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| author | www-data <www-data@mail.pglaf.org> | 2026-02-04 09:06:44 -0800 |
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| committer | www-data <www-data@mail.pglaf.org> | 2026-02-04 09:06:44 -0800 |
| commit | 86a4d7ba20d96581621045cb153c01ce9081da6c (patch) | |
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diff --git a/77859-h/77859-h.htm b/77859-h/77859-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e7556e2 --- /dev/null +++ b/77859-h/77859-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,10206 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html> +<html lang="en"> +<head> + <meta charset="UTF-8"> + <title> + The Starry Skies: | Project Gutenberg + </title> + <link rel="icon" href="images/cover.jpg" type="image/x-cover"> + <style> + +body { + margin-left: 20%; + margin-right: 20%; +} + + h1,h2 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; +} + +h1 {font-weight: normal; + font-size: 250%; + margin-top: 1em; + margin-bottom: 1em; + word-spacing: 0.3em; + } + +h2 {font-weight: normal; + font-size: 130%; + margin-top: 1em; + word-spacing: 0.3em; + letter-spacing: 0.2em; + } + +p { + margin-top: .51em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .49em; +} + + +.p2 {margin-top: 2em;} +.p3 {margin-top: 2.5em;} + + +hr { + width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: 33.5%; + margin-right: 33.5%; + clear: both; +} + +hr.full {width: 95%; margin-left: 2.5%; margin-right: 2.5%;} + +hr.r5 {width: 15%; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 42.5%; margin-right: 42.5%;} +hr.r65 {width: 30%; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 35%; margin-right: 35%;} + +div.chapter {page-break-before: always;} +h2.nobreak {page-break-before: avoid;} + +table { + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; +} + +.tdl {text-align: left;} +.tdr {text-align: right;} +.tdc {text-align: center;} +.tdcp {text-align: center; + padding-top: .5em;} + +.pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: small; + text-align: right; + font-style: normal; + font-weight: normal; + font-variant: normal; + text-indent: 0; +} /* page numbers */ + + +.blockquot { + margin-left: 5%; + margin-right: 10%; +} + +.caption {font-size: 80%; + text-align: left; + padding-left: 2em;} + + +.xxlarge {font-size: 220%;} +.up {font-size: 160%;} +.xlarge {font-size: 140%;} +.large {font-size: 130%;} +.bit {font-size: 110%;} +.less {font-size: 90%;} +.more {font-size: 80%;} +.mid {font-size: 60%;} + +.c {text-align: center;} + +.sp {word-spacing: 0.3em;} + +.lsp {letter-spacing: 0.2em;} + +.ph2 {text-align: center; text-indent: 0em; + font-size: 180%; + margin-top: 1em; + word-spacing: 0.3em;} + +.sans {font-family: sans-serif;} + +.r {text-align: right; + margin-right: 2em;} + + +.bbox {border: 2px solid; + padding: 1.3em;} + +.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + +.allsmcap {font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase;} + + +/* Images */ + +img { + max-width: 100%; + height: auto; +} +img.w100 {width: 100%;} + + +.figcenter { + margin: auto; + text-align: center; + page-break-inside: avoid; + max-width: 100%; +} + +.figcenter1 { + padding-top: 4em; + margin: auto; + text-align: center; + page-break-inside: avoid; + max-width: 100%; +} + +/* Footnotes */ + +.footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} + +.footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 75%; text-align: right;} + +.fnanchor { + vertical-align: super; + font-size: .8em; + text-decoration: + none; +} + +/* Poetry */ +.poetry-container {display: flex; justify-content: center;} +.poetry-container {text-align: center;} +.poetry {text-align: left; margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 5%; font-size:90%;} +.poetry .stanza {margin: 1em auto;} +.poetry .verse {text-indent: -3em; padding-left: 3em;} + +/* Transcriber's notes */ +.transnote {background-color: #E6E6FA; + color: black; + font-size:small; + padding:0.5em; + margin-bottom:5em; + margin-top:3em; + font-family:sans-serif, serif; + border: .3em double gray; + padding: 1em; +} + +.poetry .indent0 {text-indent: -3em;} + + </style> +</head> +<body> +<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 77859 ***</div> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/cover.jpg" alt="cover"> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter1"> +<img src="images/fig1.jpg" alt="sun"> +<p class="caption"><i>Eclipse of the Sun.   Frontispiece.</i></p> +</div> + +<h1> +THE STARRY SKIES:</h1> + +<p class="c less">OR,</p> + +<p class="c p3 xlarge sp">FIRST LESSONS ON THE SUN, MOON<br> +AND STARS.</p> + +<p class="c less p3">BY</p> + +<p class="c large sp lsp"> +AGNES GIBERNE,</p> + + +<p class="c sp more">AUTHOR OF “AMONG THE STARS,” “SUN, MOON, AND STARS,”<br> +ETC.</p> + +<div class="figcenter1"> +<img src="images/fig2.jpg" alt="decoration"> +</div> + +<p class="c sp xlarge p3"><i>AMERICAN TRACT SOCIETY</i>,</p> + +<p class="c sp less"> +10 EAST 23D STREET, NEW YORK. +</p> +<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop"> + + + +<p class="c sp more"> +COPYRIGHT, 1894,<br> +AMERICAN TRACT SOCIETY. +</p> + + + +<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p class="ph2"><span class="smcap">Contents.</span></p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig3.jpg" alt="decoration"> +</div> + +<table> + +<tr> + <td class="tdcp" colspan="1"><a href="#c1">CHAPTER I.</a></td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdr"></td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdl">This Earth of Ours</td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdr"><span class="allsmcap">PAGE</span> 5</td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdcp" colspan="1"><a href="#c2">CHAPTER II.</a></td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdr"></td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Why Men Do Not Fall Off</td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdr">16</td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdcp" colspan="1"><a href="#c3">CHAPTER III.</a></td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdr"></td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdl">By Day and by Night</td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdr">27</td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdcp" colspan="1"><a href="#c4">CHAPTER IV.</a></td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdr"></td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdl">How the World Spins</td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdr">38</td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdcp" colspan="1"><a href="#c5">CHAPTER V.</a></td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdr"></td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdl">The Moon by Night</td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdr">49</td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdcp" colspan="1"><a href="#c6">CHAPTER VI.</a></td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdr"></td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdl">The Moon’s Changes</td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdr">61</td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdcp" colspan="1"><a href="#c7">CHAPTER VII.</a></td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdr"></td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdl">The Moon through a Telescope</td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdr">72</td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdcp" colspan="1"><a href="#c8">CHAPTER VIII.</a></td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdr"></td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdl">The Sun by Day</td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdr">82</td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdcp" colspan="1"><a href="#c9">CHAPTER IX.</a></td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdr"></td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Storms on the Sun</td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdr">90</td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdcp" colspan="1"><a href="#c10">CHAPTER X.</a></td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdr"></td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdl">How the World Journeys</td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdr">102</td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdcp" colspan="1"><a href="#c11">CHAPTER XI.</a></td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdr"></td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Other Worlds</td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdr">111</td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdcp" colspan="1"><a href="#c12">CHAPTER XII.</a></td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdr"></td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdl">What is Meant by an Eclipse</td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdr">124</td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdcp" colspan="1"><a href="#c13">CHAPTER XIII.</a></td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdr"></td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Mercury and Venus</td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdr">136</td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdcp" colspan="1"><a href="#c14">CHAPTER XIV.</a></td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdr"></td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdl">The Planet Mars</td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdr">147</td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdcp" colspan="1"><a href="#c15">CHAPTER XV.</a></td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdr"></td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdl">The Planet Jupiter</td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdr">158</td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdcp" colspan="1"><a href="#c16">CHAPTER XVI.</a></td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdr"></td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune</td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdr">166</td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdcp" colspan="1"><a href="#c17">CHAPTER XVII.</a></td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdr"></td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Long-Tailed Comets</td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdr">175</td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdcp" colspan="1"><a href="#c18">CHAPTER XVIII.</a></td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdr"></td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Little Meteors</td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdr">184</td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdcp" colspan="1"><a href="#c19">CHAPTER XIX.</a></td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdr"></td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdl">The Sun’s Kingdom</td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdr">191</td></tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdcp" colspan="1"><a href="#c20">CHAPTER XX.</a></td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdr"></td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdl">A Starry Universe</td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdr">200</td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdcp" colspan="1"><a href="#c21">CHAPTER XXI.</a></td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdr"></td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Star-Groups</td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdr">209</td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdcp" colspan="1"><a href="#c22">CHAPTER XXII.</a></td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdr"></td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Giant-Suns and Clusters</td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdr">217</td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdcp" colspan="1"><a href="#c23">CHAPTER XXIII.</a></td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdr"></td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdl">How to Study the Sky</td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdr">226</td></tr> + +</table> + +<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</span></p> + +<p class="c sp xxlarge" id="c1">THE STARRY SKIES.</p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig4.jpg" alt="decoration"> +</div> + +<h2>CHAPTER I.</h2> + +<p class="c sp">THIS EARTH OF OURS.</p> + + +<p><span class="smcap large">Once</span> upon a time—thus runs a certain tale—there +was a man who wanted to see what could +be found at the other end of the world.</p> + +<p>So he left his home behind him, and started +off to explore. He had a toilsome journey. He +wandered over wide plains; he climbed steep +mountains; he forded dangerous rivers; he +crossed stormy seas. Through weeks and +months, and even years, he kept straight on, +steadily on, patiently on, never turning to right +or to left. And at last, what do you think he +found?</p> + +<p>Was it a world of giants? Or a land of fairies? +Or a dark ocean, without any further +shore? Or a vast range of hills, reaching skyward? +Or a profound depth, going downward?</p> + +<p>He certainly must have found <i>something</i>, because +he came to the end of his journey and +travelled no more. He had no need to travel +any more. His task was done: the puzzle was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</span> +found out; and he had arrived at “the other end +of the world.”</p> + +<p>Only it was no “end” at all, but just the +very same spot from which he had started. For +he had actually found his way back to his own +old home again.</p> + +<p>Don’t you think he must have been rather +astonished? It was not at all what he had expected.</p> + +<p>Suppose that a spider, living in the middle of +a very big plain, were to make up his mind to +walk to the outside edge of that plain, and see +what might chance to be there. And suppose +that, having climbed little hillocks, and crossed +little brooks, trying always to keep steadily in +the same forward direction, he were to find himself +all at once back on the very same spot from +which he had first set forth!</p> + +<p>He would no doubt be a good deal surprised; +and if he had sense to think the matter over he +would see plainly that he had <i>not</i> managed, after +all, to keep going straight forward, but that he +must somehow have turned round without knowing +it and gone back to his starting point.</p> + +<p>The man in the story made no such mistake, +however. He did not turn round. He went +always on, and on, in exactly the same direction. +Yet in the end he found himself at home! +There is the curious part of the matter.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</span></p> + +<p>If the world were a flat plain, like the top of a +large round table, the man could not have done +this. It would be out of the question. He might +have turned round and walked back; he could +not have walked steadily onward and onward, +farther and farther away from his home, only to +find himself suddenly there again. The thing +would be impossible.</p> + +<p>Whether any living man ever took such a +journey round the world is more than doubtful. +But I can assure you of this: that if any man +ever <i>did</i> take such a journey it would end just +as that man’s journey is said to have ended. +By keeping straight forward, always in one direction, +and by going on long enough, he would +in time get back to his own house again.</p> + +<p>How could he? That is the question. If a +spider were to walk on for ever, straight across a +flat plain, he would never get back to his starting-point.</p> + +<p>But the world on which we live is not a flat +plain. For a long while men believed that it +was; and they made a mistake.</p> + +<p>Let us think again of a spider—one of those +tiny red spiders often found in a garden—and +let us suppose this wee red spider to be standing +on a huge round globe, as large as a house. Suppose +that the spider, having very short sight, +fancied himself to be on a flat table and resolved<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</span> +to take a walk to the further end, to see what he +might find there.</p> + +<p>You and I, looking on, would know there was +no <i>end</i> to the globe: but the spider could not +guess this. He would walk on and on, in a +straight line, believing himself always to be on a +flat surface. And if he contrived to keep a perfectly +straight line all round the globe—not an +easy thing to do—then, whichever direction he +began to go in, the end would be the same: if +he kept on long enough he would go round the +whole huge ball, and would arrive again at the +spot where first he had stood.</p> + +<p>If he did <i>not</i> manage to keep quite a direct +line, but zigzagged a little to right or left, he +would not reach the same <i>spot</i>; though even +then he would get back to the same <i>side</i> of the +globe as before. He would find no “end” to it, because +a globe, properly speaking, has no “ends.”</p> + +<p>And this Earth, on which we live, is not flat, +like a board or table, but round, like a globe or +orange. It is really very like an orange; for +an orange is not a perfect globe, but is a little +flattened on its sides, or, as we commonly say, +“at the ends.” Our Earth also is rather flat in +shape at the north and south poles. A round +globe, like an orange, or like the Earth, has really +no “ends” at all: though we often use the word +when speaking of the two poles.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</span></p> + +<p>If you were to take such a journey, starting +from your home, and keeping a perfectly straight +line onwards always in one direction, you too +would in time come back to the spot from which +you started.</p> + +<p>But a journey of this kind would be very +hard to manage: far more so than it sounds. +Every little hillock, every little streamlet, every +house and every tree, to say nothing of rivers +and towns, mountains and oceans, would turn +you out of your path. By the time you got +round the world, although you would return to +the same <i>side</i> of the globe from which you first +set out, you might be a long way off from the +exact spot.</p> + +<p>In case you do not know where the two +“poles” are, you should ask some one to show +you on a school globe. The north pole and the +south pole are both very cold parts of our Earth. +Ice and snow are there all the year round.</p> + +<p>Half way between the north and the south +poles is the equator—a line drawn exactly round +the whole Earth: and all round the Earth, on +or near the equator, are the very hottest countries. +About half way between the north pole +and the equator, and between the south pole +and the equator, are the “temperate” parts of +the Earth—not so very cold, or so very hot.</p> + +<p>If a man is travelling from near the north<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</span> +pole towards the equator, or from near the south +pole towards the equator, he gets into warmer +and warmer places.</p> + +<p>But if he is travelling from the equator towards +the north pole, or from the equator towards +the south pole, he gets into colder and +colder places.</p> + +<p>The right name for a globe-shaped body, +like an orange or like the Earth, is a “sphere.” +Neither an orange nor the Earth is a <i>perfect</i> +sphere, because both have flattened ends; still, +the ends are only a little flattened, and we always +speak of the Earth as a “sphere.”</p> + +<p>A “hemisphere” means a “half-sphere.” If +our whole Earth were cut into two equal-sized +pieces each of those pieces would be a “hemisphere.”</p> + +<p>We always think of the equator as dividing +our Earth into two halves. The half towards +the north is called “the northern hemisphere;” +and the half towards the south is called “the +southern hemisphere.”</p> + +<p>Since our Earth is said to be a round globe, +like a ball, why do we not see over the edge? +A fly, standing on an orange, would have, it is +true, a rounded surface just under his feet; but +he could take a good view downward over the +edge. It would <i>look</i> like an edge to him, though +there is no edge really to a ball.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</span></p> + +<p>If our world were as small as an orange, and +we by comparison were each as large as a fly, +then we should be able to do the same.</p> + +<p>But the Earth is huge in size: and we are +very tiny—yes, exceedingly tiny, side by side +with the great Earth! And the surface on +which we stand curves away so very gently, so +very gradually, that it looks like a flat surface +to us—just as the large globe would have +seemed flat to the wee red spider, only very +much more so. For the difference in size between +the Earth and a man is far greater than +the difference between the globe and the spider.</p> + +<p>You may get some idea of how things are, +by standing on the sea-shore, and gazing out to +sea. Far away the sky and earth seem to meet +in a long line, which we call “the horizon.” +That line is always around you, on all sides, +wherever you are, though often you cannot see +it, because of hills or buildings or trees coming +between.</p> + +<p>Beyond that line the rounded surface of the +Earth <i>drops</i> away, so that you can see it no more. +It is, in fact, what looked like an <i>edge</i>, to the fly +standing on the orange. To us it looks much +more as if the ground slanted upwards to meet +the sky. But there is no real upward slant. +After a certain number of miles, the surface of +the ground or the ocean dips downward, out of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</span> +sight, and all else beyond that line is out of sight +also.</p> + +<p>Put your eyes close down upon a large schoolroom +globe. You will see at once how the solid +ball hides from you part of the room. You can +see the ceiling, and perhaps the window and +the fireplace, but beyond the globe all is hidden. +Your <i>horizon</i>, as you stand thus, is just +where you seem to see a sort of edge to the +globe, beyond which its rounded surface dips +away, out of view.</p> + +<p>Looking upward into the sky we are able to +see enormous distances—hundreds of miles, +thousands of miles, millions of miles, billions of +miles away! Light travels to earth from far, far +distant stars: and we can perceive those feeble +gleams because nothing comes between to hide +them.</p> + +<p>On the Earth it is very different. Here we +can commonly see only a few miles off. Not +because our eyes are not strong enough: but +because the Earth’s rounded surface soon dips +away, and all beyond that dip is cut off from us +by the solid body of the Earth.</p> + +<p>On a flat plain, or close to the surface of the +sea, our view is very narrow. If we climb a hill +we get a wider landscape, because we can see +farther over the “dip,” and from a mountain-top +the view is very greatly increased.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig5.jpg" alt="sunset"> +<p class="caption"><i>Sunset.</i></p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</span></p> + +<p>Still, no matter how high we go, the Earth’s +surface always stretches away to north and +south, to east and west. It always <i>seems</i> to rise +and meet the sky, making our horizon-line.</p> + +<p>If we could get very, very far off indeed, into +the sky, we should then see our Earth floating, +like an enormous ball—a huge round solid +globe. But this we are never able to do. We +know our Earth to be a round ball: but we cannot +stand apart and see her to be such.</p> + +<p>Did you ever notice a ship “hull-down” on +the horizon?—that is, with its masts standing +up above the horizon, and its body hidden?</p> + +<p>This again was caused by the shape of the +earth: the hull of the ship having dipped down +below the horizon, while the masts still stood +up within sight.</p> + +<p>When we see the Sun in the sky, he is always +a round body. But when he sinks at +night below the horizon part of the round surface +is hidden first, and then the whole. Hidden +in the same way: by the Earth’s rounded +surface coming between him and our eyes.</p> + +<p>At the moment when the Sun is all but gone, +only one glimmer being visible, you might say +of him too, as of the ship, that he is “hull-down.”</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</span></p> + + +<p class="c">QUESTIONS.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>1. What is a Sphere?</p> + + +<p class="bit">A body in the shape of a rounded ball or +globe.</p> + + + +<p>2. What shape is our Earth?</p> + + +<p class="bit">The Earth is a sphere in shape: but not a +perfect sphere, because flattened at the north +and south poles.</p> + + + +<p>3. What is a hemisphere?</p> + + +<p class="bit">A hemisphere is a half-sphere.</p> + + + +<p>4. Describe the two hemispheres of the Earth, commonly +so called?</p> + + +<p class="bit">The northern hemisphere is the whole of the +Earth north of the equator; and the southern +hemisphere is the whole of the Earth south of +the equator.</p> + + + +<p>5. What is the Equator?</p> + + +<p class="bit">A line supposed to be drawn round the +whole earth, exactly half-way between the north +and south poles.</p> + + + +<p>6. What is the horizon?</p> + + +<p class="bit">The horizon is that line in the distance +where the sky and earth seem to meet.</p> + + + +<p>7. What hides all below the horizon?</p> + + +<p class="bit">The solid body of our Earth.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</span></p> + + + +<p>8. How far can a man see on the Earth?</p> + + +<p class="bit">A few miles, usually. On a hill he has a +much wider view.</p> + + + +<p>9. How far can a man see in the sky?</p> + + +<p class="bit">He can see stars millions and billions of +miles away.</p> + + + +<p>10. What is meant by a ship “hull-down?”</p> + + +<p class="bit">A ship “hull-down” is partly above and +partly below the horizon.</p> + + + +<p>11. What becomes of the Sun when he sets?</p> + + +<p class="bit">He goes down below the horizon.</p> + + + +<p>12. Is the Sun then too far off for us to see him?</p> + + +<p class="bit">No: he is only hidden from us after sunset +by the solid body of the Earth coming between +him and our eyes.</p> + + + +<p>13. Does the Earth’s surface really rise to meet the sky?</p> + + +<p class="bit">No: it really drops away, so that beyond a +certain line we can no longer see it.</p></div> +<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="c2">CHAPTER II.</h2> +</div> + +<p class="c sp">WHY MEN DO NOT FALL OFF.</p> + + +<p> +<span class="smcap large">We</span> come now to a curious thought.</p> + +<p>The world is a round ball; and people live +on all parts of it. Therefore, a man on the opposite +side from us stands with his feet turned +upwards towards our feet and his head pointing +in the other direction—“hanging downwards, in +short,” you might say.</p> + +<p>This seems extremely odd.</p> + +<p>Suppose you hold a big ball, and place a pea +on the top of it. The pea will stay where you +put it, if you keep your hand steady. But if you +place the pea at the side or bottom of the ball it +will instantly drop away. Try for yourself, and +you will see.</p> + +<p>To be sure, a fly or a spider might stand with +equal ease on the top or the bottom of the ball. +The feet of a fly and a spider are made for clinging +and walking in such a position. Man is not +formed to stand or walk upside down, like a fly +on the ceiling.</p> + +<p>Now, why don’t the people on the other side +of the world, in Australia for instance, drop off +the earth, and fall away into the sky?</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</span></p> + +<p>Of course there is a sky under our feet, just +as much as over our heads. The entire world is +surrounded on all sides by sky; not only over +our heads, but down under our feet, beyond the +solid Earth on which we stand, and in all directions.</p> + +<p>If you were to travel round the world, and +were to reach Australia—then, as you stood on +the ground, your feet would point upwards to +the feet of people in the United States; just as +two flies, standing on two opposite sides of a +ball, have their feet pointed, those of one fly +towards those of the other. It cannot help being +so, because of the shape of our Earth.</p> + +<p>How do you think you would feel there? Do +you think you would be in danger of dropping +off the Earth into the blue sky?</p> + +<p>Not in the least. No more danger of such an +accident in Australia than in America. Nothing +indeed would astonish you more! Instead of +being disposed to fall from the Earth, you would +find it every inch as hard there as here to get +away from the Earth. Your own weight would +hold you fast to the ground in Australia just +the same as in America.</p> + +<p>Try to jump up into the air, with all your +strength. Try your very utmost; get as far +away as you can from the ground, and stay up +in the air as long as possible.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</span></p> + +<p>Not much good; is it? Do what you will, you +do not find that you can rise more than a foot or +two, and you instantly drop back again. The +most powerful leaper can manage at most only +a few feet. A man is quite unable to stay up in +the air at all, unless something holds him there: +far less is he able to drop or float away into the sky.</p> + +<p>And the reason why he cannot is that he is +too heavy. He is too heavy in America: and he +is too heavy in Australia. In both cases he is +heavy <i>towards the ground</i>: and he cannot get +away from the ground without something to +bear him up. It is just as impossible that people +in Australia should drop off the world into the +sky as that people in America should do so.</p> + +<p>But—you will perhaps say—the sky is <i>above</i> +us here; and in Australia it would be <i>under</i> us.</p> + +<p>Oh, no; it would not! The sky is all round +the whole Earth, on every side alike. In all +parts of the world people have the sky over their +heads and firm ground beneath their feet.</p> + +<p>The Australian sky is under the feet of those +who live in North America: that is true. But +then it is no less true that the North American +sky is under the feet of those who live in Australia. +To you the Earth is underneath: the +sky is overhead. To an Australian also the +Earth is underneath and the sky is overhead. +All round the world it is the same. <i>Down</i> means<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</span> +always towards the ground. <i>Up</i> means always +towards the sky.</p> + +<p>If you hold up a stone in the air, and let it +go, what happens? The stone drops at once to +the ground.</p> + +<p>If you fling a ball into the air, what happens? +The ball goes a little upwards, carried by the +force of your fling: but soon it curves over and +comes to the ground.</p> + +<p>If you tilt up a jug full of water, what happens? +The water pours down upon the floor.</p> + +<p>If a man steps over a precipice-edge, what +happens? He falls to the bottom, and is most +likely killed.</p> + +<p>But these things are not more true of the +United States than of Australia. All round the +world, in every part, it is the same. Water always +flows downward. Loose bodies always +drop downward, unless kept up by something.</p> + +<p>We have been asking why it is that people +never drop off from the Earth into the sky. Of +course nobody ever asks that question about the +part of the Earth on which he happens to be. +Whether he is in England, or in America, or in +Australia, he knows very well that <i>he</i> is in no +danger of “dropping off.” The very idea as to +himself would seem absurd. To “drop off” +would really be to rise upward into the sky: and +he feels that he is much too heavy for that. It<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</span> +is only when he thinks about the other side of +the world, and about people walking there with +their heads hanging downward——</p> + +<p>But they do <i>not</i> walk with their heads hanging +downward. Their heads, like ours, point +upward to the sky; and their feet, like ours, rest +firmly on solid ground; and they too, like us, +are heavy towards the Earth. It is as impossible +for a man in Australia as for a man in England +or America to “drop off” the Earth—in +other words, to rise upwards towards the sky. +His own weight holds him down.</p> + +<p>What do we mean by “weight?” What +makes a man “heavy?”</p> + +<p>He is made heavy by the Earth’s pulling +or attracting him; and this gives him weight.</p> + +<p>And how does the Earth pull?</p> + +<p>There I cannot tell you much. We know +that the Earth does pull: but how she pulls is +another question. We name that pulling “Attraction,” +and sometimes we call it by a longer +word, “Gravitation.” But not the very wisest +man living can explain to us exactly what attraction +<i>is</i>. He can only tell us what it <i>does</i>.</p> + +<p>Did you ever see a magnet? It is generally +shaped rather like a horse-shoe: and the two +ends have an odd drawing power. A number of +tiny iron shavings, held near enough, will jump +up to meet the magnet as if they were alive.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</span> +This is because the magnet pulls them towards +itself. Sometimes a toy-box of metal ducks or +fishes is sold, with a magnet; and they will follow +the magnet to and fro, in a basin of water.</p> + +<p>Now our Earth seems to be a sort of huge +magnet, with power to pull towards herself, not +only iron or steel, but every single thing and +creature upon her surface. Not only on one side +of the Earth, but around the whole globe, on +every part, there is the same steady downward +drag, always <i>toward the centre of the Earth</i>.</p> + +<p>The mountains are pulled earthward: so are +houses and trees, rocks and soils, seas and rivers, +animals and men. There is not a single +thing on or near the surface of our Earth which +is not thus drawn earthward.</p> + +<p>If it were not for this attraction nothing +would have any weight. When you leap upward +and instantly drop back it is because the +Earth drags you down. Without such dragging +you would not be heavy at all.</p> + +<p>Think what that would mean. You might +jump over the highest mountains with ease: +or you might spring away into the sky, and +never return: only, of course, there is no air, far +away in the sky, and you could not breathe without +air.</p> + +<p>But if the Earth did not attract we should +have no air here either, because it would long<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</span> +ago have all wandered away. Earth’s strong attraction +holds the air prisoner, as well as all other +things upon her surface.</p> + +<p>Now do you begin to see how it is that people +do not fall away into the sky, from any part of +Earth? They are held firmly down by Earth’s +perpetual drag, which gives them weight. Whether +they are in England or in Australia, in Asia +or in America, makes no difference. The <i>pull</i> is +always downward, always earthward. The difficulty +always is to get away from earth, upward, +toward the sky.</p> + +<p>So when we think of the world as a whole we +have to remember that in the surrounding sky +there is no true “up” or “down” in one direction +more than another. “Up” is towards the +sky for each man, from that part of Earth on +which he stands: and as our Earth is ever turning +round and round our “up” is constantly +changing its direction.</p> + +<p>Perhaps you will think that I am rather slow +in getting to my subject of “The Starry Skies.” +Two whole chapters first about this old Earth +of ours!</p> + +<p>But indeed I have not been slow: for on the +very first page we started right off with a Bright +World in the Sky.</p> + +<p>By this time you know that our world is actually +in the sky, just as much as the sun and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</span> +moon are in the sky. We are in the moon’s sky, +and in the sun’s sky, and in the sky of all other +planets and all other stars. For our Earth floats +in the same boundless sky-depths as all of them, +those sky-depths which are usually known by the +name of <i>Space</i>.</p> + +<p>So now, when “Space” is spoken of, you will +understand. You will know that it means the +Sky, in which float all the heavenly bodies.</p> + +<p>“Only”—you will perhaps say—“the Moon +and the Sun are bright; and so are the Stars. +But our dull old world is not bright at all.”</p> + +<p>That is a great mistake, I assure you. Our +world is very bright indeed. She shines with an +exquisite radiance. Not indeed with such a dazzling +glory as the Sun, but quite as brightly as the +Moon.</p> + +<p>Have you ever noticed how the ocean shines, +and flashes forth light, when the Sun beats down +full upon it? Or, again, have you not been struck +with the shining of white clouds in sunlight? +More or less the whole surface of our Earth +catches and gives forth again the brightness that +comes to her from the Sun.</p> + +<p>If we could travel away from the Earth to a +good distance—say, as far as to the Moon—we +should see the round Earth like an enormous, +brilliant Moon in the sky, only far larger and +more beautiful than our Moon ever looks to us.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</span> +Some parts would be darker, some more shining; +but as a whole the Earth would be a splendid +sight.</p> + +<p>Not bright? Yes, indeed; we are living on a +very bright world indeed, though we cannot always +see her radiance.</p> + + +<p class="c">QUESTIONS.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>1. What is Space?</p> + +<p class="bit">By Space we mean Sky—the whole great +Sky, in which are all the heavenly bodies.</p> + + +<p>2. Is our Earth in the Sky?</p> + +<p class="bit">Just as truly as the Sun and Moon are in the +Sky. They are in our sky, we are in their sky.</p> + + +<p>3. Does our Earth float in Air?</p> + +<p class="bit">No; she floats in the Sky: and the air is a +part of the Earth.</p> + + +<p>4. Do people on the other side of the globe walk head +downwards?</p> + +<p class="bit">No; they walk as we do, on firm ground, +with the Sky over their heads.</p> + + +<p>5. What is meant by “up” and “down” to us on Earth?</p> + +<p class="bit">On every part of the Earth <i>up</i> is always toward +the Sky, and <i>down</i> is always toward the +Earth.</p> + + +<p>6. Give some examples of the way in which all things move +earthward.</p> + +<p class="bit">Water always pours downward. A stone<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</span> +flung, or a ball dropped, always reaches the +ground.</p> + + +<p>7. Why do things descend thus?</p> + +<p class="bit">Because of their own weight or heaviness.</p> + + +<p>8. What causes weight?</p> + +<p class="bit">The pull of the earth.</p> + + +<p>9. Give two other names for that “pull.”</p> + +<p class="bit">Attraction and Gravitation.</p> + + +<p>10. Tell me a few things that are pulled earthward.</p> + +<p class="bit">Men, animals, trees, houses, rocks, cities, hills, +mountains, lakes, rivers, oceans, air, clouds, etc.</p> + + +<p>11. What keeps people on the other side of the Earth +from dropping off into the sky?</p> + +<p class="bit">They cannot possibly drop off; because the +sky there is upward, the same as here.</p> + + +<p>12. What would “dropping off” really be?</p> + +<p class="bit">It would be rising upward into the sky.</p> + + +<p>13. Why should a man not rise upward?</p> + +<p class="bit">He cannot, because he is too heavy.</p> + + +<p>14. He is heavy towards what?</p> + +<p class="bit">He is heavy towards the Earth, because of +the Earth’s attraction.</p> + + +<p>15. Is he as heavy in Australia as in the United States?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Exactly the same.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</span></p> + + +<p>16. In what direction is he pulled there?</p> + +<p class="bit">Towards the Earth. All round our whole +world the pull is towards the centre of the Earth.</p> + + +<p>17. Can our Earth be called “a bright world?”</p> + +<p class="bit">Quite as much so as other planets. If we +were far enough off she would be seen by us to +shine with reflected sunlight, like the Moon.</p></div> +<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="c3">CHAPTER III.</h2> +</div> + +<p class="c sp">BY DAY AND BY NIGHT.</p> + + +<p><span class="smcap large">Let</span> us take a good look up into the sky, +and see what is to be found there.</p> + +<p>First, by day. Beginning in the early morning, +just before sunrise, we have perhaps a clear +sky, grayish rather than blue, and towards the +east a brightening glow shows that the Sun +is about to appear. That glow grows stronger +and stronger, and soon a tiny glimmer creeps up +over the rounded surface of our earth. Then +the broad golden face follows, till the sun is +visible, and full daylight has arrived.</p> + +<p>But the Sun does not stand still there, low +down on the horizon. He goes on rising higher +and higher, “climbing the heavens” steadily, +one hour after another. At mid-day—twelve +o’clock—he has reached his very highest point. +Then he begins to descend, moving downward +towards the west till he reaches the western +horizon and vanishes from our sight.</p> + +<p>The Sun always rises in the East; never in +the West. He always sets in the West; never +in the East.</p> + +<p>By this I mean that he always rises to <i>the</i><span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</span> +<i>east of our world</i> and sets to <i>the west of our +world</i>. He rises on the eastern side of the +Earth and sets on the western side. You must +not suppose that he always rises due east and +sets due west of all countries in the world at once.</p> + +<p>On two days only he does so—that is at the +Spring Equinox, on March 21st, and at the +Autumn Equinox, on Sept. 21st. “Equinox” +means “Equal Nights.” At those two dates +days and nights are of the same length, twelve +hours each, throughout the whole world; and +everywhere the Sun rises exactly in the east, and +sets exactly in the west.</p> + +<p>Everywhere except at the north and south +poles. There the Sun is seen to circle round +the sky in twenty-four hours, just above the horizon, +neither rising nor setting.</p> + +<p>A man standing on the equator at one of the +equinoxes sees the Sun rise just in the east; +climb high in the sky just over his head; and +set just in the west.</p> + +<p>People living in the northern parts of Europe +and of America do not see precisely the same +thing. With them the Sun does not circle round +the sky, just over the horizon, as at the poles. +And though he rises in the east and sets in the +west, as at the equator, he does not reach the +highest point in the sky, but only a point somewhat +lower down, towards the south.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</span></p> + +<p>The very highest point in the sky, exactly +over one’s head, is called “the zenith.” In northern +countries the Sun never gets to the zenith. +No; not even on the very hottest summer day. +He is always towards the south.</p> + +<p>There are two other dates, which you ought +to learn, besides the <i>Spring Equinox</i> and the <i>Autumn +Equinox</i>. These are—the <i>Summer Solstice</i>, +on June 21; and the <i>Winter Solstice</i>, on December +21.</p> + +<p>On the 21st of June the Sun is not exactly +overhead at the Equator, as at the Equinoxes. +He has come farther north; not nearly so far +north as England or Canada, but as far north as +he ever does come.</p> + +<p>By that time days and nights are not at all +equal through the world. In the north of Europe +and America we have long days and short nights; +while our friends in Australia have long nights +and short days.</p> + +<p>Although the Sun is never actually overhead +with people in the northern parts of Europe and +America, but is always somewhat to the south, +even at his highest point, still he climbs very +much higher in June than in March or September, +and so he is much longer above the horizon.</p> + +<p>Things are quite the other way on the 21st of +December. Then the Sun is overhead, not farther +north than the Equator, but farther south.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</span> +Then it is summer in the southern hemisphere +and winter in the northern. Then we who live +in England or in the northern parts of North +America have long nights and short days, while +our friends in Australia are having long days +and short nights.</p> + +<p>Then, too, in the north, the highest point at +mid-day which the Sun can reach is low down in +the south; and his rays come to us in a slanting +manner, with far less power to warm than when +they are poured down from nearly overhead. +That is why we are so cold in the dark months +of the year.</p> + +<p>At the equinoxes the Sun rises to the east +and sets to the west of almost the whole Earth.</p> + +<p>In our northern summer the Sun rises to the +north-east, travels round by the south, and sets +in the north-west.</p> + +<p>In our northern winter, the Sun rises to the +south-east, climbs up a little way, and sets in the +south-west.</p> + +<p>These changes come about slowly. Every +twenty-four hours there is a difference. Each +day of spring the Sun rises and sets a little more +to the north, and climbs higher in the sky. Each +day of autumn he rises and sets a little more to +the south, and climbs less high in the sky.</p> + +<p>But all the while, though he may rise to the +north-east or south-east of New York or London<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</span> +or some other particular spot, he rises to the east +of the <i>world</i>; though he may set to the north-west +or south-west of any particular spot, he sets +to the west of the <i>world</i>.</p> + +<p>You will find a grand description in the 19th +Psalm of this daily journey of “the Sun, which is +as a bridegroom coming out of his chamber, and +rejoiceth as a strong man to run a race. His +going forth is from the end of heaven, and his +circuit unto the ends of it; and there is nothing +hid from the heat thereof.”</p> + +<p>The full meaning of that heat and strength +can hardly be known in northern lands. Their +hottest summer day’s heat is as nothing, compared +with the scorching blaze and glare of the +Sun in countries nearer to the equator—for instance, +in that country where the Psalm was +written.</p> + +<p>Through all the ages of our world’s history, +from the very beginning, the radiant Sun has +risen and set, day after day. Morning after +morning he has come up from beyond the horizon +on one side; evening after evening he has +vanished below the horizon on the other side. +Year after year, and century after century, still +“like a strong man” he runs his daily race, and +warms and lights each side of the world in turn.</p> + +<p>Now about the Sky at night. What happens +when the Sun is gone?</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</span></p> + +<p>The bright blue of the sky grows fainter and +more dull, and stars begin to show themselves.</p> + +<p>First, one little twinkle is seen; then another +little twinkle; then a third; till, if it be a clear +evening, the whole sky is dotted with gleaming +points. Some are more bright, some are less +bright. Here one flashes like a diamond, with +different colors; there another is so dim as +hardly to be seen at all.</p> + +<p>It may be that we have caught sight of the +Moon before the Sun has set—should she happen +to be in a right place in the sky, not too near to +the Sun. While he is up, if we get a glimpse of +her at all, she looks like a mere pale patch of +whiteness. But when the Sun is gone, and darkness +deepens, she changes fast; and soon she is +lighted up with a soft silvery glow, sending her +beams to the Earth.</p> + +<p>Now, you all know—everybody knows—that +the Sun rises each morning, crosses the sky, and +sets each evening.</p> + +<p>But perhaps not every boy and girl knows +quite so clearly that the Moon and the Stars behave +very much in the same manner. They too, +either in the day or in the night, rise and cross +the sky and set; and at night we may see them +do it.</p> + +<p>We cannot always watch the rising and +setting of the Moon: for when she rises in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</span> +day-time her soft beams are often lost in the glare +of sunlight. Still she is always there, in the sky: +always rising and setting to <i>some</i> part of our +Earth. When we say, as we often do, “Is there +a moon to-night?” we mean, “Is the moon +where we can see her to-night?” There is always +a Moon, and there is always the same Moon.</p> + +<p>As to the Stars, their movements are puzzling, +no doubt. No two stars rise at the same +point or take just the same path over the sky, or +set on the same spot. Some rise exactly east, +and set exactly west. Some rise in the south-east +and set in the south-west. Some rise in the +north-east, and set in the north-west.</p> + +<p>No star is ever seen, however, to rise anywhere +towards the <i>west</i>, and to travel backwards +towards the <i>east</i>. All the stars in company move +as a whole <i>from the eastern side of the world towards +the western side of the world</i>. That is to say, they +seem to move thus.</p> + +<p>Some stars to the north do not rise or set at +all, as seen from the northern parts of Europe +and North America. They only travel round and +round, in a circle about the Pole-star, which is +almost exactly over our north pole. Yet their +movements too are from east to west.</p> + +<p>If we lived in the southern hemisphere we +should see the same thing going on nightly, only +with a different set of stars.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</span></p> + +<p>Then the far-south stars would circle round +and round over the south pole; and those lying +over the north pole would be hidden by the +Earth lying between. But still the whole movement +would be always from east to west; never +from west to east.</p> + +<p>Each tiny star, bright or dim, takes its daily +journey, like the sun, once in twenty-four hours. +No matter whether it has to go right round the +whole Earth or whether it only has to creep in +a small circle round the Pole-star—still the +journey is always the same in length: always +close upon twenty-four hours. At the end of +twenty-four hours it is back at its starting point, +and begins over again. Just as the Sun does.</p> + +<p>If you look out at night sometimes, and +watch carefully, you will see for yourself something +of this constant nightly journeying of the +stars.</p> + + +<p class="c">QUESTIONS.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>1. Where does the Sun rise and set?</p> + + +<p class="bit">The Sun rises in the East and sets in the +West.</p> + + + +<p>2. Always in the East and West exactly?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Always to the east of our world and to the +west of our world. Not due east and due west +of each particular country always.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</span></p> + + + +<p>3. When is the Spring Equinox?</p> + + +<p class="bit">On the twenty-first of March.</p> + + + +<p>4. When is the Autumn Equinox?</p> + + +<p class="bit">On the twenty-first of September.</p> + + + +<p>5. What does the word Equinox mean?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Equal nights. At the Equinox, days and +nights are of the same length over almost the +whole world.</p> + + + +<p>6. When is the Summer Solstice?</p> + + +<p class="bit">On the twenty-first of June.</p> + + + +<p>7. When is the Winter Solstice?</p> + + +<p class="bit">On the twenty-first of December.</p> + + + +<p>8. In what direction does the Sun rise and set at the Equinoxes?</p> + + +<p class="bit">At each of the equinoxes the sun rises due +east, and sets due west, over all the world, except +at the poles.</p> + + + +<p>9. At the Summer Solstice where does the Sun rise and +set?</p> + + +<p class="bit">To people in England, or in Canada, or in +the northern States, he rises in the north-east +and sets in the north-west.</p> + + + +<p>10. And in the Winter Solstice?</p> + + +<p class="bit">To those same places he rises then in the +south-east and sets in the south-west.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</span></p> + + + +<p>11. What do we call the highest point in the heavens, exactly +over one’s head?</p> + + +<p class="bit">The zenith.</p> + + + +<p>12. Does the Sun ever reach the zenith in England, or in +the northern parts of North America?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Never. He rises much higher in summer +than in winter at midday, but he is always to +the south of the highest point.</p> + + + +<p>13. When or where may the Sun be seen precisely overhead?</p> + + +<p class="bit">On the equator, at the two equinoxes.</p> + + + +<p>14. At what hour of the day may the Sun be seen exactly +overhead?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Only at Mid-day.</p> + + + +<p>15. Do any other heavenly bodies rise and set?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Yes; the Moon and the Stars; in fact, nearly +all the heavenly bodies.</p> + + + +<p>16. Can we see the Moon rise and set?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Sometimes; not always.</p> + + + +<p>17. Tell me one reason why we sometimes do not see the +Moon.</p> + + +<p class="bit">Sometimes she rises and gets at about the +same time as the Sun; and then she is hidden +by his brightness.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</span></p> + + + +<p>18. How do the Stars rise and set?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Like the Sun and Moon, they rise in the east +of the world and set in the west of the world.</p> + + + +<p>19. Do all the Stars take the same journey?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Some rise due east, some north-east, some +south-east; and they set either due west, or +north-west, or south-west.</p> + + + +<p>20. Does every Star that we can see rise and set?</p> + + +<p class="bit">No; many stars to the far north never rise +nor set to us in England or the northern States, +but circle round and round the pole-star.</p> + + + +<p>21. How long a time does this journey take—either round +the world or round the pole-star?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Nearly twenty-four hours for each star.</p></div> +<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="c4">CHAPTER IV.</h2> +</div> + +<p class="c sp">HOW THE WORLD SPINS.</p> + + +<p><span class="smcap large">In</span> our last chapter we saw how the Sun rises +and sets in the day, and how the Moon and Stars +rise and set in the night.</p> + +<p>True, they also rise and set, by day as well as +by night. The Moon often does so: and all day +long there are Stars coming up in the east, and +stars crossing the sky, and stars going down in +the west. But we cannot see them. Until the +great Sun has withdrawn his radiance the little +star-gleams are hidden from us, and even the +Moon can seldom be caught sight of.</p> + +<p>In the daytime, when you look up into the +blue sky, and see a blaze of sunlight, you should +sometimes remember that the stars are there. +All day long, as well as all night long, the stars +are there, shining just as usual. All day long, +as well as all night long, they are moving steadily +across our sky: rising, marching onward, and +setting. We cannot see them; but that is because +our eyes are weak, not because the stars +themselves do not shine.</p> + +<p>So by day and by night the heavenly bodies +seem to be ever on the move. No matter what<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</span> +part of the world you may be in—whether England +or America, whether India or Australia—still +you will find them moving. By day you +will see the Sun rising in the east, journeying +towards the west, and setting. By night you +will see the Moon, and most of the stars, rising +in the east, journeying towards the west and +setting.</p> + +<p>This goes on continually. It is always the +same. Year after year, there is no change.</p> + +<p>The Sun rises in one spot, crosses the sky, +sets; and then a few hours afterwards rises +again in very nearly the same spot as before, to +cross the sky by very nearly the same path, and +to set in almost exactly the same part of the western +horizon. Each day there is a tiny, very tiny, +difference; but by the end of twelve months the +Sun gets back to exactly the same spot in rising +and setting as in the previous year. And most +of the stars follow the Sun’s example.</p> + +<p>Why should not one fix upon a bright star +overhead, and hurry along on the ground, just +as fast as the star goes, so as to keep it overhead +longer—to keep it in sight?</p> + +<p>There is no reason why one should not do +this, if only one could get along fast enough.</p> + +<p>It would have to be very rapid travelling. If +you wished to keep that star in sight, overhead, +for twenty-four hours, you would have to do—what<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</span> +do you think? You would have to rush +<i>round the whole world</i> in twenty-four hours!</p> + +<p>If you could possibly manage to do that, you +might possibly choose any bright star overhead +that you liked, and keep it in view all night; in +fact for two nights, with no day between; for +you would journey <i>with the night</i>.</p> + +<p>Or if you chose to follow the Sun by day, +keeping him overhead in your rapid rush over +continents, and mountains, and oceans, you +might have a double day of twenty-four hours, +with sunshine all the while and no darkness.</p> + +<p>But think what such a rush would mean! +Think how big the world is! People sometimes +do travel all round the whole earth, and the +journey takes them many months. Even if they +stopped to look at nothing by the way, and went +as fast as possible, and cared nothing about +being tired—even then, at the very least, it +would take them many weeks.</p> + +<p>To get round the world, on the Equator, or +from England, or from the United States, or +from Australia, in twenty-four hours, is a thing +which no living man could ever do! The Sun +and the stars go much too fast for us.</p> + +<p>They are seen to whirl round the whole earth, +swiftly and calmly and easily, with no manner +of fuss or difficulty, once in every twenty-four +hours!</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</span></p> + +<p>Ah! but do they? That is the question. Do +they really all whirl round and round, at this +rate?</p> + +<p>When you take a journey in a train, and look +out of the window, what do you see?</p> + +<p>Everything seems to be moving. The more +distant hills travel slowly; fields and villages +speed at a good rate; houses and hedges near at +hand rush by; and the telegraph poles flash past +as if running away. But one house does not go +one way and another house in the opposite way. +All of them journey in the same direction.</p> + +<p>Do they really journey? Are the fields and +hills, the villages and trees and telegraph poles, +all spinning swiftly along, while you in your +train sit quite still, not moving at all?</p> + +<p>It must be one of the two things: either <i>they</i> +are on the move, and you are quiet; or else they +are quiet, and <i>you</i> are yourself rushing along, so +that they only seem to move.</p> + +<p>You would not have much difficulty in deciding. +Even if you did not feel the carriage in +which you sit to be shaking and jarring with its +own rush, still you would count it easier to believe +that the train was going forward than to +think that all the hills and fields and trees and +houses were speeding the opposite way.</p> + +<p>It is almost the same thing with our earth. +We see the Sun, and the Moon, and all the stars,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</span> +hurrying past, and we have to believe one of +two things: either <i>they</i> are all moving, and we +are still; or else <i>we</i> are moving and that makes +them only seem to move.</p> + +<p>For a long while people were not quite so +sensible about the heavenly bodies in the sky as +you would be about the houses and fields seen +out of a train. It seemed to them easier to believe +that all the stars went round and round the +earth, than to believe that the solid earth herself +moved.</p> + +<p>There was this excuse, that the earth does +not jar and rattle like a train, and also that the +distances of the stars cannot be easily seen at a +glance, like the distances of hills and valleys.</p> + +<p>We have learned differently now. We know +that our earth does indeed move; and that the +daily journey of the Sun, the nightly journey of +the moon and planets and stars, is not a real +journey. It is only a <i>seeming journey</i>. They +<i>seem</i> to move, because our earth truly moves, +just as the hedges and trees <i>seem</i> to move when +looked upon out of a train which really moves.</p> + +<p>Day and night the earth moves. Day and +night, year after year, she spins, like an enormous +top, upon her axis.</p> + +<p>By the “axis” of the earth I mean a straight +line through her centre, from the north pole to +the south pole.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</span></p> + +<p>If you have a school-globe you will see that +it turns round and round upon a kind of large +pin, which reaches from one pole to the other. +That is its “axis,” and that is how the Earth +spins.</p> + +<p>Or you may stick a long bonnet-pin through +an orange, from one flattened end to the other, +and spin the orange upon that pin, which is then +the axis of the orange.</p> + +<p>A spinning-top also has an axis. There is no +pin stuck through the top; but as it whirls +round, humming, and remaining in one spot, +there <i>is</i> a line from top to bottom of it which +does not seem to move. The whole top whirls +round this line, which again is the axis of the +top.</p> + +<p>Our Earth has no huge pin passed through +her body; but, like the top, as she spins there is +a line straight through her, from the north to +the south pole, which keeps still, while round it +whirls the whole big body of the Earth. And +that is the Earth’s <i>axis</i>.</p> + +<p>If a man stands close to the north pole, or +close to the south pole, at either end of the axis, +he moves very little. But if he is far away from +the poles, on or near the equator, the ground on +which he stands rushes along at a great rate, +carrying him with it.</p> + +<p>He does not feel the movement. He is not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</span> +shaken or jolted. The Earth whirls very smoothly. +As she spins she carries with her, on her +surface, all the mountains and seas, the hills and +valleys, the trees and towns and villages, yes, +and the very air which we breathe. Nothing is +left behind.</p> + +<p>So the man cannot know how fast he is going +by any feeling of his own. He can only know +it by looking up into the sky. There he sees the +Sun, the Moon, the Planets, the Stars, all hurrying +past. Why? Because <i>he</i> is hurrying past—not +because they are.</p> + +<p>They all go in the same direction, from east +to west. We have seen this plainly. It is not a +journeying of some stars one way, and some +stars another way. It is one great sweep of the +whole heavens from the east of the world toward +the west of the world.</p> + +<p>And the reason of this is that our Earth spins +or whirls <i>from the west to the east</i>.</p> + +<p>That is what makes the Sun and the Stars +all seem to rise in the east and set in the west.</p> + +<p>In the morning, when you get up early, and +look towards the east, you are gazing at that part +of the sky towards which you are travelling. The +Sun is not coming to meet you, but you are going +to meet him. This solid world on which +you stand is whirling like a big teetotum, carrying +you round in his direction.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</span></p> + +<p>So presently you see him seem to creep up +over the horizon. And by-and-by, at mid-day, +the moving surface of the Earth has carried you +on almost underneath him. And later in the +evening, as you are still whirled on toward the +east, you leave the Sun behind you, in the west.</p> + +<p>But still he goes on rising to other parts of +the world, as country after country spins round +into his light.</p> + +<p>At night it is the same thing over again. +Each star that rises only <i>seems</i> to rise, because we +on the Earth’s surface are whirled round towards +that part of the sky in which the star always +shines. Then we pass on, and leave that star +behind, as we left the Sun; and we say that it +has set.</p> + +<p>But the Sun and the Star have not moved. +It is <i>we</i> who have moved; not they.</p> + +<p>So when we think of the Earth as a whole +we have to picture her, not only as a large solid +globe floating in the sky, but as a spinning +globe, ever turning round and round like a top +or a teetotum.</p> + +<p>It is this whirling movement of the Earth +which gives us <i>Day</i> and <i>Night</i>.</p> + +<p>For, as our Earth floats and spins, one side of +her is always turned toward the Sun, and is in +daylight; the other side is turned away from the +Sun, and is in darkness. Each land and ocean<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</span> +in turn comes towards the Sun in the east and +passes onward, leaving the Sun in the west.</p> + +<p>And around, on all sides, is the great Sky, +which sometimes we name “Space,” and which +sometimes we call “The Heavens.” In that Sky +float all the Worlds and all the Stars, as well as +our Earth and our Moon and Sun. And in that +sky is <span class="smcap">God</span> himself.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">He</span> made the Sky, the Sun and the Moon and +the Earth, the Planets and the Stars; and <span class="smcap">He</span> is +everywhere, around and amidst and in them all. +Wherever in the boundless reaches of Space we +may wander in thought, we shall never find a +spot where God himself is not.</p> + + +<p class="c">QUESTIONS.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>1. Where are Stars in the day-time?</p> + + +<p class="bit">In the sky: only we cannot see them.</p> + + + +<p>2. Could a man travel round the world from America or +England as fast as a Star travels?</p> + + +<p class="bit">No: he would have to go round the whole +world in twenty-four hours.</p> + + + +<p>3. Do the Stars really journey round the world?</p> + + +<p class="bit">They only seem to do so.</p> + + + +<p>4. But the Sun rises and sets, does he not?</p> + + +<p class="bit">He seems to do so. It is really our Earth +that moves.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</span></p> + + + +<p>5. In what way does the Earth move?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Once in twenty-four hours she whirls round +on her axis from west to east.</p> + + + +<p>6. What is the Earth’s axis?</p> + + +<p class="bit">An imaginary line through her centre, from +the north pole to the south pole.</p> + + + +<p>7. How does our Earth’s spinning make the heavenly +bodies seem to move?</p> + + +<p class="bit">A little in the same way that, when we journey +in a fast train, houses and trees and fields +seem to go the other way.</p> + + + +<p>8. Did people always know that the Earth whirled round?</p> + + +<p class="bit">No; they used to think it was a real journeying +of the Sun and Stars in our sky.</p> + + + +<p>9. Where does the surface of the Earth move fastest?</p> + + +<p class="bit">On the equator. The ground there rushes +at a great speed.</p> + + + +<p>10. Where does it move most slowly?</p> + + +<p class="bit">At the poles.</p> + + + +<p>11. Does a man standing on the equator feel how fast he +moves?</p> + + +<p class="bit">No; because the Earth moves smoothly; +and everything on the ground and in the air is +carried along by the Earth.</p> + + + +<p>12. How can he know that the Earth moves?</p> + + +<p class="bit">By looking up into the sky—like a man in a +train looking out of the window.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</span></p> + + + +<p>13. How does the Earth’s spinning make the Sun seem +to rise?</p> + + +<p class="bit">The Sun remains fixed—but a man on the +Earth is carried round towards the east, and so +the Sun seems to come towards him from the +east.</p> + + + +<p>14. And how does it make the Sun seem to set?</p> + + +<p class="bit">The man is still carried on towards the east, +and by-and-by he leaves the Sun behind him in +the west.</p></div> +<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="c5">CHAPTER V.</h2> +</div> + +<p class="c sp">THE MOON BY NIGHT.</p> + + +<p><span class="smcap large">How</span> far off would you guess the Moon to be +from our Earth?</p> + +<p>A mile or two, perhaps you will say. Or +twenty miles! Or forty miles! Or one hundred +miles!</p> + +<p>Even on Earth it is often puzzling to tell +distances. If one is looking across a smooth +surface, with nothing to break it, one cannot +easily judge. I remember going in a sailing-boat, +as a child, and after a good while saying, +“Why, what a little way we have come! +The shore looks only a mile or two off!” And +I was told that it was at least ten miles off.</p> + +<p>You see, there was nothing between to break +the smooth water-surface, and so to show how +far we had sailed.</p> + +<p>If it is perplexing down here on Earth it +is much more so up in the Sky. There, nothing +lies between to break the great distance; and +the stars seem so much alike, except that some +are a little brighter and some a little dimmer. +One might very easily suppose that the Moon +and the Sun and all the Stars were at much the +same distances from the Earth.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</span></p> + +<p>Yet nothing could be a greater mistake. +Some are very near, and some are enormously +far away.</p> + +<p>That is to say, some are very near compared +with others. But even the very nearest is a +great deal farther off than fifty or a hundred +miles.</p> + +<p>Of all bright bodies in the sky, seen day +after day and night after night from our Earth, +not one ever comes so close as the round silvery +Moon.</p> + +<p>The Moon is our own especial companion. +She always journeys with us, and never goes +away.</p> + +<p>Before we learn the distance of the Moon +we have to think a little about her size. You +have not yet learned about the size of our Earth, +so we will take the two friends together.</p> + +<p>There are two ways of measuring a ball or +globe. We may say how big it is <i>through the +middle</i>, from one side to the other. Or we may +say how big it is <i>round the outside</i>. The outside +measure is always about three times as +much as the through-measure.</p> + +<p>A large grape may be one inch through, and +three inches round outside. A small orange +may be two inches through, and six inches +round outside. A large apple might be three +inches through, and nine inches round outside.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</span> +A small cocoa-nut might be four inches through +and twelve inches round outside. A school-globe +might be one foot through and three feet +round outside; or two feet through, and six +feet round outside. A balloon might be twenty +feet through and sixty feet round outside. Or +it might be thirty feet through, and ninety feet +round outside.</p> + +<p>The through measure is called the <i>Diameter</i> +of a ball, and the outside measure is called its +<i>Circumference</i>. A globe may be of any size; and +it can be measured according to its size in inches, +or feet, or yards, or miles.</p> + +<p>Our Earth is a little less than <i>eight thousand +miles</i> through, from side to side, or from north pole +to south pole. Its outside measure, right round +the equator, is nearly <i>twenty-five thousand miles</i>.</p> + +<p>This will not give you any clear idea. It only +sounds very large.</p> + +<p>Think first of a mile. One mile is a good way +for a little child to walk; but not much for a big +boy. Some people count five or six miles a very +long walk, while others think nothing of ten or +twelve miles. Not many men can do as much as +thirty or forty miles in a day.</p> + +<p>But even fifty miles are only half of one +hundred. And it takes ten hundreds to make +one thousand. And the through-measure of our +Earth is eight thousands of miles.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</span></p> + +<p>If that man, whose story you heard in the +first chapter, ever had really done as the story +says, and walked round the whole world, he +would have gone about twenty-five thousand +miles!</p> + +<p>How long would that have taken him? Certainly +very much longer than twenty-four hours. +He could not possibly have got along at the rate +of one thousand miles and more each hour. The +fastest express train does not manage over sixty +or seventy miles in an hour.</p> + +<p>If he had journeyed all the while, Sundays +and week-days alike, twenty miles each day, then +he would have got round the world in three years +and a half. And if he had only done ten miles a +day he would have been nearly seven years getting +round.</p> + +<p>Of course no man could really cross the oceans +on foot; but this will help you to a little notion +of what the size of our Earth is.</p> + +<p>A very big globe, is she not? yet not truly +large, compared with other larger worlds in the +sky.</p> + +<p>Our Moon is not one of those larger worlds, +however.</p> + +<p>While the through-measure of the Earth is +eight thousand miles that of the Moon is only a +little more than two thousand miles. And while +the Earth is nearly twenty-five thousand miles<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</span> +round outside, the Moon is only about six thousand +miles.</p> + +<p>So if we could put a knitting-needle straight +through the Moon, with the ends just showing, +one on each side, it would need to be only a +quarter as long as a needle to go through the +Earth. And a ribbon to fold round the Moon +should be scarcely a quarter as long as a ribbon +which could be folded just round the Earth.</p> + +<p>This makes a good deal of difference in the +sizes of the two globes; perhaps more than you +would suppose.</p> + +<p>I want you now to bring down the Moon, in +your mind, to the size of a very small ball; only +<i>one inch</i> through or <i>three inches</i> round outside. +Picture her to yourself as getting smaller—and +smaller—and smaller, till she is only the size of a +very big grape.</p> + +<p>Then think of the Earth also, as getting +smaller and smaller, just in the same way. Only +the Earth must not get so small as the little +Moon, in your mind. It must still be four times +as long in its through-measure—four inches instead +of one inch. And while a little piece of +tape, only three inches long, would go just round +the tiny Moon, a tape to go round the little Earth +would have to be twelve inches long.</p> + +<p>Then, if the Moon is about the size of a big +grape, or a small walnut, the Earth will be the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</span> +size of a very large apple, or of a small cocoa-nut.</p> + +<p>It would be a good plan to get a walnut and +cocoa-nut of the right sizes, or, if you like, to find +two balls, and to place them side by side. The +little one must be one inch through, the bigger +one must be four inches through. Looking upon +them, you will see in a moment how great is the +difference between the Earth and the Moon.</p> + +<p>I shall often speak of these sizes, so it would +be as well to fix them now in your mind, and +have them there, ready for use.</p> + +<p>Now as to the distance of the Moon from the +Earth:</p> + +<p>It is about <i>two hundred and forty thousand +miles</i>!</p> + +<p>A rope twenty-five thousand miles long would +reach once round the whole Earth, if laid down +on the equator.</p> + +<p>But a rope to reach all the way from our +Earth to the Moon would have to be more than +nine times as long as the equator-rope.</p> + +<p>You have tried to picture the Earth in your +mind as brought down to the size of a small +cocoa-nut, and the Moon as brought down to a +walnut. In doing this we make one little half-inch +do duty for a thousand miles; so that one inch +stands for two thousand miles, and four inches +means eight thousand miles.</p> + +<p>The Moon is two thousand miles through;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</span> +therefore a ball or walnut, to picture the Moon, +must be one inch through. The Earth is eight +thousand miles through; therefore a very big +apple or small cocoa-nut, to picture the Earth, +must be four inches through.</p> + +<p>In the same way we will bring down the distance +of the Moon from the Earth. We will let +<i>each thousand miles</i> of all that space in the sky +shrink into a tiny <i>half-inch</i>. Then, instead of +two hundred and forty thousand miles, we shall +only have to think of one hundred and twenty +inches, which make ten feet.</p> + +<p>So the smaller ball, or walnut, must be put +<i>ten feet</i> off from the larger ball, or cocoa-nut. +That will give you a picture, not only of the size +of the earth, compared with the size of the Moon, +but also of the distance between the two.</p> + +<p>Besides putting the two balls ten feet apart +you have to think of them as two little shining +worlds.</p> + +<p>That is not quite so easy, is it? Why should +they shine?</p> + +<p>We know that bodies in the sky do shine; +but bodies on the Earth more commonly do not. +By “bodies” I mean “things.” A marble does +not shine, nor a grape, nor a walnut, nor an +apple, nor an orange, nor a school-globe, nor a +balloon.</p> + +<p>At least they do not shine of themselves.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</span> +Any of them can be made to shine a little, if not +much, by being placed in bright sunshine.</p> + +<p>Suppose that the two balls—the little imitation-Earth +and the little imitation-Moon—were +made of glass, or of some smooth metal, such as +tin or silver. And suppose you were to hang +them up, by wires, out-of-doors, in pitch darkness. +Would they shine?</p> + +<p>Certainly not. How could they?</p> + +<p>But suppose there was another ball, also out +in the darkness; a much larger ball, shining +with great brilliance, like an electric light.</p> + +<p>Would the glass or metal balls show any +brightness then at all?</p> + +<p>Yes; for the shining of the large brilliant +ball would light them up, at least on one side, +and would make them bright.</p> + +<p>Light is always <i>thrown back</i> from a smooth +surface. If you have a looking-glass in a dark +room it does not shine; but if you hold it in full +sunlight it flashes radiantly. Yet the looking-glass +has no brightness of its own. It only takes +and gives out again of the Sun’s light.</p> + +<p>That is just how our Earth shines, and how +the Moon shines. In themselves both are dull +and dark worlds; but, like the looking-glass, +they receive radiance from the Sun and give it +out again.</p> + +<p>Before we go on I want you to be quite<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</span> +clear in your mind as to what is really meant +by this bringing down of large sizes to small +sizes. In coming pages you will often hear of it +again.</p> + +<p>Suppose you have two very large toy-carts, +big and heavy. One of them is four feet long +and two feet wide, the other of them is three +feet long and one foot and a half wide. And +suppose that you are trying to explain, to somebody +who has not seen them, <i>how much bigger</i> +one cart is than the other cart.</p> + +<p>You may do it by talking, and by showing +with your hands about how high they each +stand.</p> + +<p>Or you may do it in quite a different manner, +and much more exactly, by making a kind of +little model of each cart—in paper, or cardboard, +or wax.</p> + +<p>The models would not of course be of the +same size as the big carts, but they would have +to keep what is called the same <i>proportion</i> of +sizes. The bigger must still be the bigger; and +the smaller must still be the smaller.</p> + +<p>You could let one inch stand for one foot. +Then the tiny model of the bigger cart—the cart +which is four feet long and two feet broad—would +only be four <i>inches</i> long and two <i>inches</i> +broad. And the tiny model of the lesser cart—the +cart which is three feet long and one foot<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</span> +and a half broad—would be only three <i>inches</i> +long and one <i>inch</i> and a half broad.</p> + +<p>Anybody looking on those two tiny model +carts could not possibly tell how big the real +carts are. But he could tell one thing. He +could know <i>how much bigger one cart is than the +other</i>.</p> + +<p>This is what I hope to show you, by bringing +down the sizes of worlds and moons—not how +large they really are, but how much larger or +how much smaller one is than another.</p> + +<p>Also, by this means we learn to understand +distances better.</p> + +<p>If you are looking at a map of the world, or +of a part of the world, the <i>miles</i> in that map have +to be brought down into a very tiny space. A +map of a country, made as large as the country +itself, would take up a great deal too much room. +So half-an-inch is made to do duty for perhaps +fifty real miles, or a hundred real miles, or even +a thousand real miles. In quite a small map, a +continent or an ocean which is really two thousand +miles across might be only one inch across.</p> + +<p>And yet, looking at that map, small though +it is, you are able to see how near one country +is to your own, and how very much farther off +another country is.</p> + +<p>This is the way in which we are going to +think about different worlds—those which are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</span> +nearer and those which are farther. We have to +make a sort of little map or model of them in +our minds; letting one inch always picture two +thousand real miles.</p> + + +<p class="c">QUESTIONS.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>1. What is meant by the diameter of a ball?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Its “through measure” from one side to the +other, straight through the centre.</p> + + + +<p>2. What is the circumference of a ball?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Its measure round the outside.</p> + + + +<p>3. Which is larger, the through measure or the measure +round outside?</p> + + +<p class="bit">The outside measure is about three times as +large as the through measure.</p> + + + +<p>4. Give an example or two.</p> + + +<p class="bit">A ball one inch through is about three inches +round outside. A ball four inches through is +about twelve inches round outside.</p> + + + +<p>5. What is the Earth’s diameter?</p> + + +<p class="bit">The Earth is nearly 8,000 miles through.</p> + + + +<p>6. And the Earth’s circumference?</p> + + +<p class="bit">The Earth is nearly 25,000 miles round at the +equator.</p> + + + +<p>7. What is the Moon’s diameter?</p> + + +<p class="bit">The Moon is about 2,000 miles through.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</span></p> + + + +<p>8. And the Moon’s circumference?</p> + + +<p class="bit">The Moon is about 6,000 miles round outside.</p> + + + +<p>9. How far is the Moon from the Earth?</p> + + +<p class="bit">About 240,000 miles.</p> + + + +<p>10. How long should a rope be to lie round the Earth on +the equator?</p> + + +<p class="bit">About 25,000 miles.</p> + + + +<p>11. How many such ropes would reach all the way from +here to the Moon?</p> + + +<p class="bit">About nine such ropes joined together.</p> + + + +<p>12. If we should let one inch stand for 2,000 miles, how +large would the Moon be?</p> + + +<p class="bit">A ball one inch through.</p> + + + +<p>13. How large would the Earth be?</p> + + +<p class="bit">A ball four inches through.</p> + + + +<p>14. In that case, how far would the Moon be from the +Earth?</p> + + +<p class="bit">About ten feet off.</p> + + + +<p>15. How do the Earth and the Moon shine?</p> + + +<p class="bit">By giving out again, or throwing back, the +sunlight which falls upon them.</p></div> +<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="c6">CHAPTER VI.</h2> +</div> + +<p class="c sp">THE MOON’S CHANGES.</p> + + +<p><span class="smcap large">The</span> Moon in our sky does not always seem +to be of the same shape.</p> + +<p>Sometimes she is quite round, like a plump +laughing child-face, with eyes and nose and +mouth marked in grey shadows. Sometimes a +part of the round face seems to be shaven off on +one side. Sometimes she is a half-round. Sometimes +she is a bright crescent, wider or narrower. +Sometimes she is only a slender sickle +of light.</p> + +<p>Now, how is this? What causes so many +changes in the Moon?</p> + +<p>You know in what way our Earth shines—as +shine she does, if only we were far enough off +to see it. You know that she is bright on that +side alone which faces the Sun. And you know +too that, as she spins daily on her axis, each +country in turn comes into the Sun’s rays, is +lighted up for awhile, then passes away into the +night-time of darkness which is on the side of +the Earth turned away from the Sun.</p> + +<p>And you also know that as the Earth shines +so the Moon shines.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</span></p> + +<p>The Moon has no radiance of her own. She +can only, like a looking-glass, reflect the Sun’s +radiance. In other words, she receives his light +and throws it off again.</p> + +<p>As the Earth spins, so the Moon spins, but +very much more slowly. It takes our big Earth +only twenty-four hours to whirl once round upon +her axis. It takes the Moon about twenty-eight +days to spin once round upon her axis.</p> + +<p>Only that half of the Moon upon which the +Sun shines is bright. Half of her is turned towards +the Sun, and this half is bright. Half of +her is turned away from the Sun, and this half +is dark.</p> + +<p>And we from Earth can see, usually, only the +<i>bright</i> side of the Moon, or just so much of the +bright side as happens to be towards us.</p> + +<p>Sometimes the whole of the bright side is +turned towards us. Sometimes only a part of it, +and sometimes none of it is turned towards us.</p> + +<p>Now and then we catch a little glimpse of the +dark body of the Moon when it is not shining +in the sunlight. We see a round dark ball held +in the arms of the silver crescent. That is because +our own Earth shines so brightly upon the +<i>dark</i> side of the Moon as to light it up and show +it to us. But more often we only perceive the +sunlighted side, and the darker part is quite +hidden.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig6.jpg" alt="new"> +<p class="caption"><i>The New Moon.</i></p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</span></p> + +<p>You have noticed the Full Moon, of course, +because the Moon then is at her best and brightest. +Once a month we always have a Full Moon. +It is only on one night that the Moon is really +quite full; but for two or three days before and +after she is very nearly so.</p> + +<p>At Full Moon <i>the Earth is between the Sun and +the Moon</i>. On one side of our Earth is the Sun; +on the other side is the Moon. The Sun shines +full upon that side of the Moon which is turned +towards us; and so we see the whole of her +round bright face. We know that her farther +side is in darkness, because it is turned away +from the Sun: in almost pitch-darkness, for it +has not even our Earth to light it up, being +turned away from us also. It has only Stars on +the farther side.</p> + +<p>I am speaking of when the Sun has set, and +is below our horizon, so that we cannot see him, +although his rays travel straight to the Moon.</p> + +<p>The Sun having set means only that the +solid body of our Earth is between him and us. +It does not interfere with his shining upon the +Moon.</p> + +<p>If our Earth at Full Moon were <i>exactly</i> between +the Sun and the Moon, that would interfere +with his shining upon her. More commonly, +however, our Earth is not just in the +line between, but only very nearly so. Thus<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</span> +we get the best possible view of the Moon’s +round face.</p> + +<p>The Moon does not stay on one side of the +Earth. She is always travelling round from +one side to the other side of us. At another +part of her monthly journey things are quite +different.</p> + +<p>A fortnight after Full Moon we have <i>New +Moon</i>.</p> + +<p>At Full Moon the Earth is between Sun and +Moon; but at New Moon the Moon has come +right round to the opposite side, and is <i>between +the Sun and the Earth</i>. Not usually in the exact +line between, so as to hide the Sun from us, but +very nearly so.</p> + +<p>Then still the Moon has a bright round face; +only we on Earth cannot see it. For her bright +side is, as always, towards the Sun; and her <i>dark</i> +side is towards us.</p> + +<p>Just at first we cannot see the New Moon at +all, for it is entirely dark. As she journeys on +to one side we get a glimpse of a thin line of +light shaped like a sickle; and this widens +every day. It is while we see the sickle of light +that we sometimes catch a glimpse of the dark +side of the Moon, dimly lighted up by Earth-shine.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig7.jpg" alt="moon"> +<p class="caption"><i>The Moon. Second quarter. 10½ days old.</i></p> +</div> + +<p>When the Moon gets half-way back to where +she was at Full Moon we are able to see <i>half</i> of +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</span>her bright face, and we call that the “First +Quarter.” The other half of the bright face is +still turned away from us, and half of the dark +side is still towards us. We do not see the whole +round face till she gains once more the place of +Full Moon—after which, between Full Moon +and New Moon, follows the Third Quarter, +which is much the same as the First Quarter.</p> + +<p>You know that the rising and the setting of +the Moon in our sky, by night or by day, are not +real movements. They are only seeming movements, +caused by our own Earth’s daily spinning +on her axis.</p> + +<p>But these “Phases” as they are called—these +changes in the shape and brightness of +the Moon—are brought about by her own movements, +as she travels round the Earth. She +does not actually alter her shape: but she does +actually alter her place in the sky, so that we +get different views of her from week to week.</p> + +<p>The four weeks of the Moon’s phases are +called a “Lunar Month.”</p> + +<p>You can make clear to your mind how the +changes come about, by acting them out with a +lamp and a big ball.</p> + +<p>There must be no other light in the room.</p> + +<p>Stand first with your back to the lamp and +the ball in your hand, held out at arm’s length: +so that your head is <i>nearly between the lamp and</i><span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</span> +<i>the ball</i>. Not quite between, so as to shade the +ball. Hold the ball just a little higher than +your head: and the lamplight will fall upon +that side of it which is towards your face.</p> + +<p>Then you have Full Moon. The lamp is the +Sun: your head is our Earth: the ball is the +Moon. You see how the lamp lights up the half +of the ball which is towards yourself.</p> + +<p>Next turn round with your face to the lamp, +and hold the ball at arm’s length <i>between your +head and the lamp</i>, only a little higher or lower—not +quite in the line between so as to hide the +lamp from you. The lamp-light now falls on +the other side of the ball; and the dull unlighted +side is towards your face.</p> + +<p>This is New Moon. Once again the lamp is +the Sun, your head is the Earth, and the ball is +the Moon. You see how the lamp lights that +half of the ball which is turned away from you.</p> + +<p>The real New Moon in the sky is invisible. +Here you can see the dark side of the ball because +the lamplight creeps round it. Still even +here you will find a difference between the +bright and the shaded parts.</p> + +<p>Then, if you hold the ball at arm’s length +half-way round on one side of your head, you +will see how matters are at the Quarters. The +lamp still shines full on one side of the ball, but +only half of the brighter side is towards you, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</span>and half of the darker side. In the real Moon +the shaded quarter would be hidden, and only +the bright quarter would be visible.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig8.jpg" alt="moon"> +<p class="caption"><i>The Moon. Third quarter. 16¾ days old.</i></p> +</div> + +<p>This “quarter” we call “a Half Moon.” It +is a quarter of the whole Moon, taking the Moon +all round; but it is a half of the bright side, +which makes our Full Moon.</p> + +<p>All that we really know about the Moon’s +surface is what we see on one side of her. The +other side is never turned towards us. No man +on this Earth has ever seen it.</p> + +<p>A man living on that side of the Moon which +we can see might look at all parts of the Earth +in turn. As the Earth spins on her axis she +turns each side towards the Moon, one after another, +in only twenty-four hours. But, although +the moon spins, we see only and always one +side of her.</p> + +<p>If somebody should make his home on the +farther side of the Moon, and should never +come round to the nearer side, he would not +have a glimpse of the Earth. He would see the +Sun, because the Sun shines on each part of the +Moon in turn: but no Earth would be on his +sky. One side of the Moon has a magnificent +Moon in the Earth, more than a dozen times as +large as our Moon. But the opposite side of the +Moon has only starlight when the sun sets.</p> + +<p>The reason for this is that the Moon takes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</span> +just exactly the same length of time to spin +once round on her axis that she takes to travel +once round the world: twenty-eight days for the +one and twenty-eight days for the other.</p> + +<p>Suppose now that you choose to walk round +and round a table with a lamp in the middle. +You may do it in three different ways.</p> + +<p>First: you may spin fast on your feet, like a +teetotum, as you go. Each spin of your body +may perhaps take a second; and passing slowly +round the table may last half-a-minute. As you +thus move, each side of your head in turn is towards +the lamp with every spin.</p> + +<p>Secondly, you may pass slowly round the +table in the same manner; not spinning at all +but keeping your face fixed on one direction—let +us say, towards the fireplace end of the room. +Then again, as you move, each part of your head +in turn will be towards the lamp.</p> + +<p>Thirdly: you may pass round the table turning +very gradually indeed upon your feet as you +go, turning so slowly that a single spin will last +exactly as long as one journey round the table. +If you start with your face towards the lamp +you will continue to face it all the while, and the +back of your head will all the while be away +from the lamp, in shadow. In fact, the lamp +will never once have a glimpse of the back of +your head.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig9.jpg" alt="moon"> +<p class="caption"><i>The Moon. Last quarter. 23⅓ days old.</i></p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</span></p> + +<p>The last of these three is the manner in +which the Moon spins on her axis and travels +round our Earth.</p> + +<p>Such a slow spin brings about a curious state +of things. We on the Earth have day and night +in every twenty-four hours; but the Moon’s day +and night come only once in every twenty-eight +days. The day there is a whole fortnight in +length of our Earth-time: and the night is another +whole fortnight.</p> + +<p>Fourteen days of blazing sunshine: then +fourteen days of pitchy darkness—except for +the brightness of the Stars, and except also, on +one side, for the beautiful radiance of the Earth.</p> + + +<p class="c">QUESTIONS.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>1. What is meant by the Moon’s Phases?</p> + + +<p class="bit">The different shapes of the Moon as we see +her in the sky.</p> + + + +<p>2. What kind of shapes?</p> + + +<p class="bit">As Full Moon; as Half Moon; as Crescent +Moon.</p> + + + +<p>3. Which part of the Moon shines?</p> + + +<p class="bit">That side which is turned towards the Sun.</p> + + + +<p>4. Do we ever see her dark side?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Sometimes, not far from New Moon, we have +a glimpse of it, lighted up by Earth-shine very +dimly.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</span></p> + + + +<p>5. Does the Moon spin on her axis?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Yes; but very slowly, only once in twenty-eight +days.</p> + + + +<p>6. How long does it take the Moon to get once round the +Earth?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Twenty-eight days; the same length of time +as her spin.</p> + + + +<p>7. How long is the Moon’s day?</p> + + +<p class="bit">About one fortnight of Earth-time.</p> + + + +<p>8. How long is the Moon’s night?</p> + + +<p class="bit">About another fortnight.</p> + + + +<p>9. Does the Sun shine on all parts of the Moon?</p> + + +<p class="bit">On all parts in turn, as the Moon slowly spins +round.</p> + + + +<p>10. Do we see all parts of the Moon?</p> + + +<p class="bit">We see only one side, because, as the Moon +spins, she journeys round the Earth just so fast +as to keep one face always in our direction.</p> + + + +<p>11. What is meant by Full Moon?</p> + + +<p class="bit">At Full Moon the Earth is between Sun and +Moon, and we have our best view of the full +round face of the Moon.</p> + + + +<p>12. Is the Earth exactly between?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Not quite, or she would cut off the sunlight +from the Moon.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</span></p> + + + +<p>13. What is New Moon?</p> + + +<p class="bit">At New Moon the Moon is between Earth and +Sun, so that her bright side is away from us and +we cannot see her at all.</p> + + + +<p>14. Tell me about the First and Third Quarters.</p> + + +<p class="bit">The Moon is then at the side of the Earth, +half-way between New and Full. Half only of +her bright side is towards us and we see her as +“Half Moon.”</p> + + + +<p>15. What is a Lunar Month?</p> + + +<p class="bit">A month of four weeks—the time of the Moon’s +changes.</p></div> +<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="c7">CHAPTER VII.</h2> +</div> + +<p class="c sp">THE MOON THROUGH A TELESCOPE.</p> + + +<p><span class="smcap large">You</span> know how the Moon looks, seen only +with our own eyes—a bright round ball, some +would say a bright round plate, with odd gray +markings which might mean anything. This is +about all that can be learned without the help +of a telescope. But with the help of a telescope +much more can be found out as to our little sister-world.</p> + +<p>For a very long while there were no telescopes. +Galileo, a famous man, who lived nearly +three hundred years ago, was the first who ever +made a telescope. Since his time men have +learned to make far bigger and better ones; but +it was he who discovered how to make one at all.</p> + +<p>The Moon, as you know, is really about 240,000 +miles away. A good telescope, such as one +may often see, lessens that distance to only one +thousand or perhaps to five hundred miles. One +enormous telescope in California brings the Moon +to less than one hundred miles off—some even +say to not much more than fifty miles.</p> + +<p>You must not suppose this to mean that the +telescope pulls the Moon herself nearer. A tube<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</span> +on earth cannot reach forth and drag towards us +a far-off world in the sky.</p> + +<p>Did you ever hear of the Irishman who was +allowed to look through a telescope at a church +in the distance, and who declared afterwards that +the church had been brought so near he could +hear the organ play!</p> + +<p>But this is just what a telescope is <i>not</i> able to +do. It does not bring a church nearer. It does +not bring the Moon nearer. It only makes our +eyes able to see <i>as if</i> the church or the Moon +were nearer. That is all.</p> + +<p>It gathers up a great deal more moonlight +than our eyes could collect, and so it gives us a +larger and clearer view of the Moon from which +the light comes.</p> + +<p>Yet even at the very best, when the moon is +brought, as one may say, within perhaps a hundred +miles of the Earth, even then one can only +see large things on her surface, not small things. +A man who climbs a high mountain gets a wide +view all round from the top. He may see perhaps +a hundred miles in one direction. But at +that distance, and at a good deal less than that +distance, he cannot make out much. A mountain +or a high hill is pretty clear, perhaps, or the glimmer +of a big lake, and a large town would be just +visible as a tiny patch or spot. A single house +could not be seen at all; far less a horse or a man.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</span></p> + +<p>However, though we could not possibly see +such small things as these upon the Moon if +they were there, we are very sure that no houses +<i>are</i> there, and no horses, and no men.</p> + +<p>And the reason why we are so sure is that +the Moon has no air.</p> + +<p>A man cannot live without air, because he +cannot breathe. Try holding your breath for +a little while and you will find how soon you +must begin breathing again. If there were no +air in your room you would soon die of suffocation. +Animals cannot live without air. Even +fishes need air in the water to keep them alive. +And it seems that there is neither air nor water +in the Moon.</p> + +<p>No air: or almost none; if any at all, it is so +very thin that no living creature on earth could +breathe it. No water; no seas or oceans; no +rivers and streams. No clouds; for clouds are +made of water and float in air. No grass, or +plants, or trees; for they too must have air and +water. No towns or villages; for they are built +by man, and no men can be on the Moon, or +women or children. What a dreary place the +Moon must be!</p> + +<p>It looks dreary seen through a big telescope. +It looks dreary also in a photograph. Many +photographs are now taken of the Moon.</p> + +<p>Such a wild lonely scene we find! Flat desolate<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</span> +plains, and mountains with sharp black shadows +and clefts and streaks, and a great number +of craters in all directions.</p> + +<p>You have heard of volcanoes on the Earth. +A volcano is a mountain, shaped usually something +like a sugar-loaf, with a cup-like hollow +near the top. This hollow is called a <i>crater</i>: +and now and then fire pours from it, with melted +burning rocks, or boiling mud, or hot cinders.</p> + +<p>In parts of the world there are old used-up +volcanoes, which once were very active indeed +but which now have no outbreaks. We call +these dead volcanoes.</p> + +<p>The Moon seems to be half covered with the +craters of volcanoes. That side which we always +see is pitted over with round holes, big and little—looking +in parts almost like a face badly +marked with small-pox.</p> + +<p>If all these holes really are craters they must +belong to <i>dead</i> volcanoes; because not a sign is +ever observed of any fiery outburst on the Moon. +That could easily be seen through a large telescope.</p> + +<p>These craters are of all sizes: and many of +them have been measured from the earth.</p> + +<p>The largest volcano-crater known on the +earth is perhaps not more than eight or ten +miles across. On the moon there are numbers +and numbers of little craters about that size, too<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</span> +many to count. But there are also many huge +craters, far bigger than anything of the kind +ever seen here.</p> + +<p>Some of the Moon mountains are very high, +a good deal higher than Mont Blanc in Switzerland; +and they often lie in vast rocky heights +around some enormous crater. Such craters are +to be seen fifty miles across from edge to edge, +and some a hundred miles across, and even more. +These monster craters make our little Earth +craters seem very small; do they not?</p> + +<p>In a photograph of the Moon’s surface, taken +when she is at her First or Last Quarter, the +steep mountains and great craters often stand +out very clearly. Of course they do not <i>look</i> +large to us at this distance, but quite small.</p> + +<p>If there were air on the moon her sharp outline +and the mountain edges would be much +softer than they are now.</p> + +<p>The Moon must be a very, very cold world.</p> + +<p>True, she is no farther off from the Sun than +we are, so his bright rays have the same strength +there as here. But she has no thick coverlet +of air wrapped round her, to act as a blanket +and to keep in the heat which the Sun gives. +That is what our air does for us: and that is +what the Moon lacks.</p> + +<p>Through the long fortnight of darkness, on +the side of the Moon which is turned away from<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</span> +the Sun, the cold must be perfectly awful. But +even during the long fortnight of day-time following, +when that part of the Moon which has +been in darkness gets round into sunlight, +things are not much better.</p> + +<p>The Sun indeed beats down upon the Moon +with frightful power, and with a desperate glare +such as we never know on the Earth. For the +same air which keeps prisoner the warmth of +the sunbeams for our use also softens their +glare. But in spite of all this it is likely that +the Moon’s surface never gets warm—that in +the noon of her long day the ground is far more +than ice-cold.</p> + +<p>On a high mountain-top of the Earth, where +the air is thin, although the glare of the Sun +becomes fierce yet the ice and snow are not +melted. A little thawing of the outermost snow +takes place, but often no more than this. When +the sun shines through air which is too thin to +capture and store up his heat, then he is quite +overmatched by the grip of King Frost.</p> + +<p>If this is so on the Earth how much more +is it likely to be so on the Moon. At the top +of the highest Earth mountain there is still a +good deal of air, enough for a man to breathe. +But on the Moon there is no air at all worth +speaking of; not enough to keep alive any creature +of which we know.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</span></p> + +<p>So, though the Sun does his best, though he +floods the Moon with his warmth, all the heat is +poured out again just as fast as he pours it in. +For want of a sheltering air-coverlet the ground +there may remain, and doubtless does remain, +ice-cold through all the long Moon-day.</p> + +<p>We do not on the Earth see the Stars in daylight. +The same thick air which keeps us warm +also spreads the sunlight about, and softens +black shadows into gray, and turns the sky into +a blue depth, and shuts off from our sight the +feeble glimmer of stars, and carries to and fro +the clouds and mists.</p> + +<p>But on the Moon there is no air to form a +veil of light; no air to cause a blue sky; no air +to spread the sunlight about; no air to make +inky shadows gray; no air to carry clouds or +mists; no air to hide the stars.</p> + +<p>There, in the day-time, in a cloudless deep-black +sky shines a dazzling Sun. Not only a +Sun, but also a magnificent Earth, hanging like +an enormous Moon always in one spot. And +not only Sun and Earth, but also countless brilliant +Stars, steadfast and untwinkling.</p> + +<p>This is a view which a man might have if he +could stand on the nearer side of the Moon.</p> + +<p>The Sun which he would see would be our +Sun. The stars would be the same stars upon +which we gaze. The Earth in his sky would be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</span> +this world upon which we live. He would see +a glorious sight; of that we may be sure. But +though our thick moist air does hide the stars +by day, and make them twinkle and grow dim +by night, think how one would miss the blue +sky, and all the pretty changeful clouds which +come and go!</p> + +<p>Think, too, how dismal a scene it would be +around a man standing there! Nothing but dead +craters, and bare rocks, and plains without any +grass or water, and mountains without any trees. +Nothing green, nothing blue, nothing soft or +fair, no breaking waves, no trickling streams, no +passing showers, no colors, no sounds!</p> + +<p>Do you think you would like such a world to +live in, even if you <i>could</i> live there without any +air to breathe? I am very sure that you would +soon wish to be back again on our beautiful Earth.</p> + +<p>If you were there, you would find one more +thing different from what it is here: you would +become all at once a great deal lighter in your +body.</p> + +<p>Just as the Earth pulls everything towards +herself so does the Moon also. The mountains +and rocks on the moon are dragged moonwards, +just as mountains and rocks on the Earth are +dragged earthwards. But the pulling there is +much less than here, because the Moon is so +much smaller than the Earth.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</span></p> + +<p>On the surface of the Moon, <i>downwards</i> is always +towards the centre of the Moon and <i>upwards</i> +is always towards the sky. All round the Moon +it is the same; just as it is on the Earth.</p> + +<p>The Moon in our sky is <i>upwards</i> to us who live +on the Earth. But the Earth in the Moon’s sky +would be <i>upwards</i> to anybody living on the Moon.</p> + + +<p class="c">QUESTIONS.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>1. Who made the first telescope?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Galileo.</p> + + + +<p>2. How long ago?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Nearly three hundred years ago.</p> + + + +<p>3. How near does the biggest telescope seem to bring the +Moon?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Perhaps to less than one hundred miles.</p> + + + +<p>4. Could a man live on the Moon?</p> + + +<p class="bit">No; because there is neither air nor water.</p> + + + +<p>5. No air at all?</p> + + +<p class="bit">There may be a very, very little; but much +too little for men or animals to breathe.</p> + + + +<p>6. What can be seen of the Moon through a telescope?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Mountains and plains; and a great number +of hollows or craters.</p> + + + +<p>7. How high are the mountains?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Some are higher than Mont Blanc.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</span></p> + + + +<p>8. What are the craters?</p> + + +<p class="bit">They are thought to be most likely the craters +of dead volcanoes.</p> + + + +<p>9. What shape are they?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Generally more or less round.</p> + + + +<p>10. Are they large or small?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Some are small, only a few miles across. +Others are very big.</p> + + + +<p>11. How big are the larger ones?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Some are even a hundred miles across.</p> + + + +<p>12. Is the surface of the Moon hot, or cold?</p> + + +<p class="bit">It is believed to be very cold.</p> + + + +<p>13. In the night, or in the day?</p> + + +<p class="bit">In the day as well as in the night; because +there is no air to keep in the Sun’s heat, as on +the Earth.</p> + + + +<p>14. What other difference would the want of air make?</p> + + +<p class="bit">The sky must be black instead of blue, and +the stars must be visible in daylight, and the +shadows of the mountains must be very black, +not gray, like shadows on the Earth.</p> + + + +<p>15. Are things heavy on the Moon?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Yes; but not so heavy as on the Earth. +Though the Moon pulls, she pulls less strongly +than the Earth, because she is so much smaller.</p></div> +<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="c8">CHAPTER VIII.</h2> +</div> + +<p class="c sp">THE SUN BY DAY.</p> + + +<p><span class="smcap large">If</span> you look at the Sun in our sky before he +sets, and then, a little later, at the Moon when she +has risen, it might seem that the two are very +much of the same size and very much at the +same distance.</p> + +<p>To be sure, the Sun is the brightest; a great +deal the brightest. He has such a dazzling face +that you cannot look at him steadily. But certainly +he does not look larger than the Moon.</p> + +<p>What do you think the size of the Sun really +and truly is?</p> + +<p>Once upon a time people supposed him to be +about as big as he looked. And afterwards they +fancied that perhaps he might be even as large +as a little country called Greece, a much smaller +country than England.</p> + +<p>But the Sun is bigger than England, bigger +than America, bigger than all the oceans of the +Earth heaped together; bigger than the Moon, +bigger than the whole Earth, bigger than Earth +and Moon rolled into one—oh, we are a long way +off yet from the truth!</p> + +<p>The Sun is a round globe in shape, like the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</span> +Earth and the Moon. But he is ever so much +larger.</p> + +<p>Our Moon, as you know, is about two thousand +miles through from side to side. Our +Earth is nearly eight thousand miles through. +But that enormous globe, the Sun, is—how +much do you guess?—is about <i>eight hundred and +fifty thousand miles through</i>!</p> + +<p>Can you picture to yourself what this means? +Rather hard, is it not!</p> + +<p>The Earth seems so big to us who live upon +its surface, and yet she is so small beside the +great Sun!</p> + +<p>Suppose you had a huge hollow ball the size +of the Sun. And suppose you wished to run +through that hollow ball a very, very long +knitting-needle—eight hundred and fifty thousand +miles long—so as just to go from side to +side of the huge ball. And suppose upon that +big knitting-needle you wished to string a great +many Earths or Moons, exactly like our Earth +or our Moon, as large beads might be strung +close together upon a wire.</p> + +<p>How many worlds, the size of our Earth, do +you think you would need to reach all through +the Sun from side to side? And how many +worlds the size of our Moon?</p> + +<p>You would want more than one hundred +Earths. And if, instead of Earths, you chose to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</span> +string Moons on the big needle, you would need +more than four hundred Moons.</p> + +<p>These would not fill up the enormous hollow +ball. They would only reach through in one +straight line from side to side, showing the +<i>diameter</i> of the Sun.</p> + +<p>Now try again to think of the Moon as a tiny +ball, softly bright on one side, only one inch +through; and of the Earth as another ball, shining +on one side, four inches through. Think of +them, if you like, as a large grape and a small +cocoa-nut made of silver.</p> + +<p>Then take the same measure for the Sun, +letting one little inch do duty always for two +thousand miles. The Sun must dwindle and +dwindle in size till every two thousand miles in +him has become a single inch.</p> + +<p>We shall then have a huge ball, or balloon, +four hundred and twenty-six inches, or some +<i>thirty-five feet</i>, through, from side to side.</p> + +<p>Thirty-five feet is a great deal more than +four inches. <i>One</i> foot is twelve inches long.</p> + +<p>You have seen many a tall man close upon +six feet in height. This balloon, to picture the +Sun, must be so large that six tall men might +be put inside it, one upon the head of another. +The whole string of six tall men would about +make the through measure of the globe.</p> + +<p>So we have a Moon the size of a large grape,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</span> +an Earth the size of a small cocoa-nut, and a Sun +the size of a balloon big enough to contain six +men in a long row, one upon another. The two +little balls would shine softly, on one side only; +but the large balloon should be exceedingly +brilliant and dazzling all round.</p> + +<p>If the Moon is so tiny and the Sun is so huge, +how is it that they seem to be the same size in +our sky?</p> + +<p>Because of the very great difference in their +distance from us. The Moon is near; the Sun +is far away.</p> + +<p>Suppose you are looking at a man near at +hand and at a house miles away; which seems +to you the bigger? Of course the man, because +he is so close. Yet really the house is much the +larger of the two.</p> + +<p>The Moon is only about two hundred and +forty thousand miles off; but the Sun is about +ninety-two millions of miles away.</p> + +<p>Think what a difference! Two hundred and +forty thousands are only a small part of a single +million; for a million is a thousand thousands. +If you have one thousand beads in a heap, you +would need one thousand of those heaps to make +a million beads. And when you get to the idea +of what is meant by a million, you have to +remember that the Sun’s distance is ninety-two +times <i>that</i> number of miles.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</span></p> + +<p>After all, we cannot comprehend these figures; +they are too bewildering. We may talk +of thousands and millions of miles, but we do +not <i>see</i> them in our minds.</p> + +<p>The chief thing to do is to gain some notion +of one distance side by side with another: and +here the three balls all help us again.</p> + +<p>Picture to yourself the tiny Moon-ball, as big +as a large grape, and the Earth-ball, as big as a +small cocoa-nut; and in your mind put the two +<i>ten feet</i> apart. There you have the sizes and the +distance of the Earth and the Moon brought +down from thousands of miles to inches.</p> + +<p>Then picture to yourself the Sun, as big as a +balloon—the length of six tall men through its +middle—and in your mind put that balloon <i>three +quarters of a mile</i> away from the small Earth and +Moon. Somebody will tell you of a house or a +place about three-quarters of a mile away from +your house, if you ask.</p> + +<p>Now do you see how great the difference is +between the distance of the Sun from us and the +distance of the Moon?</p> + +<p>Close upon four thousand feet off, instead of +only ten feet off! Almost thirteen hundred +yards, instead of a little over three yards! +Ninety-two millions of miles, instead of two +hundred and forty thousand miles!</p> + +<p>The <i>kind</i> or <i>quantity</i> of difference between<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</span> +the two is the same, whether we reckon it in +inches or feet, in yards or miles, in hundreds, or +thousands, or millions of miles.</p> + +<p>The Moon and Sun are quite unlike in their +way of shining.</p> + +<p>Our little Moon has no brightness of her +own. She only shines when and where the Sun +shines upon her.</p> + +<p>But the radiance of the Sun is his own; it is +a part of himself. He shines because it is <i>in</i> +him to shine; it is his nature to shine. He is +brilliant all round, not on one side only. If +the Sun were destroyed the Moon would shine +no longer. But if the Moon and the Earth +and all the Planets came to an end it would +make no difference in the brightness of the +Sun.</p> + +<p>The Sun’s shining is like the shining of the +Stars, not like that of the Earth and the Moon: +for the Sun himself is a Star; one Star among +millions of Stars. He only looks so much larger +and brighter than other Stars because he is so +much nearer than they are.</p> + +<p>Our Earth and Moon are not stars; they are +planets, or worlds, travelling round the Sun, and +belonging to him. They are not hot bodies, +glowing with their own light; but cool and dark +bodies, bright only when the Sun shines on +them. Moonlight, and also Earthlight—which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</span> +we, living on the Earth, cannot see—are both +really reflected Sunlight.</p> + +<p>There are other planets also, besides the +Earth and the Moon, belonging to the Sun: +such as Venus, and Mars, and Jupiter. None of +these planets are Stars. They are all Worlds.</p> + + +<p class="c">QUESTIONS.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>1. What shape is the Sun?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Like the Earth and the Moon, a globe or +sphere in shape.</p> + + + +<p>2. What is the Sun’s diameter?</p> + + +<p class="bit">The Sun is about 850,000 miles through.</p> + + + +<p>3. Why do the Sun and Moon seem about the same size +in our sky?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Because the Moon is very near, and the Sun +very distant.</p> + + + +<p>4. How far off is the Sun?</p> + + +<p class="bit">About 92 millions of miles.</p> + + + +<p>5. What would be the sizes of these three globes, if we let +one inch stand for 2,000 miles?</p> + + +<p class="bit">The Moon would be a ball one inch in diameter; +the Earth a ball four inches in diameter; +the Sun a ball thirty-five feet in diameter.</p> + + + +<p>6. What would be their distances, brought down thus?</p> + + +<p class="bit">The Moon would be about ten feet off from<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</span> +the Earth, and the Sun would be about three-quarters +of a mile from them both.</p> + + + +<p>7. How many thousands of miles make a million miles?</p> + + +<p class="bit">A thousand thousands.</p> + + +<p>8. How does the Moon shine?</p> + + +<p class="bit">By reflecting Sunlight.</p> + + + +<p>9. How does the Sun shine?</p> + + +<p class="bit">By his own brightness.</p> + + + +<p>10. Which part of Moon and Sun are bright?</p> + + +<p class="bit">The Moon, like the Earth, is bright only on +that side which faces the Sun; but the Sun is +brilliant all round.</p> + + + +<p>11. Is the Sun a World?</p> + + +<p class="bit">No, the Sun is a Star.</p> + + + +<p>12. Are the Planets Stars?</p> + + +<p class="bit">No; the Planets, like Earth and Moon, are +Worlds.</p></div> +<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="c9">CHAPTER IX.</h2> +</div> + +<p class="c sp">STORMS ON THE SUN.</p> + + +<p><span class="smcap large">The</span> Sun does not seem to change his shape +as the Moon does.</p> + +<p>Looking upon him from our Earth, we see +always a round shining body. Except when +part of him is hidden because it has sunk below +the horizon we never have a “half-Sun,” or a +“quarter-Sun.”</p> + +<p>Sometimes he is high and sometimes low in +the sky; but this is brought about by the Earth’s +movements, not by any alteration in himself. +Sometimes clouds drift between and hide him +from us; yet behind the clouds he shines still. +Sometimes mists arise and dim his radiance; but +beyond the mist his glory is the same. When +clouds move on and mists fade, the dazzling +globe of light is found unchanged.</p> + +<p>There are no shadows on the Sun, like those +dull markings which we all know so well upon +the Moon.</p> + +<p>No shadows, only spots. Yes, the Sun actually +has little black spots upon his face, not so +very unlike the tiny patches with which ladies +used to adorn themselves.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</span></p> + +<p>A word of warning here! It is not safe to +gaze straight at the Sun, trying to find these +spots. When he is low down in the horizon, just +before setting, he is not so dazzling, but at other +times one ought to be very careful. If you want +to look steadily at the Sun you should always +use a piece of smoked or tinted glass to soften +the glare. Without this you might hurt your +eyes, or even in time make yourself blind. When +looking through a telescope the danger and the +need for care are doubly great.</p> + +<p>Dark spots on the Sun are very often to be +seen; sometimes only through a telescope, but +now and then one is large enough to be seen +with no such help—by the eye alone.</p> + +<p>It was by means of these spots that the Sun +was first found to spin upon its axis, just as our +Earth does.</p> + +<p>A black spot would be noticed upon one side +of the Sun’s face. It would be seen slowly to +cross over, and to disappear on the other side. +Nearly a fortnight would be needed for the +journey across, and for another fortnight, or +nearly so, the spot would be hidden behind the +Sun. After which it would turn up again, on the +same side as at first, and in the very same place. +Then once more it would travel across and disappear, +and in another fortnight it would come +round over to its starting-point.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</span></p> + +<p>If only a single spot had behaved in this +way it might have meant little. But when +numbers of spots did the very same thing, time +after time, it became clear that the great body +of the sun was whirling round, carrying the +spots with it.</p> + +<p>The Sun, like the Earth, has a north pole, +and a south pole, and an equator.</p> + +<p>We give the name “north pole” to one end +of the axis or line on which he spins, and the +name “south pole” to the other end of that +axis. And we give the name “equator” to a +line exactly round the middle of the Sun, half-way +between his two poles.</p> + +<p>Most of the spots which we see are somewhere +near the Sun’s equator, not very near to +his north pole or to his south pole.</p> + +<p>They come and go and change their shapes, +and get bigger or smaller—sometimes slowly, +sometimes very fast. A spot may appear and +grow and vanish again in one day, or it may +stay on for days and weeks, and even months, +hardly altering at all, only journeying round +and round the Sun.</p> + +<p>These things show us that the great Sun +spins round upon his axis: and that for each +spin he takes about twenty-five or twenty-six +days.</p> + +<p>But the whirling round of the Sun means no<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</span> +Day and Night by turns to him, for the whole +of the Sun is always light—bright with his own +radiance.</p> + +<p>Once upon a time it used to be thought that +the Sun spots were perhaps <i>raised</i> things—dark +objects standing high, like mountains. And I +will tell you why this idea was given up.</p> + +<p>Take an empty cup, and hold it before your +eyes, with the open part turned full towards you. +The cup must be held as if lying on its side—not +with the mouth upwards, as it would stand +on a table. You can see, thus, the full circle of +the opening, and the whole empty inside.</p> + +<p>Next, move it a little way to the right from +before your face, turning it slightly away, and +you will then see no longer the whole inside, +but only a part: and the round opening will +have an oval look.</p> + +<p>Turn it still further, and you will see a very +narrow oval opening, and hardly any of the inside.</p> + +<p>Now this is just how the spots seem to behave +as they cross the Sun.</p> + +<p>When first seen, coming round on one side, +they are in shape, more or less, of narrow ovals, +and very little of the inside can be seen. As +they travel on with the spinning Sun, and get +near the middle of the Sun’s face, the oval openings +widen and grow round, while more of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</span> +dark depths can be seen. Then, passing to the +farther edge, they again grow narrow, as at +first.</p> + +<p>So we feel sure that the spots are hollows or +caves, not mountains.</p> + +<p>I do not mean such hollows and caves as are +found on the earth, but more like the holes that +may be seen in a mass of stormy clouds. They +seem to be huge rents in glowing Sun-clouds. +Usually they have a black centre, with a gray +border round the blackness. Now and then, as +in the picture of a sun-spot given in this book, +the gray part is wanting.</p> + +<p>Sun-spots are sometimes larger, sometimes +smaller; but none that we see at this distance +can be really small. Fifty or sixty thousand +miles across is a very common size. Once in a +while a spot is more than a hundred thousand +miles from edge to edge.</p> + +<p>So, though we talk of <i>little</i> black spots on the +Sun’s face, they are not really little, but exceedingly +big. And if we were near they would +not look black, but fiery.</p> + +<p>The Moon’s craters seemed big when we +first thought of them—fifty or one hundred +miles across; very huge beside our tiny Earth +craters. These crater-like hollows, however, in +the Sun’s cloudy surface are fifty or one hundred +<i>thousand</i> miles across! The whole Moon<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</span> +dropped into such a hole as this would be a +mere little ball in a corner.</p> + +<p>The Sun is enormously heavier than our +Earth, because enormously bigger. Yet in actual +<i>make</i> the Sun is light. Instead of being +all through as solid as our little Earth, he only +weighs as much as if made of something not +much heavier than water.</p> + +<p>We do not know whether any part of the Sun +is really solid and firm. Perhaps not even the +innermost parts of that vast globe, certainly not +any of the outermost parts. For the heat must +be so awful as to turn everything there into +gases. Not cool gases, but raging fiery gases, +rushing furiously to and fro.</p> + +<p>Over the whole brilliant body of the Sun is +spread a mighty ocean—not of cool water, like +our seas, but of crimson fiery gas-waves. And +out of this ocean spring crimson mountains of +fiery gas. And beyond these jagged mountains—little, +as seen from the Earth, but really +of great height—lies a beautiful and wide-spreading +wreath of pearly light, called “The +Corona,” or, “The Crown.”</p> + +<p>The bright face of the Sun and its tiny black +spots can be easily seen from the Earth. But +the crimson sea, showing as a red border round +the edge, and the fiery mountains, and the crown +of light, are very seldom to be seen.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</span></p> + +<p>When an eclipse of the Sun happens, then +for a few seconds they are clearly visible to people +with telescopes.</p> + +<p>Besides the black spots and the red mountains, +bright white spots are sometimes noticed.</p> + +<p>Also another curious sight is often seen, in a +telescope. Countless little long narrow objects, +something like willow leaves or grains of rice, +seem to lie scattered closely over the sun. They +are either side by side or crossing one another. +Look at the picture of the sun-spot, and you will +see the “willow leaves” there. Perhaps they +are shining sun-clouds.</p> + +<p>Awful storms are common on the Sun, and +terrific outbreaks are often taking place. Wild +rushes of blazing gases can be seen, even from +this great distance. The black spots are most +likely caused by vast whirlwinds tearing open +the Sun’s bright envelope of clouds; and the +white spots may be another kind of tornado.</p> + +<p>Doubtless the crimson fire-mountains are also +some sort of storm. They come and go, change +and disappear, in a longer or a shorter time. +Fifty thousand miles of height is common for +one of them, and a hundred thousand miles is +not unusual, and often they are still more.</p> + +<p>Our very highest mountain on the Earth is +only about seven miles high. Think what a difference!</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</span></p> + +<p>But you must not picture to yourself solid +mountains of rock on the Sun. All rock there is +not melted only, but turned to gases, by the tremendous +heat. These crimson heights are of +gases, glowing and brilliant.</p> + +<p>It is pretty safe to say of the Sun, as of the +Moon, that people such as we are could not possibly +live there. If the Moon is too cold, the Sun +is infinitely too hot. If the Moon has no air, the +Sun has certainly none of the right kind for men +and animals to breathe. Besides, how could they +exist on a globe of fiery gases?</p> + +<p>We know pretty well what the burning power +of the Sun is, even here, on a hot summer’s day, +as he shines out of a cloudless sky. But this is +ninety-two millions of miles off!</p> + +<p>Imagine what the desperate heat and glare +must be at a distance of only a few thousand +miles; not to speak of close to the Sun!</p> + +<p>If our Earth were to journey to a place in the +sky as far away from the Sun as our Moon is +now from us, one of those fiery mountain-tongues +of crimson gas might leap out and wrap itself +round the whole Earth. But long before she +could get so near she would have become a tomb +of death—scorched, and dried up, and withered. +The seas would all have turned into hot steam, +and not a blade of grass would be left.</p> + +<p>Yet, although, if we could venture near, we<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</span> +should be destroyed, on the other hand we owe +much to the Sun. Did you ever think what a +dark and cold and lifeless globe our Earth would +be without him?</p> + +<p>All our light, except a few star-glimmers, +comes from the Sun. Even moonlight is really +reflected sunlight.</p> + +<p>Almost all our heat comes from him. Once +upon a time the Earth was hot and glowing, and +some heat still remains deep underground even +now. But this heat could do little for us if the +Sun were absent. You know how icy-cold the +ground becomes in winter.</p> + +<p>Still, you may say, we have fires to warm us, +and lamps and candles to give us light.</p> + +<p>But how could we have either without the +Sun? His rays cause the trees to grow from +which we obtain our wood. His warmth in the +long past made those forests grow which were +afterwards buried under ground and became coal. +When we burn coal and wood they give out again +the heat which once they borrowed from the Sun.</p> + +<p>Without the Sun there could be no oil for +lamps, no tallow or wax for candles. Nothing +would live, nothing would grow. Our Earth +would be a dead world like the Moon, fixed and +changeless.</p> + +<p>True, the Sun shines upon the Moon as upon +us; and there he can do little, because air and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</span> +water are wanting. <i>With</i> air and water for his +useful servants he can do much. But air and +water without the Sun could do nothing at +all—in fact they would be air and water no +longer.</p> + +<p>So we can trace gratefully to the Sun all the +heat, the glow, the light, the life, the growth, +that we find on Earth. And one step farther +brings us to the thought of <span class="allsmcap">OUR FATHER IN +HEAVEN</span>, who created the Sun, and who appointed +it to be our storehouse of Heat and +Light.</p> + + +<p class="c">QUESTIONS.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>1. Has the Sun phases like the moon?</p> + + +<p class="bit">No, he always appears round in shape.</p> + + + +<p>2. Has the Sun gray markings?</p> + + +<p class="bit">No, but he has dark spots.</p> + + + +<p>3. Are the spots large, or small?</p> + + +<p class="bit">They seem small to us at this distance, but +they are really large.</p> + + + +<p>4. What size are they?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Fifty thousand miles across, or a hundred +thousand miles across, are not uncommon.</p> + + + +<p>5. How was the Sun first found to spin round?</p> + + +<p class="bit">By the movement of spots across his face, +from one side to the other.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</span></p> + + + +<p>6. What is the length of the Sun’s spin?</p> + + +<p class="bit">He spins on his axis once in about 25 or 26 +days.</p> + + + +<p>7. Where are spots more often seen?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Not far from the Sun’s equator.</p> + + + +<p>8. Do the spots remain long?</p> + + +<p class="bit">A spot sometimes comes and goes in one +day. Other spots stay for weeks, and even +months.</p> + + + +<p>9. What are the spots believed to be?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Holes torn by storms in the Sun’s covering +of bright clouds.</p> + + + +<p>10. Is any other kind of storm seen on the Sun?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Sometimes white spots are seen.</p> + + + +<p>11. Is the Sun heavy in make, or light?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Not much heavier than water.</p> + + + +<p>12. What can be seen in an eclipse which is not seen +usually?</p> + + +<p class="bit">A crimson ocean of gases, mountains of fiery +gases, and the “Corona,” or Crown of light.</p> + + + +<p>13. How high are the gas-mountains?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Sometimes fifty thousand or a hundred thousand +miles high.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</span></p> + + + +<p>14. Are they always the same?</p> +> + +<p class="bit">No; they come and go and change, like the +black spots.</p> + + + +<p>15. Is it likely that men could live on the Sun?</p> + + +<p class="bit">It seems quite impossible, the sun being in a +state of raging heat.</p> + + + +<p>16. Do we owe much to the Sun?</p> + + +<p class="bit">All our light and heat. Without the Sun +our world would be a dead world.</p></div> +<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="c10">CHAPTER X.</h2> +</div> + +<p class="c sp">HOW THE WORLD JOURNEYS.</p> + + +<p><span class="smcap large">You</span> see now how it is that on the Earth we +have day and night. The whole Earth spins +round and round, and so each part of her in +turn comes into sunlight.</p> + +<p>This is not the only way in which our Earth +moves. She also journeys round and round the +Sun, revolving always on her axis every day as +she goes.</p> + +<p>A year on the Earth is about three hundred +and sixty-five days long, or twelve months. +Our “year” means just that time in which the +Earth travels once round the Sun. And in that +year, as she journeys, she turns right round +upon her axis three hundred and sixty-five +times.</p> + +<p>So there are two separate movements of the +Earth. A boy may, if he likes, stand still, and +spin round like a top. Or he may walk round +the table without spinning. Or he may do the +two things together: he may walk round the +table, and as he goes he may keep spinning like +a top. That is how the Earth goes round the +Sun.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</span></p> + +<p>As she moves she is always at much the +same distance from the Sun—about 92 millions +of miles off. In one part of her pathway she is +a little farther, and in another part a little +nearer; but there is never very much difference.</p> + +<p>Sometimes she is on one side of the Sun, +sometimes on another side. Always, day after +day, and year after year, she keeps steadily +journeying round and round the Sun.</p> + +<p>This is how we get our seasons upon Earth. +Spring is followed by summer, summer by autumn, +autumn by winter, winter by spring +again. It is on and on, the same thing, year +after year.</p> + +<p>In an earlier chapter you heard about the Equinoxes +and the Solstices. There is an Equinox +in the spring, a Solstice in the summer, an Equinox +in the autumn, and a Solstice in the winter. +At each of these times the Earth is in a different +part of her pathway round the Sun. Also she +is differently <i>placed</i>.</p> + +<p>It is of course quite clear to you by this time +that our Earth is a round solid globe in the sky. +Also that the axis of the Earth is a straight line +from her north to her south pole, right through +the middle of her.</p> + +<p>Now I want you to understand that, as the +Earth goes round the Sun, her axis <i>leans over a</i><span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</span> +<i>little</i> in one direction, and always in the same +direction.</p> + +<p>Have you a good-sized soft ball to picture +the Earth? Stick a big bonnet-pin right +through the middle of it; that pin is the Earth’s +axis. The pin’s head shows the north pole, and +the pin’s point shows the south pole.</p> + +<p>Properly, of course, if this little Earth is +about four inches through in size, it ought to +travel round and round a huge shining balloon, +three-quarters of a mile off, to show how the +Earth goes round the Sun.</p> + +<p>But this, I am afraid, you will hardly be able +to manage. So you must let distances alone, +and just have a candle or a lamp on a table, and +learn with that how we get our summer and +winter.</p> + +<p>First, now, hold the ball on one side of the +candle. Let its north pole—the pin’s head—point +in a sloping way <i>over</i> the candle-flame; +not exactly towards the candle, and not up +straight towards the ceiling, but in a slant.</p> + +<p>This means Summer for the northern half of +your little world, and Winter for the southern +half. You must notice carefully how the north +pole is towards the candle and the south pole is +away from it. So, at the same time, we in the +north have our Summer Solstice and people in +the south have their Winter Solstice.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</span></p> + +<p>Next, carry round your ball to the other side +of the candle, just opposite to where you have +been; but do not turn it in your hand as you go. +The <i>slant</i> or <i>lean</i> of the pin must be the same; +and the pin’s head must point still just where it +pointed before. You will see now that the south +pole is towards the candle, and the north pole is +away from it.</p> + +<p>This means Summer for the southern half of +your little world, and Winter for the northern +half. So we in the north have our Winter Solstice +while friends in the south have their Summer +Solstice.</p> + +<p>Between Summer and Winter lie the Spring +and the Autumn Equinoxes.</p> + +<p>For either of these you must carry your ball +to one side of the candle, half-way between the +summer place and the winter place. Your pin +must still slant exactly as it did before, with no +change in the direction of its head.</p> + +<p>You will then find neither north pole nor +south pole towards the candle. The pin lies +<i>sideways</i> to it, and the candle-light falls on both +poles alike. So here, as the Earth spins, days +and nights are of just the same length; and this +is one of the Equinoxes.</p> + +<p>Over the greater part of the Earth days and +nights are always altering in length between +the Spring Equinox and the Autumn Equinox.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</span> +Days are getting longer and nights shorter; or +nights are getting longer and days shorter.</p> + +<p>In the very far north, and in the very far +south, near the poles, things are different. +There, when the pole is turned towards the +Sun, one full day lasts for months, with no sunset. +And there, when the pole is turned away +from the Sun, one full night lasts for months, +with no sunrise.</p> + +<p>Some chapters back we were thinking about +our Earth as she floats in the sky, with stars all +around her everywhere. You heard how the +stars seem to travel every night across the sky, +and how this seeming journey of theirs is +brought about by our own Earth’s daily spinning +on her axis.</p> + +<p>The stars which we see in our sky are not +exactly the same all the year round. Some are +the same, but some are different. Fresh star-groups +come into view in the evening at one +time of the year, and vanish again at another +time.</p> + +<p>This is because we can only see those stars +which lie in a direction <i>away from the Sun</i>. It is +impossible for us to see those which lie <i>beyond +the Sun</i>; for they are above the horizon when +he is above it, and their faint glimmers are quite +hidden by his radiance.</p> + +<p>As we go round the Sun, we see him month<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</span> +by month in a fresh part of the sky, and behind +him lie fresh star-groups. So our journey +makes the Sun seem to move among the stars, +and the Sun’s seeming pathway we call the +Ecliptic.</p> + +<p>As the Earth travels, her north pole always +points exactly in one direction—always <i>towards +the Pole-star</i>.</p> + +<p>If a man were standing at the north pole and +looking upwards, he would see the Pole-star +always, at any hour of the night, in just the +very same spot.</p> + +<p>When we think of our Earth as a globe floating +in the sky, we must try to remember that in +the Sky there is no real “up” or “down.” This +you have heard before.</p> + +<p>Our “up” is always towards the sky, and +away from the ground. But as the Earth turns +round and round our “up” is every hour in a +fresh direction.</p> + +<p>For the blue heaven is all around us, and +from every part of the Earth we look up into the +depths of the sky.</p> + +<p>We speak of some stars being in the “northern +sky,” and of other stars being in the “southern +sky.” For our own use we have given the +name “northern sky” to one part of the heavens, +and the name “southern sky” to another +part.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</span></p> + +<p>Only “north” does not mean up, and south +does not mean “down.” The only true “up” +for us is from any part of the Earth where we +may be towards the sky over our heads, and the +only true “down” is towards the middle of our +Earth, under our feet.</p> + + +<p class="c">QUESTIONS.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>1. What is a Year?</p> + + +<p class="bit">The time that our Earth takes to journey +round the Sun.</p> + + + +<p>2. How long is the Earth’s Year?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Twelve months, or about 365 days.</p> + + + +<p>3. How many times does the Earth turn round on her +axis in one Year?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Three hundred and sixty-five times.</p> + + + +<p>4. What is meant by the Seasons?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Spring, Summer, Autumn and Winter.</p> + + + +<p>5. How are the Seasons caused?</p> + + +<p class="bit">The Earth travels round the Sun with her +axis slanting.</p> + + + +<p>6. How does it slant?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Always in one direction, with her north pole +pointing to the Pole-star.</p> + + + +<p>7. What brings summer to us in the north?</p> + + +<p class="bit">When the Earth is on one side of the Sun<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</span> +her north pole is towards the Sun, and the +northern half of the Earth gets most of his heat +and light.</p> + + + +<p>8. What brings winter to us?</p> + + +<p class="bit">When the Earth gets round to the other side +of the Sun her north pole is turned away from +him, and so we in the north have less heat and +light.</p> + + + +<p>9. Do they have summer and winter in the south of the +world?</p> + + +<p class="bit">The southern half of the world has summer +when we have winter in the north, and winter +when we have summer in the north.</p> + + + +<p>10. How is this?</p> + + +<p class="bit">When the north pole is towards the Sun the +south pole is turned away, and when the north +pole is away from the Sun the south pole is +towards him.</p> + + + +<p>11. When are the Equinoxes?</p> + + +<p class="bit">In Spring and Autumn, half-way between +Summer and Winter.</p> + + + +<p>12. In which part of the world is the Equinox?</p> + + +<p class="bit">All over the world at once.</p> + + + +<p>13. Which pole is then turned towards the Sun?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Neither pole. The Earth’s axis is then sideways<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</span> +to the Sun, and his light falls on north and +south pole alike.</p> + + + +<p>14. What is the Ecliptic?</p> + + +<p class="bit">The path which the Sun seems to take in the +sky through one year.</p> + + + +<p>15. Where would a man at the north pole see the Pole-star?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Always exactly overhead.</p></div> +<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="c11">CHAPTER XI.</h2> +</div> + +<p class="c">OTHER WORLDS.</p> + + +<p><span class="smcap large">Now</span> for the Planets, or Worlds, which journey +as our Earth journeys, round and round +the Sun, each in its own particular pathway. +And—to begin with—a few words as to what +keeps them in their pathways.</p> + +<p>Two things working together do this. There +is an inward pull, and there is also an outward +pull.</p> + +<p>The inward pull is the pull of Attraction, +known also as Gravitation. You have heard a +little about Attraction before. You know how +the Earth pulls, with a steady downward drag, +everything upon her surface. And in just the +very same manner the Sun pulls towards himself +all the worlds, little or big, which float +around him in the sky.</p> + +<p>When you try to jump up from the Earth +you drop back. It is impossible for you to get +right away, merely by jumping, because of the +Earth’s strong pull.</p> + +<p>And if our Earth tries to get away from the +Sun, she cannot do so either; because of the +Sun’s strong pull. In fact she is always trying +and never succeeds.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</span></p> + +<p>She is always trying to get away because +she is always on the rush; always hastening at +a great speed, and struggling to go straight forward +in her rush, while the pull of the Sun +keeps drawing her out of a straight line and +making her travel in a bent path round the Sun.</p> + +<p>If it were not for the Earth’s rapid onward +movement she would soon fall down upon the +Sun; and if it were not for the Sun’s pull she +would soon wander away from him. These two +things—the inward pull of the Sun’s attraction +and the outward pull of our Earth’s own quick +rush—keep her at her present distance from the +Sun.</p> + +<p>It is the same with the other Planets. They +too journey round the Sun in oval pathways. +Those worlds which are nearer to him are +pulled more strongly; and they have to fly +along at a great speed, to escape from falling +down upon his fiery surface. Those which are +farther off are pulled more feebly; and they +move at a much slower pace.</p> + +<p>When “attraction” is spoken of, remember +that it is always a pull on both sides. The +Earth attracts the Sun, as well as the Sun attracting +the Earth; and all the Planets attract +one another. But the pull of the Sun is so powerful +that other pullings seem small by comparison.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</span></p> + +<p>Our world is only one little planet in the +great Kingdom of the Sun. That kingdom is +commonly called “<span class="smcap">The Solar System</span>.”</p> + +<p>A “system” means something which is arranged, +or which is made up of different parts +put together in an orderly manner. The word +“solar” is from the Latin for “Sun.” So, by +the Solar System we mean that great System or +Arrangement of Worlds which is governed by +the Sun.</p> + +<p>No two worlds are at the same distance from +the Sun; but all the larger planets travel on +very much the same <i>plane</i>—that is, on the same +level, or the same <i>flat</i>, in the sky.</p> + +<p>Also, they all go the same way. They journey +round the Sun from west to east; not from +east to west.</p> + +<p>Astronomers have sometimes fancied that +they could catch a glimpse of one small world +very near to the Sun, which they named <span class="smcap">Vulcan</span>. +But it is very doubtful whether there +really is any such planet at all. If there is, he +is almost lost in the glare of the Sun.</p> + +<p>The nearest to the Sun of which we know +positively is named <span class="smcap">Mercury</span>.</p> + +<p>He is much smaller than our world, though +larger than our Moon; and he whirls along at a +dizzy speed.</p> + +<p>Outside the pathway of Mercury, like a large<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</span> +hoop round a little one, only at a good distance +off, lies the oval-shaped pathway of <span class="smcap">Venus</span>.</p> + +<p>Though we often speak carelessly of this +lovely world as “The Evening Star,” Venus is +no star, but a planet like the Earth, shining +only in the Sun’s light. And, although perhaps +not really brighter in herself than all +other worlds, Venus is by far the brightest in +our sky.</p> + +<p>Mercury’s pathway lies too close to the Sun +to give us often very good views of him. Besides, +Mercury is not only much smaller than +Venus, but much farther away from us.</p> + +<p>That is to say, Mercury at his nearest is farther +off from us than Venus at her nearest. +When Mercury happens to be between the Sun +and us, while Venus happens to be far away on +the other side of the Sun, just then, of course, +Mercury for a little while is the closer to us of +the two.</p> + +<p>If you have three hoops of different sizes +you will be able to see quite easily how this +comes about.</p> + +<p>Lay the hoops on the floor, one within another, +and place a ball in the middle for the Sun. +Then lay one marble, for the Earth, close to the +outermost and largest hoop, and another marble +for Mercury, close to the innermost and smallest +hoop, on the <i>same side</i> as the Earth-marble.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</span> +Then put a marble, for Venus, close to the middle-sized +hoop, still on the same side.</p> + +<p>So the three worlds are all together on the +same side, as near as they ever can come one to +another. And you will see that Mercury can +never get so close to the Earth as Venus can.</p> + +<p>But now, leaving the Earth and Mercury +alone, move the Venus-marble half-way round +its hoop, to just the opposite side of the Sun. +You will then understand how sometimes, for a +little while, Venus may be actually much farther +off than Mercury from our Earth.</p> + +<p>These worlds all travel on different pathways +at different speeds, and the pathways are not of +the same length. So the worlds never keep +long side by side. For a little while they may +journey in company; then one gets ahead and +the other drops behind. By-and-by they are on +opposite sides of the Sun; and then in time +they draw near one to another again.</p> + +<p>Both Mercury and Venus have <i>phases</i>, or +seeming changes of shape, like our Moon. They +shine only on one side, that side which is towards +the Sun; and sometimes we see only part +of the bright side, not the whole of it. But the +changes are too small at such a distance to be +seen without a telescope.</p> + +<p>Venus is very nearly the same size as our +Earth. She lies farther from the Sun than Mercury,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</span> +and nearer the Earth. This means that +she has more light and more heat than we have, +but less light and less heat than Mercury has. +From Venus the Sun looks very much larger +and more brilliant than we see him, yet much +smaller and less brilliant than as seen from +Mercury.</p> + +<p>Also, the Sun pulls Venus more strongly than +he pulls the Earth, but less strongly than he +pulls Mercury. Venus does not journey so fast +as Mercury, but she goes farther than our Earth +goes.</p> + +<p>You see how perfectly these things are all +planned, so as just to fit in one with another. +We may well talk of our Sun’s kingdom in the +sky as a <i>System</i>, when we find its wonderful arrangements +and note the order and beauty of +the whole.</p> + +<p>The two inner worlds, Mercury and Venus, +are called “Inferior Planets,” because they lie +between the Earth and the Sun. All other worlds, +having pathways outside our Earth’s pathway, +are called “Superior Planets.”</p> + +<p>The next oval hoop which surrounds the pathway +of Venus is that of <span class="smcap">The Earth</span>.</p> + +<p>Outside the pathway of our Earth lies that of +<span class="smcap">Mars</span>: another world, a good deal smaller than +the Earth or Venus, but larger than Mercury.</p> + +<p>Both Mercury and Venus can only be seen in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</span> +the sky near to the Sun, either a short time before +he rises in the morning, or not long after he +sets in the evening—either towards the east in +the morning, or towards the west in the evening. +But Mars and all the other outer planets may be +seen in various parts of the sky at different times.</p> + +<p>Of these four small Worlds our Earth is the +largest, being nearly 8,000 miles straight through +from side to side.</p> + +<p>Venus is the next in size, being nearly as +large as Earth.</p> + +<p>Mars is the next, being about 4,000 miles +through.</p> + +<p>Mercury is the smallest, being less than 3,000 +miles through.</p> + +<p>And our Moon, as you know, is smaller still, +being only 2,000 miles through.</p> + +<p>Suppose we look upon these worlds, as we +have done earlier, in a lessened size; letting one +inch stand for 2,000 miles.</p> + +<p>Then to picture our Moon we should want a +very large grape, or a small walnut, one inch +through.</p> + +<p>Our Earth would be a very big apple, or a +small cocoa-nut, four inches through.</p> + +<p>Venus would be another big apple, almost as +large as the Earth.</p> + +<p>Mars might be a small orange, two inches +through.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</span></p> + +<p>Mercury might be a crab-apple, only one inch +and a half straight through.</p> + +<p>If you can manage to find five balls of the +right sizes, and put them all in a row, you will +get a very fair idea of the sizes of these worlds, +as <i>compared</i> one with another.</p> + +<p>Try also to fix the names firmly in your +memory, by saying them often over and over—“Mercury, +Venus, Earth, Mars.”</p> + +<p>Remember that “Earth” is the name of our +world, just as “Venus” is the name of another +world. All the planets are “worlds,” but only +one of them is “Earth.”</p> + +<p>After Mars comes a wide space in the heavens, +which for a long while was thought to be quite +empty of worlds. But it is not empty. Instead +of one big planet a great many tiny ones are +there, journeying round the Sun in company. +Nearly three hundred and fifty are known to us, +and fresh ones are still often found.</p> + +<p>When first discovered, about one hundred +years ago, these small worlds were named <span class="smcap">Asteroids</span>, +or Little Stars. Now they are known +as <span class="smcap">Planetoids</span>, or Little Planets. This is the +right name for them, since they are not stars +but planets, or worlds.</p> + +<p>Only they are very, very tiny worlds. The +biggest of them all is under 400 miles through; +and most of them are much less. So if the Moon<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</span> +is pictured by a large grape, a pea would be far +too big for most of the Planetoids.</p> + +<p>This belt of Planetoids comes after a broad +gap of space, between it and Mars; and it is followed +by another wide gap.</p> + +<p>Then we get to the pathway of <span class="smcap">Jupiter</span>.</p> + +<p>Here indeed is a contrast. The Planetoids +are the smallest worlds in the whole Polar System, +and Jupiter is the largest. He is very, very +far away; yet, as he shines in our sky, he is often +the most splendid object we can see there, +second only to Venus.</p> + +<p>Venus is very much <i>smaller</i> than Jupiter; but +Venus is also very much <i>nearer</i> than Jupiter.</p> + +<p>Not one of all the other planets is as big +as Jupiter. While our Earth is only eight +thousand miles through, Jupiter is eighty-five +thousand miles through. This makes a wonderful +difference. Jupiter is very small beside +the Sun, but he is very huge beside our little +Earth.</p> + +<p>Jupiter’s speed is far slower than that of the +inner planets. At his vast distance the pull of +the Sun is much weaker, and so he does not go +so fast.</p> + +<p>If Jupiter whirled round the Sun as fast as +Mars does the Sun could not hold him in, and +he would wander away and be lost. But if Mercury +were to journey at Jupiter’s pace he could<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</span> +not keep away from the Sun, and he would, most +likely, soon be destroyed.</p> + +<p>Jupiter does not travel alone. He has a family +of moons; not one only, like our Earth, but five +moons, the nearest of which has been quite lately +found. These moons all journey with Jupiter +round the Sun; and they also go round Jupiter +as our Moon goes round the Earth.</p> + +<p>Beyond Jupiter, at a great distance, is another +giant world, <span class="smcap">Saturn</span>. Not quite so big as +Jupiter, but not very far behind him in size.</p> + +<p>Saturn too has a family, not of five moons +only but of eight moons. He also has three very +wonderful rings, which shine in the sunlight. +Neither rings nor moons can be seen without a +very good telescope.</p> + +<p>Outside the pathway of Saturn lies that of +<span class="smcap">Uranus</span>, another huge world, though a good +deal smaller than Saturn.</p> + +<p>Outside the pathway of Uranus travels the +dim and distant <span class="smcap">Neptune</span>—so far as we know, +the outermost world of the whole Solar System. +Neptune is rather larger than Uranus.</p> + +<p>So there are first the four smaller or Lesser +Planets—Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars; then the +Planetoids; and then the four big Outer Planets—Jupiter, +Saturn, Uranus, Neptune.</p> + +<p>Now look again at your little balls which +picture the sizes of the smaller planets. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</span> +biggest of them is our Earth—a ball or a cocoa-nut +four inches through.</p> + +<p>But when we turn to Jupiter, still letting one +inch stand for 2,000 miles, we shall want a ball +or globe no less than <i>three feet and a half</i> through, +from side to side.</p> + +<p>And for Saturn we must find a globe <i>three +feet</i> through.</p> + +<p>And for Uranus a globe less than <i>one foot and +a half</i> through.</p> + +<p>And for Neptune a globe quite <i>one foot and +a half</i> through.</p> + +<p>Then, to finish up, we shall want a big balloon, +for the Sun, <i>thirty-five feet</i> through.</p> + + +<p class="c">QUESTIONS.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>1. What is the Solar System?</p> + + +<p class="bit">The Sun’s Kingdom of Worlds in the Sky.</p> + + + +<p>2. What is a System?</p> + + +<p class="bit">An orderly arrangement.</p> + + + +<p>3. What is a Planet?</p> + + +<p class="bit">A planet is a world which shines by borrowed +light.</p> + + + +<p>4. What is an Orbit?</p> + + +<p class="bit">A planet’s pathway.</p> + + + +<p>5. How do the pathways of the planets lie round the Sun?</p> + + +<p class="bit">One outside another, and all of them very +nearly on the same level.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</span></p> + + + +<p>6. Which are the four Lesser Planets—nearest to the +Sun?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars.</p> + + + +<p>7. What comes next?</p> + + +<p class="bit">The belt of tiny Planetoids.</p> + + + +<p>8. Which are the four Outer Planets?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune.</p> + + + +<p>9. Which is the largest planet of all?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Jupiter.</p> + + + +<p>10. If our Earth were only four inches through how big +should Jupiter be?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Three feet and a half through.</p> + + + +<p>11. How many moons has Jupiter?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Five moons.</p> + + + +<p>12. How many moons has Saturn?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Eight moons, and three rings.</p> + + + +<p>13. Which planet is nearest to the Sun?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Mercury.</p> + + + +<p>14. Is this quite sure?</p> + + +<p class="bit">An inner planet, Vulcan, may be there; but +this is very uncertain.</p> + + + +<p>15. Which is the farthest off planet known to us?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Neptune.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</span></p> + + + +<p>16. How many Planetoids do we know of?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Nearly 350; and new ones are often found.</p> + + + +<p>19. Which planets travel fastest?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Those nearest to the Sun.</p> + + + +<p>20. Why do they travel faster?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Because the pull of the Sun is so much +stronger.</p> + + + +<p>21. In what direction do the planets travel?</p> + + +<p class="bit">All of them from west to east.</p> + + + +<p>22. Which way do they spin?</p> + + +<p class="bit">All of them from west to east.</p></div> +<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="c12">CHAPTER XII.</h2> +</div> + +<p class="c sp">WHAT IS MEANT BY AN ECLIPSE.</p> + + +<p><span class="smcap large">Before</span> telling you more about the other +worlds in the Sun’s kingdom I should like you +to understand what is meant by an Eclipse.</p> + +<p>The word “Eclipse” really means “a failure”—as +when something <i>fails</i> to shine because +its light is somehow hidden or shadowed.</p> + +<p>First, we will think about an <span class="smcap">Eclipse of the +Sun</span>.</p> + +<p>For this we will forget all other worlds, and +fix our minds only on the Earth, the Moon, and +the Sun.</p> + +<p>The Sun is in the centre, or, as a child +would say, “in the middle.” The Earth journeys +round him. The Moon also journeys +round the Sun; and, as she goes, she curves +backwards and forwards, so as to be on each +side of the Earth in turn.</p> + +<p>Sometimes she is outside the Earth, away +from the Sun; and then we see her as Full +Moon. Sometimes she is between the Earth +and the Sun—only a little higher or lower, and +not exactly between:—and then she is New Moon, +with her bright face turned from us, so that we +cannot see her.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</span></p> + +<p>Suppose the Moon, instead of being at “New +Moon” a little higher or lower, were to pass just +<i>exactly</i> between the Sun and us; what would +happen?</p> + +<p>We should see her as a dark round body, +creeping over the face of the Sun, and hiding +him from us.</p> + +<p>And this is precisely what we do see, from +time to time. Once in a while the Moon does +come into the line between; and then we have +an Eclipse of the Sun: we see the moon’s dark +body covering or partly covering his face.</p> + +<p>You must not think that the Moon is at such +times any darker than usual. She always has a +dark side and a bright side. At New Moon the +dark side is towards us, and so we cannot see it +at all—<i>unless</i> she happens to be just between the +Sun and us.</p> + +<p>But you must not suppose for a moment +that she really touches the face of the Sun. +The Moon is no nearer to the Sun than usual. +She is only <i>between</i> him and us.</p> + +<p>If you are in a room with a lamp on the +table, and somebody holds a big ball just between +your eyes and the lamp, what happens?</p> + +<p>The lamp is eclipsed. It does not leave off +shining, but to you it is eclipsed, or hidden. +You see the dark ball, not the bright globe of +the lamp beyond it.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</span></p> + +<p>That is how we have an eclipse of the Sun. +Now and then, at New Moon, our Moon glides +exactly between, just as the ball came between +your eyes and the lamp. And then the light of +the Sun is cut off from part of the Earth.</p> + +<p>An eclipse of the Sun is always known about +beforehand. The Moon’s pathway and the +Earth’s pathway are so well understood by +astronomers that they can tell when she will +pass a little higher, or a little lower, and when +she will go just between, so as to eclipse the +Sun.</p> + +<p>Then, when the moment comes, we look +earnestly at the Sun, perhaps with telescopes, +perhaps only with pieces of smoked glass to +protect our eyes; and we see—</p> + +<p>A dark round body touching the bright side +of the Sun, then slowly crossing his face and +blotting out his radiance.</p> + +<p>Not that the Sun is dimmed, or that for a +moment he leaves off shining. Other worlds +see him still, as brilliant as ever. But to us, for +a short space, his light is hidden by the solid +Moon floating between.</p> + +<p>For a few seconds, and no more, we have almost +darkness. Then, on the side of the Sun +where the moon seemed first to touch him, a +line of light is seen. This widens fast, as the +dark round moon draws away to the opposite<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</span> +edge and then vanishes, and the whole Sun +shines out as usual.</p> + +<p>Even when an eclipse can be seen it is often +only a <i>Partial</i> eclipse, not <i>Total</i>. Only part of +the Sun is hidden, not all of him. The Moon +creeps over one edge, or perhaps over half of +the Sun’s face, but she does not cover him quite.</p> + +<p>Now and then we have what is called an +<i>Annular</i> eclipse. The round dark body of the +Moon is seen upon the face of the Sun, and a +bright rim of the Sun is all round the Moon.</p> + +<p>It seems odd that at one time the Moon +should quite hide the Sun, and that at another +time the Moon should be too small to hide him.</p> + +<p>The reason is that the Moon is sometimes a +little nearer to us, sometimes a little farther +away; and the Sun too is the same—sometimes +a little nearer, sometimes a little farther.</p> + +<p>If an eclipse happens just when the Moon is +at her farthest from us, and so seems her smallest, +while the Sun is at his nearest to us, and so +seems his biggest, then she is not large enough +to cover his whole face. But if the Sun is at +his farthest, and the Moon at her nearest, she +can hide him entirely.</p> + +<p>When a Total Eclipse is foretold, astronomers +are eager to make the most of it. Telescopes +are pointed at him, and photographs are +taken. Much can be seen during a total eclipse<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</span> +which is hidden from us at other times, because +the dazzling brilliance of the Sun’s body is for a +few seconds cut off from our eyes.</p> + +<p>The ocean of fire round the Sun is seen at +his edge, outside the dark body of the Moon, by +those who look through telescopes; also the +sharp mountains of fiery gases, and the soft +broad crown of light spreading away on all +sides.</p> + +<p>But the very utmost has to be made of each +moment. Hardly has the Moon’s body covered +the whole face of the Sun before she begins to +move away from the side which first she seemed +to touch; and as a bright line of light appears +there, these wonderful sights vanish.</p> + +<p>Remember, an Eclipse of the Sun never happens +except at the time of New Moon. It is +only then that the Moon can possibly be just +between the Sun and our Earth.</p> + +<p>Another kind of Eclipse, however, may happen +at Full Moon; and that is an eclipse of the +Moon herself.</p> + +<p>An <span class="smcap">Eclipse of the Moon</span> is partly like and +partly unlike an Eclipse of the Sun.</p> + +<p>In an Eclipse of the Sun we have the solid +body of the Moon gliding in between, and hiding +his light from us though all the time the +Sun shines on just the same, behind the +Moon.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig10.jpg" alt="moon"> +<p class="caption"><i>At 9:32.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig11.jpg" alt="moon"> +<p class="caption"><i>At 9:37.</i></p> +<p class="caption"><i>Eclipse of the Moon. January 28, 1888.</i></p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</span></p> +<p>In an eclipse of the Moon we, on the Earth, +have no solid body between us and the Moon. +Her brightness is not simply hidden, it is for +the moment quenched by a shadow. For the +shadow of our Earth falls upon her.</p> + +<p>The Moon is bright only when the sunshine +makes her bright. When the solid body of the +Earth, gliding in between, cuts off the sunlight +from her, then the Moon shines no longer. So +long as she is plunged in the Earth’s shadow +she is all dark.</p> + +<p>You have seen with a lamp and a big ball +how the Sun can be eclipsed by the Moon.</p> + +<p>Now, instead of letting some one hold the +ball between your head and the lamp, you must +get some one to hold the ball farther off while +you move <i>with your head between the lamp and the +ball</i>. Place your head exactly between, so that +its shadow covers the ball.</p> + +<p>Then you have a picture of a Moon-Eclipse.</p> + +<p>So once in a while, when the Earth goes exactly +between Sun and Moon, the Moon for a +very short time is not a bright world at all. +She is quite a dull one. But the very moment +she catches a glimpse of the Sun’s radiant face +she begins to shine again.</p> + +<p>There is, you see, a great likeness, as well as +some difference, between an Eclipse of the Sun +and an Eclipse of the Moon.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</span></p> + +<p>In an Eclipse of the Moon the Earth glides +between Sun and Moon, and the Moon passes +into the Earth’s shadow. In an Eclipse of the +Sun, the Moon glides between Sun and Earth, +and a part of our Earth passes into the Moon’s +shadow. The Earth’s shadow is large, and the +Moon’s shadow is small; yet so far the two kinds +of Eclipse are really alike.</p> + +<p>If you and I were standing on the Sun we +should see the Earth eclipse the Moon, and the +Moon eclipse part of the Earth, by turns, and in +the same way. The Earth would slip in front +of the Moon, hiding the Moon from us; or the +Moon would slip in front of the Earth, hiding +part of the Earth from us.</p> + +<p>But looking upon the two sights from the +Earth, and not from the Sun, they seem to us a +little different in kind.</p> + +<p>Other Eclipses take place in the kingdom of +the Sun besides these two.</p> + +<p>There are many other moons besides our +Moon. You should always remember that +<span class="smcap">Moon</span> is the name of our particular moon, just +as <span class="smcap">Earth</span> is the name of our particular world. +Other little worlds travelling with big ones are +spoken of as “moons;” but more rightly they +ought to be called “satellites.” Each one has +its own separate name; whereas <i>our</i> “satellite” +has no other name except “The Moon.”</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig12.jpg" alt="moon"> +<p class="caption"><i>At 10.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig13.jpg" alt="moon"> +<p class="caption"><i>At 10:15.</i></p> +<p class="caption"><i>Eclipse of the Moon. January 28, 1888.</i></p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</span></p> + +<p>Mars has two tiny moons, and Mars often +eclipses his moons. Jupiter has five moons, and +they often pass into his vast shadow. The eight +moons of Saturn, the four moons of Uranus, the +moon of Neptune, are all in turn eclipsed. Also, +in turn, they all pass between the Sun and the +Planet to which they belong, casting a small +shadow on the Planet, and making an Eclipse of +the Sun for that part where the shadow falls.</p> + +<p>One or two other things often seen are much +like Eclipses, though known by other names.</p> + +<p>For instance, as the Moon journeys at night +across the sky—<i>seems</i> to journey, I mean—she +blots out star after star on her way.</p> + +<p>Does she really blot each star out, as you +might snuff out a candle?</p> + +<p>No, indeed. She only comes between our +eyes and the star. The Moon is still as near as +usual, and the star beyond is as far off as usual. +But, for a little while, the Moon, being exactly +in the line between, hides the star from us.</p> + +<p>We do not speak of this as an eclipse, but +really it <i>is</i> an Eclipse of the stars by the Moon.</p> + +<p>They are hidden by the solid body of the +Moon, just exactly as the Sun is hidden during a +Total Eclipse. The chief difference is that we +look upon the bright side of the Moon, instead of +the dark side.</p> + +<p>Again, you will sometimes hear of a <span class="smcap">Conjunction</span> +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</span>of two planets, or of a planet and a +very bright star.</p> + +<p>A “Conjunction” means “a joining together.”</p> + +<p>Jupiter is seen, in the sky, to come very close +indeed to Saturn. We are told that it is “a +Conjunction” of Jupiter and Saturn.</p> + +<p>Still you must not for a moment think that +Jupiter is any closer than usual to Saturn. They +are divided, as always, by a great gulf of millions +upon millions of miles. The two only happen +to be for a while in nearly the same <i>line of sight</i>, +as looked upon from the Earth. Saturn is very +much farther off, but he is almost <i>behind</i> Jupiter.</p> + +<p>Instead of Jupiter and Saturn seeming to +draw near together, it may be Jupiter and Venus; +or perhaps Jupiter and Mars; or Saturn and the +bright star Sirius.</p> + +<p>But in each case it is only a seeming nearness. +They are not really near together. It is +only a matter of the one being seen <i>beyond</i> the +other—very greatly beyond it—in almost the +same line of sight.</p> + +<p>Suppose you stood on the sea-shore and saw +a ship one or two miles off sail just between you +and another ship ten or twenty miles off. If the +near one <i>hid</i> the farther one it would be like an +Eclipse. If the near one only appeared to be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</span> +<i>side by side</i> with, the farther one it would be like +a Conjunction.</p> + +<p>There is still one more sight, which is also +like an Eclipse in its nature. Sometimes one of +the planets whose pathway lies nearer to the +Sun than the Earth’s pathway glides exactly +between the Sun and ourselves.</p> + +<p>This is just what the Moon does at an Eclipse +of the Sun. But the planet is too far away from +us to hide the Sun. We can only see a tiny dark +body creeping across the Sun’s face; and we call +this a “<span class="smcap">Transit</span>,” or a “passing over.”</p> + +<p>You will hear more about “Transits” in the +next chapter.</p> + + +<p class="c">QUESTIONS.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>1. What is an Eclipse?</p> + + +<p class="bit">A hiding of light.</p> + + + +<p>2. Tell me what causes an Eclipse of the Sun.</p> + + +<p class="bit">The round body of the Moon comes exactly +between the Earth and the Sun, and hides the +Sun from us.</p> + + + +<p>3. Tell me what causes an Eclipse of the Moon.</p> + + +<p class="bit">The round body of the Earth comes exactly +between Sun and Moon; and the Earth’s shadow +falling on the Moon makes her dark.</p> + + + +<p>4. How far are the two alike?</p> + + +<p class="bit">In an Eclipse of the Sun, the Moon is between<span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</span> +Sun and Earth. In an Eclipse of the +Moon, the Earth is between Sun and Moon.</p> + + + +<p>5. Do they seem just alike to us?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Not as seen from Earth. In an Eclipse of +the Sun we see the Moon’s solid body against +the Sun. In an Eclipse of the Moon we see +Earth’s shadow crossing the Moon’s face.</p> + + + +<p>6. Does the Moon get nearer to the Sun than usual in an +Eclipse of the Sun?</p> + + +<p class="bit">No nearer at all. She only passes <i>between</i> +the Sun and Earth.</p> + + + +<p>7. Are there any other eclipses?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Other planets with moons have eclipses in +the same way.</p> + + + +<p>8. Tell me another name for “moons.”</p> + + +<p class="bit">Satellites.</p> + + + +<p>9. What is a Conjunction of Planets?</p> + + +<p class="bit">When two planets happen to be seen near +together in the sky we call that a Conjunction.</p> + + + +<p>10. Are they really near together?</p> + + +<p class="bit">No nearer than usual. They only happen to +lie in almost the same line of sight.</p> + + + +<p>11. What is a Transit of a Planet?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Very much like an eclipse. One of the +planets, nearer to the Sun than our Earth, gets +exactly between the Sun and Earth.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</span></p> + + + +<p>12. Is the Sun’s face hidden?</p> + + +<p class="bit">No; because the planet is too far away. We +only see a small body crossing his face.</p> + + + +<p>13. At what time is an Eclipse of the Sun?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Never at any other time than New Moon.</p> + + + +<p>14. When do we have an Eclipse of the Moon?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Never at any other time than Full Moon.</p> + + + +<p>15. What is a Total Eclipse of Sun or Moon?</p> + + +<p class="bit">When the whole face of the Sun or Moon is +hidden.</p> + + + +<p>16. What is a Partial Eclipse?</p> + + +<p class="bit">When only part of the face of Sun or Moon is +hidden.</p> + + + +<p>17. What is an Annular Eclipse of the Sun?</p> + + +<p class="bit">When a bright rim of the Sun is seen all +round the dark body of the Moon.</p></div> +<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="c13">CHAPTER XIII.</h2> +</div> + +<p class="c sp">MERCURY AND VENUS.</p> + + +<p><span class="smcap large">Now</span> let us take a flight through the Sun’s +great kingdom, paying a visit to one bright +world after another on our way. We will start +from near the Sun himself, stopping first to look +at the two innermost of the Four Lesser Planets. +We might name them The Sun’s Body-Guard.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Mercury</span> has a pathway round the Sun +much more oval in its shape than our Earth’s +pathway. And the Sun is a good deal to one +side of the exact middle of that oval. So Mercury, +at one time of his year, is many millions +of miles closer to the Sun than at another time.</p> + +<p>You must remember that a Planet’s Year +means just the length of time that the Planet +takes to go once round the Sun. Our Earth’s +yearly journey takes 365 days; but other worlds +have years either longer or shorter. No two +are exactly alike.</p> + +<p>The length of Mercury’s year is about 88 of +our days, or three months of Earth-time. So +four years of Mercury go to one of our years. If +a little boy on Mercury had lived just as long +as ten of our years, he would be forty years old!</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</span></p> + +<p>When closest to the Sun, Mercury cannot +easily be seen by us, he is so lost in the Sun’s +radiance. And although perhaps the brightest +of the worlds, because so much the nearest, he +often seems dim to us.</p> + +<p>At his farthest off point from the Sun we +have our best view of him, because he then +stays longer above the horizon after the sunlight +sinks away.</p> + +<p>We never see Mercury high up in the sky, +for when Mercury is high the Sun is up also; +and when the Sun can be seen Mercury cannot +be seen without a telescope.</p> + +<p>The distance of Mercury from the Sun is +commonly said to be about thirty-six millions +of miles. That may be called his “middle-distance.” +He draws sometimes as near to the +Sun as twenty-eight millions of miles, and goes +as far off as forty-three millions of miles—a very +great difference.</p> + +<p>Even at his farthest Mercury has to endure +an awful blaze of heat and glare; and at his +nearest the most scorching mid-day ever known +on the hottest parts of the Earth would be icy +by comparison.</p> + +<p>Mercury does not always go at the same pace +through the sky. When near he travels faster, +because the Sun’s pull is stronger. When farther +off he slackens his speed.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</span></p> + +<p>At his quickest he whirls onward at the rate +of about <i>thirty-five miles each second</i>! Think +of that! A railway train does pretty well if it +gets over about thirty-five miles of ground each +<i>hour</i>, and sixty or seventy miles an hour we +count very fast travelling. But Mercury’s speed +is more than two thousand miles an hour. This +quite puts our express trains to the blush.</p> + +<p>It is impossible for us to see much of a planet +so bathed in sunlight glory.</p> + +<p>We do not know whether the axis of Mercury +does or does not slant, like the Earth’s axis. +Nor are we at all sure how long it takes Mercury +to spin upon his axis.</p> + +<p>Wonderful as it sounds, Mercury has been +weighed by man—and not only Mercury, but +the Moon, and the Sun, and the other planets, +and even some of the Stars. I cannot try, in a +book such as this, to explain <i>how</i> the heavenly +bodies are weighed from our little Earth. I can +only tell you that it is really and truly done.</p> + +<p>Mercury is a far heavier body than our +Earth; not actually more heavy as a whole, +because so much smaller, but heavier in <i>make</i>.</p> + +<p>Do you see what this means? Iron is heavier +than tin in its make. A large quantity of tin +may weigh more than a small lump of iron; yet +in actual make the iron is heavier. If Mercury +were as big as our Earth, Mercury would be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</span> +very much the heavier of the two. Our Earth +is less heavy in make than Mercury, but she +comes next after Mercury. Other worlds are +still lighter.</p> + +<p>Mercury shines less brightly than Venus, as +seen from the Earth. We have to allow for +the greater distance of Mercury; but even then +Venus seems to be more brilliant than one +would expect, while Mercury is less brilliant.</p> + +<p>Although the Sun pours his beams upon all +things alike, those beams are not always received +alike. Some worlds make more of the +light which they have than do others, and they +give out more shining in return. We see that +even on the Earth. If a sheet of polished silver +and a sheet of unpolished lead are held side by +side in the sunlight, what a difference we find! +The silver flashes brilliantly, while the lead +shows only a dull sort of brightness.</p> + +<p>Of these two worlds, so near to the Sun, +Mercury, the nearer, is said to shine only like +lead, while Venus, the farther, shines like silver.</p> + +<p>Once in a while the tiny body of Mercury is +seen to creep, as a little black dot, across the +face of the Sun: though this is only visible in a +telescope. Then we have a “Transit of Mercury.” +In the last chapter you were told what +is meant by a Transit.</p> + +<p>If Mercury were as near to us as our Moon<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</span> +is, he would hide the Sun from us in his transit +just as the Moon does in an eclipse—only +more fully, because Mercury is bigger than our +Moon.</p> + +<p>In a Transit, as in an Eclipse, there is no +real drawing together of Sun and Planet. Be +very clear in your mind about this. Mercury +glides <i>between</i> our Earth and the Sun, but he is +just as far as usual from the Earth on one side +and from the Sun on the other side.</p> + +<p>If you are gazing at a church-tower a great +many miles away, and a bird near at hand flies +between, hiding for a moment that tower from +you, the bird may be said to “eclipse” the +tower. But he does not go nearer to the church. +He only moves into the straight line between +you and the tower.</p> + +<p>And if, instead of this, a bird some distance +off flies between—then you have a “transit.” +The more distant bird cannot hide the church-tower, +but you see his little body pass across it, +as a dark spot.</p> + +<p>A transit of Mercury is not common. For +though Mercury often passes between the Earth +and the Sun he is not often <i>exactly</i> between. +His oval pathway is not quite on the same level +as the Earth’s pathway. So he is usually a little +too high or a little too low for us to see him +against the Sun.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</span></p> + +<p>Leaving Mercury behind we come next to +the pathway of the planet <span class="smcap">Venus</span>.</p> + +<p>Mercury was a good deal smaller than our +Earth; but Venus is almost the same size. Instead +of being, like Mercury, only some thirty-six +millions of miles away from the Sun, Venus +is about sixty-five millions of miles off. She +journeys round him at a rate of some twenty-two +miles each second, and her year lasts about +seven months and a half of Earth-time. In +make she is not quite so solid and heavy as our +Earth.</p> + +<p>Venus in her journey round the Sun, as our +Moon travels round the Earth, is now believed +to turn on her axis so very slowly that the same +side is always towards the Sun, and the other +side is always turned away. If this really is so, +one half of Venus has an endless day, and the +other half an endless night.</p> + +<p>The same state of things may possibly be +also true of Mercury.</p> + +<p>Both these worlds are believed to have air +around them, and Venus seems to be enwrapped +in thick clouds. This helps to explain the great +brilliancy of Venus. Nothing lights up so well +in sunshine as masses of cloud, though of course +we on Earth more generally see the dark <i>undersides</i> +of clouds.</p> + +<p>So far as we know, Venus is a lonely world.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</span> +She seems to have no little moon-friend to journey +with her in the sky.</p> + +<p>She has, however, a far more splendid Sun +than ours—the very same Sun only much nearer, +and bigger and more dazzling. She also has in +her sky a very exquisite little shining Earth, far +lovelier than Venus at her best ever appears to +us. And I will tell you why.</p> + +<p>Venus comes at times nearer to our Earth +than any other world in all the sky, except our +Moon. If the Moon is our little Sister-World +Venus is our Next-Door Neighbor.</p> + +<p>When the Earth happens to be on one side +of the Sun and Venus on the other side the +two then are widely parted. When both are on +the same side of the Sun at once they are quite +near—divided by only about twenty-six millions +of miles.</p> + +<p>Of course twenty-six millions of miles sound +a good deal to you and me. We think so much +of even one thousand miles on the Earth, and +one million is a thousand thousand. But in talking +of sky-distances twenty-six millions of miles +are merely a matter of next-door neighbors!</p> + +<p>Unfortunately, when Venus is at her nearest +to us we cannot see her. She is then, like our +Moon at New-Moon, between us and the Sun, +so that her dark side is toward us, and her bright +side is away from us.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</span></p> + +<p>This is a great pity, because she would be a +lovely sight then, so near and brilliant. Our +best sight of her is when she is away to one +side, and then it is really only “Half-Venus” +that we see. Even that half is the brightest of +all heavenly bodies to us, after the Sun and +Moon; but you can fancy how much more +beautiful the whole would be.</p> + +<p>We do see the whole of her when she gets +right beyond the Sun; but then she is so very, +very far away that she becomes much more +small and dim.</p> + +<p>However, when Venus is New-Venus to us—like +the Moon being New-Moon—our Earth is +Full-Earth to Venus. Then indeed our Earth +must be a splendid sight, if only there were anybody +on Venus to admire her!</p> + +<p>When Venus comes between us and the Sun +she is more commonly not <i>exactly</i> between. +Now and then, however, instead of being a little +higher or lower, she is just precisely between, +and so we have a Transit of Venus. It is much +the same as a Transit of Mercury. Only the +round black dot is bigger, and can be seen more +easily; sometimes even without a telescope.</p> + +<p>Two transits of Venus come near together, +within a few years. Then for more than a hundred +years there is no transit; after which two +more come again.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</span></p> + +<p>Venus can never see a transit or passing of +our Earth over the Sun, because the pathway of +the Earth lies outside the pathway of Venus. +So our Earth can never pass between Venus and +the Sun.</p> + +<p>But Venus can see a transit of Mercury; +and we on Earth can see transits of Mercury +and Venus. And Mars doubtless can see transits +of Mercury, Venus and Earth, though the Earth +can never see a transit of Mars.</p> + +<p>It is always an <i>outer</i> planet which sees an +<i>inner</i> planet seem to pass across the Sun’s face.</p> + +<p>In all these cases, if the worlds were very +near together—as near as our Moon is to the +Earth—the Transits would be Eclipses.</p> + + +<p class="c">QUESTIONS.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>1. How far is Mercury from the Sun?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Sometimes nearer, sometimes farther; but, +roughly, about 36 millions of miles.</p> + + + +<p>2. How fast does Mercury journey?</p> + + +<p class="bit">At his fastest, about 35 miles each second.</p> + + + +<p>3. How long is Mercury’s year?</p> + + +<p class="bit">About 88 days, or three months, of Earth-time.</p> + + + +<p>4. Can we see much of Mercury?</p> + + +<p class="bit">No; because it is too near to the Sun.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</span></p> + + + +<p>5. Is Mercury heavy or light in make?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Much heavier in make than our Earth is.</p> + + + +<p>6. Which is brighter, Mercury or Venus?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Mercury gets most sunlight, but Venus reflects +sunlight best.</p> + + + +<p>7. What is a Transit of Mercury or Venus?</p> + + +<p class="bit">The planet passes exactly between Earth and +Sun, and is seen against the Sun, crossing his +face.</p> + + + +<p>8. What distance is Venus from the Sun?</p> + + +<p class="bit">About 66 millions of miles.</p> + + + +<p>9. How fast does Venus journey?</p> + + +<p class="bit">About 22 miles each second.</p> + + + +<p>10. Why is Venus slower than Mercury?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Because Venus is farther off than Mercury +from the Sun, and so the pull of the Sun is less.</p> + + + +<p>11. How long is the year of Venus?</p> + + +<p class="bit">About seven months and a half of Earth-time.</p> + + + +<p>12. Is any other planet in our sky brighter than Venus?</p> + + +<p class="bit">No planet or star—only the Sun and the +Moon.</p> + + + +<p>13. How near to us does Venus come?</p> + + +<p class="bit">At her nearest she is about 26 millions of +miles off.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</span></p> + + + +<p>14. Is she very bright then?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Her bright side is turned away from us then, +and we cannot see her at all.</p> + + + +<p>15. When is our best view of Venus?</p> + + +<p class="bit">When we see her as really Half-Venus.</p></div> +<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="c14">CHAPTER XIV.</h2> +</div> + +<p class="c">THE PLANET MARS.</p> + + +<p><span class="smcap large">Next</span> outside the pathway of Venus comes +the pathway of another planet, named <span class="smcap">Earth</span>—this +same globe on which we live. From it, as +from a little boat on the great ocean, we look +out upon other floating worlds, and upon the +countless stars.</p> + +<p>We can see the worlds and stars, but we cannot +get to them. All of us are prisoners upon +this little Earth-boat, during our earthly lives.</p> + +<p>As a Planet our Earth is one of the smaller +worlds. She is nearly 8,000 miles through, and +about 25,000 miles round. She has a north pole +and a south pole, and an equator. She has many +continents and oceans, part of her surface being +Land, and a larger part being Water.</p> + +<p>The Earth spins on her axis once in twenty-four +hours; and she travels round the Sun once +in twelve months, going at a rate of about nineteen +miles each second.</p> + +<p>This is not so fast as Venus, and not nearly +so fast as Mercury; yet it is seventy times faster +than the speed of a cannon-ball.</p> + +<p>Think of our whole big Earth, with all of us<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</span> +on board, rushing wildly through the sky more +than seventy times as fast as a cannon-ball +rushes through the air. Only it is not “wildly;” +the movements of the worlds, though very rapid, +are calm and quiet.</p> + +<p>Our Earth, like Mercury, goes sometimes a +little faster and sometimes a little more slowly. +When nearer to the Sun she travels faster, and +when farther off from him she travels more +slowly. But the differences in her speed are +much less than in Mercury’s, because her pathway +is not so oval in shape, and so she is always +more nearly at one distance from the Sun.</p> + +<p>Outside Earth’s pathway is that of <span class="smcap">Mars</span>, the +last of the Four Lesser Worlds.</p> + +<p>His untwinkling red gleam is easily seen. +Not always in the east or west, like that of Mercury +and Venus; but, like all the outer planets, +in different parts of the sky at different times.</p> + +<p>Mars is much smaller than our Earth. He is +only some 4,000 miles straight through. A big +knitting-needle which might run just through +him would have to be twice as long as one for +the Moon, but only half as long as one for the +Earth.</p> + +<p>It takes Mars about twenty-four hours and a +half to spin once on his axis; so days and nights +are much the same in length there as with us. +His axis, too, seems to lean over very much as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</span> +our Earth’s axis does, and that would give Mars +seasons a good deal like ours.</p> + +<p>Only, as the year of Mars is almost as long +as two Earthly years, his seasons would last +much longer. Spring and summer, autumn and +winter, would be each about five or six Earthly +months in length.</p> + +<p>The distance of Mars from the Sun is about +140 millions of miles.</p> + +<p>So Venus is somewhere about twice as far off +from the Sun as Mercury. The Earth is about +three times as far as Mercury. Mars is more +than four times as far as Mercury.</p> + +<p>Mars is a very interesting little world. Not +so brilliant or lovely as Venus, but really more +easy for us to study and examine. Venus seems +to be so covered with masses of white clouds +that we can see very little of the planet itself; +but Mars is not covered with clouds.</p> + +<p>Mars never comes so near to us as Venus +does. Only, unfortunately, Venus at her nearest +cannot be seen at all, because her bright side is +turned away from the Earth and towards the +Sun. While Mars at his nearest, being <i>outside</i> +the Earth, can be looked upon nicely, for the +Sun then shines full upon that side of Mars +which is towards us.</p> + +<p>When we talk of “studying and examining” +a world which never by any chance comes closer<span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</span> +than 35 millions of miles away, we have to be +careful. It does not do to guess at things, or to +be in a hurry to settle what cannot be truly +known.</p> + +<p>Even with the Moon we found that the biggest +of telescopes cannot make her look very +much less than one hundred miles away. But +Mars is a great deal farther off than the Moon.</p> + +<p>Just think of the difference! The 240 <i>thousands</i> +of Moon-distance are changed into 35 <i>millions</i> +of miles for the distance of Mars. And +the most powerful telescope cannot bring down +those 35 millions of miles to less than about 35 +thousands of miles.</p> + +<p>So when people talk about Mars, and about +what may be seen on Mars, remember this—that +at the very best <i>we can only see Mars as we should +see a world 35 thousands of miles away</i>!</p> + +<p>On the Earth even a hundred miles seems a +long distance. From the top of a mountain one +can see to a hundred miles no doubt, in clear +weather; but very little can be made out at such +a distance. Yet a hundred miles would be only +a small piece of one country. It takes ten hundreds +to make a thousand, and a thousand miles +off seems to us very far indeed.</p> + +<p>Nobody on the Earth can ever be farther +from us than about 8,000 or about 12,006 miles +off, that is, through the middle of the Earth 8,000<span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</span> +miles, or reckoning round the outside rather +over 12,000. You know how distant Australia +seems from us.</p> + +<p>But Mars at his nearest, and looked at through +the largest of telescopes, is still only seen as a +world <i>three times farther away</i> than the very farthest +off country upon this whole Earth from +you or me.</p> + +<p>Of course it is very wonderful that a planet +thirty-five millions of miles away can be actually +seen through a telescope as if it were only +thirty-five thousands of miles away. Still, at the +best, thirty-five thousands of miles is a pretty +good distance.</p> + +<p>Although we cannot find out half or a quarter +of what we want to know about Mars, still +we do know a good deal. The big telescopes +tell us much, and another instrument, called a +“spectroscope,” tells us yet more. But in this +small book I cannot even try to explain to you +what a “spectroscope” is.<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> See “Sun, Moon, and Stars,” page 307.</p> + +</div> + +<p>We know that Mars has some sort of air, perhaps +rather like our Earth air, only more thin. +We know that water floats in that air, as water +floats unseen in our air.</p> + +<p>As for climates, one might expect Mars to be +terribly cold at such a distance from the Sun. +He cannot have half the quantity of light or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</span> +heat that we have. Yet, somehow, there seem +to be signs that Mars is not a very much colder +world than our Earth is.</p> + +<p>At the north pole and the south pole of Mars +tiny white caps, or patches, are seen; and these +are most likely made of ice and snow. We on +the Earth have always ice and snow at our two +poles; and people on another world, a long way +off, might perhaps see our polar ice and snow as +white caps, or patches.</p> + +<p>Sometimes clouds are seen to flit across Mars, +white clouds, like the white clouds which cover +Venus. This only means that they are white +outside, on the <i>upper</i> surface, where the Sun +shines. They may be gray below, like so many +of our gray Earth clouds, though we also often +see clouds white and shining in sunlight. And +when a man gets up a high mountain above the +clouds, and looks down upon them, he sees their +upper surface, white as snow and beautifully +bright.</p> + +<p>Mars commonly looks red, when seen without +a telescope. If seen through a telescope, greenish +and purplish patches are found. It is very +likely that the one color shows land and the +other water. Since Mars has water-vapor in the +air, and probably snow and ice at the poles, he is +pretty sure to have oceans also. But the continents +and oceans of Mars are differently shaped +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</span>from ours. There seems to be more of land and +less of sea.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig14.jpg" alt="mars"> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter1"> +<img src="images/fig15.jpg" alt="mars"> +<p class="caption"><i>Mars. August 22 and 29, 1892.</i></p> +</div> + +<p>Thus in a good many ways Mars is not so +very unlike our Earth, his next-door neighbor. +Day and night seem to be much the same in +both worlds, also summer and winter. We +think, too, that we find there air and water, snow +and ice, lands and seas, changes of weather and +differences of climate, more or less like those of +the Earth.</p> + +<p>But if you ask me whether animals and men +and women and children live on Mars, I can +only say that <i>nobody knows</i>. It may not be impossible, +so far as we are able to judge. We feel +pretty sure that no living creatures such as we +ever see on the Earth could exist on the Moon +or the Sun. And with Mercury, if not also with +Venus, we are hardly less sure, when we think +of the intense glare and awful heat in which +those two worlds travel.</p> + +<p>With Mars there is some difference. Knowing +the little we do know, it certainly seems a +thing by no means out of the question that living +creatures <i>might</i> find a home on Mars—creatures +not utterly unlike those upon the Earth. +But we cannot for a moment say that they do.</p> + +<p>One difference between Mars and the Earth +which would make life there very unlike life on +the Earth is its small size.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</span></p> + +<p>On Mars, as on the Earth, there is the “pull” +of attraction. “Downward” all round the planet +is towards the centre of Mars, and “upward” all +round is towards the sky of Mars; and everything +in Mars is heavy towards the centre of the +planet.</p> + +<p>But the <i>pull</i> there is much less than here, because +Mars is so small; and the less pull means +less weight. A lump of iron which weighs ten +pounds on the Earth would weigh less than five +pounds on Mars. If a man went to Mars he +would be as light there as a boy on the Earth; +and if a boy went there he would weigh as little +as a baby on the Earth.</p> + +<p>The two moons which travel with Mars are +very tiny, perhaps only about eight or ten miles +through.</p> + +<p>Between the planet Mars and the planet Jupiter +lies an enormous gap of millions of miles +empty of all large worlds, even of worlds as big +as our Moon.</p> + +<p>Somewhere about the middle of that vast +gap, about half-way between Mars and Jupiter, is +the belt of <span class="smcap">Planetoids</span>.</p> + +<p>Less than four hundred of them are as yet +actually known to us; but perhaps thousands of +them may be there. Each of these tiny planets +has its own pathway round the Sun, and their +pathways do not keep nearly to the level of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</span> +the Earth’s pathway, like those of the bigger +worlds.</p> + +<p>Vesta, the largest of them all, is perhaps over +three hundred miles through, and three others +come rather near Vesta in size. The greater +number are under one hundred miles through; +some being mere balls, about the size of Mars’ +moons.</p> + + +<p class="c">QUESTIONS.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>1. Which is the next planet outside Venus?</p> + + +<p class="bit">The Earth on which we live.</p> + + + +<p>2. How far is the Earth from the Sun?</p> + + +<p class="bit">About 92 millions of miles.</p> + + + +<p>3. How fast does our Earth travel?</p> + + +<p class="bit">About 19 miles each second.</p> + + + +<p>4. How long is the Earth’s year?</p> + + +<p class="bit">About 365 days, or 12 months.</p> + + + +<p>5. Which is the next planet outside the Earth?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Mars.</p> + + + +<p>6. What is the diameter of Mars?</p> + + +<p class="bit">About 4,000 miles, or half that of our Earth.</p> + + + +<p>7. How far is Mars from the Sun?</p> + + +<p class="bit">About 140 millions of miles.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</span></p> + + + +<p>8. How long is Mars’ year?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Nearly twice as long as our year.</p> + + + +<p>9. Does Mars spin on his axis?</p> + + +<p class="bit">He is believed to do so, in twenty-four hours +and a half.</p> + + + +<p>10. How near does Mars come to us?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Never closer than 35 millions of miles off.</p> + + + +<p>11. But how much nearer does the most powerful telescope +seem to bring Mars?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Perhaps to about 35 thousands of miles off.</p> + + + +<p>12. Are air and water found on Mars?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Some kind of air, and water also, and ice +and snow.</p> + + + +<p>13. Are there oceans on Mars?</p> + + +<p class="bit">There are patches of color which may be +continents and oceans.</p> + + + +<p>14. Where are ice and snow perhaps seen on Mars?</p> + + +<p class="bit">White caps are seen at the two poles.</p> + + + +<p>15. Is Mars inhabited?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Nobody can tell. It does not seem to be +quite impossible, so far as we understand what +Mars is like.</p> + + + +<p>16. Which planet comes next after Mars?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Hundreds of Planetoids come next.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</span></p> + + + +<p>17. Are they close to Mars?</p> + + +<p class="bit">No; there is a great space between Mars’ +pathway and Jupiter’s pathway; and the Ring +of Planetoids lies somewhere about the middle +of that great space.</p> + + + +<p>18. What is the name of the biggest Planetoid?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Vesta.</p></div> +<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="c15">CHAPTER XV.</h2> +</div> + +<p class="c sp">THE PLANET JUPITER.</p> + + +<p><span class="smcap large">Now</span> we pass on to <span class="smcap">Jupiter</span>, chief in size of +all the worlds in the kingdom of the Sun.</p> + +<p>The four inner planets are all small together. +The four outer planets are all large together, +Jupiter and Saturn being the twin giants of the +Solar System.</p> + +<p>You now know that the distance of Mercury +from the Sun is about 35 millions of miles, and +that the distance of Mars is about <i>four</i> times +that of Mercury. But the distance of Jupiter +from the Sun is nearly <i>fourteen</i> times that of +Mercury. Think what an enormous gap this +means between the pathway of Mars and the +pathway of Jupiter.</p> + +<p>And, distant as Jupiter is from the Sun, he +is quite as far from his next neighbor on the +other side, Saturn. So Jupiter lies just about +half-way between the Sun and Saturn.</p> + +<p>Yet Saturn is nearer to Jupiter than to his +other neighbor, Uranus. The gap between the +pathway of Saturn and the pathway of Uranus +is <i>twice</i> as broad as the gap between Jupiter and +Saturn.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</span></p> + +<p>Outside Uranus stretches another vast empty +space: and then we get to the last known planet, +far-away Neptune!</p> + +<p>Jupiter whirls with such speed upon his axis, +that it takes him less than ten hours to spin +once round. A day of only five hours, and a +night of only five hours! How should we like +that?</p> + +<p>But with the short day he has a very long +year. Jupiter gets once round the Sun in +twelve of our earthly years. So a man who on +Earth is nearly forty years old would on Jupiter +be just over three years old: and an old Earthly +gentleman of seventy would there be under the +age of six. Our little boys and girls would +hardly like only one birthday in twelve +years.</p> + +<p>We have seen how, with greater distance +from the Sun, each planet goes more and more +slowly, as the Sun’s pulling becomes weaker. +Jupiter rolls through the skies at a rate of only +about eight miles each second.</p> + +<p>A beautiful world is Jupiter, looked upon +from the Earth: the brightest in our sky after +Venus. No other planet, except Venus, and no +Star in the heavens can outshine Jupiter. This +is because of two things—his great size and his +nearness to us. Not nearness compared with +that of the smaller worlds, but nearness compared<span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</span> +with that of Saturn and Uranus and +Neptune.</p> + +<p>Saturn, though almost as big as Jupiter, is +very much farther off. And while Jupiter can +hardly be so bright actually as Mars, because +very much farther from the Sun, yet his huge +size makes him greatly outshine Mars, which is +so much nearer to us than he is.</p> + +<p>Seen through a pretty good telescope, Jupiter +grows into a broad, soft, moon-like world, +very flat at the north and south poles, with colored +bands round him, on and near his equator. +Four small bright moons are also to be noticed. +Sometimes all four can be seen at once; sometimes +one or two are hidden behind him, or the +shadow of one creeps like a black dot over his +face. The fifth little moon, found lately, can +seldom be seen.</p> + +<p>Through a bigger telescope, Jupiter shows +exquisite colors—rich reds, and browns, and +greens, and purples. But these markings do +not mean continents and oceans, as they perhaps +mean on Mars. They are believed to belong +to a very stormy Cloudland.</p> + +<p>Jupiter seems to be wrapped in thick masses +of clouds; and these clouds are ever on the +move, always changing their shapes. It may be +that we now and then get a tiny glimpse through +them of the more solid world within, but this we<span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</span> +cannot be sure of. It <i>may</i> be that the clouds +never part so far as to let us see through. It <i>may</i> +be that there is nothing solid within at all.</p> + +<p>Anyhow, the solid part is very much smaller +than the size of the Jupiter we see. For, like +other planets, Jupiter has been weighed, and he +is found to be very light in make. He is not +nearly so heavy as one would expect with a globe +of that size.</p> + +<p>The inner part may or may not be solid; +some say it is most likely <i>not</i>. At any rate, it is +enfolded by an enormous thickness of heated +and tempestuous clouds.</p> + +<p>When you look up into the sky from the +Earth you see the clouds moving and changing +their shapes slowly. But if you could go quite +near you would find their changes to be really +very quick.</p> + +<p>And just so—only very much more so—at +the vast distance of Jupiter we see movements +which to us seem tiny and slow, yet which we +believe to mean there, on the spot, the wildest +rushings of heated clouds hither and thither. +No storms on the Earth can be spoken of in +the same breath with the terrific storms on Jupiter.</p> + +<p>And the question is—what brings this about? +Our earthly tempests are caused by the heat of +the Sun, but the Sun is so very far from Jupiter<span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</span> +and yet the storms there are much more violent +than any here.</p> + +<p>Do you remember being told that once upon +a time, long, long ago, our Earth, now so cold +and quiet a globe, was most likely a dazzling +little Sun, and that she slowly cooled down from +a Sun to a world?</p> + +<p>When she was a Sun she was fiercely hot +and glowing gases played over her; and instead +of solid ground and liquid seas there were only +raging vapors, bright with their own heat. The +Earth was larger then than now, for gases take +up much more room than water and rocks and +earth.</p> + +<p>Between those days and these our Earth must +have passed through a <i>half-way</i> stage.</p> + +<p>Suppose you have a lump of ice, and you wish +to turn it into hot steam—how can you do it? Of +course you must heat the ice, and then it will +melt—not into steam, but into water. And when +you have the water you can heat that again till +it boils and goes off in steam—or, as we say, “it +boils away.”</p> + +<p>Again, if you had steam and wished to turn +it into ice, it would have to go through being +water between the steam-state and the ice-state.</p> + +<p>So the water is a kind of half-way stage between +ice and steam—between great cold and +great heat.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</span></p> + +<p>No doubt, our Earth, as she cooled, passed +through a “half-way stage” too. She did not all +at once become firm and cool. First she was a +bright Sun, made of glowing gases. Then she +was a half-sun, half-world: no longer shining, +yet very hot indeed; no longer made of gases, +but by no means solid. Then lastly she cooled +down, as we now see her.</p> + +<p>These are, we suppose, three chief parts in the +story or life of a heavenly body. Our Sun is in +the early part—made of gases, exceedingly hot +and bright. Our Earth is in the later part, cold +and firm, and not shining!</p> + +<p>But Jupiter seems to be still in the middle +part, in the half-way stage. He is very, very hot, +yet not so hot as to give forth light of his own, +for he shines by the Sun’s light. He is not any +longer a great mass of gases, yet he seems to be +very far from being solid and firm. The clouds +which cover Jupiter, though not like the fiercely-glowing +Sun-clouds, are yet very unlike our cool +Earthly mists, and perhaps they may be at least +as hot as the steam which pours from a boiling +kettle.</p> + +<p>So the furious hurricanes on Jupiter are +brought about, partly, at all events, by Jupiter’s +own heat, and not by the Sun’s power +alone.</p> + +<p>On the whole, we can hardly look upon Jupiter<span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</span> +as a nice and fit place for either animals or men +to live in. That does not mean that he can never +become nice and fit. Our Earth was a very, +very long time being made ready to serve as a +home for men. Perhaps Jupiter is being made +ready also for some such use. As he is so large +he cannot cool down nearly so fast as our Earth.</p> + +<p>Jupiter’s moons all shine as our moon shines, +by borrowed sunlight.</p> + +<p>The smallest of his four chief moons—which +can easily be seen from the Earth—is about the +same size as our Moon, and the biggest is larger +than Mercury.</p> + + +<p class="c">QUESTIONS.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>1. Which is the largest of the planets?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Jupiter.</p> + + + +<p>2. How far is Jupiter from the Sun?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Nearly fourteen times as far as Mercury is.</p> + + + +<p>3. How much farther still is Saturn?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Saturn is as far from Jupiter as Jupiter is from +the Sun. So the distance of Saturn is twice the +distance of Jupiter.</p> + + + +<p>4. How far is Uranus?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Uranus is twice as far from Saturn as Saturn +is from Jupiter.</p> + + + +<p>5. Does Jupiter spin on his axis?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Yes, in less than ten of our hours.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</span></p> + + + +<p>6. How long is Jupiter’s year?</p> + + +<p class="bit">About twelve of our years in length.</p> + + + +<p>7. How fast does Jupiter travel?</p> + + +<p class="bit">About eight miles each second.</p> + + + +<p>8. Does Jupiter shine in our sky as brightly as Venus?</p> + + +<p class="bit">No, but he is the next brightest planet in our +sky after Venus.</p> + + + +<p>9. How many moons has Jupiter?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Five moons, four of which can be seen easily. +The fifth was only discovered a little while ago.</p> + + + +<p>10. Has Jupiter any markings?</p> + + +<p class="bit">He has bands and beautiful coloring when +seen in a telescope.</p> + + + +<p>11. Is Jupiter light or heavy?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Very light in make; so light that he is thought +to be far from solid, and to be wrapped in very +thick masses of clouds.</p> + + + +<p>12. Is Jupiter a cooled world like the Earth?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Jupiter seems to be only a half-cooled world.</p> + + + +<p>13. Is he hot enough to shine?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Jupiter is too cool to shine with his own light; +but he seems to be in a very heated and stormy +state.</p> + + + +<p>14. How do Jupiter’s moons shine?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Like Jupiter himself, by reflected sunlight.</p></div> +<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="c16">CHAPTER XVI.</h2> +</div> + +<p class="c sp">SATURN, URANUS AND NEPTUNE.</p> + + +<p><span class="smcap large">Saturn</span> is only a little smaller than Jupiter, +and very light indeed in weight. Not at all like +our firm and solid Earth. He actually weighs +<i>less than water</i>; which means that if we could +make a huge globe, all of water, the same size +as Saturn, this water-globe would be heavier +than Saturn.</p> + +<p>This does not look as if Saturn were a very +cold or solid globe, does it? A solid globe would +surely weigh a great deal more than water.</p> + +<p>Saturn whirls round on his axis once in ten +hours, like Jupiter. But his year is much longer +than Jupiter’s year: partly because he is twice +as far away from the Sun, which means a very +much longer journey, and partly because at that +distance he goes much more slowly. So one +year of Saturn is as long as nearly thirty of our +years. A man who on the Earth is seventy +would on Saturn be only a little over two years +old.</p> + +<p>In shape Saturn is very flat at the north and +south poles, the same as Jupiter. Also on Saturn +can be seen dimly-colored bands and markings. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</span>But these are much less clear than on +Jupiter.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig16.jpg" alt="jupiter"> +<p class="caption"><i>Jupiter.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter1"> +<img src="images/fig17.jpg" alt="saturn"> +<p class="caption"><i>Saturn.</i></p> +</div> + +<p>However Saturn has something which Jupiter +has not: Saturn has his Rings.</p> + +<p>Until telescopes were made these rings could +not be seen; and when first noticed they were a +great puzzle.</p> + +<p>They lie round the vast globe of Saturn, one +outside another, stretching far away up into Saturn’s +sky. If you were on Saturn, standing just +underneath the rings, the most you could see +would be a narrow rim, or line, far over your +head. But if you walked some distance off, in +the right direction, you would have a lovely view +of the rings, as wide bands, one above another, +shining in the sunlight.</p> + +<p>For the rings of Saturn, like the eight moons +of Saturn, have no brightness of their own. They +shine when the Sun shines on them.</p> + +<p>And the Sun, as seen from Saturn, is very +far off, and very small, compared with the big +round orb which we see in our sky. Those rings +and moons must shine but dimly, compared with +the shining of our bright Moon.</p> + +<p>Yet, since <i>we</i> can see them and find them +lovely, even across all this great width of distance, +they must surely be beautiful seen from +Saturn.</p> + +<p>But to talk of anybody walking about on Saturn,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</span> +to gaze at the rings, is really only nonsense.</p> + +<p>For Saturn, like Jupiter, seems to be only a +half-cooled world—in fact, even less cooled, less +solid, than Jupiter. Nobody could very well +walk across great masses of heated and seething +clouds in a perpetual turmoil of storms.</p> + +<p>I think we may safely say that Saturn at present +would not offer a very comfortable home, at +all events, for any such living creatures as we +know upon the Earth.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Uranus</span>, the next planet outside Saturn, was +seen first, rather more than a hundred years +ago, by a famous English astronomer named +Herschel.</p> + +<p>It takes Uranus 84 Earthly years to travel +once round the Sun, at a rate of about four miles +each second. So a man of 84 on Earth would be +only just one year old on Uranus.</p> + +<p>Four moons journey with Uranus; and some +glimpses have been caught of very faint band-markings +on the planet, like those of Jupiter +and Saturn. Little can be seen or known of +worlds so far away: but it is most likely that +Uranus and Neptune are both more or less in +the half-hot state of the two big twin planets. +Both Uranus and Neptune are light in make, +weighing about the same as water.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Neptune</span>, the very farthest off world of all<span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</span> +known to us, journeys round the Sun at a distance +of about 2,800 millions of miles, or <i>eighty +times as far off as Mercury</i>. It is not very easy +to see in our minds what this means. We must +climb up to the thought, step by step.</p> + +<p>Think first of a rope one hundred miles long. +Perhaps you have gone in the train from New +York to Philadelphia. A rope one hundred +miles in length would reach all the way and +ten miles farther.</p> + +<p>Next, think of ten such ropes joined together, +making a single rope one thousand miles +long.</p> + +<p>Then think of twenty-five of those ropes +joined into one rope, 25,000 miles long.</p> + +<p>This rope would just about go round the +Earth, lying on the equator like a girdle.</p> + +<p>It would take <i>ten</i> such Earth-girdles to reach +straight from the Earth to the Moon.</p> + +<p>But we have to get the thought of one million +miles. Well, you would need about <i>forty</i> +Earth-girdles—forty ropes, each one being 25,000 +miles long—to make a rope one million +miles in length.</p> + +<p>And when we get so far it is still only one +million. Mercury is thirty-five millions of miles +away from the Sun.</p> + +<p>So, for the distance of Mercury, you would +need—first, forty Earth-girdles joined into a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</span> +one-million mile rope, and then thirty-five of +those million-mile ropes, to stretch all the great +way from the Sun to his nearest planet, Mercury.</p> + +<p>When you have in mind that enormously +long rope, reaching from the Sun to Mercury, +the rest is easier.</p> + +<p><i>Two</i> such ropes would about reach from the +Sun to Venus. <i>Three</i> such ropes would about +reach from the Sun to our Earth. <i>Four</i> such +ropes would about reach from the Sun to Mars.</p> + +<p>But to reach from the Sun to Jupiter no less +than <i>fourteen</i> such ropes would be needed.</p> + +<p>And to reach all the way to the distant Neptune, +from the Sun, <i>eighty</i> such ropes would be +needed!</p> + +<p>There indeed we find ourselves in a region +of dimness and fearful cold. We can hardly +fancy any human beings like ourselves living +at so enormous a distance from the storehouse +of light and heat.</p> + +<p>Our bright and glorious Sun, seen from Neptune, +looks no larger than the planet Venus +looks to us here. You and I on Earth have +<i>nine hundred times</i> as much light, and <i>nine hundred +times</i> as much heat, from the Sun, as a man +on Neptune would have. Of course, if Neptune +is only partly cooled, there may be plenty of +heat from the planet itself.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</span></p> + +<p>However, you must not think that the Sun +even there looks only like Venus or Jupiter in +our sky. Though small in size, he shines dazzlingly +still. But after what we enjoy on Earth +Neptune would indeed to us be a world of darkness.</p> + +<p>Travelling at the rate of three miles in a +second, Neptune gets once round the Sun in +165 of our years.</p> + +<p>This planet was not discovered by accident, +but through careful searching. Some day you +will read with interest the story of how and +why it was hunted for in the sky—and found.<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">[2]</a> See “Sun, Moon and Stars,” pp. 227-234.</p> + +</div> + +<p>Speaking of the distance of one planet from +another we mean usually their <i>nearest</i> distances, +when they are both on one side of the Sun +together. When they are on opposite sides of +the Sun they are very much farther apart.</p> + +<p>The moons belonging to these planets are +really like planets, or worlds, travelling with the +bigger worlds. Some of them are not so very +little, either. Mars’ moons are most tiny; but +one of Jupiter’s moons, as you heard, is larger +than Mercury. Mercury, however, being the +nearest planet to the Sun, is a much more important +world than a far-off moon of Jupiter +can be.</p> + +<p>Each moon, whether of Jupiter, of Saturn, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</span>or of any other planet, travels, like our Moon, +in a pathway of its own round the Sun. And +as it goes it curves backwards and forwards, so +as to face in turn each side of the large world +with which it journeys.</p> + +<p>The pull of a great body like Jupiter is very +strong; and the moons in consequence travel +very fast round Jupiter—the nearest going most +rapidly, the farthest off most slowly. It is the +same again with Saturn’s eight moons.</p> + + +<p class="c">QUESTIONS.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>1. What is the size of Saturn?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Almost as large as Jupiter.</p> + + + +<p>2. Does Saturn spin on his axis?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Yes, in about ten hours, like Jupiter.</p> + + + +<p>3. How long is Saturn’s year?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Nearly thirty of our years.</p> + + + +<p>4. Is Saturn like Jupiter in make?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Saturn is very light, even lighter than Jupiter; +not so heavy as water. Saturn, too, has +faint bands of color.</p> + + + +<p>5. What is Saturn’s state believed to be?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Half-cooled, and very stormy, with great +masses of cloud.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</span></p> + + + +<p>6. How many moons has Saturn?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Eight moons, and also three rings.</p> + + + +<p>7. How do the rings shine?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Like the moons, on one side, by reflected +sunlight.</p> + + + +<p>8. When was Uranus discovered?</p> + + +<p class="bit">About one hundred years ago.</p> + + + +<p>9. By whom?</p> + + +<p class="bit">By Herschel.</p> + + + +<p>10. How long is the year of Uranus?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Eighty-four of our years.</p> + + + +<p>11. How many moons has Uranus?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Four moons are known.</p> + + + +<p>12. What size are these two outer planets, Uranus and +Neptune?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Much larger than Venus or the Earth, much +smaller than Jupiter or Saturn.</p> + + + +<p>13. How far is Neptune from the Sun?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Eighty times the distance of Mercury, or +twenty-eight hundred millions of miles.</p> + + + +<p>14. How fast does Neptune travel?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Some three miles each second.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</span></p> + + + +<p>15. What is the length of Neptune’s year?</p> + + +<p class="bit">About one hundred and sixty-five of our +years.</p> + + + +<p>16. How many moons has Neptune?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Only one has been seen.</p> + + + +<p>17. Are Uranus and Neptune light or heavy in make?</p> + + +<p class="bit">About as light in make as water.</p></div> +<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="c17">CHAPTER XVII.</h2> +</div> + +<p class="c sp">LONG-TAILED COMETS.</p> + + +<p><span class="smcap large">A good</span> deal has been said about empty gaps +in the sky between and around the pathways +of the worlds. But those gaps are at least not +always quite empty.</p> + +<p>Comets, with long bright tails, flash through +the darkness by hundreds, perhaps thousands. +Meteors travel in vast swarms, by millions of +millions. Each comet gives forth a radiant shining, +and each little meteor is bright in the sunlight. +I am going to tell you about Comets first, +and then about Meteors.</p> + +<p>The word “comet” means “a hairy star.”</p> + +<p>But comets are not stars really, though they +have often been mistaken for stars, especially +when first seen without any tail.</p> + +<p>There may be any number of comets as far +away as the stars, millions of them in each direction. +But those we cannot possibly see. We +only see such comets as belong to our Sun and +travel about in his kingdom, or else those which +come to pay him a visit from far away.</p> + +<p>No comet that is outside the Solar System +can be visible to us on the Earth. The distance<span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</span> +becomes too great. For the light of a comet is +not like the light of a star, and it cannot reach +through billions of miles, as the light of a star +can.</p> + +<p>Once in a while a splendid comet makes its +appearance, with a tail reaching half across our +sky. But this is not at all common. Most of +those seen are small and faint, and the greater +number can only be seen at all in telescopes.</p> + +<p>Almost every year some fresh ones are found +in the sky, and hardly a day passes in which at +least one may not be noticed, in some part of +the heavens, with a good telescope.</p> + +<p>Each comet, like each world, has its own +pathway in the sky round the Sun. But a comet-pathway +is much more oval in shape than a +planet-pathway. Sometimes it is a very long +and very narrow oval indeed, with the Sun +almost close to one end of the long oval.</p> + +<p>To get round such a pathway as this takes a +good while. At one part the comet gets quite +near to the Sun, and then rushes at a tremendous +speed. After which he wanders far away +from the Sun, and creeps along more and more +slowly.</p> + +<p>There are comets belonging to the Solar System +which draw closer to the Sun than Mercury +and go farther away than Neptune.</p> + +<p>Comet-pathways do not keep to the level of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</span> +the chief planet-pathways. They slope about in +all manner of ways, like the paths of the little +Planetoids.</p> + +<p>Very many comets belong to the Sun’s kingdom. +They journey round and round the Sun, +and appear again and again from time to time. +Some take only a few years for their journey, +while others come back only once in the life of +a man; and others again may be hundreds of +years absent.</p> + +<p>And some comets never return. They do +not belong to our Sun, but only pay him a single +visit. These are strangers to our kingdom of +worlds, travelling from the kingdom of some +other far-off sun, perhaps one of the twinkling +stars in our sky.</p> + +<p>A stranger comet comes, like other comets, +slowly from the distance, quickening his speed +day by day as he gets nearer to the Sun. Then +he rushes at a mad rate round the Sun and flies +off in a new direction, to quite another part of +the heavens.</p> + +<p>What wonderful stories these bright visitors +might tell us, if they could speak, of the skies +from which they arrive!</p> + +<p>A comet is made of three parts: the <i>nucleus</i>, +or the thickest portion of the head; the <i>coma</i>, +or the bright fog round the nucleus; and the +<i>train</i> or <i>tail</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</span></p> + +<p>Sometimes there is no nucleus, and sometimes +there is no tail; but there is always a +coma—a soft hazy cloud of light, perhaps small +enough to look like a dim star at first.</p> + +<p>But a comet watched from the Earth can +never be so far off as the stars. Even the very +largest comets are seldom to be seen farther +away than Jupiter.</p> + +<p>There are comets of all sizes, from the huge +to the tiny. Perhaps one would find as much +difference between comets in the sky as between +a whale and a minnow in water.</p> + +<p>Under a certain size they are hidden from +us; but tinier comets than we can see may float +in the sky by myriads.</p> + +<p>Of those which we can see, the thickest +and heaviest part of the whole—the “nucleus”—may +be only about fifty or a hundred miles +through, or it may be some thousands of miles. +The coma, or bright fog surrounding this thickest +part of the comet, is generally as much as +ten thousand miles across; and sometimes it is +a hundred thousand miles. As for the bright +train, it is, when fully formed, seldom less than +ten millions of miles long, and sometimes it is +a hundred millions of miles. Such a tail as this +would reach the whole way from our Earth to +the Sun.</p> + +<p>Yet a comet is not heavy. Its make is most<span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</span> +wonderfully light; far more so than the very +lightest world in the Sun’s kingdom. Saturn is +not so solid or so heavy as water; but a comet +really almost seems to be less solid and heavy +than a mist.</p> + +<p>Very faint stars can be seen shining through +thousands of miles of comet-thickness; while it +does not take much of an earth-mist to hide the +light of even the brightest star.</p> + +<p>Not long ago people were much frightened at +comets. If a big one appeared in the sky it was +thought to be a sign of something dreadful about +to happen. Nobody then had any idea what immense +numbers of comets are always in the sky.</p> + +<p>It was feared that, if a comet should run +against our Earth, the whole world would be +destroyed. Nobody knew how very light and +delicate in its make a comet is.</p> + +<p>If such a thing ever did happen, which is +most unlikely, one cannot say that no harm +would be done; but certainly our Earth would +not be destroyed.</p> + +<p>These comets seem to shine partly in the +sunlight, and partly by their own brightness.</p> + +<p>You must not think that a comet always has +a tail. More often, when one is first seen in the +distance, it is only as a little hazy patch, or like +a dim star, with no train of light at all.</p> + +<p>But as it comes hastening out of cold and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</span> +darkness into the warmth and glare of the Sun +great changes take place in its shape.</p> + +<p>The nucleus very often gets a little smaller; +and why this should be I cannot tell you. But +the coma gets larger, and takes to throwing out +bright jets. Then the tail begins to grow; and +day by day it becomes larger and larger.</p> + +<p>A comet drawing nearer to the Sun travels +head-foremost, with the tail following after the +head. This is only what one would expect.</p> + +<p>But as the comet swings round the Sun with +a mighty rush its tail is sent round also in a +great outward sweep, pointing all the time away +from the Sun.</p> + +<p>Lastly, as the comet on the other side of its +pathway goes away from the Sun, its tail travels +first, end-foremost, and the head follows after +the tail.</p> + +<p>So the head of a comet always points towards +the Sun, and the tail of a comet always points +away from the Sun.</p> + +<p>We know little as to the true nature of comets. +They are, however, believed to be made +partly of shining gases, and partly perhaps of +small masses or lumps of more solid substance—in +short, of little meteors.</p> + +<p><i>Biela’s Comet</i> was once a comet belonging +to the Sun’s kingdom; but its story is rather +curious. In 1846 it broke into two separate comets.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</span> +These two kept company for a while, and +then parted. One went ahead, and one dropped +behind. After this both vanished, and in their +stead our Earth in her journeying came across +a shower of meteors. So perhaps the meteors +are the remains of those two comets—the broken +up bits, if one may so speak.</p> + +<p><i>The Great Comet of</i> 1882 was often to be seen +in full daylight. When passing away, after its +rapid whirl round the Sun, it could be perceived +in telescopes at a distance greater than that of +Jupiter—a very unusual thing.</p> + +<p>In the picture of a Sun-Eclipse you will +notice a tiny comet quite near the Sun. This +little comet had been hidden by the Sun’s glare +and nobody knew it to be there at all. But +when the moon glided between, hiding the +Sun’s great brightness, and a photograph was +taken—then the tiny comet had its picture +taken also, side by side with the dark body of +the Moon and the light edge of the Sun, with +the fiery sea and sharp mountains.</p> + + +<p class="c">QUESTIONS.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>1. What does the word “comet” mean?</p> + + +<p class="bit">It means “a hairy star.”</p> + + + +<p>2. What is a comet like?</p> + + +<p class="bit">A star-like body, with a hazy kind of fog +round it, and a long tail.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</span></p> + + + +<p>3. Do comets always have tails?</p> + + +<p class="bit">No; the tail generally appears when the +comet comes near to the Sun.</p> + + + +<p>4. Tell me the three parts of a comet.</p> + + +<p class="bit">The Nucleus, or thickest part; the Coma, or +hazy part round the Nucleus; and the long Tail +or Train.</p> + + + +<p>5. Which of these is always found in a comet?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Only the coma. The nucleus and tail may +be wanting.</p> + + + +<p>6. What shape is a comet’s pathway?</p> + + +<p class="bit">A long oval: sometimes very long and narrow +indeed, with the Sun close to one end of it.</p> + + + +<p>7. How long is a comet’s year?</p> + + +<p class="bit">All lengths, from three or four of our years +up to hundreds of our years.</p> + + + +<p>8. Do all comets belong to the Solar System?</p> + + +<p class="bit">No; only a certain number seem to do so.</p> + + + +<p>9. Where do others come from?</p> + + +<p class="bit">They seem to come from far-distant stars, +paying one visit to our Sun, and then going off, +never to return.</p> + + + +<p>10. How does a comet carry its tail?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Always pointing away from the Sun.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</span></p> + + + +<p>11. Which goes first, head or tail?</p> + + +<p class="bit">When a comet is coming towards the Sun +its head journeys first. But when a comet is +going away from the Sun, its tail journeys first.</p> + + + +<p>12. What is a comet made of?</p> + + +<p class="bit">It is believed to be made partly of gases, +and perhaps partly of meteors.</p> + + + +<p>13. Is a comet heavy, or light?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Very light indeed, compared with its great +size.</p></div> +<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="c18">CHAPTER XVIII.</h2> +</div> + +<p class="c sp">LITTLE METEORS.</p> + + +<p><span class="smcap large">Meteors</span> are the very smallest bodies of +which we know, that float and rush about in +the sky.</p> + +<p>Besides being the smallest they are also the +most abundant. Their numbers are not only +past counting, but past our power to imagine.</p> + +<p>We cannot see them as they speed hither +and thither through the skies, travelling either +alone or in tens of millions.</p> + +<p>Each one indeed gives forth its tiny light, +borrowed from the Sun. But those dim gleams +are far too weak to reach us here on Earth. The +only time when they can be seen by us is when +they come by accident into our air.</p> + +<p>Then indeed we do see them—not by the +gentle shining which they catch from the Sun, +but by one brilliant flash of light as they are +destroyed.</p> + +<p>It is the rush through our thick air which +destroys the meteors. The air always tries to +hold back anything moving fast through it.</p> + +<p>A meteor far away in the sky is a hard and +cold little body—very cold indeed, out in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</span> +terrible cold of Space. It has no light of its +own to give forth.</p> + +<p>And in the sky a meteor goes very fast, +rushing round the Sun. When it first gets into +our air it keeps up that great speed. The air +tries to hold it back; and the rubbing of the air +against it heats the outside of the little meteor +so intensely that it glows with bright light.</p> + +<p>It becomes in fact “white-hot.” The outside +melts and pours away in a stream of shining +dust, which to us looks like a tail of light. The +dust soon cools, and drops gently down upon +the ground.</p> + +<p>Before the meteor has rushed twenty or +thirty miles it is generally done for. All of it +has gone off in bright dust, and nothing is left +of the tiny heavenly body except that dust.</p> + +<p>This is what you see when you look at a +“shooting star” after dark. Of course you have +seen shooting stars very often. If not, you +should begin to look out for them as soon as +possible.</p> + +<p>A shooting star is no star at all, really. It is +only a little meteor, or meteorite, which has +travelled for ages in the skies, and which has +at last happened to come too near to our Earth. +The strong pull of the Earth’s attraction has +dragged it into the air, and so it has perished.</p> + +<p>Hundreds and thousands of meteors are ever<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</span> +dropping earthward. If it were not for our soft +protecting air we should be under a regular +cannonade from the sky; but happily most of +the cannon-balls are used up long before they +can reach the ground.</p> + +<p>On the Moon, where there is no protecting +air, one would have to undergo a fearful battering.</p> + +<p>Now and again a meteor is large enough not +to be <i>all</i> destroyed in its rush downwards. A +good part is melted, and runs away as a little +tail of brightness, but both speed and heat grow +less before the whole is gone.</p> + +<p>So then part falls to the ground as a solid +stone, or as a lump of iron and other metals. +We call the fallen lump an “aerolite” or a “meteorite,” +or a “meteoric stone.” But it is commonly +just a meteor which has come to us out +of the sky.</p> + +<p>Some very large aerolites have been known +to burst in the air with a great noise, and to +scatter hot stones over the land below. This +sort of thing happens very seldom.</p> + +<p>There are wonderful Rings of Meteors journeying +round the Sun—enormous companies of +millions upon millions of little dark cold bodies, +lighted up by the Sun’s rays.</p> + +<p>Every August and November our Earth in +her journeying touches one such Ring. In those<span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</span> +months a great many more “shooting stars” +may be seen in the sky than at other times of +the year. So, when you want to see shooting +stars, remember that the best times are August +and November. If then you watch the sky +steadily after dark for half an hour you will +hardly fail to see at least two or three.</p> + +<p>About once in every thirty-three years our +Earth plunges into the very thick of one of these +Meteor-Rings. And then indeed we may have +a splendid sight!</p> + +<p>Tens of thousands of meteors can be seen +flashing through the air, each with its little train +of light behind. Fast as they appear and vanish +tens of thousands more follow; and for hours +this goes on.</p> + +<p>Yet even then the number of meteors which +can be seen is as nothing compared with the +vast hosts which cannot be seen because they do +not come into our air.</p> + +<p>Sometimes comets and meteor-rings are found +together, journeying in company. That is to +say, the comet journeys with the meteors, in the +same ring or pathway round the Sun. This +really seems to show that the one may belong +to the other.</p> + +<p>I have told you already that comets, or at +least comets’ heads, are believed to be made +partly of little meteors. If things are so, one<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</span> +would not be surprised to find a very close tie +between comets and rings of meteors.</p> + +<p>You will remember Biela’s Comet, spoken of +in the last chapter, which some people think has +actually broken up into separate meteors.</p> + +<p>It is thought very likely that the wonderful +Rings of Saturn are entirely made of meteors. +Not of bright dying meteors, as we see them in +our air, but of countless millions of tiny hard +bodies, all whirling together round and round +the huge planet, and giving forth such light as +they can borrow from the Sun.</p> + +<p>Sometimes on the Earth a faint light is seen, +of a sugar-loaf shape, in the eastern sky, before +dawn, or in the western sky after sunset. It is +called the Zodiacal Light, and it plainly has to +do with the Sun. It is always seen very near to +the Sun, never anywhere else.</p> + +<p>We know little about this curious light, but +it too <i>may</i> be caused by the shining of enormous +numbers of meteors, all whirling round the Sun. +No doubt countless multitudes are ever dropping +down upon his fiery surface.</p> + +<p>Each little meteor that journeys round the +Sun shined, like the worlds, on one side only—that +side which is towards the Sun.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</span></p> + + +<p class="c">QUESTIONS.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>1. What are Meteors?</p> + + +<p class="bit">The smallest heavenly bodies known to us.</p> + + + +<p>2. How many meteors are there?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Immense multitudes in the sky, beyond our +power even to imagine.</p> + + + +<p>3. How do meteors shine when journeying in the sky?</p> + + +<p class="bit">They shine by borrowed sunlight.</p> + + + +<p>4. Does a meteor shine all round?</p> + + +<p class="bit">No; only on that side which is towards the +Sun.</p> + + + +<p>5. Do we see meteors by means of that borrowed sunlight?</p> + + +<p class="bit">No; we only see them when they rush into +our air.</p> + + + +<p>6. What makes them visible to us then?</p> + + +<p class="bit">They are so much heated by the rubbing of +the air as to shine brightly for a moment with +their own light.</p> + + + +<p>7. What becomes of such meteors?</p> + + +<p class="bit">The outside is melted and streams behind as +shining dust.</p> + + + +<p>8. Does any part of them reach the ground?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Generally they are destroyed in their rush +through the air, and only the dust drops downwards.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</span></p> + + + +<p>9. Are they always quite destroyed?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Sometimes a part escapes, if the meteor is +rather large, and then a solid lump of rock or +metal comes to the ground.</p> + + + +<p>10. What is such a lump called?</p> + + +<p class="bit">A Meteorite, or an Aerolite, or a Meteoric +Stone.</p> + + + +<p>11. What is it really?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Part of a meteor from the sky.</p> + + + +<p>12. What do we call a meteor seen only by its last flash?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Either a “meteor” or “a shooting star.”</p> + + + +<p>13. When are shooting-stars most common?</p> + + +<p class="bit">In August and November.</p> + + + +<p>14. Why?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Because our Earth then touches meteor rings, +and so a great many come into our air.</p> + + + +<p>15. When does our Earth plunge deep into a meteor-ring?</p> + + +<p class="bit">About once in every thirty-three years.</p> + + + +<p>16. What is seen then?</p> + + +<p class="bit">A most wonderful display of tens of thousands +of meteors.</p></div> +<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="c19">CHAPTER XIX.</h2> +</div> + +<p class="c sp">THE SUN’S KINGDOM.</p> + + +<p><span class="smcap large">By</span> this time you have a pretty fair idea of +what is meant by “The Solar System.”</p> + +<p>First you had to think about our Earth’s +pathway in the sky, and then about other pathways, +nearer and farther, like vast oval hoops +lying within and without the Earth’s pathways. +Lying, all of them, very nearly on the same +level.</p> + +<p>But the Planetoids’ paths do not keep at all +nearly to that level, rings of Meteors slope +about in different ways, and Comets come and +go, with no known rule, from any part of the +heavens.</p> + +<p>When we talk of a “level” in the sky—a +“plane” is the better word—you must not think +of a solid flat surface any more than you have to +picture real pathways for the planets. No signposts +mark the pathways, and the level or plane +cannot be <i>seen</i>, except by the way in which the +worlds journey.</p> + +<p>How far the Solar System reaches, and where +it stops, I cannot tell you.</p> + +<p>The Sun’s power goes out beyond his own<span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</span> +kingdom: for the distant Stars feel his pull. +Only that gentle pull is very much weaker than +the strong hold which he has over all his own +worlds.</p> + +<p>Neptune is the most distant world known to +us; and Neptune, as you have heard, is some +2,800 millions of miles away from the Sun.</p> + +<p>He is all that way off on one side of the Sun +and when he gets round to the other side he is +just as far off in the other direction. So the +breadth of Neptune’s whole pathway, from side +to side, is not much less than <i>six thousand millions +of miles</i>.</p> + +<p>All the other worlds or planets are within +that enormous circle, nearer to the Sun.</p> + +<p>But there are comets belonging to the Sun +which journey farther off than Neptune and +yet come back from time to time, being held +captive by the Sun.</p> + +<p>Whether our Solar System as a whole is six +or ten or twenty thousands of millions of miles +across, matters very little. In any case, it is +enormous. And yet, though so enormous, the +whole Solar System is but one little spot in the +great Universe of Stars which God has created.</p> + +<p>The one Star in our System is the Sun himself. +All other Stars are far away, outside his +kingdom and away from it.</p> + +<p>Once upon a time, indeed, the worlds may all<span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</span> +have been stars; and the larger planets seem to +be still only half-way out of their starry state. +Still they are all either cooled or partly-cooled +worlds; not stars.</p> + +<p>A Star is a Sun: and a Sun is a Star. A +world, whether cold or hot, if it does not shine +by its own light cannot be called a star. We +see abundance of stars in the sky, but they are +so distant that our Sun, compared with them, is +very near us indeed.</p> + +<p>A wide, wide gulf of cold and darkness, of +emptiness and desolation, spreads far on every +side around our Sun’s kingdom.</p> + +<p>That is to say, a wide gulf of what would +be cold to our earthly bodies, of what would be +darkness to our human eyes, of what looks like +emptiness and desolation to our little knowledge. +But after all, we cannot see much, we do not +really know much!</p> + +<p>The distance of our Sun has been found out, +and the distances of a few Stars have been +roughly measured. But what may lie between +us and them, who can tell?</p> + +<p>We are here on our little Earth, down at the +bottom of a deep Ocean of Air, tied and bound +and unable to get away. What man has seen +and learned from the bottom of his air-ocean +is indeed very wonderful; but more wonderful +by far are the things which he does not know.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</span></p> + +<p>In earlier chapters we have talked about the +worlds in smaller sizes, letting one inch stand +always for 2,000 miles.</p> + +<p>Now, keeping to exactly that same plan, let +us try to picture the Solar System on a little +scale, with not only sizes but distances thus +brought down.</p> + +<p>The actual distances you know by this time, +perhaps, pretty well. You know that Mercury +is about 35 millions of miles from the Sun, the +Earth about 92 millions, and so on. But it is not +easy to see what these figures really mean, millions +and billions sound so much alike.</p> + +<p>So now we will fancy the whole big System +shrinking and getting smaller till in every part +of it each 2,000 miles has become one tiny inch. +Our small moon, being 2,000 miles through, is +thus a minute ball one inch through.</p> + +<p>Bring before your mind the thought of a +large shining balloon, for the Sun, about 35 feet +through. This would be in the centre.</p> + +<p>Mercury, a crab-apple one inch and a half +through, will float round the Sun at a distance of +<i>one quarter of a mile</i>.</p> + +<p>Venus, a very large apple, nearly four inches +through, will float round it at a distance from +the Sun of about <i>half a mile</i>.</p> + +<p>Earth, another very big apple, rather bigger +than Venus, has her pathway all round at a distance<span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</span> +of <i>three quarters of a mile</i>. Ten feet off +from the Earth floats her tiny Moon.</p> + +<p>Mars, another very small apple, two inches +through, is more than <i>one mile</i> off from the Sun, +with two tiny moons.</p> + +<p>Jupiter, a large globe three feet and a half +through, travels with his five moons at a distance +of about <i>three miles and three quarters</i>—the +Planetoids lying between him and Mars.</p> + +<p>Saturn, a globe three feet through, goes round +with his moons and rings at a distance of about +<i>seven miles</i>.</p> + +<p>Uranus, a ball less than one foot and a half +through, floats with his four moons in a pathway +over <i>fourteen miles</i> off from the Sun.</p> + +<p>Neptune, the outer planet, a rather bigger +ball than Uranus, with one moon, travels at a +distance of over <i>twenty-one miles</i>.</p> + +<p>So, on this little scale, the whole pathway of +Neptune would be somewhere about forty-two +miles across.</p> + +<p>All the other worlds would have their journeys +inside that circle. Only comets would go +farther off than Neptune’s pathway.</p> + +<p>Where now must we put the very nearest +star known to us in all the sky?</p> + +<p>On this scale we must put it about <span class="allsmcap">TWO HUNDRED +THOUSAND MILES AWAY</span>!</p> + +<p>And every single inch in those two hundred<span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</span> +thousand miles would stand for 2,000 miles of +<i>real</i> star-distance.</p> + +<p>Now do you begin to see what an enormous +gap divides us from the stars?</p> + +<p>If we could bring down the whole of the great +Solar System to so small a size that it could lie +between New York and West Point <i>then</i> the very +nearest star known to us would be nearly as far +away as the Moon is from the Earth. The nearest +star would be 200,000 miles off. Our Moon +now is 240,000 miles off.</p> + +<p>And this great gap is around the Sun’s kingdom +on all sides, stretching away in every direction. +We have not found one single star <i>nearer</i> +than that, though countless multitudes of stars +are very, very much farther away.</p> + +<p>Can you picture to yourself a little Solar System +lying between New York, and West Point—the +whole of it there, unless perhaps a few +comets might stray a short way beyond; all +the worlds, all the moons, all the meteors, +nearly all the comets, doing their yearly journeys +round and round in this space of forty-two +miles?</p> + +<p>And then, around that small kingdom of +worlds, a great blank empty space, north and +south, east and west, above and below, in every +direction, nearly as far as the Moon in our sky +before a single star could be reached!</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</span></p> + +<p>How very, very distant they are you begin +now to see; do you not?</p> + +<p>At first the Moon seemed a long way off, compared +with any country in our world; till we began +to think of the Sun. And then, compared +with the Sun, the Moon seemed near.</p> + +<p>And the Sun seemed a very long way off, +compared with the Moon; till we began to think +of Neptune. And then, compared with Neptune, +the Sun seemed near.</p> + +<p>And Neptune seemed a very, very long way +off, compared with the Sun; till we began to +think of the nearest Star. And then, compared +with that Star, Neptune seemed near.</p> + +<p>And even the very closest of the Stars, which, +compared with Neptune, seems so desperately +far away, would, as compared with yet more +distant Stars, seem almost near!</p> + + +<p class="c">QUESTIONS.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>1. How far does the Solar System reach?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Nobody can say; but at all events beyond +Neptune’s pathway.</p> + + + +<p>2. Has the Sun any power beyond his own kingdom?</p> + + +<p class="bit">He has power to attract other stars.</p> + + + +<p>3. Does he pull other stars as strongly as he pulls his +worlds?</p> + + +<p class="bit">No: much more gently, because of their great +distance.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</span></p> + + + +<p>4. How many stars are in our Solar System?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Only one star, the Sun.</p> + + + +<p>5. What lies round our System, between us and all the +stars?</p> + + +<p class="bit">A wide empty space of cold and darkness.</p> + + + +<p>6. Do we really know that it is empty?</p> + + +<p class="bit">We can only say that it seems empty to us. +We <i>know</i> very little about the matter.</p> + + + +<p>7. If we let one inch stand for 2,000 miles, how large will +the whole Solar System be?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Less than 50 miles across. It would lie between +New York and West Point.</p> + + + +<p>8. Does this mean the whole of it?</p> + + +<p class="bit">The whole of which we know. Some comets +may wander a little farther.</p> + + + +<p>9. On that small scale, how near would Mercury be to the +Sun?</p> + + +<p class="bit">About a quarter of a mile off.</p> + + + +<p>10. And Venus?</p> + + +<p class="bit">About half a mile off.</p> + + + +<p>11. And the Earth?</p> + + +<p class="bit">About three quarters of a mile off.</p> + + + +<p>12. And Mars?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Over one mile off.</p> + + + +<p>13. And Jupiter?</p> + + +<p class="bit">About three miles and three quarters off.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</span></p> + + + +<p>14. And Saturn?</p> + + +<p class="bit">About seven miles off.</p> + + + +<p>15. And Uranus?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Over fourteen miles off.</p> + + + +<p>16. And Neptune?</p> + + +<p class="bit">More than twenty-one miles off.</p> + + + +<p>17. And the nearest Star?</p> + + +<p class="bit">About two hundred thousand miles off.</p></div> +<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="c20">CHAPTER XX.</h2> +</div> + +<p class="c sp">A STARRY UNIVERSE.</p> + + +<p><span class="smcap large">I wonder</span> how many of the Stars you know +by sight, so as to be able to point them out one +by one, and say, “That is Sirius,” or “That is +Arcturus,” or “That is Capella,” or “That is the +Pole-star.”</p> + +<p>We are not now thinking of Planets, but of +Stars; not of Worlds, but of Suns; not of our +little Solar System, but of the great <i>Stellar System</i>, +or Universe of Stars.</p> + +<p>Our Sun and all his worlds belong to that +Starry Universe. And no doubt countless other +worlds, as well as countless other suns, belong to +it also.</p> + +<p>In long-past days the name of “fixed stars” +was given to the greater number of shining +points in the sky. They are called “fixed” to +make a difference between them and the planets, +which are seen to be <i>not</i> fixed.</p> + +<p>Of course all the stars, like all the planets, +seem to travel each night across the sky. We +have explained this already, and you know quite +well now that their nightly journey from east to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</span> +west is only a seeming journey—only caused by +our Earth’s spinning from west to east.</p> + +<p>But even thus the stars are “fixed” as they +go; for all move in the same direction and at +the same speed. One star does not travel here +and another there, in opposite ways. All travel +the same way. Each group of stars keeps always +its own shape. Each star has its own particular +place among other stars. It is as if the whole +sky moved round in one piece.</p> + +<p>The planets behave quite differently. A +planet is seen to change its place from day to +day, from month to month, <i>among</i> the stars. +Now it is in this group, and now it is in that +group. Now it goes forward, and now it seems +to travel backward; or again it appears to stop, +and then starts off anew.</p> + +<p>These movements of the planets are a mixture +of real movements and of seeming movements. +They are partly brought about by our +Earth’s own journeying.</p> + +<p>With the stars no such changes are seen. +They remain always the same, always fixed in +the same groups. These groups are commonly +called “<i>Constellations</i>.”</p> + +<p>The Little Bear’s tail-tip never wanders away +from the Little Bear’s body. The four chief +body-stars of the Great Bear never part company. +Orion’s sword never breaks up, and his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</span> +belt is always made of three stars in a row, and +his feet keep ever at the same distance from his +head. Therefore the stars are called “fixed.”</p> + +<p>And yet they are not fixed.</p> + +<p>So far as we can tell, every single Star in the +sky, like every Planet, has its own movement. +Stars as well as worlds are on the rush. Although +we cannot actually <i>see</i> all to be moving, we may +safely say that all do move.</p> + +<p>It seems to us, indeed, as impossible for the +stars to be at rest as it is for the planets to be at +rest.</p> + +<p>You remember why the planets have to be +always hastening along their pathways round +the Sun. If one of the worlds came to a stop it +would at once begin to fall towards the Sun, +drawn by the Sun’s great pull; and perhaps it +might end by dropping into the crimson fiery +sea.</p> + +<p>And it is much the same with the stars.</p> + +<p>Just as the Sun and planets all pull or attract +one another, so the stars all pull or attract one +another. Each star draws all his neighbor-stars +and is drawn by them.</p> + +<p>If there were nothing to meet this perpetual +<i>pull</i> of every star for every other star, then all +the stars in the universe would surely in time +rush together and become one enormous heap +of Suns.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</span></p> + +<p>But there is something to meet and overcome +this pull. The stars, too, are in motion. Each +radiant Sun, by his own swift rush through the +sky, so overcomes the pull of other stars that he +can keep apart from them as he journeys.</p> + +<p>Some go only a few miles each second, like +the planets Jupiter and Saturn. Some go as fast +as Mars or the Earth. Some rival the flight of +Mercury. Others far surpass any of the worlds +in speed. There are stars hastening through the +sky at a rate of over one hundred, and over two +hundred, and even over three hundred miles +each second.</p> + +<p>Yet, despite all these journeyings, the stars +remain fixed. Century after century we see +them overhead in changeless groups.</p> + +<p>How can it be so? If each star is taking its +own onward journey along its own separate +pathway at a rate of at least tens of thousands +of miles every day, surely we ought to see them +moving. Surely a star ought to get nearer to +its neighbor on one side, and farther from its +neighbor on the other side. How can it be +otherwise if all the stars move, and if no two +move at just the same speed?</p> + +<p>That is exactly what the stars are doing. +Each star gets daily nearer or farther away from +each of its neighbor stars.</p> + +<p>And yet they seem to us to remain fixed.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</span> +The star-groups are still the same in shape as +when our forefathers looked upon them.</p> + +<p>No: we cannot see such changes commonly. +And I will tell you why we cannot. It is because +our lives are not long enough.</p> + +<p>Think once more about the movement of +clouds as seen from the ground. A small cloud, +low down, will appear to hurry across the sky at +a great pace. But you may look for perhaps +half-an-hour at far-away clouds, very high up, +and notice no change in them.</p> + +<p>This does not mean that the clouds high up +do not stir. They may be actually moving +quite as fast as the little cloud down below. +Only, they are so far distant that the movement +seems very slow—too slow to be seen at all, it +may be, in one short half-hour.</p> + +<p>The stars are enormously more distant than +the very highest cloud ever seen. However +fast they really move those movements are very +small, very tiny, as watched from the Earth; +so small and tiny that the lives of many men, +one after another, are, all together, too short +a time for the seeing of star-journeyings from +the Earth. Only a very few can be found out +thus, by most careful watching.</p> + +<p>Among the hosts of travelling stars is our +own Sun.</p> + +<p>We have spoken so far of the Sun as if he<span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</span> +were fixed in one place, always at rest in the +midst of his worlds.</p> + +<p>And so far as he has to do with the planets +he is at rest. That is to say, he is always in +one place <i>for them</i>. He is always about the +same distance from Mercury, from the Earth, +from Jupiter, and from Neptune. He is always +just in the middle of the Solar System.</p> + +<p>Yet he is not really at rest. He too travels +as the other stars travel. He too is on the +move—going somewhere in the skies; where, +I cannot tell you.</p> + +<p>And as he speeds onward he carries with +him all his company of worlds and moons, of +comets and meteors. They are no trouble at all +to him. He carries them in the strong grasp of +his attraction as easily as you in walking might +bear along with you a muff or a hand-bag.</p> + +<p>If you were asked how many stars can be +seen any clear night in the sky, you would very +likely say—“Oh, thousands and thousands!” +You might even reply, “Millions!”</p> + +<p>But nobody ever yet saw a million stars without +the help of a telescope. Commonly we see +at most only two or three thousand stars; and +not often so many at once.</p> + +<p>For convenience the stars are arranged in +Classes, first, second, third, and so on, like the +classes in a school.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</span></p> + +<p>These Classes are spoken of as Magnitudes, +which means “Sizes.” But the stars really are +put into Classes according to their <i>brightnesses</i>: +not according to their sizes.</p> + +<p>We know very little as yet about the true +sizes of the stars. They all look to us, in even +the biggest telescopes, as mere bright points, +showing no size at all. Some of the brighter +stars may be much smaller than others which +seem to us more dim.</p> + +<p>The shining of a star in our sky depends +upon two things. It depends partly on the size +and brightness of the star. It depends partly on +the nearness of that star to the Earth.</p> + +<p>All we are able to do is to arrange them in +classes according to their <i>brightness</i> as seen from +the Earth.</p> + +<p>Those which shine the most are called Stars +of the First Magnitude; those which come next +in brightness are called Stars of the Second +Magnitude; and so on.</p> + +<p>In the whole sky all around the Earth there +are only about twenty Stars of the First Magnitude. +Those twenty stars are mere bright +points in the sky; none of them so bright as +Venus and Jupiter look to us.</p> + +<p>Yet they are all Suns; radiant globes of heat +and light more or less like our own great Sun; +not like a mere planet.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</span></p> + + +<p class="c">QUESTIONS.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>1. What is meant by the Stellar System?</p> + + +<p class="bit">The Universe of Stars to which our Sun belongs.</p> + + + +<p>2. How are Planets known from Stars?</p> + + +<p class="bit">The Stars remain fixed in groups, while +Planets are always changing their places among +the Stars.</p> + + + +<p>3. What is meant by “Fixed Stars?”</p> + + +<p class="bit">The Stars are so called because of their fixity +in certain groups.</p> + + + +<p>4. Tell me the name commonly given to groups of Stars.</p> + + +<p class="bit">They are called Constellations.</p> + + + +<p>5. Name two or three Constellations mentioned in this +chapter.</p> + + +<p class="bit">The Little Bear; the Great Bear; Orion.</p> + + + +<p>6. Are the Stars really fixed?</p> + + +<p class="bit">No; they are believed to be all moving.</p> + + + +<p>7. If the Stars are moving why do we not see it?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Because of their immense distance from us. +Our lives are not long enough for us to see most +of the Stars change their places in our sky.</p> + + + +<p>8. Is the Sun at rest?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Our Sun journeys like other stars through +the sky.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</span></p> + + + +<p>9. Does he ever leave his planets behind?</p> + + +<p class="bit">No; he carries them all with him.</p> + + + +<p>10. How does he do so?</p> + + +<p class="bit">By means of his powerful attraction.</p> + + + +<p>11. What is the meaning of “Magnitude?”</p> + + +<p class="bit">The word “Magnitude” means “Size.”</p> + + + +<p>12. What is meant by Star-Magnitudes?</p> + + +<p class="bit">The Stars are divided into different classes, +called Magnitudes—such as Stars of the First +Magnitude, Stars of the Second Magnitude.</p> + + + +<p>13. Are all Stars of the First Magnitude larger than all +other Stars?</p> + + +<p class="bit">No; it is a question of brightness, and not of +size.</p> + + + +<p>14. What do we really mean by Stars of the First Magnitude?</p> + + +<p class="bit">We mean those stars in our sky which shine +more brightly, as seen from the Earth, than any +other stars.</p> + + + +<p>15. Does not brighter shining show greater size?</p> + + +<p class="bit">It may sometimes show greater size, or it +may only show greater nearness to the Earth.</p> + + + +<p>16. How many Stars of the First Magnitude are there?</p> + + +<p class="bit">About twenty altogether, round the whole +sky.</p></div> +<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="c21">CHAPTER XXI.</h2> +</div> + +<p class="c sp">STAR-GROUPS.</p> + + +<p><span class="smcap large">The</span> names of different Star-Groups are very +old indeed. On a map or globe of the heavens +you may see them pictured, with the figure of +an animal or a man from which the name of the +Constellation is taken.</p> + +<p>These figures were no doubt a help, in very +early times, when people wished to learn the +different stars; though the star-groups can hardly +be said to bear any real likeness to the figures.</p> + +<p>As we journey round the Sun, month by +month, we see him against different Star-groups +in the heavens—against one constellation after +another.</p> + +<p>Actually, of course, we do <i>not</i> see the Sun +against the stars, since all stars beyond the Sun +are hidden by his brightness. But we see at +night those stars which lie in the <i>opposite</i> direction, +and we know each month, without seeing, +which group lies exactly <i>behind the Sun</i>.</p> + +<p>Suppose you are in a room with a lighted +lamp on a table in the middle. And suppose +you walk slowly round the table.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</span></p> + +<p>As you go you will see the lamp against different +parts of the room in turn. First, perhaps, +against a window, then against a wall, +then against a fireplace, then against a door, +then against another wall, then against a sideboard +or chiffonier, and so on.</p> + +<p>The lamp itself does not stir; but you, by +moving onward, change its background and give +it a sort of “seeming pathway” round the room. +If it were very far away, instead of very close, it +might really appear to you to be moving.</p> + +<p>This is how we see the Sun seem to travel +among the different star-groups. He does not +go any nearer to the stars than usual; he only +comes <i>between</i> them and us. In fact he does not +really go or come; but as we move on we make +him lie between us and one star-group after another.</p> + +<p>Twelve constellations are behind this seeming +pathway of the Sun, and they are called +“The Signs of the Zodiac.” It would be a good +plan to learn them by heart some day. Here +are the names of the twelve star-groups in English +and in Latin:</p> + +<table> + +<tr> + <td class="tdl">The Ram</td> + <td class="tdl">Aries.</td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdl">The Bull </td> + <td class="tdl">Taurus.</td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdl">The Twins</td> + <td class="tdl">Gemini.</td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdl">The Crab</td> + <td class="tdl">Cancer.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</span><br></td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdl">The Lion</td> + <td class="tdl">Leo.</td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdl">The Virgin</td> + <td class="tdl">Virgo.</td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdl">The Scales</td> + <td class="tdl">Libra.</td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdl">The Scorpion</td> + <td class="tdl">Scorpio.</td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdl">The Archer</td> + <td class="tdl">Sagittarius.</td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdl">The Goat</td> + <td class="tdl">Capricornus.</td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdl">The Water-carrier         </td> + <td class="tdl">Aquarius.</td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdl">The Fishes</td> + <td class="tdl">Pisces.</td></tr> + +</table> + +<p>In all these twelve groups we find only five +stars of the first magnitude.</p> + +<p>Besides those particular star-groups which lie +behind the Sun as we journey there are many +other constellations in all parts of the sky.</p> + +<p>Certain stars in the southern half of the +heavens can be seen by people living on the +northern half of our Earth. And certain stars +in the northern half of the heavens can be seen +by people living on the southern half of our +Earth.</p> + +<p>But the very far north stars, lying over, or +very nearly over, our north pole, are never seen +at all in the far south of the Earth. And the +very south stars, lying over, or very nearly over, +our south pole, are never seen at all in the far +north of the Earth.</p> + +<p>People living, for instance, in South Australia +cannot get a glimpse of the Pole-star or the +Great Bear; and people living in England or in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</span> +New England cannot get a glimpse of the +Southern Cross.</p> + +<p>Remember that, either way, whether from +the north pole or from the south pole of the +Earth, a man always looks <i>up</i> into the sky. The +heavens are always <i>upward</i>. The sky above the +south pole is no more <i>downward</i> than the sky +above the north pole. All the “downward” of +which we know is towards the centre or middle +of our Earth.</p> + +<p>Nobody now need sit looking up at the sky +and saying,</p> + + +<div class="poetry-container"> +<div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">“Twinkle, twinkle, little star;</div> + <div class="verse indent0">How I wonder what you are!”</div> + </div> +</div> +</div> + + +<p>for we know what the stars are.</p> + +<p>I do not mean for a moment that we know +all about them, or that we have not an immense +amount still to learn. But we do certainly know +what they are. They are <i>Suns</i>.</p> + +<p>The twinkling is not a part of the stars themselves. +It is brought about by the way in which +the little rays of star-light travel through our +air. If we could get away from the Earth, right +outside the air, we should then see the stars to +shine steadily, without any twinkling.</p> + +<p>Jupiter and Venus and other planets do not +twinkle when we look upon them. You may +usually know a planet from a star by its not +twinkling.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</span></p> + +<p>No planet can ever be seen by us, even +through the very biggest of telescopes, at such +an enormous distance as that of the nearest star. +For the planets shine by borrowed light, as our +Moon shines; and you know how dim moonlight +is, compared with sunlight. Only a sun, +shining with the brilliance of its own great heat, +can possibly be seen so very, very far away.</p> + +<p>Any number of worlds may be there: cooled +worlds, like our Earth; half-cooled worlds, like +Jupiter and Saturn—such worlds journeying +round distant stars as the planets of the Solar +System journey round our Sun. Only if they +are there we cannot know it; our eyes cannot +make them out.</p> + +<p>Suppose you and I could go for a long, long +journey through the skies, straight from our +Earth away to the star Alpha Centauri. That +is the nearest star in all the heavens of which +we yet know.</p> + +<p>Alpha Centauri is a very bright star, one of +the First Magnitude. But you cannot see it in +our northern skies. You would have to go much +farther south to get a sight of Alpha Centauri.</p> + +<p>Suppose that we were to start on this vast +journey, taking with us the great Lick telescope +of California. And suppose that all the way we +never once looked back in this direction until +we reached the neighborhood of that bright<span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</span> +star—until we got near enough to see Alpha +Centauri as a large radiant Sun.</p> + +<p>Then suppose that we turned round and +gazed through the big telescope towards this +little Earth left so far behind.</p> + +<p>What do you think we should see?</p> + +<p>No Earth at all! No Moon! No Jupiter, no +Venus, no Mars, no planets! No great, warm, +glowing Sun! Only one little faint distant star +sending forth its feeble glimmer!</p> + +<p>All else would have vanished utterly. At +the distance of the nearest star, nobody, looking +in this direction, with man’s eyes and with such +telescopes as we have on Earth, could find out +anything at all about the Solar System. All +the worlds and their moons would be hidden. +The very most that anyone could see would be +our Sun, as one tiny star.</p> + +<p>Just so we on the Earth gaze at the far-off +stars; and we see them shining as lonely suns +with no worlds travelling round them. Yet they +<i>may</i> not be lonely. Any one of those stars <i>may</i> +have its own great kingdom of worlds. Any +number of planets <i>may</i> be there. Who can tell? +We are not able to know, because the gentle +shining of borrowed or reflected light cannot +possibly reach to such a distance. The most +that we have any right to say is that we are not +able to <i>see</i> any worlds belonging to the stars.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</span></p> + + +<p class="c">QUESTIONS.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>1. What is meant by the Signs of the Zodiac?</p> + + +<p class="bit">The twelve constellations against which in +turn the Sun is seen in the course of a year.</p> + + + +<p>2. How is the Sun seen against these constellations?</p> + + +<p class="bit">In consequence of our Earth’s yearly journey +round the Sun.</p> + + + +<p>3. Do we actually see the stars beyond the Sun?</p> + + +<p class="bit">No; for all stars in the same direction as the +Sun are hidden by his brightness.</p> + + + +<p>4. Tell me the names of the twelve constellations.</p> + + +<p class="bit">Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, +Libra, Scorpio, Sagittarius, Capricornus, Aquarius, +Pisces.</p> + + + +<p>5. How many very bright stars are in those constellations?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Five stars of the first magnitude.</p> + + + +<p>6. Can all stars in the sky be seen from all parts of the +Earth?</p> + + +<p class="bit">No. Some stars to the far north are never +seen in the far south; and some stars to the +far south are never seen in the far north.</p> + + + +<p>7. Tell me of a constellation never seen from Australia.</p> + + +<p class="bit">The Great Bear.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</span></p> + + + +<p>8. Tell me of a star-group never seen from New England.</p> + + +<p class="bit">The Southern Cross.</p> + + + +<p>9. What are Stars?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Stars are Suns.</p> + + + +<p>10. Why do Stars twinkle?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Only because of the way in which their light +travels through our air.</p> + + + +<p>11. Tell me of one way by which we may know planets +from stars?</p> + + +<p class="bit">A star generally twinkles; and a planet generally +does not twinkle.</p> + +<p>12. Do any planets belong to the distant stars?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Any of the stars may have worlds belonging +to them, but we cannot see such worlds.</p> + + + +<p>13. Why cannot we see them?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Because the distance is too great.</p> + + + +<p>14. Why should we see a star if we cannot see a planet +at that distance?</p> + + +<p class="bit">A star shines by its own light. A planet +shines only by reflected light, therefore much +more dimly.</p> + + + +<p>15. If we could journey to the nearest known star, how +much should we see of the Solar System?</p> + + +<p class="bit">No planets nor moon at all: nothing but the +Sun as one dim star.</p></div> +<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="c22">CHAPTER XXII.</h2> +</div> + +<p class="c sp">GIANT-SUNS AND CLUSTERS.</p> + + +<p><span class="smcap large">All</span> stars do not shine alike. They are different +in brightness, different in size, different +in speed.</p> + +<p>There are brilliant suns and dim suns, great +suns and little suns, fast suns and slow suns, in the +universe of stars, just as there are brilliant worlds +and dim worlds, great worlds and little worlds, +fast worlds and slow worlds, in our Solar System.</p> + +<p>But the brightest star is not always truly +the biggest star; just as the brightest planet in +our sky is by no means always the largest world.</p> + +<p>You know how bright Venus is—a good +deal brighter than Jupiter. Yet Venus is far, +far smaller than Jupiter. Venus is brighter because +she is so much the nearer of the two, not +at all because of greater size.</p> + +<p>The very brightest star in our whole sky is +<span class="smcap">Sirius</span>. Yet you must not suppose that Sirius +is larger in himself than any other star. He is +brighter partly because he is so much <i>nearer</i> +than most other stars.</p> + +<p>I do not mean to say that Sirius is what +one would call a very near star, if such a word<span class="pagenum" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</span> +can be used about any single star in the sky. +Alpha Centauri, though the nearest of which +we know, is not really near; and Sirius is perhaps +nearly twice as far off as Alpha. That, +however, is not much, compared with the enormous +distances of many stars.</p> + +<p>Sirius is no doubt a splendid Sun, most likely +larger and brighter than our Sun. But our Sun +is not so very particularly large as a star among +stars. He is only large as a Sun among little +worlds. Sirius may very well be bigger than +our Sun and yet be by no means one of the biggest +stars in the sky.</p> + +<p>No one has yet been able to measure the +actual size of Sirius, because he always looks to +us like one point of light. But we know about +how far off he is, and we know that our Sun at +that same distance would not be so bright a star +as Sirius is. This looks as though Sirius were +the larger Sun of the two, only without any very +startling difference.</p> + +<p>Matters are otherwise when we turn to <span class="smcap">Arcturus</span>.</p> + +<p>Sirius is in the southern half of the heavens, +and Arcturus is perhaps the very brightest star +in all the northern half of the heavens, though +a good way behind Sirius in radiance.</p> + +<p>Arcturus seems to be a truly wonderful Sun. +He is eleven millions of times farther away from<span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</span> +us than our Sun is. Imagine what this means! +If you had a rope 92 millions of miles long, +reaching from our Earth to the Sun, you would +need <i>eleven millions</i> of such ropes, joined end to +end, to reach from the Earth to Arcturus!</p> + +<p>If our Sun were moved to where Arcturus is +we should see him only as a very dim star indeed. +But Arcturus is one of the most brilliant +stars in our sky.</p> + +<p>This seems to show that he must be an enormous +Sun: a very giant among giants; so huge +that our great Sun would perhaps be but as a +little ball by his side.</p> + +<p>Capella, one of our most beautiful northern +stars, is believed to be another giant Sun. Our +Sun, at the distance of Capella, would be only +just visible without a telescope, while Capella is +almost, if not quite, as bright as Arcturus. Since +the radiance of Capella is certainly not caused by +nearness it is most likely caused by great size.</p> + +<p>So, although Sirius may be to us “the monarch +of the starry skies,” he is monarch only in +appearance. He is brightest because he is one +of the nearer stars, not because he is really one +of the very largest. Arcturus, Capella, and others +also, are believed far to surpass him in size.</p> + +<p>In this little book I must not even try to tell +you many of the wonders of the starry heavens. +If you wish to learn more you will by-and-by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</span> +read in other books about the many-colored +suns which are seen in telescopes, and the pairs +of suns which journey through the skies in company.<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">[3]</a> See “Sun, Moon and Stars,” pp. 283-286.</p> + +</div> + +<p>You will read also about the curious changeable +stars, which get bright and dim by turns; +and about the extraordinary New Stars, which +sometimes appear and last for a while, and then +vanish again.<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">[4]</a> Ibid. pp. 279-282.</p> + +</div> + +<p>I am only going to tell you now a very little +about Star-Clusters and Nebulæ.</p> + +<p>A Star-Cluster is just what its name says it +is—a Cluster of Stars very near together. Near, +as seen by us at this distance; not always really +near.</p> + +<p>A great many star-clusters are known, and +some can be seen without a telescope, while +others are mere specks even in a fairly good +telescope.</p> + +<p>In some clusters only about one or two hundred +stars are seen. In others we find a countless +multitude of stars—thousands of suns seemingly +packed together in a mass.</p> + +<p>The <i>packed</i> look comes from great distance. +If we were near enough we should see the suns +of such a cluster to be well apart—perhaps even +very widely separated. You know how the trees +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</span>of a forest, which close at hand stand apart, seem +in the distance to shrink close together. That is +how the stars do.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig18.jpg" alt="nebula"> +<p class="caption"><i>The Nebula in Andromeda.</i></p> +</div> + +<p>One very important cluster you may easily +see any clear winter evening—the cluster of the +Pleiades. Most people can make out five or six +dim stars; and through a mere opera-glass a +hundred may be counted.</p> + +<p>The word “nebula” means “a cloud.” <i>Nebulæ</i> +is the plural, meaning <i>clouds</i>.</p> + +<p>But the Nebulæ are not fleeting and watery +clouds, like our Earth-clouds. They are pale +patches of light in the sky, fixed as the stars +themselves—in one spot century after century.</p> + +<p>Only two or three of the nebulæ can be seen +without a telescope. The brightest of them all +is a faint patch in the star-group Andromeda; +and the next brightest is “The Great Nebulæ” +in the constellation Orion.</p> + +<p>Photographs are now taken of the nebula, +and we thus see more of their true shapes than +could ever be found out by simply gazing at +them with our own eyes, which so soon get +tired.</p> + +<p>It used once to be thought that a Nebula +was only a very, very far off star-cluster—too far +for the largest telescope ever to make us able to +see the little separate star-points.</p> + +<p>But it has now been found that many of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</span> +nebulæ are not clusters of stars at all; they are +made of shining gases.</p> + +<p>Gases out there in the distant sky, it is supposed, +do not burn away, like gas here on the +Earth, because in the sky, far off, there is no air, +and nothing can <i>burn away</i> without air. Only +when the great masses of gas are very hot they +shine with their own heat; and instead of burning +away they go on shining, year after year. +That is how we see them.</p> + +<p>Some nebulæ are made partly of gases and +partly of stars. And some star-clusters have a +good deal of shining gas round about the +stars.</p> + +<p>For a long while nobody knew that there was +any bright gas round the stars of the Pleiades +cluster. But lately, in some photographs taken +of the Pleiades, a curious soft haze has come +out round several of the stars, as you may see +for yourself in a photograph which tells a truer +tale than our eyes can tell.</p> + +<p>Do you remember hearing that a star is, most +likely, a young world not yet cooled? Well, it +<i>may</i> be that a nebula is a young sun, or cluster +of suns, not yet shaped.</p> + +<p>These things we cannot know with certainty. +We can only say what is believed to be most +likely the right explanation.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig19.jpg" alt="orion"> +<p class="caption"><i>The Great Nebula in Orion.</i></p> +</div> + +<p>Perhaps you have sometimes noticed across +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</span>the sky at night a band of pale light, wider +here, narrower there.</p> + +<p>In a clear evening, after dark, it may always +be seen, and it is called <span class="smcap">The Milky Way</span>.</p> + +<p>Stars lie scattered over and around the Milky +Way. But beyond and behind all the brighter +stars is spread that soft pale band, which in +itself is made up of stars—multitudes upon +multitudes of distant suns. They are either so +very distant or so very small, or perhaps both +together, that we cannot see them as separate +stars. We only see the general shining of +them all.</p> + +<p>Through a telescope great numbers of stars +can be seen in the Milky Way, yet still the band +of hazy light always lies beyond.</p> + +<p>The Milky Way belongs to the same vast +Universe of Stars to which our Sun belongs. +Indeed, our Sun, with all his planets, is actually +<i>in</i> the Milky Way.</p> + +<p>When you are looking up into the sky, trying +to learn about the countless suns of the +great Universe, never forget one thing—that +“our Father in Heaven” has made them all, +and is <span class="smcap">King</span> over them all.</p> + +<p>If we see a lovely picture, or a beautiful +building, we naturally want to know more about +the man who painted the picture or planned the +building.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</span></p> + +<p>Then surely, while searching into the grand +distances and glory of the skies, we ought to +lift our thoughts in reverent adoration to our +Father in Heaven, and to the Son of God, by +whom “were all things created that are in +heaven and that are in earth.” For “<i>without +Him was not anything made that was made</i>!”</p> + + +<p class="c">QUESTIONS.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>1. Are stars all of the same size?</p> + + +<p class="bit">No; some are large and some are small.</p> + + + +<p>2. Are the brightest stars always the largest in size?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Not at all. A star may be brighter than another +only because it is much nearer.</p> + + + +<p>3. Which is the brightest star in our heavens?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Sirius, the Dog-star.</p> + + + +<p>4. Is Sirius as bright as Venus?</p> + + +<p class="bit">No; but Venus is a planet, not a star.</p> + + + +<p>5. Is Sirius one of the very largest stars?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Sirius is perhaps bigger than our Sun, but +not one of the biggest stars.</p> + + + +<p>6. Why, then, is Sirius the brightest?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Sirius is one of the nearer stars; not actually +near, but far nearer than many others.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</span></p> + + + +<p>7. Is our Sun one of the biggest stars?</p> + + +<p class="bit">No; only a moderate-sized star.</p> + + + +<p>8. Tell the names of two giant suns.</p> + + +<p class="bit">Arcturus and Capella.</p> + + + +<p>9. Why do we believe Arcturus and Capella to be larger +than Sirius?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Because they are both very bright stars; and +yet they are very much farther away than +Sirius.</p> + + + +<p>10. What are Star-Clusters?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Clusters of hundreds or thousands of suns, so +distant as to seem to us quite close together.</p> + + + +<p>11. What are Nebulæ?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Hazy clouds like patches in the sky.</p> + + + +<p>12. What are Nebulæ made of?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Some are only great masses of shining gas. +Sometimes they are made of stars and gases +together.</p> + + + +<p>13. Which are the two brightest Nebulæ?</p> + + +<p class="bit">The Nebula in Andromeda and the Nebula +in Orion.</p> + + + +<p>14. Tell me the name of a well-known Star-Cluster easily +seen?</p> + + +<p class="bit">The Pleiades.</p> + + + +<p>15. What do we learn from a photograph of the Pleiades?</p> + + +<p class="bit">That some of the stars of this cluster have +nebula-gas round them.</p></div> +<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="c23">CHAPTER XXIII.</h2> +</div> + +<p class="c sp">HOW TO STUDY THE SKY.</p> + + +<p><span class="smcap large">Now</span> I want you to get just a tiny idea of +how to <i>begin</i> to find out for yourself a few Planets +and Stars in the sky. In one way, the Planets +are the easier of the two to find, in another +way they are the more difficult.</p> + +<p>They are easier because they are brighter; +at least a few of them are. Also, they do not +twinkle. That at once distinguishes them from +the Stars.</p> + +<p>On the other hand they are a little more +difficult, because they are always changing their +places in the sky. If you learn to know some +particular star by sight you will always find +that star in the same place among other stars. +It may be more to the east or to the west, according +to the time of night and of the year; +but it will always be in the very same part of +the very same star-group. But a planet never +keeps long to any particular group of stars.</p> + +<p>However, after the Sun and Moon, the easiest +heavenly bodies of all to find are, no doubt, +Venus and Jupiter.</p> + +<p>Venus is at one time of the year a Morning<span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</span> +Planet, and at another time of the year an +Evening Planet.</p> + +<p>You always see Venus either not very long +before sunrise or not very long after sunset. +Venus is so near to the Sun that you cannot +possibly find her in any part of the sky very +far away from the Sun.</p> + +<p>So if, in the evening, you see a bright planet +away towards the east, you may be sure you are +<i>not</i> looking at Venus. Since the Sun has lately +set in the west Venus will not be anywhere +towards the east.</p> + +<p>But if you see a very bright untwinkling +planet in the west you may be pretty sure that +you have found Venus. “Such a lovely star,” +people often call her. Venus is no star, however.</p> + +<p>It is the same with Mercury as with Venus, +only <i>more so</i>; because Mercury is still closer +to the Sun. So Mercury rises a shorter time +before the Sun than Venus, or sets a shorter +time after the Sun. This makes Mercury not +so easy to see as Venus; and Mercury is never +so brilliant as Venus, at his best.</p> + +<p>Sometimes, when you have found Venus as +a shining planet towards the west, you will see +another bright and beautiful planet, only a little +less radiant, in quite another part of the sky; +and then you have most likely found Jupiter.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</span> +If you look through a good opera-glass you +may perhaps get a glimpse of Jupiter’s little +moons.</p> + +<p>Mars is often not at all difficult to find, because +of his red color. He too, like Venus and +Jupiter, does not twinkle. He is not, however, +nearly so bright as Jupiter.</p> + +<p>When you begin to learn the Star-Groups it +is wisest to start with those near the north pole.</p> + +<p>Ask somebody first to point out to you the +Great Bear, with his seven chief stars, all fairly +bright: four in the body, and three in the tail. +Two of the body-stars are called The Pointers, +because they point almost straight at the <span class="smcap">Pole-Star</span>.</p> + +<p>The end star of the Little Bear’s tail is the +Pole-Star; and it lies almost exactly over the +north pole. As our Earth spins round and +round, so that other stars in the sky seem to +journey across from east to west, her north pole +points always to the Pole-star, and the Pole-star +remains always overhead at the north pole.</p> + +<p>But the body of the Little Bear seems to +travel round and round his own fixed tail-tip. +<i>Seems</i> to do so: for this is part of the great +seeming whirl of the whole sky at night, caused +by our Earth’s real spinning movement.</p> + +<p>In shape the Little Bear is very like the +Great Bear, being made of seven stars, four in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</span> +the body and three in the tail. Only its stars +are a great deal more dim than the seven chief +stars of the Great Bear. Two stars of the Little +Bear are called “The Guardians of the Pole.”</p> + +<p>So now you have to fix in your mind the little +faint Pole-Star as a starting point in your study +of the heavens.</p> + +<p>Round about the Pole-Star are four important +constellations which you ought to learn +early.</p> + +<p>One of the four you know already; and that +is the Great Bear—sometimes named “The +Plough,” and “Charles’ Wain.” Perhaps the +seven stars are in shape at least as much like +to a plough, or to a wagon or a dipper, as they +are to a bear.</p> + +<p>Away to quite the other side of the Pole-Star, +and about opposite to the Great Bear, is a +constellation named Cassiopeia. Here we find +five bright stars shaped somewhat like an easy-chair +seen sideways. There are no first-magnitude +stars in either the Great Bear or Cassiopeia.</p> + +<p>The two other important constellations are +on the two other sides of the Pole-Star; making +with the Great Bear and Cassiopeia a sort of +rough square of four Star-Groups, having the +Pole-Star in their centre.</p> + +<p>One of the two is the Constellation Lyra;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</span> +and in Lyra shines the beautiful first-magnitude +star, <span class="smcap">Vega</span>.</p> + +<p>Opposite to Lyra, on the other side of the +Pole-Star, is the Constellation Auriga; and here +we come across another first-magnitude star, the +giant-sun, <span class="smcap">Capella</span>.</p> + +<p>A certain well-known constellation, Draco, or +The Dragon, winds among these stars-groups, +passing between the Great Bear and the Little +Bear, and so lying very near the Pole-Star.</p> + +<p>From the above-named four principal star-groups +you may work your way southward in all +directions, learning one constellation after another. +I can now only point out a very few +more.</p> + +<p>At no great distance from the Great Bear and +from Lyra is a constellation called Boötes; and +in this group is found the bright first-magnitude +star, <span class="smcap">Arcturus</span>; that giant-sun of which you +have heard before.</p> + +<p>At no great distance from Auriga—that +is, right away in the opposite direction from +Boötes—you may note in winter months the +gentle shining of the <span class="smcap">Pleiades</span>—a star-cluster +in the constellation Taurus.</p> + +<p>During the winter, as you know, certain +star-groups come into view which in summer +we cannot see. No doubt you will remember +that Taurus is one of those star-groups against<span class="pagenum" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</span> +which the Sun is seen, seemingly, to pass in the +course of the year. But when you can see the +Pleiades you will be sure that the Sun is not +<i>then</i> between us and Taurus. If he were, Taurus +would be above the horizon at the same time +as the Sun. And in that case, of course, we +could not see Taurus at all, or the Pleiades.</p> + +<p>In this same star-group Taurus, is a bright +first-magnitude star named <span class="smcap">Aldebaran</span>.</p> + +<p>When you have found the Pleiades you are +not far from the grandest star-group in the sky, +the magnificent constellation of Orion.</p> + +<p>In Orion there are two first-magnitude stars, +named <span class="smcap">Rigel</span> and <span class="smcap">Betelgeuse</span>, and many other +bright stars also.</p> + +<p>The two feet-stars of Orion point in almost +a straight line to the very brightest star in the +whole sky, <span class="smcap">Sirius</span>; often called “The Dog-Star,” +because it is in the constellation Canis Major, +or The Great Dog.</p> + +<p>Arcturus and Capella and Vega are brightest +of all stars in the northern half of the sky; for +Sirius is in the southern half. But not one of +them shines as Sirius shines.</p> + +<p>Two very brilliant southern stars, <span class="smcap">Canopus</span> +and <span class="smcap">Alpha Centauri</span>, are never seen from far +northern countries. Both of them are brighter +than any other first-magnitude star except Sirius. +They quite outshine Arcturus.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</span></p> + +<p>Alpha Centauri, as you have heard earlier, +is the very nearest star to the Earth the distance +of which we know.</p> + +<p>But Canopus is one of the more distant stars. +Since it is so very distant, and so very bright, +we believe it to be another giant-sun.</p> + +<p>There are many more constellations besides +these with which one ought to be acquainted. +It is a good plan to look out the different star-groups +in a map of the heavens, and then, on a +clear night, to find them in the Sky.</p> + + +<p class="c">QUESTIONS.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>1. Which is the easiest heavenly body to find in the Sky, +after the Sun and Moon?</p> + + +<p class="bit">The Planet Venus.</p> + + + +<p>2. Where must you look for Venus?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Always rather near the Sun.</p> + + + +<p>3. At what time of day?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Sometimes in the evening, sometimes in the +morning.</p> + + + +<p>4. And in what direction?</p> + + +<p class="bit">The same direction as the Sun. If in the +morning, Venus will be seen towards the east, +before sunrise. If in the evening, towards the +west after sunset.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</span></p> + + + +<p>5. Why is Venus the easiest to find?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Because she is brightest of all; brighter than +all stars and all other planets.</p> + + + +<p>6. Where is Mercury to be found?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Always near the Sun, like Venus; but Mercury +is nearer still, and so is above the horizon +a shorter time before or after the Sun.</p> + + + +<p>7. Which is the next brightest world in the sky after +Venus?</p> + + +<p class="bit">The planet Jupiter.</p> + + + +<p>8. Where is Jupiter to be found?</p> + + +<p class="bit">In different parts of the sky at different times. +He may be known by his brightness, second only +to that of Venus.</p> + + + +<p>9. What is Mars like?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Reddish in color; and of course Mars, like +other planets, does not twinkle.</p> + + + +<p>10. Which Star remains always in one spot, as seen from +Earth?</p> + + +<p class="bit">The Pole-Star, over our North Pole.</p> + + + +<p>11. What constellation does the Pole-star belong to?</p> + + +<p class="bit">The constellation of the Little Bear.</p> + + + +<p>12. Tell me four chief constellations grouped round the +Pole-star.</p> + + +<p class="bit">The Great Bear, and Cassiopeia; Lyra and +Auriga.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</span></p> + + + +<p>13. Are any first magnitude stars in these four groups?</p> + + +<p class="bit">The bright star Vega, in Lyra; and the bright +star Capella, in Auriga.</p> + + + +<p>14. Tell me of another constellation near the Pole-star.</p> + + +<p class="bit">Draco, or the Dragon.</p> + + + +<p>15. Where is the bright star Arcturus?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Arcturus is in the constellation Boötes.</p> + + + +<p>16. Where is the Pleiades cluster?</p> + + +<p class="bit">The Pleiades cluster is in the constellation +Taurus.</p> + + + +<p>17. Is there any first-magnitude star in Taurus?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Yes, the bright star Aldebaran.</p> + + + +<p>18. Tell me of a grand star-group near the Pleiades.</p> + + +<p class="bit">The constellation Orion.</p> + + + +<p>19. How many stars of the first magnitude are in Orion?</p> + + +<p class="bit">Two; Rigel and Betelgeuse.</p> + + + +<p>20. Where is the brightest of stars, Sirius?</p> + + +<p class="bit">In the constellation Canis Major, or The +Great Dog.</p> + + + +<p>21. How can you find Sirius when you know Orion?</p> + + +<p class="bit">The two feet-stars of Orion point towards +Sirius.</p> + + + +<p>22. Tell me of two very brilliant southern stars.</p> + + +<p class="bit">Canopus and Alpha Centauri.</p></div> + + +<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="bbox"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p class="c"><span class="xxlarge">SCIENTIFIC BOOKS</span><br> + +BY AGNES GIBERNE.</p> + +<hr class="r5"> +</div> + +<p class="large">SUN, MOON, AND STARS.</p> + +<p>A book of astronomy for beginners. 334 pages. +12mo. Revised. Illustrated. $1 25.</p> + + +<p class="large">AMONG THE STARS; or Wonderful +Things in the Sky.</p> + +<p>321 pages. 12mo. Illustrated. $1 25.</p> + + +<p class="large">THE WORLD’S FOUNDATIONS; or +Geology for Beginners.</p> + +<p>334 pages. 12mo. Illustrated. $1 25.</p> + + +<p class="large">FATHER ALDUR.</p> + +<p>A water story. 376 pages. 12mo. Illus. $1 25.</p> + + +<p class="large">THE OCEAN OF AIR.</p> + +<p>398 pages. 12mo. Illustrated. $1 25.</p> + + +<p class="c large sp">AMERICAN TRACT SOCIETY.</p> + +</div> + + +<div class="chapter"> +<p class="c xxlarge sp lsp p2">NEW BOOKS</p> +</div> + +<p class="c less">PUBLISHED BY THE</p> + +<p class="c up sans sp">American Tract Society,</p> + +<p class="c less">10 EAST 23D STREET, NEW YORK.</p> + +<hr class="r65"> + +<p class="c">⁂ <i>Any of these books sent by mail postpaid on receipt of price.</i></p> + +<hr class="r65"> + +<p class="c large sans sp">MR. GROSVENOR’S DAUGHTER.</p> + +<p>A story of city life. By Julia MacNair Wright. +12mo. $1 50.</p> + +<p class="less">“So good a Sunday-school book has not appeared in many a +long year. Mrs. Wright has written many interesting stories, +every one with a useful purpose, but never one more interesting, +never one with purpose half so practical as this. The book +should be in every Sunday-school library.”—<span class="allsmcap">N. Y. EVANGELIST.</span></p> + + +<p class="c large sans sp p2">ON A SNOW-BOUND TRAIN.</p> + +<p>By Julia MacNair Wright. 12mo. $1 25.</p> + +<p class="less">A train on the Pacific Railway is snowed in and makes but +little progress for nearly a week. The passengers get restless +and uneasy. Various attempts at interesting them are tried, but +none succeed so well as story-telling. The narrative of the delays +and disappointments is a very interesting one from which many +practical lessons may be learned, and the stories themselves have +all a point and a purpose that render them highly attractive.</p> + + +<p class="c large sans sp p2">THE SUNDAY HOUR LIBRARY.</p> + +<p>This is a new selection of Sunday-school books. +A fine set of 50 volumes in a neat chestnut case. +$25 net.</p> + + +<p class="c large sans sp p2">THE PILGRIM’S PROGRESS from this World +to that which is to come.</p> + +<p>By John Bunyan. With a memoir of the author +and 127 choice engravings. 324 pages. 4to. Gilt +edges, $2. Cloth, $1 50.</p> + +<p class="less">“We do not know of any edition of Pilgrim’s Progress, the +mechanical outfit of which is so well calculated to widen the +already world-wide popularity of this semi-inspired similitude. +Would that such literature could be placed in the hands of the +rising generation to the exclusion of the trash flooding the book +markets. Here is a story more entertaining than any novel, +and pictures more attractive than the street posters of any theatre, +for the young, once bring them together.”</p> + +<p class="r mid">METHODIST PROTESTANT.</p> + + +<p class="c large sans sp p2">THE ANDERSONS, Brother and Sister.</p> + +<p>By Agnes Giberne. Ten full-page illustrations. +12mo. 347 pp. $1 25.</p> + +<p class="less">“A touching story.... The moral teaching of the book is +of the purest kind.”—<span class="allsmcap">NEW YORK OBSERVER.</span></p> + + +<p class="c large sans sp p2">ROY’S OPPORTUNITY, and what came of it.</p> + +<p>By Annie L. Hannah. 12mo. $1 25.</p> + +<p class="less">“A charming story. The religious teaching of the book is +of the sweetest and the purest character.”</p> + + +<p class="c large sans sp p2">THE STORY OF JOHN G. PATON; or, Thirty +Years Among South Sea Cannibals.</p> + +<p>By Rev. James Paton, B. A. With 45 full-page +illustrations. Fifth thousand. 12mo. 397 pp. $1 50.</p> + +<p class="less">“Truth is far stranger than fiction, and the boy who wishes +something exciting and full of adventures ought to read Mr. +Paton’s autobiography. The many wonderful escapes Paton +experienced are almost incredible. We recommend the book to +all young people.”</p> + +<p class="r mid">FREMONT JOURNAL.</p> + +<p class="less">“One of the most intensely fascinating books of recent +times.”</p> + +<p class="r mid">U. P. C. U. HERALD.</p> + +<p>The same book in German. With 26 illustrations. +12mo. $1.</p> + + +<p class="c large sans sp p2">WHAT GIRLS CAN DO.</p> + +<p>“Not to be ministered unto, but to minister.” By +H. K. Potwin. 4 illustrations. 463 pp. 12mo. $1 50.</p> + +<p class="less">“This interesting and fascinating book held us from the first +chapter to the close. It is a good book for the home, the Sunday-school, +or the wayside reader.”</p> + +<p class="r mid">METHODIST PROTESTANT.</p> + + +<p class="c large sans sp p2">CRADLE THOUGHTS.</p> + +<p>A very sweet little booklet by Mrs. George A. +Paull. It will comfort many a bereaved mother. +10 cts.</p> + + +<p class="c large sans sp p2">FROM OLIVET TO PATMOS: The First Christian +Century in Picture and Story.</p> + +<p>By Mrs. L. S. Houghton. Quarto. Profusely +illustrated. $1 50.</p> + +<p class="less">This is a continuation of Mrs. Houghton’s popular series of +Bible books, of which “The Bible in Picture and Story” and +“The Life of Christ in Picture and Story” have already been +published. It gives the story of the apostles and the interesting +history of the Christian Church in the first century, introducing +an account of the Epistles in the order of the history.</p> + +<p>It forms a very entertaining narrative for either old or +young, which is rendered still more attractive by numerous and +excellent illustrations.</p> + + +<p class="c"><i>By the same author, and uniform.</i></p> + + +<p class="c large sans sp">THE BIBLE IN PICTURE AND STORY.</p> + +<p>Quarto. 269 illustrations, many of them full-page. +240 pp. Cloth, $1 25; gilt extra, $1 75.</p> + +<p>The same book in German, with the same illustrations +and the same price.</p> + +<p class="less">“This volume is adapted to catch the attention and win the +interest of every child. There is a picture on every page of the +two hundred and forty which make up the handsome quarto.”</p> + +<p class="r mid">CHRISTIAN INTELLIGENCER.</p> + + +<p class="c large sans sp p2">LIFE OF CHRIST IN PICTURE AND STORY.</p> + +<p>Quarto. 296 pp. 190 illustrations. $1 50; gilt +edges, $2.</p> + +<p>The same book in German, with the same illustrations +and the same price.</p> + + +<p class="c large sans sp p2">THE CHEQUE BOOK OF THE BANK OF FAITH: +Being Precious Promises arranged for daily +use with brief experimental comments.</p> + +<p>By C. H. Spurgeon. 12mo. $1 50.</p> + +<p class="less">“His writings consist of condensed wisdom and spicy sayings +which will always be relished by young and old. He is +never dull and commonplace in a book like this. His sharp sayings +are full of pith. Many of them are epigrams containing mines +of truth. His association as pastor and friend with many thousands +during his long and wonderful ministry gave him rare facilities +for writing such a helpful book as this.”—<span class="allsmcap">CHRIST. AT WORK.</span></p> + + +<p class="c large sans sp p2">THE ESSEX LAD who became England’s +Greatest Preacher.</p> + +<p>The Life of Charles Haddon Spurgeon. By J. +Manton Smith. Profusely illustrated. 12mo. 75 cts.</p> + +<p class="less">“It was a happy thought which led Mr. Smith, the Evangelist +and close friend and former student of Mr. Spurgeon’s, to +prepare this narrative of the life of Mr. Spurgeon. We have read +six or seven lives of Mr. Spurgeon, but find none more entertaining +or profitable than this. Mr. Smith has done his work well.”</p> + +<p class="r mid">THE STANDARD OF CHICAGO.</p> + + +<p class="c"><i>Other books by Mr. Spurgeon.</i></p> + +<p><b>Morning by Morning</b>; or Daily Readings for the Family or Closet. +414 pp. 12mo. $1.</p> + +<p><b>Evening by Evening</b>; or, Readings for Eventide. 408 pp. 12mo. $1.</p> + +<p><b>John Ploughman’s Pictures.</b> With 38 illus. 183 pp. 12mo. 75 cts.</p> + +<p><b>John Ploughman’s Talk.</b> From new electro-plates. With 24 illustrations. +185 pp. 12mo. 75 cts.</p> + +<p><b>John Ploughman’s Talk and Pictures.</b> Illustrated. In one +volume. 12mo. 359 pp. $1.</p> + +<p><b>Around the Wicket Gate.</b> 16mo. 104 pp. Illustrated. 75 cts.</p> + +<p><b>Sermons in Candles.</b> 12mo. Illustrated. $1.</p> + +<p><b>Commenting and Commentaries.</b> 12mo. 312 pp. $1.</p> + +<p><b>Lectures to my Students.</b> 2 volumes. 12mo. 580 pp. $2.</p> + +<p><b>The Saint and His Saviour.</b> 432 pp. 12mo. $1.</p> + +<hr class="r65"> + +<p class="c sp large"><i>AMERICAN TRACT SOCIETY, NEW YORK.</i> +</p> + +<hr class="full"> + +<div class="transnote"> + +<p class="c">Transcriber’s Notes:</p> + +<p>Variations in spelling and hyphenation are retained.</p> + +<p>Perceived typographical errors have been changed.</p> + +</div> +<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 77859 ***</div> +</body> +</html> diff --git a/77859-h/images/cover.jpg b/77859-h/images/cover.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ad9bab3 --- /dev/null +++ b/77859-h/images/cover.jpg diff --git a/77859-h/images/fig1.jpg b/77859-h/images/fig1.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a0d5ed0 --- /dev/null +++ b/77859-h/images/fig1.jpg diff --git a/77859-h/images/fig10.jpg b/77859-h/images/fig10.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..e394d12 --- /dev/null +++ b/77859-h/images/fig10.jpg diff --git a/77859-h/images/fig11.jpg b/77859-h/images/fig11.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..445ae08 --- /dev/null +++ b/77859-h/images/fig11.jpg diff --git a/77859-h/images/fig12.jpg b/77859-h/images/fig12.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..712998b --- /dev/null +++ b/77859-h/images/fig12.jpg diff --git a/77859-h/images/fig13.jpg b/77859-h/images/fig13.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..5126fd9 --- /dev/null +++ b/77859-h/images/fig13.jpg diff --git a/77859-h/images/fig14.jpg b/77859-h/images/fig14.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..6273f4e --- /dev/null +++ b/77859-h/images/fig14.jpg diff --git a/77859-h/images/fig15.jpg b/77859-h/images/fig15.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a79d3b2 --- /dev/null +++ b/77859-h/images/fig15.jpg diff --git a/77859-h/images/fig16.jpg b/77859-h/images/fig16.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..4ddeed0 --- /dev/null +++ b/77859-h/images/fig16.jpg diff --git a/77859-h/images/fig17.jpg b/77859-h/images/fig17.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..318597d --- /dev/null +++ b/77859-h/images/fig17.jpg diff --git a/77859-h/images/fig18.jpg b/77859-h/images/fig18.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d059aab --- /dev/null +++ b/77859-h/images/fig18.jpg diff --git a/77859-h/images/fig19.jpg b/77859-h/images/fig19.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..23a252a --- /dev/null +++ b/77859-h/images/fig19.jpg diff --git a/77859-h/images/fig2.jpg b/77859-h/images/fig2.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..37991a0 --- /dev/null +++ b/77859-h/images/fig2.jpg diff --git a/77859-h/images/fig3.jpg b/77859-h/images/fig3.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..af9f367 --- /dev/null +++ b/77859-h/images/fig3.jpg diff --git a/77859-h/images/fig4.jpg b/77859-h/images/fig4.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..f1e4bc2 --- /dev/null +++ b/77859-h/images/fig4.jpg diff --git a/77859-h/images/fig5.jpg b/77859-h/images/fig5.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..5653263 --- /dev/null +++ b/77859-h/images/fig5.jpg diff --git a/77859-h/images/fig6.jpg b/77859-h/images/fig6.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..7f09564 --- /dev/null +++ b/77859-h/images/fig6.jpg diff --git a/77859-h/images/fig7.jpg b/77859-h/images/fig7.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..5ccfd10 --- /dev/null +++ b/77859-h/images/fig7.jpg diff --git a/77859-h/images/fig8.jpg b/77859-h/images/fig8.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..6456a1e --- /dev/null +++ b/77859-h/images/fig8.jpg diff --git a/77859-h/images/fig9.jpg b/77859-h/images/fig9.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..b22958e --- /dev/null +++ b/77859-h/images/fig9.jpg |
