walks. 10. The sun shines, +and the boy is-singing (sings). 11. The large yellow apple. 12. An apple +large and good. + + + + LESSON III. + + + THE PLURAL NUMBER. + +16. The plural number of nouns, that is, the form which indicates +more than one person or thing, is made by adding "-j" to the noun, as +"viroj", men, from "viro", man; "tabloj", tables, from "tablo", table. + +[Footnote: "-oj" is pronounced like "oy" in "boy". See 5.] + +17. An adjective modifying a plural noun agrees with it in number, being +given the plural form by the addition of the ending -j. An adjective +modifying two or more nouns used together is of course given the plural +form: + + bonaj viroj, good men. + grandaj cxevaloj, large horses. + belaj birdo kaj floro (bela birdo kaj bela floro), + beautiful bird and (beautiful) flower. + +[Footnote: "-aj" is pronounced like "ai" in "aisle". See 5.] + +18. The article is invariable, that is, does not change in form when +used with plural nouns, as "la viro", the man, "la viroj", the men. The +verb is also invariable in form: + + La viroj marsxas, the men walk, the men are walking. + La suno kaj la luno brilas, the sun and the moon are shining. + La viro estas, the man is. + La viroj estas, the men are. + + + PREDICATE ADJECTIVE AND NOUN. + +19. When the adjective is a part of that which is told or predicated of +the subject of the verb, as when used with the verbs "to be," "to seem," +etc., it is called a "predicate adjective": + + La birdo estas bela, the bird is beautiful. + La knabo sxajnas bona, the boy seems good. + La viroj estas fortaj, the men are strong. + +20. A noun may also be used as part of the predicate, and is then called +a "predicate noun": + + Violoj estas floroj, violets are flowers. + La kolombo estas birdo, the dove is a bird. + +21. Predicate nouns and adjectives agree in number with the word +or words with which they are in predicate relation: + + Rozoj estas belaj, roses are beautiful. + La knabo kaj la viro sxajnas fortaj, the boy and the man seem strong. + + + VOCABULARY + + alta = high, tall. kolombo = dove. + arbo = tree. kusxas = lies, is lying, lie. + cxambro = room. longa = long. + domo = house. rozo = rose. + en = in. rugxa = red. + estas = is, are. segxo = chair. + folio = leaf. sidas = sits, sit, is sitting. + fresxa = fresh. sur = on. + gxardeno = garden. sxajnas = seems, seem. + kampo = field. verda = green. + + + READING LESSON. + +1. La alta viro estas en la gxardeno. 2. Blanka cxevalo estas en la +kampo. 3. Belaj birdoj sidas sur la verda arbo. 4. La bonaj knaboj estas +en la domo. 5. La cxambroj en la bela domo estas grandaj. 6. Fresxaj +floroj kusxas sur la tablo. 7. La violoj en la kampo estas belaj. 8. La +luno kaj la suno sxajnas grandaj. 9. La kolomboj estas belaj birdoj. +10. La knaboj sxajnas fortaj. 11. Rugxaj pomoj estas sur la tablo en la +cxambro. 12. La fortaj viroj sidas sur segxoj en la longa cxambro. 13. +La arboj estas altaj kaj verdaj. 14. La kolomboj sur la arboj kantas. +15. Fortaj cxevaloj marsxas kaj kuras en la verdaj kampoj. 16. La knaboj +dormas en la granda domo. 17. Rugxaj, flavaj, kaj verdaj folioj estas en +la gxardeno. 18. Longa tablo estas en la domo. 19. Belaj birdoj flugas +kaj kantas en la kampo. 20. Fresxaj rozoj sxajnas belaj. 21. La folioj +estas verdaj kaj rugxaj. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. The trees in the garden are tall and green. 2. The rooms in the house +are long. 3. The flowers on the table are red, yellow and white. 4. The +leaves are long and green. 5. The men are-sitting (sit) on chairs in the +garden. 6. In the garden are yellow roses. 7. The birds in the field are +doves. 8. The boys in the room in the house seem tall. 9. Fresh violets +are beautiful flowers. 10. The horses in the green fields seem strong. +11. Doves are-singing (sing) in the garden. 12. The men in the large +house sleep. 13. The house is long and high, and the rooms in the house +are large. 14. Red and yellow apples lie on the big table. 15. Green +leaves are on the trees in the large garden. + + + + LESSON IV. + + + TRANSITIVE VERBS. + +22. The verbs so far given have been "intransitive verbs", expressing a +state or an action limited to the subject, and not immediately affecting +any other person or thing, as "la knabo kuras", the boy runs. On the +other hand a "transitive verb" expresses an act of the subject upon some +person or thing; as, "la knabo trovas -- --", the boy finds -- --. + + + THE ACCUSATIVE CASE. + +23. The person or thing acted upon is called the "direct object" of +a transitive verb, and is given the ending "-n". This is called the +accusative ending; and the word to which it is attached is said to be +in the "accusative case": + + La viro havas segxon, the man has a chair. + La knabo trovas florojn, the boy finds flowers. + +[Footnote: The ending "-n" follows the ending "-j", if the word to be +put in the accusative case is in the plural number.] + +24. An attributive adjective modifying a noun in the accusative case is +made to agree in case, by addition of the same accusative ending "-n". +This prevents any doubt as to which of two or more nouns in a sentence +is modified by the adjective, and permits of variation in the order of +the words: + + La knabo trovas belan floron, the boy finds a beautiful flower. + Florojn belajn la viro havas, the man has beautiful flowers. + La viro havas grandan segxon, the man has a large chair. + Rugxan rozon la knabo havas, the boy has a red rose. + +25. A predicate adjective or noun (19) is never in the accusative case, +nor is the accusative ending ever attached to the article, which is +invariable as stated in 18. + + + THE CONJUNCTION "KAJ". + +26. In the expression "both ... and ...", the conjunction "kaj" is used +for both words, being merely repeated: + + La viro kaj marsxas kaj kuras, the man both walks and runs. + La cxevalo estas kaj granda kaj forta, + the horse is both large and strong. + La knabo havas kaj rozojn kaj violojn, + the boy has both roses and violets. + Kaj la knabo kaj la viro estas altaj, + both the boy and the man are tall. + + + THE NEGATIVE "NE". + +27. The negative word meaning "not" when forming part of a sentence, +and "no" when used as an answer to a question, is "ne". When used as +a sentence-negative, it usually immediately precedes the verb. For +emphatic negation of some other word than the verb, "ne" may precede +that word: + + Violoj ne estas rugxaj, violets are not red. + La viroj ne sidas sur segxoj, the men are-not-sitting on chairs. + La kolombo kantas, ne flugas, the dove is-singing, not flying. + La domo estas blanka, ne verda, the house is white, not green. + + + VOCABULARY + + apud = near, in the vicinity of. koloro = color. + benko = bench. largxa = wide, broad. + brancxo = branch. mangxas = eat, eats. + diversa = various. mola = soft. + felicxa = happy. nigra = black. + frukto = fruit. ne = not, no. + havas = have, has. rompas = break, breaks. + herbo = grass. sed = but. + ili = they. trovas = find, finds. + kolektas = gather, collect. vidas = see, sees. + + + READING LESSON. + +1. La knaboj ne estas en la cxambro en la blanka domo. 2. Ili estas +en la granda gxardeno. 3. La gxardeno sxajnas kaj longa kaj largxa. +4. La felicxaj knaboj vidas la belan gxardenon. 5. Ili vidas florojn +apud alta arbo. 6. La floroj havas diversajn kolorojn. 7. La knaboj +kolektas kaj rugxajn kaj flavajn florojn. 8. Sed ili ne trovas fruktojn +en la gxardeno. 9. Florojn blankajn ili ne vidas. 10. La alta arbo +havas verdajn foliojn sur la brancxoj. 11. La knaboj rompas brancxon, +kaj kolektas la fruktojn. 12. Ili vidas florojn sur la brancxoj, sed +la florojn ili ne kolektas. 13. La knaboj ne sidas sur benkoj en la +gxardeno, sed kusxas sur la mola herbo. 14. La kolomboj sidas sur la +arboj, kaj ili estas felicxaj. 15. La knaboj vidas la belajn birdojn. +16. Fortaj nigraj cxevaloj mangxas la herbon en la kampo. 17. La knaboj +vidas la cxevalojn, sed la cxevaloj ne vidas la knabojn. 18. La cxevaloj +ne dormas, ili mangxas. 19. La fresxa herbo estas verda kaj mola. 20. +Felicxaj estas kaj la knaboj kaj la cxevaloj. 21. La pomo estas bona +frukto. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Green leaves are on the trees. 2. The boys break branches and gather +the apples. 3. They are near the tall tree in the garden. 4. They find +leaves on the tree, but they do not see the fruit. 5. The house is long, +broad and high. 6. The rooms in the house are both long and wide. 7. The +men have strong black horses. 8. The horses eat the fresh green grass in +the field. 9. The men sit on benches in the garden. 10. The boys do not +sleep, but they lie on the soft grass. 11. They see both the birds and +the flowers, and they seem happy. 12. The flowers have various colors, +but the grass is green. 13. The doves are not sitting on the tree, they +are flying near the trees. 14. Beautiful red roses are lying on the +table in the house. 15. The large red apples are near the yellow roses. + + + + LESSON V. + + + THE COMPLEMENTARY INFINITIVE. + +28. The infinitive is a form of the verb which expresses merely the +general idea of the action or condition indicated, and has some of the +characteristics of a noun. The ending of the infinitive is "-i", as +"kuri", to run, "esti", to be, "havi", to have. + +29. An infinitive used to complete the meaning of another verb, serving +as a direct object to a transitive verb, is called a "complementary +infinitive". If the complementary infinitive is from a transitive verb, +it may itself have a direct object: + + La knabo volas kuri, the boy wishes to run. + Birdoj sxatas kanti, birds like to sing. + La knabo volas havi cxevalon, the boy wishes to have a horse. + Ili volas trovi florojn, they wish to find flowers. + + + INTERROGATION. + +30. An interrogative sentence is one which asks a question. Unless some +directly interrogative word (as "who," "when," "why," etc.) is used, +the sentence is rendered interrogative by use of the word "cxu". This +interrogative particle is placed at the beginning of a sentence, the +words of which are left in the same order as for a statement. Since +there is no inversion of order, there is no necessity for a word like +English "do" or "does," to introduce the verb: + + Cxu la knabo estas bona? Is the boy good? + Cxu ili havas florojn? Have they flowers? + Cxu la kolomboj kantas? Do the doves sing? (Are the doves singing?) + + + THE CONJUNCTION "NEK". + +31. In the expression "neither ... nor ...", the conjunction "nek" +is used for both words. Since an adjective modifier of two or more +words connected by "nek" must necessarily modify them separately, +the adjective remains in the singular number: + + Ili nek marsxas nek kuras, they neither walk nor run. + La viro havas nek domon nek gxardenon, + the man has neither a house nor a garden. + Nek la rozo nek la violo estas verda, + neither the rose nor the violet is green. + + + VOCABULARY + + (Verbs will hereafter be quoted in the infinitive form.) + + bruna = brown. matura = ripe. + cxerizo = cherry. Mario = Mary. + cxu = (30). nek = neither, nor. + dolcxa = sweet. persiko = peach. + gusto = taste. jes = yes. + gxi = it. preferi = to prefer. + Gertrude = Gertrude. sxati = to like. + knabino = girl. voli = to wish. + + + READING LESSON. + +1. Cxu persiko estas rugxa? 2. Jes, gxi estas kaj rugxa kaj dolcxa. 3. +Cxu cxerizoj estas brunaj? 4. Ne, ili estas nek brunaj nek nigraj, sed +flavaj. 5. Cxu la pomo estas frukto? Jes, gxi estas bona frukto. 6. +Cxu la viro kaj la knabo havas pomojn? 7. Ne, ili havas nek pomojn nek +persikojn. 8. Cxu Mario havas la maturan frukton? 9. Mario kaj Gertrudo +havas la frukton. 10. Ili estas en la domo, kaj mangxas la maturan +frukton. 11. La persikoj havas dolcxan guston. 12. La knabinoj volas +havi florojn, sed la knaboj preferas kolekti diversajn fruktojn. 13. Ili +volas trovi maturajn cxerizojn kaj flavajn persikojn. 14. La cxerizoj +havas belan rugxan koloron. 15. La persikoj sxajnas molaj kaj bonaj. 16. +Mario rompas brancxon, kaj vidas cxerizojn sur la brancxoj. 17. Gertrudo +estas felicxa, kaj volas havi la belan frukton. 18. Gertrudo estas alta, +bela knabino. 19. Mario sxatas cxerizojn. 20. La knaboj kaj knabinoj +sidas sur la verda herbo, kaj mangxas la cxerizojn. 21. Ili ne volas +mangxi pomojn, ili preferas la dolcxajn cxerizojn. 22. La folioj apud la +cxerizoj estas nek largxaj nek longaj. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Have the girls beautiful flowers? 2. No, they have fresh fruit. 3. +The boys do not wish to gather flowers. 4. They prefer to break the +branches, and find the sweet cherries. 5. Gertrude wishes to eat apples, +but Mary has neither apples nor peaches. 6. Do the girls like to sit in +the house and eat fruit? 7. Yes, they like to sit in the house, but they +prefer to walk in the field. 8. Are ripe peaches brown? 9. No, they are +red and yellow. 10. Has the peach a sweet taste? 11. Do the girls see +the beautiful black horses in the fields? 12. Yes, they see the horses, +but the horses seem not to see the girls. 13. Mary sits on the soft +green grass, and eats ripe fruit. + + + + LESSON VI. + + + PERSONAL PRONOUNS. + +32. Words which stand in the place of nouns, as "you," "he," "who," +"which," are called "pronouns". Pronouns referring to the person +speaking ("I", "we"), the person addressed ("you", "thou"), or the +person or thing spoken of ("he", "she", "it", "they"), are called +"personal pronouns". They are considered singular or plural, according +to whether they refer to one or more persons. Since the meaning of such +pronouns indicates the number, no plural ending is ever attached to +them. The personal pronouns are: + + Singular. Plural. + + First person: mi, I (me). ni, we (us). + + Second person: vi, you. vi, you. + + li, he (him). + Third person: sxi, she (her). ili, they (them). + gxi, it. + +[Footnote: There is another pronoun "ci" (thou), for the second person +singular, used in solemn style, as in the Bible, in poetry, and also +for intimate or familiar address when desired, like German "du", French +"tu", etc.] + + + AGREEMENT WITH PRONOUNS. + +33. Nouns in predicate relation with pronouns, or adjectives modifying +such pronouns, are made to agree with them in number: + + Ni estas bonaj kaj felicxaj, we are good and happy. + Rozoj estas floroj, ill ne estas fruktoj, + roses are flowers, they are not fruits. + Gertrudo, vi estas bona, Gertrude, you are good. + Knabinoj, cxu vi estas felicxaj? Girls, are you happy? + + + CONJUGATION OF THE VERB. + +34. Any pronoun may serve as the subject of a verb. The combination +of the verb with each of the personal pronouns in succession for its +subject, is called the "conjugation" of the verb. Following is the +conjugation of the present tense of "esti", and of "vidi": + + mi estas = I am. mi vidas = I see. + vi estas = you are. vi vidas = you see. + li (sxi, gxi) estas = li (sxi, gxi) vidas : + he (she, it) is. he (she, it) sees. + ni estas = we are. ni vidas = we see. + vi estas = you (plural) are. vi vidas = you (plural) see. + ili estas = they are. ili vidas = they see. + + + VOCABULARY + + al = to, toward. hodiaux = today. + Arturo = Arthur. kudri = to sew. + aux = or (aux ... aux ..., either ... or ...) Roberto = Robert. + cxar = because. skui = to shake. + doni = to give. stari = to stand. + fali = to fall. sub = under, beneath. + fenestro = window. virino = woman. + + + READING LESSON. + +1. Knaboj, cxu vi volas sidi en la domo, aux en la gxardeno? 2. Ni +preferas sidi hodiaux en la gxardeno, sub la granda arbo. 3. Cxu vi +havas pomojn, aux cxerizojn? 4. Ni havas nek pomojn nek cxerizojn, +sed ni havas dolcxajn persikojn. 5. Arturo donas al vi la maturajn +persikojn, cxar li sxatas kolekti frukton. 6. Arturo, cxu vi rompas la +brancxojn? 7. Ne, sed mi skuas brancxon, kaj la persikoj falas. 8. Mi +staras sub la arbo, kaj kolektas la dolcxan frukton. 9. La frukton mi +donas al Mario kaj Gertrudo. 10. Mi volas doni persikon al Heleno, sed +hodiaux sxi estas en la domo. 11. Sxi sidas apud la fenestro kaj kudras. +12. Sxi preferas kudri, kaj volas nek marsxi nek sidi en la gxardeno. +13. Kaj sxi kaj la virino apud sxi volas kudri hodiaux. 14. Ili estas +felicxaj, cxar ili vidas la birdojn en la arbo apud la fenestro. 15. La +birdoj estas kolomboj, kaj sidas sur la arbo. 16. Sub la arboj en la +kampo staras cxevaloj, kaj ili mangxas la verdan molan herbon. 17. Ni +donas pomojn al ili, cxar ili sxatas pomojn. 18. Ni estas felicxaj, cxar +ni havas belajn persikojn maturajn kaj bonajn. 19. Roberto, vi estas +alta, sed vi, knabinoj, ne estas altaj. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Does Arthur break the branch and gather the apples? 2. No, he shakes +the branch, and the apples fall. 3. They are ripe and sweet. 4. Robert, +do you wish to stand beneath the tree? 5. No, I do not wish to stand +under it, but near it. 6. I wish to give both the peaches and the apples +to the woman. 7. She is sitting in the house, near the window. 8. Mary +is sitting in (on) a chair near her. 9. Both Mary and the woman are +sewing. 10. They prefer to sew, and do not wish to walk in the garden +to-day. 11. They are happy because they like to sew. 12. They do not +wish to gather flowers, or walk, or see the birds. 13. They have neither +apples nor peaches, but they do not wish to eat. 14. They give the fruit +to the boys and girls. + + + + LESSON VII. + + + THE PAST TENSE. + +35. The past tense of the verb expresses an action which took place in +past time, or a condition which existed in past time. The ending of +this tense is "-is", as "kuris", ran, "flugis", flew, "brilis", shone. +The conjugation of "esti" and also of "vidi" in the past tense is as +follows: + + mi estis = I was. mi vidis = I saw. + vi estis = you were. vi vidis = you saw. + li (sxi, gxi) estis = li (sxi, gxi) vidis : + he (she, it) was. he (she, it) saw. + ni estis = we were. ni vidis = we saw. + vi estis = you (plural) were. vi vidis = you (plural) saw. + ili estis = they were. ili vidis = they saw. + + + PREPOSITIONS. + +36. A preposition is a word like "in," "on," placed before a noun or +pronoun to indicate some relation between this and another word. The +preposition is said to "govern" the noun or pronoun, which is called its +"complement". In English, the complement of a preposition seems to be +put in the accusative case if it is a pronoun, but to remain unchanged +in form if it is a noun. In Esperanto the preposition does not affect +the form of the word governed, which remains in the nominative case: + + La arbo estas en la gxardeno, the tree is in the garden. + Bonaj pomoj estas sur gxi, good apples are on it. + Mi donis cxerizojn al li, I gave cherries to him. + La knabo estas apud mi, the boy is near me. + Sub la arbo staris cxevalo, under the tree stood a horse. + + + ACCUSATIVE CASE OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. + +37. For use as the object of a verb, any pronoun may be put in the +accusative case by addition of the accusative ending "-n" (23): + + La viro vidis vin kaj min, the man saw you and me. + Li vidis ilin kaj nin, he saw them and us. + Mi vidis nek lin nek sxin, I saw neither him nor her. + Ni volas havi gxin, we wish to have it. + + + VOCABULARY + + agrabla = pleasant, agreeable. luma = light (not dark). + bildo = picture. muro = wall. + blua = blue. nun = now. + danki = to thank. planko = floor. + de = from. pordo = door. + diri = to say. rigardi = to look (at). + infano = child. tapisxo = carpet. + interesa = interesting. tra = through. + + + READING LESSON. + +1. Hodiaux la knaboj kaj knabinoj estas en la granda domo. 2. Ili staras +apud la tablo, en agrabla luma cxambro. 3. Gxi havas altajn largxajn +fenestrojn. 4. Sub la tablo kaj segxoj, mola tapisxo kusxas sur la +planko. 5. La tapisxo havas belajn kolorojn, rugxan, bluan, flavan, kaj +verdan. 6. Virino marsxis tra la pordo, kaj staris apud la tablo. 7. Sxi +havis interesajn bildojn, kaj donis ilin al la knaboj kaj la knabinoj. +8. Sxi diris "Cxu vi volas rigardi la bildojn?" 9. "Jes, ni dankas +vin," diris la infanoj, kaj sxi donis al ili la bildojn. 10. Granda +bildo falis de la tablo, sed Arturo nun havas gxin. 11. Li donas gxin +al Mario, sxi dankas lin, kaj donas gxin al Roberto. 12. Ili volis doni +gxin al Gertrudo, sed sxi diris "Ne, mi dankas vin, mi ne sxatas rigardi +bildojn." 13. Sxi marsxis de la tablo al la fenestro kaj diris "Mi +preferas kudri." 14. Sxi volis sidi en granda segxo apud la fenestro. +15. La virino rigardis sxin kaj diris "Mi donis la bildojn al vi, knaboj +kaj knabinoj," cxar ili estas interesaj bildoj. 16. Gertrudo diris "Vi +estas bona al ni, sed mi volas sidi apud la pordo aux la fenestro. 17. +Mi kolektis dolcxajn violojn en la gxardeno, kaj nun mi volas rigardi la +dolcxajn florojn, kaj kudri." + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Do the boys and girls wish to be good? 2. They gathered fresh flowers +and gave them to the woman. 3. The happy children were in the garden, +but now they are in the house. 4. The rooms in the house are light, +because they have large wide windows. 5. The doors in the room are +wide and high. 6. The carpets on the floor seem soft, and have various +beautiful colors. 7. A large strong table stands near the door. 8. +We can sit near the table and look through the windows. 9. Gertrude +is-looking-at the various pictures. 10. She looks-at them, and seems +to be happy. 11. She gave a picture to me and I thanked her. 12. Helen +walked near the table and shook it. 13. Arthur did not see the pictures +because they were lying on the floor. 14. He looked-at the pictures on +the wall, but they are neither interesting nor beautiful. 15. Robert +looked through the window, and saw us in the pleasant garden. + + + + LESSON VIII. + + + REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS. + +38. A pronoun which refers to the same person or thing as the subject +of the verb in the sentence, but is used in some other relation than +subject of that verb, is said to be used "reflexively", or to be a +"reflexive pronoun". + + +39. The first and second personal pronouns, "mi", "ni", and "vi", +("ci") are used for the reflexive pronouns of the first and second +persons. There can be no ambiguity, since words such as "me, myself, +us, ourselves," can refer to no one else than the person or persons +speaking; while words such as "you, yourself, yourselves (thee, +thyself)," can refer to no one else than the person or persons +addressed: + + Mi vidas min, I see myself. + Mi diris al mi, I said to myself. + Ni havas tapisxon sub ni, we have a carpet under us. + Ni amuzis nin, we amused ourselves. + (Ci trovas domon apud ci, thou findest a house near thee.) + Vi diras al vi, you say to yourself (yourselves). + Vi amuzas vin, you amuse yourself (yourselves). + +40. When the verb is in the third person, a pronoun of the third person, +used otherwise than as the subject, might or might not refer to the +subject of that verb. For example, "He sees a bird near him," may mean +that the subject sees a bird near himself, or near another person. +If such a pronoun of the third person is intended to refer to the +subject of the verb, Esperanto uses a special reflexive pronoun "si" +(accusative "sin"), which means "him(self)", "her(self)", "it(self)", +"them(selves)", according to the gender and number of the verb: + + Li amuzas sin, he amuses himself. + Arturo vidis birdon apud si, Arthur saw a bird near him(self). + Sxi trovas floron apud si, she finds a flower near her(self). + Mario trovis sin sur blua tapisxo, + Mary found herself on a blue carpet. + La tapisxo havas diversajn kolorojn en si, + the carpet has various colors in it(self). + La birdo kasxas sin sub la folioj, + the bird hides itself under the leaves. + Ili amuzas sin, they amuse themselves. + La viroj havas segxojn apud si, + the men have chairs near them(selves). + La virinoj trovas florojn apud si, + the women find flowers near them(selves). + La arboj havas cxerizojn sur si, + the trees have cherries on them(selves). + Sub si la infanoj trovis molan tapisxon, + under them(selves) the children found a soft carpet. + +[Footnote: From the very fact that "si" always refers to the subject of +the verb, it is evident that "si" can never itself be used as subject or +part of the subject of the verb.] + + + REFLEXIVE VERBS. + +41. A verb having a reflexive pronoun for its direct object is sometimes +called a "reflexive verb", from the fact that some languages have had or +still have a special reflexive or middle form of the verb, to express an +act of the subject on or for itself, or they have certain verbs whose +use is chiefly or exclusively reflexive. The conjugation of a verb +reflexively is therefore as follows: + + mi amuzas min (mi min amuzas), I amuse myself. + vi amuzas vin (vi vin amuzas), you amuse yourself. + li (sxi, gxi) amuzas sin (sin amuzas), + he (she, it) amuses him (her, it)self. + ni amuzas nin (ni nin amuzas), we amuse ourselves. + vi amuzas vin (vi vin amuzas), you amuse yourselves. + ili amuzas sin (ili sin amuzas), they amuse themselves. + +[Footnote: As Greek "etraponto", they turned themselves; Latin +"exerceor", I exercise myself, "vescor", I eat (I feed myself); German +"ich huete mich", I beware (I guard myself); Spanish "me alegro", or +"alegrome", I rejoice (I gladden myself); French "il s'arrete", he halts +(he stops himself).] + + + VOCABULARY + + Alfredo = Alfred. komenci = to begin. + amuzi = to amuse. lauxdi = to praise. + antaux = before, in front of. legi = to read. + aparteni = to belong. libro = book. + griza = gray. perdi = to lose. + iri = to go. skatolo = small box or case. + Johano = John. strato = street. + kasxi = to hide, to conceal. si = himself, etc. (40). + + + READING LESSON. + +1. Johano kaj Alfredo amuzis sin en la gxardeno. 2. Johano kasxis sin, +kaj Alfredo trovis Johanon. 3. Alfredo sin kasxis en alta arbo, kaj +Johano trovis Alberton. 4. Mario kaj Gertrudo sin kasxis apud la floroj, +kaj la knaboj trovis la knabinojn. 5. La knabinoj ne volas perdi sin en +la agrabla kampo. 6. Johano komencis amuzi sin en luma cxambro en la +domo. 7. La muro havas interesajn bildojn sur si. 8. Tra la fenestro +antaux si Johano rigardas la virojn kaj la virinojn sur la strato. 9. +Li havas molan grizan tapisxon sub si, kaj ne volas segxon. 10. Li kaj +Alfredo volis iri al la strato kaj amuzi sin. 11. Ili marsxis al la +pordo, kaj trovis rugxan skatolon antaux si. 12. En la skatolo estis +libro, kaj Johano diris al si "La libro ne apartenas al mi." 13. Li +diris al Alfredo "Cxar ni trovis gxin, mi volas legi la libron." 14. +Virino antaux pordo komencis rigardi la knabojn, kaj ili diris al sxi +"Cxu la libro apartenas al vi? Ni trovis gxin en skatolo." 15. La virino +diris "Jes, ni perdis gxin, kaj mi dankas vin, cxar vi donas al mi la +skatolon kaj la libron." 16. Sxi iris al la strato, kaj la knaboj iris +al la domo. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. The book in the gray box does not belong to me. 2. I found it in +front of me, near the door. 3. You began to praise yourselves, but I do +not praise myself. 4. They hid themselves, and I stood near them. 5. The +birds sit on the tree, because it has ripe cherries on it. 6. Alfred +amused himself on the street, but we like to amuse ourselves in the +house. 7. The trees have good fruit on them. 8. She found herself in a +beautiful light room. 9. The carpet on the floor had various colors in +it, and the high wall had pictures on it. 10. The pictures had boys and +girls in them. 11. The book belongs to her, but it fell from the box. +12. The table has red and blue and yellow flowers on it. 13. Did you see +the doves near the flowers in front of (before) you? 14. The birds saw +the fruit on the tree in front of them, and flew to the branches. 15. I +sat on the bench in the garden, and began to read an interesting book. +16. They hid themselves in the leaves and began to sing. 17. The child +is in a pleasant room. + + + + LESSON IX. + + + LIMITATION OF THE THIRD PERSONAL PRONOUN. + +42. Since there is a special reflexive pronoun of the third person, the +third personal pronouns, "li", "sxi", "gxi", "ili", when used otherwise +than as subjects, never refer to the subject of the verb, but always to +some other person or thing: + + La knabo lauxdas lin, the boy praises him (another person). + Sxi donas pomojn al sxi, she gives apples to her (to another person). + La birdo vidis gxin, the bird saw it (something else than the bird). + La knaboj kasxis ilin, the boys hid them (other persons or things). + Ili trovis ilin apud si, + they found them (other persons or things) near them(selves). + La birdoj flugis al ili, the birds flew to them. + + + POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES. + +43. Words like "my," "his," "your," which indicate ownership or some +possessive relation, are called "possessive adjectives". Possessive +adjectives are formed from the personal pronouns by adding the adjective +ending "-a", as "mia", my, "via", your ("cia", thy), "lia", his, "sxia", +her, "gxia", its, "nia", our, "via", your (plural), "ilia", their. The +limitation in the use of the third personal pronouns ("42") is also true +of the adjectives derived from them: + + Mia domo kaj miaj gxardenoj estas grandaj, + my house and my gardens are large. + Johano sidas sur via segxo, John is sitting in your chair. + Li havas lian cxevalon, he has his (another person's) horse. + Cxu vi legis sxiajn librojn? Did you read her books? + +[Footnote: Sometimes these words are called possessive pronouns, +although really they are not pronouns at all, but pronominal adjectives +with a possessive meaning.] + +44. Reflexive possessive adjectives, like the reflexive pronoun, refer +to the subject of the verb in the sentence. For the first and second +persons, they are the same as the personal possessive adjectives. The +reflexive possessive adjective of the third person is "sia", his, her, +its, their, formed by adding the ending "-a" to the reflexive pronoun +"si": + + Mi havas miajn librojn sur mia tablo, I have my books on my table. + Johano perdis siajn librojn, John lost his (John's) books. + Mario estas en sia cxambro, Mary is in her room. + La birdoj flugis al sia arbo, the birds flew to their tree. + + + PRONOMINAL USE OF POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES. + +45. Possessive adjectives may be used predicatively, as "the book is +mine," or may modify some word or words not expressed, as "mine are +large." Instead of having special forms, like English "mine", "yours", +"hers", etc., Esperanto uses the regular possessive adjectives preceded +by the article: + + La granda libro estas la mia, the large book is mine. + La via estas granda, la miaj estas belaj, + yours is large, mine are beautiful. + Ili havas la sian, sed ne la lian, they have theirs, but not his. + La iliaj sxajnas esti bonaj, theirs seem to be good. + + + + VOCABULARY + + diro = saying, remark. mangxo = meal. + gxis = as far as, up to, down to. nesto = nest. + hieraux = yesterday. pasero = sparrow. + juna = young. patro = father. + kapti = to catch, to seize. post, after, behind. + kato = cat. surprizi = to surprise. + kolera = angry. teni = to hold, to keep. + lavi = to wash. vizagxo = face. + + + READING LESSON. + +1. Hieraux mi perdis mian grizan katon. 2. Ilia kato kaptis nian +birdon. 3. Via kolera diro surprizis mian patron. 4. Cxu la granda +kampo apartenas al sxia patro? 5. Ne, gxi ne estas la lia. 6. La lia +estas bela, sed mi preferas la mian. 7. Cxu vi sxatas vian libron aux +la ilian? 8. Li havas nek siajn cxevalojn nek la iliajn. 9. La knabinoj +sxajnas esti koleraj. 10. Ili komencis legi siajn librojn. 11. La viro +kaptis kaj tenis siajn cxevalojn, sed li ne trovis iliajn cxevalojn. +12. Sxia libro kusxas sur la planko, post sxia segxo. 13. Sxi ne trovis +ilian libron, sed la junaj infanoj trovis la nian. + + + LA KATO KAJ LA PASERO. + +Griza kato iris de la domo gxis la strato. Gxi vidis paseron antaux si, +kaj volis mangxi gxin. La kato staris post granda arbo, kaj kaptis la +paseron. La pasero diris "Bona kato lavas sin antaux sia mangxo, sed vi +ne lavis vian vizagxon." La interesa diro surprizis la katon. La kato +ne tenis la paseron, sed komencis lavi sian vizagxon. La pasero flugis +de la kato gxis la arbo. La kolera kato diris "Mi perdis mian mangxon, +cxar mi komencis lavi min antaux la mangxo!" Nun la katoj ne lavas sin +antaux la mangxoj. Ili havas siajn mangxojn, kaj post la mangxoj ili +lavas la vizagxojn. La paseroj ne surprizas ilin nun, sed ili tenas la +paserojn. La katoj estas felicxaj, sed la paseroj ne estas felicxaj. La +junaj paseroj volas flugi al la nestoj en la arboj. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. The boys are not in their (own) house, but they are in his. 2 Is the +large beautiful house yours? 3. The woman walked through the door of +their house, as far as her room. 4. The room has interesting pictures on +its walls. 5. We praised their flowers yesterday, and they gave them to +us. 6. Their books are in their (the books') box. 7. They are on their +(the boys') table. 8. The gray cat was angry because it did not hold the +bird. 9. The sparrow surprised it, and it commenced to wash its face. +10. The sparrow wished to fly as far as the tall tree, but the cat held +it. 11. The sparrow said "A good cat washes its face, but you are not a +good cat." 12. The sparrow was angry because the cat seized it and held +it. 13. The bird did not lose its meal, but the angry cat lost its meal. +14. Do you see his cat or hers? 15. I see both his and hers, but ours +is not in our garden. 16. My father is a tall strong man. 17. I like to +look at him. 18. The children saw the young birds in the nest. + + + + LESSON X. + + + THE ACCUSATIVE OF DIRECTION. + +46. When the verb in a sentence expresses motion, the word indicating +the place, person or thing toward which the motion is directed is given +the accusative ending. This is also true if the word is the complement +of any preposition which does not itself sufficiently indicate motion +in a certain direction. (The prepositions "al", to, toward, "gxis", +as far as, "tra", through, express motion in the direction of their +complements, and could not well be used except in a sentence whose verb +expresses motion. Consequently the accusative is not used after any of +these three): + + Li iris gxardenon, he went to the garden ("gardenward"). + La viro iros Bostonon, the man will go to Boston ("Bostonward"). + +[Footnote: Cf. English "he went home," "he went homeward," etc.] + + Li estis en la gxardeno, kaj kuris en la domon, + he was in the garden and ran into the house. + Gxi ne estas sur la tablo, gxi falis sur la plankon, + it is not on the table, it fell upon the floor. + Ili falis sub la tablon gxis la planko, + they fell under the table as far as the floor + (direction expressed by whole prepositional phrase). + Mi iris tra la domo en mian cxambron, + I went through the house into my room. + + + THE ARTICLE FOR THE POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE. + +47. In many sentences where the possessor is already sufficiently +indicated, English nevertheless uses a possessive adjective, as in "I +wash my face," "he shakes his head," but on the other hand omits it +entirely with certain words indicating relationship, as in "Brother gave +it to me," etc. In both cases Esperanto uses the article instead of the +possessive adjective, unless the fact of possession is to be emphasized: + + Mi lavas la vizagxon, I wash my face. + Li skuas la kapon, he shakes his head. + La patro estas alta, Father is tall. + Mi donis gxin al la patro, I gave it to Father. + + + APPOSITION. + +48. English often uses the preposition "of" between two words where +no idea of possession really exists, as "the city of Boston." Since +nouns used in apposition refer to the same thing, and are in the same +grammatical construction, Esperanto does not use a preposition: + + La urbo Bostono estas granda, the city (of) Boston is large. + Mia amiko Johano estas alta, my friend John is tall. + Cxu vi ne konas min, vian amikon? do you not know me, your friend? + + + VOCABULARY + + arabo = arab. meti = to put, to place. + baldaux = soon. nazo = nose. + Bostono = Boston. nur = only, merely. + frato = brother. pusxi = to push. + kamelo = camel. trans = across. + kapo = head. tuta = whole, entire, all. + kolo = neck. urbo = city. + korpo = body. varma = warm. + + + LA ARABO KAJ LA KAMELO. + +Arabo sidis en sia domo en la urbo. Apud domo trans la strato li vidis +kamelon. La kamelo iris trans la straton gxis la pordo, kaj diris al la +arabo, "Frato, mi ne estas varma, mi volas meti nur la nazon en vian +varman domon." La arabo skuis la kapon, sed la kamelo metis la nazon tra +la pordo en la cxambron. La kamelo komencis pusxi sian tutan vizagxon +en la domon. Baldaux li havis la kapon gxis la kolo en la domo. Post la +kapo iris la kolo en gxin, kaj baldaux la tuta korpo estis en la domo. +La arabo estis kolera, cxar li ne volis havi tutan kamelon en sia domo. +Li kuris al la kamelo, kaptis lin, tenis lin, kaj diris, "Frato, vi +volis meti nur la nazon en mian domon. La cxambro ne estas granda sed +gxi estas la mia, kaj mi preferas sidi en gxi." "Via diro estas bona," +diris la kamelo, "via domo ne estas granda, sed gxi estas varma, kaj mi +sxatas stari en gxi. Mi preferas stari kaj kusxi en gxi, kaj mi donos +al vi mian arbon trans la strato. Cxu vi ne volas iri sub la arbon?" +Kaj la kamelo pusxis la arabon de lia domo en la straton de la urbo. La +kamelo nun trovis sin en varma cxambro, sed la juna arabo staris trans +la strato kaj ne estis varma. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. The cat ran across the street. 2. Across the street it found a +sparrow. 3. It caught the bird, but began to wash its face, and the +sparrow flew to the nest. 4. I went into the garden as far as the large +tree. 5. I did not hold my book, and it fell upon the floor. 6. It began +to fall under the table, but I seized it. 7. My brother pushed the +books into their box, and put it on the table. 8. We went to the city +of Boston yesterday and into a beautiful house. 9. The arab shook his +head and said, "No." 10. But the camel commenced to go through the door. +11. His remark did not seem to surprise the camel. 12. The camel pushed +its head and neck, and soon its whole body into the warm house. 13. It +wished to put merely its nose into it. 14. The arab was angry, because +it pushed itself into his house. 15. He said, "Brother, the house is +mine, and I do not wish to have you in it." 16. But soon after the +remark, the whole camel was in the house. 17. He pushed the young arab +into the street. 18. He went across the street and stood upon the grass +under a tree. + + + + LESSON XI. + + + POSSESSIVE CASE OF NOUNS. + +49. The preposition "de" is used to express possession or connection: + + La muroj de la domo, the walls of the house. + La koloroj de la floroj, the colors of the flowers. + La libro de la knabo, the book of the boy (the boy's book). + Brancxo de la arbo, a branch of the tree. + La gxardeno de la viroj, the garden of the men (the men's garden). + + + IMPERSONAL VERBS. + +50. Verbs with an impersonal or indeterminate subject, as "it rains," +"it is snowing," are called impersonal, because there is no actual +subject, the word "it" serving merely as an introductory particle. No +such particle is used with impersonal verbs in Esperanto: + + Pluvas, it rains, it is raining. + Negxis hieraux, it snowed yesterday. + + + VERBS PRECEDING THEIR SUBJECTS. + +51. When the verb in a sentence precedes its subject, English often uses +an introductory particle, such as "there," "it." In Esperanto no such +particles are needed: + + Estas floroj sur la tablo, there are flowers on the table. + Estis Johano, ne Alfredo, en la gxardeno, + it was John, not Alfred, in the garden. + Estas domo en la kampo, there is a house in the field. + Estis mi, it was I. + + + COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS. + +52. Words like "aux", "kaj", "nek", "sed", which join words, +word-groups, or sentences together are conjunctions. All the +conjunctions given so far connect words, phrases, or sentences of +similar rank or kind. These are called coordinating conjunctions, +and the words, phrases, or sentences connected by them are said +to be coordinate: + + Cxu vi marsxas aux kuras? + ("Aux" connects the verbs.) + + Sxi iris, kaj ni estis felicxaj. + ("Kaj" connects the sentences.) + + Nek vi nek mi vidis gxin. + (The second "nek" connects the pronouns, + the first being introductory and adverbial.) + + Aux li aux sxi perdis la libron. + (The second "aux" connects the pronouns, + the first being introductory and adverbial.) + + Gxi falis sur la segxon, sed ne sur la plankon. + ("Sed" connects the phrases.) + + Li ne sxatis gxin. Tamen li tenis gxin. + ("Tamen" connects the sentences.) + +[Footnote: A phrase is a word-group forming an expression, but not +containing a verb, as "through the house," "of the man," "before me," +etc.] + +[Footnote: Coordinating conjunctions may be further classified according +to their meaning: "Aux" is disjunctive, connecting alternates, and +expressing separation. "Kaj" is copulative, expressing union. "Nek" +is disjunctive, expressing separation and also negation. "Sed" is +adversative, expressing opposition, contrast, or modification of a +previous statement. "Tamen" is adversative, affirming something in spite +of a previous objection or concession. "Do," "so, then, consequently," +is argumentative, expressing a logical inference or result in a somewhat +conversational manner.] + + + VOCABULARY + + akvo = water. porti = to carry. + amiko = friend. ricxa = rich, wealthy. + ankaux = also. sablo = sand. + bezoni = to need. sako = sack, bag. + dezerto = desert. seka = dry. + fidela = faithful. tamen = nevertheless. + mono = money. trinki = to drink. + negxi = to snow. veni = to come. + pluvi = to rain. vojo = road, way. + + + LA ARABO EN LA DEZERTO. + +Arabo iris trans grandan sekan dezerton. Kamelo, lia fidela amiko, +portis lin. La kamelo ankaux portis belajn tapisxojn, cxar la arabo +estis ricxa viro. La arabo havis ne nur tapisxojn, sed ankaux sakojn. En +la sakoj estis akvo, cxar en la dezerto nek pluvas nek negxas. La viro +trinkis akvon, kaj ankaux donis akvon al sia kamelo. La kamelo marsxis +kaj marsxis, sed ne venis al la domo de la arabo, cxar ili perdis la +vojon. La suno brilis, kaj la sablo de la dezerto sxajnis varma. La +arabo ne trovis la vojon, kaj baldaux li ne havis akvon. Tamen la kamelo +marsxis kaj marsxis, kaj baldaux la arabo vidis sakon antaux si, sur la +seka sablo. Li estis felicxa kaj diris al si "Cxu estas akvo en gxi? +Mi volas trinki, kaj volas doni akvon al mia fidela kamelo." Li ankaux +volis lavi la tutan vizagxon en la akvo, cxar li estis varma. Post sia +diro li kaptis la sakon, kaj komencis rigardi en gxin. Li metis la nazon +en gxin, sed ne trovis akvon en la sako. Nek li nek lia fidela kamelo +havis akvon, cxar estis nur mono en la sako. La arabo estis kolera, cxar +li ne volis monon, li bezonis akvon. Li havis monon en sia domo en la +urbo, kaj volis trovi akvon. Cxu li tamen metis la sakon trans la kolon +de sia kamelo? Ne, li ne volis meti gxin sur sian kamelon, cxar li estis +kolera. Li ne tenis la sakon, sed gxi falis sur la sablon, kaj kusxis +apud li. La sako nun kusxas sur la sablo de la granda dezerto, kaj la +mono estas en gxi. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Today it is raining, but yesterday it was snowing. 2. Did your friend +John carry his chair into the house? 3. I saw your good friends on the +way to the city. 4. Is the large sack behind the door theirs? 5. Neither +she nor her brother saw the whole city. 6. They went to the city of +Boston and lost their way. 7. There are interesting houses across the +street. 8. The body of a camel is large, and its neck is long. 9. The +camel pushed its head into the house of the arab, and he was angry. 10. +On the sand in the desert there lies a sack. 11. In the sack there is +money. 12. The arab was warm, and wished to drink water. 13. He also +wished to give water to the faithful camel. 14. Nevertheless, he found +only money in the sack. 15. He was angry, and did not keep the sack. +16. Yesterday he wished to find money, but today he prefers water. 17. +Nevertheless there is only sand in the desert. 18. He wished to come +from the dry desert to the house of a faithful friend. 19. Both he and +his friends are rich. 20. They went to his house yesterday, and came to +theirs today. 21. They do not need money. + + + + LESSON XII. + + + INDIRECT STATEMENTS. + +53. A statement made indirectly by means of a clause dependent upon a +verb meaning "say," "think," "know," "believe," or a similar expression, +as in "I know that he came," "I hear that he is good," is called an +"indirect statement." (The "direct" statement is "he came," "he is +good.") An indirect statement is joined to the main verb or sentence by +the subordinating conjunction "ke," that. + + Johano diras ke vi venis hieraux, + John says that you came yesterday. + Sxi opinias ke estas mono en la sako, + she thinks that there is money in the bag. + +[Footnote: A clause is a group of words including a verb, which is +dependent upon or subordinate to a main verb or sentence, as "--that he +came," "--when he went," "--that he is good," etc.] + +[Footnote: In English the subordinating conjunction may sometimes be +omitted, either "I think that he is good," or "I think he is good," +being usually permissible. But in Esperanto there is no variation, and +the conjunction "ke" is never omitted.] + + + THE INDEFINITE PERSONAL PRONOUN "ONI". + +54. When an indefinite personal pronoun is desired, as in the +expressions "one knows," "they say," "people say," "you can see," etc., +the indefinite personal pronoun "oni" is used. This pronoun may also be +used in translating such expressions as "it is said," "I am told," etc.: + + Oni diras ke li estas ricxa, they say (one says) that he is rich. + Oni vidas ke ili estas amikoj, one sees that they are friends. + Mi opinias ke oni sxatas lin, + I think that people like him (that he is liked). + Oni diris al mi ke estas sablo en la dezerto, + I was told (people said to me) that there is sand in the desert. + Oni opinias ke sxi estas felicxa, + it is thought (one thinks) that she is happy. + Cxu oni vidis nin en la gxardeno? + Were we seen (did people see us) in the garden? + Oni sxatas agrablajn infanojn, + people like agreeable children (agreeable children are liked). + + + THE FUTURE TENSE. + +55. The future tense of the verb expresses an act or state as about to +take place, or as one that will take place in future time. The ending of +this tense is "-os," as "kuros," will run, "flugos," will fly, "brilos," +will shine. The conjugation of "esti" and also of "vidi" in the future +tense is as follows: + + mi estos = I shall be. mi vidos = I shall see. + vi estos = you will be. vi vidos = you will see. + li (sxi, gxi) estos = li (sxi, gxi) vidos : + he (she, it) will be. he (she, it) will see. + ni estos = we shall be. ni vidos = we shall see. + vi estos = you (plural) will be. vi vidos = you (plural) will see. + ili estos = they will be. ili vidos = they will see. + + + VOCABULARY + + auxdi = to hear. oni = (see 54). + blovi = to blow. opinii = to think, to opine. + greno = grain (wheat, corn, etc.). orienta = east, eastern. + ke = that (conjunction). pluvo = rain. + kontraux = against. suda = south, southern. + montri = to show, to point out. velki = to wilt, to wither. + norda = north, northern. vento = wind. + nova = new. ventoflago = weathercock. + okcidenta = west, western. vetero = weather. + + + LA VENTOFLAGO. + +Estis varma vetero, la suno brilis, kaj suda vento blovis. Tamen la +nova ventoflago sur la domo diris al si, "La sudan venton mi ne sxatas. +Mi preferas orientan venton." La vento orienta auxdis la diron kaj gxi +venis kontraux la ventoflagon. Pluvis kaj pluvis, kaj oni estis kolera +kontraux la ventoflago, cxar gxi montras orientan venton. Gxi diris, +"Pluvas nun, sed la greno en la kampoj bezonos sekan veteron. Oni estos +kolera kontraux mi, cxar mi montras orientan venton." La okcidenta vento +auxdis la ventoflagon, kaj baldaux venis. Gxi ne estis forta, sed gxi +estis seka kaj agrabla vento, kaj ne portis pluvon. La viroj, virinoj, +kaj junaj infanoj volis trinki, sed ili ne havis akvon. La greno kaj la +floroj velkis, kaj la frukto ankaux falis. La nova ventoflago diris, +"Oni estos kolera kontraux mi, cxar ne pluvas. Oni opinios ke, cxar mi +montras okcidentan venton, la frukto falas, kaj la greno kaj floroj +velkas. Mi sxatas montri nek okcidentan nek orientan venton!" Norda +vento auxdis kaj venis al la ventoflago. La vetero ne estis agrabla, +kaj la virinoj kaj la junaj infanoj ne estis varmaj. Negxis, kaj oni +estis kolera. Oni diris "La greno kaj la frukto bezonas varman veteron, +sed hodiaux negxas. Ni preferas la sudan venton. Ni havis gxin, antaux +la orienta, la okcidenta, kaj la norda ventoj. La ventoflago ne estas +fidela amiko al ni. Gxi ne montras bonajn ventojn, kaj ni volas rompi +gxin!" Oni kuris al la domo, kaptis la novan ventoflagon, kaj ankaux +rompis gxin. Gxi falis, kaj kusxis sur la vojo antaux la domo. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. One can see that the weathercock points-out the winds. 2. They say +that the west wind will be a dry wind. 3. The weathercock now shows that +an agreeable south wind blows. 4. People will be angry with (against) +the weathercock, because it points-out a north wind. 5. A north wind is +not warm, and the grain and fruit will need a warm wind. 6. It snowed, +and the young children were not warm, because the north wind blew. 7. +People will like a south wind, but an east wind will carry rain. 8. +Can one find money in the desert? 9. Do you think (that) he is in the +house? 10. He is said to be (they say that he is) on the street. 11. +It is thought (people think) that the camel is a faithful friend. 12. +I am told (people tell me) that the camel has a large body, and a long +neck. 13. One can see that it is not beautiful. 14. People do not like +to drink warm water. 15. Nevertheless we shall drink warm water in the +city. 16. It was beautiful weather yesterday, but today we shall have +good weather also. 17. I think that a warm wind will blow soon. 18. My +friend has a beautiful new house. + + + + LESSON XIII. + + + THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN "TIU". + +56. The demonstrative pronoun "tiu", that, is used to indicate a person +or a definitely specified thing. The plural is "tiuj", those: + + Tiu estas la via, kaj mi volas tiun, + that is yours, and I wish that one. + Tiuj estos koleraj kontraux vi, those will be angry with you. + Li auxdis tiujn, he heard those (persons, or things). + +57. The demonstrative pronoun "tiu" is also used as a "pronominal +adjective", in agreement with a noun: + + Tiu vento estos varma, that wind will be warm. + Mi vidas tiun ventoflagon, I see that weathercock. + Tiuj infanoj estas junaj, those children are young. + Mi trovos tiujn librojn, I shall find those books. + + + TENSES IN INDIRECT QUOTATIONS. + +58. The verb in an indirect statement (53) or an indirect question +remains in the same tense in which it would be if the statement or +question were direct. (In English this is true only if the introductory +verb is present or future, since after an introductory past tense the +tense of the indirect quotation is changed, and "am, is, are, have, +will" become "was, were, had, would," etc.) + + Mi diras ke li estas bona, I say that he is good. + " diris " " " " , I said that he was good. + " diros " " " " , I shall say that he is good. + Li miras cxu mi auxdas, he wonders whether I hear. + " miris " " " , he wondered whether I heard. + " miros " " " , he will wonder whether I hear. + Mi opiniis ke gxi estas bona, I thought that it was good + (I thought "it is good"). + Oni miris cxu li venos, they wondered whether he would come + (they wondered "will he come?"). + +[Footnote: An indirect question is introduced by "cxu", whether, after +verbs meaning "ask," "wonder," "know," etc.: "Mi miras cxu li venis", I +wonder whether he came. "Oni demandas cxu li estas ricxa", people ask +whether he is rich.] + + + FORMATION OF FEMININE NOUNS. + +59. Feminine nouns corresponding to distinctly masculine nouns such as +"frato", "knabo", "viro", may be formed from these by inserting the +suffix "-in-" just before the noun-ending "-o": + + fratino = sister patrino = mother + (from frato, brother). (from patro, father). + knabino = girl virino = woman + (from knabo, boy). (from viro, man). + + +[Footnote: Cf. English names similarly formed from masculine names, +as "Pauline, Josephine, Ernestine, Geraldine," etc., also German +"Koenigin", queen, from "Koenig", king; "Loewin", lioness, from "Loewe", +lion, etc.] + + + VOCABULARY + + almenaux = at least. paroli = to talk, to speak. + cxapelo = hat. parko = park. + cxielo = sky, heaven. preskaux = almost. + filo = son. pri = concerning, about. + konstrui = to build. promeni = to take a walk. + miri = to wonder. super = above. + morgaux = tomorrow. timi = to fear, to be afraid (of). + nubo = cloud. tiu = that (56). + ombrelo = umbrella. zorga = careful. + + + EN LA PARKO. + +Miaj junaj amiko kaj amikino, kaj ankaux ilia patrino, iris hieraux al +la parko. La infanoj diris al la patrino ke la parko estas agrabla, +kaj ke ili volas promeni en gxi. La knabino parolis al sia frato pri +la belaj floroj. Sxi diris al li ke la floroj velkas, kaj ke la herbo +en preskaux la tuta parko bezonas pluvon. La knabo diris hodiaux al +mi ke hieraux li kaj lia fratino auxdis la birdojn en la arboj super +siaj kapoj. Li diris ke li miris pri tiuj birdoj, tamen li opinias ke +la birdoj baldaux konstruos siajn nestojn en tiuj arboj. La infanoj +promenis, kaj baldaux ili vidis ke grizaj nuboj venas sur la cxielon, +kaj mia juna amikino timis ke pluvos. Sxi parolis al la patrino pri la +nuboj kaj la pluvo, montris al sxi la grizajn nubojn, kaj diris ke si +volas iri al la domo. Ili komencis marsxi al la strato, kaj preskaux +kuris, cxar ili ne havis ombrelon. Tra la fenestroj de la domoj oni +rigardis ilin, kaj la knabo miris cxu li kaj liaj patrino kaj fratino +amuzas tiujn virojn kaj virinojn. Tamen la patrino diris ke sxi ne timas +ke sxi amuzos tiujn, sed ke sxi timas la pluvon. Sxi kaj la filino volas +esti zorgaj pri almenaux la novaj cxapeloj. La filo diris al sxi ke li +ankaux estas zorga, sed ke li opinias ke ne pluvos. Baldaux la patro +venis al ili, kaj portis ombrelojn, cxar li ankaux timis la pluvon. +Li miris cxu la infanoj kaj ilia patrino havas ombrelojn. Baldaux +pluvis, sed ili estis sekaj, cxar ili havis la ombrelojn. Morgaux ili ne +promenos en la parko, sed iros al la urbo. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. The east wind is dry and the south wind will be too warm. 2. A +west wind blew against the weathercock, but the grain needed a south +wind. 3 A north wind is blowing and I think that it will soon snow. 4. +It (51) will be beautiful weather tomorrow, because a pleasant wind +is now blowing. 5. The flowers will wither because those children +gathered them. 6. They are talking about that park, but I do not wish to +take-a-walk, because there are clouds in (on) the sky. 7. At least we +shall take an umbrella, and my brother will hold it over our heads. 8. +My sister said "Mother and I are-afraid that it will rain." 9. My young +sister will be careful about that new umbrella. 10. I wonder whether +she will take-a-walk tomorrow. 11. That park is pleasant and the grass +is soft and green. 12. The birds are building their nests now, in those +branches above our heads. 13. The sky above us is blue, and a west wind +is beginning to blow. 14. I can see that weathercock, on that large +house near the park. 15. Mother says that my sister will have a new hat +tomorrow. 16. She will be careful of (about) that hat. 17. My father's +friend is very careful of his son. 18. One sees that he is not a strong +boy. + + + LESSON XIV. + + + THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN "CXI TIU". + +60. The demonstrative pronoun (and pronominal adjective) meaning "this" +is formed by using with "tiu" (56) the word "cxi", which expresses the +general idea of nearness or proximity. (Consequently the literal meaning +of "cxi tiu" is "that one nearby", "that one here".) The word "cxi" may +either precede or follow the pronoun: + + Cxi tiu estas la mia, this is mine. + Mi vidis cxi tiun, I saw this one. + Cxu vi volas tiujn cxi? Do you wish these? + Cxi tiu knabino estas mia fratino, this girl is my sister. + Mi vidis cxi tiujn cxapelojn, I saw these hats. + Cxi tiuj amikoj promenos, these friends will take a walk. + +61. The words "tiu" and "cxi tiu" may be used to distinguish between +persons or things "previously" mentioned and "just" mentioned: + + Gertrude kaj Mario estas en la parko. + Tiu rigardas la florojn, cxi tiu kolektas ilin. + + Gertrude and Mary are in the park. + The former (that one) looks at the flowers, + the latter (this one) gathers them. + + + POSSESSIVE FORM OF THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN. + +62. To express possession, the demonstrative pronouns "tiu" and "cxi +tiu" have the special possessive or genitive forms "ties", that one's, +and "cxi ties", this one's. The use of "ties" and "cxi ties" to mean +"the former" and "the latter" is similar to the use of "tiu" and "cxi +tiu" shown in 61: + + + Mi iris al ties domo, I went to that one's house. + Cxi ties filoj estas junaj, + this person's (this one's) sons are young. + Mi sxatas ties koloron, sed preferas cxi tiun floron, + I like that one's color, but prefer this flower. + La patro kaj lia amiko parolas pri siaj domoj. + Ties estas nova, sed cxi ties sxajnas bela. + Father and his friend are talking about their houses. + The former's is new, but the latter's seems beautiful. + + + THE SUFFIX "-IL-". + +63. Names of instruments, tools or utensils may be formed by adding +the suffix "-il-" (followed by the ending "-o") to roots whose meaning +permits: + + flugilo, wing (from flugi, to fly). + kaptilo, snare, trap (from kapti, to catch). + kudrilo, needle (from kudri, to sew). + montrilo, indicator, (clock) hand (from montri, to point out, show). + tenilo, handle (from teni, to hold). + +[Footnote: The root of a word is that part of it which contains the +essential meaning, and to which the verb endings "-i", "-as", "-is", +"-os", the noun ending "-o", the adjective ending "-a", etc., are +attached, when no suffix intervenes. Thus, "vir-" is the root of "viro" +and of "virino"; "kur-" is the root of "kuri", etc.] + + + THE EXPRESSION OF MEANS OR INSTRUMENTALITY. + +64. The means or instrumentality through which an act is accomplished is +expressed by use of the preposition "per": + + Oni kudras per kudrilo, one sews by means of (with) a needle. + La birdoj flugas per flugiloj, the birds fly by (with) wings. + Li amuzas sin per tiuj bildoj, + he amuses himself with (by) those pictures. + Mi trovis gxin per via helpo, I found it by (through) your help. + + + VOCABULARY + + akra = sharp najbaro = neighbor. + busxo = mouth. per = by means of (64). + dekstra = right (not left). supo = soup. + cxi (see 60). telero = plate. + forko = fork. terpomo = potato. + helpo = help. ties = that one's (62). + kafo = coffee. trancxi = to cut. + kulero = spoon. tre = very, exceedingly. + mano = hand. viando = meat. + + + LA MANGXO. + +Hieraux mi miris cxu mi havos bonan mangxon en la domo de mia amiko. Sed +mi opiniis ke mi havos tre bonan mangxon, cxar mia amiko sxatas doni +bonajn mangxojn al siaj amikoj. Oni metis tre bonan supon antaux mi, +kaj mi mangxis tiun per granda kulero. Post la supo mi havis viandon. +Cxi tiun mi tenis per forko, kaj trancxis per akra trancxilo. La forko, +trancxilo kaj kulero estas mangxiloj. Mi havis ne nur viandon, sed +ankaux novajn terpomojn. Mi trancxis tiujn cxi per la trancxilo, sed +mi metis ilin en la busxon per forko. Mi tenis la forkon en la dekstra +mano, kaj metis la trancxilon trans mian teleron. Oni bezonas akran +trancxilon, sed oni ne bezonas tre akran forkon. Post la viando kaj la +terpomoj, oni donis al mi fresxajn maturajn cxerizojn. Ili kusxis sur +granda telero, kaj havis belan koloron. Ilia gusto estis ankaux bona. +Mi preskaux ne diris ke mi ankaux havis kafon. Mi parolos morgaux al +mia amiko pri lia kafo, kaj lauxdos gxin. Post la mangxo, najbaro de +mia amiko venis en cxi ties domon, kaj ili parolis al mi pri siaj novaj +domoj. Per la helpo de sia patro, mia amiko konstruos grandan domon. +Lia najbaro volas konstrui belan sed ne tre grandan domon. Ties nova +domo estos bela, sed mi opinias ke mi preferos cxi ties domon. Mia amiko +volis doni almenaux kafon al sia najbaro, sed li diris ke li ne volas +trinki kafon. Tamen li volis persikon. Li tenis tiun en la mano, kaj +mangxis tiun. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. The birds have very strong wings on their bodies, but they do not +have hands. 2. They will build their nests, and sing about the young +birds. 3. Those children were talking to me yesterday about their cat. +4. They said that it likes to catch and eat sparrows. 5. Tomorrow it +will hide (itself) behind a tree, and will catch a young sparrow. 6. The +children will gather peaches in that-person's garden, and will put them +upon a plate. 7. They will shake the whole tree by means of a branch. 8. +The sweet fruit above them will fall upon the soft green grass. 9. The +children wondered whether the cherries were ripe. 10. They seem almost +ripe, and tomorrow the children will pick (gather) them, with the help +of their father. 11. It is said (54) that the grain in that-man's field +very [much] needs rain. 12. People also think that the flowers will +wither, for (because) it did not rain yesterday or today. 13. My careful +young friend will carry an umbrella in his hand tomorrow, because he +fears the rain. 14. He sees those gray clouds in (on) the sky. 15. He +holds the umbrella by its handle. 16. The weathercock is an indicator +concerning the weather. 17. One eats meat with a fork, and soup with a +spoon. 18. One holds the spoon in the right hand. 19. A knife is sharp, +but one does not need a sharp fork. 20. We shall have a very good meal, +and also very good coffee. + + + + LESSON XV. + + + THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVE. + +65. The demonstrative adjective related to the demonstrative pronoun +"tiu" (56) is "tia", that kind of, that sort of, such: + + Tia floro estas bela, that kind of a flower is beautiful. + Mi sxatas tian viandon, I like that sort of meat. + Tiaj najbaroj estas agrablaj, + such (that kind of) neighbors are pleasant. + Mi volas auxdi tiajn birdojn, I wish to hear such birds. + + + ADVERBS DEFINED AND CLASSIFIED. + +66. An adverb is a word which modifies the meaning of a verb, adjective, +another adverb, or phrase. It may express manner, time, degree, +negation, etc. Adverbs are either primary, as "now," "almost," or +derived, as "glad-ly," "sweet-ly," The Esperanto primary adverbs given +in this and in preceding lessons may be classified as follows: + + (a) Temporal Adverbs (expressing time). + + baldaux = soon. morgaux = tomorrow. + hieraux = yesterday. nun = now. + hodiaux = today. tuj = immediately. + + (b) Adverbs of Degree. + + almenaux = at least. preskaux = almost. + nur = merely. tre = very, much. + + (c) Adverbs Expressing Other Ideas. + + addition: ankaux = also. emphasis: ecx = even. + interrogation: cxu, (30). affirmation: jes = yes. + proximity: cxi, (60). negation: ne = not, no, (27). + +a. An adverb usually precedes, but may also follow, the word or words +which it modifies. It must be so placed as to leave no doubt about which +of two words or word-groups it is intended to modify. Thus, "mi preskaux +volis havi tiun" clearly means "I almost wished to have that"; but "mi +volis preskaux havi tiun" might mean either "I almost wished to have +that," or more probably "I wished almost to have that." An example of +permissible variation in the position of adverbs is shown in questions +to which an affirmative answer is expected. Such questions may be put in +the form of a statement, followed by "cxu ne" (instead of having "cxu" +introduce the sentence, with "ne" in its normal position): + + Li venos, cxu ne? He will come, will he not? + La vetero estas bela, cxu ne? The weather is beautiful, is it not? + Vi auxdis tiun diron, cxu ne? You heard that remark, did you not? + + + FORMATION OF OPPOSITES. + +67. If the meaning of a word is such that it can have a direct opposite, +such opposite may be formed from it by use of the prefix "mal-": + + malalta = low, short (from "alta", high, tall). + malamiko = enemy (from "amiko", friend). + maldekstra = left (from "dekstra", right). + malhelpi = to hinder (from "helpi", to help). + maljuna = aged, old (from "juna", young). + malnova = old, not new (from "nova", new). + +[Footnote: Cf. English "malcontent", "discontented," "maladroit", +"clumsy."] + + + VOCABULARY + + dum = during. povi = to be able. + ecx = even. preni = to take. + gardi = to guard. propono = proposal. + helpi = to help, to aid. respondi = to answer. + honti = to be ashamed. ruza = sly, cunning. + kara = dear. sxteli = to steal. + kontenta = satisfied. tia = that kind of (65). + kuragxa = courageous. tuj = immediately. + nokto = night. vocxo = voice. + + + LA RUZA JUNA VIRO. + +Ruza juna viro kaj bona maljuna viro iris trans dezerton. Tiu havis +nigran cxevalon, cxi tiu havis blankan cxevalon. "Vi gardos niajn +cxevalojn dum la nokto, cxu ne?" diris la juna viro per dolcxa vocxo al +sia amiko, "Cxar dum la nokto oni ne povos vidi mian nigran cxevalon, +sed malamikoj povos tuj vidi vian blankan cxevalon. Oni povos sxteli +tian cxevalon, cxar vi estas maljuna kaj malforta, kaj ne povos malhelpi +malamikojn." Tia propono ne sxajnis agrabla al la maljuna viro. Li ne +estis kontenta, tamen li ne volis perdi sian cxevalon, cxar li estis +malricxa. Li diris al si ke li donos sian blankan cxevalon al la juna +viro, kaj prenos ties nigran cxevalon. Tuj li diris al cxi tiu "Sed per +via helpo mi ne perdos mian cxevalon: mi donos la mian al vi, kaj prenos +vian cxevalon. La via estas malbela, sed gxi estas almenaux nigra; vi +donos gxin al mi, cxu ne?" "Jes," respondis la ruza juna viro, kaj li +donis sian nigran cxevalon al tiu, kaj prenis la blankan cxevalon. +"Nun," diris la maljuna viro, "Vi estas kuragxa kaj forta, kaj vi gardos +la cxevalojn, cxu ne? Vi povos malhelpi malamikojn per tiu granda akra +trancxilo, kaj oni ne povos sxteli vian blankan cxevalon." La ruza juna +viro ne hontis. Li respondis "Mia kara amiko, mi nun dormos, cxar oni +ne sxtelos blankan cxevalon. Mi povos vidi tian cxevalon dum la nokto, +kaj malhelpi malamikojn. Sed tiu cxevalo via ("that horse of yours") +havas la koloron de la nokto, kaj ecx nun oni povas sxteli gxin." La +malkontenta maljuna viro diris per kolera vocxo "Cxu vi ne hontas pri +tia propono?" Tamen la ruza juna viro tuj komencis dormi, kaj la maljuna +viro gardis la cxevalojn dum la tuta nokto. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + (Words to be formed with the prefix "mal-" are quoted.) + +1. Does one eat potatoes and meat with a fork or a spoon? 2. One puts +soup into the mouth by means of a spoon. 3. One cuts fruit with a knife, +and puts the fruit upon a plate. 4. The coffee was "cold", and I was +much "dissatisfied". 5. My knife was "dull", nevertheless I almost +immediately cut my (the) "left" hand. 6. I was ashamed, but I think +that the handle of that knife was very "short". 7. The grass is "wet" +today, and I fear that we shall not be able to take a walk, even in that +"small" park. 8. I "dislike" to go-walking upon the "hard" streets. +9. The courageous young man and his "aged" friend talked about their +"enemies". 10. They wished to be careful about their horses. 11. The +young man was very sly, and wished to sleep during the night. 12. He +said that one can steal a black horse during the "dark" night. 13. He +said that either (aux) he or the "old" man would guard the horses. 14. +The "old" man answered that he would give to him his [own] white horse. +15. He took that one's black horse. 16. He was ashamed, and was very +angry at his "faithless" friend. 17. But he "stayed-awake", and guarded +the horses. + + + + LESSON XVI. + + + THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADVERB OF PLACE. + +68. The demonstrative adverbs of place related to the pronouns "tiu" and +"cxi tiu" are "tie", there, in (at) that place, and "cxi tie", here, in +(at) this place: + + La telero estas tie, the plate is there (in that place). + La libroj kusxas cxi tie, the books lie here (in this place). + Mi trovis vin tie kaj lin tie cxi, I found you there and him here. + Tie la vetero sxajnas tre agrabla, + there the weather seems very pleasant. + +69. If the verb in the sentence expresses motion toward the place +indicated by "tie" or "cxi tie", the ending "-n" is added to the adverb +(46), forming "tien", thither, there, and "cxi tien", hither, here: + + Li iros tien, he will go there (thither). + Mi venis cxi tien, I came here (hither). + Ni estis tie, kaj venis cxi tien, + we were there and came here (hither). + + + ACCOMPANIMENT. + +70. Accompaniment or association is expressed by the preposition "kun", +with, along with: + + La viro venis kun sia amiko, the man came with his friend. + Mi promenos kun vi, I shall go walking with you. + La knabo kun tiu viro estas lia frato, + the boy with that man is his brother. + +[Footnote: "Kun" must not be confused with "per" (64), which expresses +instrumentality, although per may often be translated by English "with." +The English preposition "with" may be said to have three rather clearly +defined different meanings. In the linguistic history of this word, +the original meaning was "against," still shown in "fight with, strive +with, contend with, withstand", etc. (Cf. German "widerstreiten", to +strive with, "widerhalten", to resist, etc.) Gradually this word "with" +usurped the meaning of the original preposition "mid," expressing +association or accompaniment (cf. German "mit", with, which it crowded +out of the language except in one unimportant compound). The word +"by" was also encroaching upon "mid" from another direction, and so +"mid's" successor "with" came to be interchangeable with "by" in +expressing instrumentality. Thus, English "with" indicates opposition, +accompaniment, or instrumentality, for which three senses Esperanto has +the three prepositions "kontraux", "kun", and "per", respectively.] + + + THE ADVERB "FOR". + +71. The adverb "for", away, may be used independently, as "Li iris +for de mi", he went away from me, but it is more frequently used as a +prefix to give a sense of departure, loss or somewhat forcible removal: + + foriri = to go away, to depart. + forkuri = to run away, to escape. + forlasi = to leave alone, to abandon, to desert. + formangxi = to eat away, to eat up. + forpreni = to take away, to remove. + fortrinki = to drink away, to drink up. + +[Footnote: Cf. the prefix "for-" in English "forfend," to keep away, +to avert, "forbid," to exclude from, to command against, "forbear," to +refrain from, etc.] + + + THE MEANING OF "POVI". + +72. The verb "povi", to be able, is used to translate English "can", +which is defective, that is, does not occur in all of the forms a verb +may have: + + Mi povas paroli, I am able to talk, I can talk. + Mi povis paroli, I was able to talk, I could talk. + Mi povos paroli, I shall be able to talk, ------. + Mi volas povi paroli, I wish to be able to talk, ------. + + + VOCABULARY + + el = out of, out. peli = to drive, to chase. + cxirkaux = around, roundabout. posxo = pocket. + for = away (71). rajdi = to ride. + frua = early. rapidi = to hasten. + glavo = sword. resti = to remain, to stay. + horo = hour. sagxa = wise. + kun = with (70). tie = there (68). + lasi = to leave. voki = to call. + + + MALAMIKOJ EN LA DEZERTO. + +Juna viro kaj lia sagxa patro volis iri trans la dezerton, kun siaj +amikoj. La amikoj estis fortaj, kaj la juna viro estis tre kuragxa. Ili +restis en malgranda urbo dum la nokto, kaj forrajdis kun tiuj amikoj. +La patro kaj la filo opiniis ke la amikoj kun ili povos helpi per siaj +akraj glavoj. Ili opiniis ke ili povos forpeli la malamikojn. Ecx en +la dezerto oni trovas malamikojn. Tiaj malamikoj forprenas la monon de +bonaj viroj. La juna viro estis kontenta, cxar li estis kun la amikoj. +La maljuna viro estis kontenta cxar li estis kun sia filo. Baldaux la +nokto venis. Estis tre malluma tie en la dezerto, kaj ili preskaux ne +povis vidi. Dum la fruaj horoj de la nokto la patro auxdis vocxojn, kaj +preskaux tuj li vidis la malamikojn. La ruzaj malbonaj viroj rapidis +tien, kaj vokis la maljunan viron. La malkuragxaj amikoj de la patro kaj +filo nek restis tie, nek helpis forpeli la malamikojn. Ili tuj forkuris. +La malamikoj staris cxirkaux la patro, kaj forpusxis lin de lia cxevalo. +La filo volis malhelpi ilin, sed li ne povis. Li povis nur resti kun la +patro, kaj gardi lin tie kontraux la glavoj de la malamikoj. Baldaux la +malamikoj komencis forpreni la monon el la posxoj de la sagxa maljuna +viro. La kolera filo diris per maldolcxa ("bitter") vocxo "Cxu vi ne +hontas? Cxu vi lasos al ni nek la cxevalojn nek nian monon?" Sed la +malamikoj respondis "Ne, ni lasos al vi nek la cxevalojn nek la monon. +Ni ne estas malsagxaj." Post tiu diro ili tuj forrapidis, kaj prenis kun +si la cxevalojn. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. The foolish friends of the young man and his aged father did not stay +with them. 2. They did not help them with their swords, but ran away at +once ("tuj"), and were not ashamed. 3. The old man heard disagreeable +voices behind him, and soon he saw the enemy. 4. The enemy called them, +and hastened there (69). 5. Those sly bad men took the money out of +the pockets of the courageous young man. 6. They stood around him, and +also around his father. 7. The father and son could not even guard +their horses. 8. The enemy did not leave (to) these their horses, but +took both the horses and the money. 9. Soon the enemy rode away, during +the late hours of the night. 10. The father and son were angry and +dissatisfied. 11. They said "We fear and dislike such men." 12. The +father said "By the help of our neighbors we can ("povos") find those +bad men, and drive them away, out of the desert." 13. The son replied, +"Dear Father, such a proposal seems good, and I will help with my long +sharp sword. 14. But we are now in the desert, and the road to the city +is long. 15. We cannot ride thither, but we can walk thither. 16. Can +you not hasten, with ("per") my help?" 17. The wise old man answered, +"Yes, my son, with such help I can walk thither." + + + + LESSON XVII. + + THE DEMONSTRATIVE TEMPORAL ADVERB. + +73. The demonstrative temporal adverb related to the demonstrative +pronoun "tiu" is "tiam", then, at that time: + + Tiam li rajdos al la urbo, then he will ride to the city. + Nun ili estas sagxaj, sed tiam ili estis malsagxaj, + now they are wise, but at that time they were foolish. + + + COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. + +74. An adjective may have three degrees, "positive", "comparative" and +"superlative." English has various ways of forming the comparative +and superlative degrees (as by the suffixes "-er, -est," the adverbs +"more, most," and irregular methods as in "good, better, best," etc.). +Esperanto has only one method, using the adverbs "pli", more, and +"plej", most: + + POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE. + --------------- ------------------------ -------------------------- + bela, beautiful pli bela, more beautiful plej bela, most beautiful + bona, good pli bona, better plej bona, best + malbona, bad pli malbona, worse plej malbona, worst + sagxa, wise pli sagxa, wiser plej sagxa, wisest + +75. The preposition "el" is used with words expressing the group or +class out of which a superlative is selected and mentioned: + + Li estas la plej juna el tiuj, he is the youngest of (out of) those. + Vi estas la plej felicxa el ni, you are the happiest of us. + Tiu estis la plej ruza el la viroj, + that one was the craftiest of the men. + + + MANNER AND CHARACTERISTIC. + +76. The actions or feelings which accompany an act or state, or the +characteristic which permanently accompanies a person or thing, may be +expressed by a substantive with the preposition "kun": + + Li prenis gxin kun la plej granda zorgo, + he took it with the greatest care. + Mi auxdis lin kun intereso kaj plezuro, + I heard him with interest and pleasure. + Sxi estas virino kun bona gusto, + she is a woman with (of) good taste. + Mi havas cxevalon kun forta korpo, + I have a horse with a strong body. + +[Footnote: Sometimes the manner of an action may be expressed by the +instrument of it, expressed by the preposition "per" with a substantive +modified by an adjective: "Li kantis per dolcxa vocxo", he sang with (by +means of) a sweet voice. "Vi pusxis min per forta mano", you pushed me +with a strong hand.] + + + "DIRI", "PAROLI" AND "RAKONTI". + +77. The verbs "diri", to say, "paroli", to talk, to speak, and +"rakonti", to relate, having in common the general idea of speech or +expression, must not be confused in use: + + Mi diris al vi ke pluvas, I said to (told) you that it was raining. + Mi diris gxin al vi, I said it to you (I told you). + Mi parolis al vi pri gxi, I talked (spoke) to you about it. + Mi rakontis gxin al vi, I related (told) it to you. + + + VOCABULARY + + ami = to love. pli = more (74). + ekster = outside (of). plumo = pen. + Frederiko = Frederick. rakonti = to relate (77). + gratuli = to congratulate. regxo = king. + intereso = interest. servisto = servant. + letero = letter. skribi = to write. + plej = most (74). tiam = then (73). + plezuro = pleasure. zorgo = care. + + + FREDERIKO GRANDA KAJ LA JUNA SERVISTO. + +Hieraux mi legis interesan libron pri Frederiko Granda ("the Great"). +En gxi oni rakontas ke la regxo kun plezuro legis aux skribis per sia +plumo, dum malfruaj horoj de la nokto. Agrabla juna knabo, la plej juna +el la servistoj, tiam restis ekster la pordo. Cxar la regxo legis plej +interesan novan libron, li ne opiniis ke la horo estas malfrua. Li vokis +sian malgrandan serviston, sed la knabo, nek venis nek respondis. La +regxo iris tien, kaj trovis la knabon ekster la pordo. Li vidis ke la +knabo dormas sur malalta segxo. Tiam Frederiko Granda ne estis kolera, +sed hontis cxar li vokis la infanon. La regxo Frederiko vidis leteron +en la posxo de la knabo. Tuj li prenis la leteron el lia posxo, kaj +rigardis gxin. Gxi estis letero al la servisto, de lia patrino. Sxi ne +estis ricxa virino, sxi sxajnis esti tre malricxa. En cxi tiu letero la +patrino diris per la plumo ke sxi amas la filon. Sxi dankis lin cxar +li skribis al sxi longan leteron. Sxi ankaux dankis lin cxar li donis +al sxi monon. La regxo volis esti tre bona al tia filo. Kun la plej +granda zorgo li metis monon el sia posxo kun la letero kaj tiam lasis la +leteron en ties posxo. Tiam li formarsxis al sia cxambro, kaj vokis la +malgrandan serviston. La knabo tuj auxdis, kaj rapidis tra la pordo. Li +kuris trans la cxambron, kaj staris antaux la regxo. "Cxu vi dormis?" +diris Frederiko Granda. "Jes, mi timas ke mi preskaux dormis," respondis +la knabo, "kaj mi tre hontas." Tiam li metis la manon en la posxon, +kaj trovis la monon. Li sxajnis pli malfelicxa kaj diris kun granda +timo "Malamiko metis cxi tiun monon en mian posxon! Oni opinios ke mi +sxtelis gxin! Oni malamos min, kaj forpelos min!" Frederiko respondis, +"Ne, mi donis gxin al vi, cxar mi amas bonajn knabojn. Mi gratulas vian +patrinon, cxar sxi havas tian filon." + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. An interesting story is related (54) about Frederick the Great. 2. +His youngest servant stayed outside of the door. 3. The king called him, +and he hastened thither and stood before him. 4. Yesterday he did not +hear the king. 5. The king called him, but he did not answer. 6. The +king thought that the boy had gone away with the older servants, and he +was angry. 7. He left his book on the table, and went to the door. 8. +Then he saw that the little boy was sleeping there. 9. He looked at him +with greater interest, and saw a letter in his pocket. 10. The letter +was from the boy's mother. 11. He had written a letter to her, with his +pen, and had given (to) her money, because she was poor. 12. He wrote +longer letters with pleasure, because he was a most faithful son. 13. +The king congratulated the mother of the boy, concerning such a son. 14. +(The) king Frederick wished to be kinder ("pli bona") to the boy. 15. He +placed his book upon the table, near his sword, and talked to the little +servant. 16. Then the older servants came, and stood around the king. +17. They walked with great care, and the younger servant did not hear +them. 18. They loved the little boy, and wished to help him. + + + + LESSON XVIII. + + + THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADVERB OF MOTIVE OR REASON. + +78. The demonstrative adverb of motive or reason, related to the +demonstrative pronoun "tiu", is "tial", therefore, for that reason, +so: + + Tial la servisto foriris, therefore the servant went away. + Tial mi gratulis lin, for that reason I congratulated him. + Tial oni forpelis lin, so they drove him away. + + + DERIVATION OF ADVERBS. + +79. Adverbs may be derived from roots whose meaning permits, by addition +of the adverb-ending "-e", as "felicxe", happily, "kolere", angrily. The +comparison of adverbs is similar to that of adjectives: + + POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE. + ------------- ---------------------- ----------------------- + sagxe, wisely pli sagxe, more wisely plej sagxe, most wisely + bone, well pli bone, better plej bone, best + malbone, badly pli malbone, worse plej malbone, worst + ruze, slyly pli ruze, more slyly plej ruze, most slyly + + + "MALPLI" AND "MALPLEJ". + +80. The opposites (67) of "pli" and "plej" are "malpli", less, and +"malplej", least. Their use is similar to that of "pli" and "plej". +(These adverbs may also modify verbs): + + Li estas malpli kuragxa, he is less courageous. + Tiuj estis malplej akraj, those were least sharp. + La vento blovis malpli forte, the wind blew less strongly. + Li skribis malplej zorge, he wrote least carefully. + Mi malpli timas ilin, I fear them less. + Vi malplej bezonos helpon, you will need help least. + + + COMPARISON OF WORDS EXPRESSING QUANTITY. + +81. Since in their precise sense the words "pli", "malpli", "plej", +"malplej", express degree, a quantitative meaning is given by "multe", +"much", in the desired degree of comparison: + + multe, much pli multe, more (in amount) plej multe, most + + malpli multe, less " malplej multe, least + + malmulte, little pli malmulte, less " plej malmulte, least + + + COMPARISONS CONTAINING "OL". + +82. In a comparison made by the use of "pli" or "malpli", the case used +after "ol", than, must indicate clearly the sense intended: + + Mi amas ilin pli multe ol sxin, I love them more than (I love) her. + Mi amas ilin pli multe ol sxi, + I love them more than she (loves them). + Vi helpis la viron malpli multe ol la knabo, + you helped the man less than the boy (helped him). + Vi helpis la viron malpli multe ol la knabon, + you helped the man less than (you helped) the boy. + + + CAUSAL CLAUSES. + +83. A clause giving a cause or reason is introduced by "cxar", because, +for, or by the combination "tial ke", for this reason that, because, +for: + + Mi venis frue, cxar mi volis vidi vin, + I came early, for I wished to see you. + La floroj velkis tial, ke ne pluvis, + the flowers wilted for this reason, that it did not rain. + + + VOCABULARY + + anstataux = instead of. multa = much (multaj, many). + aprilo = April. ofta = frequent (ofte, often). + auxgusto = August. ol = than (82). + jaro = year. printempo = spring (season). + junio = June. tago = day. + julio = July. sezono = season. + majo = May. somero = summer. + marto = March. tial = therefore (78). + monato = month. vintro = winter. + + + PRI LA SEZONOJ. + +La vintro estas la malplej agrabla sezono el la tuta jaro. Negxas tre +multe, kaj tial oni nur malofte promenas, cxar la stratoj estas tro +malsekaj. Oni marsxas kun granda zorgo, kaj malrapide ("slowly"), tial +ke oni ne volas fali kaj preskaux rompi la kolon. Oni zorge gardas sin +tiam kontraux la malvarmaj nordaj ventoj. La manojn oni metas en la +posxojn, sed la vizagxon oni ne povas bone gardi. Mi ne sxatas resti +ekster la domo dum tia vetero. Mi multe preferas sidi en varma luma +cxambro, kaj skribi leterojn per bona plumo. La monatoj de la printempo +estas marto, aprilo kaj majo. La bela printempo sxajnas pli agrabla ol +la vintro. Gxiaj tagoj estas pli longaj kaj pli varmaj, gxiaj ventoj +blovas malpli forte. En cxi tiu sezono la kampoj kaj arboj frue komencas +montri plej belajn kolorojn. La birdoj konstruas siajn nestojn, kaj +dolcxe kantas. Oni povas promeni sur la mola herbo, anstataux sur +malsekaj malagrablaj stratoj. Pluvas pli multe en aprilo, tamen post +la pluvo la herbo sxajnas pli verda, kaj la nuboj baldaux forflugas de +la blua cxielo. Dum majo oni trovas violojn, kaj en junio oni vidas +tre multajn rozojn. Sed la plej agrabla el la sezonoj estas la somero. +Anstataux malvarmaj ventoj la somero havas la plej belan veteron, kun +suda aux okcidenta ventoj. La longaj tagoj estas varmaj, sed la noktoj +estas tute agrablaj. Tiam oni havas pli bonajn fruktojn ol dum la +printempo. La monatoj de la somero estas junio, julio kaj auxgusto. Mi +plej sxatas junion. Cxu vi sxatas gxin pli multe ol mi? Cxu vi sxatas +auxguston pli multe ol julion? + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. I read a most interesting book about Frederick the Great. 2. It +relates that he often stayed-awake and read with great interest during +the later hours of the night. 3. His youngest servant was a small boy. +4. The king loved this boy more than [he loved] the older servants. 5. +The winter is a less pleasant season than the spring, but the summer is +more pleasant than that [season]. 6. During March the east winds blow +most strongly, and shake the trees very much. 7. In April one needs his +umbrella, for (the reason that) there are often clouds in the sky and +it rains a great deal (very much). 8. The streets are very wet, but the +water does not seem to wash them. 9. In May one begins to find sweet +violets, and the birds in the trees above our heads sing very sweetly. +10. In June the most beautiful roses are seen (54). 11. July and August +are the warmest months of the whole year. 12. The days are longer than +the nights, and the weathercock shows west and south winds, instead of +those disagreeable north and east winds. 13. One stays outside [of] the +house then with greater pleasure, and goes walking in the parks. 14. +I think that I like the summer better than you [do]. 15. Therefore I +praise the summer more than you [do]. 16. However, I praise you more +than [I praise] your younger brother. 17. He is less wise than you. + + + + LESSON XIX. + + + "JU" AND "DES" IN COMPARISONS. + +84. In clauses expressing a comparison between two objects, acts or +states, the adverbial use of English "the ... the ..." (meaning "by how +much ... by that much ...") is rendered by the adverbs "ju" and "des", +respectively: + + + Ju pli bona li estas, des pli felicxa li estos, + the better he is, the happier he will be. + Ju pli ofte mi rigardas, des pli mi volas rigardi, + the oftener I look, the more I wish to look. + Ju pli bele la luno brilas, des pli oni sxatas la nokton, + the more beautifully the moon shines, the more one likes the night. + Ju malpli pluvas, des pli la floroj velkas, + the less it rains, the more the flowers wither. + Ju malpli multe vi helpas, des malpli multe mi lauxdos vin, + the less you help, the less I shall praise you. + Cxar vi helpis, mi des pli multe lauxdos vin, + because you helped, I shall praise you the (that much) more. + +[Footnote: Cf. Shakespeare, As You Like It, V, II, 49, "By so much the +more shall I tomorrow be at the height of heart-heaviness, by how much I +shall think my brother happy in having what he wishes for."] + + + THE PREPOSITION "INTER". + +85. In English, the preposition "between" is used in reference to two +persons or things, and "among" in reference to three or more. As the +difference in meaning is not essential, Esperanto has but the one +preposition inter to express both "between" and "among": + + Li sidas inter vi kaj mi, he is sitting between you and me. + Li sidas inter siaj amikoj, he is sitting among his friends. + La monato majo estas inter aprilo kaj junio, + the month of May is between April and June. + Inter tiuj libroj estas tre interesa libro, + among those books there is a very interesting book. + + + THE PREPOSITION "PRO". + +86. Cause or reason may be expressed not only by an adverb (78) or a +clause (83), but also by use of the preposition "pro", because of, on +account of, for the sake of, for. It directs the thought away from the +complement toward the action, feeling or state caused by it, or done in +its interest or behalf: + + La floroj velkas pro la seka vetero, + the flowers wilt because of the dry weather. + Mi skribis la leteron pro vi, + I wrote the letter for you (for your sake). + Pro tiuj nuboj mi timas ke pluvos, + on account of those clouds I fear that it will rain. + Oni sxatas cxerizojn pro la dolcxa gusto, + people like cherries because of the sweet taste. + + + PREPOSITIONS WITH ADVERBS AND OTHER PREPOSITIONS. + +87. Prepositions may be used with adverbs or with prepositional phrases +when the meaning permits: + + La kato kuris el sub la tablo, the cat ran out-from under the table. + Li venos el tie, he will come out of there. + De nun li estos zorga, from now he will be careful. + Li staris dekstre de la vojo, he stood on the right of the road. + Mi iros for de cxi tie, I shall go away from here. + + + VOCABULARY + + auxtuno = autumn, fall. negxo = snow. + decembro = December. novembro = November. + des = (see 84). nuda = bare, naked. + februaro = February. oktobro = October. + glacio = ice. pro = because of (86). + inter = between, among (85). rikolti = to harvest. + januaro = January. rivero = river. + ju = (see 84). septembro = September. + kovri = to cover. tero = ground, earth. + + + LA AUXTUNO KAJ LA VINTRO. + +La sezonoj de la jaro estas la vintro, la printempo, la somero, kaj la +auxtuno. La auxtuno estas inter la somero kaj la vintro. Gxiaj monatoj +estas septembro, oktobro kaj novembro. En septembro oni povas kolekti +maturajn fruktojn. Tiam ankaux oni rikoltas la flavan grenon de la +kampoj. Dum cxi tiu monato kaj dum oktobro la folioj sur la brancxoj +komencas esti rugxaj kaj flavaj, anstataux verdaj. La herbo velkas, kaj +bruna tapisxo sxajnas kovri la teron. Baldaux la folioj falas al la +tero, kaj en novembro la arboj estas tute nudaj. Pli aux malpli frue +negxas. La glacio ofte kovras la akvon en la riveroj, kaj restas sur la +stratoj kaj la vojoj. La mola blanka negxo kovras la teron, kaj kusxas +sur la brancxoj de la arboj. Tiam, pro la fortaj ventoj, gxi falas de +la brancxoj al la tero. La birdoj frue lasas tian veteron, kaj flugas +de cxi tie al pli sudaj kampoj kaj arboj. Ili ne povas resti, pro la +malvarmaj tagoj kaj noktoj. Ili malsxatas la negxon kaj la glacion pli +multe ol ni. Ju pli multe negxas; des pli malofte ni volas promeni. Ni +preferas resti en la domo, anstataux ekster gxi. Ju pli ni rigardas la +nudajn brancxojn de la arboj, des pli malagrabla sxajnas la vintro. +Tamen la junaj infanoj tre sxatas tian veteron, kaj ju pli negxas, kaj +ju pli forte la norda vento blovas, des malpli ili estas kontentaj en +la domo. Ili volas kuri sur la negxo, cxirkaux la arboj kaj inter ili, +kun siaj junaj amikoj. Ili povas bone amuzi sin per la negxo. La monatoj +de la vintro estas decembro, januaro kaj februaro. Gxi estas la plej +malvarma sezono. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. September, October and November are the months of autumn. 2. In these +months, people harvest the yellow grain and gather various fruits. 3. +The leaves on the trees around us begin to have red and yellow colors. +4. They begin to fall from the branches and lie upon the ground. 5. The +more strongly the cold north wind blows through the branches, the sooner +the leaves fall from there. 6. They lie under the bare trees, with the +brown grass. 7. The sooner it snows, the sooner the ground will seem +to have a white carpet. 8. The snow will completely ("tute") cover the +grass during the months of the winter. 9. These months are December, +January and February. 10. From that time ("de tiam") the ice and snow +will cover the roads, and altogether ("tute") hide them. 11. There will +often be ice on the water of the river. 12. We like this season of the +year more than March, April and May. 13. We like it even more than the +summer. 14. The months of the latter (62) are June, July and August. 15. +The summer is the warmest season of the entire year. 16. Therefore we +often say that the summer is the pleasantest season. 17. Because of its +many pleasures, the summer is dear to me. 18. It is between the spring +and the autumn. + + + + LESSON XX. + + + THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADVERB OF MANNER AND DEGREE. + +88. The demonstrative adverb of manner and degree, related to the +demonstrative pronoun "tiu", is "tiel", in that (this) manner, in +such a way, thus, so. Like English "thus," "so," "tiel" may modify +adjectives and other adverbs, by indicating degree: + + Cxu oni tiel helpas amikon? + Does one help a friend in that (this) way? + Mi gxin skribis tiel, I wrote it thus (in such a way). + La vetero estas tiel bela, the weather is so beautiful. + Tiel mallonge li parolis, thus briefly he spoke. + Mi trovis tiel belan floron, I found such a beautiful flower. + Li prenis tiel multe, he took that much (so much). + + + PREPOSITIONS EXPRESSING TIME-RELATIONS. + +89. The relations which prepositions express may be of various kinds. +As in English, a certain number of prepositions primarily expressing +place may also express time-relations. Such prepositions are "antaux", +"cxirkaux", "de", "en", "gxis", "inter", "post", and "je" (whose use in +other than time-relations will be explained later): + + Mi foriros cxirkaux junio, I shall depart about June. + De tiu horo mi estis via amiko, from that hour I was your friend. + Li ne parolis al mi de tiu semajno, + he did not speak to me since from) that week. + En la tuta monato ne negxis, + it did not snow in (at any time within) the entire month. + Mi dormis gxis malfrua horo, I slept until (up to) a late hour. + Gxis nun li ne vidis vin, until now he did not see you. + Inter marto kaj junio mi iros tien, + between March and June I shall go there. + Je malfrua horo li foriris, at a late hour he went away. + Mi iros tien je dimancxo, I shall go there on Sunday. + Je tiu horo li vokis min, at that hour he called me. + Sxi ne restis tie post julio, she did not stay there after July. + Post ne longe mi vokos vin, + soon (after not long) I shall call you. + +90. When a definite date or point in time is expressed, "antaux" means +"before." When used with an expression of an "amount" of time, it is +to be translated by "ago" following the expression (not by "before" +preceding it): + + Antaux dimancxo mi foriros, before Sunday I shall go away. + Mi vidis lin antaux tiu horo, I saw him before that hour. + Li skribos gxin antaux la nova jaro, + he will write it before New Year. + Antaux multaj jaroj mi trovis gxin, many years ago I found it. + Mi rompis gxin antaux longa tempo, I broke it a long time ago. + Antaux tre longe vi legis tiun libron, + you read that book very long ago. + Li venis antaux ne longe, he came recently (not long ago). + Antaux malmultaj jaroj li forkuris, a few years ago he escaped. + +[Footnote: As already shown, "kun" expresses accompaniment, "per" +expresses instrumentality, "pro" expresses cause, "kontraux" expresses +opposition, "anstataux" expresses substitution, "sur", "apud", "sub", +etc., express place, "dum" expresses time, etc.] + + + VOCABULARY + + dimancxo = Sunday. mateno = morning. + energia = energetic. promeno = walk, promenade. + frosto = frost. rakonto = story, narrative. + je = at, on (89). ripozi = to rest, to repose. + kota = muddy. semajno = week. + labori = to work, to labor. tempo = time. + laca = tired, weary. tiel = thus, so (88) + lundo = Monday. tro = too, too much. + mardo = Tuesday. vespero = evening. + + + EN SEPTEMBRO. + +Antaux multaj jaroj ni preferis resti en nia malgranda domo trans la +rivero, dum la tuta auxtuno. Sed nun ni restas tie nur gxis oktobro. +De auxgusto gxis oktobro la vetero estas tre agrabla tie, sed baldaux +post tiu monato la fortaj ventoj blovas, kaj la folioj komencas fali. La +frosto kovras la teron, kaj baldaux negxas tre ofte. Ju pli nudaj estas +la arboj, des pli malbelaj ili sxajnas. La vetero antaux novembro ne +estas tro malvarma, sed post tiu monato ni opinias ke la urbo estas pli +agrabla ol domo inter kampoj kaj arboj, trans largxa rivero. La frosto, +negxo kaj glacio kovras la teron en decembro, januaro kaj februaro. Sed +la monato septembro sxajnas tre agrabla, pro siaj multaj plezuroj. La +viroj laboras energie en la kampoj, de la mateno gxis la vespero. Ili +rikoltas la flavan grenon, kaj kolektas la fruktojn. Sed je dimancxo oni +ne laboras tiel energie, sed dormas gxis malfrua horo, tial ke je tiu +tago oni ripozas. Je lundo oni komencas labori tre frue, kaj je mardo +oni ankaux laboras energie. En septembro la vojoj ne estas tro kotaj, +kaj longaj promenoj estas ofte agrablaj. Ju pli ofte mi promenas kun +miaj amikoj, des pli multe mi sxatas tiajn promenojn. Sed hieraux mi +estis tre laca post la promeno, tial mi ripozis sur granda mola segxo. +Antaux ne longe la patro promenis kun mi, sed ni ne estis tiel lacaj je +tiu tago. Sxajnas ke ju pli ofte ni promenas, des malpli lacaj ni estas +post la promenoj. Post ne longe mi estos pli forta. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Many years ago we had a small house across the river. 2. We did not +remain there during the entire year, but only in the warmer months of +the summer. 3. Often we stayed until September or even until October. 4. +My younger brothers and sisters amused themselves very well there from +(the) morning until (the) evening. 5. They amused themselves among the +flowers and trees, or went from there into the large fields. 6. Here the +men work energetically, and harvest the ripe yellow grain. 7. Only on +Sunday do they rest, because on that day one does not work. 8. Between +August and November the men work more than in the winter. 9. In December +and after that month they rest, for (83) from that time the frost, ice +and snow cover the ground. 10. Because of the snow on the ground, long +walks are not pleasant in the winter. 11. Recently (90) we went walking +in the park across the river, but we were so tired after that walk! 12. +The longer the walk is, the sooner one wishes to rest. 13. On Monday it +rained, so (78) we read stories and wrote letters, in a pleasant light +room in our house. 14. Before evening, however, the sun shone, and the +streets were not so muddy. 15. On Tuesday these streets were almost dry, +and soon the roads near the river and between the fields will also be +dry. 16. A few years ago those roads were very good. + + + + LESSON XXI. + + + THE ACCUSATIVE OF TIME. + +91. Duration of time and a date or point in time may be expressed +not only by use of the prepositions "dum", during, and "je", at, on, +but also (as in English) without the use of any preposition. When no +preposition is used, the word or words indicating time are put in the +accusative case: + + Li restis tie la tutan semajnon (dum la tuta semajno), + he stayed there the whole week (during the whole week). + Sxi estis felicxa longan tempon (dum longa tempo), + she was happy a long time (during a long time; for a long time). + Ni rajdos tagon kaj nokton (dum tago kaj nokto), + we shall ride a day and a night (during a day and a night; + for a day and a night). + Mi venis dimancxon (je dimancxo), I came Sunday (on Sunday). + Tiun horon (je tiu horo), li forkuris, + that hour (at that hour) he escaped. + +92. Although generally preferable, an accusative construction must +be carefully placed, or avoided altogether, if confusion with other +accusatives (expressing direction of motion, direct object, etc.) might +result: + + Mi volas iri Bostonon je lundo, I wish to go to Boston on Monday. + Mi volas iri al Bostono lundon, I wish to go to Boston Monday. + Lundon mi volas iri Bostonon, Monday I wish to go to Boston. + + + ADVERBS AND THE ACCUSATIVE OF TIME. + +93. An accusative of time, as well as a temporal adverb, may further +define or be defined by another expression of time: + + Li venis longan tempon antaux tiu horo, + he came a long time before that hour. + Jaron post jaro ili restis tie, + year after year they stayed there. + hodiaux matene, this morning. + hodiaux vespere, this evening. + hodiaux nokte, tonight. + hieraux vespere, last evening. + hieraux nokte, last night. + dimancxon matene, Sunday morning. + lundon vespere, Monday evening. + mardon nokte, Tuesday night. + +94. An accusative of time does not necessarily imply that the act or +state mentioned occurs oftener than the instance cited. An adverb from +the same root usually gives an idea of frequency or repetition: + + Li iros al ilia domo dimancxon, he will go to their house Sunday. + Li iras al ilia domo dimancxe, he goes to their house Sundays. + Li laboris tagon kaj nokton, he worked a day and a night. + Li laboras tage kaj nokte, + he works day and night (by day and by night). + + + THE PREPOSITION "POR". + +95. The object or purpose with reference to which an act is performed +or a condition exists is expressed by the preposition "por", for. It +directs the thought toward its complement, contrasting thus with "pro" +(86): + + Mi havas libron por vi, I have a book for you. + Mi ne havas la tempon por tiel longa promeno, + I have not the time for so long a (such a long) walk. + Ili faris gxin por via plezuro, they did it for your pleasure. + + + VOCABULARY + + brila = brilliant. merkredo = Wednesday. + Dio = God. mezo = middle. + dividi = to divide. mondo = world. + fari = to make. paci = to be at peace. + forgesi = to forget. por = for (95). + gxojo = joy. plori = to weep. + konstanta = constant. preta = ready. + kvieta = quiet, calm. ridi = to laugh. + lando = land, country. riprocxi = to reproach. + + + LA SEZONOJ KAJ LA MONDO. + +Antaux tre longa tempo Dio faris la mondon. Li vidis ke la floroj +havas belajn kolorojn, ke la arboj estas altaj kaj verdaj. Tiam li +vokis la sezonojn kaj diris "Belan mondon mi faris por vi. Cxu vi +gardos gxin tage kaj nokte, kaj estos tre zorgaj pri gxi?" La sezonoj +respondis "Jes," kaj ridis pro gxojo. Mallongan tempon ili sxajnis +esti tre felicxaj inter la arboj kaj floroj de la nova mondo. Sed ne +multajn semajnojn ili tiel zorge gardis la mondon. Ili komencis malpaci +("quarrel") inter si, de la mateno gxis la vespero, kaj ofte forgesis +la arbojn kaj florojn. Ju pli ili malpacis, des malpli zorge ili gardis +la mondon. La malkonstanta printempo ne sxatis la kvietan vintron, kaj +ploris pri la malvarma negxo. La varma brila somero diris ke la auxtuno +estas tro malbrila. La laca auxtuno volis ripozi, kaj riprocxis la +malkonstantan printempon pri cxi ties kota vetero. Pli kaj pli multe ili +malpacis, kaj post ne longe ili tute ne restis amikoj. Tiam la auxtuno +diris "Mi ne povas pli longan tempon labori kun vi pro la mondo. Niaj +gustoj estas tro diversaj. Tial hodiaux matene ni dividos la mondon +inter ni." La vintro respondis "Bone! Mi estas preta," kaj la somero kaj +la printempo ridis pro gxojo. Tiun tagon ili dividis la mondon inter si. +La vintro konstruis sian domon en la plej nordaj kaj sudaj landoj. Tie +la frosto, negxo kaj glacio kovras la tutan landon, dum la tuta jaro. La +brila energia somero prenis por si la mezon de la mondo. Tial la vetero +tie estas plej varma kaj brila. La auxtuno kaj la printempo prenis por +si la landojn inter la vintro kaj la somero. Tial la vetero estas nek +tro varma nek tro malvarma en cxi tiuj landoj. Tiam la sezonoj rakontis +al Dio ke ili tiel dividis la mondon inter si. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Tuesday my brother heard an interesting story, and Wednesday evening +after a pleasant walk he related it to me. 2. The story is, that many +years ago God made the beautiful new world, and gave it to the seasons. +3. They laughed for joy, and said that they would guard it well. 4. +They were ready for pleasure, and also were willing ("volis") to work +energetically for-the-sake-of the new young world. 5. Almost a year +they were happy, but these seasons were too diverse, and could not long +remain friends. 6. The brilliant summer wept and reproached the tired +autumn. 7. The autumn preferred to rest, and disliked the muddy weather +of the inconstant spring. 8. The quiet winter concealed itself beneath +the frost and soft white snow, and wished to sleep. 9. The longer they +kept the world among them, the more they quarreled. 10. Soon the autumn +made the proposition, "We will divide the world." 11. Immediately that +morning the seasons divided the world among themselves. 12. The northern +and southern lands now belong to the winter, and the middle of the world +belongs to the summer. 13. The spring and autumn took for themselves +those lands between the winter and summer. + + + + LESSON XXII. + + + CLAUSES EXPRESSING DURATION OF TIME. + +96. The time during which an act takes place or a condition exists may +be expressed not only by an adverb or accusative of time (91), or by use +of the preposition "dum", but also by a clause introduced by "dum": + + Li venis dum vi forestis, + he came while (during-the-time-that) you were away. + Dum la sezonoj malpacis, ili forgesis pri la mondo, + while the seasons quarreled, they forgot about the world. + Ni ridas pro gxojo dum negxas, + we laugh for joy while it is snowing. + + + CLAUSES EXPRESSING ANTICIPATION. + +97. A clause expressing an action or condition as preceding or +anticipating that of the main verb is introduced by "antaux ol": + + Mi foriros antaux ol vi venos, I shall depart before you (will) come. + Antaux ol vi riprocxis lin, li ne ploris, + before you reproached him, he did not weep. + Vi ploris antaux ol vi ridis, + you wept before (sooner than) you laughed. + + + THE INFINITIVE WITH "ANSTATAUX", "POR", "ANTAUX OL". + +98. An infinitive may be substantively used with "anstataux" to express +substitution, with "por" to express purpose (Cf. Old English "But what +went ye out for to see," Matt. xi, 8), and with "antaux ol" to express +anticipation. It is usually translated by the English infinitive in +"-ing": + + Anstataux resti li foriris, instead of staying he went away. + Vi malhelpas anstataux helpi min, you hinder instead of helping me. + Ni venis por helpi vin, we came to help (in order to help) you. + Mi estas preta por iri merkredon, + I am ready to go (for going) Wednesday. + Li havos tro multe por fari, he will have too much to do. + Mi laboros antaux ol ripozi, I shall work before resting. + Antaux ol foriri, li dankis min, before going away, he thanked me. + Dio faris la mondon antaux ol doni gxin al la sezonoj, + God made the world before giving it to the seasons. + +[Footnote: "Substantive" is the general name for nouns and pronouns, +that is, for words which indicate persons, things, etc., and may be used +as subject or object of a verb, complement of a preposition, etc.] + +[Footnote: The infinitive may be used with "antaux ol" if its subject +is the same as the subject of the main verb. Otherwise the construction +explained in (97) must be used.] + + + THE EXPRESSION OF A PART OF THE WHOLE. + +99. After nouns indicating a quantity or portion of some indefinite +whole, the substantive expressing that indefinite whole is preceded by +the preposition "da", of: + + Estas skatolo da cxerizoj tie, there is a box of cherries there. + Mi trovis grandan sakon da mono, I found a large bag of money. + Li havas teleron da viando, he has a plate of meat. + Post horoj da gxojo ofte venas horoj da malgxojo, + after hours of joy there often come hours of sorrow. + +100. The preposition "da" must not be used if a quantity or portion of a +"definite" or "limited" whole is expressed. If the word indicating the +whole is limited by "la", it is thereby made definite: + + Telero de la maturaj pomoj, a plate of the ripe apples. + Sako de la bona kafo, a sack of the good coffee. + + + VOCABULARY + + Aleksandro = Alexander. koni = to be acquainted with. + barelo = barrel. lauxta = loud. + bruo = noise. lito = bed. + da = of (99). logxi = to dwell, to reside. + demandi = to inquire, to ask. nombro = number (quantity). + Diogeno = Diogenes. pura = clean. + greka = Greek. suficxa = sufficient, enough. + kelkaj = several, some. veki = to wake. + kvankam = although. viziti = to visit. + cxifono = rag. vesto = garment, clothes. + + + DIOGENO KAJ ALEKSANDRO GRANDA. + +Antaux multaj jaroj sagxa greka viro, Diogeno, logxis en granda urbo. Li +opiniis ke ju pli malmulte oni bezonas, des pli felicxa oni estas. Por +montri al la mondo ke li ne bezonas multe, kaj ke tial li havas suficxe +por esti felicxa, li logxis en granda malnova barelo, anstataux havi +domon. Anstataux kusxi nokte sur lito aux almenaux sur mola tapisxo, li +ecx dormis en tiu barelo. Oni multe parolis pri Diogeno en la urbo, ne +nur cxar li tiel logxis, sed ankaux pro liaj sagxaj diroj. Post kelke +da tempo ("some time") la regxo Aleksandro Granda venis tien por viziti +la urbon. Dum li estis tie li auxdis pri Diogeno, kaj demandis pri li. +"Cxu li logxas en la urbo?" Aleksandro diris. "Kvankam vi ne konas lin, +mi opinias ke mi volas vidi tian viron." Oni respondis "Diogeno estas +sagxa viro, sed anstataux logxi en domo, li preferas sidi la tutan +tempon en malnova barelo. Anstataux porti ("wearing") purajn vestojn, li +portas nur malpurajn cxifonojn, cxar li opinias ke ju pli malmulte li +bezonas, des pli felicxa li estos." Aleksandro diris "Antaux ol foriri +de via lando mi vizitos tiun viron." Antaux ol li foriris de la urbo, +Aleksandro iris kun nombro da amikoj por viziti Diogenon, kaj trovis lin +en lia barelo. "Cxu tiu viro volas paroli al mi?" demandis Diogeno per +lauxta vocxo. Aleksandro Granda respondis "Mi estas la regxo Aleksandro, +kaj mi volas koni vin. Mi vidas ke kvankam vi estas sagxa vi estas tre +malricxa. Cxu vi ne volas kelkajn novajn vestojn anstataux tiuj malpuraj +cxifonoj?" Diogeno tuj diris "Antaux ol vi venis kaj staris inter mi kaj +la suno, cxi tiu tre varme brilis sur min. Cxu vi venis por fari bruon +kaj por veki min?" Aleksandro ridis kaj diris "Mi vidas ke vi havas +suficxe por esti felicxa. Tial mi estas preta por foriri." + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Diogenes was a wise man who dwelt in a Greek city, many years ago. 2. +In order to show to the inconstant world that one does not need much in +order to be happy, he did not have even a house or a bed. 3. He stayed +day and night in a big barrel, instead of residing in a house. 4. He +preferred to wear old rags, instead of good clean clothes. 5. He said +"The less one needs, the happier he will be." 6. While Alexander the +Great was visiting that city, people talked to him about Diogenes. 7. +They asked "Are you acquainted-with that wise man?" 8. Soon the king +went with a number of his friends to that-man's big barrel, in the +middle of the city. 9. Diogenes was asleep, but the noise of the loud +voices waked him, and he said angrily "You are standing between me and +the sun! Will you not go away at once?" 10. Although several of the men +laughed, Alexander said "We did not come to quarrel with you. 11. I see +that you have enough to be happy, so instead of talking and making a +noise we shall leave (go away from) you at once." 12. Before Diogenes +could answer, Alexander had quietly walked away. + + + + LESSON XXIII. + + + ADVERBS EXPRESSING A PART OF THE WHOLE. + +101. After adverbs used to indicate a quantity or portion of some +indefinite whole, as well as after nouns of such meaning (99), the +substantive expressing the indefinite whole is preceded by the +preposition "da": + + Multe da bruo, much (a quantity of) noise. + Tiel malmulte da tempo, so little (such a small quantity of) time. + Kelke da pomoj, some (an indefinite number of) apples. + +102. Verbs may be modified by an adverb and prepositional phrase +containing "da": + + Li trinkis malmulte da akvo, he drank little (not much) water. + Estas multe da sablo en la dezerto, there is much sand in the desert. + Ju pli negxas, des pli multe da negxo kusxas sur la vojoj, + the more it snows, the more snow lies on the roads. + +[Footnote: A prepositional phrase containing "da", whether following a +noun or an adverb, is sometimes called a "partitive" construction.] + +103. It is evident from the above examples that an adverb followed +by "da" has a somewhat collective sense, indicating a general sum, +mass, or portion of the whole, without distinction of particulars. +An "adjective" of quantitative meaning, on the other hand, usually +indicates consideration of the individuals composing the sum or mass +named: + + En urbo oni havas multe da bruo, in a city one has much noise. + Ni auxdis multajn bruojn, we heard many (different) noises. + Tie oni havas multe da plezuro, there one has much pleasure. + Oni havas multajn plezurojn tie, + people have many (different) pleasures there. + + + THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADVERB OF QUANTITY. + +104. The demonstrative adverb of quantity related to the demonstrative +pronoun "tiu" is "tiom", that (this) much, that many, that quantity, so +much, etc.:-- + + Mi donis tiom da mono al vi, + I gave that much (that amount of) money to you. + Mi acxetis tiom da viando, I bought that much meat. + Tiom de la libroj mi legis, that many of the books I read. + + RESULT CLAUSES. + +105. A clause of result (also called a consecutive clause) expresses an +action or condition as due to, or resulting from, something indicated +in the main sentence, as "he is so strong that he can do it," "I had so +much pleasure that I laughed heartily." In Esperanto a result clause is +introduced by "ke", preceded (directly or in the main sentence) by an +adverb or adjective of manner, degree, or quantity: + + Diogeno estis tiel sagxa greka viro ke Aleksandro lauxdis lin, + Diogenes was such a wise Greek man that Alexander praised him. + Mi havis tiom da plezuro ke mi tre ridis, + I had so much pleasure that I laughed very much. + Gxi estas tia vilagxo ke mi sxatas logxi tie, + it is such (that sort of) a village that I like to live there. + + + VOCABULARY + + acxeti = to buy. kontuzo = bruise. + asparago = asparagus. lakto = milk. + brasiko = cabbage. legomo = vegetable. + butiko = store, shop. ovo = egg. + frago = strawberry. pizo = pea. + funto = pound. sabato = Saturday. + glaso = glass, tumbler. tiom = that much (104). + jxauxdo = Thursday. vendredo = Friday. + kremo = cream. vilagxo = village. + + + EN LA BUTIKO. + +Hodiaux matene mi iris kun la patrino al la plej granda butiko en nia +vilagxo. Tie sxi acxetis tiom da legomoj kaj fruktoj ke ni tute ne povis +porti ilin. Tial juna knabo venis kun ni, kaj portis kelke da ili por +ni. La patrino ne acxetis tiel multe je vendredo, sed hodiaux estas +sabato, kaj sxi volis acxeti legomojn por dimancxo, cxar dimancxe oni +ne povas iri en la butikojn. Tial sabate oni kutime acxetas suficxe +por la mangxoj de sabato kaj dimancxo. Meze de la butiko staras multe +da bareloj. En cxi tiuj oni trovas grandan nombron da fresxaj puraj +legomoj. La patrino acxetis tiel multe da asparago kaj novaj pizoj, kaj +tiel grandan sakon da terpomoj, ke la tablo restis preskaux nuda. Mi +vidis brasikon tie, sed tiun legomon mi malsxatas, kvankam oni diras +ke gxi estas tre bona legomo. Antaux ol foriri de la butiko la patrino +acxetis kelke da ovoj, kaj rigardis la fruktojn en bareloj apud la +pordo. Ili sxajnis tiel bonaj ke sxi acxetis kelkajn maturajn pomojn +kaj skatolon da fragoj. Dum oni donis al sxi la fruktojn, mi acxetis +kelkajn funtojn da sukero. Tiam ni estis pretaj por foriri el la butiko. +Sur la vojo ni auxdis tiel grandan bruon ke mi lasis la patrinon kaj +kuris trans la straton. Mi trovis tie infanon,la filon de nia najbaro. +Li faris la bruon, cxar li falis de la arbo antaux sia domo, kaj tre +lauxte ploris. Li diris al mi ke li havas multajn kontuzojn sur la kapo. +Cxar mi bone konas la infanon, mi demandis "Cxu vi volas grandan rugxan +pomon? Mi havas tian pomon por vi." Li tuj kaptis la pomon, kaj mi +foriris. Tiam la patrino kaj mi iris al la domo. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. I shall go to the village today with my younger sister. 2. We wish +to buy some eggs, vegetables and fruit for Mother. 3. Mother prefers to +remain in the house, because it is raining. 4. It rained on Thursday and +Friday, but today it is not raining very much. 5. The air is warm and +pleasant, and we shall carry umbrellas with us. 6. We shall buy some +new peas, a box of strawberries and several pounds of sugar. 7. Thus +we shall have enough for the meals of Saturday and Sunday. 8. I wonder +whether we shall see such asparagus and such cabbage on the tables or in +the barrels. 9. Although I do not often eat such vegetables, Father and +Mother are very fond of ("multe sxatas") both cabbage and asparagus. 10. +We shall also buy enough milk for several glasses of milk, and we shall +need much cream for the strawberries. 11. It seems that we shall buy +such a number of vegetables that we cannot carry them. 12. While we were +standing near the door, ready to go toward the village (46), we heard a +loud voice. 13. A child was standing in the street, and crying. 14. He +wished to go with his mother to visit some friends. 15. I suppose that a +noise on the street waked him, and he did not wish to remain in his bed. + + + + LESSON XXIV. + + + THE INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN. + +106. The interrogative pronoun (and pronominal adjective) is "kiu", +who, which. Since the use of this pronoun indicates a question, the +sentence containing it does not need the interrogative adverb "cxu" +(30): + + + Kiu vokas vin? Who calls you? + Kiun vi vokas? Whom do you call? + Kiuj el vi vokis nin? Which (ones) of you called us? + Kiujn li helpis? Whom (which ones) did he help? + Kiun tagon vi venos? What day will you come? + Kiujn legomojn vi preferas? What vegetables do you prefer? + Mi miras kiun libron vi acxetis? I wonder which book you bought? + +107. The interrogative pronoun "kiu" has a possessive or genitive form +"kies", whose: + + En kies domo vi logxas? In whose house do you reside? + Kies amikojn vi vizitis? Whose friends did you visit? + + + THE PRESENT ACTIVE PARTICIPLE. + +108. A participle is a "verbal adjective", as in "a "crying" child." +It agrees like other adjectives with the word modified (19, 24). The +participle from a transitive verb (22) may take a direct object, and a +participle expressing motion may be followed by an accusative indicating +direction of motion (46). The present active participle, expressing what +the word modified "is doing", ends in "-anta," as "vidanta", seeing, +"iranta", going: + + La ploranta infano volas dormi. The crying child wishes to sleep. + Mi vidas la falantajn foliojn, I see the falling leaves. + Kiu estas la virino acxetanta ovojn? Who is the woman buying eggs? + Mi parolis al la viroj irantaj vilagxon. + I talked to the men (who were) going toward the village. + + + COMPOUND TENSES. + +109. A participle may be used predicatively with a form of "esti", as +"Mi estas demandanta", I am asking, "La viro estas acxetanta", the man +is buying. Such combinations are called "compound tenses", in contrast +to the "simple" or "aoristic" tenses. + +[Footnote: An aoristic tense consists of but one word (ending in +"-as", "-os", etc.) and expresses an act or state as a whole, without +specifying whether it is finished, still in progress, or yet begun.] + +Compound tenses occur less often in Esperanto than in English, and an +aoristic Esperanto tense may often be translated by an English compound +tense, as "La birdoj flugas", the birds are flying. When used to +form a compound tense, the verb "esti" is called the "auxiliary verb". +No other verb is ever used as an auxiliary (a simpler method than in +English, which uses "be", "have", "do", "will", "shall", "would", etc.). + + + THE PROGRESSIVE PRESENT TENSE. + +110. The compound tense formed by using the present active participle +with the present tense of "esti" is called the "progressive present +tense". It differs from the aoristic present by expressing an action +as definitely in progress, or a condition as continuously existing, at +the moment of speaking. The conjugation of "vidi" in this tense is as +follows: + + mi estas vidanta, I am seeing. + vi estas vidanta, you are seeing. + li (sxi, gxi) estas vidanta, he (she, it) is seeing. + ni estas vidantaj, we are seeing. + vi estas vidantaj, you (plural) are seeing. + ili estas vidantaj, they are seeing. + + + THE SUFFIX "-EJ-". + +111. Words expressing the place where the action indicated by the root +occurs, or where the object indicated by the root may be found, are +formed by inserting the suffix "-ej-" before the noun-ending: + + cxevalejo, stable (from "cxevalo", horse). + dormejo, dormitory (from "dormi", to sleep). + herbejo, meadow (from "herbo", grass). + logxejo, lodging-place, dwelling (from "logxi", to dwell, to lodge). + +[Footnote: Similar formations are made in English with the suffix "-y", +as "bakery", "bindery", "grocery", etc. This suffix is equivalent to the +"-ei" in German "Baeckerei", bakery, "Druckerei", printing-office, etc., +and to the "-ie" in French "patisserie", pastry-shop, "imprimerie", +printing-shop, etc.] + + + VOCABULARY + + alia = other, another. kuiri = to cook. + baki = to bake. kurteno = curtain. + dika = thick. kutimo = custom. + facila = easy. leciono = lesson. + familio = family. lerni = to learn. + kanapo = sofa. pano = bread. + kies = whose (107). persono = person. + kiu = who (106). salono = parlor. + + + EN NIA DOMO. + +Oni ofte miras kies domo en nia vilagxo estas plej bela, kaj kiu domo +estas la plej agrabla logxejo. Nia domo ne estas tre granda, sed gxi +estas nova kaj ni multe sxatas gxin. Gxia salono estas granda, kun belaj +puraj kurtenoj kovrantaj la fenestrojn, kaj mola dika tapisxo kovranta +la plankon. Cxi tie estas kelkaj segxoj, malgranda tablo, kaj longa +kanapo. Personoj vizitantaj nin kutime sidas en cxi tiu cxambro, kaj +dum ni estas sidantaj tie ni nur parolas, anstataux skribi aux legi. +Alia cxambro en la domo estas tre luma kaj agrabla, sed malpli granda. +Cxi tie staras tablo suficxe granda por nia tuta familio, kaj en tiu +cxambro oni mangxas. Ofte ni restas tie longan tempon post la mangxo, +cxar la patro rakontas interesajn rakontojn al ni, kaj ni multe ridas, +kaj demandas pri tiuj rakontoj, kaj tiel bone amuzas nin ke mi preskaux +forgesas pri miaj lecionoj. Tamen mi havas multe da lecionoj por lerni, +kaj ili tute ne estas facilaj. Je tre frua horo matene mi iras al la +lernejo, kun miaj fratoj kaj fratinoj. Nur sabate kaj dimancxe ni ne +iras tien. La lernejo estas malnova kaj malgranda, sed oni estas nun +konstruanta novan pli grandan lernejon apud nia domo. Dum la infanoj +estas lernantaj siajn lecionojn tie, la patrino kutime iras al la +bakejon, por acxeti suficxe da pano, por la mangxoj de la tago. Ofte +sxi iras ankaux al aliaj butikoj. Jxauxdon sxi acxetis kelke da novaj +pizoj, kaj da asparago. Vendredon sxi acxetis kelkajn funtojn da sukero, +skatolon da fragoj, kaj suficxe da kremo kaj lakto. Hodiaux sxi estas +acxetanta brasikon kaj sakon da terpomoj. Sxi volas kuiri tre bonan +mangxon, tamen sxi havas tro multe por fari en la kuirejo, cxar sxi ne +havas servistinon. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Who is the woman sitting on the sofa in the parlor? 2. I can not +easily see her, but I hear her voice. 3. I wonder whose voice that is. +4. However, I think that it is the voice of a friend of Mother's. 5. Now +I can see her, although she does not see me. 6. I am well acquainted +with her. 7. She is a friend of our whole family, and is visiting a +neighbor of ours ("najbaron nian") in this city. 8. My sister is sitting +on the sofa in another room, and learning her lessons. 9. Soon she +will go to school. 10. Whose book is she reading? 11. That thick book +is mine, but the other books on the table near her are hers. 12. She +prefers to sit in the sewing-room (111) to read or write (98), because +the curtains in front of the windows are not too thick, and so (78) +that room is very light and pleasant. 13. She also likes to look at the +falling snow, and the men and women walking on the muddy streets. 14. On +account of the cold weather, people are wearing thick clothes. 15. The +men and boys are keeping their hands in their pockets while they walk. +16. The girls walking toward the school are friends of my sister's. 17. +In that school they learn to cook. Soon they will be able to bake bread, +and even to cook a whole meal. 18. I think such a custom is very good. +19. Many persons can not cook well enough ("suficxe bone"). + + + + LESSON XXV. + + + THE INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVE. + +112. The interrogative adjective related to the interrogative pronoun +"kiu", is "kia", what kind of, what sort of: + + Kiajn vestojn li portis? What sort of clothes did he wear? + Kian panon vi preferas? What kind of bread do you prefer? + Mi miras kia persono li estas. I wonder what sort of a person he is. + Kia vetero estas? What sort of weather is it? + Kia plezuro! What a pleasure! + + + THE IMPERFECT TENSE. + +113. The compound tense formed by using the present active participle +with the past tense of "esti" represents an act or condition as in +progress in past time, but not perfected, and is called the "imperfect +tense". The conjugation of "vidi" in this tense is as follows: + + mi estis vidanta. I was seeing. + vi estis vidanta. you were seeing. + li (sxi, gxi) estis vidanta. he (she, it) was seeing. + ni estis vidantaj. we were seeing. + vi estis vidantaj. you were seeing. + ili estis vidantaj. they were seeing. + + + THE PROGRESSIVE FUTURE TENSE. + +114. The compound tense formed by using the present active participle +with the future tense of "esti" represents an act or condition as in +progress--or a condition as existing continuously--at a future time, and +is called the "progressive future" tense. The conjugation of "vidi" in +this tense is as follows: + + mi estos vidanta. I shall be seeing. + vi estos vidanta. you will be seeing. + li (sxi, gxi) estos vidanta. he (she, it) will be seeing. + ni estos vidantaj. we shall be seeing. + vi estos vidantaj. you will be seeing. + ili estos vidantaj. they will be seeing. + + + SALUTATIONS AND EXCLAMATIONS. + +exclamation may be regarded as the direct object of a verb which is not +expressed; these words are put in the accusative + + Bonan matenon! Good morning! (I wish you "good morning.") + Bonan nokton! Good night! (I wish you a "good night.") + Multajn salutojn al via patro! + (I send) many greetings to your father! + Dankon! Thanks! (I give to you "thanks.") + Cxielon! Heavens! (I invoke the "heavens.") + + + WORD FORMATION. + +116. The majority of roots have such a meaning that at least two kinds +of words, and often three or four, may be formed from them by use of +the general endings for verbs, nouns, adjectives and adverbs. (Each +root will hereafter be quoted but once in the vocabularies, with a +hyphen separating it from the ending with which it appears first in the +reading lesson, or with which it is most frequently used.) Following are +examples of word formation from roots already familiar: + +VERB. NOUN. ADJECTIVE. ADVERB. + +brili brilo brila brile + to shine shine, brilliance shining, brilliant brilliantly + +flori floro flora flore + to bloom flower, blossom floral florally + +gxoji gxojo gxoja gxoje + to rejoice joy, gladness joyful, glad gladly + +kontuzi kontuzo + to bruise bruise, contusion + + tuto tuta tute + whole entire, whole, all entirely + + + "KONI" AND "SCII". + +117. The verb "koni", which means "to know" in the sense of "to be +acquainted with" is used in speaking of persons, languages, places, etc. +"Koni" always has a direct object. It is never followed by "ke", "cxu", +"kiu", or any other interrogative word. "Scii" means "to know" in the +sense of "to be aware," "to have knowledge." It is not used in speaking +of persons. + +[Footnote: "Koni" is equivalent to German "kennen", French "connaitre", +Spanish "conocer", while "scii" is equivalent to German "wissen", French +"savoir", Spanish "saber".] + + Cxu vi konas tiun personon? Do you know that person? + Mi scias ke li estas nia najbaro. I know that he is our neighbor. + Mi bone konas Bostonon. I am well acquainted with Boston. + Mi ne scias cxu li konas ilin. I do not know whether he knows them. + + + VOCABULARY + + av-o = grandfather. kia = what kind of (112). + buked-o = bouquet. lingv-o = language. + ekzamen-o = examination. nep-o = grandson. + ferm-i = to close. nu! Well! + frap-i = to strike, to knock. paper-o = paper. + geometri-o = geometry. salut-i = to greet. + german-a = German. sci-i = to know (117). + hejm-o = home. stud-i = to study. + + + LA NEPO VIZITAS LA AVINON. + +Hieraux matene mi vizitis la avinon. Sxia hejmo estas apud la granda +nova bakejo. Mi vidis sxin tra la fenestro, cxar la kurtenoj kovrantaj +gxin estas tre maldikaj. Sxi estis sidanta sur la kanapo, kaj skribanta +per plumo sur granda papero. Antaux ol frapi sur la pordo mi vokis sxin +kaj diris "Bonan matenon, kara avino!" Tuj sxi demandis "Kiu estas tie? +Kies vocxon mi auxdas?" Mi respondis "Estas via nepo. Cxu vi ne konas +mian vocxon?" Antaux ol sxi povis veni al la pordo mi estis malfermanta +gxin. Mi iris en la salonon kaj donis al la avino bukedon da floroj. +"La patrino donas cxi tiujn al vi, kun siaj plej bonaj salutoj," mi +diris. La avino respondis "Nu, kia plezuro! Multan dankon al sxi pro la +bela bukedo, kaj ankaux al vi, cxar vi portis gxin cxi tien por mi!" +Dum sxi estis metanta la florojn en glason da akvo la avino diris "Nu, +kiajn lecionojn vi havis hodiaux en la lernejo?" Mi respondis ke mi +bone konis la lecionojn, cxar mi zorge studis ilin. "Ni estas lernantaj +la germanan lingvon," mi diris, "kaj ju pli longe ni studas gxin, des +pli multe mi gxin sxatas, kvankam gxi estas tre malfacila." Mi rakontis +ankaux pri la lecionoj de geometrio, kaj aliaj lecionoj, sed diris ke la +ekzamenoj estos baldaux komencantaj. "Je tiu tempo," mi diris, "mi estos +skribanta la respondojn al la ekzamenoj, preskaux la tutan semajnon." +La avino demandis kun intereso "Cxu la demandoj de la ekzamenoj estos +malfacilaj?" Mi respondis "Mi ne scias, sed mi timas ke ni estos tre +lacaj post tiom da laboro." Post kelke da aliaj demandoj kaj respondoj, +mi opiniis ke estas la horo por foriri. Dum mi estis foriranta, la avino +diris "Multajn salutojn al la tuta familio!" Mi dankis sxin, diris +"Bonan tagon!" kaj tiam foriris. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. What sort of noise do I hear outside the door? 2. Are some of my +friends knocking? 3. We were talking yesterday about the examinations in +our school, and these boys came home to study with me. 4. I shall go to +the door to open it and to greet my friends. 5. Good morning! Did you +come to study geometry, or the German language? 6. Which of these is +usually more difficult, and in which will the examination be the longer? +7. Well, we brought our German books, because we prefer to study these. +8. We wish to know this language thoroughly. 9. We shall go into the +writing-room (111), for (83) some friends of my grandmother are in the +parlor. 10. We can hear their voices here, and we can not study very +well while they are talking. 11. They were carrying many flowers, and +gave a beautiful bouquet to my grandmother. 12. She said "Many thanks +for (86) the sweet violets! In whose garden did they bloom?" 13. Her +friend's granddaughter is a friend of my youngest sister. 14. Well, +shall we begin to study? Have you enough paper, and have you a good pen? +15. I shall close this other door, because they are baking bread in the +kitchen, and cooking meat. 16. We shall be hearing the voices of so many +persons that I know that we can not study. + + + + LESSON XXVI. + + + THE INTERROGATIVE ADVERB OF PLACE. + +118. The interrogative adverb of place, related to the interrogative +pronoun "kiu" is "kie", where, in (at) what place. If the verb in the +sentence expresses motion toward the place indicated by "kie", the +ending "-n" is added, forming "kien", whither (where): + + Kie li estis kaj kien oni forpelis lin? + Where was he and whither did they drive him (away)? + Li miros kie lia nepo estas. He will wonder where his grandson is. + Mi ne scias kien li kuris. I do not know where (whither) he ran. + + + THE PAST ACTIVE PARTICIPLE. + +119. The past active participle, (for the characteristics of a +participle see 108) expressing what the word modified "did" or "has +done", ends in "-inta", as "vidinta", having seen, "irinta", gone, +having gone: + + La falintaj folioj estas brunaj. The fallen leaves are brown. + Kiu estas la viro salutinta nin? + Who is the man having greeted (who greeted) us? + Oni forgesas la foririntajn personojn. + One forgets the departed persons (the persons who have gone away). + + + ADVERB DERIVATION FROM PREPOSITIONS. + +120. Adverbs may be derived from prepositions whose sense permits, by +use of the adverb ending "-e": + + Antauxe li studis la geometrion, previously he studied geometry. + Poste li studis la germanan, afterwards he studied German. + Li marsxis antauxe, ne malantauxe, he walked in front, not behind. + Dume la viroj staris cxirkauxe, meanwhile the men stood roundabout. + Ili venis kune kaj sidis apude, they came together and sat near by. + + + ADVERBS EXPRESSING DIRECTION OF MOTION. + +121. An adverb expressing place or direction is given the ending "-n" +when used with a verb expressing motion toward that place or direction +(69, 118, etc.): + + Cxu li rajdis norden aux suden? Did he ride north or south(ward)? + Ni kuris antauxen, ne malantauxen, we ran forward, not back. + La bukedo falis eksteren kaj suben, + the bouquet fell out and underneath. + Li estis marsxanta hejmen, he was walking home (homeward). + +[Footnote: The adverb may precede the verb and be united with it by +simple juxtaposition, if the resulting word is not too long: "Li +hejmeniris", he went home (he "home-went"). "Ni antauxeniros", we +shall advance (go forward). "La bukedo subenfalis", the bouquet fell +underneath.] + + + THE SUFFIX "-EG-". + +122. The suffix "-eg-" may be added to a root to augment or intensify +its meaning, thus forming an "augmentative" of the root: + + barelego, hogshead (from "barelo", barrel). + bonega, excellent (from "bona", good). + malbonege, wickedly, wretchedly (from "malbone", badly, poorly). + domego, mansion (from "domo", house). + ploregi, to sob, to wail (from "plori", to weep). + treege, exceedingly (from "tre", very). + + + VOCABULARY + + aer-o = air. pez-a = heavy. + danc-i = to dance. polv-o = dust. + fulm-o = lightning. sekv-i = to follow. + gut-o = drop (of water, etc.). sercx-i = to hunt for, to search. + kie = where (118). silent-a = still, silent. + okaz-i = to happen, to occur. subit-a = sudden. + okul-o = eye. tegment-o = roof. + pec-o = piece. tondr-o = thunder. + + + LA PLUVEGO. + +Nu, kia pluvego okazis hieraux vespere! Post kvieta varmega mateno, +subite multaj nuboj kovris la cxielon. La aero sxajnis peza, kaj estis +tute silenta kelkan tempon. Tiam forte blovanta vento frapegis la +arbojn, kaj komencis fortege skui la brancxojn. Multege da polvo kaj +malgrandaj pecoj da papero dancis kaj flugis cxirkauxen en la aero, kaj +ankaux cxielen. Falis tiam kelkaj grandaj gutoj da pluvo, kaj ni sciis +ke la pluvego estas venanta. Ni malfermis niajn ombrelojn, kaj kuris +antauxen, por iri hejmen antaux ol falos multe da pluvo. La fulmo tiel +ofte brilis ke ni fermis la okulojn pro gxi, kaj treege gxin timis. +Preskaux tuj la tondro sekvis gxin. Tondris tiom kaj tiel lauxtege ke la +bruo sxajnis frapi kontraux niajn kapojn. Tiam komencis subite pluvegi, +sed je tiu tempo ni estis preskaux sub la tegmento de nia domo. Dume la +vento pli kaj pli blovegis, kaj ju pli forte gxi blovis, des pli peze +la gutoj da pluvo falis teren, kun multege da bruo. Mi opinias ke mi +malofte antauxe vidis tian pluvegon. La sekvintan tagon mi promenis tre +frue, kaj vidis ke la pordego al la gxardeno de mia avo estas kusxanta +sur la tero. Apude mi vidis ventoflagon falintan de la tegmento de tiu +granda cxevalejo. Velkintaj floroj kusxis sur la tero cxirkaux mi, kaj +inter ili estis brancxoj falintaj de la arboj, cxar la grandega forto +de la vento forrompis ecx cxi tiujn. Sur malgranda brancxo restis +nesto, sed kie estis la birdoj! Mi sercxis la junajn birdojn sed tute +ne povis trovi ilin, tial mi opinias ke ili forflugis antaux ol la +ventoj forrompis de la arbo ilian malgrandan hejmon. Mi ne scias kien +ili flugis, sed mi opinias ke ili flugis suden al la arboj en tiu granda +kampo trans la rivero. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. While we were walking home (121) from school yesterday, it rained +very suddenly. 2. What a storm it was! 3. We were talking about the +lessons in geometry, and were looking at these books about the German +language. 4. So we did not see the clouds in (on) the sky. 5. Well, we +forgot about examinations and began to wonder where to go. 6. We did +not know whether we had enough time to run even to Grandfather's house +before it would rain. 7. Many papers fell out of our books, and the +wind caught them. 8. The wind chased them away from us, and they seemed +to dance around in the air. 9. However, we easily caught and gathered +them, and then we ran forward. 10. Suddenly it thundered very loudly, +and we saw the brilliant lightning in the sky. 11. We almost closed our +eyes for the lightning. 12. Big drops of rain fell heavily and struck +the dust violently. 13. The air was heavy and still then, and the storm +immediately followed the few drops of rain. 14. We hastened across the +street, and ran faster and faster. 15. We were exhausted (122) and our +clothes were exceedingly wet before we were in the house. 16. The rain +was dropping from the roof, but we ran through it, and knocked on the +door. 17. We rested some time here, before going home. + + + + LESSON XXVII. + + + THE INTERROGATIVE TEMPORAL ADVERB + +123. The interrogative temporal adverb, related to the interrogative +pronoun "kiu", is "kiam", when, at what time? + + Kiam li sercxos min? When will he look for me? + Oni miras kiam li venos, they wonder when he is coming (will come). + Kiam falis tiuj gutoj da pluvo? When did those drops of rain fall? + + + THE PERFECT TENSE. + +124. The compound tense formed by using the past active participle +with the present tense of "esti" is called the "perfect tense". It +differs from the aoristic past tense (35) and from the imperfect (113) +by expressing an act or condition as definitely completed or perfected. +The conjugation of "vidi" in the perfect tense is as follows: + + mi estas vidinta, I have seen (I am having-seen). + vi estas vidinta, you have seen (you are having-seen). + li (sxi, gxi) estas vidinta, he (she, it) has seen (is having-seen). + ni estas vidintaj, we have seen (we are having-seen). + vi estas vidintaj, you have seen (you are having-seen). + ili estas vidintaj, they have seen (they are having-seen). + + + THE PREPOSITION "CXE". + +125. The general situation of a person, object or action is expressed by +the use of the preposition "cxe", at, at the house of, in the region or +land of, among, with, etc.: + + Li staris silente cxe la pordego, he stood silently at the gate. + Li logxas cxe mia avo, he lives (dwells) at my grandfather's. + Ili estas cxe la lernejo, they are at the school. + Li restos cxe amikoj, he will stay with (at the house of) friends. + Li vizitos cxe ni morgaux, he will visit at-our-house tomorrow. + + + THE SUFFIX "-AR-". + +126. Words expressing a collection, group or assemblage of similar +persons or things, as "forest" (collection of trees), "army" (assemblage +of soldiers), etc., may be formed by the use of the suffix "-ar-". This +suffix may itself be used as a root to form "aro", "group, flock", etc., +"are", in a group, by throngs, etc. Words formed with the suffix "-ar-" +are called collectives: + + arbaro, forest (from arbo, tree). + cxevalaro, herd of horses (from cxevalo, horse). + kamparo, country (from kampo, field). + libraro, collection of books, library (from libro, book). + amikaro, circle of friends (from amiko, friend). + + "TEMPO" AND "FOJO". + +127. The general word for "time" in the sense of duration, or +suitability (as "the proper time"), is "tempo". The word "fojo", +time, occasion, refers to the performance or occurrence of an +act or event, in repetition or series: + + Mi ne havas multe da tempo, I have not much time. + Li venis multajn fojojn, kaj la lastan fojon li restis longan tempon, + he came many times, and the last time he remained a long time. + Kelkajn fojojn lauxte tondris, several times it thundered loudly. + Multe da fojoj ni fermis la okulojn pro la fulmo, + many times we closed our eyes on account of the lightning. + + THE ORTHOGRAPHY OF PROPER NOUNS. + +128. Proper nouns, that is, nouns which are names of persons, cities, +countries, etc., are given Esperanto spelling if they are names of +continents, countries, large or very well-known cities, or if they +are first (Christian) names of persons, as "Azio", Asia, "Skotlando", +Scotland, "Bostono", Boston, "Johano", John, "Mario", Mary. Surnames +and names of places which are small or not well known are more often +quoted in the national spelling. The pronunciation may be indicated +in parentheses, as "Mt. Vernon" ("Mauxnt Vernon"), "Roberto Bruce" +("Brus"), "Martinique" ("Martinik'"), etc. + + + VOCABULARY + + arane-o = spider. ramp-i = to crawl. + Azi-o = Asia. rekt-a = direct, straight. + cxe = at (125). rimark-i = to notice. + fin-o = end, ending. send-i = to send. + foj-o = time, instance (127). Skotland-o = Scotland. + kiam = when (123). soldat-o = soldier. + pacienc-o = patience. sukces-i = to succeed. + pied-o = foot. supr-e = above. + plafon-o = ceiling. venk-i = to conquer. + + + ROBERTO BRUCE KAJ LA ARANEO. + +Oni rakontas la sekvantan interesan rakonton pri Roberto Bruce, regxo +antaux multaj jaroj en Skotlando. Okazis ke li estis rigardanta la +soldataron de siaj malamikoj, de la fenestro de granda cxevalejo. +Por povi rigardi plej facile, kaj ankaux por sin kasxi, li forsendis +siajn soldatojn kaj restis la tutan tagon sub tiu tegmento. Kvankam la +cxevalejo estis granda gxi estis malnova, kaj li opiniis ke la malamikoj +ne sercxos lin tie. Je la fino de la tago li subite rimarkis araneon +sur la muro apud si. La araneo estis rampanta supren, sed baldaux gxi +falis en la polvon cxe liaj piedoj. Tuj la falinta araneo komencis +alian fojon supren rampi. Alian fojon gxi falis teren, sed post ne +longe gxi komencis rampi alian fojon. "Kia pacienco!" diris la regxo al +si. "Mi ne sciis ke la araneo havas tiel multe da pacienco! Sed kien +gxi nun estas falinta?" Li rigardis cxirkauxen kaj fine ("finally") +li vidis la falintan araneon. Kun granda surprizo li rimarkis ke gxi +estas komencanta supren rampi. Multajn fojojn gxi supren rampis, kaj +tiom da fojoj gxi falis malsupren. Fine, tamen, gxi sukcese rampis +gxis la plafono. La regxo malfermis la busxon pro surprizo, kaj diris +al si "Kiam antauxe mi vidis tiom da pacienco! Mi opinias ke la fina +sukceso de tiu malgranda araneo donas al mi bonegan lecionon. Mi estas +ofte malsukcesinta, sed malpli ofte ol tiu araneo sur la muro. Mi estas +perdinta multe da soldatoj, kaj la malamikoj estas venkintaj multajn +fojojn, cxar ili havas multe pli grandan nombron da soldatoj. Tamen, mi +estos pacienca, cxar oni ne scias kiam li fine sukcesos." La sekvintan +tagon, la regxo Roberto Bruce komencis treege labori kontraux siaj +malamikoj. Post mallonga tempo li bone sukcesis, kaj tute venkis la +malamikoj en granda venko cxe Bannockburn (Banokb'rn). + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Although the enemies of Robert Bruce conquered him many times, he +finally conquered them in Scotland, because he was patient and very +courageous. 2. He was sitting in a large stable, to hide (himself), and +also in order to (98) look directly from its roof (at) the soldiery +(126) of the enemy. 3. At the end of the day he noticed a spider +crawling up (ward) on the wall. 4. The spider fell suddenly into the +dust and lay at the king's feet, but soon began to crawl up. 5. "Where +does it wish to go?" said the king to himself. 6. "What patience it +shows! It has crawled up and fallen down a great many times." 7. Finally +however the spider succeeded, and crawled up to the ceiling. 8. The +king said that he had learned a lesson from the patient spider. 9. He +said "Although the enemy have conquered many times, because they have a +larger number of soldiers, I shall finally succeed against them." 10. +Soon it happened that the wind blew violently, and a rainstorm occurred. +11. The blast shook the foliage (126) on the trees, and broke away many +small branches. 12. A group of soldiers ran right ("rekte") toward the +stable, and Robert Bruce was much afraid that they would find him. 13. +But they merely stole the horses there, and rode away. + + + + LESSON XXVIII. + + + THE INTERROGATIVE ADVERB OF MOTIVE OR REASON. + +129. The interrogative adverb of motive or reason related to the +interrogative pronoun "kiu" is "kial", why, wherefore, for what +reason: + + Kial la araneo supren rampis? why did the spider crawl up? + Mi demandos kial li rimarkis gxin, I will ask why he noticed it. + + + THE INFINITIVE AS SUBJECT. + +130. The infinitive may be used as the subject of a verb. + +[Footnote: Cf. the complementary infinitive (28), equivalent to the +object of a verb, and the use of the infinitive after the prepositions +"por", "anstataux", "antaux ol" (98).] + + +Any modifier of the infinitive is necessarily adverbial. An indefinite +personal object (or pronominal complement of a preposition) after an +infinitive used as subject is expressed by the reflexive pronoun "si": + + Promeni estas granda plezuro, to go walking is a great pleasure. + Promeni estas agrable, to go walking is pleasant. + Cxu estas facile rigardi la plafonon? + Is it easy to look at the ceiling? + Estas bone sin helpi, it is well to help oneself. + Paroli al si estas malsagxe, to talk to oneself is silly. + + + PRESENT ACTION WITH PAST INCEPTION. + +131. A present act or state which began in the past is expressed by the +present tense (instead of by the past as in English): + + Mi estas cxi tie de lundo, I have been (I am) here since Monday. + De Marto mi studas tiun lingvon, + since March I have been (I am) studying that language. + Ili estas amikoj de tiu tago, + they have been (they are) friends from that day. + Ni logxas tie de antaux kelkaj monatoj, + we have been living (we are living) here since some months ago. + +[Footnote: Cf. German "er ist schon lange hier", he has already been +here a long time, French "je suis ici depuis deux ans", I have been here +two years, etc.] + + + THE SUFFIX "-UL-". + +132. The suffix "-ul-" is used to form nouns indicating a person +characterized by or possessing the distinguishing trait, character or +quality in the root: + + junulo, a youth, a young man (from "juna", young). + belulino, a beauty, a belle (from "bela", beautiful). + maljunulo, an old man (from "maljuna", old). + sagxulo, a sage, a wise man (from "saga", wise). + malricxulino, a poor woman (from "malricxa", poor). + +[Footnote: Cf. the English adjectives "quer-ul-ous", "cred-ul-ous", +"garr-ul-ous", etc., and the Latin nouns "fam-ul-us", a servant, +"fig-ul-us", a potter, and "leg-ul-us", a gatherer.] + + + "LOGXI" AND "VIVI". + +133. The verb "logxi", "to reside, to dwell, to lodge", must not be +confused with "vivi", which means "to live" in the sense of "to be +alive": + + Li logxas apude, he lives near by. + Li vivis longan tempon, he lived a long time. + Vivi felicxe estas pli bone ol logxi ricxe, + to live happily is better than to live (lodge) richly. + + + VOCABULARY + + afabl-a = amiable, affable. kial = why (129). + afer-o = thing, matter, affair. mejl-o = mile. + balanc-i = to balance, to nod. okulhar-o = eyelash. + barb-o = beard. okulvitr-oj = spectacles. + batal-o = battle. pens-i = to think, to ponder. + brov-o = eyebrow. vang-o = cheek. + bukl-o = curl (of hair). verand-o = porch, veranda. + har-o = hair. viv-i = to live (133). + + + PRI LA AVO KAJ LA AVINO. + +Mia avo estas tre afabla persono. Li estas maljunulo kun blankaj haroj +kaj blanka barbo. Li havas bluajn okulojn, kaj la brovoj super ili estas +ecx pli blankaj ol liaj haroj. Kvankam li logxas en nia vilagxo de +antaux kelkaj jaroj, li antauxe logxis en Skotlando. Antaux multaj jaroj +li estis soldato, kaj li ofte parolas al mi pri la bataloj kaj venkoj +de tiu tempo. Sidi kviete sur la verando kaj rakonti tiajn rakontojn al +la nepo sxajne donas al li multe da plezuro. Multajn fojojn je la fino +de la tago li sidas tie, kaj parolas pri tiaj aferoj gxis malfrua horo +de la vespero. Sidi cxe liaj piedoj kaj auxdi liajn rakontojn estas +tre interese al mi. Komence, dum mi estas cxe li, mi kutime demandas +"Cxu oni sukcesis en tiu batalo?" Tuj li balancas la kapon kaj komencas +pacience rakonti pri la venkoj kaj malvenkoj ("defeats"). Li malofte +respondas "Mi ne scias," al miaj demandoj "Kiam," kaj "Kial." Kelkajn +fojojn li diras "Mi havas tiun opinion, sed mi ne bone scias pri la +tuta afero, kaj mi miras cxu aliaj personoj scias pli bone." Cxar li +estas multe studinta kaj pensinta, liaj opinioj estas treege interesaj. +Li gxojas tial ke mi demandas pri aferoj okazintaj ("things that have +happened"), cxar tiaj demandoj montras ke mi ankaux pensas pri ili. +Mia avino estas malgranda, kun belaj bukloj da tute blankaj haroj. Sxi +havas belajn brunajn okulojn, kun longaj nigraj okulharoj. Oni diras ke +antaux multaj jaroj sxi estis belulino. Ecx nun estas plezure rigardi +sxin, kaj vidi sxiajn rugxajn vangojn. De antaux kelkaj jaroj sxi portas +okulvitrojn por legi aux skribi aux kudri, kaj sxi bezonas ripozon post +malmulte da laboro. Promeno de ecx mejlo estas tro longa nun por la +avino. Oni diras ke sxi ne vivos tre longan tempon, kaj tia penso donas +malgxojon al ni, cxar ni treege amas la afablan paciencan avinon. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Our grandfather is an old man, and they say that he will not live +much longer. 2. He is not very strong, and can not take ("fari") long +walks. 3. The mile between his house and ours now seems long to him. 4. +He prefers to sit quietly in the house or on the veranda, and think, +nearly all day long (the whole day). 5. He is very amiable, and can tell +exceedingly interesting stories, about the victories and defeats which +happened (119) many years ago. 6. Such things are wicked I think, and I +am very glad that (83) such battles do not happen now. 7. Grandfather +has a long white beard and much white hair. 8. It is very interesting to +hear his stories, and also to look directly at him while he is telling +them. 9. He tells such stories with great pleasure. 10. Although he +has lived with (125) us since February (131), he does not know (117) a +great many of the neighbors, or of the other persons living (133) near. +11. Grandmother has blue eyes, red cheeks, and soft white curls. 12. +She speaks slowly, with a sweet voice, and is very patient. 13. Today +she said to me "Good morning, my dear (132), I have lost my spectacles. +Will you look-for them for me?" I nodded (the head) and soon found the +spectacles. + + + + LESSON XXIX. + + + THE INTERROGATIVE ADVERB OF MANNER AND DEGREE. + +134. The interrogative adverb of manner or degree, related to the +interrogative pronoun "kiu", is "kiel", how, in what way, to what +degree: + + Kiel oni vivas en tia aero? How do people live in such air? + Kiel afabla sxi estas! How amiable she is! + Mi miras kiel la batalo okazis, I wonder how the battle happened. + Kiel longe li pensis pri gxi? How long did he think about it? + + THE PLUPERFECT TENSE. + +135. The compound tense formed by combining the past active participle +with the past tense of "esti" represents an act or condition as having +been completed at some time in the past, and is called the "pluperfect +tense". The conjugation of "vidi" in this tense is as follows: + + mi estis vidinta, I had seen (I was having-seen). + vi estis vidinta, you had seen (you were having-seen). + li (sxi, gxi) estis vidinta, he (she, it) had seen (was having-seen). + ni estis vidintaj, we had seen (we were having-seen). + vi estis vidintaj, you had seen (you were having-seen). + ili estis vidintaj, they had seen (they were having-seen). + + + CARDINAL NUMERALS. + +136. Cardinals are numeral adjectives which answer the question "How +many?" The cardinals from one to twelve are as follows: + + unu = one. sep = seven. + du = two. ok = eight. + tri = three. naux = nine. + kvar = four. dek = ten. + kvin = five. dek unu = eleven. + ses = six. dek du = twelve. + +137. With the exception of "unu", none of the cardinals may receive the +plural ending "-j" or the accusative ending "-n". That is, they are +invariable in form. "Unuj" may be used to mean "some" in contrast to +"aliaj", others: + + Unuj marsxis, aliaj kuris, some walked, others ran. + Mi prenis unujn kaj lasis la aliajn, I took some and left the others. + +138. The preposition "el" is used after numeral adjectives expressing a +number "out of" some larger number or quantity: + + Ses el la knaboj venis, six of the boys came. + Ok el tiuj libroj estas la miaj, eight of those books are mine. + El tiuj cxapeloj mi sxatas nur unu, of those hats I like only one. + +[Footnote: The cardinal "unu" must not be used in the sense of the +English pronominal "one," as in "I am searching for a book, but not the +one on the table", which should be translated "Mi sercxas libron, sed ne +tiun sur la tablo."] + + + THE ACCUSATIVE OF MEASURE. + +139. A substantive in the accusative case may be used, instead of +a prepositional phrase or an adverb, not only to express measure +(duration) of time (91), but also to express measure of weight, price, +length, etc.: + + Li marsxis dek unu mejlojn, he walked eleven miles. + La parko estas largxa tri mejlojn, kaj longa kvar mejlojn, + the park is three miles wide and four miles long. + La tablo pezas dek du funtojn, + the table weighs (is heavy) twelve pounds. + + + NIA FAMILIO. + +Mi rakontos al vi kian familion ni havas. Ni estas ses personoj kaj ni +logxas en cxi tiu domo de antaux preskaux kvar jaroj. Antaux ol veni +cxi tien al la urbo, ni estis logxintaj tri jarojn en kvieta vilagxo +en la kamparo. Mia patro estas alta, kun grizaj haroj kaj griza barbo. +Kvankam li ne estas ricxulo, li tamen havas suficxe da mono por vivi +kontente kaj felicxe. Li sxatas marsxi, kaj ofte li estas marsxinta +kvin aux ses mejlojn por unu promeno. Unu fojon mi demandis "Kiel vi +povas marsxi tiel multe?" Li respondis "Dum mi estis junulo mi estis +soldato, kaj tiam mi estis tre multe marsxanta. Tial mi ne forgesas la +plezurojn de longaj promenoj." La patrino estas malpli alta ol mi, kaj +kiel bluajn okulojn sxi havas, sub nigraj okulharoj kaj nigraj brovoj! +Sxiaj haroj estas nigraj kaj buklaj, kaj sxiaj vangoj estas rugxaj. Sxi +havas dolcxan vocxon, kaj estas plezuro auxdi sxiajn kantojn. Por legi +aux skribi sxi kutime portas okulvitrojn. Mi havas du fratojn kaj unu +fratinon. La fratino havas dek unu jarojn. + +[Footnote: Like French and some other languages, Esperanto commonly uses +the verb "to have" rather than the verb "to be", in expressing age: Li +havas sep jarojn, he is seven years old (he has seven years). Mi havis +dek jarojn tiam, I was ten years old (I had ten years) then.] + +Unu el la fratoj havas ok jarojn, la alia havas dek du jarojn. Ili povas +bonege kuri, rajdi, kaj fari aliajn interesajn aferojn. Ili lernis +siajn lecionojn en la lernejo tiel bone ke ses fojojn en unu monato +oni lauxdis ilin. Ni multe gxojis pri tiom da lauxdo por la fratoj. La +fratino estas malpli forta, tamen sxi ofte promenas kun ni ecx du aux +tri mejlojn. La avino ankaux logxas cxe ni de antaux sep aux ok jaroj. +Unu el ni kutime restas cxe la hejmo kun sxi, dum la aliaj promenas, +cxar sxi ne estas suficxe forta por marsxi ecx unu mejlon. Mi ofte miras +kial sxi preferas sidi sur la verando, kaj mi demandas al sxi "Cxu vi +estas tro laca por marsxi?" Sxi kutime balancas la kapon kaj diras "Jes, +mia nepo, mi estas tro laca." + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Three and four make seven. 2. Two and six make eight. Five and six +make eleven. 3. Seven and five make twelve. 4. I have been studying +geometry since five months ago, and German since January. 5. I have read +three German books, but I shall not be able to talk in this language +until after August. 6. To learn how to speak such a language is a +difficult matter. 7. Nine of the children in our school are now studying +German with me. 8. Some learn it easily, others do not like it. 9. Three +of the boys and two of the girls in that school are German. 10. They +had resided four years in a large city, but I think (that) they live +more contentedly in our quiet village. 11. They can not talk with us +very well, but merely nod their heads when we talk to them. 12. I had +not seen them before they came to school, although they are neighbors +of ours. 13. They are amiable children, with blue eyes, red cheeks, and +yellow hair. 14. They can ride very well, and often ride eight or ten +miles in one day. 15. They usually ride in a park three miles wide and +four miles long, where there is but little ("nur malmulte da") dust. + + + + LESSON XXX. + + + THE INTERROGATIVE ADVERB OF QUANTITY. + +140. The interrogative adverb of quantity related to the interrogative +pronoun "kiu" is "kiom", how much, how many: + + Kiom da tempo vi ripozis? How much time did you rest? + Kiom da sukero kaj kiom da fragoj vi acxetis? + How much sugar and how many strawberries did you buy? + Ni miras kiom da mono li havos, + we wonder how much money he will have. + Kiom de la leciono vi lernis? How much of the lesson did you learn? + + + MODIFIERS OF IMPERSONALLY USED VERBS. + +141. Any modifier of an impersonal verb (50) or of a verb used +impersonally, that is, with an infinitive or clause for its subject, +or without any definitely expressed or personal subject (as in "it is +cold," "it seems too early"), must necessarily be adverbial: + + Estas varme en la domo, it is warm in the house. + Estos malvarme morgaux, it will be cold tomorrow. + Estas bone ke li venis, it is well that he came. + Estas amuze ke ni forgesis lin, it is amusing that we forgot him. + Ke vi venis estis tre sagxe, that you came was very wise. + Estos pli agrable en la salono, it will be pleasanter in the parlor. + + + FORMATION OF CARDINAL NUMERALS. + +142. The cardinal numerals for the tens, hundreds and thousands are +formed by prefixing "du", "tri", "kvar", etc., to "dek", ten, "cent", +hundred, and "mil", thousand, respectively. + + Tens. + --------------------------------------------- + dudek, twenty. sesdek, sixty. + tridek, thirty. sepdek, seventy. + kvardek, forty. okdek, eighty. + kvindek, fifty. nauxdek, ninety. + + Hundreds. Thousands. + ---------------------------- ------------------------- + ducent, two hundred. trimil, three thousand. + kvincent, five hundred. kvarmil, four thousand. + sepcent, seven hundred, etc. sesmil, six thousand, etc. + +143. The cardinals between ten and twenty, twenty and thirty, etc., are +formed by placing "unu, du, tri", etc., after "dek, dudek, tridek", etc. +(Cf. "dek unu", eleven, "dek du", twelve, 136): + + dek kvar = fourteen. tridek kvin = thirty-five. + dek naux = nineteen. sepdek ok = seventy-eight. + dudek tri = twenty-three. nauxdek ses = ninety-six, etc. + +144. Cardinals containing more than two figures begin with the largest +number and descend regularly, as in English: + + cent tridek kvin, one hundred and thirty-five. + kvarcent nauxdek sep, four hundred and ninety-seven. + sescent du, six hundred and two. + mil okdek, one thousand and eighty. + mil naucent dek du, + one thousand nine hundred and twelve + (nineteen hundred and twelve). + + + THE SUFFIX "-AN-". + +145. The suffix "-an-" is used to form words indicating an inhabitant or +resident of the place denoted by the root, or a member or adherent of +the party, organization, etc., denoted by the root. The suffix "-an-" +may itself be used as a root, forming "ano", member, etc. + + bostonano = Bostonian. domano = inmate of a house. + kamparano = countryman, peasant. vilagxano = villager. + +[Footnote: Cf. English "urb-an", "suburb-an", "Rom-an", "republic-an", +"Mohammed-an", etc.] + + + VOCABULARY + + aritmetik-o = arithmetic. memor-i = to remember. + cent = hundred (142). mil = thousand (142). + erar-o = error, mistake. minut-o = minute. + grad-o = grade, degree. ricev-i = to receive. + kalkul-i = to calculate, to reckon. sekund-o = second. + kiom = how much (140). superjar-o = leap-year. + + + LECIONO PRI ARITMETIKO. + +Estas malvarme hodiaux, kaj tute ne agrable ekster la domo. La urbanoj +ne estas promenantaj en la parko, cxar ili preferas resti en la domoj. +Mi ankaux restis en la domo, kaj parolis al mia juna frato. Mi helpis +lin pri la leciono en aritmetiko, tial ke li baldaux havos ekzamenojn, +kaj li volas esti preta por skribi tre bonajn respondojn. Mi demandis +al li "Kiom faras dek tri kaj dek kvar?" Li respondis ke tiuj faras +dudek sep. Tiam mi demandis kiom faras dudek unu kaj tridek kvar. Li +kalkulis kvin aux ses sekundojn, per mallauxta vocxo, kaj diris "Ili +faras kvindek kvin." Mi demandis kiom faras ducent tri kaj sepcent +ok, kaj li respondis ke ili faras nauxcent dek unu. Li tute ne faris +erarojn al mi, kaj fine mi diris al li ke li povas bonege kalkuli. Mi +opinias ke li ricevos bonan gradon en la ekzamenoj. Post kelkaj minutoj +ni komencis paroli pri aliaj aferoj. Mi demandis "Kiom da tagoj en la +monato septembro?" La frato respondis "Septembro, novembro, aprilo kaj +junio havas tridek tagojn. Kvankam tiuj monatoj havas tiom da tagoj, la +aliaj monatoj havas tridek unu tagojn. Sed la monato februaro havas nur +dudek ok tagojn." Estas interese lerni pri cxi tiu monato februaro. Dum +tri jaroj gxi havas dudek ok tagojn, sed en la sekvanta jaro gxi havas +dudek naux tagojn. La jaro havanta tian februaron estas la "superjaro." +Mi rakontis tiun interesan aferon al la frato, kaj li diris ke li bone +memoros gxin. Li diris ke li ne antauxe sciis pri la superjaro. Li +ne sciis ke la superjaro havas tricent sesdek ses tagojn, kvankam la +aliaj jaroj havas nur tricent sesdek kvin tagojn. Li diris ke li ankaux +memoros pri la nombro da tagoj en la superjaro, kaj ke li rakontos la +aferon al la aliaj knaboj. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. (To be written out in full): 14, 18, 42, 86, 79, 236, 431, 687, 788, +1240, 1885, 9872, 4500, 1912. 2. There are twelve months in a year, and +in most of the months of the year there are thirty-one days. 3. There +are only thirty days in the months April, June, September and November. +4. There are seven days in a week, and twenty-four hours in a day. 5. +Twelve of these hours make the day, and the others make the night. 6. +There are sixty minutes in one hour, and sixty seconds in one minute. +7. There are four weeks and also two or three days in one month. 8. +In the year there are fifty-two weeks. 9. How many weeks are there in +ten years? 10. At least one year in ten years is a leap-year. 11. In a +leap-year there are three hundred and sixty-six days, instead of three +hundred and sixty-five. 12. Wise men calculated about this matter, many +years ago. 13. It is well for us that they liked to study arithmetic. +15. I have often received good grades in this study. 16. I remember it +easily, and seldom make mistakes. + + + + LESSON XXXI. + + + THE RELATIVE PRONOUN. + +146. A connecting pronoun referring to something which precedes (or +follows) is called a "relative pronoun". The person or thing to which +it refers is called its "antecedent." The relative pronoun, identical +in form with the interrogative pronoun (106), as in English, is "kiu", +which, who. + +[Footnote: Sometimes English uses "that" for a relative pronoun, as +"I saw the book that you have." This must always be translated by +"kiu". Likewise, English sometimes omits the relative pronoun, as "I +saw the book you have." The relative pronoun is never thus omitted in +Esperanto.] + +The relative pronoun agrees in number with its antecedent. Whether it +is in the accusative case or not depends upon its relation to its own +verb or to other words in its own clause (called the relative clause): + + La junuloj, kiuj venis, estas afablaj, + the youths who came are amiable. + La personoj, kiujn li vidos, estas amikoj miaj, + the persons (whom) he will see are friends of mine. + Mi kalkulis la gradon, kiun li ricevos, + I calculated the grade (which) he will receive. + Mi memoras tiun aferon, pri kiu vi parolas, + I remember that matter about which you speak. + +147. Like English "whose" the genitive form "kies" of the interrogative +pronoun (107) is also used as a relative, referring to a substantive +(singular or plural) for its antecedent: + + Li estas la viro, kies libron vi trovis, + he is the man whose book you found. + Mi konas la infanojn, kies patro estas amiko via, + I know the children whose father is a friend of yours. + + + THE FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. + +148. The compound tense formed by combining the past participle with the +future tense of the auxiliary verb "esti" represents an act or condition +as having been already completed or perfected at a future time, and is +called the "future perfect tense." The conjugation of "vidi" in this +tense is as follows: + + + mi estos vidinta, I shall have seen (I shall be having-seen). + vi estos vidinta, you will have seen (you will be having-seen). + li (sxi, gxi) estos vidinta, + he (she, it) will have seen (will be having-seen). + ni estos vidintaj, we shall have seen (shall be having-seen). + vi estos vidintaj, you will have seen (will be having-seen). + ili estos vidintaj, they will have seen (will be having-seen). + + + ORDINAL NUMERALS. + +149. Ordinal numerals are adjectives which answer the question "Which +in order?" as "first", "third", etc. They are formed by adding the +adjectival suffix "-a" to the cardinals. The various parts of an ordinal +must be connected by hyphens, since it is to the entire cardinal, and +not any part of it, that the adjective ending "-a" is attached: + + unua = first. kvardek-sesa = forty-sixth. + dua = second. cent-okdek-kvina : + tria = third. hundred and eighty-fifth. + oka = eighth. mil-okcent-kvara : + dek-unua = eleventh. one thousand eight hundred and + dek-nauxa = nineteenth. fourth. + dudek-sepa = twenty-seventh. sesmil-sepa : + six thousand and seventh. + +[Footnote: Ordinal numerals may be abbreviated thus: "la", "1st", "2a", +"2nd", "3a", "3rd", "5a", "5th", "1912a", "1912th", "233a", "233rd", +etc. If the ordinal number is used in an accusative construction, the +abbreviation is given the accusative ending, as "lan", "2an", "3an", +"1912an", etc.] + + + VOCABULARY + + angl-a = English. neces-a = necessary. + dezir-i = to desire. paf-i = to shoot. + dolar-o = dollar. pafark-o = bow (for shooting). + gajn-i = to win, to gain. part-o = part, share. + kost-i = to cost. pen-i = to strive, to try. + last-a = last. traduk-i = to translate. + latin-a = Latin. sag-o = arrow. + mar-o = sea. sam-a = same. + + + ALFREDO GRANDA KAJ LA LIBRO. + +Antaux pli multe ol mil jaroj vivis Alfredo Granda, unu el la plej +interesaj personoj pri kiuj ni estas auxdintaj. Li estis la unua angla +regxo, kiu deziris legi librojn. Li estis ankaux la lasta, kiu povis +legi ilin, gxis post multaj jaroj. Unu tagon, dum li estis malgranda +knabo kun flavaj buklaj haroj, lia patrino, tre sagxa regxino, montris +al li kaj al liaj fratoj belegan libron. Sxi diris ke la libro kostis +multe da mono en lando trans la maro, kaj ke gxi nun apartenas al +sxi. Si diris "Miaj filoj, mi donos cxi tiun libron al tiu el vi, kiu +lernos legi gxin. Kiu el vi estos la unua, kiu povos legi? Tiu ricevos +la libron." Nu, Alfredo komencis studi, kaj post ne longe li gajnis +la belegan libron. Liaj fratoj ecx ne penis gajni gxin. Tiam oni tre +malmulte pensis pri libroj. La regxoj kaj iliaj filoj nur malofte povis +legi, kaj treege malofte povis skribi. Oni lauxdis nur personojn, +kiuj bone rajdis kaj batalis per sagoj kaj pafarkoj. Sed oni opiniis +ke tute ne estis necese scii pri la aferoj, kiujn la libroj rakontas. +Tial Alfredo ne ricevis lauxdon pro sia deziro por legi. La sesan +aux sepan jaron post sia ricevo de la libro, Alfredo volis lerni la +latinan lingvon, cxar tiam oni skribis latine ("in Latin") la librojn, +kiuj estis plej bonaj. Oni sercxis gxis la finoj de la lando, kaj iris +multajn mejlojn, sed preskaux ne povis trovi personon, kiu ecx estis +auxdinta pri tia lingvo. Fine oni trovis personon por helpi Alfredon, +kiu tiam lernis la latinan lingvon. Tiu sama Alfredo estis regxo multajn +jarojn, kaj estis unu el la plej bonaj regxoj, kiujn la angla lando +estas havinta. Alfredo skribis librojn en la latina lingvo, kaj ankaux +tradukis latinajn librojn en la anglan lingvon. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. (To be written out in full): 37th, 59th, 73rd, 92nd, 846th, 119th, +1274th, 1910th, 14235th. 2. Before my friend will have finished that +mansion (122), it will have cost twenty thousand dollars. 3. Before +coming to visit you, I shall have ridden twelve miles on my horse. 4. +The grade which you will have received in arithmetic soon after the +first of March will be excellent. 5. You do not make mistakes very often +in the lessons. 6. I shall try after a few minutes to translate that +Latin book, for ("cxar") it seems interesting. 7. It is necessary to +study Latin, for I desire to read the stories which are in my Latin +book. 8. The one thousand nine hundred and fourth year was a leap-year. +9. The fourth year after that year was also a leap-year. 10. The 1912th +year will be a leap-year. There are three hundred and sixty-six days in +such a year. 12. Alfred won the book which his mother had bought. 13. +Such a book now costs four or five hundred dollars. 14. Alfred the Great +was the last king until many years afterward (until after many years) +who could read or write. 15. He was the first king in that land who even +wished to be able to read books. 16. We often talk about this same King +Alfred, and say that he was the father of the English language. 17. +People say so ("diras tiel") because he translated Latin books into the +language of his land, and because he also wrote books in that language. + + + + LESSON XXXII. + + + "KIA" AS A RELATIVE ADJECTIVE. + +150. The interrogative adjective "kia" (112) is also used as a relative +adjective, referring back to "tia," or to some equivalent phrase or word +indicating quality, such as "sama", etc. In this use it may often be +translated "as", or "which": + + Mi havas tian libron, kian mi volas, + I have such a (that kind of) book as (which kind) I wish. + Tiaj amikoj, kiajn vi havas, estas afablaj, + such friends as (of which kind) you have are amiable. + Li deziras tian cxapelon, kia kostas ses dolarojn, + he desires that kind of hat which (kind) costs six dollars. + Mi havas la saman deziron, kian vi, + I have the same desire as you (same kind which you have). + + + "KIE" AS A RELATIVE ADVERB. + +151. The interrogative adverb "kie", "kien" (118) is also used as a +relative adverb of place with "tie", "tien", or some other expression of +place for its antecedent. + +[Footnote: Any interrogative adverb may also be used to introduce an +indirect question, thus serving as a subordinating conjunction (cf. +"cxu").] + +"Kien" is used when the verb in the relative clause expresses motion +toward the place indicated, whether or not its antecedent has this +ending. Similarly, "kie" may refer to "tie" or to "tien": + + Mi iros tien, kie vi estas, + I shall go there where you are. + Mi estis tie, kien vi iros, + I was there (at that place) where you will go. + Mi iros tien, kien vi iris, + I shall go to that place to which you went + (I shall go where you went). + Mi trovis lin en la urbo, kie li logxas, + I found him in the city where he lives. + Cxu vi venos cxi tien, kie ni estas? + Are you coming here where we are? + + + THE FUTURE ACTIVE PARTICIPLE. + +152. The future active participle, expressing what the word modified +will do or is about to do, ends in "-onta," as "vidonta", about to +see, "ironta", about to go: + + + La forironta viro vokis sian serviston, + the man going to depart (the about-to-depart man) + called his servant. + La virino salutonta vin estas tre afabla, + the woman about to greet you is very affable. + La venonta monato estas marto, + the coming month is March. + La venontan semajnon mi foriros, + the coming (next) week I shall depart. + + + THE PERIPHRASTIC FUTURE TENSES. + +153. The compound tenses formed by combining the future active +participle with each of the three aoristic tenses of "esti" represent +an act or state as about to occur in the present, past, or future, +respectively, and are called "periphrastic future tenses." Except when +great accuracy is desired, these tenses are not often used. A synopsis +of "vidi" in the first person singular and plural of these tenses is as +follows: + + Present Periphrastic Future. + + mi estas vidonta, ni estas vidontaj, + I am about to (going we are about to (going + to) see. to) see. + + Past Periphrastic Future. + + mi estis vidonta, ni estis vidontaj, + I was about to (going we were about to (going + to) see. to) see. + + Future Periphrastic Future. + + mi estos vidonta, ni estos vidontaj, + I shall be about to (going we shall be about to (going + to) see. to) see. + + + THE SUFFIX "-IND-". + +154. The suffix "-ind-" is used to form words expressing "worthy of, +deserving of," that which is indicated in the root. It may also be used +as a root, to form "inda", worthy, "malinda", unworthy, "indo", worth, +merit, etc.: + + dezirinda = desirable. rimarkinda = noteworthy, remarkable. + lauxdinda = praiseworthy. ridinde = ridiculously, laughably. + mallauxdinda = blameworthy. tradukinda = worth translating. + + + VOCABULARY + + ankoraux = still, yet. flar-i = to smell. + atak-i = to attack. gast-o = guest. + bat-i = to beat. ho! = Oh! + cert-a = sure, certain. kri-i = to exclaim, to cry. + defend-i = to defend. kruel-a = cruel. + difekt-i = to spoil. kuk-o = cake. + edz-o = husband. lign-o = wood. + fajr-o = fire. suspekt-i = to suspect. + +[Footnote: The adverb "ankoraux" expresses the ideas "until and during +the present time", "in the future as now and before", "in constant or +uniform succession", "in an increasing or additional degree", given +sometimes by English "yet", sometimes by "still": Mi estas ankoraux +sidanta cxi tie, "I am still sitting here." Li ankoraux ne venis, "still +he has not come (he has not come yet)." Li ankoraux restos tie, "he +will still stay there." Ankoraux ili venas, "still they come." Li estos +ankoraux pli ruza, "he will be still (yet) more crafty."] + + + ALFREDO GRANDA KAJ LA KUKOJ. + +Unu fojon antaux pli multe ol mil jaroj, soldatoj venis de trans la maro +por ataki la anglan regxon Alfredon Grandan. Ili nek konis nek malamis +lin, sed ili sciis ke li estas persono kies landon ili deziras gajni. +Cxi tiuj malamikoj estis venintaj tiel subite ke Alfredo ne estis preta +por defendi sian landon kontraux ili. Tial li forkuris kelkajn mejlojn +de la urbo, kaj sin kasxis en granda arbaro malantaux vilagxo. Anstataux +porti regxajn vestojn li acxetis tiajn cxifonojn kiajn kamparanoj kaj +malricxuloj portas. Li logxis cxe malricxa sed lauxdinda kamparano, +kiu ne konis la regxon, kaj tute ne suspektis kia persono lia gasto +estas. Unu memorindan tagon Alfredo estis sidanta apud la fajro, kaj +estis rigardanta siajn sagojn kaj pafarkon dum li pensis malgxoje pri +sia lando. La edzino de la arbarano demandis "Cxu vi ankoraux sidos tie +dekkvin aux dudek minutojn?" "Jes," respondis la regxo. Sxi diris "Nu, +estos necese fari pli varmegan fajron por tiaj kukoj kiajn mi nun estas +bakonta. Cxu vi gardos tiujn kukojn kiuj nun estas super la fajro, dum +mi kolektos pli multe da ligno?" Alfredo respondis "Certe mi gardos ilin +kontraux la fajro." La virino sercxonta lignon foriris en alian parton +de la arbaro, kie estis multe da ligno, kaj la regxo penis zorgi pri la +kukoj. Sed baldaux li forgesis ilin, kaj la fajro ilin difektis. Kiam la +virino venis kaj flaris la kukojn sxi kriis "ho, vi riprocxinda viro! +Kvankam vi ankoraux sidas tie, vi ne pensas pri la kukoj, kaj la fajro +estas difektinta ilin!" Sxi estis kruele batonta la regxon, kiam li +diris al sxi kiu li estas, kaj kial li forgesis la kukojn. Tiam sxi tre +hontis, kaj anstataux mallauxdi lin sxi volis esti ankoraux pli bona al +li. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Alfred the Great was a praiseworthy king who lived more than a +thousand years ago. 2. People still talk about him because he not only +translated many Latin books into the English language, but also wrote in +English. 3. He wished to help the peasants still more. 4. But enemies +often attacked him, and finally they conquered his soldiers. 5. Then +they hastened to where (151) Alfred was. 6. They were about to attack +him, when he rode away secretly ("kasxe") into a large forest. 7. There +he dwelt some time in the house of a poor forester. 8. He wore such +rags as a peasant usually wears, and did not tell the forester who he +was. 9. One day he was sitting near the fire and wondering, "Will the +enemy have conquered my soldiers next week?" 10. The forester's wife +said, "Will you sit there yet a while and take-care of those cakes? I am +about to gather more wood." 11. He replied, "Certainly, I will try to +help you." 12. But when after a few minutes the woman smelled the cakes, +she knew that the fire had spoiled them. 13. She exclaimed "Oh, what a +blame-worthy man!" 14. She commenced to beat the king cruelly, but he +did not defend himself. 15. Instead (120), he told her who he was. + + + + LESSON XXXIII. + + + "KIAM" AS A RELATIVE ADVERB. + +155. The interrogative temporal adverb "kiam" (123) is also used as a +relative temporal adverb, with "tiam" or an equivalent word or phrase +for its antecedent. (It may not be omitted as in English "at the time he +came"): + + Mi suspektis lin je la tempo kiam li venis, + I suspected him at the time when he came (the time that he came). + Li defendis sin tiam, kiam oni atakis lin, + he defended himself then, when he was attacked. + Mi ankoraux sidos tie gxis kiam vi venos, + I shall still sit there until when you come (until you come). + Post kiam li tiel lauxte kriis, li komencis plori, + after he shouted so loudly, he began to cry. + + + "KIEL" AS A RELATIVE ADVERB. + +156. The interrogative adverb "kiel" (134) is also used as a relative +adverb of manner and degree, with "tiel", or "same", or an equivalent +adverb or phrase for its antecedent. It may often be translated "as": + + Mi defendis min tiel, kiel li defendis sin, + I defended myself in that way in which (way) he defended himself. + Vi ne estas tiel kruela kiel li, + you are not so cruel as he (is). + Ili batis lin same kiel vi, + they beat him in the same way as you (did). + Ili batis lin same kiel vin, + they beat him the same as (they did) you. + Kiel mi diris al li, mi estas felicxa, + as I told him, I am happy (antecedent not expressed). + Li parolis tiel mallauxte kiel antauxe, + he spoke as softly as before. + Sxi estas tiel bona kiel sxi estas bela, + she is as good as she is fair. + + + NUMERAL NOUNS AND ADVERBS. + +157. Nouns may be formed from the cardinals by addition of the ending +"-o." After such nouns the preposition "da" or "de" is used: + + dekduo = a dozen. milo = a thousand. + dudeko = a score. unuo = a unit. + deko = a ten, half a score. kvaro = a four, a quartette. + cento = a hundred. trio = a three, a trio. + +[Footnote: The prepositions "da" and "de" follow nouns (99, 100) or +adverbs (101), while "el" follows adjectives in the superlative degree +(75), cardinal numerals (138), and the pronouns tiu, kiu (106), etc.: +"dekduo da ovoj", a dozen (of) eggs. "dekduo de la ovoj", a dozen of the +eggs. "dek du el tiuj ovoj", twelve of those eggs. "kiu el la ovoj?" +which one of the eggs? "tiu el la ovoj", that one of the eggs. "la plej +fresxa el la ovoj", the freshest of the eggs.] + +158. Adverbs may be formed from the cardinals by addition of the ending +"-e": + + unue = firstly, at first. deke = tenthly. + due = secondly, in the second place. sesdeke = sixtiethly. + kvine = fifthly, in the fifth place. okdek-kvare = eighty-fourthly. + + + WORD DERIVATION FROM PREPOSITIONS. + +159. Adjectives, verbs and nouns, as well as adverbs (120), may be +derived from prepositions by addition of the formative endings (116), +with sometimes a special suffix also: + + + anstatauxi = to replace, to take the place of. + anstatauxulo = a substitute. + antauxa = previous, preceding. + apuda = near, contiguous, adjacent. + cxirkauxi = to surround, to encircle. + cxirkauxo = a circuit, a circumference. + kontrauxa = adverse, opposite, contrary. + kontrauxulo = adversary, opponent. + kunulo = comrade, companion. + superi = to surpass, to exceed, to be above. + superege = surpassingly, exceedingly. + + + VOCABULARY + + adiaux = farewell, goodbye. kuz-o = cousin. + akcept-i = to accept, to receive. malgraux = notwithstanding. + elekt-i = to choose, to select. par-o = pair. + fest-i = to celebrate, to entertain. pend-i = to hang. + gant-o = glove. prez-o = price. + gxentil-a = courteous. renkont-i = to meet. + invit-i = to invite. sxu-o = shoe. + jxus = just, at the moment. uz-i = to use. + +[Footnote: The adverb "jxus" indicates the elapsing of the least +possible time since the act or condition indicated, or between the two +acts or conditions indicated. "Ni jxus venis", we just came (we came but +a moment ago). "Mi havas la saman opinion kian vi jxus diris", I have +the same opinion as you just gave (said). "Mi vidis lin jxus kiam li +estis forironta", I saw him just when he was about to depart. "Jxus kiam +vi venis li foriris", just as you came he went away.] + + + LA INVITO. + +Hieraux matene mia kuzo vizitis cxe ni, kaj invitis min al malgranda +festo kiu okazos morgaux vespere. Tiam li festos la lastan tagon de +la jaro. Li diris ke la gastoj sidos cxirkaux la fajrejo kaj rakontos +rakontojn gxis malfrua horo. Mi akceptis lian gxentilan inviton, kaj +diris ke mi certe venos. Mia kuzo logxas en la sama urbo kie nia familio +logxas, sed en alia parto. Lia hejmo estas preskaux du mejlojn de la +nia. Tamen, ni estas bonaj kunuloj, kaj ofte promenas kune. Jxus kiam li +estis elironta el la pordo hieraux, mi uzis la okazon ("opportunity") +por proponi mallongan promenon. Li respondis ke li gxoje promenos kun +mi, malgraux la negxa vetero. Tial ni formarsxis tien, kie la stratoj +estis malplej kotaj. La kuzo havas dek ok jarojn, sed mi estas preskaux +tiel alta kiel li. Mi estas certa ke mi estas ankaux tiel forta kiel li. +Ni parolis pri multaj interesaj aferoj, kaj bonege nin amuzis, gxis kiam +estis necese hejmen iri. La kuzo diris "adiaux," kaj iris rekte hejmen, +sed mi iris al granda butiko. Unue, mi volis acxeti paron da novaj +gantoj, por anstatauxi la malnovajn gantojn kiujn mi ankoraux estis +portanta, kvankam mi acxetis ilin antaux tri monatoj. Due, mi bezonis +paron da novaj sxuoj. Mi iris en la butikon kie pendis tiaj gantoj, +kiajn mi sxatas, kaj oni tuj venis por renkonti min, kaj demandis "Kiajn +vestojn vi volas acxeti?" Oni montris al mi preskaux dudekon da paroj +da gantoj. Mi elektis tre bonan paron, kaj estis jxus acxetonta ilin, +malgraux la tro granda prezo, kiam mi vidis alian pli belan paron. +Tial mi acxetis cxi tiun, kaj poste mi rigardis la sxuojn. Mi trovis +rimarkinde bonan paron, cxar estas centoj da sxuoj en tiu butiko. Mi tuj +acxetis tiun paron, kaj tiam hejmen iris. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. My friend likes to live in the city, but his wife prefers to live in +their little wooden house in the country. 2. There she can see and smell +the flowers, and can take ("fari") long walks in the adjacent fields +and forest. 3. There are often hundreds of persons in a village, but +there are thousands of persons in a city. 4. The larger a city is, the +larger and better its stores are. 5. In the second place, one can buy +better bread, vegetables and cake in the city. 6. Thirdly, one can also +find better gloves, hats and shoes there, and the price is often less. +7. Therefore I make use of the opportunity when I go to the city, and +usually buy a pair of new gloves. 8. I am still wearing a pair of gloves +which the rain spoiled. 9. Notwithstanding their ugly color, they are +still thick and good. 10. But soon I shall buy such a pair as (150) is +hanging in the window of that store. 11. The price is low, and I need a +new pair now, for my cousin has invited me to a small party ("festo") +at his house. 12. I accepted his invitation courteously, and said that +I would gladly be his guest. 13. We are good comrades, although he is +younger than I am. 14. My (girl) cousin, his sister, is older than he +is, but he is as tall as she. 15. I was just about to send a letter to +him at the minute that (155) he knocked on our door. 16. His visit will +take the place of (159) my letter. 17. Just as (just when) he was going +away, I said goodbye to him, and said that I would meet him in the park +tomorrow. 18. I think that we shall have a pleasant walk, although the +weather is still remarkably cold, the same as (156) it was two or three +months ago. + + + + LESSON XXXIV. + + + PREPOSITIONS AS PREFIXES. + +160. Any preposition may be used as a prefix to a verb, provided the +resulting compound is intelligible. A few prepositional compounds are +given below, only verbs being shown, although nouns, adjectives and +adverbs may be formed from these (116): + + alveni = to arrive. interparoli = to converse. + aldoni = to add. kontrauxdiri = to contradict. + antauxdiri = to predict. kunlabori = to collaborate. + cxirkauxpreni = to embrace. kunveni = to assemble. + cxeesti = to be present. priskribi = to describe. + dependi = to hang from, to depend. subteni = to support. + demeti = to lay aside. surmeti = to put on. + depreni = to subtract. traguti = to percolate. + enhavi = to contain. travidi = to see through + eliri = to go out. transiri = to cross. + +[Footnote: Like English "out" the preposition "el" often develops in +composition a secondary sense of "thoroughly" or "completely" (cf. "I am +tired out"): "eltrovi", to find out, to discover. "elpensi", to think +out, to invent. "ellabori", to work out, to elaborate. "ellerni", to +learn thoroughly, to master. "eluzi", to use completely, to wear out +(transitive).] + + + THE SUFFIX "-EBL-". + +161. The suffix "-ebl-" is used to form adjectives, adverbs, etc., +expressing the likelihood or possibility of that which is indicated by +the root. It may be used as a root, to form "ebla", possible, etc. + + eltrovebla = discoverable. rompebla = breakable. + legebla = legible. videbla = visible. + mangxebla = edible. travidebla = transparent. + +[Footnote: The suffix "-ebl-" is often equivalent to the English +suffixes "-able", "-ible", but these suffixes have other meanings also, +as in "readable," "worth reading" (leginda), "lovable," "deserving of +love" (aminda), etc.] + + + EXPRESSION OF THE HIGHEST DEGREE POSSIBLE. + +162. The adverb "plej", "most" (74), modified by "kiel eble" (as +possible), is used to express the highest degree possible: + + Gxi estas kiel eble plej bona, it is the best possible. + Ni estos kiel eble plej sagxaj, we shall be as wise as possible. + Li uzis kiel eble plej malmulte, he used the least possible. + Mi skribis kiel eble plej legeble, I wrote as legibly as possible. + + + TITLES AND TERMS OF ADDRESS. + +163. The words "sinjoro," gentleman, "sinjorino," lady, "frauxlino," +miss, are used like English "Mr., Mrs., Miss," before proper names, +and are also used as terms of address, without being followed by the +name: "Adiaux, Sinjoro. Adiaux, Sinjorino," Goodbye (Sir). Goodbye, +Madam. + + Frauxlino B----, cxu vi konas tiun sinjoron kun Sinjorino C----? + Miss B----, do you know that gentleman with Mrs. C----? + Mi ne konas tiun frauxlinon, I do not know that young lady. + Kien vi volas iri, Frauxlino? Where do you wish to go (Miss)? + Sinjoro A---- estas tre afabla, Mr. A---- is very amiable. + +[Footnote: Cf. English "Doctor, Professor, Madam," as terms of address, +and also German "Mein Herr, gnaedige Frau, gnaediges Fraeulein," French +"Monsieur, Mademoiselle," Spanish, "Senor, Senora," Italian "Signore," +etc.] + + + VOCABULARY + + atent-a = attentive. onkl-o = uncle. + auxskult-i = to listen. san-a = in good health. + babil-i = to chatter. sent-i = to feel. + doktor-o = doctor. sinjor-o = gentleman. + frauxl-o = bachelor. sxtup-o = step (of stairs). + gaj-a = merry, gay. tas-o = cup. + grup-o = group. vojagx-o = voyage, journey. + + + CXE LA FESTO. + +Hieraux vespere mi iris al la hejmo de mia kuzo, kiu estis invitinta +min al malgranda festo cxe li. Cxar mi deziris alveni kiel eble plej +frue, mi foriris de mia logxejo kiel eble plej baldaux, malgraux la +negxa vetero. Mi estis surmetinta paron da dikaj gantoj, kaj mi portis +dikajn sxuojn. Mi ankaux havis mian ombrelon, kvankam pro la vento mi ne +povis uzi tiun. Tuj kiam mi supreniris la sxtuparon cxe la hejmo de la +kuzo, li auxdis min, kaj venis por malfermi la pordon kaj akcepti min. +"Bonan vesperon, kia estas via sano?" li diris. Mi respondis "Mi sanas +bonege, dankon," kaj eniris la domon kun li. Ni supren iris per granda +sxtuparo al cxambro kie mi lasis la cxapelon, gantojn kaj ombrelon, tiam +ni malsupren venis kaj eniris la salonon. Mi salutis la onklinon, kiu +afable parolis al mi, kaj ankaux la du kuzinojn. Unu kuzino estis jxus +priskribonta interesan libron, kiun sxi antaux ne longe tralegis, kiam +la aliaj gastoj komencis alveni. Sinjoro B---- cxeestis, kaj Doktoro +C----, kun sia filino Frauxlino Mario, kaj multe da aliaj sinjoroj +kaj sinjorinoj. La gastoj sidis aux staris en malgrandaj grupoj, kaj +interparolis kun videbla plezuro. Unu rakontis pri vojagxo, kaj tiam +oni komencis priparoli la prezojn de aferoj en aliaj landoj. Mi atente +auxskultis kelkajn minutojn, kaj tiam foriris al alia grupo, kie oni +gaje babilis pri estontaj ("future") promenoj kaj festoj. Post unu aux +du horoj, la servistinoj alportis al ni bonan malgrandan mangxon, kune +kun tasoj da bonega kafo. Fine, je malfrua horo ni gxentile dankis la +familion de mia kuzo, kaj diris adiaux. Tiam ni foriris hejmen, kun +sentoj da granda plezuro pro la agrabla festo. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. There are dozens of edible fruits, but the fruits of hundreds of +trees are not at all ("tute ne estas") edible. 2. The transparent cup +and plate upon the table are very breakable. 3. I predict that you will +break them as soon as you seize them. 4. That letter is worth reading. +5. But it is difficult to read it, for it is not very legible. 6. It is +from my uncle, who wishes to arrive at-our-house as early as possible. +7. He is still in the city, but soon he will be here, and will go up the +steps ("sxtuparon") of our porch and knock on the door. 8. There are +very few persons who contradict his opinions. 9. His opinions, however, +are worthy of attention (154) and usually I listen courteously while he +is talking. 10. Now, however, I prefer to listen to the group of ladies +in the adjacent room. 11. They are chattering gaily, and listening +to the young lady who is about to sing. 12. Madam, do you feel the +wind? I notice that it is blowing the curtains which hang before that +window. 13. I will close the window, because I am not very well ("sana") +today. 14. Is that gentleman across the room a bachelor? 15. Yes. He is +describing a voyage and the people whom he met. + + + + LESSON XXXV. + + + "KIOM" AS A RELATIVE ADVERB. + +164. The interrogative adverb "kiom" (140) is used as a relative adverb +of quantity, with "tiom" or some equivalent word or phrase for its +antecedent. In this use it is commonly translated "as": + + La taso enhavis tiom da kafo, kiom mi povis trinki, + the cup contained as much coffee as I could drink. + Mi havos tiom da tempo, kiom mi bezonos, + I shall have as much time as I shall need. + Li sendis tiom, kiom vi volis, he sent as much as you wished. + + + THE PRESENT PASSIVE PARTICIPLE. + +165. The present passive participle (for the present active participle +see 108), expressing that which is "undergone by" the person or thing +indicated by the word modified, ends in "-ata", as "vidata", being +seen: + +[Footnote: The verb "iri", to go, used to illustrate the active +participles (108, 119, 152), cannot be used to illustrate a passive +participle, since passive participles can be made from transitive verbs +(22) only.] + + La lauxdata knabo estas felicxa, the boy being praised is happy. + Mi sercxos la deziratan libron, I shall look for the desired book. + La vestoj farataj por vi estas belaj, + the clothes being made for you are beautiful. + + + FRACTIONS. + +166. Fractions are formed from the cardinals by the use of the suffix +"-on-" followed by the ending "-o". Adjectives and adverbs may be +derived from these by use of the endings "-a" or "-e": + + La duono de ses estas tri, the half of six is three. + Li estis nur duone atenta, he was only half attentive. + La triona parto de ses estas du, the third part of six is two. + Dek unu dekduonoj, eleven twelfths. + Mi dudekone finis la laboron, I one-twentieth finished the work. + + + DESCRIPTIVE COMPOUNDS. + +167. A compound word whose first element modifies the second in an +adjectival or adverbial relation is called a "descriptive compound". +The final "-a" or "-e" of the first element may be omitted, unless the +resulting combination would be ambiguous or harsh-sounding. + +a. When the first element is adverbial (an adverb or preposition), the +second element may be either an adverb or adjective: + + multekosta, expensive. + duonkolere, half angrily. + nevidebla, invisible. + nevole, involuntarily. + rugxflava (rugxeflava), reddish yellow. + survoje, on the way, en route. + antauxhieraux, day before yesterday. + postmorgaux, day after tomorrow. + +b. An adjective may be used for the first element, if the second is an +adverb or adjective "derived from a noun-root": + + samtempa, contemporaneous. + unufoje, once, one time. + trifoje, thrice, three times. + unutaga, one day's, of one day. + unuataga, the first day's. + frutempe, at an early time. + +c. A noun may be used for the second element, if the resulting word +has not merely unity of form, but also unity of meaning with a +slightly different sense from that expressed by the noun and adjective +uncombined: + +[Footnote: In national languages a change of accent often accompanies +such change in meaning, as "BLACKberry" (not "black BERry"), "BLUEbird" +(not "blue BIRD"), "SWEETheart" (not "sweet HEART"), German "JUNGfrau", +"virgin" (not "jung FRAU", young woman), etc.] + + bonveno, a welcome (not "bona veno", a good coming). + libertempo, a vacation, leisure (not "libera tempo", free time). + superjaro, leap-year (not "super jaro", above a year). + bondeziroj, good wishes, felicitations + (not "bonaj deziroj", good desires). + plimulto, a majority (adverb and noun combined). + + + VOCABULARY + + hxin-o = Chinaman. naci-o = nation. + jam = already. pagx-o = page. + kler-a = enlightened, learned. pres-i = to print. + komerc-o = trade, commerce. pulv-o = gunpowder. + lanc-o = spear, lance. sxangx-i = to change. + liber-a = free. te-o = tea. + metod-o = method, way. ted-a = tiresome, tedious. + +[Footnote: The adverb "jam" indicates a change from some preceding +action or state to the different one expressed in the sentence, clause +or phrase containing "jam". It may often be translated "yet," "now," +etc. "Mi jam vidis lin", I already saw (have already seen) him. "Cxu vi +jam trovis gxin? Ne, mi ankoraux ne trovis gxin". Have you yet (have you +already) found it? No, I have not yet (still not) found it. "Li jam ne +vivas", he no longer lives (he already is-not-alive). "Jam ne negxas", +it is not snowing now (already not snowing).] + + + LA HXINOJ. + +Antaux miloj da jaroj la hxinoj estis la plej klera nacio en la mondo. +Dum aliaj nacioj ankoraux ne konis metodojn por presi librojn, kaj +ankoraux faris ilin skribe, la samtempaj hxinoj jam estis forlasintaj +tiun multekostan kaj tedan metodon. Ili jam estis presantaj la pagxojn +de miloj da libroj. Aliaj nacioj tiam estis batalantaj kiel eble plej +kruele, per sago kaj pafarko, kaj per lanco. Sed ili ankoraux ne havis +pafilojn, cxar pulvo estis tute nekonata al ili. Tamen la hxinoj jam +bone konis metodojn por fari kaj por uzi pulvon, kaj faris tiajn amuzajn +flavrugxajn fajrojn, kiajn ni ankoraux hodiaux acxetas de ili, por uzi +je festaj tagoj. Sed la hxinoj ne multe sxatis la komercon, kaj ne +deziris acxeti aux lerni de aliaj nacioj. Ili ankoraux nun havas la +samajn metodojn por presi librojn kaj por fari pulvon, kiajn ili havis +antaux mil jaroj. Ili malofte sxangxas siajn kutimojn. Tial la aliaj +nacioj, kiuj antauxe ne estis tiel kleraj, antauxeniras pli rapide ol +la hxinoj. La lando de la hxinoj enhavas tiom da personoj, kiom tri aux +kvar aliaj nacioj. Granda parto de tiu lando estas ankoraux nekonata al +okcidentaj nacioj, kvankam plej multe da nia teo elvenas el la hxina +lando. Oni diras ke la parolata lingvo kaj la skribata lingvo de la +hxinoj estas du tre malsamaj aferoj. La lingvo estas almenaux treege +malfacila, kaj post kiam oni estas longe studinta gxin, oni tamen estas +nur duone lerninta gxin. Mi gxojas tial ke la lingvoj studataj en la +lernejoj de nia lando ne estas tiel malfacilaj kiel la hxina lingvo. La +latina kaj germana lingvoj estas suficxe malfacilaj, kvankam ili estas +tre interesaj kaj ankaux konataj de la kleruloj en multaj landoj. La +latina lingvo jam ne estas parolata lingvo. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Why are the persons in that merry group laughing and chattering +instead of listening to Mr. B----? 2. I think that the doctor is telling +stories about a bachelor who was once a good friend of his. 3. The +gentleman being talked about (160, 165) will visit us this evening, +possibly. 4. My aunt and cousin will come down stairs and converse with +him. 5. We shall drink as many cups of tea or of coffee as we wish. 6. +He will say "How is your health, Madam?" My aunt will reply half-angrily +that she is seldom ill. 7. We shall sit on the veranda, for the sun is +still shining, although it is already setting. 8. That young lady who +came with Mrs. C---- relates the best possible stories. 9. She says +that the Chinese were already an enlightened nation hundreds of years +ago, while other nations were still cruelly fighting. 10. A method for +printing the pages of books, instead of writing them, was a discovery +of the Chinese. They printed books in their printing-shops, a thousand +years ago. 12. They also were-acquainted-with gunpowder, which they made +and used for such fires as we use on national days of-celebration, when +we have leisure and wish to enjoy (to amuse) ourselves. 13. But the +Chinese have not changed these methods. 14. Their ways of commerce, work +and pleasure are the same as they were long ago. 15. Such a nation does +not progress rapidly, even though its life is very long. + + + + LESSON XXXVI. + + + THE PRESENT PASSIVE TENSE. + +168. The compound tense formed by combining the present passive +participle with the present tense of the auxiliary verb "esti" expresses +an act or condition as "being undergone" by the subject of the verb, and +is called the "present passive tense". The conjugation of "vidi" in this +tense is as follows: + + mi estas vidata, I am (being) seen. + vi estas vidata, you are (being) seen. + li (sxi, gxi) estas vidata, he (she, it) is (being) seen. + ni estas vidataj, we are (being) seen. + vi estas vidataj, you are (being) seen. + ili estas vidataj, they are (being) seen. + + + THE USE OF "DE" TO EXPRESS AGENCY. + +169. The person by whom (or the thing by which) an act, indicated by a +passive verb or participle, is performed is called the "agent" of the +passive voice, and is expressed by a substantive preceded by "de": + + La lanco estas portata de mi, the spear is carried by me. + La libroj estas jam presataj de li, + the books are already being printed by him. + La vojoj estas kovrataj de negxo, + the roads are being covered by snow. + Sxi estas lauxdata de la sinjoro, + she is being praised by the gentleman. + + + THE GENERAL MEANING OF "DE". + +170. The preposition "de" conveys the general idea of separation from a +source or starting point, in space (literal or figurative), or in time +(89, 131). This meaning develops into that of the source from which +connection or ownership arises (49), and also into that of the agency +from which an act is done or a condition caused (169). The prepositional +phrase containing "de" must be so placed as to avoid ambiguity in its +meaning, or must be reinforced by an adverb or other word: + + La arbo estas malproksima de la domo, the tree is far from the house. + Gxi estas proksima de la gxardeno, it is near to (from) the garden. + Mi prenas la libron for de la knabo, + I take the book away from the boy. + Mi prenas la libron de la knabo, I take the book of the boy. + La afero dependas de vi, the matter depends upon (from) you. + + + WORD DERIVATION FROM PRIMARY ADVERBS. + +171. Adjectives, verbs, and nouns may be derived from primary adverbs +(66), as well as from prepositions (120, 159): + + La nunaj metodoj, the present methods (methods of-now). + Mi adiauxis lin per adiauxa saluto, + I bade farewell to him by a farewell salute (see also 273). + Ni faris tujan intersxangxon, we made an immediate exchange. + Cxu li skribis jesan aux nean respondon? + Did he write an affirmative or a negative answer? + Anstataux nei, li respondis jese, + instead of denying, he answered affirmatively. + La morgauxa festo estos pli agrabla ol la hierauxa, + tomorrow's (the morrow's) celebration will be more pleasant + than that of yesterday. + La tiamaj personoj estis liaj samtempuloj, + the persons of-that-time were his contemporaries. + + + THE SUFFIX "-IST-". + +172. The suffix "-ist-" is added to roots to express the profession, +trade or occupation connected with the idea in the root: + + floristo = florist. okulisto = oculist. + komercisto = trader, merchant. presisto = printer. + servisto = servant. sxtelisto = thief. + + + VOCABULARY + + administr-i = to manage. mont-o = mountain. + antikv-a = ancient nom-o = name. + Euxrop-o = Europe. proksim-a = near. + grav-a = important, serious. reprezent-i = to represent. + ital-a = Italian. respublik-o = republic. + kvadrat-a = square. tiran-o = tyrant. + +[Footnote: The words "antikva", "maljuna", "malnova", all of which may +at times be translated "old," must not be confused in use: Mi havas +malnovan cxapelon, "I have an old hat (a hat which is not new)". Li +estas maljuna sinjoro, "he is an old (aged) gentleman". Li estas malnova +amiko mia, "he is an old friend of mine (a friend of long standing)". La +hxinoj estis kleraj ecx en la antikva tempo, "the Chinese were learned +even in the olden time (in ancient time)". La antikvaj kleruloj jam +sciis tre multe, "the ancient learned (enlightened) men already knew a +great deal". La maljuna sinjoro en la malnovaj vestoj estas antikvisto, +"the old gentleman with the old clothes is an antiquary".] + + + ANTIKVA RESPUBLIKO. + +La plej antikva respubliko en Euxropo kusxas en la norda parto de la +bela itala lando, inter la maro kaj la rivero, proksime de la montoj. +Gxia nomo estas San Marino, kaj gxi estas respubliko de antaux mil +kvarcent jaroj. Kvankam la cxirkauxaj landoj kaj nacioj apartenis en +antikva tempo al la tiamaj regxoj, San Marino jam estis libera. Gxiaj +aferoj estas ankoraux administrataj tiel, kiel la anoj (145) volas, +ne kiel unu aux alia regxo aux tirano deziras. Dufoje en la jaro la +anoj elektas personojn, kiuj administros la gravajn aferojn de la +respubliko dum la sekvontaj ses monatoj. Kvardek ses el tiuj personoj +reprezentas la anojn, kaj unu alia estas regxo tiun duonon da jaro. +Per tia metodo, la anoj estas bone reprezentataj, kaj la aferoj estas +administrataj kiel eble plej sagxe. La tuta respubliko enhavas nur +dudek du kvadratajn mejlojn da tero. En la respubliko kaj la tiea (171) +urbo kiu havas la saman nomon, ne estas tiom da personoj kiom en multaj +italaj urboj. Tamen cxi tiu respubliko estas pli granda ol multaj +antikvaj grekaj respublikoj. La grekaj respublikoj estis bonekonataj, +kaj enhavis multe da kleruloj inter siaj anoj. Sed en la nuna tempo la +grekoj havas regxon. Oni ne trovas tre klerajn personojn en San Marino, +tamen la laboristoj estas energiaj, kaj laboras kiel eble plej multe. +La rikoltistoj plej ofte havas bonajn rikoltojn, kaj la plimulto da +personoj estas treege kontenta kaj felicxa. Oni ne pensas pri komerco +aux eksterlandaj (167, a) aferoj kaj ne volas vojagxi malproksimen de la +bone amata hejmo. Oni preferas gaje amuzi sin cxehejme (167, a), en la +libertempo inter la rikoltoj, kaj la vivo tute ne sxajnas malfacila aux +teda. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. The serious affairs of a republic are managed by persons representing +the persons who live there. 2. The inhabitants are well represented, and +as free as possible. 3. Enlightened persons often prefer to live in a +republic. 4. Persons who have a good king are very happy, but those who +have a bad king are as unhappy as possible. 5. Nowadays ("nuntempe") +there are very few tyrants. 6. The majority of the kings of Europe are +praiseworthy. 7. That nation which was most enlightened a thousand years +ago was the Chinese nation. 8. The Chinese of-that-time already had +good printers among them. 9. It is said (54) that the Chinese drink as +much tea as two or three contemporary nations. 10. The oldest republic +in Europe is named San Marino. 11. It is near the mountains, in the +northern part of the much praised Italian land. 12. It contains only +twenty-two square miles, and is therefore one of the smallest republics +in the world. 13. Fourteen hundred years ago it was already a republic, +and it is still that same republic. 14. The inhabitants are energetic +and patient, and have as much to eat as they need. 15. There are bakers +and shopkeepers (172) and many laborers among them. 16. They do not +think about commerce, or greatly ("multe") change their customs. 17. +They seldom take ("faras") tiresome journeys, but remain peacefully +("pace") at home. + + + + LESSON XXXVII. + + + THE DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUN. + +173. The distributive pronoun (and pronominal adjective) is "cxiu", each +(one), every (one). Sometimes it is equivalent to English "any", as in +"Any one who studies can learn," etc. The plural is "cxiuj", every, all. +The article is never interposed between "cxiuj" and the noun modified +(as in English "all the men"), and is used only if "cxiuj" is pronominal +and followed by "el": + +[Footnote: The use of "cxiu" and "cxiuj" must be distinguished from that +of the adjective "tuta", which means "all" in the sense of "entire": +"Cxiuj viroj laboras la tutan tagon", all men work all (the whole) day. +"Mi vidis cxiun vizagxon, + sed mi ne vidis la tutan vizagxon de cxiu viro", +I saw every face, + but I did not see all the face of each man.] + + Cxiu, kiu studos, lernos, every one who studies will learn. + Mi vidis cxiun el ili, kaj parolis al cxiu knabo, + I saw each of them, and talked to every boy. + Mi dankas vin cxiujn, I thank you all (I thank all of you). + Ni cxiuj estas reprezentataj, we are all (all of us are) represented. + Cxiuj el la maristoj alvenis, all (every one) of the sailors arrived. + +174. The distributive pronoun has a possessive or genitive form "cxies", +every-one's, every-body's: + + Li konas cxies nomon, he knows every-one's name. + Cxies opinio estis diversa, every-body's opinion was different. + Kies vocxojn mi auxdas? Cxies, whose voices do I hear? Everybody's. + + + THE PREPOSITION "PO". + +175. The preposition "po", at the rate of, at, is used chiefly before +cardinals and has a distributive sense: + + Li marsxas po kvar mejloj cxiutage, + he walks at the rate of four miles daily (every-day). + Mi acxetis kafon po malalta prezo, I bought coffee at a low price. + Mi acxetis viandon po kvarono da dolaro por funto, + I bought meat at a quarter of a dollar for (per) pound. + La cxapelisto acxetas cxapelojn pogrande, + the hatter buys hats wholesale. + + + DEPENDENT COMPOUNDS. + +176. A compound word whose first element is a substantive, dependent +upon the second element in some prepositional relation, is called a +"dependent compound". (If the two words were not united into one, the +first element would be preceded by a preposition, or would be in the +accusative case.) The ending "-o" may be omitted from the first element +of a dependent compound: + +[Footnote: A personal pronoun serving as the first element of a +dependent compound may keep the accusative ending, to indicate its +construction: "sinlauxdo", self-praise. "sinekzameno", self-examination. +"sindefendo", self-defence. "sinkontrauxdira", self-contradictory.] + + jarcento, century (cento da jaroj). + mangxocxambro, dining-room (cxambro por mangxoj). + noktomezo, midnight (mezo de la nokto). + paperfaristo, papermaker (faristo de papero). + sunbrilo, sunshine (brilo de la suno). + tagmezo, noon (mezo de la tago). + vespermangxo, supper (mangxo je la vespero). + ventoflago, weathercock (flago por la vento). + + + VOCABULARY + + cxies = every body's (174). lag-o = lake. + cxiu = every-body (173). po = at the rate of (175). + decid-i = to decide. sever-a = severe. + dev-o = duty. stang-o = pole. + fleks-i = to bend. svis-o = Swiss. + genu-o = knee. vend-i = to sell. + intenc-i = to intend. Vilhelm-o = William. + jugx-i = to judge. vort-o = word. + + + LA CXAPELO SUR LA STANGO. + +Antaux ol Svislando estis tiel libera kiel la nuna svisa respubliko, +gxiaj aferoj estis administrataj de personoj kiuj reprezentis aliajn +naciojn. Ofte tiuj personoj estis kiel eble plej severaj jugxistoj al la +svisoj. Unufoje plej kruela tirano estis administranta aferojn svisajn. +Li elpensis rimarkindan metodon por montri sian povon ("power"), kaj por +esti malagrabla al la svisoj. Li decidis meti sian cxapelon sur altan +stangon en la vendejo ("market-place"), en malgranda vilagxo apud bela +lago inter la altaj montoj. Li diris ke de nun tiu cxapelo reprezentas +lin, kaj portos lian nomon. Saluti la cxapelon estos la grava devo de +cxiu persono en la vilagxo. Estos cxies devo ne nur saluti la cxapelon, +sed ankaux genufleksi ("kneel") antaux la stango. La tirano diris ke +li forprenos la domon, la kampojn kaj tiom da mono, kiom li povos, de +cxiu vilagxano aux kamparano kiu forgesos genufleksi. "Mi intencas sendi +gardistojn," li diris, "kiuj rimarkos cxu vi cxiuj genufleksos kiam +vi estas proksimaj de la stango." Je tagmezo alvenis gardistoj, por +rimarki cxu la necesaj salutoj estos farataj de cxiuj, kaj por kapti +cxiujn svisojn kiuj ne genufleksis. Baldaux la kamparanoj komencis eniri +la vendejon, por vendi legomojn po kiel eble altaj prezoj, kaj por +acxeti vestojn kaj aliajn aferojn po treege plej malaltaj prezoj. Cxiu, +kiu iris proksimen de la stango, zorge genufleksis antaux la cxapelo +de la malamata tirano, pro timo pri la hejmoj kaj la familioj. Fine, +kamparano, kies nomo estis Vilhelmo Tell, eniris la vendejon, kaj staris +du aux tri minutojn proksime de la stango, dum li diris kelkajn vortojn +al amiko. Sed anstataux fari tujan saluton, aux genufleksi, li tute ne +rigardis la stangon. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. The day before yesterday my youngest cousin was sitting on my knee, +and I told him that a rainbow ("cxielarko") is made by the sunshine and +the rain. 2. My cousin goes to school every day, after he has breakfast +in the dining-room. 3. A new school is being built, not far from the +home of the judge. 4. It is my cousin's duty to study those books at +the rate of ten pages a day. 5. My cousin and I decided last night +(93) to buy new hats for ourselves. 6. We intend to go to the hatter's +early tomorrow morning. 7. I think that all clothes are being sold +at a low price at-the-present-time. 8. During a visit at a friend's, +I read an interesting book about ancient Europe. 9. It relates that +several centuries ago a severe and cruel tyrant was managing affairs +in Switzerland. 10. Once he put his hat on a pole in the market-place, +and said that it was the duty of-every-one to kneel before it. 11. This +serious affair happened in a village one or two miles square, on ("cxe") +the lake not far from the mountains through which one goes on the way +(167, a) to the Italian land. 12. William Tell did not kneel or even +look at the hat representing the tyrant. + + + + LESSON XXXVIII. + + THE DISTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVE. + +177. The distributive adjective related to the distributive pronoun +"cxiu", giving a comprehensive idea of the quality of some person or +thing, is "cxia", every kind of, every sort of: + + Oni vendas cxiajn fruktojn tie, + they sell every sort of fruit there. + Estas cxiaj personoj en la mondo, + there are all sorts of persons in the world. + + THE IMPERFECT PASSIVE TENSE. + +178. The compound tense formed by combining the present passive +participle with the past tense of the auxiliary verb "esti" expresses +an act or condition as being undergone by the subject of the verb "at +some time in the past". It is called the "imperfect passive tense". The +conjugation of "vidi" in this tense is as follows: + + mi estis vidata, I was (being) seen. + vi estis vidata, you were (being) seen. + li (sxi, gxi) estis vidata, he (she, it) was (being) seen. + ni estis vidataj, we were (being) seen. + vi estis vidataj, you were (being) seen. + ili estis vidataj, they were (being) seen. + + + COMPOUND TENSES OF IMPERSONAL VERBS. + +179. When impersonal verbs, or other verbs used impersonally, are in +compound tenses, the participial element is given the ending "-e", like +other modifiers of impersonally used verbs (141): + + Estis pluvante antaux unu minuto, it was raining a minute ago. + Estis multe negxinte, it had snowed a great deal. + Estis vidate ke cxiu ploras, it was seen that every one wept. + + + RECIPROCAL EXPRESSIONS. + +180. To give a reciprocal sense, when there are two or more subjects and +the action goes from one to the other (expressed in English by "each +other," "one another," "mutually," "reciprocally"), the phrases "unu la +alian", "unu al la alia", etc., or the adverb "reciproke", is used: + + Estas nia devo helpi unu la alian, + it is our duty to help one another. + Ili parolas unu al la alia, + they are talking to each other. + La viroj reciproke uzis siajn pafilojn, + the men used each other's guns. + Ili falis unu sur la alian, + they fell upon each other. + + THE SUFFIX "-UJ-". + +181. The suffix "-uj-" may be used to form words indicating "that which +contains, bears, or is a receptacle for", some number or quantity of +that which is expressed by the root. It may be used instead of "-lando" +to form the name of a region containing any one race or tribe, and +instead of "-arbo" to form the names of fruit trees: + + ujo = a receptacle. patrujo (patrolando) = fatherland. + monujo = purse. sukerujo = sugar-bowl. + supujo = soup-tureen. pomujo (pomarbo) = apple-tree. + leterujo = letter-case. sagujo = quiver. + + + VOCABULARY + + ag-i = to act. mort-i = to die. + ceter-a = remaining. pet-i = to plead, to request. + cxia = of every kind (177). prepar-i = to prepare. + fier-a = proud. pun-i = to punish. + imag-i = to imagine. reciprok-a = reciprocal, mutual. + konduk-i = to lead. simil-a = like, similar. + kor-o = heart. tusx-i = to touch. + + + VILHELMO TELL KAJ LA POMO. + +Tuj kiam la gardistoj rimarkis ke la cxapelo sur la stango ne estis +salutata de Vilhelmo Tell, ili kaptis lin, kaj kondukis lin al la +tirano, por esti jugxata. La tirano demandis de Tell kial li ne +genufleksis antaux la cxapelo, simile al la aliaj vilagxanoj. Tell +respondis fiere ke li ne sciis pri la cxiutagaj genufleksoj de la aliaj +personoj. Li diris ke li tute ne intencis agi kontraux la deziroj de +la jugxistoj. Sed la tirano malamis la altan fortan svison, tial li +decidis puni lin per severa puno, kaj demandis "Kiun el viaj infanoj +vi plej amas?" Vilhelmo Tell ne povis imagi kial la demando estas +farata al li, kaj respondis "Mi amas cxiujn el ili, sinjoro." La tirano +diris "Nu, estas rakontate inter la vilagxanoj ke vi estas rimarkinda +arkpafisto ("archer"). Ni eltrovos kia arkpafisto vi estas. Ni vidos +cxu vi povos forpafi pomon de sur la kapo de via plej juna filo. Aldone +("in addition"), estos via devo forpafi la pomon per la unua sago, alie +("otherwise") mi punos vin kaj vian filon per tuja morto." Tell diris +ke li estas preta por ricevi cxian alian punon, anstataux tia puno, +sed malgraux cxies petoj la tirano estis jam elektanta pomon de apuda +pomarbo. Li kondukis la knabon malproksimen de la ceteraj personoj, kaj +metis la pomon sur lian kapon. Tell kaj la filo reciproke rigardis sin, +dum la patro diris ke li ne tusxos haron de lia kapo. Tiam li elprenis +sagon el la sagujo, faris la necesajn preparojn, kaj rapide pafis. Tuj +la pomo forfalis de la kapo de la infano, kaj cxiu havis felicxan koron. +Dum Tell cxirkauxprenis la filon, la tirano demandis "Kial vi havas tiun +ceteran sagon en la mano." Tell lauxte respondis "Por mortpafi vin, tuj +post la infano, cxar mi treege timis pro la vivo de mia kara filo." + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. William Tell had a strong flexible (161) bow. 2. He could +shoot-with-a-bow ("arkpafi") excellently, therefore he was a well-known +archer. 3. He put six or eight arrows into his quiver, and went with his +sons to the village. 4. Possibly he saw the hat upon the pole, but he +did not kneel before it. 5. It was being noticed already in the village +that Tell hated the tyrant very much. 6. When the guards seized him +for that act, and led him before the tyrant, who was also the judge, +Tell said "I did not know about this new duty, and could not imagine +why the hat was on the pole there." 7. The tyrant replied with ("per") +angry words, for he hated the proud Swiss whom every one else loved. +8. He said severely "It is said that you are a praiseworthy archer. 9. +Therefore I was wondering whether you could shoot an apple from your +son's head. 10. Now we shall see whether you can shoot off the apple, or +whether you will touch the child's head." 11. Amid the pleadings of all, +Tell successfully shot off the apple. 12. A similar second arrow was +ready in his hand. 13. The tyrant saw the remaining arrow, and prepared +to punish Tell by death. 14. But he escaped, and the Swiss congratulated +each other heartily ("kore"). 15. After some time they followed him, at +the rate of six miles an hour. + + + + LESSON XXXIX. + + + THE DISTRIBUTIVE ADVERB OF PLACE. + +182. The distributive adverb of place, related to the distributive +pronoun "cxiu", is "cxie", everywhere. The ending "-n" may be added to +"cxie" to show direction of motion (121): + + Oni trovas tiajn virojn cxie, + such men are found everywhere. + Li iris cxien, kie mi estis estinta, + he went everywhere where I had been. + Mi vidas lin cxie, kien mi iras, + I see him everywhere I go. + + + THE FUTURE PASSIVE TENSE. + +183. The compound tense formed by combining the present passive +participle with the future tense of "esti" indicates that an act or +condition "will be undergone" by the subject of the verb. It is called +the "future passive tense". The conjugation of "vidi" in this tense is +as follows: + + mi estos vidata, I shall be seen. + vi estos vidata, you will be seen. + li (sxi, gxi) estos vidata, he (she, it) will be seen. + ni estos vidataj, we shall be seen. + vi estos vidataj, you will be seen. + ili estos vidataj, they will be seen. + + + POSSESSIVE COMPOUNDS. + +184. Compound adjectives may be formed with an adjectival root for the +first element, and a noun-root for the second element. Such adjectives +have the meaning "possessed of" that which is indicated in the compound. +(Similar adjectives are formed in English, with "-ed" as the final +syllable): + + belbrova = beautiful-browed. longnaza = long-nosed. + bonintenca = good-intentioned. kvarpieda = four-footed. + dumana = two-handed. rugxhara = red-haired. + + + THE TIME OF DAY. + +185. The ordinals are used in expressing the hour of the day, with +"horo" expressed or understood. The minutes are expressed by the +cardinals. In questions the adjective "kioma" (from "kiom", how much) +is used: + + Kioma horo estas? What hour (what o'clock, what time) is it? + Je kioma horo vi venos? At what time (what o'clock) will you come? + Estas la dua horo, it is two o'clock (it is the second hour). + Estas la tria kaj kvin minutoj, it is five minutes past three. + Ni iris je la sesa kaj duono, we went at half past six. + Estas la oka kaj kvardek kvin + (or: estas unu kvarono antaux la nauxa), + it is eight forty-five (a quarter of nine). + + + THE SUFFIX "-OBL-". + +186. The suffix "-obl-" is used to form multiples indicating how many +fold, as "two fold," "double," "triple," etc.: + + duoblo, a double. + duobla, double. + duoble, doubly. + kvarobla, quadruple. + kvindekobla, fifty-fold. + multobla, manifold. + Trioble du estas ses, three times two is six. + + + VOCABULARY + + bilet-o = ticket. pag-i = to pay. + cend-o = cent. preter = beyond, past. + cxie = everywhere (182). staci-o = station. + esprim-o = expression. telefon-i = to telephone. + gicxet-o = wicket, ticket-window. vagon-o = car. + horlogx-o = clock. valiz-o = valise. + +[Footnote: The preposition "preter" indicates the movement of something +alongside of and passing beyond something else. Since it does not +express motion "toward" its complement, it cannot be followed by the +accusative.] + + + EN LA STACIDOMO. + +Du bonkoraj (184) amikoj miaj logxas en la urbo B----. Ni reciproke +konas nin de antaux ses jaroj. Mi estis duoble gxoja hieraux kiam mi +ricevis leteron de ili, cxar en tiu ili petis de mi baldauxan viziton. +Tial mi telefonis hieraux posttagmeze al la stacidomo, por demandi +je kioma horo foriros la vagonaro ("train") al B----. Oni respondis +per la telefono ke la vagonaro foriros je la tria kaj tridek kvin. +Tuj poste mi enmetis kelkajn vestojn en mian jam preskaux eluzitan +valizon, kaj faris cxiujn preparojn por la mallonga vojagxo. Je la dua +horo, tuj post la tagmangxo ("midday meal"), mi marsxis stacidomon. +Survoje mi eniris butikon kaj acxetis paron da novaj gantoj. Kiam mi +eniris la stacidomon, mi kuris preter la aliaj personoj al la gicxeto +kie biletoj estas vendataj. Mi diris al la sinjoro cxe la gicxeto "Mi +deziras bileton al B----. Kiom estos necese pagi?" La brunokula sinjoro +respondis "Tia bileto kostos dolaron dudek cendojn." Mi pusxis tiom da +mono tra la gicxeto, kaj tuj ricevis la bileton, kiun la sinjoro jam +havis en la mano. Tiam mi iris proksimen de la pordego tra kiu oni estos +enlasata al la vagonaro. "Kiom da tempo antaux la foriro de la vagonaro +al B----?" mi demandis al la gardisto. Li lauxtvocxe respondis "Nur sep +minutojn. Cxu vi ne vidas tiun horlogxon?" Mi ne estis rimarkinta la +horlogxon, tial mi almetis la montrilojn de mia posxhorlogxo ("watch") +por montri la saman horon. Mi estis multe tusxata de cxiaj bonintencaj +personoj kurantaj cxien preter mi, kaj pusxantaj unu la alian. Fine oni +malfermis la pordegon. Mi kaj la ceteraj personoj rapidis al la vagonaro +kaj kiel eble plej baldaux eniris gxin. + +[Footnote: "Posttagmezo", afternoon, is a descriptive compound (167, a) +whose second element "tagmezo" is a dependent compound (176).] + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Because of the request of my friend whose brother died recently, I +went last ("la antauxan") week to visit him. 2. The remaining persons of +his family were not at home. 3. I telephoned to find out at what time +the train would depart. 4. I was told (54) that it would leave at four +twenty-seven. 5. I put enough money into my purse, and carried along +("kunportis") a valise into which I had put some clothes. 6. When I +entered the station, I hurried past the other people to the wicket, and +asked for ("petis") a ticket to B----. 7. The ticket seller said "Two +dollars and forty cents." 8. I could not imagine why it was necessary to +pay so much, but I at once pushed that much money through the window, +and received the ticket. 9. Then I looked at my watch and went near the +gate, but the yellowhaired guard who conducts persons to the trains +said "Persons who go through that gate before the train arrives will be +severely punished." 10. So all of us stood near the double gate. 11. The +trains are much like each other, and it is better to act as the guards +request, and not express impatience. + + + + LESSON XL. + + + THE DISTRIBUTIVE TEMPORAL ADVERB. + +187. The distributive adverb of time, related to the distributive +pronoun "cxiu", is "cxiam", always, at all times: + + Vi cxiam pagas tro multe, you always pay too much. + Mi estas cxiam preta por helpi vin, I am always ready to help you. + + + THE DISTRIBUTIVE ADVERB "CXIAL". + +188. The distributive adverb of motive or reason, related to the pronoun +"cxiu", is "cxial", for every reason, for all reasons: + + Cxial li estas felicxa hodiaux, for every reason he is happy today. + La mia cxial estas la plej bona, mine is for all reasons the best. + + + THE PAST PASSIVE PARTICIPLE. + +189. The past passive participle expresses an act or condition as +"having been undergone" by the person or thing indicated by the word +modified. This participle ends in "-ita", as "vidita", having been +seen: + + La prezo pagita de vi estis tro granda, + the price paid by you was too great. + La punita infano ploras, + the (having-been) punished child is crying. + Mi acxetos bonefaritajn gantojn, + I shall buy well-made gloves. + Li sercxis la forgesitan bileton, + he looked for the forgotten ticket. + + + THE PERFECT PASSIVE TENSE. + +190. The compound tense formed by combining the past passive participle +with the present tense of the verb "esti" expresses an act or condition +which "has been undergone" by the subject of the verb. It is called the +"perfect passive tense". The conjugation of the verb "vidi" in this +tense is as follows: + + mi estas vidita, I have been seen (I am having-been-seen). + vi estas vidita, you have been seen. + li (sxi, gxi) estas vidita, he (she, it) has been seen. + ni estas viditaj, we have been seen. + vi estas viditaj, you have been seen. + ili estas viditaj, they have been seen. + + + THE PREPOSITION "LAUX". + +191. In expressing that "in accordance with which" something is done, +takes place, moves, etc., the preposition "laux" is used: + + + Li agis laux sia opinio, + he acted in accordance with his own opinion. + Mi faros gxin laux bona metodo, + I shall do it according to a good method. + Laux kia maniero li agis? + In what manner did he act? + Mi marsxis laux la strato, + I walked down (or up) the street. + Li iris laux la rivero per tiu vojo, + he went along the river by that road. + Nuboj nigraj kuris laux la cxielo, + black clouds raced along the sky. + Gxi kusxas lauxlonge de la domo, + it lies lengthwise of the house. + + + THE SUFFIX "-EM-". + +192. The suffix "-em-" indicates a "tendency" or "inclination" toward +that which is expressed in the root: + + agema = active. pacema = peaceful, pacific. + mallaborema = lazy. pensema = pensive, thoughtful. + + + VOCABULARY + + atend-i = to wait (for), to expect. laux = according to (191). + cxial = for every reason (188). manier-o = manner, way. + cxiam = always (187). mov-i = to move (transitive) + gazet-o = magazine, gazette. okup-i = to occupy. + jxurnal-o = journal, paper. pal-a = pale. + kompat-i = to pity. polic-o = police. + larm-o = tear. trankvil-a = calm, tranquil. + + + LA PERDITA INFANO. + +Dum mi estis atendanta hieraux posttagmeze en la stacidomo, mi subite +rimarkis palan sinjorinon kun larmoj en sxiaj okuloj. Sxi rigardis +cxien kun esprimo de nekasxebla timo, kaj estis videble maltrankvila. +Sxi sercxis du aux tri minutojn inter la personoj cxirkaux si, kaj fine +sxi vidis bluevestitan policanon, kiu estis parolanta al unu el la +gardistoj. Sxi rapide diris kelkajn vortojn al li, kaj tuj li ankaux +komencis sercxi cie. Mi tre kompatis la ploreman sinjorinon, kaj kiam la +policano preteriris, mi demandis cxu mi ne povas helpi. Mi diris ke mi +ne estos okupata ("busy") gxis la alveno de la vagonaro. Li respondis +ke la filo de tiu virino estas perdita, kaj li donis al mi la sekvantan +priskribon de la infano, laux la vortoj de la patrino: la knabo estas +agema brunhara sesjarulo, kun bluaj okuloj, kaj li estas rugxe vestita +("dressed in red"). Lia patrino estis jxus acxetinta sian bileton cxe +la gicxeto, kaj post kiam sxi pagis la nauxdek cendojn por gxi, subite +sxi rimarkis ke la infano ne estis kun sxi. Kvankam sxi jam sercxis +cxie, la filo sxajnas ankoraux netrovebla. Sxi multe timas pro li, +kvankam li cxiam estas bona knabo. Mi tuj komencis marsxi cxien inter +la personoj cxirkaux mi, kaj fine eniris malgrandan cxambron apud la +horlogxo cxe la fino de la stacidomo, kie estas vendataj tagjxurnaloj +("newspapers"), gazetoj kaj libroj. Tie antaux nemovebla tablo kovrita +de brile koloritaj jxurnaloj staris malgranda rugxevestita knabo. Mi +diris al li "Mia studema juna amiko, oni ne vojagxas laux tiu metodo. +Via patrino jam de longe atendas vin. Mi montros al vi kie sxi estas." +Li venis kun mi, kaj proksime de la pordo kie mi estis lasinta mian +valizon staris la sinjorino. Sxi estis cxial gxoja kiam sxi vidis nin, +kaj dankeme cxirkauxprenis la infanon. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +lost in the station yesterday afternoon was very uneasy about him for +every reason. 2. She was pale and tearful ("plorema") when I saw her, +and looked in every direction in a most impatient manner. 3. There was +an expression of fear upon her face and she went as quickly as possible +to a nearby policeman, and said a few ("kelkajn") words to him. 4. I +heard the last words, and at once said to myself "It is now only ten +minutes past two. 5. My train will leave ("foriros") at half-past two, +so I have time to help." 6. I said to the blue-garbed policeman "During +the next ("sekvontajn") twenty minutes I shall not be busy. Do you +desire my help?" 7. He answered "Yes, you are very kind ("gxentila"). +The son of that lady has been lost. 8. According to her description, he +is a yellow-haired blue-eyed five-year-old, and apparently ("sxajne") +too restless ("movema"). 9. I shall find him as soon as possible, +nevertheless I shall gladly accept your help. 10. The child is dressed +in white and wears a red hat." 11. As ("cxar") I am not at all lazy +("mallaborema"), I went along the stationary ("nemoveblaj") tables +as-far-as the end of the station, and there I saw that-sort-of child, +looking at the magazines and newspapers. 12. I led him to the lady, who +with tears in + + + + LESSON XLI. + + + THE DISTRIBUTIVE ADVERB "CXIEL". + +193. The distributive adverb of manner, related to the distributive +pronoun "cxiu", is "cxiel", in every way, in every manner: + + Li povas cxiel prepari gxin, he can prepare it in every manner. + Li estos cxiel helpata, he will be helped in every way. + + + THE DISTRIBUTIVE ADVERB "CXIOM". + +194. The distributive adverb of quantity, related to the distributive +pronoun "cxiu", is "cxiom", every quantity, the whole, all: + + Li prenis multe da sukero, sed ne cxiom da gxi, + he took a great deal of sugar, but not all of it. + Li elprenis cxiom de la teo el la teujo, + he took all of the tea out of the tea caddy. + + + THE PLUPERFECT PASSIVE TENSE. + +195. The compound tense made by combining the past passive participle +with the past tense of the verb "esti" expresses an act or condition +which "had been undergone" by the subject of the verb at some point in +past time. It is called the "pluperfect passive tense". The conjugation +of "vidi" in this tense is as follows: + + mi estis vidita, I had been seen (I was having-been-seen). + vi estis vidita, you had been seen. + li (sxi, gxi) estis vidita, he (she, it) had been seen. + ni estis viditaj, we had been seen. + vi estis viditaj, you had been seen. + ili estis viditaj, they had been seen. + + + THE FUTURE PERFECT PASSIVE TENSE. + +196. The compound tense made by combining the past passive participle +with the future tense of the verb "esti" expresses an act or condition +which "will have been undergone" by the subject of the verb at some +point in future time. It is called the "future perfect passive tense". +The conjugation of "vidi" in this tense is as follows: + + mi estos vidita, I shall have been seen (shall be having-been-seen). + vi estos vidita, you will have been seen. + li (sxi, gxi) estos vidita, he (she, it) will have been seen. + ni estos viditaj, we shall have been seen. + vi estos viditaj, you will have been seen. + ili estos viditaj, they will have been seen. + + + THE EXPRESSION OF MATERIAL. + +197. The material "out of which" something is made or constructed is +expressed by use of the preposition "el". As in English, an adjective +may be used instead of the prepositional phrase unless a verb or +participle lays stress upon the fact of construction: + + La tablo estas farita el ligno, the table is made out of wood. + La tablo estas ligna (el ligno), the table is wooden (of wood). + La infanoj konstruis domon el negxo, + the children built a house of (out of) snow. + Oni faras supon el asparago, they make soup out of asparagus. + + + THE SUFFIX "-ET-". + +198. The suffix "-et-" indicates diminution of degree in that which is +expressed by the root. It is thus in contrast to the augmentative suffix +"-eg-" (122). Sometimes an affectionate significance is given: + + beleta = pretty. libreto = booklet. + dormeti = to doze. monteto = hill. + floreto = floweret, floret. rideti = to smile. + lageto = pond, small lake. vojeto = path. + + + VOCABULARY + + best-o = animal. leon-o = lion. + cxiel = in every way (193). lud-i = to play. + cxiom = the whole, all (194). material-o = material. + donac-o = gift, present. posed-i = to own, to possess. + drap-o = cloth. pup-o = doll. + hund-o = dog. rost-i = to roast. + konsist-i = to consist. versx-i = to pour. + + + LA DONACO. + +Mi volas doni beletan donacon al mia plej juna fratino morgaux, sed ju +pli mi pensas pri gxi, des pli malfacile estas decidi pri la afero. +Estas duoble malfacile, cxar sxi jam posedas cxiun ludilon ("toy") kiun +oni povas imagi. Cxiu el sxiaj amikoj gxoje donacas ("make presents") al +tiel afabla knabino. Tamen mi iris hieraux matene al ludilobutiko, kaj +rigardis la ludilojn tie. Multaj konsistis el diversaj pupoj, grandaj +kaj malgrandaj, kaj belege vestitaj. Sed mi estas certa ke la fratineto +jam posedas suficxe da pupoj--tial mi ne acxetis tian ludilon, kvankam +ili estas cxiam interesaj al knabinetoj. Sur unu tablo kusxis cxiaj +malgrandaj bestoj, faritaj el ligno, drapo, kaj diversaj materialoj. +Estis cxevaletoj, hundetoj, katetoj, kaj flavaj leonetoj. Proksime +de tiuj staris malgrandaj brile koloritaj vagonaroj, kiujn oni povis +rapide movi, laux la maniero de grandaj vagonaroj. Etaj policanoj staris +apude, kaj estis cxial malfacile elekti la plej interesan el tiom da +interesaj ludiloj. Baldaux mi rimarkis knabineton apud mi. Cxiel sxi tre +similis al mia fratino, kaj tial mi decidis elekti tian ludilon, kia +estos elektita plej frue de la nekonata knabineto. Mi atendis trankvile, +kaj ecx legis unu aux du pagxojn de miaj jxus acxetitaj gazetoj kaj +tagjxurnaloj. Fine la beleta infano estis rigardinta preskaux cxiom +de la ludiloj kiuj okupis la tablojn, dum la kompatinda servistino +lace sxin sekvis. Tiam la knabineto kriis "Ho, kiel beleta pupodomo! +Estas litoj en la dormocxambroj; legomoj kaj rostita viando, faritaj +el papero, kusxas sur la tablo en la mangxo-cxambro; kaj mi vidas tie +pupon, kiu certe jxus faris la teon, kaj estas elversxonta gxin en tiujn +tasetojn!" Tuj mi faris decidon laux la plezuro de la knabineto, kaj +baldaux la pupodomo estis acxetita por mia fratineto. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. My pale delicate ("malsanema") little sister is always happy when +she has a new toy. 2. Her dolls were made out of cloth when she was a +very little girl, because otherwise she could too easily break them. +3. But yesterday my grandmother made a present of a doll (presented a +doll) to her, and since that moment she has been as happy as possible. +4. I have not seen tears in her eyes, or heard a cross ("koleretan") +word. 5. This new doll is made out of cloth, and its dress consists of +very pretty material. 6. My sister decided that she likes it better +than her other playthings, and I think that those poor ("kompatindaj") +other dolls will soon have been forgotten. 7. The doll seems in every +way more interesting than the little animals made out of cloth or wood, +which are on the table with her dolls. 8. She possesses a little dog and +a little cat, and a little lion, and until yesterday she had a wooden +pony. 9. The pony is already broken, and has been given away to a poor +("malricxa") child, the daughter of our laundress ("lavistino"). 10. My +sister possesses a small train of cars which she can move everywhere, +and she is very fond of ("ametas") this toy. 11. There are small sacks +of sand in the cars, and usually she is happy when she is pouring the +sand out of one of these into another, or putting all of the sand into +a box, by means of a small spoon. 12. For every reason I am doubly glad +today that she is busied in this manner ("tiamaniere"). 13. I wish to +take a walk along that pleasant path toward the hill, instead of waiting +for my little sister. 14. I must buy the meat to roast for supper, +before I come home from my walk. + + + + LESSON XLII. + + + THE FUTURE PASSIVE PARTICIPLE. + +199. The future passive participle, expressing that which "will be or +is about to be undergone" by the person or thing indicated by the word +modified, ends in "-ota", as "vidota", about to be seen: + + La punota infano mallauxte ploretas, + the child about to be punished whimpers softly. + La formovota tablo estas peza, + the table about to be moved away is heavy. + La domo konstruota de li estos bela, + the house going to be built by him will be beautiful. + + + THE PASSIVE PERIPHRASTIC FUTURE TENSES. + +200. The compound tenses formed by combining the future passive +participle with each of the three aoristic tenses of "esti" represent +an act or condition as "about to be undergone" in the present, past, +or future, respectively. These are called "passive periphrastic future +tenses". Except when great accuracy is desired, these tenses, like those +of the active voice (153) are not often used. A synopsis of "vidi" in +the first person singular of these tenses is as follows: + + Present Periphrastic Future. + mi estas vidota, I am about to be (going to be) seen. + + Past Periphrastic Future. + mi estis vidota, I was about to be (going to be) seen. + + Future Periphrastic Future. + mi estos vidota, I shall be about to be (going to be) seen. + + + THE GENERIC ARTICLE. + +201. The article is placed before nouns used in a comprehensive or +universal sense, indicating a whole class, kind, substance, or abstract +quality. In such use it is called the "generic article": + + La pacienco estas lauxdinda, patience is praiseworthy. + La vivo surtera estas nur parto de la vivo cxiama, + life on earth is merely a part of the life eternal. + La viro estas pli forta ol la virino, + man is stronger than woman. + +[Footnote: Cf. French "La patience est amere, mais son fruit est doux, +patience is bitter, but its fruit is sweet", German "Das Leben ist +kurtz, life is short", Italian "La speranza e il pan de miseri, hope is +the poor man's bread", Spanish "Las riquezas son bagajes de la fortuna, +riches are the baggage of fortune", etc. In English the generic article +(as in "the life eternal" above) may often be replaced by omission of +both "a" and "the."] + + + THE SUFFIX "-EC-". + +202. The suffix "-ec-" is used to form words indicating the "abstract +quality" of that which is expressed in the root, or formation, to which +it is attached: + + amikeco = friendship. fleksebleco = flexibility. + ofteco = frequency. patreco = fatherhood. + indeco = worthiness. patrineco = motherhood. + dankemeco = thankfulness. maltrankvileco = uneasiness. + + + VOCABULARY + + bord-o = bank, shore. pont-o = bridge. + brak-o = arm. sonor-i = to ring (intrans.). + fabrik-i = to manufacture. surtut-o = overcoat. + krut-a = steep. sving-i = to swing, to brandish. + lan-o = wool. sxip-o = ship. + mebl-o = piece of furniture. sxton-o = stone. + pas-i = to pass (intrans.). vapor-o = steam. + pitoresk-a = picturesque. vetur-i = to travel (in a vehicle). + + + SUR LA VAPORSXIPO. + +Unu el la plezuroj de la kampara vivo konsistas el la multenombraj +("numerous") okazoj por veturi cxien, kien oni volas iri, per kvietaj +pitoreskaj vojoj. Ni havas ankoraux unu ("still one, yet another") +okazon por plezuro en nia vilagxo, cxar ni povas veturi per vaporsxipo +sur la bela lago cxe kies bordo kusxas la vilagxo. Hieraux du kuzinoj +venis por viziti cxe ni, kaj tuj post la tagmangxo ni decidis promeni +laux tiu pitoreska vojeto al la lago. Kiam ni alvenis al la lago, +ni rimarkis ke beleta vaporsxipeto estis jxus forironta. Tial mi +acxetis tri biletojn, kaj kiel eble plej rapide ni suriris la sxipeton. +La sonoriloj ("bells") estis jam sonorintaj, kaj tuj post kiam ni +transmarsxis la ponteton, de la tero al la planko de la sxipeto, oni +forprenis la ponteton. Kelkaj personoj kiuj estis ankoraux sur la tero +kuris kun granda rapideco al la ponteto. Ili svingis la brakojn kaj la +ombrelojn tre energie, sed la sxipeto ne atendis ecx unu minuton. La +personoj sxajnis tre koleraj pro sia malfrueco, kaj ankoraux pli koleraj +pro la trankvila foriro de la sxipeto. Cxiu sur la sxipeto ridetis, cxar +la koleremo ("irascibility") estas cxiam amuza. Tiam cxiu komencis sin +amuzi tiel, kiel li deziris. Mi estis kunportinta dikan lanan surtuton, +sed pro la varmeco de la vetero mi ne bezonis gxin, kaj lasis gxin +sur apuda segxo. Ni atendis kun plezuro por vidi la krutajn montetojn +kiuj estos videblaj tuj kiam la sxipeto estos pasinta preter malgranda +arbaro. La pitoreskeco de la belaj montetoj estas difektota, cxar +grandaj fabrikejoj estas jam konstruataj cxe la montpiedoj. La sxtonoj +por la muroj jam kusxas pretaj apude, kune kun grandaj stangoj kaj aliaj +pecoj da ligno. Tie oni fabrikos tablojn, segxojn, kaj aliajn meblojn el +zorge elektita ligno. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. It is difficult in every way to select a present for a child who +already possesses enough toys. 2. In a toy-shop yesterday I examined +the dolls made out of woolen cloth and other material, and also looked +at the various little animals. 3. There were ponies, little dogs and +little lions and camels. 4. There were also little sets of furniture +(126), which consisted of tables, sofas and chairs. 5. On the tables +were small plates containing vegetables, fruits and roast (189) meat, +entirely made out of colored paper. 6. There were also little cups and +tumblers of thin glass, into which one could pour water or milk. 7. As +(cxar) one dollar was all (194) of the money which I had in my purse, +I left the shop. 8. I walked along a stony picturesque path toward the +lake, swinging my overcoat on my arm, while I thought over ("pripensis") +the difficulty, and tried to decide what sort of present to choose. 9. +The steamboat to B---- was just leaving, so I went across the footbridge +("ponteto") on to the pretty little ship, while its bells were ringing, +and rode an hour in the open ("libera") air. 10. The shore which we +passed is very picturesque, but its beauty is about to be spoiled, for a +large furniture factory is going to be built between that steep hill and +the lake. 11. Its proximity to the water is necessary, for water-power +("akvoforto") will be used. + + + + LESSON XLIII. + + + THE INDEFINITE PRONOUN. + +203. The indefinite pronoun (and pronominal adjective) "iu", any one, +a certain one, presents the idea of some person or thing, without +definitely characterizing it: + + Mi parolas pri iu, kiun vi konas, + I am talking about a certain one whom you know. + Mi vizitis iujn el viaj amikoj, + I visited some of your friends. + Mi havas kelkajn pomojn, sed iuj ne estas bonaj, + I have several apples, but certain ones are not good. + Iuj pontoj estas bone faritaj, + some bridges are well made. + +204. The indefinite pronoun "iu" has a possessive or genitive form +"ies", somebody's, someone's, a certain one's: + + Mi tusxis ies brakon, I touched someone's arm. + Cxu ies surtuto kusxas sur la tablo? + Is anybody's overcoat lying on the table? + Ies ludiloj estas rompitaj, someone's playthings are broken. + + + PARTICIPIAL NOUNS. + +205. Nouns may be formed from participles, by substituting the noun +ending "-o" for the adjectival ending "-a". Such participial nouns +indicate persons temporarily or non-professionally performing or +undergoing that which is expressed by the root: + + helpanto, one who is helping, an assistant. + elpensinto, one who has thought out something, an inventor. + legonto, one who is about to read. + vidato, one (being) seen. + sendito, one (having been) sent, an envoy. + la jugxoto, the one about to be judged, the accused. + +[Footnote: Participial nouns must not be confused with nouns formed +by the suffix "-ist-" (172) expressing professional or permanent +occupation: "rajdanto", a rider, "rajdisto", jockey, horseman, +"jugxanto", a judge (of something), "jugxisto", judge (professional), +"laboranto", a person working, "laboristo", laborer.] + + + THE PREFIX "EK-". + +206. Sudden or momentary action, or the beginning of an action or state, +is indicated by the prefix "ek-": + + ekdormi, to fall asleep. + ekkanti, to burst into song. + ekiri, to set out, to start. + ekridi, to burst into a laugh + ekrigardi, to glance at. + + + THE SUFFIX "-ID-". + +207. Words indicating the "young of, the child of, the descendant of," +are formed by use of the suffix "-id-": + + cxevalido, colt (from "cxevalo", horse). + hundido, puppy (from "hundo", dog). + katido, kitten (from "kato", cat). + leonido, a lion's whelp (from "leono", lion). + regxidino, a king's daughter, a princess (from "regxo", king). + + + VOCABULARY + + amas-o = heap, throng. kugl-o = bullet. + dauxr-i = to continue. milit-i = to fight, to make war. + hirund-o = swallow. (bird). ost-o = bone. + hom-o = human being. renvers-i = to upset, to overturn. + humor-o = temper, humor. sign-o = sign, mark. + ies = some one's (204). tend-o = tent. + iu = some one (203). tru-o = hole. + +[Footnote: Cf. the difference between "viro", man (in contrast to +"virino", woman), and "homo", man in the generic sense, including both +men and women.] + + + LA NESTO SUR LA TENDO. + +Unufoje iu regxo estis farinta militon kontraux la homoj de lando cxe la +bordo de pitoreska rivero. La soldatoj ne venis tien per vaporsxipoj, +sed estis konstruintaj ponton trans la rivero, por la veturiloj +("vehicles"). Estis necese resti kelkan tempon apud urbo kiun la regxo +volis ekataki, kaj li havis grandan tendaron ("encampment") antaux tiu +urbo. Unu tagon en la dauxro ("course") de la milito, iuj el la soldatoj +pasis preter la tendo de la regxo, laux la sxtona vojeto laux kiu ili +cxiutage marsxis por gardi la tendaron. Unu el cxi tiuj ekrimarkis ke +hirundo estas konstruinta sian neston sur la regxa tendo. Sur la nesto, +kiu estis bone konstruita el koto, sidis trankvile la hirundo. Dum la +soldatoj svingis la brakojn kaj ekridis unu post la alia, pri la kuragxa +birdo, la regxo auxdis ies vocxon. Li elvenis el sia tendo por eltrovi +kial la parolantoj faras tiom da bruo, kaj kial ili tiel ekkriis kaj +ekridis. Kiam la viroj montris al li la birdon, li diris kun bonhumora +rideto, "Tiu hirundo estos mia gasto. Cxiuj el la militistoj certe +zorgos de nun pri la hirundo kaj la hirundidoj." Tial la nesto restis +netusxata en la dauxro de cxiu batalo. Kelkaj kugloj pasis preter gxi, +sed la trankvileco de la birdo dauxris same kiel antauxe. Fine la regxo +venkis, per kruelega batalo. Tuj la venkintoj forportis la tendojn, kune +kun multaj militkaptitoj ("prisoners of war"). Nur la tendon de la regxo +oni lasis tie, cxar la regxo diris ke gxi nun apartenas al la hirundo. +Gxi jam estis malnova kaj eluzita, tra kiu la pluvo eniris per multe da +truoj. Sed gxi ankoraux staris, gxis iu tago somera kiam la hirundidoj +povis jam bone flugi. Tiam la vento subite renversis gxin, kaj gxi +ekfalis, kaj kusxis, amaso da cxifonoj, inter multe da kugloj, homaj +ostoj, kaj la ceteraj malgajaj postsignoj ("traces") de ies venko sur la +batalejo. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. There is a pretty story about a swallow which built its nest for its +young ("idoj") on the king's tent. 2. The soldiers who were walking +along the steep path past the tent glanced at it, and caught sight +of (206) the bird. 3. Some of them burst into a laugh, and gestured +("svingis la brakon") toward the bird, to point it out to their +comrades. 4. The good-humored king put on a thick woolen overcoat, and +came out of his tent, to inquire why his soldiers were conversing so +noisily there. 5. The tent was an expensive one, and contained handsome +furniture, as well as ("kaj ankau") a bell which always rang as soon +as ("tuj kiam") one touched it. 6. The king immediately noticed the +swallow's nest, and said with an amiable smile "Surely such a courageous +bird is a worthy (154) guest for a king." 7. The warriors (172) cared +for the swallow as much as possible during the course of the war. 8. +When the victors departed, they left that tent there. 9. Finally the +wind upset it, and it fell to the ground. 10. The young swallows already +could fly, by ("je") that time. 11. The battleground is covered with +bullets, piles of human bones, and similar melancholy signs of war. 12. +War (201) is wicked and shameful (154). 13. Why do kings and princes +wish to make war upon each other (180)? 14. When their sons have gone +away to (make) war, the mothers of the soldiers are very uneasy. 15. +Perhaps those sons will be prisoners of war. + + + + LESSON XLIV. + + + THE INDEFINITE ADJECTIVE. + +208. The indefinite adjective, related to the indefinite pronoun "iu", +is "ia", of any kind, some kind of, a certain kind of, expressing +indefinitely the quality of a person or thing: + + Estas ia birdo sur tiu arbo, + there is a bird of some sort on that tree. + Mi vidis iajn ostojn sur la tero, + I saw some kind of bones on the ground. + Estas ia homo en tiu tendo, + there is some sort of human being in that tent. + + + THE INDEFINITE ADVERB OF PLACE. + +209. The indefinite adverb of place, related to the indefinite pronoun +"iu", is "ie", anywhere, somewhere, in (at) a certain place. If the +verb in the sentence expresses motion toward the place indicated by +"ie", the ending "-n" is added (121): + + Ie en tiu arbaro estas leono, + somewhere in that forest is a lion. + Ie malantaux la soldatoj vi trovos amason da kugloj, + somewhere behind the soldiers you will find a heap of bullets. + La hirundo flugis ien, + the swallow flew somewhere (in some direction). + Mi iros ien, sed mi ankoraux ne scias kien, + I am going somewhere, but I do not yet know where. + + + PREDICATE NOMINATIVES. + +210. An adjective may stand in predicate relation to the direct object +of a transitive verb, as well as to the subject of an intransitive verb +(19). Such a predicate adjective, agreeing in number (21) with the +object of the verb, but remaining in the nominative case, indicates the +result produced by the verb upon the object, or the condition, quality +or temporary state in which this object is found: + + Li faris la mondon felicxa, + he made the world happy (made-happy the world). + Mi lasis la knabon trankvila, I left the boy calm (undisturbed). + Mi trovis la truon jam farita, I found the hole already made. + Mi lasis ilin bone punitaj, I left them well punished. + +[Footnote: Cf. the difference between the examples given and sentences +with the same words in an attributive (13) use: +Dio faris la mondon felicxan, + God made the happy world. +Mi lasis la knabon trankvilan, + I left the calm boy. +Mi trovis la jam faritan truon, + I found the already made hole. +Mi lasis ilin bone punitajn, + I left those who had been well punished.] + +211. A noun may be used similarly in predicate relation after a +transitive verb, as well as after an intransitive verb (20): + + Sxi nomis sian filinon Mario, she named her daughter Mary. + Oni elektis tiun reprezentanto, + they elected that one representative. + Mi vidos lin venkinto, I shall see him a conqueror. + Mi trovis lin sxtelisto, I found him a thief. + +[Footnote: Cf. the examples given and the following sentences using the +same words in apposition (48) or attributive relation (13): +Sxi nomis sian filinon Marion, + she named (mentioned) her daughter Mary. +Oni elektis tiun reprezentanton, + they elected that representative.] + + + VOCABULARY + + anonc-i = to announce. pasxt-i = to feed (flocks, etc.). + ia = some kind of (208). plend-i = to complain. + ie = somewhere (209). proces-o = legal process. + just-a = upright, just. rajt-o = right, privilege. + klar-a = distinct, clear. ripar-i = to mend, to repair. + kresk-i = to grow. sufer-i = to suffer. + oportun-a = convenient. sxnur-o = string. + + + LA CXEVALO KAJ LA SONORILO. + +Unufoje en malgranda urbeto ("town") en Italujo, la regxo, kiun oni +estis nominta Johano, metis grandan sonorilon en la vendejon. Li anoncis +ke cxiu plendanto pri maljusteco havos la rajton alvoki ("to summon") +jugxiston per tiu sonorilo. Tiam la jugxisto faros proceson en la +jugxejo pro tiaj plendantoj. Oni multe uzis la sonorilon, laux la anonco +de la regxo, kaj multe da plendantoj ricevis justecon. Sammaniere, +granda nombro da maljustuloj estis punata per gxia helpo. Kiam okazis +ke iu homo montris sin maljusta al alia, cxi tiu anoncis la aferon per +la oportuna sonorilo. Kiam iu faris la edzinon malfelicxa, la sonorilo +tuj sonoris por anonci sxiajn suferojn, kaj por alvoki la jugxiston. +Fine, oni tiom uzis la sonorilon justecan, ke la sxnurego ("rope") +estis tute eluzita, kaj gxia lasta uzinto okaze forrompis gxin. Sed +iu preterpasinto vidis la duonon de la sxnurego kusxanta sur la tero, +kaj riparis gxin per kelkaj brancxetoj de apuda arbo. Li pensis en si +"Iu plendonto nun trovos gxin preta por esti uzata." Rimarkinde, la +brancxetoj ne velkis, sed restis verdaj, kaj kreskis kiel antauxe. + +En la sama urbo logxis ricxulo kiu estis forvendinta preskaux cxiom de +siaj domoj, cxevaloj, cxevaletoj, cxevalidoj, hundoj kaj multekostaj +vestoj, cxar en sia maljuneco li amis nur la monon, kaj tiun li amegis. +Li ankoraux posedis nur unu maljunan cxevalon, kaj fine li forsendis +ecx tiun, por sin pasxti laux la vojo. En la dauxro de la tago, la +cxevalo ekrimarkis la brancxetojn kreskantajn sur la sxnurego de la +sonorilo. Tuj gxi kaptis la brancxetojn, por mangxi ilin, kaj tuj la +jugxisto auxdis la sonorilon klare sonoranta. Li rapidis al la vendejo, +kaj lauxte ekridis kiam li vidis ies cxevalon tie. Li decidis puni +la ricxulon cxar tiu cxi ne donis suficxe por mangxi al la maljuna +militcxevalo. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. The horse caught sight of the twigs with which a passer-by had mended +the bellrope. 2. Because it wished to eat the green leaves, it seized +the rope, and the bell immediately rang loudly and clearly. 3. The horse +almost upset the poles which supported (160) the roof over the bell +of-justice. 4. Any one (173) had the right to use this bell, to announce +any kind of injustice. 5. The judge burst into a laugh as soon as he saw +that sort of plaintiff standing there. 6. More often he saw human beings +as plaintiffs, instead of animals. 7. When a laborer showed himself +unkind to his wife and children, they could announce their sufferings by +means of the convenient bell. 8. People called it the bell of justice. +9. According to everyone's opinion, it is the duty of a just judge +to punish evildoers and unjust persons. 10. He decided that he would +institute proceedings ("faros proceson") against the owner (205) of the +horse. 11. The man had driven away the horse, and it was grazing ("sin +pasxtanta") along the road. 12. It was some one's duty to give some sort +of home to his horse. 13. The judge said, "I will find out whose horse +that poor beast is, and will put a mark opposite the name of that man. +I will not leave him alone ("trankvila"), but will show myself very +severe." + + + + LESSON XLV. + + + THE INDEFINITE TEMPORAL ADVERB. + +212. The indefinite temporal adverb, related to the indefinite pronoun +"iu", is "iam", sometime, any time, ever, once upon a time: + + Iam mi rakontos la aferon al vi, + sometime I will tell you the affair. + Regxo iam logxis tie, + a king once (upon a time) dwelt there. + Cxu vi iam faris proceson kontraux li? + Did you ever go to law against him? + + + THE INDEFINITE ADVERB "IAL". + +213. The indefinite adverb of motive or reason, related to the +indefinite pronoun "iu", is "ial", for any reason, for some reason, +for certain reasons: + + Ial li ne riparis la tendon, + for some reason he did not repair the tent. + Cxu vi opinias ke ial li maljuste suferas? + Do you think that for any reason he is suffering unjustly? + + + CAUSATIVE VERBS. + +214. The suffix "-ig-" is used to form verbs indicating the "causing, +rendering or bringing about" of that which is expressed in the root or +formation to which it is attached. Verbs containing the suffix "-ig-" +are called "causative verbs" and are always transitive (22). + +a. Causative verbs from adjectival roots indicate that the quality or +condition expressed in the root is produced in the object of the verb: + + dolcxigi, to sweeten, to assuage (from "dolcxa", sweet). + moligi, to soften (from "mola", soft). + plilongigi, to lengthen, to make longer (from "pli longa", longer). + faciligi, to facilitate (from "facila", easy). + beligi, to beautify (from "bela", beautiful). + +[Footnote: The meaning often resembles that of the predicate nominative +(210), as: +Li faris la mondon gxoja, + he made the world glad. +Li gxojigis la mondon, + he gladdened the world.] + +b. Causative verbs from verbal roots indicate that the action expressed +in the root is made to take place: + + dormigi, to put to sleep (from dormi, to sleep). + konigi, to make acquainted with (from koni, to know). + mirigi, to astonish (from miri, to wonder). + mortigi, to kill (from morti, to die). + + +c. Causative verbs may be formed from noun-roots, prepositions, adverbs, +prefixes and suffixes whose meaning permits: + + amasigi, to amass, to heap up (from amaso, pile). + kunigi, to unite, to bring together (from kun, with). + forigi, to do away with (from for, away). + ebligi, to render possible (-ebl-, 161). + + + EMPHASIS BY MEANS OF "JA". + +215. The emphatic form of the verb, expressed in English by "do", "did", +as in "I do study", "I did find it", "Do tell me", and by adverbs such +as "certainly", "indeed", etc., is expressed in Esperanto by placing the +adverb "ja", indeed, before the verb: + + Vi ja mirigas min! You do astonish me! + Li ja estas justa jugxisto, he is indeed an upright judge. + Li ja havis tiun rajton, he did have that right. + + + VOCABULARY + + akompan-i = to accompany. indiferent-a = indifferent. + dangxer-o = danger. ja = indeed (215). + gvid-i = to guide. kred-i = to believe. + ial = for some reason (213). salt-i = to leap, to jump. + iam = sometimes (212). tir-i = to draw, to pull. + +[Cf. the difference in meaning and use between "esti indiferenta", to be +indifferent, and "ne esti zorga", not to be careful, both of which may +be translated "not to care for": +Li estas indiferenta al la libro, + he does not care about (is indifferent to) the book. +Li ne zorgas pri la libro, + he does not care for (take care of) the book. +Estas indiferente al mi cxu li venos, aux ne, + I do not care whether he is coming or not.] + + + CXE LA MALNOVA PONTO. + +Iam logxis en nia urbeto junulo kiu havis afablan pli junan fratinon. +Unu tagon en la dauxro de la bela printempa vetero la junulo invitis +la fratinon veturi ien en veturilo tirata de du cxevaloj. La invito +gxojigis la knabinon, kaj sxi respondis ke sxi kun plezuro akompanos +la fraton. Tuj sxi pretigis sin por iri, kaj ili ekveturis. Ili pasis +preter pitoreskaj kampoj kaj arbaretoj, kaj fine alvenis al ponto trans +la rivero. Ili kredis gxin malnova kaj ne tre forta, kaj ial la junulino +estis treege timigita ("frightened"). "Ho, kara frato," sxi ekkriis, +kun eksalteto pro timo, "tiu ponto ja estas dangxera! Mi deziras marsxi +trans gxin, cxar iam la pezeco de unu persono estos tiom tro multe +por veturilo sur malforta ponto!" Sed la timemaj petoj de lia fratino +sxajne kolerigis la junulon, kaj li respondis malafable, "Nu, vi ja +mirigas min! Vi montras vin tre malsagxa, cxar la konstruintoj de tiu +ponto certe faris gxin suficxe forta por tia veturilo kia la nia. Ne +estos necese eksalti de gxi, kaj piede transiri la ponton." Tiamaniere +li penis trankviligi la kompatindan knabinon, sed tiaj vortoj nur +silentigis sxin, kaj sxi komencis mallauxte ploreti. Tamen la frato +montris sin indiferenta al sxiaj timemaj sentoj, kaj tute malatentis +sxiajn larmojn. Li gvidis la cxevalojn rekte trans la ponton, dum la +fratino atendis la bruegon de rompigita ligno, kaj imagis ke sxi estas +tuj mortigota. Tamen, la ponto estis tiel forta kiel la junulo estis +klariginta, kaj tute ne estis dangxera. Sed pro la malafableco de la +frato al la fratino, ili tute ne agrable pasigis la ceterajn horojn de +la posttagmezo, malgraux la beleco de la vetero kaj de la kamparo. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Somewhere in that same town, there lived another youth, who also had +an amiable sister. 2. One convenient day, she accompanied him for a +ride in a vehicle drawn by a fast horse. 3. When they reached ("alvenis +al") the bridge, this girl also was frightened for some reason, the +same as the girl in the other story. 4. She said "I do not intend to +complain, but the carriage will certainly be too heavy while we are +in it. I am afraid that that bridge is dangerous, so I will jump out +and walk. I will also pick ("kolektos") some sort of flowers, among +the flowers growing there, near where someone's horses are grazing. +I will not delay ("atendigi") you long." He replied, "That bridge is +entirely safe ("nedangxera") but instead of explaining ("making-clear") +to you about it, I will lead the horse across the bridge, while you +walk across, for I am not indifferent to your fear." Then he helped his +sister get out ("eliri") of the carriage, and guided the horse across. +Then he said with a pleasant smile, "It was not necessary to cross on +foot." She replied, "No, but you showed yourself a courteous brother, +and were very patient." Then they rode on ("antauxen"), and talked to +each other very amiably. + + + + LESSON XLVI. + + + THE INDEFINITE ADVERB "IEL". + +216. The indefinite adverb of manner, related to the indefinite pronoun +"iu", is "iel", somehow, in any way, in some (any) manner: + + Mi penis vin iel gvidi tien, + I tried somehow to guide you thither. + Iel ni anoncos la decidon, + we shall announce the decision in some way. + + + THE INDEFINITE ADVERB "IOM". + +217. The indefinite adverb of quantity, related to the indefinite +pronoun "iu", is "iom", some, any quantity, a certain amount: + + Cxu vi havas iom da tempo? Have you some time? + Sxi varmigos iom da akvo, she will heat some water. + Tiu metodo estas iomete dangxera, + that way is a little dangerous (198). + La sxnuro estas iom tro longa, the string is somewhat too long. + + + THE SUFFIX "-AD-". + +218. The suffix "-ad-" is used to form words indicating that the action +expressed in the root is continuous, habitual or repeated. + +a. Verbs formed with the suffix "-ad-" are called "frequentative +verbs", and may often be translated by the root meaning, preceded by +"keep (on)", "used to", etc.: + + frapadi, to keep knocking, to knock repeatedly. + rigardadi, to keep on looking, to gaze. + vizitadi, to keep visiting, visit repeatedly, frequent, haunt. + Antaux du jaroj sxi tre dolcxe kantadis, + two years ago she used to sing very sweetly. + +b. Nouns formed with the suffix "-ad-" are often equivalent to English +verbal nouns ending in "-ing", and (with the generic article, 201) may +replace the infinitive as subject (130) and sometimes as object (29): + + kriado, crying, shouting (from krio, cry, shout). + movado, motion, movement in general (from movo, a movement). + pafado, shooting, fusillade (from pafo, a shot). + parolado, a speech, address (from parolo, a word spoken). + pensado, thought, contemplation (from penso, a thought). + La promenado donas plezuron, the taking of walks gives pleasure. + Mi preferas la legadon de tiaj libroj, + I prefer the reading of (to read) such books. + + + THE USE OF "MEM". + +219. The invariable pronoun "mem", self, selves, is intensive, and lays +stress upon the substantive which immediately precedes it, or which it +obviously modifies. (The combination of "mem" with personal pronouns +must not be confused with reflexive pronouns, 39, 40): + + Mi mem akompanos vin, I myself shall accompany you. + La gvidisto mem perdis la vojon, the guide himself lost the way. + Mi kredos al la viro mem, I shall give credence to the man himself. + La viroj mem defendis sin, the men themselves defended themselves. + Gxi pendas sur la muro mem, + it hangs on the very wall (the wall itself). + Sxi venis mem por vidi vin, she came herself to see you. + Mi ekvidis la sxteliston mem, + I caught a glimpse of the thief himself. + + + VOCABULARY + + Arhximed-o = Archimedes. jxet-i = to throw, to cast. + ban-i = to bathe (trans.). kompren-i = to understand. + fals-i = to debase, to forge. kron-o = crown. + Hieron-o = Hiero. lev-i = to lift, to raise. + honest-a = honest. lok-o = place. + ide-o = idea. mem = self, selves (219). + iel = somehow (216). or-o = gold. + iom = some (217). Sikeli-o = Sicily. + + + ARHXIMEDO KAJ LA KRONOJ. + +Iam bonekonata regxo, nomita Hierono, vivadis en granda urbo en Sikelio, +kiu estas sudokcidenta de Italujo. Li suspektis ke iam la kronfaristoj, +kiuj fabrikadis kronojn por li, ne uzis cxiom de la oro donita al ili de +la regxo, sed falsadis gxin per la uzado de iu alia materialo. Tamen, +Hierono ne povis per si mem eltrovi cxu oni falsadas la oron. Tial li +venigis grekan klerulon, kies nomo estis Arhximedo, kaj rakontis al +li sian timon pri la falsita oro. Arhximedo certigis lin ke iel li ja +eltrovos pri la falsado, kaj helpos la regxon kontraux la falsintoj, +kiuj estis tiel indiferentaj al la honesteco. Cxiutage li multe pensadis +pri la afero, sed ju pli longe li pensadis, des malpli sukcesaj estis +liaj penoj, gxis iu tago, kiam li okaze faris interesan eltrovon. Li +estis jxus baninta sin, kaj subite ekrimarkis ke dum li mem restis en la +akvo, ial sxajnis esti iomete pli multe da akvo en la banujo ol antauxe. +Tuj li komprenis ke lia korpo estas forpusxinta iom de la akvo el gxia +loko. Li komprenis ke tiom da akvo estas elpusxita, kiom antauxe estis +en tiu loko kie li mem estas. Tia levado de la akvo per lia korpo donis +al li sagxan ideon, kaj li prenis en la mano du aux tri orajn kronojn. +Li jxetis ilin unu post la alia en la banujon, kaj zorge rimarkis al kiu +alteco cxiu el ili levis la akvon. Tiam li eltiris ilin, kaj enmetis la +kronon pri kiu Hierono estis plej suspektema. Li rimarkis ke cxi tiu ne +tiel alten levis la akvon, tial li estis certa ke la oro en gxi estas +multe falsita. Oni diras ke kiam li eltrovis cxi tiun metodon por montri +la falsadon de la malhonestaj kronfaristoj, li eksaltetis pro gxojo kaj +ekkriis "euxreka," kiu estas la greka vorto por "mi estas trovinta." +Tiun saman vorton oni ankoraux nun uzadas en la angla lingvo. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Several centuries ago, a rich and powerful ("multepova") king, +named Hiero, lived in Sicily. 2. Sometimes he was suspicious about the +crown-makers who wrought ("faris") crowns for him, out of the gold which +he himself gave them. 3. He wondered whether these men were honest. 4. +He suspected that perhaps ("eble") they did not use all of the gold +which was given them, but kept some of it for themselves. 5. He could +not of himself ("per si mem") discover whether they were debasing the +gold in his crowns, so he summoned a wise man from ("el") Greece. 6. To +this well-informed man, whose name was Archimedes, he made clear his +fears. 7. Archimedes assured the king that he would find out somehow +about the matter. 8. He meditated several hours every day, and tried to +discover a satisfactory ("kontentiga") method, but for some reason he +did not succeed. 9. One day, however, when he was bathing (himself), he +noticed that there seemed to be a little more water in the bathtub when +he himself was in it, than before. 10. The rising of the water gave him +an idea. 11. He threw the crowns one after another into the water, and +noticed how much water each displaced. 12. In this manner ("tiamaniere") +he understood how much each had been alloyed by the local ("lokaj") +crown-makers, whom Hiero soon threw into prison ("la malliberejon"). + + + + LESSON XLVII. + + + THE NEGATIVE PRONOUN. + +220. The negative pronoun (and pronominal adjective) is "neniu", no one, +nobody, no (formed of "ne" and "iu", with a medial "n" inserted for the +sake of euphony): + + Neniu el vi komprenas min, no one of you understands me. + Mi trovis neniun preta por iri, I found nobody ready to go. + Li havis neniun honestan serviston, he had no honest servant. + +221. The negative pronoun "neniu" has a possessive or genitive form, +"nenies", nobody's, no one's: + + Cxies afero estas nenies afero, + everybody's affair is nobody's affair. + Li lauxdos nenies ideojn, + he will praise no one's ideas. + + + THE ADVERBIAL PARTICIPLE. + +222. A participle may be equivalent not only to a clause describing or +determining the substantive modified, as in "la parolanta viro", the +man who-is-talking, "la sendota knabo", the boy who-will-be-sent, but +also to an "adverbial" clause. + +[Footnote: An adverbial clause modifies a verb, as in "dum vi atendis, +li foriris", while you waited, he went away; "cxar mi gxojis, mi ridis", +because I was happy, I laughed.] + +Such a participle has for its subject the subject of the verb in the +sentence (though not in attributive or predicate relation with it), and +indicates some relation of time, cause, manner, situation, etc., between +the action of the participle and that of the main verb in the sentence. +An adverbial participle is given the ending "-e": + + Gxojante, mi ridis, + rejoicing, I laughed. + Forironte, ni adiauxis lin, + being about to depart, we bade him farewell. + Baninte la infaneton, sxi dormigis gxin, + after bathing (having bathed) the baby, she put it to sleep. + Estante ruzaj, ili falsis la oron, + being sly, they debased the gold. + Tiel helpate de vi, mi sukcesos, + thus helped by you, I shall succeed. + Silentigite de li, ili ne plendis, + (having been) silenced by him, they did not complain. + Punote, li ekkriis, + being about to be punished, he gave a cry. + Ne parolinte, li foriris, + without speaking (not having spoken), he left. + Li venis, ne vokite, + he came without being (came not-having-been) called. + +[Footnote: The adverbial participle must not be used in rendering the +English "nominative absolute" construction of a participial clause +referring to something else than the subject. In such a sentence a +clause must be used: "The youth being young, everyone watched him", cxar +la junulo estis juna, cxiu rigardadis lin; "the work being finished, he +went away", kiam la lahoro estis finita, li foriris.] + + + THE PREFIX "RE-". + +223. The prefix "re-" indicates the repetition of an action or state, or +the "return" of a person or thing to its original place or state. (Cf. +English prefix "re-"; meaning either "again" or "back.") + + rekapti = to recapture. rebrili = to shine back, to reflect. + renovigi = to renew. reteni = to hold back, to retain. + rekoni = to recognize. reveni = to come back, to return. + gxis la revido = au revoir. reiri = to go back, to return. + ree = again, anew. rejxeti = to throw back, to reject. + + + VOCABULARY + + brul-i = to be in flames, to burn. masxin-o = machine. + cilindr-o = cylinder. nenies = nobody's (221). + detru-i = to destroy. neniu = no one (220). + fam-a = famous. problem-o = problem. + filozof-o = philosopher. Sirakuz-o = Syracuse. + fizik-o = physics. spegul-o = mirror. + insul-o = island. sxrauxb-o = screw. + + + LA FILOZOFO ARHXIMEDO. + +Eble neniu greka klerulo estis pli fama ol la filozofo Arhximedo. Longe +studadinte la problemojn de la geometrio kaj de la fiziko, li faris +multe da eltrovoj. Li tiel multe komprenis pri la uzado de la levilo +("lever") ke oni rakontas la sekvantan rakonteton pri li: Li diris al +la regxo Hierono "Kiam oni donos al mi lokon sur kiu mi povos stari, mi +mem ekmovos la mondon per mia levilo!" Zorge ekzameninte la ecojn (202) +de la sxrauxbo kaj de la cilindro, li elpensis diversajn masxinojn en +kiuj sxrauxboj kaj cilindroj estas iamaniere kunigitaj. Uzante unu el +tiuj masxinoj, oni povis facile pusxi al la akvo la sxipojn (necese +konstruitajn sur la tero); kiujn antauxe la viroj mem enpusxis en la +akvon, kun multe da laboro, aux tiris tien per cxevaloj. Uzante alian +masxinon elpensitan de tiu greko, oni povis levi akvon de unu loko al +alia. Ankoraux nun oni nomas tian masxinon la "sxrauxbo de Arhximedo." +En la dauxro de granda militado kontraux la urbo Sirakuzo, sur la +insulo Sikelio, Arhximedo elpensis diversajn masxinojn por helpi la +Sirakuzanojn. Vidinte ke la sunlumo rebrilas de spegulo, li faris el +speguloj masxinon per kiu li ekbruligis ("set on fire") la sxipojn de +la malamikoj. Cxi tiuj, ne komprenante kiamaniere* la sxipoj ekbrulis, +estis multe timigitaj. Sed ecx helpite de Arhximedo la Sirakuzanoj ne +venkis. Post iom da tempo, la malamikoj kaptis kaj tute detruis la urbon +Sirakuzon. Nenies domo restis netusxita, kaj centoj da personoj estis +mortigataj. Oni ne scias per kia morto Arhximedo mortis, sed eble la +malamikoj, iel rekoninte la elpensinton de la spegulmasxino, jxetis lin +en la maron aux alimaniere lin mortigis. + +[Footnote: The use of "kiamaniere" (in what manner, how) is preferable +to that of "kiel" in indirect questions, as the latter might be confused +with the use of "kiel", meaning "as" (156).] + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. The Greek philosopher Archimedes was not only famous long ago, among +his contemporaries (167, b, 132), but even today his name is well known +everywhere. 2. No one's knowledge about the problems of geometry and +physics was greater. 3. No one understood better the properties of the +cylinder and the screw. 4. Having studied these properties a long time, +and having meditated a great deal about them, he understood them a +little (217) better than any one else ("iu alia"). 5. The story about +the debasing of the gold crowns has already been told. 6. There is +another anecdote, namely ("nome"), that he remarked to Hiero, king of +Syracuse, that with a lever he would move the world, as soon as he +had a place on which he himself could stand. 7. Having discovered how +("kiamaniere") the sunlight is reflected by a mirror, and heats the +wood upon which it shines, he invented a machine made out of mirrors. +8. Aided by this machine, the Syracusans were able to set on fire the +wooden ships of the enemy. 9. The enemy, however, were not repulsed +from the island, but at once rebuilt and repaired their ships, and sent +them back to attack the city again. 10. Finally, having captured the +city, they destroyed it, and killed a large number of the inhabitants +("logxantoj"), also Archimedes himself. + + + + LESSON XLVIII. + + + THE NEGATIVE ADJECTIVE. + +224. The negative adjective, related to the negative pronoun "neniu," is +"nenia", no kind of, no sort of, expressing a negative idea concerning +the quality of a person or thing: + + Mi havas nenian spegulon, I have no sort of mirror. + Nenia problemo estas tro malfacila por li, + no sort of problem is too difficult for him. + + + THE NEGATIVE ADVERB OF PLACE. + +225. The negative adverb of place is "nenie", nowhere. The ending "-n" +may be added, as to other adverbs (121), to indicate direction: + + Nenie estas pli bona masxino, nowhere is there a better machine. + Mi iros nenien morgaux, I shall go nowhere tomorrow. + + + THE NEGATIVE TEMPORAL ADVERB. + +226. The negative adverb of time is "neniam", never, at no time: + + Neniam vivis pli fama filozofo, + there never lived a more famous philosopher. + Vi neniam trovos tiajn sxrauxbojn aux cilindrojn, + you will never find that kind of screws or cylinders. + + + THE SUFFIX "-AJX-". + +227. The suffix "-ajx-" is used to form "concrete" words. It is thus in +contrast to the abstract-forming suffix "-ec-" (202). + + +a. A word formed from a verbal root by means of the suffix "-ajx-" +expresses a concrete example of "a thing which undergoes" (or, in the +case of intransitives, "results from") the action indicated in the root: + + konstruajxo = a building. kreskajxo = a plant, a growth. + sendajxo = consignment, thing sent. rebrilajxo = a reflection. + mangxajxo = food. restajxo = remainder. + +b. A word formed from an adjectival root or formation by means of the +suffix "-ajx-" indicates "a thing characterized by" or "possessing the +quality" expressed in the root or formation to which it is attached: + + belajxo = a thing of beauty. mirindajxo = a marvel. + maljustajxo = an injustice. okazintajxo = an occurrence. + +c. A word formed from a noun-root by means of the suffix "-ajx-" +indicates "a thing made" or "derived from" that which is expressed in +the root: + + sukerajxo = a sweet, confection. orajxo = a gold object. + ovajxo = an omelet. araneajxo = a spider-web. + + + THE ADVERB "JEN". + +228. The adverb "jen", behold, here, there, is used to point out or +call attention to something: + + Jen estas la problemo! There is the problem! + Jen la filozofo! Behold the philosopher! + Jen sxi ludas, jen sxi studas, now she plays, now she studies. + Mi faris gxin jene, I did it as follows. + Mi agis laux la jena metodo, I acted in the following way. + Li diris la jenajn vortojn, he spoke the following words. + + + VOCABULARY + + arangx-i = to arrange. neniam = never (226). + art-o = art. nenie = nowhere (225). + ber-o = berry. pentr-i = to paint. + jen = there, behold (228). postul-i = to demand. + jxaluz-a = jealous. precip-a = principal, chief. + konkurs-o = competition. regul-o = rule. + lert-a = skilled, clever. tromp-i = to deceive. + nenia = no kind of (224). vin-o = wine. + + + DU ARTKONKURSOJ. + +Vivadis en Grekujo antaux multaj jarcentoj du lertaj famaj pentristoj. +Ili estis reciproke jxaluzaj, kaj neniam povis interparoli paceme. +Ne povinte decidi la problemon, kaj eltrovi kiu el ili estas la plej +lerta, ili fine arangxis konkurson pri la pentrado. Laux gxiaj reguloj, +cxiu el ili pentris pentrajxon, por montri sian lertecon. Unu pentris +teleron da vinberoj ("grapes"). Gxi estis tiel mirinde kolorigita ke ecx +la birdoj venis kaj penis gxin mangxi, pensinte gxin ne nur pentrajxo, +sed la vinberoj mem. "Nenia pentrajxo povos superi la mian," gxojege +ekkriis la pentristo, "jen, la birdoj mem rekonas mian lertecon!" Tiam +li diris al la alia artisto, "Nu, kial vi ne fortiras tiun kurtenon? +Mi volas rigardi vian pentrajxon." La dua pentristo respondis kun +rideto, "Jen estas mia pentrajxo. Nenie apud vi estas kurteno, sed vi +vidas nur pentrajxon de kurteno antaux tiu konstruajxo." Tre mirigite, +la pentrinto de la vinberoj diris "Vi ja superas min en la pentrado. +Mi trompis la birdojn per mia pentrajxo, sed vi trompas ecx aliajn +artistojn! Tia lerteco estas ja mirindajxo!" + +Oni rakontas similan okazintajxon pri fama artisto kiu pentris multe +da pentrajxoj por Aleksandro Granda. Malgajninte en konkurso kontraux +iuj aliaj artistoj, li opiniis ke la jugxintoj estas maljustaj al +li, precipe pro la jxaluzeco. Li ekkriis "Cxar niaj pentrajxoj estas +bildoj de cxevaloj, ili certe postulas cxevalajn jugxantojn!" Tial oni +enkondukis du aux tri cxevalojn. La cxevaloj, tute ne rigardinte la +pentrajxojn de la aliaj artistoj, kuris rekte al tiu de la plendinta +artisto, kaj klare montris sian rekonadon de la tie pentritaj cxevaloj. +Surprizite, oni diris "Jen estas justaj jugxantoj!" Tuj oni lauxdis la +pentriston kaj severe punis la malhonestajn homajn jugxintojn. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION + +1. Syracuse was the largest city on the island of Sicily. 2. The famous +philosopher and physicist Archimedes lost his life when that city was +destroyed and entirely burned. 3. At least, no sort of trace of him +seems to have been found after that occurrence. 4. Never, perhaps, was +there a more learned man in Syracuse. 5. Greece was also famous for +its skilled painters, and there are many anecdotes about them. 6. A +painter who failed in a certain competition believed that none of the +judges had been just to him. 7. He exclaimed "Behold this iniquity +(injustice)! Nowhere can I find a human being who is not jealous. 8. +Since the paintings are chiefly of horses, do they not require horses +for judges?" 9. His proposal was accepted (54), and some horses were led +in. 10. Without noticing (222) the other paintings, the horses walked +at once to the picture of the unsuccessful artist, and showed immediate +recognition of the horses painted there. 11. This act showed which +competitor ("konkursinto") was the most skilful. 12. The painter, having +deceived the horses, as another artist had once deceived birds by a +picture of grapes, said "Animals decide not by rules, but by feelings." + + + + LESSON XLIX. + + + THE NEGATIVE ADVERBS "NENIAL", "NENIEL", "NENIOM". + +229. The negative adverb of motive or reason, related to the negative +pronoun "neniu", is "nenial", for no reason: + + Li estas nenial jxaluza, he is jealous for no reason. + Nenial li trompis vin, for no reason he deceived you. + +230. The negative adverb of manner is "neniel", in no way. + + Mi povos neniel arangxi konkurson, + I can in no way arrange a competition. + Tiu ago estas neniel lauxregula, + That act is in no way regular. + +231. The negative adverb of quantity is "neniom", no amount of, not +any, none, no: + + Tiu pentrajxo postulas neniom da lerteco, + such a painting requires no skill. + Estas neniom da vino en lia glaso, + there is no wine in his glass. + + + THE SUFFIX "-IGX-". + +232. The suffix "-igx-" is used to form intransitive verbs of an +"inchoative" nature. + +a. Inchoative verbs from the roots of "intransitive verbs" indicate +the "beginning" or "coming into existence" of the act or condition +expressed in the root: + + sidigxi, to become sitting, to sit down, to take a seat. + starigxi, to become standing, to stand up. + +b. Intransitive verbs may be similarly formed from the roots of +"transitive" verbs, and indicate an action of the verb not immediately +due to the subject's acting upon itself (as in the case of reflexive +verbs, 41) and not caused by any direct agency (as in the case of the +passive voice, 169): + + La pordo fermigxas, the door closes (goes shut). + La veturilo movigxas, the vehicle moves. + La brancxo rompigxas, the branch breaks. + Grupo da personoj kolektigxis, a group of persons gathered. + +[Footnote: Cf. the examples given and the following sentences in which +the same verbal roots are used in the simple form and in the passive +voice: + + Ni fermas la pordon, La pordo estas fermita, + we close the door. the door is (has been) closed. + + Oni movas la veturilon, La veturilo estas movata, + they move the vehicle. the vehicle is being moved. + + Mi rompas la brancxon, La brancxo estas rompita, + I break the branch. the branch is (has been) broken. + + Li kolektis florojn, Floroj estas kolektitaj, + he gathered flowers. flowers have been gathered.] + +c. Intransitive verbs may similarly be formed from "adjectival" roots, +and indicate the acquiring of the characteristic or quality expressed in +the root: + + lacigxi, to become tired, to get tired. + varmigxi, to become warm, to get warm. + maljunigxi, to become old, to age. + +d. Verbs may similarly be formed from noun-roots, adverbs, +prepositions, prefixes and suffixes whose meaning permits: + + amikigxi, to become a friend. kunigxi, to become joined. + forigxi, to go away, to disappear. ebligxi, to become possible. + + + VOCABULARY + + apenaux = hardly, scarcely. nenial = for no reason (229). + atmosfer-o = atmosphere. neniel = in no way (230). + dub-i = to doubt. neniom = none, no (231). + efektiv-a = effective, real. ombr-o = shadow. + hel-a = clear, bright. pejzagx-o = landscape. + horizont-o = horizon. radi-o = ray. + krepusk-o = twilight. tropik-a = tropical. + + + LA KREPUSKO. + +Estas tre agrable sidigxi sur la herbon, kaj rigardi la plilongigxantajn +ombrojn, en la dauxro de bela somera vespero. La suno grade mallevigxas +post la montetoj, la nuboj farigxas ("become") bele kolorigitaj, kaj la +tuta pejzagxo pli kaj pli beligxas. Malrapide la krepusko anstatauxas la +helan sunlumon, kaj fine cxie noktigxas. La krepusko estas la rebrilado +de la sunlumo tra la atmosfero, post la mallevigxo de la suno mem, laux +la jena maniero: la radioj suprenbriladas, en la aeron super niaj kapoj, +en la okcidenta parto de la cxielo. De tie ili rebriladas tiamaniere ke +la cxielo lumigxas. Kiam estas iom da nuboj sur la cxielo okcidenta, +la sunradioj briladas rekte kontraux ilin, belege kolorigante tiujn +nubojn. En tropikaj landoj la krepuskigxo okazas tre rapide. Gxi ne +nur komencigxas subite, sed ankaux dauxras tre mallongan tempon. La +noktigxo preskaux tuj sekvas la taglumon, kun rimarkinda subiteco. +Apenaux komencigxas la krepusko, kiam la subiranta suno sxajnas fali +preter la horizonto. Tute male ("quite on the contrary"), en landoj +treege nordaj, krepuskigxas tre frue en la tago, kaj la krepusko dauxras +longan tempon antaux ol la nokto venas. Efektive ("really"), en tiuj +landoj la krepusko tute anstatauxas la nokton, dum ses monatoj de la +jaro. Tie oni havas krepuskon dum la unua duonjaro, kaj la taglumon +dum la sekvinta duonjaro. Krepusko dauxranta tiom da tempo estas tiel +rimarkinda kiel tago de tia sama longeco. Mi dubas cxu tia dividado +de la tempo inter tago kaj malhela nokto estas agrabla, sed oni povas +neniel malhelpi gxin. Cxiu tre norda lando havas la saman travivajxon +("experience"), cxiujare, kaj efektive oni apenaux rimarkas gxin. Pri +cxiu plendanto oni nur diras "Li estas nenial malkontenta." + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +of ("pri") the two painters who, being mutually (180) jealous, arranged +a competition. 2. One painted a cluster (126) of grapes, so excellently +that the birds flew to it. 3. The other deceived his rival (competitor) +himself, by a painting of a curtain. 4. The most famous artists, +however, often show their skill by painting (222) pictures of the +sunset, chiefly, I think, because of the brilliant colors. 5. In fact +("efektive"), I doubt whether there is a more beautiful sight (227, +b) than the sunset. 6. It is made by the bright rays of the sun, +which shine back through the atmosphere, long after the sun itself +has passed below the horizon. 7. The more moisture ("malsekajxo") +there is in the air, the more brilliant the colors are, and the more +beautiful the entire landscape becomes. 8. In tropical lands, night +falls very suddenly, and there is almost no sort of twilight. 9. In +fact, a twilight scarcely occurs there. 10. In the lands far north, on +the contrary, the twilight lasts six months, and the remainder of the +year is the day. 11. To dwell in such a land is surely a remarkable +experience. 12. It can in no way be understood by persons who have never +lived there. 13. Such things increase (make greater) my desire to visit +those northern lands. 14. For no reason, however, do I + + + + LESSON L. + + + THE PRONOUNS ENDING IN "-O". + +233. In contrast to the pronouns ending in "-u" ("tiu", "kiu", "cxiu", +"iu", "neniu"), a similar series ending in "-o" refers to an object, +fact or action not definitely specified (but never to a person), like +English "what, anything, something, nothing," etc. Because of their +somewhat vague meaning, these pronouns do not occur in the plural, nor +are they ever used as pronominal adjectives: + +Demonstrative: tio = that (thing, fact or action). + cxi tio = this (thing, fact or action). + +Interrogative and Relative: kio = what. + +Distributive: cxio = everything. + cxio cxi = all this. + +Indefinite: io = anything, something. + +Negative: nenio = nothing. + +234. A pronoun (not personal) in predicate or relative relation to a +pronoun ending in "-o" must itself be of the same series: + + Kio estas cxi tio, kion vi diras? What is this, which you say? + Sxi vidis tion, kio jxus okazis, she saw that which just occurred. + Cxio cxi, kion vi vidas, estas farita de ili, + everything here (all this), which you see, was done by them. + Li havas ion por vi, sed nenion por mi, + he has something for you, but nothing for me. + + + CORRELATIVE WORDS. + +235. Pronouns, adjectives and adverbs, which are related to each other +as corresponding demonstratives, interrogatives, relatives, etc., are +called "correlatives". In Esperanto the correlative system is more +complete than in any other language, and may be summarized as follows: + + Demonstrative Interrogative Distributive Indefinite Negative + and Relative + + tio (233) kio (233) cxio (233) io (233) nenio (233) + that (thing) what, which everything anything nothing + + tiu (56) kiu (146) cxiu (173) iu (203) neniu (220) + that (one) who, which every, each any (one) no (one) + + ties (62) kies (147) cxies (174) ies (204) nenies(221) + that one's whose every one's any one's no one's + + tia (65) kia (150) cxia (177) ia (208) nenia (224) + that kind of what kind of every kind any kind no kind of + + tie (68) kie (151) cxie (182) ie (209) nenie (225) + there where everywhere anywhere nowhere + + tiam (73) kiam (155) cxiam (187) iam (212) neniam (226) + then when always any time never + + tial (78) kial (129) cxial (188) ial (213) nenial (229) + therefore, wherefore, for every for any for no + so why reason reason reason + + tiel (88), kiel (156) cxiel (193) iel (216) neniel (230) + (156) thus, so how, as every way any way in no way + + tiom (104) kiom (164) cxiom (194) iom (217) neniom (231) + that much, how much, all, the some, any none, no + so much as whole of amount quantity + + + THE USE OF "AJN". + +236. The word "ajn" may be placed after any interrogative-relative or +indefinite correlative word, to give a generalizing sense. In order +to avoid confusion with the accusative plural ending, "ajn" is "never +attached" to the correlative which it follows: + + kio ajn = whatever. kiam ajn = whenever. + kies ajn = whosesoever. kiom ajn = however much. + kie ajn = wherever. ia ajn = any kind whatever. + + + THE SUFFIX "-ING-". + +237. The suffix "-ing-" is used to form words indicating that which +holds "one" specimen of what is expressed in the root: + + glavingo = scabbard. plumingo = pen-holder. + lumingo = torch-holder. ingo = sheath, case, socket. + + + VOCABULARY + + cxio = everything (233). nenio = nothing (233). + Gordio = Gordius. ofer-o = offering. + io = anything (233). reg-i = to rule, to govern. + jug-o = yoke. sankt-a = sacred, holy. + klin-i = to bend, incline (trans). templ-o = temple. + kio = what (233). tio = that (thing) (233). + lig-i = to tie, to bind. util-a = useful. + + + LA GORDIA LIGAJXO. + +Unufoje en antikva tempo la regatoj de iu regxolando en Azio ne +havis regxon. Ne sciante kion fari, ili demandis de la dioj. La dioj +respondis, "Kiu ajn venos unue en nian sanktan templon hodiaux, por fari +oferojn, estos via regxo." Okaze kamparano nomita Gordio venis al la +templo, jxus post la tagigxo. La regatoj tuj rekonis la estontan regxon, +kvankam li veturis sur peza malbela veturilo. Salutinte la surprizitan +kamparanon, oni nomis lin regxo. Decidinte fari dankoferon al la dioj, +Gordio metis en la templon la veturilon mem sur kiu li tien veturis, +antaux ol li komencis regi kiel la nova regxo. La jugo estis alligita +("tied fast") per granda ligajxo el sxnurego. Post la morto de Gordio +oni grade komencis kredi ion tre interesan pri tio. Oni diris ke tiu, +kiu povos iel ajn malligi tiun ligajxon, farigxos reganto super cxiuj +regxoj de Azio. + +Post kelkaj jaroj Aleksandro Granda decidis fari grandan militadon +kontraux Azio, kaj alproksimigxis al la lando kie estis reginta Gordio. +Kiam li demandis, "Kio estas cxi tie la plej interesa vidindajxo?" +oni rakontis al li tion, kion oni diras pri la sxnurega ligajxo sur +la veturilo de Gordio. Kompreneble ("of course") Aleksandro deziris +fari ion ajn utilan por venki Azion, tial li tuj venigis gvidiston +por konduki lin al la templo. Alveninte tien, li zorge rigardadis la +ligajxon, kaj ekzamenis la sxnuregon el kiu gxi estis farita. Tiam, +elpreninte sian glavon el la glavingo, subite klinigxante li rekte +tratrancxis la tutan ligajxon. "Nenio estas pli facila ol tio," li +diris, "kaj nun mi ne dubas cxu mi certe regos super cxiuj regxoj de +Azio." Pro tio, kion faris Aleksandro Granda, oni ankoraux nuntempe +diras, kiam iu ajn superas malfacilajxon per kia ajn subita metodo, "Li +trancxis la gordian ligajxon." + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. One often hears the remark "I will cut the Gordian knot." 2. There +is an interesting story about this. 3. A wagon whose yoke was tied to +the pole by a large knot had been put in the middle of the temple. +4. It was a thank-offering to the sacred gods, by whose help Gordius +had in olden time become king. 5. It was said that whoever would be +able to untie that rope would no doubt become ruler over the whole of +Asia. 6. Alexander the Great, having begun a campaign against Asia, +approached the city where this temple was. 7. Having heard the story, +he at once had a guide come, and went thither, guided by him. 8. He +desired to do everything which was useful to the conquering of Asia. 9. +Having examined the knot carefully, he bent over and tried for a few +minutes to untie it. 10. Then he chose another method. 11. He seized +his sword, and suddenly cut through the whole knot. 12. Having done +this, he put the sword back into the scabbard. 13. This he did, instead +of continuing ("dauxrigi") his efforts to untie the knot. 14. In fact, +having no patience, he had become tired. 15. Perhaps the conquering +of Asia did not in any way become possible on account of this, but +at least the story is interesting, whatever actually ("efektive") +happened. 16. Nothing is impossible, whenever one tries enough. 17. In a +tropical country, such as part of Asia is, the landscapes are beautiful. +18. A tropical twilight is very short, however, and the shadows have +scarcely become long when the sun seems to sink suddenly below the +horizon, although the last bright rays continue to shine back through +the atmosphere for a few minutes. + + + + LESSON LI. + + + THE PRONOUN "AMBAUX". + +238. The pronoun (and pronominal adjective) "ambaux", both, indicates +two persons or things considered together. It is invariable in form: + + Ili ambaux venis al la templo, + they both came to the temple. + Ambaux faris oferojn al la dioj, + both made offerings to the gods. + Vidante kaj la plumon kaj la plumingon, mi prenis la ambaux, + seeing both the pen and the penholder, I took both. + +[Footnote: This pronoun must not be confused with the use of "kaj", +translated "both" in the combination "kaj ... kaj ...", "both ... and +..." (26).] + + + FORMATIONS WITH "-IG-" AND "-IGX-". + +239. Some verbs may be used in the simple form, and also with both the +suffix "-ig-" and the suffix "-igx-". Thus from one verb-root three +verbs of distinct meaning may be made, and the formation with "-ig-", +being transitive, may also be used in the passive: + + sidi = to sit, to be sitting. + sidigxi = to become sitting, to take a seat. + sidigi = to cause to sit, to seat. + esti sidigata = to be caused to sit. + silenti = to be silent. + silentigxi = to become silent. + silentigi = to cause to be silent, to silence. + esti silentigita = to be silenced. + kusxi = to lie, to be lying. + kusxigxi = to lie down, to go to bed. + kusxigi = to cause to lie, to lay. + esti kusxigita = to be laid. + stari = to stand, to be standing. + starigxi = to rise, to stand up, to become erect. + starigi = to raise, to cause to stand up, to erect. + esti starigita = to be raised, to be erected. + + + FACTUAL CONDITIONS. + +240. A conditional sentence consists of two parts, an "assumption" and +a "conclusion". The assumption is a clause (introduced usually by the +conjunction "se", "if") which assumes something as true or realized. The +conclusion is a statement whose truth or realization depends upon the +truth or realization of the assumption. "Factual conditions" (conditions +of fact) may deal with the present, past or future time: + + Se li vidas tion, li ploras, + if he sees that, he weeps (is weeping). + Se li vidis tion, li ploris, + if he saw that, he wept. + Li ploros, se li vidos tion, + he will weep, if he sees that. + Se li venis hieraux, li foriros morgaux, + if he came yesterday, he will go away tomorrow. + Se li estas vidinta tion, li nun ploras, + if he has seen that, he now is weeping. + Se tio estas vidota, li estas punota, + if that is going to be seen, he is going to be punished. + Se li estas kaptita, li estos jam punita, + if he has been captured, he will already have been punished. + + + VOCABULARY + + ambaux = both (238). mut-a = dumb, mute. + azen-o = ass, donkey. orel-o = ear. + ben-i = to bless. petol-a = mischievous. + dors-o = back. propr-a = own, one's own. + form-o = form. se = if. + halt-i = to stop (intrans.). spir-i = to breathe. + monahx-o = monk. turment-i = to torment. + + + LA MONAHXOJ KAJ LA AZENO. + +Iam du monahxoj reiris tra la arbaro al la monahxejo, dum grade +krepuskigxis. Ambaux portis pezajn sakojn da terpomoj, kaj baldaux +lacigxis, sed ne sciis kion fari. Okaze ili ekvidis azenon ligitan +al arbo, kaj unu monahxo, haltinte, diris petole al la alia "Se vi +anstatauxos la beston, mi havos portanton por miaj propraj sakoj, kaj +ankaux por la viaj." Lia kunulo respondis "Nu, se la azeno portos miajn +sakojn, mi mem gxoje restos en gxia loko." Jxus dirite, tuj farite ("no +sooner said than done"). Malliginte la ligajxojn kiuj tenis la azenon, +ili jxetis la sakojn trans la dorson de la utila besto. Unu monahxo tuj +forkondukis la azenon, dum ambaux viroj lauxte ridis. Post tio, la dua +monahxo sin ligis per la sama sxnurego kiu antauxe tenis la azenon. +Kiam revenis la kamparano, kies azeno estis jxus sxtelita, li ekhaltis, +multe mirigite, vidante homon tie ligita. La monahxo anoncis al li, +"Cxar mi estis tro mangxema, Dio faris azenon el mi, antaux du jaroj. Mi +jxus rericevis mian propran formon." Tuj la kredema kamparano invitis +la petolan monahxon al sia hejmo. La monahxo restis tiun nokton cxe la +kamparano, kaj la sekvintan tagon li foriris, beninte la kamparanon, sed +kasxe ridante pri la afero. Tiam la kamparano iris vendejon, por acxeti +alian azenon. Li ekvidis sian propran azenon, kiun la unua monahxo estis +sendinta tien, post sia reveno al la monahxejo. La malsagxa kamparano, +klinigxinte al la besto, diris "Ho, bona monahxo, mi vidas ke duan fojon +vi jam estis tro mangxema!" La muta besto forte svingis la orelojn kaj +skuis la kapon, pro la varma elspirajxo apud sia orelo. Tio sxajne +estis respondo al la jxus diritaj vortoj, tial la malsagxa kamparano +ree acxetis sian propran azenon. Cxiam poste li nek turmentis nek ecx +laborigis gxin, kredante la azenon la sankta monahxo mem. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +ancient times, they usually asked the sacred gods about it. 2. If the +gods informed ("sciigis") them that whatever man would come to the +temple first would become their king, they immediately chose the first +comer ("la unuan veninton") king. 3. Whoever was chosen king made the +blessed gods a thank-offering, which consisted of something out of his +own possessions (227, a). 4. Gordius did not offer to the gods merely +the yoke of his wagon, but the whole wagon. 5. A knot of rope was tied +between the yoke and the pole. 6. People soon began to say, "If any one +soever can untie that knot, he will become ruler of Asia." 7. If any +other men tried to untie that rope, they failed. 8. Alexander, though +("tamen"), had scarcely arrived when he drew (out) his sword from the +scabbard, and cut the knot. 9. If you will take-a-seat, I will tell you +about the two mischievous monks, returning to the monastery. 10. Both +were breathing with difficulty, and stopped to rest. 11. Having noticed +a donkey near by, they untied it. 12. One led the long-eared dumb animal +away, while the other tied himself in its own place. 13. The credulous +(192) peasant believed everything which was told (54) him, + + + + LESSON LII. + + + THE CONDITIONAL MOOD. + +241. That indication of the speaker's frame of mind which is given by +the form of the verb is called the "mood" of the verb. All verbs given +so far have been in the "indicative mood", which represents an act or +state as a reality or fact, or in the "infinitive mood", which expresses +the verbal idea in a general way, resembling that of a substantive. +The "conditional mood" does not indicate whether or not the act or +state mentioned is a fact, but merely expresses the speaker's idea of +its likelihood or certainty, or is used in an assumption or conclusion +dealing with suppositions, not with actual facts. The ending of the +conditional mood is "-us". The conjugation of "vidi" in the aoristic +tense of the conditional mood is as follows: + + mi vidus, I should see. + vi vidus, you would see. + li (sxi, gxi) vidus, he (she, it) would see. + ni vidus, we should see. + vi vidus, you would see. + ili vidus, they would see. + + + COMPOUND TENSES OF THE CONDITIONAL MOOD. + +242. In addition to the aoristic tense, the conditional mood has three +active and three passive compound tenses, formed by combining the +participles with the aoristic tense of "esti" in the conditional mood. A +synopsis of "vidi" in these compound tenses is as follows: + + Active Voice. + + Present: mi estus vidanta, I should be seeing. + Past: mi estus vidinta, I should have seen. + Future: mi estus vidonta, I should be about to see. + + Passive Voice. + + Present: mi estus vidata, I should be seen. + Past: mi estus vidita, I should have been seen. + Future: mi estus vidota, I should be about to be seen. + + + LESS VIVID CONDITIONS. + +243. A conditional sentence dealing with "suppositions" concerning +events in present or future time is called a "less vivid condition" +("Less vivid", in contrast to factual conditions (240), which are +"vivid", because they deal with facts.), and the conditional mood +is used in both the assumption and the conclusion: + + Se li vidus tion, li plorus, + if he should see that, he would weep. + Mi gxoje helpus vin, se mi povus, + I would gladly help you, if I could. + Se vi metus ilin sur la dorson de la azeno, gxi portus ilin, + if you should put them on the donkey's back, it would carry them. + La petola junulo turmentus la monahxon, se li revenus, + the mischievous youth would torment the monk, if he should return. + Se li estus kaptata, li estus punata, + if he should be caught, he would be punished. + + + INDEPENDENT USE OF THE CONDITIONAL MOOD. + +244. The conditional mood may be used in a conclusion whose assumption +is merely implied, serving thus to soften or make vague the statement or +question in which it is used: + + Mi gxoje helpus vin, I would gladly help you. + Cxu vi bonvole dirus al mi? Would you kindly tell me? + Kiu volus enspiri tian aeron? Who would wish to inhale such air? + Estus bone reteni vian propran, it would be well to keep your own. + La cxielo vin benus pro tio, Heaven would bless you for that. + + + THE PREFIX "DIS-". + +245. The prefix "dis-" indicates separation or movement in several +different directions at once: + + disdoni = to distribute. disigxi = to separate (intrans.). + dispeli = to dispel. disigxo = separation, schism. + disigi = to separate (trans.). dissendi = to send around. + +[Footnote: Cf. the English prefix "dis-" in "disperse", "disseminate", +"distribute," etc.] + + + VOCABULARY + + cxes-i = to cease, to leave off. kauxz-i = to cause. + dens-a = dense. legx-o = law. + difin-i = to define. natur-o = nature. + ekzist-i = to exist. objekt-o = object. + flu-i = to flow. plu = further, more. + gravit-i = to gravitate. turn-i = to turn (trans.). + +[Footnote: The adverb "plu" gives an idea of continuance to the word +which it modifies. When used with "ne", the two together give an idea of +cessation concerning a previous continuous act or state: "Ambaux parolos +plu morgaux", both will talk further tomorrow. "Mi ne plu haltos", I +shall not stop (any) more. "Li ne plu sxajnis muta", he no longer seemed +mute.] + + + PRI LA GRAVITADO. + +1. Ofte oni parolas pri la pezeco de diversaj objektoj. Tia pezeco estas +kauxzata de la forto kiun oni nomas la gravitado. Pro tiu forto ne nur +objektoj sur la tero, sed ankaux la tero mem, havas konatan pezecon, +kiun la kleruloj jam antaux longe kalkulis. La suno kaj la luno simile +havas pezecon, cxar ili ambaux, same kiel la tero, movigxas laux tiu +sama gravitado kiu efektive regas cxiujn el la cxielaj korpoj. Se la +gravitado cxesus ekzisti, la riveroj ne plu fluus antauxen en siaj +fluejoj ("beds"). Ne fluante de altaj gxis malaltaj lokoj, la akvo +disfluus, aux restus tie, kie ajn gxi okaze estus. Neniom da pluvo +falus; kontrauxe, la malsekajxo en la aero ankoraux restus tie, en la +formo de densaj mallumaj cxiamaj nuboj. Cxiuj vivaj estajxoj ("beings"), +cxiuj konstruajxoj, efektive cxio, baldaux disflugus de la rapide +turnigxanta mondo. Cxiuj cxi ("all these") nun devas resti sur la tero, +tial ke la gravitado restigas ilin cxi tie. Se la gravitado ne plu +ekzistus, nenio restus plu sur la tero. La aero mem ne plu cxirkauxus +nin, sed gxi ankaux forlasus la mondon, tuj maldensigxinte ("having +become rarefied"). La fama angla filozofo Newton estis la unua, kiu +studadis la kialon ("reason") de la falado de objektoj. Li komencis, +laux la rakonto, per okaza ekrigardo al falantaj pomoj en sia propra +pomarbejo. Antaux tri jarcentoj, li eltrovis ke estas tia forto kia la +gravitado, kaj difinis la naturajn legxojn laux kiuj la gravitado sin +montras. Cxi tiu forto, kiu restigas cxion sur la tero, estas tamen +la kauxzo de nia lacigxado, kiam ni marsxas aux kuras, cxar gxi faras +nin pezaj, kaj tial ni ofte deziras halti kaj ripozi. Estas ankaux la +malfacileco en la superado de tiu sama forto, kiu faras tiel malfacila +la konstruadon de utilaj aersxipoj. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Newton was an Englishman who lived three centuries ago. 2. One day he +was walking in his orchard, and, noticing the falling apples, he stood +still ("ekhaltis") and began to wonder why they fall. 3. He studied the +cause of their falling, wishing to discover whatever laws of nature he +could. 4. He watched various falling objects, and tried to calculate +their velocity ("rapideco"). 5. Finally he recognized that force which +is called gravitation. 6. Of course ("kompreneble") gravitation had +always existed, but its laws were not noticed or clearly defined until +Newton studied the matter. 7. If gravitation should not exist any more, +no rain would fall, but instead of condensing, the moisture would remain +above our heads in eternal clouds. 8. But gradually the moisture and +the air itself, becoming rarefied, would fly away from the earth, being +held no longer by the force of gravitation. 9. The water in the rivers +would leave off flowing (cease to flow) on toward the sea, because now +the water flows from high to low places only on account of gravitation. +10. Instead of gravitating toward the sea, in fact, the water would flow +in every direction (245) out of the riverbeds, or would remain there, +without moving at all ("tute ne movante"). 11. Nothing on earth would +remain here very long, but everything would fly off the quickly moving +world, and leave it entirely bare. Soon, also, the earth itself would +break-into-pieces (245). + + + + LESSON LIII. + + + CONDITIONS CONTRARY TO FACT. + +246. A "condition contrary to fact" indicates that the opposite of what +is mentioned has really taken place or is taking place. It expresses the +speaker's certainty that an act or state would have been realized, if +some other act or state were also realized. Such conditions cannot refer +to the future, but only to present or past time. The conditional mood is +used: + + Se vi estus turninta vin, vi estus vidinta tion, + if you had turned, you would have seen that. + Se la malsekajxo ne estus densigxinta, ne estus pluvinte, + if the moisture had not condensed, it would not have rained. + Se li estus kaptita, li estus punita, + if he had been caught, he would have been punished. + Se li estus sidanta tie, mi vidus lin, + if he were (if he should be) sitting there, I should see him. + Se la gravitado ne ekzistus, tiu pluvo ne estus falanta, + if gravitation did not (should not) exist, + that rain would not be falling. + + + THE VERB "DEVI". + +247. The verb "devi" (cf. "devo", duty) is equivalent to the verb "must" +(which in English has no future, past, infinitive, etc.), and to "to +have to", "to be obliged to", etc., carrying the idea of "must" into all +tenses and moods. In the conditional mood its meaning is softened into a +vaguer sense (of "moral" obligation), and carries the idea of "ought": + + Objektoj en la aero devas fali, objects in the air have to fall. + Ni devis agi laux la legxoj, we had to act according to the laws. + Vi devos iri, you must (will have to) go. + Sxi ne volas devi fari tion, she does not wish to have to do that. + Ili devigis min iri, they compelled me to go. + Vi devus iri, you should go (you ought to go). + Oni devus pensi antaux ol paroli, one ought to think before speaking. + Li estus devinta veni, he ought to have come. + Tio devus esti farita, that ought to have been done. + + + THE PREPOSITION "SEN". + +248. The preposition "sen", without, indicates the omission, absence or +exclusion of that which is expressed by its complement. It may be used +as a prefix (160), giving a sense of deprivation or exclusion (like that +given by the English suffix "-less"): + + Li difinis la vorton sen eraro, he defined the word without an error. + La rivero sencxese fluas, the river flows without ceasing. + Tio estas ne nur senutila sed ecx malutila, + that is not only useless but even harmful. + Li ne plu estas senmona, he is no longer penniless. + Li sentime alproksimigxis al gxi, he fearlessly approached it. + +[Footnote: English phrases containing "without" as in "without reading," +must be changed to phrases clearly containing verbal nouns, as "without +the reading of," before translating into an Esperanto phrase with "sen". +Otherwise a participle with "ne" should replace the phrase ("222"): "Sen +la legado de tio, mi ne komprenus", without (the) reading (of) that, +I should not understand. "Ne leginte tion, mi ne komprenus", without +reading (not having read) that, I should not understand.] + + + VOCABULARY + + akuz-i = to accuse. nobl-a = noble. + instru-i = to teach. pardon-i = to pardon. + kondamn-i = to condemn. pek-i = to sin. + konfes-i = to confess, to admit. prav-a = right, correct. + konscienc-o = conscience. sen = without (248). + kulp-o = guilt. So-krato = Socrates. + merit-i = to deserve. venen-o = poison. + + + LA FILOZOFO SOKRATO. + +Unu el la plej famaj grekaj filozofoj estis nomita Sokrato. Li +estis malbela malalta persono, kun senhara kapo kaj dika korpo, sed +malgraux tio li estis treege bona, nobla kaj sagxa. Li instruadis per +interparolado kun la lernantoj. Kutime li komencis per demando pri +io ajn, pri kio la auxskultanto respondos. Fine, la lernanto grade +komprenis cxu liaj propraj opinioj pri la afero estas pravaj. Ankoraux +nun oni nomas tiun metodon de instruado per la interparolado "la Sokrata +metodo." Sokrato diradis tute sen timo cxion, kion li pensis, ecx pri +la dioj kaj pri la nekredeblaj rakontoj pri la dioj. Se li ne estus +tiel multe klariginta, eble li estus vivinta pli longan tempon. Sed +multaj personoj malamis lin, precipe cxar li donis novajn ideojn al +la junuloj, kiuj sekve komencis pensi por si mem, anstataux fari tion +kion faras cxiu alia. Tial oni akuzis Sokraton en la jugxejo, nomante +lin pekanto kaj malbonfaranto, unue, cxar li ne disdonas oferojn al la +dioj, due, cxar li enkondukas novajn diojn (cxar li diris ke supernatura +vocxo, kiu sendube estis lia nomo por la konscienco, parolis mallauxte +cxe lia orelo), trie, cxar li malbonigas la junularon de la urbo. Se +li estus konfesinte la kulpon kaj petinte pardonon, tiam la jugxistoj +eble estus punintaj lin per nura ("mere") monpago ("fine"). Sed li fiere +respondis ke efektive li multe plibonigas la junularon, kaj anstataux +esti malutila, aux ecx neutila, li treege utilas al la urbo. Li diris +ke oni havas nenian rajton puni lin, sed ke, kauxze de sia bonfarado al +la urbo, li efektive meritas cxiutagan mangxon senpagan. Tamen, tute ne +kompreninte kiel prava Sokrato estas, la jugxistoj mortkondamnis lin. +Oni devigis lin trinki la venenon. Iom poste, en la malliberejo, li +trankvile adiauxis siajn plorantajn amikojn, kaj akceptinte la venenan +trinkajxon, sentime gxin trinkis. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Socrates believed that if one knows about good and evil (201) he will +do good, but will not do evil. 2. Therefore he wished to help mankind +("la homaron"), teaching them what the good is. 3. He also wished to +discover for himself what is right and what is wrong. 4. So he asked +every one whom he met (about) his opinions, and the one-talking-with +[him] would also notice whether his own ideas were right or not. 5. But +the fellow-citizens of Socrates were jealous, and hated him, because +they did not understand him. 6. Therefore they accused him, called him a +sinner, and sent around (245) false reports ("falsajn sciigojn") about +him. 7. Because he said that conscience guided him (in the form of a +soft voice at his ear), they accused him of ("pri") introducing (218, +b) new gods. 8. They also said that he was corrupting the youth of the +city. 9. If Socrates had pleaded guilty, and begged for a fine instead +of the death-punishment, without doubt he would have been pardoned and +fined ("monpunita"). 10. But he said "I have never in my life sinned in +any way, and I do not deserve any sort of punishment." So the judges +condemned him to death by the drinking of poison. + + + + LESSON LIV. + + + SUMMARY OF CONDITIONS + +249. The three kinds of conditional sentences, together with the moods +and tenses used in them, may be tabulated as follows: + + Name: Factual Less Vivid Contrary to Fact + + Subject Matter: facts suppositions opposite of facts + + Time: any (usually) future present or past + + Mood: indicative conditional conditional + + Tense: any (usually) aoristic (usually) compound + + + CLAUSES OF IMAGINATIVE COMPARISON. + +250. Clauses of imaginative comparison are introduced by the conjunction +"kvazaux", as though, as if. Sometimes the verb in the comparison may be +left unexpressed or merely implied: + + Li trinkas la venenon kvazaux gxi estus vino, + he drinks the poison as though it were wine. + La kondamnito marsxis kvazaux kun malfacileco, + the condemned man walked as if with difficulty. + Li konfesis kvazaux kulpulo, + he confessed like a culprit. + + + THE USE OF "AL" TO EXPRESS REFERENCE. + +251. Personal pronouns, and less frequently nouns, may be used with the +preposition "al" to express "concern" or "interest" on the part of the +person indicated by the complement of this preposition: + + Li bruligis al si la manon, he burned his hand. + Hi trancxis al li la barbon, they cut his beard (the beard for him). + Sxi preparas al ni bonan mangxon, she is preparing us a good meal. + Cxu vi faros servon al mi? Will you do me a service? + +[Footnote: The use of "al" in this sense, approaching that of "por" but +less purposeful and definite, resembles the "dative of reference" and +"ethical dative" of other languages, as in French "je me suis brule la +langue", I have burned my tongue, German "ich wasche mir die Haende", +I wash my hands, Latin "sese Caesari ad pedes proicerunt", they threw +themselves at the feet of Caesar, Greek "ti soi mathesomai", what am I +to learn for you? etc.] + +252. By an extension of its use in expressing reference, "al" may often +be used in the place of "de" expressing separation (170), when the use +of "de" might seem to indicate agency (169) or possession (49): + + La luno estas kasxata al ni de la nuboj, + the moon is hidden from us (to us) by the clouds. + Gxi estas stelita al mi de li, + it has been stolen from me by him. + +[Footnote: This use resembles the "dative of separation" of other +languages, as in German "es stahl mir das Leben", it stole the life from +me, French "il me prend la vie", it takes my life, Latin "hunc mihi +timorem eripe", remove this fear from me, Greek "dexato oi skaeptron", +he took his sceptre from him, etc.] + + + THE SUFFIX "-ESTR-". + +253. The suffix "-estr-" is used to indicate the "chief", "head", or +"one in control" of that which is expressed in the root: + + lernejestro = (school) principal. urbestro = mayor. + monahxestro = abbot. estraro = governing body. + policestro = chief of police. sxipestro = ship-captain. + + + VOCABULARY + + Aristejd-o = Aristeides. popol-o = a people. + ekzil-i = to exile. pot-o = pot. + enu-i = to be wearied, bored. senc-o = meaning, sense. + gxust-a = exact. signif-i = to signify. + kvazaux = as though, as if (250). son-i = to sound. + ostr-o = oyster. strang-a = strange. + ostracism-o = ostracism. sxel-o = shell, bark, peel. + +[Footnote: Care must be taken to distinguish "gxusta", exact, "gxuste", +exactly, just, from "justa", upright, just, "juste", justly, and also +from the adverb "jxus" just.] + + + LA OSTRACISMO DE ARISTEJDO. + +La vorto ostracismo havas interesan devenon ("origin"). En gxia komenco +oni rekonas la grekan vorton kiu signifas "sxelon de la ostro." En gxia +fino oni vidas la saman "-ismon " kiu, deveninte de la greka, ankoraux +estas uzata kiel vortfino en multaj diversaj lingvoj. La nuna senco de +la vorto, facile trovebla en anglaj vortaroj ("dictionaries"), devenas +de la jena greka kutimo: + +Sepdek jarojn antaux ol vivadis Sokrato, oni faris strangan legxon en +lia urbo. Laux tiu, oni povis ekzili iun ajn estron kies ideoj pri la +administrado de la urbo ne sxajnis pravaj. Cxi tion oni povis fari, +tute sen jugxado aux ecx akuzado, cxar oni havis la jenan metodon: se +cxe popola kunveno ses mil urbanoj vocxdonis ("vote") kontraux iun +ajn, tiu estis devigata foriri de la urbo, kaj forresti dek jarojn. +Li povis neniel havigi ("get") al si pardonon, sed devis tuj foriri +kvazaux konfesinta kulpulo. Por vocxdonoj, oni skribis la nomon de la +kondamnoto sur peco da potajxo ("pottery"), aux pli ofte sur ostrosxelo. +Gxuste tial oni nomas la kutimon ostracismo. Unufoje, kelkaj malamikoj +proponis vocxdonadon pri la ostracismo de tre bona kaj nobla viro, +nomita Aristejdo, kiu tute ne meritis tian punadon. + +Antaux ol la kunveno disigxis, kamparano alproksimigxis al Aristejdo +(kiu mem cxeestis), petante lian helpon, cxar la neinstruita kamparano +ne povis skribi. La sagxulo diris "Kion vi volas skribi sur la sxelo?" +La kamparano, ne sciante ke li parolas al la viro mem, respondis +"Aristejdon." Skribinte gxin, Aristejdo demandis kun trankvila +konscienco "Pro gxuste kiaj pekoj vi malamas Aristejdon?" La kamparano +respondis, "Ho, mi ne kasxos al vi ke mi ecx ne konas lin! Sed mi +deziras ekzili lin nur cxar min enuigas la sono de lia nomo. Mi tre +enuas cxiam auxdante lin nomata Aristejdo la justa!" + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Aristeides had just arrived at the popular assembly when a peasant +approached him. 2. If Aristeides had not had a pleasant countenance +and musical ("belsonan") voice, doubtless the peasant would not have +asked his help. 3. Ought Aristeides to have written his own name on the +oyster-shell or piece of pottery which was going to be used as a vote +against him? 4. Without just (exactly) this help, the peasant could +not have voted. 5. Doing him the service requested, Aristeides said, +as if ("250") he himself were not the man under-discussion ("205"), +"Why do you hate Aristeides? 6. Could you tell me how he has sinned +against the city?" 7. The silly-creature ("132") replied, "Oh, I know +nothing about him, but I am weary [of] always hearing him called the +just." 8. Ought such persons as that ignorant peasant have-the-right +to vote about important affairs? 9. The ancient law about ostracism +was a strange [one]. 10. The name of the person to-be-exiled ("199") +was usually written upon an oyster-shell, and the meaning of the word +signifying the custom comes from that. 11. Through ("per") ostracism, +any leader could be banished, justly or unjustly, without trial of any +kind, or explanation of the reasons. + + + + LESSON LV. + + + THE IMPERATIVE MOOD. + +254. For expressions of command, exhortation, entreaty, etc., there +is an "imperative mood", as in English. The ending of the imperative +mood is "-u". Beside the aoristic tense, six compound tenses are formed +by combining the participles with the imperative mood "estu" of the +auxiliary verb, but these tenses are seldom used. The conjugation of +"vidi" in the aoristic tense of this mood, together with a synopsis in +the compound tenses, is as follows: + + Aoristic Tense. + + mi vidu! = let me see! ni vidu! = let us see! + (vi) vidu! = (you) see! (vi) vidu! = (you) see! + li (sxi, gxi) vidu! = ili vidu! = let them see! + let him (her, it) see! + + Compound Tenses. + + Active. Passive. + + Present: mi estu vidanta Present: mi estu vidata + Past: mi estu vidinta Past: mi estu vidita + Future: mi estu vidonta Future: mi estu vidota + + + RESOLVE AND EXHORTATION. + +255. The "first person singular" of the imperative mood is used +to express the speaker's resolve concerning his own action, or an +exhortation to himself concerning such action. The "first person plural" +is used to express resolve or exhortation concerning the joint action of +the speaker and the person or persons addressed: + + Mi pensu pri tio! Let me think about that! + Mi ne forgesu tion! I must not (do not let me) forget that! + Ni ekzilu lin! Let us exile him! + Ni ne sidigxu tie! Let us not sit down there! + Ni estu grize vestitaj! Let us be dressed in gray! + +[Footnote: This force is usually expressed in English by "let" with an +accusative and infinitive construction.] + + + COMMANDS AND PROHIBITIONS. + +256. The "second" and "third" persons of the imperative are used to +express peremptory commands and prohibitions. + +a. In the second person the pronoun is usually omitted, as in English, +unless special emphasis is placed upon it: + + Estu trankvila! Be calm! (One person is addressed.) + Estu pretaj por akompani min! + Be ready to accompany me! (Two or more persons are addressed.) + Parolu kvazaux vi komprenus! Talk as though you understood! + Ne fermu tiun pordon! Do not shut that door! + Ne estu vidata tie! Do not be seen there! + +b. In the third person a circumlocution in English is necessary in +translation (as "let", "must", "are to", "is to", etc.): + + Li estu zorga! Let him be careful (he must be careful)! + Sxi ne faru tion! Do not let her do that (she is not to do that)! + Cxio estu pardonata! Let everything be forgiven! + Oni lasu min trankvila! People are to let me alone! + Ili neniam revenu! Let them never (do not let them ever) return! + La kulpuloj estu punataj! Let the culprits be punished! + + + LESS PEREMPTORY USES OF THE IMPERATIVE. + +257. By an extension of its use in resolve, exhortation, command +and prohibition, the imperative mood may be employed for less +peremptory expressions, such as "request", "wish", "advice", etc., +and in "questions of deliberation or perplexity", or "requests for +instruction": + +Request: Cxesu tiun bruon, mi petas! Stop that noise, I beg! + Bonvolu fari tion! Please do that! + Pardonu al ni niajn pekojn! Forgive us our sins! +Wish: Ili estu felicxaj! May they be happy! + Dio vin benu! God bless you! + Vivu la regxo! (Long) live the king! +Advice: Pensu antaux ol agi! Think before acting! + Foriru, se vi ne estas kontenta! + Go away, if you are not satisfied! +Consent: Nu, parolu, sed mi ne auxskultos! + Well, talk, but I shall not listen! + Iru tuj, se vi volas. Go at once, if you like. +Question: Cxu mi faru tion aux ne? Am I to do that or not? + Cxu ni disdonu la librojn? Shall we distribute the books? + Cxu li estu kondamnita? Shall he be condemned? + Cxu ili venu cxi tien? Are they to (shall they) come here? + + + THE USE OF "MOSXTO". + +258. The word "mosxto" may be used alone, or after a title, to denote +respect. When used after a title, the title becomes an adjective: + + Lia regxa mosxto, his majesty. + Lia jugxista mosxto, his honor the judge. + Sxia regxina mosxto, her majesty. + Lia urbestra mosxto, his honor the mayor. + Cxu via mosxto lin auxdis? + Did your honor (excellency, etc.) hear him? + + + VOCABULARY + + Afrik-o = Africa. mosxt-o = a title (see 258). + barbar-o = barbarian. ordon-i = to order, to bid. + Damokl-o = Damocles. permes-i = to permit. + flank-o = side. placx-i = to please. + imperi-o = empire. sklav-o = slave. + konsent-i = to consent. sol-a = sole, only. + konsil-i = to advise. volont-e = willingly. + + + LA GLAVO DE DAMOKLO. + +Antaux pli multe ol dumil jaroj vivis en Sirakuzo, sur la insulo +Sikelio, tre kruela tirano. Li diris al si "Mi estu cxiopova +("all-powerful")!" Tial li faris multe da militadoj, kaj venkis ne nur +barbarajn popolojn, sed ankaux multajn urbojn en Italujo kaj norda +Afriko. Detruinte cxion sen kompato, li ordonis "La logxantoj estu +vendataj por sklavoj!" Li deziris fari por si, el la venkitaj kaj +sklavigitaj popoloj, unu grandan imperion. Sed la urboj cxie, ecx en +Grekujo, ne kasxis al li sian grandan malamon al tia tirano. Tial li +cxiam timis pri sia vivo, timante ke iu subite mortigos lin. Unufoje +Damoklo, amiko de la tirano, diris al li, "Se mi estus tiel ricxa +kaj pova kiel via regxa mosxto, mi estus treege felicxa!" La tirano +respondis, "Venu al festo cxe mi, se tio placxas al vi, kaj eltrovu cxu +mi devus esti felicxa aux ne." "Mi venos tre volonte," ekkriis Damoklo, +"kaj mi dankas vian mosxton pro tia afableco!" La tirano gxentile +respondis "Ho, estas nenio (="you are welcome")! Nur ne forgesu la +deciditan horon!" Je la gxusta horo Damoklo iris al la festo, kie oni +donis al li segxon flanke de la tirano mem. "Mangxu kaj trinku kiom ajn +vi volas," konsilis la tirano, "kaj poste ni parolos pri la felicxeco." +Damoklo tuj konsentis al tia propono, kaj agis laux la permeso tiel +afable donita al li. Mangxante bonegan mangxajxon, kaj trinkante dolcxan +vinon, li tute ne enuis cxe la festo. Baldaux la tirano diris "Rigardu +supren, kaj vidu gxuste kian felicxecon mi havas!" Supren rigardinte, +Damoklo ekvidis akran glavon, antauxe kasxitan al li de kurteno. +Subtenate de unu sola haro, la glavo sxajnis kvazaux tuj falonta sur la +kapon de Damoklo. "La dioj min helpu!" li ekkriis, forsaltinte de la +tablo. Pro la jxus dirita stranga rakonto, oni ankoraux nun nomas la +atendadon por io timeginda, kio sxajnas cxiam okazonta sed efektive ne +okazas, "la glavo de Damoklo." + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. The word ostracism comes from the Greek word signifying +"oyster-shell." 2. It has its present meaning because oyster-shells +or pieces of pottery were used for the voting. 3. The story about +Aristeides is interesting, but that about the sword of Damocles is also +interesting. 4. His friend, the Syracusan tyrant, had permitted all +sorts of injustices, against not only barbarians but even Greeks. 5. +His only bidding usually was "Let every inhabitant be sold as a slave!" +6. He thought "Let me make one sole empire out of Africa, Italy and +Sicily!" 7. Damocles said to him "Your royal highness ought to be very +happy!" 8. The tyrant answered, "Come to a feast tomorrow, and find +out. I will give you a seat (214, b) beside me." 9. Damocles willingly +consented, and went thither. 10. The tyrant advised "Let us eat and +drink until midnight, if that would be-pleasing to you. Then let us +discuss the problem about happiness." 11. After a few hours Damocles +heard a slight sound over his head, and the tyrant said to him, "Look +up and you will see what kind of happiness mine is." 12. "Heaven defend +me!" exclaimed Damocles, catching sight of a sharp sword hanging by a +single (sole) hair. + + + + LESSON LVI. + + + THE IMPERATIVE IN SUBORDINATE CLAUSES. + +259. The imperative mood is used in a subordinate clause, with a meaning +similar to that in its independent use, after a main verb expressing +"command", "exhortation", "resolve", "consent", "wish", etc., or after +any word or general expression of "command", "intention", "necessity", +"expedience", etc. Such clauses are introduced by the conjunction ke: + + Command and Prohibition. + + Li diras ke vi iru, he says that you are to go. + Sxi skribis al li ke li venu, she wrote him to come. + Mi malpermesas ke vi restu, I forbid you to remain. + Ni ordonos ke li estu punata, we shall order that he be punished. + + Request and Wish. + + Mi petas ke vi ne lasu min, I beg that you do not leave me. + Mi petegas ke vi estu trankvilaj, I implore you to be calm. + Li deziras ke ili estu sklavigitaj, he desires that they be enslaved. + Ni volis ke li ne forgesu tion, we wished him not to forget that. + + Advice, Consent, Permission. + + Mi konsilis al li ke li iru, I advised him to go. + Mi konsentis ke li restu, I consented that he remain. + Ili permesos ke la barbaroj forkuru, + they will permit the barbarians to escape + (that the barbarians escape). + + Questions. + + Li demandas cxu ili foriru, he inquires whether they are to go away. + Oni demandis cxu lia mosxto eniru, + they asked whether his honor was to enter. + Mi miras cxu mi faru tion, I wonder whether I am to do that. + + Intention, Expedience, Necessity, etc. + + Ni intencas ke vi estu helpata, + we intend that you shall be helped. + Lia propono estas ke ni ricevu la duonon, + his proposal is, that we receive the half. + Lia lasta ordono estis, ke vi venu, + his last order was that you come. + Estos bone ke vi ne plu nomu lin, + it will be well for you not to (that you do not) + mention him any more. + Estas dezirinde ke ni havu bonan imperiestron, + it is desirable that we have a good emperor. + Estis necese ke cxiu starigxu, + it was necessary for everyone to rise. + Placxos al li ke vi iru, + he will be pleased to have you go. + +[Footnote: In English and some other languages an imperative idea may +often be expressed by the infinitive, as "I wish you to go," but in +Esperanto this must be expressed by the equivalent of "I wish that you +go." The infinitive may not be used except when it can itself be the +subject of the verb in such general statements as "it is necessary to +go."] + + + THE PREPOSITION "JE". + +260. Since prepositional uses are not exactly alike in any two +languages, it is not always possible to translate a preposition of +one language by what is its equivalent in some senses in another. In +order to insure some means of translating correctly into Esperanto any +prepositional phrase of the national languages, the preposition "je" +is regarded as of rather indefinite meaning. In addition to its use in +dates and allusions to time (89, 185), it may be employed when no other +preposition gives the exact sense required, especially in protestations +and exclamations, expressions of measure (see also 139), and of +indefinite connection: + + Je la nomo de cxielo! In the name of Heaven! + Je mia honoro mi ja elfaros tion! + On my honor I will accomplish that! + Gxi estas longa je du mejloj, + it is two miles long (long by two miles). + Ili venis je grandaj nombroj, they came in great numbers. + Li estas tenata de la policano, je la brako, per forta sxnurego, + he is held by the policemen, by the arm, with (by) a strong rope. + +The preposition "je" is used to express indefinite connection after +the following words (other prepositions sometimes used are given in +parentheses): + + ekkrii je (pro), to cry out at. (sin) okupi je, busy (oneself) at. + enui je, to be bored with. plena je (de), full of. + fiera je (pri), proud of. preni je, to take by. + fidi je (al), to rely upon. provizi je (per), to provide with. + gxoji je (pri), to rejoice at. ricxigi je (per), to enrich with. + gratuli je (pri), congratulate on. ridi je, to laugh at. + honti je (pri), to be ashamed of. satigxi je, to be sated with. + inda je, worthy of. senigi je, to deprive of. + interesigxi je, take interest in. simila je (al), similar to. + kapti je, to seize by. sopiri je (al), to yearn for. + kontenta je (kun), content with. sxargxi je, to load with. + kredi je, to believe in. teni je, to hold by. + +[Footnote: The translation given for a preposition in any dictionary is +the general one which serves in the majority of cases. The finer shades +of meaning and real or apparent exceptions can merely be touched upon if +mentioned at all.] + + THE SUFFIX "-OP-". + +261. The suffix "-op-" is used to form "collective" numerals: + + duope = by twos, in pairs. milope = by thousands. + kvarope = by fours. sesopigi = to form into groups of six. + + + VOCABULARY + + cel-i = to aim. prokrast-i = to delay (trans.). + Cirus-o = Cyrus. proviz-i = to provide. + fidi = to rely. rezult-i = to result. + gxu-i = to enjoy. sopir-i = to yearn, to sigh. + honor-o = honor. spac-o = space. + krom = beside, save, but. terur-a = terrible. + plen-a = full. ver-o = truth. + + + LA MARSXADO DE LA DEKMIL GREKOJ. + +Iam Ciruso, nepo de Ciruso Granda, sopiris je la imperio de sia pli +maljunafrato, kiu sekvis la patron de ambaux fratoj kiel regxo, aux +pli gxuste imperiestro. Decidinte forigi de la regxeco ("to dethrone") +sian fraton, Ciruso petis la grekojn ke ili partoprenu ("take part") en +kelkaj negravaj militadoj. Multaj tiamaj grekoj tre volonte sin okupis +je la batalado, pro la granda pago ricevata. La venditaj sklavoj kaj la +detruitaj konstruajxoj cxiam provizis ilin je multe da ricxajxo, kaj +krom tio la militistoj sxajnis gxui ecx la militadon mem. Estis tute +indiferente al ili cxu la kauxzo de la militado estas prava kaj justa +aux ne. Unue Ciruso nur petis ke ili helpu liajn proprajn soldatojn +kontraux iuj najbaroj. Li kasxis al ili sian veran celon, cxar se la +grekoj estus suspektintaj tion, kion li intencis fari, ili neniam estus +akompanintaj lin tiel malproksimen de sia patrolando. Grade li kondukis +ilin trans tutan Azion, kaj fine la dekmil grekoj komprenis cxion, kaj +treege kolerigxis. Paroladante al ili, Ciruso tuj diris "Mi ne permesas +ke vi reiru, kaj mi petegas ke vi antauxen marsxadu kun mi, sen plua +("further") prokrasto! Se mi sukcesos kontraux mia frato, mi certigas +vin je mia honoro ke cxiu el vi revenos havante sakojn plenajn je +ricxajxo! Estas nur necese ke vi fidu je mi, kaj cxio estos bona!" Tiam +la soldatoj hontis je sia antauxa timo, kaj kuragxe antauxen marsxadis. +Fine, apud granda urbo, la frato de Ciruso elvenis havante okcentmil +soldatojn, por batali kontraux la centmil de Ciruso. Per la helpo de +siaj grekoj, Ciruso estis preskaux venkinta en terura batalo, kiam +subite li ekvidis sian fraton, je malgranda interspaco. Ekkriante "Mi +vidas la viron!" li rajdis rekte al la regxo, jxetante sian pezan lancon +al li. La sola rezulto estis la morto de Ciruso mem, cxar la amikoj de +la regxo, kvinope kaj sesope atakinte Ciruson, lin tuj mortigis. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Cyrus did not desire that his brother should remain king. 2. He +decided, "Let me myself become ("farigxi") king! I should much enjoy +that!" 3. So he asked the Greeks to help him in some battles against +nearby enemies. 4. Gradually an army (126) of a hundred thousand men, +ten thousand of whom were Greeks, gathered (232, b) around him. 5. He +led them farther and farther, into the middle of Asia, until finally the +Greeks suspected his true aim. 6. They said to each other in terror, "He +did not at first propose that we fight against the Great King. Let us +return home without delay!" 7. Cyrus addressed (218) them as follows: +"Must I permit you to go back? I implore you to be courageous, and I +do advise you not to forget your longing for (260) honor! 8. Only be +worthy of your leader, and rely upon me! Do you not wish to return home +provided with wealth, beside the money which I shall pay to you?" 9. +Immediately the soldiers were ashamed of their fear, and advanced by +hundreds, full of courage. 10. Soon the brother of Cyrus approached, +with ("havante") eight hundred thousand men. 11. By the aid of the +Greeks, Cyrus won the battle, but he himself lost his life. 12. So +neither he nor the Greeks could enjoy the result of their efforts. + + + + LESSON LVII. + + + CLAUSES EXPRESSING PURPOSE. + +262. Purpose may be expressed by a subordinate imperative clause, +introduced by "por ke": + + Mi faras gxin por ke li helpu vin, + I do it in order that he may help you. + Mi ekkriis por ke vi auxdu, + I cried out in order that you should hear. + Li venos por ke ni estu felicxaj, + he will come that we may be happy. + Mi studas por ke mi lernu, + I study that I may learn. + Ili restu por ke ni punu ilin, + let them stay for us to punish them. + +[Footnote: Cf. the expression of purpose by the infinitive with "por" +(98), which however cannot be used except when the subject of the main +verb is the subject of the subordinate verb, or when the object of the +main verb is the subject of the subordinate verb.] + + + FURTHER USES OF THE ACCUSATIVE. + +[Footnote: Cf. the accusative of direct object (23), direction of motion +(46, 121), time (91), and measure (139).] + +263. The accusative of direction of motion is used after nouns from +roots expressing motion: + + Lia eniro en la urbon estis subita, + his entrance into the city was sudden. + La irado tien estos plezuro, + (the) going thither will be a pleasure. + Gxia falado teren timigis min, + its falling earthward terrified me. + +264. a. An intransitive verb may be followed by a noun in the accusative +case, if the meaning of the noun is related to that of the verb: + + Li vivas agrablan vivon, he lives an agreeable life. + Sxi dancis belan dancon, she danced a beautiful dance. + Ili ploris maldolcxajn larmojn, they wept bitter tears. + +b. Verbs of motion ("iri", "veni", "pasi", "marsxi", "veturi", etc.) +compounded with prepositions or adverbs (121) indicating direction, +also compounds of such verbs as "esti" and "stari" with prepositions +expressing situation, may be followed by the accusative, instead of by +a prepositional phrase in which the preposition is repeated: + + La viro preterpasis la domon, + the man passed (by) the house. + Lin antauxvenis du sklavoj, + there preceded (came before) him two slaves. + Ni supreniru la sxtuparon, + let us go up the stairs. + Mi cxeestis la feston, + I attended (was present at) the entertainment. + Mi kontrauxstaras vian opinion, + I oppose (withstand) your opinion. + +c. The slight change in meaning given by "pri" used as a prefix may +render intransitive verbs transitive. The same is true of "el" prefixed +to intransitive verbs not expressing motion: + + Sxi priploris la mortintan birdon, she mourned the dead bird. + Mi pripensos la aferon, I shall consider (think over) the matter. + Ni gxin priparolos, we shall talk it over. + Li klare elparolas la vortojn, he pronounces the words clearly. + +[Footnote: In this use "pri" resembles the English and German +inseparable prefix "be-", as in English "bemoan", "bewail", "bethink", +"bespeak", German "beklagen", "besprechen", "sich" , etc.] + +265. The accusative may be used after verbs of such meaning that either +a prepositional phrase or an accusative would seem correct: + + Mi pardonas lin (al li), I pardon (grant pardon to) him. + Mi helpis lin (al li), I helped (gave aid to) him. + Gxi placxas min (al mi), it pleases (is pleasing to) me. + Li obeis nin (al ni), he obeyed (was obedient to) us. + Sxi ridis mian timon (je mia timo), + she ridiculed (laughed at) my fear. + +[Footnote: When ambiguity would be caused, as by the presence of another +accusative, this construction may not be employed. One may say "pardonu +nin", but must say "pardonu al ni niajn pekojn".] + +266. The accusative may be used after certain adverbs which are normally +followed by a prepositional phrase: + + Rilate tion (rilate al tio), in regard to that. + Escepte tion (escepte de tio), with the exception of that. + Koncerne la aferon (koncerne je la afero), concerning the affair. + Kompare la alian (kompare kun la alia), in comparison with the other. + Konforme la legxon (konforme al la legxo), in conformity to the law. + + + SYNOPSIS OF THE CONJUGATION OF THE VERB. + +267. vidi, to see. + + ACTIVE. PASSIVE. + + INDICATIVE. + + Present. + (Aoristic) mi vidas mi estas vidata + (Progressive) mi estas vidanta + + Past. + (Aoristic) mi vidis mi estis vidata + (Imperfect) mi estis vidanta + + Future. + (Aoristic) mi vidos mi estos vidata + (Progressive) mi estos vidanta + + Perfect. + mi estas vidinta mi estas vidita + + Pluperfect. + mi estis vidinta mi estis vidita + + Future Perfect. + mi estos vidinta mi estos vidita + + Periphrastic Futures. + + (Present). + mi estas vidonta mi estas vidota + + (Past). + mi estis vidonta mi estis vidota + + (Future). + mi estos vidonta mi estos vidota + + CONDITIONAL. + + Present. + (Aoristic) mi vidus mi estus vidata + (Progressive) mi estus vidanta + + Past. + mi estus vidinta mi estus vidita + + Future. + mi estus vidonta mi estus vidota + + IMPERATIVE. + + Present. + (Aoristic) mi vidu mi estu vidata + (Progressive) mi estu vidanta + + Past. + mi estu vidinta mi estu vidita + + Future. + mi estu vidonta mi estu vidota + + INFINITIVE. + + Present. + (Aoristic) vidi esti vidata + (Progressive) esti vidanta + + Perfect. + esti vidinta esti vidita + + Future. + esti vidonta esti vidota + + + THE SUFFIX "-UM-". + +268. The indefinite suffix "-um-" serves the same general purpose in +word formation which "je" serves as an indefinite preposition (260): + + aerumi = to air. kolumo = collar. + busxumo = muzzle. plenumi = to fulfil. + gustumi = to taste. proksimume = approximately. + + + VOCABULARY + + eben-a = level, even. nepr-e = inevitably, certainly. + escept-o = exception. obe-i = to obey. + esper-i = to hope. obstin-a = obstinate. + fremd-a = foreign. promes-i = to promise. + histori-o = history. rilat-o = relation. + kompar-i = to compare. sat-a = satiated. + koncern-i = to concern. sav-i = to save. + konform-i = to conform. verk-i = to compose (books or music). + + + LA REIRADO DE LA DEKMILO. + +La grekaj militistoj sentis grandan teruron kiam Ciruso ne plu vivis. La +celo de la longa marsxado ne povis esti plenumata, pro la morto de la +obstina trokuragxa militestro mem. Kvankam la grekoj estis venkintoj, +ili estis tute solaj en fremda lando, cxirkauxitaj de barbaroj kiuj, +per trompemaj proponoj kaj falsaj promesoj pri amikaj interrilatoj, +tuj okazigis la morton de la grekaj estroj. Senigite je siaj estroj, +la kompatindaj viroj tute malesperis. Sed kelkaj subestroj, rapide +kunveniginte la soldatojn, diris, "Ni mem kondukos vin per kiel eble +plej rekta vojo hejmen! Ni faros nian eblon ("utmost") por ke ni +cxiuj estu savitaj!" Cxar restis nenio alia por fari, la malfacila +malgaja reirado de la grekoj komencigxis sen prokrasto. Ili transiris +varmegajn ebenajxojn ("plains"), supreniris kaj malsupreniris krutajn +negxkovritajn montojn, meze de la vintro, kaj sen pontoj transiris +largxajn riverojn. Cxie la malfidindaj barbaroj atakis ilin, kvazaux +por ke neniu greko restu viva. Krom tio, la grekoj mortis dekope kaj +dudekope cxiutage, pro varmegeco, malvarmegeco, laceco kaj malsateco +("hunger"). Fine, post nekredeblaj suferoj, la restajxo de la dekmil +soldatoj alvenis sur monton, kaj ekvidis la maron. Lauxta ekkriego "La +maro! La maro!" eksonis inter la lacaj viroj, el kiuj multaj ploris +larmojn de gxojo. De infaneco ili alkutimis al la vojagxado per akvo, +kaj post iom da ripozo ili sin provizis je sxipoj, por transiri la maron +al la patrujo je kiu ili estis tiel longe sopirintaj. Treege interesa +historio koncerne la tutan aferon estas verkita de fama greka verkisto +("writer"), kiu estis akompaninta Ciruson por ke li povu gxui kaj studi +cxion interesan sur la vojo. Tiu azia militado de Ciruso nepre estas unu +el la plej rimarkindaj okazintajxoj iam priskribitaj, ecx sen escepto de +la posta irado tien de Aleksandro Granda. + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. After the death of Cyrus, the leaders of the Greek warriors did not +know what to do. 2. In the course of the following day, one of the +leaders of the enemy sent a messenger (205) with deceitful promises +about help. 2. He said "Assemble in our leader's tent, in order that +you may all discuss the matter." 3. The Greek leaders went, although +they suspected danger, because they did not know how else to save +their men. 4. But they never returned, and soon the Greeks understood +that the barbarians had killed them. 5. They wept tears of despair, +and said "The barbarians will inevitably destroy us, for we are in +a foreign land, where we know neither the languages nor the roads, +and the peoples are without exception hostile to us." 6. But the +leaders-of-lesser-rank said "Obey us and follow us, and we shall do our +best to save you!" 7. Their return, across hot plains and snow-covered +mountains, made-more-difficult by hunger and by the unceasing attacks +of the barbarians, is related in the history written by a famous Greek +historian. 8. One can still read this interesting narrative, in Greek or +in a translation. + + + + LESSON LVIII. + + + PERMISSION AND POSSIBILITY. + +269. Permission is usually expressed by the use of "permesi", "lasi", or +the imperative mood: + + Cxu vi permesas ke mi restu? May I (do you permit me to) stay? + Jes, mi permesas (jes, restu), yes, you may (yes, stay). + Ne estas permesate eniri tien, it is not allowed to enter there. + Lasu lin veni, let him come. + +270. The idea of possibility or probability is given by the use of some +such adverb as "eble", "kredeble", "versxajne", etc.: + + Eble li obeos al vi, he may (perhaps he will) obey you. + Kredeble li sukcesos, probably he will succeed. + Versxajne vi estas prava, you are probably right. + Eble oni lin savus, they might (possibly they would) save him. + Ili nepre ne batis lin, + they could not have (surely did not) beat him. + Tio estas neebla! That can not be (that is impossible)! + + + THE PREFIX "GE-". + +271. Words formed with the prefix "ge-" indicate the two sexes together: + + gepatroj = parents. gefiloj = son(s) and daughter(s). + geavoj = grandparents. gefratoj = brother(s) and sister(s). + genepoj = grandchildren. geedzoj = husband(s) and wife (wives). + gesinjoroj = Mr. and Mrs., lady (ladies) and gentleman (gentlemen). + + + THE SUFFIX "-ACX-". + +272. The suffix "-acx-" has a disparaging significance: + + domacxo = a hovel. pentracxi = to daub. + hundacxo = a cur. popolacxo = rabble, mob. + obstinacxa = obstinate. ridacxi = to guffaw. + + + INTERJECTIONS. + +273. Interjections are words used to express feeling or call attention. +Among the more common interjections are: + + Adiaux! Farewell! (171). Hura! Hurrah! + Fi! Fie! Nu! Well! + Ho! Oh! Ho! Ve! Woe! (Ho ve! Alas!). + +[Footnote: Verbs in the imperative, and adverbs, are frequently used as +interjections, as "Atentu!", Look out!, "Auxskultu!", Hark!, "Bonvenu!", +Welcome!, "Antauxen!", Forward!, "Bone!", Good!, "For!", Away!, "Ja!", +Indeed!, "Jen!", There!, Behold!] + +[Footnote: The interjection "fi" is sometimes used as a disparaging +prefix, like "-acx-" (272), as "fibirdo", ugly bird, "ficxevalo", a +sorry nag.] + + + VOCABULARY + + Aleksandri-o = Alexandria. fond-i = to found, establish. + Amerik-o = America. hispan-o = Spaniard. + Aristotel-o = Aristotle. kapabl-a = capable. + Auxstrali-o = Australia. komun-a = common, mutual. + bibliotek-o = library. kontinent-o = continent. + eduk-i = to bring up, educate. Krist-o = Christ. + Egipt-o = Egypt. milion-o = million. + estim-i = to esteem. spite = in spite of. + firm-a = firm. vast-a = vast, extensive. + + + ALEKSANDRO GRANDA. + +Permesu ke mi diru kelkajn vortojn pri la vivo de Aleksandro Granda, +kiu ne estis matura viro sed havis nur dudek jarojn kiam li farigxis +regxo. Liaj gepatroj estis tre zorge edukintaj lin, kaj la filozofo +Aristotelo, kiun li tre alte estimis, estis unu el liaj instruistoj. +Aleksandro firme tenadis sian propran regxolandon, kaj ankaux Grekujon, +kiun lia patro estis venkinta; krom tio, li faris militadojn kontraux +diversaj fremdaj landoj, unue en Azio, tiam en Afriko, kie li fondis +urbon, kaj gxin nomis Aleksandrio. Aleksandrio nepre estis belega ricxa +urbo. Tie trovigxis* poste la fama Aleksandria biblioteko. Se gxi ne +estus detruita de fajro, en la dauxro de iuj militadoj, ni sendube konus +multe pli bone la sciadon de la antikvaj grekoj, kiuj versxajne estis la +plej klera popolo iam vivinta en Euxropo. Venkinte Egipton, Aleksandro +reiris en Azion, gxis tre orienta kaj suda partoj, venkante cxiujn cxie, +kvazaux ili estus la plej malkuragxaj popolacxoj en la mondo. Sed spite +cxies petoj li estis obstinacxe nezorgema pri sia sano, kaj subite, +ho ve, li mortis pro febro, tricent dektri jarojn antaux Kristo. Se +li ne estus tiel frue mortinta, kiel multe li estus eble elfarinta! +Li esperis venki Hispanujon, Italujon, kaj, mallongavorte, tiom de la +okcidenta mondo kiom li jam posedis de la orienta. Tiam li celis kunigi +cxion en unu vastan imperion, kvazaux por fari el la mondo unu grandan +familion. Li intencis ke la milionoj da enlogxantoj akceptu komunajn +legxojn kaj kutimojn, ecx komunan lingvon, -- kredeble la grekan. Eble +li ja havis la kapablecon por fari cxion cxi. Estas pro tio ke oni ofte +auxdas la diron "Aleksandro sopiris je aliaj mondoj por venki." Tamen, +kiel malgranda estis tiu mondo kiun li konis! La tiamuloj konis nur +malgrandan parton de Afriko, de Azio, ecx de Euxropo. Ili sciis nenion +pri Anglujo, aux pri la vastaj kontinentoj Auxstralio, norda kaj suda +Amerikoj. + +[Footnote: The use of "trovigxi", and also of "sin trovi", "kusxi", +"stari" and "sidi", in a sense not greatly differing from that of +"esti", avoids the monotonous repetition of forms of "esti", just as +English uses "lie", "sit", "perch", etc., in narration for similar +reasons: +Multaj vilagxoj trovigxas tie, + many villages are (situated) there. +Egipto trovigxas en la nordorienta parto de Afriko, + Egypt is (found) in the northeastern part of Africa. +Li sin trovis sola en la dezerto, + he found himself (he was) alone in the desert. +La urbo kusxis inter du lagoj, + the city lay between two lakes. +Sur la montflanko sidis vilagxeto, + on the mountainside perched a tiny village.] + + + SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. + +1. Alexander the Great wished to unite the whole world into one vast +empire. 2. He intended that all the different peoples should conform to +common laws and that their sons-and-daughters should speak one common +language, and in spite of their love for their national languages, +should leave-off speaking them. 3. Possibly he might have accomplished +his object to some extent (217), if he had not died suddenly when he +was only thirty-two years old. 4. His soldiers marched weeping past his +tent, to bid farewell to their dying leader. 5. They must have esteemed +him very highly! 6. It was Alexander who founded the city of Alexandria, +in Egypt, where approximately three hundred years before Christ the +famous Alexandrian library was located. 7. It contained an enormous +collection-of-books -- almost seven hundred thousand. 8. Alas, this +extensive library was destroyed by fire! 9. Alexander, who "sighed for +other worlds to conquer," did not even know of the existence of North +and South America, Australia, or even of England and Northern Europe. +10. Beside his Asiatic empire, he knew very little of Asia, even of +China, with its millions of inhabitants. 11. How small the world was in +those days! + + + + LESSON LIX. + + + THE POSITION OF UNEMPHATIC PRONOUNS. + +274. An unemphatic personal, indefinite or demonstrative pronoun +very frequently precedes the verb of which it is the object. This is +especially true if the verb in question is an infinitive: + + Mi volas lin vidi, I wish to see him. + Li povos tion fari, he will be able to do that. + Vi devus ion mangxi, you ought to eat something. + Cxu vi gxin kredis? Did you believe it? + Se li min vidus, li min savus, if he should see me, he would save me. + +[Footnote: Cf. in other languages, as in German "ich moechte ihn +sehen", French "je veux le voir", Latin "se alunt, me defendi", etc. +That such pronouns "are" unemphatic can be seen from English "let +her come" (= "let'er come"), "make him stop" (= "make'im stop"), +etc., in which the unemphatic forms "er, im", replace "him, her", in +pronunciation (cf. the Greek enclitic pronouns "mou, moi, me, son, +soi, se, ou, oi, e,", the Sanskrit enclitic forms "ma, me, tva, te, +nas, vas, enam, enat, enam," also "sim", and the Avestan "i, im"). +The same phenomenon is indicated in "prithee" (= "pray thee"), and in +the spellings "gimme" (= "give me"), "lemme" (= "let me"), in dialect +stories.] + + + SOME INTRANSITIVE VERBS. + +275. Some intransitive verbs have English meanings which do not differ +in form from the transitive English verbs to which they are related. +In Esperanto the suffix "-ig-" (214) must be used when the transitive +meaning is desired. Some examples are given in the following table: + + Verb. Intransitive Use. Transitive Use. + + Boli . . . . La akvo bolas Li boligas la akvon + The water boils He boils the water + + Bruli. . . . La fajro brulas Li bruligis la paperon + The fire burns He burned the paper + + Cxesi. . . . La bruo cxesas Li cxesigas la bruon + The noise stops He stops the noise + + Dauxri . . . La bruo dauxras Li dauxrigas la bruon + The noise continues He continues the noise + + Degeli . . . La glacio degelas Li gxin degeligas per fajro + The ice thaws He thaws it with fire + + Droni. . . . La knabino dronis La viro sxin dronigis + The girl drowned The man drowned her + + Eksplodi . . Pulvo eksplodas Li gxin eksplodigos + Gunpowder explodes He will explode it + + Halti. . . . Li haltis timigite Li haltigis la soldatojn + He halted in alarm He halted the soldiers + + Lumi . . . . La suno lumas Li lumigis la lampon + The sun shines He lighted the lamp + + Pasi . . . . La tempo pasas Tiel li pasigis la tagon + Time passes Thus he passed the day + + Pendi. . . . Gxi pendas de brancxo Li gxin pendigis de brancxo + It hangs on a branch He hung it on a branch + + Soni . . . . La saluta pafo sonis Oni sonigis la salutan pafon + The salute sounded They sounded the salute + + Sonori . . . La sonorilo sonoris Oni sonorigis la sonorilon + The bell rang They rang the bell + +[Footnote: A transitive use of such intransitive verbs would be like +using the English intransitive verb "learn" for the transitive verb +"teach," as in the "I'll learn you" (for "I'll teach you") of illiterate +speech.] + + + THE SUFFIX "-ER-". + +276. The suffix "-er-" is used to form words expressing units or +component parts of that which is indicated in the root: + + fajrero = spark (of fire). negxero = snowflake. + monero = coin. sablero = grain of sand. + + + THE PREFIXES "BO-" AND "DUON-". + +277. The prefix "bo-" indicates relationship by marriage. To indicate +half-blood relationship, or step-relationship, "duon-" (166) is used: + + bopatro = father-in-law. duonpatro = stepfather. + bofratino = sister-in-law. duonfrato = half-brother. + + + CORRESPONDENCE. + +278. a. Letters should be dated as indicated in the following: + + Bostono, je la 24a de decembro, 1912a. + Nov-Jorko, la 24an decembro, 1912a. + Sirakuzo, 24/XII/1912. + +b. The usual methods of address are (to strangers and in business +letters): "Sinjoro, Sinjorino, Estimata Sinjoro, Karaj Sinjoroj, Tre +estimata Frauxlino," etc.; (to friends and relatives) "Kara Frauxlino, +Karaj Gefratoj, Kara Amiko, Kara Mario, Patrino mia," (placing the +possessive adjective after the noun in this way gives an affectionate +sense, as in English "Mother mine," etc) etc.; (to persons whose +opinions on some subject are known to agree with those of the writer) +"Estimata (Kara) Samideano" ("follower of the same idea"). + +c. Among the more usual forms of conclusion are (to strangers and in +business letters): "Tre fidele la via, Tre vere, Kun granda estimo, Kun +plej alta estimo," etc., (to friends): "Kun amika saluto, Kun cxiuj +bondeziroj, Kun samideanaj salutoj, Frate la via," etc. + + + VOCABULARY + + adres-o = address. krajon-o = pencil. + apart-a = separate. mend-i = to order (of stores, etc). + bedaur-i = to regret. Nov-Jorko = New York. + cxef-a = chief. numer-o = number (numeral). + do = so, then. ofic-o = office, employment. + fontan-o = fountain. posxt-o = post (letters, etc.). + hotel-o = hotel. respekt-o = respect. + ink-o = ink. special-a = special. + konven-a = suitable. stat-o = state (political body) + kovert-o = envelope (for letters) tram-o = tram. + +[Footnote: "Cxef-" is often used in descriptive compounds (167, b), +as "cxefkuiristo", chief (head) cook, chef, "cxefurbo", chief city, +capital, "cxefangxelo", archangel.] + + + * * * * * + + + KELKAJ LETEROJ. + + + * * * * * + + + Sirakuzo, la 2an de marto, 1911. + +Kara Amiko, + + Sendube vin surprizos ricevi leteron skribitan de mi cxe hotelo en +cxi tiu urbo, ne tre malproksime de via propra oficejo! Via bofrato, +kiun mi okaze renkontis hieraux en la posxtoficejo, donis al mi vian +adreson. Gxis nun, mi estas tiel okupata ke mi ne havis la tempon ecx +por telefoni al vi. Sed nun mi havas du aux tri minutojn da libera +tempo, kaj mi tuj ekkaptas la okazon por skribi letereton, petante ke +vi vespermangxu kun mi hodiaux vespere, cxe la hotelo kie, kiel vi +vidas, mi logxas de antaux unu tago. (Pardonu, mi petas, "ke" mi finas +cxi tiun leteron per krajono, sed mi jxus eltrovis ke restas neniom +plu da inko en mia fontanplumo.) Venu je la sesa, se tiu horo estas +konvena. Bedauxrinde ("unfortunately"), mi devos forresti de la hotelo +la tutan posttagmezon, pri komercaj aferoj, alie mi vin renkontus cxe +la tramvojo, kie haltas la tramveturiloj ("streetcars"). Estos plej +bone, mi opinias, ke vi iru rekte al mia cxambro, numero 26, kie mi +senprokraste vin renkontos, se mi ne estos efektive jam vin atendanta. +Ni esperu ke la cxefkuiristo preparos al ni bonan mangxon! Mi esperas +ke vi malatentos la falantajn negxerojn, kaj nepre venos, responde al +mia iomete subita invito, cxar ni ja havos multe da komunaj travivajxoj +por priparoli. Do gxis la baldauxa revido je la vespermangxo! + + Kun plej amikaj salutoj, + + Roberto. + + +[Footnote: The word "tial" may be omitted from the combination "tial ke" +(83), if the meaning is obvious.] + + + * * * * * + + + Boston, 13/VII/1911. + +Wilson kaj Jones, + Nov-Jorko. +Estimataj Sinjoroj:-- + Bonvolu sendi al mi per revenanta posxto vian plej novan prezaron +("price-list"). Ni baldaux bezonos iujn novajn meblojn por niaj +oficejoj, precipe skribtablojn, tablojn konvenajn por skribmasxinoj +("typewriters"), kaj specialajn librujojn, farotajn laux niaj bezonoj. +Se viaj prezoj estas konvenaj, ni sendube volos mendi de vi tian +meblaron. Kun respekto, + J. F. Smith, + cxe Brown kaj Brown. + + + * * * * * + + + Nov-Jorko, 17/VII/1911. + +Sinjoro J. F. Smith, + cxe Brown kaj Brown, + Nov-Jorko. +Estimata Sinjoro:-- + Ni havas la honoron sendi al vi en aparta koverto nian plej novan +prezaron, al kiu ni petas ke vi donu vian atenton, precipe al pagxoj +15-29. Tie vi trovos priskribitaj niajn plej bonajn oficejajn meblarojn. +Ni senpage metos cxiujn acxetitajn meblojn sur la vagonaron, sed +kompreneble ni ne pagos la koston de la sendado. + Ni plezure fabrikos specialajn librujojn laux viaj bezonoj, kaj +volonte ricevos viajn ordonojn pri tio. Niaj prezoj estos kiel eble plej +malaltaj. + Esperante ke la meblaroj priskribitaj en nia prezaro, kune kun la +tie-presitaj prezoj, estos plene kontentigaj, kaj certigante al vi ke ni +zorge plenumos cxiun mendon, ni restas, + Tre respekte la viaj, + Wilson kaj Jones. + + + * * * * * + + + Bostono, la 27an Majo. + +Sinjoro B. F. Brown, + Sirakuzo, Nov-Jorka Sxtato. +Kara Sinjoro:-- + Vian adreson ni dankas al niaj komunaj amikoj Sinjoroj Miller kaj +White, kaj per cxi tio ni permesas al ni proponi al vi niajn servojn por +la vendado de tiaj infanludiloj, kiajn vi fabrikas. Ni havas bonegajn +montrajn fenestrojn ("show-windows"), en nia butiko, preskaux meze de la +cxefstrato en la urbo, kaj en nia butiko trovigxas suficxe da grandaj +vitramebloj ("show-cases"). Tial ni povus tre oportune administri +tian aferon. Ni multe gxojos se vi respondos kiel eble plej baldaux, +sciigante al ni kiom da procento vi donos, kaj kiajn arangxojn vi volus +fari. Ni certigas al vi ke en cxiu okazo ni penos fari nian eblon por +via plej bona intereso. + Kun alta estimo, + D. Rose. + + + + LESSON LX. + + + SOME TRANSITIVE VERBS. + +279. Some transitive verbs have English meanings which do not differ in +form from the "intransitive" English verbs to which they are related +(conversely to the use explained in 275). In Esperanto the suffix +"-igx-" (232), or a different root, must be used when an intransitive +meaning is desired. Following are the more common verbs of this +character, together with examples of the intransitive use of several of +them: + + balanci = to balance. renversi = to upset, to overturn. + etendi = to extend, to expand. rompi = to break. + fermi = to close, to shut. ruli = to roll, (wheel, ball, etc.). + fini = to end, to finish. skui = to shake. + fleksi = to bend, to flex. strecxi = to stretch. + hejti = to heat. svingi = to swing. + klini = to incline, to bend. sxanceli = to cause to vacillate. + kolekti = to gather, to collect. sxangxi = to change. + komenci = to begin, to commence. sxiri = to tear. + mezuri = to measure. turni = to turn. + montri = to show. veki = to wake. + movi = to move. versxi = to pour. + pasxti = to pasture, to feed. volvi = to roll (around something). + + La laboro nun finigxas, the work is now coming to an end. + La glavo fleksigxis, the sword bent. + La folioj disvolvigxas, the leaves unroll (develop). + Cxiu kutimo sxangxigxos, every custom will change. + La vintro jam komencigxas, the winter is already beginning. + Mi vekigxos je la sesa, I shall awake at six (o'clock). + La montrilo sxanceligxis, the indicator trembled (vacillated). + Vasta ebenajxo etendigxis antaux li, + a vast plain extended before him. + + + ELISION. + +280. Elision is not common, and its use in writing as well as in +speaking is best avoided. It occurs most frequently in poetry. + +a. The "-a" of the article may be elided before a word beginning with +avowel, or after a preposition ending in a vowel: + + L' espero, l' obstino kaj la pacienco. + De l' montoj riveretoj fluas. + Kaj kantas tra l' pura aero. + +b. The final "-o" of a noun may be elided in poetry. The original accent +of the noun remains unchanged: + + Ho, mia kor', ne batu maltrankvile. + Sur la kampo la rozet'. + +c. The final "-e" of an adverb is very rarely elided (except in the +expression "dank' al", which occurs in prose as well as in poetry): + + Ke povu mi foj' je eterno ekdormi! + Dank' al vi, mi sukcesis. (Thanks to you, I succeeded.) + + + THE PREFIX "EKS-". + +281. The prefix "eks-" is used to form words expressing a previous +incumbent of a position, or removal from such position: + + eksprezidanto, ex-president. + eksregxo, ex-king. + eksigi, to put out of office, to discharge. + eksigxi, to withdraw from one's office, to resign. + + + THE PREFIX "PRA-". + +282. The prefix "pra-" is used to form words expressing precedence in +the line of descent, or general remoteness in past time: + + praavo = great grandfather. prapatroj = forefathers, ancestors. + pranepo = great grandson. pratempa = primeval. + + + THE SUFFIXES "-CXJ-" AND "-NJ-". + +283. The suffix "-cxj-" is used to form affectionate diminutives, from +the first syllable or syllables of masculine names or terms of address. +The suffix "-nj-" forms similar feminine diminutives: + + Jocxjo = Johnnie, Joe. Manjo = May, Mamie. + Pacxjo = Papa. Panjo = Mamma. + + + WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. + +284. National systems of weights and measures translated into +international form (as "mejlo", mile, "funto", pound) cannot convey a +very definite meaning to one not familiar with the particular system +used. Consequently the metric system (already used by scientists +everywhere and by the general public in many countries) is adopted for +the international system of weights and measures: + + Length and Surface. + + milimetro = millimeter (.0394 inch). + centimetro = centimeter (.3937 inch). + decimetro = decimeter (3.937 inches). + metro = meter (39.37 inches). + dekametro = dekameter (393.7 inches). + hektometro = hektometer (328 feet 1 inch). + kilometro = kilometer (3280 feet 10 inches; .62137 mile). + kvadrata metro = square meter (1550 square inches). + hektaro = hektare (2.471 acres). + + Weight. + + gramo = gram (15.432 grains avoirdupois). + dekagramo = dekagram (.3527 ounce avoirdupois). + hektogramo = hektogram (3.5274 ounce avoirdupois). + kilogramo = kilogram (2.2046 pounds avoirdupois). + + Capacity. + + decilitro = deciliter (6.1022 cubic inches; .845 gill). + litro = liter (.908 quart, dry measure; 1.0567 quart, liquid). + dekalitro = dekaliter (9.08 quart, dry measure; 2.6417 gallons). + hektolitro = hektoliter (2 bushels 3.35 pecks; 26.417 gallons). + kilolitro = kiloliter (1.308 cubic yards; 264.17 gallons). + + + THE INTERNATIONAL MONEY SYSTEM. + +285. Names of national coins translated into international form (as +"dolaro", dollar, "cendo", cent) cannot convey a very definite meaning +to persons not familiar with these coins. Consequently the system +devised for international use (not for actual coins, but for calculation +and price quotations) is based upon a unit called the "speso". The +multiples of this unit are the "spesdeko" (10 spesoj), "spescento" (100 +spesoj), and "spesmilo" (1000 spesoj). Ten spesmiloj have approximately +the value of a five-dollar gold piece, twenty marks, twenty-five francs, +one pound sterling, etc. The spesmilo, equivalent to about $0.4875 in +the money of the United States and Canada, is the unit commonly used. +(To reduce dollars to spesmiloj, multiply by 2.051.) + + + ABBREVIATIONS. + +286. The following abbreviations are often used (for those of the metric +system see any English dictionary): + + Dro. = Doktoro, [Dr.] Sm. = spesmilo(j). + Fino. = Frauxlino, [Miss]. Sd. = spesdeko(j). + Pro. = Profesoro, [Prof.] k.t.p. = kaj tiel plu, [and so forth]. + Sro. = Sinjoro, [Mr.] k.c. = kaj ceteraj, [etc.] + Sino. = Sinjorino, [Mrs.] k.sim. = kaj simila(j), [et. sim.] + Ko. = K-io., Kompanio, [Co.] t.e. = tio estas, [i.e.] + No. = N-ro., Numero, [No.] e. = ekzemple, [e.g.] + & = kaj, &. p.s. = postskribajxo, [P.S.] + + + VOCABULARY. + + abon-i = to subscribe to, take. led-o = leather. + aparat-o = apparatus. metal-o = metal. + auxtomat-a = automatic. moment-o = moment. + bov-o = ox. negativ-o = negative. + dimensi-o = dimension. objektiv-o = lens, objective. + ekzempl-o = example. original-o = original. + fokus-o = focus. plat-o = plate (photographic,etc) + fotograf-i = to photograph. prov-i = to try. + funkci-i = to function, work. reklam-i = to advertise. + kamer-o = camera. strecx-i = to stretch (trans.). + +[Footnote: Cf. the difference between "provi", to try, in the sense of +testing, making an essay or endeavor, "peni", to try, in the sense of +taking pains or making an effort, and "jugxi", to try, in a judicial +sense.] + + + * * * * * + + + PRI LA KAMERO. + + Bostono, 12/XI/1910. + +Brown kaj Ko., + Nov-Jorko. +Sinjoroj:-- + Vidinte vian reklamon en gazeto al kiu mi abonas, mi skribas por +peti ke vi sendu al mi priskribajxon de via kamero nomita "La Infaneto," +kiun eble mi deziros provi. + Bonvolu ankaux sendi dekduonon da platoj, 6 x 9 centimetrojn, por kiu +mi cxi* kune sendas spesmilon kaj duonon. + Kun respekto, + J. C. Smith. + +[Footnote: The particle "cxi" (used with "tiu, tio, ties, cxiu, cxio") +may also be used with certain adverbs, as "cxi sube", "here below", "cxi +supre", "here above", "cxi kune", "herewith", etc.] + + + * * * * * + + + Nov-Jorko, 18an novembro, 1910. + +Kara Sinjoro:-- + Respondante al via estimata letero de la 12a, ni donas cxi sube +mallongan priskribajxon de nia bonega fotografilo nomita "La Infaneto." + "La Infaneto" kamero havis neesperitan sukceson, kaj estas vendita +po miloj da ekzempleroj. Cxie oni unuvocxe lauxdas gxian malgrandan +kaj tamen bonegan konstruon, kaj ankaux gxian firman samtempe facilan +funkciadon. Gxi ne estas pli granda ol monujo, tial gxi ne bezonas pli +multe da spaco ol tiu, kaj povas esti portata kaj uzata treege konvene. + La dimensioj de la fermita kamero estas 8 x 5 x 6.5 centimetroj. La +pezo, kun objektivo, tri platingoj, kaj malbrila ("ground") vitro, estas +365 gramoj. "La Infaneto" estas konstruita tute el metalo, kaj kovrita +de bonega bovledo. Kiam oni malfermas la aparaton, la objektivo samtempe +enfokusigxas, tiamaniere ke la kamero estas preta por uzado post unu +sekundo, cxar la objektivfermilo ("shutter") estas cxiam strecxita. +Sekve: neniaj preparadoj, nenia prokrasto je la ekfotografado. + La negativoj estas klaraj gxis la bordo, kaj tial konvenaj por +pligrandigo. Cetere, oni scias ke bona pligrandigo ofte pli kontentigas +ol malgranda originalo. Precipe cxe promenoj kaj vojagxoj oni tial +volonte preferas la malgrandan "Infaneton," por poste pligrandigi la +negativojn. + Por la pligrandigo ni fabrikas specialajn taglum-pligrandigajn +aparatojn, kies prezoj estas malaltaj (vidu en nia prezaro). + Ni ne sxangxis la konstruon de "La Infaneto" de post 1909, cxar +gxis nun gxi estas cxiurilate kontentiga. Sole la rapideca reguligo +de la momenta ("instantaneous") fermilo estas plibonigita, cxar ni +gxin fabrikas kun speciala auxtomata fermilo, kiu estas arangxita por +malfermoj dauxraj ("time exposures"), kaj momentaj, je unu sekundo +gxis unu centono da sekundo. + Esperante ke ni baldaux ricevos mendon de vi, kaj certigante al vi +ke ni tre zorge plenumos iun ajn mendon, ni restas. + Tre respekte la viaj, + Brown & Ko. + Per C. + + + + * * * * * + + + + ESPERANTO-ENGLISH VOCABULARY. + +The following vocabulary includes all roots used in the preceding +Lessons, all primary words of the language, and a large number of +additional roots (to facilitate original composition). No attempt has +been made, however, to include all of the roots in the language, for +which an Esperanto-English Dictionary should be consulted. + +References are to sections, unless the page (p.) is given. For other +parts of speech than those indicated under each root or primary word, +see Word Formation, 116, 120, 159, 171. See also the references given +under each prefix and suffix. For formation of compound words, see 160, +167, 176, 184. The following abbreviations are used: adj. = adjective; +adv. = adverb; conj. = conjunction; intrans. = intransitive; prep. = +preposition; trans. = transitive; -- = repetition of the word. + + A. + +abel-o = bee. +abi-o = fir. +abiturient-o = bachelor of arts (A.B.). +abomen-a = abominable. +abon-i = to subscribe to, take (magazine, etc.). +abrikot-o = apricot. +acer-o = maple (tree). +acid-a = acid, sour. +-acx- = derogatory suffix (272). +acxet-i = to buy. +-ad- = suffix indicating duration (218). +adiaux = (adv. and interjection), farewell, good-bye (171, 273). +adjektiv-o = adjective. +administr-i = to administer, to manage. +admir-i = to admire. +admon-i = to exhort, admonish. +ador-i = to worship, adore. +adres-o = address (on letters, etc.). +adverb-o = adverb. +advokat-o = lawyer, barrister. +aer-o = air. +afabl-a = affable, amiable. +afer-o = affair, matter, thing, cause. +afisx-o = handbill, placard, poster. +afrank-i = to frank (letters), prepay; --ite, post-paid. +Afrik-o = Africa. +ag-i = to act, perform action. +agac-i = to set on edge (of teeth). +agent-o = agent. +agit-i = to agitate. +agl-o = eagle. +agoni-o = agony. +agrabl-a = agreeable, pleasant. +agx-o = age. +ajn = (adv.), ever (236). +-ajx- = (suffix forming concrete words) (227). +akademi-o = academy. +akcel-i = (trans.), to accelerate, hasten. +akcent-o = accent, stress. +akcept-i = to accept, receive, welcome. +akcident-o = accident. +akir-i = to acquire. +akompan-i = to accompany. +akr-a = sharp, acute, shrill. +akrid-o = grasshopper. +aks-o = axis, axle. +akt-o = act (of a play). +aktiv-a = active (grammatical). +aktor-o = actor (player). +akurat-a = accurate, exact. +akuz-i = to accuse. +akuzativ-o = accusative. +akv-o = water. +akvarel-o = water-color painting. +akvari-o = aquarium. +al = (prep.), to, toward (46, 160, 251, 252). +alauxd-o = lark (bird). +ale-o = avenue, walk, path (of garden, park, etc.). +Aleksandri-o = Alexandria. +Aleksandr-o = Alexander. +alfabet-o = alphabet. +Alfred-o = Alfred. +algebr-o = algebra. +ali-a = other. +alk-o = elk. +alkohol-o = alcohol. +alkov-o = alcove, recess. +almanak-o = almanac. +almenaux = (adv.), at least (66). +almoz-o = alms; --ulo, beggar. +alt-a = high, tall. +altar-o = altar. +alud-i = to allude to. +alumet-o = match (for fire). +am-i = to love. +amas-o = crowd, throng, mass. +ambaux = (pronoun), both (of two objects naturally in pairs,or of + persons or things assumed or already known to be thus grouped) (238). +ambos-o = anvil. +amel-o = starch. +Amerik-o = America. +amfibi-a = amphibious. +amfiteatr-o = amphitheatre. +amik-o = friend. +amindum-i = to woo, make love. +ampleks-o = extent, dimension. +amuz-i = to amuse. +-an- = suffix denoting membership, etc. (145). +analiz-i = to analyse. +ananas-o = pineapple. +anas-o = duck. +anekdot-o = anecdote. +Angl-o = Englishman. +angul-o = angle, corner. +angxel-o = angel. +anim-o = soul. +ankaux = (adv.), also. +ankoraux = (adv), still, yet. +ankr-o = anchor. +anonc-i = to announce. +ans-o = latch, door-handle. +anser-o = goose. +anstataux = (prep.), instead of (98, 159). +antaux = (prep.), before (89, 90, 120, 159, 160), + "antaux ol" (conj.), 97, 98. +antikv-a = ancient, antique. +antilop-o = antelope. +antipati-o = antipathy. +aparat-o = apparatus. +apart-a = separate. +apartament-o = apartment, suite (of rooms). +aparten-i = to belong. +apati-o = apathy. +apenaux = (adv.), scarcely, hardly. +aper-i = to appear. +apetit-o = appetite. +aplauxd-i = to applaud. +aplomb-o = assurance, self-command. +apog-i = to lean, to rest (upon). +apologi-o = apology, vindication. +apotek-o = pharmacy, drugstore, chemist's shop. +april-o = April. +aprob-i = to approve. +apud = (prep.), near to, close by (120, 159). +-ar- = suffix forming collectives (126). +Arab-o = Arab. +arane-o = spider. +arangx-i = to arrange. +arb-o = tree. +arbitraci-i = to arbitrate. +ardez-o = slate (stone). +aren-o = arena. +arest-i = to arrest. +argil-o = clay. +argument-i = to argue. +argxent-o = silver (metal). +arhxitektur-o = architecture. +Arhximed-o = Archimedes. +ari-o = tune, air (music). +Aristejd-o = Aristeides. +aristokrat-o = aristocrat. +Aristotel-o = Aristotle. +aritmetik-o = arithmetic. +ark-o = arc. +arkad-o = arcade. +arm-i = to arm. +arme-o = army. +armoraci-o = horse-radish. +arogant-a = arrogant. +arom-o = aroma, fragrance. +art-o = art. +artik-o = joint. +artikol-o = article (grammatical or literary). +Artur-o = Arthur. +asekur-i = to insure (with a company). +asoci-o = association (organization). +asparag-o = asparagus. +aspekt-o = aspect, appearance. +astr-o = heavenly body, star. +atak-i = to attack. +atend-i = to wait, wait for, expect. +atent-a = attentive. +atest-i = to attest, give witness, certify. +ating-i = to attain, reach. +atlas-o = satin. +atlet-o = athlete. +atmosfer-o = atmosphere. +atribut-o = attribute. +aux = (conj.), or, either. +auxd-i = to hear. +auxgust-o = August. +auxskult-i = to listen. +Auxstrali-o = Australia. +auxtomat-a = automatic. +auxtor-o = author. +auxtun-o = autumn. +av-o = grandfather. +avar-a = avaricious, miserly. +avel-o = hazel-nut. +aven-o = oats. +avert-i = to warn, caution. +avid-a = eager. +aviz-i = to give notice. +azen-o = ass, donkey. +Azi-o = Asia. +azot-o = nitrogen. + + B. + +babil-i = to chatter, babble. +bagatel-o = trifle, bagatelle. +bal-o = ball (dance). +bak-i = to bake. +bala-i = to sweep (a floor, etc.). +balanc-i = (trans.), to balance, poise; --i la kapon, to nod the head. +baldaux = (adv.), soon. +balen-o = whale. +ban-i = (trans.), to bathe. +banan-o = banana. +bandagx-i = to bandage. +bank-o = bank (financial). +bankrot-i = to become bankrupt, fail. +bant-o = bow (of ribbon). +bar-i = (trans.), to bar, to obstruct. +barakt-i = to wrestle, struggle. +barb-o = beard. +barbar-o = barbarian. +barel-o = barrel. +bariton-o = barytone. +bas-o = bass (voice). +baston-o = stick. +bat-i = to beat. +batal-i = to fight, battle. +batat-o = sweet potato. +bedauxr-i = to regret. +bek-o = beak, bill. +bel-a = beautiful, handsome. +belg-o = Belgian. +ben-i = to bless. +benk-o = bench. +ber-o = berry. +best-o = animal, beast. +bet-o = beet. +bezon-i = to need, want. +bibliotek-o = library. +bicikl-o = bicycle. +bien-o = land, property, estate. +bier-o = beer. +bifstek-o = beefsteak. +bild-o = picture, image. +bilet-o = ticket, note; bank--, bank-note, bill. +bird-o = bird. +bis = (adv.), once more, a second time, encore. +biskvit-o = biscuit. +blank-a = white. +blek-i = to neigh, bleat, give its cry (of any animal). +blind-a = blind. +blov-i = to blow. +blu-a = blue (color). +bluz-o = blouse. +bo- = prefix expressing relationship by marriage (277). +boat-o = boat. +boj-i = to bark (of dogs). +bol-i = (intrans.), to boil. +bombon-o = bonbon, sweet. +bon-a = good; --veni, to welcome. +bor-i = to bore (holes). +bord-o = shore, bank, edge (of rivers, etc.). +Boston-o = Boston. +bot-o = boot. +botel-o = bottle. +bov-o = ox; --ajxo, beef; --idajxo, veal; --viro, bull. +brak-o = arm (of the body). +brancx-o = branch, bough. +brand-o = brandy. +brasik-o = cabbage; (florbrasiko), cauliflower. +brav-a = brave. +bret-o = shelf, bracket. +brid-o = bridle (of harness). +brik-o = brick, tile. +bril-i = to shine (116). +Brit-o = Briton. +brod-i = to embroider. +bronz-o = bronze. +bros-i = to brush. +brosxur-o = pamphlet, brochure. +brov-o = eyebrow. +bru-o = noise. +brul-i = (intrans.), to burn (275). +brun-a = brown. +brut-o = cattle, dumb animal. +bub-o = street arab, gamin. +bucx-i = to slaughter, butcher. +buf-o = toad. +buk-o = buckle (metal). +buked-o = bouquet. +bukl-o = curl, ringlet (of hair). +bulb-o = onion, bulb. +bulgar-o = Bulgarian. +bulk-o = roll (bread). +bulvard-o = boulevard. +burgxon-o = bud, young shoot. +busx-o = mouth. +buter-o = butter. +butik-o = shop, store. +buton-o = button. + + C. + +cel-i = to aim, have as purpose or goal. +celeri-o = celery. +cend-o = cent (coin). +cent = hundred (142). +centigram-o = centigram (284). +centilitr-o = centiliter (284). +centimetr-o = centimeter (284). +centr-o = center. +cerb-o = brain. +cert-a = certain, sure. +cerv-o = stag, deer. +ceter-a = remaining. +ci = (pronoun), thou (40). +cidoni-o = quince. +cifer-o = cipher. +cigar-o = cigar. +cigared-o = cigarette. +cign-o = swan. +cilindr-o = cylinder. +cinam-o = cinnamon. +cindr-o = ashes. +cir-o = blacking (for shoes). +cirkonstanc-o = circumstance. +cirkuler-o = circular (letter). +Cirus-o = Cyrus. +cit-i = to quote. +citron-o = lemon. +civiliz-i = to civilize. +col-o = inch (measure). + + CX. + +cxagren-i = (trans.), to grieve, vex, annoy. +cxambr-o = room. +cxap-o = cap. +cxapel-o = hat. +cxapitr-o = chapter (of book). +cxar = (conj.), because, since (83). +cxarm-a = charming, delightful. +cxarnir-o = hinge. +cxas-i = to hunt (game or wild animals). +cxe = (prep.), at, in the house or presence of (125, 160). +cxef-a = chief, principal, head. +cxek-o = cheque. +cxemiz-o = shirt, chemise. +cxen-o = chain (for watch, etc.). +cxeriz-o = cherry. +cxes-i = (intrans.), to cease, leave off (275). +cxeval-o = horse; --viro, stallion. +cxi = (adv.), expresses proximity (60, 66). +cxia = of every kind (177). +cxial = (adv.), for every reason (188). +cxiam = (adv.), always (187). +cxie = (adv.), everywhere (182). +cxiel = (adv.), in every way (193). +cxiel-o = heaven, sky. +cxies = (pronoun, possessive), everybody's (174). +cxifon-o = rag. +cxio = (pronoun), everything, all (233). +cxiom = (adv.), all (194). +cxirkaux = (prep.), around, roundabout (89, 120, 159, 160). +cxiu = (pronoun and adj.), every one, each (173). +-cxj- = suffix forming affectionate diminutives (283). +cxokolad-o = chocolate. +cxu = (adv.), whether (when translated) (30, 66). + + D. + +da = (prep.), of (after quantitative noun or adv.) (99, 101, 103). +daktil-o = date (fruit). +Damokl-o = Damocles. +dan-o = Dane. +danc-i = to dance. +dangxer-o = danger. +dank-i = to thank. +dat-o = date (chronological). +dauxr-i = (intrans.), to continue, last. +de = (prep.), of, from, by (49, 89, l00, 160, 169, 170). +dec-i = to be proper, decent; "ne decas ke vi iru", it is not proper + for you to go. +decembr-o = December. +decid-i = to decide. +decigram-o = decigram (284). +decilitr-o = deciliter (284). +decimetr-o = decimeter (284). +defend-i = to defend. +degel-i = (intrans.), to thaw (275). +dejxor-i = to be on duty (of officer, attendant, etc.). +dek = (adj.), ten (136). +dekagram-o = dekagram (284). +dekalitr-o = dekaliter (284). +dekametr-o = dekameter (284). +deklam-i = to declaim, recite. +dekstr-a = right (not left). +deleg-i = to delegate. +delikat-a = delicate, dainty, nice. +demand-i = to ask, inquire. +dens-a = dense, thick, close. +dent-o = tooth. +depesx-o = a dispatch. +des = (adv.), the more (used with "pli", 84). +desert-o = dessert. +detal-o = detail. +detru-i = to destroy. +dev-i = to have to, must (247). +dezert-o = desert, waste. +dezir-i = to desire. +Di-o = God. +diamant-o = diamond. +difekt-i = to damage, spoil. +diferenc-a = different. +difin-i = to define, to destine. +dik-a = thick, corpulent. +dikt-i = to dictate (letters, etc.) +diligent-a = diligent. +dimancx-o = Sunday. +dimensi-o = dimension. +Diogen-o = Diogenes. +diplom-o = diploma. +diplomat-o = diplomat. +dir-i = to say (77). +direkt-i = to direct, guide, manage. +dis- = prefix expressing separation (245). +diskut-i = to discuss. +distanc-o = distance. +disting-i = to distinguish. +distr-i = to distract, take away the attention. +diven-i = to guess. +divers-a = varied, diverse, different. +divid-i = (trans.), to divide. +do = consequently, then, so. +doktor-o = doctor. +dolar-o = dollar. +dolcx-a = sweet, pleasant. +dolor-o = pain, ache. +dom-o = house. +domagx-o = pity, regrettable affair. +don-i = to give. +donac-i = to make a gift, present. +dorlot-i = to caress, fondle, pet. +dorm-i = to sleep. +dorn-o = thorn. +dors-o = back (of the body). +dot-i = to endow. +drap-o = cloth. +drog-o = drug. +dron-i = (intrans.), to drown (275). +du = (adj.), two (136) +dub-i = to doubt. +dum = (prep and conj.), during, while (96, 120, 159). +dung-i = (trans.), to hire (persons). + + E. + +eben-a = even, flat, level. +-ebl- = suffix expressing possibility (161, 162). +ebri-a = inebriate, intoxicated. +-ec- = suffix forming abstracts (202). +ecx = (adv.), even. +eduk-i = to bring up, educate. +edz-o = husband, married man. +efekt-o = effect. +efektiv-a = real, actual. +efik-i = to be efficacious, act (on), produce a result. +-eg- = suffix forming augmentatives (122). +egal-a = equal. +Egipt-o = Egypt. +ehx-o = echo. +-ej- = suffix forming words indicating place (III). +ek- = prefix expressing suddenness or beginning (206). +eks- = prefix expressing former incumbency (281). +ekscit-i = to excite. +eksperiment-i = to experiment. +eksplod-i = (intrans.), to explode. +ekster = (prep.), outside of (120, 121). +ekzamen-i = to examine, test. +ekzempl-o = example. +ekzempler-o = copy (of book or magazine). +ekzerc-i = (trans.), to exercise. +ekzil-i = to exile, banish +ekzist-i = to exist. +el = (prep.), out of, of, out (75, 106, 138, 197, 264, c). +elekt-i = to choose. +elektr-a = electric. +elokvent-a = eloquent. +-em- = suffix expressing propensity or inclination (192). +eminent-a = eminent. +en = (prep.), in (89,160), into (46). +energi-o = energy. +entrepren-i = to undertake. +entuziasm-o = enthusiasm. +enu-i = to be wearied, be bored. +envi-i = to envy. +epok-o = epoch, period, time. +-er- = suffix expressing a component part (276). +erar-i = to err, make a mistake. +escept-i = to except (266). +esper-i = to hope. +esplor-i = to investigate, explore. +esprim-i = to express. +est-i = to be (109). +establ-i = to establish. +estim-i = to esteem. +esting-i = to extinguish. +-estr- = suffix expressing leadership or authority (253). +-et- = suffix forming diminutives (198). +etagx-o = story (of a house); teretagxo, ground floor; + unua etagxo, second story. +etend-i = (trans.), to extend, lengthen, widen. +etern-a = eternal. +Euxrop-o = Europe. +evangeli-o = gospel, evangel. +evit-i = to avoid, shun. +evoluci-o = evolution. + + F. + +fab-o = bean (leguminous fruit). +fabel-o = story, tale. +fabl-o = fable. +fabrik-i = to manufacture. +facil-a = easy. +faden-o = thread. +fajf-i = to whistle. +fajr-o = fire. +fak-o = department, specialty. +fakt-o = fact. +fal-i = to fall. +fald-i = to fold. +fals-i = to falsify, forge, debase. +fam-o = fame, renown, rumor. +famili-o = family. +familiar-a = familiar, accustomed. +fand-i = (trans.), to smelt, fuse (metals, etc.). +fanfaron-i = to boast, vaunt oneself, brag. +fantom-o = phantom, ghost. +far-i = to make, do, render. +faraon-o = pharaoh (Egyptian ruler). +farm-i = to farm (as a tenant). +farmaci-o = pharmacy (knowledge of the use of drugs). +fart-i = to be in (good or bad) health. +farun-o = flour. +fask-o = bundle, bunch. +fason-o = cut, mode, fashion. +fatal-a = fatal, predestined. +fauxk-o = jaw (literal and figurative). +favor-a = favorable. +fazeol-o = bean (garden bean). +fe-o = fairy, fay; --ino, fairy. +febr-o = fever. +februar-o = February. +fel-o = skin, hide (of animals). +felicx-a = happy. +femur-o = thigh. +fend-i = (trans.), to split. +fenestr-o = window. +fer-o = iron; --vojo, railway. +ferdek-o = deck (of ship). +ferm-i = (trans.), to close, shut. +fervor-o = zeal, fervor. +fest-i = to celebrate. +festen-o = banquet. +fi = (interjection), fie! (273). +fiakr-o = cab. +fiancx-o = betrothed man, fiance. +fid-i = to rely upon, trust. +fidel-a = faithful, loyal. +fier-a = proud, haughty. +fil-o = son. +filozof-o = philosopher. +fin-i = (trans.), to finish, end. +fingr-o = finger; "dika fingro", thumb; "montra fingro", index finger; + "longa fingro", middle finger; "ringa fingro", ring-finger; + "malgranda fingro", little finger. +firm-a = firm, steady. +fisx-o = fish. +fizik-o = physics, physical science. +flag-o = flag, banner, small standard. +flank-o = side. +flar-i = (trans.), to smell, scent. +flav-a = yellow. +fleks-i = (trans.), to bend, flex. +flik-i = to patch. +flor-o = flower (116). +flu-i = to flow. +flug-i = to fly. +fluid-a = fluid, liquid. +foj-o = time, occasion (127). +fojn-o = hay. +fokus-o = focus. +foli-o = leaf. +fond-i = to found, establish. +font-o = spring (of water), fount. +fontan-o = fountain (artificial). +for = (adv.), away (71). +forges-i = to forget. +fork-o = fork. +form-o = shape, form. +formik-o = ant. +forn-o = stove. +fort-a = strong. +fos-i = to dig. +fotograf-i = to photograph +frag-o = strawberry. +frak-o = evening dress (for men). +frakas-i = to shatter, break to pieces. +framb-o = raspberry. +franc-o = Frenchman. +frand-i = to be fond of sweets, be an epicure. +frangx-o = fringe. +frap-i = to knock, strike. +frat-o = brother. +frauxl-o = bachelor, unmarried man. +fraz-o = sentence, phrase. +Frederik-o = Frederick. +fremd-a = foreign. +frenez-a = crazy, mad. +fresx-a = fresh, new. +fripon-o = rogue, rascal, knave. +frit-i = (trans.), to fry. +fromagx-o = cheese. +frost-o = frost. +frot-i = to rub. +fru-a = early. +frukt-o = fruit. +frunt-o = forehead. +fulm-o = lightning. +fum-i = to smoke. +fund-o = bottom. +fundament-o = foundation, base. +funebr-o = mourning. +fung-o = mushroom. +funkci-i = to function, work. +funt-o = pound. +furioz-a = furious, raging. +fusx-i = to bungle. +fut-o = foot (measure). + + G. + +gaj-a = gay, merry. +gajn-i = to gain. +galeri-o = gallery. +galop-i = to gallop. +gant-o = glove. +gard-i = to guard, watch over. +gas-o = gas. +gast-o = guest. +gazet-o = gazette, magazine. +ge- = prefix indicating both sexes together (271). +general-o = general (military). +genu-o = knee; --fleksi, to kneel. +geometri-o = geometry. +german-o = German. +Gertrud-o = Gertrude. +gicxet-o = wicket, ticket-window, turnstile. +girland-o = garland, wreath. +glaci-o = ice; --ajxo, an ice (food). +glad-i = to iron (linen, etc.). +glas-o = tumbler, glass. +glat-a = smooth, polished, flat. +glav-o = sword. +glit-i = to glide, slide. +glob-o = globe. +glor-o = glory. +glu-o = glue. +glut-i = to swallow. +gorgx-o = throat. +graci-a = graceful. +grad-o = grade, degree. +graf-o = count; --lando, county. +gram-o = gram (284). +gramatik-o = grammar. +grand-a = great, large, big. +gras-o = fat. +gratul-i = to congratulate. +grav-a = important, serious, grave. +gravit-i = to gravitate. +grek-o = Greek. +gren-o = grain (wheat, corn, etc.). +grimp-i = to climb up, creep up. +grinc-i = to grind, gnash. +griz-a = gray. +grup-o = group. +gurd-o = hurdy-gurdy, barrel organ. +gust-o = taste. +gut-i = to drip. +gvid-i = to guide. + + GX. + +gxarden-o = garden. +gxem-i = to groan. +gxen-i = to disturb, incommode. +gxeneral-a = general, common. +gxentil-a = courteous, polite. +gxi = (pronoun), it (32, 37, 42, 274). +gxis = (prep.), as far as, until (46, 89). +gxoj-i = to rejoice, be glad (116). +gxu-i = to enjoy, find pleasure in. +gxust-a = exact, just. + + H. + +hajl-o = hail (frozen rain). +hak-i = to chop, hack; --ilo, axe. +halt-i = (intrans.), to halt, stop. +har-o = a hair. +hauxt-o = skin (human). +hav-i = to have. +haven-o = harbor, port. +hazard-o = chance, hazard. +hebre-o = Hebrew. +hejm-o = home. +hejt-i = (trans.), to heat (a place). +hektar-o = hektare (284). +hektogram-o = hektogram (284). +hektolitr-o = hektoliter (284). +hektometr-o = hektometer (284). +hel-a = bright, clear. +help-i = to help, aid, assist. +herb-o = grass, herb. +hero-o = hero. +hezit-i = to hesitate. +hieraux = (adv.), yesterday (93, 171). +Hieron-o = Hiero. +hipokrit-i = to play the hypocrite. +hirund-o = swallow (bird). +hispan-o = Spaniard. +histori-o = history. +ho = (interjection), ho, oh (273). +hodiaux = (adv.), today (93, 171). +Holand-o = Holland. +hom-o = human being. +honest-a = honest. +honor-i = to honor. +hont-i = to be ashamed. +hor-o = hour (185). +horizont-o = horizon. +horizontal-a = horizontal. +horlogx-o = clock; posxhorlogxo, watch. +hotel-o = hotel. +humil-a = humble. +humor-o = humor, temper. +hund-o = dog. +hura! = (interjection), hurrah! + + HX. + +hxemi-o = chemistry. +hxin-o = Chinaman. +hxor-o = choir. + + I. + +ia = any kind of (208). +ial = (adv.), for any reason (213). +iam = (adv.), ever, at any time, once (212). +-id- = suffix indicating descendant or young of (207). +ide-o = idea. +ideal-o = ideal. +ident-a = identical. +idiom-o = idiom. +idiot-o = idiot. +ie = (adv.), somewhere (209). +iel = (adv.), somehow (216). +ies = (pronoun, possessive), somebody's (204). +-ig- = suffix forming causative verbs (214, 239, 275). +ignor-i = to ignore. +-igx- = suffix forming inchoative and intransitive verbs + (232, 239, 279). +-il- = suffix forming names of instruments (63). +ili = (pronoun) they (32, 37, 42). +ilustr-i = to illustrate. +iluzi-o = illusion, delusion. +imag-i = to imagine, fancy. +imit-i = to imitate. +imperi-o = empire. +implik-i = to implicate. +impost-o = tax, impost. +impres-i = to impress. +impuls-o = impulse. +-in- = suffix forming feminines (59). +incit-i = to incite, arouse, provoke. +-ind- = suffix expressing worth or merit (154). +indian-o = Indian (American). +indiferent-a = indifferent, unconcerned, unimportant. +industri-o = industry (trade, business). +infan-o = child. +infekt-i = to infect, contaminate. +influ-i = to influence. +inform-i = to give information. +-ing- = suffix expressing a holder or container (237). +ingxenier-o = engineer. +ink-o = ink. +insekt-o = insect. +insist-i = to insist. +inspir-i = to inspire. +instru-i = to instruct, teach. +insul-o = island. +insult-i = to insult. +inteligent-a = intelligent. +intend-i = to intend. +inter = (prep.), between, among (85, 89, 160). +interes-i = (trans.), to interest. +intermit-i = to be intermittent. +intern-a = internal; --e, inside. +interpret-i = to interpret. +intim-a = intimate. +invit-i = to invite. +io = (pronoun), something (233). +iom = (adv.), some, a certain amount; + iom post iom, little by little (217). +ir-i = to go. +-ist- = suffix indicating profession, etc. (172). +ital-o = Italian. +iu = (pronoun), some one, a certain (one) (203). + + J. + +ja = (adv.), indeed, in fact (215). +jak-o = jacket, short coat. +jam = (adv.), already. +januar-o = January. +jar-o = year. +je = prep. of indefinite meaning (89, 185, 260). +jen = (adv.), there, behold (228). +jes = (adv.), yes (171). +Jesu-o = Jesus. +Johano = John. +ju = (adv.), the more (used with "pli", 84). +jug-o = yoke. +jugx-i = to judge. +juli-o = July. +jun-a = young. +jung-i = to harness. +juni-o = June. +jup-o = skirt. +jurist-o = jurist. +just-a = just, upright. +juvel-o = jewel. + + JX. + +jxaluz-a = jealous. +jxauxd-o = Thursday. +jxet-i = to throw, cast, hurl. +jxongl-i = to juggle. +jxur-i = to take oath, swear. +jxurnal-o = newspaper, journal. +jxus = (adv.), a moment before, just. + + K. + +kadavr-o = corpse. +kadr-o = frame (of pictures). +kaduk-a = decaying, in ruin. +kaf-o = coffee. +kagx-o = cage. +kahel-o = tile (for paving). +kaj = (conj.), and; kaj..kaj.., both..and.. (26). +kajer-o = notebook. +kaldron-o = caldron. +kalendar-o = calendar. +kalesx-o = carriage. +kalkan-o = heel (of the foot); --umo, heel of a shoe. +kalkul-i = to calculate, reckon. +kamel-o = camel. +kamen-o = chimney. +kamer-o = camera. +kamp-o = field. +kanajl-o = scoundrel, rascal. +kanap-o = sofa. +kand-o = candy. +kandel-o = candle. +kanot-o = canoe. +kant-i = to sing. +kap-o = head. +kapabl-a = capable. +kapel-o = chapel (for prayer). +kapital-o = capital (money). +kapitol-o = capitol. +kapt-i = to catch, seize. +kar-a = dear, prized. +karakter-o = character. +karb-o = coal. +karcer-o = jail. +kares-i = to caress. +karn-o = flesh. +karot-o = carrot. +kart-o = card; posxtkarto, postcard; vizitkarto, visiting card. +karton-o = pasteboard. +karusel-o = merry-go-round. +kas-o = money-box, treasury; --isto, cashier, treasurer. +kaskad-o = waterfall, cascade. +kastel-o = castle. +kasx-i = to hide, conceal (252). +kasxtan-o = chestnut. +kat-o = cat. +katen-o = fetter, chain. +kauxz-o = cause. +kav-o = cavity, hole. +kaz-o = case (grammatical). +ke = (conj.), that (53, 83, 105, 259, 262). +kel-o = cellar. +kelk-a = some; --aj, several, more than one or two. +kelner-o = waiter (in hotel or restaurant). +kest-o = chest; tirkesto, drawer. +kia = what kind of (112, 150); kiamanier-e, how. +kial = (adv.), why (129). +kiam = (adv.), when (123, 155). +kie = (adv.), where (118, 151). +kiel = (adv.), how, in which way, as (134, 156). +kies = (pronoun, possessive), whose (107, 147). +kilogram-o = kilogram (284). +kilolitr-o = kiloliter (284). +kilometr-o = kilometer (284). +kio = (pronoun), what (233). +kiom = (adv.), how much (140, 164, 185). +kis-i = to kiss. +kiu = (pronoun), who (106, 146). +klak-i = (trans.), to clap, clatter. +klar-a = clear, distinct. +klav-o = key (of piano, etc.). +klas-o = class. +kler-a = enlightened, well-in-formed. +klimat-o = climate. +klin-i = (trans.), to incline, bend. +kling-o = blade (of knife, etc.). +klopod-i = to undertake initiative work, take steps toward, + labor for the success or completion of something. +klub-o = club (organization) +knab-o = boy. +kobold-o = sprite, kobold, brownie. +kofr-o = trunk, chest with a lid. +kok-o = cock (domestic fowl). +koket-a = coquettish. +koks-o = hip. +kol-o = neck. +kolbas-o = sausage. +kolegi-o = college. +kolekt-i = (trans.), to collect, gather. +koler-i = to be angry, lose the temper. +kolomb-o = pigeon, dove. +kolon-o = column, pillar. +kolonel-o = colonel. +kolor-o = color. +kolport-i = to peddle. +komand-i = to command (military and naval). +komb-i = to comb. +komedi-o = comedy. +komenc-i = (trans.), to begin, commence. +komerc-i = to trade, engage in commerce. +komfort-o = comfort (freedom from pain, want, etc.). +komisi-i = to entrust with, put in charge of, give the agency for. +komitat-o = committee. +komiz-o = clerk, employee, assistant. +kompani-o = company (commercial organization). +kompar-i = (trans.) to compare, (266). +kompat-i = to pity, have compassion for. +komplet-o = suit (of clothes). +komplez-o = kindness, courtesy, disposition to oblige. +komplik-i = to complicate. +kompost-i = to compose, set (type); --isto, compositor. +kompot-o = jam, preserve, +kompren-i = to understand. +komun-a = common, mutual. +komunik-i = to communicate. +kon-i = to be acquainted with, know; --atigxi kun, to become acquainted + with (117). +koncern-i = to concern (266). +koncert-o = concert (musical). +kondamn-i = to condemn. +kondicx-o = terms specified, stipulation, condition. +konduk-i = to conduct, lead. +konduktor-o = conductor (of car, train, etc.). +kondut-i = to behave, conduct oneself. +konfes-i = to confess, admit. +konfid-i = to trust, have confidence in. +konfit-i = to preserve, pickle (fruits, etc.). +konform-i = to be in conformity with (266). +konfuz-i = to confuse, confound. +kongres-o = congress (assembly). +konk-o = shell (of mollusk, etc.). +konkur-i = to vie, compete. +konkurenc-o = competition (in business, etc.). +konkurs-o = prearranged trial of skill, formal competition (for + prizes, etc.). +konsci-i = to be conscious. +konscienc-o = conscience. +konsent-i = to consent, agree. +konserv-i = to keep, preserve, save. +konservativ-a = conservative. +konsil-i = to advise, counsel. +konsist-i = to consist. +konsol-i = to console, comfort. +konsonant-o = consonant. +konspir-i = to conspire, plot. +konstant-a = constant. +konstat-i = to verify, ascertain the truth of, certify. +konstituci-o = constitution. +konstru-i = to build. +konsul-o = consul. +konsult-i = to seek advice of, consult. +kont-o = account (book-keeping, commercial). +kontent-a = content, satisfied. +kontinent-o = continent (geographical). +kontrakt-i = to contract, agree. +kontralt-o = contralto. +kontraux = (prep.), against, opposite, opposed to (159, 160). +kontrol-i = to control, inspect, examine and check. +kontur-o = outline, contour. +kontuz-i = to bruise. +konven-i = to be suitable, be fitting or convenient. +konvink-i = to convince, persuade. +kopi-i = to copy. +kor-o = heart (of the body). +korb-o = basket. +korekt-i = to correct. +korespond-i = to exchange letters, correspond. +koridor-o = corridor, passage. +kork-o = cork (bark). +korn-o = horn. +korp-o = body, --a, corporeal. +korpus-o = corps (military). +kort-o = courtyard, court. +kortego = court (royal, etc.). +korv-o = raven. +kost-i = to cost. +kostum-o = costume. +kot-o = mud. +kotiz-i = to pay dues, pay one's share of an assessment. +kotlet-o = cutlet, chop. +koton-o = cotton. +kov-i = to brood (of birds). +kovert-o = envelope +kovr-i = to cover. +krab-o = crab. +krad-o = grating, grate, lattice. +krajon-o = pencil. +krak-i = to clack, crackle. +kran-o = faucet, tap. +kravat-o = cravat. +kre-i = to create. +kred-i = to believe (265). +krem-o = cream. +krepusk-o = twilight, half-light of dawn or evening. +kresk-i = to grow. +krestomati-o = chrestomathy, collection of selected passages. +kret-o = chalk. +krev-i = (intrans.), to burst, crack open (suddenly and with noise). +kri-i = to cry out. +kribr-i = to sift (with a sieve). +krim-o = crime. +kring-o = ring-shaped biscuit. +kripl-a = crippled. +Krist-o = Christ. +kritik-i = to criticise. +krocx-i = to hook. +krom = (prep.), beside, aside from, except, save, but. +kron-o = crown. +kruc-o = cross; --umi, to crucify. +krucx-o = pitcher, jug; tekrucxo, tea-pot. +kruel-a = cruel. +krur-o = leg. +krust-o = crust. +krut-a = steep. +kubut-o = elbow. +kudr-i = to sew. +kugl-o = bullet. +kuir-i = to cook. +kuk-o = cake; --ajxo, pastry. +kukum-o = cucumber. +kukurb-o = pumpkin. +kuler-o = spoon. +kulp-a = guilty. +kultur-i = to cultivate; terkulturi, to till the soil, farm. +kun = (prep.), with (70, 76, 120, 160, 159). +kunikl-o = rabbit. +kupon-o = coupon. +kupr-o = copper (metal). +kur-i = to run. +kurac-i = to treat for illness, cure; --ato, a patient; + --isto, a physician, medical man. +kuragx-o = courage. +kurb-o = curve. +kurioz-a = uncommon, curious. +kurs-o = course (of lessons). +kurten-o = curtain. +kusen-o = cushion. +kusx-i = to lie, recline (239). +kutim-o = custom, habit. +kuv-o = tub, large basin. +kuz-o = cousin. +kvadrat-o = square (equilateral rectangle). +kvalit-o = quality, texture. +kvankam = (conj.), though, although, while (concessive). +kvant-o = quantity, amount. +kvar = (adj.), four (136). +kvartal-o = quarter (of a city). +kvazaux = (conj.), as though, as if (250). +kverk-o = oak. +kviet-a = calm, quiet. +kvin = (adj.), five (136). +kvitanc-o = receipt (for payment). + + L. + +la = (article), the (II, 47, 201, 280, a). +labor-i = to work, labor. +lac-a = tired, weary. +lacx-o = string, lace (of shoe, etc.). +lad-o = tin plate (sheet iron covered with tin). +lag-o = lake. +lakt-o = milk. +laktuk-o = lettuce. +lam-a = lame. +lamp-o = lamp. +lan-o = wool. +lanc-o = lance, spear. +land-o = land, country. +lang-o = tongue (of the body). +lantern-o = lantern. +lanug-o = down (hairs, feathers). +lard-o = bacon. +largx-a = wide, broad. +larm-o = tear (of the eye). +las-i = (trans.), to leave, let, permit. +last-a = last (in a series). +latin-a = Latin. +laux = (prep.), in accordance with, along, by (191). +lauxb-o = arbor, summer-house. +lauxd-i = to praise. +lauxt-a = loud. +lav-i = to wash. +lecion-o = lesson. +led-o = leather. +leg-i = to read. +legom-o = vegetable. +legx-o = law. +lek-i = to lick. +leon-o = lion. +lepor-o = hare. +lern-i = to learn. +lert-a = clever, skilful. +leter-o = letter (epistle). +lev-i = to raise, lift. +li = (pronoun), he, him (32, 37, 42). +liber-a = free. +libr-o = book. +lig-i = to tie, bind, fasten; --ilo, bond; that which ties or fastens; + --ajxo, knot; --o, league, alliance. +lign-o = wood. +lim-o = limit, boundary. +limonad-o = lemonade. +lingv-o = language. +lini-o = line; --ilo, ruler. +lip-o = lip; --haroj, moustache. +lit-o = bed (for sleeping). +liter-o = letter of the alphabet; lauxlitera, literal. +literatur-o = literature. +litr-o = liter (284). +liver-i = to deliver, supply, furnish. +log-i = to allure. +logx-i = to dwell, reside (133). +lok-o = place; --a, local. +lokomotiv-o = locomotive. +long-a = long. +lonicer-o = honeysuckle. +lorn-o = telescope, spyglass; --eto, opera-glasses. +lu-i = to hire, rent (engage and pay rent for). +lud-i = to play. +luks-o = luxury. +lul-i = to lull to sleep; --ilo, cradle. +lum-i = to shine (275). +lun-o = moon. +lunatik-o = lunatic. +lund-o = Monday. +lup-o = wolf. + + M. + +macx-i = to chew, masticate. +magazen-o = warehouse. +magi-o = magic. +magistr-o = master of arts (A.M.). +maiz-o = maize, Indian corn. +maj-o = May. +majest-a = majestic. +majones-a = mayonnaise. +majstr-o = master (of his art or profession). +makaroni-o = macaroni. +maksimum-o = maximum. +makul-o = spot, stain. +makzel-o = jaw; --osto, jawbone. +mal- = prefix forming opposites (67). +maleol-o = ankle. +malgraux = (prep.), notwithstanding. +malic-a = malicious. +man-o = hand. +mandat-o = money-order. +mangx-i = to eat. +manier-o = manner, way. +manik-o = sleeve. +mank-i = (intrans.), to be lacking, wanting. +mantel-o = cloak, mantle. +manuskript-o = manuscript. +mar-o = sea. +marcx-o = swamp, marsh. +mard-o = Tuesday. +Mari-o = Mary. +mark-o = mark. +marmelad-o = marmalade. +marmor-o = marble (stone), +marsx-i = to walk. +mart-o = March. +martel-o = hammer. +mastr-o = master (of a house, etc.) +masxin-o = machine. +maten-o = morning (93). +material-o = material. +matur-a = ripe, mature. +mebl-o = piece of furniture. +medicin-o = medicine (the science). +mehxanik-o = mechanics. +mejl-o = mile. +meleagr-o = turkey. +melk-i = to milk. +melodi-o = melody. +melon-o = melon. +mem = (pronoun), self, selves (219). +membr-o = limb, member. +memor-i = to remember, keep in mind; rememori, to recall to memory. +mend-i = to order (of a store, etc.). +mensog-i = to lie, tell lies. +menton-o = chin. +menu-o = menu. +merit-i = to deserve, merit. +merkred-o = Wednesday. +merl-o = blackbird. +met-i = to put, place. +metal-o = metal. +meti-o = trade, handicraft. +metod-o = method, way. +metr-o = meter (284). +mez-o = middle. +mezur-i = to measure. +mi = (pronoun), I, me (32, 37). +miel-o = honey. +mien-o = appearance, mien. +miks-i = (trans.), to mix. +mil = (adj.), thousand (142). +mild-a = mild. +milimetr-o = millimeter (284). +milion-o = million. +milit-i = to fight, wage war. +min-o = mine (of coal, silver, etc.). +minac-i = to threaten. +mineral-o = mineral. +minimum-o = minimum. +ministr-o = minister (political). +minut-o = minute. +miop-a = shortsighted. +mir-i = to wonder. +mister-o = mystery. +mizer-o = misery. +mod-o = mode, fashion. +model-o = model. +moder-a = moderate. +modest-a = modest. +mok-i = to mock. +mol-a = soft. +moment-o = moment; --a, momentary, instantaneous. +mon-o = money. +monahx-o = monk. +monarhxi-o = monarch. +monat-o = month. +mond-o = world. +mont-o = mountain. +montr-i = (trans.), to show. +mor-o = conduct (in regard to right or wrong); --oj, morals. +moral-a = moral; --eco, morality. +mord-i = to bite. +morgaux = (adv.), tomorrow (171). +mort-i = to die; --igi, to kill. +mosxt-o = title of respect (258). +mov-i = (trans.), to move, put in motion. +muel-o = mill (for grinding). +mugx-i = to roar, bellow. +mult-a = much (81). +mur-o = wall. +murmur-i = to murmur. +mus-o = mouse. +mustard-o = mustard. +musx-o = fly. +mut-a = dumb, mute. +muze-o = museum. +muzik-o = music. + + N. + +naci-o = nation. +nagx-i = to swim. +naiv-a = artless, naive, ingenuous. +najbar-o = neighbor. +najl-o = nail (of metal). +nap-o = turnip. +nask-i = to produce, bring forth, give birth to. +natur-o = nature. +naux = (adj.), nine (136). +naz-o = nose. +ne = (adv.), no, not (27, 66, a, 171). +nebul-o = fog, mist. +neces-a = necessary. +negativ-o = negative (photographic). +negx-o = snow. +nek = (negative conj.), neither, nor (31). +nenia = no kind of (224). +nenial = (adv.), for no reason (229). +neniam = (adv.), never (226). +nenie = (adv.), nowhere (225). +neniel = (adv.), in no way (230). +nenies = (pronoun, possessive), nobody's (221). +nenio = (pronoun), nothing (233). +neniom = (adv.), none, not any (231). +neniu = (pronoun), no one, nobody, no (220). +nep-o = grandson. +nepr-e = inevitably, certainly, unfailingly. +nerv-o = nerve. +nest-o = nest. +neuxtral-a = neutral, non-partisan. +nev-o = nephew. +ni = (pronoun), we, us (32, 37). +nigr-a = black. +nivel-o = level. +-nj- = suffix forming affectionate diminutives (283). +nobel-o = nobleman. +nobl-a = noble (in character). +nokt-o = night. +nom-o = name; --i, to name, mention. +nombr-o = number (quantity). +nord-o = north. +norveg-o = Norwegian. +nostalgi-o = homesickness. +not-o = note. +nov-a = new, recent, novel; denove, anew, again. +novembr-o = November. +nu = (interjection), well! (273). +nuanc-o = shade, tint, hue. +nub-o = cloud. +nud-a = bare, naked, nude. +nuks-o = nut. +nul-o = zero, naught. +numer-o = number, numeral (No.). +nun = (adv.), now (171). +nur = (adv.), merely, only. +nutr-i = to nourish, to feed. + + O. + +obe-i = to obey (265). +objekt-o = object, thing. +objektiv-o = lens, objective. +-obl- = suffix forming multiples (186). +oblikv-a = oblique, slanting. +observ-i = to observe, take note of. +obstin-a = obstinate. +ocean-o = ocean. +odor-i = to smell (good or bad). +ofend-i = to offend. +ofer-i = to sacrifice, offer. +ofic-o = office, employment; --isto, officer (of firm or organization); + --ejo, office (the place). +oficial-a = official. +oficir-o = officer (military or naval). +oft-a = frequent. +ok = (adj.), eight (136). +okaz-i = to happen, occur, take place. +okcident-o = west. +oktobr-o = October. +okul-o = eye. +okup-i = to occupy. +ol = (conj.), than (82, 97, 98). +ole-o = oil. +oliv-o = olive. +ombr-o = shadow, shade. +ombrel-o = umbrella. +-on- = suffix forming fractions (166). +ond-o = wave. +oni = (pronoun), one, they (54). +onkl-o = uncle. +-op- = suffix forming collective numerals (261). +oper-o = opera. +opini-i = to have the opinion, think. +oportun-a = handy, convenient, opportune. +or-o = gold. +orangx-o = orange (fruit). +ord-o = order (methodical or proper arrangement). +ordinar-a = ordinary; eksterordinara, extraordinary. +ordon-i = to order, bid, command. +orel-o = ear (of the body). +orf-o = orphan. +organ-o = organ (physical). +organiz-i = to organize. +orgen-o = organ, (musical instrument). +orient-o = east. +original-o = original. +orkestr-o = orchestra. +ornam-i = to ornament, adorn. +ort-a = right-angled. +osced-i = to gape, yawn. +ost-o = bone. +ostr-o = oyster. +ostracism-o = ostracism. +ov-o = egg. + + P. + +pac-o = peace. +pacienc-o = patience. +padel-i = to paddle. +paf-i = to shoot (with gun, etc.). +pag-i = to pay. +pagx-o = page (of a book, etc.). +pajl-o = straw. +pak-i = to pack. +pal-a = pale. +palac-o = palace. +palis-o = stake; --aro, palisade. +palp-i = to feel (with the fingers, etc.); --ado, touch (the sense). +palpebr-o = eyelid. +pan-o = bread. +pantalon-o = trousers. +pantofl-o = slipper. +paper-o = paper (material). +papili-o = butterfly. +par-o = pair. +paradiz-o = paradise. +paragraf-o = paragraph. +paralel-a = parallel. +pardon-i = to forgive, pardon (265). +parenc-o = relative (person). +parfum-o = perfume. +park-o = park. +parker-e = by rote, by heart, from memory. +parol-i = to speak (77). +part-o = part, share. +particip-o = participle. +pas-i = (intrans.), to pass. +pasagxer-o = passenger. +paser-o = sparrow. +pasi-o = passion. +pasiv-a = passive. +Pask-o = Easter. +pastecx-o = patty, small pie. +pastinak-o = parsnip. +pastr-o = pastor, clergyman, priest. +pasx-i = to step. +pasxt-i = (trans.), to pasture, feed; --isto, shepherd. +pat-o = pan, frying-pan. +patr-o = father. +pauxz-o = pause. +pavim-o = pavement. +pec-o = piece, morsel. +pejzagx-o = landscape. +pek-i = to sin. +pekl-i = to pickle (meat, etc.). +pel-i = to chase away, drive off. +pelt-o = coat or wrap of fur. +pen-i = to strive, try. +pend-i = (intrans.), to hang. +penetr-i = to penetrate. +penik-o = paintbrush, hair pencil. +pens-i = to think. +pent-i = to repent. +pentr-i = to paint. +pep-i = to chirp, twitter. +per = (prep.), by means of, with, by (64). +perd-i = to lose. +pere-i = to perish. +perfekt-a = perfect. +perfid-i = to betray; --a, perfidious, treacherous. +period-a = periodic. +perl-o = pearl. +permes-i = to permit, allow, let. +peron-o = platform (railway), stoop (entrance porch). +persekut-i = to persecute, prosecute. +persik-o = peach. +persist-i = to persist, persevere. +person-o = person. +peruk-o = wig. +pes-i = (trans.), to ascertain the weight of; --ilo, scales, balance. +pet-i = to request, beg, ask. +petol-i = to be mischievous, saucy, roguish. +petrol-o = petroleum, kerosene. +petrosel-o = parsley. +pez-i = (intrans.), to be heavy, weigh. +pi-a = pious. +pice-o = spruce (tree). +pied-o = foot; --iranto, pedestrian. +piedestal-o = pedestal. +pik-i = to prick, sting. +pilgrim-i = to go on a pilgrimage. +pilk-o = ball (to play with). +pin-o = pine (tree). +pinakotek-o = picture gallery. +pincx-i = to pinch. +pingl-o = pin. +pint-o = point, pinnacle, summit. +pionir-o = pioneer. +pip-o = pipe (for smoking). +pipr-o = pepper. +pir-o = pear. +pist-i = to crush, mash; --ajxo, puree. +pitoresk-a = picturesque. +piz-o = pea. +plac-o = public square, place (broad, short street or open space). +placx-i = to please, to be pleasing (265). +plad-o = flat dish. +plafon-o = ceiling. +plan-o = plan, scheme. +pland-o = sole (of the foot). +planed-o = planet. +plank-o = floor. +plant-i = to plant. +plat-a = flat, plane. +plauxd-i = (trans.), to splash, dabble (a liquid). +plej = (adv.), most (74, 79, 81, 162); malplej, least (80). +plekt-i = to weave, plait, braid. +plen-a = full; plenum-i, to fulfil. +plend-i = to complain. +plet-o = tray. +plezur-o = pleasure. +pli = (adv.), more (74, 79, 81); malpli, less (80). +plor-i = to weep, cry. +plu = (adv.), further, more, any more. +plug-i = to plow. +plum-o = pen, feather. +plumb-o = lead (metal); --isto, plumber. +pluv-o = rain. +pneuxmatik-o = pneumatic tire. +po = (prep.), at the rate of (175). +poem-o = poem. +poet-o = poet. +poezi-o = poetry, poesy. +pokal-o = goblet, cup. +pol-o = Pole. +polic-o = police (force). +politik-o = politics. +polm-o = palm (of the hand). +polur-i = to polish, make smooth and glossy. +polus-o = pole (geographical). +polv-o = dust. +pom-o = apple. +pomp-o = pomp, splendor. +pont-o = bridge. +popol-o = a people, folk. +popular-a = popular. +por = (prep.), for (95, 98, 262). +porcelan-o = porcelain, china. +porci-o = portion, share. +pord-o = door. +pork-o = swine, pig, hog. +port-i = to carry, bear. +portret-o = portrait. +posed-i = to possess, own. +post = (prep.), after, behind (89, 120). +postul-i = to require, demand. +posx-o = pocket. +posxt-o = post (mail); --kesto, mailbox; --marko, postage stamp; + --mandato, postal money order. +pot-o = pot. +potenc-a = powerful, mighty. +pov-i = to be able, can (72). +pra- = prefix indicating remoteness in line of descent (282). +praktik-o = practice. +prav-a = right, in the right. +precip-a = principal, chief. +preciz-a = precise. +predik-i = to preach. +prefer-i = to prefer. +prefiks-o = prefix. +pregx-i = to pray; --ejo, church. +prem-i = to press. +premi-o = premium, prize. +pren-i = to take. +prepar-i = to prepare. +pres-i = to print. +preskaux = (adv.), almost. +pret-a = ready. +pretekst-i = to make pretext of, pretend, sham. +pretend-i = to make pretension to, lay claim to. +preter = (prep.), beyond, past, by. +prez-o = price. +prezent-i = to present, offer. +prezid-i = to preside; --anto, presiding officer, president, chairman. +pri = (prep.), concerning, about, of (160, 264, c). +princ-o = prince. +princip-o = principle. +printemp-o = spring (season). +pro = (prep.), on account of, because of, for (86). +problem-o = problem. +procent-o = interest, percentage. +proces-o = lawsuit, legal process. +produkt-i = to produce. +profesi-o = profession, occupation, calling. +profesor-o = professor. +profil-o = profile. +profit-o = profit; --i, to profit (by). +profund-a = deep, profound. +progres-i = to progress. +projekt-o = project. +proklam-i = to proclaim. +prokrast-i = to delay, procrastinate. +proksim-a = near. +promen-i = to go walking, promenade. +promes-i = to promise. +propon-i = to propose, offer. +proporci-o = proportion. +propr-a = own (one's own); malpropra, other people's; + --igi al si, to appropriate, make one's own. +prosper-i = to have success, prosper. +protekt-i = to protect. +protest-i = to protest. +protokol-o = minutes (of a meeting). +prov-i = to try, attempt, test. +proviz-i = to provide. +proz-o = prose; --ajxo, prose composition, piece of prose. +prudent-a = reasonable, sensible, rational. +prujn-o = hoar frost. +prun-o = plum. +prunt-o = loan; --i, --e doni, to lend; --e preni, to borrow. +pruv-i = to prove, give proof of. +psalm-o = psalm. +publik-o = public (the); --igi, to publish. +puding-o = pudding. +pudr-i = to powder. +pugn-o = fist. +pulm-o = lung. +pulv-o = gunpowder. +pump-i = to pump. +pun-i = to punish. +punt-o = lace (point, etc.). +pup-o = doll. +pupitr-o = desk. +pur-a = clean, pure. +purpur-a = purple. +pusx-i = to push; repusxi, to repulse. +put-o = well (for water). + + R. + +rabarb-o = rhubarb. +rab-i = to pillage, plunder; --isto, robber. +rabat-i = to rebate, give a reduction, discount or rebate. +rad-o = wheel. +radi-o = ray (of light), spoke (of wheel), radius. +radik-o = root. +rafan-o = radish. +rafin-i = to refine; --ejo, refinery. +rajd-i = to ride (horse, etc.). +rajt-o = right (to something). +rakont-i = to relate, narrate (77). +ramp-i = to creep, crawl, clamber. +ran-o = frog. +rand-o = edge, border. +rang-o = rank, grade, dignity. +rapid-a = rapid, quick; --o, speed; --emo, haste. +raport-i = to report, give a report. +ras-o = race (tribe, people, nation). +rasp-i = to rasp, grate; --ilo, grater. +rat-o = rat. +rauxk-a = hoarse, raucous. +rav-i = to enchant. +raz-i = to shave. +re- = prefix indicating repetition or return (223). +real-a = real. +reciprok-a = reciprocal, mutual (180). +redakci-o = editorial department. +redakt-i = to edit. +redaktor-o = editor. +redingot-o = frock coat. +refut-i = to refute. +reg-i = to rule, govern, reign. +regal-i = (trans.), to regale, treat (to food or drink). +region-o = region. +registr-i = (trans.), to register, enroll. +regn-o = state, governed body; --ano, citizen, subject. +regul-o = rule, regulation. +regx-o = king. +reklam-i = to advertise. +rekomend-i = to recommend, register (a letter). +rekompenc-i = to recompense, reward. +rekt-a = straight, undeviating, direct. +rel-o = rail. +religi-o = religion. +rem-i = to row. +rembur-i = to upholster, stuff, pad. +renkont-i = (trans.), to meet. +renvers-i = (trans.), to upset. +reprezent-i = to represent. +respekt-i = to respect. +respond-i = to answer. +respublik-o = republic. +rest-i = to remain, stay. +restoraci-o = restaurant. +resum-i = to summarize, give in resume. +ret-o = net, netting. +rev-i = to indulge in revery, dream, fancy. +revu-o = journal, review, magazine. +rezon-i = to reason (exert the power of reasoning). +rezult-i = to result. +ricev-i = to receive. +ricx-a = rich. +rid-i = to laugh (265). +rifuz-i = to refuse. +rigard-i = to look. +rigl-i = to bolt (fasten). +rikolt-i = to harvest, reap. +rilat-i = to have relation (to) (266). +rimark-i = to notice, note. +rimed-o = means, way; vivrimedoj, means of livelihood. +rimen-o = thong, strap. +ring-o = ring. +rip-o = rib. +ripar-i = to mend, repair. +ripet-i = to repeat. +ripoz-i = to repose, rest. +riprocx-i = to reproach. +river-o = river. +riz-o = rice. +rob-o = dress, robe. +Robert-o = Robert. +romp-i = (trans.), to break. +rond-o = circle, ring, round. +ros-o = dew. +rost-i = to roast. +roz-o = rose (flower). +ruband-o = ribbon. +rubus-o = blackberry. +rugx-a = red. +ruin-o = ruin. +rul-i = (trans.), to roll (ball, etc.). +rus-o = Russian. +rust-i = to rust. +rutin-o = routine. +ruz-a = crafty, cunning, sly. + + S. + +sabat-o = Saturday. +sabl-o = sand. +sag-o = arrow. +sagx-a = wise. +sak-o = sack, bag. +sal-o = salt. +salajr-o = salary, wages. +salat-o = salad. +salon-o = parlor, drawing-room. +salt-i = to jump, leap. +salut-i = to salute, greet. +sam-a = same. +san-a = healthy, well. +sang-o = blood. +sankt-a = sacred, holy. +sap-o = soap. +sarden-o = sardine. +sat-a = sated; malsata, hungry. +sauxc-o = sauce, gravy, dressing. +sav-i = to save; rescue. +sci-i = to know (117). +scienc-o = science. +se = (conj.), if (240). +sed = (conj.), but. +seg-i = to saw. +segx-o = chair. +sek-a = dry. +sekret-o = secret. +sekretari-o = secretary. +sekund-o = second (of time). +sekv-i = to follow. +sel-o = saddle. +sem-o = seed; --i, to sow. +semajn-o = week. +sen = (prep.), without (248). +senat-o = senate; --ano, senator. +senc-o = sense, meaning. +send-i = to send. +sent-i = to feel, perceive. +sep = (adj.), seven (136). +septembr-o = September. +sercx-i = to seek, hunt, look for. +serur-o = lock. +serv-i = to serve. +servic-o = course (of a meal). +ses = (adj.), six (136). +sever-a = severe, stern. +sezon-o = season. +si = (pronoun, reflexive), himself, herself, etc. (40, 44, 274). +sibl-i = to hiss, whistle (wind, etc.). +sid-i = to sit (239). +sigel-i = to seal. +sign-o = sign, trace, mark. +signif-i = to signify, mean. +silab-o = syllable. +silent-i = to be silent (239). +silk-o = silk. +simi-o = monkey. +simil-a = like, similar. +simpl-a = simple. +sinjor-o = gentleman, Mr. (163). +Sirakuz-o = Syracuse. +sitel-o = pail, bucket. +skatol-o = small box or case. +skiz-i = to sketch. +sklav-o = slave. +skot-o = Scot, Scotchman. +skrap-i = to scrape. +skrib-i = to write. +sku-i = (trans.), to shake. +skulpt-i = to carve, sculpture. +societ-o = society. +soif-i = to be thirsty. +sojl-o = threshold. +Sokrat-o = Socrates. +sol-a = alone, sole, only. +soldat-o = soldier. +solen-a = formal, solemn. +somer-o = summer. +son-i = (intrans.), to sound. +songx-i = to dream (in sleep). +sonor-i = (intrans.), to ring, sound; --ilo, bell. +sopir-i = to yearn, long, sigh. +sorb-i = to absorb; --papero, blotting-paper. +sorcx-o = witchcraft; ensorcxi, to bewitch; --isto, sorcerer. +sort-o = destiny, fate, lot. +sovagx-a = wild, savage. +spac-o = space. +spec-o = kind, sort, species. +special-a = special. +specimen-o = specimen, sample. +spegul-o = mirror. +spert-a = experienced, expert. +spes-o = speso (international unit of money, 284). +spez-o = clearing (financial); elspezi, to disburse, expend, spend; + enspezi, to take in, receive (funds). +spinac-o = spinach. +spir-i = to breathe; elspiri, to exhale. +spite = (prep.), in spite of. +sprit-a = witty. +staci-o = station (railway, boat, etc.). +stamp-i = to mark officially, stamp. +standard-o = standard, flag. +stan-o = tin (metal). +stang-o = pole. +star-i = to stand (239). +stat-o = state (of being), condition. +stel-o = star. +stenografi-o = shorthand, stenography. +stil-o = style. +stimul-i = to stimulate. +stomak-o = stomach. +strang-a = strange, peculiar. +strat-o = street. +strecx-i = (trans.), to stretch. +strek-i = to make a streak, or line; substreki, to underline; + surstreki, trastreki, to cross off, strike out. +stri-o = streak, stripe, band. +strik-o = strike (of labor). +stud-i = to study. +student-o = student (college, etc.). +stuf-i = (trans.), to stew. +stump-o = stump (of tree, etc.). +sub = (prep.), under, beneath (121, 160). +subit-a = sudden, abrupt. +substanc-o = substance. +sud-o = south. +sufer-i = to suffer, endure. +suficx-i = to suffice; --ega, abundant. +sufiks-o = suffix. +sufok-i = (trans.), to suffocate. +sugesti-i = to suggest. +suk-o = sap, juice (of plants, etc.); --a, succulent. +sukces-i = to succeed. +suker-o = sugar. +sulfur-o = sulphur. +sulk-o = furrow, wrinkle. +sum-o = sum, amount. +sun-o = sun. +sup-o = soup. +super = (prep.), above, over (159); --a, superior. +supersticx-o = superstition. +supoz-i = to suppose. +supr-e = (adv.), above; --a, upper, above; --ajxo, surface. +sur = (prep.), on, upon (160). +surd-a = deaf. +surpriz-i = to surprise. +surtut-o = overcoat. +suspekt-i = to suspect. +sved-o = Swede. +sven-i = to faint, swoon. +sving-i = (trans.), swing, brandish. +svis-o = Swiss. + + SX. + +sxaf-o = sheep; --ajxo, mutton; --ido, lamb; --idajxo, lamb (meat); + --viro, ram. +sxajn-i = to seem, appear. +sxal-o = shawl. +sxanc-o = luck, chance; bonsxance, luckily. +sxancel-i = (trans.), to oscillate, vacillate, make tremble. +sxangx-i = (trans.), to change, alter. +sxargx-i = to burden, load. +sxat-i = to like, prize. +sxauxm-o = foam, froth. +sxel-o = shell, peeling, bark. +sxelk-o = suspender, supporter. +sxerc-i = to joke, jest. +sxi = (pronoun), she, her (32, 37, 42). +sxild-o = shield. +sxink-o = ham. +sxip-o = ship. +sxir-i = to tear. +sxirm-i = to shelter, shield; --ilo, screen. +sxlim-o = slime. +sxlos-i = to lock; --ilo, key. +sxmir-i = to anoint, smear. +sxnur-o = string. +sxose-o = broad roadway, drive. +sxov-i = to shove, push. +sxovel-i = to shovel. +sxpar-i = to spare, be economical of. +sxpin-i = to spin. +sxpruc-i = to gush, spout, spurt (of liquids). +sxrank-o = cupboard, wardrobe. +sxrauxb-o = screw. +sxtal-o = steel. +sxtat-o = state (political). +sxtel-i = to steal (252). +sxtip-o = log, block of wood. +sxtof-o = cloth, stuff. +sxton-o = stone. +sxtop-i = to stop up, cork; --ilo, stopper. +sxtrump-o = stocking. +sxtup-o = step, round; --aro, stair-case. +sxu-o = shoe; supersxuo, overshoe. +sxuld-i = to owe, be indebted. +sxultr-o = shoulder. +sxut-o = chute; --i, to pour (as in a chute). +sxvel-i = to swell, become swollen. +sxvit-i = to perspire. + + T. + +tabak-o = tobacco. +tabel-o = table, index, tabulation. +tabl-o = table (furniture). +tabul-o = board, plank. +tag-o = day; --igxo, dawn; --mezo, noon. +tajlor-o = tailor. +taks-i = to estimate, value, rate. +talent-o = talent. +tali-o = waist; beltalia, shapely, having a good figure. +tambur-o = drum. +tamen = (conj.), nevertheless, however, yet, still. +tantiem-o = percentage of profit, royalty. +tapisx-o = carpet. +tarif-o = tariff, schedule of rates. +tas-o = cup; subtaso, saucer. +task-o = task. +tauxg-i = to be fit for, good for. +tavol-o = layer. +te-o = tea. +teatr-o = theatre; --ajxo, play. +ted-i = to be tedious. +teg-i = to cover, put a covering upon. +tegment-o = roof. +teks-i = to weave. +telefon-i = to telephone. +telegraf-i = to telegraph. +teler-o = plate; --meblo, sideboard. +tem-o = theme, subject. +temp-o = time. +tempi-o = temple (of the head). +templ-o = temple (building). +ten-i = to hold, keep. +tend-o = tent. +tenor-o = tenor (voice). +tent-i = to tempt. +teori-o = theory. +ter-o = earth, soil; enterigi, to inter. +teras-o = terrace. +teritori-o = territory. +termin-o = term, definition (word). +tern-i = to sneeze. +terpom-o = potato. +terur-o = terror. +tia = that kind of, such (65). +tial = (adv.), therefore (78, 83). +tiam = (adv.), then, at that time (73). +tibi-o = shin bone, tibia; --karno, calf (of the leg). +tie = (adv.), there (68). +tiel = (adv.), thus, so (88, 156). +tigr-o = tiger. +tikl-i = to tickle. +tili-o = linden. +tim-i = to fear, be afraid of. +timon-o = pole, tongue, shaft. +tint-i = to jingle, tinkle. +tio = (pronoun), that (233, 234). +tiom = (adv.), that much, so much (104, 164). +tir-i = to pull, draw. +tiran-o = tyrant. +titol-o = title. +tiu = (pronoun), that one, that (56); tiu cxi, this one, this (60). +tost-o = toast (sentiment). +tol-o = linen. +toler-i = to tolerate. +tomat-o = tomato. +tomb-o = tomb, grave. +ton-o = tone. +tond-i = to shear; --ilo, shears, scissors. +tondr-i = to thunder. +tord-i = to twist; --a, crooked, winding. +tra = (prep.), through (46, 160). +trab-o = beam (wooden). +traduk-i = to translate. +traf-i = to reach, attain (that which was aimed at or sought); + maltrafi, to miss. +trajt-o = feature. +trakt-i = to treat of (in essay, speech, etc.); --ato, treatise. +tram-o = tram; --vojo, tramway, street-car line; --veturilo, street-car. +trancx-i = to cut, sever. +trankvil-a = serene, tranquil, calm. +trans = (prep.), across, the other side of (160). +tre = (adv.), very, very much. +trem-i = to tremble. +tremp-i = to drench, dip. +tren-i = to drag, haul, draw; --ajxo, train (of a dress). +trezor-o = treasure. +tri = (adj.), three (136). +trik-i = to knit. +trink-i = to drink. +tritik-o = wheat. +triumf-o = triumph. +tro = (adv.), too, too much. +tromp-i = to deceive. +tron-o = throne. +tropik-o = tropic. +trot-i = to trot. +trotuar-o = sidewalk, pavement. +trov-i = to find. +tru-o = hole. +trud-i = to force upon, impose; altrudema, importunate. +trunk-o = trunk (of tree or body). +tualet-o = toilet. +tub-o = tube, pipe. +tuber-o = bulb, knot, tuber. +tuj = (adv.), at once, immediately +tuk-o = piece of cloth. +tur-o = tower. +turk-o = Turk. +turment-i = to torment. +turn-i = (trans.), to turn. +tus-i = to cough. +tusx-i = to touch; kortusxi, to touch (the heart of). +tut-a = entire, whole, all. + + U. + +-uj- = suffix indicating receptacle, that which bears or contains (181). +-ul- = suffix indicating person characterized by that in the root (132). +ulm-o = elm. +-um- = indefinite suffix (268). +ung-o = nail (of finger); --ego, claw, talon. +univers-o = universe. +universitat-o = university. +unu = (adj.), one (136, 137, 180); unuigxo, union. +uragan-o = hurricane. +urb-o = city; cxefurbo, capital. +urgx-i = to be urgent or pressing. +urs-o = bear. +Uson-o = United States of America. +util-a = useful. +uz-i = to use; trouzi, to abuse. + + V. + +vad-i = to wade. +vafl-o = waffle. +vag-i = to wander, to roam; --isto, vagabond. +vagon-o = car, railway carriage. +vak-i = to be vacant. +vaks-o = wax. +val-o = valley. +valiz-o = valise, satchel, bag. +valor-i = to be worth. +vals-i = to waltz. +van-a = vain, fruitless. +vang-o = cheek. +vant-a = vain, conceited. +vapor-o = steam, vapor. +varb-i = (trans.), to enlist, recruit. +varm-a = warm. +vast-a = vast, spacious, extensive. +vaz-o = vase, basin. +ve! = (interjection), woe! ho ve! alas! (273). +veget-i = to vegetate, grow (as plants). +vegetar-a = vegetarian. +vejn-o = vein. +vek-i = (trans.), to wake, awake. +vel-o = sail. +velk-i = to fade, wither, wilt. +velur-o = velvet. +ven-i = to come. +vend-i = to sell. +vendred-o = Friday. +venen-o = poison. +vengx-i = to avenge. +venk-i = to conquer, vanquish. +vent-o = wind. +ver-o = truth. +verand-o = veranda, porch. +verd-a = green. +verk-i = to compose (music or literature). +verm-o = worm. +vermicxel-o = vermicelli. +vers-o = verse. +versx-i = to pour (a liquid). +vertikal-a = vertical. +vesper-o = evening (93). +vest-i = to clothe, dress. +vesxt-o = vest, waistcoat. +vet-i = to wager, bet. +veter-o = weather. +vetur-i = to ride, go (in vehicle, boat, etc.). +vi = (pronoun), you (32, 37, 274). +viand-o = meat. +vibr-i = to vibrate. +vic-o = turn, place in a series; lauxvice, in turn; siavice, + in his (her, its, their) turn; vicprezidanto, vice-president. +vid-i = to see. +vidv-o = widower; --ino, widow. +vigl-a = alert, brisk. +vilagx-o = village. +vin-o = wine. +vinagr-o = vinegar. +vinber-o = grape; sekvinbero, raisin. +vintr-o = winter. +viol-o = violet. +violon-o = violin. +vip-i = to whip. +vir-o = man +virt-o = virtue. +visx-i = to wipe. +vitr-o = glass (material). +viv-i = to live (133). +vizagx-o = face, visage. +vizit-i = to visit. +vocx-o = voice; --doni, to vote. +voj-o = road, way. +vojagx-i = to journey, travel, voyage. +vok-i = to call. +vokal-o = vowel. +vol-i = to be willing, will, wish. +volont-e = willingly. +volum-o = volume (book). +volumen-o = volume (of a body). +volv-i = to roll (something around something). +vort-o = word; --aro, dictionary. +vost-o = tail. +vual-o = veil. +vulgar-a = common, vulgar. +vulp-o = fox. +vund-i = to wound. + + Z. + +zenit-o = zenith. +zigzag-o = zigzag. +zingibr-o = ginger. +zink-o = zinc. +zon-o = girdle, belt, zone. +zoologi-o = zoology. +zorg-i = to care (for), be anxious (about). +zum-i = to hum, buzz. + + + + * * * * * + + + + ENGLISH-ESPERANTO VOCABULARY. + +The following vocabulary includes all Esperanto roots used in the +preceding lessons, all primary words of the language, and a large number +of additional roots (to facilitate original composition). No attempt +has been made, however, to include all of the roots of the language, +or their various English meanings, for which an English-Esperanto +Dictionary should be consulted. + +References are to sections, unless the page (p.) is given. [Since page +numbers have no relevance in this etext version, such references were +deleted.] For other parts of speech than those indicated, see Word +Formation, 116, 120, 159, 171, also the references under Prefixes and +Suffixes in the Index. For formation of compound words other than +those given, see 160, 167, 176, 184. The following abbreviations are +used: adj. = adjective; adv. = adverb; conj. = conjunction; intrans. = +intransitive; prep. = preposition; trans. = transitive; -- = repetition +of the English word. + + A + +abandon = forlas-i. +abash = hontig-i. +(be) able = pov-i (72). +abominable = abomen-a. +about = (prep.), cxirkaux; (concerning) pri; (adv.), + (approximately, proksimum-e. +above = (prep.), super (159); (adv.), supr-e; cxi supre. +abrupt = subit-a. +absorb = sorb-i. +abundant = suficxeg-a. +academy = akademi-o. +accelerate = (trans.), akcel-i. +accent = akcent-o. +accept = akcept-i. +accident = akcident-o; (chance) okaz-o. +accompany = akompan-i. +(in) accordance with = (prep.), laux (191). +account = kont-o; (bill) kalkul-o; (story) rakont-o. +(on) account of = (prep.), pro (86). +accurate = akurat-a. +accusative = akuzativ-o. +accuse = akuz-i, kulpig-i. +accustomed = familiar-a, kutimit-a. +ache = dolor-o. +acid = acid-o. +(be) acquainted with = kon-i (117); become --, konatigx-i. + acquire, akir-i. +across = (prep.), trans. +act = ag-i; --on, efik-i; (behave) kondut-i; (of play) akt-o. +active = agema; (grammatical), aktiv-a. +actor = aktor-o. +actual = efektiv-a, ver-a. +acute = akr-a. +add = aldon-i (160). +address = (on letters, etc.) adres-o; (lecture) parolad-o. +adequate = suficx-a. +adjacent = apud-a (159). +adjective = adjektiv-o. +administer = (manage), administr-i. +admire = admir-i. +admit = konfes-i; (let in) allas-i. +admonish = admon-i. +adore = ador-i. +adorn = ornam-i. +adverb = adverb-o. +advantage = util-o, profit-o. +advertise = reklam-i. +advise = konsil-i. +affable = afabl-a. +affair = afer-o; regrettable --, domagx-o. +affirmative = jes-a (171). +(be) afraid = tim-i. +Africa = Afrik-o. +after = (prep.), post (89). +afternoon = posttagmez-o. +again = denov-e, re-e (223). +against = (prep.), kontraux. +age = agx-o; of --, plenagx-a; old --, maljunec-o. +(give an) agency = komisi-i. +agent = agent-o. +agitate = agit-i. +agony = agoni-o. +agree = konsent-i; (contract) kontrakt-i. +agreeable = agrabl-a. +aid = help-i. +aim at = cel-i. +air = aer-o; to --, aerum-i; (music) ari-o. +alas! = ho ve (273). +alcohol = alkohol-o. +alcove = alkov-o. +alert = vigl-a. +Alexander = Aleksandr-o. +Alexandria = Aleksandri-o. +Alfred = Alfred-o. +algebra = algebr-o. +alive = viv-a. +all = (pronoun and adj.), cxiuj (173); (indefinite pronoun) cxio (233); + (adv. of quantity) cxiom (194); (whole, entire) tut-a. +alliance = lig-o. +allow = permes-i. +allude = alud-i. +allure = log-i. +almanac = almanak-o. +almost = (adv.), preskaux. +alms = almoz-o. +alone = sol-a. +along = (prep.), laux (191); -- with, kune kun. +aloud = lauxt-e. +alphabet = alfabet-o. +already = (adv.), jam. +also = (adv.), ankaux. +altar = altar-o. +alter = (trans.), sxangx-i, aliig-i. +although = (conj.), kvankam. +always = (adv.), cxiam (187). +America = Amerik-o. +amiable = afabl-a, amind-a. +amid = meze de, inter (85). +among = (prep.), inter (85). +amount = sum-o, kvant-o; a certain --, iom (217). +amphibious = amfibi-a. +amphitheatre = amfiteatr-o. +amuse = amuz-i. +analyse = analiz-i. +ancestor = prapatr-o (282). +anchor = ankr-o. +ancient = antikv-a. +and = (conj.), kaj (26). +anecdote = anekdot-o. +anew = denov-e. +angel = angxel-o. +angle = angul-o. +angry = koler-a. +animal = best-o. +ankle = maleol-o. +announce = anonc-i. +annoy = cxagren-i. +anoint = sxmir-i. +answer = respond-i. +ant = formik-o. +antelope = antilop-o. +antipathy = antipati-o. +antique = antikv-a. +anvil = ambos-o. +anxious = maltrankvil-a. +any = (pronoun and adj.), iu (203); (adv. of quantity) iom (217); + --kind, --time, --thing, etc., see table, 235. +any more = (adv.), plu. +apartment = apartament-o. +apathy = apati-o. +apologise = pardonon pet-i. +apology = (defence), apologi-o. +apparatus = aparat-o. +appear = (come in sight), aper-i; (seem) sxajn-i. +appearance = (aspect), aspekt-o, mien-o, vidigx-o. +appetite = apetit-o. +applaud = aplauxd-i. +apple = pom-o. +apply = (put on), almet-i; -- to (for information, etc.), sin turni al. +approach = alproksimigx-i al. +appropriate = proprigi al si; (suitable), konven-a, dec-a. +approve = aprob-i. +approximate = proksimum-a. +apricot = abrikot-o. +April = april-o. +apron = antauxtuk-o. +aquarium = akvari-o. +Arab = arab-o; street --, bub-o. +arbitrate = arbitraci-i. +arbor = lauxb-o. +arc = ark-o. +arcade = arkad-o. +archer = pafarkist-o. +Archimedes = Arhximed-o. +architecture = arhxitektur-o. +arena = aren-o. +argue = argument-i. +Aristeides = Aristejd-o. +aristocrat = aristokrat-o. +Aristotle = Aristotel-o. +arithmetic = aritmetik-o. +arm = (of the body), brak-o; (weapon) armil-o. +army = arme-o. +aroma = arom-o. +around = (prep.), cxirkaux (89, 160). +arouse = incit-i, vek-i. +arrange = arangx-i. +arrest = arest-i. +arrive = alven-i. +arrogant = arogant-a. +arrow = sag-o. +art = art-o. +Arthur = Artur-o. +article = (grammatical, literary) artikol-o. +artificial = artefarit-a. +artless = naiv-a. +as = (adv.) kiel; as ... as ... tiel ... kiel ... (156); + -- if, -- though, kvazaux (250); -- far as, gxis (prep., 46); + -- much ... as ..., tiom ... kiom (164). +ascertain = certigx-i; -- the truth of, konstat-i. +(be) ashamed = hont-i. +ashes = cindr-o. +Asia = Azi-o. +aside from = (prep.), krom. +ask = (inquire), demand-i; (request), pet-i. +asparagus = asparag-o. +aspect = aspekt-o, mien-o. +ass = azen-o. +assemble = kunven-i, kunvok-i. +assist = help-i. +association = (organization), asoci-o. +assurance = aplomb-o, certigo. +at = (prep.), cxe (125, 160), je (260); -- the rate of, po (175). +athlete = atlet-o. +atmosphere = atmosfer-o. +attack = atak-i. +attain = ating-i, traf-i. +attempt = prov-i. +attentive = atent-a. +attest = atest-i. +attribute = atribut-o. +August = auxgust-o. +Australia = Auxstrali-o. +author = auxtor-o, verkist-o. +automatic = auxtomat-a. +autumn = auxtun-o. +avaricious = avar-a. +avenge = vengx-i. +avenue = ale-o, bulvard-o. +avoid = evit-i. +awake = (trans.), vek-i. +away = (adv.), for (71); (distant), malproksim-e (170). +axe = hakil-o. +axis = (axle), aks-o. + + B. + +babble = babil-i. +baby = infanet-o. +bachelor = frauxl-o; -- of arts (A.B.), abiturient-o. +back = (of the body), dors-o; to the rear (adv.), malantauxen (121). +bacon = lard-o. +bag = sak-o, valiz-o. +bagatelle = bagatel-o. +bake = (trans.), bak-i. +balance = (trans.), balanc-i; (scales), pesil-o. +ball = (to play with), pilk-o; (dance), bal-o; (globe), glob-o. +banana = banan-o. +band = (stripe), stri-o; (music), orkestr-o; (group), ar-o (126). +bandage = bandagx-i. +banish = ekzil-i. +bank = (financial), bank-o; (shore), bord-o. +(become) bankrupt = bankrot-i +banner = flag-o, standard-o. +banquet = festen-o. +bar = bar-i. +barbarian = barbar-o. +bare = nud-a. +bark = (of trees), sxel-o; (of dogs), boj-i. +barrel = barel-o; -- organ, gurd-o. +barren = senfrukt-a. +barrister = advokat-o. +barytone = bariton-o. +base = (foundation), fundament-o, baz-o; (ignoble), malnobl-a. +basin = vaz-o, kuv-o. +basket = korb-o. +bass = (voice), bas-o. +bathe = (trans.), ban-i. +battle = batal-i. +be = est-i (109). +beak = bek-o. +beam = (wooden), trab-o; (light), radi-o. +bean = (leguminous fruit), fab-o; (garden bean), fazeol-o. +bear = (animal), urs-o; (carry), port-i; (endure), elport-i, sufer-i; + (produce, give birth to), nask-i. +beard = barb-o. +beast = best-o. +beat = bat-i; (surpass), super-i, venk-i. +beautiful = bel-a. +because = (conj.), cxar (83), tial ke (83); -- of (prep.), pro (86). +become = igx-i, farigx-i (232); (be suitable), konven-i, dec-i. +bed = lit-o. +bee = abel-o. +beef = bovajx-o (227, c). +beefsteak = bifstek-o. +beet = bet-o. +before = (prep.), antaux (89, 90, 120, 159, 160); (conj.), + antaux ol (97, 98); (adv.), antauxe, jxus antauxe. +beg = (request), pet-i; (ask alms), almozon pet-i. +beggar = almozul-o. +begin = (trans.), komenc-i (see also prefix "ek-", 206). +behave = kondut-i. +behind = (prep.), post. +behold = rigard-i, vid-i; (adv.), jen (228). +Belgian = belg-o. +believe = kred-i (265). +bell = sonoril-o. +belong = aparten-i. +below = (prep.), sub; (adv.), sub-e, malsupr-e. +belt = zon-o. +bench = benk-o. +bend = (trans.), klin-i, fleks-i. +benevolence = bonfar-o. +berry = ber-o. +beside = (prep.), krom; (near), apud; (at the side of), flanke de. +bet = vet-i. +betray = perfid-i. +betrothed = (man), fiancx-o. +between = (prep.), inter (85, 89). +bewitch = ensorcx-i. +beyond = (prep.), preter. +bicycle = bicikl-o. +bid = (order), ordon-i; -- farewell, adiaux-i. +big = grand-a. +bill = (of bird), bek-o; bank --, bankbilet-o; hand--, afisx-o; + (reckoning), kalkul-o. +bind = (fasten), lig-i; (wounds), bandagx-i. +bird = bird-o. +biscuit = biskvit-o; (ring-shaped), kring-o. +bit = (piece), pec-o; (adv.), iom (217). +bite = mord-i. +black = nigr-a; to -- (shoes, etc.), cir-i. +blackberry = rubus-o. +blackbird = merl-o. +blacking = cir-o. +blade = (of knife, etc.), kling-o. +bleat = blek-i. +bless = ben-i. +blind = blind-a. +block = (of wood), stip-o. +blood = sang-o. +bloom = flor-i (116). +blot = (spot), makul-o. +blotter = sorbil-o, sorbpaper-o. +blouse = bluz-o, kitel-o. +blow = blov-i; (stroke), bat-o. +blue = blu-a; --ish, dubeblu-a. +blush = rugxigx-i. +board = (plank), tabul-o; (food), nutrad-o. +boast = fanfaron-i. +boat = boat-o, sxipet-o. +body = korp-o. +boil = (intrans.), bol-i (275). +bolt = (fasten), rigl-i. +bonbon = bombon-o. +bond = (fastening), ligil-o. +bone = ost-o. +book = libr-o; note--, copy--, kajer-o. +boot = bot-o. +border = (edge), rand-o. +bore = (holes), bor-i; (weary), enuig-i. +(be) born = naskigx-i. +borrow = pruntepren-i. +Boston = Boston-o. +both = (pronoun and adj.), ambaux (238); (adv.), kaj (26). +bottle = botel-o. +bottom = fund-o, malsupr-o. +bough = brancx-o. +boulevard = bulvard-o. +boundary = lim-o. +bouquet = buked-o. +bow = (of ribbon), bant-o; (for shooting), pafark-o. +bow = (bend), klinigx-i, salut-i. +box = kest-o; small --, skatol-o. +boy = knab-o. +bracket = (shelf), bret-o. +brag = fanfaron-i. +braid = plekt-i. +brain = cerb-o. +branch = (of tree), brancx-o; (of work or study), fak-o. +brandish = sving-i. +brandy = brand-o. +brave = brav-o. +bread = pan-o. +break = (trans)., romp-i; -- to pieces, frakas-i. +breakfast = matenmangx-o. +breathe = spir-i. +brick = brik-o. +bridge = pont-o. +bridle = brid-o. +bright = (clear), hel-a. +bring = alport-i; -- forth (produce), nask-i; -- up (educate), eduk-i. +brisk = vigl-a. +Briton = Brit-o. +broad = largx-a. +brochure = brosxur-o. +bronze = bronz-o. +brood = (birds), kov-i. +brother = frat-o. +brown = brun-a. +brownie = kobold-o. +bruise = kontuz-i. +brush = bros-i. +brute = brut-o. +bucket = sitel-o. +buckle = buk-o. +bud = burgxon-o. +build = konstru-i. +bulb = tuber-o, bulb-o. +Bulgarian = Bulgar-o. +bull = bovvir-o. +bullet = kugl-o. +bunch = fask-o. +bundle = fask-o, pakajx-o. +bungle = fusx-i. +burden = sxargx-i. +burn = (intrans.), brul-i (275). +burst = (intrans.), krev-i. +bury = enterig-i. +but = (conj.), sed; (prep.), krom. +butcher = bucx-i. +butter = buter-o. +butterfly = papili-o. +button = buton-o; to --, butonum-i. +buy = acxet-i. +buzz = zum-i. +by = (prep.), per (64); de (169, 170); (past), preter; (according to), + laux (191). + + C. + +cab = fiakr-o. +cabbage = brasik-o. +cage = kagx-o. +cake = kuk-o. +calculate = kalkul-i. +caldron = kaldron-o. +calendar = kalendar-o. +calf = bovid-o; (of the leg), tibikarn-o. +call = vok-i; (visit), vizit-i. +calling = (profession), profesi-o. +calm = kviet-a, trankvil-a. +camel = kamel-o. +camera = kamer-o. +can = (be able), pov-i (72); (preserve fruit, etc.), konfit-i. +candle = kandel-o. +candy = kand-o. +canoe = kanot-o. +cap = cxap-o. +capable = kapabl-a. +capital = (money), kapital-o; (excellent), boneg-a; (city), cxefurb-o. +capitol = kapitol-o. +car = vagon-o. +card = kart-o; visiting --, vizitkart-o. +care = (for), zorg-i (pri). +caress = dorlot-i, kares-i. +carpet = tapisx-o. +carriage = kalesx-o, veturil-o. +carrot = karot-o. +carry = port-i. +carve = skulpt-i. +case = (small box), skatol-o; (chest), kest-o; (legal), proces-o; + (holder), uj-o (181), ing-o (237); (occasion), okaz-o; + (grammatical), kaz-o. +cashier = kasist-o. +cascade = kaskad-o. +cast = jxet-i. +castle = kastel-o. +cat = kat-o. +catch = kapt-i. +cattle = brut-o, brutar-o. +cauliflower = florbrasik-o. +cause = ig-i (214); (produce a result), kauxz-i; (motive), kial-o; + tial-o; (espoused or advocated), afer-o; (legal), proces-o. +caution = avert-i. +cavity = kav-o. +cease = (intrans.), cxes-i. +ceiling = plafon-o. +celebrate = fest-i, solenig-i; --ed, fama. +celery = celeri-o. +cellar = kel-o. +cent = cend-o. +center = centr-o. +centigram = centigram-o (284). +centiliter = centilitr-o (284). +centimeter = centimetr-o (284). +certain = cert-a; a -- (one), iu (pronoun and adj., 203); + -- amount, etc., see table, 235. +certainly = nepr-e, cert-e, ja (215). +certify = atest-i, certig-i, konstat-i. +chain = cxen-o; (fetter), katen-o; (of mountains), montar-o. +chair = segx-o. +(be) chairman = prezid-i. +chalk = kret-o. +chance = sxanc-o; (hazard), hazard-o; (opportunity), okazo. +change = (trans.), sxangx-i; (coins), moner-oj. +chapel = kapel-o. +chapter = cxapitr-o. +character = karakter-o. +charge = (commission), komisi-o; (burden), sxargx-o; (price, cost), + prez-o, kost-o. +charm = cxarm-i. +chase = (game, etc.), cxas-i; (drive off), forpel-i. +chatter = babil-i. +check = (on bank), cxek-o. +cheek = vang-o. +cheese = fromagx-o. +chemise = cxemiz-o. +chemistry = hxemi-o. +chemist's shop = apotek-o. +cheque = cxek-o. +cherry = cxeriz-o. +chest = (box), kest-o; (with a lid), kofr-o. +chestnut = kasxtan-o. +chew = macx-i. +chief = cxef-a, precip-a; (leader), estr-o (253). +child = infan-o, id-o (207). +chimney = kamen-o. +chin = menton-o. +china = (porcelain), porcelan-o; (country), Hxinuj-o. +Chinaman = hxin-o. +chirp = pep-i. +chocolate = cxokolad-o. +choir = hxor-o. +choose = elekt-i. +chop = hak-i; (cutlet), kotlet-o. +chrestomathy = krestomati-o. +Christ = Krist-o. +church = (building), pregxej-o. +chute = sxut-o. +cigar = cigar-o. +cigarette = cigared-o. +cinnamon = cinam-o. +cipher = cifer-o. +circle = cirkl-o, rond-o. +circular = (letter, etc.), cirkuler-o. +circumstance = okaz-o, detal-o, cirkonstanc-o. +citizen = regnan-o, urban-o. +city = urb-o. +civilise = civiliz-i. +clack = krak-i. +claim = pretend-i. +clamber = ramp-i. +clap = (trans.), klak-i. +class = klas-o. +clatter = (trans.), klak-i. +claw = ungeg-o. +clay = argil-o. +clean = pur-a. +clear = (bright), hela; (distinct), klar-a. +clearing = (financial), spez-o. +clergyman = pastr-o. +clerk = komiz-o. +clever = lert-a. +climate = klimat-o. +climb up = grimp-i, supren ramp-i. +cloak = mantel-o. +clock = horlogx-o. +close = (trans.), ferm-i; (dense), dens-a; -- to (prep.), apud; + proksim-e de (170). +cloth = (in general), sxtof-o; (woollen, etc.), drap-o; + (piece of), tuk-o; table--, tablotuk-o. +clothe = vest-i. +cloud = nub-o. +club = (organization), klub-o; (weapon), bastoneg-o. +coal = karb-o. +coat = vest-o; (short), jak-o; (frock), redingot-o; over--, surtut-o. +cock = (fowl), kok-o. +coffee = kaf-o. +collect = (trans.), kolekt-i. +college = kolegi-o. +colonel = kolonel-o. +color = kolor-o. +column = kolon-o. +comb = komb-i. +come = ven-i. +comedy = komedi-o. +comfort = (console), konsol-i; (freedom from pain, etc.), komfort-o. +command = ordon-i; (military and naval), komand-i. +commerce = komerc-o. +commission = (entrusted), komisi-o; (percentage of profit), tantiem-o, + komisipag-o. +committee = komitat-o. +common = (general), gxeneral-a; (mutual), komun-a; (vulgar), vulgar-a. +communicate = komunik-i. +company = (commercial), kompanio; (guests), gastar-o; + (presence), cxeest-o. +compare = (trans.), kompar-i (266). +compassion = kompat-o. +compete = konkur-i. +competition = konkurad-o; (for prizes), konkurs-o; + (in business), konkurenc-o. +complain = plend-i. +complicate = komplik-i. +compose = (music or literature), verk-i. +compositor = (of type), kompostist-o. +conceal = kasx-i (252). +concern = koncern-i (266); (anxiety), maltrankvilec-o. +concerning = (prep.), pri. (264, c). +concert = (musical), koncert-o. +condemn = kondamn-i. +condition = cirkonstanc-o; (stipulation), kondicx-o; (state), stat-o. +conduct = (lead), konduk-i; -- oneself (behave), kondut-i. +conduct = (behavior), kondut-o; (in regard to right or wrong), mor-o. +conductor = (of car, etc.), konduktor-o. +confess = konfes-i. +confide = konfid-i. +conform = konform-i (266). +confound = (confuse), konfuz-i. +congratulate = gratul-i. +congress = kongres-o. +conquer = venk-i. +conscience = konscienc-o. +(be) conscious = konsci-i. +consent = konsent-i. +consequently = sekv-e, do; tial (78). +(be) conservative = konservativ-a. +consist = konsist-i. +console = konsol-i. +consonant = (letter), konsonant-o. +conspire = konspir-i. +constant = konstant-a. +constitution = konstituci-o. +consul = konsul-o. +consult = konsult-i, pet-i konsilon de. +contaminate = infekt-i. +content = kontent-a. +continent = (land), kontinent-o. +continue = dauxr-i, dauxrig-i. +contour = kontur-o. +contract = (commercial and legal), kontrakt-i. +contralto = kontralt-o. +contrary = mal-o (67); kontrauxstarem-a. +control = kontrol-i; (govern), reg-i. +convenient = konven-a, oportun-a. +convince = konvink-i. +cook = kuir-i. +copper = kupr-o. +copy = kopi-i; (of a book, etc.), ekzempler-o. +coquettish = koket-a. +cork = sxtop-i; (bark of cork tree), kork-o. +corner = angul-o. +corporal = corporeal, korp-a. +corps = (military), korpus-o. +corpse = kadavr-o. +correct = korekt-i; (right), prav-a. +correspond = korespond-i. +corridor = koridor-o. +cost = kost-i. +costume = kostum-o. +cotton = koton-o. +cough = tus-i. +counsel = konsil-i. +count = kalkul-i, sum-i, nombr-i; (person), graf-o. +county = grafland-o. +country = land-o; (as opposed to city), kampar-o. +coupon = kupon-o. +(be) courageous = kuragx-i. +course = (of lessons), kurs-o; (of a meal), servic-o; + of --, kompreneble; in the -- of, en la dauxro de. +court = kort-o, korteg-o, jugxej-o. +courteous = gxentil-a. +courtesy = gxentilec-o; (kindness), komplez-o. +cousin = kuz-o. +cover = kovr-i; (put covering upon), teg-i. +crab = krab-o. +crack = (split) (trans.), fend-i; (crackle), krak-i; + (burst open) (intrans.), krev-i. +cradle = lulil-o. +crafty = ruz-a. +cravat = kravat-o. +crawl = ramp-i. +crazy = frenez-a. +cream = krem-o. +create = kre-i. +creep = ramp-i; -- up, grimp-i. +crime = krim-o. +crippled = kripl-a. +criticise = kritik-i. +crooked = tord-a, malrekt-a, kurb-a. +cross = kruc-o; (angry), koler-a; -- off, trastrek-i. +crowd = amas-o, anar-o (145, 126). +crown = kron-o. +crucify = krucum-i. +cruel = kruel-a. +crush = pist-i, premeg-i. +crust = krust-o. +cry = (weep), plor-i; (shout), kri-i; (of animals), blek-i. +cucumber = kukum-o. +cultivate = kultur-i; -- the soil, terkultur-i. +cunning = ruz-a. +cup = tas-o; (goblet), pokal-o. +cupboard = sxrank-o. +curious = (odd), kurioz-a; (inquisitive), scivol-a. +curl = (of hair), bukl-o. +curtain = kurten-o. +curve = kurb-o. +cushion = kusen-o. +custom = kutim-o; (tax), impost-o. +cut = trancx-i; (of a garment), fason-o. +cutlet = kotlet-o. +cylinder = cilindr-o. +Cyrus = Cirus-o. + + D. + +dabble = (a liquid), plauxd-i. +dainty = delikat-a. +damage = difekt-i. +Damocles = Damokl-o. +Dane = dan-o. +danger = dangxer-o. +dance = danc-i. +date = (fruit), daktil-o; (time), dat-o. +dawn = tagigx-o. +day = tag-o. +deaf = surd-a. +dear = (prized), kar-a; (expensive), multekost-a. +debase = (adulterate), fals-i; (make bad), malbonig-i. +decay = (mould), sxim-o; (in health), kaduk-i. +deceive = tromp-i. +December = decembr-o. +decide = decid-i. +decigram = decigram-o (284). +deciliter = decilitr-o (284). +decimeter = decimetr-o (284). +deck (of ship) = ferdek-o; (adorn), ornam-i. +declaim = deklam-i. +deep = profund-a. +deer = cerv-o. +defend = defend-i. +define = defin-i, priskrib-i. +degree = grad-o. +dekagram = dekagram-o (284). +dekaliter = dekalitr-o (284). +dekameter = dekametr-o (284). +delay = prokrast-i. +delegate = deleg-i. +delicate = delikat-a. +delightful = cxarm-a, placxeg-a. +deliver (supply) = liver-i; (set free), liberig-i. +delusion = iluzi-o. +demand = postul-i. +dense = dens-a. +deny = ne-i (171). +department (of work, etc.) = fak-o. +desert = dezert-o; (just reward), merit-o. +deserve = merit-i. +desire = dezir-i. +desk = pupitr-o, skribtabl-o. +dessert = desert-o. +destine = destin-i; difin-i. +destiny = destin-o; (lot), sort-o. +destroy = detru-i, neniig-i. +detail = detal-o. +dew = ros-o. +diamond = diamant-o. +dictionary = vortar-o. +dictate (letters) = dikt-i. +die = mort-i. +different = divers-a, malsam-a, diferenc-a. +differentiate = diferencig-i. +dig = fos-i. +dignity (rank) = rang-o. +diligent = diligent-a. +dimension = dimensio; (size), ampleks-o. +Diogenes = Diogen-o. +dip (in liquid) = tremp-i. +diploma = diplom-o; holder of --, diplomit-o. +diplomat = diplomat-o. +direct (guide) = direkt-i; (undeviating), rekt-a. +disburse = elspez-i, elpag-i. +discount = rabat-i. +discuss = diskut-i, priparol-i. +disdain = malsxat-i, malestim-i. +dish (flat) = plad-o. +dispatch (letter) = depesx-o. +distance = distanc-o. +distinct = klar-a. +distinguish = disting-i. +distract (the attention) = distr-i; (confuse), konfuz-i. +disturb = gxen-i, maltrankvilig-i. +diverse = divers-a. +divide = (trans.), divid-i. +do = far-i; (suffice), suficx-i. +doctor = doktor-o; (medical), kuracist-o. +dog = hund-o. +doll = pup-o. +dollar = dolar-o. +donkey = azen-o. +door = pord-o; --handle, ans-o. +doubt = dub-i. +down (hair or feathers) = lanug-o; (downward) (adv.), malsupren. +dove = kolomb-o. +drag = (trans.), tren-i. +draw (pull) = tir-i; (sketch), skiz-i. +drawer = tirkest-o. +drawing-room = salon-o. +dream (in sleep) = songx-i; (fancy), rev-i. +drench = tremp-i. +dress = vest-i (sin); (frock), rob-o; --suit, frak-o. +dressing (sauce) = sauxc-o. +drink = trink-i. +drip = gut-i. +drive (off) = pel-i; (vehicle), veturig-i; (roadway), sxose-o. +drown = (intrans.), dron-i. +drug = drog-o; --store, apotek-o. +drum = tambur-o. +dry = sek-a. +duck = anas-o. +dues = kotizajx-o; pay --, kotiz-i. +dumb = mut-a; -- animal, brut-o. +during = (prep.), dum (96); en la dauxro de-. +dusk = krepusk-o. +dust = polv-o; remove the --, senpolvig-i. +duty = dev-o; be on --, dejxor-i. +dwell = logx-i. + + E. + +each = (adj. and pronoun), cxiu (173). +eager = avid-a. +eagle = agl-o. +ear (of the body) = orel-o. +early = fru-a. +earth = ter-o; (the planet), terglob-o. +east = orient-o. +Easter = Pask-o. +easy = facil-a. +eat = mangx-i. +echo = ehx-o. +economical = sxparem-a. +edge = rand-o; (of rivers, etc.), bord-o. +edit = redakt-i. +editor = redaktor-o. +editorial body = redakci-o. +educate = (rear), eduk-i; (teach), instru-i. +effect = efekt-o. +effective = efektiv-a. +(be) efficacious = efik-i. +egg = ov-o. +Egypt = Egipt-o. +eight = (adj.), ok (136). +either = (pronoun and adj.), iu (203); cxiu (173); unu aux la alia; + (adv.), aux; on -- side (adv.), ambauxflanke (238). +elbow = kubut-o. +electric = elektr-a. +elk = alk-o. +elm = ulm-o. +eloquent = elokvent-a. +embroider = brod-i. +eminent = eminent-a. +empire = imperi-o. +employ = (hire), dung-i; -- oneself, sin okupi; (use), uz-i. +employee = komiz-o, dungit-o, oficist-o. +employment = ofic-o, okupad-o. +enchant = ensorcx-i, rav-i. +encore = (adv.), bis. +end = (trans.), fin-i. +endow = dot-i. +endure = sufer-i, elport-i. +engineer = ingxenier-o. +Englishman = angl-o. +enjoy = gxu-i; -- oneself, sin amuz-i. +enlightened = kler-a. +enlist = (trans.), varb-i. +enroll = (trans.), registr-i, varb-i. +enthusiasm = entuziasm-o. +entire = tut-a. +entrust = komisii, alkonfid-i. +envelope = (of letter), kovert-o. +envy = envi-i. +(be an) epicure = frand-i. +epoch = epok-o. +equal = egal-a. +err = erar-i. +establish = establ-i, fond-i; (prove, etc.), konstat-i. +estate = bien-o. +esteem = estim-i. +estimate = taks-i. +eternal = etern-a, cxiam-a. +Europe = Euxrop-o. +evangel = evangeli-o. +even = (level), eben-a; -- number, parnombro; (actually) (adv.), ecx. +evening = vesper-o (93); -- dress (of man), frak-o. +ever = (adv.), iam (212); (indefinite adv.), ajn (236); + (always), cxiam (187). +every = (one), (pronoun and adv.), cxiu (173); --thing, -- way, etc., + see table, 235. +evolution = evoluci-o. +exact = akurat-a, gxust-a; (demand), postul-i. +examine = ekzamen-i; -- and check, kontrol-i. +example = ekzempl-o; (model), model-o. +Excellency = (title), mosxt-o (258). +except = escept-i (266); (prep.), krom. +excite = ekscit-i. +exercise = (trans.), ekzerc-i. +exhale = elspir-i. +exhort = admon-i. +exile = ekzil-i. +exist = ekzist-i. +expect = atend-i. +expend = (money), elspez-i; (energy, etc.), uz-i, eluz-i. +experienced = spert-a. +experiment = eksperiment-i. +expert = spert-a, lert-a. +explode = (intrans.), eksplod-i (275). +explore = esplor-i. +express = esprim-i; (train), rapida vagonaro. +extend = (trans.), etend-i, pligrandig-i, plilongig-i. +extensive = vast-a, vastampleks-a. +extent = (size), ampleks-o. +extinguish = esting-i. +extraordinary = eksterordinar-a. +eye = okul-o; --brow, brov-o; --lid, palpebr-o. + + F. + +fable = fabel-o. +face = vizagx-o. +fact = fakt-o; in --, fakt-e, efektiv-e, ja (215). +fade = velk-i. +fair = (just), just-a; (beautiful), bel-a. +fairy = fe-o, fein-o. +faint = sven-i. +faithful = fidel-a. +fall = fal-i; (autumn), auxtun-o. +false = fals-a; (treacherous), perfid-a. +fame = fam-o. +familiar = familiar-a, kutim-a. +family = famili-o. +fancy = imag-i, rev-i. +far = malproksim-e; as -- as (prep.), gxis (46). +farm = (as a tenant), farm-i; (till the soil), terkultur-i. +farewell = (adv. and interjection), adiaux (171, 273). +fashion = fason-o, mod-o. +fasten = lig-i. +fat = gras-o; (corpulent), dik-a. +fatal = fatal-a. +fate = sort-o, fatal-o, destin-o. +father = patr-o. +faucet = kran-o. +favor = favor-i; a --, komplezo. +favorable = favor-a. +fay = fe-o, fein-o. +fear = tim-i. +feather = plum-o. +feature = trajt-o. +feed = nutr-i; -- flocks, pasxt-i. +feel = sent-i; (with fingers, etc.), palp-i. +female = in-o (59). +fervor = fervor-o. +fetter = (chain, etc.), katen-o. +fever = febr-o. +fiance = fiancx-o. +fie = (interjection), fi (273). +field = kamp-o. +fight = batal-i, milit-i. +fill = plenig-i. +find = trov-i. +fine = bel-a, delikat-a; (of money), monpun-o. +finger = fingr-o; index --, montra fingro; little --, malgranda fingro; + middle --, longa fingro; ring --, ringa fingro. +finish = (trans.), fin-i. +fir = abi-o. +fire = fajr-o; set -- to, ekbrulig-i. +firm = firm-a. +fish = fisx-o; (catch fish), fisxkapt-i. +fist = pugn-o. +fit = almezur-i; (be) --, tauxg-i. +(be) fitting = konven-i; (decent), dec-i. +five = (adj.), kvin (136). +flag = flag-o; standard-o. +flat = glat-a, eben-a; plat-a. +flesh = karn-o. +flex = (trans.), fleks-i. +floor = plank-o. +flour = farun-o. +flow = flu-i. +flower = flor-o (116). +fluid = fluid-a. +fly = flug-i; (insect), musx-o. +foam = sxauxm-o. +focus = fokus-o. +fog = nebul-o. +fold = fald-i. +folk = popol-o. +follow = sekv-i, postven-i, postir-i. +(be) fond of sweets = frand-i. +fondle = dorlot-i. +foot = (of the body), pied-o; (measure), fut-o. +for = (prep.), por (95, 98, 262); pro (86); (conj.), cxar (83). +force = fort-o; (compel), devig-i; -- (upon), altrud-i (al). +fore- = pra- (282). +forehead = frunt-o. +foreign = fremd-a. +forge = (falsify), fals-i. +forget = forges-i. +forgive = pardon-i. +fork = fork-o. +form = form-i, alform-i, model-i. +formal = solen-a. +found = fond-i. +foundation = fundament-o. +four = (adj.), kvar (136). +fount = font-o. +fountain = fontan-o. +fox = vulp-o. +fragrance = arom-o, bonodor-o. +frame = (of picture), kadr-o. +frank = afrank-i. +Frederick = Frederik-o. +free = liber-a. +Frenchman = franc-o. +frequent = oft-a; (visit often), vizitad-i. +fresh = fresx-a, nov-a. +Friday = vendred-o. +friend = amik-o. +fringe = frangx-o. +frivolous = malserioz-a. +frock coat = redingot-o. +frog = ran-o. +from = (prep.), de (89, 170); el; (cause), pro (86). +frost = frost-o; (hoar), prujn-o. +froth = sxauxm-o. +fruit = frukt-o. +fruitless = (vain), van-a. +fry = (trans.), frit-i. +function = (of machinery, etc.), funkci-i. +funereal = funebr-a. +fulfil = plenum-i. +full = plen-a. +fur = fel-o; (coat or wrap), pelt-o. +furious = furioz-a. +furnish = (supply), liver-i; (provide), proviz-i; (a house), mebl-i. +furniture = (piece of), mebl-o. +furrow = sulk-o. +further = (adv.), plu. +fuse = (trans.), fand-i. +futile = van-a. +future = estontec-o; (grammatical), estont-o; (adj.), estont-a. + + G. + +gain = gajn-i, obten-i. +gallery = galeri-o; (for pictures), pinakotek-o. +gallop = galop-i. +gamin = bub-o. +gape = (yawn), osced-i. +garden = gxarden-o. +garland = girland-o. +gas = gas-o. +gather = (trans.), kolekt-i. +gay = gaj-a. +gaze = fikse rigard-i. +gazette = gazet-o. +general = gxeneral-a, komun-a; (military), general-o. +gentleman = sinjor-o. +geometry = geometri-o. +German = german-o. +Gertrude = Gertrud-o. +ghost = fantom-o. +gift = donac-o. +ginger = zingibr-o. +girdle = zon-o. +give = don-i; (as a gift), donac-i; -- information, inform-i; + -- notice, aviz-i; -- witness, atest-i; -- birth to, nask-i. +(be) glad = gxoj-i (116). +glass = (material), vitr-o; (tumbler), glas-o. +glide = glit-i. +globe = glob-o. +glory = glor-o. +glossy = (polished), polurit-a. +glove = gant-o. +glue = glu-i. +gnash = grinc-i. +go = ir-i; (in vehicle, boat, etc.), vetur-i; + -- on a pilgrimage, pilgrim-i. +goal = cel-o. +goblet = pokal-o. +God = Di-o. +good = bon-a; be -- for, tauxg-i por. +good-bye = (adv. and interjection), adiaux (171, 273). +goose = anser-o. +gospel = evangeli-o. +govern = reg-i. +graceful = graci-a. +grade = grad-o; (rank), rang-o. +grain = (wheat, etc.), gren-o; (unit) er-o (276). +gram = gram-o (284). +grammar = gramatik-o. +grandfather = av-o. +grandson = nep-o. +grape = vinber-o. +grass = herb-o. +grasshopper = akrid-o. +grate = rasp-i; grater, raspil-o. +grating = (bar or lattice), krad-o. +grave = tomb-o; (serious), grav-a. +gravitate = gravit-i. +gravy = sauxc-o. +gray = griz-a. +grieve = (trans.), cxagren-i, malgxojig-i; (intrans.) malgxoj-i. +grind = grinc-i. +great = grand-a; (remote in ancestry), pra- (282). +Greek = grek-o. +green = verd-a; --ish, dubeverd-a. +greet = salut-i. +groan = gxem-i. +group = grup-o, ar-o (126). +ground = ter-o; -- floor, teretagx-o. +grow = kresk-i, veget-i. +guard = gard-i. +guess = diven-i. +guest = gast-o. +guide = gvid-i, direkt-i. +guilty = kulp-a. +gunpowder = pulv-o. +gush = (of liquids), sxpruc-i. + + H. + +habit = kutim-o. +hack = hak-i; (carriage), fiakr-o. +hail = (frozen rain), hajl-o. +(a) hair = har-o; -- pencil, penik-o. +half = duon-o (166, 277). +halt = (intrans.), halt-i. +ham = sxink-o. +hammer = martel-o. +hand = man-o; (of clock), montril-o. +handbill = afisx-o. +handicraft = meti-o. +handsome = bel-a. +hang = (intrans.), pend-i. +handy = oportun-a. +happen = okaz-i. +happy = felicx-a. +harbor = haven-o. +hardly = (adv.), apenaux. +hare = lepor-o. +haricot = (bean), fazeol-o. +harness = jung-i. +harvest = rikolt-i. +hasten = (trans.), akcel-i; (intrans.) rapid-i. +hat = cxapel-o. +haughty = fier-a. +haul = tren-i. +have = hav-i; -- to, dev-i. +hay = fojn-o. +hazard = hazard-o. +hazel-nut = avel-o. +he = (pronoun), li (32, 37, 42). +head = kap-o; (adj.), cxef-a. +health = san-o; state of (good or bad) --, fart-o. +hear = auxd-i. +heart = kor-o; by --, (by rote), parker-e. +heat = (trans.), hejt-i, varmig-i. +heaven = cxiel-o; heavenly body, astr-o. +heavy = pez-a. +Hebrew = hebre-o. +heel = (of foot), kalkan-o; (of shoe), kalkanum-o. +hektare = hektar-o (284). +hektogram = hektogram-o (284). +hektoliter = hektolitr-o (284). +hektometer = hektometr-o (284). +help = help-i (265). +hen = kokin-o. +herb = herb-o. +hero = hero-o. +hesitate = hezit-i. +hide = kasx-i (252); (skin of animals), fel-o. +Hiero = Hieron-o. +high = alt-a. +hinge = cxarnir-o. +hip = koks-o. +hire = (persons), dung-i; (houses, etc.), lu-i. +hiss = sibl-i. +history = histori-o. +ho = (interjection), ho (273). +hoar = (frost), prujn-o. +hoarse = rauxk-a. +hog = pork-o. +hold = ten-i. +holder = (handle), tenil-o, ans-o; (receptacle), uj-o (181); + ing-o (237). +hole = tru-o; (cavity), kav-o. +Holland = Holand-o. +holy = sankt-a. +home = hejm-o; at --, cxehejme. +homesickness = nostalgi-o. +honest = honest-a. +honey = miel-o. +honeysuckle = lonicer-o. +honor = honor-i; (as term of address), mosxt-o (258). +hook = krocx-i. +hope = esper-i. +horizon = horizont-o. +horizontal = horizontal-a. +horn = korn-o. +horse = cxeval-o. +horse-radish = armoraci-o. +hose = sxtrump-oj; -- supporter, sxelk-o. +hotel = hotel-o. +hour = hor-o (185). +house = dom-o; at the -- of (prep.), cxe (125, 160). +how = (adv.), kiel (134); kiamanier-e; -- much, kiom (140, 185). +however = (conj.), tamen; (adv.), ajn (236). +hue = nuanc-o. +hum = zum-i. +human being = hom-o. +humble = humil-a. +humor = humor-o. +hundred = (adj.), cent (142). +hungry = malsat-a. +hunt = sercx-i; (game or wild animals), cxas-i. +hurdy-gurdy = gurd-o. +hurl = jxet-i. +hurrah = (interjection), hura (273). +hurricane = uragan-o. +hurry = rapid-i. +husband = edz-o. +hypocrite = hipokrit-o. + + I. + +I = (pronoun), mi (32, 37, 274). +ice = glaci-o; (food), glaciajx-o. +idea = ide-o. +ideal = ideal-o. +identical = ident-a. +idiom = idiom-o. +idiot = idiot-o. +if = (conj.), se (240); as --, kvazaux (250); (whether), cxu. +ignore = ignor-i. +illusion = iluzi-o. +illustrate = ilustr-i. +image = bild-o. +imagine = imag-i. +imitate = imit-i. +immediate = tuj-a (171). +implicate = implik-i. +important = grav-a, serioz-a. +importunate = altrudem-a. +impose = trud-i. +impost = impost-o. +impress = impres-i. +impulse = impuls-o. +in = (prep.), en (46, 89, 160); -- the presence of, cxe (125, 160). +inch = col-o. +incite = incit-i. +incline = (trans.), klin-i. +incommode = gxen-i. +(be) indebted = sxuld-i. +indeed = (adv.), ja (215); do; efektiv-e. +index = tabel-o. +Indian = (American), indian-o, rugxhauxtul-o; -- corn, maiz-o. +indifferent = indiferent-a. +industry = (trade), industri-o. +inebriate = ebri-a. +inevitable = nepr-a, neevitebl-a. +infect = infekt-i. +influence = influ-i. +inform = inform-i, sciig-i. +ingenuous = naiv-a. +inhabitant = logxant-o, an-o (145). +inhale = enspir-i. +ink = ink-o. +inquire = demand-i. +insect = insekt-o. +inside = (adv.), intern-e; (prep.), en. +insist = insist-i. +inspect = inspekt-i, ekzamen-i, rigard-i, kontrol-i. +inspire = inspir-i. +instantaneous = moment-a. +instead of = (prep.), anstataux (98, 159). +instruct = instru-i; (order), ordon-i. +insult = insult-i. +insure = (with a company), asekur-i; (make certain), certig-i. +intelligent = inteligent-a. +intend = intenc-i. +interest = interes-i; (of money), procent-o. +(be) intermittent = intermit-i. +internal = intern-a. +interpret = interpret-i. +intimate = intim-a. +intoxicated = ebri-a. +investigate = esplor-i, ekzamen-i, elsercx-i. +invite = invit-i. +iron = (metal), fer-o; (linen), glad-i. +island = insul-o. +it = (pronoun), gxi (32, 37, 42, 274); see also 50, 51. +Italian = ital-o. + + J. + +jacket = jak-o. +jail = karcer-o. +jam = kompot-o, fruktajx-o. +January = januar-o. +jaw = (orifice, opening), fauxk-o; (of the skull), makzel-o; + --bone, makzelost-o. +jealous = jxaluz-a. +jest = sxerc-i. +Jesus = Jesu-o. +Jew = hebre-o. +jewel = juvel-o. +jingle = (intrans.), tint-i. +John = Johan-o. +joint = artik-o. +joke = sxerc-i. +journal = jxurnal-o, revu-o. +journey = vojagx-i. +judge = jugx-i. +jug = krucx-o. +juggle = jxongl-i. +July = juli-o. +jump = salt-i. +June = juni-o. +jurist = jurist-o. +just = (upright), just-a; (exact), gxust-a; (adv.), gxust-e, jxus. + + K. + +keep = ten-i, gard-i; (preserve), konserv-i; -- in mind, memor-i. +kerosene = petrol-o. +key = sxlosil-o; (of piano, etc.), klav-o. +kill = mortig-i. +kilogram = kilogram-o (284). +kiloliter = kilolitr-o (284). +kilometer = kilometr-o (284). +kind = (species), spec-o; (good), bon-a, bonkor-a; that --, what --, + etc., see table, 235. +kindness = komplez-o, bonkorec-o. +king = regx-o; --dom, regxolando. +kiss = kis-i. +knave = fripon-o. +knee = genu-o. +kneel = genufleks-i. +knit = trik-i. +knock = frap-i. +knot = tuber-o; (tied), ligajx-o; (of ribbon), bant-o. +know = sci-i; (be acquainted with), kon-i (117). +kobold = kobold-o. + + L. + +labor = labor-i; -- for the success or completion of something, + klopod-i. +lace = punt-o; (of a shoe), lacx-o. +(be) lacking = (intrans.) mank-i. +lake = lag-o. +lamb = sxafid-o; (meat), sxafidajx-o. +lame = lam-a. +lamp = lamp-o. +lance = lanc-o. +land = land-o; (estate), bien-o; (soil), ter-o. +landscape = pejzagx-o. +language = lingv-o. +lantern = lantern-o. +large = grand-a. +lark = (bird), alauxd-o. +last = (intrans.), dauxr-i; (in a series), last-a; (previous) pasint-a, + antaux-a. +latch = ans-o. +late = malfru-a. +Latin = latin-a. +latter = cxi-tiu (61, 62). +lattice = krad-o. +laugh = rid-i (265). +law = legx-o; --suit, proces-o; (rule), regul-o. +lawyer = advokat-o, legxist-o. +lay = meti, kusxig-i; -- aside, demet-i; -- claim, pretend-i. +layer = tavol-o. +lead = konduk-i. +lead = (metal), plumb-o. +leaf = foli-o. +league = (alliance), lig-o. +lean = (trans.), apog-i, klin-i; (not fat), malgras-a. +leap = salt-i; --year, superjar-o. +learn = lern-i; (news, etc.), sciigx-i. +learned = kler-a. +least = (adv.), malplej (80), malpli multe (81); at --, almenaux. +leather = led-o. +leave = (trans.), las-i; -- off (intrans.), cxes-i. +leg = krur-o. +legal = legx-a; -- process, proces-o. +lemon = citron-o. +lemonade = citronajx-o, limonad-o. +lend = prunt-i, pruntedon-i. +lens = objektiv-o. +lengthen = (trans.), etend-i, plilongig-i. +less = (adv.), malpli (80); malpli multe (81). +lesson = lecion-o. +let = (trans.), las-i; (rent), luig-i; (permit), permes-i. +letter = (epistle), leter-o; (of the alphabet), liter-o. +lettuce = laktuk-o. +level = nivel-o; (flat), eben-a. +library = bibliotek-o; (collection of books), librar-o. +lick = lek-i. +lie = (recline), kusx-i (239); (tell falsehoods), mensog-i. +lift = lev-i. +light = lum-a, hel-a; (not heavy), malpez-a. +lightning = fulm-o. +like = sxat-i; (similar), simil-a; see also 250. +limb = membro; (of a tree), brancx-o. +limit = lim-i. +linden = tili-o. +line = lini-o, vic-o, strek-o. +linen = tol-o. +lion = leon-o. +lip = lip-o. +liquid = fluid-a. +listen = auxskult-i. +liter = litr-o (284). +literal = lauxliter-a. +literature = literatur-o. +little = malgrand-a; (with slightly affectionate sense), et-a (198); + (adv.), malmulte, iom (217); -- by --, iom post iom. +live = viv-i; (dwell), logx-i (133). +load = sxargx-i. +loan = prunt-i, pruntedon-i. +local = lok-a. +lock = sxlos-i; (fastening), serur-o. +locomotive = lokomotiv-o. +lodge = logx-i. +log = sxtip-o. +long = long-a; -- for, sopir-i je. +look = rigard-i; -- for, sercx-i. +lose = perd-i; (fail to profit), malgajn-i; -- time, malfru-i. +lot = (fate), sort-o. +loud = lauxt-a. +love = am-i; make --, amindum-i. +loyal = fidel-a, lojal-a. +luck = sxanc-o; lucky, bonsxanc-a. +lull = kvietig-i; (to sleep), lul-i. +lunatic = lunatik-o. +lung = pulm-o. +luxury = luks-o. + + M. + +macaroni = makaroni-o. +machine = masxin-o. +mad = frenez-a. +magazine = gazet-o, jxurnal-o, revu-o. +magic = magi-o. +mail = posxt-o, enposxtig-i; -- box, posxtkest-o. +maize = maiz-o. +majestic = majest-a. +majesty = (term of address), mosxt-o (258). +make = far-i (see also 214); -- mistakes, erar-i; -- love, amindum-i. +malicious = malic-a. +man = vir-o. +manage = administr-i, direkt-i; (a household), mastrum-i. +manner = manier-o; (right or wrong), mor-o; in that --, in every --, + etc., see table, 235. +mantle = mantel-o. +manufacture = fabrik-i. +manuscript = manuskript-o. +maple = acer-o. +marble = (stone), marmor-o. +march = marsxad-i. +March = mart-o. +mark = mark-o, sign-o; (official), stamp-o. +marmalade = marmelad-o. +marry = (become married), edzigx-i. +master = mastr-o; (of his profession or art), majstr-o; + -- of Arts (A.M.), magistr-o. +match = (for fire), alumet-o. +material = material-o; (cloth), sxtof-o. +matter = afer-o. +mature = matur-a. +maximum = maksimum-o. +May = maj-o; (auxiliary verb), see 269, 270. +mayonnaise = majones-a. +mean = signif-i, intenc-i, malnobl-a. +meaning = senc-o. +means = rimed-o; by -- of (prep.), per (64). +measure = (trans.), mezur-i. +meat = viand-o. +mechanics = mehxanik-o. +medical = medicin-a, kuracist-a. +medicine = (drug, etc.), kuracil-o; (science), medicin-o, kuracart-o. +meet = (trans.), renkont-i, traf-i; (assemble), kunven-i. +melody = melodi-o. +melon = melon-o. +melt = fluidig-i, fluidigx-i, degel-i. +member = membr-o, an-o (145). +memory = memor-o; by --, parker-e, memor-e. +mend = ripar-i; (patch), flik-i. +mention = nom-i; cit-i. +menu = menu-o. +merely = (adv.), nur. +merit = merit-i. +merry = gaj-a; make --, festen-i. +merry-go-round = karusel-o. +metal = metal-o. +meter = metr-o (284). +method = metod-o. +middle = mez-o, centr-o. +mien = mien-o. +mild = mild-a. +mile = mejl-o. +milk = lakt-o; (draw the milk of), melk-i. +mill = muel-o. +millimeter = milimetr-o (284). +million = milion-o. +mine = (coal, etc), min-o; (possessive adj.), mi-a (43). +mineral = mineral-o. +minimum = minimum-o. +minister = (political), ministr-o; (clergyman), pastr-o. +minute = (time), minut-o; (adj.), detal-a, malgrand-a. +minutes = (of a meeting), protokol-o. +mirror = spegul-o. +miserly = avar-a. +misery = mizer-o. +miss = (fail to reach), maltraf-i; (be missing), mank-i; + (notice the absence of), senti la foreston de; + (young lady), frauxlin-o (163). +mist = nebul-o. +mistake = erar-o. +Mister = Sinjor-o (163, 286). +mix = (trans.), miks-i. +mock = mok-i. +mode = fason-o, mod-o. +model = model-o. +moderate = moder-a. +modest = modest-a. +moment = moment-o; a -- ago, (adv.), jxus. +monarch = monarhx-o. +Monday = lund-o. +money = mon-o; -- box, kas-o; -- order, mandat-o. +monk = monahx-o. +monkey = simi-o. +month = monat-o. +moon = lun-o. +moral = moral-a, bonmor-a; morals, moroj. +more = (adv.), pli (74, 79); (quantity), pli multe (81); + (further), plu; the --, ju pli, des pli (84). +morning = maten-o (93). +morsel = pec-o. +most = (adv.), plej (74, 79); (quantity), plej multe (81). +mould = sxim-o. +mountain = mont-o. +mourning = funebr-o. +mouse = mus-o. +moustache = lipharoj. +mouth = busx-o; (of river), enflu-o, elflu-o. +move = (trans.), mov-i; (change residence) translogx-i. +much = mult-a (81); (very), tre. +mud = kot-o. +murmur = murmur-i. +museum = muze-o. +mushroom = fung-o. +music = muzik-o. +must = dev-i (247). +mute = mut-a. +mutton = sxafajx-o. +mutual = reciprok-a (180), komun-a. +myopic = miop-a. +mystery = mister-o. + + N. + +nail = (metal), najl-o; (of the finger or toe), ung-o. +naive = naiv-a. +naked = nud-a. +name = nom-o. +narrate = rakont-i. +nation = naci-o. +nature = natur-o. +naught = nul-o; (none), neniom (231). +near = proksim-a (170); (prep.), apud (120, 159). +necessary = neces-a. +neck = kol-o. +need = bezon-i. +needle = kudril-o. +negative = ne-a (171); (photographic), negativ-o. +neighbor = najbar-o. +neither = (conj.), nek (31); (pronoun and adj.), neniu (220). +nephew = nev-o. +nerve = nerv-o. +nest = nest-o. +net = ret-o. +neutral = neuxtral-a. +never = (adv.), neniam (226). +nevertheless = (conj.), tamen. +new = nov-a, fresx-a; news, novajx-o. +newspaper = jxurnal-o, tagjxurnal-o. +nice = delikat-a. +night = nokt-o. +nine = (adj.), naux (136). +nitrogen = azot-o. +no = (adv.), ne (27, 66, a); (adj.), neniu (220); -- one, --where, + etc., see table, 235. +noble = nobl-a, +nobleman = nobel-o. +nobody = (pronoun), neniu (220). +nod = (the head), balanc-i (la kapon). +noise = bru-o. +none = (adj. and pronoun), neniu (220); (adv.), neniom (231). +non-partisan = neuxtral-a. +noon = tagmez-o. +nor = (conj.), nek (31). +north = nord-o. +Norwegian = norveg-o. +not = (adv.), ne (27, 66, a). +note = not-o, bilet-o; --book, kajer-o; (notice), rimark-i, not-i. +nothing = nenio (233). +notice = rimark-i; not-i; give --, aviz-i. +notwithstanding = (prep.), malgraux; (conj.), tamen. +nourish = nutr-i. +novel = nov-a; (book), roman-o. +November = novembr-o. +now = (adv.), nun. +nude = nud-a. +nullify = nulig-i, neniig-i. +number = (quantity), nombr-o; (numeral), numer-o. +nut = nuks-o. + + O. + +oak = kverk-o. +(make) oath = jxur-i. +oats = aven-o. +obey = obe-i (265). +object = objekt-o; (aim), cel-o; (oppose), kontrauxparol-i, + kontrauxstar-i, protest-i. +objective = objektiv-o. +obligation = (financial), sxuld-o; (moral), dev-o. +oblige = (compel), devig-i; (render service), far-i komplezon, serv-i. +oblique = oblikv-a. +observe = observ-i, rimark-i, not-i. +obstinate = obstin-a. +obstruct = bar-i. +occasion = foj-o (127); okaz-o. +occupation = profesi-o, okup-o, meti-o. +occupy = okup-i. +occur = okaz-i. +ocean = ocean-o. +October = oktobr-o. +odor = odor-o. +of = (prep.), de (49, 100, 160, 170); da (99, 101, 103); el; + (concerning), pri (160, 264, c). +offend = ofend-i. +offer = propon-i, prezent-i, ofer-i. +office = ofic-o; (place), oficej-o. +officer = (of organization or firm), oficist-o; + (military or naval), oficir-o. +official = oficial-a. +often = (adv.), oft-e, multfoj-e. +oh = (interjection), ho (273). +oil = ole-o. +olive = oliv-o. +on = (prep.), sur; -- account of, pro (86). +once = (adv.), unufoj-e; -- on a time, iam (212); at --, tuj; + -- more, bis. +one = (adj.), unu (136, 137, 180); (pronoun), oni (54). See 235. +onion = bulb-o. +only = sol-a; (mere), nur-a. +opera = oper-o; -- glasses, lornet-o. +opinion = opini-o. +opportune = oportun-a. +opposed to = (prep.), kontraux. +opposite = (converse), mal-o (67); (prep.), kontraux. +or = (conj.), aux. +orange = (fruit), orangx-o. +orchestra = orkestr-o. +order = ordon-i; (of store, etc.), mend-i; (methodical or proper + arrangement), ord-o; money --, mandat-o. +ordinary = ordinar-a. +organ = (physical), organ-o; (musical), orgen-o. +organize = organiz-i. +original = original-o. +ornament = ornam-i. +orphan = orf-o. +oscillate = (intrans.), balancigx-i. +ostracism = ostracism-o. +other = ali-a; (remaining), ceter-a; -- people's, malpropr-a; + --wise, ali-e. +out of = el. +outline = kontur-o; (profile), profil-o; (sketch), skiz-o. +outside = (prep.), ekster (120, 121). +over = (prep.), super; (across), trans; (concerning), pri; + --coat, surtut-o; --shoe, supersxu-o; (adv.), (too), tro. +owe = sxuld-i. +own = posed-i, propr-a. +ox = bov-o. +oyster = ostr-o. + + P. + +pack = pak-i. +pad = rembur-i. +paddle = padel-i. +page = (of book, etc.), pagx-o. +pail = sitel-o. +pain = dolor-o; (effort), pen-o; take pains, pen-i. +paint = pentr-i; (material), kolorigil-o; --brush, penik-o. +pair = par-o. +palace = palac-o. +pale = pal-a. +palisade = palisar-o. +palm = (of the hand), polm-o. +pamphlet = brosxur-o. +pan = pat-o. +paper = (material), paper-o; news--, jxurnal-o. +paradise = paradiz-o. +paragraph = paragraf-o. +pardon = pardon-i (265). +parallel = paralel-a. +park = park-o. +parlor = salon-o. +parsley = petrosel-o. +parsnip = pastinak-o. +part = part-o; of a work or book, kajer-o; + separate (trans.), disir-i, apartig-i, disdivid-i. +participle = particip-o. +pass = (intrans.), pas-i. +passage = koridor-o. +passenger = pasagxer-o. +passion = pasi-o. +passive = pasiv-a. +past = (prep.), preter; (time), estintec-o; + (grammatical), estint-o; (bygone), estint-a. +paste = (glue), glu-i. +pasteboard = karton-o. +pastor = pastr-o. +pastry = kukajx-o. +pasture = (trans.), pasxt-i. +patch = flik-i. +path = vojet-o. +patience = pacienc-o. +patient = (ill person), kuracat-o. +patty = pastecx-o. +pause = pauxz-i. +pavement = pavim-o; (sidewalk), trotuar-o. +pay = pag-i; -- dues, kotiz-i. +pea = piz-o. +peace = pac-o. +peach = persik-o. +pear = pir-o. +pearl = perl-o. +peculiar = strang-a, kurioz-a. +peddle = kolport-i. +pedestal = piedestal-o. +pedestrian = piedirant-o. +peeling = sxel-o. +pen = plum-o; (enclosure), ej-o (III). +pencil = krajon-o; hair--, penik-o. +penetrate = penetr-i. +people = popol-o; (indefinite pronoun), oni (54). +pepper = pipr-o. +perceive = sent-i; (see), vid-i. +percentage = procent-o; (of profit), tantiem-o. +perfect = perfekt-a. +perfidious = perfid-a. +perform = (act), ag-i; (fulfil), plenum-i; (do), far-i. +perfume = parfum-o; (odor), bonodor-o. +period = period-o; (of time), epok-o; (punctuation), punkt-o. +perish = pere-i. +permit = permes-i. +persecute = persekut-i; (worry), turment-i, gxen-i. +persevere = persist-i. +person = person-o. +perspire = sxvit-i. +persuade = konvink-i. +pet = dorlot-i. +petroleum = petrol-o. +phantom = fantom-o. +Pharaoh = faraon-o. +pharmacy = farmaci-o; (shop), apotek-o. +philosopher = filozof-o. +photograph = fotograf-i. +phrase = fraz-o. +physician = kuracist-o. +physics = fizik-o. +pick = (choose), elekt-i; (gather), kolekt-i. +pickle = pekl-i. +picture = bild-o; (portrait), portret-o; -- gallery, pinakotek-o. +picturesque = pitoresk-a, pentrind-a. +pie = kukajx-o; (patty), pastecx-o. +piece = pec-o. +pig = pork-o. +pigeon = kolomb-o. +(be a) pilgrim = pilgrim-i. +pillage = rab-i. +pillar = kolon-o. +pin = pingl-o. +pinch = pincx-i. +pine = (tree), pin-o; -- for, sopir-i je. +pineapple = ananas-o. +pinnacle = pint-o. +pioneer = pionir-o. +pious = pi-a. +pipe = tub-o; (for smoking), pip-o. +pitcher = krucx-o. +pity = kompat-i; (regrettable affair), domagx-o. +placard = afisx-o. +place = lok-o; (for something), -ej-o (111); + (broad, short street or open space), plac-o; (put), met-i. +plait = plekt-i. +plan = plan-o, projekt-o, skiz-o. +plane = plat-a. +planet = planed-o. +plank = tabul-o. +plant = plant-i; (vegetable growth), kreskajx-o, vegetajx-o. +plate = plat-o; (dish) teler-o. +platform = (railway), peron-o. +play = lud-i; (music), muzik-i; (theatrical), teatrajx-o. +player = (theatrical), aktor-o. +pleasant = agrabl-a, dolcx-a, afabl-a. +please = placx-i (265); kontentig-i, far-i plezuron al; + (in requests), bonvolu, mi petas. +pleasure = plezur-o; take -- in, gxu-i. +plot = konspir-i. +plow = plug-i. +plum = prun-o. +plumber = plumbist-o. +plunder = rab-i. +plural = multenombr-o. +pneumatic = pneumatik-a. +pocket = posx-o. +poem = poem-o. +poet = poet-o. +poetry = poezi-o. +point = punkt-o; (sharp), pint-o; -- out, montr-i. +poise = (trans.), balanc-i; (of manner), aplomb-o. +poison = venen-o. +pole = stang-o; (shaft of vehicle), timon-o; (geographical), polus-o. +Pole = pol-o. +police = polic-o. +polite = gxentil-a. +politics = politik-o. +polish = polur-i; polished, polurit-a, glat-a. +pomp = pomp-o. +popular = popular-o, popol-a. +porcelain = porcelan-o. +porch = verand-o; (stoop), peron-o; (balcony), balkon-o. +pork = porkajx-o. +port = haven-o. +portion = porci-o, part-o. +portrait = portret-o. +possess = posed-i. +possible = ebl-a (161, 162); kredebl-a (270). +post = (pole), stang-o; (mail), posxt-o; --card, posxtkart-o; + --paid, afrankit-e. +postage = (cost), posxtelspezo; -- stamp, posxtmark-o. +poster = afisx-o. +pot = pot-o. +potato = terpom-o; sweet --, batat-o. +pound = pist-i; (measure), funt-o. +pour = (liquids), versx-i; (as in a chute), sxut-i. +powder = pudr-o. +power = pov-o, potenc-o. +practice = praktik-i. +praise = lauxd-i. +pray = pregx-i. +preach = predik-i. +precise = preciz-a, gxust-a. +predestined = fatal-a. +prefer = prefer-i. +prefix = prefiks-o. +premium = premi-o. +prepare = prepar-i. +prepay = afrank-i. +presence = cxeest-o, apudest-o; in the -- of (prep.), cxe (125), antaux. +present = (gift), donac-o; (time), estantec-o, estant-a, nun-a (171); + (in attendance), cxeestant-a. +present = prezent-i, donac-i, don-i. +preserve = (keep), ten-i; (keep safe), konserv-i; + (food), kompot-o, konfitajx-o. +preside = prezid-i. +president = prezidant-o. +press = prem-i; (print), pres-i; (wardrobe), sxrank-o; + (be urgent), urgx-i. +pretend = (make pretext of), pretekst-i; (feign), sxajnig-i; + (lay claim), pretend-i. +price = prez-o, kost-o. +prick = pik-i. +priest = pastr-o. +prince = princ-o, regxid-o. +principal = precip-a, cxef-a. +print = pres-i. +prize = sxat-i; (premium), premi-o. +prized = kar-a, altetaksat-a, sxatat-a. +problem = problem-o. +process = metod-o; (legal), proces-o. +proclaim = proklam-i. +procrastinate = prokrast-i. +produce = produkt-i; -- a result, efik-i; (give birth to), nask-i. +profession = profesi-o. +professor = profesor-o. +profile = profil-o. +profit = profit-i; (percentage), tantiem-o. +profound = profund-a. +progress = progres-i. +project = projekt-o. +promenade = promen-i. +promise = promes-i. +propensity = inklin-o, em-o (192). +(be) proper = dec-i. +property = proprajx-o, posedajx-o; (land), bien-o; + (characteristic), ec-o (202). +proportional = proporci-a. +propose = propon-i, sugesti-i. +prose = prozo; piece of --, prozajxo. +prosecute = persekut-i. +prosper = prosper-i. +protect = protekt-i, gard-i. +protest = protest-i. +proud = fier-a +prove = pruv-i; (test), prov-i. +provoke = incit-i, ekscit-i, kauxz-i, nask-i, kolerig-i. +psalm = psalm-o. +public = publik-o. +publish = publikig-i, eldon-i. +pudding = puding-o. +pull = tir-i. +pump = pump-i. +pumpkin = kukurb-o. +punish = pun-i. +pure = pur-a. +puree = pistajx-o. +purple = purpur-a. +purpose = cel-i, intenc-i. +push = pusx-i; (shove), sxov-i. +put = met-i; -- off, prokrast-i. + + Q. + +quality = ec-o (202); (texture, etc.), kvalito. +quantity = kvant-o; any --, a certain --, iom (217); see table, 235. +quarter = (of a city), kvartal-o; (fourth), kvaron-o; --ly, trimonat-a. +question = demand-o; (problem), problem-o; (doubt), dub-o. +quick = rapid-a; (lively), viv-a. +quiet = kviet-a, trankvil-a, silent-a. +quince = cidoni-o. +quite = (adv.), tut-e. +quote = cit-i. + + R. + +rabbit = kunikl-o. +race = (people), ras-o. +radish = rafan-o; horse--, armoraci-o. +radius = radi-o. +rag = cxifon-o. +raging = furioz-a. +rail = rel-o; --way, fervoj-o; --way carriage, vagon-o; + --way station, stacidom-o. +rain = pluv-o; --bow, cxielark-o. +raise = lev-i. +raisin = sekvinber-o. +rank = rang-o; (grade), grad-o. +rap = frapet-i. +rapid = rapid-a. +rascal = fripon-o, kanajl-o. +rasp = rasp-i. +raspberry = framb-o. +rat = rat-o. +rate = taks-i; (schedule of prices), tarif-o, prezar-o; + (percentage), procent-o; at the -- of (prep.), po (175). +rational = prudent-a, racional-a. +raucous = rauxk-a. +raven = korv-o. +ravishing = rav-a. +raw = nekuirit-a. +ray = (of light), radi-o. +reach = ating-i; (a goal), traf-i. +read = leg-i. +ready = pret-a. +real = efektiv-a, real-a; ver-a. +reap = rikolt-i. +reason = (exert the power of reasoning), rezon-i; (cause), kauxz-o; + (motive), kial-o; for what --, for any --, etc., see table, 235. +reasonable = prudent-a. +rebate = rabat-i. +recall = revok-i; (to memory), rememor-i; + (to another's memory), rememorig-i. +receive = ricev-i; (accept), akcept-i; (money), enspez-i. +receipt = (for payment), kvitanc-o. +reckon = kalkul-i. +recent = nov-a, antauxnelong-a (90). +receptacle = uj-o (237); (for one object), ing-o (181). +recess = (alcove), alkov-o; (vacation), libertemp-o. +reciprocal = reciprok-a (180). +recite = deklam-i. +recline = kusx-i (239). +recommend = rekomend-i. +recompense = rekompensx-i. +recover = (find), retrov-i; (get well), resanigx-i. +red = rugx-a; reddish, duberugx-a. +reduction = (of price), rabat-o. +refine = rafin-i. +refuse = rifuz-i, malpermes-i. +refute = refut-i. +regale = regal-i. +region = region-o. +register = (trans.), registr-i; (letters), rekomend-i. +regret = bedauxr-i; (be penitent for), pent-i. +regrettable = bedauxrind-a; -- affair (pity), domagx-o. +regulation = regul-o, legx-o. +reign = reg-i. +rejoice = gxoj-i (116). +relate = rilat-i (266); (tell), rakont-i. +relative = (person), parenc-o. +religion = religi-o. +rely = konfid-i; fid-i. +remain = rest-i; remaining (other), ceter-a. +remember = memor-i; (recall to memory), rememor-i. +render = far-i, ig-i (214); (an account), don-i, prezent-i, liver-i. +renown = fam-o, glor-o. +rent = lu-i; (let), luig-i; (farm out), farm-i; (price), luprez-o. +repair = ripar-i; (patch), flik-i. +repeat = ripet-i. +repent = pent-i. +report = raport-i. +repose = ripoz-i. +represent = reprezent-i. +reproach = riprocx-i. +republic = respublik-o. +repulse = repusx-i, repel-i. +request = pet-i. +require = postul-i; (need), bezon-i. +rescue = sav-i. +reside = logx-i. +respect = respekt-i. +rest = (repose), ripoz-i; (remain), rest-i; (-- upon), apog-i sur. +restaurant = restoraci-o. +result = rezult-i. +resume = resum-o. +return = (go back), reir-i; (come back), reven-i; (give back), redon-i. +revery = rev-o. +review = (magazine), revu-o. +reward = rekompenc-i. +rhubarb = rabarb-o. +rib = rip-o. +ribbon = ruband-o. +rice = riz-o. +rich = ricx-a. +ride = rajd-i; (in vehicle, boat, etc.), vetur-i. +ridicule = mok-i; worthy of -- (ridiculous), ridind-a. +right = prav-a; (to something), rajt-o; (not left), dekstr-a. +right-angled = ort-a. +ring = (intrans.), sonor-i; (circlet), ring-o. +ringlet = (of hair), bukl-o. +ripe = matur-a. +river = river-o. +road = voj-o; (broad roadway), sxose-o. +roam = vag-i. +roar = mugx-i. +roast = rost-i. +rob = rab-i, sxtel-i. +robber = rabist-o. +robe = rob-o. +Robert = Robert-o. +roguish = petol-a; (rascally), fripon-a. +roll = (trans.), rul-i; (something around something else), volv-i; + (bread), bulk-o; (list), list-o, registr-o. +roof = tegment-o. +room = cxambr-o; (space), spac-o. +root = radik-o. +rose = roz-o. +(by) rote = parker-e. +round = rond-o; (of ladder), sxtupet-o; + (roundabout) (prep.) cxirkaux (89, 120, 159, 160). +routine = rutin-o. +row = (boats), rem-i. +royalty = regxec-o; (share of profit) tantiem-o. +rub = frot-i. +ruin = ruin-o. +rule = reg-i; (draw lines), lini-i; (regulation), regul-o. +rumor = fam-o; rumored, lauxdir-a. +run = kur-i; (of fluids), flu-i. +Russian = rus-o. +rust = rust-i. + + S. + +sack = sak-o; (plunder), rab-i. +sacred = sankt-a. +sacrifice = ofer-i, oferdon-i. +saddle = sel-o. +safe = sendangxer-a, senrisk-a; (chest), monkest-o. +sail = vel-o. +salad = salat-o. +salary = salajr-o. +salt = sal-o. +salute = salut-i. +same = sam-a. +sample = specimen-o. +sand = sabl-o. +sap = suk-o. +sardine = sarden-o. +satchel = valiz-o. +sated = sat-a. +satin = atlas-o. +satisfied = kontent-a; (of hunger), sat-a. +Saturday = sabat-o. +sausage = kolbas-o. +sauce = sauxc-o. +saucer = subtas-o, teleret-o. +saucy = petol-a, malgxentil-a, insultem-a. +savage = sovagx-a. +save = sav-i; (keep), konserv-i; (economize), sxpar-i; + (prep.), krom, escepte de. +saw = seg-i. +say = dir-i (77). +scales = (for weighing), pesil-o. +scarcely = (adv.), apenaux. +scent = (trans.), flar-i. +schedule = (of rates), tarif-o. +science = scienc-o. +scissors = tondil-o. +Scot = (Scotchman), skot-o. +scoundrel = kanajl-o, fripon-o. +scrape = skrap-i. +screen = sxirm-i. +screw = sxrauxb-o; --driver, sxrauxbturnil-o. +sculpture = skulpt-i. +sea = mar-o. +seal = sigel-i. +season = (of the year), sezon-o. +second = (of time), sekund-o; (in order), dua; + a -- time (adv.), duafoje, bis. +secret = sekret-o. +secretary = sekretari-o. +section = sekci-o, part-o, er-o (276). +see = vid-i; -- to, zorg-i pri. +seed = sem-o. +seek = sercx-i; -- advice of, konsult-i. +seem = sxajn-i; --ing, sxajn-a, kvazaux-a. +seize = kapt-i. +select = elekt-i. +self = (reflexive), see 39, 40, 44; (intensive), mem (219). +self-command = aplomb-o. +sell = vend-i. +senate = senat-o. +send = send-i. +sense = prudent-o, sagx-o; (meaning), senc-o; (feeling), sent-o. +sentence = fraz-o; (legal), jugx-o, kondamn-o. +separate = (intrans.), disigx-i, disir-i; (distinct), apart-a. +September = septembr-o. +serene = trankvil-a. +series = seri-o, vic-o. +serious = serioz-a, grav-a. +serve = serv-i; (be good for), tauxg-i por. +set = met-i; (of the sun), subir-i; (type), kompost-i; + -- free, liberig-i; -- out (start), forir-i, ekir-i. +seven = (adj.), sep (136). +several = kelk-aj, kelk-e. +severe = sever-a. +sew = kudr-i. +shade = (shadow), ombr-o; (tint) nuanc-o; (screen), sxirmil-o. +shaft = (of vehicle), timon-o. +shake = (trans.), sku-i; (oscillate), sxancel-i; -- hands, manprem-i. +sham = pretekst-i. +shape = form-o; --ly, beltali-a. +share = partopren-i, divid-i, part-o, porci-o. +sharp = akr-a; (pointed), pint-a. +shatter = frakas-i. +shave = raz-i. +shawl = sxal-o. +she = (pronoun), sxi (32, 37, 42). +shear = tond-i. +sheep = sxaf-o. +shelf = bret-o. +shell = sxel-o; (of mollusk), konk-o; to remove the --, sensxelig-i. +shelter = sxirm-i. +shepherd = pasxtist-o. +shield = sxild-o; (protect), sxirm-i. +shin-bone = tibi-o. +shine = bril-i, lum-i. +ship = sxip-o. +shirt = cxemiz-o. +shoe = sxu-o. +shoot = (with gun, etc.), paf-i. +shop = butik-o. +shore = bord-o, marbord-o. +short = mallong-a; --sighted, miop-a; --hand, stenografi-o. +shoulder = sxultr-o. +shove = sxov-i. +shovel = sxovel-i. +show = (trans.), montr-i. +shrill = akr-a, akrason-a. +shun = evit-i. +shut = (trans.), ferm-i. +side = flank-o; --board, telermebl-o; --walk, trotuar-o; + --wise, oblikv-a. +sift = kribr-i. +sigh = sopir-i. +sign = sign-o; -- the name, subskrib-i. +signify = signif-i. +silent = silent-a (239). +silk = silk-o. +silver = argxent-o. +similar = simil-a. +simple = simpl-a. +sin = pek-i. +since = (conj.), cxar, tial ke (83); (prep.), de, depost (89); + (adv.), de tiam. +sing = kant-i. +single = sol-a, unuop-a; -- man (unmarried man), frauxl-o. +sit = sid-i (239). +six = (adj.), ses (136). +sketch = skiz-i. +skill = lertec-o; trial of --, konkurs-o. +skin = (human), hauxt-o; (of animals), fel-o. +skirt = jup-o. +sky = cxiel-o. +slanting = oblikv-a, klin-a. +slate = (stone), ardez-o. +slaughter = bucx-i. +slave = sklav-o. +sleep = dorm-i; lull to --, lul-i. +sleeve = manik-o. +slide = glit-i. +slime = sxlim-o. +slipper = pantofl-o. +sly = ruz-a. +smear = sxmir-i. +smell = (trans.), flar-i; (intrans.), odor-i. +smile = ridet-i. +smoke = fum-i. +smooth = glat-a; (polished), polurit-a. +sneeze = tern-i. +snow = negx-i. +so = (conj.), do; (adv.), (thus), tiel (88, 156); + (therefore), tial (78); -- much, tiom (104, 164). +society = societ-o. +Socrates = Sokrat-o. +sofa = kanap-o. +soft = mol-a. +soil = ter-o; soiled, malpur-a. +soldier = soldat-o; (professional), militist-o. +sole = sol-a; (of foot), pland-o; (of shoe), ledpland-o. +solemn = solen-a. +some = kelk-a, kelk-e, iom (217); --one, --how, etc., see table, 235. +son = fil-o. +soon = (adv.), baldaux. +sorcerer = sorcxist-o. +sort = spec-o, klas-o; (put in order), ordig-i, enfakig-i. +soul = anim-o. +sound = (intrans.), son-i; (of bells), sonor-i; + (in good condition), bonstat-a. +soup = sup-o. +sour = acid-a, maldolcx-a. +south = sud-o. +sow = sem-i. +space = spac-o. +spacious = vast-a, grandspac-a, grandampleks-a. +Spaniard = hispan-o. +spare = (save), sxpar-i; (pardon), pardon-i. +sparrow = paser-o. +speak = parol-i (77). +spear = lanc-o. +special = special-a, apart-a. +specialty = fak-o. +species = spec-o. +specimen = specimen-o, model-o. +spectre = fantom-o. +speed = rapid-o, rapidec-o. +spell = silab-i; (witchcraft), sorcxajx-o. +spend = (money), elspez-i; (time), pasig-i. +speso = spes-o (285). +spider = arane-o. +spin = sxpin-i. +spinach = spinac-o. +spite = malic-o; in -- of, (prep.), malgraux, spite. +splash = (trans.), plauxd-i. +splendor = pomp-o, bril-o, belegec-o. +split = (trans.), fend-i. +spoil = (trans.), difekt-i. +spoke = (of wheel), radi-o. +spoon = kuler-o. +spot = makul-i. +spout = (liquids), sxpruc-i. +spring = (season), printemp-o; (of water), font-o. +sprite = kobold-o, fe-o. +spruce = (tree), pice-o. +spurt = (of liquids), sxpruc-i. +spy = spion-o; (catch sight of), ekvid-i; --glass, lorn-o. +square = kvadrat-o; (public), plac-o. +stain = makul-i. +stair = (staircase), sxtupar-o. +stag = cerv-o. +stake = (of palisade), palis-o. +stamp = (officially), stamp-i; (with foot), piedfrap-i; + postage --, posxtmark-o. +stand = star-i (239); (endure), sufer-i, elport-i. +standard = (model), model-o; (flag), standard-o. +star = stel-o; (any heavenly body), astr-o. +starch = amel-o. +state = (condition), stat-o; (political), sxtat-o; + (governed body), regn-o. +station = (state), stat-o; (railway, etc.), staci-o, stacidom-o. +stay = rest-i. +steady = firm-a, konstant-a, nemovebl-a. +steal = sxtel-i, rab-i (252). +steam = vapor-o. +steel = sxtal-o. +steep = krut-a. +step = pasx-i; (of stairs), sxtup-o. +stern = sever-a. +stew = (trans.), stuf-i. +stick = baston-o; (adhere), algluigx-i. +still = (silent), silent-a; (adv.), ankoraux; jam; (conj.), tamen. +stimulate = stimul-i, incit-i. +sting = pik-i. +stipulate = kondicx-o. +stocking = sxtrump-o. +stomach = stomak-o. +stone = sxton-o. +stoop = klinigx-i; (entrance porch), peron-o. +stop = (intrans.), halt-i; (leave off), cxes-i; -- up, sxtop-i. +stopper = sxtopil-o. +store = (shop), butik-o; (warehouse), magazen-o, konservej-o, tenej-o. +story = (tale), fabel-o, rakont-o; (of house), etagx-o. +stove = forn-o. +straight = rekt-a. +strange = strang-a, kurioz-a; (foreign), fremd-a. +strap = rimen-o. +straw = pajl-o. +strawberry = frag-o. +streak = stri-o; make a --, strek-i. +street = strat-o; -- arab, bub-o. +street-car = tramveturil-o; -- line, tramvoj-o. +stress = akcent-o; (force), fort-o. +stretch = (trans.), etend-i; (forcibly), strecx-i. +string = sxnur-o; (shoelace), lacx-o; -- bean, fazeol-o. +strike = frap-i, bat-i; (of laborers), strik-o; -- out, trastrek-i. +strip = (of paper, cloth, etc.), banderol-o; -- off, senig-i. +stripe = stri-o. +strive = pen-i. +strong = fort-a. +struggle = barakt-i. +student = student-o; (person studying), studant-o. +study = stud-i. +stuff = sxtof-o; (furniture, etc.), rembur-i. +stump = stump-o. +style = stil-o, mod-o, fason-o. +subject = (theme), tem-o; (grammatical), subjekt-o; (ruled), regat-o. +subscribe = subskrib-i; (to magazine, etc.), abon-i. +substance = substanc-o. +succeed = sukces-i; (fare well), prosper-i; (follow), sekv-i, postven-i. +succulent = suk-a, sukplen-a. +such = tia (65); (adv.), tiel (88). +sudden = subit-a, neatendit-a. +suffer = sufer-i, toler-i; (permit), permes-i. +suffice = suficx-i. +suffix = sufiks-o. +suffocate = (trans.), sufok-i. +sugar = suker-o. +suggest = sugesti-i, propon-i. +suit = (of clothes), vest-oj, komplet-o; (at law), proces-o. +suitable = konven-a, konform-a, tauxg-a, dec-a. +suite = (of rooms), apartament-o. +sulphur = sulfur-o. +sum = sum-o; (total), tut-o. +summarize = resum-i. +summer = somer-o; --house, lauxb-o. +summit = pint-o, supr-o. +sun = sun-o. +Sunday = dimancx-o. +superior = super-a; (person), superul-o. +superstition = supersticx-o. +supply = liver-i, proviz-i. +suppose = supoz-i; opini-i. +sure = cert-a. +surface = suprajx-o. +surprise = surpriz-i. +suspect = suspekt-i. +suspend = pendig-i. +suspenders = sxelk-o. +swallow = glut-i; (bird), hirund-o. +swamp = marcx-o. +swan = cign-o. +swear = jxur-i. +Swede = sved-o. +sweep = (floors, etc.), bala-i. +sweet = dolcx-a; --potato, batat-o. +sweetmeat = bombon-o, sukerajx-o, konfitajx-o; be fond of --, frand-i. +swim = nagx-i. +swine = pork-o. +swing = (trans.), sving-i; (balance), balanc-i (279). +Swiss = svis-o. +swoon = sven-i. +sword = glav-o. +syllable = silab-o. +Syracuse = Sirakuz-o. + + T. + +table = (furniture), tabl-o; (tabulation), tabel-o. +tail = vost-o. +tailor = tajlor-o. +take = pren-i; (magazines, etc.), abon-i; -- in (money), enspez-i; + -- place, okaz-i; -- note of, observ-i, rimark-i; -- oath, jxur-i; + -- steps toward accomplishing, klopod-i; -- pleasure in, gxu-i; + -- the attention of, distr-i. +tale = fabel-o. +talent = talent-o. +tall = alt-a, altkresk-a, grand-a. +talon = ungeg-o. +tap = (rap), frapet-i; (faucet), kran-o. +tariff = tarif-o. +task = task-o. +taste = gust-o, gustum-i. +tax = impost-o. +tea = te-o; -- caddy, teuj-o (181); --pot, tekrucx-o. +teach = instru-i. +tear = sxir-i; (of the eye), larm-o. +tease = turmentet-i, cxagren-i. +tedious = ted-a, enuig-a, lacig-a. +telegraph = telegraf-i. +telephone = telefon-i. +telescope = teleskop-o. +tell = dir-i, rakont-i (77); -- lies, mensog-i. +temper = humor-o; lose the --, koler-i. +temple = (of the head), tempi-o; (building), templ-o. +tempt = tent-i. +ten = (adj.), dek (136). +tender = delikat-a, mol-a, kares-a. +tenor = (voice), tenor-o; (course), dauxr-o. +tent = tend-o. +term = (word), termin-o; (condition), kondicx-o; (time), templim-o. +terrace = teras-o. +territory = teritori-o. +terror = terur-o. +test = prov-i, ekzamen-i. +texture = kvalit-o; (thing woven), teksajx-o. +than = (conj.), ol (82, 97, 98). +thank = dank-i (265). +that = (conj.), ke (53, 83, 105, 259, 262); (pronoun), tiu (56); + tio (233, 234); -- kind, tia (65); (adv.), tiel (88, 156); + -- way, tiamanier-e, tiel (88); -- much, tiel mult-e, tiom + (104, 164); (when) (adv.), kiam (155). +thaw = (intrans.), degel-i. +the = (article), la (11, 47, 201, 280, a); (adv.), ju, des (84). +theatre = teatr-o. +theme = tem-o. +then = (conj.), do; (adv.), tiam (73); (afterwards), post-e. +theory = teori-o. +there = (adv.), tie (68); (adv. calling attention), jen (228); + see also 51. +therefore = (adv.), tial (78); pro tio, sekv-e. +they = (pronoun), ili (32, 37, 42); (indefinite), oni (54). +thick = dik-a, dens-a. +thigh = femur-o. +thing = afer-o, objekt-o, ajx-o (227); any--, what --, etc., + see table, 235. +think = pens-i; (have the opinion), opini-i. +(be) thirsty = soif-i. +this = (pronoun), tio cxi (233, 234); + (pronoun and adj.), tiu cxi (60); all --, cxio cxi. See table, 235. +thong = rimen-o. +thorn = dorn-o. +thou = (pronoun), ci (40). +though = (conj.), kvankam; as --, kvazaux (250). +thousand = (adj.), mil (142). +thread = faden-o; -- a needle, enkudrilig-i fadenon. +threaten = minac-i. +three = (adj.), tri (136). +threshold = sojl-o. +thrifty = sxparem-a. +throat = gorgx-o. +throne = tron-o. +throng = amas-o, ar-o (126). +through = (prep.), tra (46, 160); (by means of), per (64); + (because of), pro (86), de (170). +throw = jxet-i. +thumb = dika fingr-o. +thunder = tondr-i. +Thursday = jxauxd-o. +thus = (adv.), tiel (88, 156), tiamanier-e. +ticket = bilet-o; -- window, gicxet-o. +tickle = tikl-i. +tie = lig-i; (shoes, etc.), lacx-i. +tiger = tigr-o. +tile = kahel-o; (brick), brik-o. +till = (money box), kas-o; (prep.), gxis (46, 89); + -- the soil, terkultur-i. +time = (in general), temp-o; (occasion), foj-o (127); + (epoch), epok-o; (of day), hor-o. +tin = (metal), stan-o; -- plate (sheet iron covered with tin), lad-o. +tinkle = tint-i. +tint = nuanc-o, kolor-o. +tire = (trans.), lacig-i, enuig-i; (pneumatic), pneuxmatik-o. +to = (prep.), al (46, 160, 251, 252); gxis (46, 89). +toad = buf-o. +toast = (bread), panrostajx-o; (sentiment), tost-o. +tobacco = tabak-o. +today = (adv.), hodiaux (93, 171). +toe = piedfingr-o. +toilet = tualet-o. +tolerate = toler-i, sufer-i. +tomato = tomat-o. +tomb = tomb-o. +tomorrow = (adv.), morgaux (93, 171). +tone = ton-o. +tongue = (of the body), lang-o; (of vehicle), timon-o; + (language), lingv-o. +too = (adv.), tro; (too much), tro multe, tro. +tool = il-o (63). +tooth = dent-o. +top = supr-o. +torment = turment-i. +total = tut-o. +touch = tusx-i; (feel with the fingers, etc.), palp-i; + sense of --, palpad-o; -- the heart of, kortusx-i. +toward = (prep.), al (46, 160, 251, 252). +tower = tur-o; -- above, superstar-i. +trace = sign-o, postsign-o. +trade = (occupation), meti-o; (commerce), komerc-o; + (exchange), intersxangx-i. +train = (of cars), vagonar-o; (of dress), trenajx-o. +tram = tram-o; --way, tramvoj-o; -- car, tramveturil-o. +tranquil = trankvil-a; kviet-a. +translate = traduk-i. +travel = vojagx-i; (by vehicle), vetur-i. +tray = plet-o. +treacherous = perfid-a. +treasure = trezor-o. +treasurer = kasist-o. +treasury = kas-o. +treat = (in speech or writing), trakt-i; (for illness), kurac-i; + (act towards), kondut-i kontraux; (regale), regal-i. +treatise = traktat-o. +tree = arb-o. +tremble = trem-i; (vacillate), sxanceligx-i. +trial = jugxa auxskultado, esplorad-o; (of skill), konkurs-o; + (affliction), malgxoj-o, sufer-o; (test), prov-o, ekzamen-o; + (attempt), prov-o. +trifle = bagatel-o. +triumph = triumf-o. +tropic = tropik-o. +trot = trot-i. +trousers = pantalon-o. +trunk = (chest with lid), kofr-o; (of tree), trunk-o. +trust = fid-i, konfid-i; (financial), trust-o. +truth = ver-o. +try = (legally), jugx-i; (strive), pen-i; (attempt, test), prov-i. +tub = kuv-o. +tube = tub-o. +tuber = tuber-o. +Tuesday = mard-o. +tumbler = (for drinking), glas-o; (juggler), jxonglist-o. +tune = ari-o, melodi-o. +Turk = turk-o. +turkey = meleagr-o. +turn = (trans.), turn-i; (in a series), vic-o. +turnip = nap-o. +turnstile = gicxet-o. +twilight = krepusk-o. +twist = (trans.), tord-i. +twitter = pep-i. +two = (adj.), du (136). +tyrant = tiran-o. + + U. + +umbrella = ombrel-o. +uncle = onkl-o. +unanimous = unuvocx-a, unuanim-a. +uncommon = kurioz-a, nekomun-a. +unconcerned = indiferent-a; nezorgem-a. +under = (prep.), sub (121, 160). +underline = substrek-i. +understand = kompren-i. +undertake = entrepren-i; -- initiative work, klopod-i. +undeviating = rekt-a. +unfailing = (adv.), nepr-e, cert-e. +unimportant = indiferent-a, negrav-a. +union = unuig-o, unuigx-o, kunig-o, kunigx-o. +universe = univers-o. +university = universitat-o. +until = (prep.), gxis (89) +up = (adv.), supre, supren (121); -- to, gxis (46). +upholster = rembur-i. +upper = supr-a. +upon = (prep.), sur (160). +upright = just-a; (vertical), vertikal-a. +urge = urgx-i, insiste pet-i. +upset = (trans.), renvers-i. +utmost = ekstrem-a, ebl-o (161, see also 162). + + V. + +(be) vacant = vak-i, esti neokupata. +vacillate = sxanceligx-i. +vagabond = vagist-o. +vain = (futile), van-a; senutil-a, senfrukt-a; + (proud), vant-a, fier-a; in --, vane. +valise = valiz-o. +valley = val-o. +value = (appraise), taks-i; (like), sxat-i; have the -- of, valor-i. +vanquish = venk-i. +vapor = vapor-o. +varied = divers-a, malsimil-a. +vase = vaz-o. +vast = vast-a, grand-a. +vaunt = fanfaron-i, vantparol-i. +veal = bovidajx-o (207, c). +vegetable = (edible), legom-o; (plant growth), vegetajx-o, + kreskajx-o (227, a). +vegetarian = vegetar-a. +vegetate = veget-i. +veil = vual-o. +vein = vejn-o. +velvet = velur-o. +veranda = verand-o. +verify = konstat-i, kontrol-i. +vermicelli = vermicxel-o. +verse = vers-o; (poesy), poezi-o. +vertical = vertikal-a. +very (very much) = (adv.), tre, tre multe; (adj.), sam-a, + ident-a, (intensive) mem (219). +vex = cxagren-i. +vibrate = (intrans.), vibr-i. +vice = (wickedness), malvirt-o; (prefix), vic-. +vie = konkur-i. +village = vilagx-o. +vindication = apologi-o. +vinegar = vinagr-o. +violet = viol-o. +violin = violon-o. +virtue = virt-o. +visage = vizagx-o. +visit = vizit-i. +vivid = hel-a. +voice = vocx-o. +volume = (book), volum-o; (of a body), volumen-o. +vote = vocxdon-i, balot-i. +vowel = vokal-o. +voyage = vojagx-i. + + W. + +wade = vad-i. +waffle = vafl-o. +wager = vet-i. +wages = salajr-o. +wait = (wait for), atend-i; -- on, serv-i. +waiter = (in restaurant, etc.), kelner-o. +waist = tali-o; --coat, vesxt-o +wake = (trans.), vek-i. +walk = marsx-i; (for pleasure), promen-i; (of park, etc.), ale-o; + side--, trotuar-o. +wall = mur-o. +waltz = vals-i. +wander = vag-i. +want = (need), bezon-i; (desire), dezir-i, vol-i; + (be lacking), mank-i; (extremity), mizereg-o. +war = milit-i. +wardrobe = (garments), vestar-o; (furniture), sxrank-o, vestosxrank-o. +warehouse = magazen-o. +warm = varm-a; make --, varmig-i, hejt-i. +warn = avert-i; (give notice), aviz-i, antauxsciig-i. +wash = lav-i. +waste = (prodigality), malsxpar-o; (refuse), forjxetajx-o; + (desert), dezert-o. +watch = (look at), rigardad-i; (timepiece), posxhorlogx-o; + -- over, gard-i. +water = akv-o; -- color, akvarel-o; --fall, kaskad-o. +wave = ond-o; (flutter, brandish), flirt-i, sving-i. +wax = vaks-o. +way = (manner), manier-o; (custom), kutim-o; (method), metod-o; + (means), rimed-o; (road), voj-o; -- in, enirejo; + this --, any--, etc., see table, 235. +we = (pronoun), ni (32, 37). +wear = port-i; -- out, eluz-i. +(be) wearied = enu-i. +weather = veter-o; --cock, ventoflag-o. +weave = teks-i; (plait), plekt-i. +Wednesday = merkred-o. +week = semajn-o. +weep = plor-i. +weigh = (trans.), pes-i; (intrans.), (be heavy), pez-i; + (meditate upon), pripens-i (264, c). +welcome = bonven-i; bone akcept-i; you are --, ("no thanks needed"), + estas nenio, volonte farite. +well = (healthy), san-a; (for water), put-o; (adv.), bon-e; + (interjection), nu (273), bon-e; -- informed, kler-a; + -- nigh (adv.), preskaux. +west = okcident-o. +wet = malsekig-i, tremp-i. +whale = balen-o. +what = (pronoun), kio (233, 234); (pronominal adj.), kiu (106, 146); + -- kind, -- way, -- time, etc., see table, 235. +wheat = tritik-o. +wheel = rad-o. +when = (adv.), kiam (125, 155); (while), dum (96). +where = (adv.), kie (118, 151); --fore, kial (129), tial (78). +whether = (conj.), cxu (30, 66, a). +which = (pronoun), kio (233, 234); (pronoun and adj.), kiu (106, 146); + -- way, -- kind, etc. see table, 235. +while = (prep.), dum (120, 159); (conj.), dum (96); + (concessive), kvankam; a --, iom da tempo. +whip = vip-i. +whistle = fajf-i; (hiss), sibl-i. +white = blank-a; whitish, dubeblank-a. +who = (pronoun), kiu (106, 143); whose, kies (107, 147). +whole = (entire), tut-a. +why = (adv.), kial (129), pro kio. +wicket = gicxet-o. +wide = largx-a; make --, plilargxig-i, etend-i. +widow = vidvin-o; widower, vidv-o. +wig = peruk-o. +wild = sovagx-a. +(be) willing = vol-i. +willingly = volont-e. +wilt = velk-i. +wind = vent-o, survolv-i; (twist), tord-i; (a watch), strecx-i. +winding = tord-a. +window = fenestr-o; ticket --, gicxet-o. +wine = vin-o. +winter = vintr-o. +wipe = visx-i. +wise = sagx-a. +wish = vol-i, dezir-i. +witch = sorcxistin-o; --craft, sorcx-o. +with = (prep.), kun (70, 76, 120, 159, 160); (by means of), per (64); + (agent of the passive), de (169); je (260); + -- regard to, rilate (266); --draw, elir-i, forir-i; + (= having), havante (222). +wither = velk-i. +without = (prep.), sen (248). +(give) witness = atest-i. +witty = sprit-a. +woe = malgxoj-o; (interjection), ve (273). +wolf = lup-o. +wonder = mir-i. +woo = amindum-i. +wood = lign-o. +wool = lan-o. +word = vort-o; (spoken), parol-o. +work = labor-i; (of machinery), funkci-i; + (literary composition), verk-o. +world = mond-o. +worm = verm-o. +worship = ador-i; (divine service), Diserv-o. +(be) worth = valor-i. +worthy = ind-a (154). +wound = vund-i. +wreath = girland-o. +wrestle = barakt-i. +wretch = fripon-o, kanajl-o; --ed, mizer-a, acx-a (272). +wrinkle = sulket-o, faldet-o. +write = skrib-i; (books, articles, music), verk-i. +wrong = malprav-a, erar-a, maljust-a. + + Y. + +yawn = osced-i; (open), fendigx-i. +year = jar-o. +yearn = sopir-i; dezireg-i. +yellow = flav-a; --ish, dubeflav-a. +yes = (adv.), jes (171). +yesterday = (adv.), hieraux (93, 171); day before --, antaux-hieraux. +yet = (adv.), ankoraux; jam; (conj.), tamen. +yoke = jug-o. +you = (pronoun), vi (32, 37, 39); see also oni (54). +young = jun-a; (offspring), id-o (207). + + Z. + +zeal = fervor-o. +zenith = zenit-o. +zero = nul-o. +zigzag = zigzag-o. +zinc = zink-o. +zone = zon-o. +zoology = zoologi-o. + + + + INDEX. + +The references are to sections, unless the page (p.) is given. The +following abbreviations are used: ace. = accusative; adj. = adjective; +adv. = adverb; expr. = expressed; ftn. = footnote; inf. = infinitive; +intrans. = intransitive; prep. = preposition; trans. = transitive. For +Esperanto words whose use or meaning is specially explained, references +are given in the Vocabulary. + + A. + +Abbreviations, 286; of ordinals, p. 107, ftn. +Abstract nouns, 202. +Accent, 8; of elided word, 280, b. +Accompaniment, 70; distinguished from instrumentality and opposition, + p. 49, ftn. +Accordance, expr. by "laux", 191. +Active voice, participles of, 108, 119, 152; tenses of, see Tenses; + synopsis of, 267. +Accusative, ending, 23; of adj., 24; of pronoun, 37; of adv., 69, 121; + of direction, 46, 108; of measure, 139; of time, 91; distinguished + from temporal adv., 94; with temporal adv., 93; when avoided, 92; + after adv., 266; with intrans. verb, 264; with nouns expressing + motion, 263; in composition, p. 132, ftn.; instead of prepositional + phrase, 265, 266; not used after prep., 36, ("al, gxis, tra") 46, + ("preter") p. 139, ftn.; not used with article, 25; not used with + predicates, 25, 210; "cognate," see acc. with intrans. verbs, 264, + a. +Adjectives, defined, 12; ending of, 12; formation of, 116, (from adv.) + 171, (from prep.) 159; attributive, 13; acc. of, 24; plural of, + 17; agreement, (with nouns) 17, 21, 24, (with pronouns) 33, (with + words connected by "nek") 31; comparison of, 74; possessive, 43, + (pronominal use of) 45; predicate, 19, (after trans, verbs) 210; + use of, distinguished from adv. with "da", 103; demonstrative, 65; + distributive, 177; indefinite, 208; interrogative, 112; negative, + 224; reflexive possessive, 44; relative, 150; causative verbs from + roots of, 214, a; intrans. verbs from roots of, 232, c; cardinal, + 136; ordinal, 149. +Adverbs, defined, 66; primary, 66; derived, 79; (from prep.) 120; + demonstrative, ("tie") 68, ("tiam") 73, ("tial") 78, ("tiel") 88, + ("tiom") 104; interrogative, ("kie") 118, ("kiam") 123, ("kial") + 129, ("kiel") 134, ("kiom") 140, ("cxu") 30, p. 38, ftn.; relative, + ("kie") 151, ("kiam") 155, ("kiel") 156, p. 170, ftn., ("kiom") 164; + distributive, ("cxie") 182, ("cxiam") iS7, ("cxial") 188, ("cxiel") + 193, ("cxiom") 194; indefinite, ("ie") 209, ("iam") 212, ("ial") + 213, ("iel") 216, ("iom") 217; negative, ("nenie") 225, ("neniam") + 226, ("nenial") 229, ("neniel") 230, ("neniom") 231, ("ne") 27, + 66, a; generalizing, ("ajn") 236; numeral, 158; position of, 66, + a; expressing direction of motion, 69, 121; with expressions of + time, 93; distinguishing from acc. of time, 94; with acc., 266; with + prep., 87; calling attention, ("jen") 228; causative verbs from, + 214, c; intrans. verbs from, 232, d; as interjections, p. 216, ftn.; + derivation of words from primary, 171. +Adverbial clauses, p. 168, ftn.; participle, 222, (translating + "without") p. 193, ftn. +Adversative conjunctions, p. 32, ftn. +Advice, expression of, 257, 259. +Affectionate diminutives, 283 (also 198, and ftn., p. 221). +Affirmation, 66. +Affixes, see Prefixes, Suffixes. +Agency, expr. by "de", 169. +Agreement, of attributive adj., 17, (with acc.) 24; of predicate noun + and adj., 21; of adj. with two or more nouns, 17; of adj. with words + connected by "nek", 31; of adj. with pronouns, 33; of participle, + 108; of nouns in apposition, 48. +Alphabet, I. +Anticipation, expr. by clause, 97; by inf. with prep., 98. +Aoristic tenses, explained, p. 78, ftn.; conjugation of, (present) 14, + (past) 35, (future) 55, (conditional) 241, (imperative), 254. +Apposition, 48. +Argumentative conjunction, p. 32, ftn. +Article, definite, 11; invariable, 18, 25; for possessive adj., 47; + with possessive adj., 45; generic, 201, 218, b, elision of, 280, a; + no indefinite, II. +Assumption, defined, 240; implied, 244. +Augmentatives, 122. +Auxiliary verbs, 109. + + C. + +Cardinal numerals, 136; formation of, 142. +Case, see Accusative, Dative, Nominative, Possessive. +Causative verbs, 214. +Cause, expr. by clause, 83; by "pro", 86; by "ke", p. 222, ftn. +Characteristic, expr. by "kun", 76; by adverbial participle, 222. + Clauses, defined, p. 34, ftn.; adverbial, p. 168, ftn.; causal, + 83; of anticipation, 97; of duration of time, 96; of imaginative + comparison, 250; of purpose, 262; of result, 105; subordinate + imperative, 259. +"Cognate acc.," see acc. with intrans. verbs, 264. +Collective nouns, 126. +Collective sense given by use of "da", 103. +Commands, expression of, 256; in subordinate clause, 259. +Complement of prep., 36. +Complementary inf., 29. +Comparison, of adj., 74; of adv., 79; of words expressing quantity, 81; + containing "ol", 82; "ju" and "des" in, 84. +Composition, see Compounds. +Compound tenses, explained, 109; of impersonal verbs, 179; conjugation + of, see Tenses. +Compounds, dependent, 176; descriptive, 167; possessive, 184. +Conclusion (of conditions) defined, 240; (of letters), + see Correspondence. +Concrete nouns, formation of, 227. +Conditional mood, 241; compound tenses of, 242; in contrary to fact + conditions, 246; in less vivid conditions, 243; independent use of, + 244; of "devi", 247; conditional sentences, see Conditions. +Conditions, defined, 240; contrary to fact, 246; factual, 240; less + vivid, 243; vivid, p. 189, ftn.; summary of, 249. +Conjugation, 34; synopsis of, 267; of tenses, see Tenses. +Conjunctions, defined, 52; coordinating, 52; subordinating, 53, (not + omitted) p. 34, ftn.; "aux", p. 32, ftn.; "kaj", 26, p. 32, ftn.; + "ke", (in indirect statements), 53, (in causal clauses) 83, p. + 222, ftn.; (in result clause) 105, (in purpose clause) 262, (in + subordinate imperative clause) 259; "kvazaux", 250; "nek", 31, p. 32, + ftn.; "se", 240; "sed", p. 32, ftn.; "tamen", p. 32, ftn.; "do", p. + 32, ftn.; see p. 110, ftn. +Connection, expr. by "de", 49; indefinite, expr. by "je", 260. +Consent, expression of, 257, (in subordinate clauses) 259. +Consonants, combinations of, 6; pronunciation of, 3, names of, 4. +Contrary to fact conditions, 246. +Coordinating conjunctions, 52. +Copulative conjunctions, p. 32, ftn. +Correlative words, 235. +Correspondence, 278. + + D. + +Dates, expr. by acc., 91; expr. by "antaux", 90; expr. by prep., 89; + on letters, see Correspondence, 278. +"Dative," ethical, of reference, of separation, p. 197, ftn. +Definite quantity, nouns of, followed by "de", 100. +Degree, advs. of, 66, ("tiel") 88, ("kiel") 134, 156; highest + possible, 162; see also Comparison. +Deliberation, expression of, 257, (in subordinative clause) 259. +Demonstrative, pronoun, ("tiu") 56, ("cxi tiu") 60, ("tio, cxi tio") + 233; adjective, 65; adv., see Adverbs. +Dependent compounds, 176. +Derivation, of adv., 79, (from prep.) 120; of words from prep., 159; of + words from primary adv., 171. +Descriptive compounds, 167. +Diminutives, 198; affectionate, 283. +Diphthongs, 5. +Direct object, defined, 23; inf. as, see Complementary inf., 29; clause + as, 53, 259; of complementary inf., 29; of participle, 108; of prep., + see Complement, 36. +Direction, expr. by acc. (of noun) 46, 263, (of adv.) 121. +Disjunctive conjunctions, p. 32, ftn. +Distributive, prep., see "po", 175; pronoun, ("cxiu") 173, ("cxio") 233; + adj., 177; adv., see Adverbs. +Double letters, 6, e. + + E. + +Elision, 280. +Emphasis, by "ecx", 66; by "ja", 215. +Emphatic negation, 27. +Ending, of acc., 23; of adj., 12; of adv., 79; of noun, 10; of plural, + 16; of inf., 28; of indicative, 14, 35, 55; of conditional, 241, of + imperative, 254; of participle, see Participles. +"Ethical dative," p. 197, ftn. +Exclamations, 115; use of "je" in, 260. +Exhortation, 255. +Expedience, expressions of, 259. + + F. + +Factual conditions, 240. +Feminine nouns, formation of, 59. +Formation, of words, 116; of opposites, 67, of feminines, 59; with + "-ig-" and "-igx-", 239; from primary words, 159, 171. +Fractions, 166. +Frequentative verbs, 218, a. +Future participle, (active) 152, (passive) 199. +Future tense, 55, (progressive) 114, (passive) 183, periphrastic, 153, + 200. +Future perfect tense, 148, (passive) 196. + + G. + +Generic article, 201. 218, b. +Generalizing adv. "ajn", 236. + + H. + +Highest degree possible, 162. + + I. + +Imaginative comparison, 250. +Imperative mood, 254; in commands and prohibitions, 256; in resolve and + exhortation, 255, in subordinate clauses, 259;. less peremptory uses + of, 257; to express purpose, 262. +Imperfect tense, 113, (passive) 178. +Impersonal verbs, 50, compound tenses of, 179; modifiers of, 141. +Impersonally used verbs, explained, 141; modifiers of, 141. +Inchoative verbs, 232, a. +Indefinite connection, expr. by "je", 260. +Indefinite, pronoun, ("iu") 203, ("io") 233; (personal) 54; adj., 208; + advs., see Adverbs; prep., 260; suffix, 268; quantity, expressions + of, with "da", 99, 101. +Independent use of conditional mood, 244. +Indicative mood, defined, 241; tenses of, see Synopsis, 267. +"Indirect object," see "al". +Indirect quotation, tenses in, 58; statements in, 53; questions in, + p. 38, ftn.; p. 170, ftn. +Infinitive, defined, 28, 241; ending of, 28; complementary, 29; as + subject, 29; modifiers of, 130; synopsis of, 267; with prep., 98; + replaced by noun, 218, b. +Instruction, (orders), requests for, 257, 259. +Instrumentality, expr. by "per", 64; distinguished from accompaniment, + p. 49, ftn. +Instruments, formation of names of, 63. +Intensive pronoun, "mem", 219. +Intention, expr. by clause, 259. +Interjections, 273. +International money system, 285; weights and measures, 284. +Interrogation, 30, 66, a. +Interrogative, pronoun, ("kiu") 106, (kio) 233; adj., 112; advs., + see Adverbs. +Intransitive verbs, defined, 22; no passive, p. 122, ftn.; from adj. + roots, 232, c; from noun roots, advs., preps., suffixes, prefixes, + 232, d; from trans, verb roots, 232, b, (table of), 279. +Introductory particle, not needed, 50, 51. +Invariability, of article, 18; of "mem", 219; of verb, 18; of + cardinals, 136. +Inversion, not needed in questions, 30. + + L. + +Less peremptory uses of imperative, 257. +Less vivid conditions, 243. +Letters, names of, 4; double, pronunciation of, 6, e; see also + Correspondence, 278. +Limitation of third personal pronoun, 42. + + M. + +Manner, expr. by "kun", 76; expr. by. "per", p. 53, ftn.; by + adverbial participle, 222; advs. of, see Adverbs. +Material, expression of, 197. +Means, expression of, 64. +Measure, ace. of, 139; expr. by "je", 260. +Measures, weights and, 284. +Metric system, 284. +Modifiers of impersonally used verbs, 141. +Money system, The international, 285. +Mood, defined, 241; inf., see Infinitive; conditional, 241; imperative, + 254; indicative, see 267; in conditions, see Conditions. +Moral obligation, 247. +Motive or reason, advs. of, see Adverbs; expr. by clause, 83; expr. by + prep., 86. + + N. + +Names, of letters, 4; orthography of proper, 128. +Necessity, expression of, 259. +Negative, pronoun, ("neniu") 220; ("nenio") 233; adj., 224; + advs., see Adverbs; conjunction, 31. +"Nominative absolute," how rendered, p. 169, ftn. +Nominative case, ending of, (for nouns) 10, (for adj.) 12; of predicate + noun and adj., 25, 210; with prep., 36, ("al", "gxis", "tra") 46. +Noun, defined, 10, ending of, 10, plural of, 16; acc. of, 23; elision + of, 280, b; feminine, 59; numeral, 157; participial, 205; predicate, + 20, 211; possessive case of, 49; expressing motion, followed by + acc., 263; expressing quantity, followed by "da", 99, by "de", 100; + replacing inf., 218, b; replacing participial phrase, p. 193, ftn.; + from adv., 171; from prep., 159. +Noun roots, causative verbs from, 214, c; intrans. verbs from, 232, d. +Number, see Plural. +Numeral nouns, 157; advs., 158. +Numerals, cardinal, 136; formation of, 142; fractional, 166; ordinal, + 149; abbreviation of, p. 107, ftn.; followed by "el", 138. + + O. + +Object, see Direct object, Indirect object, Complement. +Obligation, 247, (moral) 247. +Opposites, formation of, 67; of "pli" and "plej", 80. +Opposition, distinguished from accompaniment, p. 49, ftn. +Order, of word endings, p. 10, ftn.; see also Position. +Ordinal numerals, 149; advs., 158; abbreviation of, p. 107, ftn. +Orthography, of proper nouns, 128. + + P. + +Part of the whole, expression of, (after noun) 99, (after adv.) 101. +Participial nouns, 205; advs., 222. +Participle, defined, 108; agreement of, 108; adverbial, 222, + (translating "without") p. 193, ftn.; present, 108, (passive) 165; + past, 119, (passive) 189; future, 152, (passive) 199. +Particle, introductory, not needed, 50, 51. +Partitive construction, p. 74, ftn. +Passive voice, agent of, 169; participles of, see Participles; tenses + of, see Tenses; of "-ig-" formations, 239; distinguished from + "-igx-" formations, 232, b. +Past tense, 35, (passive) see Imperfect; past participle, see + Participles. +Past periphrastic future, 153, (passive) 200. +Past inception, present action with, 131. +Peremptory commands and prohibitions, 256, 259. +Perfect tense, 124, (passive) 190; perfect participle, see Past + participle. +Periphrastic futures, 153, (passive) 200. +Permission, expression of, 269. +Perplexity, expression of, 257, 259. +Personal pronouns, 32; acc. of, 37; indefinite, 54; reflexive, 39, 40; + limitation of third personal, 42; position of unemphatic, 274. +Place, expr. by "cxe", 125; advs. of, see Adverbs; expr. by "-ej-", + III; 128. +Pluperfect tense, 135, (passive), 195. +Plural, of nouns, 16; of pronouns, 56, 106, 203, 173, 220; of adj., 16; + of "unu", 137; none of article, 18; none of pronouns ending in "-o", + 233. +Position, of attributive adj., 13; of adv., 66, a; of emphatic negative, + 27; of unemphatic pronoun, 274; of interrogative adv., 30. +Possession, expr. by "de", 49. +Possessive, adjective, 43; reflexive, 44; article for, 47; ftn., p. 221. +Possessive case of nouns, 49; of pronouns, ("ties") 62, ("kies") 107, + 147, ("cxies") 174, ("ies") 204, ("nenies") 221; see also Possessive + adjective, 43. +Possessive compounds, 184. +"Possessive pronouns," p. 24, ftn. +Possibility, expression of, 270. +Predicate, adj., 19, agreement of, 21; after trans, verbs, 210; noun, + 20; agreement of, 21; after trans. verb, 211; clause as, 259. +Prefixes, causative verbs from, 214, c; intrans. verbs from, 232, d; + prep. as, 160, 248; adverb as, 71, 167, a, interjection as, p. 216, + ftn.; "bo-", 277; "dis-", 245; "duon-", 277; "ek-", 206; "eks-", 281; + "ge-", 271; "mal-", 67; "pra-", 282; "re-", 223. +Prepositions, defined, 36; with inf., 98; with adv., 87; with other + preps., 87; case use with, 36, 46; expressing time relations, 89; as + prefixes, 160; word derivation from, 159; advs. from, 120; causative + verbs from, 214, c; intrans. verbs from, 232, d; making intrans. + verbs trans., 264, b, c; see also references in Vocabulary. +Prepositional phrase, acc. instead of, 265, 266. +Present action with past inception, 131. +Present periphrastic future, 153, (passive) 200. +Present participle, 108, (passive) 165. +Present tense, 14, (progressive) 110, (passive) 168. +Primary adverbs, defined, 66; derivation of words from, 171. +Probability, expression of, 270. +Progressive tenses, present, 110, future, 114; passive, 200. +Prohibition, expression of, 256, 259. +Pronominal adjective, possessive adj. as, 45; pronoun as, ("tiu") + 57, 60, ("kiu") 106, 146, ("cxiu") 173, ("iu") 203, ("neniu") 220, + ("ambaux") 238. +Pronouns, defined, 32; agreement with, 33; personal, 32; indefinite + personal, 54; reflexive, 38, 39, 40, (in composition) p. 132, ftn.; + possessive, p. 24, ftn.; possessive form of, see Possessive case; + limitation of third personal, 42; position of unemphatic, 274; + correlation of predicative or relative, 234; followed by "el", + 173, p. 115, ftn.; series in "-o", 233; demonstrative, 56, 60, + 233; distributive, 173, 233; indefinite, 203, 233; interrogative, + 106, 233; negative, 220, 233; relative, 146; 233; summary, 235; + "ambaux", 238; intensive, 219. +Proper nouns, orthography of, 128. +Protestations, use of "je" in, 260. +Proximity, expr. by "cxi", 60, 66, p. 229, ftn. +Purpose, expr. by inf., 98; by imperative, 262; by prep., 95. + + Q. + +Quantity, construction with nouns expressing, 99, 100; construction with + advs. expressing, 101; advs. of, ("tiom") 104, ("kiom") 140, 164, + ("cxiom") 194, ("iom") 217, ("neniom") 231; comparison of advs. + expressing, 81. +Questions, 30; indirect, p. 38, ftn., p. 170, ftn.; of deliberation, + perplexity, or for instructions, 257, 259. +Quotations, indirect, 53, 58. + + R. + +Reciprocal expressions, 180. +Reference, expr. by "al", 251. +Reflexive pronouns, of first and second persons, 39; of third person, + 40; with substantival inf., 130. +Reflexive possessive adjective, 44. +Reflexive verbs, 41; distinguished from verbs in "-igx-", 232, b. +Relative pronoun, ("kiu") 146, ("kio") 233; not omitted, p. 106, ftn. +Relative adjective, 150; relative adverb, see Adverbs. +Relative clause, see 146, 233, (temporal) 155, (of manner) 156, + (quantitative) 164. +Request, expression of, 257, 259; for instructions, 257, 259. +Resolve, expression of, 255. +Result, clauses of, 105. +Root, defined, p. 42, ftn. +Route, expression of, 191. + + S. + +Salutations, 115. +Separation, expr. by "de", 170; expr. by "al", 252; by "for", 71; by + "dis-", 245. +Situation, expr. by "cxe", 125; by adverbial participle, 222. +Source, expr. by "de", 170. +Statements, indirect, 53; tenses in, 58. +Subject, defined, 15; preceded by verb, 51; inf. as, 130; clause as, + 141, 259; of adverbial participle, 222. +Subordinate clause, defined, 53; imperative in, 259, 262; conditional + in, see Conditions, 243, 246. +Subordinating conjunctions, "ke", 53, 105, 259 ("tial ke") 83, p. 222, + ftn.; ("por ke") 262; (not omitted) p. 34, ftn.; "se", 240; + "kvazaux", 250; "cxu", p. 38, ftn. +Substantive, defined, p. 71, ftn.; inf. as, 98, 130; clause as, 53, 259. +Substitution, expr. by prep., p. 63, ftn.; expr. by prep. with inf., 98; + of noun for inf., 218, b, p. 193, ftn. +Suffixes, causative verbs from, 214, c; intrans. verbs from, 232, d; + "-ad-", 218; "-acx-", 272; "-ajx-", 227; "-an-", 145; "-ar-", 126; + "-cxj-", 283; "-ebl-", 161; "-ec-", 202; "-eg-", 122; "-ej-", 111; + "-em-", 192; "-er-", 276; "-estr-", 253; "-et-", 198; "-id-" 207; + "-ig-", 214, 239, 275; "-igx-", 232, 239, 279; "-il-", 63; "-in-", + 59; "-ind-", 154; "-ing-", 237; "-ist-", 172, p. 154, ftn.; "-nj-", + 283; "-obl-", 186; "-on-", 166; "-op-", 261; "-uj-", 181; "-ul-", + 132; "-um-", 268. +Summary of conditions, 249. +Superlatives, (adj.) 74, (adv.) 79; followed by "el", 75. +Syllables, 7. +Synonyms, apparent, ("diri: paroli: rakonti") 77, ("koni: scii") 117, + ("tempo; fojo") 127, ("logxi: vivi") 133, ("antikva: maljuna: + malnova") p. 128, ftn., 67, ("cxiu: tuta") p. 130, ftn., + ("indiferenta: nezorga") p. 162, ftn., ("provi: peni: jugxi") p. 228, + ftn., ("gxuste: juste: jxus") p. 198, ftn., ("ankoraux: jam") p. 124, + ftn., p. 112, ftn., ("trovigxi: sin trovi: kusxi: sidi)" p. 217, ftn. +Synopsis of the verb, 267. +System, correlative, 235; metric, 284; of money, 285. + + T. + +Temporal clauses, 96, 155. +Temporal adverbs, 66, ("tiam") 73, ("kiam") 123, 155, ("cxiam") 187, + ("iam") 212, ("neniam") 226, ("jam") p. 124, ftn. ("ankoraux") p. + 112, ftn., ("jxus") p. 116, ftn. +Tenses, aoristic, p. 78, ftn.; compound, 109; (of impersonal verbs) 179; + in indirect quotations, 58; in conditions, 249; of inf., 267; + of conditional, 241, 242; of imperative, 254; present, 14, + (progressive) 110, (passive) 168, past, 35, (passive) 178; future, + 55, (progressive) 114; (passive) 183; imperfect, 113, (passive) + 178; perfect, 124, (passive) 190; pluperfect, 135, (passive) 195; + future perfect, 148, (passive) 190; periphrastic, 153, (passive) 200; + synopsis of all, 267. +Terminations, see Endings. +Terms of address, 163; affectionate, 283, p. 221, ftn. +Time, of day, 185; expr. by prep., 89; expr. by acc., 91; expr. by + clause, 96, 155; expr. by adverbial participle, 222; advs. of, see + Temporal adverbs. +Titles, 163; use of "mosxto", 258. +Transitive verbs, defined, 22; formed by "-ig-", 214; from intrans. + roots, 264, b, c; list of some, 275. + + U. + +Unemphatic words, position of, (negative) 27, (pronoun) 274. + + V. + +Verbal nouns in "-ad-", 218, b, p. 193, ftn. +Verbal roots, causative verbs from, 214, b. +Verbs, mood of, 241; invariable, 18; causative, 214; frequentative, + 218, a; inchoative, 232, a; impersonal, 50; reflexive, 41; trans., + defined, 22; trans, from intrans. roots, 275; intrans., defined, + 22; intrans. from trans. roots, 232, b, 279; from prep., 159; from + adv., 171; conjugation of, 34, (synopsis) 267, preceding the subject, + 51; as interjection, p. 216, ftn.; implied, (in comparisons) 82, + 156, 250; (in salutations) 115, (in exclamations) 115, 228; with + prepositional phrase containing "da", 102. +Vivid conditions, p. 189, ftn. +Vowels, pronunciation of, 2. + + W. + +Way, expression of, (manner) 76, (route) 191. +Weights and measures, 284. +Wish, expression of, 257, 259. +Words, correlative, 235; formation of, 116; from prepositions, 159; + from primary advs., 171; composition of, see Compounds; order of, + in question, 30; see also Position. + + + + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO *** + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will +be renamed. + +Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright +law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, +so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the +United States without permission and without paying copyright +royalties. 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