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} + .x-ebookmaker .covernote { visibility: visible; display: block; } + .figcenter {font-size: .9em; page-break-inside: avoid; max-width: 100%; } + h1 {line-height: 150%; } + .footnote {font-size: .9em; } + div.footnote p {text-indent: 2em; margin-bottom: .5em; } + .chapter { clear: both; page-break-before: always; } + body {font-family: Garamond, Georgia, serif; text-align: justify; } + table {font-size: .9em; padding: 1.5em .5em 1em; page-break-inside: avoid; + clear: both; } + div.titlepage {text-align: center; page-break-before: always; + page-break-after: always; } + div.titlepage p {text-align: center; text-indent: 0em; font-weight: bold; + line-height: 1.5; margin-top: 3em; } + .ph2 { text-indent: 0em; font-weight: bold; font-size: x-large; margin: .75em auto; + page-break-before: always; } + .x-ebookmaker p.dropcap:first-letter { float: left; } + </style> + </head> + <body> +<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 77852 ***</div> + +<div class='tnotes covernote'> + +<p class='c000'><strong>Transcriber’s Note:</strong></p> + +<p class='c000'>New original cover art included with this eBook is granted to the public domain.</p> + +</div> + +<div class='figcenter id001'> +<img src='images/i_001.jpg' alt='YELLOW BUNTING BLUE TIT GOLD FINCH CROSS BILL KINGFISHER RED-START PEWIT BULL-FINCH' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic001'> +<p><i>Mooney, Buffalo.</i></p> +</div> +</div> + +<div class='figcenter id001'> +<img src='images/i_004.jpg' alt='COUNTRY RAMBLES OR THE JOURNAL OF AN ENGLISH NATURALIST. WITH NOTES BY THE AUTHOR OF RURAL HOURS. _BUFFALO PHINNEY & C<sup>o</sup>._' class='ig001'> +</div> + +<div class='titlepage'> + +<div> + <h1 class='c001'>COUNTRY RAMBLES<br> <span class='small'>IN</span><br> <span class='xlarge'>ENGLAND;</span><br> <span class='small'>OR</span><br> <span class='large'>JOURNAL OF A NATURALIST;</span><br> <span class='small'>WITH NOTES AND ADDITIONS,</span></h1> +</div> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> +<div class='nf-center c002'> + <div>BY</div> + <div><span class='large'>THE AUTHOR OF “RURAL HOURS.”</span></div> + </div> +</div> + +<div class='lg-container-b c003'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>——“Plants, trees, and stones, we note,</div> + <div class='line'>Birds, insects, beasts, and many rural things.”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>BUFFALO:</div> + <div>PUBLISHED BY PHINNEY & CO.</div> + <div class='c004'>1853.</div> + </div> +</div> + +</div> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> +<div class='nf-center c002'> + <div><span class='small'>Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1852, by</span></div> + <div><span class='small'>PHINNEY & CO.</span></div> + <div><span class='small'>In the Clerk’s Office of the District Court for the Northern District of</span></div> + <div><span class='small'>New York.</span></div> + </div> +</div> + +<div class='lg-container-b c005'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>Go forth, my little bark, again, and risk</div> + <div class='line'>Once more thy fragile form upon the world’s</div> + <div class='line'>Unsteady surge. Rude gales and currents may</div> + <div class='line'>Be found to meet thee on thy way, and check</div> + <div class='line'>Thy progress to a ready mart: yet steer,</div> + <div class='line'>If haply thou canst, thy course—light is</div> + <div class='line'>Thy freight, nor rare; and few I deem’d would prize</div> + <div class='line'>Such merchandise as thine, nor willing aid</div> + <div class='line'>Thee foundering in the wave; but thou hast sail’d</div> + <div class='line'>In tranquil seas—warm, sunny gleams have cheer’d</div> + <div class='line'>Thee on; and friends—kind friends!—were seen,</div> + <div class='line'>Who slighted not thy ware, all rustic as</div> + <div class='line'>It was. Yet bear thee steady on thy course;</div> + <div class='line'>And chance some wandering trafficker may come</div> + <div class='line'>To seek a sample of thy stores, and find</div> + <div class='line'>The lading to its invoice true.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<div class='chapter'> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_v'>v</span> + <h2 class='c006'>PREFACE.</h2> +</div> + +<p class='c007'>Many years have now passed away since +we were presented with that very interesting +and amusing book, the “Natural History of +Selborne:” nor do I recollect any publication +at all resembling it having since appeared. It +early impressed on my mind an ardent love +for all the ways and economy of nature, and +I was thereby led to the constant observance +of the rural objects around me. Accordingly, +reflections have arisen, and notes been +made, such as the reader will find them. +The two works do not, I apprehend, interfere +with each other. The meditations of +separate naturalists in fields, in wilds, in +woods, may yield a similarity of ideas; yet +the different aspects under which the same +<span class='pageno' id='Page_vi'>vi</span>things are viewed, and characters considered, +afford infinite variety of description and +narrative: mine, I confess, are but brief and +slight sketches; plain observations of nature, +the produce often of intervals of leisure and +shattered health, affording no history of the +country; a mere outline of rural things; the +journal of a traveller through the inexhaustible +regions of Nature.</p> + +<div class='chapter'> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_vii'>vii</span> + <h2 class='c006'>CONTENTS.</h2> +</div> + +<table class='table0'> + <tr> + <td class='c008'>Residence of the Author—Extensive prospect on the banks of the Severn—Welsh mountains, and passages of the river—Roman encampment upon a British site—Remains of the Romans—Coins—Skeletons of men and horses—Traces of a forest—Soils of the parish—Limestone, its abundance and uses—origin—Rocks formed in the parish by the coral polypi—analysis of—Rocks of deposit—analysis of—Lead ore—Carbonate of strontian—Traveller’s foot burned off—Residences upon Limestone supposed healthy—Employment for laborers—Amount of stone disposed of—A worthy peasant—Analysis of soils considered as fallacious—Dairy processes—Grass lands, their nature—Wild plants—predominating plants in corn-fields—Soils will produce particular herbage—Mode of saving hay—Wheat—Culture of the potato—sorts—expense and profit—effect upon the soil—not considered as injurious—sketch of its history—its introduction—some soils not favorable for the root—introduced later than tobacco—value to mankind—Ignorance of the first habitants of the Cerealia—Tendency of plants to revert to their original creation—Original species of the potato cannot now be ascertained—Component parts of some varieties—Teasel crops—its introduction—culture—gathering—value—its cultivation not injurious to the soil—variety of names—application-consumption—Bad custom in farming—“clatters”</td> + <td class='c009'>Page <a href='#Page_9'>9</a> to 41</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c008'> </td> + <td class='c009'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c008'>Study of natural history no subject of ridicule—to be made an object in youth—A beautiful Oak tree—magnitude of several trees—uncertain in producing acorns—a history of the oak might be written—all its products valuable—Wych elm—its character—uses—magnitude—name—suffers in early frosts—not beautiful in autumn—The buff-tip-moth—Trees condense moisture—Air under trees—verdure—Utility and agency of foliage—Prevalence of plants in soils—Fetid hellebore—uses—Village doctress—Blossoms of plants—use not manifest—Carpenter bee—What flowers most abundant—design of flowers—application of flowers—love of flowers—emblems—amusements of children—universal ornament—cultivation of flowers—bouquet—Poplar tree—formation of footstalks—its suckers</td> + <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_41'>41</a>–58</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c008'> </td> + <td class='c009'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_viii'>viii</span>Dyers’ broom—gathering—dishonest practice—uses for the dyer—Conformation of flax and silk—Nature of color—Snapdragon—an insect trap—Dogsbane—very destructive—the object mysterious—Glaucous birthwort—Snapdragon vegetates in great drought—Evaporation from the earth—Ivy—its shelter and food for birds and insects—love of ivy—ornament to ruins—its effect—Foxglove—grows only in particular soils—medicinal uses—uncertain application—name—ancient names—Vindication of old epithets—Ancient and modern remedies—Snowdrop—a native plant—remains long in abandoned places—character of the snowdrop—Yellow oat-grass—affected by drought—Vervain—ancient estimation, and application—Druids of Gaul—Ancient and modern virtues—Dyers’ weed—value—uses—cultivation—yellow color—most permanent and common—Brimstone butterfly—Day’s eye—Dandelion—Singular appearance of a grass—Brambles—insect path on the leaves—uses of the bramble—Maple tree—an early autumn beau—fashion followed by others—maple wood a beautiful microscopic object—medicinal properties—leaves punctured by insects—Traveller’s joy—grows in limestone soils by preference—uses—pores of the wood in the microscope—Vessels of plants—uninjured by dry seasons—Seeds of the Clematis</td> + <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_58'>58</a>–83</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c008'> </td> + <td class='c009'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c008'>Naturalist’s autumnal walk—beautiful, and full of variety—Agaric—beauty and variety—plentiful in Monmouthshire—Agaricus fimi putris—Verdigris agaric—Fungi very uncertain in their growth—Flower-formed hydnum—Mitred helvella—Gray puff ball—Fingered clavaria—Agarics, to be understood, observed in all stages of growth—Perishable nature of created things—Parasitic fungi—laurel—holly—two-fronted sphæria—elm leaves—sycamore leaves—bark of plants—the nut—beech—Odorous agaric—Fragment agaric—‘Stainer’ agaric—Stinking phallus—Mode of propagation—Turreted puff—Starry puff—Morell—Bell-shaped nidularia—Food for mice</td> + <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_83'>83</a>–95</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c008'> </td> + <td class='c009'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c008'>Marten cat—his capture—well adapted for a predatory life—its skin—Hedgehog—mode of life—always destroyed—prejudices against—cruelty of man—an article of food—sensibility of the spines—Harvest mouse—where found—character—Increase and decrease of animals—Migration of rats—Water shrew—its residence and habits—common shrew mouse—Pale blue shrew—Mole—his actions—character—abundance of—easily discovers his food—structure of his body—fur and hair of animals—flesh of the moles—killed by weasels</td> + <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_95'>95</a>–108</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c008'> </td> + <td class='c009'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_ix'>ix</span>Birds—admiration of—The hedge-sparrow—contingencies of its life—song—example of a domestic character—Willow wren—early appearance—and departure—nest—object of her migration—Difficulty of rearing young birds—Golden-crested wren—Linnet—their song—habits—Bull-finch—character—injurious to trees—preference of food—no destroyer of insects—Robin—character—always found—Song of birds—motives obscure—Chaffinch—beautifully feathered—female, her habits—country epithets—conduct in spring—moisten their eggs in hot weather—Parish rewards for vermin—Blue tom-tit—perishes in winter—mode of obtaining food—stratagems—Birds distinguished by voice—Cole mouse—variety of notes—Long-tailed tom-tit—nests—journeys—eggs—labor to feed their young—winter food—great variety of nests—Goldfinch—beautiful nests—Sufferings of the swallow—Maternal care of a little blue tom-tit—industry—Raven—scared from its nest—faculty of discovering its food—universally found—duration of life—reverence—superstitions wearing out—duration of animal life—aided or injured by man—an old horse—life of man—Crossbill—breeds in England—Rook—suffers in cold and dry seasons—his life in the year 1825—various habits of—detects grubs in the earth—his habits in the spring—associations—senses—Magpie—nests—habits—plunderers of the farm-yard—natural affection—Jay—conduct of the old birds—winter habits—feathers—shrike—nest—young—kills other birds—a sentinel—its mischievous disposition—Stormy petrel—habits—Wryneck—its habits—Birds annually diminishing—Swan pool, Lincoln—Nightingale—migrating birds—Rooks love long avenues—Starlings—great flights—social habits—breeding—a stray bird—actions before roosting—congregate—very attentive to their young—journeyings—Laborious life of birds—Red-start—Starling, brown—habits—a very dusky bird—Hawks capture by intimidation—single out individuals—Early seasons—bring rain—Blooming of the white thorn—Migrating birds—their conduct—Butcher-bird—Gray flycatcher—Thrush—instance of affection—motives of action—utility in a garden—Sparrows—domestic habits—manners—increase—destruction—great consumers of insects—accommodating appetite</td> + <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_108'>108</a>–150</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c008'> </td> + <td class='c009'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c008'>Creatures associating with man—Common mouse—Rat—House fly—Utility of animals—Conduct of man—The dog—Wheatear—Country amusements often cruel—Supplication for pity—Eggs—their markings—Foolish superstition—Kite—his habits—great capture of—Blackcap—habits—song—nest—food—shyness—habits of our occasional visiting birds—Petty chaps—White throats—Willow wren—Fear of man in animals—Stratagem of a wren—Instinct—Awakening of birds—Early morning—Morning in autumn—Goldfinch—captured—die in the winter—soon reconciled to captivity—Tree-creeper—winters in England—not an increasing bird—Yellow wagtail—Rapacious birds—Passerine birds—Buntings—unthatching corn ricks—Old tokens and signs—White lily—Pimpernel—Mistlethrush—his note—breeds near the dwellings of man—Change of character in birds—Love of offspring—Divine appointments—Jack snipe—solitary habits—Christmas shooter—Association of birds—Peewit—habits—eggs—Prognostications—Hedge fruit—Fieldfares—Redwings—feeding in the lowlands—uplands—Egg of the fieldfare—Rural sounds—notes of birds—Plumage of birds—Song of birds—Woodlark—habits—voice—capture—Language of man—of birds—Note significant of danger—Singing a spontaneous effusion—Variety of note in same species—‘Lady-bird’ note of a song-thrush—Croaking of the nightingale—Admiration of birds—Cleanly and innocent creatures</td> + <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_150'>150</a>–189</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c008'> </td> + <td class='c009'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_x'>x</span>Knowledge slowly obtained—Entomology a difficult study—Wonders around us—The objects of many insects unknown—Chrysalis of a moth—Four-spotted dragon-fly—Ghost moth—soon destroyed—Specimens of plumage of butterflies—Argus butterfly—a pugnacious insect—combats—Azure butterfly—seldom seen—Hummingbird sphinx—habits—wildness—tamed by familiarity—feigns death—Painted lady butterfly—uncertain in appearing—Marble butterfly—Wasp—Meadow-brown butterfly—Yellow winged moth—Admirable butterfly—Gamma moth—Goat moth—their numbers—odor—power of destruction—Larvæ of phalæena cossus, where plentifully found—Designs of nature—Evening ramble—Insects abounding—ignorance of their objects—Glow-worms—curious contrivance about their eyes—light—migration—Snake eggs—destruction—harmless in England—antipathy of mankind to the race—Paucity of noxious creatures inhabiting with us—Small bombyx—Vigilance—animation—quarrels—Black ant—combats of strength—Red ants—mortality—Yellow ants—winter nests—millipedes—support great degree of cold—Stagnated water—abounding with insects—Newt—his voracity—Water-flea—an amusing insect—observed by boys—Dorr beetle—their numbers—feign death to avoid injury—Cleanliness of creatures in health—Recurrence to causes—Cockchafers—Changes in nature—Death’s-head moth—chrysalides—superstitions regarding the insect—voice—Great water-beetle—its habits and voracity—Hair worm—its object—Nests of a solitary wasp—Hornets—their abundance at times, and voracity—kill each other—Garden snail—its injuries—generally secure from destruction—faculties—small banded snails—their numbers—superstitions concerning them—Earth-worms—numbers of—the prey of all creatures—utility of—drain watery soils—Inattention to the works of Providence</td> + <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_189'>189</a>–235</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c008'> </td> + <td class='c009'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c008'>Empiricism—Apple-tree blight—progress—injury—White moss rose—Testacellus halotideus—Cure of the American blight—Effect of season on the vegetation—Destruction of grass roots—Honey-dew—Injury to foliage by small moths—Salt winds—Leasing—its profits—an innocent occupation—ordained by the Almighty—Old customs—wearing out—Maypoles—Christmassing—Kitchen bushes—young holly-trees—Singular conceit—Influence of electric atmosphere on vegetation—Anecdote of the finding of a guinea—Hummings in the air—Fairy rings—Spring changes—Periodical winds—Whirly pits—Sinkings in the earth—Lichen fascicularis—Salt winds destructive of vegetation—Spottings on apples—spottings on strawberry leaves—curious agaric—Curious analogy between plants and animated beings</td> + <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_235'>235</a>–259</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c008'> </td> + <td class='c009'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c008'>The year 1825—its peculiarities and influences—A speedy method of killing insects—Preserving of insects—Pollarding of trees—most injurious—Insects that destroy the ash—The willow rarely seen as a tree—a fine one near Gloucester—Foggy morning—Reeking of the earth—the cause—and utility—Winter of the year—Ice in pools—Law of nature—Winter called a dull season—Nature actively employed—Exhausting powers observed in the air—A minute vegetable product</td> + <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_259'>259</a>–279</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c008'> </td> + <td class='c009'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c008'> </td> + <td class='c009'> </td> + </tr> + <tr><td class='c010' colspan='2'>CONTENTS OF APPENDIX.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class='c008'> </td> + <td class='c009'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c008'><span class='sc'>Notes</span>—Names for Rural Dwellings—Wild Potato—Wych Elm—Carpenter Bee—Rose-Beetle—Dyers’ Broom—Carnivorous Plant—Ivy—Snowdrop—Vervain—Mistletoe—Dyers’ Weed—Brimstone Butterfly—Furze—Maple—Agarics—Marten—Hedgehog—Mole—Shrew. <span class='sc'>Birds of England</span>; Rook—Linnet—Bull-finch—House-sparrow—Jay—Wood-dove—Kestrel—House-marten—Rock-pigeon—Magpie—Wryneck—Jackdaw—Thrush—Missel-thrush—Blackbird—Cuckoo—Wren—Halcyon—Wagtail—Swift—Goat-sucker—Bustard—Grous—Titmouse—Starling—Fieldfare—Raven—House Fly—Robin—Goldfinch—Sky-lark—Winter Gnat—Butterflies and Moths—Glow-worm—Slow-worm—Dorr, or Clock-beetle—Death’s-head Moth—American Blight—Holly—Provincialisms—Fairy Rings—Æcidium—Pollarding Trees—Ice Floating</td> + <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_281'>281</a>–330</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<div class='chapter'> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_xi'>xi</span> + <h2 class='c006'>INTRODUCTION.</h2> +</div> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> +<div class='nf-center c002'> + <div>BY THE AMERICAN EDITOR.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c007'>It is now nearly five-and-twenty years since the “Journal +of a Naturalist” first appeared in England. The +author, Mr. Knapp, has told us himself that the book owes +its origin to the “Natural History of Selborne,” a work of +the last century, which it is quite needless to say has become +one of the standards of English literature; and the +reader is probably also aware that the honors acceded to +the disciple are, in this instance, scarcely less than those of +his master—the Journal of a Naturalist, and Selborne, +stand side by side, on the same shelf, in the better +libraries of England.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Both volumes belong to a choice class; they are to be +numbered among the books which have been written +neither for fame nor for profit, but which have opened +spontaneously, one might almost say unconsciously, from +the author’s mind. The subjects on which they touch +are such as must always prove interesting in themselves; +like the grass of the field, and the trees of the wood, the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_xii'>xii</span>growth of both works has been fostered by the showers +and the sunshine of the open heavens; and in spite of +so much that is artificial in our daily life and habits, +there are hours when all our hearts gladly turn to the +natural and unperverted gifts of our Maker.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The History of Selborne, and the Journal of a Naturalist, +happen to have been both written in the southern +counties of England. Selborne, the parish of which the +Rev. Gilbert White was Rector, lies on the eastern borders +of Hampshire. Mr. Knapp has not given us the name +of his own village; but its position in Gloucestershire is +minutely described. He tells us that it stands upon a +high ridge of land commanding very beautiful views, +including the broad estuary of the Severn, and the rich +plains on its banks, while the fine mountains of southern +Wales fill up the back-ground; a Roman ferry with the +sites of ancient stations, and the lines of old roads of +the same people, are visible, and the pretty though unimportant +town of Thornbury, with its imposing church +and castle, occupy the cliffs on the opposite bank of the +river.</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c003'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>“The smooth Severn stream,”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c012'>with its</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c003'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line in6'>“Rush-yfringed bank</div> + <div class='line'>Where grows the willow, and the osier dank,”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c012'><span class='pageno' id='Page_xiii'>xiii</span>is the only river of any size in England, running north +and south. It rises in Wales, at the foot of Plinlimnon, +and winding through some of the finest plains on the +island, waters the town of Shrewsbury, Worcester, Tewksbury, +and Gloucester. How familiar are all these names +to American ears; how the scroll of history unfolds +before the mind’s eye as we read their titles! During +the last century the importance of the Severn, in a commercial +sense, was very great indeed; the movement +on the broad estuary by which it flows into the ocean, +being perhaps greater, at that period, than that of any +other European river, with the single exception of the +Thames. Many have been the naval expeditions of importance +which have sailed from the Severn; the Cabots +when bound on the daring voyage which first threw the +light of civilization upon the coast of North America, +embarked from the wharves of Bristol. Perchance the +scanty sails, and heavy hull of their craft, as it made its +way sea-ward, may have been watched by some wondering +peasant, toiling in the same fields to which the Naturalist +has introduced us.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The mountains of Wales, filling the back-ground of +the picture sketched in the author’s opening pages, are +very different from those with which American eyes are +familiar. Bare and bleak, they are usually wholly shorn +<span class='pageno' id='Page_xiv'>xiv</span>of wood, and far bolder in their craggy outline than our +own heights. Snowdon, the most important mountain in +Wales, rises to a height of 3700 feet. Standing in a +northern county of the Principality it is not, however, to +be included in a view from the banks of the southern +Severn. But the hills of Glamorgan, and Brecon, especially +noticed by Mr. Knapp, are upward of 2000 feet +in height, and stamped more or less with the same general +character. It often happens indeed, from the boldness of +position, and the abruptness of outline, which usually +mark the mountains of Europe, that heights of no great +elevation produce very striking effects in a view.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The fertile alluvial pastures in the immediate foreground +of the picture, are those in which Milton’s rivernymph +Sabrina, may be supposed to have strayed:</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c003'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line in6'>“Still she retains</div> + <div class='line'>Her maiden gentleness, and oft at eve</div> + <div class='line'>Visits the herds along the twilight meadows,</div> + <div class='line'>Helping all urchin blasts, and ill-luck signs</div> + <div class='line'>That the shrewd meddling elf delights to make,</div> + <div class='line'>Which she with precious vial’d liquors heals;</div> + <div class='line'>For which the shepherds at their festivals</div> + <div class='line'>Carol her goodness loud in rustic lays,</div> + <div class='line'>And throw sweet garland wreaths into her stream</div> + <div class='line'>Of pansies, pinks, and gaudy daffodils.”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c011'>The little village, the immediate scene of the Naturalist’s +<span class='pageno' id='Page_xv'>xv</span>observations, appears to have had an uneventful existence. +It lies, we are told, “on a very ancient road,” running +between the cities of Gloucester and Bristol; doubtless the +tide of war and adventure, must often have swept over +the track on many occasions, when the interests of England +were battled for in the western counties of the kingdom, +but only scanty vestiges of its passage have been +found in the little community. A few skeletons, accidentally +dug up by the road-side, the bones of horses, the +iron head of a single lance, are alone alluded to as memorials +of some nameless conflict of the period of Cromwell, +and his wars. No stern feudal towers, no ambitious +monastic edifices appear to have been raised within the +limits of the parish; and, in short, the position of the +spot is one associated chiefly with simple rustic labors, and +rural quiet, a field especially in harmony with the inquiries +and pursuits of the lover of nature.</p> + +<p class='c011'>It is with the vegetation of this unambitious region, +and with the living creatures by which it is peopled, that +the Naturalist would make us acquainted. He tells us of +the trees found in the groves and copses of that open +country; of the grasses which grow in the meadows on +the banks of the Severn; of the grains and plants cultivated +in the hedged fields which line his ancient road. +He has a great deal to say about the birds which fly to +<span class='pageno' id='Page_xvi'>xvi</span>and fro, with the passing seasons; about the butterflies, +and moths which come and go with the summer blossoms, +and he is familiar with the lowliest of the creeping things +found upon his path. Such simple lore is never without +interest to those who delight in the face of the earth, to +those who love to honor the Creator in the study of his +works. It is pleasant to know familiarly the plants which +spring up at our feet; we like to establish a sort of intimacy +with the birds which, year after year, come singing +about our homes; and, on the other hand, when told of +the wonders of a foreign vegetation, differing essentially +from our own, when hearing of the habits of strange +creatures from other and distant climates, we listen eagerly +as to a tale of novelty.</p> + +<p class='c011'>We Americans, indeed, are peculiarly placed in this +respect. As a people, we are still, in some sense, half +aliens to the country Providence has given us; there is +much ignorance among us regarding the creatures which +held the land as their own long before our forefathers +trod the soil, and many of which are still moving about +us, living accessories of our existence, at the present hour. +On the other hand, again, English reading has made us +very familiar with the names, at least, of those races which +people the old world. From the nursery epic, relating the +melancholy fate of “Cock Robin,” and the numerous +<span class='pageno' id='Page_xvii'>xvii</span>feathered <i>dramatis personæ</i> figuring in its verses; from the +tragical histories of “Little Red Riding Hood,” and the +“Babes in the Woods;” from the winged and four-footed +company of Gay and Lafontaine, from these associates of +our childhood to the larks and nightingales of Shakspeare +and Milton, we all, as we move from the nursery to the +library, gather notions more or less definite. We fancy +that we know all these creatures by sight; and yet neither +“Cock Robin,” nor his murderer the Sparrow, nor his +parson the Rook, is to be found this side the salt sea; the +cunning Wolf whose hypocritical personation of the old +grandame, so wrung our little hearts once upon a time, is +not the wolf which howled only a few years since in the +forests our fathers felled; the wily Fox of Lafontaine,</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c003'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>“Certain renard Gascon,</div> + <div class='line'>D’autres disent Normand,”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c012'>is not the fox of Yankeeland—albeit we have our foxes +too! Neither the Marten,</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c003'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>“The temple-loving martlet, does approve</div> + <div class='line'>By his lov’d mansioning that the heavens breath</div> + <div class='line'>Smells wooingly here. * * *</div> + <div class='line in4'>where they</div> + <div class='line'>Most breed, and haunt, I have observed the air</div> + <div class='line'>Is delicate;”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c012'>nor the nightingale who</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c003'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'><span class='pageno' id='Page_xviii'>xviii</span>“Sings darkling, and in the shadiest covert hid,</div> + <div class='line'>Tunes her nocturnal notes;”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c012'>nor the lark</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c003'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>“The herald of the morn,”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c012'>flies within three thousand miles of our own haunts. +Thus it is that knowing so little of the creatures in whose +midst we live, and mentally familiar by our daily reading +with the tribes of another hemisphere, the forms of one +continent and the names and characters of another, are +strangely blended in most American minds. And in this +dream-like phantasmagoria, where fancy and reality are +often so widely at variance, in which the objects we see, +and those we read of are wholly different, and where bird +and beast undergo metamorphoses so strange, most of us +are content to pass through life.</p> + +<p class='c011'>But there is a pleasant task awaiting us. We may all, +if we choose, open our eyes to the beautiful and wonderful +realities of the world we live in. Why should we any +longer walk blindfold through the fields? Americans, we +repeat, are peculiarly placed in this respect; the nature of +both hemispheres lies open before them, that of the old +world having all the charm of traditional association to +attract their attention, that of their native soil being +endued with the still deeper interest of home affections. +<span class='pageno' id='Page_xix'>xix</span>The very comparison between the two is a subject full of +the highest interest, a subject more than sufficing in itself +to provide instruction and entertainment for a lifetime. +And yet, how many of us are ignorant of the very striking, +leading fact that the indigenous races of both hemispheres, +whether vegetable or animal, while they are +generally more or less nearly related to each other, are +rarely indeed identical. The number of individual plants, +or birds, or insects, which are precisely similar in both +hemispheres, is surprisingly small.</p> + +<p class='c011'>It will probably be unnecessary to observe that the +writer of these remarks must be understood as laying no +claim to the honorable position of a teacher, on either of the +many branches connected with Natural History; a mere +learner herself, she can offer the reader no other guidance +than that of companionship, in looking after the birds, or +plants, or insects, mentioned by Mr. Knapp. It has indeed +been a subject of regret with her, that the task of editing +the “Journal of a Naturalist” should not have fallen into +hands better able to render the author full justice in this +respect. But it is the object of the present edition to prepare +this English volume for the American public generally, +and for that purpose simple explanations were alone +necessary. Anxious, at least, to do all in her power, the +editor has consulted the best printed authorities within her +<span class='pageno' id='Page_xx'>xx</span>reach, and she has also availed herself of the valuable and +most obliging assistance of Professor S. F. Baird, Major +Le Conte, and Mr. M. A. Curtis, while preparing several +of the notes, which will be found in the appendix.</p> + +<div class='lg-container-r'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>S. F. C.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c013'><span class='sc'>August</span>, 1852.</p> + +<div class='chapter'> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_9'>9</span> + <h2 class='c006'><span class='large'>JOURNAL</span><br> <span class='small'>OF</span><br> A NATURALIST.</h2> +</div> + +<p class='c007'>The village in which I reside is situated upon a very +ancient road, connecting the city of Bristol with that +of Gloucester, and thus with all the great towns in the +North of England. This road runs for the chief part +upon a high limestone ridge, from which we obtain a +very beautiful and extensive prospect: the broad estuary +of the river Severn, the mountains of Glamorgan, Monmouth, +and Brecon, with their peaceful vales, and +cheerful-looking white cottages, form the distant view: +beneath it lies a vast extent of arable and pasture land, +gained originally by the power of man from this great +river, and preserved now from her incursions by a considerable +annual expenditure, testifying his industry +and perseverance, and exhibiting his reward. The Aust +ferry, supposed to be the “trajectus,” or place where +the Romans were accustomed to pass the Severn, is +visible, with several stations of that people and the ancient +British, being a part of that great chain of forts +originally maintained to restrain the plundering inroads +of the restless inhabitants of the other bank of the +river: Thornbury, with its fine cathedral-like church +and castle, the opposite red cliffs of the Severn, and the +stream itself, are fine and interesting features.</p> + +<p class='c011'>An encampment of some people, probably Romans, +occupies a rather elevated part of the parish, consisting +of perhaps three acres of ground, surrounded by a high +agger, with no ditch, or a very imperfect one, and probably +was never designed for protracted resistance: it +appears to form one of the above-mentioned series of +forts erected by Ostorius, commencing at Weston, in +Somersetshire, and terminating at Bredon in the county +<span class='pageno' id='Page_10'>10</span>of Worcester—ours was probably a specula, or watchhill, +of the larger kind. We can yet trace, though at +places but obscurely, the roads that connected this encampment +with other posts in adjoining villages. A few +years sweep away commonly all traces of roads of later +periods, and the testimony of some old man is often required +to substantiate that one had ever been in existence +within the memory of a life; yet these uniting +roads, which, as works, must have been originally insignificant, +little more than by-ways, after disuse for +above fourteen hundred years, and encountering all the +erasements of time, inclosures, and the plow, are yet +manifest, and an evidence of that wonderful people, +thieves and ruffians though they were, who constructed +them. There is probably no region on the face of the +globe ever colonized, or long possessed, by this nation, +which does not yet afford some testimony of their having +had a footing on it; this people, who, so long before +their power existed, it was predicted, should be of “a +fierce countenance, dreadful, terrible, strong exceedingly, +with great iron teeth that devoured and broke in +pieces,”</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c003'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>——where’er thy legions camp’d,</div> + <div class='line'>Stern sons of conquest, still is known,</div> + <div class='line'>By many a grassy mound, by many a sculptured stone.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c011'>Almost every Roman road that I have observed appears +to have been considerably elevated above the surrounding +soil, and hence more likely to remain apparent +for a length of time than any of those of modern construction, +which are flat, or with a slight central convexity; +the turf, that in time by disuse would be formed +over them, would in one case present a grassy ridge, in +the other be confounded with the adjoining land.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Coins of an ancient date, I think, have not been found +here;<a id='r1'></a><a href='#f1' class='c014'><sup>[1]</sup></a> nor do we possess any remains of warlike edifices, +or religious endowments. Our laborers have at +<span class='pageno' id='Page_11'>11</span>various times dug up by the road-sides several skeletons +of human beings, and of horses; they were in general +but slightly covered with earth; and though the bones +were much decayed, yet the teeth were sound, and appeared +most commonly to have belonged to young persons, +and probably had been deposited in their present +situations at no very distant period of time. With the +bones of a horse so found there remained the iron head +of a lance, about a foot long, corroded, but not greatly +decayed. Unable better to account for these skeletons, +we suppose that they constituted, when alive, part of +the forces of General Fairfax, and that they fell in some +partial encounters with the peasantry when defending +their property about to be plundered by the foragers of +his army in 1645, at the time he was besieging the castle +of Bristol. The siege lasted sixteen or seventeen +days; many parties during that time must have been +sent out by him to plunder us cavaliers, and contention +would take place.</p> + +<p class='c011'>It is foreign to my plan to enumerate, and it might +be difficult to discover, all the changes and revolutions +which have taken place here; and I shall merely mention, +that this district formerly constituted a regal forest, +and we find Robert Fitzharding holding it by grant in +the time of King John. We have a “lodge farm,” it is +true, and the adjoining grange, the “conygar,” <i>i. e.</i> +coneygard, the rabbit-keeper’s dwelling, may, perhaps, +have been the situation of the sylvan warren; but there +are no remains, or any other indications, of a forest ever +having been in existence. Names and traditional tales +are all that remain in most places now to remind us of +the ancient state of England, or to make credible the +narratives of our old historians, who lived when Britain +was a forest. Where shall we look for the remnants of +that mighty wood, filled with boars, bulls, and savage +beasts, that surrounded London? Even in our own days, +heaths, moors, and wilds, have disappeared, so as to +leave no indications of their former state but the name. +Woods and forests seem to be the original productions +of most soils and countries favorable for the abode of +mankind, as if inviting a settlement, and offering materials +<span class='pageno' id='Page_12'>12</span>for its use. As colonies increase, wants are augmented; +the woods are consumed; the plow is introduced, +division of property follows; a total change and +obliteration ensues, though the ancient appellation by +which the district was known yet continues.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The parish consists in parts of a poor, shattery gray +clay, beneath which we find, in some places, a coarse +lias; in others a spongy, rough, impure limestone; in +other parts a thin stratum of soil is spread over an immense +and irregular rock of carbonate of lime, running +to an unknown depth: this in many cases protrudes in +great blocks through the thin skin of earth. The rock, +though usually stratified, has no uniform dip, but trends +to different directions; in some places it appears as if +immense sheets of semifluid matter had been pushed +out of the station it had settled in, by some other or +later-formed heavy-moving mass, or met with an impediment, +and so rolled up: that these sheets had not +fully hardened at the time of being moved is yet made +probable by the whole crystallization of the mass being +interrupted; so that no part adheres firmly, but separates +into small shattery fragments when struck. This +substance we burn in very large quantities for building +purposes, and for manure, which, by the facility which +we have of obtaining small coal, is rendered at the low +rate of three-pence a bushel at the kiln. Our farmers, +availing themselves of this cheap article, use considerable +quantities, composted with earth, for their different +crops, at the rate of not less than a hundred bushels to +the acre. This is a favorite substance for their potato +land. The return in general is not so large as when +grown in manure from the yard; but the root is said to +be more mealy, and better flavored.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The utility of lime as manure consists in loosening +the tenacious nature of some soils; rendering them +more friable and receptive of vegetable fibres: it especially +facilitates the dissolution and putrefaction of animal +and vegetable substances, which are thus more readily +received and circulated in the growing plant; and +it has the power of acquiring and long retaining moisture; +thus rendering a soil cool and nutritive to the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_13'>13</span>plants that vegetate in it. The power that lime has of +absorbing moisture will be better understood, when we +say, that one hundred weight will, in five or six days, +when fresh, absorb five pounds of water, and that it +will retain in the shape of powder, when slackened, or +loosened, as is commonly said, nearly one-fourth of its +weight.<a id='r2'></a><a href='#f2' class='c014'><sup>[2]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c011'>That lime rehardens after being made soft, as in mortar, +is owing to the power which it has of acquiring +carbonic acid—the fixed air of Dr. Black—from the atmosphere; +when the stone is burned, it loses this principle, +but re-absorbs it, though slowly, yet in time, and +it thus becomes as hard as stone again: we unite it +with sand to promote the crystallization and hardening. +The utility of lime in various arts, agriculture, manufactories, +and medicine, is very extensive, and in many +cases indispensable; and the abundance of it spread +through the world seems designed as a particular provision +of Providence for the various ends of creation. +Lime, and siliceous substances, compose a very large +portion of the dense matter of our earth; the shells of +marine animals contain it abundantly; our bones have +eighty parts in one hundred of it; the egg-shells of +birds above nine parts in ten—during incubation, it is +received by the embryo of the bird, indurating the +cartilages, and forming the bones. But the existence +and origin of limestone are pre-eminent amongst the +wonders of creation; nor should we have been able, +rationally, to account for the great diffusion of this substance +throughout the globe, however we might have +conjectured the formation, without the Mosaical revelation. +It may startle, perhaps, the belief of some, who +have never considered the subject, to assert what is apparently +<span class='pageno' id='Page_14'>14</span>a fact, that a considerable portion of those prodigious +cliffs of chalk and calcareous stone, that in many +places control the advance of the ocean, protrude in +rocks through its waters, or incrust such large portions +of the globe, are of animal origin—the exuviæ of marine +substances, or the labors of minute insects, which once +inhabited the deep. In this conclusion now chemists +and philosophers seem in great measure to coincide. +Fourcroy observed, forty years ago, that “it could not +be denied, that the strata of calcareous matter, which +constitute, as it were, the bark or external covering of +our globe, in a great part of its extent, are owing to the +remains of the skeletons of sea animals, more or less +broken down by the waters; that these beds have been +deposited at the bottom of the sea, immense masses of +chalk, deposited on its bottom, absorb or fix the waters, +or convert into a solid substance part of the liquid +which fills its vast basins.”—<cite>Supplement to Chemistry</cite>, +p. 263. Such are the conclusions of philosophical investigation; +and the discoveries of all our circumnavigators +fully corroborate these decisions as to formation. +Revelation in part accounts for the removal of these +stupendous masses; though, probably, unrecorded concussions +since the great subversion of our planet have, +in remote periods, effected many of the removals of +these deposits. We find the basement of many of the +South Sea Islands, some of which are twenty miles long, +formed of this matter. Captain Flinders, in the gulf of +Carpentaria, held his course by the sides of limestone +reefs, five hundred miles in extent, with a depth irregular +and uncertain; and still more recently Captain +King, seven hundred miles, almost a continent, of rock, +increasing, and visibly forming:—all drawn from the +waters of the ocean by a minute creature, that wonderful +agent in the hands of Providence, the coral insect. +This brief account of the origin of calcareous rocks +was, perhaps, necessary before mentioning an extraordinary +fact, that, after the lapse of so vast a portion of +time since the basement of the mighty deep was heaved +on high, existing proofs of this event should remain in +our obscure village.</p> + +<p class='c011'><span class='pageno' id='Page_15'>15</span>The limestone rocks here are differently composed +but are principally of four kinds—a pale gray, hard and +compact; a pale cream-colored, fine-grained and sonorous: +these form the upper stratum of stone on our +down, a recent deposit, or more probably a mass heaved +up from its original station. The whole of this mass, +running nearly half a mile long, is obviously of animal +formation, a coral rock; a compounded body of minute +cylindrical columns, the cells of the animals which constructed +the material, the mouths of which are all manifest +by a magnifier. The stop in the progress of the +work is even visible; soft, stony matter having arisen +from some of the tubes, and become indurated there in +a convex form; in others the creatures have perished, +but their forms or moulds remain, though obscure, yet +sufficiently perfect to manifest the fact: these tubes, by +exposure to the air for any length of time, have the internal +or softer parts decomposed, and the stone becomes +cellular. This stone burns to a fine white lime, and +is very free from impurities, containing in a hundred +parts—</p> + +<table class='table1'> + <tr> + <td class='c008'>Carbonate of lime</td> + <td class='c015'>88</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c008'>Magnesia</td> + <td class='c015'>8</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c008'>Silex</td> + <td class='c015'>1</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c008'>Alumine,<a id='r3'></a><a href='#f3' class='c014'><sup>[3]</sup></a> colored with iron</td> + <td class='c015'>3</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c008'> </td> + <td class='c015'><hr></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c008'> </td> + <td class='c015'>100</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class='c011'>Another quarry presents, likewise, unquestionable +evidence of an animal origin, veins of it being composed +of shattered parts of shells, and marine substances, +greatly consumed and imperfect, embedded in a +coarse, gray, sparry compound; an ocean deposit, not a +fabrication, and consequently has more impurities in its +substance than that of insect formation: it contains +about</p> + +<table class='table1'> + <tr> + <td class='c008'>Carbonate of lime</td> + <td class='c015'>73</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c008'>Magnesia</td> + <td class='c015'>11</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c008'>Clay</td> + <td class='c015'>14</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c008'>Silex</td> + <td class='c015'>2</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c008'> </td> + <td class='c015'><hr></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c008'> </td> + <td class='c015'>100</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class='c011'><span class='pageno' id='Page_16'>16</span>These two specimens so clearly prove that the original +materials of their substance were derived from the +deep, that no further arguments need be advanced to +support this fact as to our limestone. The former is, +perhaps, the mountain limestone of Werner; the latter +a variety of dolomite. Our other quarries, as well as +the lower strata of the above, present no such indications +of animal formation, and they are probably sediment +arising from a minute division of shelly bodies +now indurated by time and superincumbent pressure +and become a coarse-grained marble. Our limestone +thus appearing not to be contaminated with any great +portion of magnesian earth, it may be used for all agricultural +purposes with advantage. Many detached +blocks of limestone are found about us, having broken +shelly remains; and the joints of the encrinite, greatly +mutilated, embedded in them. Irregularly wandering +near the lime-ridge is a vein of impure sandy soil, covering +a coarse-grained siliceous stone; sand agglutinated, +and colored by oxide of iron, resisting heat, and +used in the construction of our lime-kilns: the laborers +call it “fire-stone.”</p> + +<p class='c011'>We occasionally, though sparingly, find, in a few +places on our downs, nodules of lead ore, which induced +persons in years past to seek for mineral riches; but +the trial being soon abandoned, the result, I suppose, +afforded no reasonable ground for success. We likewise +find thin veins of carbonate of strontian, but make +no use of it; nor is it noted by us different from common +rubbish; nor do I know any purpose to which it is +peculiarly applicable, but in pyrotechnics. Spirit of +wine, in which nitrate of strontian has been mixed, +will burn with a beautiful bright red flame; barytes, +which approaches near to strontia, affords a fine green; +nitrates of both, compounded with other matters, are +used in theatrical representations. Strontian exists in +many places, and plentifully; some future wants or experiments +will probably bring it into notice, and indicate +the latent virtues of this mineral.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Perhaps I may here mention an incident, that occurred +a few years past at one of our lime-kilns, because it +<span class='pageno' id='Page_17'>17</span>manifests how perfectly insensible the human frame +may be to pains and afflictions in peculiar circumstances; +and that which would be torture if endured in +general, may be experienced at other times without any +sense of suffering. A travelling man one winter’s evening +laid himself down upon the platform of a lime-kiln, +placing his feet, probably numbed with cold, upon the +heap of stones, newly put on to burn through the night. +Sleep overcame him in this situation; the fire gradually +rising and increasing until it ignited the stones upon +which his feet were placed. Lulled by the warmth, the +man slept on; the fire increased until it burned one +foot (which probably was extended over a vent-hole) +and part of the leg above the ankle entirely off; consuming +that part so effectually, that a cinder-like fragment +was alone remaining; and still the wretch slept +on! and in this state was found by the kiln-man in the +morning. Insensible to any pain, and ignorant of his +misfortune, he attempted to rise and pursue his journey, +but missing his shoe, requested to have it found; and +when he was raised, putting his burnt limb to the +ground to support his body, the extremity of his legbone, +the tibia, crumbled into fragments, having been +calcined into lime. Still he expressed no sense of pain, +and probably experienced none, from the gradual operation +of the fire, and his own torpidity, during the +hours his foot was consuming. This poor drover survived +his misfortunes in the hospital about a fortnight; +but the fire having extended to other parts of his body, +recovery was hopeless.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Residences upon limestone soils have generally been +considered as less liable than other situations to infectious +and epidemic disorders; and such places being +usually more elevated, they become better ventilated, +and freed from stagnated and unwholesome airs, and by +the absorbing principle of the soil are kept constantly +dry. All this seems to favor the supposition that they +are healthy; but if exempted from ailments arising +from mal-aria, inflammatory complaints do not seem excluded +from such situations. When the typhus fever +prevailed in the country, we were by no means exempted +<span class='pageno' id='Page_18'>18</span>from its effects; the severe coughs attending the +spring of 1826 afflicted grievously most individuals in +every house; and the measles, which prevailed so greatly +at the same season, visited every cottage, though +built upon the very limestone rock.</p> + +<p class='c011'>This village and its neighboring parishes, by reason +of the peculiar culture carried on in them, and the +natural production of the district, afford the most ample +employment for their laboring inhabitants; nor perhaps +could any portion of the kingdom, neither possessing +mineral riches, manufactories, or mills, nor situate in +the immediate vicinity of a great town, be found to afford +superior demand for the labor, healthy employment, +and reasonable toil of its population. Our lime-kilns +engage throughout the year several persons; this is, +perhaps, our most laborious employ; though its returns +are considered as fair. In our culture, after all the various +business of the farms, comes the potato-setting; +nor is this finished wholly before haymaking commences. +Teaseling succeeds; the corn harvest comes +on, followed shortly by the requirements of the potato +again, and the digging out and securing this requires +the labor of multitudes until the very verge of winter. +Then comes our employment for this dark season of the +year, the breaking of our limestone for the use of the +roads, of which we afford a large supply to less favored +districts. This material is not to be sought for in distant +places, or of difficult attainment, but to be found +almost at the very doors of the cottages; and old men, +women, and children can obtain a comfortable maintenance +by it without any great exertion of strength, or +protraction of labor. The rough material costs nothing: +a short pickax to detach the stone, and a hammer to +break it, are all the tools required. A man or healthy +woman can easily supply about a ton in the day; a child +that goes on steadily, about one-third of this quantity; +and as we give one shilling for a ton, a man, his wife, +and two tolerable-sized children, can obtain from +2<i>s.</i> 8<i>d.</i> to 3<i>s.</i><a id='r4'></a><a href='#f4' class='c014'><sup>[4]</sup></a> per day by this employ, the greater part +of the winter; and should the weather be bad, they +can work at intervals, and various broken hours, and +<span class='pageno' id='Page_19'>19</span>obtain something—and there is a constant demand for +the article. The winter accumulation is carted away +as the frost occurs, or the spring repair comes on. Our +laborers, their children and cottages, I think, present a +testimony of their well-doing, by the orderly, decent +conduct of the former, and the comforts of the latter. +There are years when we have disposed of about 3000 +tons of stone, chiefly broken up for use by a few of our +village poor; if we say by twenty families, it will have +produced perhaps seven pounds<a id='r5'></a><a href='#f5' class='c014'><sup>[5]</sup></a> to each, a most comfortable +addition to their means, when we consider that +this has been obtained by the weak and infirm, at intervals +of time without more than the cost of labor, when +employment elsewhere was in no request.</p> + +<p class='c011'>I may perhaps be pardoned in relating here the good +conduct of a villager, deserving more approbation than +my simple record will bestow; and it affords an eminent +example of what may be accomplished by industry and +economy, and a manifestation that high wages are not +always essential, or solely contributive to the welfare +of the laborer.—When I first knew A. B., he was in a +state of poverty, possessing, it is true, a cottage of his +own, with a very small garden; but his constitution +being delicate, and health precarious, so that he was not +a profitable laborer, the farmers were unwilling to employ +him. In this condition he came into my service: +his wife at that time having a young child contributed +very little to the general maintenance of the family: +his wages were ten shillings per week, dieting himself, +and with little besides that could be considered as profitable. +We soon perceived that the clothing of the +family became more neat and improved; certain gradations +of bodily health appeared; the cottage was whitewashed, +and inclosed with a rough wall and gate; the +rose and the corchorus began to blossom about it; the +pig became two; and a few sheep marked A. B. were +running about the lanes: then his wife had a little cow, +which it was “hoped his honor would let eat some of +the rough grass in the upper field;” but this was not +entirely given: this cow, in spring, was joined by a +better; but finding such cattle difficult to maintain +<span class='pageno' id='Page_20'>20</span>through the winter, they were disposed of, and the sheep +augmented. After about six years’ service, my honest, +quiet, sober laborer died, leaving his wife and two children +surviving: a third had recently died. We found +him possessed of some money, though I know not the +amount; two fine hogs, and a flock of forty-nine good +sheep, many far advanced in lamb; and all this stock +was acquired solely with the regular wages of ten shillings +a week, in conjunction with the simple aids of +rigid sobriety and economy, without a murmur, a complaint, +or a grievance!</p> + +<p class='c011'>I report nothing concerning our variously constituted +soil, thinking that no correct statement can be given by +any detail of a local district under cultivation, beyond +generally observing its tendency, as every soil under +tillage must be factitious and changeable. As a mere +matter of curiosity, I might easily find out the proportions +of lime, sand, clay, and vegetable earth, &c., that +a given quantity of a certain field contained; but the +very next plowing would perhaps move a substratum, +and alter the proportions; or a subsequent dressing +change the analysis: the adjoining field would be differently +treated, and yield a different result. I do not +comprehend what general practical benefit can arise +from chemical analysis of soils; but as eminent persons +maintain the great advantages of it, I suppose they are +right, and regret my ignorance. That the component +parts of certain lands can easily be detected, and the +virtues or deficiencies of them for particular crops be +pointed out, I readily admit; but when known, how +rarely can the remedy be applied! I have three correspondents, +who send me samples of their several farms, +and request to know by what means they can meliorate +the soil. I find that B. is deficient in lime; but understand +in reply, that this earth is distant from his residence, +and too costly to be applied. D. wants clay; E. +is too retentive and cold, and requires silex or sand; +but both are so circumstanced, that they cannot afford +to supply the article required. Indeed it is difficult to +say what ought to be the component parts of a soil, unless +the production of one article or grain is made the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_21'>21</span>standard; for differently constituted soil will produce +different crops advantageously: one farm produces fine +wheat, another barley; others again the finest oats and +beans in the parish. To compound a soil of exact +chemical parts, so as to afford permanent fertility, is a +mere theory. Nature and circumstances may produce +a piece of land, that will yield unremitting crops of +grass, and we call it a permanently good soil; but art +cannot effect this upon a great scale. A small field in +this parish always produces good crops; not in consequence +of any treatment it receives, but by its natural +composition; consisting principally of finely pulverized +clay, stained with red oxide of iron, a considerable portion +of sand, and vegetable earth: but though I know +the probable cause of this field bearing such good +wheat, I cannot bring the surrounding and inferior ones +into a like constitution, the expense far exceeding any +hope of remuneration. Rudolph Glauber obtained gold +from common sand, but it was an expensive article! +Temporary food for a crop may be found in animal, +vegetable, or earthy manures, but these are exhaustible; +and when aliment ceases, the crop proportionably diminishes. +In one respect, chemical investigation may +importantly aid the agriculturist, by pointing out the +proportion of magnesian earth in certain limes used for +manure, and thus indicate its beneficial or injurious effects +on vegetation. I should not like lime containing +20 per cent. of this earth; but when it contains a much +smaller proportion, I should not think it very deleterious. +This earth acts as a caustic to vegetation, and, neither +being soluble in water, nor possessing the other virtue +of lime, diminishes the number of bushels used according +to its existence, and thus deprives the crop of that +portion of benefit: but after all, as Kirwan says, the +secret processes of vegetation take place in the dark, +exposed to the various and indeterminable influence +of the atmosphere; and hence the difficulty of determining +on what peculiar circumstance success or failure +depends, for the diversified experience of years alone +can afford a rational foundation for solid and specific +conclusions.</p> + +<p class='c011'><span class='pageno' id='Page_22'>22</span>The real goodness of a soil consists principally, perhaps, +in the power it possesses of maintaining a certain +degree of moisture; for without this, the plant could +have no power of deriving nutriment from any aliment: +it might be planted on a dung-hill; but if this had no +moisture in it, no nutriment would be yielded; but as +long as the soil preserves a moisture, either by its own +constituent parts, or by means of a retentive substratum, +vegetation goes on. Continue the moisture, and increase +the aliment, and the plant will flourish in proportion; +but let the moisture be denied by soil, substratum, +or manure, and vegetation ceases; for, though +certain plants will long subsist by moisture obtained +from the air, yet, generally speaking, without a supply +by the root, they will languish and fade.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Our dairy processes, I believe, present nothing deserving +of particular notice. From our milk, after being +skimmed for butter, we make a thin, poor cheese, +rendered at a low price, but for which there is a constant +demand. Some of our cold lands, too, yield a kind +greatly esteemed for toasting; and we likewise manufacture +a thicker and better sort, though we do not contend +in the market with the productions of north Wilts, +or the deeper pastures of Cheshire or Huntingdon.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The agriculture of a small district like ours affords +no great scope to expatiate upon: great deviations from +general practice we do not aim at; experimental husbandry +is beyond our means, perhaps our faculties. +Local habits, though often the subject of censure, are +frequently such as the “genius of the soil” and situation +render necessary, and the experience of years has +proved most advantageous.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Our grass in the pastures of the clay-lands, in the +mowing season, which, from late feeding in the spring +and coldness in the soil, is always late,<a id='r6'></a><a href='#f6' class='c014'><sup>[6]</sup></a> presents a +<span class='pageno' id='Page_23'>23</span>curious appearance; and I should apprehend, that a +truss of our hay from these districts, brought into the +London market, or exhibited as a new article of provender +at a Smithfield cattle-show, would occasion conversation +and comment. The crop consists almost entirely +of the common field scabious (scabiosa succisa), loggerheads +(centauria nigra), and the great ox-eye daisy +(chrysanthemum lucanthemum.) There is a scattering +of bent (agrostis vulgaris), and here and there a specimen +of the better grasses; but the predominant portion, +the staple of the crop, is scabious—it is emphatically a +promiscuous herbage; yet on this rubbish do the cattle +thrive, and from their milk is produced a cheese greatly +esteemed for toasting—melting, fat, and good flavored, +and, perhaps, inferior to none used for this purpose. +The best grasses, indeed, with the exception of the dogstail +(cynosurus cristatus), do not delight in our soil: +the meadow poa (p. pratensis), and the rough stalked +poa (p. trivialis), when found, are dwarfish; and having +once occasion for a few specimens of the foxtail (alopecurus +pratensis), I found it a scarce and a local plant: +but I am convinced, from much observation, that certain +species of plants, and grasses in particular, are indigenous +to some soils, and that they will vegetate and ultimately +predominate over others that may be introduced. +In my own very small practice, a field of exceedingly +indifferent herbage was broken up, underwent many +plowings, was exposed to the roastings of successive +suns, and alternations of the year under various crops; +amongst others that of potatoes; the requisite hackings, +hoeings, and diggings of which alone were sufficient to +eradicate any original fibrous, rooted herbage. This +field was laid down with clean ray grass (lolium perenne), +white trefoil, and hop clover, and did tolerably well for +one year: and then the original soft-grass, (holcus lanatus) +appeared, overpowered the crop, and repossessed +the field; and yet the seed of this holcus could not +have lain inert in the soil all this time, as it is a grass +that rarely or never perfects its seed, but propagates by +its root. The only grass that is purposely sown—trefoils +are not grasses—is, I believe, the ray, or rye, no +<span class='pageno' id='Page_24'>24</span>others being obtainable from the seedsman: this we +consider as perennial; yet, let us lay down two pieces +of land with seeds, from the same sack, the one a low, +moist, deep soil, the other a dry upland, and in three +or four years we shall find the natural herbage of the +country spring up, dispute and acquire in part possession +of the soil, in despite of the ray grass sown: in the +deep soil, the predominant crop will probably consist of +poæ, cockfoot, meadow-fescue, holcus, phleum, foxtail, +&c.; in the dry soil it will be dogstail, quaking grass, +agrostis, &c., not one species of which was ever sown +by us. It appears that the herbage of our poor thin +clay-lands is the natural produce of the soil, for every +fixed soil will produce something, and would without +care always exclude better herbage. Attention and +manures, a kind of armed force, would certainly support +other vegetation, alien introductions, for a time, but the +profit would not always be adequate. In a piece of +land of this nature I have suppressed the natural produce, +by altering the soil with draining, sheep-feeding, +stocking up, and composting: and scabious, carnation +grass, mat grass, and their companions, no longer thrive; +but if I should remit this treatment, they would again +predominate, and constitute the crop.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Most counties seem to have some individual or species +of wild plants predominating in their soil, which +may be scarce, or only locally found in another; this is +chiefly manifested in the corn-lands—for aquatic or alpine +districts, and some other peculiarities, must form +exceptions. This may be in some measure occasioned +by treatment or manure, but commonly must be attributed +to the chemical composition of the soil, as most +plants have organs particularly adapted for imbibing +certain substances from the earth, which may be rejected +or not sought after by the fibrous or penetrating +roots of another. Festuca sylvatica abounds in every +soil without an apparent predilection for any one: F. +uniglumis, only where it can imbibe marine salt: F. +pinnata, is found vegetating upon calcareous soils alone, +and I have known it appear immediately as the limestone +inclined to the surface, as if all other soils were deficient +<span class='pageno' id='Page_25'>25</span>in the requisite nutriment. Many of the maidenhairs +and ferns, pellitory, cotyledon, &c. are attached +in the crevices of old walls, seeking as it were for the +calcareous nitrate found there, this saltpetre appearing +essential to their vigor and health. The predominating +plants in some corn-fields are the red-poppy,<a id='r7'></a><a href='#f7' class='c014'><sup>[7]</sup></a> cherlock +(sinapis arvensis), mustard (sin. nigra.), wild oat, cornflower +(cyanus); but in some adjoining parish we shall +only sparingly find them. With us in our cold clay-lands +we find the slender foxtail grass (alopecurus agr.) +abounding like a cultivated plant: when growing in +clover, or the ray grass, the whole are cut together, and +though not a desirable addition, is not essentially injurious; +but vegetating in the corn, it is a very pernicious +weed, drawing nutriment from the crop, and overpowering +it by its more early growth, at times so impoverishing +the barley or the oats, as to render them comparatively +of little value. The upright brome grass +(bromus erectus) is a pest in our grass lands, giving the +semblance of a crop in a most unproductive soil; hard +and wiry, it possesses no virtue as food, and is useless +as a grass: this bromus inclines to the limestone, the +lias, or clay-stone, as if alumine was required, to effect +some essential purpose in its nature; but this is a plant +not found universally.</p> + +<p class='c011'>We have in use generally here a very prudential +method of saving our crops in bad and catching seasons, +by securing the hay in windcocks, and wheat in +pooks. As soon as a portion of our grass becomes sufficiently +dry, we do not wait for the whole crop being in +the same state, but, collecting together about a good +wagon load of it, we make a large cock in the field, +and as soon as a like quantity is ready we stack that +likewise, until the whole field is successively finished, +and on the first fine day unite the whole in a mow. +Some farmers, in very precarious seasons, only cut +enough to make one of these cocks, and having secured +this, cut again for another. Should we be necessitated, +from the state of the weather, to let these parcels remain +long on the ground, or be a little dilatory, which +I believe we sometimes are, before they are carried, or, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_26'>26</span>as we say, hawled (haled,) the cocks are apt to get a +little warm, and only partially heat in the mow, the hay +cutting out streaky, and not perhaps so bright or fragrant +as when uniformly heated in body: but I am acquainted +with no other disadvantage from this practice, +and it is assuredly the least expensive, and most ready +way of saving a crop in a moist and uncertain season. +For wheat it is a very efficacious plan, as these stacks +or pooks, (a corruption perhaps of packs,) when properly +made, resist long and heavy rains, the sheaves not being +simply piled together, but the heads gradually elevated +to a certain degree in the centre, and the but-end then +shoots off the water, the summit being lightly thatched. +An objection has been raised to this custom, from the +idea that the mice in the field take refuge in the pooks, +and are thus carried home; but mice will resort to the +sheaves as well when drying, and be conveyed in like +manner to the barn: we have certainly no equally efficacious +or speedy plan for securing a crop of wheat, +and thousands of loads are thus commonly saved, which +would otherwise be endangered, or lost by vegetating +in the sheaf.</p> + +<p class='c011'>We will admit that grain, hardened by exposure to +the sun and air in the sheaf, is sooner ready for the +miller, and is generally a brighter article than that +which has been hastily heaped up in the pook; but when +the season does not allow of this exposure, but obliges +us to prevent the germinating of the grain by any +means, I know no practice, as an expedient, rather than +a recommendation in all cases, more prompt and efficacious +than this.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Two of our crops not being of universal culture are +entitled to a brief mention. We grow the potato extensively +in our fields, a root which must be considered, +after bread corn and rice, the kindest vegetable gift of +Providence to mankind. This root forms the chief +support of our population as their food, and affords them +a healthful employment for three months in the year, +during the various stages of planting, hacking, hoeing, +harvesting. Every laborer rents of the farmer some +portion of his land, to the amount of a rood or more, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_27'>27</span>for this culture, the profits of which enable him frequently +to build a cottage, and, with the aid of a little +bread, furnishes a regular, plentiful, nutritious food for +himself, his wife, and children within, and his pig +without doors; and they all grow fat and healthy upon +this diet, and use has rendered it essential to their being. +The population of England, Europe perhaps, would +never have been numerous as it is, without this vegetable; +and if the human race continue increasing, the +cultivation of it may be extended to meet every demand, +which no other earthly product could scarcely be found +to admit of. The increase of mankind throughout +Europe, within the last forty years, has been most remarkable, +as every census informs us, notwithstanding +the havoc and waste of continual warfare, and most extensive +emigration; and as it seems to be an established +maxim, that population will increase according to the +means of supply, so, if a northern hive should swarm +again, or</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c003'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>“Blue-eyed myriads from the Baltic shore”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c012'>once more arise, future historians will probably attribute +this excess of population, and the revolutions it may +effect, to the introduction of vaccination on the one +part, and the cultivation of the potato on the other.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The varieties of this tuber, like apples, seem annually +extending, and every village has its own approved sorts +and names, different soils being found preferable for +particular kinds, and local treatment advantageous. We +plant both by the dibble<a id='r8'></a><a href='#f8' class='c014'><sup>[8]</sup></a> and the spade: our chief sorts +are pink eyes, prince’s beauty, magpies, and china +oranges, for our first crop; blacks, roughs, and reds, for +the latter crop; and horses’ legs, for cattle. We have +a new sort under trial, with rather an extraordinary +name, which I must here call “femora dominarum!” +<span class='pageno' id='Page_28'>28</span>But we find here, as is usual with other vegetable varieties, +that after a few years’ cultivation the sorts lose +their original characters, or, as the men say, “the land +gets sick of them,” and they cease to produce as at +first, and new sets are resorted to. We have no vegetable +under cultivation more probably remunerative +than this, or more certain of being in demand sooner +or later; it consequently becomes an article of speculation, +but not to such an injurious extent as some others +are: it gives a sufficient profit to the farmer and his +sub renter. Our land is variously rented for this culture; +but perhaps eight pounds per acre are a general +standard: the farmer gives it two plowings, finds manure, +and pays the tithe; the seed is found, and all the labor +in and out is performed by the renter; or the farmer, +in lieu of any rent, receives half the crop. The farmer’s +expenses may be rated at—</p> + +<table class='table2'> +<colgroup> +<col class='colwidth72'> +<col class='colwidth9'> +<col class='colwidth9'> +<col class='colwidth9'> +</colgroup> + <tr> + <th class='c008'></th> + <th class='c016'>£.</th> + <th class='c016'><i>s.</i></th> + <th class='c017'><i>d.</i></th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c008'>Rent to his landlord</td> + <td class='c018'>1</td> + <td class='c018'>10</td> + <td class='c015'>0</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c008'>Two plowings</td> + <td class='c018'>1</td> + <td class='c018'>6</td> + <td class='c015'>0</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c008'>Twelve loads of manure</td> + <td class='c018'>1</td> + <td class='c018'>16</td> + <td class='c015'>0</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c008'>Tithe</td> + <td class='c018'>0</td> + <td class='c018'>10</td> + <td class='c015'>0</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='bbt c008'>Rates</td> + <td class='bbt c018'>0</td> + <td class='bbt c018'>3</td> + <td class='bbt c015'>0</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c008'> </td> + <td class='c018'>£5</td> + <td class='c018'>5</td> + <td class='c015'>0</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class='c012'>leaving him a clear profit of 2<i>l.</i> 15<i>s.</i> per acre. The sub +renter’s expenditure and profit will be—</p> + +<table class='table2'> +<colgroup> +<col class='colwidth72'> +<col class='colwidth9'> +<col class='colwidth9'> +<col class='colwidth9'> +</colgroup> + <tr> + <th class='c008'></th> + <th class='c016'>£.</th> + <th class='c016'><i>s.</i></th> + <th class='c017'><i>d.</i></th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c008'>Rent</td> + <td class='c018'>8</td> + <td class='c018'>0</td> + <td class='c015'>0</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='bbt c008'>Labor in and out</td> + <td class='bbt c018'>3</td> + <td class='bbt c018'>0</td> + <td class='bbt c015'>6</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c008'> </td> + <td class='c018'>£12</td> + <td class='c018'>12</td> + <td class='c015'>6</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c008'> </td> + <td class='c018'> </td> + <td class='c018'> </td> + <td class='c015'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <th class='c008'></th> + <th class='c016'>£.</th> + <th class='c016'><i>s.</i></th> + <th class='c017'><i>d.</i></th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c008'>Produce 50 sacks, at 6<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></td> + <td class='c018'>16</td> + <td class='c018'>5</td> + <td class='c015'>0</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='bbt c008'>Trash, or small pigs</td> + <td class='bbt c018'>1</td> + <td class='bbt c018'>0</td> + <td class='bbt c015'>0</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c008'> </td> + <td class='c018'>£17</td> + <td class='c018'>5</td> + <td class='c015'>0</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class='c012'>leaving a profit of 4<i>l.</i> 12<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> per acre. The produce +will vary greatly at times, and then the price of the article +varies too. The returns to the laborer are always +ample, when conducted with any thing like discretion, +and the emolument to the farmer is also quite sufficient +<span class='pageno' id='Page_29'>29</span>as, beside the rent, he is paid for the manuring his land +for a succeeding crop, be it wheat or barley; hence +land is always to be obtained by the cotter, upon application. +We have a marked instance in the year 1825 +how little we can predict what the product of this crop +will be, or the change that alteration of weather may +effect; for after the drought of the summer, after our +apprehensions, our dismay (for the loss of this root is a +very serious calamity), the produce of potatoes was +generally fair, in places abundant; many acres yielding +full eighty sacks, which, at the digging out price of 6<i>s.</i> +the sack, gave a clear profit to the laborer of 11<i>l.</i> 7<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i><a id='r9'></a><a href='#f9' class='c014'><sup>[9]</sup></a> +per acre! But at any rate it gives infinite comfort to the +poor man, which no other article can equally do, and a +plentiful subsistence, when grain would be poverty and +want. The injudicious manner in which some farmers +have let their land has certainly, under old acts of parliament, +brought many families into a parish; but we +have very few instances where a potato land renter to +any extent is supported by the parish. In this village +a very large portion of our peasantry inhabit their own +cottages, the greater number of which have been obtained +by their industry, and the successful culture of +this root. The getting in and out of the crop is solely +performed by the cotter and his family: a child drops a +set in the dibble-hole or the trench made by the father, +the wife with her hoe covering it up; and in harvesting +all the family are in action; the baby is wrapped up +when asleep in its mother’s cloak, and laid under the +shelter of some hedge, and the digging, picking, and +conveying to the great store-heap commences; a primitive +occupation and community of labor, that I believe +no other article admits of or affords.</p> + +<p class='c011'>It has been said that the culture of the potato is injurious +to the farm in general, and I know landlords +who restrict the growth of it; but perhaps the extent +of injury has been greatly overrated. The potato, it is +true, makes no return to the land in straw for manure, +and a large portion of that which is made in the barton +is occasionally required for its cultivation; and thus it +is said to consume without any repayment what is +<span class='pageno' id='Page_30'>30</span>equally due to other crops: but the cultivation of this +tuber requires that the soil should be moved and turned +repeatedly; it is generally twice at least plowed, trenched +by the spade for sets, hacked when the plant is above +ground, then hoed into ridges, and finally, the whole +turned over again when the crop is got out: thus is the +soil six times turned and exposed to the sun and air +and it is kept perfectly free from weeds of all kinds—both +of which circumstances are essentially beneficial +to the soil. If the potato must have manure, it does +not exhaust all the virtues of it, as the crop which succeeds +it, be it wheat or barley, sufficiently manifests: +there are, besides, exertions made by the renter to obtain +this profitable crop, that greatly improve the farm, +and which a less promising one would not always stimulate +him to attempt—he will cut up his ditch banks, +collect the waste soil of his fields, composting it with +lime and other matters as a dressing for the potato crop, +and it answers well: the usual returns from corn, and +fluctuations in the price, will not often induce him to +make such exertions. All this is no robbery of the +farm-yard, but solely a profitable reward and premium +to industry.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Much has been said and written about the potato; +but as some erroneous ideas have been received concerning +its early introduction into Europe, perhaps a +slight sketch of the history of this extraordinary root +may not be uninteresting,—a summary of the perusal +of multitudes of volumes, papers, treatises!</p> + +<p class='c011'>The sweet Spanish potato (convolvulus batatus), a +native of the East, was very early dispersed throughout +the continent of Europe; and all the ancient accounts, +in which the name of potato is mentioned, relate exclusively +to this plant, a convolvulus: but our inquiry at +present regards that root now in such extensive cultivation +with us, which is an American plant<a id='r10'></a><a href='#f10' class='c014'><sup>[10]</sup></a> (solanum +tuberosum). Perhaps the first mention that is known +concerning the root is that of the great German botanist, +Clusius, in 1588, who received a present of two of the +tubers in that year from Flanders; and there is a plate +of it among his rare plants. The first certain account +<span class='pageno' id='Page_31'>31</span>which I know of by any English writer is in Gerard, +who mentions, in his herbal, receiving some roots from +Virginia, and planting them in his garden near London +as a curiosity, in the year 1597. All the multiform +tales which we have of its introduction by Hawkins, +shipwrecked vessels, Raleigh, and his boiling the apples +instead of the roots, are merely traditional fancies, or +modern inventions, with little or no probability for support. +There is some possibility that Sir Walter Raleigh +might have introduced the potato into Ireland from +America, when he returned in 1584, or rather after his +last voyage, eleven years later; but if so, it was much +confined in its culture, and slowly acquired estimation, +even in that island; for Dr. Campbell does not admit +that it was known there before the year 1610, fifteen +years after Sir Walter’s final return. In England it +seems to have been yet more tardy in obtaining notice; +for the first mention which I can find, wherein this +tuber is regarded as possessing any virtue, is by that +great man Sir Francis Bacon, who investigated nature +from the “cedar that is in Lebanon even unto the hyssop +that springeth out of the wall: he spake also of +beasts, and of fowls, and of fishes, and of creeping +things,” in his history of “Life and Death,” written, +probably, in retirement after his disgrace. He observes, +that “if ale was brewed with one-fourth part of some +fat root, such as the potado, to three-fourths of grain, it +would be more conducive to longevity than with grain +alone.” It was thus full twenty-four years after its being +planted by Gerard, that the nutritive virtues of this +root appear to have been understood: but with us there +seems to have been almost an antipathy against this +root as an article of food, which can scarcely excite +surprise, when we consider what a wretched sort must +have been grown, which one writer tells us was very +near the nature of Jerusalem artichokes, but not so good +or wholesome; and that they were to be roasted and +sliced, and eaten with a sauce composed of wine and +sugar! Even Philip Miller, who wrote his account not +quite seventy years ago, says “they were despised by +the rich, and deemed only proper food for the meaner +<span class='pageno' id='Page_32'>32</span>sorts of persons;” and this at a time when that sorry +root, the underground or Jerusalem artichoke (helianthus +tuberosus) was in great esteem, and extensively +cultivated. And we must bear in mind the disinclination, +the prejudice I might almost call it, that this root +manifests to particular soils. Most of our esculent vegetables +thrive better—are better flavored, when growing +in certain soils, and under different influences; but +the potato becomes actually deteriorated in some land. +And every cultivator knows from experience, that the +much-admired product of some friend’s domain, or garden, +becomes, when introduced into his own, a very +inferior, or even an unpalatable root. Potatoes will +grow in certain parishes and districts, and even remain +unvitiated; but the product will be scanty, as if they +tolerated the culture only, and produced by favor; +whereas in an adjoining station, possessing some different +admixture of soil, some change of aspect, the crop +will be highly remunerative. These circumstances in +earlier days, when their value, and the necessity of possessing +them, were not felt, counteracted any attempt +for extensive cultivation, or, probably, influenced the +dislike to their use.</p> + +<p class='c011'>However locally this solanum might have been planted, +yet it appears, after consulting a variety of agricultural +reports, garden books, husbandmen’s directions, +&c. down to the statements of Arthur Young, that the +potato has not been grown in gardens in England more +than one hundred and seventy years; or to any extent +in the field above seventy-five. At length, however, as +better sorts were introduced, and better modes of dressing +found out, it became esteemed; and the value of +this most inestimable root was so rapidly manifested, +and the demand for it so great, that we find by a survey +made about thirty years ago, that the county of Essex +alone cultivated about seventeen hundred acres for the +London market. I know not the extent of land now +required for the supply of our metropolis, but it must +be prodigious.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Amidst the numerous remarkable productions ushered +into the old continent from the new world, there are +<span class='pageno' id='Page_33'>33</span>two which stand pre-eminently conspicuous from their +general adoption; unlike in their natures, both have +been received as extensive blessings—the one by its +nutritive powers tends to support, the other by its narcotic +virtues to soothe and comfort the human frame—the +potato and tobacco; but very different was the favor +with which these plants were viewed: the one, long rejected, +by the slow operation of time, and perhaps of +necessity, was at length cherished, and has become the +support of millions; but nearly one hundred and twenty +years passed away before even a trial of its merits was +attempted: whereas the tobacco from Yucatan, in less +than seventy years after the discovery, appears to have +been extensively cultivated in Portugal, and is, perhaps, +the most generally adopted superfluous vegetable product +known; for sugar and opium are not in such common +use. Luxuries, usually, are expensive pleasures, +and hence confined to few: but this sedative herb, from +its cheapness, is accessible to almost every one, and is +the favorite indulgence of a large portion of mankind. +Food and rest are the great requirements of mortal life: +the potato, by its starch, satisfies the demands of hunger; +the tobacco, by its morphin, calms the turbulence +of the mind: the former becomes a necessity required; +the latter a gratification sought for.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Many as the uses are to which this root is applicable—and +it will be annually applied to more; if we consider +it merely as an article of food, though subject to +occasional partial failures, yet exempted from the blights, +the mildews, the wire-worms, the germinatings of corn, +which have often filled our land with wailings and with +death, we will hail the individual, whoever he might +be, who brought it to us, as one of the greatest benefactors +to the human race, and with grateful hearts thank +the bountiful giver of all good things for this most extensive +blessing.</p> + +<p class='c011'>It is a well-known fact, that we are perfectly ignorant +of the native sites of nearly all those gramineous plants, +distinguished by Linnæus as Cerealia, whose seeds have +from the earliest periods of time served for the food of +man, such as wheat, rye, barley, rice, maize, oats: perhaps +<span class='pageno' id='Page_34'>34</span>we must except the two last, as the oat was discovered +by Bruce growing under the culture of nature +alone; and he was too good a botanist to have mistaken +the identity of Avena sativa—and Indian corn may have +been found. That some of them were produced in +these regions first inhabited by mankind, we have every +reason to believe, and the warrant of something like +obscure tradition; but our ignorance of the first habitats +of these plants is the less to be wondered at, when we +consider that it is more than probable that culture and +the arts of man have so infinitely changed the form, +improved the nature, and obscured the original species, +that it is no longer traceable in any existent state. +There appears to be a permission from Nature to effect +certain changes in vegetables, yet she retains an inherent +propensity in the plant to revert to its original +creation, which is very manifest in this particular race, +for the sorts which we now make use of will not endure +the thraldom of our perversion without the artifices, +the restraints of man, but have a constant tendency to +return to some other nature, or to run wild, as we call +it. Man bears them with him in all his wanderings, by +his treatment they remain obedient to his desires, and +are identified with colonization, but as soon as he remits +his attentions, the seeds perish in the soil, or their +offspring dwindle in the earth, and are lost. Or we +may say, that Nature, having created these things, permits +him, in the sweat of his brow, to effect an improvement, +and consigns the custody of them to his care, +satisfied that he will preserve them for his own benefit +as long as required; when his occasion for them ceases, +or when by sloth he neglects them, they return to their +original creation: the earth might be cursed to bring +forth thorns and thistles, but an attendant blessing and +mercy was reserved of permitting them to be cultivated, +producing healthful recreation and grateful food. If +these are plants of immemorial antiquity, the potato is +yet of comparatively modern introduction, but the original +species from whence all our endless varieties have +emanated cannot probably now be ascertained, man +having, as observed above, almost created an essential +<span class='pageno' id='Page_35'>35</span>article of food; and it is not unimportant to note the +great difference that subsists in the component parts +of these varieties—for though, in common estimation, +a potato may be a potato, yet we find them very differently +compounded. The influence of different temperatures +and years may cause these proportions to vary, +but I give them as observed in 1828.</p> + +<table class='table3'> + <tr> + <td class='c019'>Black or purple,</td> + <td class='c020'>Fibre</td> + <td class='brt c020'>9¾</td> + <td class='c020'>Fecula</td> + <td class='brt c020'>9¾</td> + <td class='c020'>Water</td> + <td class='c020'>80½</td> + <td class='c021'>= 100</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c019'>Prince’s beauty</td> + <td class='c020'>do.</td> + <td class='brt c020'>15</td> + <td class='c020'>Ditto</td> + <td class='brt c020'>11¾</td> + <td class='c020'>Ditto</td> + <td class='c020'>70¼</td> + <td class='c021'>do.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c019'>Horse’s legs</td> + <td class='c020'>do.</td> + <td class='brt c020'>13</td> + <td class='c020'>Ditto</td> + <td class='brt c020'>15</td> + <td class='c020'>Ditto</td> + <td class='c020'>72</td> + <td class='c021'>do.</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class='c011'>The proportion of fecula varies greatly, and as the principle + of nutriment is supposed to exist in this matter, +the value of each sort, if mere nutriment is required, +is indicated by this analysis.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The potato may be considered as the most valuable +production that Europe has received from the continent +of America, and is now, as Bishop Heber informs us, +much esteemed in the East, and regarded as the greatest +benefit the country ever received from its European +masters. A plant that can so climatize and preserve its +valuable properties in such different temperatures as +northern Europe and Bengal, where the thermometer +ranges up to 90 or 100 degrees of heat, must be particularly +endowed, and in time will probably become +naturalized to every region, and circulate its benefits +round the globe. The strenuous manner in which I +have lauded this root may, perhaps, excite a smile in +some, who only know it as a table viand; but those +who have witnessed the blessings which this tuber confers, +by affording a sufficiency of food to man and beast, +will not be disposed to regard lightly such comforts obtainable +by their poorer neighbors.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Our second crop to which I alluded, and which some +years we grow largely, is the teasel<a id='r11'></a><a href='#f11' class='c014'><sup>[11]</sup></a> (dipsacus fullonum), +a plant which is probably no native of this country, but, +like woad, canary-grass, &c., originally introduced by +some of the numerous foreign artisans, who have at various +times sought refuge here, or been encouraged to +settle in England. Our woollen manufactory could +hardly have made any progress without this plant: the +constant continental wars in the earlier part of our monarchy, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_36'>36</span>and the rival jealousies of foreign nations, would +have impeded, or prohibited, the necessary supply of +teasels, and thus rendered the domestic cultivation of +this indispensable plant a primary object. The manufactory +of cloth was certainly carried on in England +during the reign of Richard I., perhaps in his father’s +reign; but it was probably not until after the tenth of +Edward III., that the teasel was cultivated to any extent +with us; for about that time the exportation of English +wool was prohibited, and the wearing of foreign cloth +opposed by government. Flemish artisans were encouraged +to settle in this country, and carry on their trade, +with every liberty and protection; a regular mart was +established; and the tuckers, or woollen weavers, became +an incorporated body; particular towns began to +furnish peculiar colors—Kendal, its green, Coventry, +its blue, Bristol, its red, &c.; and from this period, I +think, we may date the cultivation of the teasel in +England.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Hudson, in considering this species as indigenous, +directs us to hedges for our specimens; but, though the +teasel is certainly found a wilding in some places astray +from cultivation, yet it is singular that with us it does +not wander from culture: though the seeds are scattered +about and swept from the barns where the heads are +dried into the yard, and vegetate in profusion on the +dung-heaps and the by-ways where dropped, yet I have +never observed it growing in the surrounding hedges.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Teasels are cultivated in some of the strong clay-lands +of Wilts, Essex, Gloucester, and Somerset. The +latter county is supposed to have grown them earliest. +The manufacturers rather give the preference to those +of Gloucester, as lands repeatedly cropped are thought +not to produce them so good in some respects. Strong +land, thrown up as for wheat, and kept dry, affords the +best teasels. Weeding, draining, and other requisites, +demand a constant labor through great part of the year; +and hence a certain expense is incurred: but remuneration, +loss, or great profit, circumstances must determine; +nor, perhaps, is there any article grown more +precarious or mutable in its returns.</p> + +<p class='c011'><span class='pageno' id='Page_37'>37</span>The teasel throws up its heads in July and August; +and these are cut from the plant by hand, with a knife +particularly formed, and then fastened to poles for drying: +the terminating heads are ready first, and called +“kings:” they are larger and coarser than the others, +and fitted only for the strongest kinds of cloth, and are +about half the value of the best. The collateral heads +then succeed, and receive the name of “middlings,” +and are the prime teasels. Should the season prove +moist, great injury ensues; but exposure to wet for any +length of time ruins the head, which, by its peculiar +construction, retains the moisture, and it decays. We +cannot stack them like corn, as pressure destroys the +spines, and a free circulation of air is required to dry +them thoroughly; and we seek for barns, sheds, and +shelter of any kind, crowd the very bed-rooms of our +cottages with them in dripping seasons, and bask them +in every sunny gleam that breaks out: this is attended +with infinite trouble; and as few farmers, who have so +many other concerns on their hands, like to encounter +it, they become the speculation of the most opulent +class of cottagers. When dry, they are picked and +sorted into bundles for sale, ten thousand best and small +middlings making a pack; nine thousand constitute the +pack of kings. If there be a stock on hand, and the +season favorable, there is a sufficiency for the demand, +and the price low: if adverse weather ensue, the price +becomes greatly advanced, and we have known them in +the course of a few months vary from 4l. to 22l. the +pack! but from 5<i>l.</i> to 7<i>l.</i> is perhaps the average price +of this article. This variation in value affords the +growers a subject for constant speculation—a source of +rapid wealth to some, and injury to others—and we +most emphatically call teasels a “casualty crop.” Our +manufacturers occasionally import teasels from Holland +and France, when the price is high in England: this +they can do when the home price exceeds 8<i>l.</i></p> + +<p class='c011'>In letting teasel land, various agreements are made, +not necessary to mention in a note like this; but it is +usually taken for two years, it requiring much of this +<span class='pageno' id='Page_38'>38</span>time from sowing the seed to cutting the heads for sale. +In rating the expenses, we will say—</p> + +<table class='table1'> + <tr> + <th class='c008'></th> + <th class='c016'>£.</th> + <th class='c016'><i>s.</i></th> + <th class='c017'><i>d.</i></th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c008'>One acre at 2<i>l.</i> per ann. (for two years)</td> + <td class='c018'>4</td> + <td class='c018'>0</td> + <td class='c015'>0</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c008'>Expense of culture, 3<i>l.</i> per ann per acre</td> + <td class='c018'>6</td> + <td class='c018'>0</td> + <td class='c015'>0</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c008'>Tithe</td> + <td class='c018'>0</td> + <td class='c018'>8</td> + <td class='c015'>0</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c008'>Cutting the heads, per acre</td> + <td class='c018'>0</td> + <td class='c018'>6</td> + <td class='c015'>0</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c008'>Sorting and packing at 6<i>s.</i> for seven packs, average crop</td> + <td class='c018'>2</td> + <td class='c018'>2</td> + <td class='c015'>0</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='bbt c008'>Miscellaneous expenses, polls, sticks, &c.</td> + <td class='bbt c018'>1</td> + <td class='bbt c018'>0</td> + <td class='bbt c015'>0</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c008'> </td> + <td class='c018'>13</td> + <td class='c018'>16</td> + <td class='c015'>0</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='bbt c008'>Average crop brought to market, seven packs, at 6<i>l.</i></td> + <td class='bbt c018'>42</td> + <td class='bbt c018'>0</td> + <td class='bbt c015'>0</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c008'>Leaving a profit for the 2 years, upon an acre, of</td> + <td class='c018'>£28</td> + <td class='c018'>4</td> + <td class='c015'>3</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class='c012'>As the teasel man seldom rents less than four or six +acres, which he can very well attend to, it may produce +at the two years’ end a return upon the six acres of +169<i>l.</i>, if all circumstances should be favorable—a +tempting inducement to speculation, when a laborer, +by regular daily pay, cannot earn above 32<i>l.</i> per annum. +But it requires some ready money to support the family +during this period of expectation—and if a bad season +occur, all the labor is lost, the profit destroyed, the anxiety +of months ends in disappointment, and debt only +remains. This is most truly a casualty crop; and the +manufacturers are so sensible of the risk and trouble +attending the cultivation of this plant, that they prefer +purchasing to growing it for their own use; and I +know one who has declared his loss in the attempt to +exceed 500<i>l.</i></p> + +<p class='c011'>It has been thought that the cultivation of teasels exhausted +the land, and some landlords in consequence +have forbidden the growth of them in their agreements; +perhaps I can be no sufficient judge of the accuracy of +this idea, from our limited growth, but speaking locally, +such land as we make use of for their culture is of so +inferior a nature, that little deterioration can ensue from +any crop. The teasel, having a tap root, does not exhaust +the superficial soil as a fibrous-rooted plant would +do; the ground on which they grow is hoed, and turned +by the spade repeatedly, and up to a certain period +kept free from weeds; but as the plant is forming heads, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_39'>39</span>little attention seems given to the eradication of intrusive +rubbish, and, consequently, after gathering the crop the +soil is frequently in a very foul state, and from hence +the chief injury to the land may arise, rather than from +the teasel plant. Though this crop requires no manure, +nor affords any to the soil, yet the removal of the earth +so repeatedly by the hoe and spade becomes equivalent +to a fallow: with us a wheat crop often succeeds the +teasel, and I have observed in this case as good a return +of that grain as is produced by the adjoining fields +where teasels had not been grown.</p> + +<p class='c011'>This plant seems to be known in many countries by +a name expressive of its use. Old Gerard has recorded +several of these names. Its old English name was the +carding teasel; the Latin name, carduus veneris; the +French call it chardon de foullon; the Danes and +Swedes, karde tidsel; the Flemings, karden distel; the +Hollanders, kaarden; Italy and Portugal, cardo; the +Spaniards, cardencha, &c.</p> + +<p class='c011'>I believe that the teasel affords a solitary instance of +a natural production being applied to mechanical purposes +in the state in which it is produced.<a id='r12'></a><a href='#f12' class='c014'><sup>[12]</sup></a> It appears, +from many attempts, that the object designed to be +effected by the teasel cannot be supplied by any contrivance—successive +inventions having been abandoned +as defective or injurious. The use of the teasel is to +draw out the ends of the wool from the manufactured +cloth, so as to bring a regular pile or nap upon the surface, +free from twistings and knottings, and to comb +off the coarse and loose parts of the wool. The head +of the true teasel is composed of incorporated flowers, +each separated by a long, rigid, chaffy substance, the +terminating point of which is furnished with a fine hook. +Many of these heads are fixed in a frame; and with +this the surface of the cloth is teased, or brushed, until +all the ends are drawn out, the loose parts combed off, +and the cloth ceases to yield impediments to the free +<span class='pageno' id='Page_40'>40</span>passage of the wheel, or frame, of teasels. Should the +hook of the chaff, when in use, become fixed in a knot, +or find sufficient resistance, it breaks without injuring +or contending with the cloth, and care is taken by successive +applications to draw the impediment out: but +all mechanical inventions hitherto made use of offer resistance +to the knot; and, instead of yielding and breaking +as the teasel does, resist and tear it out, making a +hole, or injuring the surface. The dressing of a piece +of cloth consumes a great multitude of teasels—it requiring +from 1500 to 2000 heads to accomplish the +work properly. They are used repeatedly in the different +stages of the process; but a piece of fine cloth generally +breaks this number before it is finished, or we may +say that there is a consumption answering to the proposed +fineness—pieces of the best kinds requiring one +hundred and fifty or two hundred runnings up, according +to circumstances.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Our small farmers here have a vile practice of picking +from their turf, in the spring of the year, all the +droppings of their autumn and winter fed cattle to carry +on their arable land for the potato, or some grain crop: +this affords no great supply to plowed land, and is very +injurious to their grazing grounds; but the answer +generally is, “that the corn must have manure, and the +beast can take care of itself;” and in many cases, I fear, +from the starved appearance of the young cattle, that +their best endeavors have afforded a very inadequate +supply.</p> + +<p class='c011'>This picking of the field was formerly very generally +resorted to in the midland counties; but the farmers at +that time had a sufficient excuse in the scarcity of common +fuel. The droppings of the cows were collected +in heaps, and beaten into a mass with water; then pressed +by the feet into moulds like bricks, by regular professional +persons, called clatters (clodders); then dried +in the sun, and stacked like peat, and a dry March for +the clat-harvest was considered as very desirable. These +answered very well for heating water for the dairy and +uses of the farm back-kitchen, giving a steady, dull +heat, without flame; but navigable canals, and other +<span class='pageno' id='Page_41'>41</span>conveniences of a similar nature, have rendered the +practice now unnecessary. With us this bad custom is +declining, and probably in time will cease altogether.</p> + +<hr class='c022'> + +<p class='c011'>It is rather a subject of surprise, that in our general +associations and commixtures in life, in times so highly +enlightened as the present, when many ancient prejudices +are gradually flitting away, as reason and science +dawn on mankind, we should meet with so few, comparatively +speaking, who have any knowledge of, or take +the least interest in natural history; or if the subject +obtain a moment’s consideration, it has no abiding place +in the mind, being dismissed as the fitting employ of +children and inferior capacities. But the natural historian +is required to attend to something more than the +vagaries of butterflies, and the spinnings of caterpillars; +his study, considered abstractedly from the various +branches of science which it embraces, is one of the +most delightful occupations that can employ the attention +of reasoning beings: a beautiful landscape, grateful +objects, pleasures received by the eye or the senses, become +the common property of all who can enjoy them, +being in some measure obvious to every one; but the +naturalist must reflect upon hidden things, investigate +by comparison, and testify by experience, and living +amidst the wonders of creation, it becomes his occupation +to note and proclaim such manifestations of wisdom +or goodness as may be perceived by him. And perhaps +none of the amusements of human life are more satisfactory +and dignified, than the investigation and survey +of the workings and ways of Providence in this created +world of wonders, filled with his never-absent power: +it occupies and elevates the mind, is inexhaustible in +supply, and, while it furnishes meditation for the closet +of the studious, gives to the reflections of the moralizing +rambler admiration and delight, and is an engaging companion, +that will communicate an interest to every rural +walk. We need not live with the humble denizens of +the air, the tenants of the woods and hedges, or the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_42'>42</span>grasses of the field; but to pass them by in utter disregard, +is to neglect a large portion of rational pleasure +open to our view, which may edify and employ many a +passing hour, and by easy gradations will often become +the source whence flow contemplations of the highest +orders. Young minds cannot, I should conceive, be too +strongly impressed with the simple wonders of creation +by which they are surrounded: in the race of life they +may be passed by, the occupation of existence may not +admit attention to them, or the unceasing cares of the +world may smother early attainments—but they can +never be injurious—will give a bias to a reasoning mind, +and tend, in some after-thoughtful, sobered hour, to +comfort and to soothe. The little insights that we have +obtained into nature’s works are many of them the offspring +of scientific research; and partial and uncertain +as our labors are, yet a brief gleam will occasionally +lighten the darksome path of the humble inquirer, and +give him a momentary glimpse of hidden truths: let +not then the idle and the ignorant scoff at him who devotes +an unemployed hour,—</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c003'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>“No calling left, no duty broke,”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c012'>to investigate a moss, a fungus, a beetle, or a shell, in +“ways of pleasantness, and in paths of peace.” They +are all the formation of Supreme Intelligence, for a wise +and a worthy end, and may lead us by gentle gradations +to a faint conception of the powers of infinite wisdom. +They have calmed and amused some of us worms and +reptiles, and possibly bettered us for our change to a +new and more perfect order of being.</p> + +<p class='c011'>We yet possess two forest trees, beautiful and unmutilated! +An oak in Shellard’s lane has escaped the woodman’s +ax, the hedger’s bill: it stands on the side of +the waste, and has long afforded shade and shelter to +an adjoining farm-house. These circumstances, and not +being valuable as a timber tree, may have contributed +to its preservation: its hamadryad is left alone in the +land to mourn her lost companions. This tree is not +mentioned as being at all comparable with the gigantic +productions of the kind that we have accounts of, and +<span class='pageno' id='Page_43'>43</span>perhaps by many would be passed by unnoticed; yet it +is deserving of some regard, from the vegetable powers +that have existed, and still continue in its trunk. The +bole, at some very distant period, by accident or design, +appears to have lost its leading shoot, and in consequence +has thrown out several collateral branches: three +remain, which have now grown into trees themselves +existing in full vigor, and constituting a whole of much +beauty. It is a characteristic specimen of an oak, with +all the corrugations, twistings, furrows, and irregularities, +which this tree with a free growth generally exhibits; +expanding its three vigorous arms to the Sun of Heaven +with a pendent, easy dignity, that seems like an enjoyment +of unrestrained liberty. We have no good criterion +to regulate our judgment with regard to the age of trees +of considerable antiquity. In young ones the rings of +the wood will often afford a reasonable ground for +opinion; but in old trees these marks are absorbed, +obscured, or uncertainly formed, so as to be no sufficient +guide. In particular cases, such as inclosure of +waste or other lands, formation of parks and plantations, +the times of planting are sufficiently recorded; but +generally speaking, neither oral tradition, nor written +testimony, remains to indicate the period when a tree +sprang up. This oak, however, from all the signs of age +that it retains, must have existed as a sapling at some +very distant day, and is the most undoubted relic of +antiquity in the vegetable world that we possess.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The elm, and the beech, in age, frequently present +very decided vestiges of a former day; but the oak of +centuries has impressed upon it indelible characters of +antiquity, and is a visible <i>vetustum monumentum</i>. The +wreathings and contortions of its bark, even its once +vigorous, but now sapless limbs, with their bare and +bleached summits, stag-headed and erect, maintain a +regality of character which perfectly indicates the monarch +of the forest, and which no other tree assumes. We +have many accounts in different authors of the prodigious +size which the oak has attained in England; +but most of the trees, that have arrived at any vast circumference, +seem, like this our village oak, to have lost +<span class='pageno' id='Page_44'>44</span>their leaders when young, and hence are short in the +but: yet we have records of aspiring timber trees of +this species of astonishing magnitude, though perhaps +none of them exceed those mentioned by Evelyn, cut +down near Newberry in Berkshire, one of which ran +fifty feet clear without a knot, and cut clean timber five +feet square at the base; its consort gave forty feet of +clear, straight timber, squaring four feet at its base, and +nearly a yard at the top. The “lady oak,” mentioned +by Sir E. Harley, produced a but of forty feet, and +squared five feet throughout its whole length, thus producing +twenty tons of timber, a mass of surprising grandeur! +But the most magnificent oak ever known to have grown +in England was probably that dug out of Hatfield bog: +it was a hundred and twenty five feet in length, twelve in +diameter at the base, ten in the middle, and six at the +smaller end, where broken off; so that the but for sixty +feet squared seven feet of timber, and four its entire +length. Twenty pounds were offered for this tree.<a id='r13'></a><a href='#f13' class='c014'><sup>[13]</sup></a> +This extraordinary vegetable should have been preserved +in some museum, as unequalled in ancient, unapproachable +in modern days; exceeding in magnitude even +that famous larch brought to Rome in the reign of Tiberius,<a id='r14'></a><a href='#f14' class='c014'><sup>[14]</sup></a> +and reserved as a curiosity for many years, +which was one hundred and twenty feet long, and two +feet in diameter its whole length.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Indigenous, flourishing, and inured to all the caprices +of our climate as the oak is, yet it produces its fruit +very precariously, and at times sparingly, like a plant +of exotic origin; which does not appear to have been +the case formerly, when such herds of swine were +maintained by the produce of our woods alone, and +grants from manorial lords for permission thus to feed +them were recorded with care as valuable obtainments.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The cause of infertility in indigenous trees can arise +from no defect of construction in the organs of fructification, +but from some obstruction, perversion, redundancy, +or vitiation of the natural powers; which is particularly +<span class='pageno' id='Page_45'>45</span>manifested by the faculty which they possess +at one period of producing fruit, and their impotency +at another. This imbecility from one cause or another +probably influences at periods every tree or herb that +springs from the earth; but in regard to the oak, the +most general and probable cause of its sterility is suspended +circulation. This is more immediately brought +to notice from our custom of barking the timber of this +tree in the spring. At times our barkers go on rapidly +with their work; yet in a few hours a frost, or a sharp +wind, will put an entire stop to their operations, in consequence +of the cessation of the flow of sap, which is +followed by the adhesion of the bark to the wood. +Whenever this nutriment ceases to be supplied, the +immature and tender germen must languish; and if the +supply be long suspended, it must perish from deficiency +of food. That such is the natural effect of spring frosts +and sudden chills, more injurious probably to the fruit +in this immature state, from its greater delicacy, than +when it is more developed, is reasonable to suppose: how +far a change of seasons may have taken place to accomplish +the injury alluded to, more commonly now than in +former periods, we have no criterion for proving; but +if failures of the acorn crop took place as frequently in +times when swine’s flesh was mostly the diet of the +middle and lower classes of people as they do now, the +privations of our forefathers were severe indeed.</p> + +<p class='c011'>An interesting volume might be formed, entitled the +“History of the Oak.” The first mention that we know +of this tree is that ancient of days, the “oak of Mamre,” +under which Abraham sat in the heat of the day; and +that it was an oak, one of the fathers, Eusebius, tells +us, as it remained an object of veneration even in the +time of Constantine. We would note all the celebrated +querci of antiquity; the use, value, strength, duration, +&c., of its timber; the infinite variety of purposes to +which its various parts are applied by the mechanic, the +dyer, the artisan; the insects, which amount to hundreds +of species, that live and have their being on the oak; +the vegetables it nourishes, ferns, lichens, mosses, +agarics, boleti, &c.; the sawdust, apples, gallnuts, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_46'>46</span>acorns, leaves, and innumerable et cetera of Britain’s +guardian tree. However highly the Druids might venerate +the oak, and make it the emblem and residence of +their deity, yet the intrinsic value of this tree was unknown +to our remote forefathers. All their knowledge +of its virtues was probably included in its uses for +building, its acorns for their swine, and, perhaps, its +bark for preserving the skins which they used. Modern +ingenuity and necessity have brought its various qualities +into notice, or our oak would have received such +honors, as in days of darkness were conferred upon inanimate +things: Attica considered the olive as the gift +of her tutelary goddess, and some benevolent saint +would have been lauded and hymned, for having endowed +the oak of Britain with such extensive virtues +for the good of mankind.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The other tree, that I mentioned above as one of our +boasts, is a wych or broad-leaved elm<a id='r15'></a><a href='#f15' class='c014'><sup>[15]</sup></a> (ulmus montana), +standing near the turnpike road. This very fine and +stately tree was saved, when the merciless ax levelled +all its companions, at the solicitation of a lady now no +more, and remains a testimony of her good taste, the +civility of the agent, and the ornament of our village. +When in youth, this species presents a character decidedly +different from the common elm (ulmus campestris). +Its branches at times are so strong as to be nearly +equal in size with the main stem that supports them, +and loaded with such a profusion of foliage, that the +sprays become pendent, and give the idea of luxuriance +with weakness, of a growth beyond strength; advancing +in age, its arms and sprays become less pensile, +as the leaves are smaller and less burdensome; yet they +hang commonly in large heavy masses, like what we +formerly were accustomed to see in the aquatintas of +Jukes, and the prints of that period. It can however +occasionally assume the appearance of elegance and +lightness, and is usually less aspiring and more branching +than the common elm; its dense foliage yields a +fine shade for cattle, and it deserves even on this account, +if it possessed no other merit, a more general +cultivation. The wych elm, though a rare tree in some +<span class='pageno' id='Page_47'>47</span>counties, seems more extensively spread over England +than the other species, and adventures farther to the +north. Ray tells us, on the authority of Aubrey, that +the common elm, so called, is scarcely found indigenous +northward of Lincolnshire, whereas this species is found +even in Scotland. Our soil is very favorable to the +growth of both species. The wych elm affords a tough +and valuable wood for the wheeler and the mill-wright; +the bark from the young limbs is stripped off in long +ribands, and often used, especially in Wales, for securing +thatch, and for various bindings and tyings, to which +purpose its flexible and tough nature renders it well +adapted. Gerard says, that arrows were made from the +wood of this tree, and he lived at a period when he +could well ascertain the fact, during the reign of Elizabeth +and her predecessor, before fire-arms had superseded +this truly British weapon: he was in the younger +part of his life gardener to the great Lord Burleigh. +That the wych elm, when permitted, will attain large +dimensions, is manifest by the size of several we have +observed in many places; but that gigantic one, which +grew in Staffordshire, exceeds in magnitude any other +of this species which we ever heard of. It required +the labor of two men for five days to fell it; it was +forty yards in length, with a diameter of seventeen feet +at the but; yielding eight pair of naves, and eight thousand, +six hundred, and sixty feet of boards, the sawing +of which cost 10<i>l.</i> 17<i>s.</i> It contained ninety-seven tons +of timber. As Evelyn says, “this was certainly a +goodly tree!” The etymology of this tree seems to be +unknown, and different authors, who mention it, spell +it, accordingly, various ways: Evelyn calls it wich, and +witch; Gilpin, wich; others, wych; Bacon, weech. The +foliage of the young trees of this elm are the favorite +food of the larvæ of the Buff-tip-moth, (Phal. Bucephala), +for though they likewise feed upon the young leaves +of the oak, and the lime, yet they give the preference +to those of this tree; when so feeding, it will always +be known by their rejectments on the earth beneath, +which when the larvæ are in any number, may be noticed +by very unattentive persons. This caterpillar, when +<span class='pageno' id='Page_48'>48</span>nearly fed for its change, becomes heavy, and commonly +falls to the earth from the spray, and we can see them +crawling along the paths, or even upon the clothes of +persons that have walked under the trees where they +have fed: though this creature is very often found in +considerable numbers throughout the summer and autumn, +yet by reason of some fatality, the moth is by no +means so common an insect as might be expected from +the profusion of its larvæ.</p> + +<p class='c011'>We have no indigenous tree that suffers from the advance +of the winter season so early as the wych elm. +A few others may manifest its approach nearly as soon, +but they become augmented in splendor by a touch +of the frosty air, not ruined and denuded like our elm, +which contributes no grandeur, no beauty, to our autumnal +scenery, as its leaves curl up, become brown, +and flutter from their sprays, when growing in exposed +situations, as early often as the middle of September, +by constitutional mechanism alone, even before the +beech or the maple seems sensibly affected by the cold. +This character of itself marks a difference from the +common elm, which preserves its verdure, except from +accidental causes, long after this period; and then, +when its season arrives, the foliage becomes tinged with +a fine, mellow, yellow hue, contributing a full share +with other trees to the character and splendor of autumn. +The wych elm may occasionally be desirable in the few +days that our northern summer requires its deep shades, +but will not otherwise afford pleasure or beauty in the +shrubbery or the park as an ornamental tree, as its +leafless sprays announce too early the unwelcome termination +of our floral year, and its sober russet foliage +is scattered at our feet without preparation or a parting +smile.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Trees in full foliage have long been noted as great +attractors of humidity, and a young wych elm in full +leaf affords a good example of this supposed power; +but in the winter of the year, when trees are perfectly +denuded, this faculty of creating moisture about them +is equally obvious, though not so profusely. A strongly +marked instance of this was witnessed by me, when +<span class='pageno' id='Page_49'>49</span>ascending a hill in the month of March. The weather +had previously been very fine and dry, and the road in +a dusty state; but a fog coming on, an ash tree hanging +over the road was dripping with water so copiously, +that the road beneath was in a puddle, when the other +parts continued dry, and manifested no appearance of +humidity. That leaves imbibe moisture by one set of +vessels and discharge them by another, is well-known; +but these imbibings are never discharged in falling +drops: the real mystery was, the fog in its progress was +impeded by the boughs of the tree, and gradually collected +on the exposed side of them, until it became +drops of water, whereas the surrounding country had +only a mist flying over it. Thus in fact the tree was +no attractor, but a condenser; the gate of a field will +in the same manner run down with water on the one +side, and be dry on the other; as will a stick, or a post, +from the same cause. It is upon this principle that +currents of air will be found under trees in summer, +when little is perceived in open places; and the under +leaves and sprays will be curled and scorched at times, +when the parts above are uninjured. The air in its +passage being stopped and condensed against the foliage +of the tree, it accordingly descends along its surface +or front, and escapes at the bottom, where there are no +branches or leaves to interrupt its progress. In winter +there is little to impede the breeze in its course, and it +passes through; consequently at this season the air under +a tree is scarcely more sensibly felt than in the adjoining +field.</p> + +<p class='c011'>It may be observed, that in the spring of the year +the herbage under trees is generally more vivid and +luxuriant, than that which is beyond the spread of the +branches: this may be occasioned, in some instances, +by cattle having harbored there, and the ground becoming +in consequence more manured; but it will be found +likewise manifestly verdant and flourishing where no +such accessory could have enriched it, and is, I apprehend, +in general, chiefly owing to the effects of the +driving fogs and mists, which cause a frequent drip beneath +the tree, not experienced in other places, and +<span class='pageno' id='Page_50'>50</span>thus in a manner keep up a perpetual irrigation and +refreshment of the soil, and promote the decomposition +of the foliage beneath, which being drawn into the earth +by worms, contributes to the verdure by the nutriment +they yield.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The foliage of trees and plants, by its amazing profusion, +variety, and beauty, must ever have been, as it +is now, a subject of admiration and delight, is perhaps +full as deserving of notice, and at times even more to +be regarded, than the blossoms which accompany it. +Let us take only one yard square upon the first verdant +ditch-bank in spring, and the variation of form and +character which will there be presented may probably +exceed general imagination; but the object of all this +extraordinary diversity is concealed, with the many other +mysteries of creation: yet we have such an ascendant +thirst for information upon the causes and nature of the +things about us, as to render it an apparent inherent +principle of the mind, inducing it to gratitude and love. +From information in all the works of Providence arises, +as a necessary consequence, admiration, and an exalted +sense of supreme intelligence and goodness. Without +the desire of knowing the designs and processes of +things, no investigation would be bestowed, and we +should remain in ignorance of all but the bare facts, +and gross perceptions of creation; nor can it be questioned +but that the more extensive our acquaintance is +with the objects of Providence, in such proportions +must our convictions be of his justice, wisdom, and +power.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The great utility of foliage, and its agency in accomplishing +the requirements of the plant and its products, +are well known; and we can form some comprehension +of the vast supply that is required by a tree, when we +view its foliage, each leaf being employed in receiving +and transmitting gases from the air in certain proportions +to the plant: these great operations having been +effected during the summer months, and this agency of +the leaves finished, they fall to the ground, not as a +useless encumbrance, but to convey a large portion of +fresh soil peculiarly fitted for the nutriment of vegetation. +<span class='pageno' id='Page_51'>51</span>Should they remain in any quantity beneath the +tree, they appear to be injurious to the smaller herbage, +but they are more generally dispersed as they part from +the sprays by the gales of autumn, which whirl them +along in crowds to the hedges, trenches, and ditches +around: here they accumulate and decay, furnishing, in +conjunction with other vegetable decompositions, a very +nutritive earth, as is manifest by the wild plants growing +in those situations, for notwithstanding all the obstructions +of shade, thorns, and briers, they are generally +found in great luxuriance or health. This earth +in time crumbled by frosts, and washed by rains into +the ditches from the banks, becomes accumulated there, +and we collect it, compost it with other matters, and +use it as a beneficial dressing for our cultivated lands: +many of these leaves, however, remain near the tree, +and soon communicate their virtues to the herbage: +some are consumed by natural consequences, others are +attacked by small fungi, which break their surfaces, +admit moisture, and facilitate decay; the worm now +seizes them as his portion, and having fed upon a part, +draws the remainder into the earth, where a rapid separation +of the parts takes place, and they are received +through the roots into vegetable circulation anew; and +thus the beautiful foliage which has been so pleasing +during our summer months, supplied the tree with sustenance +to increase its magnitude, and all the requisites +demanded by its fruits and products—has glowed perhaps +with splendor, and been our admiration in the decline +of the year, now returns to the soil, not to encumber +it, but to administer health and vigor to a new series +of vegetation, and circulate in combinations hidden from +any human perception.</p> + +<p class='c011'>By a very wise appointment, peculiar propensities +have been bestowed upon the vegetable world, greatly +assimilating to the tastes and inclinations of the animated +tribes. Beasts and insects feed on particular +plants, and reject others, and the delight of one is disgusting +to another. So, some plants, not having the +power of locomotion, will thrive only in certain compounded +soils, aspects, and situations, evincing a similar +<span class='pageno' id='Page_52'>52</span>tendency to preference of nourishment as do the sensitive +tribes; and some districts, that vary a little in their +component parts or position from those adjoining, will +present an individual or a race that is not found in +another: the common product of the North or of the +East is treasured in the Herbarium of the southern or +western botanist; we can boast but few, yet we have +some of these capricious children of the soil.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The fetid hellebore (helleborus fœtidus) is not a common +plant with us, but we find it sparingly in one or +two places; and though a plant indigenous to Britain, +yet it is not improbable that it has strayed from cultivation, +and become naturalized in many of the places in +which we now find it. Its uses as an herb of celebrity +for some complaints of cattle occasioned its being fostered +in many a cottage garden long since erased, where +the good wife was the simple doctress of the village, +when perhaps mortality was not more extensive than in +these days of greater pretension and display. Modern +practice yet retains preparations of this herb, but it appears +that, from the powerful manner in which they act, +great discretion is necessary in their administration. +This hellebore is one of our few plants that present us +with a dull, unsightly, unpleasing blossom. We have +many with a corolla so small as to be little noticed; but +this plant, and the fetid iris (iris fœtidissima), produce +blossoms, that would generally be considered as darksome +and cheerless. There is no part of a vegetable +which we usually admire more than its flowers, for that +endless variety of colors, shades, forms, and odors, with +which they are endowed; yet the utility of the blossom +is by no means obvious. Linnæus calls the corolla the +arras, the tapestry of the plant; and we are perfectly +sensible that the blossom in very many instances is essential +in various ways to securing and perfecting the +germen; that it often contains the food of multitudes +of insects, which feed on the pollen, the honey, or the +germen; and that the odor emitted by it leads frequently +various creatures to the object in request, and +by their agency the fecundation and perfecting of the +seeds are often effected: but we are astonished at the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_53'>53</span>elaborate mechanism and splendor of some species, and +see the whole race of creation, with the exception of +man, utterly regardless of them. Butterflies and other +insects will bask on expanded flowers, and frequent +their disks, but it is in wantonness, or to feed on the +sweet liquors they contain. The carpenter bee,<a id='r16'></a><a href='#f16' class='c014'><sup>[16]</sup></a> that +every summer cuts its little circular patches in such +quantities from my roses to line its nest in the old garden +door, selects the green leaves only, chiefly from the +China, Provence, and damask kinds,<a id='r17'></a><a href='#f17' class='c014'><sup>[17]</sup></a> passing over the +petals of their blossoms as useless. That splendid insect +the rose-beetle<a id='r18'></a><a href='#f18' class='c014'><sup>[18]</sup></a> (cetonia aurata), that beds and +bathes in sweetness, will partially eat the flowers of +some species of roses, and “lap the nectar they produce;” +and a few others nibble a little; but the liliaceous +tribes, and other glorious flowers, as far as we +know, furnish to insects no supply, but expand, wither, +and die, unnoticed but by the eye of man alone. Flowers +that are grand, gay, cheerful or beautiful, predominate +infinitely over those that are of a sombre hue or +gloomy aspect. Employment and occupation were as +much the design, as they are found to be essential to +the happiness of human life: we are not all constituted +to soar in the higher regions of scientific research; our +dispositions are as various as our intellects. Horticulture +was the first occupation instituted for man, and he +cannot pursue a more innocent and harmless employ: +we were given “every herb, and every tree upon the +face of the earth.” For food, or raiment, the immediate +necessities of man, a very few of them are applicable; +but we can collect them for amusement, in admiration +of their beauty. Without this beauty, they would be +no object of research; and man, who is exclusively sensible +of its existence, can alone find pleasure in viewing +it. The mind that is delighted with such admiration, +must be almost insensibly led to an attendant pleasure, +the contemplation, the perception of infinite wisdom +<span class='pageno' id='Page_54'>54</span>and power, manifested in the adornment, splendor, and +formation, of even the simplest flower of the field. I +would not arrogate for man an exclusive right, or make +him generally the sole consideration of the beneficence +of Providence; but there are influences, which his +reason can alone perceive, incitements to good thoughts +and worthy actions.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Flowers, in all ages, have been made the representatives +of innocence and purity. We decorate the bride, +and strew her path with flowers: we present the undefiled +blossoms, as a similitude of her beauty and untainted +mind; trusting that her destiny through life will +be like theirs, grateful and pleasing to all. We scatter +them over the shell, the bier, and the earth, when we +consign our mortal blossoms to the dust, as emblems of +transient joy, fading pleasures, withered hopes; yet rest +in sure and certain trust that each in due season will +be renewed again. All the writers of antiquity make +mention of their uses and application in heathen and +pagan ceremonies, whether of the temple, the banquet, +or the tomb—the rites, the pleasures, or the sorrows of +man; and in concord with the usages of the period, +the author of the “Book of Wisdom” says, “Let us +crown ourselves with rose-buds and flowers before they +wither.” All orders of creation, “every form of creeping +things and abominable beasts,” have been, perhaps, +at one time or another, by some nation or sect, either +the objects of direct worship, or emblems of an invisible +sanctity; but though individuals of the vegetable world +may have veiled the mysteries, and been rendered sacred +to particular deities and purposes, yet in very few instances, +we believe, were they made the representatives +of a deified object, or been bowed down to with divine +honors. The worship of the one true Being could never +have been polluted by any symbol suggested by the open +flowers and lily-work of the temple.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The love of flowers seems a naturally implanted passion, +without any alloy or debasing object as a motive: +the cottage has its pink, its rose, its polyanthus; the +villa, its geranium, its dahlia, and its clematis: we +cherish them in youth, we admire them in declining +<span class='pageno' id='Page_55'>55</span>days; but, perhaps, it is the early flowers of spring that +always bring with them the greatest degree of pleasure, +and our affections seem immediately to expand at the +sight of the first opening blossom under the sunny wall, +or sheltered bank, however humble its race may be. +In the long and sombre months of winter our love of +nature, like the buds of vegetation, seems closed and +torpid; but, like them, it unfolds and reanimates with +the opening year, and we welcome our long-lost associates +with a cordiality, that no other season can excite, +as friends in a foreign clime. The violet of autumn is +greeted with none of the love with which we hail the +violet of spring; it is unseasonable, perhaps it brings +with it rather a thought of melancholy than of joy; we +view it with curiosity, not affection: and thus the late +is not like the early rose. It is not intrinsic beauty or +splendor that so charms us, for the fair maids of spring +cannot compete with the grander matrons of the advanced +year; they would be unheeded, perhaps lost, in the rosy +bowers of summer and of autumn; no, it is our first +meeting with a long-lost friend, the reviving glow of a +natural affection, that so warms us at this season: to +maturity they give pleasure, as a harbinger of the renewal +of life, a signal of awakening nature, or of a +higher promise; to youth, they are expanding being, +opening years, hilarity and joy; and the child, let loose +from the house, riots in the flowery mead, and is</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c003'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>“Monarch of all he surveys.”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c011'>There is not a prettier emblem of spring than an infant +sporting in the sunny field, with its osier basket +wreathed with butter-cups, orchises, and daisies. With +summer flowers we seem to live as with our neighbors, +in harmony and good-will: but spring flowers are cherished +as private friendships.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The amusements and fancies of children, when connected +with flowers, are always pleasing, being generally +the conceptions of innocent minds unbiassed by +artifice or pretence; and their love of them seems to +spring from a genuine feeling and admiration, a kind +of sympathy with objects as fair as their own untainted +<span class='pageno' id='Page_56'>56</span>minds: and I think that it is early flowers which constitute +their first natural playthings; though summer presents +a greater number and variety, they are not so +fondly selected. We have our daisies strung and wreathed +about our dress; our coronals of orchises and primroses; +our cowslip balls, &c.; and one application of +flowers at this season I have noticed, which, though +perhaps it is local, yet it has a remarkably pretty effect, +forming for the time one of the gayest little shrubs that +can be seen. A small branch or long spray of the +white thorn, with all its spines uninjured, is selected; +and on these its alternate thorns, a white and a blue +violet, plucked from their stalks, are stuck upright in +succession, until the thorns are covered, and when +placed in a flower-pot of moss, has perfectly the appearance +of a beautiful vernal flowering dwarf shrub, and +as long as it remains fresh is an object of surprise and +delight.</p> + +<p class='c011'>No portion of creation has been resorted to by mankind +with more success for the ornament and decoration +of their labors than the vegetable world. The rites, +emblems, and mysteries of religion; national achievements, +eccentric masks, and the capricious visions of +fancy, have all been wrought by the hand of the sculptor, +on the temple, the altar, or the tomb; but plants, +their foliage, flowers, or fruits, as the most graceful, +varied, and pleasing objects that meet our view, have +been more universally the object of design, and have +supplied the most beautiful, and perhaps the earliest, +embellishments of art. The pomegranate, the almond, +and flowers, were selected, even in the wilderness, by +divine appointment, to give form to the sacred utensils; +the rewards of merit, the wreath of the victor, were arboraceous; +in later periods, the acanthus, the ivy, the +lotus, the vine, the palm, and the oak, flourished under +the chisel, or in the loom of the artist; and in modern +days, the vegetable world affords the almost exclusive +decorations of ingenuity and art. The cultivation of +flowers is of all the amusements of mankind the one to +be selected and approved as the most innocent in itself, +and most perfectly devoid of injury or annoyance to +<span class='pageno' id='Page_57'>57</span>others; the employment is not only conducive to health +and peace of mind, but probably more good-will has +arisen, and friendships been founded by the intercourse +and communication connected with this pursuit than +from any other whatsoever: the pleasures, the ecstasies +of the horticulturist are harmless and pure; a streak, +a tint, a shade, becomes his triumph, which though +often obtained by chance, are secured alone by morning +care, by evening caution, and the vigilance of days: an +employ which, in its various grades, excludes neither +the opulent nor the indigent, and teeming with boundless +variety, affords an unceasing excitement to emulation +without contempt or ill-will.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The bouquet may be an exile now; but the revolutions +of fashion will surely return this beautiful ornament to +favor again. With us the nosegay yet retains its station +as a decoration to our Sunday beaux; but at our spring +clubs and associations it becomes an essential, indispensable +appointment; a little of the spirit of rivalry +seeming to animate our youths in the choice and magnitude +of this adornment. The superb spike of a Brompton, +or a ten weeks’ stock, long cherished in some sheltered +corner for the occasion, surrounded by all the +gaiety the garden can afford, till it presents a very bush +of flowers, forms the appendage of their bosoms, and, +with the gay knots in their hats, their best garments, +and the sprightly hilarity of their looks, constitutes a +pleasing village scene, and gives an hour of unencumbered +felicity to common man and rural life, not yet +disturbed by refinement and taste.</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c003'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>“Oh, who can hold a fire in his hand</div> + <div class='line'>By thinking on the frosty Caucasus?”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c012'>And yet the shivering of the aspen, or poplar tree (populus +tremula), in the breeze will give us the sensation +of coldness, and communicate an involuntary shuddering. +The construction of the foliage of this tree is peculiarly +adapted for motion: a broad leaf placed upon +a long footstalk, so flexile, as scarcely to be able to support +the leaf in an upright posture: the upper part of +this stalk, on which the play or action seems mainly to +<span class='pageno' id='Page_58'>58</span>depend, is contrary to the nature of footstalks in general, +being perfectly flattened, and, as an eminent botanist +and esteemed gentleman, Dr. I. Stokes, observes, is +placed at a right angle with the leaf, being thus +peculiarly fitted to receive the impulse of every wind +that blows. This stalk is furnished with three strong +nerves, placed parallel, and acting in unison with each +other; but towards the base the stalk becomes round, +and then the nerves assume a triangular form, and constitute +three distinct supports and counteractions to each +other’s motions. I know no petiole with a similar conformation, +or better calculated for the vibration of a +leaf. The leaf-stalks of plants are very curious constructions; +and the nerves and vessels contained in them, +which are the vehicles of a large portion of that nourishment +which plants receive through their foliage from +the air, seem in general differently placed, and fitted +for variety of operation. The poplar is a tree that occasions +at times a great deal of trouble in our pasture +lands, by the tendency which it has to extend its roots, +and throw out suckers. Three or four of this species +in a hedge-row, bounding a meadow in my occupation, +oblige me every year that the field is mowed, by their +prolificacy, to send a man with his stock-ax to remove +their numerous offspringing; a mere temporary expedient, +tending rather to increase the complaint, as eradication +by trenching with the spade can alone effectually check +the encroachments of runners so tenacious of life, and +rapid in growth.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The dyer’s broom<a id='r19'></a><a href='#f19' class='c014'><sup>[19]</sup></a> (genista tinctoria) abounds with +us, and becomes a perfect encumbrance in our clay-land +pastures. It is seldom eaten by cattle, except in cases +of great necessity, and remains untouched, if other food +be obtainable, giving a deceitful appearance of verdure +to a naked pasture. It yet retains a place in some of +our dispensatories; but its medicinal virtues are probably +never made trial of in modern practice, the lenient +assuasives of our forefathers seeming unequal to contention +with the constitutions of these days. I know not +any use to which it is applicable but for the dyer. Our +poorer people a few years ago used to collect it by cartloads, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_59'>59</span>about the month of July; and the season of “woodwaxen” +was a little harvest to them: but it interfered +greatly with our haymaking. Women could gain each +about two shillings a day, clear of all expenses, by +gathering it; but they complained that it was a very +hard and laborious occupation, the plant being drawn +up by the roots, which are strongly interwoven in the +soil. The dyer gave them eight-pence for a hundred +weight; but I fear the amount was greatly enhanced +by the dishonest practice of watering the load, for the +specious purpose of keeping it green; and the old woodwaxers +tell me, that, without the increase of weight +which the water gave the article, they should have had +but little reward for their labor. Greediness here, however, +as in most other cases, ruined the trade, the plant +becoming so injured and stinted by repeated pullings, +as to be in these parts no longer an object worth seeking +for; and our farmers rather discountenance the custom, +as the “green-weed” preserves and shelters at its roots +a considerable quantity of coarse herbage, which in the +winter and spring months is of great importance to the +young cattle browsing in the pastures. The use of this +dyer’s broom is to prepare woollen cloths for the reception +of another color. It communicates to the article a +dull yellow, which will then, by being dipped in another +liquor or composition, according to the shade required, +receive a green hue. Vegetable filaments, cotton, flax, +&c., are very differently formed from those threads +afforded by animals, as silk and wool, and are differently +disposed to receive colors. The dye that will give a +fine color to the one, is perhaps rejected by the other; +and this plant is rarely or never used by the dyer for +cotton articles. That certain natural productions receive +and retain, and others reject or soon part with +artificial colorings, are in some cases in consequence of +the nature of the substance, and in others by reason of +the conformation of the fibre; but any examination of +this kind would only occasion a tedious discussion and +remain very obscure at last. We find certain effects +produced and reason upon them, but so small are the +parts operated upon, minute the agents, and equivocal +<span class='pageno' id='Page_60'>60</span>the connexion, that we can do little more than theorize +upon the subject; but perhaps I may slightly instance +the difference existing in the fibre of flax and silk. +The parts which compose the filaments of the former +are generally considered as being flat and flaky, whereas +those of the latter are tubular and round: this conformation +renders silk so soft to the touch, and refracting +more perfectly the rays of light, occasions much of +its lustre, and the brilliancy of its hues. Perhaps we +have no art or trade less confined within the trammels +of formulæ than that of the dyer; every professor appearing +to have his own methods of acquiring particular +tints and shades, guided often in his proportions by that +mutable sense, the taste, and regulating the temperature +of his compositions, not by the thermometer, but by the +feeling of the hand;—and so capricious are these tests, +so different the sensations of the operator, or the variable +influences of solar light, that success on one day +does not insure a similar result on another.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Color is probably only reflected light; but by what +means the absorption of oxygen increases the lustre is +not quite obvious—yet the power of the sun’s rays, in +augmenting the intensity of the hues of many things, is +well known: there is an admirable green color for foliage, +to be obtained by the union of the light Prussian +blue with the dark gamboge; but I could never acquire +this clear and lustrous, without compounding it in the +light of the sun. As the young artist will find this a +most useful pigment, I may in addition say, that a small +bit of the light Prussian, with three or four times the +quantity of gamboge, must be laid upon the pallet, or +in the saucer, and with a drop or two of water, only +enough to make it work easily, be most thoroughly +united and incorporated by the finger, with the sun +shining upon the mixture, adding more gamboge repeatedly +during the operation, until the blue is subdued +and a clear green produced; but if a tedious operation, +yet perseverance will ultimately produce a very brilliant +permanent green.</p> + +<p class='c011'>We have our walls in many places here decorated +with most of the varieties of the great snapdragon (antirrhinum +<span class='pageno' id='Page_61'>61</span>majus); the white, the pink, and the common: +and that beautiful deviation, with a white tube +and crimson termination, is slowly wandering from the +garden, and mixing with its congeners. It has not, +perhaps, been generally observed, that the flowers of +this plant, “bull-dogs,” as the boys call them, are perfect +insect traps; multitudes of small creatures seek +an entrance into the corolla through the closed lips, +which upon a slight pressure yield a passage, attracted +by the sweet liquor that is found at the base of the germen; +but when so admitted, there is no return, the lips +are closed, and all advance to them is impeded by a +dense thicket of woolly matter, which invests the mouth +of the lower jaw—</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c003'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>“Smooth lies the road to Pluto’s gloomy shade;</div> + <div class='line'>But ’tis a long, unconquerable pain,</div> + <div class='line'>To climb to these ethereal realms again.”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c012'>But this snapdragon is more merciful than most of our +insect traps. The creature receives no injury when in +confinement; but, having consumed the nectareous liquor, +and finding no egress, breaks from its dungeon by +gnawing a hole at the base of the tube, and returns to +liberty and light. The extraordinary manner in which +the corolla of this plant is formed, the elastic force with +which the lower limb closes and fits upon the projection +of the upper, manifest the obvious design in the great +Architect, “whose hands bended the rainbow;” and +the insects are probably the destined agents whereby +the germen is impregnated, for as soon as this is effected, +the limbs become flaccid, lose their elasticity, are +no longer a place of confinement, but open for the escape +of any thing that might have entered. The little +black pismire is a common plunderer of this honey.</p> + +<p class='c011'>It is a perplexing matter to reconcile our feelings to +the rigor, and our reason to the necessity, of some +plants being made the instrument of destruction to the +insect world. Of British plants we have only a few so +constructed, which, having clammy joints and calyxes, +entangle them to death. The sun-dew (droseræ) destroys +in a different manner, yet kills them without torture. +<span class='pageno' id='Page_62'>62</span>But we have one plant in our gardens, a native of North +America, than which none can be more cruelly destructive +of animal life, the dogsbane (apocynum androsæmifolium),<a id='r20'></a><a href='#f20' class='c014'><sup>[20]</sup></a> +which is generally conducive to the death +of every fly that settles upon it. Allured by the honey +on the nectary of the expanded blossom, the instant the +trunk is protruded to feed on it, the filaments close, +and, catching the fly by the extremity of its proboscis, +detain the poor prisoner writhing in protracted struggles +till released by death, a death apparently occasioned by +exhaustion alone; the filaments then relax, and the +body falls to the ground. The plant will at times be +dusky from the numbers of imprisoned wretches. This +elastic action of the filaments may be conducive to the +fertilizing of the seed by scattering the pollen from the +anthers, as is the case with the berberry; but we are not +sensible that the destruction of the creatures which +excite the action is in any way essential to the wants or +perfection of the plant, and our ignorance favors the +idea of a wanton cruelty in the herb; but how little of +the causes and motives of action of created things do +we know! and it must be unlimitable arrogance alone +that could question the wisdom of the mechanism of +him “that judgeth rightly;” the operations of a simple +plant confound and humble us, and, like the hand-writing +on the wall, though seen by many, can be explained +but by ONE.<a id='r21'></a><a href='#f21' class='c014'><sup>[21]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c011'>The different manner in which vegetables exert their +organic powers to effect the destruction of insects, is +not perhaps unworthy of a brief notice; some, as those +above mentioned, accomplish it by means of elastic or +irritable actions, adhesive substances, and so forth; but +we have another plant in our green-houses, the glaucous +birthwort (aristol. glauca), that effects these purposes +without any of these means, but principally by conformation. +The whole internal surface of the tubular +flower is beset with minute strong spines, pointing +downwards; these present no impediment to the descent +of the animal which may seek for the sweet liquor +lodged upon the nectarium at the base of the blossom, +nor is there any obstruction provided for its return by +<span class='pageno' id='Page_63'>63</span>means of valves or contractions, the tube remaining +open; but the creature cannot crawl up by reason of +the inverted spines, and to prevent its escape by flying +up the tube, the flower makes an extraordinary curve, +bending up like a horn, so that any winged creature +must be beaten back by striking against the roof of this +neck as often as it attempts to mount, and falling back +to the bulbous prison at the base of the flower, dies by +confinement and starvation, and there we find them: a +certain number of these perishing, the blossom fades +and drops off.</p> + +<p class='c011'>All the varieties of this snapdragon have the power +of maintaining a state of vegetation in great droughts, +when most other plants yield to the influence of the +weather; and it is the more remarkable in these plants, +as the places in which they chiefly delight to vegetate +are particularly exposed to the influence of the sun. In +that hot dry summer of 1825, when vegetation was in +general burned up and withered away, yet did this plant +continue to exist on parched walls, and draw nutriment +from sources apparently unable to afford it; not in full +vigor certainly, but in a state of verdure beyond any +of its associates. The common burnet (poterium sanguisorba) +of our pastures, in a remarkable degree, likewise +possesses this faculty of preserving its verdure, +and flourishing amid surrounding aridity and exhaustion. +It is probable that these plants, and some others, have +the power of imbibing that insensible moisture, which +arises from the earth even in the driest weather, or from +the air which passes over them. The immense evaporation +proceeding from the earth, even in the hottest season, +supplies the air constantly with moisture; and as +every square foot of this element can sustain eleven +grains of water, an abundant provision is made for every +demand. We can do little more than note these facts: +to attempt to reason upon the causes, why particular +plants are endowed with peculiar faculties, would be +mere idleness; yet, in remarking this, we cannot pass +over the conviction, that the continual escape of moisture +from one body, and its imbibition by another, this +unremitting motion and circulation of matter, are parts +<span class='pageno' id='Page_64'>64</span>of that wonderful ordination, whereby the beneficence +and wisdom of Providence are manifested: without the +agency of evaporation, not dwelling on the infinitude +of effects and results, no vegetation could exist, no animal +life continue.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The ivy<a id='r22'></a><a href='#f22' class='c014'><sup>[22]</sup></a> (hedera helix), the dark-looking ivy, almost +covers with its thick foliage the pollards in our hedge-rows; +and, creeping up the sides of the old barn, and +chimney of the cottage, nearly hides them from our +sight; affording a sheltered roosting-place to many poor +birds, and is almost their only refuge in the cold season +of the year. But the ivy can boast of much more extensive +service to the poor wayfaring beings of creation, +than the merely affording them a covering from the +winds of winter. Those two extreme quarters of our +year, autumn and spring, yield to most animals but a +very slender and precarious supply of food; but the ivy +in those periods saves many from want and death; and +the peculiar situations, in which it prefers to flourish, +are essential to the preservation of this supply, as in +less sheltered ones it would be destroyed. In the month +of October the ivy blooms in profusion, and spreading +over the warm side of some neglected wall, or the sunny +bark of the broad ash on the bank, its flowers become +a universal banquet to the insect race. The great +black fly (musca grossa), and its numerous tribe, with +multitudes of small winged creatures, resort to them; +and there we see those beautiful animals, the latest birth +of the year, the admiral (vanessa atalanta) and peacock +(vanessa Io) butterflies, hanging with expanded wings +like open flowers themselves, enjoying the sunny gleam, +and feeding on the sweet liquor that distils from the +nectary of this plant. As this honey is produced in +succession by the early or later expansion of the bud, +it yields a constant supply of food, till the frosts of November +destroy the insects, or drive them to their winter +retreats. Spring arrives; and in the bitter months +of March, April, and even May, at times, when the +wild products of the field are nearly consumed, the ivy +ripens its berries, and then almost entirely constitutes +the food of the missel-thrush, wood-pigeon, and some +<span class='pageno' id='Page_65'>65</span>other birds; and now these shy and wary birds, that +commonly avoid the haunts of man, constrained by +hunger, will approach our dwellings, to feed upon the +ripe berries of the ivy. Now too the blackbird and +the thrush resort to its cover, to conceal their nests. +These early-building birds find little foliage at this +period sufficient to hide their habitations; and did not +the ivy lend its aid to preserve them, and no great +number are preserved, perhaps few nests would be hidden +from the young eyes that seek them. The early +expansion of the catkins of the sallow (salix caprea), +and others of the willow tribe, whence the bee extracts +its first food, and the late blooming of this ivy, are indispensable +provisions for the existence of many of the +insect race; the “young raven does not cry in vain,” +nor is any thing abandoned by that power which called +it into being.</p> + +<p class='c011'>We all seem to love the ivy,</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c003'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>“The wanton ivy wreath’d in amorous twines,”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c012'>more than any other uncultured evergreen that we possess; +yet it is difficult satisfactorily to answer why we +have this regard for it. As a lover of the lone, the ivy-mantled +ruin, I have often questioned with myself the +cause and basis of my regard for that, which was but a +fragment of what might have been formerly splendid, +and intrinsically possessed but little to engage admiration, +yet wreathed in the verdure of the ivy, was admired; +but was never satisfied, perhaps unwilling to +admit the answer that my mind seemed to give. The +ivy is a dependent plant, and delights in waste and ruin. +We do not often tolerate its growth when the building +is in repair and perfect; but, if time dilapidate the edifice, +the ivy takes possession of the fragment, and we +call it beautiful; it adorns the castle, but is an indispensable +requisite to the remains of the monastic pile. +There is an abbey in the North of England, which has +been venerated by all its late possessors. It is trimmed, +made neat, and looks, perhaps, much as it did formerly, +except being in ruins. The situation is exquisite, the +remains are splendid, yet with many it fails to excite +<span class='pageno' id='Page_66'>66</span>such interest as it should do. It is a bare reality. A +ruin in the West of England once interested me greatly. +The design of revisiting and drawing it was expressed +at the time. A few days only elapsed; but the inhabitant +of a neighboring cottage had most kindly labored +hard in the interval, and pulled down “all the nasty +ivy, that the gentleman might see the ruin.” He did +see it, but every charm had departed. These two instances, +from many that might be advanced, manifest +that ivy most frequently gives to these ancient edifices +the idea of beauty, and contributes chiefly to influence +our feelings when viewing them. The ruins of a fortress, +or warlike tower, may often historically interest +us from the renown of its founder or its possessor, some +scene transacted, some villain punished, hero triumphant, +or cause promoted, to which we wished success: but +the quiet, secluded, monastic cell, or chapel, has no tale +to tell; history hardly stays to note even its founder’s +name; and all the rest is doubt and darkness; yet, +shrouded in its ivied folds, we reverence the remains, +we call it picturesque, we draw, we engrave, we lithograph +the ruin. We do not regard this ivy as a relic +of ancient days; as having shadowed the religious recluse, +and with it often, doubtless, piety and faith; for +it did not hang around the building in old time, but is +comparatively a modern upstart, a sharer of monastic +spoils, a usurper of that which has been abandoned by +another. The tendril pendent from the orient window, +lightly defined in the ray which it excludes, twining +with graceful ease round some slender shaft, or woven +amid the tracery of the florid arch, is elegantly ornamental, +and gives embellishment to beauty; but the +main body of the ivy is dark, sombre, massy; yet, strip +it from the pile, and we call it sacrilege, the interest of +the whole is at an end, the effect ceases,—</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c003'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>“One moment seen, then lost for ever.”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c012'>Yet what did the ivy effect? what has departed with it? +This evanescent charm perhaps consists in the obscurity, +in the sobriety of light it occasioned, in hiding the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_67'>67</span>bare reality, and giving to fancy and imagination room +to expand, a plaything to amuse them.</p> + +<p class='c011'>We still retain the name of this plant as given by +Pliny, though we know no reason why it was so called; +but the word “helix,” winding about, or twisting, is +sufficiently apposite.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The foxglove (digitalis purpurea) is found with us in +one or two places only, rather existing than flourishing +manifesting, like many other plants, a marked partiality +to particular soils. It produces an abundance of seed, +yet seems to wander little from the station its progenitors +had fixed on, as if that alone was congenial to its +habits; but with us the soil varies greatly. In the West +of England, it thrives and increases with particular +luxuriance; but many counties may be searched in vain +for a single specimen. It seems to prefer a sandy, +gravelly, or loose drained soil; not I think vegetating +in strong retentive earths. We have few indigenous +plants, not one, perhaps, which we have so often summoned +to aid us in our distresses as the foxglove: no +plant, not even the colchicum, has been more the object +of our fears, our hopes, our trust, and disappointment, +than this: we have been grateful for the relief it has +afforded, and we have mourned the insufficiency of its +powers;—</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c003'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>——“Thy last, sole aid (which art can give)</div> + <div class='line'>The wo-worn parent seeks, and, hoping, clings</div> + <div class='line'>In tearless wretchedness to thee; watches with</div> + <div class='line'>Anxious heart thy subtle progress through the</div> + <div class='line'>Day, and of thee fitful dreams through all the</div> + <div class='line'>Night—</div> + <div class='line'>——spare, if thou</div> + <div class='line'>Canst, his hopeless grief; save worth, save beauty,</div> + <div class='line'>From an early grave.”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c011'>As a mere flower, the digitalis is a very handsome +plant; and could we rely upon its yielding the virtues +it is considered to possess, or could we regulate or control +its influence, it would exist unrivalled for beauty +and worth amidst our island plants. Why such a name +as “foxesgloves,” was bestowed upon this plant it is +difficult to say, perhaps from the bare resemblance to +<span class='pageno' id='Page_68'>68</span>finger-cases presented by its flowers: but I am not one +of those who cavil or jeer at the common, or “vulgar +names,” as we are in the habit of denominating the unscientific +appellations of plants; for we must remember, +that the culling of herbs and simples, and compounding +preparations from them, to relieve the sufferings of nature, +were the first rudiments of all our knowledge, the +most grateful exertion of human talent, and, after food +and clothing, the most necessary objects of life. In +ages of simplicity, when every man was the usual dispenser +of good or bad, benefit or injury, to his household +or his cattle—ere the veterinary art was known, or +the drugs of other regions introduced, necessity looked +up to the products of our own clime, and the real or +fanciful virtues of them were called to the trial, and +manifests the reasonableness of bestowing upon plants +and herbs such names as might immediately indicate +their several uses, or fitness for application; when distinctive +characters, had they been given, would have +been little attended to; and hence, the numbers found +favorable to the cure of particular complaints, the ailments +of domestic creatures, or deemed injurious to +them. Modern science may wrap up the meaning of +its epithets in Greek and Latin terms; but in very +many cases they are the mere translations of these despised, +“old, vulgar names.” What pleasure it must +have afforded the poor sufferer in body or in limb,—what +confidence he must have felt for relief, when he +knew that the good neighbor who came to bathe his +wounds, or assuage his inward torments, brought with +him such things as “all-heal, break-stone, bruise-wort, +gout-weed, fever-few” (fugio), and twenty other such +comfortable mitigators of his afflictions; why, their +very names would almost charm away the sense of pain! +The modern recipe contains no such terms of comfortable +assurance: its meanings are all dark to the sufferer; +its influence unknown. And then the good herbalist +of old professed to have plants which were “all good:” +they could assuage anger by their “loosestrife;” +they had “honesty, truelove, and heartsease.” The cayennes, +the soys, the ketchups, and extratropical condiments +<span class='pageno' id='Page_69'>69</span>of these days, were not required, when the next +thicket would produce “poor man’s pepper, sauce alone, +and hedge-mustard;” and the woods and wilds around, +when they yielded such delicate viands as “fat-hen, +lambs-quarters, way-bread, butter and eggs, with codlins +and cream,” afforded no despicable bill of fare. No +one ever yet thought of accusing our old simplers of +the vice of avarice, or love of lucre; yet their “thrift” +is always to be seen: we have their humble “pennywort, +herb two-pence, moneywort, silverweed, and gold.” +We may smile, perhaps, at the cognomens, or the commemorations +of friendships, or of worth, recorded by +the old simplers, at their herbs, “Bennet, Robert, Christopher, +Gerard, or Basil;” but do the names so bestowed +by modern science read better, or sound better? it +has “Lightfootia, Lapeyrousia, Hedwigia, Schkuhria, +Scheuchzeria;” and surely we may admit, in common +benevolence, such partialities as “good King Henry, +sweet William, sweet Marjory, sweet Cicely, Lettuce, +Mary Gold, and Rose.” There are epithets, however, +so very extraordinary, that we must consider them as +mere perversions, or at least incapable of explanation +at this period. The terms of modern science waver +daily; names undergo an annual change, fade with the +leaf, and give place to others; but the ancient terms, +which some may ridicule, have remained for centuries, +and will yet remain, till nature is swallowed up by art. +No: let our ancient herbalists, “a grave and whiskered +race,” retain the honors due to their labors, which were +most needful and important ones at those periods: by +them were many of the casualties and sufferings of man +and beast relieved; and by aid of perseverance, better +constitutions to act upon, and faith to operate, than we +possess, they probably effected cures, which we moderns +should fail to accomplish if attempted.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Upon an old bank, tangled with bushes and rubbish, +we find in abundance that very early translated, and +perfectly domesticated flower, the cottage snowdrop +(galanthus nivalis); a plant that is undoubtedly a native +of our island, for I have seen it in situations where nature +only could introduce it, where it was never planted +<span class='pageno' id='Page_70'>70</span>by the hand of man, or strayed from any neighboring +cultivation. Yet in most places where we find this flower, +it is of manifest or suspicious origin; and with us it +partakes of this latter character, though no remains of +any ancient dwelling are observable near it. The damask +rose, the daffodil, or the stock of an old bullace +plum, will long remain, and point out where once a +cottage existed; but all these, and most other tokens, +in time waste away and decay; while the snowdrop will +remain, increase, and become the only memorial of man +and his labors.<a id='r23'></a><a href='#f23' class='c014'><sup>[23]</sup></a> Many flowers present strong distinctive +characters, or will, at least often do, excite in us variable +feelings: the primrose, and the daisy, if not intrinsically +gay, call forth cheerful and pleasing sensations; +and the aspect or glance of some others will awaken +different affections. The snowdrop is a melancholy flower. +The season in which the “fair maids of February” +come out, is the most dreary and desolate of our year: +they peep through the snow that often surrounds them, +shivering and cheerless: they convey no idea of reviving +nature, and are scarcely the harbingers of milder +days, but rather the emblem of sleety storms, and icy +gales, (snowdrop weather), and wrap their petals round +the infant germ, fearing to admit the very air that blows; +and, when found beyond the verge of cultivation, they +most generally remind us of some deserted dwelling, a +family gone, a hearth that smokes no more. A lover of +cold, it maintains the beautiful ovate form of its flower +only in a low temperature; warmth expanding the petals, +vitiating its grace, and destroying its character. It +seems to preserve its native purity free from every contamination; +it will become double, but never wanders +into varieties, is never streaked or tinged with the hues +of other flowers.</p> + +<p class='c011'>One of our pasture grasses is particularly affected by +dry weather. Several are injured frequently by drought +acting upon the stalk, not molesting the root, but withering +the succulent base of the straw, which arises from +the upper joint; in consequence of which, the panicle, +and connecting straw, dry away, while the foliage and +lower leaves remain uninjured. None are so obnoxious +<span class='pageno' id='Page_71'>71</span>to this injury as the yellow oat-grass (avena flavescens), +and in some seasons almost the whole of its panicles +will be withered in a field of surrounding verdure. +Pastures that are grazed must from circumstances be +drier than those covered with herbage fit for the scythe; +yet, from some unknown cause, this oat-grass seems +less injured in this respect in grazing grounds, than in +those where the herbage is reserved for mowing.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The plain, simple, unadorned vervain<a id='r24'></a><a href='#f24' class='c014'><sup>[24]</sup></a> (verbena officinalis) +is one of our most common, and decidedly +waste-loving plants. Disinclined to all cultured places, +it fixes its residence by way-sides, and old stone quarries, +thriving under the feet of every passing creature. The +celebrity that this plant obtained in very remote times, +without its possessing one apparent quality, or presenting +by its manner of growth, or form, any mysterious +character to arrest the attention, or excite imagination +is very extraordinary, and perhaps unaccountable: most +nations venerated, esteemed, and used it; the ancients +had their Verbenalia, at which period the temples and +frequented places were strewed and sanctified with vervain; +the beasts for sacrifice, and the altars, were verbenated, +the one filleted, the other strewed, with the +sacred herb; no incantation or lustration was perfect +without the aid of this plant. That mistletoe<a id='r25'></a><a href='#f25' class='c014'><sup>[25]</sup></a> should +have excited attention in days of darkness and ignorance, +is not a subject of surprise, from the extraordinary +and obscure manner of its growth and propagation, +and the season of the year in which it flourishes; for +even the great lord Bacon ridicules the idea of its being +propagated by the operations of a bird as an “idle tradition,” +saying, that the sap which produces this plant +is such as the “tree doth excerne and cannot assimilate.” +These circumstances, and its great dissimilarity from +the plant on which it vegetates, all combine to render +it a subject of superstitious wonder: but that a lowly, +ineffective herb like our vervain should have stimulated +the imaginations of the priests of Rome, of Gaul, and +of Greece, the magi of India, and the Druids of Britain, +is passing comprehension; and, as Pennant observes, +“so general a consent proves that the custom arose before +<span class='pageno' id='Page_72'>72</span>the different nations had lost all communication +with each other.” We might with some appearance of +reason, perhaps, name the Druids of Gaul as the point, +whence certain mysteries and observances were conveyed +to the priesthood of various nations; but it would +be difficult to assign a motive for their fixing upon such +plants as vervain, and some others, to give efficacy to +their ceremonies and rites. In some of the Welsh counties, +vervain is known by the name of “Ilyssiaur hudol,” +the enchanter’s plant. It seems to have had ascribed to +it the power of curing the bites of all rabid animals, +arresting the progress of the venom of serpents, reconciling +antipathies, conciliating friendships, &c. Gerard, +after detailing some of its virtues from Pliny, observes, +that “many odde old wives’ fables are written of vervaine +tending to witchcraft and sorcerie, which you may +read elsewhere, for I am not willing to trouble you with +reporting such trifles as honest ears abhorre to hear.” +To us moderns its real virtues are unknown; regular +practice does not allow that it possesses any medicinal +efficacy, and its fanciful peculiarities are in no repute; +yet it seems to hanker after its lost fame, and lingers +around the dwellings of man; for though not solely +found about our habitations, as Miller thought, yet +generally, when perceived, it is near some inhabited +or ruined residence, not as a stray from cultivation, but +from preference. Our village doctresses, an almost extinct +race of useful, valuable women, the consolers, the +comforters, and often mitigators of the ailments of +the poor, still make use of vervain tea as a strengthener, +and the dried powder of its leaves as a vermifuge; but +probably in another generation all the venerated virtues +of the vervain will be consigned to oblivion. This plant +seems to be the native growth of many districts in +Europe, Asia, and Africa.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The dyers’ weed, yellow weed, weld, or wold (reseda +luteola),<a id='r26'></a><a href='#f26' class='c014'><sup>[26]</sup></a> thrives in all our abandoned stone quarries, +upon the rejected rubbish of the lime-kiln, and waste +places of the roads, apparently a perfectly indigenous +plant. Unmindful of frost, or of drought, it preserves a +degree of verdure, when nearly all other vegetation is +<span class='pageno' id='Page_73'>73</span>seared up by these extremes in exposed situations. It +was, and is yet, I believe, cultivated in England for the +use of the dyer. We import it, however, into Bristol +from France; and it sells in that city for ten shillings +per cwt. in a dry state. It gives a fine, permanent, yellow +color to cottons, silks, and woollens, in a variety of +shades, by the aid of alum, &c. A blue tincture changes +these to as fine a green. Injury has certainly been occasioned +by writers on agricultural affairs recommending, +without due inquiry, the culture of this or that +crop; and I would not incur a censure that I blame in +another; yet I cannot but suggest the possible profit +that might arise from the culture of this plant. If foreigners +derive sufficient encouragement to import it, +notwithstanding the charges of freight, port duties, and +various consequent expenses, why can it not be grown +with us, and afford superior remuneration, not having +such deductions to diminish the profits? The culture +of it seems very simple, the manner of conducting the +crop, and harvesting the product, attended with little +trouble or risk. Marshal<a id='r27'></a><a href='#f27' class='c014'><sup>[27]</sup></a> prefers a good soil; others +again say, that it becomes stalky in a rich soil. With +us it grows luxuriantly, three or four feet high, on a +thin, stony, undressed soil, apparently the very station +it prefers; and we have about us much land of this kind, +not intrinsically worth ten shillings an acre. It might +be rash to predict the amount of a crop in such soils, +but a ton to an acre is said to be but a small allowance; +yet the produce of only this quantity, which would procure +in the market a return of 10<i>l.</i> without any expenditure +for manure, no more manual labor after the seed +is sown, for nine months, than three thinnings, and +cleanings with the hoe, and the crop harvested within +the year, would be no trifling profit, and may be deserving +of some consideration.<a id='r28'></a><a href='#f28' class='c014'><sup>[28]</sup></a> The bark, the wood, the +flower, the leaves of many of our native trees and plants +afford a yellow dye; we have no color so easily produced +as this is; and it is equally remarkable, that, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_74'>74</span>amidst all the varied hues of spring, yellow is the most +predominant in our wild and cultured plants. The primrose, +cowslip, pilewort, globe-flower, butter-cup, cherlock, +crocus, all the cabbage tribe, the dandelions, appear +in this dress. The very first butterfly, that will</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c003'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line in6'>“aloft repair,</div> + <div class='line'>And sport, and flutter in the fields of air,”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c012'>is the sulphur butterfly (gonepteryx rhamni),<a id='r29'></a><a href='#f29' class='c014'><sup>[29]</sup></a> which in +the bright sunny mornings of March we so often see +under the warm hedge, or by the side of some sheltered +copse, undulating, and vibrating like the petal of a +primrose in the breeze. The blossoms of many of our +plants afford for the decoration of the fair a vast variety +of colors and intermediate tints; but they are all of +them, or nearly so, inconstant or fugitive before the +light of the sun, or mutable in the dampness of the air, +except those obtained from yellow flowers: circumstances +may vary the shade, but yet it is mostly permanent. +Yellow is again the livery of autumn, in all the shades +of ochre and of orange; the “sere and yellow leaf” becomes +the general cast of the season, the sober brown +comes next, and then decay.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Many impressions commonly fade away and become +effaced as other objects create fresh sensations; but the +love of nature, where the regard has been a settled +principle, is more permanent, and influences the feelings +as long as the occupations of life preserve any interest +in our minds. As a child, I viewed the wild field flowers +and cropped them with delight; as a young botanist, +culled with rapture the various species, returning often +and again to my almost exhaustless treasure in the +copse; and even now, in the “sere and yellow leaf,” +when, in some mild vernal evening, I stroll through the +grove, see the same floral splendor which year after +year has been spread before me, I mark it with admiration +and surprise, find it enchanting still, and fancy the +present loveliness superior to all that has been before. +There we see that beautiful little brilliant of the earth, +like the name it bears (day’s eye), cheerful and pleasing +to all. The exquisite chasteness of mien, and form of +<span class='pageno' id='Page_75'>75</span>this flower, the contrast of its colors, and simplicity of +attitude which it displays when springing from out its +grassy tuft, can hardly be surpassed by any from another +region. By its side peeps out the bright gleeful blue +eyes of the little germander speedwell, in joyful gaiety—a +lowly domestic plant that loves and seeks alliance +with its kind, and in small family associations, by united +splendor, decorates the foliage around. And there we +find the stitch-wort, mingling her snowy bloom immaculately +pure, with pallid green: too delicate to vegetate +alone, it seeks the shelter of the hedge or copse, trembles +when the breeze goes by, and seems an emblem +of innocence and grace. And there the bright-flowered +lotus with its pealike bloom, in social union glows as +burnished gold, animating and gilding with its lustre +all the tribes that spring near it; and fifty others, too, +we note, which, though common and disregarded by +reason of our familiarity with them, or expelled from +favor by the novelty of far-fetched fair ones, deserve +more attention than we are disposed to afford them. +There are few plants which we look upon with more +perfect contempt than that common product of every +soil, the ‘dandelion.’<a id='r30'></a><a href='#f30' class='c014'><sup>[30]</sup></a> Every child knows it, and the +little village groups which perambulate the hedges for +the first offspring of the year, amuse themselves by +hanging circlets of its stalks linked like a chain round +their necks: yet if we examine this in all the stages of +its growth, we shall pronounce it a beautiful production; +and its blossom, though often a solitary one, is perhaps +the very first that enlivens the sunny bank of the hedge +in the opening year, peeping out from withered leaves, +dry stalks, and desolation, as a herald, telling us that +nature is not dead, but reposing, and will awaken to life +again. And some of us, perhaps, can remember the +pleasure it afforded us in early days, when we first +noticed its golden blossoms under the southern shelter +of the cottage hedge, thinking that the ‘winter was +past,’ and that ‘the time of the singing of birds was +come;’ and yet, possibly, when seen, it may renew +some of that childish delight, though the fervor of expectation +is cooled by experience and time. The form +<span class='pageno' id='Page_76'>76</span>of this flower, with its ligulate petals many times doubled +is elegant and perfect; the brightness and liveliness of +the yellow, like the warm rays of an evening sun, are +not exceeded in any blossom, native or foreign, that I +know of; and this, having faded away, is succeeded by +a head of down, which loosened from its receptacle, and +floating in the breeze, comes sailing calmly along before +us, freighted with a seed at its base; but so accurately +adjusted is its buoyant power to the burden it bears, +that steadily passing on its way, it rests at last in some +cleft or cranny in the earth, preparatory to its period +of germination, appearing more like a flight of animated +creatures than the seed of a plant. This is a very +beautiful appointment! but so common an event as +hardly to be noticed by us; yet it accomplishes effectually +the designs of nature, and plants the species +at distances and in places that no other contrivance +could so easily and fitly effect. The seeds, it is true, +might have fallen and germinated around the parent +plant, but this was not the purpose of nature; yet may +seem to some a very unnecessary contrivance for the +propagation of a common dandelion, whose benefits to +mankind as a medicine, though retained in our pharmacopœias, +and occasionally resorted to, seem of no +great importance. Nor are we sensible that its virtues +are essential to any portion of the creation; but this +very circumstance should abate our pride, our assumed +pretensions of knowledge, as we may be assured that +its existence, though hidden from us, is required in the +great scheme of nature, or such elaborate and sufficient +contrivances for its continuation and increase would +never have been called into action by Nature, who is so +remarkably simple in all her actions, economical in her +ways, and frugal of her means.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Some very extraordinary vegetable productions are +now on the table before me. Though not gathered in +this neighborhood, I am induced to give them a place +with our notables, because I believe that they have not +been noticed, and afford a strong example of the persevering +endeavors that plants exert at times to maintain +existence. One of these is the tufted head and +<span class='pageno' id='Page_77'>77</span>entire roots of a grass, gathered from a down fed by +sheep from time immemorial. It is probably that of +the hard fescue (festuca duriuscula), which, having +been constantly eaten down by cattle, has never thrown +up flowering stems, giving out only radical leaves. +These appear to have been cropped short, as soon as +they have sprung up, the less succulent and strawy portions +only being left, like a ball upon the surface, as a +bush constantly clipped by the gardener’s shears. The +root appears to have annually increased, though the +upper parts it was destined to nourish have been destroyed, +until it became a lock of closely compacted +fibres, like a tuft of hair, six or eight inches in length. +Furze bushes,<a id='r31'></a><a href='#f31' class='c014'><sup>[31]</sup></a> growing upon many downs in Wales, +Devon, and Cornwall, assume commonly the appearance +of large, green, dense balls, every tender leaf being +constantly shorn away by the sheep and rabbits that +frequent those places, and present, upon a larger scale, +the very appearance of these grass balls. Our specimens +are rather local than general, and were the produce +of the Malvern hills.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The common brambles (rubus cæsius and fruticosus) +may almost be considered as evergreens. Hedgers to +be sure they are: but we have few, perhaps no other +shrubby plant, naturally deciduous, excepting the privet, +that will retain its verdure through the year, preserving, +by a peculiar construction of its vessels, a portion of +foliage unseared by frosts, and contending with gales +that destroy and strip away all the honors of its neighbors. +This circumstance enables us to observe a curious, +strongly defined line upon the leaves, like a glossy +whitish film, meandering over the surface, becoming +progressively larger, with a fine intestinal-like line +running through the centre. What occasioned this +sinuous path long puzzled me satisfactorily to ascertain, +considering it entirely of vegetable origin; and all the +various polymorphous parasitics were successively +thought of. At one time I deemed it like puccinia, +which vegetates beneath the cuticle of leaves: but this +was rejected; and probably I might long have wandered +in error, had not the Rev. Mr. Kirby dissipated all my +<span class='pageno' id='Page_78'>78</span>conjectures by informing me that it was the pathway of +a small caterpillar. There are several species of them +which are placed by Reaumur in a tribe called “mineuses,” +all of which live upon the parenchyma, or +pulpy substance found between the cuticles or skins of +leaves, gradually increasing in size until matured for +transformation to the chrysalis, when they eat their way +through the leaf, ultimately becoming moths, remarkable +for the brilliant metallic lustre of their wings, the +fine central line being the rejectments of the creature +in the infant stages of its growth. Though several +plants afford sustenance to these races, we have none +on which this tortuous path is more strongly defined +than the leaves of brambles, and the ever-blowing rose. +Notices of such incidents may perhaps be considered +as too trifling to record; but the naturalist, from the +habit of observing, sees many things not obvious to all +persons: his province is to investigate all the operations +of nature, and if he record them truly, he has done his +duty; prolix and dull as his remarks will be to some, +yet to another they may afford information, or tend to +elucidate a conjecture. The bramble is a sadly reprobated +plant, and I cannot say much in its favor as an +independent individual, nor would I introduce it, to incommode +by its society a thriving mound of white thorn +or of crab: but it generally introduces itself, and will +flourish greatly, where other and better fences languish, +and then, by intertwining its long flexile runners with +the weakly products of the hedge-row, will compose a +guard, where without it we could with difficulty have +raised one. It will intrude, however, into many places +where it is not required, originating probably from the +rejectments of birds, and become a very unwelcome +and tenacious inhabitant. Its long tendrils are much +used by us as binders for thatching, being pegged down +to prevent the straw coverings of ricks and such things +being carried away by the winds, and we are satisfied +with its performances. By the assistance of the bramble +also, the new-placed turf is secured on the graves of +our poorer neighbors, until it unites and forms a uniform +sod; and during this service it will occasionally root +<span class='pageno' id='Page_79'>79</span>itself, and become an inhabitant not easily ejected from +our church-yards. Badgers are said to feed much upon +the fruit of the bramble. They are certainly very fat +and fleshy about the time that the blackberry is ripe; +but it is probable that the acorns and crabs, which it +finds at the same season, contribute most to its nourishment.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The maple<a id='r32'></a><a href='#f32' class='c014'><sup>[32]</sup></a> (acer campestre) is found growing in all +our fences, generally reduced by the hedger’s bill to +serve the same humble purposes as the thorns and sloes +associated with it. Sometimes, however, it is permitted +to assume the rank of a tree, when, if not possessing +dignity, it is certainly beautiful, and becomes an ornament +in the hedge-row. It is the earliest sylvan beau +that is weary of its summer suit; first shifting its dress +to ochery shades, then trying a deeper tint, and lastly +assuming an orange vest; thus setting a fashion that +ere long becomes the garb of all except the rustic +oak, which looks regardlessly at the beau, and keeps its +verdant robe unchanged. Soon tired of this, the maple +takes a pattern from his sober neighbor ash, throws its +gaudy trim away, and patiently awaits with all his peers +the next new change. In spring the woodbine wreathes +its knots of green around the rugged limbs of the maple; +the rose beneath puts on its emerald gems, and +then our gallant sir will wear such colors too, fluttering +through all its summer’s day. When first the maple +begins to autumnize the grove, the extremities of the +boughs alone change their color, but all the internal +and more sheltered parts still retain their verdure, which +gives to the tree the effect of a great depth of shade, +and displays advantageously the light, lively coloring +of the sprays. We find the maple useful in our hedges, +not from the opposition it affords, but by reason of its +very quick growth from the stool after it has been cut, +whence it makes a fence in a shorter time than most of +its companions; and when firewood is an object, it soon +becomes sufficiently large for this purpose. The singular +ruggedness of the branches and shoots when they have +attained a year’s growth, and the depth of the furrows, +give it a strongly marked character among our shrubs. +<span class='pageno' id='Page_80'>80</span>The under side of the leaves in autumn, when they +become yellow, and dashed here and there with a few +specks of red and brown, appear, when magnified, like +a very beautiful and perfect mosaic pavement, with all +its tesseræ arranged and fitted. If one of these rugged +young shoots be cut through horizontally with a sharp +knife, its cork-like bark presents the figure of a star +with five or more rays, sometimes irregularly, but generally +exactly defined. A thin slice from the surface is a +beautiful and curious object in the microscope, exhibiting +the different channels, and variously formed tubes, +through which the sap flows, and the air circulates for +the supply of all the diversified requirements of the +plant; and it is good and delightful to contemplate the +wonderful mechanism that has been devised by the +Almighty Architect, for the sustenance and particular +necessities of the simple maple, this “ditch trumpery,” +as Gilpin calls it; which naturally leads one to consider +that, if he have so regarded such humble objects, how +much more has he accounted worthy of his beneficence +the more highly destined orders of his creation! As +Evelyn says, on another occasion, “I beg no pardon +for this application, but deplore my no better use of +it.” Modern practice records no medicinal virtues to +be derived from the maple; but Pliny, in the quaint +language of old Philemon Holland, tells us that a cataplasm +made from the roots of this tree is “singular to +be applied for the griefs of the liver, and worketh +mightily.” In summer the leaves of the hedge-row +maple often assume a whitish, mouldy look, which appears +to be a mere exudation, as it neither presents any +after-character, nor have I observed that any thing +results from it. The young leaves, soon after their appearance +in the spring, are beset with numerous fine +spines of a bright red color, most probably occasioned +by the puncture of some insect, though I have never +been able to discover any of the larvæ inclosed in them. +Some insects wound the leaves and sprays of plants for +nutriment, though generally the object seems to be the +formation of a nidus for their young, by the fluid that +issues from the wound: but insects do something more +<span class='pageno' id='Page_81'>81</span>than merely puncturing the parts to force a liquor to +exude; a simple wound will not accomplish the desired +object, as the sap not only hardens on the surface, but +acquires a particular form and consistence, and even at +times enlarges to a separate vegetable matter. The +insect that wounds the leaf of the oak, and occasions +the formation of the gall-nut, and those which are likewise +the cause of the apple rising on the sprays of the +same tree, and those flower-like leaves on the buds +have performed very different operations, either by the +instrument that inflicted the wound, or by the injection +of some fluid to influence the action of the parts. That +extraordinary hairy excrescence on the wild rose (cynips +rosæ), likewise the result of an insect’s wounds, resembles +no other nidus required for such creatures that we +know of; and these red spines on the leaf of the maple +are different again from others. It is useless to inquire +into causes of which we probably can obtain no certain +result, but, judging by the effects produced by different +agents, we must conclude, that, as particular birds require +and fabricate from age to age very different receptacles +for their young, and make choice of dissimilar +materials, though each species has the same instruments +to effect it, where, generally speaking, no sufficient +reasons for such variety of forms and texture is obvious, +so it is fitting that insects should be furnished with a +variety of powers and means to accomplish their requirements, +having wants more urgent, their nests being +at times to be so constructed as to resist the influence +of seasons, to contain the young for much +longer periods, even occasionally to furnish a supply +of food, or be a storehouse to afford it when wanted by +the infant brood.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The wild clematis, or traveller’s joy (clematis vitalba), +thrives greatly in some of the dry stony parts of our +parish, insinuating its roots into the clefts and passages +of our limestone rocks, where those of many other +plants could not find admission or support; and forms +in our hedge-rows a heavy shapeless mass of runners +and branches, encumbering and overpowering its neighbors; +many of which it often destroys; and we see the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_82'>82</span>clematis clinging round a few stinted, half-vegetating +thorns, constituting the only fence, miserable as it is. +The runners or branches are very strong and flexile, +and are much used by our peasantry as a binding for +hedge fagots. The tubes, lymph ducts, and air-vessels +of this plant appear in a common magnifier beautifully +arranged, being large, and admitting the air freely to +circulate through them. Our village boys avail themselves +of this circumstance, cut off a long joint from a +dry branch, light it, and running about, use it as their +seniors do the tobacco-pipe. They call it “smoke wood,” +and the action of the breath constantly agitating the +fire, it will long continue kindled. The pores are well +seen by drawing some bright colored liquor into them. +I have often observed the long feathered part of the +seed at the entrance of holes made by mice on the +banks, and probably in hard seasons the seed may yield +these creatures part of their supply. The diversity of +form and arrangement in the pores of the roots, stems, +and branches of plants, and the nerves, air-vessels, and +fibres of the leaves, are extremely wonderful and +beautiful; and it is possible that all the genera, species, +and varieties, have more or less a different conformation +of some of these parts. It is from the agency of these +vessels, imbibing both from the air and the earth, compounding, +decomposing, and discharging, in a way we +know little about, that the sweetness of our fruits, the +oil, the bread, and wine to glad the heart of man, proceed; +and grateful should we be for them. From the +vegetable world man derives his chief enjoyments: +much of his fuel, most of his food, and the chief of his +clothing, have once circulated in the tubes of a plant. +The clematis plant possesses the power of preserving +its verdure, and even thriving, in situations and seasons, +when most other shrubby vegetation fails or languishes. +With us its roots run amid loose stones, and in rocky +places, far from any spring or apparent moisture; and +yet, in those uncommonly dry summers of 1825 and +1826, it seemed to flourish with more than usual vigor +throwing out its long tendrils, of a fine healthy green +color, adorned with a profusion of blossoms, itself and +<span class='pageno' id='Page_83'>83</span>the bramble being in some places the only thriving vegetation +in a fence. It is marvellous how fibrous-rooted +vegetables, the roots of which penetrate no depth into +the soil, are enabled in some seasons to preserve any +appearance of verdure, the earth they are fixed in +seeming divested of all moisture by the power of the +sun, and being heated like a sand-bath. The warmth +of the earth in 1825 I omitted to record; but in the +following year, which was more dry, and nearly as hot, +the thermometer buried in the earth to the depth of +three inches, in a flower border where many plants +were growing in that sort of languid state which they +present in such exhausting seasons, indicated the heat +of 110°.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Having said thus much of the clematis, the “withywind” +of our peasantry, it must not be supposed that I +advocate the advantages of this plant as a fence, but +only tolerate it where we cannot induce much else to +thrive, it making something of a boundary line; and +perhaps that is all, for very frequently its numerous +tendrils, and the downy clusters of its caudated seeds +are so interwoven, that the snow accumulates upon the +bush, and presses the whole to the earth, so that in the +spring we commonly find a gap to be repaired where +the clematis has thriven. About February, or towards +the end of winter, this plant becomes stripped of its +feathery seeds, which is accomplished by mice, I believe +the harvest and the long-tailed one (mus sylvaticus) +principally; with these they form nest-like beds in +the upper and thickest part of the hedge, resorting to +them in the day-time, where they enjoy in tolerable +safety the air and warmth of the season, in preference +to their cold and damp apartments in the earth, and I +have occasionally disturbed them in their dormitories; +but at this time it is not observed that the seeds are +much fed upon by them, and probably are only collected +as shelter in a temporary dwelling.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The little excursions of the naturalist, from habit +and from acquirement, become a scene of constant observation +and remark. The insect that crawls, the note +of the bird, the plant that flowers, or the vernal green +<span class='pageno' id='Page_84'>84</span>leaf that peeps out, engages his attention, is recognized +as an intimate, or noted from some novelty that it presents +in sound or aspect. Every season has its peculiar +product, and is pleasing or admirable, from causes that +variously affect our different temperaments or dispositions; +but there are accompaniments in an autumnal +morning’s woodland walk, that call for all our notice +and admiration: the peculiar feeling of the air, and the +solemn grandeur of the scene around us, dispose the +mind to contemplation and remark; there is a silence +in which we hear every thing, a beauty that will be observed. +The stump of an old oak is a very landscape, +with rugged alpine steeps bursting through forests of +verdant mosses, with some pale, denuded, branchless +lichen, like a scathed oak, creeping up the sides or +crowning the summit. Rambling with unfettered grace, +the tendrils of the briony (tamus communis) festoon +with its brilliant berries, green, yellow, red, the slender +sprigs of the hazel, or the thorn; it ornaments their +plainness, and receives a support its own feebleness +denies. The agaric, with all its hues, its shades, its +elegant variety of forms, expands its cone sprinkled +with the freshness of the morning; a transient fair, a +child of decay, that “sprang up in a night, and will +perish in a night.” The squirrel, agile with life and +timidity, gamboling round the root of an ancient beech, +its base overgrown with the dewberry (rubus cæsius), +blue with unsullied fruit, impeded in his frolic sports, +half angry, darts up the silvery bole again, to peep and +wonder at the strange intruder on his haunts. The jay +springs up, and, screaming, tells of danger to her brood; +the noisy tribe repeat the call, are hushed, and leave +us; the loud laugh of the woodpecker, joyous and vacant; +the hammering of the nuthatch (sitta europæa), +cleaving its prize in the chink of some dry bough; the +humblebee, torpid on the disk of the purple thistle, just +lifts a limb to pray forbearance of injury, to ask for +peace, and bid us</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c003'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>“Leave him, leave him to repose.”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c012'>The cinquefoil, or the vetch, with one lingering bloom +<span class='pageno' id='Page_85'>85</span>yet appears, and we note it from its loneliness. Spreading +on the light foliage of the fern, dry and mature, the +spider has fixed her toils, and motionless in the midst +watches her expected prey, every thread and mesh +beaded with dew, trembling with the zephyr’s breath. +Then falls the “sere and yellow leaf,” parting from its +spray without a breeze tinkling in the boughs, and +rustling scarce audibly along, rests at our feet, and tells +us that we part too. All these are distinctive symbols +of the season, marked in the silence and sobriety of +the hour; and form, perhaps, a deeper impression on +the mind, than any afforded by the verdant promises, +the vivacities of spring, or the gay, profuse luxuriance +of summer.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Such notes as these, such passing observations, are +perhaps little fitted for, or deserving of, arrangement, +yet, in a woodland autumnal ramble, we are naturally +almost irresistibly, led to contemplate that beautiful +and varied race of vegetation included under the name +of fungi, so particularly fostered by this season, and +which so greatly delight to spring up in sylvan moisture +and decay: nor is there perhaps any country better +constituted for the production of the whole of this family +than England is, particularly that portion of them denominated +agarics.<a id='r33'></a><a href='#f33' class='c014'><sup>[33]</sup></a> The various natures of our soil and +pastures, the profusion of our woods and copses, the +humidity of our climate, united with the general warmth +of our autumn, accelerating rapid decay, and putrescence +of vegetable matter, all combine to give existence +to this race. No county is, I believe, more favored for +the production of most of the kinds than Monmouth, +with its deep dark woods, and alpine downs. A residence +in that portion of the kingdom for some years +introduced to my notice a larger portion of this singular +race than every botanist is acquainted with. A sportsman +then, but I fear I shall be called a recreant brother +of the craft, when I own having more than once let my +woodcock escape, to secure and bear away some of these +fair but perishable children of the groves. Travellers +tell us of the splendor of this race in the jungles of +Madagascar, but nothing surely can exceed the beauty +<span class='pageno' id='Page_86'>86</span>of some old copse in Monmouthshire, deep in the valley, +calm, serene, shaded by the pensile, elegant, autumnal-tinted +sprays of the birch, the ground enamelled +with every colored agaric, from the deep scarlet to pallid +white, the gentle gray, and sober brown, and all +their intermediate shadings. Fungi must be considered +as an appendage and ornament of autumn; they are +not generally in healthy splendor until fostered by the +evening damps and dews of September, and in this season +no part of the vegetable world can exceed them in +elegance of form, and gentleness of fabrication: but +these fragile children of the earth are beauties of an +hour:</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c003'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>“Transient as the morning dew,</div> + <div class='line'>They glitter and exhale,”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c012'>and must be viewed before advancing age changes all +their features. There is a pale gray fungus (agaricus +fimiputris) that may very commonly be observed in +September on the edges of heaps of manure, and in +pasture grounds, most beautifully delicate, almost like +colored water just congealed, trembling in the air from +the slightness of its form, its sober tints softly blending +with each other, lined and penciled with an exactitude +and lightness that defy imitation. The verdigris agaric +(agaricus æruginosus) is found under tall hedge-rows, +and near shady banks, and few can exceed it in beauty +when just risen from its mossy bed in all the freshness +of morning and of youth, its pale green-blue head varnished +with the moisture of an autumnal day; the veil, +irregularly festooned around its margin, glittering like +a circlet of emeralds and topazes from the reflected +colors of the pileus. But it is by examination alone +that the beauties of this despised race can be perceived, +not by a partial and inadequate description.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The certain appearance of many of the fungi can by +no means be relied upon, they being as irregular in +their visits as some of the lepidopterous class of insects. +It is probable that decayed vegetable matter is in most +cases the source whence this race of plants arises, while +a certain degree of moisture and temperature, acting +in concord with a precise state of decay, appears necessary +<span class='pageno' id='Page_87'>87</span>to influence the sprouting of the seminal or radical +matter. The beautiful floriform hydnum (hydnum floriforme) +is very irregular in its appearance, whence it +is a species seldom found by the botanist. The mitred +helvella (helvella mitra) will abound, and then years +may intervene and not a specimen be discovered. In +1825, a little, gray puff ball (lycoperdon cinereum), +about the size of a large pin’s head, abounded, covering +patches of grass in all our fields, looking like froth, and +in decay, when discharging its seed, like a spongy +curd; though it had not been observed, not having vegetated, +or very sparingly, for upwards of ten years. +Others again, particularly the ligneous ones, remain +permanently fixed for a long period. The fingered +clavaria (clavaria hypoxylon) may be found vegetating +on the stump of an old hazel in the orchard for twenty +years in succession. That this elegant race has attracted +so few votaries many reasons may be assigned. The +agarics in particular are very versatile in their nature, +and we frequently want an obvious, permanent character, +to indicate the species, affording sufficient conviction +of the individual. The rapid powers of vegetation in +some will change the form and hues almost before a +delineation can be made, or an examination take place, +requiring nearly a residence with them to become acquainted +with their various mutations; and we have no +method of preserving them to answer the purpose of +comparison. These are all serious impediments to the +investigation of this class; yet, perhaps, I may with +some confidence suggest, that any one, who is so circumstanced +as to afford the time, so situated as to find +a supply of these productions, and will bestow on them +a patient examination, will find both pleasure and gratification +in contemplating the beauty, the mechanism, +the forms, the attitudes, of the whole order of fungi.</p> + +<p class='c011'>As far as we can observe, it appears to be an established +ordinance of nature, that all created things must +have a final period. This mandate is effected by various +means, slow and nearly imperceptible in some cases, +but operative in all. As in the animal world, after disease +or violence has extinguished life, the dispersion is +<span class='pageno' id='Page_88'>88</span>accomplished by the agency principally of other animals, +or animated creatures; so, in the vegetable world, +vegetating substances usually effect the entire decomposition: +for though, in the larger kinds, the high and +lofty ones of the forest, insects are often the primary +agents, yet other minute substances are commonly found +to accelerate or complete the dissolution. Fungi in +general, particularly those arranged as sphæria, trichia, +peziza, and boletus, appear as the principal and most +numerous agents, and we find them almost universally +on substances in a certain state of decay, or approximation +to it; though there are a few genera of this +class which are attached to, and flourish on, living vegetation. +The primary decline is possibly occasioned +by putrescence of the sap, or defective circulation, and +this unhealthy state of the plant affording the suitable +soil for the germination of the parasitic fungus; for +there must be an original though inert seed, till these +circumstances vivify its principle. By what means the +parasite finishes the dissolution is not quite obvious; +but of that insidious race the byssi, of which family is +the dry-rot (byssus septica), the radicals penetrate like +the finest hairs into the substance, and thus destroy the +cohesion of the fibres. So do the nidulariæ, many of +the agarics, the boleti, and others; and it is not unlikely +that this operation is the general principle of action +of the whole race, though not so obvious in the minuter +kinds. These terminators, many of which present but +little character to the naked eye, under the microscope +we find to be of various forms, though not always so +distinguishable from each other as the flowers of our +garden. Some of the genera of plants appear to have +distinct agents assigned to them, and the detection and +enumeration of them have been carried to considerable +extent by some of the foreign naturalists; but, to point +out the variety and curious organization of these substances, +we will only instance four, to be found on the +common plants of the garden or the copse: the laurel, +the elm, the sycamore, and the beech.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The laurel (prunus laurocerasus) is not, properly +speaking, a deciduous plant, though it casts its leaves +<span class='pageno' id='Page_89'>89</span>in considerable numbers during the spring and summer +seasons. These long resist the common agents of dissolution, +like those of the holly, by means of the impenetrable +varnish that is spread over them. This, +however, wears off, and they decay; but their destruction +is at times accelerated by a small excrescent substance, +which fixes on the leaf, breaks the surface, and +admits humidity. It appears in the form of a small +black speck, and, when ripe, discharges a yellow +powder from the centre; but as soon as one speck, +which is the vessel containing the capsules, has fixed +itself on one side of the leaf, a similar one will be +found immediately opposite on the other; and hence +it is well named by Lamarck the two-fronted uredo +(uredo bifrons).<a id='r34'></a><a href='#f34' class='c014'><sup>[34]</sup></a> This I believe to be peculiar to the +laurel and the holly.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The leaf of the elm in autumn may commonly be +observed marked with dark-colored blotches, which are +the “plague spot” of its destruction. These leaves +remain in large proportions uninjured through the winter +months; but when spring arrives, the spots become +matured, the surface cracks, and the capsules discharge +their seeds. Lamarck names it sphæria xylomoides, but +mentions another as a more early observer. At these +spots the decay of the leaf generally commences.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Most persons must have observed that the upper +surface of the leaves of the sycamore (acer pseudo-platanus) +is blotched with dark-colored spots (xyloma +acerinum) in autumn. This leaf is detached by the +earliest frosts, and falling to the ground the spots commence +their operations by corroding away the portions +of the leaf that surrounds them, but continue attached +themselves, appearing as raised, shining, vermicular +lines. This has been mentioned by Lamarck and +others, and is only now noticed to point out the variously +<span class='pageno' id='Page_90'>90</span>constituted agents that accomplish the destruction +of the foliage of plants.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The bark, the wood, have other deputed powers of +destruction, many of which are very beautifully fabricated. +To dwell on them would extend too much these +remarks, designed rather as observations than details; +yet I am tempted to introduce two. The sphæria coryli +of Lamarck (peziza coryli) is occasionally to be found +in the month of January, and through the winter until +April, upon old hazel sticks, and engages our attention +by the regularity of its tubercles. The seed, or first +principle of production, whatever this may be, by means +unknown to us, has been fixed upon the inner bark of +the wood. Gently increasing, it bursts its way through +the outer bark, which now hangs as a fringe about it; +the seed vessels expand, and a dusty substance, being +most probably the matter that continues the species, is +dispersed around. A singular plant (sphæria faginea?) +is found upon the decayed wood of the beech-tree,<a id='r35'></a><a href='#f35' class='c014'><sup>[35]</sup></a> in +the earlier part of the spring. It appears on the surface +of it in little nodules, which, gradually uniting and increasing, +form a regular black crust. Upon examination +we find, that little round bodies have forced a passage +through the outer bark, and enlarged into small round +tubes, which ultimately become the conductors of the +seminal dust, discharged from round, beaked seed +vessels, embedded beneath upon the inner bark. This +plant presents us with a very remarkable instance of +the attention of nature to the preservation of minute +and little observed things; the protection of the seed +vessel, and the dissemination, being most particularly +and carefully provided for.</p> + +<p class='c011'>These specimens are only individuals among hundreds, +which present us with a world of beauty, variety, +and wonder. I would not wish it to be understood that +it is maintained, by any thing here intimated, that the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_91'>91</span>dissolution of vegetable matter is effected solely by the +agency of insects or parasitic plants, Nature having +various ways of accomplishing her purposes; but only +mean to contend that, in numerous cases, these weak +instruments are made use of to accelerate the decay +and dispersion of it.</p> + +<p class='c011'>We are not favorably circumstanced for any great +abundance of the race of fungi: the old fir grove—which +produces such varieties, and the oak and birch +copses, which have shed their leaves for ages, and given +rise to many, are not found with us; yet we have a +small scattering too, some of which are perhaps not +undeserving of notice; and, though rather partial to a +class which has afforded me many hours of gratification +and delight, yet, sensible of the little interest they +generally create, I must limit my mention to a very +few.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The odorous agaric (agaricus odorus) may perhaps +be locally found in plenty, but to me it has always +been a plant of rare occurrence. Its colors are delicate +and modest, rather than splendid, and a near acquaintance +only makes us sensible of the justness of its name. +We have another scented agaric (agaricus fragrans), +much more commonly to be met with, which diffuses +its fragrance to some distance: but the former species +does not spread its fragrance until brought into a temperate +apartment, when it fills the room with an odor +like that proceeding from the heliotrope, or from fresh +bitter almonds, and communicates it to our gloves, or +whatever it touches. I have found it sparingly here +among dry beech leaves in Wolf-ridge copse.</p> + +<p class='c011'>There is a rare, local, and I believe unnoticed agaric, +trailing its long roots in October among the small decayed +fragments of some old hedge, elegant in itself, +but more remarkable from the colored fluid it contains, +which upon being wounded it emits, not as a milky +fluid, but like an orange-colored, tasteless, spirituous +extract, long retaining its color upon paper, and tingeing +the hand like the celandine, or blood-wort, (sanguinalis +canadensis); and hence I have called it a +“stainer.” Every part discharges this ichor, but it +<span class='pageno' id='Page_92'>92</span>flows rather more copiously from the roots: in general +appearance like A. varius. It may possibly be passed +over as that species; but this is a race which being +local, precarious, mutable, or fugacious, is seen by the +wandering naturalist alone, and we must leave these +mysterious but beautiful productions of nature to their +solitudes and woods.<a id='r36'></a><a href='#f36' class='c014'><sup>[36]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c011'>As weeds will grow with flowers, the unsightly with +the beautiful, so do we meet with here much more +abundantly that extraordinary and offensive production +the stinking phallus (phallus impudicus). They do not +dwell near each other, however; this being found in +the month of June on many of our hedge-banks. The +smell it discharges has been thought to be like that +arising from some decayed animal substance; but it is +of a much more subtle kind, as if the animal fetor had +been volatilized by carbonate of ammonia. Many persons +in their country walks, at this period of the year, +must have been occasionally surprised by a sudden disagreeable +smell of this nature, and probably concluded +that it proceeded from some dead animal, when most +likely it was produced by this fungus: yet to find it is +not always an easy matter; for the odor is so diffused on +all sides, that it rather leads us astray from the object +than aids our search, the plant being hidden frequently +in the depth of the hedge. I have at times found it by +watching the flight of the flies, which are attracted by +its fetor. This strong smell is supposed to reside in +the green gelatinous substance which is attached to the +cell of the pileus; but the odor is at times discharged +by this phallus, before the stem has arisen from the egglike +wrapper by which it is inclosed. This is a very unpleasant +plant to delineate, as its odor, when in a room, +is so very offensive, that few persons would willingly +tolerate its presence; and its growth is so rapid in an +increased temperature, that the form and appearance +<span class='pageno' id='Page_93'>93</span>soon become changed. The seed is supposed to reside +in the cells of the pileus, and the gelatinous matter +which we find on its summit; and on this, and every +part of the plant, slugs of various kinds are commonly +found feeding, which, retiring to their holes in the earth, +from the contents of their stomachs probably propagate +this phallus. That many of our agarics, and those boleti +which have central stems, are so diffused around by the +agency of these creatures, it is reasonable to conclude +for it is a very usual thing to find the gills of these +plants, in which the seed resides, so entirely eaten away +by slugs as to have no remains perceptible, except a +little of the flesh and the outer skin; and they prefer +those plants which are somewhat advanced in age, and +in which we suppose the seminal matter to be more +perfected.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The various provisions which have been devised for +the dispersion of the seeds of plants, and introducing +them into proper situations for germination, are not the +least admirable portion of the wonderful scheme of +creation. Every class of beings appears appointed by +collateral means to promote these designs; man, beasts, +birds, and reptiles; and, for aught we know, the very +fishes, by consuming, propagate the algæ in the depths +of the ocean. Even insects, by the fecundation of +plants, perform an office equivalent to dissemination; +and the multiplied contrivances of hooks, awns, wings, +&c., and the elastic and hygrometic powers with which +seeds are furnished, manifest what infinite provision has +been made for the dispersion of seeds, and successive +production of the whole race of vegetation.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The turreted puff (lycoperdon fornicatum) is one of +our rare cryptogamous plants. I have had one specimen, +in which the volvæ or wrappers of seven or eight +individuals grew together, each throwing out a head or +capitulum, forming a cluster the size of a doubled fist. +It appears, from a close examination of this plant, that +the upper part bearing the head was originally the inner +skin or lining of the wrapper, which inclosed and shut +it in. Upon the bursting of the wrapper, this inner +skin peeled up, or loosened itself from the bottom, and +<span class='pageno' id='Page_94'>94</span>rising, became finally detached from the wrapper in +every part excepting at the points of the clefts, where +it remained fixed; in the same manner as a man might +be supposed able to pull up the skin from the hollow +of the hand, and let it remain attached at the tips of +the fingers. This puff dries remarkably well, and +even shows the general form more distinctly than when +recent.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The starry puff (lycoperdon stellatum) is rather difficult +to find, but is a much more common plant, delighting +to grow amidst the herbage of some dry bank, and +so is hidden from common observation; but the winds +of autumn detach it from the banks, and it remains +driving about the pastures, little altered until spring, +when it decays.</p> + +<p class='c011'>We have the morell (morchella esculenta),<a id='r37'></a><a href='#f37' class='c014'><sup>[37]</sup></a> but to +this I must subjoin “rarissimè.” Bolton and Micheli +represent the pileus as cellular, like a honeycomb. All +that I have seen are mesenterically puckered. In what +part of this morell the seeds reside is obscure: not in +the hollows of the pileus, I think. That part of our +morell, which in an agaric would be flesh, is found by +the microscope to consist of fine woolly fibres united in +a mass: and probably the seed is contained in this part; +for when the plant is mature, and begins to dry, the +outer coating cracks, and tears these filaments asunder, +and gives the seminal matter, if contained in this part, +a free passage for escape.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The bell-shaped nidularia (nidularia campanulata) is +common with us, the smooth (nidularia lævis) is much +less so. I do not mention them on account of their +rarity, but to notice the singular size of the seeds of +this genus. The principle, by which nearly the whole +of the fungi are continued, is in most instances obscure. +A dust, considered as seminal, is observable in some +of the genera; in others, even this is imperceptible; +but in the nidularia the actual seeds, for they are not +<span class='pageno' id='Page_95'>95</span>capsules, are visible at the bottom of the bell-shaped +receptacle, of the size of a turnip seed, or of a large, +flattened pin’s head; loose, but attached by a filament, +which in the striated species (nidularia striata), in moist +weather, I have drawn out to nearly three inches in +length. This thread appears designed to secure the +vegetation of the seed, by affording it the power of deriving +nutriment from the parent plant, during the period +it is exerting its strength to vegetate in the earth. +Heavy rains, I apprehend, fill the bells, and float out +the seeds in the spring months, the filaments then +stretching to their full extent. In severe weather we +often find these bells emptied of their contents; and +from observing the excrement of mice about the places +of their growth, I conclude they are eaten by these +creatures. The long mandibles of the little shrew are +well fitted for this operation. I have never found the +plant in such quantities as to yield them any considerable +supply; yet it is remarkable, that the seeds of one +genus only, out of such a numerous class, should be so +visible, and of such a size, as to become an article of +food to an animal like a mouse.</p> + +<p class='c011'>But we must dismiss the vegetable tribes, and enter +upon the world of sensitive nature. The quadrupeds +naturally present themselves first to our notice, but with +us they are few in number; our population scares them, +our gamekeepers kill them, and inclosures extirpate +their haunts. Yet the marten<a id='r38'></a><a href='#f38' class='c014'><sup>[38]</sup></a> (mustela martes) lingers +with us still, and every winter’s snow becomes instrumental +to its capture, betraying its footsteps to those +who are acquainted with the peculiar trace which it +leaves. Its excursions generally terminate at some hollow +tree, whence it is driven into a bag; and we are +surprised, that a predaceous animal, not protected by +laws or arbitrary privileges, and of some value too, +should still exist. Of all our animals called vermin, +we have none more admirably fitted for a predatory life +than the marten: it is endowed with strength of body; +is remarkably quick and active in all its motions; has +an eye so large, clear, perceptive, and movable in its +orbit, that nothing can stir without its observation; and +<span class='pageno' id='Page_96'>96</span>it is supplied apparently with a sense of smelling as +perfect as its other faculties. Its feet are well adapted +to its habits, not treading upright on the balls alone, +but with the joint bending, the fleshy parts being embedded +in a very soft and delicate hair, so that the tread +of the animal, even upon decayed leaves, is scarcely +audible; by which means it can steal upon its prey +without any noise betraying its approach. The fur is +fine, and the skin so thin and flexible, as to impede +none of its agile movements. Thus every thing combines +to render the marten a very destructive creature. +It seems to have a great dislike to cold, residing in winter +in the hollow of some tree, deeply embedded in dry +foliage, and when in confinement, covering and hiding +itself with all the warm materials it can find. In genial +seasons it will sleep by day in the abandoned nest of +the crow or buzzard, and its dormitory is often discovered +by the chattering and mobbing of different birds +on the tree. It is certainly not numerous in England, +our woods being too small, and too easily penetrated, to +afford it adequate quiet and shelter. Its skin is still in +some little request, being worth about two shillings and +sixpence in the market; but it is used only for inferior +purposes, as the furs of colder regions than ours are +better, and more easily obtained.</p> + +<div class='figcenter id001'> +<img src='images/i_115.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic001'> +<p><i>plate 1.</i><br> <br> <i>Fig. 1. p. <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>.</i><br> <br> <i>Fig. 2. p. <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>–89.</i><br> <br> <i>Fig. 3. p. <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>.</i><br> <br> <i>Fig. 4. p. <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>.</i></p> +</div> +</div> + +<p class='c011'>Notwithstanding all the persecutions from prejudice +and wantonness to which the hedgehog<a id='r39'></a><a href='#f39' class='c014'><sup>[39]</sup></a> (erinaceus europæus) +is exposed, it is yet common with us; sleeping +by day in a bed of leaves and moss, under the cover of +a very thick bramble or furze-bush, and at times in some +hollow stump of a tree. It creeps out in the summer +evenings; and, running about with more agility than its +dull appearance promises, feeds on dew-worms and +beetles, which it finds among the herbage, but retires +with trepidation at the approach of man. In the autumn, +crabs, haws, and the common fruits of the hedge, +constitute its diet. In the winter, covering itself deeply +in moss and leaves, it sleeps during the severe weather; +and, when drawn out from its bed, scarcely any thing +of the creature is to be observed, it exhibiting only a +ball of leaves, which it seems to attach to its spines by +<span class='pageno' id='Page_97'>97</span>repeatedly rolling itself round in its nest. Thus comfortably +invested, it suffers little from the season. Some +strong smell must proceed from this animal, as we find +it frequently, with our sporting dogs, even in this state; +and every village boy with his cur detects the haunts +of the poor hedgehog, and as assuredly worries and +kills him. Killing every thing, and cruelty, are the +common vices of the ignorant; and unresisting innocence +becomes a ready victim to prejudice or power. +The snake, the blind-worm, and the toad, are all indiscriminately +destroyed as venomous animals whenever +found; and it is well for the last-mentioned poor animal, +which, Boyle says, “lives on poison, and is all +venom,” if prolonged sufferings do not finish its being: +but even we, who should know better, yet give rewards +for the wretched urchin’s head! that very ancient prejudice +of its drawing milk from the udders of resting +cows being still entertained, without any consideration +of its impracticability from the smallness of the hedgehog’s +mouth; and so deeply is this character associated +with its name, that we believe no argument would persuade +to the contrary, or remonstrance avail with our +idle boys, to spare the life of this most harmless and +least obtrusive creature in existence.</p> + +<p class='c011'>If we were to detail the worst propensities of man, +disgusting as they might be, yet the one most eminently +offensive would be, cruelty—a compound of tyranny, +ingratitude, and pride; tyranny, because there is the +power—ingratitude, for the most harmless and serviceable +are usually the object—pride, to manifest a contempt +of the weakness of humanity. There is no one +creature, whose services Providence has assigned to +man, that contributes more to his wants, is more conducive +to his comforts, than the horse; nor is there one +which is subjected to more afflictions than this his +faithful servant. The ass, probably, and happily, is not +a very sensitive animal, but the poor horse no sooner +becomes the property of man in the lower walks of life, +than he commonly has his ears shorn off; his knees are +broken, his wind is broken, his body is starved, and his +eyes——!! I fear, in these grades of society, mercy +<span class='pageno' id='Page_98'>98</span>is only known by the name of cowardice, and compassion +designated simplicity and effeminacy; and so we +become cruel, and consider it as valiance and manliness. +Cruelty is a vice repeatedly marked in Scripture as repugnant +to the primest attributes of our Maker, “because +he delighteth in mercy.” One of the three requisites +necessary for man to obtain the favor of Heaven, +and which was of more avail than sacrifice and oblation, +was that of “showing mercy;” and He, who +has left us so many examples in a life of compassion +and pity, hath most strongly enforced this virtue, by +assuring us, that the “merciful are blessed, for they +will obtain mercy.”</p> + +<p class='c011'>Hedgehogs were formerly an article of food; but this +diet was pronounced to be dry, and not nutritive, “because +he putteth forth so many prickles.” All plants +producing thorns, or tending to any roughness, were +considered to be of a drying nature; and, upon this +foundation, the ashes of the hedgehog were administered +as a “great desiccative of fistulas.”</p> + +<p class='c011'>The spines of the hedgehog are movable, not fixed +and resisting, but loose in the skin, and when dry, fall +backward and forward upon being moved; yet, from +the peculiar manner in which they are inserted, it requires +more force to draw them out than may be at first +sight expected. The hair of most creatures seems to +arise from a bulbous root fixed in the skin; but the +spines of the hedgehog have their lower ends fined +down to a thin neck or thread, which, passing through +a small orifice in the skin, is secured on the under side +by a round head like that of a pin, or are riveted as it +were, by the termination being enlarged and rounded, +and these heads are all visible when the skin becomes +dry, as if studded by small pins thrust through. Hence +they are movable in all directions, and resting upon +the muscle of the creature, must be the medium of a +very sensible perception to the animal, and more so +than hair could be, which does not seem to penetrate so +far as the muscular fibre. Now this little quadruped, +upon suspicion of harm, rolls itself up in a ball, hiding +his nose and eyes in the hollow of his stomach, and +<span class='pageno' id='Page_99'>99</span>thus the common organs of perception, hearing, seeing, +smelling, are precluded from action: but by the sensibility +of the spines, he seems fully acquainted with +every danger that may threaten him; and upon any +attempt to uncoil himself, if these spines be touched, +he immediately retracts, assuming his globular form +again, awaiting a more secure period for retreat:—</p> + +<div class='figcenter id001'> +<img src='images/i_118.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p><i>A</i>, <i>A</i>, are spines of the hedgehog enlarged; <i>B</i>, a segment, to show the numerous tubes of communication.</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p class='c011'>The harvest mouse (mus messorius) in some seasons +is common with us, but, like other species of mice, +varies much in the numbers found. I have seen their +nests as late as the middle of September, containing +eight young ones entirely filling the little interior cavity. +These nests vary in shape, being round, oval, or pearshaped, +with a long neck, and are to be distinguished +from those of any other mouse, by being generally suspended +on some growing vegetable, a thistle, a beanstalk, +or some adjoining stems of wheat, with which it +rocks and waves in the wind; but to prevent the young +from being dislodged by any violent agitation of the +plant, the parent closes up the entrance so uniformly, +with the whole fabric, that the real opening is with +difficulty found.</p> + +<div class='figcenter id001'> +<span class='pageno' id='Page_100'>100</span> +<img src='images/i_119.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic001'> +<p><i>The Harvest Mouse and Nest.</i></p> +</div> +</div> + +<p class='c011'>They are the most tame and harmless of little creatures; +and, taking shelter in the sheaves when in the +field, are often brought home with the crop, and found +in little shallow burrows on the ground after the removal +of a bean-rick. Those that remain in the field +form stores for the winter season, and congregate in +<span class='pageno' id='Page_101'>101</span>small societies in holes under some sheltered ditch-bank. +An old one, which I weighed, was only one dram and +five grains in weight.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Mankind appear to be progressively increasing. It +was an original command of his Creator, and the animals +domesticated by him, and fostered for his use, are +probably multiplied in proportion to his requirements; +but we have no reason to suppose that this annual augmentation +proceeds in a proportionate degree with the +wild creatures upon the surface of the globe; and we +know that many of them are yearly decreasing, and +very many that once existed have even become extinct. +That there are years of increase and decrease ordained +for all the inferior orders of creation, common observation +makes manifest. In the years 1819 and 1820, all +the country about us was overrun with mice; they harbored +under the hassocks of our coarse grasses (aira +cæspitosa), perforated the banks of ditches, occasioned +much damage by burrowing into our potato heaps, and +coursed in our gardens from bed to bed even during +daylight. The species were the short-tailed meadow-mouse, +and the long-tailed garden mouse, and both +kinds united in the spring to destroy our early-sown +pease and beans. In the ensuing summer, however, +they became so greatly reduced, that few were to be +seen, and we have not had any thing like such an increase +since that period. It is probable that some disease +afflicted them, and that they perished in their holes, +for we never found their bodies, and any emigration of +such large companies would certainly have been observed; +yet the appearance and disappearance of creatures +of this kind leads us to conclude that they do occasionally +change their habitations.</p> + +<p class='c011'>A large stagnant piece of water in an inland county, +with which I was intimately acquainted, and which I +very frequently visited for many years of my life, was +one summer suddenly infested with an astonishing +number of the short-tailed water rat, none of which had +previously existed there. Its vegetation was the common +products of such places, excepting that the larger +portion of it was densely covered with its usual crop, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_102'>102</span>the smooth horsetail (equisetum limosum). This constituted +the food of the creatures, and the noise made +by their champing it we could distinctly hear in the +evening at many yards’ distance. They were shot by +dozens daily; yet the survivors seemed quite regardless +of the noise, the smoke, the deaths, around them. Before +the winter, this great herd disappeared, and so +entirely evacuated the place, that a few years after I +could not obtain a single specimen. They did not disperse, +for the animal is seldom found in the neighborhood, +and no dead bodies were observed. They had +certainly made this place a temporary station in their +progress from some other; but how such large companies +can change their situations unobserved in their +transits, is astonishing. Birds can move in high regions +and in obscurity, and are not commonly objects of +notice; but quadrupeds can travel only on the ground, +and would be regarded with wonder, when in great +numbers, by the rudest peasant.<a id='r40'></a><a href='#f40' class='c014'><sup>[40]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c011'>That little animal the water shrew (sorex fodiens) +appears to be but partially known, but is probably more +generally diffused than we imagine. The common +shrew in particular seasons gambols through our hedge-rows, +squeaking and rustling about the dry foliage, and +is observed by every one; but the water shrew inhabits +places that secrete it from general notice, and appears +to move only in the evenings, which occasions its being +so seldom observed. That this creature was an occasional +<span class='pageno' id='Page_103'>103</span>resident in our neighborhood was manifest from +the dead bodies of two or three having occurred in my +walks; but it was some time before I discovered a little +colony of them quietly settled in one of my ponds, +overshadowed with bushes and foliage. It is very +amusing to observe the actions of these creatures, all +life and animation in an element they could not be +thought any way calculated for enjoying; but they +swim admirably, frolicking over the floating leaves of the +pondweed, and up the foliage of the flags, which, bending +with their weight, will at times souse them in the +pool, and away they scramble to another, searching +apparently for the insects that frequent such places, +and feeding on drowned moths (phalæna potamogeta) +and similar insects. They run along the margin of the +water, rooting amid the leaves and mud with their long +noses for food, like little ducks, with great earnestness +and perseverance. Their power of vision seems limited +to a confined circumference. The smallness of their +eyes, and the growth of the fur about them, are convenient +for the habits of the animal, but impediments +to extended vision; so that, with caution, we can approach +them in their gambols, and observe all their actions. +The general blackness of the body, and the +triangular spot beneath the tail, as mentioned by Pennant, +afford the best ready distinction of this mouse +from the common shrew. Both our species of sorex +seem to feed by preference on insects and worms; and +thus, like the mole, their flesh is rank and offensive to +most creatures, which reject them as food. The common +shrew, in spring and summer, is ordinarily in motion +even during the day from the sexual attachment, which +occasions the destruction of numbers by cats, and other +prowling animals; and thus we find them strewed in +our paths, by gateways, and in our garden walks, +dropped by these animals in their progress. It was +once thought that some periodical disease occasioned +this mortality of the species; but I think we may now +conclude that violence alone is the cause of their destruction +in these instances. The bite of this creature +was considered by the ancients as peculiarly noxious, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_104'>104</span>even to horses and large cattle, and a variety of the +most extraordinary remedies for the wound, and preventives +against it, are mentioned by Pliny and others. +The prejudices of antiquity, long as they usually are +in keeping possession of the mind, have not been remembered +by us; and we only know the hardy shrew +now as a perfectly harmless animal, though we still +retain a name for it expressive of something malignant +and spiteful.</p> + +<p class='c011'>I think we have reason for suspecting that a shrew +new to Britain exists in this neighborhood. A pale +blue shrew (sorex Daubentonii? Cuvier) has been seen +about the margins of our reenes, and the deep marsh +ditches cut for draining the water from the low lands +of the Severn; and something of the same kind, in a +half-digested state, has been found in the stomach of +the heron. If it exist with us, a similar tract of land +in more fenny countries may contain it plentifully, +though it has as yet escaped detection.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The mole,<a id='r41'></a><a href='#f41' class='c014'><sup>[41]</sup></a> want, mouldwarper or mouldturner (talpa +europea), is common with us, as it appears to be in +most places; and no creature gives more certain indication +of its presence, haunting, from preference, such +places as its predecessors have done, though years may +have intervened since they were frequented, and rains, +and the treading of heavy cattle, have compressed to +solid earth the ancient runs; and however assiduously +we may destroy them, should they appear again, it will +probably be in the same places that have been formerly +perforated by others. The earth that these animals eject +from their runs, being obtained from very near the +surface, and finely pulverized, has tempted me more +than once to have it collected for my green-house plants, +but not with the success that I had conjectured. Some +persons have advocated the cause of moles, as being +beneficial to vegetation, by loosening the soil about the +roots of plants. Evelyn and others, again, censure them +as injurious creatures; and there is a strange narration +in Buffon, accusing them of eating all the acorns of a +newly-set soil.<a id='r42'></a><a href='#f42' class='c014'><sup>[42]</sup></a> I am not aware of any benefit occasioned +by their presence; their warpings certainly give our +<span class='pageno' id='Page_105'>105</span>pastures in the spring a very unsightly appearance, and +in grounds designed to be mowed, occasion much +trouble, by obliging us frequently to spread and remove +them; and in newly-sown corn-lands, they disturb by +their runnings the earth at the roots of the grain. But, +perhaps, these trifling complaints, these almost imaginary +grievances, are the only evils that can be attributed +to them. In those wild creatures that are not immediately +applicable to our use or amusement, we are +more generally inclined to seek out their bad than their +good qualities; and though I cannot produce any instance +in which the utility of the mole is manifested, +yet it is reasonable to conclude, that they are eminently +so, either directly or collaterally, nature having provided +in an especial manner for a constant supply,<a id='r43'></a><a href='#f43' class='c014'><sup>[43]</sup></a> and +their increase is prodigious when they are not molested. +I have killed for two years in succession, between forty +and fifty each season, in a very few acres of ground; +and notwithstanding all our stratagems for their destruction, +and the ease with which they are entrapped, still +plenty always remain to recruit our annual waste of +them. These creatures are supposed to have a very imperfect +vision, and, like insects, have not any external +ear, or manifest organ through which sounds can be +received; yet we can in no way for a moment suppose +that they have been created with any deficiency of +power to accomplish all the objects of their being, but +that every possible exigency has been provided for. +Perceptions may be conveyed in very many instances +by intelligences unknown to us, and unquestionably are +so. The defect of one power is frequently supplied by +the increased activity of another; and the sense of +smelling in the mole must be unusually acute, to enable +it to pursue and capture its prey with the facility +that it does. Its sole food, we believe, is worms; and +these sensitive creatures retire immediately upon the +smallest moving of the earth in which they reside. +Now, as it follows them through all their meanderings, +in which neither eyes nor ears would assist it, a fine +<span class='pageno' id='Page_106'>106</span>sense of smelling seems necessary to enable it to catch +them; and that its success is equal to its wants, and +that it feeds plentifully, is manifest by the excellent +condition in which the mole is at all seasons of the +year. It will penetrate banks of earth after worms +lodged in their interior, hunt for them in the richest +parts of the field, or on the edges of dung-heaps: in +all which pursuits some unknown faculties may direct +it; but no sense, that we are acquainted with, could +promote its objects so effectually as that of smell. My +talparius, a very skilful capturer of these animals, is so +sensible of the power that moles are gifted with of +readily discriminating smells, that his constant practice +is, to draw the body of a captured animal through his +traps, and the adjoining runs, and passages, to remove +all suspicious odors, which might arise from the touch +of his fingers. Its feeling, too, must be acute; as, when +casting up the earth, it is sensible of the pressure of a +very gentle foot; and, unless our approaches are conducted +with great caution, it ceases from its operation, +and instantly retires. Should I be censured for needless +prolixity in detailing these sensations of a common +mole, and “telling of the mouldwarp and the ant,” +I trust forgiveness may be granted me, as endeavoring +to remove all conceptions, should they exist, that any +thing, however vile and worthless it may seem to be, +could be created with powers or means inadequate to +supply its wants. Whoever will examine the structure +of the body of a mole will, perhaps, find no creature +more admirably adapted for all the purposes of its life. +The very fur on the skin of this animal manifests what +attention has been bestowed upon the creature, in providing +for its necessities and comforts. This is singularly, +most impalpably, fine, yielding in every direction, +and offering no resistance to the touch. By this construction +the mole is in no degree impeded in its retreat +from danger while retiring backwards, as it always +does upon suspicion of peril, not turning round, which +the size of its runs does not permit, its tail foremost, +until it arrives at some collateral gallery, when its flight +is head foremost, as with other creatures. If this fur +<span class='pageno' id='Page_107'>107</span>had been strong, as in the rat, or mouse, in these retreats +for life it would have doubly retarded the progress +of the creature; first by its resistance, and then acting +as a brush, so as to choke up the galleries, by removing +the loose earth from the sides and ceilings of the arched +ways; thus impeding at least, if not absolutely preventing, +retreat; but the softness of the fur obviates both +these fatal effects.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The construction of the hair and fur of different +creatures is very various and beautiful; and if we believe +in the beneficence of the All-wise Creator, we +must conclude that such peculiar fabrications were resorted +to for the purpose of being immediately useful, +or as necessary to the condition of the animal. In a +mere sketch like this, it would conduct me infinitely +beyond my intentions, to enumerate the many varieties +of hair that are rendered manifest by the microscope; +but three or four may be mentioned. The fur or clothing +of the mole is internally composed of collateral bars. +In man the hairs have at times a central tube, for the +conveyance of medullary matter, as in bones, or some +nutriment analogous to it; but in the mole there appears +to be no communication with the body of the animal, +unless the perspirable matter is conducted alternately +from side to side along the bars. The fur of the bat +has knots like the rudiments of branches. The hairs of +the hamster mouse have a central perforation, apparently +uninterrupted throughout their whole length. +Some of the caterpillars (callimorpha caja) have spines +proceeding from the hair that invests their bodies.<a id='r44'></a><a href='#f44' class='c014'><sup>[44]</sup></a> +All these, and the other various contrivances so manifest +in the coverings of animals, are probably designed to convey +off the perspirable fluids conducive to health in an +<span class='pageno' id='Page_108'>108</span>appropriate manner; to discharge the superabundant +heat, and keep the body temperate in some cases: in +others, again, to retard perspiration, and thus augment +the warmth, by every possible gradation, or to increase +the sensibility and perceptions of the animal. Many +instances of these effects and modifications might be +advanced, deserving a more extensive consideration.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The smell of the flesh of the mole is remarkably rank +and offensive, as, from the nature of its food, might be +expected; and it taints the fingers, which have touched +it, with its peculiar odor, so that one washing does not +remove it. It is reported of a late very eccentric nobleman, +but with what truth I do not know, who essayed +himself the flavor of every living thing, even to the +eating of the large dew-worm, that the mole alone remained +untasted by him, his stomach recoiling with +disgust at the nauseous smell of the flesh of this creature. +Foxes eat moles, and will at times dig out the +traps containing them. The brown owl, too, feeds on +them, when it can meet with them outside of their runs +hunting after dew-worms; and probably the smaller +vermin do the same: but the cat and the dog turn from +them with manifest aversion as food; though they will +hunt and kill them as objects of the chase.</p> + +<p class='c011'>These animals, we might suppose, while in their +subterranean dwellings, would be secure from all injury +by such as generally pursue their prey upon the surface +of the earth; but I have several times known the +weasel caught in the mole-traps, making it manifest, +that it hunts after the mole for its food, and in doing +so, according to our comprehensions, must encounter infinite +danger from suffocation; but it is more probable +that so active a creature as the weasel is endowed with +powers to accomplish its object with impunity, which +we are not acquainted with.</p> + +<p class='c011'><span class='pageno' id='Page_109'>109</span>During the course of a life passed much in the country, +and perambulating the woods, the hedges, and the fields, +I have contracted almost insensibly an acquaintance +with the creatures that frequent them. Some have engaged +my attention by their actions and manners; +others have interested me by their innocency, and the +harmlessness of their lives; and, perhaps, there is some +little partial bearing toward others from long association, +or from unknown, undefined causes. I tolerate, +in despite of all their noise, and all their litter, a colony +of rooks,<a id='r45'></a><a href='#f45' class='c014'><sup>[45]</sup></a> which have taken a liking to some tall elms +near my dwelling. Not being ancient denizens there, +they can claim no hereditary rights; but their contrivances, +their regularity, and even their squabbles, +are amusing; and, perhaps, there is mingled with this +some little compassion for these dark, half-domesticated +families of the grove, driven by the ax from an old +abode, which may influence my forbearance.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The hedge-sparrow, or shufflewing, (motacilla modularis), +is a prime favorite. Not influenced by season or +caprice to desert us, it lives in our homesteads and our +orchards through all the year, our most domestic bird. +In the earliest spring it intimates to us by a low and +plaintive chirp, and that peculiar shake of the wing, +which at all times marks this bird, but then is particularly +observable, the approach of the breeding season; for +it appears always to live in pairs, feeding and moving +in company with each other. It is nearly the first bird +that forms a nest; and this being placed in an almost +leafless hedge, with little art displayed in its concealment, +generally becomes the booty of every prying boy, +and the blue eggs of the hedge-sparrow are always +found in such numbers on his string, that it is surprising +how any of the race are remaining, especially +when we consider the many casualties to which the old +birds are obnoxious from their tameness, and the young +that are hatched, from their situation. The plumage of +this motacilla is remarkably sober and grave, and all its +actions are quiet and comformable to its appearance. +Its song is short, sweet, and gentle. Sometimes it is +prolonged; but generally the bird perches on the summit +<span class='pageno' id='Page_110'>110</span>of some bush, utters its brief modulation, and seeks +retirement again. Its chief habitation is some hedge in +the rick-yard, some cottage garden, or near society with +man. Unobtrusive, it does not enter our dwellings like +the redbreast, but picks minute insects from the edges +of drains and ditches, or morsels from the door of the +poorest dwelling in the village. As an example of a +household or domestic bird, none can be found with +better pretensions to such a character than the hedge-sparrow.</p> + +<p class='c011'>I always hear with delight the earliest chirpings of +that pretty harbinger of spring, the willow wren (motacilla +trochillus), trilling its wild and gleeful “chiffchaffs,” +as it chases the insects round the branches of +the old oak in the copse, or on the yellow catkins of +the sallow, itself almost like a colored catkin too. But +this elegant little bird is noticed only by the lovers and +frequenters of the country; it animates the woods by +its constant activity; the frequent repetition of its most +cheerful modulation contributes essentially to the pleasing +harmony of the grove; and its voice is most sprightly +and frequent, when the morning is illumined with one +of those mild, walk-enticing gleams, that render this +short season the most delightful of our year. It builds +its nest, and rears its young with us; visits our gardens, +but is no plunderer there, living almost entirely upon +insect food; and its whole life is passed in harmlessness +and innocence. As it is the earliest that arrives, so it +is the last, I believe, of our feathered choir that leaves +us, except a few lingering, irresolute swallows; and we +hear it piping its final autumnal farewell even in October +at times, and sporting with hilarity and joy, when +all its congeners are departed.</p> + +<p class='c011'>It is a difficult matter satisfactorily to comprehend +the object of this bird in quitting another region, and +passing into our island. The chief motives for migration +seem to be food, a milder climate, and quiet during +the period of incubation and rearing their young: but +the willow wren, and some others of our insectivorous +birds, appear to have other purposes to accomplish by +their annual migrations. These little creatures, the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_111'>111</span>food of which is solely insects, could assuredly find a +sufficient supply of such diet during the summer months, +in the woods and thickets of those mild regions, where +they passed the season of winter, and every bank and +unfrequented wild would furnish a secure asylum for +them and their offspring during the period of incubation. +The passage to our shores is a long and dangerous one, +and some imperative motive for it must exist; and, +until facts manifest the reason, we may perhaps, without +injury to the cause of research, conjecture for what object +these perilous transits are made. We know that +all young creatures require particularly compounded +nutriment during their infant state; and nature, as far +as we are acquainted with it, has made in every instance +provision for a supply of fitting aliment. In many instances, +where the removal of station could not be conveniently +accomplished, instinct has been given the +parent to provide the fitting aliment for its new-born +young. Thus insects, in some cases, store their cells +with food ready for the animation of their progeny; in +others, place their eggs in such situations, as will afford +it when they are hatched. The mammalia, at least the +quadrupeds belonging to this class, which could least +conveniently move their station, have supplies given +them of a milky secretion for this purpose. Birds have +nothing of this nature, and make no provision for their +young; but they of all creatures, except fishes, can +seek what may be required in distant stations with most +facility. A sufficiency of food for the adult parent may +be found in every climate, yet the aliment necessary +for its offspring may not. Countries and even counties +produce insects that differ, if not in species, at least in +numbers; and many young birds we cannot succeed in +rearing, or do it very partially, by reason of our ignorance +of the requisite food. Every one, who has made +the attempt, well knows the various expedients he has +resorted to, of boiled meats, bruised seeds, hard eggs, +boiled rice, and twenty other substances, that nature +never presents, in order to find a diet that will nourish +them; but Mr. Montague’s failure in being able to +<span class='pageno' id='Page_112'>112</span>raise the young of the cirl bunting,<a id='r46'></a><a href='#f46' class='c014'><sup>[46]</sup></a> until he discovered +that they required grasshoppers, is a sufficient instance +of the manifest necessity there is for a peculiar food in +one period of the life of birds; and renders it probable +that, to obtain a certain aliment, this willow wren, and +others of the insect and fruit-feeding birds, direct their +flight to distant regions, and is the principal cause of +their migrations.</p> + +<p class='c011'>It is some stimulus like this, which urges that little +creature, the golden-crested wren (motacilla regulus), +that usually only flits from tree to tree, and never attempts +upon common occasions a longer flight, to traverse +the vast distance from the Orkneys to the Shetland +Isles over stormy seas that admit no possible rest +during its long passage of above fifty miles! There it +breeds its young; but this one object accomplished, it +leaves those isles, dares again this tedious flight, and +seeks a milder clime. With us it never migrates, lives +much in our fir groves during the winter, and breeds in +our shrubberies in summer. Peculiar necessities, such +as these, may incite the migration of many birds; but +that certain species, which lead solitary lives, or associate +only in very small parties, should at stated periods +congregate from all parts to one spot, and there hold +council on a removal, in which the very sexes occasionally +separate, is one of the most extraordinary procedures +that we meet with among animals.</p> + +<p class='c011'>If the sober, domestic attachments of the hedge-sparrow +please us, we are not less charmed with the +innocent, blithesome gaiety of the linnet (fringilla +linota). But this songster is no solitary visiter of our +dwellings: it delights and lives in society, frequenting +open commons and gorsy fields, where several pairs, +without the least rivalry or contention, will build their +nests and rear their offspring in the same neighborhood, +twittering and warbling all the day long. This duty +over, the families unite, and form large associations, +feeding and moving in company as one united household; +and, resorting to the head of some sunny tree, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_113'>113</span>they will pass hours in the enjoyment of the warmth, +chattering with each other in a low and gentle note, +and they will thus regularly assemble during any occasional +bright gleam throughout all the winter season,—</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c003'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>“and still their voice is song,”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c012'>which, heard at some little distance, forms a very pleasing +concert, innocent and joyous. The linnet is the +cleanliest of birds, delighting to dabble in the water +and dress its plumage in every little rill that runs by. +The extent of voice in a single bird is not remarkable, +being more pleasing than powerful; yet a large field +of furze, in a mild sunny April morning, animated with +the actions and cheering music of these harmless little +creatures, united with the bright glow and odor of this +early blossom, is not visited without gratification and +pleasure.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The bull-finch (loxia pyrrhula) has no claims to our +regard. It is gifted with no voice to charm us; it communicates +no harmony to the grove: all we hear from +it is a low and plaintive call to its fellows in the hedge. +It has no familiarity or association with us, but lives +in retirement in some lonely thicket ten months in the +year. At length, as spring approaches, it will visit our +gardens, an insidious plunderer. Its delight is in the +embryo blossoms wrapped up at this season in the bud +of a tree; and it is very dainty and curious in its choice +of this food, seldom feeding upon two kinds at the same +time. It generally commences with the germs of our +larger and most early gooseberry; and the bright red +breasts of four or five cock-birds, quietly feeding on +the leafless bush, are a very pretty sight, but the consequences +are ruinous to the crop. When the cherry +buds begin to come forward, they quit the gooseberry, +and make tremendous havoc with these. I have an +early wall cherry, a mayduke by reputation, that has for +years been a great favorite with the bull-finch family, +and its celebrity seems to be communicated to each +successive generation. It buds profusely, but is annually +so stripped of its promise by these feathered rogues, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_114'>114</span>that its kind might almost be doubted. The orleans +and green-gage plums next form a treat, and draw their +attention from what remains of the cherry. Having +banqueted here awhile, they leave our gardens entirely, +resorting to the fields and hedges, where the sloe bush +in April furnishes them with food. May brings other +dainties, and the labors and business of incubation +withdraw them from our observation.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The idea that has been occasionally entertained, that +this bird selects only such buds as contain the embryo +of an insect, to feed on it, and thus free us of a latent +colony of caterpillars, is certainly not correct. It may +confer this benefit accidentally, but not with intention. +The mischief effected by bull-finches is greater than +commonly imagined, and the ground beneath the bush +or tree, on which they have been feeding, is commonly +strewed with the shattered buds, the rejectments of their +banquet; and we are thus deprived of a large portion +of our best fruits by this assiduous pillager, this “pick-a-bud,” +as the gardeners call it, without any redeeming +virtues to compensate our loss. A snowy, severe winter +makes great havoc with this bird. It feeds much in +this season upon the fruit of the dog-rose, “hips,” as +we call them. When they are gone, it seems to pine +for food, and is starved, or perhaps frozen on its roost, +as few are observed to survive a long inclement winter. +But it is not the buds of our fruit-bearing trees only +that these destructive birds seek out; yet in all instances +I think it will be observed that such buds as produce +leaves only are rejected, and those which contain the +embryo of the future blossom selected: by this procedure, +though the tree is prevented from producing fruit, +yet the foliage is expanded as usual; but had the leaves, +the lungs of the plant, been indiscriminately consumed, +the tree would probably have died, or its summer growth +been materially injured: we may thus lose our fruit this +year, yet the tree survives, and hope lives, too, that we +may be more fortunate the next. The Tartarian honeysuckle +(lonicera Tart.) and corchorus Japonicus, when +growing in the shrubbery, are very commonly stripped +of their bloom by bull-finches: the first incloses many +<span class='pageno' id='Page_115'>115</span>separated blossoms in its calyx before expansion, and +in that particular is analogous to the buds of icosandrious +trees in the garden; and the full-petalled swelling +bloom of the latter affords a fine treat for their feasts; +but we may permit these pretty birds to banquet here, +though, if we expect a supply of summer fruit, we must +unsparingly drive them away from the branches of our +frugiferous trees. The blossoms of the peach, nectarine, +and almond, I have never observed to be injured +by these birds: the sparrow will pick away the buds of +trees against walls when they frequent such places, but, +with this exception, I know none but the bull-finch +which resort to that food as a regular supply.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The robin (motacilla rubecola) associated with malignants +is not, perhaps, in the place where it generally +would be sought; but sad truths might be told of it too. +It might be called pugnacious, jealous, selfish, quarrelsome, +did I not respect ancient feelings, and long-established +sentiments. A favorite by commiseration, it +seeks an asylum with us; by supplication and importunity +it becomes a partaker of our bounty in a season of +severity and want; and its seeming humbleness and +necessities obtain our pity: but it slights and forgets +our kindnesses the moment it can provide for itself, and +is away to its woods and its shades. Yet it has some +little coaxing ways, and such fearless confidence, that +it wins our regard; and its late autumnal song, in evening’s +dusky hour, as a monologue is pleasing, and redeems +much of its character. The universality of this +bird in all places, and almost at all hours, is very remarkable; +and perhaps there are few spots so lonely, in +which it would not appear, did we commence digging +up the ground. I have often been surprised in the +midst of woods, where no suspicion of its presence existed, +when watching some other creature, to see the +robin inquisitively perched upon some naked spray near +me; or, when digging up a plant in some very retired +place, to observe its immediate descent upon some poor +worm that I had moved. The robin loses nearly all +the characteristic color from its breast in the summer, +when it moults, and only recovers it on the approach of +<span class='pageno' id='Page_116'>116</span>autumn; which in some measure accounts for the extraordinary +assertion of Pliny, that the redbreast is only +so in winter, but becomes a firetail in summer.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The object of the song of birds is not agreed upon +by ornithologists, and we will not now think of it, but +merely in passing note how singularly timed the song +of the robin is. The blackbird, and the thrush, in mild +seasons, will sing occasionally throughout the winter; +but the robin, after having been absent all the summer, +returns to us late in autumn, and then commences its +song, when most others of our feathered choristers are +silent. An apparent contention in harmony ensues +among them; at length the rivals approach, menace, +and fight, with a seeming vexation at each other’s prowess. +The song of no one bird is, perhaps, more observed +and remembered than the autumnal and, at times, +melancholy sounding farewell of the robin.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The chaffinch (fringilla cœlebs) appears to be universally +spread throughout the English counties, and +the male bird is remarkable for the cleanliness and +trimness of his plumage, which, without having any +great variety or splendor of coloring, is so composed +and arranged, and the white on his wings so brilliant, +as to render him a very beautiful little creature. The +female is as remarkable for the quiet, unobtrusive tintings +of her dress; and, when she lies crouching on her +nest, elegantly formed of lichens from the bark of the +apple tree, and faded mosses, she would hardly be perceptible, +but for her little bright eyes, that peep with +suspicious vigilance from her covert. With us the sexes +do not separate at any period of the year, the flocks +frequenting our barn doors and homesteads in winter +being composed of both. In the northern parts of Europe, +however, the females are said to migrate to milder +regions, which induced Linnæus to bestow the name +of “cœlebs” upon this species. In Gloucestershire +and some of the neighboring counties, they are little +known by the name of chaffinches; but, from the constant +repetition of one note, when alarmed or in danger, +they have acquired the name of “twinks,” and “pinks;” +yet during incubation the song of the male bird, though +<span class='pageno' id='Page_117'>117</span>without any variation of tune, is very pleasing in the +general concert, as most vernal notes, if not harsh and +wearisome from monotony, are. These birds make sad +havoc with some of our spring flowers; and the polyanthus, +in March, in our sheltered borders, is very +commonly stripped of all its blossoms by these little +plunderers, I suppose to obtain the immature seeds at +the base of their tubes. They will deflorate too the +spikes or whorls of the little red archangel (lamium +purpureum); and we see them feeding in the waste +places where this plant is found in the spring, their little +mouths being filled with the green seeds of this dead +nettle. At this period too they are sad plunderers in +our kitchen gardens, and most dexterously draw up our +young turnips and radishes, as soon as they appear upon +the surface of the soil; but after this all depredation +ceases, the rest of their days being past in sportive innocence. +I have observed these birds, in very hot seasons, +to wet their eggs, by discharging moisture from +their bills upon them, or at least perform an operation +that appeared to be so.</p> + +<p class='c011'>We still continue here that very ancient custom of +giving parish rewards for the destruction of various +creatures included in the denomination of vermin. In +former times it may have been found necessary to keep +under or reduce the numbers of many predaceous animals, +which in a thickly wooded country, with an inferior +population, might have been productive of injury; +and we even find parliamentary statutes enacted for this +purpose: but now, however, our losses by such means +have become a very petty grievance; our gamekeepers +do their part in removing pests of this nature, and the +plow and the ax leave little harbor for the few that escape; +and thus we war on the smaller races of creation, +and call them vermin. An item passed in one of our +late church-wardens’ accounts was, “for seventeen +dozen of tom-tits’ heads!” In what evil hour, and for +what crime, this poor little bird (parus cæruleus) could +have incurred the anathema of a parish, it is difficult to +conjecture. I know hardly any small animal that lives +a more precarious life than the little blue tom-tit. Indeed +<span class='pageno' id='Page_118'>118</span>it is marvellous how any of the insectivorous birds, +that pass their winter with us, are supplied with food +during inclement seasons, unless they have greater +powers of abstinence than we are aware of: but our +small birds are generally much more active than those +of a larger bulk; the common wren is all animation, its +actions and movements bespeak hilarity and animal +spirits; and that minute creature, too, the golden-crested +wren, is always in motion, flitting from the yew hedge +to the fir, or darting away to taller trees with a spring +and a power we could not expect from its size. These +muscular exertions must greatly counteract the effects +of seasons, and enable these atoms of animals to support +so cheerfully and gaily the winters of our climate. +But in truth this tom-tit perishes in severe winters in +great numbers. It roosts under the eaves of our haystacks, +and in little holes of the mows, where we often +find it dead, perished by cold or hunger, or conjointly +by both; yet the race survives, and this annual waste +is recruited by the prolificacy of the creature, the nest +of which will frequently contain from seven to nine +young ones. Its chief subsistence is insects, which it +hunts out with unwearied perseverance. It peeps into +the nail-holes of our walls, which, though closed by the +cobweb, will not secrete the spider within; and draws +out the chrysalis of the cabbage butterfly from the +chinks in the barn: but a supply of such food is precarious, +and becomes exhausted. It then resorts to our +yards, and picks diminutive morsels from some rejected +bone, or scraps from the butcher’s stall: yet this is the +result of necessity, not choice; for no sooner is other +food attainable, than it retires to its woods and thickets. +In summer it certainly will regale itself with our garden +pease, and shells a pod of marrowfats with great dexterity; +but this, we believe, is the extent of its criminality. +Yet for this venial indulgence do we proscribe +it, rank it with vermin, and set a price upon its head, +giving four-pence for the dozen, probably the ancient +payment when the groat was a coin. However powerful +the stimulus was then, we yet find it a sufficient inducement +<span class='pageno' id='Page_119'>119</span>to our idle bat-fowling boys to bring baskets +of poor toms’ heads to our church-warden’s door.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The wiles and stratagems of every creature are deserving +of attention, because they are, for the most part, +the impulse of the weak and feeble, instinctive efforts +to preserve their own existence, or more generally to +secure or defend that of their offspring. Few are able +to effect these objects by bodily power; but all creatures +probably exert a faculty of some kind, to ward +off injury from their young, though not observed by, or +manifested to us. This poor little blue tom-tit, which has +neither beak, claws, nor any portion of strength to defend +itself from the weakest assailant, will nevertheless +make trial by menace to scare the intruder from its +nest. It builds almost universally in the hole of a wall, +or a tree; and its size enables it to creep through so +small a crevice, that it is pretty well secured from all +annoyances, but those of bird-nesting boys; and these +little plunderers the sitting bird endeavors to scare +away, by hissing and puffing in a very extraordinary +manner from the bottom of the hole, as soon as a finger +is introduced, and so perfectly unlike the usual voice +of a bird, that many a young intruder is deterred +from prosecuting any farther search, lest he should rouse +the vengeance of some lurking snake or adder.</p> + +<p class='c011'>They who have seen much of birds, and attended to +their actions, will in general be certain of the creature +that flits past, by the manner of its flight; or that utters +its note unseen by the peculiarity of voice; but the +tribe of titmice<a id='r47'></a><a href='#f47' class='c014'><sup>[47]</sup></a> (parus), especially in the spring of the +year, emit such a variety of sounds, that they will occasionally +surprise and disappoint us. Hearing an unusual +voice, and creeping with caution to observe the +stranger from which it proceeds, we perceive only our +old acquaintance, the large tom-tit (parus major), searching +for food amid the lichens on the bough of an apple-tree. +This bird, and that little dark species the “coal,” +or “colemouse” (parus ater), in particular, will often +acquire or compound a note, become delighted with it, +and repeat it incessantly while sporting about the catkins +<span class='pageno' id='Page_120'>120</span>of the alder, for an hour or so, then seem to forget +or be weary of it, and we hear it no more.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Our tall hedge-rows and copses are frequented by a +very amusing little bird, the long-tailed titmouse (parus +caudatus). Our boys call it the long-tailed tom-tit, long +tom, poke-pudding, and various other names. It seems +the most restless of little creatures, and is all day long +in a state of progression from tree to tree, from hedge +to hedge, jerking through the air with its long tail like +a ball of feathers, or threading the branches of a tree, +several following each other in a little stream; the +leading bird uttering a shrill cry of twĭt, twĭt, twĭt, and +away they all scuttle to be first, stop for a second, and +then are away again, observing the same order and precipitation +the whole day long. The space travelled by +these diminutive creatures in the course of their progresses +from the first move till the evening roost must +be considerable; yet, by their constant alacrity and +animation, they appear fully equal to their daily task. +We have no bird more remarkable for its family association +than this parus. It is never seen alone, the +young ones continuing to accompany each other from +the period of their hatching until their pairing in spring. +Its food is entirely insects, which it seeks among mosses +and lichens, the very smallest being captured by the +diminutive bill of this creature. Its nest is as singular +in construction as the bird itself. Even in years long +passed away, when, a nesting boy, I strung my plunder +on the benty grass, it was my admiration; and I never +see it now without secretly lauding the industry of these +tiny architects. It is shaped like a bag, and externally +fabricated of moss and different herbaceous lichens, +collected chiefly from the sloe (lichen prunastri), and +the maple (lichen farinaceus); but the inside contains +such a profusion of feathers, that it seems rather filled +than lined with them, a perfect feather-bed! I remember +finding fourteen or sixteen pealike eggs within this +downy covert, and many more were reported to have +been found. The excessive labor of the parent birds +in the construction and collection of this mass of materials +is exceeded by none that I know of; and the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_121'>121</span>exertions of two little creatures in providing for, and +feeding, with all the incumbrances of feathers and tails, +fourteen young ones, in such a situation, surpasses in +diligence and ingenuity the efforts of any other birds, +persevering as they are, that I am acquainted with.</p> + +<p class='c011'>We might naturally suppose that by the end of winter, +all those little birds which are solely supported by insect +food would find some difficulty in providing for +their wants, having consumed by their numbers and +exertions nearly all that store of provision which had +been provided in the summer and deposited in safety; +but I have found the stomachs of the tree-creeper, and +this small titmouse, even in February, quite filled with +parts of coleopterous creatures, which by their activity +and perseverance they had been enabled to procure beneath +the mosses on the branches, and from the chinks +in the bark of trees, where they had retired in autumn. +Such plenty being procurable after the supply of so +many months, renders it apparent that there is no actual +deficiency of food at any one period of the year. The +small slugs, and some few insects, may perhaps be consumed +by the severity of winter, but the larger portion +of them are so constituted, as to derive no injury from +the inclemency of that season, but afford during many +months provender to other creatures, multitudes yet +remaining to continue their races and animate the air, +when the warm days of spring shall waken them to +active life.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The construction and selected situations of the nests +of birds are as remarkable, as the variety of materials +employed in them; the same forms, places, and articles, +being rarely, perhaps never, found united by the different +species, which we should suppose similar necessities +would direct to a uniform provision. Birds that +build early in the spring seem to require warmth and +shelter for their young, and the blackbird and the thrush +line their nests with a plaster of loam, perfectly excluding, +by these cottage-like walls, the keen icy gales +of our opening year; yet should accident bereave the +parents of their first hopes, they will construct another, +even when summer is far advanced, upon the model +<span class='pageno' id='Page_122'>122</span>of their first erection, and with the same precautions +against severe weather, when all necessity for such +provision has ceased, and the usual temperature of the +season rather requiring coolness and a free circulation +of air. The house-sparrow will commonly build four +or five times in the year, and in a variety of situations, +under the warm eaves of our houses and our sheds, the +branch of the clustered fir, or the thick tall hedge that +bounds our garden, &c.; in all which places, and without +the least consideration of site or season, it will collect +a great mass of straws and hay, and gather a profusion +of feathers from the poultry-yard to line its nest. +This cradle for its young, whether under our tiles in +March or in July, when the parent bird is panting in +the common heat of the atmosphere, has the same provision +made to afford warmth to the brood; yet this is +a bird that is little affected by any of the extremes of +our climate. The wood-pigeon and the jay, though +they erect their fabrics on the tall underwood in the +open air, will construct them so slightly, and with such +a scanty provision of materials, that they seem scarcely +adequate to support their broods, and even their eggs +may almost be seen through the loosely connected +materials: but the goldfinch, that inimitable spinner, +the Arachnè of the grove, forms its cradle of fine +mosses and lichens, collected from the apple or the +pear-tree, compact as a felt, lining it with the down of +thistles besides, till it is as warm as any texture of the +kind can be, and it becomes a model for beautiful construction. +The golden-crested wren, a minute creature, +perfectly unmindful of any severity in our winter, and +which hatches its young in June, the warmer portion +of our year, yet builds its most beautiful nest with the +utmost attention to warmth; and, interweaving small +branches of moss with the web of the spider, forms a +closely compacted texture nearly an inch in thickness, +lining it with such a profusion of feathers, that, sinking +deep into this downy accumulation, it seems almost lost +itself when sitting, and the young, when hatched, appear +stifled with the warmth of their bedding and the +heat of their apartment; while the whitethroat, the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_123'>123</span>blackcap, and others, which will hatch their young +nearly at the same period, or in July, will require nothing +of the kind. A few loose bents and goose-grass, +rudely entwined with perhaps the luxury of some scattered +hairs, are perfectly sufficient for all the wants of +these; yet they are birds that live only in genial temperatures, +feel nothing of the icy gales that are natural +to our pretty indigenous artists, but flit from sun to sun +and we might suppose would require much warmth in +our climate during the season of incubation; but it is +not so. The green-finch places its nest in the hedge +with little regard to concealment; its fabric is slovenly +and rude, and the materials of the coarsest kinds: while +the chaffinch, just above it in the elm, hides its nest +with cautious care, and moulds it with the utmost attention +to order, neatness, and form. One bird must have +a hole in the ground; to another a crevice in a wall, or +a chink in a tree, is indispensable. The bull-finch requires +fine roots for its nest; the gray flycatcher will +have cobwebs for the outworks of its shed. All the +parus tribe, except the individual above-mentioned, +select some hollow in a tree or cranny in a wall, and, +sheltered as such places must be, yet will they collect +abundance of feathers and warm materials for their infants’ +beds. Endless examples might be found of the +dissimilarity of requirements in these constructions +among the several associates of our groves, our hedges, +and our houses; and yet the supposition cannot be entertained +for a moment that they are superfluous, or not +essential for some purpose with which we are unacquainted.<a id='r48'></a><a href='#f48' class='c014'><sup>[48]</sup></a> +By how many of the ordinations of supreme +<span class='pageno' id='Page_124'>124</span>intelligence is our ignorance made manifest! Even +the fabrication of the nests of these little animals exceeds +our comprehension—we know none of the causes +or motives of that unbodied mind that willed them +thus.</p> + +<p class='c011'>One notice more of the parus tribe (the parus cæruleus), +and these little creatures may retire to their leafy +shades and be forgotten. I was lately exceedingly +pleased in witnessing the maternal care and intelligence +of this bird; for the poor thing had its young ones in +the hole of a wall, and the nest had been nearly all +drawn out of the crevice by the paw of a cat, and part +of its brood devoured. In revisiting its family, the bird +discovered a portion of it remaining, though wrapped +up and hidden in the tangled moss and feathers of their +bed, and it then drew the whole of the nest back into +the place from whence it had been taken, unrolled and +resettled the remaining little ones, fed them with the +usual attentions, and finally succeeded in rearing them. +The parents of even this reduced family labored with +great perseverance to supply its wants, one or the other +of them bringing a grub, caterpillar, or some insect, at +intervals of less than a minute through the day, and +probably in the earlier part of the morning more frequently; +but if we allow that they brought food to the +hole every minute for fourteen hours, and provided for +their own wants also, it will admit of perhaps a thousand +grubs a day for the requirements of one, and that a diminished +brood; and give us some comprehension of +the infinite number requisite for the summer nutriment +of our soft-billed birds, and the great distances gone +over by such as have young ones, in their numerous +trips from hedge to tree in the hours specified, when +they have full broods to support. A climate of moisture +<span class='pageno' id='Page_125'>125</span>and temperature like ours is peculiarly favorable +for the production of insect food, which would in some +seasons be particularly injurious, were we not visited +by such numbers of active little friends to consume it.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The raven (corvus corax) does not build with us. A +pair indeed attempted to raise a brood in our wych elm; +but they love retirement and quiet, and were soon +scared away, and made no second trial. Ravens visit +us, however, frequently, and always during the lambing +season, watching for any weak and deserted creature, +which, when perceived, is instantly deprived of its eyes; +but they make no long stay in our pastures. They +abide nowhere in fact, but move from place to place, +where food may chance to be found. Should an animal +die, or a limb of fresh carrion be on the hooks in the +tree, the hoarse croak of the raven is sure immediately +to be heard, calling his congeners to the banquet. We +see it daily in its progress of inspection, or high in the +air on a transit to other regions, hastening, we conjecture, +to some distant prey. With the exception of the +snipe, no bird seems more universally spread over the +surface of our globe than the raven, inhabiting every +zone, the hot, the temperate, the severe—feeding upon, +and removing noxious substances from the earth, of +which it obtains intimation by means of a faculty we +have little conception of. Sight it cannot be; and we +know not of any fetor escaping from an animal previous +to putrescence, so subtile as to call these scavengers +of nature from the extremity of one county to that +of another; for it is manifest, from the height which +they preserve in their flight, and the haste they are +making, that their departure has been from some far +distant station, having a remote and urgent object in +contemplation.</p> + +<p class='c011'>In England the raven does not seem to abound; but +it is most common on the shores of harbors, or near +great rivers, where animal substances are more frequently +to be met with than in inland places. In +Greenland, and Iceland, where putrescent fishy substances +abound, they appear to be almost domesticated. +Horace calls the raven “<i>annosa cornix</i>;” and in a tame +<span class='pageno' id='Page_126'>126</span>state it has attained a very long life. How long extended +its existence may be, when roaming in an unrestricted +state, we have no means of ascertaining. +This liberty may be most favorable to longevity; yet, +from the numerous contingencies attending the condition +of these creatures, it is probable that few of them live +out all their days, so as to become the “bird of ages.” +However, the supposed longevity they have attained, +their frequent mention and agency in holy writ, the obscure +knowledge we possess of their powers and motives, +with the gravity of their deportment, like an “all-knowing +bird,” have acquired for them, from very remote +periods, the veneration of mankind. The changes +in our manners and ideas, in respect to many things, +have certainly deprived them of much of this reverence; +yet the almost supernatural information which they obtain +of the decease, or approaching dissolution, of an +animal, claims still some admiration for them. This +supposed faculty of “smelling death” formerly rendered +their presence, or even their voice, ominous to +all, as</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c003'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>“The hateful messengers of heavy things,</div> + <div class='line'>Of death and dolor telling;”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c012'>and the unusual sound of their harsh croak, still, when +illness is in the house, with some timid and affectionate +persons, brings old fancies to remembrance, savoring +of terror and alarm. I am no friend to the superstition +of converting natural transactions, or occasional events, +into signs and indications of coming things; superstitions +are wearing out, and shortly will waste away, and +be no more heard of; but I fear, in their place, deism, +infidelity, impiety, have started up, the offspring of intuitive +wisdom: the first belief arises from weakness +and ignorance; the latter disbelief is ingratitude, pride, +wickedness.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Of the natural duration of animal life it is, from +many circumstances, difficult to form an accurate statement, +the wild creatures being in great measure removed +from observation, and those in a condition of +domestication being seldom permitted to live as long +as their bodily strength would allow. It was formerly +<span class='pageno' id='Page_127'>127</span>supposed that the length of animal life was in proportion +to its duration in utero, or the space it remained in the +parent from conception to birth, and the length of time +it required to obtain maturity. This notion might have +some support in reason and fact, occasionally, but in +many cases was incorrect, and in regard to birds had no +foundation. Herbivorous animals probably live longer +than carnivorous ones, vegetable food being most easily +obtainable in all seasons in a regular and requisite supply; +whereas animals that subsist on flesh, or by the +capture of prey, are necessitated at one period to pine +without food, and at another are gorged with superfluity: +and when the bodily powers of rapacious creatures become +impaired, existence is difficult to support, and +gradually ceases; but with herbivorous animals in the +same condition, supply is not equally precarious, or +wholly denied. Yet it is probable that few animals in +a perfectly wild state live to a natural extinction of life. +In a state of domestication, the small number of carnivorous +creatures about us are sheltered and fed with +care, seldom are in want of proper food, and at times +are permitted to await a gradual decay, continuing as +long as nature permits; and by such attentions many +have attained to a great age; but this is rather an artificial +than a natural existence. Our herbivorous animals, +being kept mostly for profit, are seldom allowed +to remain beyond approaching age; and when its advances +trench upon our emoluments by diminishing the +supply of utility, we remove them. The uses of the +horse, though time may reduce them, are often protracted; +and our gratitude for past services, or interest in +what remains, prompts us to support his life by prepared +food of easy digestion, or requiring little mastication, +and he certainly by such means attains to a longevity +probably beyond the contingencies of nature. I have +still a favorite pony—for she has been a faithful and +able performer of all the duties required of her in my +service for upwards of two-and-twenty years—and, +though now above five-and-twenty years of age, retains +all her powers perfectly, without any diminution or +symptom of decrepitude; the fineness of limb, brilliancy +<span class='pageno' id='Page_128'>128</span>of eye, and ardor of spirit, are those of the colt +and though treated with no remarkable care, she has +never been disabled by the illness of a day, or sickened +by the drench of the farrier. With birds it is probably +the same as with other creatures, and the eagle, the +raven, the parrot, &c., in a domestic state attain great +longevity; and though we suppose them naturally tenacious +of life, yet, in a really wild state, they would +probably expire before the period which they attain +when under our attention and care. And this is much +the case with man who probably outlives most other +creatures; for though excess may often shorten, and +disease or misfortune terminate his days, yet naturally +he is a long-lived animal. His “threescore years and +ten” are often prolonged by constitutional strength, +and by the cares, the loves, the charities, of human +nature. As the decay of his powers awakens solicitude, +duty and affection increase their attentions, and the +spark of life only expires when the material is exhausted.</p> + +<p class='c011'>That rare bird the crossbill (loxia curvirostra) occasionally +visits the orchards in our neighborhood, coming +in little parties to feed upon the seeds of the apple; +and, seldom as it appears, is always noticed by the mischief +it does to the fruit, by cutting it asunder with its +well-constructed mandibles, in order to obtain the kernels. +A native of those extensive pine forests in the +neighborhood of the Rhine, it makes excursions into +various parts of Europe in search of change of food; +and, though several instances are recorded of its visits +to our island, I know but one mention of its having +bred in England. A pair was brought to me very early +in August, and the breast of the female being nearly +bare of feathers, as is observable in sitting birds, it is +very probable that she had a nest in the neighborhood.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Gesner has called the common rook (corvus frugilegus) +a corn-eating bird. Linnæus has somewhat +lightened this epithet by considering it only as a gatherer +of corn; to neither of which names do I believe +it entitled, as it appears to live solely upon grubs, +various insects, and worms. It has at times great difficulty +<span class='pageno' id='Page_129'>129</span>to support its life, for in a dry spring or summer +most of these are hidden in the earth beyond its reach, +except at those uncertain periods when the grub of the +chaffer is to be found; and in a hot day we see the +poor birds perambulating the fields, and wandering by +the sides of the highways, seeking for, and feeding +upon grasshoppers, or any casual nourishment that may +be found. At those times, was it not for its breakfast +of dew-worms, which it catches in the gray of the morning, +as it is appointed the earliest of risers, it would +commonly be famished. In the hot summer of 1825, +many of the young brood of the season perished from +want; the mornings were without dew, and consequently +few or no worms were to be obtained; and we +found them dead under the trees, having expired on +their roostings. It was particularly distressing, for no +relief could be given, to hear the constant clamor and +importunity of the young for food. The old birds +seemed to suffer without complaint; but the wants of +their offspring were expressed by the unceasing cry of +hunger, and pursuit of the parents for supply, and our +fields were scenes of daily restlessness and lament. +Yet, amid all this distress, it was pleasing to observe +the perseverance of the old birds in the endeavor to relieve +their famishing families, as many of them remained +out searching for food quite in the dusk, and returned +to their roosts long after the usual period for retiring. +In this extremity it becomes a plunderer, to which by +inclination it is not much addicted, and resorts to our +newly-set potato-fields, digging out the cuttings. Ranks +are seen sadly defective, the result of its labors, I fear; +and the request of my neighbors now and then for a +bird from my rookery, to hang up <i>in terrorem</i> in their +fields, is confirmatory of its bad name. In autumn a +ripe pear, or a walnut, becomes an irresistible temptation, +and it will occasionally obtain a good share of +these fruits. In hard frost, it is pinched again, visits +for food the banks of streams, and in conjunction with +its congener the “villain crow,” becomes a wayfaring +bird, and seeks a dole from every passing steed. Its +life, however, is not always dark and sombre: it has its +<span class='pageno' id='Page_130'>130</span>periods of festivity also. When the waters retire from +meadows and low lands, where they have remained any +time, a luxurious banquet is provided for this corvus, +in the multitude of worms which it finds drowned on +them. But its jubilee is the season of the cockchaffer +(melolantha vulgaris), when every little copse, every +oak, becomes animated with it and all its noisy, joyful +family feeding and scrambling for the insect food. The +power or faculty, be it by the scent, or by other means, +that rooks possess of discovering their food, is very +remarkable. I have often observed them alight on a +pasture of uniform verdure, and exhibiting no sensible +appearance of withering or decay, and immediately +commence stocking up the ground. Upon investigating +the object of their operations, I have found many heads +of plantains, the little autumnal dandelions, and other +plants, drawn out of the ground and scattered about, +their roots having been eaten off by a grub, leaving +only a crown of leaves upon the surface. This grub +beneath, in the earth, the rooks had detected in their +flight, and descended to feed on it, first pulling up the +plant which concealed it, and then drawing the larvæ from +their holes. By what intimation this bird had discovered +its hidden food we are at a loss to conjecture; but the +rook has always been supposed to scent matters with +great discrimination.</p> + +<p class='c011'>It is but simple justice to these often censured birds, +to mention the service that they at times perform for us +in our pasture lands. There is no plant that I endeavor +to root out with more persistency in these places than +the turfy hair-grass (aira cæspitosa). It abounds in all +the colder parts of our grass lands, increasing greatly +when undisturbed, and, worthless itself, overpowers its +more valuable neighbors. The larger turfs we pretty +well get rid of; but multitudes of small roots are so +interwoven with the pasture herbage, that we cannot +separate them without injury; and these our persevering +rooks stock up for us in such quantities, that in +some seasons the fields are strewed with the eradicated +plants. The whole so torn up does not exclusively +prove to be the hair-grass, but infinitely the larger +<span class='pageno' id='Page_131'>131</span>portion consists of this injurious plant. The object of +the bird in performing this service for us is to obtain the +larvæ of several species of insects, underground feeders, +that prey on the roots, as Linnæus long ago observed +upon the subject of the little nard grass (nardus stricta). +This benefit is partly a joint operation: the grub eats +the root, but not often so effectually as to destroy the +plant, which easily roots itself anew; but the rook +finishes the affair by pulling it up to get at the larvæ, +and thus prevents all vegetation; nor do I believe that +the bird ever removes a specimen that has not already +been eaten, or commenced upon, by the caterpillar.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The rook entices its young from the breeding trees, +as soon as they can flutter to any other. These young, +for a few evenings after their flight, will return with +their parents, and roost where they were bred; but +they soon quit their abode, and remain absent the whole +of the summer months. As soon however as the heat +of summer is subdued, and the air of autumn felt, +they return and visit their forsaken habitations, and +some few of them even commence the repair of their +shattered nests; but this meeting is very differently +conducted from that in the spring; their voices have +now a mellowness approaching to musical, with little +admixture of that harsh and noisy contention, so distracting +at the former season, and seems more like a +grave consultation upon future procedure; and as winter +approaches they depart for some other place. The +object of this meeting is unknown; nor are we aware +that any other bird revisits the nest it has once forsaken. +Domestic fowls, indeed, make use again of their old +nests; but this is never, or only occasionally, done by +birds in a wild state. The daw and rock-pigeon will +build in society with their separate kindred: and the +former even revisits in autumn the places it had nestled +in. But such situations as these birds require, the ruined +castle, abbey, or church tower, ledge in the rock, &c., +are not universally found, and are apparently occupied +from necessity. The rooks appear to associate from +preference to society, as trees are common everywhere; +but what motive they can have in view in lingering +<span class='pageno' id='Page_132'>132</span>thus for a few autumnal mornings and counselling with +each other around their abandoned and now useless +nests, which before the return of spring are generally +beaten from the trees, is by no means manifest to us.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The sense of smelling seems often to supply in +animals the want of faculties they are not gifted with; +and it is this power which directs them to their food +with greater certainty, than the discernment of man +could do. That we have every faculty given us necessary +for the condition in which we are placed, is manifest; +yet the mechanical talents and intuition of the +insect, the powers that birds and beasts possess, and +the superior acuteness of some of their senses, of which, +perhaps, we have little conception, makes it evident +that all created things were equally the objects of their +Maker’s benevolence and care; the worm that creepeth, +and the beast that perisheth, deserve our consideration, +and claim from human reason mercy and compassion.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The tall tangled hedge-row, the fir grove, or the old, +well-wooded inclosure, constitutes the delight of the +magpie (corvus pica), as there alone its large and dark +nest has any chance of escaping observation. We here +annually deprive it of these asylums, and it leaves us; +but it does not seem to be a bird that increases much +anywhere. As it generally lays eight or ten eggs, and +is a very wary and cunning creature, avoiding all appearance +of danger, it might be supposed that it would +yearly become more numerous. Upon particular occasions +we see a few of them collect; but the general +spread is diminished, and as population advances, the +few that escape will retire from the haunts and persecutions +of man. These birds will occasionally plunder +the nests of some few others; and we find in early +spring the eggs of our out-laying domestic fowls frequently +dropped about, robbed of their contents. That +the pie is a party concerned in these thefts, we cannot +deny, but to the superior audacity of the crow we attribute +our principal injury. However the magpie may +feed on the eggs of others, it is particularly careful to +guard its own nest from similar injuries by covering +it with an impenetrable canopy of thorns, and is our +<span class='pageno' id='Page_133'>133</span>only bird that uses such a precaution, securing it from +all common depredation, though not from the hand of +the bird-nesting boy. When a hatch is effected, the +number of young demand a larger quantity of food +than is easily obtained, and whole broods of our ducklings, +whenever they stray from the yard, are conveyed +to the nest. But still the “magot” is not an unuseful +bird, as it frees our pastures of incredible numbers of +grubs and slugs, which lodge themselves under the +crusts formed by the dung of cattle. These the birds +with their strong beaks turn over, and catch the lurking +animals beneath, and then break them to search for +more; by which means, during the winter they will +spread the entire droppings in the fields; and by spring +I have had, especially under the hedges, all this labor +saved to me by these assiduous animals.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Natural affection, the love of offspring, is particularly +manifested in birds; for in general they are timid and +weak creatures, flying from apprehended dangers, and +endowed with little or no power of defending themselves; +but they will menace when injury is threatened +to their brood, and incur dangers in order to obtain +food for their young, that they will encounter in no +other period of their lives.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The common jay (corvus glandarius) affords a good +example of this temporary departure from general character. +This bird is always extremely timid and cautious, +when its own interest or safety is solely concerned; but +no sooner does its hungry brood clamor for supply, than +it loses all this wary character, and becomes a bold and +impudent thief. At this period it will visit our gardens +which it rarely approaches at other times, plunder them +of every raspberry, cherry, or bean, that it can obtain; +and will not cease from rapine as long as any of the +brood or the crop remains. We see all the nestlings approach, +and, settling near some meditated scene of +plunder, quietly await a summons to commence. A +parent bird from some tree surveys the ground, then +descends upon the cherry, or into the rows, immediately +announces a discovery by a low but particular call, and +all the family flock in to the banquet, which having +<span class='pageno' id='Page_134'>134</span>finished by repeated visits, the old birds return to the +woods, with all their chattering children, and become +the same wild, cautious creatures they were before. +Some of our birds separate from their broods, as soon +as they are able to provide for themselves; but the jay +and its family associate during all the autumn and +winter months, taking great delight in each other’s +company, and only separate to become founders of new +establishments. We see them in winter under the shelter +of tall hedges, or on the sunny sides of woods and +copses, seeking amid the dry leaves for acorns, or the +crab, to pick out the seeds, or for the worms and grubs +hidden under cowdung; feeding in perfect silence, yet +so timid and watchful, that they seldom permit the +sportsman to approach them. When disturbed, they +take shelter in the depth of the thicket, calling to each +other with a harsh and loud voice, that resounds through +the covert. The Welsh call this creature “<i>screch y +coed</i>,” the screamer of the wood. The jay is a very +heavy, inelegant bird. Its general plumage is sober and +plain, though its fine browns harmoniously blend with +each other: but the beautiful blue-barred feathers, that +form the greater coverts of the wings, distinguish it +from every other bird, and, in the days when featherwork +was in favor with our fair countrywomen, were in +such request, that every gamekeeper, and schoolboy +brother with his Christmas gun, persecuted the poor +jay through all his retirements, to obtain his wings.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The great shrike, or butcher-bird (lanius excubitor), +is not uncommon with us, and breeds annually near my +dwelling. It is one of our late birds of passage, but its +arrival is soon made known to us by its croaking, unmusical +voice from the summit of some tree. Its nest +is large and ill-concealed; and during the season of +incubation the male bird is particularly vigilant and +uneasy at any approach towards his sitting mate, though +often by his clamorous anxiety he betrays it and her to +every bird-nesting boy. The female, when the eggs are +hatched, unites her vociferations with those of the male, +and facilitates the detection of the brood. Both parents +are very assiduous in their attentions to their offspring, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_135'>135</span>feeding them long after they have left the nest; for the +young appear to be heavy, inactive birds, and little able +to capture the winged insects, that constitute their +principal food. I could never observe that this bird +destroyed others smaller than itself, or even fed upon +flesh. I have hung up dead young birds, and even parts +of them, near their nests; but never found that they +were touched by the shrike. Yet it appears that it +must be a butcher too; and that the name “<i>lanius</i>,” +bestowed on it by Gesner two hundred and fifty years +ago, was not lightly given. My neighbor’s gamekeeper +kills it as a bird of prey; and tells me he has known it +draw the weak young pheasants through the bars of the +breeding coops; and others have assured me that they +have killed them when banqueting on the carcass of +some little bird they had captured. All small birds +have an antipathy to the shrike, betray anger, and utter +the moan of danger, when it approaches their nest. I +have often heard this signal of distress, and, cautiously +approaching to learn the cause, have frequently found +that this butcher-bird occasioned it. They will mob, +attack, and drive it away, as they do the owl, as if fully +acquainted with its plundering propensities. Linnæus +attached to it the trivial epithet “<i>excubitor</i>,” a sentinel; +a very apposite appellation, as this bird seldom conceals +itself in a bush, but sits perched upon some upper +spray, or in an open situation, heedful of danger, or +watching for its prey. This shrike must be most mischievously +inclined, if not a predatory bird.—May 23d:—A +pair of robins have young ones in a bank near my +dwelling: the anxiety and vociferation of the poor +things have three times this day called my attention to +the cause of their distress, and each time have I seen +this bird watching near the place, or stealing away upon +my approach; and then the tumult of the parents subsided; +but had they not experienced injury, or been +aware that it was meditated, all this terror and outcry +would not have been excited.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Many birds are arranged in our British ornithology +not known as permanent inhabitants, but which have +occasionally visited our shores during inclement seasons, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_136'>136</span>or been driven from their general stations by tempestuous +weather. An event like this, the violent gale of +All-hallows eve, in 1824, brought to us the stormy +petrel<a id='r49'></a><a href='#f49' class='c014'><sup>[49]</sup></a> (procellaria pelagica); a bird that resides far in +the depths of the ocean, does not approach our shores, +it is believed, except for the purposes of incubation, +and we know only one place, the Isle of Sky, that it +haunts even for this short period. It is a creature</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c003'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>——“that roams on her sea-wing,</div> + <div class='line'>Unfatigued, and ever sleeps,</div> + <div class='line'>Calm, upon the toiling deeps.”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c011'>It is a pretty good manifestation of the strength and +extent of that hurricane, which could catch up a bird +with a wing so powerful as to enable it to riot in the +whirlwind and enjoy the storm, and bear it away irresistibly, +perhaps, from the Atlantic waves, over such a +space of land and ocean, and then dash it down on a +rather elevated common in this parish, whence it was +brought to me in a very perfect state. This little creature, +scarcely as big again as a swallow, and the smallest +of all our web-footed birds, has, like all the others of +its genus, that extraordinary tube on its upper mandible, +through which it spirts out an oily matter when +irritated; but the real object of this singular provision +seems unknown. Our seamen amuse themselves during +the monotony of a voyage with the vagaries of “mother +Carey’s chickens,” as they have from very early times +called this bird. The petrels seem to repose in a common +breeze, but upon the approach, or during the continuation, +of a gale, they surround a ship, and catch up +the small animals which the agitated ocean brings near +the surface, or any food that may be dropped from the +vessel. Whisking with the celerity of an arrow through +the deep valleys of the abyss, and darting away over +the foaming crest of some mountain wave, they attend +the laboring bark in all her perilous course. When the +storm subsides they retire to rest, and are no more seen. +The presence of this petrel was thought in times past +to predict a storm, and it was consequently looked upon +as an unwelcome visitant.</p> + +<p class='c011'><span class='pageno' id='Page_137'>137</span>The wryneck (jynx torquilla) visits us annually, but +in very uncertain numbers, and, from some unknown +cause, or local changes, in yearly diminishing quantities. +In one short season after its arrival we hear its singular +monotonous note at intervals through half the day. +This ceases, and we think no more about it, as it continues +perfectly mute; not a twit or a chirp escapes to +remind us of its presence during all the remainder of +its sojourn with us, except the maternal note or hush +of danger, which is a faint, low, protracted hissing, as +the female sits clinging by the side or on the stump of +a tree. Shy and unusually timid, as if all its life were +spent in the deepest retirement away from man, it remains +through the day on some ditch-bank, or basks +with seeming enjoyment, in any sunny hour, on the +ant-hills nearest to its retreat; and these it depopulates +for food, by means of its long glutinous tongue, which +with the insects collects much of the soil of the heaps, +as we find a much larger portion of grit in its stomach +than is usually met with in that of other birds. When +disturbed it escapes by a flight precipitate and awkward, +hides itself from our sight, and, were not its haunts +and habits known, we should never conjecture that this +bustling fugitive was our long-forgotten spring visitant +the wryneck. The winter or spring of 1818 was, from +some unknown cause, singularly unfavorable for this +bird. It generally arrives before the middle of April; +and its vernal note, so unlike that of any of its companions, +announces its presence throughout all the mild +mornings of this month, and part of the following; but +during the spring of that year it was perfectly silent, or +absent from us. The season, it is true, was unusually +cheerless and ungenial.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Some of our birds are annually diminishing in numbers; +others have been entirely destroyed, or no longer +visit the shores of Britain. The increase of our population, +inclosure, and clearage of rude and open places, +and the drainage of marshy lands, added to the noise +of our fire-arms, have driven them away, or rendered +their former breeding and feeding stations no longer +eligible to many, especially to the waders and aquatic +<span class='pageno' id='Page_138'>138</span>birds. The great Swan Pool, near the city of Lincoln, +on which I have seen at one time forty of these majestic +creatures sailing in all their dignity, is, I am told, no +longer a pool; the extensive marshes of Glastonbury, +which have afforded me the finest snipe shooting, are +now luxuriant corn farms; and multitudes of other +cases of such subversions of harbor for birds are within +memory. An ornithological list made no longer ago +than the days of Elizabeth would present the names of +multitudes now aliens to our shores. The nightingale +was common with us here a few years past; the rival +songs of many were heard every evening during the +season, and in most of our shady lanes we were saluted +by the harsh warning note of the parent to its young; +but from the assiduity of bird-catchers, or some local +change that we are not sensible of, a solitary vocalist +or so now only delights our evening walk. The egg +of this bird is rather singularly colored, and not commonly +to be obtained. Our migrating small birds incur +from natural causes great loss in their transits; birds +of prey, adverse winds, and fatigue, probably reduce +their numbers nearly as much as want, and the severity +of the winter season, does those that remain; and in +some summers the paucity of such birds is strikingly +manifest. Even the hardy rook is probably not found +in such numbers as formerly, its haunts having been +destroyed or disturbed by the felling of trees, in consequence +of the increased value of timber, and the +changes in our manners and ideas. Rooks love to build +near the habitation of man: but their delight, the long +avenue, to caw as it were in perspective from end to +end, is no longer the fashion; and the poor birds have +been dispersed to settle on single distant trees, or in the +copse, and are captured and persecuted.</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c003'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>“Old-fashioned halls, dull aunts, and croaking rooks,”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c012'>a modern Zephalinda would scarcely find now to anticipate +with dread. In many counties very few rookeries +remain, where once they were considered as a necessary +appendage, and regularly pointed out the abbey, +the hall, the court-house, and the grange.</p> + +<p class='c011'><span class='pageno' id='Page_139'>139</span>The starling (sturnus vulgaris) breeds with us, as in +most villages in England. Towards autumn the broods +unite, and form large flocks; but those prodigious +flights, with which, in some particular years, we are +visited, especially in parts of those districts formerly +called the “fen counties,” are probably an accumulation +from foreign countries. We have seldom more than a +pair, or two, which nestle under the tiling of an old +house, in the tower of the church, the deserted hole of +the woodpecker, or some such inaccessible place. The +flights probably migrate to this country alone, as few +birds could travel long, and continue such a rapid motion +as the starling. The Royston crow, the only migrating +bird with which it forms an intimate association, +is infinitely too heavy of wing to have journeyed with +the stare. The delight of these birds in society is a +predominant character; and to feed they will associate +with the rook, the pigeon, or the daw; and sometimes, +but not cordially, with the fieldfare: but they chiefly +roost with their own families, preferring some reedy, +marshy situation. These social birds are rarely seen +alone, and should any accident separate an individual +from the companions of its flight, it will sit disconsolate +on an eminence, piping and plaining, till some one of +its congeners join it. Even in small parties they keep +continually calling and inviting associates to them, with +a fine clear note, that, in particular states of the air, +may be heard at a considerable distance. This love of +society seems to be innate; for I remember one poor +bird, that had escaped from domestication, in which it +had entirely lost, or probably never knew, the language +or manners of its race, and acquired only the name of +its mistress; disliked and avoided by its congeners, it +would sit by the hour together, sunning on some tall +elm, calling in a most plaintive strain, Nānny, Nānny, +but no Nanny came; and our poor solitary either pined +itself to death, or was killed, as its note ceased. They +vastly delight, in a bright autumnal morning, to sit +basking and preening themselves on the summit of a +tree, chattering all together in a low song-like note. +There is something singularly curious and mysterious +<span class='pageno' id='Page_140'>140</span>in the conduct of these birds previous to their nightly +retirement, by the variety and intricacy of the evolutions +they execute at that time. They will form themselves +perhaps into a triangle, then shoot into a long, pearshaped +figure, expand like a sheet, wheel into a ball, as +Pliny observes, each individual striving to get into the +centre, &c., with a promptitude more like parade movements, +than the actions of birds. As the breeding season +advances, these prodigious flights divide, and finally +separate into pairs, and form their summer settlements; +but probably the vast body of them leaves the kingdom. +Travellers tell us, that starlings abound in Persia and +the regions of Caucasus.</p> + +<p class='c011'>No birds, except sparrows, congregate more densely +than stares. They seem continually to be running into +clusters, if ever so little scattered; and the stopping +of one, to peck at a worm, immediately sets all its companions +hastening to partake. This habit in the winter +season brings on them death, and protracted sufferings, +as every village popper notices these flocks, and fires +at the poor starlings. Their flesh is bitter and rank, +and thus useless when obtained; but the thickness of +the flights, the possibility of killing numbers, and manifesting +his skill, encourages the trial. The flight of +these birds, whether from feeding to roost, or on their +return to feed, is so rapid, that none with any impediment +can keep company; and in consequence we see +many, which have received slight wing or body wounds, +lingering about the pastures long into spring, and pining +after companions they cannot associate with.</p> + +<p class='c011'>These birds are very assiduous in their attentions to +their young, and in continual progress to collect worms +and insects for them. However strong parental affection +may be in all creatures, yet the care which birds +manifest in providing for their nestlings is more obvious +than that of other animals. The young of beasts sleep +much; some are hidden in lairs and thickets nearly all +the day, others take food only at intervals or stated +periods, the parent ruminating, feeding, or reposing +too: but birds, the young of which remain in their +nests, as most of them do, excepting the gallinaceous +<span class='pageno' id='Page_141'>141</span>and aquatic tribes, have no cessation of labor from +early morning till the close of eve, till the brood can +provide for themselves. What unceasing toil and perseverance +are manifest in the rooks, and what distances +do they travel to obtain nourishment for their clamorous +brood! It is a very amusing occupation for a short time, +to attend to the actions of a pair of swallows, or martens, +the family of which have left the nest, and settled +upon some naked spray, or low bush in the field, the +parents cruising around, and then returning with their +captures to their young: the constant supply which +they bring, the celerity with which it is given and received, +and the activity and evolutions of the elder +birds, present a pleasing example of industry and affection. +I have observed a pair of starlings for several days +in constant progress before me, having young ones in +the hole of a neighboring poplar tree, and they have +been probably this way in action from the opening of +the morning—thus persisting in this labor of love for +twelve or thirteen hours in the day! The space they +pass over in their various transits and returns must be +very great, and the calculation vague; yet, from some +rude observations it appears probable that this pair in +conjunction do not travel less than fifty miles in the +day, visiting and feeding their young about a hundred +and forty times, which consisting of five in number, +and admitting only one to be fed each time, every bird +must receive in this period eight-and-twenty portions +of food or water! This excessive labor seems entailed +upon most of the land birds, except the gallinaceous +tribes, and some of the marine birds, which toil with +infinite perseverance in fishing for their broods; but +the very precarious supply of food to be obtained in +dry seasons by the terrestrial birds renders theirs a +labor of more unremitting hardship than that experienced +by the piscivorous tribes, the food of which is +probably little influenced by season, while our poor +land birds find theirs to be nearly annihilated in some +cases. The gallinaceous birds have nests on the ground; +the young leave them as soon as they escape from the +shell, are led immediately from the hatch to fitting +<span class='pageno' id='Page_142'>142</span>situations for food and water, and all their wants are +most admirably attended to; but the constant journeyings +of those parent birds that have nestlings unable to +move away, the speed with which they accomplish their +trips, the anxiety they manifest, and the long labor in +which they so gaily persevere, is most remarkable and +pleasing, and a duty consigned but to a few.</p> + +<p class='c011'>We have no bird more assiduous in attentions to their +young, than the red-start, (<i>steort</i>, Saxon, a tail,) one or +other of the parents being in perpetual action, conveying +food to the nest, or retiring in search of it; but as +they are active, quick-sighted creatures, they seem to +have constant success in their transits. They are the +most restless and suspicious of birds during this season +of hatching and rearing their young; for when the +female is sitting, her mate attentively watches over her +safety, giving immediate notice of the approach of any +seemingly hostile thing, by a constant repetition of one +or two querulous notes, monitory to her or menacing to +the intruder: but when the young are hatched, the very +appearance of any suspicious creature sets the parents +into an agony of agitation, and perching upon some +dead branch or a post, they persevere in one unceasing +clamor till the object of their fears is removed; a magpie +near their haunts, with some reason, excites their +terror greatly, which is expressed with unremitting +vociferation. All this parental anxiety, however, is no +longer in operation than during the helpless state of +their offspring, which, being enabled to provide their +own requirements, gradually cease to be the objects of +solicitude and care; they retire to some distant hedge, +become shy and timid things, feeding in unobtrusive +silence.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The brown starling, or solitary thrush (turdus solitarius), +is not an uncommon bird with us. It breeds in +the holes and hollows of old trees, and, hatching early, +forms small flocks in our pastures, which are seen about +before the arrival of the winter starling, for which bird, +by its manners and habits, it is generally mistaken. It +will occasionally, in very dry seasons, enter our gardens +for food, which the common stares never do; and this +<span class='pageno' id='Page_143'>143</span>year (1826) I had one caught in a trap, unable to resist +the tempting plunder of a cherry tree, in conjunction +with half the thrushes in the neighborhood. I have +seen a few, small, thrushlike birds associate and feed +with the missel-thrush in our summer pastures, which +I suspect to be solitary starlings: but, wild and wary +like them, they admit no approach to verify the species; +and they appear likewise to follow and mix with this +bird, when it visits us in autumn, to gather the berries +of the yew and the mountain ash. I am not certain +where it passes its winter season, but apprehend it +mingles in the large flights of the common species. It +returns to our pastures, however, for a short period in the +spring, in small parties of six or ten individuals. The +common stare, when disturbed, rises and alights again +at some distance, most generally on the ground; but +the brown starling settles frequently on some low bush, +or small tree, before it returns to its food. I know of +no description that accords so well with our bird as that +in Bewick’s supplement, excepting that the legs of +those which I have seen are of a red brown color, the +bill black, and the lower mandible margined with +white; but age and sex occasion many changes in tints +and shades. This species possesses none of those +beauties of plumage so observable in the common +starling, and all those fine prismatic tintings that play +and wander over the feathers of the latter are wanting +in the former. Its whole appearance is like that of a +thrush, but it presents even a plainer garb; its browns +are more dusky and weather-beaten; and for the beautiful +mottled breast of the throstle, it has a dirty white, +and a dirtier brown. I scarcely know any bird less +conspicuous for beauty than the solitary thrush: it +seems like a bleached, wayworn traveller, even in its +youth.</p> + +<p class='c011'>It was a very ancient observation, and modern investigation +seems fully to confirm it, that many of the +serpent race captured their prey by infatuation or intimidation; +and there can be no doubt of the fact, that +instinctive terror will subdue the powers of some creatures, +rendering them stupefied and motionless at the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_144'>144</span>sudden approach of danger. We have two kinds of +petty hawks, the sparrow-hawk (falco nisus) and the +kestrel (falco tinunculus), that seem fully to impress +upon their destined prey this species of intimidation. +A beautiful male bull-finch, that sat harmlessly pecking +the buds from a blackthorn by my side, when overlooking +the work of a laborer, suddenly uttered the instinctive +moan of danger, but made no attempt to escape +into the bush, seemingly deprived of the power of +exertion. On looking round, a sparrow-hawk was observed +on motionless wing gliding rapidly along the +hedge, and, passing me, rushed on its prey with undeviating +certainty. There was fully sufficient time from +the moment of perception for the bull-finch to escape; +but he sat still, waiting the approach of death, an unresisting +victim. We have frequently observed these +birds, when perched on an eminence, insidiously attentive +to a flock of finches and yellow-hammers basking +in a hedge, and after due consideration apparently single +out an individual. Upon its moving for its prey, some +wary bird has given the alarm, and most of the little +troop scuttle immediately into the hedge; but the hawk +holds on its course, and darts upon a selected object. +If baffled, it seldom succeeds upon another; and so +fixed are its eyes upon this one individual, that, as if +unobservant of its own danger, it snatches up its morsel +at our very sides. A pigeon on the roof of the dovecot +seems selected from its fellows, the hawk rarely snatching +at more than one terror-stricken bird. The larger +species of hawks appear to employ no powers excepting +those of wing, but pursue and capture by celerity and +strength.</p> + +<p class='c011'>We converse annually upon early and late seasons; +and such things there are. A mild winter, a warm February +and March, will influence greatly the growth of +vegetation: not that a primrose under that bank, or a +violet under the shelter of this hedge, affords us any +criterion of earliness; but a general shading of green, +an expansion of buds, an incipient unfolding of leaves, +gives notice of the spring’s advance. The principal +blossoming of plants usually takes place at nearly stated +<span class='pageno' id='Page_145'>145</span>periods; but particular mildness in the atmosphere and +additional warmth in the soil, accelerate this season; +and of all the evils which threaten the horticulturist, +an early spring is most to be deprecated. An April +breathing odors, wreathed in verdure and flowers, the +willow wren sporting in the copse, the swallow skimming +over the pool, lambs racing in the daisied mead, +may be a beautiful sight to contemplate,—</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c003'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>“Fair laughs the morn, and soft the zephyrs blow;”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c012'>but it is like the laugh of irony, the smile that lures to +ruin,</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c003'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>“Which, hushed in grim repose, awaits his certain prey.”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c011'>Then comes a ruthless May, with Winter in her train, +who, with his frosty edge, unpitying shears away all the +expectancies, the beautiful promise of the year; and +we have to await returning seasons, and patient hope +for better things. A garden pining and prostrate from +the effects of a churlish, frosty May, leaves crisp and +blackened, flowers withered, torn, and scattered around, +are a melancholy sight—the vernal hectic that consumes +the fairest offspring of the nursery. There is a plant, +however, the white thorn (mespilus oxycanthus), the +May of our rustics, common in all places and situations, +that affords a good example of general steadiness to +time, uninfluenced by partial effects. An observation +of above twenty years upon this plant has proved how +little it deviates in its blossoming in one season from +another; and, under all the importunities and blandishments +of the most seductive Aprils, I have in all that +period never but twice seen more than a partial blossom +by the first of May. We hail our first-seen swallow as +a harbinger of milder days and summer enjoyments; +but the appearance of our birds of passage is not greatly +to be depended upon, as I have reason to apprehend +from much observation. They will be accelerated or retarded +in the time of their departure by the state of the +wind in the country whence they take their flight; they +travel much by night, requiring in many instances the +light of the moon to direct them; and the actual time +of their arrival is difficult to ascertain, as they steal into +<span class='pageno' id='Page_146'>146</span>our hedges and copses unperceived. If the weather be +bright or warm, their voices are heard; if gloomy and +cold, they will lie secreted till the call of hunger or of +love intimates their presence. Though we rarely see +these birds in their transits, yet I have at times, on a +calm bright evening in November, heard high in the +air the redwing and the fieldfare, on progress to a destined +settlement, manifested by the signal-notes of some +leading birds to their scattered followers. These conductors +of their flocks are certainly birds acquainted +with the country over which they travel, their settlements +here being no promiscuous dispersion: it being +obvious that many pairs of birds return to their ancient +haunts, either old ones which had bred there, or their +offspring. The butcher-bird successively returns to a +hedge in one of my fields, influenced by some advantage +it derives from that situation, or from a preference to +the spot where hatched; but we have perhaps no bird +more attached to peculiar situations than the gray flycatcher +(muscicapa grisola), one pair, or their descendants, +frequenting year after year the same hole in +the wall, or the same branch on the vine or the plum. +Being perfectly harmless, and hence never molested, +they become</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c003'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>“Enamor’d with their ancient haunts,</div> + <div class='line in4'>——and hover round.”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c012'>I once knew a pair of these birds bring off two broods +in one season from the same nest. This flycatcher +delights in eminences. The naked spray of a tree, or +projecting stone in a building, or even a tall stick in +the very middle of the grass-plot, is sure to attract its +attention, as affording an uninterrupted view of its +winged prey; and from this it will be in constant activity +a whole summer’s day, capturing its food and returning +to swallow it. The digestion of some birds +must be remarkably rapid, to enable them to receive +such constant replenishments of food. The swift and +the swallow are feeding from the earliest light in the +morning till the obscurity of evening; the quantities of +cherries and raspberries that the blackcap and pettichaps +<span class='pageno' id='Page_147'>147</span>will eat are surprising, as they are unremittingly +consuming from morning till night; and this flycatcher +seems to require a proportion of food equal to any bird, +being in constant progress, capturing one moment, and +resting the next. But fruit and insects are with us only +for a short season; and their privations, when these no +longer afford a supply, indicate, that they possess the +power of abstinence, as well as that of consumption.</p> + +<p class='c011'>We observed this summer two common thrushes +frequenting the shrubs on the green in our garden. +From the slenderness of their forms, and the freshness +of their plumage, we pronounced them to be birds of +the preceding summer. There was an association and +friendship between them, that called our attention to +their actions: one of them seemed ailing, or feeble +from some bodily accident; for though it hopped about, +yet it appeared unable to obtain sufficiency of food; its +companion, an active sprightly bird, would frequently +bring it worms, or bruised snails, when they mutually +partook of the banquet; and the ailing bird would wait +patiently, understand the actions, expect the assistance +of the other, and advance from his asylum upon its +approach. This procedure was continued for some days, +but after a time we missed the fostered bird, which +probably died, or by reason of its weakness met with +some fatal accident. We have many relations of +the natural affection of animals; and whoever has attended +to the actions of the various creatures we are +accustomed to domesticate about us can probably add +many other instances from their own observation. Actions +which are in any way analogous to the above, +when they are performed by mankind, arise most commonly +from duty, affection, pity, interest, pride; but we +are not generally disposed to allow the inferior orders +of creation the possession of any of these feelings, +except perhaps the last: yet when we have so many +instances of attachment existing between creatures +similar and dissimilar in their natures, which are obvious +to all, and where no interest can possibly arise as a +motive; when we mark the varieties of disposition +which they manifest under uniform treatment, their +<span class='pageno' id='Page_148'>148</span>various aptitudes and comprehensions, sensibility or inattention +to sounds, &c., it seems but reasonable to +consider them as gifted with latent passions; though +being devoid of mind to stimulate or call them into action +by any principle of volition or virtue, how excited +to performance we know no more than we do the +motives of many of their bodily actions! The kindnesses +and attentions which the maternal creature manifests +in rearing its young, and the assistance occasionally +afforded by the paternal animal, during the same +period, appears to be a natural inherent principle universally +diffused throughout creation; but when we see +a sick or maimed animal supplied and attended by another, +which we suppose gifted with none of the stimuli +to exertion that actuate our conduct, we endow them by +this denial with motives with which we ourselves are +unacquainted; and at last we can only relate the fact, +without defining the cause.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The throstle is a bird of great utility in a garden +where wall fruit is grown, by reason of the peculiar +inclination which it has for feeding upon snails, and +very many of them he does dislodge in the course of +the day. When the female is sitting, the male bird +seems to be particularly assiduous in searching them +out, and I believe he feeds his mate during that period, +having frequently seen him flying to the nest with food, +long before the eggs were hatched; after this time the +united labors of the pair destroy numbers of these injurious +creatures. That he will regale himself frequently +with a tempting gooseberry, or bunch of currants, +is well known, but his services entitle him to a +very ample reward. The blackbird associates with these +thrushes in our gardens, but makes no compensation for +our indulgences after his song ceases, as he does not +feed upon the snail; but the thrush benefits us through +the year by his propensities for this particular food, +and every grove resounds with his harmony in the +season; and probably if this race suffered less from +the gun of the Christmas popper, the gardener might +find much benefit in his ensuing crop of fruit, from the +forbearance.</p> + +<p class='c011'><span class='pageno' id='Page_149'>149</span>We have no bird, I believe, more generally known, +thought of, or mentioned with greater indifference, perhaps +contempt, than the common sparrow (fringilla domestica), +“that sitteth alone on the house-top;” yet it +is an animal that nature seems to have endowed with +peculiar characteristics, having ordained for it a very +marked provision, manifested in its increase and maintenance, +notwithstanding the hostile attacks to which it +is exposed. A dispensation that exists throughout +creation is brought more immediately to our notice by +the domestic habits of this bird. The natural tendency +that the sparrow has to increase will often enable one +pair of birds to bring up fourteen or more young ones +in the season. They build in places of perfect security +from the plunder of larger birds and vermin. Their +art and ingenuity in commonly attaching their nests beneath +that of the rook, high in the elm, a bird whose +habits are perfectly dissimilar, and with which they +have no association whatever, making use of their +structure only for a defence to which no other bird resorts, +manifest their anxiety and contrivance for the +safety of their broods. With peculiar perseverance and +boldness, they forage and provide for themselves and +their offspring; will filch grain from the trough of the +pig, or contend for its food with the gigantic turkey; +and, if scared away, their fears are those of a moment, +as they quickly return to their plunder; and they roost +protected from all the injuries of weather. These circumstances +tend greatly to increase the race, and in +some seasons their numbers in our corn-fields towards +autumn are prodigious; and did not events counteract +the increase of this army of plunderers, the larger portion +of our bread corn would be consumed by them. +But their reduction is as rapidly accomplished as their +increase, their love of association bringing upon them +a destruction, which a contrary habit would not tempt. +They roost in troops in our ricks, in the ivy on the wall, +&c., and are captured by the net: they cluster on the +bush, or crowd on the chaff by the barn-door, and are +shot by dozens at a time, or will rush in numbers, one +following another, into the trap. These and various +<span class='pageno' id='Page_150'>150</span>other engines of destruction so reduce them in the +winter season, that the swarms of autumn gradually diminish, +till their numbers in spring are in no way remarkable. +I have called them plunderers, and they +are so; they are benefactors likewise, seeming to be +appointed by nature as one of the agents for keeping +from undue increase another race of creatures, and by +their prolificacy they accomplish it. In spring and the +early part of the summer, before the corn becomes ripe, +they are insectivorous, and their constantly increasing +families require an unceasing supply of food. We see +them every minute of the day in continual progress, +flying from the nest for a supply, and returning on rapid +wing with a grub, a caterpillar, or some reptile; and +the numbers captured by them in the course of these +travels are incredibly numerous, keeping under the increase +of these races, and making ample restitution for +their plunderings and thefts. When the insect race +becomes scarce, the corn and seeds of various kinds are +ready; their appetite changes, and they feed on these +with undiminished enjoyment.</p> + +<p class='c011'>We have scarcely another bird, the appetite of which +is so accommodating in all respects as that of the house-sparrow. +It is, I believe, the only bird that is a voluntary +inhabitant with man, lives in his society, and is +his constant attendant, following him wherever he fixes +his residence. It becomes immediately an inhabitant +of the new farm-house, in a lonely place or recent inclosure, +or even in an island, will accompany him into +the crowded city, and build and feed there in content, +unmindful of the noise, the smoke of the furnace, or +the steam-engine, where even the swallow and the marten, +that flock around him in the country, are scared +by the tumult, and leave him: but the sparrow, though +begrimed with soot, does not forsake him; feeds on his +food, rice, potatoes, or almost any other extraneous substance +he may find in the street; looks to him for his +support, and is maintained almost entirely by the industry +and providence of man. It is not known in a +solitary and independent state.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Though I remember no bird so peculiarly associated +<span class='pageno' id='Page_151'>151</span>with the human race as this is, yet there are other animals +that seem dependent on man for support, or at +least that find his means subservient to their comforts, +and domesticate themselves with him. The meadow +and the long-tailed mouse occasionally become foragers +in our gardens and domains, when a natural supply of +food becomes difficult of attainment, yet they are not +wholly settlers with us; but the common mouse (mus +domesticus) resorts entirely to our premises, and seems +to exist wholly on food of our providing. In towns it +accommodates its appetite to the variety of sustenance +it finds there; and will enjoy the preserve in the pot, +the cheese in the rack, or the pie in the pantry. In +the country it will ransack the cupboard, live in the +barn, or colonize in our ricks. Still, in all these cases, +the store and provision of man are its delight, and its +only resource; and it will even quit a residence which +is abandoned by its provider. It is true it maintains +the same love of liberty as its celebrated ancestor is +reported to have done; but the simplicity of manners +and taste of the sage, the “hollow tree, the oaten +straw,” have been abandoned; it has become pleased +with household comforts, and a luxurious citizen in its +appetite.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The rat (mus rattus), too, perhaps, may be united +with these companions of mankind. Not knowing it +in an independent state, we cannot say what its resources +might be, but so sagacious and powerfully endowed +an animal could always provide for its own necessities; +yet it prefers our provision to any precarious supply +from its own industry. In summer it partially quits our +dwellings, the heat and dryness of our buildings becoming +irksome to it, and the occasional difficulty of +obtaining water, in which it delights, prompts it to resort +to hedges and banks for a certain period; but it +always returns when our barns are filled, and ready +for it.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The house fly (musca carnaria)<a id='r50'></a><a href='#f50' class='c014'><sup>[50]</sup></a> is another creature +that appears domesticated with us; in some seasons a +very numerous, and always a very dirty inmate. It associates +in our windows at times with a similar insect +<span class='pageno' id='Page_152'>152</span>(stomoxys calcitrans), that loves to bask on stones and +posts, and which is now biting my legs with the most +teasing perseverance. But this phlebotomist has not +the same attachment to our habitations, is a more solitary +insect, and does not unite in those little social +parties, that circle for hours in a sober uniformity of +flight below the ceilings of our chambers. Wherever +man appears, this house fly is generally to be seen too: +and instances are known, when islands have been +taken possession of very far removed from the main +land, that for a time no flies were visible, yet ere long +these little domestic insects have made their appearance; +neither natives of the isle, nor can we reasonably suppose +them to have taken flight from a distant shore; but +probably the offspring of parents that came with the +stores in the vessel of the party.</p> + +<p class='c011'>We may have some few other instances of these apparent +dependences of animals on man; yet, if we consider +the relative situations of both, we shall find them +existing, with very few exceptions, independent of him, +and that he is more indebted to them for their services, +than they are for his protection and support. Man +from the earliest periods began to subject the animal +world to his dominion, and avail himself of its properties +and powers to improve his own condition. As his wants +or propensities occurred, he compelled to his aid such +animals as he could subdue, or were adapted to his purposes. +The chief objects for which we require the aid +of animals are for food, clothing, vigilance, and strength. +Though the two former are highly essential to our comforts, +they are not indispensable; the vegetable world +supplies them in abundance to large portions of the inhabitants +of the globe, and the companionable qualities, +watchfulness, and swiftness of the dog might be dispensed +with. It is the strength of animals that makes +us sensible of our own weakness. By their power we +build our dwellings, effect an intercourse with distant +places, obtain much of our food, and the fuel of our +hearths: a state of civilization requires, as an indispensable +requisite, these things and others, rendering most +manifest our obligations to the animal world. Animals +<span class='pageno' id='Page_153'>153</span>were created before man; but some of them were apparently +endowed with their useful and valuable properties +for his comfort and assistance; for he had the +dominion of them consigned to him, and was commissioned +to subdue them. Having used their products +for food and clothing, conjointly with the fruits and +seeds of the vegetable world, and their bodies for the +carriage of his burdens, after a long age of abstinence +he began to feed on their flesh; and they have continued +his faithful and assiduous servants, contented +with their destiny, and submissive to his desires. He +gives them food and shelter in payment of service, attending +them with diligence and care: all this may be +for his own emolument and pleasure, yet the well-being +of the creature, had it continued wild, would not have +required it: most of them live longer, and have more +enjoyment in a wild and unreclaimed state, than when +domesticated with him. By art, and for profit, he has +in many instances altered the very nature of the animal, +and created ailments, rendering his cares and attentions +necessary, which in a state of nature are not required. +The lives of many of them, even when subjected to the +best of treatment, are consumed with labor and fatigue; +and when their unhappy destiny consigns them to the +power of poverty and evil passions, what an accumulation +of misery and suffering do these wretched creatures +undergo! If these arguments have any foundation in +truth, it will appear, that animals are not necessarily +dependent on man, and generally derive no benefit from +their intercourse and association with him; but that, in +conformity with original appointment, they aid him to +acquire the enjoyments and accomplish the necessities +of civilized life. Yet there is one creature, that seems +designed by its natural habits to be the servant and dependant +of man; and of all that fall under his dominion, +not one receives an equal portion of his care, or is more +exempt from a life of exhaustion in his service. The +dog is fed with him, housed, and caressed; associates +with him in his pleasures, is identified with and enjoys +them with his master; living with him, he acquires the +high bearing and freedom of his lord; feels he is the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_154'>154</span>companion and the friend; deports himself as a partaker +of the importance and superiority, we might almost say +of the sorrows and pleasures of the man; is elated with +praise, and abased by rebuke; submissive when corrected, +and grateful when caressed: his anxiety and +tremor when he has lost his master, and with him himself, +is pitiable; when deserted by his lord, he becomes +the most forlorn of animals, a never-failing victim to +misery, famine, disease, and death. His ardor may excite +him at times until overpowered by fatigue; but he +is not generally stimulated by pain or menace to attempts +beyond his natural powers: view him in all his +progress, his life will be found to be an easy, and frequently +an enjoyable one; and though not exempt from +the afflictions of age, yet his death, if anticipated, becomes +a momentary evil. When in a native state, he +is a wretched creature, a common beast of the wild, +with no innate magnanimity, no acquired virtues; has +no elevation, no character to maintain, but passes his +days in contention and want, is base in disposition, +meager in body, a fugitive, and a coward.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The wheatear (sylvia œnanthe) frequents annually +our open commons and stone quarries, and breeds there. +I have seen it with nesting materials in its bill, and have +had its eggs, though rarely, brought me. This bird +visits England early in the spring, and continues with +us till nearly the end of September, that is, during the +entire breeding season. Yet it is remarkable, notwithstanding +its numbers, and the little concealment which +its haunts afford, how rarely its nests are found. Its +principal place of resort is the South Downs in Sussex; +and it appears from the accounts of the most experienced +and credible persons of that county, from whom +I have my information, that the females are performing +their duties of incubation during the month of March; +as at that time scarcely any but male birds are visible, +of which hundreds are then flying about; while the +females with their families appear early in May, and +are captured afterwards in great numbers; yet the oldest +shepherds have seldom seen their nest! When found, +it has been concealed beneath a large stone, or some +<span class='pageno' id='Page_155'>155</span>hollow of the rugged chalk hills, containing six pale +blue eggs. With us the wheatear stays only to hatch +her brood. When this is effected, and the young sufficiently +matured, it leaves us entirely, and by the middle +of September not a bird is found on their summer stations. +They probably retire to the uplands on the seacoasts, +as we hear of them as late as November in these +places, where it is supposed they find some peculiar insect +food, required by them in an adult state, and not +found, or only sparingly, in their breeding stations, in +which the appropriate food of their young is probably +more abundant. Thus united on the coasts, they can +take their flight, when the wind or other circumstances +favor their passage, all of them departing upon the approach +of winter.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Partial as I am to the habits and all the concerns of +the country, I regret to say that rural amusements, connected +as they commonly are with the creatures about +us, are frequently cruel; and that we often most inconsiderately, +in our sports, are the cause of misery and +suffering to such as nestle around our dwellings, or frequent +our fields, which, from some particular cause or +motive, become the object of pursuit. I say nothing +of the birds known as game, as perhaps we cannot obtain +them by less painful means than we are accustomed +to inflict, and the pursuit is frequently conducive to recreation +and health; but the sportsman’s essaying his +skill on the swallow race, that “skim the dimpled pool,” +or harmless glide along the flowery mead, when, if successful, +he consigns whole nests of infant broods to +famine and to death, is pitiable indeed! No injury, no +meditated crime, was ever imputed to these birds; they +free our dwellings from multitudes of insects; their +unsuspicious confidence and familiarity with men merit +protection not punishment from him. The sufferings +of their broods, when the parents are destroyed, should +excite humanity, and demand our forbearance. But the +wheatear, in an unfortunate hour, has been called the +English ortolan, and is pursued as a delicate morsel +through all its inland haunts, when hatching and feeding +its young, the only period in which it frequents our +<span class='pageno' id='Page_156'>156</span>heaths. I execrate the practice as most cruel: their +death evinces no skill in the gunner; their wretched +bodies, when obtained, are useless, being embittered by +the bruises of the shot, and unskilful operations of the +picker and dresser. No, let the parental duties cease, +and when the bird retires to its maritime downs, if +doomed to suffer, the individual dies alone, and no +starving broods perish with it. I supplicate from the +youthful sportsman his consideration for these most +innocent creatures, the summer wheatear and the +swallow.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The eggs produced by the wheatear are uniform in +color and similar in shape; but the eggs of birds in +general vary much, and are occasionally very puzzling +to identify when detached from their nests, as the colorings +and markings differ greatly in the same species, +and even nest. Those of one color, like this wheatear’s, +retain it, with only shades of variation; but when there +are blotchings or spots, these are at times very dissimilar, +occasioned in great measure probably by the age +of the bird; though this cannot account for the difference +of those in an individual nest. None vary more +than the eggs of the common sparrow. Those of marine +birds, especially the guillemot (colymbus troile), are +often so unlike each other, that it requires considerable +practice to arrange them. The plumage of birds has +probably never varied, but remains at this hour what +it originally was: but whether these markings on the +eggs have any connexion with the shadings on the +feathers, it is difficult to determine; as we know that +eggs entirely white will produce birds with a variety of +plumage. The shell of the egg appears to be designed +for the accomplishment of two purposes. One of the +offices of this calcareous coating, which consists of carbonate +and phosphate of lime, is to unite with the white +of the egg, and form, during incubation, the feathers +and bone of the future young ones; but as a large portion +of this covering remains after the young are produced, +its other object is to guard from injury the parts +within. As far as I have observed, in eggs of one hue, +the coloring matter resides in the calcareous part; but +<span class='pageno' id='Page_157'>157</span>where there are markings, these are rather extraneous +to it than mixed with it. The elegant blue that distinguishes +the eggs of the firetail and the hedge-sparrow, +though corroded away, is not destroyed by the muriatic +acid. The blue calcareous coating of the thrush’s egg +is consumed; but the dark spots, like the markings +upon the eggs of the yellow-hammer, house-sparrow, +magpie, &c., still preserve their stations on the film, +though loosened and rendered mucilaginous by this +rough process. Though this calcareous matter is partly +taken up during incubation, the markings upon these +eggs remain little injured, even to the last, and are +almost as strongly defined as when the eggs are first +laid. These circumstances seem to imply, that the +coloring matter on the shells of eggs does not contribute +to the various hues of the plumage; but, it is reasonable +to conclude, are designed to answer some particular +object, not obvious to us: for though the marks are so +variable, yet the shadings and spottings of one species +never wander so as to become exactly figured like those +of another family, but preserve, year after year, a certain +characteristic figuring. Few animal substances, in +a recent state, contain more hepatic gas than an eggshell, +as is manifest from the very offensive smell that +proceeds from it when burned. A little of this is caused +by the gluten that cements the calcareous matter, but +the overpowering fetor comes from the inner membrane +that lines the shell.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The superstitions and fancies of persons, though we +may often contemn them, are yet at times deserving of +notice, being occasionally to be traced to some former +received belief or national custom, and perhaps when +charactered by emblems or ceremonies may be considered +as certainly originating from the tenets of some +sect or popular observance; the partiality manifested +by the English in general for flowers and horticultural +pursuits is recently, from a sentence in Pliny (Nat. +Hist. XIV. chap. 4), supposed to have been acquired +from their Roman conquerors; and probably many other +attachments and practices, though obscured and perverted +by time, have been retained from the example +<span class='pageno' id='Page_158'>158</span>of some of the various nations who have ruled in our +island. Bird-nesting boys, I suppose, are yet to be met +with in many a rural village, being a habit from immemorial +antiquity, pursued with eagerness in contention +with their fellows for numbers and rarity, but that accomplished, +like so many of our pursuits in after life, +the pleasure ceases when rivalry is no more: but regarding +these birds’ eggs we have a very foolish superstition +here; the boys may take them unrestrained, but +their mothers so dislike their being kept in the house, +that they usually break them; their presence may be +tolerated for a few days, but by the ensuing Sunday are +frequently destroyed, under the idea that they bring +bad luck, or prevent the coming of good fortune, as if +in some way offensive to the domestic deity of the +hearth: having occasionally inquired for these plunders +of our small birds at the cottages, to supply some deficiencies +in a collection, I have found so general a prepossession +against retaining them, as in most cases to +fail of success.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The kite (falco milvus) is one of our rarest birds. +We see it occasionally, in its progress to other parts, +sailing along sedately on its way; but it never visits us. +Our copses present it with no enticing harborage, and +our culture scares it. In former years I was intimately +acquainted with this bird; but its numbers seem greatly +on the decline, having been destroyed, or driven away +to lonely places, or to the most extensive woodlands. +In the breeding season it will at times approach near +the outskirts of villages, seeking materials for its nest; +but in general it avoids the haunts of man. It is the +finest native bird that we possess, and all its deportment +partakes of a dignity peculiar to itself, well becoming +a denizen of the forest or the park; for though we see +it sometimes in company with the buzzard, it is never +to be mistaken for this clumsy bird, which will escape +from the limb of some tree, with a confused and hurried +flight, indicative of fear; while the kite moves steadily +from the summit of the loftiest oak, the scathed crest +of the highest poplar, or the most elevated ash—circles +round and round, sedate and calm, and then leaves us. +<span class='pageno' id='Page_159'>159</span>I can confusedly remember a very extraordinary capture +of these birds, when I was a boy. Roosting one +winter evening on some very lofty elms, a fog came on +during the night, which froze early in the morning, and +fastened the feet of the poor kites so firmly to the +boughs, that some adventurous youths brought down, I +think, fifteen of them so secured! Singular as the capture +was, the assemblage of so large a number was no +less so, it being in general a solitary bird, or associating +only in pairs.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The blackcap (motacilla atracapilla) is our constant +visitor, but very uncertain in its numbers, as it fully +participates in all the casualties of our migratory tribes; +not by any great diminution probably in its winter residence, +but by loss in its transits of autumn or spring. +We have years when every little copse resounds with +harmony; at other periods, only a few solitary songsters +are to be heard; and the blackcap is the principal +performer in the band of our domestic vocalists. In +the scale of music it is the third for mellowness, and +the third perhaps too for execution and compass. As +this melody, however, continues only during the period +of incubation, we hear it but for a short time; for this +bird wastes no time in amusements, appearing to be in +great haste to accomplish the object of its visit, and to +depart. Thus, immediately upon its arrival, we observe +it surveying and inspecting places fitting for nidification, +and commencing a nest; but so careful and suspicious +is it, that several are often abandoned before finished, +from some apprehension or caprice: any intrusion is +jealously noticed; and during the whole period of sitting +and rearing its young, it is timid and restless. I have +observed that both birds will occasionally perform the +office of incubation.</p> + +<p class='c011'>It seems to live entirely by choice on fruits; and as +soon as the brood can remove, it visits our gardens, +feeding with delight and almost insatiable appetite on +the currant and the raspberry; and so much is it engaged +when at this banquet, that it suffers itself to be +looked at, and forgets for the moment its usual timidity: +but its natural shyness never leaves it entirely; and +<span class='pageno' id='Page_160'>160</span>though it remains in our gardens or orchards as long as +any of its favorite fruits continue, it avoids observation +as much as possible, and hides itself in the foliage from +all familiarity or confidence. This exceeding dislike +of man is very extraordinary. Larger or more important +birds might have an instinctive fear of violence; but +this creature is too small and insignificant to have ever +experienced or to apprehend injuries from him. It may +arise from a long residence in wilds and solitary places, +seldom visited by human beings, during those eight or +nine months when it is absent from us, so that man becomes +an unknown creature, and injury is suspected. +Our native small birds, that reside all the year with us, +and see us often, though they may retire at our near +approach, do not exhibit such shyness and avoidance as +several of our migrating birds. The gray flycatcher, +and the swallow tribe, which seek their food, we conclude, +all the year near the dwellings of man, where +most abundantly found, manifest familiarity with us +rather than dislike, are accustomed to the sight of +human beings, and do not fear them; but whatever +may be the cause that influences the precipitate retreat +of certain birds, we note the original mandate, and see +that the “fear of us, and the dread of us,” are still in +operation with many of these little “fowls of the air,” +that would never receive harm from our hands. The +blackcap finishes its feast here with the jargonel pear, +when it can meet with it, then leaves us for other fruits +and milder climes.</p> + +<p class='c011'>“And the fear of you, and the dread of you, shall +be upon every beast of the earth, and upon every fowl +of the air, and upon all that moveth upon the earth.” +This vesture of universal dread, which was to envelop +man, though appointed from the beginning of time, has +never been removed, but most signally and remarkably +attaches to him still. It was ordained to be so; and so +it is. In some few instances only does this awe of man +subside: in extreme cases of want, for individual +preservation, or when protection is required. In such +cases, the fear or sensibility of pain, love of life, or a +paramount duty, becomes the stronger principle, annihilating +<span class='pageno' id='Page_161'>161</span>the weaker; and the dread of man’s supremacy +is no more. The weakest, the very insect, then assails +him, and at times becomes the victor. Does any conceivable +or visible cause exist from which this awe can +proceed? Does “his sublime countenance, contemplative +of the heavens,” the image that he bears, or his +deportment, afford any ascendent influence productive +of this impression? In bodily power he is more weak +and obnoxious to injury than many that shrink from a +contest with him; his natural arms and means of protection +are inferior often to those of the beings which +he subdues; yet from an undefinable cause he is omnipotent +over all. Terror in man most commonly arises +from a knowledge of power, apprehension of ills from +accident, or fear of the evil inclinations of another. +What the fowls of the air, or the beasts of the field perceive, +or are impressed with, we know not; but none +of these causes can exist in a brute mind without intelligence +or experience. These are the reflections of a +thoughtful hour. The cause, “though a man labor to +seek out, yet shall he not find it; and though a man +think to know it, yet shall he not be able.” But the +contemplation is not wholly an unworthy occupation of +time. All ages, all people, must have perceived the +admitted power and universal dread occasioned by the +presence of man, but no reason, no motive, could have +been assigned for it; but in these days, by revelation, +we know the cause, have impressed upon our minds the +immutable truth of that Being which ordained, and of +that volume which has proclaimed his mandate to us. +But man has the power assigned him of calling to his +aid a visible object of dread, confided to him from the +earliest periods; and he alone of all created beings has +the agency of this terror. All the inferior orders have a +fear of it, and flee from it, even when its effects could +never have been known or experienced, but which appears +to be innate and inseparable from all. Man alone +has the knowledge, the means of calling heat into action; +and though warmth is the delight, and essential +to the being of most, yet, rouse it into active operation +producing fire, and terror and flight succeed enjoyment +<span class='pageno' id='Page_162'>162</span>and rest: it deters the approach of the most ferocious, +and man and his charge abide unharmed when surrounded +by the terror he has raised. In addition to the +many characters given as a definition of man, we might +call him a fire-producing creature.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The end of our summer months, and the autumnal +season, afford us frequently the best periods for observing +some of our occasional visiting birds. Upon their first +arrival, and for a time afterwards, their notes announce +their presence; but they are not always to be seen with +satisfaction, and scattered in retired places, or occupied +in the business of incubation, when they are particularly +wary and suspicious, they are but casually noticed: but +in the times above stated, our gardens, shrubberies, and +orchards, become their resort, seeking for the fruits +usually produced in those places. And, first, the pettychaps, +with all her matured brood, is certain to be +found, feeding voraciously upon our cultivated berries, +or mining a hole in the fig or jargonel pear; and so intent +are they upon this occupation, that they will permit +a reasonable examination of their form and actions, but +at other periods it is difficult to approach them. The +blackcap discontentedly flits about our inclosures and +thickets all the summer through, building her nest or +tending her young; the fine clear harmony of the male +bird resounding in the morning from the brake, yet, +timid and alarmed, he ceases and hides himself if we +approach: but he now introduces all his progeny to our +banquet; cautious still, we can yet observe his actions, +and easily distinguish the black or brown heads of the +sexes, as they are occupied beneath the foliage of an +Antwerp raspberry. The white throats, now, too, leave +their hedges, and all their insect food, which for months +had been their only supply, and in the thick covert of +the gooseberry extract with great dexterity the pulp of +the fruit, or strip the currant of its berry. The elegant, +slender form of the female, her snowy throat and silvery +stomach, render her very conspicuous as she scuttles +away to hide herself in the bush: her plain, brown-backed +mate seems rather less timid, but yet carefully +avoids all symptoms of familiarity. Other doubtful little +<span class='pageno' id='Page_163'>163</span>birds likewise appear, and are gone, several of which, +however, are probably the young of ascertained species. +And here the little willow wren is often to be seen: he +comes in company with his travelling friends, not as a +partaker of their plunder, appearing never to abandon +his appetite for insect food: the species may change +with the season, but still it is animal: he glides about +our rows of peas, peeps under the leaves of fruit trees +for aphides and moths, continuing this harmless pursuit +until the cold mornings of autumn drive him to milder +regions. All these fruit-eating birds seem to have a +very discriminating taste, and a decided preference for +the richest sorts—the sweetest variety of the gooseberry +or the currant always being selected; and when they +are consumed, less saccharine dainties are submitted to: +but the hedge blackberry of the season our little foreign +connoisseurs disdain to feed on, leaving it for the humbler +appetited natives—they are away to sunnier regions +and more grateful food.</p> + +<p class='c011'>June 14.—I was much pleased this day by detecting +the stratagems of a common wren to conceal its nest +from observation. It had formed a hollow space in the +thatch, on the inside of my cow-shed, in which it had +placed its nest by the side of a rafter, and finished it +with its usual neatness; but lest the orifice of its cell +should engage attention, it had negligently hung a +ragged piece of moss on the straw-work, concealing the +entrance, and apparently proceeding from the rafter; +and so perfect was the deception, that I should not have +noticed it, though tolerably observant of such things, +had not the bird betrayed her secret, and darted out. +Now from what operative cause did this stratagem proceed? +Habit it was not;—it seemed like an after-thought;—danger +was perceived, and the contrivance +which a contemplative being would have provided, was +resorted to. The limits of instinct we cannot define:<a id='r51'></a><a href='#f51' class='c014'><sup>[51]</sup></a> +<span class='pageno' id='Page_164'>164</span>it appeared the reflection of reason. This procedure +may be judged, perhaps, a trifling event to notice; but +the ways and motives of creatures are so little understood, +that any evidence which may assist our research +should not be rejected. Call their actions as we may, +they have the effect of reason; and loving all the +manners and operations of these directed beings, I +have noted this, simple as it may be.</p> + +<p class='c011'>At one period of my life, being an early waker and +riser, my attention was frequently drawn to “songs of +earliest birds;” and I always observed that these creatures +appeared abroad at very different periods as the +light advanced. The rook is perhaps the first to salute +the opening morn; but this bird seems rather to rest +than to sleep. Always vigilant, the least alarm after retirement +rouses instantly the whole assemblage, not +successively, but collectively. It is appointed to be a +ready mover. Its principal food is worms, which feed +and crawl upon the humid surface of the ground in the +dusk, and retire before the light of day; and, roosting +higher than other birds, the first rays of the sun, as +they peep from the horizon, become visible to it. The +restless, inquisitive robin<a id='r52'></a><a href='#f52' class='c014'><sup>[52]</sup></a> now is seen too. This is the +last bird that retires in the evening, being frequently +flitting about when the owl and bat are visible, and +awakes so soon in the morning, that little rest seems +required by it. Its fine large eyes are fitted to receive +all, even the weakest rays of light that appear. The +worm is its food too, and few that move upon the surface +escape its notice. The cheerful melody of the wren is +the next we hear, as it bustles from its ivied roost; and +we note its gratulation to the young-eyed day, when +twilight almost hides the little minstrel from our sight. +The sparrow roosts in holes, and under the eaves of the +rick or shed, where the light does not so soon enter, and +<span class='pageno' id='Page_165'>165</span>hence is rather a tardy mover; but it is always ready +for food, and seems to listen to what is going forward. +We see it now peeping from its penthouse, inquisitively +surveying the land; and, should provision be obtainable, +it immediately descends upon it without any scruple, +and makes itself a welcome guest with all. It retires +early to rest. The blackbird quits its leafy roost in the +ivied ash; its “chink, chink” is heard in the hedge +and, mounting on some neighboring oak, with mellow +sober voice it gratulates the coming day. “The plainsong +cuckoo gray” from some tall tree now tells its tale. +The lark is in the air, the “marten twitters from her +earth-built shed,” all the choristers are tuning in the +grove; and amid such tokens of awakening pleasure it +becomes difficult to note priority of voice. These are +the matin voices of the summer season: in winter a +cheerless chirp, or a hungry twit, is all we hear; the +families of voice are away, or silent; we have little to +note, and perhaps as little inclination to observe.</p> + +<p class='c011'>During no portion of the day can the general operations +of nature be more satisfactorily observed than in +the early morning. Rosy June—the very thoughts of +an early summer’s morning in the country, like enchantment, +gives action to the current of our blood, +and seems to breathe through our veins a stream of +health and enjoyment! All things appear fresh and unsoiled; +the little birds, animated and gratulous, are +frisking about the sprays; others, proceeding to their +morning’s meal, or occupied in the callings of their +nature, give utterance by every variety of voice to the +pleasures that they feel: the world has not yet called +us, and with faculties unworn, we unite with them, +partake of this general hilarity and joy, feel disposed +to be happy, and enjoy the blessings around us: the +very air itself, as yet uninhaled by any, circulates about +us replete with vitality, conveying more than its usual +portion of sustenance and health, “and man goeth forth +unto his labor.” Night-feeding creatures, feeling the +freshness of light, and the coming day, are all upon the +move retiring from danger and observation; and we +can note them now unhidden in their lairs, unconcealed +<span class='pageno' id='Page_166'>166</span>beneath the foliage in the hedge: the very vegetation, +bathed in dew and moisture, full fed, partakes of this +early morning joy and health, and every creeping thing +is refreshed and satisfied. As day advances, it changes +all; and of these happy beings of the early hour, part +are away, and we must seek them; others are oppressed, +silent, listless; the vegetable, no longer lucid with dew, +and despoiled of all the little gems that glittered from +every serrature of its leaf, seems pensive at the loss. +When blessed with health, having peace, innocence, +and content, as inmates of the mind, perhaps the most +enjoyable hours of life may be found in an early summer’s +morning.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Oct. 9.—A brilliant morning! warm, without oppression; +exhilarating, without chilling. Imagination cannot +surely conceive, or caprice wish for an atmospheric +temperature more delightful than what this day affords; +having mingled with it just that portion of vital air +which brisks up animality, without consuming the sustenance +of life; satisfying the body with health, and +filling the heart with gratitude. Fine threads of gossamer +float lazily along the air, marking by this peculiar +feature the autumn of our year. On our commons, and +about our thistly hedge-rows, flocks of goldfinches<a id='r53'></a><a href='#f53' class='c014'><sup>[53]</sup></a> +(fringilla carduelis), the united produce of the summer +months, are sporting and glistening in the sunny beam, +scattering all over the turf the down of the thistle, as +they pick out the seed for their food. But this beautiful +native has only a few short weeks in which it will +have liberty to enjoy society and life. Our bird-catchers +will soon entrap it; and of those that escape his toils, +few will survive to the spring, should our winter prove +a severe one. Long as I have noticed this bird, it has +appeared to me that it never makes any plants generally +its food, except those of the syngenesia class, and on +these it diets nearly the whole year. In the spring season +it picks out the seeds from the fir cones. During +the winter months it very frequently visits our gardens, +feeding on the seeds of the groundsel (senecio vulgaris), +which chiefly abounds in cultivated places, and +vegetates there throughout the coldest seasons. This, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_167'>167</span>however, is an humble plant; and when covered by the +snow, the poor birds are half famished for want. We +then see them striving to satisfy their hunger by picking +some solitary green head of the plant remaining above +the frozen snow, and so tame, that they will suffer a +very near approach before they take flight. As the +frost continues, our little garden visitors diminish daily, +and by spring only a few pairs remain of all the flocks +of autumn. Yet it is very remarkable, notwithstanding +this natural predilection, how readily this bird conforms +to a perfect change in its diet, and in all the habits of +its life. Most of our little songsters, when captured +as old birds, become in confinement sullen and dispirited; +want of exercise, and of particular kinds of +food, and their changes, alter the quality of the fluids: +they become fattened, and indisposed to action by repletion; +fits and ailments ensue, and they mope and +die. But I have known our goldfinch, immediately +after its capture, commence feeding on its canary or +hemp-seed, food it could never have tasted before, nibble +his sugar in the wires like an enjoyment it had been +accustomed to, frisk round its cage, and dress its plumage, +without manifesting the least apparent regret for +the loss of companions or of liberty. Harmless to the +labors or the prospects of us lords of the creation, as so +many of our small birds are, we have none less chargeable +with the commission of injury than the goldfinch; +yet its blameless, innocent life does not exempt it from +harm. Its beauty, its melody, and its early reconciliation +to confinement, rendering it a desirable companion, +it is captured to cheer us with its manners and its voice, +in airs and regions very different from its native thistly +downs, and apple-blossom bowers.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The tree-creeper (certhia familiaris) is as little observed +as any common bird we possess. A retired inhabitant +of woods and groves, and not in any manner +conspicuous for voice or plumage, it passes its days with +us, creating scarcely any notice or attention. Its small +size, and the manner in which it procures its food, both +tend to secrete him from sight. It feeds entirely on +small insects, which it seeks between the crevices in +<span class='pageno' id='Page_168'>168</span>the bark of trees, or under the mosses and lichens that +invest their limbs. In these pursuits its actions are +more like those of a mouse than of a bird, darting like +a great moth from tree to tree, uttering a faint trilling +sound as it fixes on their boles, running round them in +a spiral direction, when with repeated wriggles having +gained the summit, it darts to another, and commences +again; and so intent is it on the object of pursuit, and +unsuspicious of harm, that I have seen it swept from +the tree with a stick. Mr. Pennant thinks that it retires +into milder regions upon the advance of winter; but +many certainly remain with us. In the early part of +the spring, when food is comparatively scarce in the +woods, it will frequent the mossy trees in our orchards +and gardens; but after a very short examination of +them, is away to its usual retirements, seeking no +familiarity with us, notwithstanding the social epithet +it has obtained. This little creature is observed in no +great numbers; yet its actions and manners seem to be +such as would tend to its increase. The female lays +eight or nine eggs; it roosts securely in the holes of +large trees; and from its manner of feeding, and the +places it inhabits, it can scarcely be destroyed by birds +of prey; yet, from some counteracting cause, our little +certhia, instead of increasing, apparently becomes a +scarcer bird. The limits that are appointed to the increase +of all the inferior orders of creation are very +worthy of remark. There may be periods when a great +augmentation of individual species takes place; but this +circumstance is local, or temporary, and future numbers +do not result from it. Some motive for the increase, no +doubt, existed; but, the object being accomplished, it +ceases, and apparent events, or imperceptible causes, +reduce the profusion of the race, so that certain numbers +only continue. This little tree-creeper, though always +active, seems to possess most animation and restlessness +in the autumnal months.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The yellow wagtail (motacilla flava) is so regularly +seen with us in his season, as to be quite a common +bird, breeding in our fields; yet generally observed as +he is, he always invites our attention, by his graceful +<span class='pageno' id='Page_169'>169</span>form and brilliant plumage, either actively running in +our path, or sporting in the pastures with that animation +and ease so remarkable in all this family, that we may +justly distinguish them as the gentles of our fields. +With manners and habits similar to the common gray +ones, yet there seems to be but little intimate association +between the species; and though they are occasionally +intermixed, we most commonly observe them +feeding by themselves and frolicking with their own +particular race. In autumn, when their broods are +united with them, they assemble in large parties towards +the evening preparatory to their nightly roost, selecting +low spreading bushes hanging over the pool, or as near +the water as they can, and thus become secured from +capture by nocturnal vermin. Being in full beauty at +this time, the fine yellow breasts of the male birds render +them very conspicuous as they glance about the dry +bents of the pasture. Autumn advancing, we lose +these flights; but now and then a single bird will appear +in one of those occasional bright sunny days that +even winter will produce, looking like some deserted +straggler who has lost its passage, or from some other +cause remaining with us, chasing the gnat on the margin +of the sheltered pool, and then, when the sunny +ray passes away, he departs with it, is hidden we know +not where, supported by means we are not acquainted +with, till another partial gleam allures him from retirement. +In April, the flights once more appear with all +the fine feather and freshness of autumnal birds, running +about the furrows in arable fields, and catching +the insects disturbed by the plow in its progress. Soon +building their nest, and attending their families, they +become bleached by the sun and rain of the season, and +remain shabby for weeks. Though they may follow +the course of the swallow and other migrating birds, +yet their peculiar manner of flight seems to preclude +long-continued exertion; not sailing and poising in air +like the hirundines and others, but proceeding by jerks, +by risings and sinkings, which at every pause require +muscular action to set them in progress anew, which for +any length of time could hardly be continued. It is +<span class='pageno' id='Page_170'>170</span>probable that their migrations are not very remote. The +mode of life assigned to these creatures requires great +activity of body; for living solely upon insects and +winged animals, they are constantly capturing or pursuing; +and their length of tail, which is perpetually in +motion, seems to aid and balance the operations of the +body. In the evening, when the winged creatures are +at rest, or, from the state of the atmosphere, in repose, +the wagtail resorts to the pastures, feeding under the +very bodies and noses of the cattle, who now become +the starters of his game, which, moving from the animal, +are captured by the bird. Being drowsy, and +settling almost as soon as disturbed, their prey would +escape, was the wagtail less nimble in his actions—for +he does not appear to perceive the insect, except when +it moves. How differently formed is this bird and the +gray flycatcher! Though both are solely insectivorous, +yet they secure their prey by very distinct means, the +latter seldom capturing on the ground or using his legs +in pursuit; the other uses actively his slender legs and +extended wings to aid him. The swallow race, again, +feed unlike them both, and haunting the pool, the +stream, the mead, or the higher regions of the air, +which his fraternity possess as a peculiar domain, satisfy +their wants in peace, without collision or contention +for the object.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Admirably adapted to the requirements of each creature +as their dispositions and institutions are known to +be, yet their peculiar modes of dieting, or inclination +for particular food, and formation of the organs that +digest it, should not be utterly unheeded, because by +these appointments of Omniscience, abundance is produced +for every race of created things in all places, +without variance or unfitting exertions to procure it. +Could we unite into one district a human being from +every square mile upon the surface of the globe, unshackled +by bigotry or the tenets of any faith, they +probably, without reluctance, having the means, might +feed upon and be nourished by one natural diet—we +will say the flesh of the ox, with potatoes or rice—but +this is by no means the case with the inferior animals. +<span class='pageno' id='Page_171'>171</span>Most of them, having different conformations +and inclinations, are supported by variety of diet; by +which means every station and place is made an abode, +and maintains its inhabitants, for the “Creator hath +opened his hand, and filled all things living with plenteousness.”</p> + +<p class='c011'>As a brief note, not a disquisition, upon the subject, +is designed, we will pass over the habits and dispositions +of beasts and insects, strongly charactered as they +are, and only instance a few of our land birds, as affording +the most familiar instances; and we shall find +that it is not the genera only, but the individuals which +compose them in many instances, that are supported by +different aliment. And first, those birds which we denominate +as Rapacious, such as falcons, hawks, owls, +live upon animal food which they capture, kill, and +devour; abstaining, unless stimulated by necessity, +from creatures they may find dead. Then come the +pies: of these, the raven and crow likewise eat animal +food, but it is generally such as has been killed by violence +or ceased to exist, only in cases of want<a id='r54'></a><a href='#f54' class='c014'><sup>[54]</sup></a> killing +for themselves. The rook, the daw, the magpie, consume +worms, grubs, and are not addicted, except from +hunger, to eating other animal matters. The two first +feed at times in society; the latter associates with neither, +but feeds in places remote from such as are frequented +by them. The jay too eats grubs and such +things, but seeks them out under hedges, in coverts and +places which others of his kind abandon to him. The +cuckoo seems principally to live upon the eggs of birds +with a few insects and larvæ occasionally; the wryneck +upon emmets, from heaps under hedges near concealment—the +woodpeckers upon insects found upon trees; +and when they seek for the emmet, they prefer the antheaps +<span class='pageno' id='Page_172'>172</span>of commons and open places;—the halcyon upon +small fishes:—thus all these creatures, even when they +require similar aliment, diet at their separate boards. +Of the Gallinaceous birds, the wood-grouse is supported +by the young shoots of the pine in his forests; but the +black and red grouse live upon berries found on the +moor, the seeds and tops of the heath; the partridge +upon seeds in the field, blades of grass or of corn; the +pheasant upon mast, acorns, berries from the hedge or +the brake. The bustard is content to live upon worms +alone, found in early morning upon downs and wide extended +plains, where none dispute his right or compete +with him, but one species of plover. The doves make +their principal meals in open fields, upon green herbage +and seeds. The stare again feeds upon worms and insects, +but in places remote from the bustard, nor does +he contend with the rook, or the daw, but takes his +meat and is away.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The Passerine birds, indeed, are remarkably dissimilar +in their manner of feeding. The missel-thrush will +have berries from the mistletoe, or seeks for insects and +slugs in wild and open places, the heath or the down. +The song-thrush makes his meal from the snail on the +bank, or worm from the paddock; but the blackbird, +though associating with him, leaves the snails, contenting +himself with worms from the hedge-side, or berries +from the brier or the bush. The fieldfare consumes +worms in the mead or haws from the hedge. The +crossbill will have seeds from the apple, or cone of the +fir—the green-finch, seeds from the uplands, or door of +barn, or rick-yard. The bunting is peculiarly gifted +with a bony knob in the roof of his bill, upon which +he breaks down the hard seeds he is destined to feed +upon. The bull-finch selects buds from trees and bushes. +The goldfinch is nurtured by thistle seeds, or those of +other syngenesious plants. Sparrows feed promiscuously. +Linnets shell out seeds from the cherlock, or +the rape, or the furze on the common. One lark will +feed in the corn-fields, another in the mead, another in +the woodlands—one titmouse upon insects frequenting +the alder and willow; some upon those which are hidden +<span class='pageno' id='Page_173'>173</span>under mosses, and lichens on large trees; a third +upon coleopterous creatures, secreted in the hedge-row +and the coppice. The gray wagtail finds food with us all +the year; but the yellow one must seek it in other +regions. The nightingale diets upon a peculiar grub, +and when that is not found in the state he prefers, he +departs. The domestic swallow feeds round our houses, +or in the meadow; but the bank swallow never comes +near us, chases his food beneath the crag, and along the +stream. The swift prefers the higher ranges of the air, +dieting upon the flies that mount into those regions. +The goat-sucker does not notice the creatures of the +day, capturing the moths and dorrs of the night. The +wheatear feeds only upon such insects as he finds upon +fallow lands, the down or the heath; and thus almost +every individual might be characterized by some propensity +of appetite, by some mode or place of feeding; +and hence individuals are found as tenants of the homestead, +the wild, the stream, the air, rock, down, and +grove—in every place finding plenty, and fulfilling their +destination without rivalry or contention: nor perhaps +is there any race of creatures that associates more innocently, +or passes their lives more free from bickering +and strife, than these our land birds do, persevering, from +period to period, with undeviating habits and propensities, +manifesting an original appointment and fixed +design of Providence, whose bounteous table, wherever +we look around, is spread for all, and good things meted +out to each by justice, weight, and measure.</p> + +<p class='c011'>I am neither inclined to seek after, nor desirous of +detailing, the little annoyances that these wildings of +nature, in their hard struggles for existence, may occasionally +produce; being fully persuaded that the petty +injuries we sometimes sustain from birds are at others +fully compensated by their services. We too often, +perhaps, notice the former, while the latter are remote, +or not obtrusive. I was this day (Jan. 25) led to reflect +upon the extensive injury that might be produced by +the agency of a very insignificant instrument, in observing +the operations of the common bunting (emberiza +miliaris); a bird that seems to live principally, if not +<span class='pageno' id='Page_174'>174</span>entirely, upon seeds, and has its mandibles constructed +in a very peculiar manner, to aid this established appointment +of its life. In the winter season it will frequent +the stacks in the farm-yard, in company with +others, to feed upon any corn that may be found scattered +about; but, little inclined to any association with +man, it prefers those situations which are most lonely +and distant from the village. It could hardly be supposed +that this bird, not larger than a lark, is capable of doing +serious injury; yet I this morning witnessed a rick of +barley, standing in a detached field, entirely stripped of +its thatching, which this bunting effected by seizing the +end of the straw, and deliberately drawing it out, to +search for any grain the ear might yet contain; the base +of the rick being entirely surrounded by the straw, one +end resting on the ground, the other against the mow, +as it slid down from the summit, and regularly placed +as if by the hand; and so completely was the thatching +pulled off, that the immediate removal of the corn became +necessary. The sparrow and other birds burrow +into the stack, and pilfer the corn; but the deliberate +operation of unroofing the edifice appears to be the +habit of this bunting alone.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Old simplicities, tokens of winds and weather, and +the plain observances of rural life, are everywhere +waning fast to decay. Some of them may have been +fond conceits; but they accorded with the ordinary +manners of the common people, and marked times, +seasons, and things, with sufficient truth for those who +had faith in them. Little as we retain of these obsolete +fancies, we have not quite abandoned them all; and +there are yet found among our peasants, a few who +mark the blooming of the large white lily (lilium candidum), +and think that the number of its blossoms on a +stem will indicate the price of wheat by the bushel for +the ensuing year, each blossom equivalent to a shilling. +We expect a sunny day, too, when the pimpernel (anagallis +arvensis) fully expands its blossoms; a dubious, +or a moist one, when they are closed. In this belief, +however, we have the sanction of some antiquity to +support us; Sir F. Bacon records it; Gerarde notes it +<span class='pageno' id='Page_175'>175</span>as a common opinion entertained by country people +above two centuries ago; and I must not withhold my +own faith in its veracity, but say that I believe this +pretty little flower to afford more certain indication of +dryness or moisture in the air, than any of our hygrometers +do. But if these be fallible criterions, we will +notice another, that seldom deceives us. The approach +of a sleety snow-storm, following a deceitful gleam in +spring, is always announced to us by the loud untuneful +voice of the missel-thrush (turdus viscivorus), as it +takes its stand on some tall tree, like an enchanter +calling up the gale. It seems to have no song, no voice, +but this harsh predictive note; and it in great measure +ceases with the storms of spring. We hear it occasionally +in autumn, but its voice is not then the prognostic +of any change of weather. The missel-thrush is a wild +and wary bird, keeping generally in open fields and +commons, heaths, and unfrequented places, feeding upon +worms and insects. In severe weather it approaches +our plantations and shrubberies, to feed on the berry +of the mistletoe, the ivy, or the scarlet fruit of the +holly or the yew; and should the redwing or the fieldfare +presume to partake of these with it, we are sure to +hear its voice in clattering and contention with the intruders, +until it drives them from the place, though it +watches and attends, notwithstanding, to its own safety. +In April it begins to prepare its nest. This is large and +so openly placed, as would, if built in the copse, infallibly +expose it to the plunder of the magpie and the +crow, which at this season prey upon the eggs of every +nest they can find. To avoid this evil, it resorts to our +gardens and our orchards, seeking protection from man, +near whose haunts those rapacious plunderers are careful +of approaching; yet they will at times attempt to +seize upon its eggs even there, when the thrush attacks +them and drives them away with a hawklike fury; and +the noisy warfare of the contending parties occasionally +draws our attention to them. The call of the young +birds to their parents for food is unusually disagreeable, +and reminds us of the croak of a frog. The brood being +reared, it becomes again a shy and wild creature, abandons +<span class='pageno' id='Page_176'>176</span>our homesteads, and returns to its solitudes and +heaths.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The extraordinary change of character which many +creatures exhibit, from timidity to boldness and rage, +from stupidity to art and stratagem, for the preservation +of a helpless offspring, seems to be an established ordination +of Providence, actuating in various degrees most +of the races of animated beings; and we have few examples +of this influencing principle more obvious than +this of the missel bird, in which a creature addicted to +solitude and shyness will abandon its haunts, and associate +with those it fears, to preserve its offspring from +an enemy more merciless and predaceous still. The +love of offspring, one of the strongest impressions given +to created beings, and inseparable from their nature, is +ordained by the Almighty as the means of preservation +under helplessness and want. Dependent, totally dependent +as is the creature, for every thing that can +contribute to existence and support, upon the great +Creator of all things, so are new-born feebleness and +blindness dependent upon the parent that produced +them; and to the latter is given intensity of love, to +overbalance the privations and sufferings required from +it. This love, that changes the nature of the timid and +gentle to boldness and fury, exposes the parent to injury +and death, from which its wiles and cautions do not +always secure it; and in man the avarice of possession +will at times subdue his merciful and better feelings. +Beautifully imbued with celestial justice and humanity +as all the ordinations which the Israelites received in +the wilderness were, there is nothing more impressive, +nothing more accordant with the divinity of our nature, +than the particular injunctions which were given in +respect to showing mercy to the maternal creature +cherishing its young, when by reason of its parental +regard it might be placed in danger. The eggs, the +offspring, were allowed to be taken; but “thou shalt +in anywise let the dam go;” “thou shalt not, in one +day, kill both an ewe and her young.” The ardent affection, +the tenderness, with which I have filled the parent, +is in no way to lead to its injury or destruction: and +<span class='pageno' id='Page_177'>177</span>this is enforced, not by command only, not by the +threat of punishment and privation, but by the assurance +of temporal reward, by promise of the greatest blessings +that can be found on earth, length of days and +prosperity.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The jack snipe (scolopax gallinula) is with us here, +as I have always known it, a transitory visitor in the +winter only—a solitary, unsocial bird—an anchorite +from choice. With the exception of our birds of prey, +the manner of whose existing requires it, and a few +others, all the feathered tribe seem to have a general +tendency towards association, either in flocks, family +parties, or pairs; but the individuals of this species +pass a large portion of their lives retired and alone, +two of them being rarely, or perhaps never, found in +company, except in the breeding season. They are +supposed to pair and raise their young in the deep +marshy tracts or reedy districts of the fen counties, +which afford concealment from every prying eye, and +safety from all common injuries. Driven by the frosts +of winter from these watery tracts, their summer’s covert, +they separate, and seek for food in more favored +situations, preferring a little, lonely, open spring, trickling +from the side of a hill, tangled with grass and foliage, +or some shallow, rushy streamlet in a retired valley. +Having fixed on such a place, they seldom abandon +it long, or quit it for another; and though roused +from it, and fired at repeatedly through the day, neither +the noise nor any sense of danger seems to alarm them; +and, if we should seek for the little judcock on an ensuing +morning, we find it at its spring again. The indifference +with which it endures this daily persecution +is amazing. It will afford amusement or vexation to +the young sportsman throughout the whole Christmas +vacation; and, from the smallness of its body, will +finally often escape from all its diurnal dangers. The +rail, and several other birds, confide for safety more in +their legs than their wings, when disturbed; but this +snipe makes little use of its feet, and takes to its wings +with such reluctance, from an apparent indolence of +disposition, that, could it be seen in the rushes, or tufts +<span class='pageno' id='Page_178'>178</span>of herbage, where it hides, it might be captured by the +hand. It leaves us early in the spring. Fond of concealment +as this little bird usually is, yet there are +times when it is infinitely less so than at others; and, +I think, upon the relenting of a frost, or when there is +a tendency to a thaw, it shows unusual alacrity, springs +from its rushy drain almost as readily as the common +snipe, and occasions, for the moment, a doubt of the +species. The mandible of this species is of a weak +and spongy nature.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The causes that influence this snipe to lead so solitary +a life are particularly obscure, as well as those +which stimulate some others to congregate, as we comprehend +no individual benefit to arise from such habits. +Wild fowl, the rook, and some other birds, derive security, +perhaps, from feeding in society, as a sentinel appears +to be placed by them at such times to give notice +of danger; but our congregating small birds take no +such precaution: security or mutual protection does not +seem to be obtained by it, as the largeness of the flocks +invites danger, and warmth in the winter season it does +not afford. For the purposes of migration, such associations +are in many respects serviceable and consistent; +but in our resident species, considered in its various +results, it becomes rather a subject of conjecture, than +of explanation. Timid creatures associate commonly +upon the apprehension of danger, and, without yielding +any mutual support, become only the more obnoxious to +evil; and this snipe, though its habits are the very reverse +of connexion with its species, yet affords no clue +to direct us to the causes of its unusual habits. These +associations of some, and retirement of others, are not +the capricious actions of an hour in a few individuals, +but so regularly and annually observed in the several +species, that they are manifestly appointed provisions +of nature, though the object is unknown. This half-snipe, +as our sportsmen call it, has rather generally +been considered by our young shooters as the male of +the larger species, or common snipe (scolopax gallinago); +yet it is difficult to assign any reason for the prevalence +of such an idea, with those who have had many opportunities +<span class='pageno' id='Page_179'>179</span>of observing the dissimilarity in the mode of +life, the manners, and plumage of the birds. I know +not any bird that lays so large an egg, in proportion to +its size, as the snipe.</p> + +<p class='c011'>A few pairs of the peewit (tringa vanellus) visit annually +some of our larger plowed fields to breed; but +they are so frequently disturbed by those necessary processes +of husbandry, hoeing and weeding, that they +seldom succeed in the object of their visit. On our +adjoining heath they escape better, and bring off many +of their young: but the larger portion of them keep +their station on the banks and dikes of the great drains +and sewers in the marsh lands; and the traveller, who +happens, in the spring of the year, to pass along any of +the roads bordering upon these haunts, where many +pairs are settled, will long remember the wearying and +incessant clamor of these birds, which, rising as he approaches, +wheel about him in an awkward, tumbling +flight, accompanied by the unremitting, querulous cry +of “peewit, peewit,” continued by the perseverance of +successive pairs, as long as he remains near their habitation; +which generally being a flat, aguish, uninteresting +country, where little is heard but the whispering of +the wind in the reeds and sedges, the teasing monotony +of this bird gives a very peculiarly dreary and melancholy +character to parts of our lowland roads. In some +counties these cold, wet districts go by the name of +“peewit or pewety lands.” At this period of the year, +the bird is bold and fearless, and menaces the intruder +with all its vociferous powers, when he approaches its +haunts; but the broods being fledged, the families unite, +form large flocks, and retire to open meadows, uninclosed +commons and downs, feeding on slugs and worms, +and become wild and vigilant creatures. It is well +known that the glareous liquor or white of the egg of +this bird, upon being boiled, becomes gelatinous and +translucent, not a thick opake substance like that of the +hen; a circumstance that is likewise observable in the +eggs of the rook, and of many of our small birds. The +latter are not sufferers by it; but the eggs of the poor +rook, though bearing little resemblance to those of this +<span class='pageno' id='Page_180'>180</span>plover, are in some places not uncommonly taken and +sold conjointly with them in the London market; and +probably the habitual eater of them only can distinguish +a sensible difference.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Prognostications and signs, a great amusement, and +the ground-work of belief to our forefathers, have, in +general, pretty much declined with us; the repeated +falsity of most of them having destroyed their reputation. +We know so little, if any thing, of the actuating +causes of seasons and their change, or the combinations +effecting results, that no safe conclusion can be formed +of any present events influencing the future. Whatever +our almanacs may do, few persons of credit will venture +now to predict, from what we call natural causes, a hot +summer, or a severe winter; yet that very ancient idea, +amongst country people, that “years of store of haws +and heps do commonly portend cold winters,” still lingers +with us. However warmly we assent to the fundamental +truth, the merciful consideration of Providence, +in providing food for the necessities of the little +fowls of the air, which, perhaps, piously gave rise to +the observation, almost every year proves, that any conclusions +drawn from these “stores of haws and heps” +are perfectly fallacious. The birds that feed chiefly +upon the fruit of the white thorn, and the wild rose, +are the fieldfare (turdus pilaris), and the redwing (turdus +iliacus); and that they do so, every sportsman has +had the most manifest conviction: yet it has been said +recently, that these creatures do not eat these fruits; +and said too by an eminent and amiable man, with whom +I have frequently had the honor of conversing, and always +with profit.<a id='r55'></a><a href='#f55' class='c014'><sup>[55]</sup></a> Were he living, his love of science +would encourage my observations, though not in unison +with his opinion: my breath shall not agitate his ashes, +nor will his spirit, I am certain, frown in anger at my +lines. It must be premised, that these birds, generally +speaking, give the preference to insect food and worms; +and when flights of them have taken their station near +<span class='pageno' id='Page_181'>181</span>the banks of large rivers, margined by lowlands, we +shall find, that the bulk of them will remain there, and +feed in those places; and, in the uplands, we shall observe +small restless parties only. But in the midland +and some other counties, the flocks that are resident +have not always these meadows to resort to, and they +then feed on the haws as long as they remain. In this +county, the extensive lowlands of the river Severn in +open weather are visited by prodigious flocks of these +birds; but as soon as snow falls, or hard weather comes +on, they leave these marshy lands, because their insect +food is covered or become scarce, visit the uplands, to +feed on the produce of the hedges, and we see them +all day long passing over our heads in large flights on +some distant progress, in the same manner as our larks, +at the commencement of a snowy season, repair to the +turnip fields of Somerset and Wiltshire. They remain +absent during the continuance of those causes which +incited their migration; but, as the frost breaks up, and +even before the thaw has actually commenced, we see a +large portion of these passengers returning to their +worm and insect food in the meadows, attended probably +by many that did not take flight with them—though +a great number remain in the upland pastures, feeding +promiscuously as they can. In my younger days, a +keen, unwearied sportsman, it was always observable, +that in hard weather these birds increased prodigiously +in number in the counties far distant from the meadow +lands, though we knew not the reason; and we usually +against this time provided tempting bushes of haws, +preserved in a barn, to place in frequented hedges, near +our secret standings. When the fieldfare first arrives, +its flesh is dark, thin, and scurfy; but, having fed a little +time in the hedges, its rump and side veins are covered +with fat. This is, in part, attributable to suppression +of perspiration by the cold, and partly to a nutritive +farinaceous food; its flesh at the time becoming bluish +and clean. The upland birds are in this state, from +perhaps the end of November till the end of January, +according as the hedge fruit has held out; and at this +period they are comparatively tame: afterward, though +<span class='pageno' id='Page_182'>182</span>the flights may be large, they become wild; and the +flesh, assuming its darkness, manifests that their food +has not been farinaceous. The distant foreign migrations, +which have been stated to take place from the +meadows of the Severn, I believe to be only these inland +trips; and that the supposed migrators returned to +those stations fat and in good condition, owing to their +having fed during their absence on the nutricious berry +of the white thorn. I have several times seen the fruit +on our hedges refused by these birds, and this too in +no very temperate season; but in all these cases, the +summer had been ungenial—the berries had not ripened +well, they were nipped by the frosts of October, and +hung on the sprays dark in color, small, and juiceless +in substance. The summer of 1825 produced the finest +and largest haws I ever remember. They were in general +of a bright red hue, and filled with farinaceous pulp; +and in consequence, though the season was uncommonly +mild and open, long before Christmas, little +wandering parties of these birds consumed the whole +of them.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Perfectly gregarious as the fieldfare is, yet we observe +every year, in some tall hedge-row, or little, +quiet pasture, two or three of them that have withdrawn +from the main flocks, and there associate with +the blackbird and the thrush. They do not appear to +be wounded birds, which from necessity have sought +concealment and quiet, but to have retired from inclination; +and I have reason to apprehend that these +retreats are occasionally made for the purpose of forming +nests, though they are afterwards abandoned without +incubation; as I have now before me the egg of a +bird, which I believe to be that of a fieldfare, taken +from a nest somewhat like that formed by the song-thrush, +in 1824. Its color is uniform—a rather pale +blue; it is larger than that of the thrush, obtuse at both +ends, and unlike any egg produced by our known British +birds. These retiring birds linger with us late in the +season, after all the main flights are departed, as if reluctant +to leave us; but towards the middle or end of +<span class='pageno' id='Page_183'>183</span>April these stragglers unite, form a small company, and +take their flight.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Rural sounds, the voices, the language of the wild +creatures, as heard by the naturalist, belong to, and are +in concord with the country only. Our sight, our smell, +may perhaps be deceived for an interval by conservatories, +horticultural arts, and bowers of sweets; but our +hearing can in no way be beguiled by any semblance +of what is heard in the grove or the field. The hum, +the murmur, the medley of the mead, is peculiarly its +own, admits of no imitation, and the voices of our birds +convey particular intimation, and distinctly notify the +various periods of the year, with an accuracy as certain +as they are detailed in our calendars. The season +of spring is always announced as approaching by the +notes of the rookery, by the jangle or wooing accents +of the dark frequenters of its trees; and that time having +passed away, these contentions and cadences are no +longer heard. The cuckoo then comes, and informs us +that spring has arrived; that he has journeyed to us, borne +by gentle gales in sunny days; that fragrant flowers +are in the copse and the mead, and all things telling of +gratulation and of joy: the children mark this well-known +sound, spring out, and cuckoo! cuckoo! as they +gambol down the lane: the very plow-boy bids him +welcome in the early morn. It is hardly spring without +the cuckoo’s song; and having told his tale, he has +voice for no more—is silent or away. Then comes the +dark, swift-winged marten, glancing through the air, +that seems afraid to visit our uncertain clime: he comes, +though late, and hurries through his business here, +eager again to depart, all day long in agitation and precipitate +flight. The bland zephyrs of the spring have +no charms with them; but basking and careering in +the sultry gleams of June and July, they associate in +throngs, and, screaming, dash round the steeple or the +ruined tower, to serenade their nesting mates; and +glare and heat are in their train. When the fervor of +summer ceases, this bird of the sun will depart. The +evening robin from the summit of some leafless bough, +or projecting point, tells us that autumn is come, and +<span class='pageno' id='Page_184'>184</span>brings matured fruits, chilly airs, and sober hours, and +he, the lonely minstrel now that sings, is understood by +all. These four birds thus indicate a separate season, +have no interference with the intelligence of the other, +nor could they be transposed without the loss of all the +meaning they convey, which no contrivance of art could, +supply; and, by long association, they have become +identified with the period, and in peculiar accordance +with the time.</p> + +<p class='c011'>We note birds in general more from their voices than +their plumage; for the carols of spring may be heard +involuntarily, but to observe the form and decoration +of these creatures, requires an attention not always +given. Yet we have some native birds beautifully and +conspicuously feathered; the goldfinch, the chaffinch, +the wagtails, are all eminently adorned, and the fine +gradations of sober browns in several others are very +pleasing. Those sweet sounds, called the song of birds, +proceed only from the male; and, with a few exceptions, +only during the season of incubation. Hence the +comparative quietness of our summer months, when +this care is over, except from accidental causes, where +a second nest is formed; few of our birds bringing up +more than one brood in the season. The redbreast, +blackbird, and thrush, in mild winters will continually +be heard, and form exceptions to the general +procedure of our British birds; and we have one little +bird, the woodlark (alunda arborea), that in the early +parts of the autumnal months delights us with its harmony, +and its carols may be heard in the air commonly +during the calm sunny mornings of this season. They +have a softness and quietness perfectly in unison with +the sober, almost melancholy, stillness of the hour. +The sky-lark<a id='r56'></a><a href='#f56' class='c014'><sup>[56]</sup></a> also sings now, and its song is very sweet, +full of harmony, cheerful as the blue sky and gladdening +beam in which it circles and sports, and known and +admired by all; but the voice of the woodlark is local, +not so generally heard, from its softness must almost be +listened for, to be distinguished, and has not any pretensions +to the hilarity of the former. This little bird +sings likewise in the spring; but, at that season, the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_185'>185</span>contending songsters of the grove, and the variety of +sound proceeding from every thing that has utterance, +confuse and almost render inaudible the placid voice +of the woodlark. It delights to fix its residence near +little groves and copses, or quiet pastures, and is a very +unobtrusive bird, not uniting in companies, but associating +in its own little family parties only, feeding in the +woodlands on seeds and insects. Upon the approach of +man it crouches close to the ground, then suddenly +darts away, as if for a distant flight, but settles again +almost immediately. This lark will often continue its +song, circle in the air, a scarcely visible speck, by the +hour together; and the vast distance from which its +voice reaches us in a calm day is almost incredible. In +the scale of comparison, it stands immediately below +the nightingale in melody and plaintiveness; but compass +of voice is given to the linnet, a bird of very inferior +powers. The strength of the larynx and of the +muscles of the throat in birds is infinitely greater than +in the human race. The loudest shout of the peasant +is but a feeble cry, compared with that of the golden-eyed +duck, the wild goose, or even this lark. The sweet +song of this poor little bird, with a fate like that of +the nightingale, renders it an object of capture and +confinement, which few of them comparatively survive. +I have known our country bird-catchers take them by a +very simple but effectual method. Watching them to +the ground, the wings of a hawk, or of the brown owl, +stretched out, are drawn against the current of air by a +string as a paper kite, and made to flutter and librate +like a kestrel over the place where the woodlark has +lodged; which so intimidates the bird that it remains +crouching and motionless as a stone on the ground; a +hand-net is brought over it, and it is caught.</p> + +<p class='c011'>From various little scraps of intelligence scattered +through the sacred and ancient writings, it appears certain, +as it was reasonable to conclude, that the notes +now used by birds, and the voices of animals, are the +same as uttered by their earliest progenitors. The language +of man, without any reference to the confusion +accomplished at Babel, has been broken into innumerable +<span class='pageno' id='Page_186'>186</span>dialects, created or compounded as his wants occurred, +or his ideas prompted; or obtained by intercourse +with others, as mental enlargement or novelty +necessitated new words to express new sentiments. +Could we find a people from Japan or the Pole, whose +progress in mind has been stationary, without increase +of idea, from national prejudice or impossibility of communication +with others, we probably should find little +or no alteration in the original language of that people; +so, by analogy of reasoning, the animal having no idea +to prompt, no new want to express, no converse with +others, (for a note caught and uttered merely is like a +boy mocking the cuckoo,) so no new language is acquired. +With civilized man, every thing is progressive; +with animals, where there is no mind, all is stationary. +Even the voice of one species of birds, except in particular +cases, seems not to be attended to by another +species. That peculiar call of the female cuckoo, +which assembles so many contending lovers, and all the +various amatorial and caressing language of others, excites +no influence generally, that I am aware of; with +all but the individual species, it is a dialect unknown. +I know but one note, which animals make use of, that +seems of universal comprehension, and this is the signal +of danger. The instant that it is uttered, we hear +the whole flock, though composed of various species, +repeat a separate moan, and away they all scuttle into +the bushes for safety. The reiterated “twink, twink” +of the chaffinch, is known by every little bird as information +of some prowling cat or weasel. Some give +the maternal hush to their young, and mount to inquire +into the jeopardy announced. The wren, that tells of +perils from the hedge, soon collects about her all the +various inquisitive species within hearing, to survey and +ascertain the object, and add their separate fears. The +swallow, that shrieking darts in devious flight through +the air when a hawk appears, not only calls up all the +hirundines of the village, but is instantly understood by +every finch and sparrow, and its warning attended to. +As Nature, in all her ordinations, had a fixed design +and foreknowledge, it may be that each species had a +<span class='pageno' id='Page_187'>187</span>separate voice assigned it, that each might continue as +created, distinct and unmixed: and the very few deviations +and admixtures that have taken place, considering +the lapse of time, association, and opportunity, united +with the prohibition of continuing accidental deviations, +are very remarkable, and indicate a cause and original +motive. That some of the notes of birds are as language +designed to convey a meaning, is obvious from +the very different sounds uttered by these creatures at +particular periods: the spring voices become changed +as summer advances, and the requirements of the early +season have ceased; the summer excitements, monitions, +informations, are not needed in autumn, and the +notes conveying such intelligences are no longer heard. +The periodical calls of animals, croaking of frogs, &c., +afford the same reasons for concluding that the sound +of their voices by elevation, depression, or modulation, +conveys intelligence equivalent to an uttered sentence. +The voices of birds seem applicable in most instances +to the immediate necessities of their condition; such as +the sexual call, the invitation to unite when dispersed, +the moan of danger, the shriek of alarm, the notice of +food. But there are other notes, the designs and motives +of which are not so obvious. One sex only is +gifted with the power of singing, for the purpose, as +Buffon supposed, of cheering his mate during the period +of incubation; but this idea, gallant as it is, has such +slight foundation in probability, that it needs no confutation: +and after all, perhaps, we must conclude, that +listened to, admired, and pleasing, as the voices of many +birds are, either for their intrinsic melody, or from association, +we are uncertain what they express, or the +object of their song. The singing of most birds seems +entirely a spontaneous effusion produced by no exertion, +or occasioning no lassitude in muscle, or relaxation of +the parts of action. In certain seasons and weather, +the nightingale sings all day, and most part of the night; +and we never observe that the powers of song are +weaker, or that the notes become harsh and untunable, +after all these hours of practice. The song-thrush, in +a mild moist April, will commence his tune early in +<span class='pageno' id='Page_188'>188</span>the morning, pipe unceasingly through the day, yet, at +the close of eve, when he retires to rest, there is no +obvious decay of his musical powers, or any sensible +effort required to continue his harmony to the last. +Birds of one species sing in general very like each +other, with different degrees of execution. Some +counties may produce finer songsters, but without great +variation in the notes. In the thrush, however, it is +remarkable, that there seem to be no regular notes, +each individual piping a voluntary of his own. Their +voices may always be distinguished amid the choristers +of the copse, yet some one performer will more particularly +engage attention by a peculiar modulation or +tune; and should several stations of these birds be +visited in the same morning, few or none probably will +be found to preserve the same round of notes; whatever +is uttered seeming the effusion of the moment. At +times a strain will break out perfectly unlike any preceding +utterance, and we may wait a long time without +noticing any repetition of it. During one spring an +individual song-thrush, frequenting a favorite copse, +after a certain round of tune, trilled out most regularly +some notes that conveyed so clearly the words, lady-bird! +lady-bird! that every one remarked the resemblance. +He survived the winter, and in the ensuing +season the lady-bird! lady-bird! was still the burden +of our evening song; it then ceased, and we never +heard this pretty modulation more. Though merely an +occasional strain, yet I have noticed it elsewhere—it +thus appearing to be a favorite utterance. Harsh, +strained, and tense, as the notes of this bird are, yet +they are pleasing from their variety. The voice of the +blackbird is infinitely more mellow, but has much less +variety, compass, or execution; and he too commences +his carols with the morning light, persevering from hour +to hour without effort, or any sensible faltering of voice. +The cuckoo wearies us throughout some long May +morning with the unceasing monotony of its song; and, +though there are others as vociferous, yet it is the only +bird I know that seems to suffer from the use of the +organs of voice. Little exertion as the few notes it +<span class='pageno' id='Page_189'>189</span>makes use of seem to require, yet, by the middle or end +of June, it loses its utterance, becomes hoarse, and +ceases from any further essay of it. The croaking of +the nightingale in June, or the end of May, is not apparently +occasioned by the loss of voice, but a change +of note, a change of object; his song ceases when his +mate has hatched her brood; vigilance, anxiety, caution, +now succeed to harmony, and his croak is the hush, the +warning of danger or suspicion to the infant charge and +the mother bird.</p> + +<p class='c011'>But here I must close my notes of birds, lest their +actions and their ways, so various and so pleasing, +should lure me on to protract</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c003'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>“My tedious tale through many a page;”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c012'>for I have always been an admirer of these elegant +creatures, their notes, their nests, their eggs, and all the +economy of their lives; nor have we, throughout the +orders of creation, any beings that so continually engage +our attention as these our feathered companions. +Winter takes from us all the gay world of the meads, +the sylphs that hover over our flowers, that steal our +sweets, that creep, or gently wing their way in glittering +splendor around us; and of all the miraculous creatures +that sported their hour in the sunny beam, the +winter gnat<a id='r57'></a><a href='#f57' class='c014'><sup>[57]</sup></a> (tipula hiemalis) alone remains to frolic in +some rare and partial gleam. The myriads of the pool +are dormant, or hidden from our sight; the quadrupeds, +few and wary, veil their actions in the glooms of night, +and we see little of them; but birds are with us always, +they give a character to spring, and are identified +with it; they enchant and amuse us all summer long +with their sports, animation, hilarity, and glee; they +cluster round us, suppliant in the winter of our year, +and, unrepining through cold and want, seek their +scanty meal amidst the refuse of the barn, the stalls of +the cattle, or at the doors of our house; or, flitting +hungry from one denuded and bare spray to another, +excite our pity and regard; their lives are patterns of +gaiety, cleanliness, alacrity, and joy.</p> + +<p class='c011'><span class='pageno' id='Page_190'>190</span>There are very many subjects and employments of +mankind, which, if we would obtain a competent knowledge +of them, will require an almost undivided attention; +yet, after all our “rising early and late taking +rest,” we shall know too little to be weighed in competition +with what is beyond our attainment or comprehension. +As in ascending mountainous regions we may +reach the summit of one hill with comparative ease, +that of a higher with more laborious efforts, and a still +higher is attained by a gifted few, beyond which our +breath fails us, our natural powers become inadequate; +so a small number may ascend the Alps of science, but +pant, unable to attain the Himmala ranges of their +wishes. If proficiency be the object, all the branches +of natural history require undivided attention; but +amusement, admiration, and intelligence, may be obtained +by even superficial observation; and of all these +departments, perhaps entomology, or the investigation +of the insect world, from the variety it embraces, the +season, the subjects, and the vigilance necessary to +catch every momentary action, requires from its followers +an homage more absolute, an attention more devoted, +than most others. Amid those few branches of science +on which I have sought for blossoms, that of entomology +I have least investigated; yet, perhaps it may +be said, that such slight notices as the foregoing need +not have usurped the time that the study of this department +required. To this truth I cannot but assent, and +say with the eminent man, whose “Centuries of Experiments” +I have often quoted, that they are indeed +more the suggestions of “light than of fruit;” proficiency +was beyond my powers; I have sought for +amusement, and gratefully record the many peaceful +hours, and oblivion of pain, which the perusal of +nature’s volume gave me, superficial as that perusal +was.</p> + +<p class='c011'>On whatever side we turn our attention in this world +of wonders by which we are surrounded, we constantly +find some subject that calls forth our admiration; and, +as far as our very imperfect vision is permitted to penetrate, +we observe the same unremitting order and provision +<span class='pageno' id='Page_191'>191</span>for a seemingly mean and worthless purpose, as +is bestowed upon a higher and apparently more worthy +object. We consider insects as one of the lower orders +of creation, but are as perfectly unacquainted, generally +speaking, with the objects of their being, though they +have for ages crawled and winged their way around us, +as the first man Adam was; yet there is a care manifested +for the preservation and accommodation of these, +which we often designate as contemptible creatures, +that is most elaborate and wonderful. The forethought +with which many of them have been furnished to deposit +their eggs in safety from the contingencies of +seasons and hostile incidents, and precisely in the +situation most fitting, must call forth the admiration of +all who have observed it. Some of these are lodged in +summer and autumn deep in the earth, on that part of +a plant which in due time is to be raised up, constituting +a stalk or blade, bearing with it by gentle steps +these eggs, to be vivified by the summer’s air and +warmth. Others fix them on some portion of an herb +hidden beneath the mud in the pool; and this being +elevated by the warmth of spring, conveys them with +its growth above the element that protected them, and +they hatch, the infants feeding on the substance that +has borne them to the air. In their chrysalis state, a +cradle of preparation for a final change, the same wisdom +and care are more particularly obvious from their size +and frequent occurrence: but to enlarge sufficiently +upon the contrivances and manifestations of regard +brought to our observance in all the stages of an insect’s +life, would almost require a detail of the race.</p> + +<p class='c011'>A particularly curious covering for a moth, or butterfly, +(phalæna pavonia?) fell into my hands, which might +be well known to a more experienced entomologist, +but was new to me. The species I do not know, as it +never arrived at perfection. This case was formed of +the fine silky substance that wraps up so many of the +race. The summit for some cause was less closed than +usual; but to obviate any injury to the creature from +this circumstance, a conical hood of similar materials +was placed over the exposed part of the aurelia, through +<span class='pageno' id='Page_192'>192</span>which it received air in perfect security. This veil being +formed of elastic threads, and opening upon pressure, +would constitute no impediment to the escape of +the fly when perfected. More care and forethought +than these contrivances manifest, we are not acquainted +with for any order of beings. I conjecture it would +have produced the emperor moth.</p> + +<p class='c011'>June 16.—I this day captured in a neighboring +meadow a fine specimen of the four-spotted dragon-fly +(libellula quadrimaculata), and note this for my entomological +friends; being the first certain instance I am +acquainted with of its being taken in England of late +years, for Ray mentions it. Another, I believe, escaped +by its shyness. It is a handsome creature, about three +inches in breadth between the extremities of its wings. +The two dark linear marks on the upper margin of each +wing, and tapering downy body, distinguish this fly +from any other. I can add nothing regarding its history +or manners.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The ghost moth<a id='r58'></a><a href='#f58' class='c014'><sup>[58]</sup></a> (hepialus humuli) is commonly seen +here, as I believe it to be in most other places, but +is mentioned to point out to any young person unacquainted +with this insect its singular habit when on the +wing, which at once distinguishes it from any other +moth. The larva which produces this creature is hidden +in the ground during the season of winter; the fly +being formed in the month of May, and soon rising +from the soil, then commences its short career. At this +time one or more of them may frequently be observed +under some hedge in a mead, or some low place in a +damp pasture, only a few feet from the ground, persevering +for a length of time together in a very irregular +flight, rising, and falling, and balancing about in a space +not exceeding a few yards in circumference, an action +not observable in any other, and fully indicating this +moth. This procedure is not the meanless vagary of the +hour, but a frolicsome dance, the wooing of its mate, +which lies concealed in the herbage over which it sports. +The two insects are something similar in their general +form, but very differently marked. The male exhibitor +is known by its four glossy, satiny, white wings, bordered +with buff; the lady reposer has her upper wings of +a tawny yellow, spotted and banded with deep brown. +They are very inert creatures, easily captured, and their +existence appears to be of very short duration, as we +soon cease to observe them, either in action or at rest. +The male probably becomes the prey of every bird that +feeds by night; his color and his actions rendering him +particularly obnoxious to dangers of this nature, and +the frequency with which we find his wings scattered +about, points out the cause of death to most of them. +The bat pursues with great avidity all those creatures +that fly in the evening; and by its actions it seems to +meet with constant employment, and has greater probability +of success, than some insectivorous birds that +feed by day, as all the myriads which abound at this +time are the sole prey of itself and a few nocturnal +ramblers. From this singular flight in the twilight hour, +haunting as it were one particular spot, the fancy of +some collector, considering it as a spectrelike action, +named it the “ghost moth.”</p> + +<div class='figcenter id003'> +<img src='images/i_213.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic001'> +<p><i>plate. 2.</i> <i>p. <a href='#Page_192'>192</a>.</i><br> <br> <i>Fig. 1. p. <a href='#Page_191'>191</a>, 192.</i><br> <br> <i>Fig. 2. p. <a href='#Page_235'>235</a>, 236.</i></p> +</div> +</div> + +<p class='c011'><span class='pageno' id='Page_193'>193</span>The fern owl,<a id='r59'></a><a href='#f59' class='c014'><sup>[59]</sup></a> but chiefly, I conjecture, the larger +bats, are the creatures that have caused me to experience +at times both envy and regret, when I have observed +scattered in some woodland path, amidst the +fragments of their nightly banquet, the relics of such +beautiful insects as the emperor of the woods, the +verdigris moth, and twenty other rare insects, to be obtained +only after the patience of years, or fortune of the +hour; and yet our merciless birds devour these choice +dainties without compunction or regard. This ghost +moth discharges her eggs in a very singular manner, +and frequently immediately upon capture, not deliberately +protruding them, but dismissing them from the +oviduct in rapid succession, until it is exhausted, with +a slight elastic force, that conveys them clear from the +abdomen. They are perfectly dry and unadhesive.</p> + +<p class='c011'>It requires more than usual delicate management to +preserve an uninjured specimen of the male of this +species, as the slightest touch robs the wings of the fine +scaly plumage which is affixed to their film or substance +<span class='pageno' id='Page_194'>194</span>by an extreme point, as is the case with most others of +our moths, but in this instance so loosely, that a very +gentle friction rubs it off. The plumage which covers +the wings and bodies of many of our lepidopterous insects +is variously colored, and like the feathers of birds, +gives them their splendor: in the butterflies I have not +observed it to vary greatly in form, but in the moths +the same uniformity does not appear to be maintained, +as a few specimens will manifest:—</p> + +<div class='figcenter id003'> +<img src='images/i_215.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic002'> +<p>No. 1. Scales from wings of phalæna pronuba—yellow under-wing. 2. Ghost moth. 3. Phalæna bucephala—buff tip. 4. Ph. vinula—puss moth. 5. Ph. potatoria, a, the female—drinker moth. 6. Papilio brassicæ—great white. 7. Pap. Napi—green-veined butterflies. 8. Large brown moth (name omitted). 9. Acherontia atropos—death’s head.</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p class='c011'>But the variety of clothing with which insects are +decorated, is most admirable and curious! The upper +and the under vestiture of the wings, their fringes, that +which covers the body in different parts, varies greatly; +the bird, splendidly habited as he sometimes is, frequently +will be found draped with less variety of form +and color than the insect which escapes our notice by +his actions, and the power of our eyes by the smallness +of its parts. Our lepidopterous creatures seem to be +most characteristically framed and constituted for the +different hours and places in which they delight to +move; so much so, that I think if we were to invert +the order of their appearance, the singular unfitness of +<span class='pageno' id='Page_195'>195</span>many of them for their stations would be immediately +manifest to us. The butterfly, light, airy, joyous, replete +with life, sports in the sunshine, wantons on the +flower, and trips from bloom to bloom, gay as the brilliant +morn, and cheerful as the splendor of heaven: +heat and light appear to be the very principle of his +being; in a cloudy or a chilly atmosphere his energies +become suspended, and, closing his wings, reposes like +a sickly thing upon some drooping flower: but let the +cloud disperse, the sun break out, he springs again to +active life; associating with the birds of day, and denizen +of the same scenes, he only seems of a less elevated +order. But the moth, though possessing at times +sufficient activity for self-preservation, is less buoyant, +less sprightly on the wing, avoids the heat and light, +the higher ranges of the air, and seeks his mate or his +food in the shelter of the hedge or the ditch, amidst +foliage and shade, where we may see him hovering sedately +around some flower, or passing on his way with +quiet steady flight, accordant with the silence and twilight +of the hour: companion of the owl and the bat, +his grave actions are quite unsuitable to the gaiety, the +flutter of a summer’s sun; the former is emblematic of +levity and display, the latter of retirement and shade. +And thus each, though but slightly seen, is in admirable +harmony with the season in which it moves, manifesting +the peculiar fitness of things to their several stations in +this vast world of wisdom; an observation obvious to +all, and a truth everywhere admitted, yet, as a Christian +moralizer I could not pass by unheeded any evidence +of foresight and of power.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Basking in the glare of an August or a July sun, in +our pastures we see the little elegant blue argus butterfly +(papilio argus), noted and admired by all, now +warmed into active life. A few of our lepidopterous +creatures, especially the common white butterflies of +our gardens, are contentious animals, and drive away +a rival from their haunts. We see them progressively +ascending into the air, in ardent unheeding contest; +and thus they are observed, captured, and consumed in +a moment by some watchful bird: but we have few +<span class='pageno' id='Page_196'>196</span>more jealous and pugnacious than this little argus. +When fully animated, it will not suffer any of its tribe +to cross its path, or approach the flower on which it sits, +with impunity; even the large admiral (vanessa atalanta) +at these times it will assail and drive away. There +is another small butterfly (papilio phlæas), however, as +handsome, and perhaps still more quarrelsome, frequenting +too the same station and flowers; and a constant +warfare exists between them. We shall see these +diminutive creatures, whenever they come near each +other, dart into action, and continue buffeting one +another about till one retires from the contest; when +the victor returns in triumph to the station he had left. +Should the enemy again advance, the combat is renewed; +but should a cloud obscure the sun, or a breeze +chill the air, their ardor becomes abated, and contention +ceases.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The papilio phlæas enjoys a combat even with its +kindred. Two of them are seldom disturbed, when +basking on a knot of asters in September, without mutual +strife ensuing. Being less affected by cold and +moisture than the argus, they remain with us longer, +and these contentions are protracted till late in the autumn. +The pugnacious disposition of the argus butterfly +soon deprives it of much of its beauty; and, unless +captured soon after its birth, we find the margins of its +wings torn and jagged, the elegant blue plumage rubbed +from the wings, and the creature become dark and +shabby.</p> + +<p class='c011'>This spring, 1827, fostered into active life an insect +unknown in our district, or at least unnoticed before by +me; a pretty little blue butterfly, for which I know no +common appellation, and so have named it the “spring +azure,” (papilio argiolus). It appeared quite at the end +of April, and in some numbers, but was yet a transient +visitor with us, as after the first week in May only a lingering +specimen or so was visible. Few wild flowers +are then in bloom; but, leaving all herbaceous plants, +it frequented chiefly the holly, the laurel, and the black +currant, feeding on the honey secreted by the nectaries +in their blossoms. If this butterfly be anywhere common, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_197'>197</span>it may be mistaken by indifferent observers for +the little blue argus of our pastures; but it appears +some months earlier than that insect is accustomed to +do; does not flit from blossom to blossom, and bask +upon the disks of the lowly herbs; and, though a feebler +creature on the wing, takes a much higher range in +flight, and sports in altitudes which the argus, with all +its animation, is very rarely inclined to attempt. When +in captivity, the dark margins of the upper wings, the +black specks, not eyes, and the pale blue of the reverse, +without any other character, render it perfectly distinguishable +from the papilio argus, corydon, or any other +butterfly found with us. A small hatch again takes +place about the end of July, and this pretty insect +haunts anew our currant bushes; but, enlivened by the +warmth of the season, it becomes more wild and wary, +and avoids our approach.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The hummingbird hawk-moth (sphinx stellatarum) +visits us annually, and occasionally in some numbers, +frisking about all the summer long, and in very fine +seasons continues with us as late as the second week in +October. The vigilance and animation of this creature +are surprising, and seem to equal those of its namesake, +that splendid meteoric bird of the tropics, “that winged +thought,” as some one has called it; though our plain +and dusky insect can boast none of its glorious hues. +Our little sphinx appears chiefly in the mornings and +evenings of the day, rather avoiding the heat of the +mid-day sun, possibly roused from its rest by the scent, +that “aromatic soul of flowers,” which is principally +exhaled at these periods; delighting in the jasmine, +marvel of Peru, phlox, and such tubular flowers; and +it will even insert its long, flexible tube into every petal +of the carnation, to extract the honey-like liquor it contains. +It will visit our geraniums and green-house +plants, and, whisking over part of them with contemptuous +celerity, select some composite flower that takes +its fancy, and examine every tube with rapidity, hovering +over its disk with quivering wings, while its fine +hawklike eyes survey all surrounding dangers. The +least movement alarms it, and it darts away with the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_198'>198</span>speed of an arrow; yet returns, and with suspicious +vigilance continues its employ, feeding always on the +wing. Nature seems to have given this creature some +essential requisites for its safety; its activity, when on +the wing, renders its capture difficult; and when it +rests, it is on a wall, the bark of a tree, or some dusky +body, that assimilates so nearly to its own color, as to +render it almost invisible, though watched to its settlement; +and the larva is seldom found. We sometimes +see it enter our rooms, attracted by flowers in the open +windows; but it seems to be immediately aware of its +danger, disappears in an instant, and is safe from capture. +Wild and fearful as this creature is by nature, +yet continued gentle treatment will remove much of its +timidity, and render it familiar to our presence. Perfectly +free from any annoyance as they are when ranging +from sweet to sweet on my borders, and accustomed to +a close inspection of all their operations, I have frequently +touched their wings with my fingers, while +hovering over a flower, and dipping their long tubes +into the corolla of a geranium: they would retire a little, +confused with such freedoms and interruptions, but, +experiencing no harm, they would return and finish +their meal, unmindful of such petty annoyances. I have +known this creature, like some other insects, counterfeit +death when apprehensive of danger, fall on its back, +and appear in all respects devoid of life when in a box; +and, as soon as a fit opportunity arrived, dart away with +its usual celerity.</p> + +<p class='c011'>On the blue heads of the pasture scabious (scabiosa +succisa) we occasionally see, toward the end of the +summer, the painted lady butterfly (papilio cardui); but +this is a creature that visits us at very uncertain periods, +and is vivified by causes infinitely beyond the comprehension +of the entomologist, seeming to require a succession +and variety of seasons and their change, and +then springing into life we know not how. This was +particularly obvious in the summer of 1815, and the +two following, which were almost unceasingly cold and +rainy; scarcely a moth or butterfly appeared. And in +the early part of 1818, the season was not less ungenial; +<span class='pageno' id='Page_199'>199</span>a few half-animated creatures alone struggled into being; +yet this “painted lady” was fostered into life, and +became the commonest butterfly of the year: it has, +however, but very partially visited us since that period. +The keenest entomologist, perhaps, would not much +lament the absence of this beauty, if such cheerless +seasons were always requisite to bring it to perfection. +Some years ago a quantity of earth was raised in cutting +a canal in this county; and, in the ensuing summer, +on the herbage that sprang up from this new soil +on the bank, this butterfly was found in abundance, +where it had not been observed for many years before.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The marble butterfly (papilio galathea) is an equally +capricious visitant of our fields. I have known intervals +of ten or twelve years when none could be +found, and in some following seasons it would be a prevailing +species.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The common wasp (vespa vulgaris) is infinitely uncertain +in its numbers. A mild winter, and a dry spring +or summer, we might conclude to be favorable circumstances +for the increase of this creature; yet such is +not always the case. Years productive of the plum are +said to be congenial likewise to the wasp. A local +rhyme will have it, that</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c003'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>“When the plum hangs on the tree,</div> + <div class='line'>Then the wasp you’re sure to see.”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c012'>Amid the tribes of insects so particularly influenced by +seasons, there are a few which appear little affected by +common events; the brown meadow butterfly (papilio +janira), so well known to every one, I have never missed +in any year; and in those damp and cheerless summers, +when even the white cabbage butterfly is scarcely to be +found, this creature may be seen in every transient +gleam, drying its wings, and tripping from flower to +flower with animation and life, nearly the sole possessor +of the field and its sweets. Dry and exhausting as the +summer may be, yet this dusky butterfly is uninjured +by it, and we see it in profusion hovering about the +sapless foliage. In that arid summer of 1826, the +abundance of these creatures, and of the lady-bird +<span class='pageno' id='Page_200'>200</span>(coccinella septem punctata), was so obvious, as to be +remarked by very indifferent persons.</p> + +<p class='c011'>There is a large yellow under-wing moth (phalæna +pronuba), too, which is generally abundant. It hides +itself during the day in the thickest foliage, and screens +itself from the light in the moist grass crops of the +mead, where it is perpetually disturbed, and roused +from its rest, by the scythe of the mower. That elegant +little bird, the yellow wagtail, is a great destroyer +of this insect. It is very soon apprized of these movements, +and will often attend the steps of the mower, +fearless of harm, to watch for its prey. As soon as the +moth rises, it is chased; and its exertions and shiftings +to escape, and the activity and perseverance of the bird +to capture it, are very amusing.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Our lepidopterous insects feed upon various substances +in their several states, and most of our butterflies, +when perfected, appear to extract the sweet liquor +from the tubes or nectaries of plants, and many of our +moths obtain their nourishment by similar means: but +one butterfly alone, the admirable (v. Atalanta), and at +times the peacock (v. Io), feeds upon the juices of our +autumnal fruits; and in the months of September and +October we may frequently see these beautiful creatures +basking and regaling themselves upon the rejected fragments +of our wall fruit. They seldom prey upon the +growing produce, like the hornet, wasp, and hive bee, +but when it has fallen and advanced to a state of fermentation, +it becomes the most grateful to them. Nothing +can be less injurious than this propensity, and it +seems that fruit in such a state is requisite for them by +some constitutional formation, as they appear only at +the termination of a season when the product of our +trees is in a state of great ripeness and decay. The life +of this creature appears to be remarkably short, and we +have more certain means of ascertaining its duration, +than are afforded us for others of the race. It very +rarely appears until late in September, and then so perfect +and fresh in its plumage as to manifest its recent +production from the chrysalis. In some years they +abound, and we may see twenty of these beautiful creatures +<span class='pageno' id='Page_201'>201</span>expanding and closing their brilliant wings under +the fruit trees on our walls, or basking upon the disk of +some autumnal flower; and at another, perhaps, hardly +a specimen is to be obtained: nor do they seem like +the wasp to be scarce or abundant according to the deficiency +or plenty of the season, but influenced by other +causes. Many of our butterflies are produced by successive +hatches, supplying the places of those which +have been destroyed, and hence it is difficult to mark +the duration of an individual; and others, as the nettle, +peacock and wood tortoise, in many instances survive +the winter, hidden in some recess or sheltered apartment, +appearing in the spring time-worn and shabby. +But van. atalanta appears only in the autumn, not as a +preserved creature, but a recent production; and hence +we can ascertain the period of its life to be comprised +only between those few days that intervene from the +end of September to the end of October, by which +time its food in our gardens has pretty well disappeared. +Some sheltered wall, garnished with the bloom of the +ivy, may prolong its being a little longer, but the cold +and dampness of the season soon destroy it; rendering +the life of this creature, the most beautiful of our lepidopterous +tribes, of very brief duration.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The gamma moth (phalæna gamma) is also another +creature, that seems in no way affected by moist seasons, +which retard the appearance, or apparently destroy so +many others of its kind. This creature has imprinted +on its dark wings a white character, something like the +letter Y, but more like the small Greek gamma, and +hence has received a pertinent name. Like Cain, it +bears with it, in all its wanderings, a mark that distinguishes +it from others of its race. Its habits also are +quite unlike those of other moths, as it feeds principally +in the day-time; and we see it late in the summer +whisking about with all the activity and action of the +hummingbird sphinx. Like the latter it keeps its wings, +while feeding, in a constant state of vibration; haunts +clover-fields, and the yellow blossoms of the wild mustard, +and the heads of the pasture scabious. It seems +little mindful of the common frosts of October, retiring +<span class='pageno' id='Page_202'>202</span>from us with such reluctance, that, should the autumn +be fine, we not uncommonly find it in some piece of +aftergrass, enjoying there the few flowers which linger +out the approaches of November.</p> + +<p class='c011'>In the autumn of the year 1827, the larvæ of the +goat moth (phalæna cossus) abounded beyond any customary +proportion, and we could commonly see the +traces made by these creatures in the dust. They had +apparently fed during the summer in the earth, and +were now proceeding in search of a retreat during +winter to some old hedge-row tree, a part to repose, +and those which approached maturity, to abrade the +softer wood, and form their cases, preparatory to changing +to a final perfect state in the spring. At times we observed +them coursing along our paths with great strength +and activity; and when not seen, that peculiar subtle +smell, which proceeds from them, and has been thought +to resemble that of the goat, was perceptible in all +our walks. The object and seat of this odor seem not +well understood. Some have conjectured it to proceed +from a fluid evacuated from the mouth, and discharged +to soften the wood in which they burrow. But it seems +inconsistent with any probability, that this creature, +which is furnished with such very powerful mandibles, +should be gifted with an auxiliary aid to accomplish +its object; while of the many insects that perforate +timber, most of them with inferior means, no other +possesses an equivalent agent to facilitate its labors; +for not one of them, as far as we know, is so supplied. +Besides, if such were the purpose, the discharge would +be made only when required, and thus this unpleasant +odor not always perceptible. The microscope too does +not manifest the exudation of any fluid. The larva is +furnished with eight curious retractile processes on its +under side, in the manner of what entomologists call +the “prolegs.” These are encircled with little hooks, +made use of probably to remove the fragments of the +wood, when broken off by the mandibles above, and +clear the passages. The strength of these jaws is so +great, that they will very soon destroy any common chip +box in which the animal may be placed, by abrading +<span class='pageno' id='Page_203'>203</span>the edges, to effect its escape. With us they chiefly +inhabit the ash; and we very commonly see at the roots +of our aged trees the fragments removed by them in +forming their passages. In breaking up the decayed +pollards, we not unusually find the grub in all the stages +of its growth; but more generally observe them without +inhabitants, yet perforated with paths large enough +to admit the finger. I suspect that these “augerworms” +are the primary cause of the decay of the tree; having +often observed their perforations, and found them, both +large and small, in the solid spur or root of the tree, +when the upper portion, having been bored and in a +state of decline, is abandoned by them. Those that are +full fed appear to form their cases in that part which +has lost coherency, while the younger and imperfected +creatures mine their way, and obtain nutriment in the +solid timber, thus killing the tree by inches; when rain +and moisture find lodgment, and complete the dissolution. +One year’s preparation is the period usually assigned +to the larvæ of most insects, before they arrive +at their perfect state; but by the goat moth three years +are required before it attains its winged state from the +egg. Consequently, for the larger portion of its life it +is occupied in these destructive operations; and thus +this creature becomes a very powerful agent in reducing +these Titans of the vegetable world, crumbling them +away to their original dust: for what was decreed to be +the termination and punishment of man is found in +active operation throughout the whole chain of nature’s +works, which are but dust, and unto dust return, continuing +an endless series of production and decay, of +restoration and of change. All these larvæ which I have +observed in the colder portions of our year, were hard, +stiff, and torpid, but soon became relaxed and animated +by the warmth of the hand: thus they probably remain +quiet during the winter months, but revive in spring, +and recommence their ravage in the tree. The caterpillar +of this moth I believe to be the largest of any +of those of the British lepidopteræ; and when full fed +exceeds in size that of the death’s-head sphinx. To +those who dislike the appearance of things of this nature, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_204'>204</span>it is particularly disgusting; not only from its magnitude +and smell, but from its color, which is a lurid red, +so compounded with a dingy yellow, as to give it a +lividness of look, conveying the idea of something raw. +Common as the grub is in some years, I have seldom +been able to obtain the moth, without the often tedious +process of feeding the larvæ, and waiting for its change.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Of those caterpillars which feed upon the foliage of +vegetation, a considerable portion are picked off and +consumed by the numerous little birds which are constantly +hunting after them, as food for themselves or +their young ones; and many of those which are supported +by the roots of plants, and remain covered in +the soil, are detected by the perception of rooks, and +birds of that order; but those which feed upon the internal +parts of trees seem exempted from any of these +causes of destruction. This is possibly a reason that +the larvæ of phalæna cossus is so plentifully found; but +yet it is pretty certain that some other and equally fatal +visitation assails them, and reduces their numbers +during the long period which is required to perfect +their state: for though, by feeding and care, (for they +are very impatient of confinement,) we can obtain the +moth in numbers, yet few seem to survive and become +perfected by the common processes of nature, at least +I have seldom found them in this state, though the larvæ +is so plentifully seen.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The designs of supreme intelligence in the creation +and preservation of the insect world, and the regulations +and appointments whereby their increase or decrease +is maintained, and periodical appearance prescribed, +are among the most perplexing considerations +of natural history. That insects are kept in reserve for +stated seasons of action, we know, being commonly +made the agents of Providence in his visitations of +mankind. The locust, the caterpillar, the palmer-worm, +the various family of blights, that poison in the spring +all the promise of the year, are insects. Mildew, indeed, +is a vegetable; but the wireworm destroys the root, the +thrips the germ of the wheat, and hunger and famine +ensue. Many of the coleopteræ remove nuisances, others +<span class='pageno' id='Page_205'>205</span>again encumbrances, and worms manure the soil; but +these are trite and isolated cases in the profusion of the +animal world; and, left alone, as we are, in the desert +of mere reason and conjecture, there is no probability +that much satisfactory elucidation will be obtained. +They are not perhaps important objects of inquiry; but +when we see the extraordinary care and attention that +has been bestowed upon this part of creation, our astonishment +is excited, and forces into action that inherent +desire in our minds to seek into hidden things. +In some calm summer’s evening ramble, we see the +air filled with sportive animated beings: the leaf, the +branch, the bark of the tree, every mossy bank, the +pool, the ditch, all teeming with animated life, with a +profusion, an endless variety of existence; each creature +pursuing its own separate purpose in a settled +course of action, admitting of no deviation or substitution, +to accomplish or promote some ordained object. +Some appear occupied in seeking for the most appropriate +stations for their own necessities, and exerting +stratagems and wiles to secure the lives of themselves +or their offspring against natural or possible injuries, +with a forethought equivalent or superior to reason; the +aim in some others we can little perceive, or, should +some flash of light spring up, and give us a momentary +glimpse of nature’s hidden ways, immediate darkness +closes round, and renders our ignorance more manifest. +We see a wonderfully fabricated creature struggling +from the cradle of its being, just perfected by the +elaboration of months or years, and decorated with a +vest of glorious splendor; it spreads its wings to the +light of heaven, and becomes the next moment, perhaps, +with all its marvellous construction, instinct, and splendor, +the prey of some wandering bird! and human wisdom +and conjecture are humbled to the dust. That +these events are ordinations of supreme intelligence, +for wise and good purposes, we are convinced; but are +blind, beyond thought, as to secondary causes; and admiration, +that pure source of intellectual pleasure, is +almost alone permitted to us. If we attempt to proceed +beyond this, we are generally lost in the mystery with +<span class='pageno' id='Page_206'>206</span>which the divine Architect has thought fit to surround +his works; and perhaps our very aspirations after knowledge +increase in us a sense of our ignorance: every +deep investigator into the works of nature can scarcely +possess other than an humble mind.</p> + +<p class='c011'>In all our pursuits we shall find in nature, wheresoever +we can penetrate, a formation, a faculty adapted to +all the wants and comforts of the creature, yet the objects +of infinite wisdom in the creation of this world +of matter, animate and inanimate, will probably never +be made known to mankind; for though knowledge is +in a constant progressive state, and the attainments of +science in latter years have been comparatively prodigious, +yet these acquirements are in fact but entanglements: +they lead us deeper into surprise and perplexity, +and the little perceptions of light which we +obtain serve to show how hopeless any attempt must be +to penetrate the secrets of infinity, a conviction, if we +“dwell deep in the valley of humility,” that will in no +manner discourage our pursuits, but rather incite our +ardor to investigate so exhaustless a store, which will +lead us, from contemplation, to admiration, to devotion.</p> + +<p class='c011'>That pretty sparkler of our summer evenings, so +often made the plowboy’s prize, the only brilliant that +glitters in the rustic’s hat, the glow-worm<a id='r60'></a><a href='#f60' class='c014'><sup>[60]</sup></a> (lampyris +noctiluca), is not found in such numbers with us, as in +many other places, where these signal tapers glimmer +upon every grassy bank; yet, in some seasons, we have +a reasonable sprinkling of them. Every body probably +knows, that the male glow-worm is a winged, erratic +animal, yet may not have seen him. He has ever been +a scarce creature to me, meeting perhaps with one or +two in a year; and, when found, always a subject of +admiration. Most creatures have their eyes so placed +as to be enabled to see about them; or, as Hook says +of the house fly, to be “circumspect animals;” but this +male glow-worm has a contrivance by which any upward +or side vision is prevented. Viewed when at rest, +no portion of his eyes is visible, but the head is margined +with a horny band, or plate, being a character of one of +the genera of the order coleoptera, under which the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_207'>207</span>eyes are situate. This prevents all upward vision; and +blinds, or winkers, are so fixed at the sides of his eyes +as greatly to impede the view of all lateral objects. The +chief end of this creature in his nightly peregrinations +is to seek his mate, always beneath him on the earth; +and hence this apparatus appears designed to facilitate +his search, confining his view entirely to what is before +or below him. The first serves to direct his flight, the +other presents the object of his pursuit: and as we +commonly, and with advantage, place our hand over the +brow, to obstruct the rays of light falling from above, +which enables us to see clearer an object on the ground, +so must the projecting hood of this creature converge +the visual rays to a point beneath. This is a very curious +provision for the purposes of the insect, if my conception +of its design be reasonable. Possibly the same +ideas may have been brought forward by others; but, +as I have not seen them, I am not guilty of any undue +appropriation, and no injury can be done to the cause +I wish to promote, by detailing again such beautiful +and admirable contrivances.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Glow-worms emit light only for a short period in the +year; and I have but partially observed it after the +middle of July. I have collected many of these pretty +creatures on a bank before my house, into which they +retire during the winter, to shine out again when revived +by the summer’s warmth; but in this latter season, +I have frequently missed certain of my little +protegés, and have reason to apprehend that they formed +the banquet of a toad, that frequented the same +situation.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Observing above, that the glow-worm does not emit +light after the 14th of July, I mean thereby that clear, +steady light, which has rendered this creature so remarkable +to all persons; for I have repeatedly noticed, +deep in the herbage, a faint evanescent light proceeding +from these creatures, even as late as August and September. +This was particularly manifested September +the 28th, 1826. The evening was warm and dewy, and +we observed on the house-bank multitudes of these +small evanescent sparks in the grass. The light displayed +<span class='pageno' id='Page_208'>208</span>was very different from that which they exhibit +in the warm summer months. Instead of the permanent +green glow that illumines all the blades of the surrounding +herbage, it was a pale transient spot, visible +for a moment or two, and then so speedily hidden that +we were obliged, in order to capture the creature, to +employ the light of a candle. The number of them, +and their actions, creeping away from our sight, contrary +to that half-lifeless dullness observed in summer, +suggested the idea that the whole body had availed +themselves of this warm, moist evening, to migrate to +their winter station. A single spark or so was to be +seen some evenings after this, but no such large moving +parties were discovered again. If we conclude, that +the summer light of the glow-worm is displayed as a +signal taper, the appearance of this autumnal light can +have no such object in view, nor can we rationally assign +any use of it to the creature itself, unless, indeed, +it serves as a point of union in these supposed migrations, +like the leading call in the flight of night-moving +birds. The activity and numbers of these insects, in +the above-mentioned evening, enabled me to observe +the frequent presence and disappearance of the light +of an individual, which did not seem to be the result +of will, but produced by situation. During the time +the insect crawled along the ground, or upon the fine +grass, the glow was hidden; but on its mounting any +little blade, or sprig of moss, it turned round and presented +the luminous caudal spot, which, on its falling +or regaining its level, was hidden again.</p> + +<p class='c011'>My laborer this day, July the 18th, in turning over +some manure, laid open a mass of snake’s eggs (coluber +natrix), fifteen only, and they must have been recently +deposited, the manure having very lately been placed +where they were found. They were larger than the +eggs of a sparrow, obtuse at each end, of a very pale +yellow color, feeling tough and soft like little bags of +some gelatinous substance. The interior part consisted +of a glareous matter like that of the hen, enveloping +the young snake, imperfect, yet the eyes and form sufficiently +defined. Snakes must protrude their eggs singly, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_209'>209</span>but probably all at one time, as they preserve no regular +disposition of them, but place them in a promiscuous +heap. At the time of protrusion they appear to be surrounded +with a clammy substance, which, drying in the +air, leaves the mass of eggs united wherever they touch +each other. I have heard of forty eggs being found in +these deposits; yet, notwithstanding such provision for +multitudes, the snake, generally speaking, is not a very +common animal. The kite, the buzzard, and the raven, +which prey on it occasionally, are too seldom found +greatly to reduce the race; and its deep retirement in +the winter seems to secure it from fatal injuries by the +severity of the weather: yet in the warm days of spring, +when it awakens from its torpidity and basks upon our +sunny banks, the numbers that appear are not proportionate +to what might be expected from the number of +eggs produced. Few creatures can assail it in its dormitory, +yet its paucity proves that it is not exempt from +mortality and loss. The mole may follow it in its retirement, +but would hardly attempt to seize so large an +animal. The polecat and the weasel too can enter its +runs; are sufficiently bold and strong to attempt the +conquest; and not improbably in the winter season resort +to such food, the poor snake having no power of +defending itself, or of avoiding the assault. The common +snake of this country is a very harmless, unobtrusive +creature; so timid, as to avoid the presence of man +whenever he appears, hiding itself as much as possible +in bushes and rugged places from his sight. At times +a strong fetor proceeds from it; but this appears to be +sexual, or made use of as the means of annoying its +enemies. It possesses no power to commit injury, and +has apparently no inclination to molest any thing beyond +its requirements for food, as frogs and mice. When a +young man, I have repeatedly handled it with impunity; +and though often bitten, a temporary swelling, with +slight inflammation, was the only result; but in these +experiments the viper must not be mistaken for the +common snake. Yet this poor creature, under the curse +of ignorance and cruelty, never escapes unscathed from +power and opportunity. All the snake tribe, innocuous +<span class='pageno' id='Page_210'>210</span>and pernicious, seem to be viewed with horror and +aversion by mankind. This horror, from the knowledge +of their power of inflicting harm in countries where +such kinds are found, is natural, and often preservative +of life; but the aversion generally felt, and that shuddering +occasionally noticed at the sight of our harmless +snake, is like a deep-rooted principle. We imbibe in +infancy, and long retain in remembrance the impression +of injuries from the wiles of the serpent; and the +“enmity between it and the seed of the woman” appears +still in full operation, and is possibly more extensively +and insensibly diffused among mankind than we +are aware of. The harmless nature of our snake seems +to be fully known to the little birds of the hedge, as +they in no way give intimation of its presence by any +warning of avoidance to their young, or that insulting +vociferation so observable when any really injurious +creature is perceived, but hop and sport about the basking +snake without fear or notice.</p> + +<p class='c011'>All the human race seem to have inherited the original +anathema against this creature; for though the +capricious cruelty of man is very frequently exerted +to the injury of many that his power enables him to +tyrannize over, yet the serpent appears to be a peculiar +object of his enmity, as if it was understood to be an +absolute duty to “bruise his head,” whenever the opportunity +should be afforded.</p> + +<p class='c011'>It is very remarkable how few noxious creatures, +animals which annoy man, inhabit with us; beasts and +birds we have none, for the petty depredations occasionally +made on his property are undeserving of attention. +The gnat, and perhaps a few insects, may at times +puncture our skin, but the period of action is brief, the +injury only temporary. The wasp and the hornet, I +believe, very rarely use their weapons wantonly, only +in self-defence and when persecuted; thus leaving the +balance incalculably in favor of innocency and harmlessness. +But of all the guiltless beings which are met +with, we have none less chargeable with criminality than +the poor slow-worm<a id='r61'></a><a href='#f61' class='c014'><sup>[61]</sup></a> (anguis fragilis), yet none are more +frequently destroyed than it—included as it is in the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_211'>211</span>general and deep-rooted prejudice attached to the serpent +race. The viper and the snake, though they experience +no mercy, escape often by activity of action; +but this creature, from the slowness of his movements, +falls a more frequent victim. We call it a ‘blind-worm,’ +possibly from the supposition that as it makes little +effort to escape, it sees badly; but its eyes, though +rather small, are clear and lively, with no apparent defect +of vision. The natural habits of the slow-worm are +obscure; but living in the deepest foliage, and the +roughest banks, he is generally secreted from observation; +and loving warmth, like all his race, he creeps +half torpid from his hole, to bask in spring time in the +rays of the sun, and is, if seen, inevitably destroyed. +Exquisitely formed as all these gliding creatures are, +for rapid and uninterrupted transit through herbage and +such impediments, it is yet impossible to examine a +slow-worm without admiration at the peculiar neatness +and fineness of the scales with which it is covered. +All separate as they are, yet they lap over, and close +upon each other with such exquisite exactitude, as to +appear only as faint markings upon the skin, requiring +a magnifier to ascertain their separations; and, to give +him additional facility of proceeding through rough +places, these are all highly polished, appearing lustrous in +the sun, the animal looking like a thick piece of tarnished +copper wire. When surprised in his transit from the +hedge, contrary to the custom of the snake or viper, +which writhe themselves away into the grass in the +ditch, he stops, as if fearful of proceeding, or to escape +observation by remaining motionless, but if touched +he makes some effort to escape: this habit of the poor +slow-worm becomes frequently the cause of his destruction.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Of all the active, vigilant creatures that animate our +paths, we have none superior to the little, bee-like +bombylius (bombylius medius); but this creature is to +be seen only in the mornings of a few bright days in +spring, seeming to delight in the hot, windy gleams of +that season, presenting an emblem of that portion of +our year, fugitive and violent. It is, I believe, plentiful +<span class='pageno' id='Page_212'>212</span>nowhere. Particularly solicitous of warmth, it seeks +the dry sunny reflection of some sheltered gravel-walk, +or ditch-bank in a warm lane; and here it darts and +whisks about, in seeming continual suspicion or danger; +starting away with angry haste, yet returning immediately +to the spot it had left; buffeting and contending +with every winged fly that approaches, with a jealous, +pugnacious fury, that keeps it in constant agitation. +This action, its long projecting proboscis, and its pretty, +spotted wings, placed at right angles with its body, distinguish +our bombylius from every other creature. It +appears singularly cautious of settling on the ground. +After long hovering over and surveying some open spot, +with due deliberation and the utmost gentleness it commits +its long, delicate feet to the earth; but on the approach +of any winged insect, or on the least alarm, is +away again to combat or escape. Associates it has none: +the approach even of its own race excites its ire, and, +darting at them with the celerity of thought, it drives +them from its haunts. When a captive it becomes tame +and subdued, and loses all its characteristic bustling +and activity, the inspiration of freedom.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The great black ant (formica fuliginosa) is commonly +found in all little copses, animating by its numbers +those large heaps of vegetable fragments, which it collects +and is constantly increasing with unwearied industry +and perseverance as a receptacle for its eggs. +The game-fowl, the woodpecker, the wryneck, and all +the birds that feed upon the little red ant, and soon depopulate +the hillocks which they select, do not seem +equally to annoy this larger species. These systematic +creatures appear always to travel from and return to +their nests in direct lines, from which no trifling obstacle +will divert them; and any interruption on this +public highway they resent, menacing the intruder with +their vengeance. A neighbor related to me an instance +of this unyielding disposition, which he witnessed in +one of our lanes. Two parties of these black ants were +proceeding from different nests upon a foraging expedition, +when the separate bodies happened to meet each +other. Neither would give way; and a violent contest +<span class='pageno' id='Page_213'>213</span>for the passage ensued. After a time the combat ceased, +and all animosity subsided, each party retiring to its +nest, carrying with it its dead and maimed companions. +This encounter seemed quite accidental, and the disposition +to move in a uniform line, which their meeting +prevented, the sole cause of their hostility, combat, and +mutual injury. The strength of some creatures, especially +insects, considering the smallness of their size, +is in several instances prodigious. Man, by his reason +and power, calls to his aid mechanical means, and +other agents, to effect his objects; but unreasoning beings +accomplish their purposes by contrivance and bodily +powers. The strength of these black ants is manifested +by the quantity and magnitude of the materials which +they collect for their heaps; but the common little red +ant (formica rubea), a much smaller creature, gives +daily proofs of its abilities to remove heavy substances, +equal to any that we meet with. One of these little +creatures, thirty-six of which only weigh a single grain, +I have seen bear away the great black fly as its prize, +equal to a grain in weight, with considerable ease; and +even the wasp, which exceeds forty times its own weight, +will be dragged away by the labor and perseverance +of an individual emmet. These little ants are occasionally +and profusely deprived of their lives by some +unknown visitation. In the year 1826, in particular, +and again in the following year, I observed, in the month +of August, a lane strewed with their bodies. They had +bred during the summer in an adjoining bank; but some +fatality had overwhelmed them when absent from their +nests, and nearly annihilated the fraternity, as only a +few scattered survivors were to be seen feebly inspecting +the bodies of their associates. The task of removal, +however, with all their industry, appeared beyond their +powers to accomplish, as on the ensuing day few had +been taken away. Had these creatures been destroyed +in combat by rival contention, the animosity must have +been excessive; but it is more probable that they met +their death by some other infliction.</p> + +<p class='c011'>One year, on the 3d of March, my laborer being employed +in cutting up ant-hills, or tumps, as we call +<span class='pageno' id='Page_214'>214</span>them, exposed to view multitudes of the yellow species +(formica flava) in their winter’s retirement. They were +collected in numbers in little cells and compartments, +communicating with others by means of narrow passages. +In many of the cells they had deposited their +larvæ, which they were surrounding and attending, but +not brooding over or covering. Being disturbed by our +rude operations, they removed them from our sight to +more hidden compartments. The larvæ were small. +Some of these ant-hills contained multitudes of the +young of the woodlouse (oniscus armadillo), inhabiting +with perfect familiarity the same compartments as the +ants, crawling about with great activity with them, and +perfectly domesticated with each other. They were +small and white; but the constant vibration of their +antennæ, and the alacrity of their motions, manifested +a healthy vigor. The ants were in a somewhat torpid +state; but on being removed into a temperate room, +they assumed much of their summer animation. How +these creatures are supported during the winter season +it is difficult to comprehend, as in no one instance could +we perceive any store or provision made for the supply +of their wants. The minute size of the larvæ manifested +that they had been recently deposited; and consequently +that their parents had not remained during winter in a +dormant state, and thus free from the calls of hunger. +The preceding month of February, and part of January, +had been remarkably severe; the frost had penetrated +deep into the earth, and long held it frozen; the ants +were in many cases not more than four inches beneath +the surface, and must have been inclosed in a mass of +frozen soil for a long period; yet they, their young, and +the onisci, were perfectly uninjured by it; affording another +proof of the fallacy of the commonly received +opinion, that cold is universally destructive to insect +life. Some creatures may be injured or destroyed by +frost, but the larger portion of them nature has provided +with constitutions to which it is innocuous, or furnished +with instinct to prevent its harming them. These +emmets had probably received no substance, or required +any, from the time of their retirement in the autumn, a +<span class='pageno' id='Page_215'>215</span>period of full six months; were inclosed during the +space of thirty days in a mass of frozen earth, and yet +remained perfectly uninjured by this long abstinence +and frost.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Water, in a state of rest over decayed and putrescent +vegetable matter, is peculiarly favorable for the residence +of many of the insect world. The eggs that are +lodged there remain undisturbed by the agitation of the +element, and the young produced from them, or deposited +there by viviparous creatures, remain in quiet, +tolerably secure from accidental injuries; but there are +natural causes which render these apparent asylums the +fields of ravenousness and of death. To these places +resort many of those voracious insects and other creatures, +which prey upon the smaller and helpless; for all +created things seem subordinate to some more powerful +or irresistible agent, from the hardly visible atom that +floats in the pool, to man, who claims and commands +the earth as his own. But we have no animal that +seems to commit greater destruction in these places +than the common newt (lacertus aquaticus). In some +of these well-stored magazines this reptile will grow to +a large size, and become unusually warty, and bloated +with repletion; feeding and fattening upon the unresisting +beings that abound in those dark waters wherein +it loves to reside. It will take a worm from the hook +of those that angle in ponds; and in some places I have +seen the boys in the spring of the year draw it up by +their fishing-lines, a very extraordinary figure, having a +small shell-fish (tellina cornea) attached to one or all of +its feet; the toes of the newt having been accidentally +introduced into the gaping shell, in its progress on the +mud at the bottom of the pool, or designedly put in for +the purpose of seizure, when the animal inhabitant +closed the valves and entrapped the toes. But from +whatever causes these shells became fixed, when the +animal is drawn up hanging and wriggling with its toes +fettered all round, it affords a very unusual and strange +appearance.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Water, quiet, still water, affords a place of action to +a very amusing little fellow (gyrinus natator), which +<span class='pageno' id='Page_216'>216</span>about the month of April, if the weather be tolerably +mild, we see gamboling upon the surface of the sheltered +pool; and every schoolboy, who has angled for a +minnow in the brook, is well acquainted with this merry +swimmer in his shining black jacket. Retiring in the +autumn, and reposing all the winter in the mud at the +bottom of the pond, it awakens in the spring, rises to +the surface, and commences its summer sports. They +associate in small parties of ten or a dozen, near the +bank, where some little projection forms a bay, or renders +the water particularly tranquil; and here they will +circle round each other without contention, each in his +sphere, and with no apparent object, from morning until +night, with great sprightliness and animation; and so +lightly do they move on the fluid, as to form only some +faint and transient circles on its surface. Very fond of +society, we seldom see them alone, or, if parted by accident, +they soon rejoin their busy companions. One +pool commonly affords space for the amusement of +several parties; yet they do not unite, or contend, but +perform their cheerful circlings in separate family associations. +If we interfere with their merriment they +seem greatly alarmed, disperse, or dive to the bottom, +where their fears shortly subside, as we soon again see +our little merry friends gamboling as before.</p> + +<p class='c011'>This lively little animal, arising from its winter retreat +shortly after the frog, at times in March, continues +its gambols all the summer long, remaining visible +generally until the middle of October, thus enjoying a +full seven months of being; a long period of existence +for insects, which are creatures subject to so many contingencies, +that their lives appear to be commonly but +brief, and the race continued by successive productions. +All these water creatures must be endowed with much +perception. Cold as this element is in early spring, +when the ice of winter is hardly dissolved, and the fluid +only 6 or 7 degrees above freezing, yet they become +immediately sensible of this temperature, and are excited +to animation and the vocations of their being. I +have never observed the larvæ of this creature in any +state. When they retire in the autumn, these insects +<span class='pageno' id='Page_217'>217</span>appear of a uniform size, and emerging in the spring +they are all apparently full grown, and during the summer +none of smaller dimensions associate with the +family parties. This plain, tiny, gliding water-flea +seems a very unlikely creature to arrest our young attentions; +but the boy with his angle has not often much +to engage his notice; and the social, active parties of +this nimble swimmer, presenting themselves at these +periods of vacancy, become insensibly familiar to his +sight, and by many of us are not observed in after life +without recalling former hours, scenes of perhaps less +anxious days: for trifles like these, by reason of some +association, are often remembered, when things of +greater moment pass off, and leave no trace upon our +mind.</p> + +<p class='c011'>July 29.—We frequently notice in our evening walks +the murmuring passage, and are often stricken by the +heedless flight, of the great dorr beetle<a id='r63'></a><a href='#f63' class='c014'><sup>[63]</sup></a> (scarabæus stercorarius), +clocks,<a id='r62'></a><a href='#f62' class='c014'><sup>[62]</sup></a> as the boys call them. But this +evening my attention was called to them in particular +by the constant passing of such a number as to constitute +something like a little stream; and I was led to +search into the object of their direct flight, as in general +it is irregular and seemingly inquisitive. I soon found +that they dropped on some recent nuisance: but what +powers of perception must these creatures possess, +drawn from all distances and directions by the very little +fetor, which in such a calm evening could be diffused +around! and by what inconceivable means could +<span class='pageno' id='Page_218'>218</span>odors reach this beetle in such a manner as to rouse so +inert an insect into action! But it is appointed one of +the great scavengers of the earth, and marvellously endowed +with powers of sensation, and means of effecting +this purpose of its being. Exquisitely fabricated as it +is to receive impressions, yet probably it is not more +highly gifted than any of the other innumerable creatures, +that wing their way around us, or creep about our +path, though by this perceptible faculty, thus “dimly +seen,” it excites our wonder and surprise. “How wondrous +then the whole!”</p> + +<p class='c011'>This creature affords us a good example of that extraordinary +artifice, to which some insects have recourse +upon the apprehension of danger, the counterfeiting of +death. The dorr, with a violent and noisy flight, proceeds +on its way, or circles around with an apparent +fearlessness of harm; yet the instant it is touched, or +interrupted in its progress, though in no way injured, it +will immediately fall to the ground, generally prostrate +on its back, its limbs extended, stiff, and seemingly devoid +of life, and suffering itself to be handled without +manifesting any signs of animation. In time, finding +no harm ensues, it resumes its former state. If our +conjectures be correct, that the object of this stratagem +is to preserve its life, it is difficult to comprehend how +far it can be successful. Several birds feed on it, as +we observed; and that others do so likewise is evident +from their castings. Of these, the owl and the nightjar +catch it when on the wing; and the crows, rooks, magpies, +&c., seem to have no hesitation in picking it to +pieces, as well as all the other beetles, that put on the +semblance of death, in whatever state they find them. +One or two beasts, it is said, when captured, feign death. +With these exceptions, we remember none of the other +orders of creation, that have recourse to such an expedient +upon any emergency; but with insects it is by no +means an uncommon procedure, most probably resorted +to by them for a motive we are not fully acquainted +with, and which is in all likelihood attended with the +success it was designed to effect.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The perfect cleanliness of these creatures is a very +<span class='pageno' id='Page_219'>219</span>notable circumstance, when we consider that nearly +their whole lives are passed in burrowing in the earth, +and removing nuisances; yet such is the admirable +polish of their coating and limbs, that we very seldom +find any soil adhering to them. The meloe, and some +of the scarabæi, upon first emerging from their winter’s +retreat, are commonly found with earth clinging to +them; but the removal of this is one of the first operations +of the creature; and all the beetle race, the chief +occupation of which is crawling about the soil, and +such dirty employs, are notwithstanding remarkable for +the glossiness of their covering, and freedom from defilements +of any kind. But purity of vesture seems to +be a principal precept of nature, and observable +throughout creation. Fishes, from the nature of the +element in which they reside, can contract but little +impurity. Birds are unceasingly attentive to neatness +and lustration of their plumage. All the slug race, +though covered with slimy matter calculated to collect +extraneous things, and reptiles, are perfectly free from +soil. The fur and hair of beasts in a state of liberty +and health is never filthy, or sullied with dirt. Some +birds roll themselves in dust, and occasionally, particularly +beasts, cover themselves with mire; but this is not +from any liking or inclination for such things, but to +free themselves from annoyances, or to prevent the +bites of insects. Whether birds in preening, and beasts +in dressing themselves, be directed by any instinctive +faculty, we know not; but they evidently derive pleasure +from the operation, and thus this feeling of enjoyment, +even if the sole motive, becomes to them an essential +source of comfort and of health.</p> + +<p class='c011'>It may be noted probably by some, how frequently +I recur to the causes and objects of the faculties, manners, +and tendencies of animate and inanimate things. +This recurrence springs from no cavil at the wisdom, no +suspicion of the fitness of the appointment, nor, I trust, +from any excitement to presumptuous pryings into paths +which are in the great deep, and not to be searched +out; but are humbly indulged, from the pleasure which +the contemplation of perfect wisdom, even in a state +<span class='pageno' id='Page_220'>220</span>of ignorance, affords; and if by any consideration we +can advance one point nearer to the comprehension of +what is hidden, we infinitely increase our satisfaction +and delight.</p> + +<p class='c011'>May 24, 1827.—Abundance of cockchaffers (melolantha +vulgaris) are flying about, yet by no means in +the profusion of some years. How much at times the +interest of man and the wild creatures about him are +at variance! Those that are domesticated and precluded +from obtaining food but by his permission, have their +welfare in part identified with his—they may share in +his abundance, or pine from his parsimony; but the independents +of the field are differently circumstanced. +The appearance of these chaffers, in any numbers, is +very uncertain and partial, but in those summers when +they abound, very extensive injuries frequently ensue. +In the grub state, they will entirely destroy the pastures +where they inhabit, by consuming the roots of the grasses; +acres and fields are deprived of their produce, becoming +brown as stubbles, with only a sprig or tuft of +green useless vegetation observable in them; the grain +crop likewise totally fails when the larvæ of this chaffer +feeds in the field. Upon assuming their winged state, +they devour the foliage of the oak and other trees so +effectually, that entire copses may be seen early in June +defoliated by their depredations. So much for their injury +to man: but now the feast of the wilding commences—the +plow in April dislodges multitudes of +these long white grubs. Dogs then seek them eagerly +to eat, but they seem to be surfeited by the food; for, +though fattened at first, they afterwards become diseased, +and lose their hair. Rooks and crows are running +over the ridges, busily seeking for this larvæ; the +swine find it out, and come in for their share, and having +finished here, they commence grubbing in the +grass lands. The insect now soon takes wing, and then +every tree in the wood or the brake becomes a scene +of plunder and delight to all the train from the rookery—the +cats will eat him—every sparrow that flies by has +a chaffer in its mouth, captured on the wing or snatched +from the spray, and now to be pecked to pieces on the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_221'>221</span>ground—the thrush feasts too, and all the poultry in the +yard are running after chaffers, or chasing each other +for the prize; and thus this insect supplies in one state +or another a general feast to many.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Surrounded as we are by wonders of every kind, and +existing only by a miraculous concurrence of events, +admiration seems the natural avocation of our being; +nor is it easy to pronounce amidst such a creation what +is most wonderful. But few things appear more incomprehensible +than the constant production and reabsorption +of matter, impressed upon us even by these very +dorrs. An animal falls to the ground and dies; myriads +of creatures are now summoned by a call, by an impulse +of which we have no perception, to remove it, and prepare +it for a new combination; chemical agencies, fermentation, +and solution, immediately commence their +actions to separate the parts, and in a short time, of all +this great body, nothing remains but the framework or +bones, perhaps a little hair or some wool, and all the +rest is departed we know not whither! Worms and insects +have done their parts; the earth has received a +portion, and the rest, converted into gases, and exhalable +matters, has dispersed all over the region, which, received +into vegetable circulation, is again separated and +changed, becomes modified anew, and nourishes that +which is to continue the future generations of life. The +petal of the rose; the pulp of the peach; the azure +and the gold on the wing of the insect; all the various +productions of the animal and vegetable world; the +very salts and compounds of the soil, are but the changes +some other matters have undergone, which have circulated +through innumerable channels since the first production +of all things, and no particle been lost; bearing +in mind this assured truth, that all these combinations +have not been effected by chance or peculiarity of circumstances, +but by the predetermination of an Almighty +Intelligence, who sees the station, progress, and final +destination of an atom, what an infinity of power and +intellective spirit does this point out! an omnipotence, +which the bodied minds of us poor creatures cannot +<span class='pageno' id='Page_222'>222</span>conceive. Truly may we say, “who can find out the +Almighty to perfection?”</p> + +<p class='c011'>Our extensive cultivation of the potato furnishes us +annually with several specimens of that fine animal the +death’s-head moth<a id='r64'></a><a href='#f64' class='c014'><sup>[64]</sup></a> (acherontia atropos), and in some +years I have had as many as eight brought me in the +larva or chrysalis state. Their changes are very uncertain. +I have had the larva change to a chrysalis in +July, and produce the moth in October; but generally +the aurelia remains unchanged till the ensuing summer. +The larvæ or caterpillars, “strange ungainly beasts,” as +some of our peasantry call them, excite constant attention +when seen, by their extraordinary size and uncommon +mien, with horns and tail, being not unusually +five inches in length, and as thick as a finger. This +creature was formerly considered as one of our rarest +insects, and doubtful if truly indigenous; but for the +last twenty years, from the profuse cultivation of the +potato, is become not very uncommon in divers places. +Many insects are now certainly found in England, which +former collectors, indefatigable as they were, did not +know that we possessed; while others again have been +lost to us moderns. Some probably might be introduced +with the numerous exotic plants recently imported, or +this particular food may have tended to favor the increase +of rarely existent natives; but how such a creature as +this could have been brought with any plant is quite +beyond comprehension. We may import continental +varieties of potatoes, but the death’s-head moth we have +never observed to have any connexion with the tuber +itself, or inclination for it. As certain soils will produce +plants by exposure to the sun’s rays, or by aid of +peculiar manures, when no pre-existent root or germ +could rationally be supposed to exist; so will peculiar +and long intervening seasons give birth to insects from +causes not to be divined. We may perhaps conclude, +that some concurrence produced this sphinx, and then +its favorite food, the potato plant, nourished it, to the +augmentation of its species.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Superstition has been particularly active in suggesting +causes of alarm from the insect world; and where man +<span class='pageno' id='Page_223'>223</span>should have seen only beauty and wisdom, he has often +found terror and dismay. The yellow and brown tailed +moths, the deathwatch, our snails, as mentioned in +p. <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>, and many others, have all been the subjects of +his fears; but the dread excited in England by the appearance, +noises, or increase of insects, are petty apprehensions, +when compared with the horror that the presence +of this acherontia occasions to some of the more +fanciful and superstitious natives of northern Europe, +maintainers of the wildest conceptions. A letter is now +before me from a correspondent in German Poland, +where this insect is a common creature, and so abounded +in 1824, that my informer collected fifty of them in +the potato-fields of his village, where they call them +the “death’s-head phantom,” the “wandering death-bird,” +&c. The markings on its back represent to these +fertile imaginations the head of a perfect skeleton, with +the limb bones crossed beneath; its cry becomes the +voice of anguish, the moaning of a child, the signal of +grief; it is regarded not as the creation of a benevolent +being, but the device of evil spirits, spirits enemies to +man, conceived and fabricated in the dark; and the +very shining of its eyes is thought to represent the +fiery element whence it is supposed to have proceeded. +Flying into their apartments in the evening, it at times +extinguishes the light, foretelling war, pestilence, hunger, +death to man and beast. We pity, rather than ridicule +these fears; their consequences being painful +anxiety of mind and suffering of body. However, it +seems these vain imaginations are flitting away before +the light of reason and experience. In Germany as in +England, they were first observed on the jasmine, but +now exclusively upon the potato, though they will enter +the bee-hives, to feed on the honey found in them. This +insect has been thought to be peculiarly gifted in having +a voice, and squeaking like a mouse, when handled or +disturbed; but in truth no insect that we know of has +the requisite organs to produce a genuine voice. They +emit sounds by other means, probably all external. +The grasshopper and the cricket race effect their well-known +and often wearisome chirpings by grating their +<span class='pageno' id='Page_224'>224</span>spiny thighs against their rigid wings; and this acherontia +atropos appears to produce the noise it at times +makes, which reminds us of the spring call of the rail +or corncrake, by scratching its mandible, or the instrument +that it perforates with, against its horny chest. +The object of this noise is apparently a mere sexual +call. Heavy and unwieldly creatures, they travel badly, +and from the same cause fly badly and with labor; and +as they commonly hide themselves deep in the foliage +and obscurity, without some such signal of their presence +a meeting of the parties would seldom be accomplished.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Another of the ravenous creatures that infest our +pools is the great water-beetle (ditiscus marginalis); +and perhaps it is the most ferocious of any of them, +being adapted by every provision for a life of rapine, +endued with great muscular power, armed with a thick +and horny case over its body, and having its eyes large +to observe all the creatures about it, and powerful mandibles +to seize and reduce them to fragments. It riots +on the polyphemus of the pool; and having thinned its +herd in one place, is supplied with wings to effect a +removal to a fold better furnished. It even eats the +young of the frog; and its bite is so powerful, as to be +painfully felt by the hand that holds it a captive, though +defended by a glove. In the larvæ state it is almost +equally destructive; it swims admirably; its hinder +legs are long and brawny, beside being aided by a +fringe of hairs, so that they are powerful oars to propel +its body with celerity and ease. Nor must we omit a +peculiarity attending the constitution of this beetle, +which marks it as a creature especially endowed for +the station in which it is placed. Multitudes of insects +exist in the larva state for a certain space of time in +water, and, having accomplished a given period in this +state perfecting their forms, they take wings and become +aërial creatures, after which a return to the element +whence they sprang would be death to them. But +this beetle, when it has passed from the larva state and +obtained its wings, still lives in that water which nourished +it to this state of perfection, without any inconvenience, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_225'>225</span>as long as it suits its inclination; when weary +of this place, or its food becoming scarce, it wings its +way to another pool, into which it immediately plunges, +and recommences its life of rapine. Having deposited +its eggs in autumn, we suppose it to die in the winter; +yet many may survive this season, and, arising from the +mud in the spring, be undistinguished from the recently +perfected larvæ. Such little notices and indications of +the habits of these obscure creatures, though certainly +unimportant, are not perhaps wholly unprofitable; for +we so darkly see our way, and proceed so slowly in acquiring +intelligence of the paths of nature, that nothing +should be considered as beneath regard that we meet +with in them, and every advancing step must elevate +the mind, as it affords additional knowledge of the +solicitude and provision of the great Architect of creation +in the appointment and endowment of his creatures; +since, though we are very rarely able to comprehend +even the object of existence, we see sufficient to +convince us, that such care and such powers were not +bestowed except for some wise and good purpose. It +seems hardly possible that mankind can ever obtain anything +approaching to the comprehension of the motives +of Providence, because they have not, as far as is apparent +to us, individual and separate bearings, but are +connecting and in concordance with a series of influences, +and consequently the whole should be seen, +fitly to understand a part; and this mighty mechanism +what human mind can embrace? Heaven metes out to +man by degrees something of its laws and ordinances; +but no life, no period, can exhaust that store of hidden +wisdom, by which these mandates have been decreed, +every little transitory view that we obtain should be +received with gratitude as an advance in knowledge, a +progress in the wisdom of Him who hath ordained all +things in truth.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The eye of the naturalist, prying about in places +where those of indifferent persons are rarely fixed, sees +many things, that others do not notice, or observe without +interest, from forming no connexion with any previous +subject of pursuit. Few perhaps would stay to +<span class='pageno' id='Page_226'>226</span>inspect the clay hairworm (gordius argillaceus), yet it is +a very curious creature. We find it at the bottoms of +drains and ditches, chiefly in the spring of the year. +Its color is a pale yellow; and it appears like some long +vegetable fibre, or root, coiled up and twisted together. +The whole body of the animal consists of numerous +annulations, or rings, by means of which it has the +power of contracting its substance, as it has likewise +of extending it, until it becomes nearly a foot in length, +and smooth as a wire. The extreme points are transparent +and tapering, formed of apparently harder materials +than the body. The designation of most of our +small land and water creatures, in the economy of creation, +is very obscure; and owing to the places they +frequent, and the secrecy of their actions, amidst mud +and vegetation, we have little opportunity of becoming +acquainted with their habits. This hairworm, however, +is rather less mysterious in its movements than some +others; and there is cause to suppose that its chief occupation +is that of forming perforations and openings +in clayey soils, admitting by this means water to pervade +the mass, and open it; the finer roots of vegetables +then find entrance, and part it yet more, or decay in it, +and meliorate and fertilize the substance.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Wonderful as all the appointments and endowments +of insects are, there is no part of their economy more +extraordinary than the infinite variety of forms and +materials to which they have recourse in the fabrication +of their nests; and, as far as we can comprehend, their +expediency for the various purposes required. Among +those, with which I am acquainted, none pleases me +more than that of a solitary wasp (vespa campanaria), +which occasionally visits us here. It is not a common +insect; but I have met with their nests. One was fixed +beneath a piece of oak bark, placed in a pile; another +was pendent in the hollow of a bank of earth. The +materials, which composed these abodes, seemed to be +articles scraped or torn from the dry parts of the willow, +sallow, or some such soft wood, and cemented again by +animal glue, very similar in texture to that provided by +the common wasp, which makes great use of the halfdecayed +<span class='pageno' id='Page_227'>227</span>wood of the ash, and will penetrate through +crevices in the bark, to abrade away the dry wood beneath. +They seem to have but small families, ten or +twelve cells only being provided. These are situate at +the bottom of an egg-shaped cup, contracted at the +lower end, where an orifice is left for the entrance. +This again is covered, in the part where the cells are +placed, by a loose hood, or shed, extending about halfway +down the inner one. The pendent situation of the +whole, and this external hood, round which the air has +a free circulation, are admirably contrived for securing +the cells from injury by water. The nest, when hanging +in its proper situation, is like the commencement of +some paper-work flower, and can never be observed +but with admiration at the elegance of its structure; +and the unusual appearance of the whole must excite +the attention of the most incurious observer of such +things.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Every-day events manifest to very superficial observation, +that no created being, from the monster of the +ocean, “that makes the deep boil like a pot of ointment,” +to the insect that feebly creeps on the ground, exists +free from the persecutions or annoyance of another. +Some may be subject to fewer injuries than others, but +none are wholly exempt: the strong assail by power, +and become assaulted themselves by the minute or weak. +This year (1826) the hornet (vespa crabro) abounded +with us in unusual numbers, and afforded constant evidence +of its power and voracity, that could not have +been exceeded by any ravenous beast. In our gardens +the imperious murmur of four or five of them at a time +might be frequently heard about our fruit trees. They +would occasionally extract the sweet liquor from the +gage, or other rich plums; but the prime object of their +visit was to seize the wasps, that frequented the same +places. This they not only did when the creature was +feeding on the fruit, but would hawk after them when +on the wing; capture them with a facility, to which +their heavy flight seemed unequal; bear them to some +neighboring plant, and there feed on the insect, which +seemed perfectly overpowered by the might of the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_228'>228</span>hornet. The first operation was to snip off the head, +then to cut away the lower part by the waist; and, when +near, we could hear them shearing away the outer coat +from the body, and crushing it with their strong mandibles; +sometimes devouring it, but generally only sucking +the juices it contained. Their avidity for this sort +of food is very manifest when the grape ripens on the +wall: being commonly the only remaining fruit, the +wasp abounds there; the hornets flock to the prey, and +we may see them in constant progress, bearing their +victims from the bunches. The wasp itself seizes the +house fly; but this seems rather the display of wanton +power than for food, as it bears the fly about with it for +a length of time, and drops it unconsumed. The fly, +in its turn, is conducive after its manner to the death +of many an animal. We know not any insect that destroys +the hornet; but its power and being are terminated +by some very effective agent, as in particular +years it is almost unknown.<a id='r65'></a><a href='#f65' class='c014'><sup>[65]</sup></a> Though we may not often +perceive the means by which certain races are reduced +in number, more than their multiplication effected, yet +we are frequently sensible that it is accomplished.</p> + +<p class='c011'>I do not recollect any creature less obnoxious to harm +than the common snail (helix aspersa) of our gardens. +A sad persevering depredator and mangler it is; and +when we catch it at its banquet on our walls, it can expect +no reprieve from our hands. But our captures are +partial and temporary; and, secured in its strong shell, +it seems safe from external dangers; yet its time comes +and one weak bird destroys it in great numbers. In the +winter season, the common song-thrush feeds sparingly +upon the berries of the white thorn, and the hedge +<span class='pageno' id='Page_229'>229</span>fruits, but passes a great portion of its time at the bottoms +of ditches, seeking for the smaller species of snails +(helix hortensis and hel. nemoralis), which it draws out +from the old stumps of the fence with unwearied perseverance, +dashing their shells to pieces on a stone; and +we frequently see it escaping from the hedge bank +with its prize, which no little intimidation induces it to +relinquish. The larger kind at this season are beyond +its power readily to obtain; for as the cold weather advances, +they congregate in clusters behind some old +tree, or against a sheltered wall, fixing the openings of +their shells against each other, or on the substance beneath, +and adhering so firmly in a mass, that the thrush +cannot by any means draw them wholly, or singly, from +their asylum. In the warmer portion of the year, they +rest separate, and adhere but slightly; and should the +summer be a dry one, the bird makes ample amends for +the disappointment in winter, intrudes its bill under the +margin of the opening, detaches them from their hold, +and destroys them in great numbers. In the summers +of 1825 and 1826, both hot and dry ones, necessity +rendered the thrush unusually assiduous in its pursuits; +and every large stone in the lane, or under the old +hedge, was strewed with the fragments of its banquet. +This has more than once reminded me of the fable of +the “Four Bulls;” united invincible, when separated +an easy prey; but, with the exception of this season, +and this bird, I know no casualty to which the garden +snail is exposed.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Ignorant as we are of the scope, limitation, and even +existence, of certain faculties in animals, we can frequently +do little more than conjecture the means whereby +they perform many of the functions of life. This +ignorance leads us naturally at times to refer these +powers to the agency of senses like our own; but, in +most instances, probably without any foundation in +truth. No creature seems less qualified to commit the +depredations which it does, than the garden snail. We +grieve to see our fruit mangled and disfigured by these +creatures, but cannot readily comprehend by what +means they obtain the knowledge that its maturity is +<span class='pageno' id='Page_230'>230</span>approaching—though we find that they must be endued +with some faculty capable of accomplishing the purpose; +for no sooner does a plum, a fig, a nectarine, or +other fruit, begin to ripen on the wall, and long before +any sensible odor can be diffused from it, even before +an experienced eye can detect the approach to maturity, +than those creatures, the slug and the snail, will advance +from their asylums, though remotely situate, and proceed +by very direct paths to the object. This cannot +probably be by the guidance of any known faculty. +Eyesight was once considered to be situate on the summit +of their horns; but this is now known to be erroneous, +and we do not know that they have any vision. +The acoustic organ of worms and insects is unknown; +and it is not by any means ascertained that these creatures +ever hear.<a id='r66'></a><a href='#f66' class='c014'><sup>[66]</sup></a> If they possess the faculty of smelling, +in them it must be a very exquisite sense, beyond +any delicacy we can comprehend. Thus, excluding +human means of comprehension, which appear inadequate, +we more reasonably conclude them to be endowed +with intelligences for effecting intentions, of which we +have no perception, and which we have no capacity for +defining. The contemplative man finds pleasure in +viewing the ways and artifices of creatures to accomplish +a purpose, though he knows not the directing +means; and it fortifies the convictions of the believer, +by giving him fresh evidences of the universal superintendence +of his Maker, that even the slug and the +snail, which are arranged so low in the scale of creation, +are yet, equally with all, the object of his benevolence +and care.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Connected with this subject of snails, a circumstance +that took place in this neighborhood is brought to my +remembrance, which discovered yet latent in a few of +us, notwithstanding our boasted enlightenment, some +leaven of the superstition of darker ages; and that any +occurrence, not the event of every coming day, may be +made a subject of wonder by the ignorant, and a means +<span class='pageno' id='Page_231'>231</span>for the artful to deceive the credulous. A little banded +snail (helix virgata) is a very common species on most +of our arid, maritime pastures, and the sheep-downs of +many inland places. It happened, from some unknown +cause, that those inhabiting a dry field in an adjoining +parish were in one season, a few years ago, greatly increased, +so as to become an object of notice to a few, +then to more, till at length this accumulation was noised +about as a supernatural event. The field was visited +by hundreds daily from neighboring villages and distant +towns. People who could not attend purchased the +snails at a half-penny each; and there were persons +who made five shillings a day by the sale of them. As +this increase of the creature was not certainly to be accounted +for, some had the impudence to assert that they +had witnessed their fall from the clouds; and many +declared their belief that some great public or private +misfortune was indicated by it. The proprietor of the +field being supposed not to maintain the same sentiments +as the commonalty upon a political circumstance, +which at that moment greatly agitated the country, it +was considered as a manifestation of heavenly displeasure, +precursive of malady, misfortune, death. +However, autumn came, these snails retired to their +holes in the banks, and the worthy man lived on,—and +long may he live, esteemed and respected by all, unscathed +by snails or misfortunes.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Little obnoxious to injury as this garden snail appears +to be, there is another creature, and that a very important +one in the operations of nature, that is surrounded +by dangers, harassed, pursued unceasingly, and becomes +the prey of all: the common earth-worm (lumbricus terrestris). +This animal, destined to be the natural manurer +of the soil, and the ready indicator of an improved +staple, consumes on the surface of the ground, where +they soon would be injurious, the softer parts of decayed +vegetable matters, and conveys into the soil the more +woody fibres, where they moulder, and become reduced +to a simple nutriment, fitting for living vegetation. The +parts consumed by them are soon returned to the surface, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_232'>232</span>whence, dissolved by frosts, and scattered by rains +they circulate again in the plants of the soil,</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c003'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>“Death still producing life.”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c011'>Thus eminently serviceable as the worm is, it yet +becomes the prey of various orders of the animal creation, +and perhaps is a solitary example of an individual +race being subjected to universal destruction. The +very emmet seizes it when disabled, and bears it away +as its prize: it constitutes throughout the year the food +of many birds; fishes devour it greedily; the hedgehog +eats it; the mole pursues it unceasingly in the pastures, +along the moist bottoms of ditches, and burrows +after it through the banks of hedges, to which it retires +in dry seasons: secured as the worm appears to be by +its residence in the earth from the capture of creatures +inhabiting a different element, yet many aquatic animals +seem well acquainted with it, and prey on it as a +natural food, whenever it falls in their way; frogs eat +it; and even the great water-beetle (ditiscus marginalis) +I have known to seize it when the bait of the angler, +and it has been drawn up by the hook. Yet notwithstanding +this prodigious destruction of the animal, its +increase is fully commensurate to its consumption, as +if ordained the appointed food of all; and Reaumur +computes, though from what data it is difficult to conjecture, +that the number of worms lodged in the bosom +of the earth exceeds that of the grains of all kinds of +corn collected by man.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Worms, generally speaking, are tender creatures, and +water remaining over their haunts for a few days drowns +them; they easily become frozen, when a mortification +commences at some part, which gradually consumes the +whole substance, and we find them on the surface a mucilaginous +mass: and their retiring deeper in the soil +is no bad indication of approaching cold weather; but +no sooner is the frost out of the earth, than they approach +the surface to feed on decayed vegetable matter. +Greatly beneficial as these creatures are, by drawing +leaves and decayed matters into the earth, where their +dissolution is accomplished, yet they are sad tormentors +<span class='pageno' id='Page_233'>233</span>to us gardeners, and occasion the loss of more young +plants than even the slug, by drawing in the leaf, which +throws out the root; so that in the morning we find +our nursling inverted. It is the same propensity, or ordination, +for removing decayed matters, that influences +them in these actions; as they are the faded leaves that +are seized by them, such as newly removed plants present +before the root draws nutriment from the earth. +Even stones of some magnitude are at times drawn over +their holes. The horticulturist perhaps encounters +more mortification and disappointment than any other +laborer upon the earth from insects, elementary severity, +the slug, and the worm; yet, if the depredations of +this last creature do at times excite a little of our irascibility, +we must still remember the nightly labors, and +extensive services, that are performed for the agriculturist +by this scavenger of the earth, and manurer +of the soil.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Besides, worms are essentially useful in draining our +lands from superfluous moisture, which in many cases, +without their agency, would be detained upon or near +the surface of the earth, chilling and deteriorating our +pastures. A few inches of soil, resting upon a substratum +of clay, would commonly, without some natural or +artificial drainage, be soaked with water after heavy +rains, and thus become a bog, or produce coarse water +herbage rather than good grasses; but these worms +greatly facilitate the passage of the water by draining +horizontally along the bed of clay, and aid the emission +of the water by this means, as I have often observed in +the trenches, which we cut in our retentive soils, numerous +worm-casts on their sides a few days after they +had been made, being the exits of the horizontal runs, +and through these the water drains into the trenches, +and runs off. I do not assert the water would not in +any case be discharged without the agency of worms; +but that the passages which they make expedite it, +which, in situations where the operation would be subjected +to delay from the position of the ground, or the +under stratum, is of infinite advantage. Thus the soil +is not only rendered firm, allowing the admission of +<span class='pageno' id='Page_234'>234</span>cattle, but the good herbage, which the long residence +of water would vitiate or destroy, is saved from injury, +and the aquatic and useless plants starved or checked +in their growth; but after great gluts of rain, when the +supply of water is greater than can be speedily carried +off, it becomes stagnant, and those worms, which cannot +burrow beyond its influence, soon perish, and we lose +the benefit of these very beneficial creatures. Drainage +is therefore one of the most important operations in our +agricultural concerns. As by irrigation we turn a +quantity of nutritive water over our lands, or by reason +of its higher temperature foster the growth of grasses; +so, by draining cold and superfluous moisture off, we +promote the growth of valuable vegetation. I would +advocate the cause of all creatures, had I the privilege +of knowing the excellency of them; not willingly assigning +vague and fanciful claims to excite wonder, or +manifest a base pride by any vaunt of superior observation; +but when we see, blind as we are, that all things +are formed in justice, mercy, truth, I would tell my tale +as a man, glorying as a Christian, and bless the gracious +power that permitted me to obtain this knowledge.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Residing, as I constantly do, in the country, and +having been long observant of rural things, and the +operations of Infinite Wisdom, through the very feeble +organs with which I have been endowed, I have often +thought, that we, who are daily made sensible of so +many manifestations of creative power and mercy, +should be more seriously disposed, more grateful for the +beneficences of Providence, than those who live in societies +removed from these evidences; but yet I neither +know nor believe that we in any respect give greater +proof of this disposition, or are more sensible of the +benevolence of an overruling power, than others. The +manufacturer by the combination of artful contrivances +effects his purposes, and by aid of man’s wisdom brings +his work to perfection; the artisan may eat his bread +with all thankfulness and humility of heart, solace his +labors and mitigate his fatigue by the grateful flavor +and juices of fruits purchased at the stall; but he sees +nothing of the machinery, the gradual elaborations of +<span class='pageno' id='Page_235'>235</span>nature, nor can he be conversant with the multiplicity +of influences and events, which are requisite to bring +them to his hand. He who lives in the country knows +that an omnipotent impulse must be constantly in action; +he may till his land, and scatter his corn, but the +early and latter rain must soften his furrows; the snow, +as wool, must cover the soil; the hoar-frost, like ashes, +lighten his glebe; the sunshine animate the sprouting +shoot; and winds evaporate noxious moisture, insects +and blights, that hover around, or circulate through the +air, must be guided away, or our labors become abortive, +or are consumed: we see the bud, the blossom, leaf, +and germ, all progressively advance, to afford plenty or +yield us enjoyment; we see these things accomplished +by the influencing interpositions of a beneficent Providence, +and in no way effected by the machinery or artifices +of our own hands; and it should operate more +powerfully, in disposing those who witness them to particular +resignation and gratitude, than others who cannot +behold them, but view the ingenuity of man as the +agent and means of his prosperity; yet how it happens +that this principle is not in more active operation within +us, I cannot perceive.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Every age has been the dupe of empiricism; and the +greater its darkness, the more impudent appear to have +been the pretensions of knavery. We may even now, +perhaps, swallow a few matters, the arcana of the needy +or the daring, in the various compositions of powders, +draughts and pills, which are not quite agreeable to our +palates or our stomachs; but our forefathers had more +to encounter, as they had more faith to support them, +when they were subjected, for the cure of their maladies, +to such medicines as <i>album græcum</i>, or the white +bony excrement of dogs, bleached on the bank, for +their heart-burns and acidities; the powder produced +from burnt mice, as a dentifrice; millepedes, or wood-lice, +for nephritic and other complaints; and the ashes +of earth-worms, administered in nervous and epileptic +cases.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Our apple-trees here are greatly injured, and some +annually destroyed by the agency of what seems to be +<span class='pageno' id='Page_236'>236</span>a very feeble insect. We call it, from habit, or from +some unassigned cause, the “American blight” (aphis +lanata);<a id='r67'></a><a href='#f67' class='c014'><sup>[67]</sup></a> this noxious creature being known in some +orchards by the more significant name of “white blight.” +In the spring of the year a slight hoariness is observed +upon the branches of certain species of our orchard +fruit. As the season advances this hoariness increases, +it becomes cottony, and toward the middle or the end +of summer the under sides of some of the branches +are invested with a thick, downy substance, so long as +at times to be sensibly agitated by the air. Upon examining +this substance we find, that it conceals a multitude +of small wingless creatures, which are busily employed +in preying upon the limb of the tree beneath. +This they are well enabled to do, by means of a beak +terminating in a fine bristle: this, being insinuated +through the bark, and the sappy part of the wood, +enables the creature to extract, as with a syringe, the +sweet, vital liquor that circulates in the plant. This +terminating bristle is not observed in every individual: +in those that possess it, it is of different lengths, and is +usually, when not in use, so closely concealed under +the breast of the animal, as to be invisible. In the +younger insects it is often manifested by protruding +like a fine termination to the anus; but as their bodies +become lengthened the bristle is not in this way observable. +The alburnum, or sap wood, being thus wounded, +rises up in excrescences and nodes all over the branch, +and deforms it; the limb, deprived of its nutriment, +grows sickly; the leaves turn yellow, and the part +perishes. Branch after branch is thus assailed until they +all become leafless, and the tree dies.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Aphides in general attack the young and softer parts +of plants; but this insect seems easily to wound the +harder bark of the apple, and by no means makes choice +of the most tender part of the branch. They give a +preference to certain sorts, but not always the most rich +fruits; as cider apples, and wildings, are greatly infested +by them, and from some unknown cause other varieties +seem to be exempted from their depredations. The +Wheeler’s russet, and Crofton pippin, I have never observed +<span class='pageno' id='Page_237'>237</span>to be injured by them. This insect is viviparous, +or produces its young alive, forming a cradle for them +by discharging from the extremities of its body a quantity +of long cottony matter, which, becoming interwoven +and entangled, prevents the young from falling +to the earth, and completely envelops the parent and +offspring. In this cottony substance we observe, as soon +as the creature becomes animated in the spring, and +as long as it remains in vigor, many round pellucid +bodies, which, at the first sight, look like eggs, only +that they are larger than we might suppose to be ejected +by the animal. They consist of a sweet glutinous fluid, +and are probably the discharges of the aphis, and the +first food of its young. That it is thus consumed, I conjecture +from its diminution, and its by no means increasing +so fast as fæcal matter would do from such +perpetually feeding creatures. I have not, in any instance, +observed the young to proceed from these globular +bodies, though they are found at various ages at all +times during the season. This lanuginous vestiture +seems to serve likewise as a vehicle for dispersing the +animal; for though most of our species of aphis are +furnished with wings, I have never seen any individual +of this American blight so provided, but the winds +wafting about small tufts of this downy matter, convey +the creature with it from tree to tree throughout the +whole orchard. In the autumn, when this substance is +generally long, the winds and rains of the season effectually +disperse these insects, and we observe them endeavoring +to secrete themselves in the crannies of any +neighboring substance. Should the savoy cabbage be +near the trees whence they have been dislodged, the +cavities of the under sides of its leaves are commonly +favorite asylums for them. Multitudes perish by these +rough removals, but numbers yet remain; and we may +find them in the nodes and crevices, on the under sides +of the branches, at any period of the year, the long, +cottony vesture being removed, but still they are enveloped +in a fine, short, downy clothing, to be seen by +a magnifier, proceeding apparently from every suture, +or pore of their bodies, and protecting them in their +<span class='pageno' id='Page_238'>238</span>dormant state from the moisture and frosts of our climate. +This aphis, in a natural state, usually awakens and +commences its labors very early in the month of March; +and the hoariness on its body may be observed increasing +daily: but if an infected branch be cut in the +winter, and kept in water in a warm room, these aphides +will awaken speedily, spin their cottony vests, and +feed, and discharge, as accustomed to do in a genial +season.</p> + +<p class='c011'>It is often very difficult to ascertain the first appearance +of many creatures not natives of our climate, +though, from the progress of science, and more general +observation, many things will be recorded. The first +visit of the death’s-head moth is very obscure; an extraordinary +snail (testacellus halotideus)<a id='r68'></a><a href='#f68' class='c014'><sup>[68]</sup></a> is now spreading +by transplantation in many places, and may hereafter +occasion inquiry. The first visit of this aphis to +us is by no means clear. The epithet of American +blight may be correctly applied; but we have no sufficient +authority to conclude, that we derived this pest +from that country. Normandy and the Netherlands, too, +have each been supposed to have conferred this evil +upon us; but extensively as this insect is spread around, +and favorable as our climate appears to be to its increase, +it bids fair to destroy in progression most of our oldest +and long-esteemed fruit from our orchards. The same +unknown decree, which regulates the increase and decrease +of all created beings, influences this insect; yet +wet seasons, upon the whole, seem ungenial to its constitution. +In the hot dry summer of 1825, it was abundant +everywhere; in the spring of 1826, which was unusually +fine and dry, it abounded in such incredible luxuriance, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_239'>239</span>that many trees seemed at a short distance as if +they had been whitewashed; in the ensuing summer, +which was a very dry and hot one, this cottony matter +so entirely disappeared, that to superficial observation +the malady was not in existence; and it did not become +manifest again until September, when, after the rains +of that season, it reissued in fine, cottony patches from +the old nodes on the trees. Many remedies have been +proposed for removing this evil, efficacious perhaps in +some cases upon a small scale; but when the injury +has existed for some time, and extended its influence +over the parts of a large tree, I apprehend it will take +its course, and the tree die. Upon young plants, and in +places where a brush can be applied, any substance that +can be used in a liquid state, to harden into a coat, insoluble +by rain, will assuredly confine the ravages of +the creature, and smother it. Hard rubbing with a dry +brush crushes many, but there are crevices into which +the bristle cannot enter: thus some escape, and the +propagation continues. I have very successfully removed +this blight from young trees, and from recently +attacked places in those more advanced, by an easy application. +Melt about three ounces of resin in an earthen +pipkin, take it from the fire, and pour into it three +ounces of fish oil; the ingredients perfectly unite, and, +when cold, acquire the consistence of honey. A slight +degree of heat will liquefy it, and in this state paint +over every node or infected part in your tree, using a +common painter’s brush. This I prefer doing in spring, +or as soon as the hoariness appears. The substance soon +sufficiently hardens, and forms a varnish, which prevents +any escape, and stifles the individuals. After this first +dressing, should any cottony matter appear round the +margin of the varnish, a second application to these +parts will, I think, be found to effect a perfect cure.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The prevalence of this insect gives some of our orchards +here the appearance of numerous white posts in +an extensive drying ground, being washed with lime +from root to branch—a practice I apprehend attended +with little benefit; a few creatures may be destroyed +by accident, but as the animal does not retire to the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_240'>240</span>earth, but winters in the clefts of the boughs far beyond +the influence of this wash, it remains uninjured, to commence +its ravages again when spring returns.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Seasons arrive and pass away, the general features +alone remaining impressed upon our minds; but they +often produce consequences not commonly expected, +and a departed summer or winter has frequently been +the cause of some event, which we consider as exclusively +occasioned by atmospheric changes, or present +temperature. A warm dry summer generally occasions +a healthy spring blossom the ensuing year, the bearing +wood being ripened and matured to produce in its most +perfect state. A wet, damp one usually effects the reverse, +by occasioning an abundant flow of sap, producing +wood and foliage rather than blossom; and the +following spring, in such cases, from the floral vigor +being diverted, has generally its blossom weak, and, +though perhaps not defective, incompetent to mature +the germen. This is mere reasoning upon general +consequences; but so imperfect are our theories, and so +many circumstances counteract the calculations, the +predictions of human wisdom, which can rarely even +“discern the face of the sky,” that results must more +often be looked for than known. The recording of +events is the province of the naturalist; and perhaps +occasionally by comparing existing circumstances with +past events, something approximating to probability +may be obtained. The two burning summers of 1825 +and 1826 are remembered by all; but it was in the +succeeding year only, that the result of this heat and +drought was manifested to us, by effects upon our pasture +lands, which we did not expect. Not only in those +on the limestone substratum, but in many that were +sandy, and in the clayey which were chapped by the +heat, the roots of the grasses, which we have generally +considered as not being subject to such injuries, were +destroyed in some cases, and greatly injured in others; +and in their places frequently sprang up crowfeet +(ranunculus acris, and bulbosus), and dandelions, a +mere useless vegetation, which, as long as the grasses +flourished, were kept in subordination and obscurity by +<span class='pageno' id='Page_241'>241</span>their superior growth; while bare patches in other +places told us of aridity and failure: the meadow grass +(poa) and ray grass (lolium perenne) were great sufferers; +the dog’s tail (cynosurus) supported itself better; +the cockfoot (dactylis), though not killed, was so much +hurt, that its ensuing vegetation, instead of the coarse +luxuriance it generally manifests, was dry, hard, and +deficient in succulency, or, as our laborers emphatically +say, was “stunned;” and bent-grass (agrostis vulgaris), +that certain indicator of a dry soil, appeared more than +it commonly does. But this destruction of the roots in +very many places was not obvious, the turf, as it was, +remaining; yet some injury was apparent in the succeeding +summer and autumn. The crop cut for hay +was unusually abundant, and seemed to have exhausted +the roots by its growth, as no aftergrass sprang up; nor +did the pastures which were fed afford more than a dry, +hard, yellow provender, looking tanned, as if seared by +severe frost; and in September, when in general we +expect our fields to yield an abundance of grass, as food +for months, they presented commonly the aspect of +hard-fed lands in March, though so much rain had +fallen, both in July and August, as to lead us to expect +profusion. It did not appear that the roots had actually +perished; which could not have been the case, by producing +the mowing crops that they did; but this was a +single effort: the injury was manifested by the deficiency +of the autumnal vigor; this was the actual result, +difficult as it is to assign a satisfactory reason. +Perhaps these effects upon our pasture lands were unprecedented: +but these things pass away, unless recorded; +and though we may resort to the oldest memory +for evidence, yet memory is oblivious, often exaggerative, +and cannot safely be trusted.</p> + +<p class='c011'>June and July, 1825.—The quantity of that sweet +clammy fluid, which we find upon certain leaves, and +commonly call “honey-dew,” was more than usually +abundant during these months. In the day-time, bees, +wasps, and tribes of flies collected to feed upon it, and +in the evenings, moths and insects of the night frequented +the fruit trees on our walls, particularly the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_242'>242</span>cherry and the plum, for the same purpose, and their +presence brought the bat, so that some places were animated +by the flitting about of these creatures. Aphides +abounded upon all the young sprays.</p> + +<p class='c011'>June 17, 1828.—Abundance of rain has fallen during +the preceding night, and in the morning of this day, +about two o’clock, the sun broke out, the air becoming +hot and heavy. I was soon surprised by observing multitudes +of hive-bees buzzing and crawling about the +foliage and young shoots of my laurel bushes (prunus +laurocerasus), and feeding upon some sweet matter +lodged on them; the blossoms had long before fallen +off: no aphides frequent this plant, nor were there any +trees near them from whence any sweet matter might +have fallen; we have no honey-dew upon our fruit trees, +and an aphis is scarcely to be found. Has any saccharine +matter fallen, or been emitted by the plant to entice +these insects to harbor about them? It clearly appears +that honey-dews arise from two causes; that a +large portion of it is the discharges from insects of the +genus aphis, has long since been manifested by the +Abbé Sauvages, Mr. Curtis, and others: insects discharge +in all days and hours during the warm months +of the year. But there is another kind which we find +only at particular times, and in certain states of the atmosphere, +lodged on certain plants during the night in +such quantities as to hang occasionally in drops from +the points of the leaves. The foliage of the oak is at +times lucid with this sweet liquor, and this the bees +are soon acquainted with, and eagerly collect it, which +they only partially do when spread upon the leaves on +the wall, the evident discharge of aphides. Some of +my neighbors who have hives will occasionally observe, +“A heavy honey-dew last night, and the bees are hard +at work;” this cannot proceed from insect discharges. +That some foliage may condense any matter that may +fall upon it, is not improbable; or even excrete it from +their pores by the impellent power of the air in certain +states, is to be conceived; but all this is conjectural, +and our knowledge of the causes which produce these +partial honey-dews is yet to be acquired.</p> + +<p class='c011'><span class='pageno' id='Page_243'>243</span>In the years 1825 and 1826, the foliage of our +hedges in the spring months was unusually mangled by +the caterpillars of different moths; but in 1827 these +creatures had increased so much, that the entire leaves +of the sloe, and the white thorn, were consumed by +them; the hedges, when consisting of these shrubs +alone, presented for miles the appearance of winter +<a id='t243'></a>sprays, covered with a cottony web. The other hedge +plants were little injured. The larvæ of several species +of small creatures were concerned in this annihilation +of verdure; but the little ermine moths (phalæna evonymella, +and ph. padella) were the chief performers in +this denuding process. In July the perfected moths +swarmed about the scene of their birth in vast numbers; +yet such was the retrieving power of nature, that by +the middle of August only a small portion of the injury +occasioned by these creatures was to be observed, the +summer shoot bursting out, and covering the sprays +with the verdure of spring. The chief singularity in +all this was the appearance of the sloe bush, all the +foliage being consumed by insects, or crisped away by +severe winds, leaving the sprays profusely covered with +the small young fruit, perfectly uninjured, and proceeding +in its growth; so that, by the time the foliage was +renewed in August, it had obtained its usual size. This +was the case too with the crab, and some of the orchard +fruits, presenting the unusual sight of fruit growing +alone on the boughs without leaves; so that in fact +the offices of inspiration, transpiration, and all their +consequences, usually accomplished by the leaves of +plants, must have been suspended, or performed by +other organs, as no deficiency of vegetative powers was +apparent.</p> + +<p class='c011'>But insects alone were not the cause of all the denudation +and unsightly appearance which our orchards and +other trees so remarkably presented this year; for the +destruction of the foliage was accomplished in part by +some malignant influences, not well understood. Like +the Egyptian king, we are accustomed to attribute all +our evils of this nature to the “blasting of the <i>east</i> +wind;” yet we find all aspects and places obnoxious to +<span class='pageno' id='Page_244'>244</span>it; one situation may be exempted for a period of many +years from such visitations, when others suffer; on a +sudden, a partial or a local stream of hot, cold, salt, or +what we denominate a pestilential wind, sweeps along, +and it is destroyed.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Surrounded by and situate in the midst of an agricultural +district, we are eager and persevering “leasers” +here; and it becomes in a certain degree profitable +to our poor, though they cannot hope, like the dutiful +Ruth, to gather their three pecks and over in a day. It +may be difficult to comprehend how the picking up a +head of corn here, and another there, should be a remunerative +employ; but in this case, like all other slow +operations, a distant result, rather than an instant effect, +must be looked for. I have found some little difficulty +in obtaining intelligence sufficient to acquire a knowledge +of the gain by this employ. The poor are often +jealous and suspicious of the motives, when any attempts +are made to procure information regarding their +profits or improvements; and indeed the advantages of +one year are uncertain in another. Catching, doubtful +seasons, when the farmer collects in haste, and is unmindful +of trifles, afford the best harvest to the gleaner. +In fine, settled weather, the operation of reaping is +conducted with more deliberation, and less corn is +scattered about. When a woman with two or three +active children lease in concert, it becomes a beneficial +employ. I have heard of a family in the parish thus +engaged, who have in one season obtained eight bushels +of clear wheat; but this was excess. I know a single +woman also, who has gleaned in the same period four +bushels and a half; but this again was under very favorable +and partial circumstances. In general, a good leaser +is satisfied, if she can obtain, single-handed, a clear +three bushels in the season, which gives her about a +bushel in the week; and, if taken at seven shillings, +is very reasonable, and far from being any great accession +or profit—less perhaps than is generally supposed +to be the emolument of the gleaner; and this may have +been acquired by the active labor of eight or nine +hours. Yet such is the ardor for this occupation, the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_245'>245</span>enjoyment of this full association, with their neighbors, +the prattle, the gossip, the glee, the excitement it occasions, +that I am sure the allowance of fourteen pence +a day, certain and constant, would hardly be accepted +by my leasing neighbors in place of it. Indeed I would +not offer it, believing that this gleaning season is looked +forward to with anxiety and satisfaction; and is a +season, too, in which the children of the family can contribute +to its support without pain or undue exertion; +and viewing with much approbation and pleasure this +long-established custom as a relaxation from domestic +refinement, when every cottage is locked up and abandoned +by its inmates, to pursue this innocent, healthful, +laudable employ, where every grain that is collected is +saved from waste, and converted to the benefit of a +needy and laborious community. From the result of the +pauper leasing, no bad criterion may be obtained of the +general product of the season; for, as the collection is +made from many stations, and variety of culture, these +samples of all afford a reasonable average of the quality. +It has been thought, but I trust and believe only in the +apprehension of evil, that leasing is injurious to the +morals of the poor, affording them an opportunity and +initiating them in petty pilfering; but if the disposition +existed, it could be practicable but in very few instances; +mutual jealousy would prevent individual success, and +immediate detection would follow the filching of numbers. +The commencement of many ceremonies and +solemnities is lost by perversion, or in the obscurity of +years; the stream of habit may trickle on from age to +age, till it flows in time a steady current, yet the original +source remain unknown: but this custom of gleaning +the remnant of the field we know existed from the +earliest periods, three thousand years and upwards for +certain; for, if it were not then first instituted, it was +secured and regulated by an especial ordinance of +the Almighty to the Israelites in the wilderness, as a +privilege to be fully enjoyed by the poor of the land, +whenever their triumphant armies should enter into +possession of Canaan. By this law, the leasing of three +products was granted to the destitute inhabitants of the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_246'>246</span>soil,—the olive, the grape-vine, and corn; the olive-tree +was to be beaten but once; the scattered grape in +the vintage was not to be gathered; and in the field +where the corn grew, “clean riddance” was not to be +made, the corners were to be left unreaped, and even +the forgotten sheaf was not to be fetched away by the +owner, but to be left for the “poor and the stranger +the fatherless and the widow.” This was not simply declared +once, as an act of mercy, but enjoined and confirmed +by ordinances thrice repeated, and impressed +with particular solemnity; “I am the Lord thy God,” +I have given thee all, and I command unreserved obedience +to this my appointment.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Revolving in our minds, as we old-mannered people +often do, the forms, rites, and usages of earlier days, +we occasionally regret that fashions by gradual neglect +have passed away, and can never be revived, to give +that feeling of pleasure which a natural growth seemed +to have inspired. Some, though probably of pagan +origin, were innocent and harmless practices; the maypole, +with all its flowery wreaths, so often surrounded +by the dance and the song, is now but seldom seen, +where we have known it, especially in the lace-making +counties, the evening and almost sole recreation, after +long hours of unhealthy occupation, for happy groups of</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c003'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>“Those pale maids who weave their threads with bone;”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c012'>and it gave these poor villagers a transient glow of +health, seen then alone; but it is gone with the rest, +and we grieve to think how little remains that poverty +and innocence can partake of. Others were of monkish +introduction, yet seemed to keep in remembrance the +revolutions of seasons and events, which, though recorded +elsewhere, had become the types of written +things. Yet one of them in the irritation of the moment +I have at times wished, selfishly enough perhaps, consigned +to oblivion with monks and monkish deeds. +“Christmassing,” as we call it, the decorating our +churches, houses, and market meats with evergreens, +is yet retained among us; and we growers of such +things annually contribute more than we wish for the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_247'>247</span>demand of the towns. Sprays and sprigs may be connived +at, but this year I lost most of my beautiful young +holly-trees, the cherished nurslings of my hedge-rows. +The holly<a id='r69'></a><a href='#f69' class='c014'><sup>[69]</sup></a> though indigenous with us, is a very slow +growing tree, and certainly the most ornamental of our +native foresters. Its fine foliage shining in vigor and +health, mingling with its brilliant coral beads, gives us +the cheering aspect of a summer’s verdure when all +besides is desolation and decay. It is not only grateful +to the eye, but gives us pleasure, when we contemplate +the food it will afford our poor hedgefaring birds, when +all but its berries and those of the ivy are consumed; +and we are careful to preserve these gay youths of +promise, when we trim our fences: but no sooner do +they become young trees, in splendid beauty, than the +merciless hatchet, in some December’s night, lops off +their heads, leaving a naked unsightly stake to point +out our loss; and we grieve and are vexed, for they +never acquire again comparative beauty. These young +heads, that we have been robbed of, are in especial +request to form a bush, dependent from the centre of +the kitchen or the servants’ hall, which in this season +of license and festivity becomes a station for extra +liberty, as every female passing under it, becomes subject +to the salutation of her male companion. This centre +bush is often the object of particular decoration, being +surrounded by the translucent berries of the mistletoe, +and those of the ivy, dipped in blue and white starch. +But at this season I have noticed one remarkable decoration +among the natives of the principality. A large +white turnip is stuck as full as possible of black oats, +so as to hide almost the substance in which they are +set, and sometimes having compartments of white oats; +and being placed upon a candlestick, or some other elevation, +on the mantle-tree, presents an extraordinary +hedgehog-like appearance. The first adoption of this +purely rural fancy, and its designation, I am perfectly +unacquainted with; but, when it is well executed, it +requires attentive examination to detect the device.</p> + +<p class='c011'>We are no votarists of fortune here, nor do we trouble +ourselves concerning predestinate ordinations, or +<span class='pageno' id='Page_248'>248</span>like subtilties; but when we notice passing events, we +lament the ills and are pleased with the good luck of a +neighbor: and a little turn happened lately to a parishioner, +which in former times, when events were viewed +under aspects different from those by which we now regard +them, might have occasioned more wonderment +and comment than it did. An industrious laboring +man had been some time unemployed, and having sought +an engagement at all those places most likely to have +afforded it, but without success, sat himself down upon +a bank in one of our potato-fields, carelessly twisting a +straw, and ruminating what his next resource might be; +when casting his eyes to the ground, he discovered, immediately +between his feet, a guinea! a guinea perfect +in all its requisites! The finding of such a coin, at +such a time, was no common occurrence; but by what +casualty did the money come there? The frequenters +of our fields, breakers of stone, and delvers of the soil, +inhabiters of the tenement and the cot, have no superfluous +gold to drop unheeded in their progress, and one +should have supposed that the various operations which +the field had undergone in the potato culture, would +have brought to view any coin of that size and lustre. +Upon looking at the land, however, much of our perplexity +was removed by observing that the ground had +been in part manured by scrapings from our turnpike +road, rendering it highly probable that this golden +stranger had been dropped by some traveller, not missed +by him, or lost in the mire, this mortar from the road +possibly so coating it about, as to secrete it for a time +some heavy rain dissolving the clod, and bringing it to +view. This, I am sensible, is an incident little deserving +of narration, but has been done from two motives: +we village historians meet with but few important +events to detail from the annals of our district; we have +no gazettes, few public records or official documents to +embellish our pages, and if we will write, must be content +with such small matters as present themselves; and +to point out how frequently very mysterious circumstances +may be elucidated, and appear as consistent +events by an unbiassed examination. We may not be +<span class='pageno' id='Page_249'>249</span>able always satisfactorily to see why a tide of good fortune +should flow at the desire of one, and ebb from the +wishes of another; yet many of the occurrences of +human life are perhaps not so extraordinary as they are +made to appear by the suppression of facts, or our ignorance +of circumstances.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The effects of atmospheric changes upon vegetation +have been noticed in the rudest ages: even the simplest +people have remarked their influence on the appetites +of their cattle, so that to “eat like a rabbit before rain” +has become proverbial, from the common observance of +the fact: but the influence of the electric fluid upon +the common herbage has not been, perhaps, so generally +perceived. My men complain to-day that they +cannot mow, that they “cannot any how make a hand +of it,” as the grass hangs about the blade of the scythe, +and is become tough and woolly; heavy rains are falling +to the southward, and thunder rolls around us; this indicates +the electric state of the air, and points out the +influence that atmospheric temperature and condition +have upon organized and unorganized bodies, though +from their nature not always manifested, all terrestrial +substances being replete with electric matter. In the +case here mentioned, it appears probable that the state +of the air induced a temporary degree of moisture to +arise from the earth, or to be given out by the air, and +that this moisture conducted the electric fluid to the +vegetation of the field. Experiments prove that electric +matter discharged into a vegetable withers and destroys +it; and it appeared to me at the time, but I am +no electrician, that an inferior or natural portion of this +fluid, such as was then circulating around, had influenced +my grass in a lower degree, so as not to wither, +but to cause it to flag, and become tough, or, as they +call it in some counties, to “wilt;”<a id='r70'></a><a href='#f70' class='c014'><sup>[70]</sup></a> the farina of the +grass appeared damper than is usual, by its hanging +about the blades of the scythes more than it commonly +does; the stone removed it, as the men whetted them, +just at the edge, but they were soon clogged again. As +the thunder cleared away, the impediments became less +obvious, and by degrees the difficulties ceased. The +<span class='pageno' id='Page_250'>250</span>observance of local facts, though unimportant in themselves, +may at times elucidate perplexities, or strengthen +conclusions.</p> + +<p class='c011'>That purely rural, little noticed, and indeed local +occurrence, called by the country people “hummings +in the air,” is annually to be heard in one or two fields +near my dwelling. About the middle of the day, perhaps +from twelve o’clock till two, on a few calm, sultry +days, in July, we occasionally hear, when in particular +places, the humming of apparently a large swarm of +bees. It is generally in some spacious, open spot, that +this murmuring first arrests our attention. As we move +onward the sound becomes fainter, and by degrees is no +longer audible. That this sound proceeds from a collection +of bees, or some such insects, high in the air, +there can be no doubt; yet the musicians are invisible. +At these times a solitary insect or so may be observed +here and there, occupied in its usual employ, but this +creature takes no part in our aërial orchestra. We investigators, +who endeavor to find a reason and a cause +for all things, are a little puzzled sometimes in our pursuits, +like other people; and, perhaps, would have but +little success in attempting an elucidation of this occurrence, +which, with those circles in our pastures and on +our lawns, that produce such crops of fungi (agaricus +oreades), and are called by the common name, for want +of a better or more significant one, of “fairy rings,”<a id='r71'></a><a href='#f71' class='c014'><sup>[71]</sup></a> +we will leave as we find them, an <i>odium physiologicum</i>.</p> + +<p class='c011'>1827.—The winds of this autumn have been violent +and distressing, but of all variable things, we know of +none more so than our seasons and temperatures, produced +probably by causes and combinations of which +we have no comprehension, or power of foreseeing, +“for these things come not by observation; we cannot +say, Lo here! or Lo there!” What can be more extraordinary, +or inexplicable by table or computation, than +the sudden visitation, in the midst of storms and frosts, +of such a day of brightness and warmth as we sometimes +witness, cheering the aspect of all things,—a +portrait of summer, brought from we know not what +<span class='pageno' id='Page_251'>251</span>region, in a framework of winter. All these things +assuredly have their effects upon the products of the +earth, and by their means upon the creatures that are +nourished by them, carrying on that imperceptible line +of influences and intelligences that is maintained +throughout nature. We know that vegetation and the +atmosphere are in a constant state of barter and exchange, +receiving and modifying; and possibly, from +the unseen effects of a frosty morning, a fall of snow, +or a few hours’ temperature of the air, a fruitful or an +unproductive season may arise. We notice the effects +of spring changes, because vegetation has so far advanced +as to render influences manifest; but we cannot +perceive the injuries of benefits accruing to a hidden +circulation from particular events. Every person who +has been conversant with cattle, must have remarked +how uncertain their progress in improvement has been; +that the abundant provision of one year did not prove +equally nutritive with the scanty product of some other: +this fact originates probably from the effects of atmospheric +impulse, either directly upon vegetation, or upon +the soil which produced the food collaterally, or upon +both collectively. In a wet season, water appears to +nourish plants, or to supply their requirements principally: +in a dry one, nutriment must be obtained from +the soil by means of the fibre of the root, and hence +particles are imbibed chemically different; a dry or a +drained soil, producing short and scanty herbage, will +frequently improve the condition of cattle more than +an adjoining meadow having a profusion of food, though +probably no chemical analysis could indicate the difference. +These periodical winds again, violent and distressing +as they often prove, are yet unquestionably essential +in the economy of nature: our two seasons, in +which these commotions of the air most usually become +manifest, are about the equinoxes of autumn and spring, +periods which in many respects have a similarity with +each other. In the autumn of our year, the foliage of +trees and plants, &c., putrefy and decay; marshes and +dull waters, clogged by their own products, stagnate, +and discharge large portions of hydrogen, carbonic gas, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_252'>252</span>&c., injurious and even fatal to animal existence: in +summer all these baneful exhalations are neutralized +and rendered wholesome by the vast quantities of oxygen, +or vital air, discharged from vegetable foliage: but +these agents of benefit, by the autumn, are no more—consequently +the discharge of oxygen is suspended, but +the production of unhealthy air increased by the additional +decomposition of the season. To counteract this, +is probably the business of the storms of wind and rain +prevailing at this season, which, by agitating and dissipating +the noxious airs, introduce fresh currents, and +render the fluid we breathe salubrious. The same may +be advanced in regard to spring: the whole decay of +winter, having no neutralizing body to render it wholesome, +requires some great influencing power to remove +it. But all this is reasoning without actual evidence; +a discursive license, from the fallibility of human judgment +not often to be indulged in: yet we can so rarely +perceive the purport of the movements of nature, that +our conceptions, vague as they may be, are almost all +that remain to us.</p> + +<p class='c011'>We have here so few operations of nature deserving +mention, that I must not omit to notice a rather uncommon +appearance in some of our clay-lands, which the +surrounding parishes do not present. The soil of a few +fields seems to cover for some depth a rock of coarse +limestone, which we never burn for use. In a direction +bearing nearly east and west, in a line pointing to the +Severn, a number of sinkings and pits are observable, +like abandoned shafts, or the commencement of mines. +They are called by the country people “whirly pits.” +In some instances the bottoms of them are not visible, +owing to the tortuous irregularity of the passages; in +other cases they are only deep hollows, covered with +turf. These sinkings are evidently occasioned by the +lowering of the surface in consequence of the removal +of the support beneath. Where the under parts have +been entirely displaced, the upper have fallen in, and +formed a chasm; where only partially removed, deep, +turfy hollows are formed. These removals have been +occasioned, probably, by a stream of water running far +<span class='pageno' id='Page_253'>253</span>beneath, and washing away the support; and in part +by the superfluous water from the ditches and watercourses +above draining into the fissures of the rock, and +so gradually mining or wearing away a passage; for +they are now frequently the receivers of all the running +water from the land, which seems naturally to drain +into them, and apparently has been so conducted for a +long course of years. Some of them present dark and +frightful chasms, and bushes and brambles are encouraged +to grow about them, to prevent cattle from falling +into the pits. Many a fox, when hard pressed, has +been known to make for these “whirly pits,” as his last +resource; and, secreting himself in some of the under +cavities, has escaped from the pursuit of his enemies +above. I once saw one of these animals dead at the +bottom. Whether he perished from being unable to +return up the crags after one of these retreats, or by +any other means, I know not.</p> + +<p class='c011'>In particular years we are much troubled here by the +luxuriant growth of a cryptogamous plant, which I believe +to be the lichen fascicularis of Linnæus: it may +always be found even in the dryest summers, but being +in those seasons shrivelled up, is in no way troublesome, +nor indeed noticed, unless sought for. This lichen +covers the walks of shrubberies at times in shady places, +and paths in the kitchen garden, appearing like a dull +olivaceous crust, most observable about October or November, +and the spring months; but in the summer of +1828, the unusual moisture of that season was so favorable +to its growth, that even in August we could not +walk in safety in those places where it abounded, our +feet sliding along upon the gelatinous, slippery foliage +and tubercles. Upon the walks of our culinary gardens +we sprinkle coal ashes, and this enables us for some +time to pass along with tolerable safety; but in the end +it so fosters the growth of this lichen, and small mosses, +which retain moisture as a sponge, that the evil we endeavor +to remove is by the autumn increased: where +gravel is not obtainable, paring off the crest of the walk +is the only effectual remedy, and this ultimately we are +necessitated to resort to. It is notable that such a very +<span class='pageno' id='Page_254'>254</span>insignificant product, this hardly discernible plant, +should endanger limb and life, and by circumstances +become so formidable to us “lords of the creation,” as +to force us to devise contrivances to counteract its injurious +tendencies.</p> + +<p class='c011'>There are times when we suffer here greatly by the +withering and searing up as it were of the leaves of our +vegetation, which we attribute generally to an early +morning’s frost. That late spring frosts do occasion +such injuries, and that noxious blasts, from causes which +we cannot divine, occasion infinite annual mischief, if +not destruction, to our wall fruit, is most manifest; yet +there is great reason to suspect that a large portion of +the injuries which we ascribe to blights, blasts, and +frosts, are occasioned by saline sprays brought by strong +western or south-western gales from King-road in the +Bristol Channel, eight or ten miles distant, or from even +more remote waters, and swept over the adjoining country +where the wind passes. This saline wind has often +been suspected by me as the evil agent that accomplishes +most of our blightings here; and on November +the 3d, 1825, these suspicions were corroborated—for +on this and the preceding days we had strong gales +from the water, in consequence of which such windows +as were situate to the west and south-west were skimmed +over with a light saline scurf, the brass-work of +the doors was corroded and turned green, painted works +of all kinds were salt to the tongue, as was every thing +that could condense the moisture; and the leaves of the +shrubs in the hedge-rows, and of trees, all turned brown, +and were crisped up. A row of large elms in particular, +that fronted the gale, received its full influence; the +whole of the windward side, then in full foliage, became +perfectly brown and seared, and the leaves shortly afterwards +parted from their sprays and left them bare, +while the other and sheltered side of the trees preserved +its green foliage very slightly influenced by the spray +that burned up the other. No period of the leafy season +is exempt from these pernicious effects, more or +less, if the wind be sufficiently violent and blowing +from the water. Portions of the country distant from +<span class='pageno' id='Page_255'>255</span>the shores often seem more influenced by these salt +sprays than others more near, the wind lifting up the +saline moisture, bearing it aloft to remote parts, and +dropping it as it travels over the land or meets with impediments.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Our apples in some years are more inclined to become +spotted than in others, from causes not quite obvious, +as moist summers do not occasion it more decidedly +than dry. Particular sorts are more subject to +these dark markings than others. The russet, though a +rough-coated fruit, seems exempt from spots; whereas +some of the smooth-rinded ones, especially the pearmain, +are invariably disfigured with them. These marks +appear to be an æcidium, which we frequently find to +be perfectly matured, the centre occupied with minute, +powdery capsules, having burst through their epidermis, +or covering, which hangs in fragments round the margin. +This æcidium<a id='r73'></a><a href='#f73' class='c014'><sup>[73]</sup></a> apparently derives its nutriment +from the apple; for immediately round the verge of the +spot the skin becomes wrinkled in consequence of the +juices being drawn off by the fungus. In most cases +the presence of plants of this nature is symptomatic of +decay; but in this instance we find an exception to a +pretty general effect, for the decay of the apple does +not always commence at the spot, which does not even +apparently contribute to it—for the whole fruit will +shrivel up in time by the escape of its juices, without +any decay by mortification. Though we are not able +always to ascertain the purposes of nature, yet this little +cryptogamous plant affords a strong example of her universal +tendency to produce, and every vegetable substance +seems to afford a soil for her productions. We +have even an agaric, with a bulbous root and downy +pileus,<a id='r72'></a><a href='#f72' class='c014'><sup>[72]</sup></a> that will spring from the smooth summit of +<span class='pageno' id='Page_256'>256</span>another (agaricus caseus), which has a uniform footstalk, +though not of common occurrence. Thus a plant, +that itself arises from decay, is found to constitute a +soil for another; and the termination of this chain of +efficiency is hidden from us.</p> + +<div class='figcenter id001'> +<img src='images/i_277.jpg' alt='' class='ig001'> +<div class='ic001'> +<p><i>Agaricus Surrectus.</i></p> +</div> +</div> + +<p class='c011'><span class='pageno' id='Page_257'>257</span>But the leaves of many vegetables often become singularly +spotted during some parts of the summer, and such +spots have not certainly been effected by the growth of +cryptogamous plants, natural decay, or the punctures of +insects, the usual agents in these cases. A very indifferent +observer of these things, in strolling round his +garden, must have remarked how uniformly and singularly +the foliage of some of the varieties of the strawberry +are spotted, and corroded as it were into little +holes; whereas other kinds have seldom any of these +marks visible on them. I have fancied that these spottings +were occasioned by the influence of solar heat, +a shower of rain falls, small drops collect and remain +upon the leaf of the plant; the sun then darts out, converting +all these globules of rain into so many little +lenses, converging the rays, and scorching or burning +a hole at the focus. This conjecture has been rather +strengthened by observing, that upon certain sorts, the +hautboy, alpine, &c., the rain when it falls uniformly +wets the leaves, yet they do not become spotted; but +the smooth leaves of others, roseberry, caledonian, upon +which it stands in drops, always become marked and +perforated: but whatever may be the real cause of these +spottings, if the foliage be touched, by way of an experiment, +with the point of a heated wire, after a few +days they will present an appearance very similar to +what is naturally effected.</p> + +<p class='c011'>There seems to be a curious analogy in their functions +between the roots of plants and the moving parent +of animated beings, a similar obligation being required +from them both of providing for those dependent on +them, and both will exert their energies in fulfilment +of this ordained mandate: the roots of plants wander +up and down in every direction, seeking for sustenance; +and we frequently see trees, growing on rocks, extending +their roots like sensitive beings, searching for moisture; +if this is not obtained sufficiently, a sickly foliage +<span class='pageno' id='Page_258'>258</span>and impoverished growth point out the condition of the +plant.</p> + +<div class='figcenter id001'> +<img src='images/i_279.jpg' alt='An old black-and-white engraved illustration of a leafless tree stump with long, exposed roots spreading outward like tentacles, twisting across rocky ground and rubble, with a stark, desolate landscape in the background.' class='ig001'> +</div> + +<p class='c011'>The notable exertions which vegetables occasionally +make to obtain nutriment may be instanced by the following +rude drawing of an ash,—a tree which, in consequence +of the profusion of its seed, we find more +often scattered in wild and singular places than any +other not propagated by the agency of birds, or conveyed +by the winds. This one had originally been rooted +in the earth, upon the top of a wall, but nourishment +being required beyond what was supplied by the precarious +moisture of the scanty soil, its roots proceeded +downwards, winding their way through the crevices of +the stones into the earth beneath, and remained apparently +incorporated with the masonry; the materials of +this wall being wanted for an adjoining work, were so +pulled out, as to leave the tree with all its roots detached, +much as represented, with all its vegetative powers uninjured: +the root B had stretched itself along the top +of the wall, but how far it had extended in perfection, +is uncertain, being broken away when I saw it first. +The wood of the ash, when burned in a green state,</p> + +<p class='c011'>will emit a fragrance like that which proceeds from the +violet or mezerion, and this it will diffuse in particular +states of the air to a considerable distance, a property +that, I believe, is not observable in any other British +wood: it is in the country only that we can be sensible +of this, and it is particularly to be perceived in passing +through a village when the cottagers are lighting their +fires, or by a farm-house, when this wood, fresh cloven +or newly lopped off, is burning;—as the wood dries, +this sweet smell is in a great measure exhaled with the +moisture, for in this state we are not sensible of any +odor arising from it different from other woods.</p> + +<div> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_259'>259</span> + <h3 class='c023'>THE YEAR 1825.</h3> +</div> + +<p class='c024'>We are naturally solicitous to look back upon seasons +remarkable for atmospheric phenomena, and compare +their results with those passing before us, though we +may be fully sensible that no conclusions can safely be +drawn from them,—a variety of circumstances not +known, or not comprehended, combining to produce +results beyond our means of calculation. There have +been times when such recollections brought no pleasure +with them, by displaying the injuries and sufferings that +hurricanes and floods have occasioned; and thus we +who were witnesses of the distress occasioned by the +lamentable rains of 1793, and the several successive +years, when every wheat-sheaf presented a turf of +verdant vegetation, cannot recollect it without sorrow, +or ever forget that famine in our land. Yet it is amusing, +on some occasions, to note the extremes of weather that +our island has experienced; for though in general our +seasons pass away without any very considerable dissimilitude, +still we have known periods of great irregularity, +drought or moisture, cold or heat. The freezing +of great rivers, with the roasting of animals and passage +of carriages upon the ice, our calendars and diaries +relate; but instances of an opposite temperature, affording +less striking events, are not so fully detailed as +might be wished. The winter of 1661 appears to have +<span class='pageno' id='Page_260'>260</span>been remarkable for its mildness; and it is rather curious +that, in the century following, the winter of 1761 should +have been equally notable for the mildness of its temperature. +The winter of 1795 seems to have partaken +of none of the severity usual to the season; and the +summer of 1765 was remarkable for its heat and dryness, +and all vegetation being influenced by their +effects, brought forth fruits and flowers in unusual perfection.</p> + +<p class='c011'>But perhaps the year 1825, taking all its circumstances, +is the most extraordinary to be found in our +annals. The winter of 1824–5 had been mild and wet; +the ensuing spring dry, but with keen winds and frosty +mornings, which greatly injured the fine blossoms that +appeared on our fruit trees; and the continued and +profuse nightly fall of the honey-dew was quite unusual: +the leaves of the oak, the cherry, and the plum, +were constantly smeared and dropping with this clammy +liquor, which, falling from the foliage on the ground, +blackened it as if some dark fluid had been spilled +upon it: the leaves of most of our stone fruits curled +up, covered with aphides, and became deciduous; and +their young shoots were destroyed by the punctures of +these insects that clustered on them. This honey-dew +continued to fall till about the middle of July, affording +an abundant supply of food to multitudes of bees, moths, +and other insects which swarmed about the trees. We +rarely begin cutting our grass before the first week in +July; but in consequence of the heat of June in this +year, it was so drawn up, that much hay was made and +carried by the 20th of June, which commonly is not +accomplished till August. Our crops on good ground +were considered as fair, though in general the chilling +season of May had occasioned a deficiency; but all our +clover crops and artificial grasses were harvested in the +finest order, producing good-sized ricks and mows; yet +their bulk was delusive, the provender cutting out +light and strawy. The heat and drought continued, with +very partial and slight showers of rain, all June and +July; nor had we any thing like serviceable rain till +the second of August. In consequence our grass lands +<span class='pageno' id='Page_261'>261</span>were burned up, and our fields parched, presenting deep +fissures in all parts. The heat was unusually distressing +all day; and evening brought us little or no relief, as +every wall radiated throughout the night the heat it +had imbibed from the torrid sun of the day. Our bedroom +windows were kept constantly open, all apprehension +from damps and night airs, which at other times +were of the first consideration, being disregarded; a +cooler temperature, however obtained, was alone required; +and we lingered below, unwilling to encounter +the tossings and restlessness that our heated beds occasioned. +Our wainscots cracked, furniture contracted +and gaped with seams; a sandal-wood box, which had +been in use for upwards of twenty years in dry rooms, +shrunk and warped out of all form; a capsule of the +sandbox tree (hura crepitans), which had remained in +repose over a shelf above the fire-place for an unknown +length of time, now first experienced an excess of dryness, +and exploded in every direction; door frames +contracted, window sashes became fixed and immovable. +These are trifles to relate, but yet they mark the +very unusual dryness of the atmosphere.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Monday and Tuesday, July 18th and 19th, will long +be remembered as the acme of our suffering, the thermometer +standing in the shade of a passage communicating +immediately with the outer air, in an open situation, +at 82° of Fahrenheit. A few yards nearer the air, +on which the sun shone, it rose to 93°, without any influence +from reflection or other causes. In towns, and +more confined places, it is said, the heat was much +greater. The current of air now felt like that near the +mouth of an oven, heavy and oppressive, and occasioning +more unpleasant sensations than such a temperature +usually creates; animals became distressed, the young +rooks of the season entered our gardens, and approached +our doors, as in severe frosts, with open bills, panting +for a cooler element; horses dropped exhausted on the +roads; many of the public conveyances, which usually +travelled by day, waited till night, to save the cattle +from the overpowering influence of the sun. The leaves +of our apple and filbert trees, in dry situations, withered +<span class='pageno' id='Page_262'>262</span>up large forest trees, especially the elm, had their +leaves so scorched by the sun, that they fell from their +sprays as in autumn, rustling along the ground; the +larch became perfectly deciduous. In our gardens, the +havoc occasioned by the heat was very manifest. The +fruit of the gooseberry, burnt up before maturity, hung +shrivelled upon the leafless bushes; the strawberry and +raspberry quite withered away; the stalk of the early +potato was perfectly destroyed, and the tubers near the +surface in many places became roasted and sodden by +the heat, few obtaining their natural size, and sold at +this period in the Bristol market at twenty-four shillings +the sack. A few choice plants were saved by watering +them daily; but in general the exhalation from the foliage, +by reason of the heat of the earth, was greater +than the root could supply, the green parts withering as +if seared by a frost.</p> + +<p class='c011'>On the 20th of July, some farmers began to cut their +wheat; and by the 25th reaping had generally commenced. +Our bean crop presented, perhaps, an unprecedented +instance of early ripeness, being usually +mowed in September; but this year it was universally +ripe, indeed more perfectly so than the wheat, by the +1st of August. The crop, however, proved a defective +one: water became scarce, and the herbage of the fields +afforded so little nutriment, that the cows nearly lost +their milk, eight or ten being milked into a pail that +four should have filled; and one week, from July the +18th to the 24th, butter could not be made to harden, +but remained a soft oleaginous mass.</p> + +<p class='c011'>This extreme heat had a favorable influence on many +of our exotic plants, enabling several to perfect their +seed, which do not usually in our climate; such as nightstocks, +erodiums, heliotrope, groundsels, cape-asters, +and such green-house plants vegetating in the open air. +With me all the polyanthus tribe, especially the double +varieties, suffered greatly; lovers of the cold and moisture +of a northern climate, in this tropic heat, they became +so parched as never properly to recover their verdure, +and in the ensuing spring I missed these gay and +pleasing flowers in my borders.</p> + +<p class='c011'><span class='pageno' id='Page_263'>263</span>It was a sad destructive season for the poor butterflies, +and no sooner did a specimen appear upon the +wing, than the swallow and all the fly-catching tribe +snapped them up, rendered eager and vigilant from the +scarcity of insect food. Even that active and circumspect +creature the hummingbird sphinx could not +always, with every exertion of its agility, escape their +pursuit.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Early in August rains fell, and continued seasonably +until September; and their effect upon our scorched +vegetation, from the general heat of the earth and the +air, was extremely rapid. The larch, and other trees +which had shed their leaves, now put forth their tender +green foliage as in spring; and by the end of September +the universal verdure of the country, and profusion +of feed in the pastures, was so perfectly unlike what we +had been accustomed to in common years, as to be astonishing. +Even as low in the year as the 11th of October, +there was no appearance of any change in the +foliage, except a slight tinge upon the leaves of the +maple; and this day was so brilliant, that the cattle +were reposing in the shade, the thermometer varying +from 66° to 68° F., and the general warmth to our feelings +was greater than that indicated by the instrument. +October the 20th, the weather changed, some sleety rain +fell, and the hills were sprinkled with snow, the thermometer +falling to 40°, and all our hirundines, which +had been sporting about us up to this period, departed: +yet still vegetation continued in all its vigor, and on the +1st of November dog-roses hung like little garlands in +the hedges; the cornel bushes (cornus sanguinea) were +in full bloom; and corn-roses (rosa arvensis) were decorating +our hedges in a profusion equal to that of a +common August. November 4th there were slight ice +and partial snow, with various alternations undeserving +of notice, but the weather was generally fair and mild +until Christmas.</p> + +<p class='c011'>All these preceding heats and rapid changes had, I +think, a manifest influence upon our constitutions. +Violent catarrhs, and lingering, unremitting coughs, +prevailed among all classes, both before and after +<span class='pageno' id='Page_264'>264</span>Christmas, to a degree that I never remember; and +children were afflicted with measles almost universally. +Early in January a violent wind was succeeded by a +severe frost, and in some places by a deep snow; but, +after about ten days’ duration, a very gentle thaw removed +all this, and the remainder of our winter was +mild and agreeable, introducing what might be called +an early spring, dry and propitious for every agricultural +purpose. The trees that refoliaged so vigorously in +autumn seemed in no way weakened by this unusual +exertion, but produced their accustomed proportion of +leaves, and the sprays of every bush and tree, ripened +and matured by the last summer’s sun, displayed a profusion, +an accumulation of blossom, that gave the fairest +promise of abundance of fruit, and every product of the +earth.</p> + +<hr class='c022'> + +<p class='c011'>That the death of any creature should be required +by the naturalist, to perfect his examination, or arrange +it in his collection, (and without a collection the investigation +of any branch of natural history can be but +partially undertaken), may be regretted; but still the +epithet of “cruel employ” must not be attached to this +pursuit. We do not destroy in wantonness, or unnecessarily; +and that life, of which it is expedient to deprive +a creature, is taken by the most speedy, and in the least +painful manner known. Some of our methods, if speedy, +are at the same time injurious, such as hot water, the +stifling-box, &c.; and some, that are not painful, such +as stupefaction by spirits, ether, &c., and suffocation +by carbonate of ammonia, are occasionally not effectual. +But there is one process, which I believe to be neither +painful nor injurious, yet decisive, and communicative +with pleasure; I mean the prussic acid. This fluid +may be imbibed by the insect without producing any +particular effect; but, if brought to act upon the spinal +cord, or what at least is analogous to that part of a vertebrate +animal, whatever it may be called, and which +seems to be the most vital part of the creation, instant +<span class='pageno' id='Page_265'>265</span>death ensues. A crow-quill must be shaped into a +point, like a rather long pen, this point dipped into the +prussic acid, and an incision made with it immediately +beneath the head into the middle of the shoulders of the +creature, so as to permit the fluid it contains to enter +into the body of the insect. Immediately after this, in +every instance in which I have tried it, a privation of +sensation appears to take place, the corporeal action of +the creature ceasing, a feeble tremulous motion of the +antennæ being alone perceptible; and these parts seem +to be the last fortress that is abandoned by sensation, as +they are the primary principle of sensibility when life +is perfect: extinction of animation ensues, not a mere +suspension, but an annihilation of every power, muscular +and vital. As one example of the decisive effects +of this fluid, I shall instance the common wasp, a creature +so remarkably tenacious of sensation, or so long +retaining a muscular power, that it may remain, as every +one knows, for days crushed in the window, an apparently +dead insect, yet upon pressing the head, the sting +will be so protruded as to give a very sensible pain to +the finger it should meet with; but upon the prussic +acid being injected into this creature as above, when in +full vigor, in the course of less than half a minute a +loss of vitality ensues, the action of the muscular fibre +ceases altogether, and no pressure can incite it again +into action. The sudden effect of this liquor is not so +generally known as from humanity and expediency +might be wished. Who first devised the experiment I +am ignorant; but any repetition of means whereby a +necessary end can be obtained by the least painful and +brief infliction, will hardly be considered as superfluous.</p> + +<p class='c011'>This subject naturally introduces the preservation of +the creatures after their death, and the young entomologist +is not perhaps sensible from experience of the +injury some species of insects will effect in the selected +specimens of others of this race, and may lament, +when too late, the separation of the wings, limbs, and +bodies of his collection by these tiny depredators (ptinus +fur, acararus destructor). Mr. Waterton’s recipe for +<span class='pageno' id='Page_266'>266</span>preventing this evil, I have used rather extensively +and believe it to be a very effectual, and generally an +innocuous preservative; but as this gentleman has not +given us the exact proportions of his mixture, it may +not be useless to observe, that if one part of corrosive +sublimate be dissolved in eight parts of good spirit of +wine, and the under side of the insect touched with a +camel’s-hair pencil, dipped in the liquor, so as to let it +lightly pervade every part of the creature, which it +readily does, it will, I apprehend, prevent any future +injury from insects. A larger portion of the sublimate +will leave an unsightly whiteness upon the creature +when the specimen becomes dry. The under side of +the board, on which the insects are fixed, should be +warmed a little by the fire after the application, that +the superfluous moisture may fly off, before finally +closing the case. If this be omitted, the inner surface +of the glass will sometimes become partially obscured +by the fume arising from the mixture. The experienced +entomologist needs not a notice like this; but the +young collector probably will not regard it as unnecessary +information, and may be spared by it from both +mortification and regret. I have known insects commence +their serious operations before the collections +of the summer could be arranged in their permanent +cases.</p> + +<p class='c011'>In noticing above, that this solution is generally +harmless, it is requisite that mention should be made +of the few instances in which it has been observed to +be injurious. I have applied it to many specimens of +foreign and British insects, and commonly observed no +indication of its having been used, when the creatures +had become dry. But to confine our attentions to English +specimens, when the solution is made stronger than +recommended, it will, after a time, injure the fine yellow +of the sulphur butterfly (papilio rhamni), by turning +parts of it brown and dirty; but even in its reduced +state it has a manifest effect upon the colors of two of +our moths, the Dartford emerald (phalæna lucidata), and +what is commonly called the green housewife moth +(phalæna vernaria) changing their plumage, in several +<span class='pageno' id='Page_267'>267</span>places, to a red buffy hue, when at the same time the +beautiful green wings of the small oak-moth (phalæna +viridana) are in no way altered by it. But notwithstanding +these circumstances, it will, I apprehend, be considered +as a very useful preservative, and save many +specimens from destruction which other means usually +fail of effecting.</p> + +<p class='c011'>There are not many of our rural practices, that deserve +more the disapprobation of the landed proprietor +than that of pollarding trees.<a id='r74'></a><a href='#f74' class='c014'><sup>[74]</sup></a> “It is an evil under the +sun, and common among men.” Here it is universal. +This system of cutting off the heads of the young trees +in the hedge-rows is resorted to by the farmer for the +purpose of forcing them, thus deprived of their leaders, +to throw out collateral shoots, serving for stakes for the +fences, and for firewood. The purposes are effected; but +of all hopes of timber, or profit to the proprietor, there +is an end. No trees suffer more in this respect than the +ash. Prohibitions against mangling trees, in agreements, +are usual; but, with some exceptions in regard to oak, +little attention seems paid to the covenant, as is obvious +on the most cursory view of the country in any +direction; whereas the ash is not a less valuable tree, +from its thriving more universally in all situations, and +becoming saleable in a shorter period. One or two generations +must pass before an oak should be felled; but +the ash becomes useful wood while its more respected +companion is but a sapling. These prohibitions should +not simply be engrossed on the parchment, but the +agent ought strictly to notice any infringement; and +young ash trees should be more especially guarded +because they are the most likely to suffer, from their producing +the greatest quantity of lop in the shortest time. +The injury done by this practice to the present landlord +and his successors is beyond estimation, as the numbers +destroyed, and the vigor of their growth, must be first +known; but there is not a farm of any extent from +which hundreds of ash trees might not have been felled, +had their growth been permitted, making an annual +return; whereas nothing can be obtained now or hereafter +for the proprietor, and only a few stakes and bavins +<span class='pageno' id='Page_268'>268</span>for the farmer.<a id='r75'></a><a href='#f75' class='c014'><sup>[75]</sup></a> It is by no means an uncommon thing, +to observe every ash tree in a hedge reduced to stumps +by successive pollardings. Many a landlord would +shudder at the thought of breaking up an old productive +sward, and not regard the topping of an ash; whereas +this latter act is infinitely more injurious, ultimately, +than the former. The land may, and will probably, recover, +but the tree is lost for ever, as to any profitable +purposes for the owner. The farmer might perhaps tell +the agent when he remonstrated, that he must have +firewood, and hedging stuff; but the wants of the +former have decreased by the facility of obtaining other +fuel, and neither is to be supplied by the landlord at +such a ruinous subversion of present and future benefit. +I am not so silly as to enlarge upon the beauty of what +has been called “picturesque farming;” but when we +cast our eyes over the country, and see such rows of +dark, club-headed posts, we cannot but remark upon +the unsightly character they present, and consider it +neither laudable to deform our beautiful country by the +connivance, nor proper attention to individual profit to +allow the continuation of it. The ash, after this mutilation, +in a few years become flattened at the summit, +moisture lodges in it, and decay commences, the central +parts gradually mouldering away, though for many years +the sap wood will throw out vigorous shoots for the +hatchet. The goat moth now too commences its mordications, +and the end is not distant. But the wood of +the ash appears in every stage subject to injury; when +in a dry state the weevils mine holes through it; when +covered by its bark, it gives harbor to an infinite variety +of insects, which are the appointed agents for the removal +of the timber: the ashen bar of a stile, or a post, we +may generally observe to be regularly scored by rude +<span class='pageno' id='Page_269'>269</span>lines diverging from a central stem, like a trained fruit-tree, +by the meanderings of a little insect (ips niger, +&c.), being the passages of the creatures feeding on +the wood.</p> + +<p class='c011'>There is one race of trees, the willow, very common +about us, that is so universally subject to this pollarding, +for the purpose of providing stakes and hurdles for the +farm, that probably few persons have ever seen a willow +tree. At any rate a sight of one grown unmutilated +from the root is a rare occurrence. The few that I have +seen constituted trees of great beauty; but as the willow, +from the nature of its wood, can never be valuable +as a timber tree, perhaps by topping it we obtain its +best services. In the county of Gloucester there are +several remarkable trees of different species now growing, +but I am not acquainted with any greater natural +curiosity of this sort than an uncommonly fine willow +tree in the meadows on the right of the Spa-house at +Gloucester. There are two of them; the species I forget, +but one tree is so healthy and finely grown, that it +deserves every attention, and should be preserved as a +unique specimen, an example of what magnitude this +despised race may attain when suffered to proceed in +its own unrestrained vigor.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Dec. 30.—A cold foggy morning, the ground covered +with a white frost; about twelve o’clock the sun burst +out with great brilliancy, and life and light succeeded +to torpor and gloom; a steam immediately arose from +our garden beds and plowed lands, giving us a very +strong example of the rapid manner in which the matter +of heat (caloric) will at times unite with water. Half +an hour before, this water was frozen and inert; but +the instant that the sun’s rays fell upon it, their heat +was imbibed, and the icy matter converted into a body +lighter than the atmosphere by which it was surrounded, +and passed into it in the vapor we have just noticed. +I was the more particular in observing this common +event, as it afforded a forcible illustration of the invisible +evaporation which is constantly going forward, +the unremitting changes in operation, the action and +reaction of the earth and its products with the atmosphere. +<span class='pageno' id='Page_270'>270</span>During the night, and the earlier parts of the +morning, water was falling on the earth in minute +particles, constituting what we call fog; then out +burst the sun, and reclaimed this moisture which had +fallen, and we could see it obeying the mandate, and +pass away in steam. In the evening it will probably +return again in fog, or in rain, when the atmosphere +cools; and thus a constant visible intelligence is going +on. How much insensible intercourse takes place we +know not, but we can comprehend its agency by the +effects and events that manifest themselves. Our country +people think these “rokings” (reekings) of the earth +greatly favorable to the growth of vegetation, supposing +it occasioned by the internal heat of the earth producing +a vapor like that from fermenting soil, thus +warming the roots; but if the theory be defective, the +fact may be true, by the caloric in the sun’s rays promoting +the decomposition of the water, or separating +the component parts (oxygen and hydrogen), which +uniting with other matters contained in the earth and +atmosphere (carbon and carbonic acid) become by this +means the basis of all our fruits, our sweets, our sours, +resins, &c., in the vegetable world; and hence there +is a constant decomposition of water going forward by +these alternations, and a constant formation of matters +beneficial and necessary for the various inhabitants of +the earth. When we perceive that a shower of rain +has revived or promoted the increase of vegetation, we +must understand, that the mere wetting it has not accomplished +this; but that the vegetable has by means +of its foliage, aided by light and heat, decomposed or +separated the combined matters of the water, and taken +from it certain portions as essential to its vigor, or been +revictualled, in a manner, by the nutriment contained +in the water.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Jan. 10.—The ground covered with snow, the pools +with ice, trees and hedges leafless, and patched here +and there with a mantle of white, present a cheerless, +dreary void; no insects are animating the air, and all +our songsters are silent and away; a few miserable +thrushes are hopping on the ditch-bank, swept bare by +<span class='pageno' id='Page_271'>271</span>the wind; and the robin puffing out his feathers, and +contracting his neck into his body, is peeping with his +fine bright eyes into the windows from the cypress +bough. A few evergreens are waving their sprays, and +glittering in the light, yet making but poor compensation +for the variety, the flutter, the verdure, of our summer. +Though we have little natural beauty to note or +to record, we are not left without a testimony of an +overruling Power; and, however sad and melancholy +things may appear at the first view, yet a more steady +observation will manifest to us a presiding Providence +and Mercy. Frost and snow are but cheerless subjects +for contemplation, yet I would add a reflection in my +Journal of our passing events, or rather recall from +memory the truth, that science has made known to us, +revived by the sight of that frozen pool. There is one +universal body, inherent in every known substance in +nature, latent heat, which chemists have agreed to call +“caloric.” By artificial means bodies may be deprived +of certain portions of it; and then the substance most +usually contracts, and increases in weight. Water is +an exception to this; for in losing a part of its heat, +the cause of its fluidity, and becoming ice, it expands, +and is rendered lighter, by inclosing, during the operation, +more or less of atmospheric air: consequently it +swims, covering the surface. To this very simple circumstance, +ice floating and not sinking,<a id='r76'></a><a href='#f76' class='c014'><sup>[76]</sup></a> are the banks +and vicinities of all the rivers, lakes, pools, or great +bodies of water in northern Europe, Asia, and America, +rendered habitable, and what are now the most fertile +and peopled would be the most sterile and abandoned, +were it not for this law of nature. Had ice been so +heavy as to sink in water, the surface on freezing would +have fallen to the bottom, and a fresh surface would be +presented for congelation; this would then descend in +its turn, and unite with the other; and thus during a +hard frost successive surfaces would be presented, and +fall to the bottom, as long as the frost or any fluid remained. +By this means the whole body of the water +would become a dense concretion of ice: its inhabitants +would not only perish, but the indurated mass would +<span class='pageno' id='Page_272'>272</span>resist the influence of the sun of any summer to thaw +it, and continue congealed throughout the year, chilling +the earth in its neighborhood, and the winds that passed +over it, preventing the growth of vegetation in the former, +or blighting and destroying it by the influence of +the latter.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Winter is called a dull season; and to the sensations +of some, the enjoyments of others, and, perhaps, to the +vision of all, it is a most cheerless period. This is so +universally felt, that we always associate the idea of +pleasure with the return of spring: whatsoever our occupations +or employments may be, though its sleety +storms and piercing winds may at times chill the very +current in our veins, yet we consider it as a harbinger +of pleasurable hours and grateful pursuits. We commence +our undertakings, or defer them till spring. The +hopes or prospects of the coming year are principally +established in spring; and we trust that the delicate +health of the blossoms round our hearths, which has +faded in the chilling airs of winter, may be restored by +the mild influence of that season. Yet winter must +be considered as the time in which Nature is most +busily employed; silent in her secret mansions, she is +now preparing and compounding the verdure, the flowers, +the nutriment of spring; and all the fruits and +glorious profusion of our summer year are only the advance +of what has been ordained and fabricated in these +dull months. All these advances require Omnipotent +wisdom and power to perfect; but perhaps a more exalted +degree of wisdom and power has been requisite to +call them into a state of being from nothing. The +branch of that old pear-tree now extended before me, +is denuded and bare, presenting no object of curiosity +or of pleasure; but, had we the faculty to detect, and +power to observe, what was going forward in its secret +vessels, beneath its rugged, unsightly covering, what +wonder and admiration would it create!—the materials +manufacturing there for its leaf, and its bark; for the +petals and parts of its flowers; the tubes and machinery +that concoct the juices, modify the fluids, and furnish +the substance of the fruit, with multitudes of other unknown +<span class='pageno' id='Page_273'>273</span>operations and contrivances, too delicate and +mysterious to be seen, or even comprehended, by the +blindness, the defectibility of our nature—things of +which we have no information, being beyond the range +of any of the works or the employments of mankind! +We may gather our pear, be pleased with its form or its +flavor; we may magnify its vessels, analyze its fluids, +yet be no more sensible of its elaborate formation, and +the multiplicity of influences and operations requisite +to conduct it to our use, than a wandering native of a +polar clime could be of the infinite number of processes +that are necessary to furnish a loaf of bread, from +plowing the soil to drawing from the oven. This is but +an isolated instance, amidst thousands of others more +complicated still. How utterly inconceivable then are +the labors, the contrivances, the combinations, that are +going forward, and accomplishing, in this our dull season +of the year, in that host of nature’s productions +with which, shortly, we shall everywhere be surrounded!</p> + +<p class='c011'>Jan. 20th.—A keen frost, and the ground covered +with snow, present a scene of apparent suffering and +want to many of our poor little birds; but the preservation +of the fowls of the air, which sow not nor gather +into barns, has been beautifully instanced to us, as a +manifest evidence of a superintending Providence: the +full force of this testimony is most strongly impressed +upon us in a season like this, when winter rules with +rigor, and we marvel how the life of these beings can +be supported when the waters are bound up, and earth +and all its products hidden by a dense covering of snow. +Many of the small birds obtain subsistence by picking +the refuse of our corn-stacks, by seeds scattered about +our homestalls and cattle-yards, but multitudes of others +are in no way dependent upon man for shelter or support, +do not even approach his dwelling, but are maintained +by the universal bounty of Providence; as the +woodlark, the meadow-lark, the chats, and several +others; but by what means they are maintained in a +period like this is not quite manifest. The portion that +they require is probably small, yet it must be insect +<span class='pageno' id='Page_274'>274</span>food, and the chats, larks, and gray wagtails, seem busily +engaged in providing for their wants upon the furze +sprays, amidst frozen grass, or upon the banks of ditches +and pools; and as no insect but the winter gnat is now +found in such places, it is probable that this creature, +which sports in numbers in every sunny gleam, yields +them in this season much of their support. Some of +the insectivorous birds have at such periods no apparent +difficulty in supporting their existence, finding their +food in a dormant state in mosses, lichens, and crevices +of trees and buildings; but for those which require +animated creatures, I am sensible of none that are to be +procured but this gnat, and it possibly has been endowed +with its peculiar habits and dispositions for a purport +like this. We have many examples in nature of similar +provisions, wherein one race supports the existence +and requirements of another. The molusca and insects +of the deep continue the life of some, the feeble races +of the air and waters maintain the beings of others, and +the beast of the wild seeks his food amidst those which +inhabit with him; but where this chain ends, human +faculties will probably never be able to ascertain. The +remarkable fact which our microscopes make known to +us, that all infusions of natural substances in water +will produce life, however extraordinary the form may +be, seems to denote a continuation of being beyond +any possible comprehension, and probably subservient +to the existence of each other: the minute creature +that floats a hardly perceptible atom in the water of +the ditch, and which subsists many of the animals +which inhabit those places, feeds upon smaller than itself, +and those again, possibly, upon more minute ones +which the vegetable infusions of those places give existence +to: here the investigation terminates, but the +thread unbroken continues, probably through endless +gradations, perceptible to infinity alone.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Having applauded the operations of Nature with so +much cordiality, possibly I may be called her “enthusiastic +adorer,” but the epithet must be disclaimed. +None can respect the works of creation more, but ’tis +not with an ecstasy that glows, fades, and expires, but +<span class='pageno' id='Page_275'>275</span>with a calm deep-rooted conviction implanted in the +boy, and increased by years of notice and experience. +I have followed her footsteps, though far, very far distant, +as an humble admirer of perfection, nor can my +veneration cease whilst reason continues undisturbed.</p> + +<hr class='c022'> + +<p class='c011'>Sept. 8th, 1828.—A remarkably dry and exhausting +day, not from any peculiar influence of the solar heat, +but from the arid state of the air, which was very distressing +to our feelings, and all tender vegetation became +languid and suffering under its influence. I endeavored +to ascertain the power of absorption possessed +by the air at the time by an experiment, rude enough +to be sure, yet it tended in some measure to indicate +the rapid manner in which fluids are exhaled in particular +states of the atmosphere. A linen cloth twelve +inches square, which had absorbed an ounce avoirdupois +of water, was suspended in the shade in a free +current of air, and in the course of ten minutes it had +lost 436 grains, equal to one-sixteenth of its weight. +This great evaporation was principally effected by the +absorbent power of the air, and manifested in some degree +the exhausting influence that was passing over the +earth and the vegetation exposed to the current of air; +and as the roots could not derive sufficient moisture +from the soil to supply what was thus drawn from the +leaves, the foliage became languid and flaccid in consequence. +The linen, containing the same quantity of +water, was then spread upon a short turf in the sun +and in the space of ten minutes it lost 368 grains, and +this was effected without any particular influencing +current of air; accordingly, the evaporation from an +acre of moist land covered with vegetation would exceed +one hundred and twenty-two cwt. of water in an +hour! As the quantity drawn from the vegetation on the +soil may be equal to the shelter its foliage affords to the +earth, no very accurate data can be drawn from this +experiment; for different soils will give out their moisture +more or less easily, and succulent vegetables be +<span class='pageno' id='Page_276'>276</span>more influenced than those of a drier nature; but it +served at the time to indicate the portion of moisture +that was escaping from a given horizontal surface. +From the invisible and insensible nature of evaporation, +its influences are not always considered; but such an +action on the surfaces of things as that related above, +must put into operation all the inherent powers of matter +susceptible of impulse, and probably would produce +effects which we might suppose to be accomplished by +the agency of other means.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Nov. 10.—Many effusions of the mind have been +produced by the approach or existence of the seasons +of our year, which seem naturally to actuate our bodily +or mental feelings through the agency of the eye, or +temperature of the air. The peculiar silence that prevails +in autumn, like the repose of wearied nature, +seems to mark the decline and termination of being in +many things that animated our summer months; the +singing of the bird is rare, feeble, and melancholy; the +hum of the insect is not heard; the breeze passes by +us like a sigh from nature: we hear it, and it is gone for +ever. But it is the vegetable tribes, which at this season +most particularly influence our feeling, and excite +our attention. We see the fruits of the earth stored up +for our use in that dull season “in which there will be +neither earing nor harvest,” the termination and reward +of the labors of man. But this day, November 10, +presented such a scene of life and mortality, that it +could not be passed by without viewing it as an admonition, +a display of what has been, and is. There had +occurred during the night a severe white frost; and, +standing by a green-house filled with verdure, fragrance, +and blossom, I was surrounded in every direction by the +parents of all this gaiety, in blackness, dissolution, and +decay. But the very day before, they had attracted the +most merited admiration and delight by the splendor of +their bloom and the vigor of their growth; but now +just touched by the icy finger of the night, they had +become a mass of unsightly ruins and confusion. Once +the gay belles of the parterre, they fluttered their hour, +a generation of existent loveliness; their youthful successors, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_277'>277</span>unpermitted to mingle with them, peeped from +their retreats above, seeming almost to repine at their +confinement; they have bloomed their day, another race +succeeds, and their hour will be accomplished too. This +was so perfectly in unison with the shifting scenes of +life, the many changes of the hour, that it seemed inseparably +connected with a train of reflection, with the +precepts which all nature points out—her still small +whisperings for the ears of those that can hear them.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The extraordinary tendency that Nature has to produce, +and the vigilant perseverance she maintains to +occupy all substances as a soil for her productions, +when they arrive at a state fitting for her purposes, is a +well-known fact, and is perfectly in consistency with +the uniform habit she preserves, of letting “no fragment +be lost.” All things tend upwards, from some original, +through an infinity of gradations, though the beginning +and termination may not always be perceived, nor the +links of this vast chain be found. The most obscure +plants, agarics or mucor, as far as we know, perfect their +seed, and give birth to other generations; but there is a +fine green substance, observable upon the sprays of +trees, stems of various shrubs in every hedge, upon old +rails and exposed wood-work, leaving a powdery mark +upon one’s coat that has rubbed against such places, +which I have always considered as the very lowest rudiment +of vegetation. This matter, submitted to examination in +the microscope, presents no foliage or +plant-like form, but appears a kind of pollen, a capsule, +or a perfected seed, suspended on a fine fibre; but from +the extreme smallness of it I speak with hesitation, not +being able to define it satisfactorily with the most powerful +lens. If it be, as I have conjectured, a perfected +seed, it probably is the origin of many of those minute +mosses, that become rooted, we know not by what +means, upon banks, stones, barks, &c., in such profusion; +but here all investigation ceases: by what agency +this fine seed has been so profusely scattered, or from +what source it sprang, is hidden from us, and we can +no more satisfactorily conjecture, than we can account +for those myriads of blighting insects, which so suddenly +<span class='pageno' id='Page_278'>278</span>infest our grain, our fruits, and our plants. +There is an inquisition, where all human knowledge +terminates; the bounds of nature have never been +defined.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Without considering the various sources of enjoyment +and pleasure bestowed upon an intelligent creature, +what a scene of glorious display might be opened +to man through the agency of the eye alone! Motives +we must abandon, as probably they are beyond our comprehensions; +but were the powers of vision so enlarged +or cleared as to bring to observation the now unknown +fabrication of animate and inanimate things, what astonishment +would be elicited! The seeds, the pollen of +plants, the capillary vessels and channels of their several +parts, with their concurrent actions, the clothing of +various creatures, and all that host of unperceived wisdom +around us! Yet probably the mind, constituted as +it now is, would be disturbed by the constant excitement +such wonders would create; but at present, +though sparingly searched out by the patient investigator, +and but obscurely seen, they solace and delight; +“cheer, but not inebriate.”</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c003'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line in4'>“Oh good beyond compare!</div> + <div class='line'>If thus thy meaner works are fair,</div> + <div class='line'>If thus thy bounties gild the span</div> + <div class='line'>Of ruin’d earth and sinful man,</div> + <div class='line'>How glorious must that mansion be</div> + <div class='line'>Where thy redeem’d shall live with thee!”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<hr class='c022'> + +<p class='c011'>And now I think I have pretty well run over my +diary, the humble record of the birds, the reptiles, the +plants, and inanimate things around me. They who +have had the patience to read these my notes, will +probably be surprised that I could take the trouble to +register such accounts of such things; and I might +think so too, did I not know how much occupation and +healthful recreation the seeking out these trifles have +afforded me, rendering, besides, all my rural rambles +full of enjoyment and interest: companions and intimates +<span class='pageno' id='Page_279'>279</span>were found in every hedge, on every bank, whose +connexions I knew something of, and whose individual +habits had become familiar by association; and thus +this narrative of my contemporaries was formed. Few +of us, perhaps, in reviewing our by-gone days, could +the hours return again, but would wish many of them +differently disposed of, and more profitably employed: +but I gratefully say, that portion of my own passed in +the contemplation of the works of nature is the part +which I most approve—which has been most conducive +to my happiness; and, perhaps, from the sensations excited +by the wisdom and benevolence perceived, not +wholly unprofitable to a final state, and which might be +passed again, could I but obtain a clearer comprehension +of the ways of Infinite Wisdom. If in my profound +ignorance I received such gratification and pleasure; +what would have been my enjoyment and satisfaction, +“if the secrets of the Most High had been +with me, and when by His light I had walked through +darkness?”</p> + +<div class='chapter'> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_281'>281</span> + <h2 class='c006'>APPENDIX.</h2> +</div> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> +<div class='nf-center c002'> + <div>BY THE AMERICAN EDITOR.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<h3 class='c025'><span class='sc'>Note A.</span><br> <span class='c026'><span class='sc'>The “Coneygar” and “Lodge Farm,”</span> p. <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>.</span></h3> + +<p class='c024'>It is one of the pleasing characteristics of an old and +highly civilized country, that appropriate local names for +the smaller hamlets, farms, and single rural dwellings, are +in general and familiar use. Every thing which gives to +the household home, whether of rich or poor, a pleasant +distinctive character, an additional hold on the memory +and the affections of its inmates, must always prove a +merit; and many, assuredly, have been the instances in +which the familiar name of the family roof has continued +through life a hallowed sound to the wanderers of the +household band it once sheltered. In England, this custom—so +natural, so kindly, when undisturbed by pretension—is +very general, and it is almost needless to say +that wherever these names go back for half a century or +more, they are always appropriate, and often peculiar, or +it may be, interesting from historical or other associations. +In very many instances, not only do the farm-house and +the cottage bear suitable names, but even the different +fields about them are all marked in the same way; this +meadow, that grain-field, yonder copse, the knoll beyond, +shall each be called by some simple term, familiar to the +household of the farmer of the present day, as it was +perhaps to his forefathers of past generations.</p> + +<div> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_282'>282</span> + <h3 class='c023'><span class='sc'>Note B.</span><br> <span class='c026'><span class='sc'>The Potato</span>, p. <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>.</span></h3> +</div> + +<p class='c024'>It has been clearly ascertained that the potato is indigenous +to South America. Mr. Darwin, in his “Journal +of Researches,” speaking of the Chonos Archipelago, on +the coast of Chili, writes as follows:</p> + +<p class='c011'>“The <i>wild potato</i> grows on these islands in great abundance, +in the sandy, shelly soil, near the sea beach. The +tallest plant was four feet in height. The tubers were +generally small, but I found one, of an oval shape, two +inches in diameter; they resembled, in every respect, and +had the same smell as English potatoes; but when boiled +they shrunk much, and were watery and insipid, without +any bitter taste. They were undoubtedly indigenous here: +they grow as far south, according to Mr. Low, as lat. 50°, +and are called <i>Aquinas</i> by the wild Indians of that part; +the Chilotan Indians have a different name for them. +Professor Henslow, who has examined the dried specimens +which I brought home, says they are the same with +those described by Mr. Sabine,<a id='r77'></a><a href='#f77' class='c014'><sup>[77]</sup></a> from Valparaiso, but that +they form a variety, which by some botanists has been +considered specifically distinct. It is remarkable that the +same plant should be found on the sterile mountains of +central Chili, where a drop of rain does not fall for more +than six months, and within the damp forests of these +southern islands.” Darwin’s “Journal of Researches,” +Vol. II. p. 23, American edition.</p> + +<div> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_283'>283</span> + <h3 class='c023'><span class='sc'>Note C.</span><br> <span class='c026'><span class='sc'>The Wych elm</span>, (<i>Ulmus Montana</i>,) p. <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>.</span></h3> +</div> + +<p class='c024'>The following account of the wych elm is given by Mr. +Downing in his “<cite>Landscape Gardening</cite>:”</p> + +<p class='c011'>“The Scotch, or wych elm, (<i>ulmus montana</i>.) This is a +tree of lower stature than the common European elm, its +average height being about forty feet. The leaves are +broad, rough, pointed, and the branches extend more +horizontally, drooping at the extremities. The bark on +the branches is comparatively smooth. It is a grand tree, +‘the head is so finely massed, and yet so well broken, as to +render it one of the noblest of park trees; and where it +grows wild amid the rocky scenery of its native Scotland, +there is no tree which assumes so great, or so pleasing a +variety of character.’ In general appearance the Scotch +elm considerably resembles our white elm. Its most +ornamental varieties are the spiry-topped elm, (<i>U. m. +fastigiata</i>,) with singularly twisted leaves, and a very upright +growth; the weeping Scotch elm, (<i>u. m. pendula</i>,) a +very remarkable variety, the branches of which droop in +a fan-like manner; and the smooth-leaved Scotch elm, (<i>u. +m. glabra</i>.)”</p> + +<h3 class='c023'><span class='sc'>Note D.</span><br> <span class='c026'><span class='sc'>The Carpenter Bee</span>, (<i>Megachile Centuncularis</i>,) p. <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>.</span></h3> + +<p class='c024'>The term <i>carpenter bee</i> is now usually confined, in England, +to those insects of the bee tribe which chisel out or +rasp their nests in posts, or palings, &c. Their cells +“consist of a tunnel excavated in the wood, and divided +by thin partitions of clay into five or six compartments, +each with its supply of pollen for the single inhabitant +who is to emerge from the egg deposited therein.”</p> + +<p class='c011'><span class='pageno' id='Page_284'>284</span>The bee referred to by Mr. Knapp, page <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, although +inhabiting, at times, a wooden cell also, like the true +“carpenter,” is more generally classed with the “upholsterer +bees,” or those which line their nests with cuttings +from leaves, and flowers. This leaf-cutter bee is thus +alluded to in “Acheta Domestica:”</p> + +<p class='c011'>“Having excavated, or found her hole, (a cavity in +ground, or wood, or wall, from six to ten inches deep,) she +proceeds to construct within it, of the pieces of the leaf +she cuts off, several cells, of the shape and about the size +of a thimble, which she inserts successively, the bottom +of one into the mouth of that below it. It takes from +nine to twelve pieces of leaf to complete each cell, and +as each is finished she stores it with a rose-colored conserve +made chiefly of pollen and honey, collected from the +flowers of the thistle. When to this magazine of sweets +is superadded the egg from whence its future consumer is +to spring, the provident provider of the store covers in +the whole with three more pieces of leaf, cut in a circle, +<i>as truly accurate as compasses could describe</i>. Room being +left above the cover for the insertion of a succeeding cell, +our “upholsterer” thus proceeds till her nursery tunnel +is completely filled up.”</p> + +<p class='c011'>* * * “The leaves employed by the leaf-cutter, are +materials of somewhat stubborn texture, those sometimes +of the mountain ash, and birch, as well as the rose, herein +enhancing the skill of their employer. It would seem, +however, that pliability and thinness are qualities somewhat +regarded, and most wonderfully discerned by the +little artist in question; for we have noticed in more than +one summer, the smooth, delicate, tender leaves of a dark +variety of China rose, almost scolloped by the circles and +ovals of her excision, while the foliage of the “cabbage” +close by, has been left untouched, as if too coarse and +common for her purpose.”—<i>Acheta Domestica.</i></p> + +<p class='c011'><span class='pageno' id='Page_285'>285</span>Reaumur relates that a gardener at Rouen, once chancing +to dig up the nest of a leaf-cutter bee, was so utterly +amazed with the singular skill of the contrivance that he +was terrified, and hastened with it to the priest of the +parish, believing it to be nothing less than the work of +witchcraft. Monsieur le Curé, it appears, had something +of the same suspicions; he advised the man to carry the +nest to Paris; the gardener, however, took it first to a distinguished +Naturalist living at Rouen, who relieved the +poor fellow’s mind by opening one of the cases and +showing him the grub within.</p> + +<p class='c011'>We learn that there are several leaf-cutting or upholsterer +bees, in the United States, although it is not +probable that either is precisely similar to that alluded to +by Mr. Knapp, and the author of Acheta Domestica.</p> + +<h3 class='c023'><span class='sc'>Note E.</span><br> <span class='c026'><span class='sc'>The Rose-Beetle</span>, (<i>Cetonia Aurata</i>,) p. <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>.</span></h3> + +<p class='c024'>The Rose-Chafer, or Rose-Beetle, the <i>Cetonia aurata</i> of +entomologists, is a beautiful insect, very common in England +but unknown in our own country. “On the back of +the corslet burnished green and gold are the prevailing +hues, on breast-plate, cuisse, and gauntlet the lustre of the +precious metal is predominant, mingled with changeable +reflections of purplish crimson,” says the writer of Acheta +Domestica. “Like the rest of its tribe, this pretty beetle undergoes +the usual triple metamorphosis of insect life. From +an egg laid within the earth, he emerges a grub or larva, +to feed on roots, most usually those of the rose. * * +Thus, hermit-like, and upon this hermit’s fare, he lives +in dark seclusion for four years, and when these are over, +constructs for himself, about the month of March, a still +more straitened cell—an earth-formed case, resembling a +<span class='pageno' id='Page_286'>286</span>pigeon’s egg. He proceeds, under its cover, to the second +stage of <i>pupa</i>—from thence to the third and last estate; +and after remaining another fortnight under ground, for +his enameled mail to acquire hardness, comes forth in +all his splendor to meet the roses. The antennæ are of +curious and very elegant formation. They each terminate +in a knob composed of several laminæ or plates, +opening or shutting like the leaves of a book, and which +also like a book, can be put away at the pleasure of their +insect owner, on a shelf or deep cavity on either side its +head. They are always thus put carefully away when the +chafer is inactive, or asleep. It has been noticed as a +singular fact that the rose-beetle has been found not unfrequently, +while in its two first stages, the tenant of an +ant-hill, and that without being attacked by its carnivorous +inhabitants. It is hence called, in some countries, +“king of the ants;” and it is said also that German cattle +dealers invest it with supernatural powers, and feed it +carefully in beds as a means of insuring prosperity to +their herds and fortunes.”—<i>Acheta Domestica, second series, +p. 72, English edition.</i></p> + +<p class='c011'>The true rose-chafer has not been found among our +American beetles.</p> + +<h3 class='c023'><span class='sc'>Note F.</span><br> <span class='c026'><span class='sc'>Dyer’s Broom</span>, (<i>Genista Tinctoria</i>) p. <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>.</span></h3> + +<p class='c024'>There are many species of Broom in the old world. +The common Broom of England has large, yellow, butterfly-shaped +blossoms, and growing, as it does, in large +patches on waste lands, produces a vary brilliant effect +when in bloom. But it is also very useful in its way. The +twigs were probably the first besoms of the housewives +of old, in days when witches were believed to ride on +<span class='pageno' id='Page_287'>287</span>broom-sticks to their gatherings; certain it is, at least, +that our brooms of the present hour derive their name +from the early use of the twigs of the plant for similar +purposes.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Cordage, matting, and even coarse cloth have been +made of the fibres of the Broom. Houses are sometimes +thatched with the twigs, which have been also used for +tanning instead of oak bark.</p> + +<p class='c011'>It was a sprig of the Broom or Genet, as it is called in +French, worn in the helmet of a count of Anjou, of olden +time, which became at length a family badge, and gave +the name of Plantagenet to the race of English kings, +who for three centuries reigned over our forefathers.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Dyer’s Broom, woad-waxen, <i>genista tinctoria</i>, has become +naturalized here and there in some parts of New +York and New England.</p> + +<h3 class='c023'><span class='sc'>Note G.</span><br> <span class='c026'><span class='sc'>The Destruction of Insects by Plants</span>, p. <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>.</span></h3> + +<p class='c024'>That singular American plant the sarracenia, pitcher-plant, +hunters-cup, or side-saddle flower, as it is variously +called, is a striking instance of the peculiarity referred to +in the text, by Mr. Knapp. It is well known to all who +are familiar with our native plants, that the hollow leaves +of the sarracenia are generally found to contain more or +less water, with dead insects of various tribes which have +been drowned in the liquid. One might have supposed +that this was purely accidental, but it is not impossible +that the plant may require for its sustenance a certain +amount of animal nourishment. The experiment of an +English gardener would lead one to believe that such is +the case; taking a hint from the drowned flies usually +found in the hollow leaves of the pitcher-plant he tried a +<span class='pageno' id='Page_288'>288</span>singular experiment; he fed the vegetable on beef-steak, +small pieces of the beef being laid within the hollow +leaves. The superior beauty and size of the particular +plant treated in this way, subsequently proved that the +surmise was correct, and that the pitcher-plant is to a +certain degree, <i>carnivorous</i>. Such may very possibly be +the case with other flowers which are known to entrap insects +of different kinds; they may need these as nourishment. +Generally speaking, it is the blossom and not, as +in the instance of the Sarracenia, the leaf which allures +the insect and thus destroys it; in this sense the hunter’s-cup +is more ogre-like than most of its companions possessing +the same dangerous power, since it is not only +during the season of flowering, but throughout the summer +that unwary flies and gnats are drowned in its leafy +reservoirs.</p> + +<h3 class='c023'><span class='sc'>Note H.</span><br> <span class='c026'><span class='sc'>The Ivy</span>, (<i>Hedera Helix</i>,) p. <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>.</span></h3> + +<p class='c024'>The Ivy is found throughout most of the countries of +Europe, and also in parts of Asia and Africa. It was one +of the sacred plants of the old Egyptians, and held the +same character among the Greeks also. In our own western +hemisphere the Ivy was unknown until introduced by +the colonists from Europe; nor does it seem likely ever +to become, like so many other contributions of the old +countries, naturalized here; our dryer summers or colder +winters, do not apparently agree with it. Possessing one +qualification rare among climbing plants, that of being an +evergreen, it may, on this account, be considered as the +finest of the purely ornamental vines of temperate regions. +It is believed to live to a very great age, as the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_289'>289</span>parent stems of vines still attached to buildings some centuries +old, are found nearly as large as the trunks of +good-sized forest trees.</p> + +<h3 class='c023'><span class='sc'>Note I.</span><br> <span class='c026'><span class='sc'>The Snowdrop</span>, page <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>.</span></h3> + +<p class='c024'>Mr. Knapp tells us in the text, that in England the +Snowdrop will linger longer than any other plant on the +site of a deserted garden, outlasting, in this way, as a +memorial of human tillage even the rose-bush, the plumb-tree, +or the daffodil. With us the pansy, heart’s-ease, or +garden-violet appears to have something of the same character; +we have found it opening its pretty, lowly blossoms +among the grass, the only vestige of a flower-garden, +ploughed up more than thirty years earlier.</p> + +<h3 class='c023'><span class='sc'>Note J.</span><br> <span class='c026'><span class='sc'>The Vervain</span>, page <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>.</span></h3> + +<p class='c024'>We have in the United States several native Vervains, +and one species of European origin; the nettle-leaved +Vervain, <i>Verbena urticifolia</i>, has become one of our road-side +weeds. We are told that verbena was a Latin name +given to any sacred herb, and by no means confined to +the single family of plants to which the term Vervain is +now applied.</p> + +<h3 class='c023'><span class='sc'>Note K.</span><br> <span class='c026'><span class='sc'>The Mistletoe</span>, page <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>.</span></h3> + +<p class='c024'>The Mistletoe has been sometimes asserted to be unknown +in America; but this is an error. The yellow Mistletoe, +<i>Viscum flaviscens</i>, is found on the trunks of old +<span class='pageno' id='Page_290'>290</span>forest trees, the elm, the oak, and the hickory, in the +middle, western, and southern states of the union. This +singular parasitic plant has yellowish leaves, with white +berries tinged with the same color. <i>See Gray’s Botany.</i></p> + +<h3 class='c023'><span class='sc'>Note L.</span><br> <span class='c026'><span class='sc'>Dyer’s Weed, Wold</span>, (<i>Luteola reseda</i>,) p. <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>.</span></h3> + +<p class='c024'>Dyer’s Weed, Weld, Wold, <i>Luteola reseda</i>, has become +partially naturalized, here and there, in western New +York. It is a plant about three feet high, from whose +leaf and stem a yellow coloring matter is obtained, which +is preferred to all other substances for giving a brilliant +greenish-lemon tint. It is also much used for dyeing silk +a golden yellow.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The reader is probably aware that while many minerals +and a certain number of animal substances are employed +in coloring, the largest portion of our dyes are borrowed +from the vegetable kingdom.</p> + +<h3 class='c023'><span class='sc'>Note M.</span><br> <span class='c026'><span class='sc'>Sulphur, or Brimstone Butterfly</span>, (<i>Gonepteryx Rhamni</i>,) p. <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>.</span></h3> + +<p class='c024'>“This is the Brimstone Butterfly, which, gaily painted,</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c003'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line in2'>“Soon</div> + <div class='line'>Explores the tepid noon,</div> + <div class='line'>And fondly trusts its tender dyes</div> + <div class='line'>To feeble suns and flattering skies.”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c012'>“It has been supposed by some that this early visitant, +(also a late one,) is, like the above, a winter survivor; but +from the trim of his yellow robes, usually so fresh and +glossy, it would seem more likely that, instead of being +laid up—not in lavender, but perhaps in ivy—they are +of the newest spring fashion. Be this as it may, he is the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_291'>291</span>very pink, or, as he has been more properly considered, +the very primrose of Papillons, sometimes to be seen like +a living shadow of the primrose’s self, fluttering beside it +in the sunny hedge-row, or the sheltered copse. We may +know him by the cut of his bright, sulphur-colored pinions—each, +instead of being rounded, ending in a smooth +tail-like angle.</p> + +<p class='c011'>“Of all the wings of the butterflies, these bear perhaps +the closest similitude to floral productions, and on each, +as if to perfect the resemblance of the delicate, flower-like +coloring, is a reddish spot, an exact copy of that often +produced by decay or accident on the surface of a yellow +petal. In the beautiful raised bearing of their reverse, +the pinions of the “Brimstone” are no less correspondent +with the same; but those of the female, which, instead of +yellow, are of a greenish white, resemble perhaps yet +more nearly, the leaf of a poplar on its under side. The +dye of the antennæ—that purplish pink so frequent upon +tender leaf and flower-stems—also the clothing of the +body, a soft satin down like that by which stalks and seed +pods are so often covered, are all alike accordant with the +floral character of this most elegant flutterer of the +spring. This pretty butterfly comes of a pretty caterpillar, +with a smooth green coat, dotted or shagreened with +black, and marked by a whitish line along the back and +sides. It is said to feed usually on the leaves of the +hawthorn and alder.”—<i>Acheta Domestica.</i></p> + +<h3 class='c023'><span class='sc'>Note N.</span><br> <span class='c026'><span class='sc'>Furze</span>, (<i>Ulex Europæus</i>,) p. <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>.</span></h3> + +<p class='c024'>The Furze, Gorse or Whin, is a low, shrubby plant, +common in barren soils throughout western Europe, and +belonging to the natural order <i>leguminosæ</i>. The yellow +<span class='pageno' id='Page_292'>292</span>flowers, covering broad tracts of untilled land, produce a +brilliant and striking effect when in bloom. It is said +that Linnæus, when he first saw them, fell on his knees +with expressions of delight at their beauty, lamenting +that the plant should be wanting in Sweden. It is occasionally +cultivated in poor soils for fodder, as horses are +fond of it, and the cattle are also fed with it in some +parts of England, after it has been bruised in a sort of +mill. In tracts of country where wood is scarce, it is frequently +used by the cottagers for fuel. The pods of the +Whin, or Furze, when ripe burst open with a loud crackling +sound, which is described as pleasing, of a warm summer’s +day. We Americans have no other acquaintance +with the Furze than what is derived from books and prints.</p> + +<h3 class='c023'><span class='sc'>Note O.</span><br> <span class='c026'><span class='sc'>The Maple</span>, (<i>Acer campestre</i>,) p. <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>.</span></h3> + +<p class='c024'>The common English Maple, <i>Acer campestre</i>, is wholly +different from our own various species. It is a tree found +throughout the greater part of Europe south of Scotland +and Sweden, and is observed as far east as the Caucasus. +In England, however, it is little more than a bush, or small +tree of no great beauty, and whose wood is chiefly used +for turning cups and bowls, such as hermits used in days +when ballads were written about them. Its leaves are +heart-shaped, with either two or five segments which are +not serrated; its flowers are erect, in branching corymbs.</p> + +<p class='c011'>In the southern Caucasus this maple is said to become +a fine tree, the wood being in request for its hardness; +and it is used for purposes less peaceful than the hermits +bowl, being worked up into gun-stocks.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The Sycamore-maple, <i>Acer pseudo-platanus</i>, is a very +different tree, of noble growth, indigenous to southern +<span class='pageno' id='Page_293'>293</span>Europe. This has been transplanted to England where it +is much cultivated, and has been called the Sycamore +from an erroneous notion that it is the same as the Sycamore +of the east. Neither of these Maples will compare, +for autumnal coloring, with those of our American woods. +The true English Maple alluded to in the text, is described +as “shifting its dress to ochery shades, then trying +a deeper tint, and lastly assuming an orange vest.” +This is pale indeed compared with the Rubens-like +coloring of our native trees of the same family.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The Maples are a very numerous and widely diffused +tribe of trees. No less than thirty-four species are enumerated +by botanists, belonging to different parts of the +earth.</p> + +<h3 class='c023'><span class='sc'>Note P.</span><br> <span class='c026'><span class='sc'>Agarics</span>, page <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>.</span></h3> + +<p class='c024'>Scientific writers have examined no less than a thousand +different species of Agarics, or those fungi belonging +to the class of mushrooms, and probably there are many +more than have yet been enumerated. Some few only +of these plants are edible; a large proportion are highly +poisonous to man, while the character of many more have +never yet been ascertained. It is particularly remarkable +that those which are found wholesome in one country +often become very dangerous in a different soil; in England, +for instance, only three kinds are eaten, the <i>Agaricus +campestris</i>, or common mushroom, the <i>A. pratensis</i>, or +fairy-ring mushroom, and the <i>A. Georgii</i>; but in southern +Europe many more are used as food, and among these +a number of the same species which in Great Britain +have proved very dangerous. In Kamschatka again, +the <i>Agaricus muscarius</i>, considered a deadly poison in +<span class='pageno' id='Page_294'>294</span>England, is found quite harmless, and is regularly used as +food.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The following directions have been given in avoiding +poisonous mushrooms; all those possessing either of the +characteristics mentioned being dangerous:</p> + +<p class='c011'>1. Such as have a cap very thin compared with the +gills.</p> + +<p class='c011'>2. Such as have the stalk growing from one side of the +cap.</p> + +<p class='c011'>3. Those in which the gills are of equal length.</p> + +<p class='c011'>4. Such as have a milky juice.</p> + +<p class='c011'>5. Those that readily produce a dark, watery liquid.</p> + +<p class='c011'>6. All those that have a thin, web-like substance wound +about the superior portion, or collar of the stalk.</p> + +<p class='c011'>As yet little has been printed regarding our American +Agarics, while those of Europe have been very closely +studied by many scientific men, who have published the +result of their investigations. The following is a list of +those mentioned by Mr. Knapp in the volume before the +reader: <i>agaricus fimiputris</i>; <i>a. æruginosus</i>; <i>a. odorus</i>; <i>a. +fragrans</i>; <i>a. varius</i>; <i>a. oreades</i>; <i>a. georgii</i> or <i>arvensis</i>; +<i>a. surrectus</i>; <i>a. caseus</i>, (or <i>infundibuliformis</i>;) <i>a. campestrus</i>; +<i>a. pratensis</i>; <i>a. muscarius</i>; <i>hydnum floriforme</i>, or <i>h. +compactum</i>; <i>helvella mitra</i>, (or <i>h. crispa</i>;) <i>lycoperdon cinereum</i>, +or <i>didynium cinereum</i>; <i>l. fornicatum</i>, or <i>geaster fornicatus</i>; +<i>l. stellatum</i>, or <i>g. hygrometicus</i>; <i>morchella esculenta</i>; +<i>phallus impudicus</i>; <i>clavaria hypoxylon</i>.</p> + +<p class='c011'>These Agarics are all found in the United States, with +the exception of two species, <i>a. varius</i>, and <i>a. surrectus</i>, +considered as yet unrecognized. <i>A. georgii</i>, is regarded +as a variety only of <i>a. arvensis</i>.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The esculent morell, <i>morchella esculenta</i>, noted by Mr. +Knapp as very rare in his own neighborhood, is widely +diffused throughout the United States. In some parts of +<span class='pageno' id='Page_295'>295</span>the state of New York it is prized as a delicacy for the +table, and in the old orchards of Westchester county, for +instance, is by no means uncommon.</p> + +<h3 class='c023'><span class='sc'>Note Q.</span><br> <span class='c026'><span class='sc'>The Marten</span>, (<i>Mustela Martes</i>,) p. <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>.</span></h3> + +<p class='c024'>The American Sable, or Pine Marten, <i>Mustela Martes</i>, is +believed by some Naturalists to differ decidedly from that +of Europe. It is a very active, nocturnal animal, twenty +or thirty inches in length, and found in old forests between +forty and sixty-eight degrees of north latitude. +Trees are exclusively the homes of these pretty little +creatures, which are so perseveringly hunted for their +beautiful furs. Their skins are sold for one or two dollars +apiece, according to their condition, color, &c. As +the Martens have litters of six or eight young at a time, +they would probably be almost as common in our woods +as squirrels, if it were not for the value man has attached +to their fur.</p> + +<h3 class='c023'><span class='sc'>Note R.</span><br> <span class='c026'><span class='sc'>The Hedgehog</span>, (<i>Erinaceus Europæus</i>,) p. <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>.</span></h3> + +<p class='c024'>This is a little animal very common indeed in England, +and found in all parts of Europe, excepting the extreme +northern countries, Norway, Lapland, &c. It is about +nine or ten inches in length; the entire back, and part +of the head are covered with sharp brown spines which +form its sure defence against many enemies, for when surprised, +or attacked, the little creature has the power of +rolling itself up into a spiny ball, head, legs, and tail being +completely concealed. In order to enable it to take +this shape, it has cutaneous muscles of a peculiar +<span class='pageno' id='Page_296'>296</span>mechanism, and the skin of the back is also capable of +being drawn up like a hood, or pouch, covering the head +and limbs. There is apparently no effort connected with +this change of shape, for the little creature will roll itself +up in the twinkling of an eye, and frequently, when desirous +of descending a wall or abrupt bank, it will run to +the edge, and without hesitation, turn itself into a ball +and throw itself off, trusting entirely to the strength and +elasticity of its spines, for protection in the fall.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The Hedgehog feeds chiefly upon insects, although it +also eats fruits and eggs, and will even attack frogs and +snakes. These little animals sleep away the winter, and +do not awake until the warm weather has fairly set in.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The ignorant are ever making sad mistakes between +their true friends and their enemies, and the poor little +hedgehog, which is rather serviceable to man than otherwise, +by devouring noxious insects, has long been cruelly +persecuted by the peasantry of Europe. It has been +accused of draining the udders of cows as they lie in the +meadows at night, and otherwise injuring them; “all urchin +blasts and ill-luck signs,” says the spirit in Cosmos, +the urchin being another name for the hedgehog, which, +in fact, if it creeps about the cattle, is only in pursuit of +the flies that annoy them.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The Porcupine is sometimes called the hedgehog, but +very erroneously, being a larger animal, of very different +habits, and belonging to a different order.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The nest of the hedgehog is said to be very skillfully +prepared, and the female is a particularly watchful mother. +A touching incident is related which proves the strength +of maternal instinct in these creatures; a nest of small +hedgehogs lay in a garden, whence every evening the +mother passed by a gate into an adjoining copse in search +of food for her young. On one occasion the gate was +<span class='pageno' id='Page_297'>297</span>accidentally closed at an earlier hour than usual, and the +poor creature so exhausted herself with fruitless anxiety, +and efforts to reach her little ones, that she died before +morning, and was found lying lifeless close to the gate.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The flesh of the hedgehog is still eaten in some parts +of Europe; it is roasted or baked in pies. In olden times +not only the spines of this animal were used medicinally, +but wise practitioners declared that “oil in which one of +its eyes has been fried, if kept in a brass vessel, will endow +the human eye with the faculty of seeing as well by +night, as in the day.”</p> + +<h3 class='c023'><span class='sc'>Note S.</span><br> <span class='c026'><span class='sc'>The Shrew</span>, page <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>.</span></h3> + +<p class='c024'>These little creatures, resembling mice in their general +appearance, are yet entirely distinct from them, as the +cat is well aware, if many human beings are not. Puss +has never been known to eat a shrew. In Europe these +singular little animals are very common in the fields, and +about old walls, heaps of stone, &c. They feed on insects, +worms, &c., while the true mice are not insectivorous, but +are classed with the rodent order.</p> + +<h3 class='c023'><span class='sc'>Note T.</span><br> <span class='c026'><span class='sc'>The Mole</span>, (<i>talpa Europea</i>) p. <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>.</span></h3> + +<p class='c024'>This animal, so very common in most countries of Europe, +is said to have no existence in America. It is at +least still a subject of dispute among naturalists whether +the true mole of Europe be found on this continent or +not.</p> + +<p class='c011'>This creature, with whose name, at least, we are all +familiar, has been supposed to be blind; but the notion +<span class='pageno' id='Page_298'>298</span>is erroneous. Eyes are not wanting in the mole, but they +are small, buried in the fur, and by a peculiar muscular +contrivance they can be pushed forward, or drawn within, +so as to be protected from particles of earth. The hearing +of the mole is particularly acute, although it has no +external shell to the ear. Its sense of smell is also particularly +good. It feeds chiefly upon earth-worms, but +also eats mice, rats, frogs, lizards, and its appetite is voracious. +The subterranean domains of these creatures are +extensive and various in their character, their runs, or +galleries, being generally about five or six inches below +the surface, though often reaching to thrice that depth. +They are nocturnal, like so many of the creatures which +people the earth; and they are as active in winter as in +summer.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The mole is not found in Ireland, or in the northern +parts of Scotland. In America, if the true mole be actually +wanting, we have other little creatures of the same +family, common throughout the country. These are the +shrew-moles. They differ widely, however, from the moles +of Europe, although possessing the same burrowing habits. +The common shrew-mole of America, <i>Scalops Aquaticus</i>, +is about six inches in length, with a tail one inch long.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Another of this family is a very singular little creature +and peculiar to North America. This is the Star-nose, +<i>Condylura Cristata</i>, sometimes called the Button-nose +mole by our farmers. It is common as far south as Virginia, +is nocturnal in its habits, and partial to the banks +of streams. It is rather larger than the common shrew-mole.</p> + +<div> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_299'>299</span> + <h3 class='c023'><span class='sc'>Note U.</span><br> <span class='c026'><span class='sc'>Birds of England</span>, page <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>.</span></h3> +</div> + +<p class='c024'>There are in Europe, some four hundred and sixty-two +birds, and in Great Britain three hundred and ten species. +In the state of New York alone, we have, according to +Dr. De Kay, three hundred and seven species. Mr. +Knapp mentions upward of sixty of the English species, +and of these only three are generally admitted, we believe, +to be common to both continents—the great butcher-bird, +<i>lanius excubiter</i>, the petrel, and the guillemot, the two +last being sea-birds. The tree-creepers, the goldcrests, the +ravens, and the magpies, however, are considered very +closely similar. We give the names of the birds mentioned +by Mr. Knapp. The rook; hedge-sparrow; willow wren; +cirl bunting; goldcrest; linnet, or great red-poll; +bull-finch; robin; chaffinch; tom-tit; large tom-tit; colemouse; +long-tailed tit; house-sparrow; wood-pigeon; jay; +goldfinch; whitethroat; blackcap; green-finch; gray flycatcher; +house-marten; raven; jackdaw; rock-pigeon; +magpie; butcher-bird; petrel; wryneck; swan; nightingale; +starling; red-start; solitary thrush; missel-thrush; +sparrow-hawk; kestrel; yellow-hammer; swallow; thrush +or throstle; wheatear; guillemot; kite; pettychaps; wren; +blackbird; cuckoo; lark; tree-creeper; yellow wagtail; +halcyon; wood-pigeon; black grous or heath cock; red +grous or moor fowl; bustard; fieldfare; crossbill; bunting; +gray wagtail; swift; goat-sucker; jacksnipe; common +snipe; peewit or lapwing: redwing; wood lark.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The limits allotted to us, not permitting many details +on this subject, we shall merely notice briefly some few +of these birds, selecting those which are most likely to +interest the reader:</p> + +<p class='c011'><i>The Rook, corvus frugilegus.</i>—“Every body knows the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_300'>300</span>rook; the dark, the noisy, and sometimes the nest-plundering, +or, in the early fields, the contribution-levying +rook; but still, notwithstanding, the cheerful, the orderly, +the industrious, the discreet, the beneficent rook.” Such +is Mr. Mudie’s character of this species of crow, unknown +in America. It measures nineteen inches in length; and +has a fine plumage of glossy black. Its partiality to +old groves and ruins, near country-houses, must be +well known to the reader; the “rookeries” of England, +however, are said to be decidedly diminishing in their +numbers. Many tales are also told of the kindness of +rooks to the orphan broods and widowed birds of their +flocks; but these have not been very clearly settled.</p> + +<p class='c011'><i>The Linnet, fr. linota.</i>—The name of this common +European bird is derived from its fondness for linseed. +It is a charming singer, its song consisting of “many +irregular notes, tastefully put together, in a clear, sonorous +tone.” Its general plumage is brown, varied with +gray and reddish black; but in the spring, the forehead +and breast of the male bird are of a brilliant red coloring, +whence one of its names as the greater red-poll. It is +said to resemble our purple finch, which is also called the +American linnet. Not found in the western hemisphere.</p> + +<p class='c011'><i>The Bull-finch, loxia pyrrhula.</i>—A short, thick bird, +whose general color is a dark, ashy gray, with carminecolored +breast, and white rump. It is a fine singer, +readily catching airs and melodies by ear. Like the +linnet, it is a very favorite cage-bird in Europe. In its +native woods it is a shy creature, partial to shady groves, +and seen less frequently than many of its companions, +though one of the common birds of Europe. In America, +this species of bull-finch is unknown.</p> + +<p class='c011'><i>The House-sparrow, pyrgita domestica.</i>—The sparrows +of Europe differ essentially from those of America. They +<span class='pageno' id='Page_301'>301</span>have no song, and are seldom seen in flocks. The plumage +of the house-sparrow is gray; it frequently builds in the +thatched roof of the English cottage, under eaves also, +and in chinks in walls. These birds are useful in devouring +house-flies; they also feed on some species of butterflies, +more especially those whose caterpillars injure the +cabbages so frequently, and one writer considers it doubtful +if cabbages could be raised at all in England if it were +not for the house-sparrow. In Persia, these birds, it is +said, are trained to chase butterflies, as a royal sport, just +as the hawk was taught to pursue the heron in olden +times. The bird is unknown in America.</p> + +<p class='c011'><i>The Jay, garrulus glandarius.</i>—Wholly different from +our American jays, and much less beautiful in plumage, +the jays of Europe do not flock together. They are great +chatterers, however, and great mimics also. The color of +the European bird is a dark, purplish brown, with blue on +the forehead and wings.</p> + +<p class='c011'><i>The Wood-dove, columba palumbus.</i>—This is the largest +and the handsomest of the British pigeons. It is better +known perhaps to the reader, as the ring-dove, and cushat; +it is a general favorite in England.</p> + +<p class='c011'><i>The Kestrel, falco tinunculus.</i>—One of the smaller falcons +of Europe; of reddish brown and cream-colored +plumage, marked with dusky spots. Its eye is peculiarly +brilliant. It is popularly called “stannel” and “windhover,” +the first word meaning “stand-gale,” the last, +“hoverer in the wind,” from its remarkable power of +poising itself over a particular spot in spite of high winds; +at such moments the play of its wings is exceedingly +rapid.</p> + +<p class='c011'><i>The House-marten, hirundo urbica.</i>—With one exception, +the bank swallow, <i>hirundo riparia</i>, the swallows of Europe +and America are wholly different. The house-marten of +<span class='pageno' id='Page_302'>302</span>England builds very frequently about windows; it is a +small bird, black and white in its plumage. Its nest is +often covered with a dome, the entrance being at the side, +and it is a sort of house, large enough for both birds.</p> + +<p class='c011'><i>The Rock-pigeon, columba livia.</i>—This is the stock +whence come our domestic pigeons, in their wild state +they build in clefts or holes in cliffs, and perch on the +ledges and projections. They are never known to perch +on trees. Indeed, it is said that the rustling of the wind +among the foliage and branches, is annoying and unpleasant +to these doves. They are gregarious, and especially +partial to cliffs on the sea-shore. They are not found in +a wild state in America.</p> + +<p class='c011'><i>The Magpie, corvus pica.</i>—Is a common bird in England, +about the size of a pigeon, with a plumage of variegated +black and white. Its reputation for mimicry and +for thievish habits, must be well known to the reader, +although on this continent, especially east of the Mississippi, +it is rare. In England it is considered a bird of +ill-omen when seen alone, but the reverse when collecting +in a merry company and an even number. The +magpies of both continents are very similar.</p> + +<p class='c011'><i>The Wryneck, yunx torquilla.</i>—This is a handsome +migratory bird something like a woodpecker in form, +and of a yellowish brown and black plumage, mottled +with arrow-shaped black spots. It derives its name from +a strange trick of lengthening its neck, and twisting its +head. Unknown in America.</p> + +<p class='c011'><i>The Jackdaw.</i>—Is a bird of the crow tribe; lively, +noisy, and familiar. It is about fourteen inches long, and +of a black and gray plumage.</p> + +<p class='c011'><i>The Thrush, Throstle, or Mavis, turdus musicus.</i>—A +very common bird in England, and a very sweet singer. +The plumage is brown above, cream-color below, marked +<span class='pageno' id='Page_303'>303</span>with triangular, dusky spots. Its length is about nine +inches. They feed especially on the land-snails, so common +in the old world. Unknown in America.</p> + +<p class='c011'><i>The Missel-thrush, turdus viscivorus.</i>—This is the largest +of the English thrushes, nearly a foot in length. Its plumage +is gray and white. It derives its name from its +marked partiality to the leaves of the <i>misletoe</i>, with the +slimy juice of which, it soils, or <i>missels</i>, its feet. The +plant again takes its name apparently from the <i>missled toes</i> +of this thrush.</p> + +<p class='c011'><i>The Blackbird, turdus merula.</i>—This is another of the +English thrushes, and a great singer. It is entirely black +in its plumage, shy, and solitary in its habits, differing +entirely, as the reader will observe, from our American +blackbirds, which are allied to the crows.</p> + +<p class='c011'><i>The Cuckoo, cuculus cauvus.</i>—This bird, extremely common +in England, has a grayish plumage varied with black +and white. Mr. Mudie seems to doubt the assertion usually +made that they <i>never</i> build nests of their own. In the +northern states we have two cuckoos, very different in +their appearance and habits from those of Europe, nor +are they very common birds in this country.</p> + +<p class='c011'><i>The Wren, troglodytes urbica.</i>—The winter wren of +America is said to resemble the common wren of Europe, +more than any other of our species. In England, this +little bird is a great favorite, and is familiarly called Kitty +Wren.</p> + +<p class='c011'><i>The Halcyon, alcedo ispida.</i>—This is the kingfisher of +Europe. It is a bird of much more brilliant plumage +than our American kingfisher, almost as gaudy indeed as +a parrot in its tints of red, blue, and green. The term +“halcyon days,” is attributed to the transparent, calm +weather, in which the kingfisher delights to skim over the +glassy water, looking out for his prey.</p> + +<p class='c011'><span class='pageno' id='Page_304'>304</span><i>The Wagtails, motacilla.</i>—These birds derive their +name from the incessant, rapid motion of their tails; they +are resident birds in England, frequenting the banks of +streams and pools. There are several species; the pied, +the gray, and the yellow wagtails. They run with great +rapidity, and take wing with peculiar ease. Their conformation +renders the movement of the tail necessary as +a counterpoise, which is the cause of its constant play.</p> + +<p class='c011'><i>The Swift, cypselus apus.</i>—This is the largest of the +swallow tribe in Europe, and probably the strongest +winged of all British birds. It lives in the air, building +on the highest towers, and spires of churches and other +edifices, or upon rocky pinnacles. The swifts are distinguished +from the swallows by the shortness of their legs, +unfitted for walking, and by the formation of their toes. +Our American chimney swallow approaches very nearly +to the swift of England in many particulars, though +different in others.</p> + +<p class='c011'><i>The Goat-sucker, caprimulgus Europeus.</i>—This is the +fern owl, nightjar, or night-hawk, a bird, as an English +writer has observed, particularly ill-named, its last title +only being consistent with its character. When hawking +for bats it flies within a few feet of the ground, but when +in pursuit of moths it glides round and round the trunk +of some tree, the haunt of its prey, with great perseverance. +The term goat-sucker is derived from a strange +notion very prevalent in olden times that this bird was in +the habit of taking the milk of the goat for its own use. +Our American night-hawk differs in some particulars from +that of Europe.</p> + +<p class='c011'><i>The Bustard, otis tarda.</i>—This is a large bird of the +<i>cursores</i> or running tribe, four feet in length, and nine in +breadth, weighing as much as thirty pounds in some instances. +The plumage is reddish orange, spotted and +<span class='pageno' id='Page_305'>305</span>barred with black, with the more conspicuous wing and +tail feathers, brown and black. Under the neck there is a +sort of skin pouch, capable of containing half a gallon. +The flesh is much prized. The bustard is now a very rare +bird in England, but in France they are less uncommon. +They will probably soon become extinct in Great Britain, +like the wood-grous, which, within the last eighty years, +has disappeared from that country.</p> + +<p class='c011'><i>The Grous, tetrao.</i>—There were, until recently, three +well known species of grous in Great Britain. 1st. The +Black Grous or heath cock, a bird of wholly black plumage, +found in the heathy districts of the three kingdoms. 2d. +The Red Grous, or moor fowl, very abundant in the Scotch +moors, and found in no other part of Europe, being the +only bird peculiar to Britain. 3d. The Wood-Grous, formerly +by no means uncommon, but which has recently +become quite extinct in Great Britain, although it is still +found on the continent of Europe.</p> + +<p class='c011'><i>The Titmouse, parus.</i>—The titmice are dispersed more +or less over the whole world, excepting some portions of +the southern hemisphere, as South America, and New +Holland. In England, they have seven or eight different +species: the great tit, <i>p. major</i>; colemouse, <i>p. ater</i>; marshtit, +<i>p. palustris</i>; long-tailed tit, <i>p. caudatus</i>; blue tit, <i>p. +cæruleus</i>; bearded tit, <i>p. biarmicus</i>; crested tit, <i>p. cristatus</i>. +In the United States, we have three species: the common +chicadee, <i>p. atricapillus</i>; the caroline titmouse, <i>p. carolinensis</i>; +and the crested titmouse, <i>p. bicolor</i>. This last is +found in Europe also, but in England it is very rare. All +three species belong to the birds of New York.</p> + +<p class='c011'><i>The Nightingale, corruca luscinia.</i>—The far-famed +nightingale is a bird of a dusky brown, and gray plumage, +about seven inches in length, being the largest of the +warblers found in England. It is in one sense a shy bird, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_306'>306</span>difficult to watch, heard more frequently than it is seen +in the shady groves. The song of the nightingale has +been described by one writer as “the most spirit-stirring +and gleesome in nature.” The clearness of their note is +said to vary much with the climate, or rather atmosphere, +they chance to haunt, and as a general rule those that +belong to more southern countries sing more sweetly than +their brethren to the northward. The nightingales of +Greece and Italy are thought to be much more exquisitely +musical than those of the northern countries of Europe. +In England, they only frequent particular counties, avoiding +the northern and western districts; and it has been +said that they have an especial partiality to those parts of +the island where cowslips are most abundant.</p> + +<p class='c011'><i>The Starling, sturnus vulgaris.</i>—This is a bird of the +crow tribe, unknown in America. It is eight or nine +inches in length, of a plumage whose general coloring is +black, marked throughout, however, with triangular starlike +spots of white, or cream-color, whence the name of +<i>starling</i>. They are social, harmless birds; active, and +chattering creatures, and excellent mimics.</p> + +<p class='c011'><i>The Fieldfare, turdus pilaris</i>, is another bird unknown +in America. It is one of the northern thrushes, visiting +England in flocks, during the cold season. It is a large, +meadow bird, with a grayish chestnut back, the breast and +sides of a rufous yellow. The fieldfares feed on seeds, +and on insects also, and are themselves considered a +dainty morsel by the human epicure, the ancient Romans +fattening them, it is said, on a paste made of figs and flour. +They have no song, but utter a singular cry when flying.</p> + +<p class='c011'><i>The Raven, corvus corax.</i>—The raven of Europe differs +in some respects from that of America. In Great Britain +it is not an uncommon bird. It is said if a man in England, +at any moment, throw himself on the ground, in the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_307'>307</span>fields, more especially if he lie motionless on his back in +the position of a lifeless body, a raven will be found to +draw near, and reconnoitre, though unseen a moment +before. This fact would seem to confirm the opinions +doubted by Mr. Knapp—that sight, and not smell, is the +sense by which these birds are guided in descending on +their prey, since the mere motionless feigning of death +is sufficient to attract their attention. It is well known +that Mr. Audubon held this opinion, confirming it by +experiments with the American turkey-buzzards, which +proved quite inattentive to carrion of the most offensive +kind when placed immediately before them, so long as it +was concealed from their sight by a cloth. Dr. James +Johnson and other writers on the subject also doubt the +sense of smell in birds of this habit, and other experiments +like that of Mr. Audubon have had the same result.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Owing to the greater care bestowed on the health of +cattle at the present day, and their less frequent deaths +in the field under the modern system, ravens are said to +be sensibly diminishing in England.</p> + +<h3 class='c023'><span class='sc'>Note V.</span><br> <span class='c026'><span class='sc'>The House Fly</span>, (<i>musca carnaria</i>,) p. <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>.</span></h3> + +<p class='c024'>The speed of these familiar insects when on the wing, +is very remarkable, being computed at a third of a mile +in a minute. The peculiarity of their walking, apparently +against the laws of gravitation, with such perfect ease, +has been the subject of much investigation and controversy. +Formerly it was believed that the fly walked by +means of organs called suckers, which produced a vacuum +at the extremity of each foot, by exhausting the air. +Some lizards are known to climb walls in this way. But +it is now more generally believed that the firm hold of +<span class='pageno' id='Page_308'>308</span>the house fly is more simple, provided by fine, hairy +appendages to the feet, by which they cling to the most +minute inequalities of our walls and windows.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Flies feed chiefly on liquids, and the juice of solid substances; +they are also enabled to dissolve certain solids, +by means of a saliva, which they eject for the purpose, on +sugar, &c. The familiar sound produced by flies, comes +from their wings; but as many winged insects move +silently, the air must act upon those of the fly in a +peculiar manner.</p> + +<h3 class='c023'><span class='sc'>Note W.</span><br> <span class='c026'><span class='sc'>The Robin</span>, page <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>.</span></h3> + +<p class='c024'>The two birds bearing, in England and America, the +same name of Robin redbreast, are in most respects very +different. The English robin, <i>motacilla rubecola</i>, is much +the smaller of the two, is stationary throughout the year, +loses his red jacket in autumn, is little noticed for its song +in spring, but sings more or less even in winter; and, very +possibly, while gathering the autumn leaves over the +“babes in the wood,” sang their dirge with the pleasing +note so often alluded to, by English writers, as one of the +charms of the season:</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c003'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line in4'>“But now with treble oft,</div> + <div class='line'>“The redbreast whistles from some garden croft,</div> + <div class='line'>“And gathering swallows twitter in the air.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c011'>Our American robin is a portly thrush, <i>turdus migratorius</i>, +wandering far and wide as soon as the cold weather +sets in; it is one of our most chatty, loquacious birds +in spring, his voice being heard morning and evening +throughout April and May, above the notes of most of +his feathered neighbors, but he becomes silent and taciturn +toward autumn. In one sense, he deserves the name +<span class='pageno' id='Page_309'>309</span>of redbreast in preference to the English bird, since his +colors never change; and, should some mute straggler +appear in the leafless groves of January or February, as +occasionally happens as far north as the Mohawk, his +jacket will be found still warmly dyed in red. In several +particulars, however, the two birds resemble each other; +both are partial to the neighborhood of man; both have +the reputation of being somewhat pugnacious in temper +as regards their fellows, and both are remarkable for +their fine, large eyes. At page <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>, the author alludes +to this peculiarity of the English robin, and the reader +will observe the size of the same feature in our American +bird.</p> + +<h3 class='c023'><span class='sc'>Note X.</span><br> <span class='c026'><span class='sc'>The Goldfinch</span>, (<i>fringilla carduelis</i>) p. <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>.</span></h3> + +<p class='c024'>The goldfinch of Europe, is in some respects very like +our own. “So much does the song of our goldfinch resemble +that of the European species,” says Mr. Audubon, +“that while in France and England, I have frequently +thought, and with pleasure thought, that they were the +notes of our own bird which I had heard.” The flight of +both, in deep, curved lines, alternately rising and falling, +their manner of gathering in flocks, their way of feeding, +are also similar.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The goldfinch of Europe has a very varied plumage; in +some parts of England, it is called the “Sheriff’s man,” +from its gay livery, and also the “Seven Colored Linnet,” +from the varied tints of scarlet, black, white, gray, brown, +and gold color blended in its markings. It is widely diffused +throughout Europe, where it is a favorite cage-bird. +The docility of these finches, and their quickness at learning +tricks, are remarkable; at an exhibition in London, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_310'>310</span>some half a dozen birds,—all of the finch tribe—appeared +standing on their heads, playing at sentinel, +mounting guard, imitating milkmaids going to market +with tiny pails on their shoulders, acting as cannoniers, +armed cap-a-pie, firelock on the shoulder, match in the +claw, actually discharging a small cannon!</p> + +<h3 class='c023'><span class='sc'>Note Y.</span><br> <span class='c026'><span class='sc'>The Sky-lark</span>, (<i>alanda arvensis</i>) p. <a href='#Page_184'>184</a>.</span></h3> + +<p class='c024'>“It is, in fact, more joyous in the sun, more inspirable +by the life which the solar influence diffuses through the +atmosphere, than almost any other creature: not a spring +air can sport, not a breeze of morn can play, not an exhalation +of freshness from opening bud or softening clod +can ascend, without note of it being taken and proclaimed +by this all-sufficient index to the progress of nature. The +lark rises not like most birds, which climb the air upon +one slope, by succession of leaps, as if a heavy body was +raised by a succession of efforts, or steps, with pauses +between; it towers upward like a vapor, borne lightly +in the atmosphere, and yielding to the motion of that as +vapors do. Its course is a spiral, gradually enlarging, * * * The accordance of the song with the mode of +ascent and descent is also worthy of note. It gives a +swelling song as it ascends, and a sinking one when it +comes down; and even if it take but one wheel in the +air, as that wheel always includes either an ascent or a +descent, it varies the pitch of the song.”</p> + +<p class='c011'>“Every one in the least conversant with the structure +of birds, must be aware that with them, the organs of +intonation and modulation are <i>inward</i>, deriving little +assistance from the tongue, and none, or next to none, +from the mandibles of the bill. The windpipe is the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_311'>311</span>musical organ, and it is often very curiously formed. +Birds require that organ less for breathing than any +other animals, because of the air-cells, and breathingtubes +with which all parts of their body (even their bones) +are furnished. But those diffused breathing organs must +act with less freedom when the bird is making the greatest +efforts in motion, that is, when ascending or descending, +and in proportion as these cease to act the trachea is +more required for the purpose of breathing. The sky-lark +thus converts the atmosphere into a musical instrument +of many stops, and so produces an exceedingly wild, +and varied song—a song which is perhaps not equal +either in power or compass, in the single stave, to that +of many of the warblers, but one which is more varied in +the whole succession.”</p> + +<p class='c011'>“Every body knows the sky-lark,” continues Mr. Mudie, +but the American reader may like to be reminded that +this celebrated bird is about seven inches long, with a +brown plumage, tinged with reddish, yellowish, and +dusky shading in places. These larks are abundant in +Europe. They are brought to market in great numbers. +In England, they are sold for the table at about a dollar +the dozen. It is said that at Leipsic in Germany, a duty +of twelve thousand crowns per annum was raised on the +larks eaten in that city, at the rate of about five cents +for every sixty larks, and if the English crown be meant +this would give the number of birds eaten in the town at +the incredible amount of nearly four millions.</p> + +<p class='c011'>They have a legend in Ireland, that the larks of the +wild valley of Glandalough never sing, “having been miraculously +silenced by St. Theresa, during the building of +the Seven Churches, because they broke the morning +sleep of the wearied masons, by their loud native +warblings.”</p> + +<div> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_312'>312</span> + <h3 class='c023'><span class='sc'>Note Z.</span><br> <span class='c026'><span class='sc'>The Winter Gnat</span>, (<i>tipula hiemalis</i>) p. <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>.</span></h3> +</div> + +<p class='c024'>Gnats are rarely indeed seen in our colder climate in +winter, but in England they are common, often dancing +gaily over the snow and ice of mid-winter. There are +said to be no less than thirty species of gnats found in +Great Britain, and they are all aquatic in their origin. +The female launches her eggs on the water, in the form +of a diminutive boat composed of two or three hundred +eggs, each of which taken separately is heavy enough to +sink, but so cleverly are they arranged in their skiff-like +form, that when thus glued together, they not only float +buoyantly, but it is next to impossible either to upset or +sink them permanently. The grub or larva issues from +the egg head downward, breathing through the tail. The +second or pupa stage of existence is also passed in the +water, whence it rises at length the winged insect with +which we are familiar. Our musquitoes are members of +the same <i>culex</i> family, and resemble very closely the winter +gnat of England. The English gnats however are +quite harmless, with the exception of an occasional bite +from the females of the tribe.</p> + +<h3 class='c023'><span class='sc'>Note AA.</span><br> <span class='c026'><span class='sc'>Butterflies and Moths</span>, page <a href='#Page_192'>192</a>.</span></h3> + +<p class='c024'>Mr. Knapp mentions in his journal the following butterflies +and moths: The sulphur or brimstone, <i>gonepteryx +rhamni</i>, (see Note M;) ghost moth, <i>hepialus humuli</i>; blue +argus, <i>papilio argus</i>; painted lady, <i>papilio cardui</i>; marble +butterfly, <i>p. galathea</i>; humming bird hawk-moth, <i>sphinx +stellatarum</i>; brown meadow butterfly, <i>p. janira</i>; the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_313'>313</span>admirable <i>vanessa atalanta</i>; peacock, <i>vanessa Io</i>; gamma +moth, <i>phalæna gamma</i>; goat moth, <i>ph. cossus</i>; blue argus +butterfly, <i>papilio argiolus</i>.</p> + +<p class='c011'>This beautiful and highly interesting family of insects, +with which we are all familiar by sight at least, has been +thus far less studied in America, than in other countries. +Very little has yet been printed among us regarding our +native butterflies, and even European works on these subjects +are rarely met with. It has long been the writer’s +wish to become better acquainted with these interesting +little creatures, and, doubtless, there are others who have +the same inclination; but few of us have the good luck +to meet with the necessary books and teachers. A few +facts relating to the butterflies alluded to by Mr. Knapp, +will be found below.</p> + +<p class='c011'><i>The Ghost Moth, hepialus humuli</i>, p. <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>.—There is a +division of moths in England, called swifts, or ghost moths, +having all the same habit of flight described by Mr. +Knapp, as the origin of their name of “Ghosts.” The +particular moth alluded to by the author, is very common +in England; their white, satiny wings are easily seen in +the twilight, and as fragments of these are frequently +found in the morning scattered about, it is supposed that +night-hawks and owls feed much on their bodies. The +female lays a number of small, black eggs, resembling +gunpowder. Mr. Gosse, in his “Canadian Naturalist,” +mentions a moth or Bombyx, found in Canada, the Dragon +Moth, <i>hepialus argenteomaculatus</i>, belonging to the same +family; “I was surprised and pleased to observe the +striking similarity, not only of shape and general appearance, +but also of manners, to the English species of that +family. They continue in one place, dancing from side +to side on the wing, just over the herbage, within a space +of a yard or two. A large female I caught, on being +<span class='pageno' id='Page_314'>314</span>pinned, began to eject her small, white eggs with great +rapidity, driving them to a considerable distance.”</p> + +<p class='c011'>The same moth is found in Massachusetts, and doubtless +in other parts of the United States; it is included in +Prof. Hitchcock’s “Catalogue of the Animals and Plants +of Massachusetts,” p. 72.</p> + +<p class='c011'><i>Painted Lady, cynthia cardui.</i>—This insect ranks with +the largest and most beautiful of European butterflies, +and is one of the few creatures of its race very widely +diffused over the world, being found alike, it is said, in the +western and eastern, the northern and the southern hemispheres. +In North America they are more common than +in England, where they are rather rare. They have been +found in China and Western Asia, as well as in Africa, +and travelers declare that they are to be met with in +Otaheite and Australia. These pretty creatures are indeed +great rovers; they will frequently, when on the coast, sail +out straight to sea, and are usually very bold in their +flight, which is higher than that of other species.</p> + +<p class='c011'>One of the most singular incidents on record, connected +with entomology, is related of this species of butterfly. A +migration of these insects occurred some years since in +Switzerland, on the Lake of Neufchatel during the month +of March; they flew with great rapidity from north to +south, moving in a column from ten to fifteen feet in +breadth, in compact order, and continued passing in this +manner for upward of two hours. Although many flowers +yielding honey were in bloom at the time, not a +butterfly alighted, but all continued their strange flight. +Other instances of the same kind have been noticed in +Europe and South America, but we do not remember to +have ever seen any allusion to migrations of this kind, +among our native butterflies.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The caterpillar of the Painted Lady feeds on the spear +<span class='pageno' id='Page_315'>315</span>thistle, whose thick leaves it nevertheless succeeds in +rolling up as a cover for its chrysalis.</p> + +<p class='c011'><i>The Gamma Moth, noctua gamma</i>, derives its name +from having on its primary wings, a figure stamped in +gold, precisely similar to that letter of the Greek alphabet. +In England it is very common. In some countries of Europe +this moth in its caterpillar stage of existence, has +been a scourge to the vegetation. In 1735 these insects +increased so rapidly in France, that they excited serious +fears of famine by their ravages in the fields and gardens. +The roads were covered with them traveling from one +field to another. In the kitchen gardens, they left nothing +but the stalks of the plants. Mr. Reaumur calculated +that a single pair of these moths might produce in one +season eighty thousand caterpillars!</p> + +<p class='c011'>Mr. Gosse found the gamma moth in Canada: “I have +obtained several new species of <i>noctua</i>, among which is +the <i>dusia gamma</i> so common in England.”</p> + +<p class='c011'><i>The Blue Argus, polyommatus argiolus.</i>—This pretty +little blue butterfly is found also in America; it is mentioned +by Mr. Gosse, who saw it in Canada, and is included +among the insects of Massachusetts also, and doubtless it +belongs to other parts of the United States. Its caterpillar +feeds on the buckthorn and on the holly.</p> + +<p class='c011'><i>The Goat Moth, cossus ligniperda.</i>—“The great goat +moth, while yet a caterpillar, occupies in solitary darkness +the trunk of willow, oak, or poplar. For three successive +summers it is employed in eating into the solid wooden +barrier which divides it from the sunny world—for as +many winters it sleeps within one of the dark tunnels thus +excavated by its powerful jaws; but after this extended +period of repletion and repose, it scarcely lives over the +same complement of weeks to exercise its broad, dusky +pinions in the summer moonlight.”</p> + +<p class='c011'><span class='pageno' id='Page_316'>316</span>“A large, smooth, unsightly crawler, of a livid red and +salmon color, black-headed, and black-clawed, this caterpillar +swallows the chippings and dust made in his +tunneling progress through the wood. Throughout the +summer he thus eats his way, but in autumn prepares +himself a broader chamber, which he hangs with a fabric +as thick as broadcloth, and equally warm, composed of +the raspings of wood scooped out of his cell, and united +with the strong silk, which every species of caterpillar +can spin.” For three or four years he thus continues +in the tree chosen by the parent moth for his abode, and +then “with bulky body, and dusky wings, from three to +four inches in expansion, he is wont, about July, to emerge +from his wooden cell.”—<i>Acheta Domestica.</i></p> + +<p class='c011'>The muscular strength, very remarkable in the insect +tribes, is surprisingly great in the goat moth. The number +of muscles in the human body is reckoned at 529; but +in this caterpillar, not so large as a man’s finger, there are +4061! Mr. Rennie relates that he once put a goat moth +caterpillar under a glass bell weighing nearly half a +pound, “yet it raised it up with the utmost ease.” A book +weighing four pounds was then placed over the bell, and +still the creature made good his escape by raising both +book and glass! The name of this insect is derived from +its peculiar odor. It is not found in America, although +we have several moths partially resembling it, and among +others, “<i>Cossus Macmurtri</i>.”</p> + +<p class='c011'><i>Hummingbird Hawk-moth.</i>—The reader is probably +aware that the name of sphinx was given to one of the +three divisions of insects of the butterfly tribe, from the +singular habit of their caterpillars, which raise the upper +portions of their bodies in an erect position, and continue +thus motionless for hours at a time, resembling, as Linnæus +fancied, the statues of the Egyptian Sphinx. These +<span class='pageno' id='Page_317'>317</span>caterpillars produce moths of a peculiar form, not unlike +birds in their shape and movement. In England, they are +rather rare; but our American species are quite common +in some parts of the country. This hawk-moth is one of +those insects given to wandering; it has been frequently +taken several miles from land in the English Channel, and +is observed to take flight sea-ward of its own accord in +calm, pleasant days, when there is no wind to compel a +movement in that direction.</p> + +<p class='c011'><i>The Admirable, vanessa atalanta.</i>—Here we have +another beautiful butterfly, found on both continents. +The caterpillar feeds on the stinging nettle; from the +leaves of which it makes itself a little tent, or dwelling, +where it leads a solitary life, until at the end of a month +it passes into the chrysalis state.</p> + +<p class='c011'><i>Blue Argus, p. argus</i>, is not, we believe, found in +America, nor is it very common in England. It has a +broad band of crimson on its lower wings, while the +general color is azure blue.</p> + +<p class='c011'><i>Marbled Butterfly, p. galathea</i>, is also, we understand, +unknown in America. The wings are black, finely marked +with spots of white and yellow. The caterpillar feeds on +grass.</p> + +<p class='c011'><i>Brown Meadow Butterfly, p. janira.</i>—Also unknown +in America, it is said.</p> + +<p class='c011'><i>Peacock Butterfly, vanessa Io.</i>—This is considered as +one of the most beautiful of European insects, in form +and coloring; black, and reddish brown, marked with eyelets +of yellow and blue, being its usual tints. The caterpillars +are produced from eggs laid on the leaves of nettles; +they are black and spiny. They live in company, providing +themselves with a common tent or web, where they seek +shelter during the night, and from the rains, to which they +are very sensitive. The peacock butterfly is found +<span class='pageno' id='Page_318'>318</span>throughout Europe, but is rare in England. The reader +is probably aware that Linnæus gave to the butterfly family, +in its largest sense, the name of Lepidoptera, or scalywings, +from the minute scales, resembling dust to the naked +eye, with which their wings are covered. Diminutive as +these scales are, they are yet perfect in their order and +formation, when examined by a microscope. The wing +of a peacock butterfly was submitted to this scrutiny, and +the scales actually counted by a patient observer; a quarter +of an inch square was cut from the wing and placed +under the instrument, when seventy rows of scales were +counted on it, ninety to each row, so that a single square +inch must contain 100,936 of these minute scales!</p> + +<p class='c011'>The peacock butterfly is unknown in America.</p> + +<h3 class='c023'><span class='sc'>Note BB.</span><br> <span class='c026'><span class='sc'>The Glow-worm</span>, (<i>lampyris noctiluca</i>) p. <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>.</span></h3> + +<p class='c024'>“Our English glow-worm, as we presume most people +are aware, is the wingless female of a winged beetle, which +also carries a light, though one of much inferior lustre.”</p> + +<p class='c011'>“It is supposed by some, that the light of the wingless +beetle is bestowed for her protection, to scare away her +hungry foes, the nightingale and other birds of night; it +is opined by others, that the insect’s gift of brilliancy, like +many of the like bestowed upon mankind, is the very +means of her destruction, the very lure and light by which +her biped foes are assisted to discover and devour her.” +So writes the author of Acheta Domestica when speaking +of the glow-worm of England.</p> + +<p class='c011'>This little creature is farther described as having “a tiny +head,” “a slate-colored, oblong, flat, and wingless body, all +divided into rings, and bearing at its nether extremity, +the <i>lamp</i>—by night, a lustrous emerald, by day, a dull +<span class='pageno' id='Page_319'>319</span>pale spot, composed of the sulphur-colored substance +which supplies the light.”</p> + +<p class='c011'>“The female,” says another writer, “deposits her eggs +in June or July, among moss or grass. These are yellow +in color, and emit a ray of light. In five or six weeks the +larvæ appear; they are at first white and small, but become +darker as they increase in size. The body is formed +of eleven rings, has six feet, and a double row of reddish +spots, emitting light in the dark, from the last ring; in +this stage, the creature creeps about, and the light which +accompanies it is of use in showing it the snails, dead insects, +&c., on which it feeds.” They frequently cast their +skins, and it is only at the end of twenty-one months that +they attain their full size. They then cease to eat, and +assume the <i>pupa</i> or second stage of insect life in which +they remain two or three weeks, when, throwing off their +skin covering, they appear in their complete state: the +male a perfect beetle with wings, and wing covers; the +female without these appendages, being larger, and emitting +a brighter light than the larva, from the last three +rings of the body.</p> + +<p class='c011'>It has been proved that the light of the glow-worm “is +unsupported by chemical action; is not connected with +animal life; the luminous matter is not adherent exteriorly, +but included in a capsule; it seems connected with peculiar +organization, and is suspended by cold. The only +control which the insect shows over it, is evinced by withdrawing +the luminous matter temporarily from the +transparency through which it shines”—<cite>Murray’s Experimental +Researches—Philosophical Magazine.</cite></p> + +<p class='c011'>The glow-worm is seldom seen in Scotland, and is not +common beyond the northern counties of England. The +light which these insects emit, is of a dull bluish or +greenish color, and altogether, the effect they produce +<span class='pageno' id='Page_320'>320</span>is far inferior to that of our American fire-fly, <i>Lampyris +Corusca</i>.</p> + +<h3 class='c023'><span class='sc'>Note CC.</span><br> <span class='c026'><span class='sc'>The Slow-worm</span>, (<i>anguis fragilis</i>) p. <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>.</span></h3> + +<p class='c024'>They have in England a singular reptile, resembling a +snake in its appearance, but in reality, more of a lizard +in character, and belonging to a group called <i>Saurophidia</i>, +or lizard-snakes. This is the slow-worm, or blind-worm, +alluded to in the text. It is a scaly creature, about twelve +or fifteen inches in length, sluggish in its habits, and +perfectly harmless: Although frequently called the +blind-worm, it has small, but very brilliant eyes. Its +food consists of worms, beetles, &c. It burrows in the +earth, sleeping away most of the cold weather. A singular +characteristic of this creature is its <i>brittleness</i>, whence +the epithet of <i>fragilis</i>. When frightened or irritated, it +forcibly contracts its muscles, and if the slightest attempt +is made to bend it, or a trifling blow be given, it literally +breaks asunder!</p> + +<p class='c011'>The slow-worm is common in Europe, and in the +adjacent parts of Asia also.</p> + +<p class='c011'>In England this slow-worm, with two lizards, and two +snakes, the common or ringed snake and the viper, make +up the entire list of reptiles found in the country.</p> + +<h3 class='c023'><span class='sc'>Note DD.</span><br> <span class='c026'><span class='sc'>The Dorr, or Clock-beetle</span>, (<i>geotrupes stercorarius</i>) p. <a href='#Page_217'>217</a>.</span></h3> + +<p class='c024'>This insect, familiar to us Americans from our reading, +is not found in our own country. It much resembles, +however, our common rolling beetles in its appearance, +and these are closely allied to the far-famed sacred +Scarabæus of the old Egyptians.</p> + +<p class='c011'><span class='pageno' id='Page_321'>321</span>The clock, or dorr, “is broad, short, and clumsy”—“black +in the upper parts, but with wing-cases tipped +with violet, while the legs and under surface are steely +blue, glossed with green and purple.”</p> + +<p class='c011'>“To look at the unsullied polish of his mail, one might +suppose him risen, like the green gold-chafer, from a bed +of roses; whereas, being a true Scarabæus in nature, if +not in name, there is little doubt, when we see him in his +waving flight, of his having left recently a bed of a very +opposite description—a bed in short of dung—wherein +through the live-long day he has been reposing, or +whereat, like his Egyptian prototype, he has been hard +at work, helping, perhaps, his partner to roll masses for +the enclosure of her eggs, or to bore holes for their +reception.”—<i>Acheta Domestica.</i></p> + +<p class='c011'>The dorr is one of those creatures which seek safety in +feigning death; when touched, it immediately drops to +the earth, stiff and apparently lifeless, suffering itself to +be handled without the least sign of animation; but when +left to itself, it will in a moment resume its faculties, and +take flight again.</p> + +<p class='c011'>It is possible that some American reader, familiar with +the epithet “shard-borne beetle,” may not be aware that +the word <i>shard</i> signifies a fragment of pottery, this insect +being often found among rubbish of that kind, or about +loose stones.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Such is the dorr, which, in the summer evenings of +England, “wheels his droning flight.”</p> + +<div> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_322'>322</span> + <h3 class='c023'><span class='sc'>Note EE.</span><br> <span class='c026'><span class='sc'>The Death’s-head Moth</span>, (<i>acherontia atropos</i>) p. <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>.</span></h3> +</div> + +<p class='c024'>This noted moth is one of the most remarkable of European +insects. It is the largest of its genus, measuring, +when its wings are fully expanded, nearly five inches in +breadth. The prevailing colors of its upper wings are +dark but rich waves of brown and black, broken by +lighter touches and marked with a single white spot. The +lower wings are yellowish, barred with black. The head +and throat are dark; upon the upper portions of the +throat, and on the body, are stamped with singular distinctness, +a <i>death’s-head</i> and collar bones, such as are usually +represented in mortuary devices. It is in consequence of +these markings that the Death’s-head Moth has become an +object of terror to the superstitious. Reaumur mentions +a whole convent of nuns being driven to their wits end +by the sudden appearance of one of these strange insects +flying in at a dormitory window, of a summer’s evening. +They never showed themselves formerly without causing +more or less alarm. In addition to the singular mark +on their bodies, these moths are also endowed with a +peculiar gift, held to be almost miraculous by the wondering +vulgar; when at all disturbed or irritated, they utter +a cry which has been compared to that of a bat. The +cause of this sound uttered by an insect whose race is +wholly silent, has been a subject of much doubt and controversy; +the best opinion would seem that it is produced +by the vibration of two horny scales fixed on the thorax +and covering a small aperture. To add to the character +of this ominous moth, another naturalist has observed that +the chrysalis, unlike that of others, is always buried in +the earth, and enwrapped in a shroud-like garment.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The caterpillar of the Death’s-head is large, and +<span class='pageno' id='Page_323'>323</span>brilliantly colored; yellow, obliquely barred with green, +and spotted at intervals with blue and black. It has the +usual horn-like tail of the caterpillars of the hawk-moth +family. It feeds by preference on the leaves of the +potato, and those of the jessamine; and is also found +on hemp and woody night-shade. The tea-tree is another +of its favorites, but, of course, in Europe, this last fancy +can not often be indulged. They generally lie concealed +by day, among the herbage, or in the earth. In August, +they assume the chrysalis state, being wrapped in their +tissue shrouds; and in September or October, appears the +perfect and ominous moth, which, in some countries, has +been called the “wandering bird.” When they first +emerge from their gauze-like shrouds, their wings are not +more than a finger-nail in breadth, but in the course of +an hour or two, they are stretched and dilated to their +full size.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The Death’s-head Moth is a great enemy to the bees, +being exceedingly fond of honey. Mr. Huber dwells at +length upon the singular sagacity of the little hive people +in defending their stores against this intruder. The bees, +at a first night attack of the Death’s-head, appear quite +paralyzed with fear, and make no attempts to meet the +invader; but the creature has hardly filled himself, and +taken flight again, before they begin to erect a waxen wall +within their gates, merely leaving one little aperture just +large enough to allow of the passage of a single bee at a +time, and of course the baffled moth, on appearing again +before their camp, is compelled to beat a retreat. The +account given by Mr. Huber of the defences raised by the +bees, on these occasions, is very interesting; he observes +that these moths were so common in 1804, and committed +their devastations on so large a scale, that it attracted +general attention, and the owners of apiaries determined +<span class='pageno' id='Page_324'>324</span>to defend the mouths of the hives; when preparing +to carry out their plans, however, they discovered +that in many instances the bees had already taken the +same course, human reason, and insect instinct producing +the same result. The variety of these bee fortifications +was also very remarkable, as they differed in almost every +hive; walls, or arcades, or masked gateways, of various +constructions, were raised with great speed and singular +skill. The fact that the bees did not make war upon the +moths with their usual arm, the sting, has been conjectured +by Mr. Huber, to proceed, possibly, from the resemblance +between the cry of the Death’s-head, and that of their +own queen bee when captured, which, it is well known, always +throws the entire band of working bees into disorder +and confusion.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The Death’s-head moth is not found in America. This +is rather singular, as the favorite food of its caterpillar is +the potato, an American vegetable, formerly unknown in +Europe. The Sphinx Chionanthi, one of our American +moths, resembles it in size; but the larvæ, and the markings +of the moth itself, are wholly different.</p> + +<p class='c011'><span class='sc'>Note FF.</span></p> + +<p class='c011'>“<span class='sc'>American Blight</span>,” (<i>aphis lanata</i>) p. <a href='#Page_236'>236</a>.</p> + +<p class='c011'>This blight has been a very great pest of the orchards, +in some countries of Europe, especially in parts of France, +England, and the Netherlands. In 1810, so many of the +cider apples of Gloucestershire were infested with it, that +it was feared cider-making would have to be abandoned in +that region. Sir Joseph Banks appears to have given the +insect the name of “American blight,” being led to believe +it had not come from France, and supposing that it had +been imported from America with some apple-trees, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_325'>325</span>planted in a nursery at Chelsea. An English writer on +orchards says, “I have from good authority heard that it +was brought to this country from France, in the reign of +Louis XIV., when a colony of refugees settled at Paddington, +and there it was first observed to begin its depredations +on apple-trees.” This last account is far more likely +to be correct, since the insect has been very common in +France, while in America, we hear so little of it, that it is +scarcely known to any but entomologists, and nursery men.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Dr. Fitch, in the Annual Report on the State Cabinet of +Natural History of New York, dated 1851, says of this +aphis: “Commonly, only solitary individuals are found, +and in but one instance have I met with it clustered, and +covering a limb, as described by foreign writers.”</p> + +<p class='c011'>It is rather remarkable that as warm seasons are said +to favor its increase, our warmer summers should not have +rendered it more troublesome in this country; possibly +our colder winters may have a counteracting effect, although, +as a general rule, insects with their larvæ and +eggs, will bear great extremes of cold.</p> + +<h3 class='c023'><span class='sc'>Note GG.</span><br> <span class='c026'><span class='sc'>The Holly</span>, (<i>Ilex</i>) p. <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>.</span></h3> + +<p class='c024'>We have in America two kinds of holly. One, <i>Ilex +montana</i>, or Mountain Holly, is found on the Alleghanies, +and the Catskills, and is seldom more than a straggling +shrub, from eight to twenty feet in height. The <i>Ilex opaca</i>, +or American Holly, strictly speaking, is a tree from twenty +to fifty feet in height, found in most woodlands from Maine +to the Southern States, where it is more common than in +the northern parts of the country. It is far, however, from +being a familiar tree to most Americans, whose acquaintance +with the holly is apt to be more connected with their +<span class='pageno' id='Page_326'>326</span>English reading, than with the reality. The foliage of +the holly of this continent is less glossy, and the berries +are less highly colored than those of the European tree.</p> + +<h3 class='c023'><span class='sc'>Note HH.</span><br> <span class='c026'><span class='sc'>To Wilt</span>, page <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>.</span></h3> + +<p class='c024'>The verb to “<i>wilt</i>” thus noticed by Mr. Knapp, as an +English provincialism, is very generally used in America, +and perhaps deserves a word of defence more than most +terms of the kind preserved among us. It would seem +to have a meaning of its own, scarcely expressed by +any other synonym; it signifies neither to “wither,” to +“blight,” to “die,” nor to “decay.” If we understand the +word rightly, it means something of debility and drooping, +akin to faintness in animal life, and implying the +capability of restoration. There is thus a shade of distinction +in the word, which at times may approach to +poetical delicacy, and which redeems it from a place with +others of the same class.</p> + +<p class='c011'>To “hawl,” or “haul,” is also placed among the provincialisms +of his neighborhood by Mr. Knapp, p. 52; but +this, assuredly, is a good English word. Johnson gives the +derivation from the French <i>haler</i>, and the Dutch <i>halen</i>, +to draw. It is a very common word among us, and, with +Johnson for our authority, we need not give it up.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Let it not be supposed from the previous remarks, that +as a general thing, the writer is in favor of keeping up the +provincialisms of our language; far from this, it appears +to us that as the English tongue spreads wider and wider +over the earth, it becomes a more imperative duty among +those who use it, to preserve their common speech in all +its purity.</p> + +<div> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_327'>327</span> + <h3 class='c023'><span class='sc'>Note II.</span><br> <span class='c026'><span class='sc'>Fairy Rings</span>, page <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>.</span></h3> +</div> + +<p class='c024'>There are two sorts of circular marks on the turf +bearing this name in England. “One kind about seven +yards in diameter, containing a round, bare path, a foot +broad, with green grass in the midst of it.” “The other +varying in size, is marked by a circumference of grass, +greener and fresher than the rest.” Some writers have +attributed these rings to the fertilizing effects of a particular +mushroom growing in circles; while others hold +them to be produced by electricity.</p> + +<p class='c011'>It is well known that on the American prairies, there are +broad rings, the origin of which has been disputed by different +travelers, and to which the name of “fairy rings,” +has also been given. One of the writers on that region, +has accounted for them very naturally, and if his report +be correct, we have not much ground for indulging in the +poetical fancy that they are the tracks of the fairies dancing +“their ringlets to the whistling wind.” Mr. Catlin +believes them to be nothing more than the “wallows” of +the buffalo.</p> + +<p class='c011'>“In the heat of summer these huge animals ... often +graze on the low grounds of the prairies, where there is +a little stagnant water lying amongst the grass, and the +ground underneath, being saturated with it, is soft, into +which the enormous bull, lowered down upon one knee, +will plunge his horns and at last his head ... soon making +an excavation in the ground, into which the water filters +from among the grass, forming for him in a few moments, +a cool and comfortable bath.... By this operation, which +is done perhaps in the space of half an hour, a circular excavation +of fifteen or twenty feet in diameter, and two +feet in depth is completed, and left for the water to run +<span class='pageno' id='Page_328'>328</span>into, which soon fills it to the level of the ground.... To +these sinks, the waters lying on the surface of the prairies +are continually draining and lodging in them their vegetable +deposits, which, after a lapse of years, fill them up +to the surface with a rich soil, which throws up an unusual +growth of grass and herbage, forming conspicuous circles +which arrest the eye of the traveler.” Mr. C. farther +adds that “these strange circles often occur in groups, and +of different sizes.”—<cite>Catlin’s N. A. Indians</cite>, Vol. I. p. 249.</p> + +<h3 class='c023'><span class='sc'>Note JJ.</span><br> <span class='c026'><span class='sc'>Æcidium</span>, page <a href='#Page_255'>255</a>.</span></h3> + +<p class='c024'>Æcidium is a genus of minute parasitic plants, belonging +to the order of Fungi. They are found upon the +leaves, the bark, and even upon the flowers of living plants, +but are altogether distinct from the cuticle of the vegetable +on which they have their growth. They are always +tubular in their form. On the weeds and trees of northern +countries they are very common, and a great many +species have attracted the attention of botanists, while to +the careless eye, they often appear like the nests of some +small insect. The common fancy among farmers that the +barberry-bush is injurious to wheat, producing rust in the +grain, is owing to an æcidium growing on the barberry, +which covers its leaves with a bright, orange powder. The +only resemblance, however, between the rust of wheat and +the barberry blight lies in the color. The rust in wheat, +is in fact another, and a wholly different species of this +same genus æcidium; it is called by botanists, <i>Puccinia +graminis</i>. Another common æcidium is that of the pear-tree, +which has received the name of <i>Peridia</i>.</p> + +<div> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_329'>329</span> + <h3 class='c023'><span class='sc'>Note KK.</span><br> <span class='c026'><span class='sc'>Pollarding Trees</span>, page <a href='#Page_267'>267</a>.</span></h3> +</div> + +<p class='c024'>The word <i>pollard</i> is but little used in America; it is +derived from the verb to <i>poll</i>, or lop, the heads of trees. +With us, the custom so much condemned by the author, +is unknown; but it is no just sense of the value of wood, +no wise spirit of true economy, which causes the difference. +On the contrary, if our timber is not mutilated in this +way, it is simply owing to a custom still more culpable +and wasteful—wherever a branch is needed, a whole tree +will be felled. Often has the writer seen a fine chestnut +hewn down by some careless lad, merely for the nuts of +one season’s growth; frequently have we found oaks, or +maples of good size, cut at the root in the same way, for +the sake of the wild grapes which hung entwined among +their higher branches; and on one occasion, we have seen +a noble pine, a hundred and fifty feet in height, the growth +perchance of several centuries, felled only to reach a hive +of bees, which had taken refuge in a hollow branch.</p> + +<h3 class='c023'><span class='sc'>Note LL.</span><br> <span class='c026'><span class='sc'>Ice Floating</span>, page <a href='#Page_271'>271</a>.</span></h3> + +<p class='c024'>Absurd as the notion is, that the ice in our lakes and +rivers sinks in spring, yet there are not wanting people +who firmly believe it. Not long since, the writer chanced +to meet in print a traveler’s story, evidently credited by +the individual who asserted it, that the ice in Lake Champlain +invariably disappeared in this way, <i>sinking to the +bottom of the lake every spring</i>. Whether to rise again +the following winter, the reader was not informed. In +fact, it would be quite as rational to expect the snow which +lies so long on our frozen rivers and lakes most winters, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_330'>330</span>to sink bodily into the ice, as to maintain that the ice +sinks in the water.</p> + +<p class='c011'>There is a coating of ice, however, which is found not +unfrequently beneath the water, and that in running +streams. But this is <i>ground ice</i>, as it is called, and has +been formed where it is found, adhering to the soil which +forms the bed of the river, and has never sunk from the +surface. On the contrary, once loosened from its hold, it +not only rises itself, but brings with it pebbles, gravel, &c. +The formation of this ground ice has attracted the attention +of distinguished scientific men. The slower motion +of water at the bottom than on the surface of a +stream, connected with the fact that crystals of ice form +naturally and very readily on pointed and rough bodies, +such as the stones or vegetable substances at the bottom +of streams, have been supposed to be the causes of this +ground ice.</p> + +<div class='chapter'> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_331'>331</span> + <h2 class='c006'>INDEX.</h2> +</div> + +<ul class='index c002'> + <li class='c027'>Agarics, the pale gray species of, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— the verdigris, ibid.</li> + <li class='c027'>— not easily investigated, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— the odorous agaric, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— the scented, ibid.</li> + <li class='c027'>— the “stainer,” ibid.</li> + <li class='c027'>— the surrectus springing from another species, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Agriculture, practice of, at a village in Gloucestershire, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— bad custom of the farmers there, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Aërial hummings, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Amusements, heretofore holiday ones, in decline, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Animals, increase of, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— what dependent on man, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— what independent, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— usefulness of, to man, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— affection of, to their young, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— mercy to, a scriptural command, ibid.</li> + <li class='c027'>Ant, the black, <a href='#Page_212'>212</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— the red, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— the yellow, ibid.</li> + <li class='c027'>Apples injured by aphides, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— spottings on, how occasioned, <a href='#Page_255'>255</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Ash trees, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Atmospheric influences, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— observations, <a href='#Page_269'>269</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— experiments, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Augerworms, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Autumn, pleasure of a morning’s walk in, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Aust ferry, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>.</li> + <li class='c002'>Bee, the carpenter, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Beetle, the rose, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— the dorr, <a href='#Page_217'>217</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— the great water species, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Birds, partiality of the author to, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— migration of, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— injurious to trees, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— various food of, ibid.</li> + <li class='c027'>— song and voices of, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>. 189</li> + <li class='c027'><span class='pageno' id='Page_332'>332</span>— nests of, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— great destroyers of insects, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— species of, diminishing in number, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— labor of, to feed their young, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— friendship of, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— eggs of, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— dislike of, to man, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— stratagem of one, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— early rising of, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— boldness of, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— solitary and congregating ones, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— language of, unvarying, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— pleasure afforded by, to man, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— For the different kinds, see their respective English names.</li> + <li class='c027'>Blackbird, song of the, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Blackcap, the, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Blight, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— some trees not affected by, ibid.</li> + <li class='c027'>— manner in which this insect propagates itself, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— whence derived, uncertain, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— saline winds a supposed cause of, <a href='#Page_254'>254</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Bombylius, the, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Bones of horses and human beings dug up, conjecture respecting, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Bouquets, wearing of, not in use, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Bramble, the common, almost an evergreen, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— lines on its leaves, ibid.</li> + <li class='c027'>— its uses, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Bull-finch, the, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Bunting, peculiar practice of the, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Burnet, conjecture as to its lasting verdure, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Butcher-bird, the, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Butterfly, the sulphur, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— the argus, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— the phlæas, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— the azure, ibid.</li> + <li class='c027'>— the painted lady, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— the marble, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— the meadow brown, ibid.</li> + <li class='c002'><span class='pageno' id='Page_333'>333</span>Caloric, effects of, on bodies, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Chaffinch, the, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Changes in nature, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Cheese, cheap kind of, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Christmassing, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Chrysalides of insects, <a href='#Page_191'>191</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Chrysalis, singular one, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Cleanliness of animals, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Clematis, the wild, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— sticks of, used by boys for smoking, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Clocks, name given to the great dorr beetle, <a href='#Page_217'>217</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Cockchaffer, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Coins dug out of the earth, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Color, probably reflected light, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Coral polypi, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Crossbill, the, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Cruelty, a vice of the ignorant, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>.</li> + <li class='c002'>Dandelion, the, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Day’s eye, the, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Death’s-head moth, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Digestion, power of, in birds, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Dog, usefulness of, to man, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Dogsbane destructive to insects, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Dry-rot, the, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Dyers, capricious in their art, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Dyers’ broom, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— gathering of, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— uses of, ibid.</li> + <li class='c027'>— dyers’ weed, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>.</li> + <li class='c002'>Earth-worm, the common, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Elm tree, the wych, a singularly beautiful one, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— value of, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— uses of, ibid.</li> + <li class='c027'>— soon decays, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— leaves of the elm marked with plague-spots, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Empiricism, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Entomology, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Evaporation from the earth, effect of, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a>.</li> + <li class='c002'>Fairfax, general, supposed skeletons of some of his foragers, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'><span class='pageno' id='Page_334'>334</span>Fairy rings, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Fescue, spines of the hard, bearing no flowers, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Fieldfare, the, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Flea, the water, <a href='#Page_215'>215</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Flowers of plants, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— pleasures afforded by, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— use and application of, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— natural love of, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— the playthings of children, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Fly, the house, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— the biting, ibid.</li> + <li class='c027'>— the four-spotted dragon, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Flycatcher, the gray, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Foxglove, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Friendship between birds, instance of, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Frost, early, effect of on flowering plants, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Fungi, beauties of, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— varieties of, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— uncertain appearance of, ibid.</li> + <li class='c027'>— mutations of, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— agents of decay, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— propagation of, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Fur of animals, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>.</li> + <li class='c002'>Gallinaceous birds, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Gamma moth, the, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Ghost moth, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Glaucous birthwort, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Gleaning, profits of, to the poor, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— antiquity of the custom, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Glow-worm, the, <a href='#Page_207'>207</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Gnat, the winter, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Goat moth, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Goldfinch, the, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Grass crops, nature of, in the author’s village, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— certain grasses attached to certain soils, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— grass balls, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Guinea, anecdote of the finding of one, <a href='#Page_248'>248</a>.</li> + <li class='c002'>Hair of animals, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Hairworm, the clay, <a href='#Page_226'>226</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Hawk, the sparrow, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— the kestrel, ibid.</li> + <li class='c027'>— the hawk-moth, <a href='#Page_197'>197</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'><span class='pageno' id='Page_335'>335</span>Hay, crops of, method of saving, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Hazel-tree, how liable to decay, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Hedgehog, the, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Hellebore, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— its medicinal uses, ibid.</li> + <li class='c027'>Helvella, the mitred, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Holly-trees, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Hornet, the, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Horse, instance of the longevity of one, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Hummingbird, hawk-moth, the, <a href='#Page_197'>197</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Hummings in the air, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Hydnum fungus, the beautiful floriform, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>.</li> + <li class='c002'>Ice, cause of its swimming instead of sinking, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Industry, profitable fruits of, to an agricultural laborer, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Insects entrapped by the snapdragon, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— destroyed by the sun-dew, ibid.</li> + <li class='c027'>— by the dogsbane with great suffering, ibid.</li> + <li class='c027'>— paths of, on leaves, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— their manner of puncturing, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— consumption of, by birds, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— but little attended to or studied, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— chrysalis of, <a href='#Page_191'>191</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— speedy methods of killing them, <a href='#Page_264'>264</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— best mode of preserving specimens, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Insensibility to pain, striking instance of, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Ivy, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>.</li> + <li class='c002'>Jack Snipe. See Snipe.</li> + <li class='c027'>Jay, the, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>.</li> + <li class='c002'>Kite, the, its numbers greatly on the decline, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— extraordinary capture of a number, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>.</li> + <li class='c002'>Labor of the peasantry in the author’s village, profits of, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'><span class='pageno' id='Page_336'>336</span>Lady-bird note of a song-thrush, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Language of birds, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Laurel-tree, the, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Leasing. See Gleaning.</li> + <li class='c027'>Life, duration of, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Lily, blossoms of, indicative of old of the price of wheat, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Lime, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— nature and uses of, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— its abundance, ibid.</li> + <li class='c027'>— formation and origin of, ibid.</li> + <li class='c027'>— analysis of, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— residences upon its soil supposed to be healthy, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Lime-kiln, frightful consequences of a traveller’s sleeping on one, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Linnet, the, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Longevity. See Life.</li> + <li class='c002'>Magpie, the, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Manure, picking it from grass lands for corn-lands, a bad practice, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Maple tree, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— the under sides of the leaves of, a beautiful microscopic object, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Marten cat, the, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Maypoles, now seldom seen, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Migration of birds, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Mistletoe, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Moles, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— their sense of smelling, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— rankness of their flesh, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Morell, the stinking, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— the esculent, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Moth, the ghost, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— the hawk, <a href='#Page_197'>197</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— the yellow under-wing, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— the gamma, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— the goat, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— the death’s-head, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— the ermine, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Mouse, the harvest, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— the water, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— the common, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— the meadow, and long-tailed, ibid.</li> + <li class='c002'>Natural affection, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'><span class='pageno' id='Page_337'>337</span>Natural history little attended to, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Naturalist, pleasing occupations of the, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Nature, designs of, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— changes in, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— tendencies of, to produce, <a href='#Page_277'>277</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Nests of birds, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Newt, the common, <a href='#Page_215'>215</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— a small shell-fish often attached to its toes, ibid.</li> + <li class='c027'>Nidularia, the bell-shaped, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Nightingale, the, less common than heretofore, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— croaking of, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Nosegays, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>.</li> + <li class='c002'>Oak tree, description of one, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— several of extraordinary magnitude, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— the oak less fruitful now than formerly, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— its value, from its various uses, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Oat-grass, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>.</li> + <li class='c002'>Pain, instance of insensibility to, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Passerine birds, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Peacock butterfly (note), <a href='#Page_200'>200</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Peewit, the, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Phallus. See Morell.</li> + <li class='c027'>Pick-a-bud, name given to the bull-finch, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Pimpernel, the, a prognosticator of fine weather, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Plants, blossoms of, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— names given to them of old, from their supposed qualities, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— pores of, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— decomposition of, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Pollarding trees, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Polypi of the coral, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Poor, employment of the, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Poplar tree, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Potato, culture of the, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— sorts, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— profits, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— effects of, on soils, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— history of, ibid.</li> + <li class='c027'>— value of, as food, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'><span class='pageno' id='Page_338'>338</span>Prognostications of wind and weather. See Wind and Weather.</li> + <li class='c027'>Providence, inattention to, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Puff, the gray, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— the turreted, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— the stellated, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>.</li> + <li class='c002'>Rapacious birds, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Rats, migration of, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— other particulars of, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Raven, the, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Redwing, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Reeking of the earth, <a href='#Page_269'>269</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Robin, the, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Roman encampment, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— roads, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Rook, the, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— its affection, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— sagacity, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— appears to be decreasing in numbers, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Rose, the white moss, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a> (note), the wild, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Royal forest, indications of one in Gloucestershire, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>.</li> + <li class='c002'>Seasons, variableness of, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— effect of, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Sex, increase of, in 1825, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, note.</li> + <li class='c027'>Shrew, the water, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— the common, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— new species of, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Shrike. See Butcher-bird.</li> + <li class='c027'>Sinking of the earth, <a href='#Page_252'>252</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Sky-lark, the, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Smelling, question of the sense of, in birds, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Smokewood, sticks of the wild clematis so called, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Snail, the common, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— the banded, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— the halotideus, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Snakes, eggs of, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— harmlessness of, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— general aversion to, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Snapdragon, peculiarities of, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— an insect trap, ibid, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Snipe, the jack, its habits, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— supposed the male of the larger snipe, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'><span class='pageno' id='Page_339'>339</span>Snowdrop, the, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— a melancholy flower, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Soil, of the parish in which the author resides, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— various sorts of, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— analysis of, useless, ibid.</li> + <li class='c027'>— picking soil off grass lands a bad custom, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Song of birds. See Birds.</li> + <li class='c027'>Sparrow, the hedge, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— the common, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Spottings, on apples, <a href='#Page_255'>255</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— on strawberry leaves, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Starling, the common, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— the brown, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Steaming of the earth, <a href='#Page_269'>269</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Stinking phallus, the, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Stormy petrel, the, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Strontian, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Sulphur butterfly, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Sun-dew, destructive to insects, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Superstition, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Swallows, their nests, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— killed in wanton sport, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Sycamore tree, singularity of its leaves, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>.</li> + <li class='c002'>Teasel, its cultivation, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— its profits, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— its uses, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Thorn, the white, uniform in its blossoming, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Thrush, the solitary, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— the common, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— the missel, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— song of, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Timidity of animals, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Tokens. See Prognostications.</li> + <li class='c027'>Tom-tit, or titmouse, the little blue, rewards for the destruction of, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— perishes in severe winters, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— the long-tailed, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— instance of its intelligence in the care of its young, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Traveller’s joy, name given to the wild clematis, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Trees, attractors of humidity, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— condense fogs, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— verdure beneath, ibid</li> + <li class='c027'>— mischief of pollarding them, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'><span class='pageno' id='Page_340'>340</span>Tree-creeper, the, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Turnip, singularly decorated one, as a holiday amusement, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>.</li> + <li class='c002'>Uredo, the two-fronted, a substance attached to the leaves of the laurel, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>.</li> + <li class='c002'>Vermin, parish reward for the destruction of, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Vervain, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— respect paid of old to this plant, ibid.</li> + <li class='c027'>— its supposed powers and qualities, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Village clubs, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>.</li> + <li class='c002'>Wagtail, yellow, the, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Wald, or wold, the dyers’ weed so called, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Want, the, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Wasp, the common, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— the solitary, <a href='#Page_226'>226</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— its nest, ibid.</li> + <li class='c027'>Water, stagnated and putrescent, favorable for the residence of insects, <a href='#Page_215'>215</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Water-flea, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Water shrew, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Wheat, crops of, method of saving, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Wheatear, the, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Whirly pits, what, <a href='#Page_252'>252</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Willow tree, <a href='#Page_269'>269</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Winds and weather, old tokens of, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— saline winds a supposed cause of blight, <a href='#Page_254'>254</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Winter, the season of, depicted 270.</li> + <li class='c027'>Woodlark, the, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Woodlouse, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Worm, the hair, <a href='#Page_226'>226</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— the common, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Wren, the willow, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— the golden-crested, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— the common, instance of its stratagem to preserve its nest, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Wryneck, the, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'><span class='pageno' id='Page_341'>341</span>Wych elm. See Elm.</li> + <li class='c002'>Year 1825, singular increase of sex in the, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, note</li> + <li class='c027'>— other peculiarities of, <a href='#Page_259'>259</a>.</li> + <li class='c027'>Yellow weed, name given to dyers’ weed, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— yellow the prevailing color of the flowers of plants in spring, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a></li> + <li class='c027'>— and in autumn, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> +<div class='nf-center c002'> + <div>THE END.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<div class='chapter'> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_342'>342</span> + <h2 class='c006'>EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.</h2> +</div> +<h3 class='c025'>PLATE 1.</h3> + + <dl class='dl_1 c004'> + <dt>Fig. 1.</dt> + <dd>Sphæria on the leaf of an elm, p. <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>. + </dd> + + <dd>A. A portion enlarged, and the cuticle parting. + </dd> + + <dd>B. The same enlarged, representing the capsules. + </dd> + <dt>Fig. 2.</dt> + <dd>Sphæria bifrons, on a laurel leaf, p. <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>. + </dd> + + <dd>C. The front, and dorsal parts. + </dd> + + <dd>D. Imbedded capsules. + </dd> + <dt>Fig. 3,</dt> + <dd>Sphæria coryli, on a nut branch, p. <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>. + </dd> + + <dd>E. The tubercle enlarged, bordered with the epidermis. + </dd> + + <dd>F. A section of the capsules at the base. + </dd> + <dt>Fig. 4.</dt> + <dd>Sphæria faginea, on a beech stick, p. <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>. + </dd> + + <dd>G. Section of a tube, with the capsules at the base. + </dd> + + <dd>H. Group of the tubes detached from the bough, with their capsules. + </dd> + + <dd>I. A tube detached. + </dd> + </dl> + +<h3 class='c023'>PLATE 2.</h3> + + <dl class='dl_1 c004'> + <dt>Fig. 1.</dt> + <dd>A chrysalis of an insect, p. <a href='#Page_191'>191</a>, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a>. + </dd> + + <dd>B. The inner hood. + </dd> + <dt>Fig. 2.</dt> + <dd>The branch of an apple-tree, infested with the aphis lanata, p. <a href='#Page_235'>235</a>, 236. + </dd> + + <dd>B. The aphis enlarged, with the globules, and the cotton that surrounds them. + </dd> + + <dd>D. The early appearance of the insect with its terminating bristle. + </dd> + + <dd>E. Appearance of the creature in winter. + </dd> + </dl> + +<h3 class='c023'>WOOD ENGRAVINGS.</h3> + +<div class='lg-container-b c003'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>Spines and tubes of the hedgehog, enlarged, p. <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>.</div> + <div class='line'>Harvest mouse and nest, p. <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>.</div> + <div class='line'>Plumage of lepidopterous insects, p. <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>.</div> + <div class='line'>Agaricus surrectus, p. <a href='#Page_256'>256</a>.</div> + <div class='line'>Roots of an ash, p. <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<hr class='c028'> +<div class='footnote' id='f1'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r1'>1</a>. Some money was found in one of our fields a few years past, +which fame, as in all such cases, without perhaps any foundation, +enlarged to a considerable sum. The nature of the coin I know not. +A few old guineas were admitted; but from fear of that spectre +“tresor trove,” the whole was concealed, whatever it might be.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f2'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r2'>2</a>. The weight of lime is very variable, differing in different places: +but taking our lime at the average of eighty pounds to the bushel, +some idea may be conceived of the cooling nature of this substance. +Lime, to be used as manure, must be in a pulverized state; and by +drawing on the land the quantity that we do, we convey to every +acre so dressed equivalent to two hundred and fifty gallons of water, +not to be evaporated, but retained in the soil as a refrigerant to the +fibres of vegetation.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f3'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r3'>3</a>. I have called this alumine, stained with oxide of iron; but it +seems more like vegetable or animal remains, adhering to the filter +like a fine peaty deposit, and is lost in combustion.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f4'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r4'>4</a>. From sixty-four to seventy-two cents, American money.—<span class='sc'>Ed.</span></p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f5'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r5'>5</a>. Thirty-three dollars and sixty cents.—<span class='sc'>Ed.</span></p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f6'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r6'>6</a>. In 1826, the herbage on some of our clay-lands designed for +<a id='t22'></a>growing was, by reason of its tardy growth, and the dryness of the +season, in such small quantities, that the owners let it grow untouched +until after the corn harvest, in order to obtain some bottom grass, +and, in consequence, our haymaking, as it was called, was not over +until the last week in September.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f7'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r7'>7</a>. The field poppy, as the reader must be aware, is no regular attendant +upon the grain-fields of America.—<span class='sc'>Ed.</span></p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f8'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r8'>8</a>. But dibbling is not held in esteem by us: we think that in wet +seasons the holes retain the moisture and the sets perish; and that +in dry weather, being less covered than when planted by the spade, +they are more obnoxious to injury by birds and mice, become affected +by droughts, are longer in shooting out, and produce, in most cases, +inferior crops. In a lighter soil these objections, perhaps, would not +be found reasonable.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f9'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r9'>9</a>. About fifty-four dollars, sixty cents.—<span class='sc'>Ed.</span></p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f10'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r10'>10</a>. See note A, appendix.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f11'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r11'>11</a>. <i>Dipsacus sylvestris</i> or wild teazel, is a naturalized weed in America; it +differs from D. Fullonum or Fuller’s teazle, a cultivated plant.—<span class='sc'>Ed.</span></p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f12'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r12'>12</a>. Equisetum hyemale, the Dutch rush, or shave grass, is yet used +in its natural state for finishing fine models in wood, and in removing +roughness in plaster casts.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f13'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r13'>13</a>. Philosoph. Trans. as quoted in the Sylva.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f14'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r14'>14</a>. Pliny’s Natural History.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f15'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r15'>15</a>. See note C, appendix.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f16'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r16'>16</a>. This bee does not exclusively make use of the leaves of rose for +its purposes, as I have known it in some seasons cut away the young +foliage of cytisus laburnum, even when growing in company with its +favorite rose.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f17'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r17'>17</a>. See note D, appendix.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f18'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r18'>18</a>. See note E, appendix.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f19'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r19'>19</a>. See note F, appendix.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f20'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r20'>20</a>. The dogsbane, <i>apocynum androsæmifolium</i>, is called Indian hemp in +some parts of America.—<span class='sc'>Ed.</span></p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f21'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r21'>21</a>. See note G, appendix.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f22'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r22'>22</a>. See note H, appendix.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f23'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r23'>23</a>. See note I, appendix.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f24'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r24'>24</a>. See note J, appendix.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f25'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r25'>25</a>. See note K, appendix.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f26'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r26'>26</a>. See note L, appendix.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f27'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r27'>27</a>. Rural Economy of Norfolk.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f28'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r28'>28</a>. Article Reseda, in Encyclopædia Britannica.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f29'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r29'>29</a>. See note M, appendix.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f30'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r30'>30</a>. The dandelion is considered by Mr. Torrey as a naturalized plant in +America, although so very common.—<span class='sc'>Ed.</span></p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f31'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r31'>31</a>. See note N, appendix.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f32'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r32'>32</a>. See note O, appendix.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f33'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r33'>33</a>. See note P, appendix.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f34'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r34'>34</a>. Without close examination, this plant appears to be a uredo; but +it is in fact a sphæria. Uredo differs from sphæria chiefly in the vessels +not containing the capsules in cells, but loose. Hoffman observes, +that both sphæria and uredo discharge pollen from an orifice; but, +if the summit of this plant be cut off, the capsules are obvious.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f35'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r35'>35</a>. I am uncertain whether this plant has been noticed. Sphæria +granulosa of Sowerby, and sp. tentaculata of Batsch, may be it in a +young stage of growth; sp. faginea of Lamarck does not accord well +with it.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f36'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r36'>36</a>. Pileus—conical, one inch occasionally in diameter—pale gray +becoming ocherous, summit orange, flesh thin.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Lamellæ—fixed, white, four in a set, stained in places.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Stipes—fistular, long, chestnut at the base, upwards pale brown +root long, trailing, woolly.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f37'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r37'>37</a>. This is the phallus esculentus of some; but Jussieu, Persoon, +and others, have removed it from that genus, on account of its having +no volva, but seeds in cells, not contained in a glareous mucus.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f38'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r38'>38</a>. See note Q, appendix.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f39'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r39'>39</a>. See note R, appendix.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f40'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r40'>40</a>. As an event connected with the subject of temporary augmentation +and diminution of creatures, I may be pardoned for noting the +predominant increase of sex in some years. The most remarkable +instance, that I remember of late, was in 1825. How far it extended +I do not know, but for many miles round us we had in that year +scarcely any female calves born. Dairies of forty or fifty cows produced +not more than five or six, those of inferior numbers, in the +same proportion, and the price of female calves for rearing was +greatly augmented. In the wild state, an event like this would have +considerable influence upon the usual product of some future herd. +In the ensuing spring, we had in the village an extraordinary instance +of fecundity in the sheep afforded us, one farmer having an increase +of sixteen lambs from five ewes, four of which produced three each, +and one brought forth four; however, only a small portion of these +little creatures lived to maturity.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f41'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r41'>41</a>. See note S, appendix.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f42'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r42'>42</a>. See note T, appendix.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f43'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r43'>43</a>. See Ray’s Synopsis.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f44'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r44'>44</a>. he organ, which inflicts the pain, or sting, when we incautiously +handle the nettle, is well known to be connected with a little vessel +containing an acrid fluid, which being compressed, rushes up the tube +of the organ, and is thus conveyed into the wound; and it is rather +singular, that the larvæ of the admirable butterfly, which feeds upon +the large hedge nettle, has the spines which arise from its body +branched, and each collateral hair arises from a little bulb, similar to +that of the plant on which it is chiefly found.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f45'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r45'>45</a>. See note U, appendix.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f46'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r46'>46</a>. Linnean Transactions, vol. vii.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f47'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r47'>47</a>. See note V, appendix.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f48'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r48'>48</a>. I remember no bird that seems to suffer so frequently from the +peculiar construction of its nest, and by reason of our common observance +of its sufferings obtains more of our pity, than the house-marten. +The rook will at times have its nest torn from its airy site, +or have its eggs shaken from it by the gales of spring; but the poor +marten, which places its earthy shed beneath the eave of the barn, +the roof of the house, or in the corner of the window, is more generally +injured. July and August are the months in which these birds +usually bring out their young; but one rainy day at this period, attended +with wind, will often moisten the earth that composes the +nest; the cement then fails, and all the unfledged young ones are +dashed upon the ground; and there are some places to which these +poor birds are unfortunately partial, though their nests are annually +washed down. The projecting thatch of the old farm-house appears +to be their safest asylum. The parent birds at times seem aware +of the misfortune that awaits them; as, before the calamity is completed, +we may observe them with great anxiety hovering about their +nests.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f49'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r49'>49</a>. Petrels have been carried, by a storm, as far inland as the interior of +Pennsylvania.—<span class='sc'>Ed.</span></p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f50'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r50'>50</a>. See note W, appendix.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f51'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r51'>51</a>. I know not any definition of what we term “animal instinct” more +comprehensive and accordant with truth than the following, given +in the Elements of Etymology by Messrs. Kirby and Spence. “Without +pretending to give a logical definition of it, (instinct,) which, +while we are ignorant of the essence of reason, is impossible, we +may call the instincts of animals those unknown faculties implanted +in their constitutions by the Creator, by which, independent of instruction, +observation, or experience, and without a knowledge of the +end in view, they are impelled to the performance of certain actions +tending to the well-being of the individual, and preservation of the +species.”</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f52'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r52'>52</a>. See note W, appendix.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f53'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r53'>53</a>. See note X, appendix.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f54'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r54'>54</a>. The crow in the spring, when food is difficult of attainment, will +kill young pigeons; and the magpie having young ones, captures +the new hatches of our domestic poultry: but these are cases of necessity +rather than habit. The raven has a decided inclination for +the eyes of creatures, and finding lambs in a weak state, immediately +plucks them out, and when the animal is recently dead, commences +his depredations upon these parts.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f55'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r55'>55</a>. Substance of a paper read before the Royal Society, Nov. 27, +1824. See Zoological Magazine, vol. i.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f56'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r56'>56</a>. See note Y, appendix.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f57'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r57'>57</a>. See note Z, appendix.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f58'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r58'>58</a>. See note AA, appendix.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f59'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r59'>59</a>. The Night-Hawk.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f60'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r60'>60</a>. See note BB, appendix.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f61'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r61'>61</a>. See note CC, appendix.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f62'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r62'>62</a>. Multitudes of words are retained in our language derived from +very ancient dialects, and possibly the name “clock,” as given to this +beetle, conveying no meaning to our present comprehensions, is a +corruption of some syllable in former use. Its subterranean residence +might have been signified by the old word “cloax,” a vault, +a creature from below. Or, burrowing in filth and ordure, as it does, +the epithet “clocca,” the offspring of a common shore, or jakes, +would not have been insignificant of its origin and habits. Fancy, +too, playing with trifles, amuses itself in bandying about even its +more general appellative, dorr. In old times a “dorr” was a stupid, +blundering fellow; and “to dorr,” was to din, or trouble with noise, +both meanings applicable to the heedless flight, and loud noise, made +in all the transits of this dung beetle.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f63'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r63'>63</a>. See note DD, appendix.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f64'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r64'>64</a>. See note EE, appendix.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f65'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r65'>65</a>. The hornet is a very pugnacious animal. They will fight desperately +with each other at times, when they meet in pursuit of prey, +biting each other’s body, and trying to get their mandibles under the +head of their opponents, to snip it off. I one day confined under a +glass two of these creatures, which had been fighting. One had +evidently the mastery; but both had been so injured in the contest +that they soon died; and it is most probable that they fall victims to +each other’s voracity, in the cold, damp season that usually terminates +the autumn of our year.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f66'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r66'>66</a>. That bees are attracted by the hiving-pan is generally considered +as fallacious, and the practice useless.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f67'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r67'>67</a>. See note FF, appendix.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f68'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r68'>68</a>. This creature was first observed, I am told, about the year 1819, +in the nursery garden of Messrs. Miller and Sweet near Bristol, introduced, +as is supposed, on some imported plant. It increases readily +in our climate. The white moss rose (rosa muscosa, var. alba): this +beautiful variety was first produced about the year 1808, in the +garden of Gabriel Goldney, Esq., at Clifton, near Bristol; a branch +of the common red moss rose, becoming diseased, produced its +flowers white. A neighboring nurseryman, being employed by that +gentleman’s gardener to lay down the branch, from cuttings propagated +the variety, and shortly after dispersed many plants.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f69'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r69'>69</a>. See note GG, appendix.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f70'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r70'>70</a>. See note HH, appendix.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f71'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r71'>71</a>. See note II, appendix.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f72'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r72'>72</a>. This agaric is, I believe, unnoticed. I have called it Agaricus +surrectus.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Pileus—convex, expanding, covered with a pile of short, white +hair; centre depressed; faintly tinted with yellow; from one to +three inches in diameter.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Laminæ—loose, irregular, generally four in a set, rather numerous +broad, white, changing to buff, and then pink.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f73'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r73'>73</a>. See note JJ, appendix.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Stipes—solid, tapering upwards, rather thick immediately below +the pileus, three inches high, thick as a reed, white, and often +downy, wrapper at the base.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Many of this species of singular plant I found in October, 1819, +springing from a confluent mass of a. caseus. Bolton’s a. pulvinatus +is something like our plant; but he describes his under side as perfectly +flat, and represents a singularity in the termination of his laminæ, +which is not observable in our a. surrectus.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f74'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r74'>74</a>. See note KK, appendix.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f75'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r75'>75</a>. The ash, generally speaking, will arrive at a very serviceable +age, in sixty years, producing at a low rate twenty-eight feet of +timber, which, at 2<i>s.</i> 3<i>d.</i> the foot, its present value, would produce +a sum equivalent to 3<i>l.</i> 3<i>s.</i>, a silent unheeded profit of above a shilling +a year. A hundred such might have been felled annually from +many farms had they not been topped, which, in consequence of +this practice have produced nothing.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f76'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r76'>76</a>. See note LL, appendix.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f77'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r77'>77</a>. “Mr. Caldcleugh sent home two tubers, which being well manured, even +the first season produced numerous potatoes, and an abundance of leaves.” +<cite>Hort. Transactions</cite>, Vol. V. p. 249. See Humboldt’s interesting discussion +on this plant, which it appears was unknown in Mexico, in <i>Political Essay +on New Spain</i>, book IV. chapter IX.</p> +</div> + +<div class='pbb'> + <hr class='pb c004'> +</div> +<div class='tnotes x-ebookmaker'> + +<div class='chapter ph2'> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> +<div class='nf-center c029'> + <div>TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES</div> + </div> +</div> + +</div> + +<table class='table0'> + <tr> + <th class='c016'>Page</th> + <th class='c016'>Changed from</th> + <th class='c017'>Changed to</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c018'><a href='#t22'>22</a></td> + <td class='c030'>owing was, by reason of its tardy growth, and the dryness of the</td> + <td class='c031'>growing was, by reason of its tardy growth, and the dryness of the</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c018'><a href='#t243'>243</a></td> + <td class='c030'>prays, covered with a cottony web. The other hedge</td> + <td class='c031'>sprays, covered with a cottony web. The other hedge</td> + </tr> +</table> + + <ul class='ul_1'> + <li>Typos fixed; non-standard spelling and dialect retained. + + </li> + <li>Used numbers for footnotes, placing them all at the end of the last chapter. + </li> + </ul> + +</div> + +<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 77852 ***</div> + </body> + <!-- created with ppgen.py 3.57i (with regex) on 2026-02-03 19:08:43 GMT --> +</html> diff --git a/77852-h/images/cover.jpg b/77852-h/images/cover.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..0f918c3 --- /dev/null +++ b/77852-h/images/cover.jpg diff --git a/77852-h/images/i_001.jpg b/77852-h/images/i_001.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..4f5a006 --- /dev/null +++ b/77852-h/images/i_001.jpg diff --git a/77852-h/images/i_004.jpg b/77852-h/images/i_004.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..5ca076e --- /dev/null +++ b/77852-h/images/i_004.jpg diff --git a/77852-h/images/i_115.jpg b/77852-h/images/i_115.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..dea0c76 --- /dev/null +++ b/77852-h/images/i_115.jpg diff --git a/77852-h/images/i_118.jpg b/77852-h/images/i_118.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..0c338c7 --- /dev/null +++ b/77852-h/images/i_118.jpg diff --git a/77852-h/images/i_119.jpg b/77852-h/images/i_119.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..82b2fcb --- /dev/null +++ b/77852-h/images/i_119.jpg diff --git a/77852-h/images/i_213.jpg b/77852-h/images/i_213.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..185e605 --- /dev/null +++ b/77852-h/images/i_213.jpg diff --git a/77852-h/images/i_215.jpg b/77852-h/images/i_215.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..28ab99c --- /dev/null +++ b/77852-h/images/i_215.jpg diff --git a/77852-h/images/i_277.jpg b/77852-h/images/i_277.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..1813b32 --- /dev/null +++ b/77852-h/images/i_277.jpg diff --git a/77852-h/images/i_279.jpg b/77852-h/images/i_279.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..9bb1a3e --- /dev/null +++ b/77852-h/images/i_279.jpg |
