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+ font-size: .8em; + text-decoration: none;} + + +/* Poetry */ +.poetry-container {display: flex; justify-content: center;} +.poetry-container {text-align: center;} +.poetry {text-align: left; margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 5%;} +.poetry {display: inline-block; font-size: 80%} +.poetry .verse {text-indent: -3em; padding-left: 3em;} +.poetry .indentq {text-indent: -3.5em;} + +/* large inline blocks don't split well on paged devices */ +.x-ebookmaker .poetry {display: block; margin-left: 4.5em;} + + +/* Transcriber's notes */ +.transnote {background-color: #E6E6FA; + color: black; + font-size:small; + padding:0.5em; + margin-bottom:5em; + font-family:sans-serif, serif;} + +.transnote p {text-indent: 0em;} + + +/* custom cover (cover.jpg) */ +.customcover {visibility: hidden; display: none;} +.x-ebookmaker .customcover {visibility: visible; display: block;} + + +/* Poetry indents */ +.poetry .indent0 {text-indent: -3.0em;} +.poetry .indent10 {text-indent: 2.0em;} +.poetry .indent12 {text-indent: 3.0em;} +.poetry .indent14 {text-indent: 4.0em;} + + +/* Illustration classes */ +.illowp75 {width: 75%;} +.illowp100 {width: 100%;} + </style> +</head> +<body> +<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 77827 ***</div> + + +<div class="transnote"> +<p><strong>TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE</strong></p> + +<p>Footnote anchors are denoted by <span class="fnanchor">[number]</span>, and the footnotes have been +placed at the end of the book.</p> + +<p>Chapter headings have been made consistent, with the title on a +single line and the author on the following line.</p> + +<p class="customcover">New original cover art included with this eBook is +granted to the public domain.</p> + +<p>Some minor changes to the text are noted at the <a href="#TN">end of the book.</a> +<span class="screenonly">These are indicated by a <ins class="corr">dashed blue</ins> underline.</span></p> + +<p>Volume I of this set of four volumes can be found in Project Gutenberg at:<br> +<a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/74571">https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/74571</a></p> + +<p>Volume II can be found in Project Gutenberg at:<br> +<a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/77792">https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/77792</a></p> +</div> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="cover-orig"> + <img class="w100" src="images/cover-orig.jpg" alt="Original cover" + title="Original cover"> +</figure> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="i_001" style="max-width: 50em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/i_001.jpg" alt="Drawings of various mushrooms"> + <figcaption class="caption">Mushrooms and Other Fungi<br> +<p class="fs80"> + 1, Boletus Satanus; 2, Agaricus Muscarius; 3, Lycoperdon; 4, Morchella Esculenta; + 5, Belvella; 6, Agaricus Campestris; 7, Phallus; 8, Agaricus Phalloides; + 9, Boletus Edulis; 10, Rhizopogon (<i>Truffle</i>)</p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<h1> +THE STORY OF<br> +THE UNIVERSE</h1> + +<p class="pfs120"><em>Told by Great Scientists</em><br> +<span class="wsp2"><em>and Popular Authors</em></span></p> + +<p class="p2 pfs70 wsp">COLLECTED AND EDITED</p> +<p class="pfs100 wsp2"><i>By</i> ESTHER SINGLETON</p> + +<p class="p1 pfs60">Author of “Turrets, Towers and Temples,” “Wonders of Nature,”<br> +“The World’s Great Events,” “Famous Paintings,” Translator<br> +of Lavignac’s “Music Dramas of Richard Wagner”</p> + +<p class="p2 p4b pfs90"><em>FULLY ILLUSTRATED</em></p> + +<div class="bbox"> +<div class="bbox2"> +<p class="pfs100">VOLUME III</p> +<p class="pfs120 lsp2">THE<br> +EARTH’S<br> +GARMENT:<br> +FLORA</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p class="p3 pfs90 lsp2 wsp">P. F. COLLIER AND SON</p> +<p class="pfs80 lsp2">NEW YORK</p> + + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="p6 p6b pfs80 smcap lht"> +Copyright 1905<br> +By P. F. COLLIER & SON</p> + + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_i">[Pg i]</span></p> +<div class="chapter"></div> + <h2 class="p4 nobreak" id="ILLUSTRATIONS"> + ILLUSTRATIONS + </h2> + +<table class="autotable fs90 wd80"> +<tr> +<td class="tdlh"><a href="#i_001">Mushrooms and Fungi</a></td> +<td class="tdr" colspan="2"><i>Frontispiece</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdlh"><a href="#i_052">Familiar Trees</a></td> +<td class="tdc"><i>Opposite</i></td> +<td class="tdr">p. 901</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdlh"><a href="#i_102">Herbs, Useful and Medicinal</a></td> +<td class="tdc">”</td> +<td class="tdr">949</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdlh"><a href="#i_152">Flowers, Curious and Beautiful</a></td> +<td class="tdc">”</td> +<td class="tdr">997</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdlh"><a href="#i_202">Cacti, Rare Flowers, and Fuci</a></td> +<td class="tdc">”</td> +<td class="tdr">1045</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdlh"><a href="#i_252">Cereals and Food Plants</a></td> +<td class="tdc">”</td> +<td class="tdr">1093</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdlh"><a href="#i_302">Bacteria and Vegetable Germs</a></td> +<td class="tdc">”</td> +<td class="tdr">1141</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdlh"><a href="#i_376">Nuts and Fruits</a></td> +<td class="tdc">”</td> +<td class="tdr">1213</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdlh"><a href="#i_426">Lichens</a></td> +<td class="tdc">”</td> +<td class="tdr">1261</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_ii">[ii]</span><br> + <span class="pagenum" id="Page_iii">[iii]</span></p> +<div class="chapter"></div> + + <h2 class="p4 nobreak" id="CONTENTS"> + CONTENTS + </h2> + +<hr class="r15"> + +<table class="autotable fs90 wd80"> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Vegetable Kingdom.</span> David Robertson</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-859">859</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Flora of the Early Mesozoic.</span> Sir J. William Dawson</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-871">871</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Existing Life-Forms of Plants.</span> Edward Clodd</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-887">887</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Plant Geography.</span> Louis Figuier</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-898">898</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Zones of Vegetation.</span> M. J. Schleiden</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-930">930</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Physiognomy of Plants.</span> Alexander von Humboldt</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-946">946</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Genesis of Flowers.</span> Alexander S. Wilson</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-957">957</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Life History of Plants.</span> E. W. Prevost</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-968">968</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Life-Forms of Plants.</span> Edward Clodd</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-975">975</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Classification of Plants.</span> Louis Figuier</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-984">984</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Fruits and Seeds.</span> Lord Avebury</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-1002">1002</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Leaves.</span> R. Lloyd Praeger</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-1016">1016</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Wind-Fertilized Flowers.</span> Alexander S. Wilson</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-1027">1027</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Movements of Plants.</span> David Robertson</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-1037">1037</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Movement in Plants.</span> Charles Darwin</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-1045">1045</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Flower Coloration.</span> Alexander S. Wilson</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-1061">1061</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Queer Flowers.</span> Grant Allen</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-1068">1068</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Athena in the Earth.</span> John Ruskin</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-1077">1077</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Progress of Cultivation.</span> Alphonse de Candolle</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-1091">1091</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Vegetable Mimicry and Homomorphism.</span> Alexander S. Wilson</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-1099">1099</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Bamboo and Plant Growth.</span> R. Camper Day</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-1114">1114</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Reign of Evergreens.</span> Grant Allen</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-1125">1125</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Our Microscopic Foes.</span> A. Winkelried Williams</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-1131">1131</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Forest Formations.</span> M. J. Schleiden</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-1135">1135</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The High Woods.</span> Charles Kingsley <span class="pagenum" id="Page_iv">[iv]</span></td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-1146">1146</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Milk-Sap Plants.</span> M. J. Schleiden</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-1161">1161</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Nuts.</span> Grant Allen</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-1174">1174</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Cactus Tribe.</span> M. J. Schleiden</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-1180">1180</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Fungi.</span> Hugh Macmillan</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-1189">1189</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Fairy Rings.</span> A. B. Steele</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-1204">1204</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Lichens.</span> Hugh Macmillan</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-1208">1208</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Mosses.</span> Hugh Macmillan</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-1220">1220</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">European Sea-Weeds.</span> P. Martin Duncan</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-1230">1230</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Sargassum.</span> Cuthbert Collingwood</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-1263">1263</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Glossary of Botanical Terms</span></td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#GLOSSARY">1269</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p class="p6 p6b pfs135"> +THE STORY OF THE UNIVERSE<br> +<span class="fs60">(VOLUME THREE)</span></p> + + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_859">[Pg 859]</span></p> +<div class="chapter"></div> + + <h2 class="p4 nobreak"> + THE<br> + <span class="fs135">STORY OF THE UNIVERSE</span> + </h2> + +<hr class="r15"> + +<h3 id="I-859"> + THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM<br> + —<span class="smcap">David Robertson</span> +</h3> + + +<p class="drop-capy">There is perhaps scarcely any science that can +be more within the reach of the means of the +humblest student than the science of botany. A +pocket lens, a sharp penknife, and a book descriptive +of the flora of the district or country where one lives +will form a sufficient equipment to enable the student +to name and classify whatever plants he may meet +with in his rambles in search of them.</p> + +<p>It is by no means intended to imply that finding +out the names of plants and being able to classify +them constitute the whole science of botany. The +truth is that many of the problems in connection +with classification are most abstruse, so much so that +even now the most recent and generally received system +of classification can only be considered provisional. +This is especially the case in regard to the +lower forms of vegetable life. The life-history of +many of the most minute and lowly plants is but imperfectly +known, owing to their extreme minuteness +and the different forms which they assume at the +various stages of their life-history.</p> + +<p>This, however, does not detract from the pleasure +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_860">[860]</span>which any one may derive from being able to describe +and name any flowering plants which are to +be found in any country at certain seasons.</p> + +<p>The dependence of mankind on plants is too obvious +to require mention.</p> + +<p>To a large extent the vegetation of a district determines +its character; for without plants no landscape +would possess any particular attractiveness, +and every one knows the depressing effect produced +by a barren, treeless waste. The contrast between +this and fields rich in pasture has occurred to every +one; and a well-wooded country never fails to please +the eye of the observer.</p> + +<p>Mighty forests, teeming with life, have a powerful +influence on the imagination; and the value of +forests both as regards their effect on climate and +their economic importance has been so thoroughly +recognized that in the case of India stringent measures +have been adopted for their preservation.</p> + +<p>Some knowledge of plant life also enables one to +guard against the evil and often fatal effects produced +by eating poisonous fruits and poisonous +fungi.</p> + +<p>Some of the lowly organized flowerless plants are +man’s most deadly and insidious enemies. These +from their excessive minuteness are quite invisible +to the naked eye.</p> + +<p>Before proceeding further, it will be necessary to +give a brief account of the different parts which +go to compose the complete flowering plant. The +reader who desires a full and detailed account of +the different organs of the flowering and flowerless +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_861">[861]</span>plants will find this in any standard text-book of +botany.</p> + +<p>We will take any full-grown flowering plant and +begin with the root.</p> + +<p>The root may be called the descending portion of +the axis.</p> + +<p>The ascending portion of the axis is usually supplied +with leaves, flowers, and green coloring matter, +whereas the root is usually devoid of these.</p> + +<p>The root generally penetrates into the soil and fulfils +a double function.</p> + +<p>It is by means of the roots that the plant is attached +to the earth and prevented from being blown +about by the winds.</p> + +<p>In the case of large forest trees, the far-spreading +roots have an immense power of resistance. The +large surface of a giant tree in full leaf has to endure +an enormous lateral pressure during a high wind, and +even hurricanes may fail to uproot a large tree, +which they may snap asunder. Not only does the +root by penetrating the soil attach the plant to the +earth, but it absorbs nourishment from the soil for +the support of the plant. The root, therefore, fulfils +a double function.</p> + +<p>The root is at first furnished with a conical hood +of cellular tissue, <em>i. e.</em>, tissue consisting entirely of +cells or little closed bags made up of an outside wall +and contents.</p> + +<p>The root cup is well seen in some kinds of water-plants, +such as duckweed.</p> + +<p>There are plants whose roots do not descend. Certain +plants hang from the branches of trees, and +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_862">[862]</span>though they have roots these roots never penetrate +the soil. Plants of this kind are called Epiphytes +(Greek <em>epi</em>, upon, and <em>phyton</em>, plant). Aerial orchids, +which grow in warm and moist parts of India +and other countries, are attached to branches of trees +or other kinds of support, and their roots hang down +from the peculiar stems and are very soft and delicate +at the tips.</p> + +<p>It must be borne in mind that there is no absolute +distinction between root and stem; for some trees +have roots which form lateral buds, viz., <i>Pyrus japonica</i>, +<i>Maclura aurantiaca</i>, and many others.</p> + +<p>This is quite in accordance with the fact that in the +organic world different organs frequently shade into +one another.</p> + +<p>The true root of the plant in its earliest state of +existence, that is, as it exists in the seed prior to germination, +is the downward prolongation of the axis.</p> + +<p>In the case of the division of flowering plants +called Monocotyledons (Greek <em>monos</em>, single, and +<em>kotyledon</em>, seed-leaf), and in such so-called flowerless +plants as ferns, the lower end of the axis soon ceases +to grow and the roots which supply these plants with +nourishment are really lateral growths. The roots +of plants are variously named. Sometimes the +branches of the roots are small, and the central axis +thick and of considerable length. This kind of root +is named a tap-root, and may be well seen in the +carrot.</p> + +<p>In the turnip, beet, and other plants, where this +organ is developed in such a manner as to serve as a +reservoir of nutriment, the root is tuberous.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_863">[863]</span></p> + +<p>Many roots are fibrous; this may be well seen in +grasses.</p> + +<p>The perennial woody forms of fibrous roots are +very characteristic of shrubby Dicotyledons (plants +with two seed-leaves).</p> + +<p>Leaves are of two kinds, namely, foliage-leaves +and flower-leaves.</p> + +<p>A leaf is generally a broad, flat, horizontal surface. +It is usually thin, and can be divided by a perpendicular +plane, the median plane, into two similar +halves.</p> + +<p>When the leaves are what is called symmetrical, +the parts into which they are divided are counterparts.</p> + +<p>If one of these parts were held in front of a looking-glass, +the reflected image of this part would represent +the part from which it had been separated.</p> + +<p>Many leaves, however, can not thus be divided. +When this is the case they are said to be unsymmetrical.</p> + +<p>The tropical plant begonia affords an excellent +example of an unsymmetrical leaf.</p> + +<p>The leaves of the spruce are not flat but needle-shaped.</p> + +<p>In rushes and many species of stone-crops the +leaves are cylindrical or round.</p> + +<p>The leaf consists of three parts, viz., the sheath, the +stalk or petiole, and the lamina or blade. The sheath +incloses the stem at the insertion of the leaf, and has +a tubular or sheath-like form. It is well seen in +grasses and such plants as celery, corn, parsnip, carrot, +and other plants belonging to the <i>Umbelliferæ</i> +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_864">[864]</span>[Lat. <em>umbella</em> (<i lang="la">umbra</i>, shade), little shade, and +<i lang="la">ferre</i>, to bear].</p> + +<p>The leaf-stalk is narrow, and has a semi-cylindrical +or prismatic form, bearing at its end the expanded +leaf.</p> + +<p>When the stalk is flattened and resembles a leaf, as +in the case of the Australian acacias, it is termed a +phyllode (Greek <em>phyllon</em>, a leaf, and <em>eidos</em>, form).</p> + +<p>Many leaves have no sheath, but only the stalk and +the blade. This is the case in the maple and gourd.</p> + +<p>The leaves of the grasses have no stalk, but only +sheath and blade.</p> + +<p>The blade is often the only part present, as in the +tobacco plant and tiger-lily. Small appendages, +looked upon as belonging to the sheath, are frequently +present, and are termed stipules (from Lat. +<i>stipula</i>, blade). Leaves having these appendages are +called stipulate, and leaves devoid of them are exstipulate +(from Lat. <i lang="la">ex</i>, privative, without, and +<i lang="la">stipula</i>, blade).</p> + +<p>A few plants, such as grasses, have a small outgrowth +from the inner upper surface of the leaf at +the part where the sheath and the blade are joined. +This outgrowth is named a ligule (from Lat. <i lang="la">ligula</i>, +a little tongue).</p> + +<p>If a leaf is carefully examined it will be found that +the internal tissues differ in character. The fundamental +tissue is generally green, and is named the +messophyll (Greek, <em>mesos</em>, or <em>messos</em>, middle, and +<em>phyllon</em>, leaf).</p> + +<p>It will be seen that bands run through the fundamental +tissue called the veins of the leaf. These +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_865">[865]</span>veins consist of what are termed fibro-vascular bundles. +They endure longer than the fundamental tissue, +and may frequently be seen after the leaf is +withered and dead, forming the skeleton of the +leaf.</p> + +<p>The arrangement of the veins or fibro-vascular +bundles is characteristic of large groups of plants.</p> + +<p>In the narrow linear leaves of grasses the stronger +veins run almost parallel. In broad leaves, such as +those of the lily-of-the-valley, the veins curve, but +do not form a network of tracery as in oaks and other +Dicotyledons. The margin of leaves is frequently +divided, but the technical terms used in describing +such leaves can be found in any text-book of botany. +They may either be simple or compound. A simple +leaf consists of a single lamina, however much it may +be divided, provided the divisions do not extend to +the central vein or midrib. A leaf is compound +when, besides the principal leaf-stalks, a number of +lateral leaf-stalks exist bearing at their ends laminæ. +The leaves of many plants are compound. The sensitive +plant (<i>Mimosa pudica</i>) furnishes an excellent +example of the compound leaf.</p> + +<p>The characteristic color of foliage leaves is green, +and they are so arranged as to receive as much sunlight +as possible. The importance of the plant receiving +a good supply of light will be referred to +when treating of the growth of plants. It is as true +of plants as of animals that the organs most suitable +for their surroundings are so arranged as to be most +advantageous to the individual. Had leaves been +placed vertically they would only have received diffused +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_866">[866]</span>sunlight instead of the direct rays of the sun. +No vegetable life could exist but for the sun, as +plants not only require light but heat as well.</p> + +<p>When the foliage leaves are small they are very +numerous, as may be seen in conifers; and when these +leaves are large they are not nearly so numerous as, +for example, in the sunflower.</p> + +<p>Sometimes leaves may consist of scales. These +scales are always found on stems growing underground, +as in the onion; but they sometimes occur on +stems growing above-ground.</p> + +<p>Such plants as <i>Orobanche</i> and <i>Neottia</i> have no +other kind of leaves except scales.</p> + +<p>The leaves are developed very near the apex of the +growing stem.</p> + +<p>The portions of the stem which lie between the +leaves are termed the internodes, and the parts where +the leaves are inserted are termed the nodes.</p> + +<p>Leaves are arranged in various ways, intimately +connected with the order of their development. They +may be developed so that three or more are at the +same level on the stem; this arrangement is termed +a <em>whorl</em>. Or they may be developed singly; this arrangement +is termed <em>scattered</em>. For a full account +of the various leaf-arrangements any text-book on +botany may be consulted.</p> + +<p>We have here merely referred to some of the more +obvious arrangements of the leaves.</p> + +<p>Certain leaves possess a remarkably abnormal +shape; for example, stone-crops have cylindrical +leaves; if the leaf of an agave is cut across, the section +is triangular; leeks, again, are tube-shaped; the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_867">[867]</span>central cavity being due to the rapid growth of the +outer tissue. These leaves are all juicy or succulent; +certain other leaves are leathery, that is, they have +a harder and thicker epidermis than the succulent +leaves, and may last for several years, as, for example, +in the holly and box.</p> + +<p>Spines and tendrils are modifications of leaves, or +parts of leaves. The tendrils are formed out of entire +leaves, midribs, leaflets, or stipules. Both spines and +tendrils, however, may be modified branches of the +stem.</p> + +<p>In buds the leaves are packed or folded in various +ways. This is best seen before the buds are opened in +spring. The buds may then be pulled carefully to +pieces, and in this way the manner in which the leaves +are folded can be studied.</p> + +<p>We now come to the flower.</p> + +<p>Flowers consist of leaves modified in different +ways.</p> + +<p>Take, for example, the flower of the orange. The +flower will be seen to be borne on a short branch +which serves as the stalk, and is distinguished by +the name of peduncle (from Lat. <i lang="la">pedunculus</i>, little +stalk). It will be seen that there are no internodes +between the flower-leaves.</p> + +<p>The lowest and outermost part of the flower forms +a little cup having upon its margin fine small teeth, +indicating the number of leaves which are joined together +so as to form the cup or calyx.</p> + +<p>These leaves are named (from Lat. <i lang="la">calyx</i>, a covering; +Greek <em>kalyx</em>, from <em>kalyptein</em>, to cover) the calyx-leaves, +or sepals (French <i lang="fr">sépale</i>). Although they +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_868">[868]</span>are united in the flower of the orange, they are often +separate in other plants.</p> + +<p>In the sacred Lotus or Padma or Pudma of India +the sepals are separate or free. The leaves immediately +inside the calyx are usually five in number. +They are erect, or only slightly curved, and do +not grow together like the leaves of the calyx. They +are white and wax-like. These leaves form together +what is termed the corolla, and the separate leaves +of the corolla (from Lat. <i lang="la">corolla</i>, a little wreath) are +termed petals (from Greek <em>petalon</em>, leaf). In the +case of the orange the petals fall early away.</p> + +<p>If the calyx and petals are carefully removed, the +next part of the flower can be observed.</p> + +<p>This series of flower-leaves differs very much in +structure from both sepals and petals. Each leaf of +this series consists of a linear stalk-like portion, bearing +an upper somewhat long and grooved head. The +stalk is named the filament, and the oblong head is +named the anther (Greek <em>anthos</em>, a flower). The +stalk and the head together form what is called the +stamen (Lat. <i lang="la">stamen</i>, [Greek <em>histanai</em>, to stand] fibre; +literally, the warp in the upright loom of the ancients). +The stamens of the orange are rather shorter +than the petals, and are united to each other.</p> + +<p>When the anther is mature, each of its grooves +splits near the edge, and allows the fine powdery +granules which fill the anthers to be removed by insects +or by other means. This fine powder is named +the pollen, and each of the granules composing it is +named a pollen grain. If the stamens are now removed +the centre of the flower alone is left.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_869">[869]</span></p> + +<p>If the lower part of the centre of the flower be cut +across, it will be found to be divided into a large +number of cavities containing the minute rudiments +of future seeds. It will be seen that there are ten +cavities, though they may vary in number. The central +organ of the flower is named the pistil (from +Lat. <i lang="la">pistillum</i>, pestle). The pistil is usually composed +of united leaves.</p> + +<p>The separate leaves of the pistil are termed carpels +(from Greek <em>karpos</em>, fruit). These leaves are sometimes +not combined, as they are in the orange. The +style belongs to the carpel, and varies considerably in +length, as well as in stoutness, in different flowers. +Although the carpels may be united, the styles may +remain completely separate, as, for example, in the +pink, or, as in the fuchsia, they may be combined +into a single rod.</p> + +<p>The pollen grains (Lat. fine flour) contained in the +anther are composed of very rich protoplasm (Greek +<em>protos</em>, first; <em>plasma</em>, formative matter), which usually +has in it small drops of oil and small starch +granules. The pollen grains are bounded by two +principal layers, an outer and an inner; the purpose +of the outer layer (which is often provided with +thickenings in the shape of knots, spines, etc.) being +to preserve the contents of the grain from evaporation.</p> + +<p>The inner layer is living and capable of growth, +and at certain spots it possesses thickenings which +project into the protoplasm. Opposite to these the +external cuticle is frequently thinner, and this eventually +is lifted off as a sort of lid, and through this the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_870">[870]</span>inner substance can grow out, and is then named the +pollen tube.</p> + +<p>When the anther lobes open to discharge their +pollen grains, these grains are completely developed.</p> + +<p>The grains fall on the part of the ovary named the +stigma (Greek <em>stigma</em>, a puncture made with a sharp +instrument; here it means a sharp point or apex) and +the inner layer begins to force its way out. The tube +is produced from the contents of the pollen grain, +and is formed by growth, just as any other part of +the plant. The pollen tube passes down to the ovules, +the route depending on the length of the style. The +time taken by the pollen tube to reach the ovary may +amount to a few hours in certain plants, while it needs +months in others. It is necessary that at least one +pollen tube should enter the mouth of the ovule before +it can develop into a seed. The seed, when +mature, contains the embryo plant.</p> + +<p>It is not possible for an ovule in numerous cases to +be fertilized by pollen from stamens that grow near +it in the same flower.</p> + +<p>It not unfrequently happens that a flower possesses +stamens and no pistil, or a pistil and no stamens. +Flowers of this kind are technically termed diœcious +(Greek <em>dis</em>, twice, and <em>oikia</em> or <em>oikos</em>, place of abode), +if the male and female flowers are on different plants. +The flowers of such plants as oaks and birches are +male and female, but are borne on the same plant, +hence termed monœcious (Greek <em>monos</em>, single). +The flowers that contain stamens only are called male +flowers, and those containing pistils only are named +female flowers.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_871">[871]</span></p> + +<p>The oaks and birches, as has been stated, have both +the male and female flowers on the same plant, +though in other cases the male flower is borne on +one plant and the female flower on another.</p> + +<p>In cases like these the wind carries the pollen from +one plant to another. In wind-fertilized flowers the +flower is usually produced prior to the foliage leaves, +or at least before the plant is crowded with leaves.</p> + +<p>These plants produce an immense amount of +pollen.</p> + +<p>Besides the transference of pollen by the agency +of the wind, insect agency plays a very important +part. These insect-fertilized plants are much more +conspicuous than those fertilized by the wind.</p> + +<p>There are numerous natural contrivances in plants +to prevent self-fertilization, as this process of self-fertilization +is far less effective in producing seeds +than when the ovules are fertilized by pollen from +another plant of the same species.</p> + +<p>In some plants the stigma is mature before the +anther, and in such a case the pollen must be brought +from a flower that has bloomed a little earlier than +itself.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-871"> + FLORA OF THE EARLY MESOZOIC<br> + —<span class="smcap">Sir J. William Dawson</span> +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">Great physical changes occurred at the close +of the Carboniferous age. The thick beds of +sediment that had been accumulating in long lines +along the primitive continents had weighed down +the earth’s crust. Slow subsidence had been proceeding +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_872">[872]</span>from this cause in the coal-formation period, +and at its close vast wrinklings occurred, only surpassed +by those of the old Laurentian time. Hence +in the Appalachian region of America we have the +Carboniferous beds thrown into abrupt folds, their +shales converted into hard slates, their sandstones +into quartzite and their coals into anthracite, and +all this before the deposition of the Triassic Red +Sandstones which constitute the earliest deposit of +the great succeeding Mesozoic period. In like manner +the coal-fields of Wales and elsewhere in western +Europe have suffered similar treatment, and apparently +at the same time.</p> + +<p>This folding is, however, on both sides of the Atlantic +limited to a band on the margin of the continents, +and to certain interior lines of pressure, +while in the middle, as in Ohio and Illinois in +America, and in the great interior plains of Europe, +the coal-beds are undisturbed and unaltered. In +connection with this we have an entire change in the +physical character of the deposits, a great elevation +of the borders of the continents, and probably a considerable +deepening of the seas, leading to the establishment +of general geographical conditions which +still remain, though they have been temporarily +modified by subsequent subsidences and re-elevations.</p> + +<p>Along with this a great change was in progress in +vegetable and animal life. The flora and fauna of +the Palæozoic gradually die out in the Permian +and are replaced in the succeeding Trias by those +of the Mesozoic time. Throughout the Permian, +however, the remains of the coal-formation flora +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_873">[873]</span>continue to exist, and some forms, as the <i>Calamites</i>, +even seem to gain in importance, as do also certain +types of coniferous trees. The Triassic, as well as +the Permian, was marked by physical disturbances, +more especially by great volcanic eruptions discharging +vast beds and dikes of lava, and layers of +volcanic ash and agglomerate. This was the case +more especially along the margins of the Atlantic, +and probably also on those of the Pacific. The volcanic +sheets and dikes associated with the Red +Sandstones of Nova Scotia, Connecticut, and New +Jersey are evidences of this.</p> + +<p>At the close of the Permian and beginning of the +Trias, in the midst of this transition time of physical +disturbance, appear the great reptilian forms characteristic +of the age of reptiles, and the earliest precursors +of the mammals, and at this time the old +Carboniferous forms of plants finally pass away, to +be replaced by a flora scarcely more advanced, +though different, and consisting of pines, cycads, and +ferns, with gigantic equiseta, which are the successors +of the genus <i>Calamites</i>, a genus which still survives +in the early Trias. Of these groups the +conifers, the ferns, and the equiseta are already familiar +to us, and, in so far as they are concerned, a +botanist who had studied the flora of the Carboniferous +would have found himself at home in the succeeding +period. The cycads are a new introduction. +The whole, however, come within the limits of the +cryptogams and the gymnosperms, so that here we +have no advance.</p> + +<p>As we ascend, however, in the Mesozoic, we find +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_874">[874]</span>new and higher types. Even within the Jurassic epoch, +the next in succession to the Trias, there are clear +indications of the presence of the endogens, in species +allied to the screw-pines and grasses; and the palms +appear a little later, while a few exogenous trees have +left their remains in the Lower Cretaceous, and in +the Middle and Upper Cretaceous these higher +plants come in abundantly and in generic forms still +extant, so that the dawn of the modern flora belongs +to the Middle and Upper Cretaceous. It will thus +be convenient to confine ourselves in this chapter +to the flora of the earlier Mesozoic.</p> + +<p>Passing over for the present the cryptogamous plants +already familiar in older deposits, we may notice +the new features of gymnospermous and phænogamous +life, as they present themselves in this earlier +part of the great reptilian age, and as they extended +themselves with remarkable uniformity in this period +over all parts of the world. For it is a remarkable +fact that, if we place together in our collections +fossil plants of this period from Australia, India, +China, Siberia, Europe, or even from Greenland, +we find wonderfully little difference in their aspect. +This uniformity prevailed in the Palæozoic flora; +and it is perhaps equally marked in that of the +Mesozoic. Still we must bear in mind that some +of the plants of these periods, as the ferns and pines, +for example, are still world-wide in their distribution; +but this does not apply to others, more especially +the cycads.</p> + +<p>The cycads constitute a singular and exceptional +type in the modern world, and are limited at present +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_875">[875]</span>to the warmer climates, though very generally distributed +in these, as they occur in Africa, India, +Japan, Australia, Mexico, Florida, and the West +Indies. In the Mesozoic age, however, they were +world-wide in their distribution, and are found +as far north as Greenland, though most of the species +found in the Cretaceous of that country are of small +size, and may have been of low growth, so that they +may have been protected by the snows of winter. +The cycads have usually simple or unbranching +stems, pinnate leaves borne in a crown at top, and +fruits which, though somewhat various in structure +and arrangement, are all of the simpler form of +gymnospermous type. The stems are exogenous in +structure, but with slender wood and thick bark, +and barred tissue, or properly as tissue intermediate +between this and the disk-bearing fibres of +the pines.</p> + +<p>The greater part of the cycads of the Mesozoic age +would seem to have had short stems and to have +constituted the undergrowth of woods in which +conifers attained to greater height. An interesting +case of this is the celebrated dirt-bed of the quarries +of the Isle of Portland, long ago described by Dean +Buckland. In this fossil soil trunks of pines, which +must have attained to great height, are interspersed +with the short, thick stems of cycads, of the genus +named <i>Cycadoidea</i> by Buckland, and which from +their appearance are called “fossil birds’ nests” by +the quarrymen. Some, however, must have attained +a considerable height so as to resemble palms.</p> + +<p>The cycads, with their simple, thick trunks, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_876">[876]</span>usually marked with rhombic scars, and bearing +broad spreading crowns of large, elegantly formed +pinnate leaves, must have formed a prominent part +of the vegetation of the Northern Hemisphere during +the whole of the Mesozoic period. A botanist, +had there been such a person at the time, would have +found this to be the case everywhere from the equator +to Spitzbergen, and probably in the Southern +Hemisphere as well, and this throughout all the long +periods from the Early Trias to the Middle Cretaceous. +In a paper published in the <cite>Linnæan +Transactions</cite> for 1868, Dr. Carruthers enumerates +twenty species of British Mesozoic cycads, and the +number might now be considerably increased.</p> + +<p>The pines present some features of interest. In +the Mesozoic we have great numbers of beautiful +trees, with those elegant fan-shaped leaves characteristic +of but one living species, the <i>Salisburia</i>, +or gingko-tree of China. It is curious that this tree, +though now limited to eastern Asia, will grow, +though it rarely fruits, in most parts of temperate +Europe, and in America as far north as Montreal, +and that in the Mesozoic period it occupied all these +regions, and even Siberia and Greenland, and with +many and diversified species.</p> + +<p><i>Salisburia</i> belongs to the yews, but an equally +curious fact applies to the cypresses. The genus +<i>Sequoia</i>, limited at present to two species, both Californian, +and one of them the so-called “big tree,” +celebrated for the gigantic size to which it attains, +is represented by species found as far back at least +as the Lower Cretaceous, and in every part of the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_877">[877]</span>Northern Hemisphere.⁠<a id="FNanchor_1_1" href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> It seems to have thriven +in all these regions throughout the Mesozoic and +early Kainozoic, and then to have disappeared, leaving +only a small remnant to represent it in modern +days. A number of species have been described +from the Mesozoic and Tertiary, all of them closely +related to those now existing.</p> + +<p>The name itself deserves consideration. It is that +of an Indian of the Cherokee tribe, Sequo Yah, who +invented an alphabet without any aid from the outside +world of culture, and taught it to his tribe by +writing it upon leaves. This came into general use +among the Cherokees before the white man had any +knowledge of it; and afterward, in 1828, a periodical +was published in this character by the missionaries. +Sequo Yah was banished from his home in Alabama, +with the rest of his tribe, and settled in New Mexico, +where he died in 1843.</p> + +<p>When Endlicher was preparing his synopsis of the +conifers, in 1846, and had established a number of +new genera, Dr. Jacbon Tschudi, then living with +Endlicher, brought before his notice this remarkable +man, and asked him to dedicate this red-wooded tree +to the memory of a literary genius so conspicuous +among the red men of America. Endlicher consented +to do so, and only endeavored to make the +name pronounceable by changing two of its letters.</p> + +<p>Endlicher founded the genus on the redwood of +the Americans, <i>Taxodium sempervirens</i> of Lamb; +and named the species <i>Sequoia sempervirens</i>. These +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_878">[878]</span>trees form large forests in California, which extend +along the coast as far as Oregon. Trees are +there met with of 300 feet in height and 20 feet +in diameter. The seeds were brought to Europe a +number of years ago, and we already see in upper +Italy and around the Lake of Geneva, and in England, +high trees; but, on the other hand, they have +not proved successful around Zurich.</p> + +<p>In 1852, a second species of Sequoia was discovered +in California, which, under the name of big +tree, soon attained a considerable celebrity. Lindley +described it, in 1853, as <i>Wellingtonia gigantea</i>; and, +in the following year, Decaisne and Torrey proved +that it belonged to Sequoia, and that it accordingly +should be called <i>Sequoia gigantea</i>.</p> + +<p>While the <i>Sequoia sempervirens</i>, in spite of the +destructiveness of the American lumbermen, still +forms large forests along the coasts, the <i>Sequoia +gigantea</i> is confined to the isolated clumps which are +met with inland at a height of 5,000 to 7,000 feet +above sea-level, and are much sought after by tourists +as one of the wonders of the country. Reports +came to Europe concerning the largest of them +which were quite fabulous, but we have received +accurate accounts of them from Professor Whitney. +The tallest tree measured by him has a height of +325 feet, and in the case of one of the trees the number +of the rings of growth indicated an age of about +1,300 years. It had a girth of 50 to 60 feet.</p> + +<p>We know only two living species of <i>Sequoia</i>, both +of which are confined to California. The one (<i>S. +sempervirens</i>) is clothed with erect leaves, arranged +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_879">[879]</span>in two rows, very much like our yew-tree, and bears +small, round cones; the other (<i>S. gigantea</i>) has +smaller leaves, set closely against the branches, giving +the tree more the appearance of the cypress. The +cones are egg-shaped, and much larger. These two +types are, therefore, sharply defined.</p> + +<p>Both of these trees have an interesting history. If +we go back into the Tertiary, this same genus meets +us with a long array of species. Two of these species +correspond to those living at present: the <i>S. Langsdorfii</i> +to the <i>S. sempervirens</i>, and the <i>S. Couttsiæ</i> to +the <i>S. gigantea</i>. But, while the living species are +confined to California, in the Tertiary they are spread +over several quarters of the globe.</p> + +<p>Let us first consider the <i>Sequoia Langsdorfii</i>. This +was first discovered in the lignite of Wetterau, and +was described as <i>Taxites Langsdorfii</i>. Heer found +it in the upper Rhone district, and there lay beside +the twigs the remains of a cone, which showed that +the <i>Taxites Langsdorfii</i> of Brongniart belonged to +the Californian genus <i>Sequoia</i> established by Endlicher. +He afterward found much better preserved +cones, together with seeds, along with the plants of +east Greenland, which fully confirmed the determination. +At Atanekerdluk in Greenland (about 70° +north latitude) this tree is very common. The +leaves, and also the flowers and numerous cones, +leave no doubt that it stands very near to the modern +redwood. It differs from it, however, in having +a much larger number of scales in the cone. The +tree is also found in Spitzbergen at nearly 78° north +latitude, where Nordenskiöld has collected, at Cape +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_880">[880]</span>Lyell, wonderfully preserved branches. From this +high latitude the species can be followed down +through the whole of Europe as far as the middle +of Italy (at Senegaglia, Gulf of Spezia). In Asia, +also, we can follow it to the steppes of Kirghisen, +to Possiet, and to the coast of the sea of Japan, and +across to Alaska and Sitka. It is recognized by Mr. +Starkie Gardner as one of the species found in the +Eocene of Mull in the Hebrides. It is thus known +in Europe, Asia, and America from 43° to 78° north +latitude, while its most nearly related living species, +perhaps even descended from it, is now confined to +California.</p> + +<p>With this <i>S. Langsdorfii</i>, three other Tertiary +species are nearly related (<i>S. brevifolia</i>, Hr., <i>S. +disticha</i>, Hr., and <i>S. Nordenskiöldi</i>, Hr.). These +have been met with in Greenland and Spitzbergen +and one of them has been found in the United +States. Three other species, in addition to these, +have been described by Lesquereux, which appear +to belong to the group of the <i>S. Langsdorfii</i>, viz., +<i>S. longifolia</i>, Lesq., <i>S. angustifolia</i>, and <i>S. acuminata</i>, +Lesq. Several species also occur in the +Cretaceous and Eocene of Canada.</p> + +<p>These species thus answer to the living <i>Sequoia +sempervirens</i>; but we can also point to Tertiary +representatives of the <i>S. gigantea</i>. Their leaves are +stiff and sharp-pointed, are thinly set round the +branches, and lie forward in the same way: the egg-shaped +cones are in some cases similar.</p> + +<p>There are, however, in the early Tertiary six +species, which fill up the gap between <i>S. sempervirens</i> +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_881">[881]</span>and <i>S. gigantea</i>. They are the <i>S. Couttsiæ</i>, +<i>S. affinis</i>, Lesq., <i>S. imbricata</i>, Hr., <i>S. sibirica</i>, Hr., +<i>S. Heerii</i>, Lesq., and <i>S. biformis</i>, Lesq. Of these, +<i>S. Couttsiæ</i>, Hr., is the most common and most important +species. It has short leaves, lying along the +branch, like <i>S. gigantea</i>, and small, round cones, like +<i>S. Langsdorfii</i> and <i>sempervirens</i>. Bovey Tracey in +Devonshire has afforded splendid specimens of +cones, seeds, and twigs, which have been described +in the <cite>Philosophical Transactions</cite>. More lately, +Count Saporta has described specimens of cones and +twigs from Armissan. Specimens of this species +have also been found in the older Tertiary of Greenland, +so that it must have had a wide range. It is +very like to the American <i>S. affinis</i>, Lesq.</p> + +<p>In the Tertiary there have been found fourteen +well-marked species, which thus include representatives +of the two living types, <i>S. sempervirens</i> and +<i>S. gigantea</i>.</p> + +<p>We can follow this genus still further back. If we +go back to the Cretaceous age, we find ten species, +of which five occur in the Urgon of the Lower Cretaceous, +two in the Middle, and three in the Upper +Cretaceous. Among these, the Lower Cretaceous exhibits +the two types of the <i>Sequoia sempervirens</i> and +<i>S. gigantea</i>. To the former the <i>S. Smithiana</i> answers, +and to the latter, the <i>Reichenbachii</i>, Gein. +The <i>S. Smithiana</i> stands indeed uncommonly near +the <i>S. Langsdorfii</i>, both in the appearance of the +leaves on the twigs and in the shape of the cones. +These are, however, smaller, and the leaves do not +become narrower toward the base. The <i>S. pectina</i>, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_882">[882]</span>Hr., of the Upper Cretaceous, has its leaves arranged +in two rows, and presents a similar appearance. The +<i>S. Reichenbachii</i> is a type more distinct from those +now living and those in the Tertiary. It has indeed +stiff, pointed leaves, lying forward, but they are +arcuate, and the cones are smaller. This tree has +been known for a long time, and it serves in the Cretaceous +as a guiding star, which we can follow from +the Urgonian of the Lower Cretaceous up to the +Cenomanian. It is known in France, Belgium, Bohemia, +Saxony, Greenland, and Spitzbergen (also in +Canada and the United States). It has been placed +in another genus—Geinitzia—but we can recognize, +by the help of the cones, that it belongs to Sequoia.</p> + +<p>Below this, there is found in Greenland a nearly +related species, the <i>S. ambigua</i>, Hr., of which the +leaves are shorter and broader, and the cones round +and somewhat smaller.</p> + +<p>The connecting link between <i>S. Smithiana</i> and +<i>Reichenbachii</i> is formed by <i>S. subulata</i>, Hr., and +<i>S. rigida</i>, Hr., and three species (<i>S. gracilis</i>, Hr., +<i>S. fastigiata</i> and <i>S. Gardneriana</i>, Carr.), with leaves +lying closely along the branch, and which come very +near to the Tertiary species <i>S. Couttsiæ</i>. We have, +therefore, in the Cretaceous quite an array of species, +which fill up the gap between the <i>S. sempervirens</i> +and <i>gigantea</i>, and show us that the genus +Sequoia had already attained a great development +in the Cretaceous. This was still greater in the Tertiary, +in which it also reached its maximum of geographical +distribution. Into the present world the +two extremes of the genus have alone continued; the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_883">[883]</span>numerous species forming its main body have fallen +out in the Tertiary.</p> + +<p>If we look still further back, we find in the Jura +a great number of conifers, and, among them, we +meet in the genus Pinus with a type which is highly +developed, and which still survives; but for Sequoia +we have till now looked in vain, so that for the present +we can not place the rise of the genus lower than +the Urgonian of the Cretaceous, however remarkable +we may think it that in that period it should have +developed into so many species; and it is still more +surprising that two species already make their appearance +which approach so near to the living <i>Sequoia +sempervirens</i> and <i>S. gigantea</i>.</p> + +<p>Altogether, we have become acquainted, up to the +present time, with twenty-six species of Sequoia. +Fourteen of these species are found in the Arctic +zone, and have been described and figured in the +<cite>Fossil Flora of the Arctic Regions</cite>. Sequoia has +been recognized by Ettingshausen even in Australia, +but there in the Eocene.</p> + +<p>This is, perhaps, the most remarkable record in the +whole history of vegetation. The Sequoias are the +giants of the conifers, the grandest representatives +of the family; and the fact that, after spreading over +the whole Northern Hemisphere and attaining to +more than twenty specific forms, their decaying +remnant should now be confined to one limited +region in western America⁠<a id="FNanchor_2_2" href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> and to two species constitutes +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_884">[884]</span>a sad memento of departed greatness. The +small remnant of <i>S. gigantea</i> still, however, towers +above all competitors as eminently the “big trees”; +but, had they and the allied species failed to escape +the Tertiary continental submergences and the disasters +of the glacial period, this grand genus would +have been to us an extinct type. In like manner the +survival of the single gingko of eastern Asia alone +enables us to understand that great series of taxine +trees with fern-like leaves of which it is the sole +representative.</p> + +<p>Besides these peculiar and now rare forms, we +have in the Mesozoic many others related closely to +existing yews, cypresses, pines, and spruces, so that +the conifers were probably in greater abundance and +variety than they are at this day.</p> + +<p>In this period also we find the earliest representatives +of the endogenous plants. It is true that +some plants found in the coal-formation have been +doubtfully referred to these, but the earliest certain +examples would seem to be some bamboo-like and +screw-pine-like plants occurring in the Jurassic +rocks. Some of these are, it is true, doubtful forms, +but of others there seems to be no question. The +modern <i>Pandanus</i> or screw-pine of the tropical +regions, which is not a pine, however, but a humble +relation of the palms, is a stiffly branching tree, of +a candelabra-like form, and with tufts of long leaves +on its branches, and nuts or great hard berries for +fruit, borne sometimes in larger masses, and so protected +as to admit of their drifting uninjured on the +sea. The stems are supported by masses of aerial +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_885">[885]</span>roots like those which strengthen the stems of tree-ferns. +These structures and habits of growth fit the +Pandanus for its especial habitat on the shores of +tropical islands, where its masses of nuts are drifted +by the winds and currents, and on whose shores it +can establish itself by the aid of its aerial roots.</p> + +<p>Some plants referred to the cycads have proved +veritable botanical puzzles. One of these, the <i>Williamsonia +gigas</i> of the English oölite, originally discovered +by my friend, Dr. Williamson, and named +by him <i>Zamia gigas</i>, a very tall and beautiful species, +found in rocks of this age in various parts of +Europe, has been claimed by Saporta for the Endogens, +as a plant allied to <i>Pandanus</i>. Some other +botanists have supposed the flowers and fruits to be +parasites on other plants, like the modern <i>Rafflesia</i> +of Sumatra, but it is possible that after all it may +prove to have been an aberrant cycad.</p> + +<p>The tree-palms are not found earlier than the +Middle Cretaceous. In like manner, though a few +Angiosperms occur in rocks believed to be Lower +or Lower Middle Cretaceous in Greenland and the +Northwest Territory of Canada, and in Virginia, these +are merely precursors of those of the Upper Cretaceous, +and are not sufficient to redeem the earlier +Cretaceous from being a period of pines and cycads.</p> + +<p>On the whole, this early Mesozoic flora, so far as +known to us, has a monotonous and mean appearance. +It no doubt formed vast forests of tall pines, perhaps +resembling the giant Sequoias of California; +but they must for the most part have been dark and +dismal woods, probably tenanted by few forms of +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_886">[886]</span>life, for the great reptiles of this age must have preferred +the open and sunny coasts, and many of them +dwelt in the waters. Still we must not be too sure +of this. The berries and nuts of the numerous yews +and cycads were capable of affording much food. +We know that in this age there were many great +herbivorous reptiles, like <i>Iguanodon</i> and <i>Hadrosaurus</i>, +some of them fitted by their structure to feed +upon the leaves and fruits of trees. There were also +several kinds of small herbivorous mammals, and +much insect life, and it is likely that few of the inhabitants +of the Mesozoic woods have been preserved +as fossils. We may yet have much to learn of the +inhabitants of these forests of ferns, cycads, and pines. +We must not forget in this connection that in the +present day there are large islands, like New Zealand, +destitute of mammalia, and having a flora +comparable with that of the Mesozoic in the Northern +Hemisphere, though more varied. We have also +the remarkable example of Australia, with a much +richer flora than that of the early Mesozoic, yet inhabited +only by non-placental mammals, like those +of the Mesozoic.</p> + +<p>The principal legacy that the Mesozoic woods +have handed down to our time is in some beds of +coal, locally important, but of far less extent than +those of the Carboniferous period. Still, in America, +the Richmond coal-field in Virginia is of this +age, and so are the anthracite beds of the Queen +Charlotte Islands, on the west coast of Canada, and +the coal of Brora in Sutherlandshire. Valuable beds +of coal, probably of this age, also exist in China, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_887">[887]</span>India, and South Africa; and jet, which is so extensively +used for ornament, is principally derived +from the carbonized remains of the old Mesozoic +pines.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-887"> + EXISTING LIFE-FORMS OF PLANTS<br> + —<span class="smcap">Edward Clodd</span> +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">Plants are divided into two main groups or +sub-kingdoms: I, <em>Cryptogams</em> (Greek <em>Kruptos</em>, +hidden; <em>gamos</em>, marriage), or flowerless; II, <em>Phanerogams</em> +(Greek <em>phaneros</em>, open; <em>gamos</em>, marriage), +or flowering.</p> + +<p>I. The <em>Cryptogams</em> comprise as their leading representatives: +1. Algæ, Fungi, Lichens; 2. Liverworts, +Mosses; 3. Ferns, Horsetails, Club-mosses.</p> + +<p>The feature common to these is the absence of any +conspicuous organs; <em>i. e.</em>, true flowers with stamens +and pistils for the production of seeds or fruits. The +simplest or single-celled plants increase by subdivision, +each cell carrying on an independent life and +repeating the process of division. But sexuality is +manifest in plants very low down in the scale, the +mode of reproduction varying a good deal in different +species. In some cryptogams it is almost as complex +as in the flowering plants, but notwithstanding +the different kinds of sexual organs, there is this fundamental +resemblance between them, that the union +of the contents of two cells, a male or sperm-cell, and +a female or germ-cell, each of which is by itself incapable +of further development, is essential to the +production of the embryo or seed.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_888">[888]</span></p> + +<p>The lowest cryptogams have no stems, leaves, or +roots. They are congregations of simple fibreless +cells united in rows, or gathered round one another, +spreading on all sides. At the bottom of the scale of +plant life are the <em>Algæ</em>, comprising some 10,000 species, +from the minute fresh-water desmids, one-millionth +of an inch in length, with their whip-like cilia, +the two-hundredth millionth of an inch long, to the +giant sea-weeds or tangles, hundreds of feet in length, +that cover thousands of square miles of ocean. The +green scum of stagnant ponds; the waving filaments +in streams; the shell-coated microscopic diatoms that +people the ocean, tingeing its depths with olive green, +nourishing the whales that play therein, and whose +skeletons form deposits hundreds of miles in length; +the rose and purple weeds that flourish in shallow +seas, and are cast upon their shores, are all members +of a group which is perhaps the venerablest of living +things. For although their generally fragile forms +have been fatal to their preservation as fossils, there +is little doubt that the algæ flourished in dense masses +in primeval oceans, and were the chief, if not the +sole, representatives of plant-life on the earth during +millions of centuries. Like the foraminifera and +other low animal organisms, they illustrate the persistency +of the earlier forms, in virtue of their simplicity +of structure, despite changing conditions, +whereas the more complex structures, by reason of +the greater delicacy of their parts, can less readily +adapt themselves to altered surroundings, and therefore +have a much narrower distribution both in time +and space.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_889">[889]</span></p> + +<p>Next to the algæ in ascending order are those fantastic +products of decay, the quick-growing, short-lived +<em>Fungi</em>, animal-like in their mode of nutrition, +plant-like in their fixity; then the <em>Lichens</em>, which, +it is now generally agreed, are composite plants, being +a special kind of parasite fungi growing on algæ. +These are widely spread, living after the adaptive +manner of simple forms, where nothing else can live, +unwithered by the heat, unsmitten by the frost; redeeming +the earth’s desolate places, from treeless +desert flats far as the lines of enduring snow; spreading +their flowerless patches of richest colors in metallic-like +stain over rock and ruin; incrusting the trees +with tint of freshness or touch of age, with hoary +fringe or mock hieroglyph; and in their decay yielding +rich soil wherein fern and flowering tree may +strike root.</p> + +<p>In the <em>Mosses</em>, whose glossy, many-colored masses +weave softest carpet over the earth, sharing in the +service rendered by the humble lichens, the cells have +become more developed into rudimentary root, stem, +and leaf, manifesting still further transition toward +unlikeness in parts due to division of function. But +the structure is still cellular—<em>i. e.</em>, there are no tissues +and fibres. The mosses represent the intermediate +form between the lowest and the highest cryptogams, +between the green algæ—out of which the +liverworts were probably developed—and the ferns, +which arose out of liverworts.</p> + +<p>In the <em>Ferns</em>, the larger number of cells have +joined together to form fibrous vessels, lengthening +of thickening in varying shape and texture, according +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_890">[890]</span>to the functions to be discharged by them, resulting +in the woody tissue which enters into the structure of +all the higher plants. The cells which are thus converted +into tissue cease to grow; the formative protoplasm +becomes the formed, having given up its life +for the plant, and locked up in the compacted material +a store of energy for service both within the +plant and by the agency of the plant. The ferns and +club-mosses and horsetails of the present day are the +dwarfed representatives of the stately and luxuriant, +although sombre, flowerless trees that composed the +dense jungles of green vegetation in the <em>Devonian</em> +and succeeding <em>Primary</em> periods. These are distinguished +as the Era of Fern Forests, during which our +fossil fuel was chiefly formed; and although the +palm-like vegetation of the tropics more nearly approaches +its <em>Devonian</em> prototype, it falls far behind +it in size and abundance.</p> + +<p>II. The <em>Phanerogams</em> have their flowers with +stamens and pistils conspicuous, and are divided, according +to the formation of their seeds, into:</p> + +<p>1. <em>Gymnosperms</em>, or naked-seeded, the ovules not +being inclosed within a seed-vessel or ovary, but +carried upon a cone, as in pines and allied species.</p> + +<p>2. <em>Angiosperms</em>, or cover-seeded, the ovules being +inclosed within an ovary.</p> + +<p>This group is subdivided into (<i>a</i>) plants having +one seed leaf from which they are developed, as +palms, lilies, orchids, grasses; and into (<i>b</i>) plants +having two seed-leaves, as oaks, beeches, and all trees +and shrubs not included in the foregoing species.</p> + +<p>In naked-seeded plants the pollen or male element +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_891">[891]</span>falls on the exposed ovules; in cover-seeded plants +it falls on the stigma, passes down the pistil into the +seed-vessel, and enters the ovule through an opening +in it called the microphyle, or “little gate.”</p> + +<p>While the gymnosperms are, on the one hand, most +nearly allied in the order of descent to ferns, the +sombre flowers which they bear giving them, only by +strict botanical classification, a place among phanerogams, +they are, on the other hand, more complex +in structure than the single seed-leaf plants, because +their bark, wood, and pith are clearly defined, as in +the double seed-leaf plants. Their lowest representatives +comprise the cycads or palm-ferns, so called +from their resemblance to palms, for which, with +their crown of feathery leaves, they are often mistaken. +Next in order is the much more varied and +widely distributed conifer family, notably pines, firs, +and larches, and, lesser in importance, cedars and +cypresses. A still higher class, various in its modes +of growth, marks the transition, to angiosperms, the +flowers of both having many features in common.</p> + +<p>The single seed-leaf angiosperms have no visible +separation of their woody stuff into bark, stem, and +pith, and have no rings of growth, the wood exhibiting +an even surface, dotted over with small dark +points. Their leaves have parallel veins or “nerves,” +as in the onion and tulip, and the blossom-leaves, or +petals, are grouped in threes or multiples of three. +Among their several representatives we may single +out the lilies for their beauty and fragrance, and the +cereals for their value and importance, both classes +being in near connection, since the grasses from +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_892">[892]</span>which man has developed wheat, barley, oats, rice, +and maize are, in a botanical sense, degenerate descendants +of the lily family.</p> + +<p>The double seed-leaf plants include all the highest +and most specialized varieties. Bark, stem, pith, and +concentric rings of growth are clearly defined; the +leaves are netted-veined, and the petals grouped in +fours or fives or multiples of these numbers. The +lowest class, represented by the catkin-bearers, as the +birch and alder, the poplar and the oak, and by +plants allied to the nettle and to the laurel, are nearly +related to the highest gymnosperms. Next in order +are the crown-bearers, or flowers with corollas, as the +rose family, which includes most of our fruit yielders, +from strawberries to apples; while the highest and +most perfect of all are plants in which the petals are +united together in bell-shape or funnel fashion. Such +are the convolvulus and honeysuckle, the olive and +ash, and at the top of the plant-scale, the family of +which the daisy is the most familiar representative. +Its position among plants corresponds to man’s position +among animals. As he, in virtue of being the +most complex and highly specialized, is at their head, +albeit many exceed him in bulk and strength, so is +the daisy with its allies, for like reasons, above the +giants of the forest.</p> + +<p>The primary function for which the organs of +plants known as flowers exists is not that which man +has long assumed. He once thought that the earth +was the centre of the universe until astronomy dispelled +the illusion, and there yet lingers in him an +old <em>Adam</em> of conceit that everything on the earth has +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_893">[893]</span>for its sole end and aim his advantage and service. +Evolution will dispel that illusion. But our delight +in the colors and perfumes of flowers will not be +lessened, while wonder will have larger field for play +in learning that the colored leaves known as flowers, +together with their scent and honey, have been developed +in furtherance of nature’s supreme aim—the +preservation and increase of the species. And truly +the contrivances to secure this which are manifest in +plant-life are astounding even to those who perceive +most clearly the unity of function which connects the +highest and lowest life-forms together. It is difficult, +nay, wellnigh impossible, to deny the existence +of a rudimentary consciousness in the efforts of certain +plants to secure fertilization. Take, for example, +the well-known aquatic plant, <i>Vallisneria +spiralis</i>. When the male flowers detach themselves +and float about the water, the female flowers develop +long spiral stalks by which to reach them, and become +fertilized by the discharge of pollen on their +pistils. Most flowers have their male and female +organs within the same petals, and in some cases fertilize +themselves by scattering the pollen from the +bursting stamens on the stigma or head of the pistil. +But nature is opposed to this; “tells us in the most +emphatic manner that she abhors perpetual self-fertilization,” +with its resultant puny and feeble offspring; +and we find a number of contrivances to prevent +this, and to secure fertilization by the pollen +of another plant, to the abiding gain all round of the +plant, whose blood, as we may say, is thus mixed with +that of a stranger. Two agencies—insects and the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_894">[894]</span>wind—undesignedly effect this; while in the dispersion +of the matured seed, birds and other animals +play an important, although equally unconscious, +part.</p> + +<p>Plants which are wind-fertilized have no gayly +colored petals or sepals, and do not secrete water. +Such are the naked-seeded groups whose sombre +flowers are borne on dull brown cones; and, among +cover-seeded groups, grasses and rushes, with their +feathery flowers; and willows and birches, with their +long waving clusters of catkins. All of these provide +against the fitfulness of the wind, which is as likely +to blow the pollen one way as another, by producing +it in large quantities.</p> + +<p>Plants which are insect-fertilized seek to attract +their visitors by secreting honey and developing colored +floral organs. The way in which this came +about is probably as follows:</p> + +<p>The common idea about flowers is that they are +made up of petals and sepals, whereas the <em>essential</em> +parts are the stamens and pistils—<em>i. e.</em>, the male, or +pollen-producing organs, and the female, or seed-containing +organs. The earliest flowers consisted of +these alone, having no colored whorl of petals within +another colored whorl of sepals, but were only +scantily protected by leaves, as are many extant species. +These the food-seeking insects then, as now, +visited for the sake of the pollen, to the detriment of +the plant, which lost the fertilizing stuff and gained +nothing in return. To arrest this, certain plants began, +especially when in the act of flowering, to secrete +honey and store it in glands or nectaries, or +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_895">[895]</span>near their seed-vessels, where the insects could not get +at it without covering their bodies with some of the +pollen, which they rubbed on the pistils of the plant +next visited, and thus fertilized the ovule, provided +that the plants were nearly related. Honey is +sweeter to the taste than pollen, and the plants that +produced the most honey stood the better chance of +visits from insects, and therefore of fertilization, to +the advantage of this species over others. As a rule, +those which secrete honey have hairy coverings at +the base of the petals, or other contrivances to prevent +it being washed out by the rain or dew, or seized by +useless insects, and we find curious interrelations established +between plants and their desired visitors. +Certain flowers adapt themselves to certain insects, +and <i lang="la">vice versâ</i>, as where the plant has secreted the +honey at the bottom of a long tube and the insect has +developed a correspondingly long proboscis to gather +it. By these and kindred devices the pollen is preserved +for its sole function, the energy of the plant +being conserved in the smaller quantity which it has +to produce. As the honey was secreted as counter-attraction +to the pollen, so the colored floral envelopes +were developed to attract the insects, to the +honey-secreting plant, and those floral whorls, both +of petals and sepals, are modified or transformed stamens +which have exchanged their function of pollen-producers +for that of insect-allurers. And as both +stamens and pistils are leaves aborted or modified for +the special function of reproduction, Goethe’s well-known +generalization that the leaf is the type of the +plant has a large measure of truth in it.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_896">[896]</span></p> + +<p>But before speaking further about color-development +in plants, it may be useful to say a little about +color itself. Since everything is black in the dark, +and moreover has no color in itself, it follows that +color is in some way a property of light. Now light, +which is itself invisible, is due to vibrations or oscillations +set up in all directions by any luminous body—whether +the sun or a rushlight—in the ethereal +medium which pervades all space, and is composed +of rays of different refrangibilities—<em>i. e.</em>, change of +direction in passing from one medium to another. +White light is due to a combination of all these rays, +ranging through innumerable gradations of color, +from red to violet, and it is to the absence of one or +more of them that the infinite variety of colors is due. +If a body is quite opaque, or otherwise so constituted +as to absorb none of the rays, it appears white; if it +absorbs them all it appears black; if it absorbs green, +blue, and violet, and not red, it appears red; if it +absorbs red, orange, and violet and returns or reflects +green, it appears green. The colors which bodies +reflect are therefore regulated by their structure; the +way in which their molecules are arranged determines +the number and character of the light vibrations +or ether waves which are returned to the eye +and which rule the color we see—<em>e. g.</em>, charcoal and +the diamond are both pure carbon; the dull opacity +of the one and the trembling splendor of the other +are solely due to the arrangement of the several molecules +of each.</p> + +<p>It is thus obvious that any change in the nature or +structure of a thing is accompanied by change in its +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_897">[897]</span>color, and to this cause the various pigments in +plants are to be referred.</p> + +<p>All growth involves expenditure of the energy +which the plant has stored within itself, and which +becomes active when the hydrocarbons combine with +oxygen, resulting in cellular change, and appearance +of other colors than the green, which is due to chlorophyl. +Thus may be explained the color of sprouting +buds and young shoots and the more or less intensified +colors of leaves and flowers—one and all due +to oxidation, the minutest changes inducing subtle +variations in color.</p> + +<p>Whichever plants made the most show of color +would the sooner catch the eye of insects, however +dim their perception of the difference in colors +might be, and would thus get fertilized before plants +which made less display. Thus have insects been +the main cause in the propagation of flowering +plants; the plants in return developing the color-sense +in insects. The flower nourishes the insect, the +insect propagates the flower. Other contrivances to +meet the need for fertilization might be cited, as the +markings upon the petals to guide the insect to the +nectary; the exhalation of scent by inconspicuous +flowers, or by such as would attract visitors at night, +and so forth; but enough has been adduced to show +what is the chief, if not the sole, function discharged +by flowers—the attraction of insects to aid in securing +cross-fertilization. Nor does the provision stop +here. The fertilized seed is not left to chance, but, +like the fertilizing pollen, is intrusted to secondary +agents, to the care of the birds and the breezes. Where +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_898">[898]</span>not scattered by the bursting of the ovary it is winged +with gossamer shafts, as in the dandelion, and carried +by the wind, floated on gentlest zephyr or rushing +storm to a genial soil. Such wind-wafted seeds, like +wind-fertilized flowers, are rarely colored; neither +are the seeds of the larger trees, since their abundance +ensures notice by food-seeking animals; nor +the nuts, which are protected by shelly coats. But +other seeds inwrap themselves in sweet pulpy masses, +called fruits, whose skins brighten as they ripen, and +attract the eye of fruit-loving birds and beasts. The +seeds pass through their stomachs undigested, and +are scattered by them in their flight over wide areas. +As with the brightest-hued and sweetest-scented +flowers, so it is with the brightest and juiciest fruits; +they sooner attract the visitor whose services they +need, and thus gain advantage over less-favored +members of their species, developing by the selective +action of their devourers into the finest and pulpiest +kinds.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-898"> + PLANT GEOGRAPHY<br> + —<span class="smcap">Louis Figuier</span> +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">We can distinguish in Europe three great botanical +regions. 1. The region of the North; +2. The Middle region; and 3. The region of the +South, or Mediterranean.</p> + +<p>The Northern region comprehends Lapland, Iceland, +Sweden, Norway, and the northern provinces +of Russia. The vegetation is monotonous; the +ligneous species form only the one-hundredth part +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_899">[899]</span>of the plants; the cryptogams predominate. The +trees are principally coniferous and amentaceous. +The oak, the hazel, and poplar are arrested at 60° +N. lat.; the beech, the ash, and the lime at 63°; +the conifers at 67°; barley and oats can be cultivated +up to 70°. Spitzbergen, the most northerly +island of Europe, situated between 76° 30′ and 81°, +contains only ninety-three species of phanerogamous +plants, belonging principally to the families of +<i>Graminaceæ</i>, <i>Cruciferæ</i>, <i>Caryophyllaceæ</i>, <i>Saxifragaceæ</i>, +<i>Ranunculaceæ</i>, and <i>Compositæ</i>. Among these +plants there is scarcely a single tree or shrub, but +only an under-shrub, <i>Empetrum nigrum</i>, and two +small creeping willows.</p> + +<p>Martius, to whom botanical geography is indebted +for many valuable observations, made a voyage +along the western coast of Norway, from Drontheim +to North Cape, in recording which he has traced +with a vigorous hand the picturesque vegetation of +that country. “While disembarking I was much +surprised to see cherry-trees bearing fruit about the +size of peas. Lilac, mountain ash, black currant, +and <i>Iris germanica</i> were covered with expanding +flowers. My astonishment ceased, however, when I +learned that the spring had been a very fine one. +The most common tree in the gardens and streets is +the mountain ash. I remarked also four oaks +(<i>Quercus Robur</i>), which appeared to suffer from +the cold; in fact, upon the west coast of Norway the +northern limit of the oak lies half a degree south of +Drontheim. The ash is a more hardy tree, but it +never attains the dimensions of the oak in Sweden, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_900">[900]</span>and in latitude 61° 18′ I noted the last of them. The +lime lives at Drontheim, as do the poplar (<i>P. +balsamifera</i>) and the horse chestnut; the lilac +blooms in every garden. All fruit trees can only be +cultivated as espaliers. Even in the most favored +situations, the apple, pear, and plum do not ripen +every year. In the environs of Drontheim, groups +of elder, birch, fir, intermingled with ash, maple, +aspen, bird-cherry, hazel, juniper, and willow +crown the heights. The fields are dry and well exposed, +while the meadows occupy the lower ground.</p> + +<p>“Toward the north I pushed on to Cape Ladehamer, +which is crowned with light-foliaged birches. +In the fields and by the roadsides I found a great +many plants which occupy similar situations in +France. Nevertheless,” he continues further on, +“the eye of the botanist was rejoiced by the sight of +a vegetation belonging at once to the Flora of the +Boreal regions of the Alps and of the seashore.” In +the thickets grow <i>Geranium sylvaticum</i>, <i>Aquilegia +vulgaris</i>, <i>Aconitum septentrionale</i>, <i>Pedicularis lapponica</i>, +<i>Trientalis europæa</i>, <i>Paris quadrifolia</i>; in +the less sheltered places, <i>Cornus suecica</i>, <i>Vaccinium +Vitis-idæa</i>, <i>Polygonum viviparum</i>; in the marshes, +the Bleaberry and <i>Geum rivale</i>; upon the sandy seashore, +<i>Plantago maritima</i>, <i>Glaux maritima</i>, <i>Elymus +arenarius</i>, <i>Triglochin maritimum</i>, and many others +equally interesting to the botanist.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_052" style="max-width: 50em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/i_052.jpg" alt="Drawings of several tree types"> + <figcaption class="caption"> + Six Familiar Tree Forms<br> +<p class="fs80"> + 1. Willow; 2. Oak; 3. Sycamore; 4. Cedar; 5. Chestnut; 6. Olive</p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>“At Bodoë, in 67° 16′,” he continues, “I saw for +the first time houses covered with turf, upon which +grew many tufts of grass. According to my custom, +I first examined the cultivated vegetables, but I saw +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_901">[901]</span>only a few potatoes, peas, radishes, a few gooseberry-trees +without fruit, and some fields of barley and +rye. In the meadows just above the sea-level I found +some plants which would have demonstrated to me, +in the absence of other proofs, how much the climate +of this country approaches that of the most elevated +Alpine regions.</p> + +<p>“At Hammerfest, which is under 70° 48′ north +latitude, all attempts at cultivation had disappeared. +The energies of the place are turned to commerce; it +is from curiosity rather than for profit or utility that +a few vegetables are cultivated.</p> + +<p>“Near the city I observed rich meadows, that +were cut once a year, and some herds of half-wild +reindeer, which grazed and roamed about freely. +We shall deceive ourselves, however, if we consider +Hammerfest a dull or melancholy city. Its principal +streets, on the contrary, consist of very fair +new wooden houses, well ordered, and in all respects +comfortable. These are the habitations of the better +class of inhabitants. The houses of the lower classes +are poorer and older; borrowing, however, a particular +charm from the flowery turf with which they +are covered. The roofs are formed of great squares +of turf, on which a number of plants have germinated +and grow vigorously. In seeing these aerial +gardens I have for the first time been able to comprehend +the phrase ‘<i lang="la">in tectis</i>’, which often occurs in +the writings of Linnæus, indicative of the locality. +In short, it was upon the roofs of houses that the +learned botanist of Upsala herborized at Hammerfest; +indeed, I frequently borrowed a ladder myself +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_902">[902]</span>from the proprietor in order to gather the plants +which grew round the chimney of one of these +picturesque old houses. What I often found there +were <i>Cochlearia anglica</i>, <i>Lychnis diurna</i>, <i>Chrysanthemum +inodorum</i>, Shepherd’s Purse, <i>Poa pratensis</i>, +and <i>P. trivialis</i>. In autumn, when the flowers of +<i>Chrysanthemum inodorum</i> are in full bloom, these +hanging meadows rival in beauty those of our own +more genial climate, and give the city a smiling +physiognomy which contrasts most happily with the +severe aspect of surrounding Nature. <i>Ranunculus +glacialis</i>, <i>Arabis alpina</i>, <i>Silene acaulis</i>, <i>Saxifraga +nivalis</i>, Bilberries, <i>Diapensia lapponica</i>, <i>Salix reticulata</i>, +<i>S. herbarcea</i>, etc., grow in the neighborhood.</p> + +<p>“How great was my surprise on landing at the +North Cape, in latitude 71°, to find myself in the +middle of the richest subalpine meadows that can +be imagined! high and tufted grass, which reached +my knees. I found here, in short, at the northern +extremity of Europe, the flowers which had so often +attracted my admiration at the foot of the Swiss +Alps; there they were, as vigorous, as brilliant, and +much larger than among the mountains.”</p> + +<p>The mid-European region includes southern Russia, +Germany, Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, the +Tyrol, and the British Isles, Upper Italy, and the +greater part of France. This region, whose exact +limits it would be difficult to trace, is very different +from the preceding. It is milder, more temperate; +its woods and forests consist essentially of oak +(<i>Quercus Robur</i>), to which we may add chestnut, +beech, birch, elm, hornbeam, alder, etc.; but the oak +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_903">[903]</span>predominates. These trees, all of which lose their +leaves during winter, give to the landscape a very +peculiar feature, varying with the season. This +region is especially favorable to the cultivation of +the cereals. An oblique line, drawn from east to +west, with certain inflections of its course, but ranging +between the forty-seventh and forty-eighth parallel, +and inclining a little toward the north, would +divide it into two zones—one, the Northern, in which +the vine and the mulberry yield to the rigor of winter, +whose forests are chiefly composed of conifers, +where the culture of the apple and pear takes their +place, and which includes more <i>Cyperacæ</i>, <i>Rosaceæ</i>, +and <i>Cruciferæ</i>; the other, the Southern, characterized +by the culture of the vine, the mulberry, +and the maize, and in which <i>Labiatæ</i> begin to predominate.</p> + +<p>In the Southern region, the Mediterranean forms +the centre. It is a vast basin, whose shores present +a vegetation which, if not identical, is at least analogous +in its whole extent. <i>Labiatæ</i> abound there, +and in certain seasons the air is filled with their +sweet perfume. To this extensive family we may +add a large number of <i>Caryophyllaceæ</i>, <i>Cistaceæ</i>, +<i>Liliacæ</i>, and <i>Boraginaceæ</i>. The Mediterranean +draws its distinctive character, however, from the +vast extent of uncultivated country, where the +kermes oak, <i>Phillyrea</i>, the evergreen oak, and various +half frutescent Labiatæ, reign supreme. These +plants more especially abound in Italy, Spain, +Greece, Algeria, and in the northern portion of Asia +Minor. Nevertheless, a new vegetation makes its appearance +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_904">[904]</span>at Rhodes and Jaffa, which becomes closely +connected with that of Egypt. The vegetation of +the Mediterranean often presents itself with a +smiling and agreeable aspect. Clumps of odorous +myrtles, <i>Arbutus</i>, and <i>Vitex Agnus-castus</i>, frequently +occur on its shores; magnificent oleanders, whose +praises have been sung by the poets, occupy the edges +of the brooks. In Italy, Sicily, and Spain, the +orange-trees bear without cessation flowers and fruit. +The prickly pear (<i>Opuntia vulgaris</i>), and the +American <i>Agave</i>, naturalized here, form impenetrable +hedges in the southern parts of these countries, +to which they give a marked and very characteristic +landscape. The forests consist essentially of the +evergreen oak (<i>Quercus Ilex</i>), whose persistent +leaves remain until after their third year, and whose +acorns, which have a very agreeable taste, form a +considerable portion of the people’s food, and of the +cork-tree (<i>Quercus Suber</i>), mixed with other characteristic +trees and shrubs, such as <i>Erica arborea</i>, +numerous species of <i>Cistus</i>, with ephemeral flowers, +often large and of dazzling brilliance, and of <i>Cytisus</i>, +<i>Genista</i>, etc.</p> + +<p>Among the other species characteristic of these +happy regions we may cite the cypress (<i>Cupressus</i>), +the Aleppo pine, the stone pine, planes, the olive, +which we scarcely meet with elsewhere; mastic-tree +(<i>Pistacia lentiscus</i>), and the pomegranate (<i>Ceratona +Siliqua</i>), etc.</p> + +<p>Over a great part of the south coast of Sicily, a +palm, the <i>Chamærops humilis</i>, with fan-like foliage, +waves sometimes beside the date, from the bosom of +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_905">[905]</span>a clump of oranges and citrons, its tall stipe crowned +with an elegant panicle of drooping and feather-like +leaves.</p> + +<p>It would require a volume to give even an idea +of the rich and varied vegetation of Asia. We must +limit ourselves to a rapid glance of the features most +characteristic of its Northern, Central, and Southern +divisions.</p> + +<p>The Northern region, or Siberia, forms a botanical +region in close connection with the northern +region of Europe in the one direction, and with its +own middle region in the other. It has its own +peculiar character, nevertheless, from the predominance +of certain families, such as <i>Leguminosæ</i>, <i>Ranunculaceæ</i>, +<i>Cruciferæ</i>, <i>Liliaceæ</i>, and <i>Umbelliferæ</i>. +Some genera are remarkable for the number of their +species; we may quote <i>Astragalus</i> among the <i>Leguminosæ</i>; +<i>Spiræa</i> among the <i>Rosaceæ</i>; and <i>Artemisia</i> +among the <i>Compositæ</i>. Considering that the +mean temperature varies from 29° to 46° Fahr., we +can not reckon on a condition of vegetation very +varied. Forests are formed by larch, spruce, <i>Pinus +Cembra</i>, <i>P. sibirica</i>, <i>P. sylvestris</i>, etc.; white and +balsam poplars and isolated balsamic plants, dwarf +birches, service-trees, alder buckthorn, alders, willows, +accompany them, while whortleberries and +rhododendrons form the under-shrubs. The flora +of the steppes of Kamtchatka does not differ materially +from that of the pasturages of central +Europe. According as the spectator expects these +to be rich or sterile, he is the more or less surprised +to find stately tulips and graceful irises mingling +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_906">[906]</span>with the grassy turf in spring, but the wormwood +(<i>Artemisia</i>) and other monotonous forms of vegetation +succeed them.</p> + +<p>Humboldt assigns to the forests of the Ural the +vegetation characteristic of a park. “They present,” +he says, “an alternation consisting of a mixture of +needle-leaved and round-leaved trees, and lawns; +an assemblage which is completed by masses of +brushwood, formed by wild roses, honeysuckles, and +junipers, while <i>Hesperis</i>, <i>Polemonium</i>, <i>Cortusa</i>, +<i>Mathioli</i>, magnificent primroses, and larkspurs form +a perfect carpet of flowers; while the water buckbean, +with white blossoms, is the grace of the +marshes.” He saw also “on the banks of the Irtisch +great spaces entirely colored red by <i>Epilobium</i>, with +which were associated tall-stemmed larkspurs (<i>Delphinium</i>), +with blue flowers, and the fiery-scarlet +<i>Lychnis chalcedonica</i>.”</p> + +<p>The Central region consists of northern China and +Japan. The magnolias—those grand-leaved trees, +with magnificent flowers and delicate aroma, which +give such an attractive feature to gardens where they +can be cultivated—are natives of this vast region. +So is the camellia, which has been, as it were, naturalized +in the greenhouses of Europe, whose evergreen, +glossy, and persistent foliage is the admiration +of travelers, and of which we may reckon upward +of 700 varieties; and the tea-plant (<i>Camellia Thea</i>), +of whose leaves so many millions of pounds are annually +imported into Europe. Also the <i>Aucuba</i>, +with coriaceous leaves and clustered flowers, so ornamental +in our gardens and shrubberies; <i>Celastrus</i>, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_907">[907]</span>hollies, spindle-tree, <i>Lagerströmia</i>, <i>Spiræa</i>, <i>Elæagnus</i>, +etc.</p> + +<p>The most remarkable trees and shrubs besides +these are the palm, <i>Raphis flabelliformis</i>; the paper +mulberry (<i>Broussonetia papyrifera</i>); <i>Osmanthus</i>, +whose flowers are employed to give flavor to tea +leaves; the ebony-tree (<i>Diospyros Kaki</i>), with white +flowers, and berries of a cherry-red, and of a delicious +flavor; the loquat (<i>Eriobotrya japonica</i>); +<i>Salisburia adiantifolia</i>, which is planted round the +temples; yews (<i>Taxus nucifera</i> and <i>verticillata</i>); +cypress (<i>Cupressus japonica</i>); junipers, thujas, oaks +(<i>Quercus glabra</i> and <i>glauca</i>); <i>Alnus japonica</i>, <i>Juglans +nigra</i>, and several species of laurels and maples.</p> + +<p>Among the cultivated plants we find rice, wheat, +barley, oats, <i>Sorghum vulgare</i>, Sago (<i>Cycas revoluta</i>), +taro (<i>Caladium esculentum</i>), <i>Convolvulus +Batatas</i>, apple, pear, quince, plum, apricot, peach, +orange, radish, cucumber, gourds, watermelons, +anise (<i>Pimpinella Anisum</i>), peas, beans, hemp, and +cotton (<i>Gossypium herbaceum</i>)—a remarkable mingling +of vegetable productions, which transports +us at one moment from Asia to Europe, and at the +next from America to Asia. We might dwell upon +a crowd of ornamental plants, many of which are +now well known in Europe, as the <i>Glycine</i>, the lily +of Japan, tiger lily, and Chinese primrose.</p> + +<p>The Southern region of Asia comprehends the +two Indian peninsulas. Here non-tropical species +disappear, or only present themselves very rarely. +Tropical families become more numerous; the trees +cease to lose their leaves; ligneous species are more +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_908">[908]</span>numerous than without the tropics; the flowers +are larger, more magnificent; climbing, creeping, +and parasitic plants increase in number and size. +India may be considered the true country of aromatic +plants. Nor is the rich soil less fruitful in +the production of suitable timber for constructive +purposes.</p> + +<p>Among the most abundant arborescent plants in +this botanical region are <i>Bombax</i>, <i>Sapindus</i>, <i>Mimosa</i>, +<i>Acacia</i>, <i>Cassia</i>, <i>Jambosa</i>, <i>Gardenia</i>; ebony +(<i>Diospyros Ebenus</i>) has been celebrated for its +black-colored solid wood from the most ancient +times; <i>Bignonia</i>; teak (<i>Tectona grandis</i>), is a magnificent +tree, which furnishes timber well adapted +for building purposes from its great endurance; +<i>Isonandra Gutta</i> produces <i>gutta-percha</i>; laurels +have an aromatic bark; the nutmeg-tree (<i>Myristica</i>) +produces seeds which are employed as spice; figs +(<i>Ficus religiosa</i>, <i>indica</i>, <i>elastica</i>); palms, such as the +Borassus (<i>Borasus flabelliformis</i>) with magnificent +large fan-like leaves; <i>Sagus</i>, whose soft pulp yields +sago, a farinaceous product very rich in starch; +<i>Calamus</i>, whose twining and creeping stem is sometimes +upward of 500 feet in length, of one uniform +thickness, and of which the canes used in Europe +are made; areca (<i>Areca Catechu</i>), the nut of which +is a favorite masticatory with the natives; <i>Corypha +umbraculifera</i>, the trunk of which, sometimes reaching +the height of sixty or seventy feet, is crowned with an +ample tuft of leaves spread out in umbrella form, +covering a space of eighteen feet; <i>Dracæna</i>; screw-pines +(<i>Pandanus</i>); last, but not least, the bamboo.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_909">[909]</span></p> + +<p>If we throw a glance, moreover, at the plants +under cultivation, we find them equally important: +rice, earth-nut, <i>Sorghum</i>, Indian corn, the cocoanut, +the elegant and useful tree which gives to man +almost all the necessaries of life, supplying him at +once with shelter, food, light, heat, and clothing; +the clove-tree (<i>Caryophyllus aromaticus</i>), the unopened +flower of which is the well-known clove; pepper +(<i>Piper nigrum</i>), the fruit of which, gathered before +maturity, has been constantly brought to Europe +since the expedition of Alexander the Great; and the +betel (<i>Chavica Betel</i>), with bitter and aromatic leaves, +in which the southern Asiatics inclose a few slices +of the areca-nut, which they chew; the tamarind +(<i>Tamarindus indica</i>), a magnificent tree, the fruit +of which incloses a pulp of acid flavor; the mango +(<i>Mangifera indica</i>), whose much-vaunted fruit has +a sweet and richly perfumed flavor accompanied +with a grateful acidity; the mangosteen (<i>Garcinia +Mangostana</i>), whose berry incloses, under a bitter +and astringent epicarp, a delicious pulp; the banana, +whose yellow-clustered fruit, each six or eight inches +long, furnishes a very nourishing food; the rose +apple (<i>Jambosa vulgaris</i>), the guava (<i>Psidium +pomiferum</i>), with yellow fruit of the size of a pear; +oranges, watermelons, sugar-cane, and coffee.</p> + +<p>Africa, like Asia, presents three very distinct +regions: 1st, the Northern, which comprehends the +Mediterranean littoral and the Sahara; 2d, the Central, +which is tropical; 3d, the Southern, which includes +the Cape of Good Hope.</p> + +<p>The Mediterranean region, by which we mean the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_910">[910]</span>African littoral bathed by the Mediterranean, includes +Algeria from the northern slopes of the Atlas +to the sea, and the Delta of the Nile. This part of +Africa represents, in many respects, a vegetation +analogous to that of South Europe. In the mountain +region of North Africa all the plants of Central +Europe may be cultivated with advantage. The +vine prospers in the neighborhood of Tlemcen, +Milianah, Mascara, and Medeah, where the colonists +and even the natives have undertaken its cultivation. +The olive, so generally spread over North +Africa, constitutes one of the chief sources of wealth +to the Kabyle tribes. The cork-tree forms immense +forests in the lower mountain region of the littoral: +in the province of Constantine, gathering the cork +has become an important trade since its conquest by +France. With respect to the Sahara, M. Cosson, a +traveler and botanist, thus expresses himself:</p> + +<p>“Northern Africa is especially characterized by +the extreme rarity of rains, the dryness of the atmosphere, +and the extremes of temperature; the +absence of great ranges of mountains and of permanent +water-courses gives an aspect quite special +to the desert-like vegetation. The number of species +growing spontaneously does not exceed 500. The +greater number of these are perennials, which grow +in tufts, and have a dry and sterile aspect, giving them +a characteristically rugged and hard appearance. +The families represented in the Algerian Sahara in +greatest number are <i>Compositæ</i>, <i>Graminaceæ</i>, <i>Leguminosæ</i>, +<i>Cruciferæ</i>, and <i>Chenopodiaceæ</i>. Among +the ligneous species are Tamarisks, a genus of elegant +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_911">[911]</span>flowering shrubs, and the <i>Pistacia atlantica</i>. +The date-tree is, however, the chief source of wealth +in the gardens of the oases. This tree is cultivated, +not alone for the abundance and variety of its products, +but also for its shade, which secures other cultivated +plants from the violence of the winds, and +maintains in the soil the moisture required for the +cultivation of other crops.</p> + +<p>“Besides the date, an oasis generally presents an +abundant crop of figs, pomegranates, apricots, frequently +the vine. The peach, the quince, the pear, +and the apple, are planted in gardens, and in the +oases, the citron, the orange-tree, olives, barley, more +rarely still, wheat, are cultivated in the irrigated +lands of the neighborhood, and in the intervals between +the date plantations. Onions, beans, carrots, +turnips, and cabbages, occupy a large place among +the plants cultivated. Pimento is also largely cultivated +for the stimulating properties of its fruit, +which render it a favorite condiment with the Arabs. +The egg-plant and the tomato are cultivated in some +gardens for their fruit. Numberless species of <i>Cucurbitaceæ</i> +are also sown in the gardens in summer, +and sometimes attain a great size. The gombo +(<i>Hibiscus esculentus</i>) is cultivated here and there +by the negroes for its mucilaginous fruit. The industrial +and fodder plants are principally hemp, +represented by a dwarf variety (Haschich), which +is not employed as a textile plant, but its extremities +are smoked by some of the less fervent Mussulmans. +Tobacco is also cultivated. Henna (<i>Lawsonia inermis</i>), +the leaves of which have been employed in +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_912">[912]</span>dyeing a black color, scarcely exists except in the +oasis of Ziban.”</p> + +<p>The Central region is only very imperfectly known, +in consequence of the terribly insalubrious nature of +its coast. The same forms of vegetation, however, +prevail there which are found in other tropical +regions. We may remark here that the plants, which +are usually herbaceous in countries without the +tropics, become ligneous in these regions. This is +the case with plants of the families <i>Rubiaceæ</i> and +<i>Malvaceæ</i>. We note here also the almost entire disappearance +of <i>Cruciferæ</i> and <i>Caryophyllaceæ</i>. The prevailing +families are <i>Leguminosæ</i>, <i>Terebinthaceæ</i>, +<i>Malvaceæ</i>, <i>Rubiaceæ</i>, <i>Acanthaceæ</i>, <i>Capparidaceæ</i>, +and <i>Anonaceæ</i>. If we take a glance at prevailing +vegetation proper to this region of Africa, we find +upon the humid coasts impenetrable forests formed +of mangroves (<i>Rhizophora Mangle</i>), and <i>Avicennia +tomentosa</i>, <i>Musa</i>, <i>Canna</i>, <i>Amomum</i>, <i>Pandanaceæ</i>, +gigantic <i>Malvaceæ</i> (such as the baobab), <i>Bromeliaceæ</i>, +<i>Aroideæ</i>. Aloes (<i>Aloe socotrina</i>) furnishes +the aloes of medicine; and several fleshy Euphorbias +impress their strange characteristics upon the +vigorous vegetation of this region.</p> + +<p>It would be depriving African vegetation of its +richest ornament not to mention its admirable palms. +At their head stands the oil palm (<i>Elæis guineensis</i>), +the fruit of which, of the size of an olive, contains +so much oil that the liquid flows out when it is +pressed between the fingers. The seed contains a +sort of butter. The sap of this precious tree yields +an excellent wine; its leaves prove excellent food +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_913">[913]</span>for sheep and goats. But the true palm wine is +produced from <i>Raphia vinifera</i>. Another remarkable +member of this elegant family is <i>Lodoicea +Seychellarum</i>, the fruit of which is larger than a +man’s head and weighs upward of twenty pounds; +it sometimes floats as far as the coast of India. It +is a fact worthy of remark that in this region very +few ferns or orchids are observed, and yet these +groups of plants are extremely numerous in other +tropical countries.</p> + +<p>Among the exotic vegetables which are <ins class="corr" id="tn-913" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: 'sucessfully cultivated'">successfully</ins> +cultivated in central Africa we may reckon maize, +rice, <i>Sorghum</i>, Indian corn, manioc, <i>Caladium esculentum</i>, +belonging to the family of the <i>Araceæ</i>, +the rhizome and leaves of which are alimentary; the +banana, the mango, the papaw-tree (<i>Carica Papaya</i>), +the fruit of which, about the size of a small +melon, is eaten either raw or cooked, and the pulp +mixed with sugar forms a delicious marmalade; the +pineapple, figs, coffee, sugar-cane, ginger, various +species of <i>Dolichos</i>, the earth-nut, cotton, tobacco, +and the tamarind.</p> + +<p>The Southern region of the Cape of Good Hope +is the country of the species of <i>Protea</i>, <i>Pelargonium</i>, +<i>Epacridaceæ</i>, <i>Oxalis</i>, and <i>Ixia</i>, which decorate our +hothouses and parterres. No other country can compare +with this region for the prodigious abundance +and dimensions of its heaths. While the plains of +Europe, the Alps included, scarcely yield a dozen +species, at the Cape there are many hundreds. They +attain sometimes the height of fifteen or sixteen feet. +Their leaves are small, inconspicuous, and acicular; +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_914">[914]</span>but their flowers are large, and the colors which +decorate them brilliant in the extreme, varying +from the softest shades to dazzling ones.</p> + +<p>The flora of this region is rich in vegetable forms, +but it is by no means smiling in its aspect. We find +no true forests, grand and sombre, in the whole +region; there are few creeping plants, but, on the +other hand, there are many succulents. The most +characteristic families are the <i>Restiaceæ</i>, <i>Iridaceæ</i>, +<i>Proteaceæ</i>, <i>Ericaceæ</i>, <i>Mesembryanthaceæ</i>, <i>Rutaceæ</i>, +<i>Gernaiaceæ</i>, <i>Oxalidaceæ</i>, and <i>Polygalaceæ</i>. Among +the characteristic genera we may mention the <i>Ixia</i>; +<i>Gladiolus</i>, with their sword-shaped leaves and party-colored +flowers; <i>Strelitzia</i>, so remarkable for their +inflorescence, and for their blue and yellow flowers; +<i>Protea</i>, so named for their diversity of appearance; +<i>Leucadendron</i>, of which one species, <i>L. argenteum</i> +(the silver-tree), rises to the height of from thirty +to forty feet, its branches bearing lanceolate leaves, +silky and silvery; <i>Helichrysum</i> and <i>Gnaphalium</i>, +corymbiferous composites, better known as <i>Immortelles</i>; +<i>Mesembryanthemum</i>, or ice-plants; <i>Stapelia</i>, +leafless asclepiads, with angular fleshy stem and +showy flowers, but somewhat fœtid odor; <i>Phylica</i>, a +genus of Rhamnads somewhat resembling heaths, +with abundant evergreen foliage and small cottony +heads of white flowers; <i>Pelargonium</i>, of which an +infinite variety of forms, the result of culture, are +known; <i>Oxalis</i>, the evergreen <i>Sparmannia</i>, whose +white flowers, stamens with purple filaments and +irritable anthers, are so ornamental in orangeries. +It is upon the sandy coast of this curious botanical +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_915">[915]</span>region that the species of <i>Stapelia</i>, <i>Iridaceæ</i>, <i>Mesembryanthemum</i>, +and <i>Diosma</i> abound. The heaths and +crassulas grow upon the slopes of the mountains.</p> + +<p>The cultivated plants are the cereals, most of the +fruits and vegetables of Europe, the sorghum of +Kaffirland, yam, banana, tamarind, and guava.</p> + +<p>Vegetation is richer and more varied in America +than in any other part of the globe. Beginning with +North America, we find its polar vegetation quite +analogous to that of Europe and Asia under the same +latitudes. The willow, birch, and poplar, exposed +to the persistent action of the cold, become stunted +bushes; and saxifrages, mosses, and lichens prevail.</p> + +<p>Without dwelling on the Arctic regions, then, we +may divide this immense country into two regions; +one of which, descending as far as 36°, may be called +the Northern region; the other, comprehended between +36° and 30° of latitude, will constitute the +Southern region.</p> + +<p>The Northern region well deserves to be called the +region of <i>Aster</i> and <i>Solidago</i>; those beautiful composites +abound there with <i>Liatris</i>, <i>Rudbeckia</i>, and +<i>Galardia</i>, of the same family. <i>Œnothera</i>, <i>Clarkia</i>, +<i>Andromeda</i>, and <i>Kalmia</i>, charming ornamental +plants, well known in our flower gardens, likewise +characterize this vegetable zone. Among the most +abundant arborescent species, we may mention numerous +species of pine, fir, larch, <i>Thuja</i>, juniper; +no less than twenty-seven species of willow; twenty-five +of oak, beeches, chestnuts, elms, hornbeams, +alders, birches, poplars, and ashes. With these are +mingled the American plane, <i>Liquidambar</i>, the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_916">[916]</span>trunk and branches of which furnish juices used in +medicine; the tulip-tree, with singularly truncate +leaves and large, spreading, solitary, yellowish +flowers; different species of maple, lime, <i>Robinia</i>, +and walnut. Together with these numerous and +varied arborescent species, which attain considerable +dimensions, grow the <i>Myrica cerifera</i>, which +furnishes an abundant wax drawn from the fruit by +boiling; the currant (<i>Ribes</i>), with colored and ornamental +flowers in great varieties of red, yellow, and +white; the elegant <i>Andromeda</i>, <i>Azalea</i>, <i>Rhododendron</i>, +and <i>Spiræa</i>, present themselves in endless +varieties; sumacs, a species of which (<i>Rhus toxicodendron</i>), +with greenish yellow flowers, contains a +juice so acrid that contact with it produces blisters +and erysipelas, and is a dangerous poison; <i>Ceanothus</i>, +hollies, and buckthorns.</p> + +<p>In the Southern region the vegetation somewhat +resembles that of the tropics, being a transition between +that of the temperate and torrid zones. Walnuts, +elms, chestnuts, and oaks are found there, and +with them three species of palms, one of which is +<i>Chamærops Palmetto</i>; species of <i>Yucca</i>; of <i>Zamia</i>, +among the <i>Cycadaceæ</i>; <i>Passiflora</i>; of woody twining +plants, such as <i>Bignonia sapindus</i>; cacti, and +laurels. Lastly, by the side of tulip-trees, <i>Pavia</i>, and +<i>Robinia</i>, grow magnificent species of <i>Magnolia</i>, of +which this is the true domain. The vegetation of this +region is thus remarkable in its variety. The sugar-cane, +indigo, cotton, and tobacco cover the cultivated +plains. In Missouri, Texas, Arkansas, and Mexico, +the great colony of the cacti raise their lofty stems. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_917">[917]</span>In this region <i>Cactus</i>, <i>Opuntia</i>, <i>Cereus</i>, <i>Echinocactus</i>, +and <i>Melocactus</i>, raise their oddly branching stems +and clustering flowers, the most remarkable of all +doubtless being <i>Cereus giganteus</i>. It inhabits the +wildest and most inaccessible regions, requiring little +or no soil to attain a prodigious development. It has +at first the appearance of an enormous tomahawk. +Thence rises a column, three yards high, which +branches off and assumes the shape of an immense +candelabrum, the height of which may be twelve or +thirteen yards. Mexico, according to the reports of +botanists, may be divided into three regions of altitude. +The first extends from the valleys as far as the +oak forests—this is the region of palms, cotton, indigo, +sugar-cane, coffee, and tropical fruits. The +second, situated at an elevation of from 3,500 to 9,000 +feet above the sea, is the temperate region. It +stretches from the oak forests to the forests of <i>Coniferæ</i>. +At this height the temperature is still sufficient +to ripen some tropical fruits. The third, or +cold region, occupies a space comprehended between +the Conifers and perpetual snow. In many places it +possesses a climate under which pear, apple, and +cherry trees, and the potato, can still grow. In ascending +from the foot of Orizaba, one sees successively +appear and disappear <i>Mimosa</i>, <i>Acacia</i>, cotton, +<i>Convolvulus</i>, <i>Bignonia</i>, oaks, palms, bananas, myrtles, +laurels, <i>Terebinthaceæ</i>, tree-ferns, <i>Magnolia</i>, arborescent +composites, plane, <i>Storax</i>, apples, pears, +cherries, apricots, pomegranates, lemon and orange +trees, orchids, <i>Fuchsia</i>, and <i>Cactus</i>.</p> + +<p>The plains of Venezuela, known under the name of +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_918">[918]</span>Llanos, are principally covered with grass-like +plants, such as <i>Kyllingia</i>, <i>Cenchrus</i>, and <i>Raspalum</i>. +With these we find a few dicotyledonous plants, such +as <i>Turnera</i>; some <i>Malvaceæ</i>, and, what is very +remarkable, species of <i>Mimosa</i>, with leaves quite +sensitive to the touch, which the Spaniards call <i>Dornuderas</i>. +The same race of cows which in Spain +fatten upon sainfoin and clover, here find excellent +nourishment in the herbaceous sensitive plants. The +pasturage is richest, not only near rivers subject to +inundations, but also where the trunks of the palm-trees +are the most crowded, which can not be attributable +to the shelter and protection which they +have from the sun’s rays, since the palm of the Llanos +(<i>Corypha tectorum</i>) has only a very few corrugated +and palmate leaves, like those of <i>Chamærops</i>, and +the lower are always parched and dried up. Besides +the isolated trunks of palms we also find, here and +there, in the Llanos, groups of palms, in which the +<i>Corypha</i> mingles with a tree of the family of <i>Proteaceæ</i>—a +new species of <i>Rhopala</i>, with hard and +resonant leaves. In the Llanos of Caracas, the +<i>Corypha</i> extends from the Mesa de Paja to Guayaval. +More to the north and northwest it is replaced +by another species of the same genus, with leaves +equally palmate, but much larger. To the south of +Guayaval other palms predominate, chiefly the pinnate-leaved +<i>Piritu</i> (<i>Guilielma speciosa</i>) and the +<i>Mauritia flexuosa</i>, the sago-tree of America, which +supplies farinaceous food, good wine, thread to +weave into hammocks, clothes, and baskets; its fruit, +in shape resembling pine-cones, being covered with +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_919">[919]</span>scales, like those of <i>Calamus</i> (Rotang), with something +of the taste of an apple. The Guaranes, whose +very existence, so to speak, depends on the Murichi +palm, obtain an acid and very refreshing fermented +liquor from it. This palm has large, shiny, corrugated, +and fan-like leaves, maintaining a most beautiful +verdure in times of the greatest drought. The +sight of it alone in the Llanos produces an agreeable +and refreshing sensation; and the Murichi, laden +with its scaly fruit, contrasts singularly with the sad +aspect of the palm of Cobija, the leaves of which are +always gray and covered with dust.</p> + +<p>If we ascend the Andes, between 20° south latitude +and 5° north, at a height of from 5,000 to 10,000 +feet above the sea level, we shall find extra-tropical +forms of vegetation become more abundant: <i>Graminaceæ</i>; +some <i>Amentaceæ</i>—such as the oaks, willows; +<i>Labiatæ</i>; <i>Ericaceæ</i>; numerous <i>Compositæ</i>; <i>Caprifoliaceæ</i>; +<i>Umbelliferæ</i>; <i>Rosaceæ</i>; <i>Cruciferæ</i>; and +<i>Ranunculaceæ</i>. Tropical plants, on the contrary, +disappear, or become very rare; but still, isolated +species of palms, pepper-plants, <i>Cactaceæ</i>, passion-flowers, +and <i>Melastomaceæ</i> are found at considerable +heights. Among the most abundant ligneous species +are the <i>Ceroxylon andicola</i>, the highest of all the +palms, which reaches the height of 200 feet, and +produces a wax which exudes from its leaves, and +from the base of their petioles; willow and Humboldt’s +oak; several species of <i>Cinchona</i>, which here +reign supreme; a few hollies, and species of <i>Andromeda</i>. +Vegetables cultivated between the tropics, in +Mexico, and as far south as the river Amazon, disappear +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_920">[920]</span>almost entirely here; but maize and coffee, +the cereals and European fruits, are cultivated in +these regions; potatoes; <i>Chenopodium Quinoa</i>, the +seeds of which, when boiled, serve as food for the +inhabitants of the mountains.</p> + +<p>If we ascend to the height of 10,000 feet above the +sea on the Andes, and in the same latitude, tropical +forms of vegetation almost entirely disappear. +Those, on the contrary, which characterize temperate +climates, and even the Polar regions, become abundant. +Large trees are no longer seen. Alders, bilberries, +currants; <i>Escallonia</i>, with bitter and tonic +leaves, of which this is the home; hollies and <i>Drymis</i>, +are bushes belonging to these regions, as well as the +curious calceolarias, with shoe-shaped corolla, the +seeds of which have supplied horticulture with an +infinite number of varieties. Among the characteristic +families we also find <i>Umbelliferæ</i>, <i>Caryophyllaceæ</i>, +<i>Cruciferæ</i>, <i>Cyperaceæ</i>, mosses and lichens. +Returning to more circumscribed botanical districts, +the climate of Caracas has often been called one of +perpetual spring. A more delicious temperature +can not be conceived. During the day it ranges between +60° and 68° Fahr., and in the night between +60° and 64°, at once favorable to the growth of the +banana, the orange, coffee, the apple, apricot, and +wheat.</p> + +<p>We must not quit these regions without mentioning +two beneficent trees—the <i>Theobroma Cacao</i> and +the cow-tree, <i>Brosimum Galactodendron</i>. The +roasted and crushed seeds of <i>Theobroma Cacao</i>, with +the addition of sugar, make chocolate. Humboldt +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_921">[921]</span>gives the following account of the cow-tree, which +has the habit of <i>Chrysophyllum Cainito</i>: “The fruit +is rather fleshy, consisting of one, sometimes two +nuts. When incisions are made in the trunk an abundance +of thick glutinous milk flows, which is without +any acidity. This substance exhales a very agreeable +balsam-like odor. It was presented to us in the fruit +of the Calabash-tree. We drank considerable quantities +of it in the evening before going to bed, and +again early in the morning, without experiencing any +injurious effects. Negroes and free people who +work on the plantations drink of it, and soak their +maize or manioc bread in it. The master of the farm +assured us that the slaves fattened visibly during the +season when the <i>Palo de Vacca</i> furnishes them with +most milk. Upon the arid flank of a rock,” adds +Von Humboldt, “there grows a tree whose leaves are +dry and coriaceous, its great ligneous roots almost +piercing the stone. During many months of the year +not a shower waters its foliage, the branches appear +dry and dead; but when the trunk is pierced a sweet +and nourishing milk follows the incision.”</p> + +<p>In order to penetrate to the heart of the vegetation +of Brazil, the region of palms and <i>Melastomaceæ</i>, +the land of promise to the naturalists, we shall take as +our guide Martius and August de Sainte-Hilaire, +who have written with much exactness on the vegetable +wonders displayed in the Brazilian forests. +Their aspect varies according to the nature of the +soil, and the distribution of water traversing them. +If these forests are not the seat of a constant supply +of moisture, or if the moisture is only renewed by +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_922">[922]</span>periodical rains, the drought stops the vegetation, +and it becomes intermittent, as in European climates. +This is the case in the Catingas. The vegetation of +the untrodden forests, on the contrary, of which +Sainte-Hilaire gives an eloquent picture, is the reverse +of this; excited by the ceaseless action of the +two agents, humidity and heat, the vegetation of the +virgin forests remains in a state of continual activity. +The winter is only distinguished from the summer +by a shade of color in the verdure of the foliage; and +if some of the trees lose their leaves, it is to assume +immediately a new appearance. “When a European +arrives in America, and sees from a distance the untrodden +forests for the first time, he is astonished not +to see the singular forms which he admired in European +hothouses, but which are here mingled in +masses and lost. And he is astonished at the little +difference in the outline of the forests between those +of his own country and those of the New World, and +he is only struck with the proportions and the deep +green color of the leaves, which, under the most brilliant +sky imaginable, impart a grave and severe aspect +to the landscape. In order to appreciate all the +beauties of the tropical forest we must plunge into +retreats as old as the world. Nothing there reminds +us of the fatiguing monotony of our oak and fir forests: +each tree has a bearing peculiar to itself. Each +has its own foliage, and often its own peculiar shade +of verdure. Gigantic specimens of vegetation, each +belonging to different, sometimes to remote, families, +mingle their branches and blend their foliage. Five-leaved +<i>Bignoniaceæ</i> grow beside <i>Cæsalpinia</i>, and the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_923">[923]</span>golden leaves of <i>Cassia</i> spread themselves in falling +upon arborescent ferns. Myrtles and <i>Eugenia</i>, with +their thousand-times-divided branches, are finely +contrasted with the elegant simplicity of the palms; +<i>Cecropia</i> spreads its broad leaves and branches, +which resemble immense candelabra, among the delicate +foliage of <i>Mimosa</i>. There are trees with perfectly +smooth bark, others are defended by prickly +spines; and the enormous trunk of a species of wild +fig spreads itself out with sloping plates, which seem +to support it like so many arched buttresses. The +obscure flowers of our beeches and oaks only attract +the attention of naturalists; but in the forests of +South America gigantic trees often display the most +brilliant colors in their corolla. Long golden clusters +hang from the branches of the <i>Cassia</i>. <i>Vochysia</i> +erect a thyrsus of odd-shaped flowers. Yellow and +sometimes purple corollas, longer than those of our +<i>Digitalis</i>, cover in profusion the species of trumpet-flowered +<i>Bignonia</i>; and <i>Chorisia</i> is decked with +flowers which resemble our lily in shape, and remind +us of <i>Alstromeria</i> from the mixture of colors they +present. Certain vegetable forms, which assume at +home very humble proportions, present themselves +with a floral pomp unknown in temperate climates; +some <i>Boraginaceæ</i> become shrubs; many <i>Euphorbiaceæ</i> +assume the proportions of majestic trees, offering +an agreeable shelter under their thick umbrageous +foliage.”</p> + +<p>But it is principally among the <i>Graminaceæ</i> that +the greatest difference is observable. Of these there +are a great number which attain no larger dimensions +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_924">[924]</span>than our <i>Bromus</i>, forming masses of grass only +distinguished from European species by their stems +being more branchy, and the leaves larger. Others +shoot up to the height of the forest tree, with a graceful +habit. At first they are as upright as a lance, terminating +in a point, with only one leaf, resembling a +large scale, at each internode; when these fall, a +crown of short branches springs from their axils, bearing +the true leaves. The stems of the bamboos are +thus decorated with verticils at regular intervals. It +is to the <i>Lianes</i> principally that tropical forests are +indebted for their picturesque beauty, and these are +the source of the most varied effects. Our own +honeysuckle and the ivy give but a faint idea of the +appearance presented by the crowd of climbing and +creeping plants belonging to many different families. +These are <i>Bignoniaceæ</i>, <i>Bauhinia</i>, <i>Cissus</i>, and <i>Hippocrateaceæ</i>, +and while they all require a support, +they each have notwithstanding a bearing peculiar to +themselves. One of those climbing parasites will +encircle the trunk of the largest trees to a prodigious +height, the marks left by the old leaves seeming in +their lozenge-shaped design to resemble the skin of a +serpent. From this parasitic stem spring large leaves +of a glossy green, while its lower parts give birth to +slender roots, which descend again to the earth +straight as a plumb-line. The tree which bears the +Spanish name of <i>Cipo-Matador</i>, “the murderous +Liane,” has a trunk so slight that it can not support +itself alone, but must find support on a neighboring +tree more robust than itself. It presses against its +stem, aided by its aerial roots, which embrace it at +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_925">[925]</span>intervals like so many flexible osiers, by which it secures +itself and defies the most terrible hurricanes. +Some <i>Lianes</i> resemble waving ribbons, others are +twisted in large spirals, or hang in festoons, spreading +between the trees, and darting from one to another, +twining round them, and forming masses of +stem, leaves, and flowers, where the observer often +finds it difficult to assign to each species what belongs +to it.</p> + +<p>Thousands of different species of shrubs, <i>Melastomaceæ</i>, +<i>Boraginaceæ</i>, <i>peppers</i>, and <i>Acanthaceæ</i>, +springing up round the roots of large trees, fill up the +intervals left between them. Species of <i>Tillandsia</i> +and orchids, with flowers of strange and whimsical +shape, make their appearance, and these often serve +as supports to other parasites. Numerous brooks +generally run through these forests, communicating +their own freshness to the forest vegetation, presenting +to the tired traveler delicious and limpid water, +while the banks of the stream are carpeted with +mosses, lycopodiums, and ferns, from the midst of +which spring begonias, with delicate and succulent +stems, unequal leaves, and flesh-colored flowers.</p> + +<p>The forests of Paraguay, still little known, situated +along the coast of the Atlantic, consist of ligneous +<i>Compositæ</i> and <i>Ilex paraguayensis</i>, the Paraguay +tea, of which a large quantity is annually exported.</p> + +<p>In the Argentine Republic Auguste de Saint-Hilaire +found only 500 species of plants, among +which only fifteen belonged to families which are +not European.</p> + +<p>When we reach the south coast of Patagonia and +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_926">[926]</span>the Falkland Islands, a few brown and coriaceous +<i>Graminaceæ</i> and <i>Cyperaceæ</i>, such as <i>Dactylis cæspitosa</i>, +<i>Carex trifida</i>, <i>Bolax glebaria</i>, <i>Cardamine +glacialis</i>, <i>Veronica</i>, <i>Calceolaria</i>, <i>Aster</i>, <i>Opuntia +Darwinii</i>, <i>Lomaria magellanica</i> among the tree ferns, +a few brambles, thickets of bilberries and <i>Arbutus</i>, +include nearly the whole of the vegetation of these +desert lands, where mosses, hepaticas, and lichens +reign supreme. We now reach the southern part of +South America. In the stormy region of Terra del +Fuego thick forests cover the mountains, where they +are sheltered from the wind, to the height of 1,500 +feet above the level of the sea. <i>Fagus betuloides</i> +predominates there; then comes <i>F. antarctica</i>, accompanied +by barberry and currant bushes.</p> + +<p>At the Island of Hermite, the most southerly point +of the American Continent, there is still some arborescent +vegetation. Hooker there observed eighty-four +flowering plants and many cryptogams. A +fungus parasitic on the beech (<i>Cyttaria Gunnii</i>) constitutes +there a principal aliment of the miserable +inhabitants of these gloomy regions.</p> + +<p>The Australian flora presents forms more ancient +than any other contemporary vegetation. More than +nine-tenths of the species found between 33° and 35° +south latitude, in Australia, are absolutely limited to +these regions. Many constitute completely distinct +families; others form families which are scarcely represented +in any other part of the globe. Those even +which belong to groups more generally diffused disguise +their natural affinities under forms isolated and +unlike their congeners. The different species of two +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_927">[927]</span>genera, namely, <i>Eucalyptus</i> among <i>Myrtaceæ</i>, and +<i>Acacia</i> among <i>Leguminosæ</i>, form perhaps, from their +number and dimensions, one-half of the vegetation +which covers the country. Their leaves are reduced +to phyllodes. Neither these phyllodes nor the limb +of the real leaves are placed horizontally, like those +of Europe and other parts of the world, but are perpendicular +to the surface of the soil, so that the light +shining between these vertical blades is not arrested, +as in the case with our trees and bushes, in which the +leaves are placed transversely one above the other. +The effect produced by masses of Australian verdure +is thus entirely different from that to which we are +accustomed. The aspects of these forests particularly +struck the first travelers who visited them, from +the singular sensation communicated to the eye by +this mode of distributing light and shade.</p> + +<p><i>Eucalyptus</i>, which occupies such a large place in +Australian vegetation, may be said to be the sacred +tree with the natives; it shadows the tombs of the +savage inhabitants of these countries. Sir Thomas +Mitchell, the traveler to whom we owe the first scientific +description of Australia, has given a remarkable +picture of “these groves of death,” which are +daily becoming more and more rare, and will disappear +under the influence of European colonization. +He relates that these groves mark the centre of the +patrimonial land of each great Australian tribe. Little +<i>tumuli</i> of grass, and sandy footpaths, surround +the clumps of these funereal squares, over which +spreads the shadow of the <i>Eucalyptus</i> and <i>Xanthorrhæa.</i> +If to the magnificent <i>Eucalyptus</i> and simple-leaved +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_928">[928]</span><i>Acacia</i>, which predominate in the forests and +give quite a special character to the vegetation, we +add the <i>Xanthorrhæa</i>, with its thick stem, long, narrow, +linear leaves, curved and spreading at the summit, +from the centre of which rises an elongated stem, +terminated by a spike of robust flowers; the <i>Casuarina</i>, +with long, pendent, and drooping boughs, most +delicately articulated; <i>Araucaria excelsa</i>, whose column-like +trunk and verticillate branches rise to the +height of ninety or a hundred feet; the elegant <i>Epacridaceæ</i>, +with flowers so varied; a vast number of +pretty <i>Leguminosæ</i>, which now add to the riches of +our hothouses; more than 120 terrestrial <i>Orchidaceæ</i>, +nearly all belonging to genera peculiar to Australia, +we shall have an idea of the vegetation which covers +and decorates in so original a way the shores of New +Holland.</p> + +<p>The large islands of New Zealand almost correspond +in latitude with the zone which we have been +examining. These islands are the nearest land (considering +Van Diemen’s Land as part of Australia), +and are interesting as being the exact antipodes of +western Europe, and because they repeat as it were +our Mediterranean region on the other side of the +globe. While resembling it in climate, however, the +native vegetation has its own characteristics. It has +some features in common with Australia and the +tropics.</p> + +<p>In the large island of Ika-na-Nawi there are immense +forests of <i>Lianes</i> and interlacing shrubs, which +render them impenetrable. In these forests there exist, +no doubt, trees of gigantic dimensions, for the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_929">[929]</span>canoes of the natives are sometimes as much as sixty +feet long, and from three to four broad, all hollowed +out of one trunk. At from two to four miles from the +coast Messrs. Richard and Lesson saw large spaces, +very low and probably marshy, covered with great +masses of green trees, of which the <i>Dacrydium cupressinum</i> +and <i>Podocarpus dacrydiodes</i> and some +others, form the principal species. The European +is surprised to meet there many familiar plants, or +species closely allied to them, such as <i>Senecio</i>, <i>Veronica</i>, +rushes, <i>Ranunculus acris</i>, etc. On the other +hand, several plants peculiar to New Zealand grow +abundantly in these localities, such, among others, as +the <i>Phormium tenax</i>, called by Europeans New Zealand +Flax, because its fibres furnish a very strong +thread, much used in the manufacture of certain +fabrics.</p> + +<p>Ferns form a tenth of the number of species in the +whole vegetation of New Zealand; among Monocotyledons +are <i>Graminaceæ</i> and <i>Cyperaceæ</i>; among Dicotyledons, +<i>Umbelliferæ</i>, <i>Cruciferæ</i>, and <i>Onagrariaceæ</i>. +New Zealand only furnishes a small number +of alimentary plants. The aboriginal inhabitants of +this archipelago, for the most part ichthyophagous, +were long reduced to the feculent root of a fern, the +<i>Pteris esculenta</i>, for food, when they could not obtain +fish. None of their trees produce large fruit. The +taro (<i>Caladium esculentum</i>) and the sweet potato +(<i>Convolvulus Batatas</i>) also serve as nourishment to +the inhabitants of these countries. It is to be remarked +that European vegetables, introduced into +New Zealand by sailors, are propagated there with +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_930">[930]</span>such facility that the aspect of the ground, as well as +conditions of life, are greatly modified. Among the +vegetables proper to the archipelago in question we +may note the <i>Corypha australis</i> among the palms; +arborescent species of <i>Dracæna</i>, forests of <i>Coniferæ</i>, +with large leaves, such as <i>Dammara</i>, and <i>Metrosideros</i> +among the <i>Myrtaceæ</i>.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-930"> + ZONES OF VEGETATION<br> + —<span class="smcap">M. J. Schleiden</span> +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">If, from the snow-covered ice-plains of the extreme +north, where the Red-snow Alga alone remind us +of the existence of vegetable organization, we turn +toward the south, a girdle first expands before us, in +which mosses and lichens clothe the soil, and a peculiar +vegetation of low plants with subterranean, +perennial stems, and generally large, handsome +flowers, the so-called Alpine plants, gives a special +character to Nature. Almost all the plants form little, +flattened, separate tufts; <i>Pyrola</i>, <i>Andromeda</i>, +<i>Pedicularis</i>, <i>Cochlearia</i>, poppies, crow-foots, and +others are the characteristic genera of this flora, in +which no tree, no shrub flourishes. Leaving this region, +which botanists call the region of Mosses and +Saxifrages, or, after one of the founders of Geographical +Botany, Wahlenberg’s region, we go +southward, and at first we see little low bushes of +birches, then more compacted woods, into which the +pines and other coniferous trees assemble, and we at +last find ourselves in a second great zone of vegetation +which is characterized by the woods consisting almost +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_931">[931]</span>exclusively of conifers, which thus impress a peculiar +character upon the flora; firs and pines, Siberian +stone-pines and larches form great widely extended +masses of forest; by brooks and on damp soil occur +the willow and the alder. On dry hills grow the +reindeer lichen and Iceland moss. In the cranberry, +cloud-berry, and the currant Nature gives spontaneously, +though sparingly, food; and a rich flora of +variegated flowers serves for the decoration of the +zone, which stretches, in Scandinavia, to the northern +limit of the cultivation of wheat, but in Russia and +Asia, almost to Kazan and Yakutsk; we will call it +the zone of the conifers. Even in the neighborhood +of Drontheim, the culture of fruits begins, though +sparingly; soon appears the sturdy oak, called, with +rather too much poetic license, “the German”; in +Schoonen, Zealand, Schleswig, and Holstein flourish +the first woods of beech. In about the latitude of +Frankfort-on-the-Main, another tree joins company, +which, in its bold, picturesque mode of branching, +takes its stand beside the oak—which in the beauty of +its foliage, as well as the utility of its fruit, it far +surpasses—namely, the noble chestnut. The Pyrenees, +the Alps, and the Caucasus form the southern +limit of the zone, in the more eastern portion of +which the lime and the elm contribute so abundantly +to the composition of the forests that the former even +withstands the devastation which the Esthonians +make in the manufacture of their shoes from its +bass. In the hop, the ivy, and the clematis we find +here the first representation of the tropical climbers. +The smiling green of the meadows alternates with +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_932">[932]</span>the gloomy shadows of the forests; and man has taken +possession of the earth, restraining the wild vegetation +to that absolutely needful for wood and hay, and +rich crops reward his industry. We leave this zone +of the deciduous woods to scale the rocky barrier +of the Alps. Here suddenly appear quite different +plants; with the great woods of trees, the coriaceous +shining leaves of which last through the mild winter, +and round the mighty stems of which climb the vine +and flame-colored Bignonias, unite the smaller bushes +of myrtle, arbutus, and pistachio. Here and there +the dwarf-palm is met with; labiate plants and +crucifers, and fair-flowered rock-roses replace in +summer the spring flora of scented hyacinth and narcissus; +but rarely, even in the most favored spots, is +the eye dazzled by the brilliancy of evergreen leaves, +or the glaring play of color of the naked, jagged +mountain chains, gladdened by the mild radiance of +verdant meadows. In recompense, mankind has, +<ins class="corr" id="tn-932" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: 'in in this zone'"> +in this zone</ins> of evergreen woods, seized upon the +fruit of the Hesperides. It is</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="verse indent10">“the land where the Citrons blow,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Through the dark-green leaves the gold Oranges glow.”</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>But onward, ever onward, strives the insatiable son +of Iapetus; no legend of African deserts, no death-news +of the many adventurous travelers who have +gone forth to seek the source of the Niger, frighten +him back. On the west coast of Africa, in the +Canary Isles, is, indeed, no longer found the gigantic +dog, from which, as Pliny told, the islands derived +their name, but Flora gives for booty richest treasures +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_933">[933]</span>which she, by aid of the tropical sun, has succeeded +in extracting from the soil, moistened by the vapors +of the ocean. Round sycamores twine mighty cissus +stems; capers and bauhinias interlace in the thickets +of balsamic shrubs. The slender date-palm soars +aloft, and the baobab grows up into gigantic masses +of wood. The wondrous cactus-like forms of the +leafless spurges, distinguished by their poisonous or +pleasant-flavored, sweet milk, as the case may be, +betray a peculiar formative power in Nature; and +the dragon-tree in the garden of Orotava,⁠<a id="FNanchor_3_3" href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> in Teneriffe, +a gigantic arborescent lily-plant, recounts to +the musing listener the traditions of thousands of +years.</p> + +<p>Six zones of vegetation have we thus passed +through, in which the continually increasing temperature +of the climate called forth ever a different, +ever a more luxuriant vegetation, and we conclude +our wanderings, after a short rest under the five-thousand-yeared +Dracænas, by climbing the Pic of Teyde. +Man has taken possession of the soil of the plain +at its foot and dislodged the original vegetation. +Through vineyards and maize-fields we ascend, till +the shades of the evergreen bay-laurel surround us. +Trees of the lace-bark tribe and similar plants succeed; +we wander for a time through a <em>zone of evergreen +forest trees</em>. At a height of 4,000 feet we +lose the plants which had so far accompanied us. A +very small number of peculiar plants mark a quickly +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_934">[934]</span>traversed <em>zone of deciduous trees</em>, and we come +among the resinous trunks of the Canary pine. A +<em>zone of conifers</em> shield us from the sun’s rays up to +a height of 6,000 feet, then the vegetation suddenly +becomes low—from humble bushes it passes into a +flora which bears all the characters of the Alpine +plants, till finally the naked rock sets a limit to all +organic life, and no snow and ice bedeck the summit +of the mountain, only because its height of 12,236 +feet does not, in a position so near the tropics, extend +up to the region of eternal snow. Counting by the +limits of vegetation, we have resurveyed in a few +hours’ climb the wide way from Spitzbergen to the +Canaries, an extent of more than fifty degrees of latitude.</p> + +<p>The plant is dependent on the condition of the soil, +in the widest sense of the word, on the store of nutriment +it contains, and on all that influences the chemical +process of formation, consequently, above all, +upon a determinate temperature. The universal, indispensable +nutrient substance of plants, and, at the +same time, the matter by means of which all the +rest are conveyed into it, is water. Without water +there is no vegetation. The orchidaceous plants of +the tropical forest let their peculiarly constructed +roots hang down from the branch to which they cling +in the warm, moist atmosphere, and absorb water in +the form of vapor. Our water-lilies and the proper +bog-plants will only flourish when surrounded by +liquid water, or, at least, with their roots dipping +in it. The case is quite different with the great majority +of plants; they have to extract their nutriment +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_935">[935]</span>from the earth, which contains the moisture to be +absorbed into them in a peculiar condition. If to +these three classes of air, water, and earth-plants we +add one more, namely, the true parasites, which, like +our dodder, draw their organized nutriment from +other plants, we have obtained the principal divisions +of stations.</p> + +<p>Every soil which bears plants contains also in its +composition all the substances required by all plants, +only the proportions differ, and the predominance of +silex, lime, or common salt must consequently favor +especially the growth of grasses, pulses, or shore-plants, +although these are by no means exclusively +confined to the proper sandy or calcareous soils, or +to the seaside. In addition to the chemical conditions, +there is yet another which modifies the former +and, where it brings about the same actions, contributes +to chain particular plants so much the more +firmly, exclusively to particular soils, or contrariwise +also contributes to conceal or obliterate the connection +between plants and the chemical nature of +the soil. This consists in the mechanical condition +and physical peculiarities of the soil. There are +plants which will only settle on unbroken <em>rocks</em>, +which when the other conditions coincide, spring +from these rocks over on to our <em>walls</em>, like the Wall +Rue Spleenwort,⁠<a id="FNanchor_4_4" href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> a little fern, the name of which +denotes its station. Others occur only where weathering +has broken up the solid rock into small fragments, +<em>drift</em> plants, which, clinging to mankind, select +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_936">[936]</span><em>rubbish heaps</em>, which most resemble their natural +station; our great nettle and henbane may serve +as examples. Lastly, other plants grow only where +the rocks have been reduced to fine powder, in <em>sand</em> +or in the fine-grained <em>clay</em> produced by chemical decomposition. +The so-called German Sarsaparilla, +the sea-reed, is an example of the first condition, but +there is no definite condition corresponding to it in +the vicinity of human habitations. Clay, on the other +hand, stands beside the black substance humus, resulting +from the decomposition of organic matter. +Both rich in soluble salts, important to vegetation, +both distinguished in regard to their property of absorbing +from the atmosphere, and thus conveying to +the roots of plants gases and aqueous vapor, they +cause, singly or in combination, the most luxuriant +vegetation. We thus obtain three stages in reference +to the qualities of the soil-pure earths, wholly devoid +of vegetation; mixed earths, without clay or humus, +with an arid but characteristic vegetation; and lastly, +soil rich in clay and humus, with the greatest abundance +and variety of plants.</p> + +<p>Australia has, in common with Europe, a very +common plant, the daisy (<i>Bellis perennis</i>). The +same little flower is found in northern Asia, in some +regions in Africa and South America, and where it +occurs it climbs the mountains from the level of the +sea up to the snow-limit. The little enchanter’s +nightshade, the delicate Linnæa, the bittersweet, the +bird’s knot-grass, the blue gentian, the dwarf birch, +and the herbaceous willow, and several others, are +indigenous both in Europe and North America. The +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_937">[937]</span>common self-heal, the duckweed, and our reed +grow in New Holland. The bog-moss covers the +moors of Peru and New Granada, as well as those +of the Hartz and of Dovrefjeld in Norway. The +brownish Parmelia, which clothes all our walls in +Germany, palings, and old trees, is no less present on +the only ninety-year-old Yorullo in Mexico. The +bluish bristle-grass, which is one of the commonest +garden and field weeds on sandy soils with us, grows +also in the interior of Brazil on suitable soil. A +characteristic plant of the seashores of Northern +Europe and the vicinity of salt-springs, <i>Ruppia +martima</i>, grows equally on the northern coast of +Germany, in Brazil, and the East Indies. But it is +needless to accumulate examples, for these so hasten +to present themselves that the view finds some support +in observation which assumes that every plant +must exist in every part of the globe where the known +conditions of its vegetation are present.</p> + +<p>The little daisy (<i>Bellis perennis</i>) exhibits a certain +wilfulness. It is wanting all through North +America; and that which we tread down as an insignificant +weed in our European meadows is there +reared with the most tender care in the botanical +gardens. If we pass in review the vegetation of +different countries, we see that causes appearing +similar in our present knowledge of them bring +forth indeed <em>similar</em>, but by no means the same, +forms of plants. To the plants of a particular northern +latitude correspond in the analogous height of +the Alps, situated southward, other species of the +same genera, or other genera of the same family; or +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_938">[938]</span>the plants of America are represented in the same +latitudes in the Old World by plants which are different, +but closely allied, in their development. Nay, +even plants which belong to totally different families +assume, at least in their outward appearance, similar +shapes. Thus the cactus plants of the New World +correspond to the leafless, fleshy spurges of the torrid +Africa.</p> + +<p>If, again, we anticipate that a greater variety of +conditions of vegetation is the cause why the variety +of vegetation, the number of species of plants, continually +augments from the pole toward the equator, +and that on the same account the number of sociably +growing plants, of species which clothe great tracts +in countless individual specimens, also increases in +the same measure, we find that we are still far from +being enabled to give a scientific account of the matter. +It seems to us wholly the result of caprice that +particular plants are distributed widely over the +globe, while others must live cribbed in the narrowest +spot, as, for instance, the Wulfenia, occurring exclusively +on the Carinthian Alps; that particular families, +like the <i>Compositæ</i>, flourish abroad over the +whole earth, while others, like the peppers and the +palms, only occur between very definite degrees of +latitude on either side of the equator, the <i>Proteaceæ</i> +only in the Southern Hemisphere, the cactus tribe +only in the western half of our earth. Just as inexplicable +is the <em>mode of distribution</em> of the families +of plants. While the palms diminish in number from +the equator into higher latitudes, the <i>Compositæ</i> attain +their highest development in the zones of mean +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_939">[939]</span>temperature, their number of species diminishes from +these in both directions, equally toward the equator +and toward the poles; while, finally, the grasses increase +constantly from the equator toward the poles.</p> + +<p>This, to us inexplicable, mode of distribution of +plants according to species, genera, families, orders, +and classes gives rise to certain peculiar regions on +the globe, which are characterized by the predominance +of certain forms of plants, or by the exclusive +occurrence of particular families. These portions +of the earth’s surface are called Geographical Regions +of Plants, and to them have been applied the +names of men who have made themselves especially +famous by the investigation of these places.</p> + +<p>I have already alluded to the regions of saxifrages +and mosses, or Wahlenberg’s region, which extends +from the eternal snow of the poles, or the summits +of the mountains, down to the limit of the growth of +trees, and is distinguished by the absence of arborescent +plants, and even of the taller shrubs. Adjoining +this comes the great Linnæan region, including +northern Europe and northern Asia to the great +chain of mountains which extends from the Pyrenees +to the Alps. Woods of conifers, or deciduous trees, +luxuriant meadows, and broad heaths, in Asia the +peculiar salt steppes, especially determine the characters +of this region, which, at least in its European +portion, is now too widely taken possession of to exhibit +its natural physiognomy. The wide basin from +the Alps to Atlas, the deepest part filled by the Mediterranean +Sea, forms a third region, distinguished +by the abundance of aromatic Labiate plants, fair, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_940">[940]</span>but fleeting, lily plants, and the resinous rock-roses. +The solitary dwarf-palm and balsam-trees denote in +this, De Candolle’s region, the transition to the +tropics. Parallel to the two last-named regions, +North America is divided into a northern region +named in honor of Michaux, distinguished by peculiar +conifers, oaks and walnuts, by innumerable asters +and golden-rods from the Linnæan region, and a +southern, Pursh’s region, in which most strikingly +appear the trees with broad shining leaves and large +splendid flowers, like the tulip-tree, the magnolia, +and others defining the character. Between Kämpfer’s +region, comprehending China and Japan, Wallich’s +in the highlands of India, and the Polynesian, +or island region of Reinwardt, renowned for its poison-tree +and its giant-flower, lies Roxburgh’s region, +which extends through both the Indian peninsulas, +which conceals among the shadows of the monster +fig-trees the <i>Scitaminaceæ</i>, or aromatic lilies, like +ginger, cardamums, and turmeric, or in little woods +of aromatic barks, like the cinnamon and cassia, +matures in thick, shapeless stems the starch of the +sago. We pass over Blume’s region in the mountains +of Java, Chamisso’s in the Archipelago of the South +Sea, and Forster’s region in New Zealand, and turn +again to Africa, where the desert, Delile’s region, +ripens, in the oases, the date, and in the tender-leaved +acacias concocts the abundance of gum-arabic and +senega, which commerce brings to the service of +our industry. To this, eastward, adjoins Forskäl’s region, +where the balsam-trees predominate; on the +south, Adanson’s, the characteristic plant of which +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_941">[941]</span>perpetuates the name of that enlightened botanist, the +thousand-yeared giant stem of the <i>Adansonia digitata</i>, +the baobab, or monkey’s-bread. The little +known Africa gives only one more region, at its +southern extremity, Thunberg’s, bedecked with stapelias, +mesembryanthemums, brilliant heaths, and +evil-scented becku-shrubs, but poor in woods. New +Holland and Van Diemen’s Land bear the name of +their first and most profound botanical investigator, +Robert Brown; and Central and South America distribute +their vegetable riches into eight more regions, +which are dedicated to Jacquin, Bonpland, Humboldt, +Ruiz and Pavon, Swartz, Martius, St. Hilaire, +and D’Urville; among these, Jacquin’s region is remarkable +for its strange cacti; Humboldt’s, on the +heights of the South American Andes, for its Quinoa +forests; and that of Martius, in the interior of Brazil, +for its abundance of palms, for its quantity of climbing +plants or lianes and parasitic plants.</p> + +<p>All over the globe has man, for the supply of necessary +food, selected almost solely summer plants, +that is, such plants as complete their whole vegetative +processes, or, at all events, the development of all +the parts containing nutrient matter, within the course +of a few months. By this means he has rendered himself +independent in the half-tropical regions of the +evil action of the dry season, and in the higher latitudes +of the destructive influence of cold, and thus +ensured the possibility of cultivating plants, which +there must be killed by the drought of summer, here +by the cold of winter. Setting aside the cultivation +of fruits, which serve rather pleasure than necessity, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_942">[942]</span>there remain but three arborescent vegetables in the +whole world which can be included among the true +food-plants, namely, the bread-fruit, the cocoanut, +and the date, which actually furnish the chief proportion +of the food of great bodies of men and over +widely extended areas, and thence have become objects +of culture; the <i>Cycadaceæ</i>, and sago-palms, on +account of their starchy parenchyma, can at most perhaps +be taken into our reckoning only in a very limited +circle in the East Indies. All the rest of the +food-plants are either such as possess a subterraneous, +usually tuberous stem, which sends up shoots above +the soil, persisting but a few months, on which develop +flowers and fruit, while during the remaining +time sleeping, as it were, beneath the protecting +coverlet of earth, it sets the disfavor of the climate +at defiance, or such as die during or at the end of a +short period of vegetation, and ensure the future reproduction +in the slumbering germ of the seed. To +the former belong, for instance, the potato, derived +from the Cordilleras of Chili, Peru, and Mexico; +to the latter, almost all our corn-plants.</p> + +<p>One plant alone distinguishes itself among the cultivated +plants by a peculiar mode of vegetation, a +plant which was perhaps the earliest gift of Nature +to man awakening to life, and thus the object of the +earliest culture; I mean the banana. And this plant +was not merely the first, but the most valuable gift of +Nature; its slightly aromatic, sweet and nutritive +fruits are the sole, or at least the chief, food of the +major part of the inhabitants of the hotter regions. A +creeping subterraneous root-stock sends out on high, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_943">[943]</span>from lateral buds, a shaft fifteen to twenty feet long, +which consists merely of the rolled-up, sheath-like +leaf-stalks, bearing the velvet-like glancing leaves, +often ten feet long and two feet broad; the midrib +of the leaf alone is firm and thick, but the blade of +the leaf on either side so delicate that it is readily +torn by the wind, whence the leaf acquires a peculiar +feathered aspect. Among the leaves presses up +the rich cluster of flowers, which within three months +after the shoot has arisen forms from 150 to 180 ripe +fruits, about the size and form of a cucumber. The +fruits weigh altogether about 70 or 80 pounds, and +the same space which will bear 1,000 pounds of potatoes +brings forth in a much shorter time 44,000 +bananas; and if we take account of the nutritious +matter which this fruit contains, a surface which, +sown with wheat, feeds one man, planted with bananas, +affords sustenance to five-and-twenty. Nothing +strikes the European landing in a tropical country +so much as the little spot of cultivated land round +a hut, which shelters a very numerous Indian family.</p> + +<p>Not till long after did man learn to know and cultivate +the gifts of Ceres. It must, in fact, surprise us, +at present, to see that but a few species of a single +family of plants furnish the principal food of the +greater proportion of mankind, namely, the so-called +corn-plants, or <i>Cerealia</i>, of the family of grasses. +This family includes nearly 4,000 species, and yet +not twenty of them are cultivated for the food of man. +In their real nature these cultivated grasses are all +summer plants, but varieties have been obtained from +some of the most important of them, which, in the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_944">[944]</span>proper climate, sown in autumn, germinate and pass +the winter under the warm covering of snow, so that +they are in a condition to shoot out strongly in the +spring, while the soil is being prepared for the other +summer plants.</p> + +<p>Barley has the widest range of distribution of all +the <i>Cerealia</i>, and is cultivated from the extreme limits +of culture in Lapland to the heights immediately beneath +the equator. But it has by no means the same +importance everywhere that it has in the northern +region, where, in a little narrow zone, it appears as +the sole bread-corn. In Lapland and northern Asia, +rye soon appears beside it, but by the inclemency of +the climate confined to favorable years, and therefore +not properly to be regarded as the principal +food. First in Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Russia +does the rye become the peculiar bread-corn; and +wheat takes its place beside it in the north of Great +Britain and Germany, as the rye before joined barley. +In the centre of Germany, in the south of Great Britain, +in France, and in a wide range toward the East, +including the whole of the Caspian Sea, wheat is the +prevailing cultivated plant, which in the basin of the +Mediterranean and throughout North America is +associated with maize. Rice takes the place of the +latter in Egypt and in northern India, and holds undisputed +rule in the peninsulas of India, in China, +Japan, and the East Indian islands, shares it in the +west coast of Africa with maize, which, on the other +hand, is the exclusively cultivated corn-plant of the +greatest part of tropical America, with only some +unimportant exceptions. In southern America, Africa, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_945">[945]</span>and Australia wheat again enters the field with +the decreasing temperature. The culture of <i>Tef</i> and +<i>Tocusso</i> in Abyssinia, of millet in Western Africa +and Arabia, as well as of <i>Eleusine</i> and millet in the +East Indies, are quite of subordinate importance.</p> + +<p>Some other plants bear a far more important share +in the nutrition of mankind than the grasses last +named. Even in the most northern zone of the barley +and rye, the buckwheat is an object of tolerably extensive +culture. With the already named banana, +the yams, the manioc, and the batatas contribute +largely to the daily food of the inhabitants of the +tropics, of the Old as of the New World, added to +which the Andes presents itself a peculiar vegetable, +the quinoa, a plant which simultaneously produces +edible tubers and abundance of seeds, comparable +to those of buckwheat. Lastly, we may not +pass over the <i>Bread-fruit</i>, in the proper sense of the +word, which is the principal food of the inhabitants +of the large islands which extend from the East +Indies through the whole tropical ocean to the west +coast of America, the gift of a large and beautiful tree +of the family of the nettle, which from the use +it is turned to is called the bread-fruit tree. For the +sake of variety, some also cultivate with it the tarroo-root, +the <i>Tacca</i> tubers, or some ferns, the farinaceous +leaf-stalks of which afford a dainty meal. Last of +all I will mention the potato, which has spread over +the whole earth with such rapidity from the mountains +of the New World that in many places it +threatens, not exactly to the advantage of mankind, +to supplant every other culture.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_946">[946]</span></p> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-946"> + PHYSIOGNOMY OF PLANTS<br> + —<span class="smcap">Alexander von Humboldt</span> +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">The carpet of flowers and of verdure spread +over the naked crust of our planet is unequally +woven; it is thicker where the sun rises high in the +ever cloudless heavens and thinner toward the poles, +in the less happy climes where returning frosts often +destroy the opening buds of spring or the ripening +fruits of autumn. Everywhere, however, man finds +some plants to minister to his support and enjoyment.</p> + +<p>Lichens form the first covering of the naked rock, +where afterward lofty forest trees rear their airy +summits. The successive growth of mosses, grasses, +herbaceous plants and shrubs or bushes, occupies +the intervening period of long but undetermined duration. +The part which lichens and mosses perform +in the northern countries is effected within the tropics +by Portulacas Gomphrenas and other low and succulent +shore-plants. The history of the vegetable +covering of our planet, and its gradual propagation +over the desert crust of the earth, has its epochs as +well as that of the migrations of the animal world.</p> + +<p>When leaving our oak forests, we traverse the Alps +or Pyrenees, and enter Italy or Spain, or when we +direct our attention to some of the African shores +of the Mediterranean, we might easily be led to +draw the erroneous inference that hot countries are +marked by the absence of trees. But those who do +so, forget that the south of Europe wore a different +aspect on the first arrival of Pelasgian or Carthaginian +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_947">[947]</span>colonies; they forget that an ancient civilization +causes the forests to recede more and more, and +that the wants and restless activity of large communities +of men gradually despoil the face of the +earth of the refreshing shades which still rejoice the +eye in northern and middle Europe, and which +even more than any historic documents prove the +recent date and youthful age of our civilization.</p> + +<p>The deserts to the south of the Atlas, and the immense +plains or steppes of South America, must be +regarded as only local phenomena. The latter, the +South American steppes, are clothed, in the rainy +season at least, with grass and with low-growing, +almost herbaceous, mimosas. The African deserts +are, indeed, at all seasons, devoid of vegetation; seas +of sand, surrounded by forest shores clothed with +perpetual verdure. A few scattered fan-palms alone +recall to the wanderer’s recollection that these awful +solitudes belong to the domain of the same animated +terrestrial creation which is elsewhere so rich and so +varied. The fantastic play of the mirage, occasioned +by the effects of radiant heat, sometimes causes these +palm trees to appear divided from the ground and +hovering above its surface, and sometimes shows +their inverted image reflected in strata of air undulating +like the waves of the sea. On the west of the +great Peruvian chain of the Andes, on the coasts of +the Pacific, I have passed entire weeks in traversing +similar deserts destitute of water.</p> + +<p>When once a region has lost the covering of plants +with which it was invested, if the sands are loose +and mobile and are destitute of springs, and if the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_948">[948]</span>heated atmosphere, forming constantly ascending +currents, prevents precipitation taking place from +clouds, thousands of years may elapse ere organic +life can pass from the verdant shores to the interior +of the sandy sea, and repossess itself of the domain +from which it had been banished.</p> + +<p>Those, therefore, who can view nature with a +comprehensive glance and apart from local phenomena, +may see from the poles to the equator organic +life and vigor gradually augment with the +augmentation of vivifying heat. But, in the course +of this progressive increase, there are reserved to +each zone its own peculiar beauties; to the tropics, +variety and grandeur of vegetable forms; to the +north, the aspect of its meadows and green pastures, +and the periodic reawakening of nature at the first +breath of the mild air of spring. Each zone, besides +its own peculiar advantages, has its own distinctive +character.</p> + +<p>In determining leading forms, or types, on the individual +beauty, the distribution, and the grouping +of which the physiognomy of the vegetation of a +country depends, we must not follow the march of +systems of botany, in which from other motives the +parts chiefly regarded are the smaller organs of +propagation, the flowers and the fruit; we must, on +the contrary, consider solely that which by its mass +stamps a peculiar character on the total impression +produced, or on the aspect of the country. Among +the leading forms of vegetation to which I allude, +there are, indeed, some which coincide with families +belonging to the “natural systems” of botanists.</p> + +<p>Such are the forms of bananas, palms, Casuarinæ, +and Coniferæ. But the botanic system divides many +groups which the physiognomist is obliged to unite.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="i_102" style="max-width: 50em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/i_102.jpg" alt="Drawings of various herbs"> + <figcaption class="caption"> + Herbs, Useful and Medicinal<br> +<p class="fs80"> + 1, Myrtle; 2, Myrrh; 3, Hemlock; 4, Wormwood; 5, Frankincense; 6, Hyssop</p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_949">[949]</span></p> + +<p>We will begin with the palms, the loftiest and noblest +of all vegetable forms, that to which the prize +of beauty has been assigned by the concurrent voice +of nations in all ages; for the earliest civilization of +mankind belonged to countries bordering on the +region of palms, and to parts of Asia where they +abound. Their lofty, slender, ringed, and, in some +cases, prickly stems terminate in aspiring and shining +either fan-like or pinnated foliage. The leaves +are frequently curled, like those of some Gramineæ. +Smooth, polished stems of palms carefully measured +by me had attained 192 English feet in height. In +receding from the equator and approaching the +temperate zone, palms diminish in height and +beauty. The indigenous vegetation of Europe only +comprises a single representative of this form of +plants, the sea-coast dwarf-palm or Chamærops, +which in Spain and Italy extends as far north as the +44th parallel of latitude. The true climate of palms +has a mean annual temperature of 78°.2-81°.5 Fahr. +The date, which is much inferior in beauty to several +other genera, has been brought from Africa to the +south of Europe, where it lives, but can scarcely +be said to flourish, in a mean temperature not exceeding +59°-62°.4 Fahr.</p> + +<p>In all parts of the globe the palm form is accompanied +by that of plantains or bananas; the Scitamineæ +and Musaceæ of botanists, Heliconia, Amomum, +and Strelitzia. In this form, the stems, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_950">[950]</span>which are low, succulent, and almost herbaceous, are +surmounted by long, silky, delicately veined leaves +of a thin, loose texture, and bright and beautiful +verdure. Groves of plantains and bananas form +the ornament of moist places in the equatorial +regions.</p> + +<p>The form of Malvaceæ and Bombaceæ, represented +by Ceiba, Cavanillesia, and the Mexican +hand-tree Cheirostemon, has enormously thick +trunks; large, soft, woolly leaves, either heart-shaped +or indented; and superb flowers, frequently of a +purple or crimson hue. It is to this group of plants +that the baobab, or monkey bread-tree (Adansonia +digitata), belongs, which, with a very moderate +elevation, has a diameter of 32 English feet, and is +probably the largest and most ancient organic +monument on our planet. In Italy the Malvaceæ +already begin to impart to the vegetation a peculiar +southern character.</p> + +<p>The delicately pinnated foliage of the Mimosa +form, of which Acacia, Desmanthus, Gleditschia, +Porleria, and Tamarindus are important members, +is entirely wanting in our temperate zone in the Old +Continent, though found in the United States, where, +in corresponding latitudes, vegetation is more varied +and vigorous than in Europe. The umbrella-like +arrangement of the branches, resembling that seen +in the stone-pine in Italy, is very frequent among +the Mimosas. The deep blue of the tropic sky seen +through their finely divided foliage has an extremely +picturesque effect.</p> + +<p>The heath form belongs more especially to the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_951">[951]</span>African continent and islands. Arborescent heaths, +like some other African plants, extend to the northern +shores of the Mediterranean; they adorn Italy +and the cistus-covered grounds of the south of +Spain. In the countries adjoining the Baltic, and +further to the north, the aspect of this form of plants +is unwelcome as announcing sterility.</p> + +<p>The cactus form is almost exclusively American. +Sometimes spherical, sometimes articulated or +jointed, and sometimes assuming the shape of tall, +upright polygonal columns resembling the pipes of +an organ, this group presents the most striking contrast +to those of Liliaceæ and bananas.</p> + +<p>While the above-mentioned plants flourish in +deserts almost devoid of vegetation, the Orchideæ +enliven the clefts of the wildest rocks and the trunks +of tropical trees blackened by excess of heat. This +form (to which the vanilla belongs) is distinguished +by its bright green succulent leaves, and by its +flowers of many colors and strange and curious +shape, sometimes resembling that of winged insects, +and sometimes that of the birds which are attracted +by the perfume of the honey vessels. Such is their +number and variety that, to mention only a limited +district, the entire life of a painter would be too +short for the delineation of all the magnificent +Orchideæ which adorn the recesses of the deep valleys +of the Andes of Peru.</p> + +<p>The Casuarina form, leafless, like almost all +species of cactus, consists of trees with branches resembling +the stalks of our Equisetums. It is found +only in the islands of the Pacific and in India, but +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_952">[952]</span>traces of the same singular rather than beautiful type +are seen in other parts of the world.</p> + +<p>As the banana form shows the greatest expansion, +so the greatest contraction of foliage is shown in +Casuarinas, and in the form of needle-trees (Coniferæ). +Pines, thuias, and cypresses belong to this +form, which prevails in northern regions, and is comparatively +rare within the tropics: in Dammara and +Salisburia the leaves, though they may still be termed +needle-shaped, are broader. In the colder latitudes, +the never-failing verdure of this form of trees cheers +the desolate winter landscape, and tells to the inhabitants +of those regions that when snow and ice +cover the ground the inward life of plants, like the +Promethean fire, is never extinct upon our planet.</p> + +<p>Like mosses and lichens in our latitudes, and like +Orchideæ in the tropical zone, plants of the Pothos +form clothe parasitically the trunks of aged and decaying +forest trees: succulent herbaceous stalks support +large leaves, sometimes sagittate, sometimes +either digitate or elongate, but always with thick +veins. The flowers of the Aroideæ are cased in +hooded spathes or sheaths, and in some of them when +they expand a sensible increase of vital heat is +perceived. Stemless, they put forth aerial roots. +Pothos, Dracontium, Caladium, and Arum all belong +to this form, which prevails chiefly in the tropical +world. On the Spanish and Italian shores of +the Mediterranean, Arums combine with the succulent +Tussilago, the acanthus, and thistles, which are +almost arborescent, to indicate the increasing luxuriance +of southern vegetation.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_953">[953]</span></p> + +<p>Next to the last-mentioned form, of which the +Pothos and Arum are representatives, I place a form +with which, in the hottest parts of South America, it +is frequently associated—that of the tropical twining +rope-plants, or Lianes, which display in those +regions, in Paullinias, Banisterias, Bignonias, and +Passifloras, the utmost vigor of vegetation. It is +represented to us in the temperate latitudes by our +twining hops and by our grapevines. On the banks +of the Orinoco the leafless branches of the Bauhinias +are often between 40 and 50 feet long; sometimes +they hang down perpendicularly from the high +top of the Swietenia, and sometimes they are +stretched obliquely like the cordage of a ship; the +tiger-cats climb up and descend by them with wonderful +agility.</p> + +<p>In strong contrast with the extreme flexibility and +fresh, light-colored verdure of the climbing plants, +of which we have just been speaking, are the rigid, +self-supporting growth and bluish hue of the form +of the Aloes, which, instead of plaint stems and +branches of enormous length, are either without +stems altogether or have branchless stems. The +leaves, which are succulent, thick, and fleshy, and +terminate in long points, radiate from a centre and +form a closely crowded tuft. The tall-stemmed +aloes are not found in close clusters or thickets like +other social or gregarious plants or trees; they stand +singly in arid plains, and impart thereby to the +tropical regions in which they are found a peculiar, +melancholy, and I would almost venture to call it, +African character. Taking for our guides resemblance +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_954">[954]</span>in physiognomy, and influence on the impression +produced by the landscape, we place together +under the head of the Aloe form (from among the +Bromeliaceæ), the Pitcairnias, which in the chain +of the Andes grow out of clefts in the rocks; the great +Pourretia pyramidata (the Atschupalla of the elevated +plains of New Granada); the American Aloe +(Agave); Bromelia aranas and Bromelia karatas; +from among the Euphorbiaceæ the rare species +which have thick, short candelabra-like divided +stems; from the family of Asphodeleæ the African +Aloe and the Dragon tree (Dracæna draco); and +lastly, from among the Liliaceæ, the tall, flowering +Yucca.</p> + +<p>If the Aloe form is characterized by an almost +mournful repose and immobility, the form of +Gramineæ, especially the physiognomy of <ins class="corr" id="tn-954" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: 'aborescent grasses'"> +arborescent</ins> +grasses, is characterized, on the contrary, by +an expression of cheerfulness and of airy grace and +tremulous lightness, combined with lofty stature. +Both in the East and West Indies groves of bamboo +form shaded overarching walks or avenues. The +smooth, polished and often lightly waving and bending +stems of these tropical grasses are taller than +our alders and oaks. The form of Gramineæ begins +even in Italy, in the Arundo donax, to rise from the +ground and to determine by height as well as mass +the natural character and aspect of the country.</p> + +<p>The form of ferns, as well as that of grasses, becomes +ennobled in the hotter parts of the globe. +Arborescent ferns, when they reach a height of above +forty feet, have something of a palm-like appearance; +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_955">[955]</span>but their stems are less slender, shorter, and +more rough and scaly than those of palms. Their +foliage is more delicate, of a thinner and more transparent +texture, and the minutely indented margins +of the fronds are finely and sharply cut. Tree ferns +belong almost entirely to the tropical zone, but in +that zone they seek by preference the more tempered +heat of a moderate elevation above the level of the +sea, and mountains two or three thousand feet high +may be regarded as their principal seat. In South +America the arborescent ferns are usually associated +with the tree which has conferred such benefits on +mankind by its fever-healing bark. Both indicate +by their presence the happy region where reigns a +soft, perpetual spring.</p> + +<p>I will next name the form of Liliaceous plants +(Amaryllis, Ixia, Gladiolus, Pancratium), with +their flag-like leaves and superb blossoms, of which +southern Africa is the principal country; also the +willow form, which is indigenous in all parts of the +globe, and is represented in the elevated plains of +Quito (not in the shape of the leaves, but in that +of the ramification), by Schinus Molle; Mytraceæ +(Metrosideros, Eucalyptus, Escallonia myrtilloides); +Melastomaceæ, and the laurel form.</p> + +<p>It is under the burning rays of a tropical sun that +vegetation displays its most majestic forms. In the +cold north the bark of trees is covered with lichens +and mosses, while between the tropics the Cymbidium +and fragrant vanilla enliven the trunks of the +Anacardia and of the gigantic fig-trees. The fresh +verdure of the Pothos leaves and of the Dracontia +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_956">[956]</span>contrasts with the many colored flowers of the +Orchideæ; Climbing Bauhinias, Passifloras, and yellow +flowering Banisterias twine round the trunks of +the forest trees. Delicate blossoms spring from the +roots of the Theobroma, and from the thick and +rough bark of the Crescentias and the Gustavia. In +the midst of this profusion of flowers and fruits, and +in the luxuriant intertwinings of the climbing plants, +the naturalist often finds it difficult to discover to +which stem the different leaves and flowers really belong. +A single tree adorned with Paullinias, Bignonias, +and Dendrobium forms a group of plants +which, if disentangled and separated, would cover a +considerable space of ground.</p> + +<p>In the tropics vegetation is generally of a fresher +verdure, more luxuriant and succulent, and adorned +with larger and more shining leaves than in our +northern climates. The “social” plants, which often +impart so uniform and monotonous a character to +European countries, are almost entirely absent in +the equatorial regions. Trees almost as lofty as our +oaks are adorned with flowers as large and as beautiful +as our lilies. On the shady banks of the Rio +Magdalena in South America, there grows a climbing +Aristolochia bearing flowers four feet in circumference +which the Indian boys draw over their +heads in sport, and wear as hats or helmets. In the +islands of the Indian Archipelago the flower of the +Rafflesia is nearly three feet in diameter, and weighs +above fourteen pounds.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_957">[957]</span></p> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-957"> + THE GENESIS OF FLOWERS<br> + —<span class="smcap">Alexander S. Wilson</span> +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">The flowers most generally known are brightly +colored flowers adapted for insect fertilization; +only these require to attract insects, which is +the end served by the perfume and conspicuous coloring. +Very many plants, however, bear blossoms +so small and obscurely colored that they are either +entirely overlooked or not reckoned as flowers at all. +The wind-fertilized flowers of the dock and nettle +have no occasion for the services of insects, and are +destitute of honey, odor, and brilliant petals. Still +more insignificant in appearance are the little self-fertilizing +cleistogamic flowers, which, toward the +end of the season, are produced on the dog-violet. +All three kinds possess stamens and pistils, and are +therefore recognized as flowers by botanists. Besides +stamens and pistils, which are the essential organs +of a flower, petals and sepals are usually present. +The petals collectively compose the corolla, the +sepals the calyx; both together being spoken of as +the floral envelopes or perianth. Occasionally, as +in the ash, the flower is reduced to its essential organs, +the floral envelopes being absent. Plants bearing +flowers, whether with or without floral envelopes, +are designated phanerogams or flowering plants; +they constitute the highest division of the vegetable +kingdom. Ferns and mosses, again, are examples of +the cryptogamic or flowerless class; they never bear +flowers or seeds, but are propagated by minute reproductive +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_958">[958]</span>bodies termed spores. This class is divided +into thallophytes and vascular cryptogams. +The organization of a thallophyte is very simple; +the plant body of a fungus or sea-weed, for example, +consists entirely of similar cells, and externally shows +no distinction into root, stem, and leaf. The structure +of a vascular cryptogam, such as a club-moss, +horsetail, or fern, is more complicated; both cells +and vessels enter into the composition of its tissues, +and externally the distinction of stem and leaf is apparent. +Phanerogams also admit of a twofold division +into gymnosperms and angiosperms; conifers, +cycads, and yews are gymnospermous, having +naked seeds, exposed either on the ends of branches +or on the surface of open scales. All ordinary +flowering plants produce their seed in the interior +of a closed, ovary, as the lower part of the pistil is +called; from this peculiarity they are termed angiosperms.</p> + +<p>Only the remains of thallophytes have hitherto +been discovered in the oldest Palæozoic rocks. Vascular +cryptogams appear in the Silurian strata, attain +their maximum in the Carboniferous age, and in +succeeding formations are gradually displaced by +gymnosperms. The latter occur as early as the +Devonian period, but the prevailing type of vegetation +down to the close of Palæozoic time continued +to be cryptogamic. Angiosperms possibly existed as +far back as the Permian times, but it is only in the +chalk that their remains begin to be abundant; the +vast majority of Mesozoic plants seem to have belonged +to the gymnospermous type. Plants with conspicuous +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_959">[959]</span>flowers only date from Tertiary times; they +increase in number and importance as we approach +the present day.</p> + +<p>Although the plants entombed in the rocks are +only an inconsiderable fraction of the numbers that +formerly existed, the general succession just indicated +is fully made out, and as the palæontological +evidence accumulates it tends more and more to +establish the view that colored blossoms are, geologically +speaking, of comparatively recent origin. The +vegetation of the earlier geological epochs was +marked by a singular uniformity of character; not +only were there fewer species than now, and these +widely distributed over the globe, but the monotonous +green of Palæozoic and Mesozoic forests was +unrelieved by gay blossoms such as adorn our fields +and orchards. We are indebted to geology for another +important fact; fossil plants occur which have +no near relatives in the existing flora. Intermediate +forms which can not properly be classified with any +living family are met with; in others the characters +of several modern groups are blended. Although +these generalized forms rather upset our systems of +classification, they have an important bearing on the +origin of living plants. But what a different aspect, +when the coal plants were growing in primeval +luxuriance, the landscape must have worn from that +on which we are accustomed to look! Odd, uncouth +lepidodendra of arborescent growth, huge +reed-like calamites, gigantic ferns stretched in interminable +forests, clothed in one unvaried tint of +sombre green. How different is the scene which +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_960">[960]</span>nature now presents!—mountains glowing with the +purple bloom of heather; hillsides where the furze +has spread its cloth of gold; meadows bright with +daisies, ranunculi, and cuckoo-flowers; banks where +the wild thyme and bluebell grow! The contrast +affords a hint of the transformation in our world +effected by the introduction of flowers.</p> + +<p>Our knowledge may not enable us to describe all +the minute steps which led to this remarkable change, +but we can at least indicate with great probability +the nature of the process and some of the agencies +which contributed to bring about this result. To +suppose that each species of plant was independently +created as we now see it, implies not one creation +merely, but many successive creations; moreover, it +leaves unexplained all the curious affinities which +exist among the members of the vegetable kingdom. +The gradations of structure, the geological succession, +and the peculiarities of plant growth are much +more intelligible when we view the plants which +now inhabit the earth as the lineal descendants of +those which lived during the earlier ages of geology. +From the nature of the case, the theory of development +does not admit of actual demonstration; still +the evidence in support of it is such that its advocates +are entitled to claim a verdict on the mass of +indirect and circumstantial evidence.</p> + +<p>Among palæozoic cryptogams, we have evidence +of the existence of structures which, with comparatively +little modification, might be converted into +what we now regard as flowers. The abundant remains +of lepidodendra in the Coal-measures testify to +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_961">[961]</span>the important place attained by the group of lycopods, +or club mosses, in the Palæozoic flora. To this +family might very well have belonged the archetype +from which our modern blossom-bearing plants have +come. Our knowledge of this group is derived both +from fossil remains and from forms still extant. The +selaginellas, so commonly cultivated in greenhouses, +are examples; also the little club moss (Lycopodium +selaginodes) of our highland moors. The last mentioned, +though a diminutive form, possesses special +interest, being one of the vascular cryptogams which +produce two kinds of spores. This heterosporous +character was, however, a common feature of extinct +lycopods; both large and small spores have been +detected in great numbers in coal.</p> + +<p>The internal anatomy of the Lycopodiaceæ is somewhat +complex, but their external organization is +simple. A club moss consists of a cylindrical stem +covered with overlapping leaves, spirally arranged, +of small size relatively to the stem, and always +simple or undivided. The stem branches in a peculiar +forked manner, which gives the plant its characteristic +candelabra-like form. Existing lycopods +are creeping plants, seldom exceeding two feet in +height, but many extinct species attained the dimensions +of large trees. On the ends of certain branches +the leaves are crowded together, giving the terminal +portion of each shoot some resemblance to a pine-cone. +The crowded leaves on this portion bear, on +their upper surfaces, little sacs called sporangia. +Certain of these sacs contain very numerous small, +rounded bodies, the microspores; others have fewer +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_962">[962]</span>spores of larger size, distinguished as macrospores. +Sacs containing the small male spores are termed +microsporangia; those having the large female +spores, macrosporangia. When ripe, a sporangium +bursts and discharges its spores, which are scattered +by the wind. Should a spore alight on a favorable +spot, it germinates after a time and gives rise to a +structure called a prothallus, which is really an independent +plant. This stage in the life-history of a +cryptogam is, however, much better seen in ferns, +where the prothallus is entirely expelled from the +spore and attains a higher degree of independent development. +The prothallus throws out root-hairs, +nourishes itself and grows, but the leaf-like form it +assumes bears not the remotest resemblance to the +parent fern from which it sprang. This phenomenon, +characteristic of the higher cryptogams, is +known as the “alternation of generations,” or “alternate +generations.” Similar phases are observed +in certain animals, the medusæ or jelly fishes, for +example. In the course of its development, a fern +passes through two distinct phases; first, the spore-bearing +stage or sporophyte, represented by the +fern frond; second, the egg-bearing stage, the oöphyte +or prothallus. As we ascend in the scale of vegetable +life, the egg-bearing or sexual generation diminishes +in importance, while the sporophyte preponderates +more and more. In club mosses, the prothallus has +all but lost its independence; in the case of the +selaginella it is formed almost entirely within the +spore, only a small part being extruded when the +spore ruptures. Some of the lycopods are inosporous—that +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_963">[963]</span>is, they have, like the ferns, but one kind of +spore. Where this is the case, the prothallus developed +from the spore bears two sets of sexual organs; +the prothallus of one of the heterosporous +cryptogams, on the other hand, produces sexual +organs of one kind only. Antheridia appear on the +prothallus developed from a small spore; archegonia +on that from a large one. The former are the male +organs, and from them are emitted numerous antherozoids, +minute ciliated bodies, which swarm +over damp surfaces in all directions. The archegonia +are microscopic flasks, each containing an egg-cell +or oösphere; they are entered by one or more of the +locomotive antherozoids, which coalesce with the +egg-cell; the latter is thereby fertilized, and soon +grows by cell division into a plant resembling that +from which the spores were originally obtained. The +life-history of a vascular cryptogam is, so to speak, +a story completed in two volumes.</p> + +<p>Microscopic research has revealed a most interesting +relationship between flowering plants and the +heterosporous cryptogams. When the development +of a pollen grain in the anther of an ordinary +flower is studied and compared with that of a microspore, +the two are found to agree in a remarkable +manner. The sporangium corresponds in all essential +points with the pollen-sac, and its generatic +tissue develops in similar fashion to that from which +the pollen grains originate. In both cases an archesporium +is produced by the division of a hypodermal +cell; this tissue next divides into a tapetal layer +and a row of mother-cells; the tapetal layer dissolves, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_964">[964]</span>isolating the mother-cells, each of which +then forms in its interior four daughter-cells, which +are the spores or pollen grains, as the case may be. +Not only are the antecedents of microspores and +pollen grains alike, but their subsequent histories +offer many points of resemblance. Pollen grains are +known in numerous instances to form in their interior +one or more vegetative cells, which can hardly +be regarded as other than a rudimentary male prothallus, +such as is commonly developed by a microspore.</p> + +<p>There is another bond of connection between flowering +and flowerless plants of equal or even greater +importance. In the interior of the ovule, or young +seed, both of angiosperms and gymnosperms, a special +cell is developed, called the embryo-sac. When +the history of this cell is traced back, its development +is found to be exactly that of a spore. Certain +structures are also formed in its interior bearing the +closest analogy to the internal prothallus observed in +the macrospore of selaginella. These are most obvious +in the embryo-sacs of gymnosperms, where the +prothallus is represented by the endosperm, while +the corpuscula, or secondary embryo-sacs—arising +on this are the undoubted equivalents of the archegonia +of ferns and other cryptogams. The gymnosperms +thus stand midway between vascular cryptogams +and angiosperms; but even within the embryo-sac +of the latter, in the so-called antipodal cells, may +still be detected vestiges of the oöphyte or sexual +generation, that structure so characteristic of the +flowerless class. An alternation of generations can +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_965">[965]</span>thus be traced throughout the greater part of the +vegetable kingdom, from the lowest scale mosses +through the urn mosses, ferns, horsetails, lycopods, +and conifers up to the highest members of the +phanerogamic division. But of more importance for +our present purpose is the certain identification of +the pollen grain and embryo-sac of flowering plants +with the microspore and macrospore of the older +cryptogams. The stamen of a flower turns out to be +simply a peculiar form of microsporangium, while +the ovule is a macrosporangium, containing but one +macrospore, or occasionally developing several. It +follows, therefore, that we have only to enlarge our +conception sufficiently to see in the spore-bearing +cones of the lycopods structures of essentially the +same nature as flowers. All the materials that go +to the making of a flower could thus have been furnished +by the flowerless flora of Palæozoic ages.</p> + +<p>An important change, which marked the transition +from cryptogams to flowering plants, must now +be mentioned, and to this the animal kingdom furnishes +a striking analogy. The lowest vertebrates, +such as fishes, are oviparous; the ova are discharged +and afterward incubated. Mammals, on the other +hand, are viviparous; the young are hatched within +the body of the parent. The young of the kangaroo +and other marsupials, which constitute the lowest +order of mammals, are still very immature at birth. +Analagous conditions are found among plants. +Cryptogams are all oviparous; the macrospore, +which may be regarded as the ovum or egg, separates +from the parent plant before fertilization. Phanerogams, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_966">[966]</span>on the other hand, may be described as +viviparous, since they retain the macrospore or ovum +until it has developed an embryo. The presence of +an embryo constitutes the distinction between a seed +and a spore. Unless an embryo be present a seed +can not germinate, since germination is simply the +emergence of the embryo from the coats of the seed. +An extreme case of this retention is seen in the mangrove, +where the seed germinates while still attached +to the tree; the embryo sends down its long radicle +into the mud, and only quits its hold of the parent +when it has become firmly established. Orchids and +many parasitic plants have seeds with exceedingly +minute and imperfect embryos, recalling the undeveloped +offspring of the marsupials.</p> + +<p>The retention of the egg is attended with a manifest +advantage; plainly the viviparous method of reproduction, +which obtains in the higher divisions +of the two organic kingdoms, is much more economical +than the other. By the change to the viviparous +condition, several structures present in the cryptogams +are rendered useless, and a disused organ invariably +degenerates; the prothallus and its adjuncts, +having no longer any function to perform, must inevitably +begin to atrophy. The rudimentary structures +appearing in the embryo-sac of phanerogams +can in this way be accounted for. The life-history +of a cryptogam extends, as we have seen, to two +volumes; it now appears that the life-history of a +phanerogam is a second edition, of the same story, +somewhat abridged and completed in a single +volume.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_967">[967]</span></p> + +<p>The life-history of certain ferns occasionally undergoes +a corresponding abbreviation. In the phenomena +of apospory and apogamy we have departures +from the ordinary course of development, +closely akin to what would be required for the +conversion of a cryptogam into a phanerogam. +Apospory occurs when the production of spores is +omitted, the prothallus growing immediately on the +fern frond; apogamy, when the female organs are +not developed, and the frond is formed by vegetative +growth directly from the prothallus.</p> + +<p>There is another fact of which account must be +taken. In different groups of plants, in proportion +to the complexity of their organization, the female +cell tends to increase in size and importance. This +is probably accompanied by a chemical or physiological +enrichment of the substance of the egg-cell, +rendering a higher degree of protection desirable. +The inclosure of the embryo-sac within the ovule +becomes in these circumstances an advantage. But +by this investment, and by the ovule remaining attached +to the parent plant, the microspore is of +necessity reduced to the condition of a parasite, and +the conversion of the male prothallus into a pollen +tube becomes intelligible as a case of degeneration.</p> + +<p>The closed seed-vessel of angiosperms, there can +be little doubt, has in like manner been acquired +for the purpose of excluding fungous spores, bacteria, +and other destructive germs from the ovules. Van +Tieghem found that when the pistil of a flower was +opened the ovules could not be directly fertilized, +but were invariably attacked by bacteria. The +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_968">[968]</span>resinous secretions of conifers act as a germicide, +rendering less essential the protection of the seeds, +which is the rôle of the pistil in angiosperms.</p> + +<p>The gradations between stamens, petals and sepals +seen in the water-lily, and the conversion of stamens +into petals in the garden rose, suggest a possible +variation which would explain the first appearance +of the floral envelopes. The nectary may not improbably +be a transformed water gland, turned to +account as an attraction to visitors, and so of use in +promoting cross-fertilization. Every new character +tending directly or indirectly to secure this advantage +would be perpetuated; the colors, perfumes, +mechanism, and most of the peculiarities of flowers +become intelligible when viewed as results due to +the selective agency of insects.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-968"> + LIFE HISTORY OF PLANTS<br> + —<span class="smcap">E. W. Prevost</span> +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">The plant possesses a distinct set of organs capable +of absorbing mineral food dissolved in +water, and there are also means whereby oxygen and +carbonic acid gas can be inspired and transformed +into tissue. The young sprout, being at first incapable +of seeking for its food, is dependent on its seed +for its supplies, consisting of two distinct substances—nitrogenous +or albuminous matter, and oil and +starchy matters. These two last might have been +classed separately, but it is unnecessary here to draw +any distinction between them, for it appears that the +oil is, during germination, for the most part converted +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_969">[969]</span>into starch. The effect of moisture and +warmth causes the seed to sprout, throw out a stem +and root, but these being but feeble must be supplied +with food ready prepared, and it is under the +influence of the oxygen which obtains access to the +seed that a small portion of the albuminous matters +contained in the seed is altered, and the products act +as a ferment which attacks the insoluble starch, converting +it into a sugar that can pass with the water +always present into the small sprout; when there it +becomes again insoluble, and adds to the structure +of the rapidly increasing seedling. The first part of +this change, such as the starch has undergone, is +well exemplified in the malting of barley, which, +after its removal from the malt-house, contains a +large amount of “glucose,” a kind of sugar which is +recognized readily by the taste. The transformation +of a portion of the albuminous matter into a ferment +not only results in the conversion of starch into sugar, +but at the same time the remainder of the albuminoids +are rendered soluble and without any change +in their composition; they can then accompany the +glucose during its passage into the seedling. We see +then that the seed is a storehouse for the young plant, +providing nourishment until it is strong enough to +send down roots into the earth, and put out leaves into +the air to seek out food for itself. When the plant +becomes strong, and is no longer dependent on the +seed for its food, the chemical processes which take +place are still more wonderful; how some of the new +substances are formed, or why the absence of some +one ingredient of the soil (generally present in very +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_970">[970]</span>small quantities) should produce certain well-known +results, is still unknown. From the soil and by the +roots are derived the mineral matters and the nitrogen; +the latter in the form of nitrates, which in the +plant are completely changed in character, being no +longer a combination of nitric acid with a base, but +the base has been separated, and the nitrogen of the +acid, combined with sulphur, hydrogen, and oxygen, +is deposited in the new form of albumenoid matter, +which is insoluble in water; but being insoluble, and +deposited in the minute cells of the plant, it would +appear impossible that it could migrate from one +part to another, and this would be the case if no other +substance were present; but phosphate of potassium +is absorbed by the plant, and this coming in contact +with the albumenoids renders them soluble; they can +now pass through the cell-walls of the stem, and upward +into the seed, where they are stored for future +use. Phosphates are also necessary for the production +of certain fats, of which they form a part, for +the fat of the horse-chestnut and oak contains a small +percentage of phosphorus. Of the other salts sucked +up by the roots, the sulphate of lime is worthy of +mention, as it is necessary to the formation of albumenoids, +sulphur being an essential ingredient of +these matters, whereas phosphorus is not; and also +many essential oils require this element in their composition, +and it is to its presence that the oils of black +mustard and garlic owe their peculiar pungency.</p> + +<p>The function which many of the other ingredients +found in the ashes of plants perform is still somewhat +uncertain, but all experiments indicate that potash, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_971">[971]</span>lime, and magnesia (the alkaline earths, as these last +two are termed) are indispensable to the life of the +plant, and that the absence of iron is accompanied +by abnormalities of growth. When a soil contains no +iron, and this does not occur naturally, the foliage +loses its green color, the loss being due to the non-formation +of chlorophyl, or the green coloring matter, +and where this is absent, the process of assimilation +as performed by the leaves ceases, and therefore +the plant is in an unhealthy condition; when we come +to speak of the respiration and assimilation of plants, +an explanation of these terms will be given, but at +present a few words on the use of potash, soda, and +silica will not be out of place; but we will not attempt +to dilate on the uses of other ash ingredients, +such as chlorine, for, as before stated, there is no accurate +information concerning them, but that they +are requisite is certain, while what their functions +may be is uncertain.</p> + +<p>For general purposes, the chemist considers that +the alkalies, potash and soda, are interchangeable, +that what soda will do so will potash, and as the +former is the cheaper, it is therefore more generally +employed. Plants, however, detect a difference, for +we find both soda and potash present in their ash in +varying quantities, and neither of them entirely absent, +so that each must have a distinct part to play; +still, to a certain extent, they are interchangeable, +for cultivation greatly alters the proportions in which +they are present, and this alteration is very marked +in the case of the asparagus, which when growing +wild contains equal quantities of these bases, but by +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_972">[972]</span>cultivation nearly the whole of the soda disappears, +while the potash increases nearly threefold. Silica +or sand is to be found in every soil, either in the free +or combined state, and hence we might suppose that +it was indispensable, and certainly it exists in every +plant in large proportions, more especially in the +hard outer parts, the straw and stems containing a +very large quantity of this substance, which is generally +considered to be necessary for their rigidity. +There are some very remarkable instances known in +which deposits of silica are found in plants. Very +notable is that occurring in the joints of the bamboo, +resembling opal, and bearing the same <i>tabasheer</i>; +but yet, though silica exists universally in plants, its +absence (under artificial conditions) does not seem +to prevent their full development.</p> + +<p>The alkaline earths, as well as potash, seem to be +necessary for the formation of the various salts, such +as the oxalate of lime in the leaves of beet and in the +common rhubarb, or the oxalate of potash in the +wood sorrel. These bases are introduced in the form +of nitrate and sulphate or phosphate, but in the plant +they separate from the acid, and combine with new +acids, which are elaborated through the agency of +the leaves.</p> + +<p>Having glanced at the functions performed by the +mineral constituents, we will pass on to those of the +leaves, and here as before no attempt will be made to +answer the question, How do the leaves act? but rather +our intention is to show the result of their action. +The leaves are the means whereby the plant communicates +with the air, absorbing from it that portion +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_973">[973]</span>which is injurious to the life of animals, namely, carbonic +acid gas, which consists of carbon and oxygen; +under the influence of sunlight these two components +are separated in the leaf, the one from the other, the +carbon or solid part remaining in the plant to form +all the various compounds, such as starch, oil, and +acids, while the oxygen is exhaled into the air for the +use of animals; this retention of carbon and conversion +into starch, etc., has been termed assimilation, +to which we have already referred; now we can appreciate +the immense importance of plants of all +kinds, for without their aid the atmosphere would +become so overburdened with the harmful carbonic +acid that it would no longer support life or combustion. +A small experiment will readily demonstrate +the action of leaves on carbonic acid: if a +green laurel-leaf, immersed in a glassful of spring-water, +be exposed to sunlight, a number of small +bubbles will soon be noticed on the surface of the +leaf. In a short time they will increase in size, and +finally float to the surface, when by proper means +they can be collected and shown to consist of oxygen, +which possesses the property of causing a glowing +splinter of wood to burst into flame when introduced +into it. This oxygen has been produced by +the decomposition of the carbonic acid dissolved in +the water. It would be incorrect to suppose that the +leaves absorb no oxygen, but always give it out, for +at all times a proportion of oxygen is inspired, and +in the dark, carbonic acid is exhaled, yet the quantity +is always less than that of the oxygen exhaled during +the day, and at low temperatures the amount of oxygen +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_974">[974]</span>absorbed exceeds that of the carbonic acid. How +to account for the production of starch from the materials +at the disposal of the plant is somewhat difficult; +but, theoretically, six volumes of carbonic acid +combining with five volumes of water produce starch, +six volumes of oxygen being liberated; but when once +the starch is produced, we know, from laboratory +experiments, that sugar can easily be produced from +it as well as oxalic acid, etc. The purpose of the +leaves is not only to collect air food, but also to get +rid of superfluous water, for the roots are continually +pumping in water laden with mineral food, so +that to allow of the circulation and deposition of this +food the water must be got rid of. This water is +exhaled from the leaves in the form of invisible vapor, +but the quantity depends on the state of the atmosphere, +which when moist almost wholly prevents +exhalation; on the other hand, in very dry weather, +exhalation takes place too rapidly, and the plant +withers. Light exerts also a very great influence; the +stronger the light the greater is the amount of water +exhaled, and, generally speaking, the maximum occurs +shortly after midday. During hot and dry +weather a grass plant has been known to exhale its +own weight in water during the twenty-four hours. +From what has been now said, it will be seen how +necessary are plants to animals, and animals to plants, +as without the one the other would not long survive; +for when the atmosphere became exhausted of carbonic +acid, which is formed by animals, the plants +would have no means of building up starch, etc. The +great difference between plants and animals should +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_975">[975]</span>also be noted, that whereas the plant is continually +feeding only to increase and store up material, the +animal feeds to increase and repair the waste that is +continually proceeding.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-975"> + LIFE-FORMS OF PLANTS<br> + —<span class="smcap">Edward Clodd</span> +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">If the life-forms of the past somewhat baffle us by +their scantiness and imperfectness, those of the +present embarrass us by their abundance. But although +the existing species of plants and animals +are numbered by hundreds of thousands, and the +tale is not yet complete, they are classified into a +few primary divisions or sub-kingdoms, representing +certain allied types, of which the several species +included in each sub-kingdom are modified +forms. For example, flies and lobsters, beetles and +crabs, are grouped in the sub-kingdom of the <i>Annulosa</i>, +because they are alike composed of distinct +segments; boys and frogs, pigs and herrings, are +grouped in the sub-kingdom of the <i>Vertebrata</i>, because +they alike possess an internal bony skeleton, +the most important feature of which is the spine or +vertebral column. And this classification is applicable +alike to past and present organism, there +being throughout the whole series of fossil remains +no form, however unlike any existing living thing, +that is not to be placed in one or other of the sub-kingdoms.</p> + +<p>Moreover, a fundamental unity underlies and pervades +the whole, a unity of material, of form, and of +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_976">[976]</span>function, the differences between organisms, from +the slime of a stagnant ditch to the most complex +animal, being in degree and in kind. Therefore, although +each genus, nay, in most cases, each species, +needs for its complete study the labor of a lifetime, +it suffices for the majority of us, grateful for the results +which the zeal of specialists has achieved, to +acquaint ourselves with the essential characteristics +which mark the main division of the twin sciences +of <em>Botany</em> and <em>Zoology</em>. Not only is this the only +possible thing for us; it is the one thing needful for +all, specialists and non-specialists, otherwise the significance +of facts, in their relation and dependence, +is missed; the larger generalizations are swamped in +a sea of detail; we can not, as the phrase goes, see +the wood for the trees.</p> + +<p>In the old definition of the three kingdoms of +nature, the mineral, the vegetable, and the animal, +we were taught that plants grow and live, while +animals grow, live, and move. But this no longer +holds good, at least in respect of the lower forms. +There are locomotive plants and animals that are +stationary.</p> + +<p>The swarm-cells or zoospores which are expelled +from some of the lower plants, as algæ and certain +fungi, behave like animals, darting through the +water by the aid of hair-like filaments called vibratile +cilia, finally settling down and growing into +new plants; others, as diatoms and desmids, are +locomotive throughout life; certain marine animals, +as sponges and corals, are rooted to the spot where +they grow; while there are organisms which appear +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_977">[977]</span>to be plants at one stage of their growth, and animals +at another stage.</p> + +<p>Other marks of supposed unlikeness have vanished. +It was formerly held that among the distinctive +features of animals are (1) a sac or cavity in +which to receive and digest food; (2) the power to +absorb oxygen and exhale carbonic acid; and (3) a +nervous system. But although nearly all animals, +in virtue of their food being solid, have a mouth +and an alimentary cavity, there are certain forms +without them, and although plants, in virtue of their +food being liquid or gaseous, need not have that +cavity, there are plants that have it. Not only is the +process of digestion apparent in the leaves of carnivorous +plants, but embryonic forms have been found +to secrete a ferment similar to the ferment in the +pancreatic secretion of animals, and by which they +dissolve and utilize the food-stores in their seed-lobes +as completely as food is digested in our stomachs. +And although green plants, under the action +of light, break up carbonic acid and release the +oxygen, they do the reverse in the dark, as also in respiration; +while the quasi-animal fungi, which are +independent of light, absorb oxygen and give off +carbonic acid.</p> + +<p>In the “irritability” of the sundew, Venus’s fly-trap, +and other sensitive plants, still more so in +subtile and hidden movements in plant-cells, we have +actions corresponding to those called “reflex” in +animals, as the contraction of the shapeless amœba +when touched, or the involuntary closing of our eyelid +when the eye is threatened, or the drawing back of +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_978">[978]</span>one’s feet when tickled. The filament in the amœba +which transmits the impulsion, causing it to contract +differs only in one degree from the sensory nerves +in ourselves which transmit the impression to the +motor nerves, causing the muscles to act; and since +there is every reason for referring the contractile +actions of plants—<em>i. e.</em>, their movements in obedience +to stimulus—to like causes, the germs of a nervous +system must be conceded to them. The minute observations +of Mr. Darwin and his son into the large +class of quasi-animal movements common to wellnigh +all vegetable life go far to confirm this. The +highly sensitive tip of the slowly revolving root, in +directing the movements of the adjoining parts, +transmitting sensation from cell to cell, “acts like the +brain of one of the lower animals; the brain being +seated within the anterior end of the body, receiving +impressions from the sense organs and directing the +several movements.”</p> + +<p>In these and kindred vital processes, in the so-called +sleep of leaves, and the opening and closing +of flowers, both regulated by the amount of light, +apparently acting on them as it acts on our nervous +system; in the detection of subtle differences in light, +which escape the human eye, by plants; in their +general sensitiveness to external influences, even in +the diseases which attack them, the study of which +Sir James Paget has commended to pathologists, +we have the rudiments of attributes and powers +which reach their full development in the higher +animals, and therefore a series of fundamental correspondences +between plant and animal which point +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_979">[979]</span>to the merging of their apparent differences in one +community of origin.</p> + +<p>In fine, that which was once thought special to one +is found to be common to both, and to this there is +no exception. Not only is there correspondence in +external form in the lower life groups, but, fundamentally, +plants and animals are alike in internal +structure and in the discharge of the mysterious +process of nutrition (although this forms a convenient +line of separation) and of reproduction. All, +from the lowest to the highest, have their unity and +kinship in ancestral life which was neither plant +nor animal.</p> + +<p>Of course, the difficulty of classifying vanishes in +the higher forms; the lowest plants are allied to +the lowest animals, but the higher the plant the more +it diverges from the animal, which is evidence that +in the succession of life the highest plants do not +pass into the lower animals. Descent is not lineal, +but lateral; the relations between the two kingdoms +are represented by two lines starting from a common +point and spreading in different directions. +Even the “lower” and “higher” are relative terms; +the organization of the amœba is as complete for its +purpose, as is that of the man for his purpose, the +modification in the complex forms being due to the +division of functions which are performed in every +part by the simple forms.</p> + +<p>Although the foregoing and numberless other +facts, together with the law of continuity, alike forbid +the drawing of any hard and fast lines, and involve +the conclusion, to borrow Professor Huxley’s words, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_980">[980]</span>“that the difference between animal and plant is +one of degree rather than of kind, and that the problem +whether, in a given case, an organism is an +animal or a plant may be essentially insoluble,” there +exists, exceptions notwithstanding, a broad distinction +in the mode of nutrition.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="verse indentq">“All things the world which fill</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Of but one stuff are spun,”</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class="noindent">and this stuff, the basis of all life, the formative +power, is a semi-fluid, sticky material, full of numberless +minute granules in ceaseless and rapid motion, +to which the name “protoplasm” (Gr. <em>protos</em>, +first; <em>plasma</em>, formed) has been given. It consists of +four of the elementary substances, carbon, hydrogen, +oxygen, and nitrogen, complexly united in the compound +called <em>protein</em>, which is closely identical with +the albumen or white of an egg. These are the +<em>essential</em> elements, but a few others enter into the +chemistry of life, with slight resulting differences in +the <em>incidental</em> elements in animals and plants. As +water is necessary to all vital processes, a very large +proportion enters into living matter.</p> + +<p>But there is this fundamental and significant difference +between the two kingdoms. The plant possesses +the mysterious power of weaving the visible +out of the invisible; of converting the lifeless into the +living. This it does in virtue of the chlorophyll, or +green coloring matter, which is found united with +definite portions of the protoplasm-mass, of which +it is a modification, the exact nature being unknown. +The water and the carbonic acid which the plant absorbs +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_981">[981]</span>through the numberless stomata or mouth-pores +in its leaves or integument are, when the sunlight +falls upon them, broken up by the chlorophyll, +which sets free the oxygen, and locks together the +hydrogen and carbon, converting this hydro-carbon +into the simple and complex cells and tissues of the +plant, with their store of energy for service to itself +and other organisms. Animals, a few low forms +excepted, can not do this; they are powerless to convert +water, salts, gases, or any other inorganic substances, +into organic; they are able only to assimilate +the matter thus supplied by the plant, nourishing +themselves therewith either directly, by eating the +plant, or indirectly, by eating some plant-feeding +animal.</p> + +<p>In other words, the plant manufactures protein +from the mineral world, and the animal obtains +the protein ready-made; the plant converts the +simple into the complex; and this the animal, by +combining it with oxygen, consumes, using up the +energy it thereby obtains in doing work. So the +plant is the origin of all the energy possessed by living +things, but why it can by virtue of the sunshine +convert the stable inorganic into the unstable organic, +while the animal can not, we do not know. +Neither do we know whether plant preceded animal, +or <i lang="la">vice versâ</i>, in life’s beginnings, although the evidence +seems to point in favor of the priority of the +plant. Structurally the lowest animal is below the +lowest plant, since it is a speck of formless, colorless +protoplasm, whereas the protoplasm of the lowest +plant is organized to the extent that it has formed for +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_982">[982]</span>itself an outer layer or membraneous coat called the +cell-wall. For example, the vegetable character of +yeast-granules is determined, apart from their mode +of nutrition, by the protoplasm being inclosed within +a cellulose coat, and the animal character of the +amœba, not because of contractile or locomotive +power or of inability to manufacture protein from +inorganic matter, but by the absence of any such +covering. Upon this Haeckel remarks that the vegetable +cells sealed their fate when inclosed within a +hard thick cellular shell, being thereby less accessible +to external influence, and less able to combine +for the construction of nervous and muscular tissues +than the animal.</p> + +<p>But since the function creates the organ, and +where function is not localized there is no variation +of parts, life probably began in formless combinations +having no visible distinction of parts. And as +the cell is the first step in organization, it is the fundamental +structure of living things, “it marks only +where the vital tides have been or how they have +acted,” the lowest organisms consisting of one cell +only, and the higher consisting of many cells, which, +increasing in complexity or diversity of form adapted +to their different functions at later stages, are +modified into the special tissues, with resulting unlikeness +in parts or organs, of which all plants and +animals are composed. Every variation in structure +is, therefore, due to cellular changes, and every +living thing is propagated in one way or another by +cells, by their self-division or multiplication; or by +gemmation, <em>i. e.</em>, throwing off buds; or by the union +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_983">[983]</span>of like cells; or, in more complex mode, by the spontaneous +or aided union of unlike cells, as the sperm-cell +of the male with the germ-cell of the female, +giving rise to a seed or egg from which grows offspring +more or less like its parents.</p> + +<p>In both plant and animal the cell-contents usually, +although here again exceptions occur in some of the +lowest organisms, exhibit a rounded body called the +<em>nucleus</em>, which itself often incloses another body +called the <em>nucleolus</em>, the functions performed by +both of which in cell development are obscure. That +even thus much is known of cell structure may +awaken wonder when it is remembered that we are +dealing with bodies for the most part beyond the +range of our unaided vision. Bacon truly says that +“the complexity of nature exceeds the subtlety of +man”; the infinite divisibility and indivisibility of +matter is apparent in the organic as in the inorganic; +and size counts for little; the oak and pine, the acacia +and the rose, are lower in scale of life than the +thistle and the daisy; the elephant is 150,000 times +heavier than the mouse, but the egg of the one is +nearly as large as that of the other, and it has been +calculated that if one molecule in the nucleus of the +ovum of a mammal were to be lost in every second +of time, the whole would not be exhausted in seventeen +years.</p> + +<p>These molecules are the sufficing material media +of transmission of resemblances, both striking and +subtle, between parent and offspring; and of the +vast sum total of inherited tendencies, good or bad, +which are the product of no one generation, but +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_984">[984]</span>which reach us charged with the gathered force of +countless ancestral experiences.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="verse indentq">“Born into life! man grows</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Forth from his parents’ stem,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">And blends their bloods, as those</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Of theirs are blent in them;</div> + <div class="verse indent0">So each new man strikes root into a far fore-time.”</div> + </div> +</div> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-984"> + CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS<br> + —<span class="smcap">Louis Figuier</span> +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">Every plant which grows on the surface of the +earth or in the waters constitutes a distinct individuality. +The careful examination and comparison +of a certain number of these individuals of the vegetable +world will lead to the admission that a great +many are quite identical in some of their characteristics, +while others possess no character in common. +Examine the individual plants, for instance, which +compose a field of oats; in each the root, the stem, the +flowers, the fruit, present the same identical characters. +The seed of any one whatever of these plants +will yield other plants like those of the field. Every +individual in the field belongs therefore to the same +<em>species</em>—to the species Avena sativa.</p> + +<p>The species, then, is a collection of all the individuals +which resemble each other, and which will +reproduce other individuals like themselves.</p> + +<p>These species may present, as the result of diverse +influences, such as change of climate or cultivation, +differences more or less marked, more or less persistent, +which withdraw them from the original type. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_985">[985]</span>To these, according to their importance, botanists +give the name of <em>varieties</em> and <em>sub-varieties</em>. The +wheat-plant, the vine, the pear, the apple, and most +of our cultivated legumes, all yield, under the influence +of culture extending over a long series of years, +plants altogether different from the original in their +exterior; but they preserve, one and all, the essential +characters of the species. They are <em>varieties</em> of the +wheat-plant, of the vine, of the pear, of the apple.</p> + +<p>The assemblage of a certain number of distinct +species presenting the same general characteristics, +the same disposition of organs, the same structure of +flower and fruit, constitutes a group to which the +name of <em>genus</em> is applied. Rosa canina, R. villosa, +and R. Sabini are three different species of the same +group—the genus Rosa. The words <em>oak</em>, <em>poplar</em>, +<em>barley</em>, are collective common names, which served, +long before botanical science existed, to designate +certain groups of plants. These are true generic +names of popular creation, which botanists have accepted +because they were the result of exact observation. +“A man of observant eye and quick intelligence,” +says Auguste Pyramus de Candolle, “would +observe certain groups in the vegetable kingdom +which we call genera before discerning the species.”</p> + +<p>The germs of botanical science are to be sought for +in the rudimentary state in very remote antiquity. In +the sacred writings we meet with constant allusions to +the vegetable world. The cultivators of the science +among the early Greeks and Romans were not botanists, +but Rhizotomæ, or root-cutters, since they directed +their attention to the roots in search of medicinal +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_986">[986]</span>properties. Aristotle of Stagira, who lived in +the fourth century before our era, may be regarded +as the founder of botany; Mithridates, and the +younger Juba, King of Mauritania, were among its +cultivators. They established botanic gardens, some +probably from love of the science, others of them in +order to cultivate the deadly plants from which poisonous +juices were obtained. Nicander of Colophon, +Cato, Varro, Columella, Virgil, Pedanius +Dioscorides of Cilicia, and lastly, the elder Pliny, +all dwell upon the wonders of vegetation; and war, +notwithstanding its desolating tendencies, was made +to promote the interests of science.</p> + +<p>To the Arabians of the Twelfth Century we are +next indebted for our knowledge of botany. After +them the darkness of the Middle Ages sets in, and it +is only since the illustrious Venetian, Marco Polo, +came to examine and describe the wonders of the +East that the darkness has been dispelled. He examined +the treasures of Asia and the east coast of +Africa, described many plants of India and the Indian +Ocean, and from his day to the present our +knowledge of the names of plants, as well as of their +structure and physiology, has been continually on the +increase.</p> + +<p>The science of botany, as now understood, can not +be held, however, to date further back than two centuries. +In the year 1682 Nehemiah Grew published +his <cite>Anatomy of Plants</cite>. In 1684 the French botanist +Tournefort, then professor of botany at the Jardin +des Plantes, published his <cite>Elements of Botany</cite>, being +the first attempt to define the exact limits of genera +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_987">[987]</span>in vegetables. Most of the genera established by +Tournefort remain, proving the correctness of the +formula from which he deduced their common characters. +Tournefort succeeded to a large extent in +unraveling the chaos into which the science of botany +had been plunged from the days of Theophrastus and +Dioscorides. Separating genera and species according +to their characteristics, he described no less than +698 genera and 10,146 species. He published, at the +same time, a system for the classification of plants, +eminently attractive, especially if we connect it with +the times in which it appeared. The French botanist +directed the attention of observers, probably for +the first time, to those parts of plants most likely to +excite admiration, namely, the different forms of +the corolla.</p> + +<p>In selecting the form of the corolla as the basis +of his classification, Tournefort has, perhaps, contributed +more to the progress of botany than any +other savant of any age. The task of instruction was +rendered a pleasure by thus taking, as a subject of +scientific inquiry, the most attractive part of the +plant. He soon made adepts of those who had hitherto +only contemplated flowers as the source of an +agreeable sensation.</p> + +<p>The system of Tournefort for the classification of +plants met with great favor among his contemporaries, +on account of its simplicity. Nevertheless, in +its application, this system presented many difficulties. +The form of the corolla is not always so exactly +appreciable that the class to which that plant +belongs can be settled from that character alone. But +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_988">[988]</span>the gravest defect of the system is, that by it the +vegetable world is divided into two classes, namely, +Herbaceous Plants and Trees—a division which has +no existence in nature. The division destroys the +natural analogies, for the size of a plant has no +bearing upon its organization and structure. In conclusion, +the continually increasing number of new +species, which were unknown in Tournefort’s time, +tests, in the strongest manner, the defects of his system +of distribution. The greater number of vegetable +species discovered since Tournefort’s time could +not be placed in either of his classes. This defect +soon became very apparent, and the system fell by +degrees out of favor with botanists even among his +own countrymen, with whom it had found most admirers.</p> + +<p>In England the study of plants had taken a more +philosophical direction. About the middle of the +Seventeenth Century the microscope was first applied +to the study of the organs of plants; and in 1661 +spiral vessels were detected by Henshaw in the walnut +tree, and shortly afterward the cellular tissues +were examined by Hooke. These discoveries were +followed by the publication of two works on the minute +anatomy of plants by Malpighi and Grew. +They examined the various forms of cellular tissues +and intercellular passages in their minutest details, +and with an exactness which causes their works still +to be recognized as the groundwork of all physiological +botany. The real nature of the sexual organs in +plants was demonstrated by Grew; the important +difference between the seeds with one and those with +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_989">[989]</span>two cotyledons was first pointed out by him. Clear +and distinct ideas of the causes of vegetable phenomena +were gradually developed, and a solid foundation +laid on which the best theories of vegetation have +been formed by subsequent botanists.</p> + +<p>About the time when Tournefort was engaged in +arranging his system of plants, and when Grew had +completed his microscopical observations, John Ray +was driven from his collegiate employments at Cambridge +by differences of opinion with the ruling +powers of his university. He sought and found consolation +in the study of natural history, to which +he was ardently attached, and for which his powers +of observation, capacious mind, and extensive learning +so highly qualified him. Profiting by the discoveries +of Grew and other vegetable anatomists, in +1686 he published the first volume of his <cite lang="la">Historia +Plantarum</cite>, in which are embodied all the facts connected +with the structure and organs of plants, with +an exposition of the philosophy of classification, the +merits of which are better appreciated now than they +were in his own days.</p> + +<p>Ray was careful to guard his readers against the +supposition that classification was other than a means +of identification. He argued that there was no line +of demarcation in nature between one group or order, +or even genus, and another, or that any system +could be perfect.</p> + +<p>While he enumerated the true uses of classification, +Ray also laid the foundations of the natural system, +which has since been universally adopted by +botanists. He separated flowerless from flowering +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_990">[990]</span>plants, and he divided these again into Monocotyledonous +and Dicotyledonous plants.</p> + +<p>Forty years after the publication of Tournefort’s +system, and while Ray was yet pursuing his philosophical +investigations, the Linnæan system appeared. +This new mode of distributing vegetable species was +hailed with admiration. Its author, Charles von +Linnæus, reigned supreme and without a rival till the +end of the Eighteenth Century, and even in our days +his partisans are neither few nor powerless. In Germany, +for instance, more than one botanical work of +character has for foundation the system of Linnæus, +and many school-gardens are arranged after his classification.</p> + +<p>The system of Linnæus rests upon the consideration +of the organs of fecundation—organs almost overlooked +until then, but whose physiological functions +have since been ably demonstrated. He introduced +in 1736 a salutary and much-wanted reform into botanical +language and nomenclature, defining most +rigorously the terms used to express the various modifications +and characters of the organs, and reducing +the name of each plant to two words, the first designating +the genus, the second designating a species +of the genus. Before his time, in fact, it was necessary +to follow the name of the genus through a whole +sentence in order to characterize the species, and in +proportion as the number of species increased, the +sentences were lengthened until it seemed as if they +would never come to an end. It was like the confusion +which would arise in society if, in place of using +the baptismal name and surname, we were to suppress +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_991">[991]</span>the baptismal name, and substitute for it an enumeration +of many qualities distinctive of the individual; +as if, for example, in place of saying Pierre Durand +or Louis Durand, we said Durand the great sportsman, +or any other phraseology applicable to the +qualities of the individual. Nevertheless the Linnæan +or binary nomenclature is one of the great titles +to that glory which has been awarded to its immortal +author. In the scheme of the Linnæan system it has +been found possible to describe all plants discovered +since his time—an irrefragable proof of the +great merits of this artificial classification of species.</p> + +<p>This classification of plants has received the name +of the artificial system, because it groups the species +according to a small number and not from the whole +of their characteristics; in short, it rather permits one +class to be distinguished from another than makes +each known in an intimate manner. It insists much +upon their differences, little upon their resemblances. +Between species thus compared, only one essential +analogy may exist. The rush takes place beside the +barberry, because each of these plants has six stamens +and only one style. The vine is ranged beside +the periwinkle, because they each have five stamens +and one style. The carrot is allied to the gooseberry, +etc. There may not be between the plants thus compared +any natural bond, but only some trace of resemblance +in a particular part of the organization, +which may be found also in a number of very different +plants.</p> + +<p>Linnæus was endowed with too sound a judgment, +with a tact too exquisite, not to feel the defects of this +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_992">[992]</span>artificial mode of classification. He detected by the +force of his genius the existence of vegetable groups +superior to genera, and connected them by a large +number of characteristics. He called this group a +<em>natural order</em>, and it has since his time been called +a “natural family.” He also tried to distribute plants +after a natural classification—that is to say, into families. +After the death, and during the life, of Linnæus, +botanists endeavored to discover upon what principle +he had founded his <em>natural orders</em>—that is to say, +they sought to find the key to the hidden principle +of his orders; but no one has succeeded. Linnæus +himself does not appear to have had very fixed views +on the subject. He created his orders by a sort of +instinct which belongs only to the man of genius; by +that kind of semi-divination which the man of learning +acquires who possesses vast and profound knowledge +of the objects which he passes his life in observing.</p> + +<p>In a letter we find the following passage: “You +ask me for the characters of my orders. My dear +Giseke, I assure you that I know not how to give +them.”</p> + +<p>Magnol, professor of botany to the School of Medicine, +in his work entitled <cite lang="la">Prodromus Historiæ Generalis +Plantarum</cite> (1689), is the first author who uses +the happy term “family” to designate natural groups +of vegetable genera. M. Flourens speaks of the +preface to this little book of a hundred pages as calculated +to immortalize the author, as in it was first +solved a very difficult problem. The following lines +are taken from this much-admired preface: “Having +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_993">[993]</span>examined the methods most in use,” says Magnol, +“and found that of Morison insufficient and very defective, +and that of Ray much too difficult, I think +I can perceive in plants a certain affinity between +them, so that they might be ranged in divers <em>families</em>, +as we class animals. This apparent analogy between +animals and plants has induced me to arrange them +in certain families, and, as it appeared to me impossible +to draw the characters of these families from the +single organ of fructification, I have selected principally +the most noted characteristics I have met +with, such as the root, the stem, the flower, the seeds. +There is also found among plants <em>a certain similitude</em>, +a certain affinity, as it were, which does not exist +in any of the parts considered separately, but only +as a whole. I have no doubt, for instance, but that +the characters of families might be taken from the +first leaf of the germ as it issued from the seed. I +have followed the order that the parts of plants follow +in which are found the principal and distinctive +characters of families, but without limiting myself to +any one single part, for I have often considered many +of them together.”</p> + +<p>Magnol established seventy-six families, but without +giving their characters. His principles of classification +are vague and uncertain; they only serve +to announce the dawn of a new day which was soon +to rise on the science. The few lines which we have +quoted from the preface of the <cite lang="la">Prodromus</cite> reveal, +as through a fog, the mere idea of a natural system. +It is Bernard de Jussieu, demonstrator of botany in +the Jardin des Plantes at Paris, to whom belongs the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_994">[994]</span>glory of working out the true natural system which +was first established in principle by Ray, although +it does not appear that Jussieu was acquainted with +the works of the English philosopher.</p> + +<p>“Others may perhaps have extended the limits, but +he was the first to show the way, to trace the method, +to establish the principles. Jussieu consigned his +discoveries to no book, but in the Gardens of Trianon +the mind of the author is recognized. In examining +the characters, he remarked that some were more +general than others, and these furnished the first +division. He recognized that the germination of the +seed and the respective disposition of the sexual +organs were the two principal and most persistent +characteristics. He adopted them, and made them +the basis of the arrangement which he established at +the Trianon in 1759.”</p> + +<p>Four years later, another French botanist, Michel +Adanson, a naturalist remarkable for the originality +of his views and the extent of his conceptions, published +a book upon the families of plants. He proposed +a particular course for arriving at the true natural +method. But what was that course? He proposed +classing all the plants known according to a +great number of artificial systems; and after considering +them from all possible points of view, he proposed +to arrange in the same group those plants +which were classed as allies in the greatest number +of systems. In this manner Adanson created sixty-five +artificial systems, and by their comparison he +formed fifty-eight families. He was the first to trace +the precise characters and details of all these families; +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_995">[995]</span>his work in this respect is far superior to those of his +predecessors.</p> + +<p>The year 1789 was the date of the real establishment +of natural families among vegetables. It was in +this year that Laurent de Jussieu published his celebrated +<cite lang="la">Genera Plantarum</cite>, which marked a new era +in the science of botany, and hastened the advent of +a natural system of zoological classification as well.</p> + +<p>The catalogues of the Gardens of the Trianon, prepared +by Bernard de Jussieu, and his conversations +with his nephew, were the source whence the latter +drew his inspirations.</p> + +<p>That the French botanist had acquainted himself +with the principles of Ray’s classification is unquestionable; +in fact, Jussieu possessed the happy art of +adapting the labors of others to perfecting his own +conceptions. He made use of the simple language +and accurate descriptions of Linnæus, divested of his +pedantry. Ray had demonstrated that rigorous definitions +in natural history are impossible, and, accepting +the decision, Jussieu does not attempt to found +his family orders or genera on any single character +belonging to objects so various in their habits and +organization as plants.</p> + +<p>During the last forty or fifty years other botanists +have attempted various systems of classification. In +those of De Candolle, Endlicher, Lindley, and of +Brongniart, the distribution of plants into groups is +founded, as in those of Ray and Jussieu, on the consideration +of the cotyledons; of the polypetalous, +monopetalous, and apetalous flowers; finally, upon +the mode of insertion of the stamens. Names have +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_996">[996]</span>changed; things remain the same; and if in their details +the series of families or orders present certain +differences, it only arises from the fact that a linear +series is incompatible with the natural system, and +that the connection of the intermediate groups may +be expressed in various ways without affecting the +general principles of the system. “The formation of +natural orders by Jussieu,” says Ad. Brongniart, “is +even now a model which directs botanists in their +studies to the affinity which connects the various +forms of vegetation. Many of these orders have +doubtless been subjected to important modifications, +both in extending and limiting them; the numbers +have been more than doubled; but the number of +species now known is increased more than sixfold. +Since the publication of the <cite lang="la">Genera Plantarum</cite>, many +points in the organization of plants which were either +scarcely touched upon or were altogether unsuspected, +have now been considered, and it is found +that they do not destroy, but confirm, and perfect the +work of Jussieu. One is even astonished to find that +the numerous discoveries in the anatomy and organography +of plants since the beginning of the century +have not introduced greater modifications into the +constitution of the natural groups admitted by the +author of the <cite lang="la">Genera Plantarum</cite>. It is here that we +recognize the sagacity of the savant who established +them, and the soundness of the principle which +guided him.”</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="i_152" style="max-width: 50em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/i_152.jpg" alt="Drawings of various flowers"> + <figcaption class="caption"> + Flowers, Curious and Beautiful<br> +<p class="fs80"> + 1, Edelweiss; 2, Nigella Arvensis; 3, Parnassia; 4, Rhododendron; 5, Ophrys Arachnites; + 6, Cypripedium Calceolus; 7, Nepenthes; 8, Gnaphalium Dioicum; 9, Ophrys Muscifera</p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The natural classification of plants, their distribution +into families, well defined, and founded upon +affinities, have been perfected and placed upon a basis +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_997">[997]</span>more and more certain in our own days. Botanists +have set themselves the task of unraveling and establishing +the characters which dominate, and those +which are subordinate, in each family; numbers have +spread themselves over the globe, exploring the most +distant regions, interrogating the solitudes of forests +and plains which no European had hitherto visited, +and have studied in their native wilds many exotic +plants, comparing them with already known species, +thus giving us a means of pointing out more precisely +the tribes, genera, and species of each natural family. +Monographs of a great number of such families have +thus been written with great research. The study of +the formation and evolution of organs; the discovery +of the true mode of reproduction in cryptogams, still +unknown in Jussieu’s time; the investigation of the +inflorescence, of the fruits, of the ovules, of the embryos, +have furnished elements for perfecting the +limits of families and advancing natural classification.</p> + +<p>Auguste Pyramus de Candolle is one of the botanists +of the last century who has most contributed to +the general adoption of natural families. His <cite lang="fr">Essai +sur les Propriétés des Plantes</cite> is celebrated for the +knowledge which it displays of the comparative physiological +and medicinal action of vegetables, and the +physical organization which naturally connects certain +plants as a group. His <cite lang="la">Prodromus Systematis +Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis</cite>, continued by his pupils +and his son, is a wonderful work for the extent and +precision of its details.</p> + +<p>In Great Britain, from the days of Ray, we have +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_998">[998]</span>always had zealous followers of the science of +botany, more especially in the class which may be +called field botanists. Withering, Sir James Edward +Smith, and hundreds of followers more or less eminent, +employed their leisure in the fascinating and +healthy pursuit of plants, and perhaps the most valuable +contributions to science are the detailed descriptions +of species, with their habits and habitats, with +which they have enriched our botanical literature. +Nor was the study of the physiology of plants—a +science which may be said to owe its existence to the +researches of Grew and Malpighi—neglected. To +the former belongs the merit of having pointed out +the difference between seeds with one and seeds with +two cotyledons, on which Ray founded the first division +of his system of classification.</p> + +<p>The German botanists have always been distinguished +for their patient and laborious investigations; +and it was reserved for the first of Germans, +the poet Goethe, to effect the last great revolution +that the ideas of botanists have undergone. In 1790, +shortly after the appearance of De Jussieu’s <cite lang="la">Genera</cite>, +he published a pamphlet on the <cite>Metamorphoses of +Plants</cite>. At this time the functions of the organs of +plants were supposed to be pretty well understood. +The notion had, however, existed in a form more or +less vague, from the times of Theophrastus, that the +various parts of the flower were mere modifications +of leaves, although their appearance was very different—a +doctrine which Linnæus seems to have entertained +at one time, as he speaks, in his <cite lang="la">Prolepsis +Plantarum</cite>, of the parts of a flower being mere modifications +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_999">[999]</span>of leaves whose period of development was +anticipated. Goethe’s mind was, as he himself tells +us, one more adapted to see agreements in things than +to mark their distinctions. We are not surprised +to find, therefore, that he takes up this theory, and +demonstrates that the organs to which so many different +names are applied—namely, the bracts, calyx, +corolla, stamens, and pistil—are all modifications of +the leaf: the bract being a contracted leaf; the calyx +and corolla a collection or whorl of several; the stamens +contracted and colored leaves; and the pistils +leaves rolled up upon themselves and variously +coherent.</p> + +<p>These views of the poet met at first with little attention +from botanists, and we are chiefly indebted to +Robert Brown for the elucidation of Goethe’s theory. +In his <cite>Prodromus of the Plants of New Holland</cite>, and +in many papers in the <cite>Linnæan Transactions</cite>, he demonstrates +its truth as well as its practical value; showing, +by the use of the microscope, that the law was +applicable not only to the external parts of plants, +but that it was followed in their development also. +Robert Brown contributed largely to perfecting the +natural method of classification. His great work +upon the flora of Australia has greatly extended the +circle of our studies for that comparison of characters +which is the basis of botanical genera and tribes.</p> + +<p>The number of families of flowering plants admitted +in the present day, as the result of the investigations +of the eminent men whose names have been +mentioned, and many others which could not be +quoted here without swelling our pages to undue proportions, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1000">[1000]</span>number three hundred and three; and many +of these are again subdivided by botanists who have +made certain families their special study.</p> + +<p>The primary groups into which flowering plants +are divided, and in which therefore the families or +orders are themselves comprised in the classification +at present accepted, being founded upon the degree +of cohesion and adhesion in the petals and stamens, +are undoubtedly somewhat artificial. The problem +of how the orders are themselves to be combined into +natural groups is one which still engages the attention +of systematic botanists.</p> + +<p>The vegetable kingdom is divided by Dr. Lindley +into seven classes:</p> + + +<p class="p1 pfs90">FLOWERLESS PLANTS (CRYPTOGAMS)</p> + +<table class="autotable fs80 wd90"> +<tr> +<td class="tdlx smcap wd25">I. Thallogens</td> +<td class="tdlx wd25">Stems and leaves imperceptible.</td> +<td class="tdlj">A Thallus is a fusion of root, stem, and leaves into one general mass, + and Thallogens are destitute of breathing pores, and multiply by the formation + of spores, in their interior or upon their surface.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="3"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdlx smcap wd25">II. Acrogens</td> +<td class="tdlx wd25">Stems and leaves quite perceptible.</td> +<td class="tdlj">Beyond Thallogens are multitudes of species, flowerless like them, but + approximating to more complex structures, sometimes acquiring the stature + of lofty trees with breathing pores; their leaves and stems distinctly separated; + they multiply by reproductive spores like the Thallogens. Their stem, however, + does not increase in diameter, but at their summit, as the name of the class indicates.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1001">[1001]</span></p> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="p1 pfs90">FLOWERING PLANTS (PHANEROGAMS)</p> + +<table class="autotable fs80 wd90"> +<tr> +<td class="tdlx smcap wd25">III. Rhizogens</td> +<td class="tdlx wd25">Fructification springing from a Thallus.</td> +<td class="tdlj">The Rhizogens are a collection of anomalous plants, mostly leafless and parasitical, + having the loose cellular organization of Fungi, although traces of a spiral structure are + usually found among their tissues. Some of them spring directly from the shapeless cellular + mass which serves at once for stem and root, and seems to be analogous to the Thallus of the + Fungi. Their flowers resemble those of more perfect plants; their sexual organs are complete, + but their embryo, which is without any visible radicle or cotyledon, simply appears to be a + spherical or oblong homogeneous mass.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<table class="autotable fs80 wd90"> +<tr> +<td class="tdlx smcap wd25">IV. Endogens</td> +<td class="tdlx wd25">Cotyledon single. Permanent woody stem confused. Leaves parallel-veined.</td> +<td class="tdlj">In Endogens the embryo has but one cotyledon; the leaves have parallel veins; the trunk + contains bundles of spiral and dotted vessels, surrounded by wood cells, arranged in + a confused manner.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="3"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdlx smcap">V. Dictyogens</td> +<td class="tdlx">Cotyledon single. Wood of the stem, when perennial, arranged in rings concentric with the veined pith. Leaves netted.</td> +<td class="tdlj">Dictyogens are distinguished from Endogens by the stems, which have concentric circles, + and the leaves which fall off the stem by a clean fracture.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="3"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdlx smcap">VI. Gymnogens</td> +<td class="tdlx">Cotyledons, two or more. Wood of the stem in concentric rings, and youngest at the circumference. Seeds quite naked.</td> +<td class="tdlj">Gymnogens are Exogens which have no style or stigma, the reproductive organs being so + constructed that the pollen falls immediately upon the ovules.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1002">[1002]</span></p> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<table class="autotable fs80 wd90"> +<tr> +<td class="tdlx smcap wd25">VII Exogens</td> +<td class="tdlx wd25">Cotyledons, two. Wood with concentric rings. Leaves netted-veined. Seeds inclosed in seed-vessels.</td> +<td class="tdlj">Exogens have an embryo with two or three more cotyledons; leaves with netted veins; the trunk + consisting of woody bundles, composed of dotted vessels and woody fibres; arranged round a central + pith, either in concentric rings or in a homogeneous mass, but always having medullary plates + forming rays from the centre to the circumference.</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-1002"> + FRUITS AND SEEDS<br> + —<span class="smcap">Lord Avebury</span> +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">Fruits and seeds, though not generally so conspicuous +as flowers, are not less interesting.</p> + +<p>In considering them, it is fortunately not necessary +to use many technical terms, though it is impossible +to avoid them altogether. In order to understand the +structure of the seed, we must commence with the +flower, to which the seed owes its origin. Now, if +you take such a flower as, say, a geranium, you will +find that it consists of the following parts: Firstly, +there is a whorl of green leaves, known as the sepals, +and together forming the calyx; secondly, a whorl of +colored leaves, or petals, generally forming the most +conspicuous part of the flower, and called the corolla; +thirdly, a whorl of organs more or less like +pins, which are called stamens, in the heads or anthers +of which the pollen is produced. These +anthers are in reality, as Goethe showed, modified +leaves; in the so-called double flowers, as, for instance, +in our garden roses, they are developed into +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1003">[1003]</span>colored leaves like those of the corolla, and monstrous +flowers are not infrequently met with, in +which the stamens are green leaves, more or less resembling +the ordinary leaves of the plant. Lastly, +in the centre of the flower is the pistil, which also is +theoretically to be considered as constituted of one or +more leaves, each of which is folded on itself, and +called a carpel. Sometimes there is only one carpel. +Generally the carpels have so completely lost the +appearance of leaves, that this explanation of their +true nature requires a considerable amount of faith, +though in others, as for instance in the Columbine +(Aquilegia), the original leaf-form can still be +traced. The base of the pistil is the ovary, composed +of one or more carpels, in which the seeds are +developed. I need hardly say that many so-called +seeds are really fruits; that is to say, they are seeds +with more or less complex envelopes.</p> + +<p>We all know that seeds and fruits differ greatly in +different species. Some are large, some small; some +are sweet, some bitter; some are brightly colored; +some are good to eat, some poisonous; some spherical, +some winged, some covered with bristles, some +with hairs; some are smooth, some very sticky.</p> + +<p>We may be sure that there are good reasons for +these differences. In the case of flowers much light +has been thrown on their various interesting peculiarities +by the researches of Sprengel, Darwin, +Müller, and other naturalists. As regards seeds also, +besides Gærtner’s great work, Hildebrand, Krause, +Steinbrinck, Kerner, Grant Allen, Wallace, Darwin, +and others, have published valuable researches, especially +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1004">[1004]</span>with reference to the hairs and hooks with +which so many seeds are provided, and the other +means of dispersion they possess. Nobbe also has +contributed an important work on seeds, principally +from an agricultural point of view, but the subject +as a whole offers a most promising field for investigation.</p> + +<p>It is said that one of our best botanists once observed +to another that he never could understand +what was the use of the teeth on the capsules of +mosses. “Oh,” replied his friend, “I see no difficulty +in that, because if it were not for the teeth, how +could we distinguish the species?”</p> + +<p>We may, however, no doubt, safely consider that +the peculiarities of seeds have reference to the plant +itself, and not to the convenience of botanists.</p> + +<p>In the first place, then, during growth, seeds in +many cases require protection. This is especially the +case with those of an albuminous character. It is +curious that so many of those which are luscious +when ripe, as the peach, strawberry, cherry, apple, +etc., are stringy, and almost inedible, till ripe. Moreover, +in these cases, the fleshy portion is not the seed +itself, but only the envelope, so that even if the sweet +part is eaten the seed itself remains uninjured.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, such seeds as the hazel, beech, +Spanish chestnut, and innumerable others, are protected +by a thick, impervious shell, which is especially +developed in many Proteaceæ, the Brazil-nut, +the so-called monkey-pot, the cocoanut, and other +palms.</p> + +<p>In other cases the envelopes protect the seeds, not +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1005">[1005]</span>only by their thickness and toughness, but also by +their bitter taste, as, for instance, in the walnut. +The genus Mucuna, one of the Leguminosæ, is remarkable +in having the pods covered with stinging +hairs.</p> + +<p>In many cases the calyx, which is closed when the +flower is in bud, opens when the flower expands, and +then after the petals have fallen closes again until the +seeds are ripe, when it opens for the second time. +This is, for instance, the case with the common herb +Robert (Geranium robertianum). In Atractylis +cancellata, a south European plant, allied to the +thistles, the outer envelopes form an exquisite little +cage. Another case, perhaps, is that of Nigella, the +“devil-in-a-bush,” or, as it is sometimes more prettily +called, “Love-in-a-mist,” of old English gardens.</p> + +<p>Again, the protection of the seed is in many cases +attained by curious movements of the plant itself.</p> + +<p>The sleep of flowers is also probably a case of the +same kind, though it has, I believe, special reference +to the visits of insects; those flowers which are +fertilized by bees, butterflies, and other day insects, +sleep by night, if at all; while those which are dependent +on moths rouse themselves toward evening, +and sleep by day. On the other hand, in the dandelion +(Leontodon), the flower-stalk is upright while +the flower is expanded, a period which lasts for three +or four days; it then lowers itself and lies close to +the ground for about twelve days, while the fruits +are ripening, and then rises again when they are +mature. In the Cyclamen the stalk curls itself up +into a beautiful spiral after the flower has faded.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1006">[1006]</span></p> + +<p>The flower of the little Linaria of our walls (L. +cymbalaria) pushes out into the light and sunshine, +but as soon as it is fertilized it turns round and endeavors +to find some hole or cranny in which it may +remain safely ensconced until the seed is ripe.</p> + +<p>In some water-plants the flower expands at the +surface, but after it is faded retreats again to the +bottom. This is the case, for instance, with the water +lilies, some species of Potamogeton, Trapa natans, +etc. In Valisneria, again, the female flowers are +borne on long stalks, which reach to the surface of +the water, on which the flowers float. The male +flowers, on the contrary, have short, straight stalks, +from which, when mature, the pollen detaches itself, +rises to the surface, and, floating freely on it, is +wafted about, so that it comes in contact with the +female flowers. After fertilization, however, the +long stalk coils up spirally, and thus carries the +ovary down to the bottom, where the seeds can ripen +in greater safety.</p> + +<p>Farmers have found by experience that it is not +desirable to grow the same crop in the same field +year after year, because the soil becomes more or less +exhausted. In this respect, therefore, the powers of +dispersion possessed by many seeds are a great advantage +to the species. Moreover, they are also +advantageous in giving the seed a chance of germinating +in new localities suitable to the requirements +of the species. Thus a common European species, +Xanthium spinosum, has rapidly spread over the +whole of South Africa, the seeds being carried in the +wool of sheep.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1007">[1007]</span></p> + +<p>There are a great many cases in which plants +possess powers of movement directed to the dissemination +of the seed.</p> + +<p>Some plants even sow their seeds in the ground. +In other cases the plant throws its own seeds to some +little distance. This is the case with the common +Cardamine hirsuta, a little plant six or eight inches +high, which comes up of itself abundantly on any vacant +spot in kitchen-gardens or shrubberies. The +seeds are contained in a pod which consists of three +parts, a central membrane, and two lateral walls. +When the pod is ripe the walls are in a state of tension. +The seeds are loosely attached to the central +piece by short stalks. Now, when the proper moment +has arrived, the outer walls are kept in place by +a delicate membrane, only just strong enough to resist +the tension. The least touch, for instance, a puff +of wind blowing the plant against a neighbor, detaches +the outer wall, which suddenly rolls itself +up, generally with such force as to fly from the +plant, thus jerking the seeds to a distance of several +feet.</p> + +<p>In the common violet, besides the colored flowers, +there are others in which the corolla is either absent +or imperfectly developed. The stamens also are +small, but contain pollen, though less than in the +colored flowers. In the autumn large numbers of +these curious flowers are produced. When very +young they look like an ordinary flower-bud, the +central part of the flower being entirely covered by +the sepals, and the whole having a triangular form. +When older, they look at first sight like an ordinary +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1008">[1008]</span>seed capsule, so that the bud seems to pass into the +capsule without the flower-stage.</p> + +<p>Some species of Vetch, and the common Broom, +throw their seeds, owing to the elasticity of the pods, +which, when ripe, open suddenly with a jerk. Each +valve of the pod contains a layer of woody cells, +which, however, do not pass straight up the pod, but +are more or less inclined to its axis. Consequently, +when the pod bursts, it does not, as in the case of +Cardamine, roll up like a watch-spring, but twists +itself more or less like a corkscrew.</p> + +<p>I have mentioned these species because they are +some of the commonest British wild flowers, so that +during the summer and autumn we may in almost +any walk observe for ourselves this innocent artillery. +There are, however, many other more or less similar +cases.</p> + +<p>Thus the Squirting Cucumber (Momordica elaterium), +a common plant in the south of Europe, +and one grown in some places for medicinal purposes, +effects the same object by a totally different +mechanism. The fruit is a small cucumber, and when +ripe becomes so gorged with fluid that it is in a state +of great tension. In this condition a very slight touch +is sufficient to detach it from the stalk, when the +pressure of the walls ejects the contents, throwing +the seed some distance. I have seen them even in +England sent nearly twenty feet; but in a hotter +climate the plant grows more vigorously, and they +would doubtless be thrown further. In this case, of +course, the contents are ejected at the end by which +the cucumber is attached to the stalk. If any one +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1009">[1009]</span>touches one of these ripe fruits, they are often thrown +with such force as to strike him in the face.</p> + +<p>In Cyclanthera, a plant allied to the cucumber, +the fruit is unsymmetrical, one side being round and +hairy, the other nearly flat and smooth. The true +apex of the fruit which bears the remains of the +flower, is also somewhat eccentric, and, when the +seeds are ripe, if it is touched even lightly, the fruit +explodes and the seeds are thrown to some distance.</p> + +<p>Other cases of projected seeds are afforded by +Impatiens, Hura, one of the Euphorbiæ, Collomia, +Oxalis, some species allied to acanthus, and by +Arceuthobium, a plant allied to the mistletoe, and +parasitic on juniper, which ejects its seeds to a distance +of several feet, throwing them thus from one +tree to another.</p> + +<p>Even those species which do not eject their seeds +often have them so placed with reference to the +capsule that they only leave it if swung or jerked by +a high wind. In the case of trees, even seeds with +no special adaptation for dispersion must in this +manner be often carried to no little distance; and +to a certain, though less, extent, this must hold good +even with herbaceous plants. It throws light on the, +at first sight, curious fact that in so many plants with +small, heavy seeds, the capsules open not at the +bottom, as one might perhaps have been disposed to +expect, but at the top. A good illustration is afforded +by the well-known case of the common poppy, in +which the upper part of the capsule presents a series +of little doors, through which, when the plant is +swung by the wind, the seeds come out one by one. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1010">[1010]</span>The little doors are protected from rain by overhanging +eaves, and are even said to shut of themselves +in wet weather. The genus Campanula is +also interesting from this point of view, because some +species have the capsules pendent, some upright, +and those which are upright open at the top, while +those which are pendent do so at the base.</p> + +<p>In other cases the dispersion is mainly the work of +the seed itself. In some of the lower plants, as, for +instance, in many sea-weeds, and in some allied fresh-water +plants, such as Vaucheria, the spores⁠<a id="FNanchor_5_5" href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> are +covered by vibratile cilia, and actually swim about +in the water, like infusoria, till they have found a +suitable spot on which to grow. Nay, so much do +the spores of some sea-weeds resemble animals that +they are provided with a red “eye-spot,” as it has +been called, which, at any rate, seems so far to deserve +the name that it appears to be sensitive to light. +This mode of progression is, however, only suitable +to water plants. In much more numerous cases, seeds +are carried by the wind.</p> + +<p>In other instances, the plants themselves, or parts +of them, are rolled along the ground by the wind. +An example of this is afforded, for instance, by a +kind of grass (Spinifex squarrosus), in which the +mass of inflorescence, forming a large, round head, +is thus driven for miles over the dry sands of Australia +until it comes to a damp place, when it expands +and soon strikes root.</p> + +<p>So, again, the Anastatica hierochuntica, or “Rose +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1011">[1011]</span>of Jericho,” a small annual with rounded pods, which +frequents sandy places in Egypt, Syria, and Arabia, +when dry, curls itself up into a ball or round cushion, +and is thus driven about by the wind until it finds a +damp place, when it uncurls, the pods open and sow +the seeds.</p> + +<p>These cases, however, in which seeds are rolled by +the wind along the ground, are comparatively rare. +There are many more in which seeds are wafted +through the air.</p> + +<p>Another mode, which is frequently adopted, is +the development of long hairs. Sometimes, as in +Clematis, Anemone, and Dryas, these hairs take the +form of a long, feathery awn. In others the hairs +form a tuft or crown, which botanists term a pappus. +Of this the dandelion and John Go-to-bed-at-noon, +so called from its habit of shutting its flowers +about midday, are well-known examples. Tufts of +hairs, which are themselves sometimes feathered, are +developed in a great many Composites, though some, +as, for instance, the daisy and lapsana, are without +them; in some very interesting species, of which the +common Thrincia hirta of our lawns and meadows +is one, there are two kinds of fruits, one with a pappus +and one without. The former are adapted to +seek “fresh woods and pastures new,” while the latter +stay near the parent plant and perpetuate the race +at home.</p> + +<p>In other cases seeds are wafted by water. Of this +the cocoanut is one of the most striking examples. +The seeds retain their vitality for a considerable +time, and the loose texture of the husk protects them +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1012">[1012]</span>and makes them float. Every one knows that the +cocoanut is one of the first plants to make its appearance +on coral islands, and it is, I believe, the only +palm which is common to both hemispheres.</p> + +<p>In a very large number of cases the diffusion of +seeds is effected by animals. To this class belong +the fruits and berries. In them an outer fleshy +portion becomes pulpy, and generally sweet, inclosing +the seeds. It is remarkable that such fruits, in +order, doubtless, to attract animals, are, like flowers, +brightly colored—as, for instance, the cherry, currant, +apple, peach, plum, strawberry, raspberry, and +many others. This color, moreover, is not present +in the unripe fruit, but is rapidly developed at maturity. +In such cases the actual seed is generally +protected by a dense, sometimes almost stony, covering, +so that it escapes digestion, while its germination +is, perhaps, hastened by the heat of the animal’s body. +It may be said that the skin of apple and pear pips +is comparatively soft; but then they are imbedded +in a stringy core, which is seldom eaten.</p> + +<p>These colored fruits form a considerable part of +the food of monkeys in the tropical regions of the +earth, and we can, I think, hardly doubt that these +animals are guided by the colors, just as we are, in +selecting the ripe fruit.</p> + +<p>In these instances of colored fruits, the fleshy +edible part more or less surrounds the true seeds; in +others the actual seeds themselves become edible. In +the former the edible part serves as a temptation +to animals; in the latter it is stored up for the use of +the plant itself. When, therefore, the seeds themselves +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1013">[1013]</span>are edible they are generally protected by +more or less hard or bitter envelopes, for instance, +the horse chestnut, beech, Spanish chestnut, walnut, +etc. That these seeds are used as food by squirrels +and other animals is, however, by no means necessarily +an evil to the plant, for the result is that they +are often carried some distance and then dropped, +or stored up and forgotten, so that in this way they +get carried away from the parent tree.</p> + +<p>In another class of instances, animals, unconsciously +or unwillingly, serve in the dispersion of +seeds. These cases may be divided into two classes, +those in which the fruits are provided with hooks +and those in which they are sticky. The hooks, +moreover, are so arranged as to promote the removal +of the fruits. In all these species the hooks, +though beautifully formed, are small; but in some +species they become truly formidable. Two of +the most remarkable are Martynia proboscidea +and Harpagophyton procumbens. Martynia is a +plant of Louisiana, and if its fruits once get hold +of an animal it is most difficult to remove them. +Harpagophytum is a South African genus. The +fruits are most formidable, and are said sometimes +to kill lions. They roll about over the dry plains, +and if they attach themselves to the skin, the +wretched animal tries to tear them out, and sometimes +getting them into his mouth perishes miserably.</p> + +<p>The cases in which the diffusion of fruits and seeds +is effected by their being sticky are less numerous, +and we have no well-marked instance among our +native plants. The common plumbago of South +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1014">[1014]</span>Europe is a case which many of you no doubt have +observed. Other genera with the same mode of dispersion +are Pittosporum, Pisonia, Boerhavia, Siegesbeckia, +Grindelia, Drymaria, etc. There are comparatively +few cases in which the same plant uses +more than one of these modes of promoting the +dispersion of its seeds, still there are some such instances. +Thus in the common burdock the seeds have +a pappus, while the whole flower-head is provided +with hooks which readily attach themselves to any +passing animal. Asterothrix, as Hildebrand has +pointed out, has three provisions for dispersion: it +has a hollow appendage, a pappus, and a rough +surface.</p> + +<p>The next point is that seeds should find a spot +suitable for their growth. In most cases, the seed +lies on the ground, into which it then pushes its little +rootlet. In plants, however, which live on trees, the +case is not so simple, and we meet some curious +contrivances. Thus, the mistletoe, as we all know, is +parasitic on trees. The fruits are eaten by birds, +and the droppings often, therefore, fall on the +boughs; but if the seed was like that of most other +plants it would soon fall to the ground, and consequently +perish. Almost alone among those of English +plants it is extremely sticky, and thus adheres +to the bark.</p> + +<p>I have already alluded to an allied genus, Arceuthobium, +parasitic on junipers, which throws its +seeds to a distance of several feet. These also are +very viscid, or, to speak more correctly, are imbedded +in a very viscid mucilage, so that if they +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1015">[1015]</span>come in contact with the bark of a neighboring tree +they stick to it.</p> + +<p>Among terrestrial species there are not a few +cases in which plants are not contented simply to +leave their seeds on the surface of the soil, but +actually sow them in the ground.</p> + +<p>I have already alluded to the Cardamines, the pods +of which open elastically and throw their seeds +some distance. A Brazilian species, C. chenopodifolia, +besides the usual long pods, produces also +short, pointed ones, which it buries in the ground.</p> + +<p>Arachis hypogæa is the ground-nut of the West +Indies. The flower is yellow and resembles that of a +pea, but has an elongated calyx, at the base of which, +close to the stem, is the ovary. After the flower has +faded, the young pod, which is oval, pointed, and +very minute, is carried forward by the growth of +the stalk, which becomes several inches long and +curves downward so as generally to force the pod +into the ground. If it fails in this, the pod does not +develop, but soon perishes; on the other hand, as soon +as it is underground the pod begins to grow and develops +two large seeds.</p> + +<p>A remarkable instance is afforded by a beautiful +south European grass, Stipa pennata, the structure +of which has been described by Vaucher, and more +recently, as well as more completely, by Frank Darwin. +The actual seed is small, with a sharp point, +and stiff, short hairs pointing backward. The upper +end of the seed is produced into a fine twisted cork-screw-like +rod, which is followed by a plain cylindrical +portion, attached at an angle to the corkscrew, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1016">[1016]</span>and ending in a long and beautiful feather, the whole +being more than a foot in length. The long feather, +no doubt, facilitates the dispersion of the seeds by +wind; eventually, however, they sink to the ground, +which they tend to reach, the seed being the heaviest +portion, point downward. So the seed remains as +long as it is dry, but if a shower comes on, or when +the dew falls, the spiral unwinds, and if, as is most +probable, the surrounding herbage or any other +obstacle prevents the feathers from rising, the seed +itself is forced down and so driven by degrees +into the ground.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-1016"> + LEAVES<br> + —R. Lloyd Praeger +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">The stems of plants are the framework on which +the leaves and flowers are spread out to catch +the light and air, and we find definite relations existing +between the form, position, and strength of stems, +and the shape, weight, and function of the organs +which the stems support. The branches of an apple +or pear tree have to be sufficiently strong not only +to withstand the stress of winter gales, and the burden, +of the wealth of blossom and foliage of early summer, +but also the weight of the abundant fruit of +autumn. It is interesting to note that among our cultivated +fruits strength of stem has not kept pace with +the increase in weight of fruit due to artificial selection, +so that in gardens our artificial fruits must +needs, in a season of abundance, be supported by +artificial stems—by props and crutches—lest, like the +legs of the prize turkey in the <cite>Christmas Carol</cite>, the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1017">[1017]</span>branches might snap like sticks of sealing-wax. In +evergreen trees, the weight of snow is a serious contingency +that must not be neglected. Nor must the +chance of accident owing to wandering animals be +left out of account. The young ash saplings, a few +feet in height, are as pliable as willow-wands, and +spring back into their places as we force our way +through them; but the knobby twigs of an old ash +tree, which swing clear in the air high overhead, +are brittle, and snap across if we attempt to bend +them; the elasticity of the whole bough is sufficient +to bring them safely through the heaviest storm.</p> + +<p>Between the form of a twig and that of the leaves +which it bears we can generally at once perceive a +relation. The little leaves of the birch are borne on +twigs slender as a piece of twine. The oak and elm, +with larger leaves, require a stouter twig for their +support. The sycamore and ash have twigs which +are stouter still. The large leaves of the horse chestnut +are borne on very thick twigs, in which the principle +of the hollow column is introduced.</p> + +<p>The arrangement of the leaves on the stem, or +<i>phyllotaxis</i>, is a question of the first importance. The +leaves must be so grouped that all may receive as +much light as possible. So far as can be arranged, +there should be no overlapping, nor should any of +the available space be wasted. On the stem of the +ash, or sycamore, or teazel, the large leaves are arranged +in alternate pairs, the direction of the axis +of each pair being at right angles to that of the next. +Thus two spaces or <em>internodes</em> separate any pair of +leaves from the nearest pair which, being placed in +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1018">[1018]</span>the same position, might overshadow it. This is a +very simple case, which we shall find to be the rule +when we examine plants in which the leaves are +borne in opposite pairs. When leaves are borne in +whorls of three a similar rule will be found to hold +good. The position of the leaves of any whorl is such +that they are vertically below or above the <em>spaces</em> +between the leaves of the next whorl. It will be seen +at once that the amount of light received by each leaf +is materially increased by this arrangement. If in a +theatre we can look between the heads of two people +in the row immediately in front of us, the head of a +person in the next row beyond, even though directly +before us, does not much interfere with our view of +the stage. In most cases, however, the arrangement +of the leaves on the stem is much more complicated +than this. The leaves usually emerge singly. If we +join by a line the point of emergence of a leaf with +that of the next leaf above it on a stem, and that again +with the next, a spiral will be the result, along which +at equal intervals we reach the <em>nodes</em>, or points where +leaves are borne. And the distance between these +nodes will be always found to bear some definite relation +to the total length of the spiral line in making +one complete revolution round the stem. If the distance +from node to node is one-half of this whole +distance, it signifies that the leaves are borne alternately +on opposite sides of the stem, each leaf being +vertically below the second one higher up the stem—a +very common arrangement. Or the leaves may +be borne three to each spiral revolution, so that the +position of each leaf shifts one-third way round the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1019">[1019]</span>stem as compared with the preceding leaf. If we +look along such a stem, the leaves will appear to be +borne in three vertical rows, with an equal angle +between each. Examining some other plant, we may +find that we have to go as far as the fifth leaf before +we find one vertically above the one from which we +started, and if we measure the horizontal distance +from any leaf to the next above or below it, it will +be found to equal two-fifths of the total circumference, +so that we have to go five times two-fifths way +round the stem, or two complete revolutions, before +completing the cycle. This is called a two-fifths +phyllotaxis. In many other cases, the arrangement +is immensely more complicated, and need not be +entered on here. What is important for us to note +at present is that by means of this orderly mathematical +arrangement, the leaves are so distributed +that each fulfils its functions to the best advantage.</p> + +<p>The shape of leaves offers an almost inexhaustible +field for observation and scientific speculation. Mr. +Ruskin has said: “The leaves of the herbage at our +feet take all kinds of strange shapes, as if to invite +us to examine them. Star-shaped, heart-shaped, +spear-shaped, arrow-shaped, fretted, fringed, cleft, +furrowed, serrated, sinuated, in whorls, in tufts, in +spires, in wreaths, endlessly expressive, deceptive, fantastic, +never the same from footstalk to blossom, they +seem perpetually to tempt our watchfulness and take +delight in outstripping our wonder.” The size of +leaves will naturally vary inversely as their number. +A plant of a certain size—say a tree—will require +a certain total area of leaf for the manufacture of the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1020">[1020]</span>requisite amount of plant-food. If we cut the branch +of a horse chestnut and of a beech where each had +exactly a diameter of one inch, or two, or six inches, +and counted and measured the leaves on each, while +the number of beech leaves would immensely exceed +the number of chestnut leaves the total leaf-area +would be about the same in each case. This area of +green leaf, then, must be spread out to the best advantage. +In this connection, a beautiful relation between +the shape of leaves and their arrangement on +the stem may frequently be remarked. Lay a twig +of beech on a sheet of white paper, and note how +small are the interstices between the leaves through +which the paper may be seen. The shape of the +leaves, and the intervals at which they are borne, are +so related that an almost continuous expanse of green +is offered to the sunlight. A more remarkable case +may be seen in the lime, whose leaves are quite inequilateral, +being contracted on one side at the base +and expanded at the other, in order the more exactly +to fill the space which is available. The elm likewise +furnishes a beautiful example of close-fitting leaves. +In most trees in which, like the beech, hazel, and +elm, the leaves lie in close-ranked rows in the same +plane as the twig which supports them, we find more +or less oval leaves, their breadth varying with the +space between the leaves, <em>i. e.</em>, the length of the internode. +In trees such as the horse chestnut or sycamore, +on the other hand, the leaves grow in opposite +pairs, and are typically arranged on upright twigs, +the leaf-stems projecting at a wide angle from the +twig, with the surface of the leaf horizontal. In this +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1021">[1021]</span>case space is not so curtailed; the leaf is larger, and +more or less circular in outline; and the great increase +of length in the internodes, as compared with +the trees lately considered, prevents a too great overshadowing +of the lower leaves by those higher up the +shoot.</p> + +<p>In plants which have a very short axis—which +have in popular language “no stem”—a difficulty +arises as to how all the leaves shall receive a due +amount of light, since all arise from the same point. +This is met in several ways. The leaves are often +placed at different angles, the outer leaves, which +are the lowest and oldest, spreading horizontally +near the ground, the newest rising almost vertically +in the centre, the intermediate being disposed at various +angles between these extremes. Another solution +of the difficulty is effected by a continued growth +of the leaf-stalks, each leaf steadily pushing itself +outward so that the whole form a slowly expanding +circle, in which each leaf-blade successively occupies +a position commencing at the centre, ending at the +circumference. Such leaf-blades, it is almost needless +to say, are widest at the extremity, since that is +the portion which receives most light; often the blade +is roundish, and placed at the end of a bare leaf-stalk, +which pushes it further and further from the +centre, as other leaves arise. Such arrangements are +well seen in many of our biennial plants. During +their first season they form a close leaf-rosette of this +kind, which manufactures during the summer and +winter a supply of plant-food to be stored for the +building up of the tall flowering stem of the succeeding +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1022">[1022]</span>year. The stork’s-bills, crane’s-bills, teazel, and +other plants will occur to the reader as examples.</p> + +<p>In the case of some plants, the normal position +of the blade of the leaf is not horizontal, but vertical. +The black poplar and its relation the aspen furnish +well-known instances. If we examine the stalk +of an aspen leaf we notice that while the lower part +of it is circular in section, the part near the leaf is +much flattened, permitting free movement in the +plane of the leaf-blade. This, together with the position +in which the leaves are borne on the twigs, +causes the leaves to hang vertically. One result is +that the light can stream almost unbroken through +the branches even to the ground below, the wealth of +foliage producing but a faint tremulous shadow as +the leaves rustle in response to every breath of air. +Well does Scott, seeking for a simile, say in <cite>Marmion</cite>:</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="verse indent10">“Variable as the shade</div> + <div class="verse indent0">By the light quivering aspen made.”</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>A peculiar point about these vertical leaves should be +noted. On the under side of leaves are situated a +myriad of tiny openings (<i>stomata</i>, mouths) through +which the plant absorbs carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, +and having taken from it the carbon, liberates +the oxygen, the stomata being also used for +the escape of the surplus water of the plant. Now, +the reason why these mouths are situated in most +plants on the under side of the leaves is no doubt because +they are thus protected from cold and rain and +storm, and their work less interfered with. In the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1023">[1023]</span>aspen, with its vertical leaves, either side of which +is equally exposed to atmospheric vagaries, there is +nothing to choose between the two sides as regards +the position of the stomata, and as a matter of fact, +these are equally distributed over both sides of the +leaf. A further modification of this kind we may +find in plants like the water-lily, the leaves of which +float on the surface of water. Following out our +line of argument, we would expect to find the stomata +confined to the <em>upper</em> side of such a leaf, so that they +may be in contact with the atmosphere, and this is +exactly what we do find. Plants whose leaves are all +continually below the surface of the water, such as +the water lobelia and many pond-weeds, must perforce +be content with obtaining the carbon dioxide +which they require from the small quantity of that +gas which is to be found dissolved in the water.</p> + +<p>The protection of leaves against various hurtful +agencies next claims our attention. The typical leaf +has its upper surface built of strong, closely placed +cells, to offer a stout resistance to rain and hail, and +to frost or overpowering sun-heat. In hot, dry +weather, when great evaporation is taking place, the +plant can close up all its stomata—shut down, so to +speak, all the sluices by which the water employed +to convey dissolved salts from root to leaf is allowed +to escape, and thus retain an abundant water supply +in spite of parching heat. But in arid ground, such +as sandy wastes or sea-beaches, further protection +against overtranspiration may be desirable, and this +is frequently effected by impervious varnish-like +layers on the upper surface of the leaves, or by dense +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1024">[1024]</span>coverings of hairs. Layers of impermeable corky +cells in the epidermis or skin of the leaves are also +frequently to be found in plants liable to excessive +transpiration. Such impermeable leaves are beautifully +developed in plants like the stone-crops, which, +growing in dry ground and on rocks, and being liable +to long-continued drought, store up in their leaves +a copious water supply. Such reservoir-leaves are +greatly developed in the plants of desert countries. +Protection against the often fatal effect of frost is +likewise afforded by a thickening of the cuticle of +leaves, and especially by felt-like coverings of hairs. +In some noteworthy cases protection against cold is +effected by means of movement on the part of the +leaves. The most familiar examples occurring +among our native plants are furnished by the trifoliate +leaves of many of the clover family. As evening +approaches, the clovers and their allies fold their +three leaflets together by means of an upward movement; +the juxtaposition of the leaflets retards loss of +heat, and the vertical position which they thus assume +has the same effect, tending to check the radiation +of heat to the cold sky overhead. The wood +sorrel, which, though of a quite different order, has +leaves which resemble those of the clovers, effects +the same object by folding its leaflets <em>downward</em>.</p> + +<p>Wet, which by lying on the leaves might hinder +transpiration, must also be guarded against; a danger +which in many species is obviated by means of a +waxy excretion, especially on those parts of the leaves +where the stomata are situated; on which, as on an +oily surface, water will not lie.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1025">[1025]</span></p> + +<p>Another danger to which plants are exposed, and +one which we might think they would be powerless +to meet, is the attacks of browsing animals—animals +of all sizes, from minute insects up to great munching +cattle. But to note how perfectly such defence +may be provided for we need only look at our +common gorse, which boldly invades the pasture, +protected by its impenetrable chevaux-de-frise. This +plant, indeed, seems to have put so much of its vital +energy into the production of spines that it has none +left with which to produce leaves, and the making +of plant-food has to be carried on by the green and +much-branched stems. The beautiful tribe of the +thistles naturally comes to our minds in this connection. +Armed with innumerable spines of the most +exquisite structure, sharper and more delicate far +than needles, the spear thistle and marsh thistle raise +their tall and graceful forms untouched amid the +close-browsed herbage, and without fear of molestation—save +from man, with his implements of iron—open +their flower-heads to the sun and the insects, and +scatter their numberless winged fruits to the wind. +In the thistle the spines are borne alike on the stems, +leaves, and involucres or outer whorls of the heads +of flowers. The holly is an interesting case. In low +bushes the edges of the leaves are provided with +strong spines; but when the bush grows into a tree, +and bears leaves far above the reach of browsing animals, +the unnecessary spines disappear, and the edges +of the leaves are entire. In the blackthorn and hawthorn, +the strong spines are modified branches; and +we may observe that they are much more numerous +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1026">[1026]</span>in young plants than in old bushes. A more complicated +mode of protection is found in the nettles. +They are furnished with hollow hairs, filled with a +virulent fluid, and bent at the tip. A slight pressure +causes the curved extremity to break across, leaving +a slender tube, tapering to an extremely fine point, +which easily enters the flesh and discharges a portion +of its venomous contents.</p> + +<p>So far we have considered leaves as fulfilling their +normal functions of producing plant-food by means +of chlorophyll cells. In conclusion, brief reference +may be made to various exceptions; for the production +of plant-food is not necessarily carried on by +leaves, nor is the use of leaves altogether limited to +the production of plant-food. First, leaves may be +dispensed with, as we have already seen in the case +of the gorse. The stem may be modified to supply +the place of leaves, as in the butcher’s broom, whose +flattened “leaves” are really branches, as we see when +we find flowers and fruit borne on these flat leaf-like +structures.</p> + +<p>In climbing plants the leaves, or a portion +of them, are frequently converted into tendrils, +often endowed with a marvelous sense of touch, for +grasping supports and thus aiding the plant in its +upward climb through surrounding herbage to the +light. This is seen in many of the vetches, the upper +end of whose leaves are modified in this fashion. In +the yellow vetchling (Lathyrus aphaca) a further +modification has taken place. The whole leaf is converted +into a tendril, while the stipules (the usually +small pair of leaf-like appendages that often grow at +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1027">[1027]</span>the point where a leaf joins a stem) are enlarged into +a very respectable pair of “leaves,” and manufacture +food while the true leaf helps the plant to climb.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-1027"> + WIND-FERTILIZED FLOWERS<br> + —<span class="smcap">Alexander S. Wilson</span> +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">As an agent in cross-fertilization, the wind performs +an indispensable service to many plants. +Flowers which depend on its agency for the transport +of their pollen are termed anemophilous; those +adapted to insects, entomophilous. Wind-fertilized +blossoms are all of small size, obscurely colored, and, +even when clustered together in catkins, inconspicuous; +hence they escape observation more readily than +their entomophilous neighbors, which are adorned +with bright colors to allure visitors. Although anemophilous +flowers do not exhibit the variety of curious +contrivances found in the entomophilous class, +they yet present a number of highly interesting characters, +and are well worthy of examination. Wind-fertilization +is universal in the lower or gymnospermous +division of flowering plants, of which we have +examples in the pine, larch, cedar, and other coniferous +trees. The apetalous dicotyledons or Incompletæ +form another large group in which wind-fertilization +prevails extensively.</p> + +<p>In this sub-class are included the various species +of dock, sorrel, nettle, pellitory of the wall, +dog’s-mercury, goosefoot, boxwood, hop, mulberry, elm, +and catkin, bearing trees such as the oak, hazel, +beech, poplar, birch, alder, walnut, and willow, all +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1028">[1028]</span>of which are wind-fertilized. Anemophily is not +so common in dicotyledons belonging to the sub-classes; +it occurs, however, in the ash, plantain, +wormwood, mare’s-tail, and meadow-rue. The number +of wind-fertilized monocotyledons far exceeds +those adapted to insects, both as regards individuals +and species. The extensive order of grasses, the +sedges, carices, and rushes, together with the arrow-head, +arrowgrass, bur-reed, and bulrush, are all +without exception anemophilous. It thus appears +that wind-fertilization occurs in many different and +widely separated families. Certain negative characters +are common to all the wind-fertilized class; +no honey is secreted, no perfume emitted, and conspicuous +colors are wanting. On flowers of this description +it is difficult for a large insect like a bee +to obtain a footing; there is no corolla that can serve +as a landing-stage for insects to alight. For these +reasons anemophilous blossoms are almost entirely +neglected by bees and other flower-hunting insects; +only in exceptional instances do visitors have recourse +to them in search of pollen, but this is so dry and has +so little cohesion that it must be difficult indeed for +a bee to collect an appreciable quantity of anemophilous +pollen. Wind-fertilized flowers thus offer +little or no attraction to insects, and are in no way +adapted to derive benefit from their visits. On +the other hand, there exists in them a number of +provisions which admirably adapt them for cross-fertilization +through atmospheric agency. The most +important of these is abundant pollen; always more +than in insect-fertilized blossoms, the quantity produced +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1029">[1029]</span>by some plants of the wind-fertilized class is +enormous. The so-called showers of sulphur, occasionally +reported in the newspapers, are really +great deposits of pollen blown from the male cone +of the Scotch fir. It has been known to fall on ships +at sea, and has been swept up in bucketsful from +their decks. The common ash discharges an immense +quantity from its innumerable flowers, so much +so that a person shaking a branch when the tree is +in bloom is dusted from head to foot with the dry, +powdery pollen. That of the elm is also very abundant, +and this is more or less characteristic of all +plants which depend for cross-fertilization on the +wind. At certain seasons, the air may be said to be +literally charged with the pollen of anemophilous +plants. In the beginning of May, I exposed on the +window-sill for forty-eight hours a microscopic +slide smeared with syrup, and on examining it afterward +detected upward of fifty pollen-grains belonging +to various trees, some of which are not +to be found within a radius of two miles. The efficiency +of the wind as a fertilizing agent is, therefore, +much greater than one might suppose.</p> + +<p>The pollen grains of insect-fertilized flowers are +frequently, as in the harebell, colt’s-foot, and mallow, +studded over with little projecting points; these cause +them to adhere readily to each other or to the hairs +of an insect. In other cases the pollen is viscid, and +the granules are difficult to separate. This cohesive +character obviously renders them ill-adapted for +transference by means of the wind; accordingly, the +pollen of wind-fertilized plants is excessively light +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1030">[1030]</span>and dry, the granules are smooth, they do not stick +together, and this incoherence facilitates their wide +dispersion. A special provision exists in the pine, +whereby its pollen is rendered lighter and more +easily wafted by the wind; the extine or outer membrane +of each granule is inflated into two globular +air-sacs, which reduce its specific gravity so that it +can keep longer afloat in the air.</p> + +<p>Although there are wind-fertilized species to be +found in bloom all the year round, a large number, +especially of trees, blossom early in the season; the +hazel comes into bloom in February, the elm, poplar, +and willow following in March or April. The +little flowers of the willow are already developed +within the bud at the beginning of winter; in spring +they merely expand. It is, therefore, probable that +trees of this class originally flowered toward the end +of the year, but ultimately became so belated that +the opening of their flowers had to be delayed over +winter. During the dry, windy days of spring, when +the farmer sows his seed-corn, the flowers of our +anemophilous trees are in perfection. At this early +period, when so few insects are abroad, these unattractive +blossoms are not likely to be visited.</p> + +<p>A marked peculiarity of anemophilous trees is +the appearance of the flowers before the foliage; the +blossoms of the elm, poplar, ash, and willow, for example, +are put forth while as yet the branches are +entirely leafless. This arrangement is clearly advantageous; +the foliage would protect the flowers +from the wind, preventing its gaining access to the +stigmas and interfering with the removal of the pollen.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1031">[1031]</span></p> + +<p>The fir does not shed its leaves in autumn, as deciduous +trees do, but its needle-like foliage interferes +as little as possible in the way indicated; nevertheless, +the male and female cones are developed on the +branches of the fir in the most exposed positions. A +good illustration of the manner in which wind-fertilized +plants secure the exposure of their blossoms +is seen in the dog’s-mercury (Mercurialis perennis). +This plant, common in most districts, has rather large +leaves; they expand before the flowers, and would +be a great hindrance to wind-fertilization were it +not that the little staminate flowers are elevated on +long, slender stalks which spring from the axils of +the leaves and entirely overtop the foliage. The +male catkin of the oak is an inflorescence of the same +description, not erect, however, but pendulous, and +so flexible that it swings freely in the lightest breeze. +After the flowering period, the ground under the +oak, poplar, and other trees is strewn with their male +catkins; these are caducous, falling off soon after +they have shed their pollen; the catkins of female +flowers are necessarily persistent, though a few may +occasionally be broken off by the violence of the +wind.</p> + +<p>In reeds and grasses, the entire plant, being flexible, +is easily shaken by the wind, and the ripe pollen +is readily dislodged from the anthers; but where +the stem is more rigid either the flower stalks are +slender or the stamens have thin, thread-like filaments; +or the entire inflorescence is mobile; in any +case provision is made in the structure of the flower +for the agitation of the anthers by the wind. Slender +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1032">[1032]</span>flower stalks are seen in the dock and in the quaking +grass (Briza). The ribwort plantain (Plantago +lanceolata) and a great many grasses have their +anthers borne on long, excessively thin stalks, so that +they quiver in the slightest breeze. Broad and leaf-shaped, +the anther itself in plantago is clearly +adapted, like the seed-vessels of some crucifers, to +be set in motion by the wind. On a calm and warm +day in summer the gentlest touch is sufficient to +make many grasses, such as the foxtail, cock’s-foot or +timothy, emit a little cloud of pollen. Some grasses +even appear to eject the pollen with force either by +the explosion of the pollen-sacs or by a sudden jerking +of the stamens. The nettle and pellitory have +each four elastic stamens; when the flower opens, +these are bent inward toward the centre in a constrained +position; later on the tension is removed +and the liberated stamens suddenly straighten out, +scattering their pollen like little puffs of smoke. +The object of this liliputian artillery is to throw the +pollen away quite clear of the plant by which it was +produced.</p> + +<p>Petals in ordinary flowers are intended to secure +the attention of insects; to wind-fertilized blossoms, +having no occasion for visitors, they are unnecessary. +So far from an advantage, the presence of a corolla +would exclude the wind from the essential organs. +Accordingly, petals are either absent altogether or reduced +to rudimentary proportions. The calyx is +also much reduced, and in some flowers is dispensed +with entirely. Comparatively few anemophilous +flowers possess both sets of floral envelopes. Plantago +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1033">[1033]</span>is, however, dichlamydeous, but its chaffy petals +afford incontrovertible evidence of degeneration +from the entomophilous condition.</p> + +<p>The stigma in the wind-fertilized class is highly +specialized, and much larger relatively to the other +parts of the flower than is the case with entomophilous +blossoms. It is commonly penicillate, consisting +of a tuft of hairs, as in nettle; feathery, as +in grasses; or elongated and thread-like, as in +plantago and the rushes. The spirally twisted +stigmas of the last-mentioned flowers are beautiful +objects when examined with a pocket lens. The +larger the surface which the stigma presents to the +wind, the greater are the chances of pollination. +Its fine fringes of papillose hairs are also well calculated +to entangle the pollen-grains, while the viscid +secretion serves to retain them when caught. This +adaptation may be seen in the common rye grass; +each tiny blossom as it expands hangs out its two +white, feathery stigmas from the sides of the spikelet, +reminding one of a fisherman spreading out his +nets, or a sailor his studding sails to catch the favoring +breeze. At the time of fertilization the dock, +too, thrusts out its three little brush-like stigmas between +the lobes of the perianth. It is instructive to +compare these wind-fertilized flowers of Rumex +with those of the nearly allied genus Polygonum, +which is entomophilous. The perianth of the latter +is rose-colored; the stigmas are included within it, +never exserted as in the dock—they are not at all +brush-like or feathery, but in the form of little +knobs; the stamens and flower-stalks are rigid; +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1034">[1034]</span>moreover, the various species of Polygonum secrete +nectar and are frequented by many different insects. +Stigmas are entirely absent in the gymnospermous +division, but in most Coniferæ the ovule at the time +of flowering secretes a drop of liquid, and the pollen-grains +caught on it are, as the fluid gradually +evaporates, stranded on the nucleus of the ovule. +The ovule of the larch is provided with elongated +papillæ, functionally equivalent to a stigma.</p> + +<p>A flower is said to be hermaphrodite or monoclinous +when, as in the elm, both stamens and pistils +are present in the same blossom. With insect-fertilized +flowers this is mostly the case, though there are +some exceptions, such as the cucumber and begonia, +which are unisexual or diclinous, stamens and pistils +being produced in separate blossoms. The +diclinous condition is exceedingly common in the +wind-fertilized class. The staminate or male, and +the pistillate or female, flowers are sometimes found +growing on the same individual plant, which is +then termed monœcious, as in the oak, hazel, birch, +pine, etc. The poplar, willow, yew, juniper, nettle, +and dog’s-mercury, on the other hand, are diœcious; +their staminate and pistillate flowers grow on +separate plants. This separation of the sexes renders +self-fertilization impossible, and secures whatever +benefit may arise from the physiological division of +labor. Anemophilous species in general show a +marked tendency in the direction of separation. +Self-fertilization may be prevented in monoclinous +flowers by the stamens and stigmas maturing at different +times. This arrangement, known as dichogamy, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1035">[1035]</span>occurs in both insect and wind-fertilized +blossoms, but while the former usually have the +stamens in advance of the stigmas, in the latter the +reverse order is much more frequent. There are +thus two kinds of dichogamy—protandrous, when +the stamens are in advance; protogynous, if the pistils +are first developed. Protogyny is characteristic +of wind-fertilized flowers, and may be easily observed +in the rush and plantain. In the first or female +stage of the flower of the rush, the thread-like stigma +protrudes from the top of the still unopened perianth, +while the stamens, as yet immature, are completely +concealed. In the second stage, the pollinated +stigmas have begun to shrivel, the perianth +has now spread out, disclosing the six stamens which +are ready to discharge their pollen. The same two +stages are equally apparent in plantago. All our +readers must be familiar with the black heads of this +plant, which are to be seen in every pasture, bending +and waving in the wind. In the first stage, the +head appears black, but on looking into it we see +projecting from each little unopened floret a white +thread-like stigma. Later on, the lower part of the +spike or head is seen to be encircled by a wreath of +tiny white bodies, and closer inspection shows that +these are the stamens, four of which project like little +banners from each of the newly opened florets. The +protogynous character belongs in the bur-reed to the +plant itself rather than the individual flowers. Its +pistillate flowers, which are lowermost, expand +first; only when their stigmas have withered do the +male florets higher up begin discharging their pollen. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1036">[1036]</span>In this case, it is evident that the flowers on +any plant must be fertilized with pollen from another +in more advanced condition. A social habit +is highly characteristic of wind-fertilized plants—pines, +grasses, sedges, nettles, etc., usually grow together +in considerable numbers. Entomophilous +plants have a much more sporadic character, and +admit of a greater degree of isolation; their guests, +doubtless, maintain the necessary communication between +members of the species. This social habit +partly explains the tendency toward the diœcious +condition, for a complete separation of the sexes is +hardly possible, except in plants of social habit. +From the gymnosperms, the oldest flowering plants, +being all wind-fertilized, it has been inferred that +such must also have been the case with the primitive +angiosperms. It is not certain, however, that any +of their representatives remain, for many of our existing +wind-fertilized flowers appear to be merely +degraded forms. Anemophilous species appear in +families, the rest of which are highly specialized in +relation to insects. Some species of plantago are +adapted to insects; others, as we have seen, to the +wind. Most of the sub-classes with incomplete flowers, +from which so many of our examples are taken, +also exhibit striking marks of degeneration, and the +same may be said of the grasses and other anemophilous +monocotyledons. We also find some flowers +in an intermediate condition, such as the vine +and certain willows, which secrete honey and are +visited by insects. Facts of this description are held +by some to show that all existing anemophilous species, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1037">[1037]</span>with the exception of the gymnosperms, are descended +from bright-colored, insect-fertilized ancestors.</p> + +<p>Wind-fertilization has, in some instances, been +rendered highly efficient, but in any case it is far +from economical, for the vast amount of pollen miscarried +represents an enormous loss to plants; neither +does this method admit of the same certainty and +precision as the other. A wind-fertilized bears to +an insect-fertilized blossom very much the relation +which an æolian harp bears to a pianoforte.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-1037"> + MOVEMENTS OF PLANTS<br> + —<span class="smcap">David Robertson</span> +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">Scarcely any one can have failed to notice +that many plants close their flowers when evening +approaches, others again at various periods of +the day, while some close their flowers when the sky +is overcast; foliage leaves also are in many cases subject +to periodic movements.</p> + +<p>The movements of different plants are dependent +on various causes.</p> + +<p>Some of these movements are solely mechanical, +and caused by the tissues being affected, owing to the +condition of the surrounding air and to varying +states of turgidity and exhaustion.</p> + +<p>Other movements are apparently due to physical +causes, but can not be fully explained by attributing +them to these causes.</p> + +<p>Movements in plants also depend upon the contractile +quality of the protoplasm in the cells, and on +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1038">[1038]</span>the passage of the protoplasm from cell to cell. The +property of the protoplasm gives rise to movements +caused by the plant itself, which are not at least directly +due to any external exciting cause. These +movements can be compared with the movements of +the lower animals, and to the ciliary motion found in +certain tissues belonging to the most highly organized +animals.</p> + +<p>The periodic movements, such as the “waking” +and “sleeping” condition of leaves, the closing of +flowers, etc., are manifested only when the organs are +fully matured, and when the peculiarity of their internal +structure which gives rise to the phenomena of +periodic movements is fully developed.</p> + +<p>These movements are to be carefully distinguished +from those due to unequal growth, such as movements +of nutation. In this case there is no special +structure upon which the movements depend.</p> + +<p>The bursting of seed-vessels, anthers, etc., is due +partly to the fact that the condition of the tissues, as +regards the amount of liquid they contain from their +possessing unequal power of imbibing moisture, is +not equally elastic. For this reason, when the less +elastic portions of tissue are subjected to strain they +are torn apart or bent in various ways, owing to unequal +contractions and expansions, caused by an +access or withdrawal of moisture.</p> + +<p>These cases can scarcely be regarded as vital phenomena, +but should rather come under the category +of what is in ordinary language named “warping.” +They are simply caused by particular modes of the +destruction of dead tissue due to conditions brought +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1039">[1039]</span>about by variations in the structure of the tissues in +question.</p> + +<p>Movements in plants which take place periodically, +such as sleeping and waking, or those movements +that take place when they are touched or +otherwise affected by certain kinds of exciting stimulus, +can not be attributed to mechanical causes. The +slightest mechanical stimulus on the sensitive plant +Mimosa pudica causes the leaflets to fold together. +Such movements are not proportional to the external +stimulus, but depend on the internal structure of the +plant.</p> + +<p>To this class of movements have been added the +very remarkable movements which give rise to the +twining condition of certain stems.</p> + +<p>Another class of movements may be mentioned, +viz., movements of the protoplasm in cells, or movements +of free bodies, such as zoospores (Greek, <em>zoon</em>, +animal, and <em>spora</em>, seed), antherozoids (Greek, <em>anthos</em>, +flower; <em>zoon</em>, animal; <em>eidos</em>, form), and sometimes +even perfect individuals, such as Desmediæ, +etc., which may have the power of temporary or +permanent locomotion.</p> + +<p>The rotation of the protoplasm of cells is attributed +to causes similar to those which produce locomotion +in the simpler plants, and these movements are +strikingly like some of the movements of the protozoa +in the animal kingdom. The movements of the products +of cell contents having no cell-wall, such as zoospores +and antherozoids, are generally caused by +the rapid movement of cilia (plural of the Latin +word <i lang="la">cilium</i>, an eyelid) or small filaments which +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1040">[1040]</span>cover the surface. The locomotion of certain plants, +such as Diatomaceæ, is apparently not due to cilia.</p> + +<p>Sensitive plants, such as the Mimosa pudica, are +strongly affected by any mechanical stimulus, and +thus afford us examples of the phenomenon named +“irritability.”</p> + +<p>The sleep of plants is most probably a case of irritability, +and differs only in degree, not in kind.</p> + +<p>Sensitiveness in plants is affected both by light and +heat. It has been experimentally proved that sensitive +plants, if kept in the dark, lose their sensibility +after a period of seven days, and actually die after +twelve days.</p> + +<p>We know that white light is composed of light of +different colors. Light is propagated in waves, and +each color is distinguished by having a different +wave-length from that of any other color. Red light +differs, for example, from violet light in the length +of its waves, and violet light differs from blue, etc.</p> + +<p>It is, therefore, not surprising to find that the different +colored rays are capable of producing different +effects. It has been ascertained that under the +influence of green light sensitive plants die after +sixteen days’ exposure, though they retain their sensibility +for twelve days.</p> + +<p>When the plants were exposed to violet and blue +light, their growth completely ceased. They, however, +retained their vitality as well as their sensibility +for three months. The effect of heat on sensitive +plants has also been ascertained.</p> + +<p>The sensitiveness and periodical movements of +Mimosa do not begin till the temperature of the surrounding +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1041">[1041]</span>air exceeds 15° C. The periodical movements +of the lateral leaflets of the Indian telegraph +plant (Desmodium gyrans) can only occur when the +temperature exceeds 22° C.</p> + +<p>When the temperature of the air is 40° C., the +leaves become stiff in less than an hour, and at 48° C. +to 50° C. rigidity takes place within a few minutes; +but when the temperature falls, the sensitiveness may +again be manifested.</p> + +<p>A temperature of 52° C. not only causes loss of +permanent motion, but also the death of the plant.</p> + +<p>The mechanism to which the periodic movements +of plants is due is not by any means fully known.</p> + +<p>The particular circumstances which regulate the +turgidity have not been, so far, determined with +precision.</p> + +<p>It has, however, been clearly ascertained that this +turgid state is associated with the passage of fine +threads or filaments of protoplasm from one cell to +another, and at the same time with an accumulation +of a soluble chemical compound named glucose, a +kind of sugar, in fact. This substance possesses great +osmotic power; that is, it can pass very rapidly +through the flexible cell-walls of the pulvinus forming +the so-called springs. These movements are, +therefore, closely connected with the rapid absorption +and expulsion of liquid.</p> + +<p>Contrary to the habit of most plants, the sensitive +plant raises its leaves at night and closes them by +day.</p> + +<p>The most usual kind of movement in these plants +is that in which the leaves as well as the floral envelopes +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1042">[1042]</span>assume the position they occupied before the +buds opened.</p> + +<p>Compound leaves, such as the leaves of the Leguminosæ, +or pea-family, exhibit a simple or compound +movement.</p> + +<p>The leaves of the bean fold upward, those of the +Lupinus fold downward. In Tamarinds the leaves +fold to the side. In some other plants the common +petiole of the compound leaves become raised or depressed, +while the leaflets turn downward or sidewise. +This is the case in Amorpha fruticosa and +Gleditschia tracanthus.</p> + +<p>In the well-known Mimosa pudica, which is a hothouse +plant in temperate regions, the leaflets fold +together, the small stalks of the leaflets of the compound +leaves of this plant approach each other, and +the main petiole becomes depressed.</p> + +<p>In one exceedingly sensitive species of Oxalis, the +pinnate leaves fold upward. A footfall is said to be +sufficient to cause it to close its leaves.</p> + +<p>When these movements of leaves or leaf-organs +take place at stated hours, and when the leaves remain +in the new position after the movement has +ceased until a particular period of time recur, the +closing up is called the <em>sleep</em> of plants. This condition +is observed both in seed-leaves and true leaves, +as well as in the petals of flowers.</p> + +<p>So far as can be made out, the object of this closing +of the leaves seems to be to prevent the chilling effect +due to radiation from being injurious to the plant. +This folding up causes a smaller extent of surface to +be exposed. Radiation of heat during a clear night +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1043">[1043]</span>goes on rapidly from all surfaces such as those of expanded +leaves. The closing of the leaves may be +supposed to form a protective covering, which prevents +the heat passing away into space, and thus saves +the plant from the injurious effects of cold.</p> + +<p>This is only true of the foliage leaves, which expand +during the day and close during the night.</p> + +<p>The period at which the movement of closing and +opening of flowers takes place is very varied. Ordinary +leaves, as has been stated, close toward evening +and open in the day. The periods of opening and +closing in the case of flowers vary considerably, being +affected, no doubt, by the visits of insects, which carry +the pollen from plant to plant belonging to the same +species. By this means flowers are fertilized, and +the seeds resulting from plants that are so fertilized +are much more numerous than those resulting from +self-fertilized plants. Some plants, such as the pimpernel, +close their petals when the sky is overcast. +This is doubtless to protect the pollen from the injurious +effects of rain. This kind of closing, however, +is not to be confounded with the regular and +periodic closing and opening of flowers.</p> + +<p>The diversity in the regular and periodic opening +and closing of flowers in regard to time is so great +that Linnæus was able to arrange flowers in a list in +accordance with their times of opening and closing.</p> + +<p>This list he named a <i>Horologium floræ</i>, or floral +clock, the time of opening or closing representing +each succeeding hour.</p> + +<p>Some closing flowers open under the influence of +strong artificial light, such, for example, as Crocus +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1044">[1044]</span>and Gentiana verna; on others, however, such as +Convolvulus, artificial light has no effect.</p> + +<p>The closing of flowers is usually a slow process, as +may easily be observed, but there are exceptions to +this.</p> + +<p>“In Desmodium gyrans” (the Indian telegraph-plant) +“the trilobate compound leaf has a large terminal +leaflet and a smaller one on each side. When +the plant is exposed to bright sunlight in a hothouse, +the end leaflet stands horizontally, and it folds downward +in the evening, but the lateral leaflets move +constantly during the heat of the day, advancing, +edgewise, first toward the end leaflet, and then returning +and moving toward the base of the common +petiole alternately on each side, in a manner very +well compared to the movements of the arm of the +old semaphore telegraphs.”</p> + +<p>Such are some of the more striking movements of +plants. Even in cases where the precise advantage, as +far as regards the economy of plant life, is not fully +ascertained, it can not be doubted that such movements +are advantageous. In strict accordance with +the accepted theory of evolution, no peculiarity +would be continued from generation to generation +of either plants or animals, if it possessed no essential +characteristic which helped the plant or animal to +hold its own in “the struggle for existence.”</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="i_202" style="max-width: 50em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/i_202.jpg" alt="Drawings of various plants"> + <figcaption class="caption"> + Cacti, Rare Flowers, and Fuci<br> +<p class="fs80"> + Cacti—1 and 3, Mamillaria; 2, Echinocactus; 4, Cereus. Fuci—5, Sargassum; 6, Agarum; + 7, Thalassophyllum. The Wool Tree (Bombax) and the Rafflesia Arnoldi</p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1045">[1045]</span></p> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-1045"> + MOVEMENT IN PLANTS<br> + —<span class="smcap">Charles Darwin</span> +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">Plants become climbers in order, it may be +presumed, to reach the light and to expose a +large surface of leaves to its action and to that of the +free air. This is effected by climbers with wonderfully +little expenditure of organized matter, in comparison +with trees, which have to support a load of +heavy branches by a massive trunk. Hence, no +doubt, it arises that there are in all quarters of the +world so many climbing plants belonging to so many +different orders. These plants are here classed under +three heads. First, hook-climbers, which are, at +least in our temperate countries, the least efficient of +all, and can climb only in the midst of an entangled +vegetation. Secondly, root-climbers, which are excellently +adapted to ascend naked faces of rock: when +they climb trees, they are compelled to keep much +in the shade; they can not pass from branch to +branch, and thus cover the whole summit of a tree, +for their rootlets can adhere only by long-continued +and close contact with a steady surface. Thirdly, the +great class of spiral climbers, with the subordinate +divisions of leaf-climbers and tendril-bearers, which +together far exceed in number and in perfection of +mechanism the climbers of the two previous classes. +These plants, by their power of spontaneously revolving +and grasping objects with which they come +in contact, can easily pass from branch to branch, and +securely wander over a wide and sunlit surface. I +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1046">[1046]</span>have ranked twiners, leaf and tendril-climbers as +subdivisions of one class, because they graduate into +each other, and because nearly all have the same +remarkable power of spontaneously revolving. Does +this gradation, it may be asked, indicate that plants +belonging to one subdivision have passed, during +the lapse of ages, or can pass, from one state to the +other; has, for instance, a tendril-bearing plant assumed +its present structure without having previously +existed either as a leaf-climber or a twiner? +If we consider leaf-climbers alone, the idea that they +were primordially twiners is forcibly suggested. The +internodes of all, without exception, revolve in exactly +the same manner as twiners; and some few can +twine as well, and many others in a more or less +imperfect manner. Several leaf-climbing genera are +closely allied to other genera which are simple +twiners. It should be observed that the possession +by a plant of leaves with their petioles or tips sensitive, +and with the consequent power of clasping any +object, would be of very little use, unless associated +with revolving internodes, by which the leaves could +be brought into contact with surrounding objects. On +the other hand, revolving internodes, without other +aid, suffice to give the power of climbing, so that, +unless we suppose that leaf-climbers simultaneously +acquired both capacities, it seems probable that they +were first twiners, and subsequently became capable +of grasping a support, which, as we shall presently +see, is a great additional advantage.</p> + +<p>From analogous reasons, it is probable that tendril-bearing +plants were primordially twiners—that is, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1047">[1047]</span>are the descendants of plants having this power and +habit. For the internodes of the majority revolve, +like those of twining plants; and, in a very few, the +flexible stem still retains the capacity of spirally +twining round an upright stick. With some the +internodes have lost even the revolving power. Tendril-bearers +have undergone much more modification +than leaf-climbers; hence it is not surprising that +their supposed primordial revolving and twining +habits have been lost or modified more frequently +than with leaf-climbers. The three great tendril-bearing +families in which this loss has occurred in +the most marked manner are the Cucurbitaceæ, +Passifloraceæ, and Vitaceæ. In the first the internodes +revolve; but I have heard of no twining form, +with the exception of Mormodica balsamina, and this +is only an imperfect twiner. In the other two families +I can hear of no twiners; and the internodes +rarely have the power of revolving, this power being +confined to the tendrils; nevertheless, the internodes +of Passiflora gracilis have this power in a perfect +manner, and those of the common vine in an imperfect +degree: so that at least a trace of the supposed +primordial habit is always retained by some members +of the larger tendril-bearing groups.</p> + +<p>On the view here given, it may be asked, Why +have nearly all the plants in so many aboriginally +twining groups been converted into leaf-climbers or +tendril-bearers? Of what advantage could this +have been to them? Why did they not remain simple +twiners? We can see several reasons. It might be +an advantage to a plant to acquire a thicker stem, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1048">[1048]</span>with short internodes bearing many or large leaves; +and such stems are ill fitted for twining. Any one +who will look during windy weather at twining +plants will see that they are easily blown from their +support; not so with tendril-bearers or leaf-climbers, +for they quickly and firmly grasp their support by a +much more efficient kind of movement. In those +plants which still twine, but at the same time possess +tendrils or sensitive petioles, as some species of Bignonia, +Clematis, and Tropæolum, we can readily observe +how incomparably more securely they grasp +an upright stick than do simple twiners. From possessing +the power of movement on contact, tendrils +can be made very long and thin; so that little organic +matter is expended in their development, and yet a +wide circle is swept. Tendril-bearers can, from their +first growth, ascend along the outer branches of any +neighboring bush, and thus always keep in the full +light; twiners, on the contrary, are best fitted to ascend +bare stems, and generally have to start in the +shade. In dense tropical forests, with crowded and +bare stems, twining plants would probably succeed +better than most kinds of tendril-bearers; but the +majority of twiners, at least in our temperate regions, +from the nature of their revolving movement, +can not ascend a thick trunk, whereas this can be +effected by tendril-bearers, if the trunks carry many +branches or twigs; and in some cases they can ascend +by special means a trunk without branches, +but with a rugged bark.</p> + +<p>The object of all climbing plants is to reach the +light and free air with as little expenditure of organic +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1049">[1049]</span>matter as possible; now, with spirally ascending +plants, the stem is much longer than is absolutely +necessary; for instance, I measured the stem of a +kidney-bean which had ascended exactly two feet in +height, and it was three feet in length: the stem of +a pea, ascending by its tendrils, would, on the other +hand, have been but little longer than the height +gained. That this saving of stem is really an advantage +to climbing plants I infer from observing +that those that still twine, but are aided by clasping +petioles or tendrils, generally make more open spires +than those made by simple twiners. Moreover, such +plants very generally, after taking one or two turns +in one direction, ascend for a space straight, and then +reverse the direction of the spire. By this means +they ascend to a considerably greater height, with +the same length of stem, than would otherwise be +possible; and they can do it with safety, as they secure +themselves at intervals by their clasping petioles.</p> + +<p>Tendrils consist of various organs in a modified +state, namely, leaves and flower-peduncles, and perhaps +branches and stipules. The position alone generally +suffices to show when a tendril has been +formed from a leaf; and in Bignonia the lower +leaves are often perfect, while the upper ones terminate +in a tendril in place of a terminal leaflet; in +Eccremocarpus I have seen a lateral branch of a +tendril replaced by a perfect leaflet; and in Vicia +sativa, on the other hand, leaflets are sometimes replaced +by tendril-branches; and many other such +cases could be given. But he who believes in the slow +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1050">[1050]</span>modification of species will not be content simply +to ascertain the homological nature of different tendrils; +he will wish to learn, as far as possible, by +what steps parts acting as leaves or as flower-peduncles +can have wholly changed their function, and +have come to serve as prehensile organs.</p> + +<p>In the whole group of leaf-climbers abundant evidence +has been given that an organ, still subserving +its proper function as a leaf, may become sensitive +to a touch, and thus grasp an adjoining object. In +several leaf-climbers true leaves spontaneously revolve; +and their petioles, after clasping a support, +grow thicker and stronger. We thus see that true +leaves may acquire all the leading and characteristic +qualities of tendrils, namely, sensitiveness, spontaneous +movement, and subsequent thickening and induration. +If their blades or laminæ were to abort, they +would form true tendrils. And of this process of +abortion we have seen every stage; for in an ordinary +tendril, as in that of the pea, we can discover no trace +of its primordial nature; in Mutisia clematis, the +tendril in shape and color closely resembles a petiole +with the denuded midribs of its leaflets; and occasionally +vestiges of laminæ are retained or reappear. +Lastly, in four genera in the same family of the +Fumariaceæ we see the whole gradation; for the +terminal leaflets of the leaf-climbing Fumaria +officinalis are not smaller than the other leaflets; +those of the leaf-climbing Adlumia cirrhosa are +greatly reduced; those of the Corydalis claviculata +(a plant which may be indifferently called a leaf-climber +or tendril-bearer) are either reduced to +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1051">[1051]</span>microscopical dimensions or have their blades quite +aborted, so that this plant is in an actual state of +transition; and, finally, in the Dicentra the tendrils +are perfectly characterized. Hence, if we were to +see at the same time all the progenitors of the Dicentra, +we should almost certainly behold a series +like that now exhibited by the above-named four +genera. In Tropæolum tricolorum we have another +kind of passage; for the leaves which are first +formed on the young plant are entirely destitute of +laminæ, and must be called tendrils, while the later +formed leaves have well-developed laminæ. In all +cases, in the several kinds of leaf-climbers and of +tendril-bearers, the acquirement of sensitiveness by +the midribs of the leaves apparently stands in the +closest relation with the abortion of their laminæ or +blades.</p> + +<p>On the view here given, leaf-climbers were primordially +twiners, and tendril-bearers (of the modified +leaf division) were primordially leaf-climbers. +Hence leaf-climbers are intermediate in nature between +twiners and tendril-bearers, and ought to be +related to both. This is the case: thus the several +leaf-climbing species of the Antirrhineæ, of Solanum, +of Cocculus, of Gloriosa are related to the other +genera in the same family, or even to other species +in the same genus, which are true climbers. On the +other hand, the leaf-climbing species of Clematis +are very closely allied to the tendril-bearing Naravelia: +the Fumariaceæ include closely allied genera +which are leaf-climbers and tendril-bearers. Lastly, +one species of Bignonia is both a leaf-climber and a +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1052">[1052]</span>tendril-bearer, and other closely allied species are +twiners.</p> + +<p>Tendrils of the second great division consist of +modified flower-peduncles. In this case likewise we +have many interesting transitional states. The common +vine (not to mention the Cardiospermum) gives +us every possible grade from finely developed tendrils +to a bunch of flower-buds, bearing the single +usual lateral flower-tendril. And when the latter +itself bears some flowers, as we know is not rarely +the case, and yet retains the power of clasping a support, +we see the primordial state of all these tendrils +which have been formed by the modification of +flower-peduncles.</p> + +<p>According to Mohl and others, some tendrils consist +of modified branches. I have seen no such case, +and, therefore, of course, know nothing of any transitional +states, if such occur. But Lophospermum, +at least, shows us that such a transition is possible; +for its branches spontaneously revolve, and are sensitive +to contact. Hence, if the leaves of some of the +branches were to abort, they would be converted into +true tendrils. Nor is it so improbable as may at +first appear that certain branches alone should become +modified, the others remaining unaltered; for +with certain varieties of Phaseolus some of the +branches are thin and flexible and twine, while other +branches on the same plant are stiff and have no such +power.</p> + +<p>If we inquire how the petiole of a leaf, or the +peduncle of a flower, or a branch first becomes sensitive +and acquires the power of bending toward the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1053">[1053]</span>touched side, we get no certain answer. Nevertheless, +an observation by Hofmeister well deserves attention, +namely, that the shoots and leaves of all +plants, while young, move after being shaken; and +it is almost invariably young petioles and young +tendrils, whether of modified leaves or flower-peduncles, +which move on being touched; so that it +would appear as if these plants had utilized and +perfected a widely distributed and incipient capacity, +which capacity, as far as we can see, is of no +service to ordinary plants. If we further inquire +how the stems, petioles, tendrils, and flower-peduncles +of climbing plants first acquired their power of +spontaneously revolving or, to speak more accurately, +of successively bending to all points of the compass, +we are again silenced, or at most can only remark, +that the power of movement, both spontaneous +and from various stimuli, is far more common with +plants, as we shall presently see, than is generally +supposed to be the case by those who have not attended +to the subject. There is, however, one remarkable +case of the Maurandia semperflorens, in +which the young flower-peduncles spontaneously revolve +in very small circles, and bend themselves, +when gently rubbed, to the touched side; yet this +plant certainly profits in no way by these two feebly +developed powers. A rigorous examination of other +young plants would probably show some slight spontaneous +movement in the peduncles and petioles, as +well as that sensitiveness to shaking observed by +Hofmeister. We see at least in the Maurandia a +plant which might, by a little augmentation of qualities +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1054">[1054]</span>which it already possesses, come first to grasp +a support by its flower-peduncles (as with Vitis or +Cardiospermum) and then, by the abortion of some +of its flowers, acquire perfect tendrils.</p> + +<p>There is one interesting point which deserves notice. +We have seen that some tendrils have originated +from modified leaves, and others from modified +flower-peduncles; so that some are foliar and some +axial in their homological nature. Hence it might +have been expected that they would have presented +some difference in function. This is not the case. +On the contrary, they present the most perfect identity +in their several remarkable characteristics. Tendrils +of both kinds spontaneously revolve at about +the same rate. Both, when touched, bend quickly to +the touched side, and afterward recover themselves +and are able to act again. In both the sensitiveness +is either confined to one side or extends all round the +tendril. They are either attracted or repelled by the +light. The tips of the tendrils in these two plants +become, after contact, enlarged into disks, which are +at first adhesive by the secretion of some cement. +Tendrils of both kinds, soon after grasping a support, +contract spirally; they then increase greatly in +thickness and strength. When we add to these several +points of identity the fact of the petiole of the +Solanum jaspinoides assuming the most characteristic +feature of the axis, namely, a closed ring of +woody vessels, we can hardly avoid asking whether +the difference between foliar and axial organs can be +of so fundamental a nature as is generally supposed +to be the case.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1055">[1055]</span></p> + +<p>We have attempted to trace some of the stages in +the genesis of climbing plants. But, during the endless +fluctuations in the conditions of life to which +all organic beings have been exposed, it might have +been expected that some climbing plants would have +lost the habit of climbing. In the cases of certain +South African plants belonging to great twining +families, which in certain districts of their native +country never twine, but resume this habit when +cultivated in England, we have a case in point. In +the leaf-climbing Clematis flammula, and in the +tendril-bearing vine, we see no loss in the power of +climbing, but only a remnant of that revolving +power which is indispensable to all twiners, and is +so common, as well as so advantageous, to most climbers. +In Tecoma radicans, one of the Bignoniaceæ, +we see a last and doubtful trace of the revolving +power.</p> + +<p>With respect to the abortion of tendrils, certain +cultivated varieties of Cucurbita pepo have, according +to Naudin, either quite lost these organs or bear +semi-monstrous representatives of them. In my +limited experience I have met with only one instance +of their natural suppression, namely, in the common +bean. All the other species of Vicia, I believe, bear +tendrils; but the bean is stiff enough to support its +own stem, and in this species, at the end of the petiole +where a tendril ought to have arisen, a small pointed +filament is always present, about a third of an inch +in length, and which must be considered as the rudiment +of a tendril. This may be the more safely inferred, +because I have seen in young, unhealthy +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1056">[1056]</span>specimens of true tendril-bearing plants similar +rudiments. In the bean these filaments are variable +in shape, as is so frequently the case with all rudimentary +organs, being either cylindrical or foliaceous, +or deeply furrowed on the upper surface. It is +a rather curious little fact that many of these filaments +when foliaceous have dark-colored glands on +their lower surfaces, like those on the stipules, +which secrete a sweet fluid; so that these rudiments +have been feebly utilized.</p> + +<p>One other analogous case, though hypothetical, is +worth giving. Nearly all the species of Lathyrus +possess tendrils; but L. nissolia is destitute of them. +This plant has leaves which must have struck every +one who has noticed them with surprise, for they +are quite unlike those of all common papilionaceous +plants, and resemble those of a grass. In L. aphaca +the tendril, which is not highly developed (for it +is unbranched, and has no spontaneous revolving +power), replaces the leaves, the latter in function +being replaced by the large stipules. Now, if we +suppose the tendrils of L. aphaca to become flattened +and foliaceous, like the little rudimentary +tendrils of the bean, and the large stipules, not being +any longer wanted, to become at the same time reduced +in size, we should have the exact counterpart +of L. nissolia, and its curious leaves are at once rendered +intelligible to us.</p> + +<p>It may be added, as it will serve to sum up the +foregoing views on the origin of tendril-bearing +plants, that if these views be correct, L. nissolia must +be descended from a primordial spirally twining +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1057">[1057]</span>plant; that this became a leaf-climber; that first +part of the leaf and then the whole leaf became converted +into a tendril, with the stipules by compensation +greatly increased in size; that this tendril lost +its branches and became simple, then lost its revolving +power (in which state it would resemble the +tendril of the existing L. aphaca), and afterward +losing its prehensile power and becoming foliaceous +would no longer be called a tendril. In this +last stage (that of the existing L. nissolia) the +former tendril would reassume its original function +as a leaf, and its lately largely developed stipules, +being no longer wanted, would decrease in size. If +it be true that species become modified in the course +of ages, we may conclude that L. nissolia is the result +of a long series of changes, in some degree like +those just traced.</p> + +<p>The most interesting point in the natural history +of climbing plants is their diverse power of movement; +and this led one on to their study. The most +different organs—the stem, flower-peduncle, petiole, +midribs of the leaf or leaflets, and apparently aerial +roots—all possess this power.</p> + +<p>In the first place, the tendrils place themselves in +the proper position for action, standing, for instance, +in the Cobæa, vertically upward, with their +branches divergent and their hooks turned outward, +and with the young terminal shoot thrown on one +side; or, as in Clematis, the young leaves temporarily +curve themselves downward, so as to serve +as grapnels.</p> + +<p>Secondly, if the young shoot of a twining plant, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1058">[1058]</span>or of a tendril, be placed in an inclined position, it +soon bends upward, though completely secluded +from the light. The guiding stimulus to this movement +is no doubt the attraction of gravity, as Andrew +Knight showed to be the case with germinating +plants. If a succulent shoot of almost any plant be +placed in an inclined position in a glass of water in +the dark, the extremity will, in a few hours, bend +upward; and if the position of the shoot be then reversed, +the now downward bent shoot will reverse +its curvature; but if the stolon of a strawberry, +which has no tendency to grow upward, be thus +treated, it will curve downward in the direction of, +instead of in opposition to, the force of gravity. As +with the strawberry, so it is generally with the twining +shoots of the Hibbertia dentata, which climbs +laterally from bush to bush; for these shoots, when +bent downward, show little and sometimes no tendency +to curve upward.</p> + +<p>Thirdly, climbing plants, like other plants, bend +toward the light by a movement closely analogous +to that incurvation which causes them to revolve. +This similarity in the nature of the movement was +well seen when plants were kept in a room, and their +first movements in the morning toward the light and +their subsequent revolving movements were traced +on a bell glass. The movement of a revolving shoot, +and in some cases of a tendril, is retarded or accelerated +in traveling from or to the light. In a few +instances tendrils bend in a conspicuous manner toward +the dark. Many authors speak as if the movement +of a plant toward the light was as directly the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1059">[1059]</span>result of the evaporation or of the oxygenation of +the sap in the stem, as the elongation of a bar of +iron from an increase in its temperature. But, seeing +that tendrils are either attracted to or repelled +by the light, it is more probable that their movements +are only guided and stimulated by its action +in the same manner as they are guided by the force +of attraction toward the centre of gravity.</p> + +<p>Fourthly, we have in stems, petioles, flower-peduncles +and tendrils the spontaneous revolving movement +which depends on no outward stimulus, but is +contingent on the youth of the part and on its vigorous +health, which again, of course, depends on proper +temperature and the other conditions of life. This is, +perhaps, the most interesting of all the movements of +climbing plants because it is continuous. Very many +other plants exhibit spontaneous movements, but they +generally occur only once during the life of a plant, +as in the movements of the stamens and pistils, etc., +or at intervals of time, as in the so-called sleep of +plants.</p> + +<p>Fifthly, we have in the tendrils, whatever their +homological nature may be, in the petioles and tips +of the leaves of leaf-climbers, in the stem in one case +and apparently in the aerial roots of the vanilla, +movements—often rapid movements—from contact +with any body. Extremely slight pressure suffices +to cause the movement. These several organs, after +bending from a touch, become straight again, and +again bend when touched.</p> + +<p>Sixthly, and lastly, most tendrils, soon after clasping +a support, but not after a mere temporary curvature, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1060">[1060]</span>contract spirally. The stimulus from the act +of clasping some object seems to travel slowly down +the whole length of the tendril. Many tendrils, +moreover, ultimately contract spontaneously even if +they have caught no object; but this latter useless +movement occurs only after a considerable lapse of +time.</p> + +<p>We have seen how diversified are the movements +of climbing plants. These plants are numerous +enough to form a conspicuous feature in the vegetable +kingdom; every one has heard that this is the +case in tropical forests; but even in the thickets of +our temperate regions the number of kinds and of +individual plants is considerable, as will be found +by counting them. They belong to many and widely +different orders. To gain some crude idea of their +distribution in the vegetable series, I marked from +the lists given by Mohl and Palm (adding a few +myself, and a competent botanist, no doubt, could +add many more) all those families in <cite>Lindley’s +Vegetable Kingdom</cite>, which include plants in any +of our several subdivisions of twiners, leaf-climbers, +and tendril-bearers; and these (at least some of each +group) all have the power of spontaneously revolving. +Lindley divides Phanerogamic plants into +fifty-nine alliances; of these, no less than above half, +namely, thirty-five, include climbing plants according +to the above definition, hook and root-climbers +being excluded. To these a few Cryptogamic plants +must be added which climb by revolving. When +we reflect on this wide serial distribution of plants +having this power, and when we know that in some +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1061">[1061]</span>of the largest, well-defined orders, such as the Compositæ, +Rubiaceæ, Scrophulariaceæ, Liliaceæ, etc., +two or three genera alone, out of the host of genera +in each, have this power, the conclusion is forced on +our minds that the capacity of acquiring the revolving +power on which most climbers depend is inherent +though undeveloped in most every plant in +the vegetable kingdom.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-1061"> + FLOWER COLORATION<br> + —<span class="smcap">Alexander S. Wilson</span> +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">The Prophet-plant (Arnebia echioides) is a +native of Persia and Arabia, but has been introduced +and grows freely in gardens in England. +Its chief interest lies in its variable flowers, which +may fairly rank with those of the changeable Hibiscus +and other</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="verse indent10">“Plants divine and strange</div> + <div class="verse indent0">That every hour their blossoms change.”</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>The plant is about two feet in height, and somewhat +resembles a cowslip or an auricula. It belongs +to the natural order Boraginaceæ, and is nearly allied +to the lungwort, viper’s-bugloss, borage, and forget-me-not, +all of which exhibit color changes more or +less distinct. The various species of Myosotis, or +forget-me-not, are also called scorpion grasses, from +the upper flower-bearing portion of the stem being +curled on itself like a watch-spring. The cluster of +flowers, forming the inflorescence of Arnebia, develops +in same scorpioid fashion. There is a double +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1062">[1062]</span>row of flower buds on the curled stalk, and as this +gradually unwinds pair after pair of the flowers expand +in succession. In shape and color the individual +flowers are not unlike those of the primrose, +though rather smaller. When a flower first opens, +five conspicuous jet-black spots are seen upon the +yellow rim of the salver-shaped corolla. If the +flower be examined the following day, we are surprised +to discover that the black spots have vanished +as if by magic. The yellow of the corolla is also +much paler, and a little later on presents quite a +bleached and silvery appearance, the petals becoming +almost white. No sooner have the spots disappeared +from the first pair of flowers than a second +pair expand, and display their sable marks in bold +relief upon the yellow enamel of their petals. From +this time onward the inflorescence comprises both +kinds of flower, those but newly opened having the +five conspicuous spots, and the older ones on which +no spots are visible. From these dark spots—the so-called +finger-marks of Mahomet, Arnebia has received +its name—the Prophet-plant. Its flowers +seem bewitched, the change is so pronounced and +obvious; a day or two after unfolding they differ so +much from the newly opened ones beside them, that +were they growing on separate plants, we should at +once set them down as belonging to another species.</p> + +<p>This change of color gives rise to another interesting +peculiarity. If Arnebia be examined by daylight, +and again in the dim twilight, the observer is +struck by a remarkable circumstance. In broad daylight, +the golden spotted flowers at once arrest the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1063">[1063]</span>eye, while their paler companions are hardly observed. +The inflorescence owes by far the greater +part of its display to the younger flowers. In the +dusk this is entirely reversed; the conspicuousness +of the inflorescence now depends on the paler flowers, +and the others are so obscured that a second glance is +needed before they can be discerned. The relative +brilliancy of the two sets of flowers can also be tested +by gradually retiring from the plant, keeping the +eyes still fixed on the blossoms. At dusk the young +flowers are lost sight of much sooner than the others; +by day the older ones first disappear in the distance. +This peculiar transformation imparts to the inflorescence +of Arnebia a faint similitude of the pillar +of cloud by day and of fire by night—that celestial +manifestation of sacred story so closely associated +with the native region of this desert flower.</p> + +<p>Here, then, we have one of those phenomena which +for the naturalist possess all the fascination of a +mystery. What can be the explanation of this remarkable +change of color, and what advantage does +the flower derive from the sudden disappearance of +its spots and the blanching of its petals?</p> + +<p>With the reader’s permission, we shall now proceed +to show why nature has bestowed on Arnebia +what she has denied to the leopard—the power of +changing its spots. Before we can say why any +flower should change its color, we must first know +why a flower is colored at all, and why all flowers +are not colored alike. Almost all the peculiarities +of flowers can be explained as having reference to the +visits of insects. The honey is secreted as an inducement, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1064">[1064]</span>while the secret and brilliant colors serve to +attract the attention of the honey-gatherers. The +researches of the late Charles Darwin demonstrated +the importance of cross-fertilization in the vegetable +kingdom. Very many flowers are quite sterile with +their own pollen; in other cases, although the flower +has the capacity of self-fertilization, the resulting +seeds are of very inferior quality compared with +those obtained as a result of cross-fertilization. As +carriers of pollen, then, insects perform an essential +service to plants, and it is in order to secure their +services that flowers are brightly colored.</p> + +<p>For the variety of color observed among flowers +there appear to be two principal reasons. A little +reflection will show that, since flowers are so dependent +on insects for the conveyance of their pollen, +it must be to the advantage of each species of plant +to possess flowers distinctively colored and capable +of being easily recognized by honey-seeking insects. +A bee does not visit all flowers indiscriminately; it +would be greatly to the flowers’ disadvantage if it +did. In the course of a single journey the bee for the +most part restricts itself to the flowers of one species, +and has been known to visit as many as thirty dead-nettles +in succession, passing over all other flowers. +Time is saved by this method, for by keeping to one +kind of flower at a time the insect becomes familiar +with its outs and ins, and the practice thus acquired +enables it to overtake a larger number of blossoms +than it could if it did not observe this rule. This +constancy in visiting the same kind of flower is of +great importance to plants, since it ensures that the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1065">[1065]</span>pollen will be conveyed to a flower of the same species +as that from which it came. But if all flowers +were colored and perfumed alike, the winged botanist +could not identify the species; the pollen would +be constantly transferred to the stigmas of the wrong +flowers, where it would be useless, and so the work +of cross-fertilization would be seriously impeded.</p> + +<p>A second cause contributing to the variety observed +among flowers is the desirability of attracting special +kinds of insects. As we have just seen, an insect +does not visit all kinds of flowers indiscriminately; +neither, on the other hand, does a flower attract indiscriminately +all kinds of insects. Not only are injurious +and unprofitable visitors excluded, but the +more specialized insects are in greatest demand. +Partiality for particular insects is shown both by +the shapes and coloring of flowers. Open shallow +flowers, with exposed honey accessible to almost all +insects, have, as their most frequent visitors, short-lipped +flies and beetles. Many blossoms, again, have +become specially adapted to bees. Their honey is +placed beyond the reach of short-lipped fliers, and +requires the slender proboscis of a bee or butterfly +for its extraction. Honeysuckle, habenaria, plumbago, +phlox, and narcissus illustrate a third type, with +flower-tubes so narrow and deep that their nectar is +quite inaccessible even to bees, and is reserved entirely +for moths and butterflies, which possess an extremely +long and thin proboscis. There is a corresponding +adaptation in the colors; the gay tints of the buttercup, +poppy, and rose appear to have special attractions +for beetles; bees show a decided preference for +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1066">[1066]</span>blue, and this color predominates in flowers whose +shapes are adapted to their visits. Deep tubular +flowers specialized for Lepidoptera fall into two divisions, +according as they solicit the attentions of +diurnal butterflies or nocturnal moths. Red and +purple are the favorite colors of the former, while +nocturnal moths show a preference for white and +pale flowers. Thus the carnation and campion +(Lychnis diurna), which open by day, have dark +tints in comparison with Lychnis respertina, which +unfolds its petals toward evening. Almost scentless +by day, this white nocturnal flower diffuses a delicious +fragrance in the twilight. The evening primrose +(Ænothera), which, however, has yellow petals, is +another example of this class. But the most remarkable +plant of this type is the night-flowering stock +(Cereus). Its pale blossoms open about seven in +the evening, emit puffs of odor from time to time, +and close up again toward midnight; by morning the +flowers are withered. It is impossible to doubt that +we have in this instance a flower specialized for the +visits of nocturnal moths. The reason why nocturnal +flowers, like the honeysuckle and evening campion, +have pale-colored petals is not far to seek. +These pale hues can be more easily distinguished at +night than the red or purple of Dianthus or Githago. +Among lilies both diurnal and nocturnal flowers occur, +and clearly indicate by their colors to which +section of the Lepidoptera they are adapted. The +Turk’s-cap lily, with its perianth of fiery scarlet, +is a characteristic example of a diurnal flower +adapted to butterflies which wander abroad in daytime. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1067">[1067]</span>On the other hand, Lilium Martagon, an L. +candidum, with their white bells, are nocturnal lilies +fertilized by night-loving moths.</p> + +<p>Two flowers, unlike in their coloring, can hardly +be equally attractive to the same visitors, even if they +grow together on the same plant, as in the case of +Arnebia; the presumption, therefore, is that its +spotted and pale blossoms are adapted for different +insects. Moreover, the stronger colors of the younger +flowers correspond with those of the day-blooming +class, while the paler tints of those in the second stage +will render them more attractive to nocturnal moths; +and this view is strongly confirmed by the fact that +night-blooming flowers are never variegated, but +have their petals uniformly devoid of markings. By +night the dark spots tend, in this instance, to conceal +the blossoms so much that, if these are to be converted +into nocturnal flowers, the removal of the spots is absolutely +necessary. We may therefore conclude with +tolerable certainty that the flowers of Arnebia in +their first stage are adapted to bees and diurnal Lepidoptera, +while in their second condition they array +themselves in paler hues to attract nocturnal +moths.</p> + +<p>By the color change, in this instance, a diurnal is +converted into a nocturnal flower, and one advantage +thereby gained is that the blossoms appeal to a larger +class of fertilizing agents. The more restricted the +circle of visitors on which any plant depends the +greater the risk, in the event of insects being scarce, +of its flowers remaining unfertilized and perishing. +Here it would seem that Nature proceeds on the same +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1068">[1068]</span>principle as a fisherman in changing his bait. Like +some other variable blossoms, Arnebia is in the advantageous +position of carrying two strings to her +bow.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-1068"> + QUEER FLOWERS<br> + —<span class="smcap">Grant Allen</span> +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">If Baron Munchausen had ever in the course of +his travels come across a single flower one standard +British yard in diameter, fifteen pounds avoirdupois +in weight, and forming a cup big enough to +hold six quarts of water in its central hollow, it is +not improbable that the learned baron’s veracious +account of the new plant might have been met with +the same polite incredulity which his other adventures +shared with those of Bruce, Stanley, Mendez +Pinto, and Du Chaillu. Nevertheless, a big blossom +of this enormous size has been well known to botanists +ever since the beginning of the Nineteenth Century. +When Sir Stamford Raffles was taking care +of Sumatra during our temporary annexation, he +happened one day to light upon a gigantic parasite, +which grew on the stem of a prostrate creeper in the +densest part of the tropical jungle. It measured nine +feet round and three feet across: it had five large +petals with a central basin; and it was mottled red in +hue, being, in fact, in color and texture surprisingly +suggestive of raw beefsteak. One flower was open +when Sir Stamford came upon it: the other was in +the bud, and looked in that state extremely like a +very big red cabbage. Specimens of this surprising +find were at once forwarded to England, and it was +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1069">[1069]</span>at last duly labeled after the names of its two discoverers +as Rafflesia Arnoldi.</p> + +<p>The mere size of this mammoth among flowers +would in itself naturally suffice to give it a distinct +claim to respectful attention; but Rafflesia possesses +many other sterling qualities far more calculated +than simple bigness to endear it to a large and varied +circle of insect acquaintances. The oddest thing +about it, indeed, is the fact that it is a deliberately +deceptive and alluring blossom. As soon as it was +first discovered, Dr. Arnold noticed that it possessed +a very curious carrion smell, exactly like that of putrefying +meat. He also observed that this smell attracted +flies in large numbers by false pretences to +settle in the centre of the cup. But it is only of late +years that the real significance and connection of +these curious facts has come to be perceived. We +now know that Rafflesia is a flower which wickedly +and feloniously lays itself out to deceive the confiding +meat-flies and to starve their helpless infants +in the midst of apparent plenty. The majority of +legitimate flowers (if I may be allowed the expression) +get themselves decently fertilized by bees and +butterflies, who may be considered as representing +the regular trade, and who carry the fecundating pollen +on their heads and proboscises from one blossom +to another, while engaged in their usual business of +gathering honey every day from every opening +flower. But Rafflesia, on the contrary, has positively +acquired a fallacious external resemblance to raw +meat, and a decidedly high flavor, on purpose to take +in the too trustful Sumatran flies. When a fly sights +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1070">[1070]</span>and scents one, he (or rather she) proceeds at once +to settle in the cup, and there lay a number of eggs +in what it naturally regards as a very fine decaying +carcass. Then, having dusted itself over in the process +with plenty of pollen from this first flower, it +flies away confidingly to the next promising bud, in +search both of food for itself and of a fitting nursery +for its future little ones. In doing so, it of course +fertilizes all the blossoms that it visits, one after another, +by dusting them successively with each other’s +pollen. When the young grubs are hatched out, however, +they discover the base deception all too late, and +perish miserably in their fallacious bed, the hapless +victims of misplaced parental confidence. Even as +Zeuxis deceived the very birds with his painted +grapes, so Rafflesia deceives the flies themselves by +its ingenious mimicry of a putrid beefsteak. In the +fierce competition of tropical life, it has found out +by simple experience that dishonesty is the best +policy.</p> + +<p>The general principle which this strange flower +illustrates in so striking a fashion is just this. Most +common flowers have laid themselves out to attract +bees, and so a bee flower forms our human ideal of +central typical blossom: it looks, in short, we think, +as a flower ought to look. But there are some originally +minded and eccentric plants which have struck +out a line for themselves, and taken to attracting +sundry casual flies, wasps, midges, beetles, snails, or +even birds, which take the place of bees as their regular +fertilizers; and it is these Bohemians of the vegetable +world that make up what we all consider as the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1071">[1071]</span>queerest and most singular of all flowers. They +adapt their appearance and structure to the particular +tastes and habits of their chosen guests.</p> + +<p>Most of the flowers specially affected by carrion +flies have a lurid red color and a distinct smell of +bad meat. Few of them, however, are quite so cruel +in their habits as Rafflesia. For the most part, they +attract the insects by their appearance and odor, but +reward their services with a little honey and other +allurements. This is the case with the curious English +fly-orchid, whose dull purple lip is covered +with tiny drops of nectar, licked off by the fertilizing +flies. The very malodorous carrion-flowers (or +stapelias) are visited by blue-bottles and flesh-flies, +while an allied form actually sets a trap for the fly’s +proboscis, which catches the insect by its hairs, and +compels him to give a sharp pull in order to free +himself: this pull dislodges the pollen, and so secures +cross-fertilization. The Alpine butterwort sets a +somewhat similar gin so vigorously that when a weak +fly is caught in it he can not disengage himself, and +there perishes wretchedly, like a hawk in a keeper’s +trap.</p> + +<p>The south European birthwort, a very lurid-looking +and fly-enticing flower, has a sort of cornucopia-shaped +tube, lined with long hairs, which all +point inward, and so allow small midges to creep +down readily enough, after the fashion of an eel-buck +or lobster-pot. “<span lang="la">Sed revocare gradum, superasque +evadere ad auras</span>”—to get out again is the great +difficulty. Try as they will, the little prisoners can +not crawl back upward against the downward-pointing +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1072">[1072]</span>hairs. Accordingly, they are forced by circumstances +over which they have no control to walk +aimlessly up and down their prison yard, fertilizing +the little knobby surface of the seed-vessel from another +flower. But as soon as the seeds are all impregnated, +the stamens begin to shed their pollen, +and dust over the gnats with copious powder. Then +the hairs all wither up, and the gnats, released from +their lobster-pot prison, fly away once more on the +same fool’s errand. Before doing so, however, they +make a good meal off the pollen that covers the floor, +though they still carry away a great many grains on +their own wings and bodies.</p> + +<p>A very similar but much larger fly-cage is set by +our common wild arum, or cuckoo-pint. This familiar +big spring flower exhales a disagreeable fleshy +odor, which, by its meat-like flavor, attracts a tiny +midge with beautiful iridescent wings and a very +poetical name, Psychoda. As in most other cases +where flies are specially invited, the color of the +cuckoo-pint is usually a dull and somewhat livid +purple. A palisade of hairs closes the neck of the +funnel-shaped blossom, and repeats the lobster-pot +tactics of the entirely unconnected south European +birthwort. The little flies, entering by this narrow +and stockaded door, fertilize the future red berries +with pollen brought from their last prison, and are +then rewarded for their pains by a tiny drop of honey, +which slowly oozes from the middle of each embryo +fruitlet as soon as it is duly impregnated. Afterward, +the pollen is shed upon their backs by the +bursting of the pollen-bag; the hairs wither up, and +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1073">[1073]</span>open the previously barricaded exit, and the midges +issue forth in search of a new prison and a second +drop of honey.</p> + +<p>From plants that imprison insects to plants that +devour insects alive is a natural transition. The +giant who keeps a dungeon is first cousin to the ogre +who swallows down his captives entire. And yet the +subject is really too serious a one for jesting; there +is something too awful and appalling in this contest +of the unconscious and insentient with the living and +feeling, of a lower vegetative form of life with a +higher animated form, that it always makes me shudder +slightly to think of it.</p> + +<p>On most English peaty patches there grows a little +reddish-leaved odd-looking plant known as sundew. +It is but an inconspicuous small weed, and yet literary +and scientific honors have been heaped upon +its head to an extent almost unknown in the case of +any other member of the British floral commonwealth. +Mr. Swinburne has addressed an ode to it, +and Mr. Darwin has written a learned book about it. +Its portrait has been sketched by innumerable artists, +and its biography narrated by innumerable authors. +And all this attention has been showered upon it, not +because it is beautiful, or good, or modest, or retiring, +but simply and solely because it is atrociously +and deliberately wicked. Sundew, in fact, is the +best known and most easily accessible of the carnivorous +and insectivorous plants.</p> + +<p>The leaf of the sundew is round and flat, and it is +covered by a number of small red glands, which act +as the attractive advertisement to the misguided +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1074">[1074]</span>midges. Their knobby ends are covered with a glutinous +secretion, which glistens like honey in the sunlight, +and so gains for the plant its common English +name. But the moment a hapless fly, attracted by +hopes of meat or nectar, settles quietly in its midst, on +hospitable thoughts intent, the viscid liquid holds +him tight immediately, and clogs his legs and wings, +so that he is snared exactly as a peregrine is snared +with bird-lime. Then the leaf, with all its “red-lipped +mouths,” closes over him slowly but surely, +and crushes him by folding its edges inward gradually +toward the centre. The fly often lingers long +with ineffectual struggles, while the cruel crawling +leaf pours forth a digestive fluid—a vegetable gastric +juice, as it were—and dissolves him alive piecemeal +in its hundred clutching suckers.</p> + +<p>Our little English insectivorous plants, however +(we have at least five or six such species in our own +islands), are mere clumsy bunglers compared to the +great and highly developed insect-eaters of the +tropics, which stand to them in somewhat the same +relation as the Bengal tiger stands to the British wildcat +or the skulking weasel. The Indian pitcher-plants +or Nepenthes bear big pitchers of very classical +shapes, closed in the early state with a lid, which lifts +itself and opens the pitcher as soon as the plant has +fully completed its insecticidal arrangements. The +details of the trap vary somewhat in the different species, +but as a whole the <i lang="la">modus operandi</i> of the plant +is somewhat after this atrocious fashion. The pitcher +contains a quantity of liquid, that of the sort appropriately +known as the Rajah holding as much as a +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1075">[1075]</span>quart; and the insect, attracted in most cases by some +bright color, crawls down the sticky side, quaffs the +unkind Nepenthe, and forgets his troubles forthwith +in the vat of oblivion prepared for him beneath by +the delusive vase. A slimy Lethe flows over his dissolving +corse, and the relentless pitcher-plant sucks +his juices to supply his own fibres with the necessary +nitrogenous materials.</p> + +<p>The California pitcher-plant, or Darlingtonia, is +a member of a totally distinct family, which has independently +hit upon the same device in the Western +world as the Indian Nepenthes in the Eastern Hemisphere. +The pitcher in this case, though differently +produced, is hooded and lidded like its Oriental analogue; +but the inside of the hood is furnished with +short hairs, all pointing inward, and legibly inscribed +(to the botanical eye) with the appropriate motto: +“Vestigia nulla retrorsum.” The whole arrangement +is colored dingy orange, so as to attract the attention +of flies; and it contains a viscid digestive fluid in +which the flies are first drowned and then slowly +melted and assimilated. The pitchers are often +found half full of dead and decaying assorted insects.</p> + +<p>There are a great many more of these highly developed +insect-eaters, such as the Guiana heliamphora +(more classical shapes), the Australian cephalotus, +and the American side-saddle flowers, and they +all without exception grow in very wet and boggy +places, like the English sundews, butterworts, and +bladderworts. The reason so many marsh plants +have taken to these strange insect-eating habits is +simply that their roots are often badly supplied with +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1076">[1076]</span>manure or ammonia in any form; and, as no plant +can get on without these necessaries of life (in the +strictest sense), only those marshy weeds have any +chance of surviving which can make up in one way +or another for the native deficiencies of their situation. +The sundews show us, as it were, the first stage +in the acquisition of these murderous habits; the +pitcher-plants are the abandoned ruffians which have +survived among all their competitors in virtue of +their exceptional ruthlessness and deceptive coloration. +I ought to add that in all cases the pitchers +are not flowers, but highly modified and altered +leaves, though in many instances they are quite as +beautifully colored as the largest and handsomest +exotic orchids.</p> + +<p>The principle of Venus’s Fly-trap is somewhat different, +though its practice is equally nefarious. This +curious marsh-plant, instead of setting hocussed +bowls of liquid for its victims, like a Florentine of +the Fourteenth Century, lays a regular gin or snare +for them on the same plan as a common snapping rat-trap. +The end of the leaf is divided into two folding +halves by the midrib, and on each half are three or +five highly sensitive hairs. The moment one of these +hairs is touched by a fly, the two halves come together, +inclosing the luckless insect between them. +As if on purpose to complete the resemblance to a +rat-trap, too, the edges of the leaf are formed of +prickly jagged teeth, which fit in between one another +when the gin shuts, and so effectually cut off the insect’s +retreat. The plant then sucks up the juices of +the fly; and as soon as it has fully digested them, the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1077">[1077]</span>leaf opens automatically once more, and resets the +trap for another victim. It is an interesting fact that +this remarkable insectivore appears to be still a new +and struggling species, or else an old type on the very +point of extinction, for it is only found in a few bogs +over a very small area in the neighborhood of Wilmington, +South California.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-1077"> + ATHENA IN THE EARTH<br> + —<span class="smcap">John Ruskin</span> +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">The spirit in the plant—that is to say, its power +of gathering dead matter out of the wreck +round it, and shaping it into its own chosen shape—is, +of course, strongest at the moment of its flowering, +for it then not only gathers, but forms, with the greatest +energy.</p> + +<p>And where this life is in it at full power, its form +becomes invested with aspects that are chiefly delightful +to our own human passions; namely, first, +with the loveliest outlines of shape; and, secondly, +with the most brilliant phases of the primary colors, +blue, yellow, and red or white, the unison of all; +and, to make it all more strange, this time of peculiar +and perfect glory is associated with relations of the +plants or blossoms to each other, correspondent to +the joy of love in human creatures, and having the +same object in the continuance of the race. Only, +with respect to plants, as animals, we are wrong in +speaking as if the object of this strong life were +only the bequeathing of itself. The flower is the +end or proper object of the seed, not the seed of the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1078">[1078]</span>flower. The reason for seeds is that flowers may be; +not the reason of flowers that seeds may be. The +flower itself is the creature which the spirit makes; +only, in connection with its perfectness, is placed the +giving birth to its successor.</p> + +<p>The main fact, then, about a flower is that it is the +part of the plant’s form developed at the moment +of its intensest life: and this inner rapture is usually +marked externally for us by the flush of one or more +of the primary colors. What the character of the +flower shall be depends entirely upon the portion +of the plant into which this rapture of spirit has +been put. Sometimes the life is put into its outer +sheath, and then the outer sheath becomes white and +pure, and full of strength and grace; sometimes the +life is put into the common leaves, just under the +blossom, and they become scarlet or purple; sometimes +the life is put into the stalks of the flower, +and they flush blue; sometimes in its outer inclosure +or calyx; mostly into its inner cup; but, in all cases, +the presence of the strongest life is asserted by +characters in which the human sight takes pleasure, +and which seemed prepared with distinct reference +to us, or rather, bear, in being delightful, evidence +of having been produced by the power of the same +spirit as our own.</p> + +<p>With the early serpent-worship there was associated +another—that of the groves—of which you +will find the evidence exhaustively collected in +Mr. Fergusson’s work. This tree-worship may have +taken a dark form when associated with the Draconian +one; or opposed, as in Judea, to a purer faith; +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1079">[1079]</span>but in itself, I believe, it was always healthy, and +though it retains little definite hieroglyphic power +in subsequent religion, it becomes, instead of symbolic, +real; the flowers and trees are themselves beheld +and beloved with a half-worshiping delight, +which is always noble and healthful.</p> + +<p>And it is among the most notable indications of +the volition of the animating power that we find the +ethical signs of good and evil set on these also, as +well as upon animals; the venom of the serpent, and +in some respects its image also, being associated even +with the passionless growth of the leaf out of the +ground; while the distinctions of species seem appointed +with more definite ethical address to the intelligence +of man as their material products become +more useful to him.</p> + +<p>I can easily show this and, at the same time, make +clear the relation to other plants of the flowers +which especially belong to Athena, by examining +the natural myths in the groups of the plants which +would be used at any country dinner over which +Athena would, in her simplest household authority, +cheerfully rule, here, in England. Suppose Horace’s +favorite dish of beans with the bacon; potatoes; +some savory stuffing of onions and herbs with the +meat; celery, and a radish or two, with the cheese; +nuts and apples for dessert, and brown bread. The +beans are, from earliest time, the most important +and interesting of the seeds of the great tribe of +plants from which came the Latin and French name +for all kitchen vegetables—things that are gathered +with the hand—podded seeds that can not be reaped, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1080">[1080]</span>or beaten, or shaken down, but must be gathered +green. “Leguminous” plants, all of them having +flowers like butterflies, seeds in (frequently pendent) +pods—“lætum silique quassante legumen”—smooth +and tender leaves, divided into many minor ones—strange +adjuncts of tendril, for climbing (and sometimes +of thorn)—exquisitely sweet, yet pure, scents +of blossom, and almost always harmless, if not serviceable +seeds. It is of all tribes of plants the most +definite; its blossoms being entirely limited in their +parts, and not passing into other forms. It is also +the most usefully extended in range and scale; familiar +in the height of the forest—acacia, laburnum, +Judas-tree; familiar in the sown field—bean and +vetch and pea; familiar in the pasture—in every +form of clustered clover and sweet trefoil tracery; +the most entirely serviceable and human of all orders +of plants.</p> + +<p>Next, in the potato, we have the scarcely innocent +underground stem of one of a tribe set aside for +evil;⁠<a id="FNanchor_6_6" href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> having the deadly nightshade for its queen, +and including the henbane, the witch’s mandrake, +and the worst natural curse of modern civilization—tobacco. +And the strange thing about this tribe is +that, though thus set aside for evil, they are not a +group distinctly separate from those that are happier +in function. There is nothing in other tribes of +plants like the bean blossom; but there is another +family with forms and structure closely connected +with this venomous one. Examine the purple and +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1081">[1081]</span>yellow bloom of the common hedge nightshade; +you will find it constructed exactly like some of the +forms of the cyclamen; and, getting this clew, you +will find at last the whole poisonous and terrible +group to be—sisters of the primulas!</p> + +<p>The nightshades are, in fact, primroses with a +curse upon them; and a sign set in their petals by +which the deadly and condemned flowers may always +be known from the innocent ones—that the +stamens of the nightshades are between the lobes, +and of the primulas, opposite the lobes of the +corolla.</p> + +<p>Next, side by side, in the celery and radish, you +have the two great groups of umbelled and cruciferous +plants; alike in conditions of rank among +herbs: both flowering in clusters; but the umbelled +group, flat, the crucifers, in spires: both of them +mean and poor in blossom, and losing what beauty +they have by too close crowding; both of them having +the most curious influence on human character +in the temperate zones of the earth, from the days +of the parsley crown and hemlock drink, and +mocked Euripidean chervil, until now: but chiefly +among the northern nations, being especially plants +that are of some humble beauty, and (the crucifers) +of endless use, when they are chosen and cultivated; +but that run to wild waste, and are signs of neglected +ground, in their rank or ragged leaves, and meagre +stalks, and pursed or podded seed-clusters. Capable, +even under cultivation, of no perfect beauty, though +reaching some subdued delightfulness in the lady’s +smock and the wall-flower; for the most part, they +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1082">[1082]</span>have every floral quality meanly, and in vain—they +are white, without purity; golden, without preciousness; +redundant, without richness; divided, without +fineness; massive, without strength; and slender, +without grace. Yet think over that useful vulgarity +of theirs; and of the relations of German and English +peasant character to its food of kraut and +cabbage (as of Arab character to its food of palm-fruit), +and you will begin to feel what purposes of +the forming spirit are in these distinctions of species.</p> + +<p>Next we take the nuts and apples—the nuts representing +one of the groups of catkined trees whose +blossoms are only tufts and dust; and the other, the +rose tribe, in which fruit and flower alike have been +the types, to the highest races of men, of all passionate +temptation or pure delight, from the coveting +of Eve to the crowning of the Madonna above the</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry" lang="it"> + <div class="verse indent12">“Rosa sempiterna</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Che si dilata, rigrada, e ridole</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Odor di lode al Sol.”</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>We have now no time for these; we must go on to +the humblest group of all, yet the most wonderful, +that of the grass, which has given us our bread; and +from that we will go back to the herbs.</p> + +<p>The vast family of plants which, under rain, make +the earth green for man; and, under sunshine, give +him bread; and, in their springing in the early year, +mixed with their native flowers, have given us (far +more than the new leaves of trees) the thought and +word of “spring,” divide themselves broadly into +three great groups—the grasses, sedges, and rushes. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1083">[1083]</span>The grasses are essentially a clothing for healthy and +pure ground, watered by occasional rain, but in itself +dry and fit for all cultivated pasture and corn. +They are distinctively plants with round and pointed +stems, which have long, green, flexible leaves, and +heads of seed independently emerging from them. +The sedges are essentially the clothing of waste and +more or less poor or uncultivable soils, coarse in +their structure, frequently triangular in stem—hence +called “acute” by Virgil—and with their heads of +seed not extricated from their leaves. Now, in both +the sedges and grasses, the blossom has a common +structure, though undeveloped in the sedges, but +composed always of groups of double husks, which +have mostly a spinous process in the centre, sometimes +projecting into a long awn or beard; this central +process being characteristic also of the ordinary +leaves of mosses, as if a moss were a kind of ear of +corn made permanently green on the ground, and +with a new and distinct fructification. But the +rushes differ wholly from the sedge and grass in +their blossom structure. It is not a dual cluster, but a +twice threefold one, so far separate from the grasses +and so closely connected with a higher order of +plants that I think you will find it convenient to +group the rushes at once with that higher order, to +which, if you will for the present let me give the +general name of Drosidæ, or dew-plants, it will enable +me to say what I have to say of them much more +shortly and clearly.</p> + +<p>These Drosidæ, then, are plants delighting in interrupted +moisture—moisture which comes either +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1084">[1084]</span>partially or at certain seasons—into dry ground. +They are not water-plants; but the signs of water +resting among dry places. Many of the true water-plants +have triple blossoms, with a small triple calyx +holding them; in the Drosidæ, the floral spirit passes +into the calyx also, and the entire flower becomes a +six-rayed star, bursting out of the stem laterally, as +if it were the first of flowers, and had made its way +to the light by force through the unwilling green. +They are often required to retain moisture or nourishment +for the future blossom through long times +of drought; and this they do in bulbs under ground, +of which some become a rude and simple, but most +wholesome, food for man.</p> + +<p>So now, observe, you are to divide the whole +family of the herbs of the field into three great +groups—Drosidæ, Carices, Gramineæ—dew-plants, +sedges, and grasses. Then the Drosidæ are divided +into five great orders—lilies, asphodels, amaryllids, +irids, and rushes. No tribes of flowers have had so +great, so varied, or so healthy an influence on man as +this great group of Drosidæ, depending not so much +on the whiteness of some of their blossoms, or the radiance +of others, as on the strength and delicacy of the +substance of their petals; enabling them to take forms +of faultless elastic curvature, either in cups, as the +crocus, or expanding bells, as the true lily, or heath-like +bells, as the hyacinth, or bright and perfect +stars, like the star of Bethlehem, or, when they are +affected by the strange reflex of the serpent nature +which forms the labiate group of all flowers, closing +into forms of exquisitely fantastic symmetry in +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1085">[1085]</span>the gladiolus. Put by their side their Nereid sisters, +the water-lilies, and you have in them the origin of +the loveliest forms of ornamental design and the +most powerful floral myths yet recognized among +human spirits, born by the streams of the Ganges, +Nile, Arno, and Avon.</p> + +<p>For consider a little what each of those five tribes +has been to the spirit of man. First, in their nobleness: +the lilies gave the lily of the Annunciation; +the asphodels, the flower of the Elysian fields; the +irids, the fleur-de-lys of chivalry; and the amaryllids, +Christ’s lily of the field; while the rush, trodden +always underfoot, became the emblem of humility. +Then take each of the tribes, and consider the extent +of their lower influence. Perdita’s, “The crown +imperial, lilies of all kinds,” are the first tribe; +which giving the type of perfect purity in the Madonna’s +lily, have, by their lovely form, influenced +the entire decorative design of Italian sacred art; +while ornament of war was continually enriched by +the curves of the triple petals of the Florentine +“giglio” and French fleur-de-lys; so that it is impossible +to count their influence for good in the Middle +Ages, partly as a symbol of womanly character +and partly of the utmost brightness and refinement +of chivalry in the city which was the flower of cities.</p> + +<p>Afterward the group of the turban-lilies, or tulips, +did some mischief (their special stains having made +them the favorite caprice of florists); but they may +be pardoned all such guilt for the pleasure they have +given in cottage-gardens, and are yet to give, when +lowly life may again be possible among us; and +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1086">[1086]</span>the crimson bars of the tulips in their trim beds, with +their likeness in crimson bars of morning above them, +and its dew glittering heavy, globed in their glossy +cups, may be loved better than the gray nettles of +the ash heap, under gray sky, unveined by vermilion +or by gold.</p> + +<p>The next great group of the asphodels divides itself +also into two principal families: one, in which +the flowers are like stars, and clustered characteristically +in balls, though opening sometimes into +looser heads; and the other, in which the flowers +are in long bells, opening suddenly at the lips, and +clustered in spires on a long stem, or drooping +from it when bent by their weight.</p> + +<p>The star group of the squills, garlics, and onions +has always caused me great wonder. I can not understand +why its beauty and serviceableness should have +been associated with the rank scent which has been +really among the most powerful means of degrading +peasant life, and separating it from that of the +higher classes.</p> + +<p>The belled group of the hyacinth and convallaria +is as delicate as the other is coarse; the unspeakable +azure light along the ground of the wood +hyacinth in English spring; the grape hyacinth, +which is in south France, as if a cluster of grapes +and a hive of honey had been distilled and compressed +together into one small boss of celled and +beaded blue; the lilies of the valley everywhere, in +each sweet and wild recess of rocky land—count the +influences of these on childish and innocent life; +then measure the mythic power of the hyacinth and +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1087">[1087]</span>asphodel as connected with Greek thoughts of immortality; +finally take their useful and nourishing +power in ancient and modern peasant life, and it +will be strange if you do not feel what fixed relation +exists between the agency of the creating spirit in +these and in us who live by them.</p> + +<p>It is impossible to bring into any tenable compass +for our present purpose even hints of the +human influence of the amaryllids and irids—only +note this generally, that while these in northern +countries share with the Primulas the fields of +spring, it seems that in Greece the Primulaceæ are +not an extended tribe, while the crocus, narcissus, +and Amaryllis lutea, the “lily of the field” (I suspect +also that the flower whose name we translate “violet” +was in truth an iris), represented to the Greek the +first coming of the breath of life on the renewed +herbage; and became in his thoughts the true embroidery +of the saffron robe of Athena. Later in the +year, the dianthus (which, though belonging to an +entirely different race of plants, has yet a strange +look of having been made out of the grasses by turning +the sheath-membrane at the root of their leaves +into a flower) seems to scatter, in multitudinous +families, its crimson stars far and wide. But the +golden lily and crocus, together with the asphodel, +retain always the old Greek’s fondest thoughts—they +are only “golden” flowers that are to burn on the +trees and float on the streams of paradise.</p> + +<p>I have but one tribe of plants more to note at our +country feast—the savory herbs; but must go a little +out of my way to come at them rightly. All +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1088">[1088]</span>flowers whose petals are fastened together, and most +of those whose petals are loose, are best thought of +first as a kind of cup or tube opening at the mouth. +Sometimes the opening is gradual, as in the convolvulus +or campanula; oftener there is a distinct +change of direction between the tube and expanding +lip, as in the primrose; or even a contraction under +the lip, making the tube into a narrow-necked +phial or vase, as in the heaths, but the general idea +of a tube expanding into a quatrefoil, cinquefoil, or +sixfoil, will embrace most of the forms.</p> + +<p>Now it is easy to conceive that flowers of this kind, +growing in close clusters, may, in process of time, +have extended their outside petals rather than +the interior ones (as the outer flowers of the clusters +of many umbellifers actually do), and thus +elongated and variously distorted forms have established +themselves; then if the stalk is attached to +the side instead of the base of the tube, its base becomes +a spur, and thus all the grotesque forms of +the mints, violets, and larkspurs gradually might be +composed. But, however this may be, there is one +great tribe of plants separate from the rest, and of +which the influence seems shed upon the rest in +different degrees: and these would give the impression +not so much of having been developed by +change as of being stamped with a character of +their own, more or less serpentine or dragon-like. +And I think you will find it convenient to call these +generally Draconidæ; disregarding their present +ugly botanical name, which I do not care even to +write once—you may take for their principal types +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1089">[1089]</span>the foxglove, snap-dragon, and calceolaria; and +you will find they all agree in a tendency to decorate +themselves by spots, and with bosses or swollen +places in their leaves, as if they had been touched +by poison. The spot of the foxglove is especially +strange, because it draws the color out of the tissue +all round it, as if it had been stung, and as if the central +color was really an inflamed spot with paleness +round. Then also they carry to its extreme the decoration +by bulging or pouting the petal; often +beautifully used by other flowers in a minor degree, +like the beating out of bosses in hollow silver, as in +the kalmia, beating out apparently in each petal +by the stamens instead of a hammer; or the borage, +pouting inward; but the snap-dragons and calceolarias +carry it to its extreme.</p> + +<p>Then the spirit of these Draconidæ seems to pass +more or less into other flowers, whose forms are +properly pure vases; but it affects some of them +slightly, others not at all. It never strongly affects +the heaths; never once the roses; but it enters like an +evil spirit into the buttercup, and turns it into a +larkspur, with a black, spotted, grotesque centre, and +a strange, broken blue, gorgeous and intense; yet impure, +glittering on the surface as if it were strewn +with broken glass, and stained or darkened irregularly +into red. And then at last the serpent-charm +changes the ranunculus into monkshood, and makes +it poisonous. It enters into the forget-me-not, and +the star of heavenly turquoise is corrupted into the +viper’s bugloss, darkened with the same strange red +as the larkspur, and fretted into a fringe of thorn; +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1090">[1090]</span>it enters, together with a strange insect-spirit, into +the asphodels, and (though with a greater interval +between the groups), they change into spotted +orchideæ; it touches the poppy, it becomes a fumaria; +the iris, and it pouts into a gladiolus; the lily, +and it checkers itself into a snake’s head, and secretes +in the deep of its bell drops not of venom indeed, +but honey-dew, as if it were a healing serpent. For +there is an Æsculapian as well as an evil serpentry +among the Draconidæ, and the fairest of them, “erba +della Madonna” of Venice (Linaria Cymbalaria), +descends from the ruins it delights in to the herbage +at their feet, and touches it; and behold, instantly, +a vast group of herbs for healing—all draconid in +form—spotted and crested, and from their lip-like +corollas named “labitæ”; full of various balm and +warm strength for healing, yet all of them without +splendid honor or perfect beauty, “ground ivies,” +richest when crushed under the foot; the best sweetness +and gentle brightness of the robes of the field—thyme, +and marjoram, and euphrasy.</p> + +<p>And observe, again and again, with respect to all +these divisions and powers of plants; it does not matter +in the least by what concurrences of circumstance +or necessity they may gradually have been developed: +the concurrence of circumstance is itself the supreme +and inexplicable fact. We always come at last to a +formative cause which directs the circumstance and +mode of meeting it. If you ask an ordinary botanist +the reason of the form of a leaf, he will tell you it is +a “developed tubercle,” and that its ultimate form +“is owing to the directions of its vascular threads.” +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1091">[1091]</span>But what directs its vascular threads? “They are +seeking for something they want,” he will probably +answer. What made them want that? What made +them seek for it thus? Seek for it, in five fibres or +in three? Seek for it, in serration, or in sweeping +curves? Seek for it, in servile tendrils, or impetuous +spray? Seek for it, in woolen wrinkles +rough with stings, or in glossy surfaces, green with +pure strength, and winterless delight?</p> + +<p>There is no answer. But the sum of all is, that +over the entire surface of the earth and its waters, +as influenced by the power of the air under solar +light, there is developed a series of changing forms, +in clouds, plants, and animals, all of which have reference +in their action, or nature, to the human intelligence +that perceives them; and on which, in their +aspects of horror and beauty, and their qualities of +good and evil, there is engraved a series of myths, or +words of the forming power, which, according to +the true passion and energy of the human race, they +have been enabled to read into religion.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-1091"> + PROGRESS OF CULTIVATION<br> + —<span class="smcap">Alphonse de Candolle</span> +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">In spite of the obscurity of the beginnings of cultivation +in each region, it is certain that they occurred +at very different periods. One of the most +ancient examples of cultivated plants is in a drawing +representing figs, found in Egypt in the pyramid of +Gizeh. The epoch of the construction of this monument +is uncertain. Authors have assigned a date +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1092">[1092]</span>varying between fifteen hundred and four thousand +two hundred years before the Christian era. Supposing +it to be two thousand years, its actual age +would be four thousand years. Now, the construction +of the pyramids could only have been the work +of a numerous, organized people, possessing a certain +degree of civilization, and consequently an established +agriculture, dating from some centuries back +at least. In China, two thousand seven hundred years +before Christ, the Emperor Chenming instituted the +ceremony at which every year five species of useful +plants are sown—rice, sweet potato, wheat, and two +kinds of millet. These plants must have been cultivated +for some time in certain localities before they +attracted the emperor’s attention to such a degree. +Agriculture appears then to be as ancient in China +as in Egypt. The constant relations between Egypt +and Mesopotamia lead us to suppose that an almost +contemporaneous cultivation existed in the valleys of +the Euphrates and the Nile. And it may have been +equally early in India and in the Malay Archipelago. +The history of the Dravidian and Malay peoples +does not reach far back, and is sufficiently obscure, +but there is no reason to believe that cultivation has +not been known among them for a very long time, +particularly along the banks of the rivers.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="i_252" style="max-width: 50em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/i_252.jpg" alt="Drawings of various cereals"> + <figcaption class="caption"> + Common Cereals and Food Plants<br> +<p class="fs60"> + 1, Lentil; 2, Flax; 3, Barley; 4, Millet; 5, Rye</p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The ancient Egyptians and the Phœnicians propagated +many plants in the region of the Mediterranean, +and the Aryan nations, whose migrations toward +Europe began about 2500, or at least 2000 years +<span class="allsmcap">B. C.</span>, carried with them several species already cultivated +in Western Asia. We shall see, in studying the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1093">[1093]</span>history of several species, that some plants were probably +cultivated in Europe and in the north of Africa +prior to the Aryan migration. This is shown by +names in languages more ancient than the Aryan +tongues; for instance, Finn, Basque, Berber, and the +speech of the Guanchos of the Canary Isles. However, +the remains called kitchen-middens, of ancient +Danish dwellings, have hitherto furnished no proof +of cultivation or any indication of the possession of +metal. The Scandinavians of that period lived principally +by fishing and hunting, and perhaps eked out +their subsistence by indigenous plants, such as the +cabbage, the nature of which does not admit any remnant +of traces in the dung-heaps and rubbish, and +which, moreover, did not require cultivation. The +absence of metals does not in these northern countries +argue a greater antiquity than the age of Pericles, or +even the palmy days of the Roman Republic. Later, +when bronze was known in Sweden—a region far +removed from the then civilized countries—agriculture +had at length been introduced. Among the remains +of that epoch was found a carving of a cart +drawn by two oxen and driven by a man.</p> + +<p>The ancient inhabitants of Eastern Switzerland, at +a time when they possessed instruments of polished +stone and no metals, cultivated several plants, of +which some were of Asiatic origin. Heer has shown +in his admirable work on the lake-dwellings that the +inhabitants had intercourse with the countries south +of the Alps. They may also have received plants +cultivated by the Ibernians, who occupied Gaul before +the Kelts. At the period when the lake-dwellers +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1094">[1094]</span>of Switzerland and Savoy possessed bronze, their +agriculture was more varied. It seems that the lake-dwellers +of Italy, when in possession of this metal, +cultivated fewer species than those of Savoy, and this +may be due either to a greater antiquity, or to local +circumstances. The remains of the lake-dwellers of +Laybach and of the Mondsee in Austria prove likewise +a completely primitive agriculture; no cereals +have been found at Laybach, and but a single grain +of wheat at the Mondsee. The backward condition +of agriculture in this eastern part of Europe is contrary +to the hypothesis, based on a few words used by +ancient historians, that the Aryans sojourned first in +the region of the Danube, and that Thrace was civilized +before Greece. In spite of this example, agriculture +seems in general to have been more ancient +in the temperate parts of Europe than we should be +inclined to believe from the Greeks, who were disposed, +like certain modern writers, to attribute the +origin of all progress to their own nation.</p> + +<p>In America, agriculture is perhaps not quite so +ancient as in Asia and Egypt, if we are to judge from +the civilization of Mexico and Peru, which does not +date even from the first centuries of the Christian +era. However, the widespread cultivation of certain +plants, such as maize, tobacco, and the sweet potato, +argues a considerable antiquity, perhaps two thousand +years or thereabout. History is at fault in this +matter, and we can only hope to be enlightened by the +discoveries of archæology and geology.</p> + +<p>The greater number of ancient historians have confused +the fact of a cultivation of a species in a country +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1095">[1095]</span>with that of its previous existence there in a wild +state. It has been commonly asserted, even in our +own day, that a species cultivated in America or +China is a native of America or China. A no less +common error is the belief that a species comes originally +from a given country because it has come to us +from thence, and not direct from the place in which it +is really indigenous. Thus the Greeks and Romans +called the peach the Persian apple, because they had +seen it cultivated in Persia, where it probably did not +grow wild. It was a native of China. They called +the pomegranate, which had spread gradually from +garden to garden from Persia to Mauritania, the +apple of Carthage (Malum Punicum). Very ancient +authors, such as Herodotus and Berosus, are +yet more liable to error, in spite of their desire to be +accurate.</p> + +<p>Agriculture came originally, at least so far as +the principal species are concerned, from three +great regions, in which certain plants grew, regions +which had no communication with each +other. These are: China, the southwest of +Asia (with Egypt), and intertropical America. +I do not mean to say that in Europe, in Africa, +and elsewhere savage tribes may not have cultivated +a few species locally, at an early epoch, as +an addition to the resources of hunting and fishing; +but the greater civilizations based upon agriculture +began in the three regions I have indicated. It is +worthy of note that in the Old World agricultural +communities established themselves along the banks +of the rivers, whereas in America they dwelt on the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1096">[1096]</span>highlands of Mexico and Peru. This may perhaps +have been due to the original situation of the plants +suitable for cultivation, for the banks of the Mississippi, +of the Amazon, of the Orinoco, are not more +unhealthy than those of the rivers of the Old World. +A few words about each of the three regions. China +had already possessed for some thousands of years a +flourishing agriculture and even horticulture, when +she entered for the first time into relations with +Western Asia, by the mission of Chang-Kien, during +the reign of the Emperor Wu-ti, in the second century +before the Christian era. The records known +as Pent-sao, written in our Middle Ages, state that +he brought back the bean, the cucumber, the lucern, +the saffron, the sesame, the walnut, the pea, the spinach, +the watermelon, and other western plants, then +unknown to the Chinese. Chang-Kien, it will be +observed, was no ordinary ambassador. He considerably +enlarged the geographical knowledge and improved +the economic condition of his countrymen. It +is true that he was constrained to dwell ten years in +the west, and that he belonged to an already civilized +people, one of whose emperors had, 2700 <span class="allsmcap">B. C.</span>, consecrated +with imposing ceremonies the cultivation of +certain plants. The Mongolians were too barbarous, +and came from too cold a country, to have been able +to introduce many useful species into China; but when +we consider the origin of the peach and the apricot, +we shall see that these plants were brought into China +from Western Asia, probably by isolated travelers, +merchants or others, who passed north of the Himalayas. +A few species spread in the same way into +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1097">[1097]</span>China from the west before the embassy of Chang-Kien.</p> + +<p>Regular communication between China and India +only began in the time of Chang-Kien, and by the circuitous +way of Bactriana; but gradual transmissions +from place to place may have been effected through +the Malay Peninsula and Cochin-China. The +writers of northern China may have been ignorant +of them, and especially since the southern provinces +were only united to the empire in the second century +before Christ.</p> + +<p>Regular communications between China and +Japan only took place about the year 57 of our era, +when an ambassador was sent; and the Chinese had +no real knowledge of their eastern neighbors until +the Third Century, when the Chinese character was +introduced into Japan.</p> + +<p>The vast region which stretches from the Ganges +to Armenia and the Nile was not in ancient times +so isolated as China. Its inhabitants exchanged +cultivated plants with great facility, and even +transported them to a distance. It is enough +to remember that ancient migrations and conquests +continually intermixed the Turanian, Aryan, and +Semitic peoples between the great Caspian Sea, +Mesopotamia and the Nile. Great states were +formed nearly at the same time on the banks of the +Euphrates and in Egypt, but they succeeded to tribes +which had already cultivated certain plants. Agriculture +is older in that region than Babylon and the +first Egyptian dynasties, which date from more than +four thousand years ago. The Assyrian and Egyptian +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1098">[1098]</span>empires afterward fought for supremacy, and in +their struggles they transported whole nations, which +could not fail to spread cultivated species. On the +other hand, the Aryan tribes who dwelt originally +to the north of Mesopotamia, in a land less favorable +to agriculture, spread westward and southward, driving +out or subjugating the Turanian and Dravidian +nations. Their speech, and those which are derived +from it in Europe and Hindostan, show that they +knew and transported several useful species. After +these ancient events, of which the dates are for the +most part uncertain, the voyages of the Phœnicians, +the wars between the Greeks and Persians, Alexander’s +expedition into India, and finally the Roman +rule, completed the spread of cultivation in the interior +of Western Asia, and even introduced it into +Europe and the north of Africa, wherever the climate +permitted.</p> + +<p>Later, at the time of the Crusades, very few useful +plants yet remained to be brought from the East. A +few varieties of fruit trees which the Romans did +not possess, and some ornamental plants, were, however, +then brought to Europe.</p> + +<p>The discovery of America in 1492 was the last +great event which caused the diffusion of cultivated +plants into all countries. The American species, such +as the potato, maize, the prickly pear, tobacco, etc., +were first imported into Europe and Asia. Then a +number of species from the Old World were introduced +into America. The voyage of Magellan +(1520-1521) was the first direct communication between +South America and Asia. In the same century, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1099">[1099]</span>the slave trade multiplied communications between +Africa and America. Lastly, the discovery of +the Pacific Islands in the Eighteenth Century, and +the growing facility of the means of communication, +combined with a general idea of improvement, produced +that more general dispersion of useful plants +of which we are witnesses at the present day.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-1099"> + VEGETABLE MIMICRY AND HOMOMORPHISM<br> + —<span class="smcap">Alexander S. Wilson</span> +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">Besides the family likeness and similarity of +structure characteristic of closely allied organisms, +other resemblances included under the terms +Mimicry and Homomorphism, are observed among +living things which can not be referred to a common +ancestry since they are presented by plants and animals +whose affinities are more or less remote. If the +resemblance confers any benefit on either species it +is spoken of as a case of mimicry, but if it results +from the operation of general laws and is not directly +advantageous, the likeness is described as +homomorphic. It is not always possible to draw a +sharp line between the two, and homomorphism not +improbably represents one stage in the development +of mimetic species.</p> + +<p>The vital phenomena of plants and animals are +so near akin that it would be strange if we did not +meet with corresponding facts in the vegetable kingdom. +Mimicry is perhaps more frequent in the seed +than in any other part of vegetable organism; it occurs, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1100">[1100]</span>however, in other organs, and even the entire +plant body may assume a deceptive appearance. A +well-known example is the white dead-nettle, which +so closely resembles the stinging nettle in size and in +the shape and arrangement of its leaves. In systematic +position the two plants are widely removed from +each other, but they grow in similar situations and are +easily mistaken; any one who has occasion to collect +any quantities of Lamium is almost sure to get his +hands stung by Urtica, an experience calculated to +convince one of the efficacy of protective resemblance. +Among animals it is species provided with formidable +weapons of defence that are most frequently +mimicked by weak defenceless creatures. The stinging +nettle is therefore a very likely model for unprotected +plants to copy.</p> + +<p>A somewhat analogous case is the yellow bugle of +the Riviera, which has its leaves crowded and divided +into three linear lobes, some of which are +again divided. In this the plant differs very greatly +from its allies; it has, however, acquired a very +striking resemblance to a species of Euphorbia, abundant +on the Riviera. The acrid juice of the Euphorbias +secures them immunity against a host of enemies. +As the two plants grow together there is little room +to doubt that, like the dead-nettle, the bugle profits +by its likeness to its well protected neighbor.</p> + +<p>The rare heath Menziesia cærulia, thought to be +protected by its marked resemblance to the crowberry +(Empetrum nigrum), has also been adduced +as a probable case of mimicry.</p> + +<p>Mr. A. R. Wallace in <cite>Tropical Nature</cite> refers to +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1101">[1101]</span>the stone mesembryanthemum at the Cape described +by Dr. Burchell, which closely resembles in form +and color the stones among which it grows; on this +account the discoverer believes this juicy little plant +generally escapes the notice of cattle and wild herbivorous +animals.</p> + +<p>Mr. J. P. Mansel Weale mentions that in Karoo +many plants have tuberous roots above the soil resembling +stones so perfectly that it is almost impossible +to distinguish them. The tubers of the potato itself +in its native home may perhaps be protected in this +way.</p> + +<p>The last-mentioned observer has also noted a labiate +plant, Ajuga orphrydis, in South Africa, which +bears a strong resemblance to an orchid. As this is +the only species of bugle in the district, Mr. Wallace +thinks the flower profits by the mimicry and succeeds +in attracting the insects required for its fertilization. +A species of balsam at the Cape has also acquired +an orchid-like aspect; Tillandsia Usneoides, one of +the pineapple family, grows on trees in tropical +America, and has a resemblance to a shaggy lichen +so marked that it is generally mistaken for a plant +of that order. The fly agaric, our most conspicuously +colored fungus, according to Dr. Plowright, +is closely imitated by a parasitic flowering plant, Balanophora +volucrata, the scarlet cap, the dotted +warts, the white stem and volva being all accurately +represented.</p> + +<p>The curious shapes of some exotic orchids are +probably advantageous from their resemblance to +insects and birds. One of our native orchids, Listua +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1102">[1102]</span>ovata, has a flower which in shape decidedly resembles +a species of beetle, Grammoptera lævis, by +which it is fertilized. Perhaps in this case the insect +mimics the flower, as certainly happens with a pink-colored +mantis in Java, which so exactly resembles a +pink orchid that butterflies are attracted to it in mistake. +The insect is carnivorous, and lies in wait for +its prey, which is easily secured by the help of this +strange disguise. Mutual resemblances of this description +are rather characteristic of the Orchidaceæ. +From their resemblance, real or fanciful, to butterflies, +moths, bees, spiders, etc., various species of +Habenaria, Neotinea, and Ophrys derive their names—the +butterfly, spider, bee and fly orchises. In the +orchid Ophrys muscifera are two little protuberances, +regarded by the late H. Müller as pseudo-nectaries. +Of this class of deceptive contrivances, however, we +have a better example in Parnassia palustris, one of +the saxifrages. This flower has five fan-like scales +alternating with the stamens; the margins of the +scales are fringed with hair-like processes, and each +hair is capped with what appears to be a drop of +honey. These are really hard, dry knobs, but so much +do they resemble drops of honey that flies lick them +before discovering the imposture. The intention of +these sham nectar-drops may either be to decoy unprofitable +guests from the real nectar, of which a +limited supply is produced in the hollow of each +scale, or to advertise it for the benefit of the more +intelligent visitors.</p> + +<p>Somewhat analogous to these pseudo-nectaries are +the greenish swellings which arise on the veins of +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1103">[1103]</span>the petals of Eremurus. These little swellings present +a striking resemblance to aphides, or plant-lice, +and Kerner states that a fly accustomed to hunt after +aphides pierces and sucks the swellings, apparently +mistaking them for the insects.</p> + +<p>Relations which remind us of the pink orchid and +mantis, mentioned above, seem to exist between the +little bladders of Utricularia and the entomostracans. +The bladderwort is a carnivorous plant with small +submerged vesicles in which minute insects and entomostracans +are caught. In shape these little traps +of Utricularia are not unlike the body of a crustacean; +the stalk corresponds to the tail, and near the +entrance of each bladder are several antenna-like +filaments so resembling certain appendages of the +crustaceans that they impart to the structure a +ludicrous resemblance to such an entomostracan as +Daphne. This curious likeness was remarked by Mr. +Darwin and can hardly be altogether accidental; +perhaps the prey is more readily induced to approach +the snare by reason of the resemblance. Here also +may be mentioned the imposture practiced on its +victims by Darlingtonia, another insectivorous plant. +In the hood of its pitcher-like leaf are several transparent +spaces through which the light shines into the +interior; to these the imprisoned flies are attracted +and thereby diverted from the only opening through +which escape is possible. Mistaking the “windows” +for real openings, the captives exhaust themselves in +vain efforts to regain their liberty and are ultimately +precipitated into the depths of the pitcher.</p> + +<p>The flowers of the ox-eye daisy and the feverfew +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1104">[1104]</span>are very much alike, and this was adduced by the late +Mr. Grant Allen as a possible case of mimicry. But +the probability is that in this instance the resemblance +is merely homomorphic. The colors of flowers are +distinctive as well as attractive. Where two species +of plant grow together and are in blossom at the same +time it is to their disadvantage to have the flowers of +the one mistaken for those of the other. To secure +cross-fertilization it is needful that the insect visitors +pass from one flower to another of the same species, +otherwise the pollen will be conveyed to the stigmas +of the wrong species. It is of importance that the fertilizing +agents should be able readily to distinguish +different flowers, and this is no doubt one reason for +the diversity of their colors, shapes, and odors. This +circumstance must operate as a check against the production +of mimetic blossoms; it will not, however, +prevent flowers from acquiring a likeness to any object +other than a flower.</p> + +<p>Mimetic resemblances are much more numerous +among fruits and seeds than in flowers. A very curious +example is Orphicaryon paradoxum, the snake-nut +of Demerara, inside which is the coiled embryo +resembling a small snake. Among others mentioned +by Lord Avebury are Tricosanthes anguina, the pod +of which assumes a snake-like guise; Scorpiurus vermiculata, +with pods in the form of a worm or caterpillar; +S. subvillosa and Biserrula pelecinus, where +the resemblance is to a centipede and certain lupines +with spider-like seeds. The seeds of Abrus precatorius, +Martynia diandra, Jatropha, the castor oil +plant and the scarlet runner mimic certain beetles. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1105">[1105]</span>The presence of a caruncle representing the head of +the insect renders the imitation more complete; this +structure takes no part in germination, and Kerner +is of opinion that it prevents the ants from attacking +the substance of the seeds which they drag about +from place to place. The ox-tongue and cow-wheat +have worm-like seeds, and several plants have fruit +difficult to distinguish from little pieces of dry twig. +The jet-black, shining seeds and achenes of<ins class="corr" id="tn-1105" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: 'of Delphinum'"> +Delphinium</ins>, +Helleborus, Juncus, Atriplex, Polygonum, etc., +are easily mistaken for beetles; the brightly colored +seeds of Iris Germanica are also in all probability +mimetic.</p> + +<p>The beautiful glossy scarlet and black piebald +seeds of Abrus known as rosary beans perhaps escape +destruction through birds mistaking them for some +nauseous insect gaudily attired in warning colors. +But from the manner in which the seed-vessels of +Iris and Arbus dehisce and expose their seeds the brilliant +colors of the latter would appear to subserve +dissemination rather than protection. Such hard +seeds are probably dispersed through the agency of +insectivorous birds, which seize them in mistake for +their more legitimate prey. According to Lord Avebury, +the beans of Abrus mimic the beetle Artemis +circumusta. The smaller seeds, known as crab’s +eyes, are colored in an analogous manner. These cases +are the less surprising if we have regard to the fact +that the majority of dry fruits, though green while +growing, become black or brown when they fall to +the ground, so that their general tint corresponds +with their surroundings and tends to concealment.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1106">[1106]</span></p> + +<p>The odors of fungi are very varied. Clathrus and +Phallus are offensive and attract swarms of blow-flies; +Lactarius and Hydnum, on the other hand, are +sweetly scented like the flowers of Melilotus. Among +the odors of fungi enumerated by Dr. Plowright are +those of aniseed, mint, peppermint, garlic, horse-radish, +cucumber, ripe apricots, rotting pears, rancid +herring, Russia leather, gas-tar, prussic acid, nitric +acid, and cacodyl. Like the hemlock, Agaricus incanus +has the smell of mice, two species of Lactarius +have the odor of the common house-bug, while Hygrophorus +cossus smells like the larvæ of the goat-moth. +Fifteen or sixteen species of agaric resemble +oatmeal both in taste and smell, Hydnum repandum +has the flavor of oysters, recalling the oyster plant +among the Boraginaceæ, whose leaves have a similar +taste. Several are possessed of a nut-like flavor. The +common stinkhorn, Phallus impudicus, is the best +known representative of a large family of fungi, the +members of which are found in various parts of the +world. The Phalloidi include Phallus, Lysurus, +Simblum, Clathrus, Aseröe, and other genera, all +characterized by offensive odors and conspicuous +colors. These fungi have been carefully studied by +Mr. T. Wemys Fulton, whose paper on the <cite>Dispersion +of Spores in Fungi</cite> in the <cite>Annals of Botany</cite> for +1899 contains many interesting and important observations +bearing on mimicry.</p> + +<p>The rapid elongation of the stinkhorn is very remarkable; +the fungus has been observed to attain a +height of several inches in half an hour, furnishing +an apt illustration of the proverb that ill weeds grow +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1107">[1107]</span>apace. It not only emits an intolerable charnel-house +stench, but its ghastly pallid hue seen against the +background of its usual surroundings is peculiarly +suggestive of the dead carcass of some animal. Its +surface at first exudes a sweetish slime containing +sugar, but the hymeneum or spore-bearing portion is +deliquescent and the entire mass speedily undergoes +a series of changes, the white becoming brown, then +black, the solid mass being ultimately resolved into +a dark fetid fluid in which the spores are suspended. +These mimetic changes, which so closely approximate +to those of decomposition, attract carrion flies +in prodigious numbers. Blow-flies even deposit their +eggs on the fungus, and the maggots seem to develop +as though nourished by its substance. On examination +Mr. Fulton found the spores adhering in thousands +to the feet and proboscides of the insects. Their +excrement he found to consist almost entirely of +spores, and the latter were found by experiment to be +still capable of germination. There is therefore no +doubt in this case that flies are employed as agents in +the dispersion of the fungus. This statement also +applies to various Coprini and others with a deliquescent +hymeneum.</p> + +<p>Quite a number of flowers have distinctly mimetic +odors. It can hardly be doubted, for example, that +the offensive smell of the carrion flowers Stapelia, +Aristolochia, Arum, Rafflesia, and others, is more +effective in promoting cross-fertilization because of +its resemblance to the odor of putrid meat. So completely +are the flesh flies deceived that they often +deposit their eggs on the petals of carrion flowers.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1108">[1108]</span></p> + +<p>Fetid odors occur in Bryonia, Helleborus, Geranium, +Stachys, Ballota, Iris and other genera. The +odors of others have a curious resemblance to the +smells emitted by certain animals. Hypericum hircinum +and Orchis hircina are bad smelling flowers +with an odor resembling that of the goat; Coriandrum +sativum has the fetid smell of bugs, while the +hemlock, again, emits a strong odor of mice. Along +with these may be mentioned Adoxa, the musk orchis, +the grape hyacinth, and other musky-scented flowers.</p> + +<p>The resemblance in smell between these flowers +and the secretion formed in the scent glands of the +musk ox and other animals is, to say the least, a remarkable +coincidence. Possibly flies which accompany +cattle may be attracted by smells of this description. +Very curious also is the vinous smell of +Œnanthe, and the brandy-like aroma of the yellow +water lily Nuphar, hence called the brandy bottle. +Ethereal oils exhaled by plants while attractive to +some animals seem to repel others; the scents of +sweet-smelling flowers such as Daphne, Thymus, +Marjoram, Melilotus, and Gymnademia, though +grateful to bees and butterflies, appear to be distasteful +to ruminants. Kerner states that in general the +latter avoid all blossoms; even caterpillars do not +readily attack the petals of their food plants. Odor +may therefore be protective or attractive or it may be +of use in both ways. The same remark applies to +color, which may serve either to attract or repel; the +richly variegated leaves of the Indian nettles—species +of Colleus—and the tinted foliage of begonia +and geranium may possibly escape injury on account +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1109">[1109]</span>of the general resemblance to colored blossoms. +Instances in which one plant resembles another in +smell are not very common in the flowering class, +though cases do occur like the garlic, mustard and +apple-scented Salvia. Resembling odors are much +more frequent among fungi.</p> + +<p>Characteristic examples of homomorphism are +seen in the resemblances which many species of Euphorbia +present to the cactus tribe and in the pollen-masses +of the orchids and asclepias. In Britain the +order Euphorbiaceæ is represented by the box, dog’s-mercury, +and the sun-spurges, but many foreign species +have quite a different appearance and agree with +the cacti in their aborted leaves and green succulent +stems. The globular, columnar, and angular forms +give to both a peculiar aspect by which they are +broadly distinguished from all other vegetable types; +and yet in systematic position these two orders stand +far apart. The nearest affinities of the Euphorbiæ +are with the Urticaceæ and other orders having incomplete +flowers, while the nearest allies of the Cacti +are the Cucurbitaceæ and other calycifloral orders. +Succulent stemmed plants of this description are +specially adapted to an arid climate, and it is not +unreasonable to suppose that the similarity between +the Euphorbiæ and Cacti results from the long-continued +action of similar external conditions upon similarly +endowed tissues.</p> + +<p>The Australian Casuarinas are dicotyledons with +incomplete flowers nearly related to the oak, hazel, +and other Cupuliferæ, but in outward appearance +they have a singular resemblance to the horsetails, a +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1110">[1110]</span>family of cryptogams. One of the gymosperms or +cone-bearing class, Ephedra, also presents the same +jointed appearance so characteristic of Equisetaceæ. +Growing in marshy places very like those affected by +Equisetum we find the mare’s-tail Hippurus, a flowering +plant allied to the fuchsia family, but externally +resembling Equisetum in its jointed stem and +whorled leaves. A familiar instance of the same kind +of homomorphism is Equisetum sylvaticum, which +might almost be described as a liliputian fir-tree. +The little flowers of the water ranunculus look exactly +like miniature water lilies, while the leaves and +flowers of Caltha palustris simulate the yellow Nuphar +so much that in some parts of the country the +marsh marigold is known as the water lily. The +specific name of another aquatic, Lymnanthemum +nymphædides, indicates a peculiarity of the same +kind. Leaf analogies are frequent among aquatic +plants; the orbicular, peltate leaf of the Indian cress +occurs, for example, in Hydrocotyle, Nelumbium, +and others. The brown color and translucence of +Potamogeton, Myriophyllum, and other aquatics assimilates +them to the fronds of Laminaria and other +sea-weeds.</p> + +<p>A grass-like habit is assumed by some plants. +This character is attained in the meadow vetchling +by the arrested development of the compound leaves +and the great elongation of the stipules. Lathyrus +nissolia has the stipules minute, but the phyllodes or +leaf-like petioles impart the grass-like character. A +moss-like habit occurs in a great many plants belonging +to very different families; thus the wiry stem of +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1111">[1111]</span>the purging flax reminds one of the seta of Polytrichum. +The pearlwort of the walls, many alpine saxifrages, +pinks, and gentians present very much the +appearance of mosses, <em>e. g.</em>, Silene acaulis, Saxifraga +bryoides, S. hypnoides, Arenaria Cherleri, etc. The +sub-species Saxifraga geum is another instance of leaf +analogy. The generic name Pyrola implies a fancied +resemblance of the leaves to those of the pear +tree. Certain leaf-types frequently recur, the rough +broadly tongue-shaped leaf of the bugloss, for example; +hence the very common specific appellation +echioides. The nettle-leaved bell-flower reproduces +the foliage of Urtica and the sinuate leaf of the oak +appears in several families.</p> + +<p>Parasitic phanerogams like Rafflesia commonly +exhibit the fungoid character in a marked degree. +In their internal structure, coloring, spore-like seeds +and other characters they approximate closely to the +fungi.</p> + +<p>As examples of homomorphism between closely +allied plants may be mentioned the false oat, which +so strikingly resembles the cultivated species, and the +barren strawberry, which agrees so closely with the +cultivated strawberry of our gardens.</p> + +<p>Although it is only under exceptional circumstances +that a flower is likely to mimic another blossom +closely, vague general resemblances are not uncommon, +such as that between the rock-rose and the +buttercup, between the milkwort and the vetch, and +between Veronica and Valerianella. A more decided +likeness is that of the garden annual Collinsia +to the butterfly blossoms of the pea tribe. This case +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1112">[1112]</span>is peculiarly instructive since the homomorphism can +be traced to its cause. The butterfly-like corolla of +Leguminosæ seems to have afforded the pattern after +which a number of flowers have been fashioned. The +Papilionaceæ are adapted to bees rather than to butterflies +or moths, and the pollen is applied to the +ventral surface of the insect, the essential organs +being lodged in the carina or pouch formed by the +two lower petals. Among the Scrophulariaceæ to +which Collinsia belongs, the pollen is commonly +sprinkled on the back of the insect and the stamens +are contained in the upper lip of the corolla; Collinsia +is, however, exceptional; the stamens are +lodged within the lower lip of the flower and the +pollen is applied to the ventral surface of the bee. +Here the resemblance is evidently an indirect result +brought about by the flowers of Collinsia having become +adapted to the same class of visitors as the +Papilionaceæ, viz., bees which have their brushes or +baskets of hair for collecting pollen attached to the +abdomen. Where two flowers are very like insects +are apt to mistake the one species for the other, but +this will not involve any loss if there is an interval +between their periods of blossoming.</p> + +<p>Homomorphic likenesses are not confined to homologous +organs; an organ of one plant sometimes +exhibits a perfect resemblance to a different organ +on some other plant. Thus Aristolochia sipho, the +Dutchman’s pipe, so-called from the appearance of +its flowers, has a perianth singularly like the leaf-pitchers +of Nepenthes, and the curious little nectaries +of Nigella might almost be compared with the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1113">[1113]</span>pitchers of the Australian insectivorous plant Cephalotus. +As the Aristolochias imprison small dipterous +insects in their flowers these instances favor to some +extent Henslow’s idea that both flowers and pitchers +have arisen by hypertrophy caused through the irritation +set up by insects.</p> + +<p>The homomorphism of the orchids and asclepiads +is especially interesting because of the objection to the +Darwinian theory that it presents; the coincidence is +certainly unfavorable to the notion of fortuitous variation. +The orchids and asclepiads agree in producing +pollinia or pollen-packets which attach themselves +to the bodies of insects and are thus transferred +from flower to flower. Although the two +flowers differ greatly in the details of their structure, +this curious contrivance occurs in no other plants, +and yet the two orders are as widely separated as it +is possible to conceive. The orchids belong to the +petaloid division of Monocotyledons; the asclepias +to the gamopetalous Dicotyledons, with their nearest +allies among the Apocynaceæ, of which Vinca, the +periwinkle, is perhaps the best known representative. +Although agreeing in this one particular, the +flowers are in other respects very dissimilar.</p> + +<p>Another contrivance for promoting cross-fertilization +met with in unallied plants is the mouse-trap arrangement +of hairs by means of which small flies are +temporarily imprisoned. This arrangement occurs +in Aristolochia, in species of Arum, and in Ceropegia, +one of the asclepiads. In these plants, where the +affinities are so slight, the mechanism for fertilization +must in each case have arisen independently.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1114">[1114]</span></p> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-1114"> + THE BAMBOO AND PLANT GROWTH<br> + —<span class="smcap">R. Camper Day</span> +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">If the many families of flowering plants were +arranged in the order of their utility to man or +in the order of their abundance, the first place in the +list would unquestionably be assigned to the great +family of grasses. Of their omnipresence and abundance +some idea may be obtained from the fact that +at least four thousand different kinds have been described, +and a German naturalist has estimated that +they constitute a twenty-second part of all known +plants. Their utility as food producers becomes +obvious as soon as we recall the names of rice, wheat, +barley, oats, rye, and Indian corn, and remember +how large a proportion of our food is made from +their seeds. Most of these civilized and somewhat +unnatural grasses have been so long under cultivation, +and so much altered by man’s selection, that +they are totally unfitted to shift for themselves, and +would soon become extinct if brought into competition +with wild plants. The fact that the wild +forms from which they are descended can not now +be identified with certainty shows that their cultivation +must date from the very earliest ages. Rice +alone is said to furnish more sustenance to the +human race than any other single species; the common +meadow grasses, such as the purple-tipped +Anthoxanthum, which fills the fields with its penetrating +fragrance when the hay is newly mown, are +almost the only food of sheep and cattle; and those +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1115">[1115]</span>tall and sturdy canes whose juice we squeeze out between +rollers, and clarify and crystallize into sugar, +are only modified stems of grass.</p> + +<p>The largest of the family, and perhaps the most +beautiful, is the tropical arborescent grass which +bears the name of bamboo. Although it is not cultivated +for the sake of its seed, it has many admirable +qualities, and wherever it grows in abundance it is +applied to a variety of uses. “The strength, lightness, +smoothness, straightness, roundness, and hollowness +of the bamboo,” says Mr. A. R. Wallace in +his <cite>Malay Archipelago</cite>, “the facility and regularity +with which they can be split, their many different +sizes, the varying length of their joints, the ease +with which they can be cut and with which holes +can be made through them, their hardness outside, +their freedom from any pronounced taste or smell, +their great abundance, and the rapidity of their +growth and increase, are all qualities which render +them useful for a hundred different purposes, to +serve which other materials would require much +more labor and preparation. The bamboo is one of +the most wonderful and beautiful productions of the +tropics, and one of nature’s most valuable gifts to +uncivilized man.”</p> + +<p>In order that the accuracy of this eulogy may be +appreciated, let us imagine the case of a shipwrecked +man landing without any tools, except an axe and a +knife, upon an island in which we will suppose the +bamboos are the only vegetation, and let us see how +far he could supply his needs with their assistance. +One of his first requirements would be a house, and +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1116">[1116]</span>this could be provided with very little labor. The +stems of one of the larger species, such as Bambusa +Brandisii, driven into the ground, would form excellent +uprights for the framework, which could be +completed with lighter cross-pieces nailed to the +uprights with pegs of the same material. A good +roof could be made by taking broad strips split from +large bamboos, and fastening them side by side with +their concave surfaces uppermost, the interstices between +them being covered with other pieces having +their convex sides uppermost. Similar but flatter +pieces laid upon the joists, and tied down firmly +with strips shredded from the outer rind, would +form a smooth and elastic floor such as could not +be made out of other materials without a great expenditure +of labor. Thin strips plaited together, +or broad strips pegged side by side, might be used +for the walls.</p> + +<p>The furnishing of the house would be an easy +matter, for bedsteads, chairs, brooms, baskets, cords, +fans, bottles, mats, and hoes can be made of bamboo +with the greatest facility. The water-tight joints of +the stems form admirable water-vessels, and it would +be easy to bring the water to the very door by a +gently sloping aqueduct of pieces of bamboo split +down the middle and supported at intervals on +cross-pieces arranged like the letter X. The jars +made from the joints could be utilized not only for +holding water, but even for boiling it. Mr. Wallace +tells us that rice, fish, and vegetables can be boiled in +them to perfection. The young shoots of the bamboo +as they first spring from the ground are said to be +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1117">[1117]</span>a delicious vegetable, “quite equal to artichokes.” +That fish may be readily caught by the agency of the +bamboo is shown by the many specimens of ingenious +fish-traps exhibited in the museum at Kew. +If we suppose our adventurer to take a thin stem of +bamboo, and cut off the end obliquely just above a +joint so as to leave a sharp edge, he would be provided +with a hard-pointed and very efficient spear. +In the same way he could supply himself with daggers +and arrows; while from the more elastic species +he could make himself a bow, using a thin strip of +the outer rind for a bow-string. The lowest internode +of Arthrosylidium Schomburgkii, which sometimes +attains the extraordinary length of sixteen feet, +far surpassing the length of the joints in all other +bamboos (says General Munro), furnishes the “Sarbican” +or blow-pipe through which poisoned arrows +are blown by the natives of Guiana. In the island +of Celebes the only article of dress worn by the natives +is a body-cloth called Kian Pakkian, made of +bamboo split into fine shreds, which are passed between +the teeth and bitten until they are soft, when +they are woven.</p> + +<p>If, after providing himself with these and similar +necessaries, our shipwrecked man found leisure to +amuse himself, he might make æolian flutes, such as +Sir Emerson Tennant saw in Malacca, by boring +holes in the stems of living bamboos, or he might construct +a harp like that in the Kew Museum, London, +which was brought from Timor by Mr. Wallace. +This harp is made from a cylinder of bamboo having +a node at each end. Under a strip of the outer rind +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1118">[1118]</span>a quarter of an inch wide, a sharp knife is passed +so that the strip is detached from the cylinder except +at its two ends. The strip forms one of the harp +strings. Two small wedges are pushed under it, +and the portion between the wedges can be sounded +like the string of a guitar. It is also possible, and +not very difficult, to make such diverse articles as +paper, pens, waterproof clothing, hats, wax, pickles, +bird-whistles, rafts, pillows, fermented drink, and +bridges from the same versatile vegetable. In the +Kew Museum, which should be visited by every +one who wishes to see the varied uses to which bamboos +can be applied, perhaps the most curious article +is a headman’s knife brought by Mr. Franks +from the southeastern peninsula of New Guinea. +This singular implement, which is shaped like a +cheese-scoop and seems very ill-adapted to its purpose, +is marked with numerous notches, each notch +representing one of its victims; and it is accompanied +by an artistic apparatus, also of bamboo, +intended apparently to enable the executioner to +carry the severed head.</p> + +<p>The bamboo usually grows in a cluster of from +ten to a hundred stalks, and springing from the same +rhizome or root-stock. The rhizome is not the root, +but an underground portion of the stem. It consists +of a number of segments about the size and shape of +a banana and somewhat bloated in the middle. The +banana-like segments are joined together irregularly +by their tips, so that the whole rhizome forms a +strong underground trellis-work admirably adapted +to support the light and yet rigid stems that rise up +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1119">[1119]</span>from it. From the under side of the rhizome spring +downward the true root-fibres, numerous as the bristles +of a broom.</p> + +<p>The stem itself, as every one knows, is smooth, +polished, and cylindrical, and is divided into air-tight +compartments by knots or nodes, which are +the points at which the fibres of the stem cross over +from one side to the other. The lowest ten nodes +or so are usually bare, but from the upper nodes +issue branches. These are very slender as compared +with the main stem, and carry the foliage leaves. In +most species the leaves are rather small, but in some +they are very large. The species named Planotia +nobilis by General Munro, a native of New Granada, +has the largest leaves of any kind of grass; they are +often a foot in diameter and fifteen feet in length.</p> + +<p>The most important part of the bamboo, from a +botanical point of view, is the flower, which roughly +resembles the flower of our common grasses. The +flower of grass is inclosed in hard, scaly leaflets called +glumes; it usually has three stamens and one seed-vessel. +There may be only one flower inclosed in +the glumes (as in foxtail grass), or more (as in +wheat). The flowers of the bamboos, while on +the whole conforming to the grass type, exhibit +many small differences in different species. In +some kinds, as in Arthrostylidium longiflorum, the +inflorescence resembles a bunch of ears of wheat; +in others, as in Bambusa vulgaris, the flowers are +packed into round clusters; in others, as in Chusquea +simpliciflora, they are in threes and fours, each +flower hanging by a separate slender stalk. The seed +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1120">[1120]</span>generally resembles oats or wheat, but in some species +it takes the form of a berry, not unlike the seed +of our familiar pimpernels. In the species known +as Molocanna, the fruit is exceptionally developed, +often attaining the size of a largish pear. Some +species flower and die down annually; others flower +annually, but live on; as a rule the bamboo grows +for many years without flowering, and then suddenly +bursts into bloom. From the fact that the number +of years between the sowing of the seed and the +flowering of the plant varies, and that in some years +nearly all the bamboos in a given district flower simultaneously, +it would seem as if the blossoming does +not take place at any prescribed age, but may occur +at any period after the plants reach maturity when +a favorable season supervenes. It used to be thought +that after a general flowering of the bamboos +throughout a district all the plants died, but this +view proves to be incorrect. The flowering shoots +usually die, and during the flowering the foliage almost +entirely disappears, but the entire plant is not +necessarily killed.</p> + +<p>The Chinese have a proverb that the bamboo produces +seed most abundantly in years when the rice +crop fails, and several curious cases of the truth of +this saying have been recorded. According to General +Munro, in 1812 the universal flowering in +Orissa prevented a famine. Hundreds of people, +he says, were on the watch day and night to secure +the seeds as they fell from the branches. Another +instance occurred in 1864, when there was a general +flowering of the bamboo in the Soopa jungles, and +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1121">[1121]</span>very large numbers of persons came from the neighboring +districts to collect the seeds.</p> + +<p>In most bamboos, the stem is characterized by +straightness, smoothness, roundness, and quickness +of growth, no doubt because these qualities have, as +a rule, proved serviceable to the plant in the struggle +for existence. Light and air being necessary to the +life of grass, it is manifest that in the dense vegetation +of the tropics a plant which can push itself +rapidly to a great height must have an advantage; +and in order that growth may be rapid and the plant +spring up to a considerable height without climbing, +it is essential that there should be as little material +as possible in the stem, and yet that it should +be as strong as possible. It is difficult to imagine +a stem in which these conditions would be better +fulfilled than in that of the bamboo. By reason of +its hollowness the amount of material is reduced to +a minimum; and by reason of its cylindrical shape, +its nodes, and the hardness of the outer rind, the +strength of the structure is at a maximum. The +growth is consequently very rapid, an increase in +height of 2 to 2½ feet having been recorded in a single +day. The Bambusa Brandisii often measures as +many as 120 feet, and is said to attain its full altitude +in a few months.</p> + +<p>But although, as a general rule, the necessities of +natural selection have ordained that bamboos shall +be perfectly straight and perfectly round, this +archetypal form or idea (to borrow a word from +Plato) does not always hold good. One species, +found in Asia, is said to have crooked and even +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1122">[1122]</span>creeping stems. Another, found in Ecuador, is described +by General Munro as being distinctly a +climbing plant. There is a species, recently described +by Mr. Thiselton Dyer, with a stem exactly +square, and as well defined as if cut with a knife. +It has only lately been found in China, where it is +grown chiefly for ornament.</p> + +<p>According to Mr. Dyer, the Chinese account for +its squareness in the following way. They say that in +the Fourth Century <span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span>, the famous alchemist, Ko +Hung, took his chopsticks (which consist of slender +rods of bamboo pared square) and thrust them into +the ground of the spiritual monastery near Mingpo; +and then by his thaumaturgical art he caused them +to take root and appear as a new variety—the square +bamboo.</p> + +<p>The growth of plants is one of the greatest mysteries +of nature, and nothing is more mysterious in +their growth than their limited but very definite +power of movement. How is it that some plants +grow vertically upward, like the normal bamboo, +others climb and twist, others creep, and others +grow in zigzag shapes? How is it that some turn +toward the light, some away from the light, while +others place themselves at right angles to it? And +how is it that if you peg down the young stem of a +vertically growing plant it will bend upward beyond +the peg? No doubt the proximate cause is +natural selection; they do these things because they +have found them advantageous. But this does not +tell us by what mechanism a plant is enabled to keep +on growing in the particular direction which it finds +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1123">[1123]</span>advantageous. We know that when a plant bends +in a given direction, the cells on the convex side of +the bend are more turgescent, that is, more distended +with sap, than those on the concave side, and that the +increased turgescence of the former is followed by +increased rapidity of growth; but what causes the +distribution of turgescence in the cells has not been +clearly made out. It seems probable, however, that +when a shoot is growing in its proper and natural +direction, the chief force which guides it and enables +it to maintain that direction is the force of +gravitation. To this force the growing portions +of a plant are extremely sensitive. Consider, for example, +the case of a vertically growing shoot. Whenever +it is accidentally bent the force of gravity must +evidently act upon the portion above the bend, tending +to curve it still more, and causing a strain in +the material of the stem. The plant in some mysterious +way is aware of this strain, and the cells of +the lower side of the bent portion are stimulated to +increased turgescence as compared with those of the +upper side, so that the under side would grow faster; +and as the plant would turn upward in consequence, +any deviation from the perpendicular would tend +to correct itself. Similarly a shoot which grows +horizontally is led by the same stimulus of gravitation +to rectify any departure from a horizontal +position. Gravitation, then, does not <em>cause</em> the +bending when a displaced shoot endeavors to regain +its normal direction, but serves merely as a guide. +By its means the plant is made aware (so to speak) +that it has been displaced, and takes measures accordingly. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1124">[1124]</span>If the force of gravity were absent, the +shoot would go on growing in any position in which +it might happen to be placed. This may be proved +by causing a growing seed to revolve slowly round a +horizontal axis, so that at every revolution the force +of gravity may act upon it equally in all directions. +When a shoot is grown in these conditions, it is found +that its power of correcting deviations from any particular +line of growth is lost. Similar reasoning applies +to the action of light on plants, but, as above +stated, we do not know why it is that plants respond +to the stimulus of light or gravity; we only know +that as a matter of fact they do so.</p> + +<p>It has often been vaguely asserted that plants are +distinguished from animals by not having the power +of movement. It should rather be said that plants acquire +and display this power only when it is of some +advantage to them; but that this is of comparatively +rare occurrence, as they are affixed to the ground, +and food is brought to them by the wind and rain. +We see how high in the scale of organization the +plant may rise when we look at one of the more perfect +tendril-bearers. It first places its tendrils ready +for action, as a polypus places its tentacula. If the +tendril be displaced, it is acted on by the force of +gravity and rights itself. It is acted on by the light, +and bends toward or from it, or disregards it, whichever +may be most advantageous. During several +days, the tendril or internodes, or both, spontaneously +revolve with a steady motion. The tendril +strikes some object, and quickly curls round and +firmly grasps it. In the course of some hours it contracts +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1125">[1125]</span>into a spire, dragging up the stem and forming +an excellent spring. All movements now cease. +By growth the tissues soon become wonderfully +strong and durable. The tendril has done its work, +and done it in an admirable manner.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-1125"> + THE REIGN OF EVERGREENS<br> + —<span class="smcap">Grant Allen</span> +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">The poor stripped and draggled garden is beginning +to look very bare now (November) +of all except a few straggling late-flowering shrubs +and those trusty adopted friends that we have always +with us, the shrubby, large-leaved southern +evergreens. In northern climates, we must ruefully +admit, there are hardly any true evergreens, save +only the conifers, with their stiff and needle-like +foliage, such as pines and spruce-firs; but we make +up for it to some extent by borrowing from warmer +or more southern lands the laurels, aucubas, laurustinuses +and rhododendrons, that help to keep +bright our English lawns and shrubberies throughout +the long and weary winter months. Indeed, our +only native flat-leaved shrubs that retain their full +greenness from year’s end to year’s end are privet, +box, and butcher’s broom, all three of them very +doubtfully indigenous to these islands. It is the +rule with English trees and shrubs to shed their foliage +every autumn; and the fashion in which they +do so shows very clearly how purposive and well +adapted to their conditions in life is the deciduous +habit. For the leaves do not merely tumble off anyhow, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1126">[1126]</span>casually, before the first fierce autumnal winds; +if they did so there would be loss of sap and of valuable +foodstuffs to the whole plant of whose joint +commonwealth they form the partially dependent +members: their fall is duly provided for beforehand, +and when at last it actually takes place, it takes +place in an orderly and regular fashion, with the +least possible injury to the interests of the entire +tree. From the very beginning there has been +arranged at the joint where the leaf-stalk joins the +stem, or where the separate leaflets join the central +midrib, a row or articulation composed of cellular +tissue, and specially designed to act as a joint for +the dry leaves. When winter approaches, and chilly +northern winds are likely to tear to pieces the leaves +on the trees, all the protoplasm and other valuable +cell-contents are withdrawn into the permanent tissues +of the plant, leaving only the minor red and +yellow coloring matters (mostly effete and used-up +foodstuffs) which give so much beauty and glory +to the general aspect of our autumn woodlands.</p> + +<p>Then the articulation dries up and withers, and +the dead leaf separates at the joint, leaving behind it +a regular mark or scar, which is the visible token of +Nature’s definite precaution against the northern +cold and tempests.</p> + +<p>It was not always so, however, and it is not so even +now in the greater part of the modern world that +we ourselves inhabit. It seems quite natural to us +northerners that “leaves have their time to fall”; so +natural, indeed, that we almost forget the strict +limitation of the practice to our own chillier latitudes. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1127">[1127]</span>Yet in reality the existence of deciduous +trees is a mere temporary accident of the here and +the now, a passing consequence of the great cold +spell which had its culminating point in the last +glacial epoch, and from whose lasting effects we ourselves +are even still apparently suffering. Whether, +as Mr. Alfred Russel Wallace seems hopeful +enough to believe, our poor old planet may yet recover +from this premonitory chilling or not, whether +we may yet look forward to a few more warm spells +or otherwise, before the final numbness of all dying +worlds comes upon us, is a question rather for the +consideration of astronomers and physicists than the +mere mundane-roving naturalist, with his petty +ephemeral interests in our plants and animals; but +one thing at least is certain, that till a very recent +period, geologically speaking, our earth enjoyed a +warm and genial climate up to the poles themselves, +and that all its vegetation was everywhere evergreen, +of much the same type as that which now prevails +in the modern tropics. Indeed, we have only to +look at the existing state of things in order to see +how very slight is the effect that has thus been produced +upon our temperate flora. For example, +among the oaks alone, there are some twenty species +in Europe, of which Southern Europe has eighteen, +mostly evergreen, while north of the Alps there are +only two, or at most three, all of them deciduous. +From the evolutionary point of view it is clear that +the northern kinds are modern developments, specialized +to contend with the peculiarly cold conditions +of sub-Arctic Europe.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1128">[1128]</span></p> + +<p>Fortunately, too, we are not left in this matter to +mere conjecture or analogy: thanks to the researches +of Heer and others, we have positive geological +facts to guide us which show conclusively that up to +the Miocene period Europe was covered by forests +of large-leaved evergreen trees, of what we should +now consider distinctively tropical types. Ever since +the Miocene, and on to the culminating point of the +great Ice Age, the European climate has been growing +steadily colder, and the European flora has been +at the same time steadily adapting itself to the new +conditions, and to assuming what we now consider +a typically northern aspect. During all that time, +the large-leaved evergreens gave way before the deciduous +trees and the chillier conifers, beginning at +the north pole and spreading gradually southward, +as the cold deepened and widened its range. Since +the end of the great Ice Age, and the subsequent +slight amelioration of the climate in Northern +Europe, a reverse process has begun to set in; the +Arctic types have begun to recede slightly once more, +and the comparatively southern or temperate types +have pushed their way northward to occupy the +place from which they were previously dispossessed +by the newly evolved kinds. It is not necessary for +us to inquire here into the causes of this great cycle; +the facts are there, and for our present purpose +they are quite sufficient. They show conclusively, +when one follows them out in detail, that the evolution +of deciduous trees was concomitant with the +growth of cold conditions around the two poles; and +that such trees now exist only where winter, for part +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1129">[1129]</span>of the year, renders the evergreen condition an +undesirable one. Even in the tropics, indeed, we +find on high mountains a belt of deciduous forest, +stretching above the belt of large-leaved evergreens, +which itself succeeds to the lowland palms and +tree-ferns of the thorough-going equatorial plains.</p> + +<p>The reason for the evolution of deciduous trees +is of course to be found in the peculiar circumstances +of the circumpolar regions. In the tropics, trees +and plants can thrive and blossom all the year round; +and even in temperate countries most small herbs +and weeds gain by keeping their foliage throughout +the winter; but big trees in cold climates would +suffer much by the tearing and strewing of their +leaves in winter gales, while they would obtain little +advantage by retaining them on the tree during the +long chilly season. Hence, if any tree happened to +possess any arrangement by which dead or dying +leaves could be removed without injury to the permanent +tissues, while, at the same time, the useful +materials were withdrawn into the young bark to +await the spring awakening, such a tree would obviously +enjoy an advantage in the struggle for existence, +and would be likely to outstrip its evergreen +neighbors in rigorous climates. Now, as a matter +of fact, the germ of such an arrangement is found +even in many herbs or small shrubs, such as, for example, +the common pelargoniums or “scarlet geraniums” +of our flower-gardens. Everybody who has +ever kept these familiar plants in his own rooms must +have noticed how easily the dead leaves separate from +the stem at their base, by means of the swollen cellular +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1130">[1130]</span>mass where the leaf-stalk joins the axis. All +that the forest trees of northern climates had to do, +then, was just to take advantage of this nascent provision, +wherever it existed (mark this prior necessity), +and render it more fixed under the influence +of natural selection. But if we may judge by the +actual sequel, it was not every kind of tree that could +adapt itself to the altered circumstances; as a matter +of fact, the number of species among northern forest +trees is very small indeed, and even out of this +small number a good many are conifers, like the pines +and yews, whose narrow tough leaves are well fitted +for withstanding and battling against all the winter +breezes. Still, among the conifers themselves there +are a few species, such as the larches, with tender, +delicate foliage, which have also become deciduous +under stress of altered conditions. At the present +day the large-leaved and flat-leaved evergreens are +mostly confined to tropical, sub-tropical, or at least +warm temperate climates, and all the forest trees or +the circumpolar tracts are either deciduous, or else +are tough leathery-leafed conifers. The laurels and +rhododendrons, with which we strive artificially to +brighten up our comparatively leafless English winter, +are either hardy representatives of the warm temperate +flora, or else mountain species from southern +climates, with constitutions just strong enough to +endure our chilly season in favored and carefully +selected situations. Such evergreens have generally +very rigid and shiny leaves to protect them—a point +well marked in ivy and laurel as compared with Virginia +creeper and English hawthorn.</p> + + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1131">[1131]</span></p> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-1131"> + OUR MICROSCOPIC FOES<br> + —<span class="smcap">A. Winkelried Williams</span> +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">Of all the foes that are waging war against +mankind, the most dangerous and deadly are +minute organisms belonging to the lowest order of +plant-life, and invisible to our naked eye. An immense +number of these always surround us, and are +ready to make an attack should they find a weak point +in our defences.</p> + +<p>Their presence in the air may be readily demonstrated +by exposing some material upon which they +can feed, and watching the result. The simplest +method is to boil a potato, cut it in half, and immediately +place one-half under a bell glass purified by +being washed in an antiseptic solution such as corrosive +sublimate. Expose the second half to the open +air for a short time, and place it also under a glass. +Let them remain for a few days, and then examine. +If the first half has been placed rapidly enough under +the glass, we shall find it unaltered. On the second +half, however, we shall see a number of small but +growing spots, which will probably vary much in +color. These consist of colonies made up by immense +numbers of most minute plants, <em>i. e.</em>, bacteria, +and also of higher fungi. Certain species of the bacteria +constitute our dreaded foes.</p> + +<p>Bacteria are non-nucleated unicellular plants, +which may be roughly classed into two divisions +according to their shape, the circular forms being +called micrococci, the elongated forms bacilli. In +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1132">[1132]</span>size, they are most minute, being only visible under +the highest powers of the microscope. Many are provided +with cilia, by the lashing of which they are +capable of independent movement. They are composed +of a peculiarly resistant protoplasm, which +is condensed at the surface, so that by the action of +certain caustics they can be separated from many +tissues on which they may be lying, the caustics destroying +these tissues.</p> + +<p>Bacteria have enormous power of reproduction, +which is accomplished by division of the cells and +fission. Many also form globular spores by a condensation +of their protoplasm. The spores have a much +higher power of resistance than the bacteria themselves, +and may under unfavorable circumstances be +quiescent while awaiting better times to take on full +development.</p> + +<p>Their <em>habitat</em> is almost everywhere. In water, +bacteria exist in great numbers; they are even found +in springs at their sources. This indicates their +presence in the soil, where they are found in great +numbers. We have already seen that they exist in the +air, but being, for their size, heavy bodies, they are +invariably attached to less dense particles of dust. +Out at sea, we find the air free from bacteria, although +in the water they abound. The higher we +ascend, the fewer we find. In towns, the air teems +with them; in the country but few exist. In the +healthy living body, there are no bacteria, except in +the alimentary canal and upper respiratory passages. +It must not be supposed that all bacteria are the +forerunners of disease; such is the case with only certain +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1133">[1133]</span>forms to which the significant term pathogenic +bacteria is applied. Many authorities assert that the +non-pathogenic forms may, under certain circumstances, +develop into pathogenic forms. This, however, +has not been definitely settled, since we are +only able to separate the different classes of bacteria +by their action on cultivating media and on the living +body. We have not yet been able to develop by +cultivation a virulent form from a non-virulent, although +we have by repeated cultivation diminished +the virulence of the most malignant bacteria.</p> + +<p>Of all the pathogenic bacteria we have the most +direful tale to tell. Of one, discovered by Dr. R. +Koch—namely, that of tubercle—the terrible ravages +on human life by ferocious animals in India (over +24,800 fatalities per annum) are but trifling compared +to the ravages stealthily done in our midst by +this the smallest of the class of most minute living +units. According to Dr. Koch’s estimate one-seventh +of the human race die of pulmonary consumption, +and this is only one, certainly the most prolific, of +the many diseases directly caused by the tubercle +bacillus.</p> + +<p>Happily for warm-blooded animals, these terrible +death-dealers differ from most other bacteria, for +although they can remain alive for some time outside +the body, they are unable to develop in the outside +world, and this considerably limits their number. +A temperature above 96° Fahr. is necessary for +their growth, and there are only a very few soils on +which they can be cultivated, such as blood-serum +and meat jelly. Moreover, they develop more slowly +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1134">[1134]</span>than other known bacteria, which may consequently +outgrow them, and prevent their development. +How, then, are we to account for the fact that +tubercle is such a widely spread disease, not only +among all the races of men, but also among many +of the lower animals? The consideration of the following +facts answers this question.</p> + +<p>The tubercle bacillus can form resting spores; +consequently, when once the tissues of a part have +their vitality so lowered that the entrance of the +bacilli is allowed, they can retain their hold with +great tenacity. Although the bacilli can not develop +outside the body, their vitality is preserved for a long +time. Certain animal products used for food, such +as the milk of tubercular cows, contain the bacilli. +Experiments such as causing animals to inhale the +tubercle bacilli, or the introduction of them into the +blood, or sometimes the feeding on tubercular matter, +result in tuberculosis.</p> + +<p>Pulmonary consumption presents an example of +the most typical way in which the tubercle bacillus +performs its deadly work. In the majority of cases, +the bacilli are inhaled with the air, but may also infect +the lungs from the blood carrying them from +tuberculosis in other parts of the body. The bacilli +are incapable of independent movement. This +difficulty is too readily overcome in the body, as the +streams of blood and lymph easily carry them along.</p> + +<p>Their movements in the body may be aided by certain +scavengers that are crawling about in our tissues +and circulating in our blood; namely, the +wandering cells of connective tissue and the white +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1135">[1135]</span>blood corpuscles. These take up the bacilli by wrapping +their substance around them; then, for a time, +they crawl about carrying with them the bacilli. In +this attempt to devour the tubercle bacillus, they +often find they have caught a Tartar, who in turn +feeds and multiplies in them, and thus their wandering +days soon end.</p> + +<p>Many other diseases are known to be caused by +bacteria, such as anthrax, cholera, pneumonia, typhoid +fever, erysipelas, leprosy, suppuration, and +ordinary blood-poisoning. Before Sir Joseph Lister +introduced the system of antiseptic surgery, bacteria +were a most fertile source of danger in surgical +operations by the decomposition and suppuration +they set up in the wounds.</p> + +<p>In this short paper it is impossible to describe the +characteristics of any other pathogenic bacteria, but +perhaps enough has been written to show the great +danger to which we are exposed from attacks by an +immense army of minute foes.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-1135"> + FOREST FORMATIONS<br> + —<span class="smcap">M. J. Schleiden</span> +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">It is difficult to give the character of the various +wood-formations in woods with even a small +proportion of that vividness and reality which the +landscape painter so readily attains by drawing, foliage, +color, and effect of light. Nevertheless, the differences +are striking enough to all who approach +nature with open senses. Even the fir and pine woods +exhibit essential differences in their features; the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1136">[1136]</span>former with straight stems arranged parallel to each +other like columns, with the conical crowns of verticillate +branches; the latter bearing on the gnarled, +curved trunks, the lines of which cross in all directions +in perspective, a flat umbel of foliage, a bearing +which is most purely and nobly exhibited by the stone +pine. These pine-woods, which extend over miles +of country in the Mark of Brandenburg, are repeated +in more luxuriant development in the “pine-barrens” +of North America. Here, as there, loving a sandy +soil, they extend in a broad band several hundred +miles long, down to the coast of North Carolina, +forming by their mass a very prominent feature in +the physiognomy of the whole country.</p> + +<p>Still more striking is the distinction between the +particular formations of the leafy woods; the +crowded arrangement of the social beeches, limes, or +elms produces woods with dusky shades and a soil +void of vegetation, while the proud oak, repressing +the growth of all other trees in its immediate neighborhood, +stands alone upon a soil pleasantly clothed +with grass and herbs, or unites in small groups +to form those wonderful woodland landscapes to +which the immortal pencil of Ruysdäel so often introduces +us.</p> + +<p>Differently acts the massive lustre of the magnolia +woods of the southern part of North America, from +the elegant beauty of the African acacia groves, or +the ghost-like transparency of the northern birch, +and the whole tropical world unfolds a multiformity, +the description of which would be an inexhaustible +theme.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1137">[1137]</span></p> + +<p>When the dense foliage hinders the action of the +sun and the refreshing breeze, and thus retards +the decomposition of the vegetable masses, where the +ground, flat and without any declivity, allows the accumulation +of water, and the more since the heaped-up +bodies of dead plants continually increase the barriers +to the efflux, and the humus formed greedily +sucks up the moisture—there are formed the most +extensive swamps. By the progressive action of the +remains of vegetation the ground becomes elevated, +and such spongy, semi-fluid masses often lie, at +length, far above the level of the surrounding plain, +the sun’s heat never sufficing, even when storms remove +the protecting roof, to dry up the marsh, or to +restrain its increase. Such a swamp rises twelve feet +above the surrounding plains in Virginia, between +the towns of Suffolk and Walden, and is called by the +inhabitants “the Great Dismal,” giving origin to considerable +rivers and supplying them with water. +The North American cypress (Cupressus disticha) +it is which with its delicate but dense foliage gives +rise to the formation of these structures. It is the +same tree which forms the terrible evil-renowned cypress +swamps of Louisiana, on the banks of the Red +River and the Mississippi. Gigantic trunks of unprecedented +mightiness crowd together, interweaving +their branches and spreading an obscure twilight +in the brightest day. The soil consists merely of half-decayed +blocks piled one upon another, alternating +with a fathomless mud, in which the voracious alligators +and snapping-turtles wallow, the sole lords of +this hell, steaming up almost beneath the tropical sun—thus +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1138">[1138]</span>in the height of summer; in the spring the +thick, miry floods of the issuing streams impetuously +overflow this malignant vegetation for many miles. +Thus these cypress-swamps, of which Seatsfield has +given us such a vivid picture, correspond in inland +countries to the mangrove-woods which border the +mouths of almost all the tropical rivers. Composed +of a very few species of plants, among which the +mangrove-tree is the most common, they are especially +striking from the great number of strong roots +springing out high up the stem, and bearing this aloft +above the surface. The peculiar habitation of this +plant is the <em>brackish water</em>, which consists, at the ebb, +of the fresh water of the river, which is dislodged by +the sea-water at the flood. The numerous roots often +form a so thickly entangled mass that the interspaces +may be stopped up by the falling leaves, collecting +thus a soil for a new vegetation, beneath which, at +different hours of the day, roll the waves of the river +and the sea. But more frequently the roots merely +operate to retard the flow of the water and to retain +in their interlacements the vegetable and animal +bodies driven down the river, which then decay here +in contact with sea-water and its salts. In these regions +the terrible sulphureted hydrogen gas is developed +so abundantly, poisoning the atmosphere, that +the natives who have lived in these abodes from their +youth upward totter about as it were like spectres, +while death almost inevitably snatches off the Europeans +who enter there.</p> + +<p>As the hill between mountain and level land, so between +the wood-formation and the plain a link is +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1139">[1139]</span>formed by the bush and the plains, displaying merely +small, isolated groups of trees.</p> + +<p>A portion of the so-called woods on the northern +coast of Australia must be reckoned here, those which +clothe the enormous tract extending southward into +the interior from Raffles Bay and Essington. They +exhibit a wholly peculiar physiognomy, which is repeated +almost everywhere throughout this strange +country. The trees and bushes have leathery leaves, +the majority of them being covered with a white, +resinous powder, which gives them the most monotonous, +dismal, pallid look possible. The principal +trees are species of Eucalyptus, Acacia, Leptospermum +and Melaleuca. Many other plants, scarcely +to be reckoned by the side of those named, live beneath +the shelter of those lofty grayish stems, which +stand far apart, and by their meagre, incessantly +trembling foliage, remind us of the weeping willow. +Handsome tufts of grass, with long, slender halm, +grow throughout the whole extent of these bushes, +and in them nestle the kangaroo, with the ring-dove +and other birds. The sun’s rays readily penetrate the +narrow leaves, always waving on their long petioles, +and produce an uncertain light mingled with fleeting +shadows. The eye sees far up through the vault of +twigs and leaves, and is arrested, not so much by the +density of vegetation as by the continually changing +glance of an uncertain mystic light.</p> + +<p>Still lighter, still less representative of the closed +conditions of woods, is the proper palm-form where +the social kinds are grouped together. The real +palm-groves on the northern border of Sahara and +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1140">[1140]</span>on the shores of the Brazilian rivers more resemble +open columned halls with perforated roofs; and on +the dry soil of the elevated plains of Mexico the stems +of the yucca, fourcroya, and other high-stemmed +liliaceous plants are collected in a very peculiar way, +affording neither shade from the sun nor shelter from +the wind. To these approach the deformed masses +of the Maguey-plants, with their broad, thick, rigid, +dull-green leaves, sharply toothed on their borders, +and their flowering stalks twenty feet high, rounded +off into strange, fantastic, and impenetrable bush by +cacti of manifold forms.</p> + +<p>The impenetrable chaparrals in the extensive +plains between the Nueces and the Rio Grande, +formed of mosquito-shrubs, six to seven feet high, +entwined with lianes; the palmetto-fields on the +shores of the Sabine, Natchez, and other rivers of +Texas, formed of rush and dwarf palms; the low +acacia bush of Australia Felix, and lastly the wide +jungles traversed by the elephants and tigers in the +East Indies, and formed of bamboo and other lofty +grasses, are all peculiarly characterized formations +of bush, which often not attaining the height of a +man, or but little exceeding it, do not all betray at +the first glance the frequently insuperable obstacle +they oppose to the intruder, and even after man has +settled in the neighborhood can only be traversed by +paths which the wild animals have made.</p> + +<p>With a kind of feeling of disappointed expectation +rides the traveler in the prairies of the West, anything +but refreshing appears the monotonous surface uniformly +overgrown with high grass, the line of the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1141">[1141]</span>horizon unbroken even by the smallest elevation. +He rides and rides, but ever boundless space expands +before his eyes, in the same uniformity, in the same +calm simplicity.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="i_302" style="max-width: 50em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/i_302.jpg" alt="Various germs as seen under a microscope"> + <figcaption class="caption"> + Bacteria and Vegetable Germs<br> +<p class="fs80"> + 3, Pneumonia; 5, Anthrax; 7, Diphtheria; 8, Tuberculosis; 9, Leprosy; + 10, Tetanus; 11, Influenza; 12, Typhus; 14, Cholera</p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Situated under similar latitudes and climatal conditions, +the pampas of Buenos Ayres have a character +similar to that of the North American prairies, +only man by his influence on nature has here and +there impressed a peculiar stamp. The thistle and +artichoke, coming with the Europeans, have quickly +made themselves masters of the free soil, and with +incredible rapidity overspread districts of many +square miles with their spiny vegetation, which has +here developed in a luxuriance unknown in Europe. +These thistle-wastes have become a terrible nuisance, +themselves robbers, depriving better plants of the +soil, inaccessible hiding-places for the great thievish, +sanguinary cats, and the still more dangerous human +bandits, the thorny weed of semi-civilization.</p> + +<p>From the western border of northern France, +through Belgium, North Germany, and Russia, almost +to the eastern confines of Siberia, extends a +broad plain rarely interrupted by low chains of hills, +and just as rarely affording fitting soil for extensive +growth of wood, which, on the whole, confines itself +to the more favorable soil moistened by the vicinity +of rivers. Along the southern border of this plain +extends a chain of hills and mountains, now projecting +forward like capes into the broad surface, now retreating +into broad or narrow creeks, the coast of a +sea formerly covering the whole plain. Over all this +endless expanse has one single species of plant established +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1142">[1142]</span>an almost exclusive predominance, the heath, +which has lent its name to those tracts of land. Conditions +similar to those which produce the distinction +between the pine barrens and cypress swamps in +North America are also active here to cause an essential +difference. The great flatness of the ground, even +geological conditions in many places, as where slight +elevations of the land forming flat inclosed basins, +prevent, in many situations, the free discharge of +water, and the heath, backed by the special vegetation +produced by the moisture, forms by the annual +accumulation of vegetable matter, which in water +only becomes to a certain degree carbonized or decomposed, +those black masses of the remains of +plants which as peat bear such an important part in +the economy of the inhabitants. Thus, in various +modes of distribution, alternate arid, dry sandy heaths +with moist, spongy peat heaths or moors. On the +margin of the latter, more rarely actually upon them, +and on the heaths of Luneburg are often found splendid +oaks, which, overshadowing one of those pleasant +straw-thatched houses and thrown out by the +background of the peculiar red tint of the glancing +heather, produce a picturesque charm which would +not have been expected here. With these great moors +may be associated the peat moors of some of the +higher mountain chains of the Brocken, the Röhn, +and the Fichtel-Gebirge, and so on, and the so-called +mosses of South Germany and Switzerland.</p> + +<p>In another climate, in another zone of vegetation, +exist similar conditions, stretching across the extreme +north of Europe. As there the arid sandy heaths +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1143">[1143]</span>alternate with the wet moors, so here in a more varied +manner do the dry, waterless tracts, with the +marshy grounds. But we are here in Wahlenberg’s +region of lichens and mosses. The arid situations are +clothed, in expanses over which the eye can not reach, +with dry, lead-gray lichens, among which the reindeer +seeks his meagre sustenance, and in the half-fluid +grounds, which will not bear the lightest footsteps, a +luxuriant vegetation of mosses deceives us, in the distance, +with the aspect of a smiling meadow. Here +the incautious wanderer sinks into the water, which +is rather concealed than displaced by the mosses, +while on those lichen heaths, tundras, the Laplanders +call them, in summer the glowing soil makes every +step a torture.</p> + +<p>The wood-formations of the South American catingas +may be opposed to the northern leafy woods +and, in like manner, the plains of the llanos of Venezuela +to the Russian steppes. In the former, of which +A. von Humboldt has given such a vivid sketch, the +sleep of nature commences with summer, in the hot, +dry season; the vegetation becomes dried up and falls +to dust, leaving the ground bare; animal life, in the +quadrupeds, flies from the dead land, while the crocodiles +and boas burrow into the mud of the gradually +exhausted rivers of the steppes, and with this become +fixed, till the first torrent of rain, which conjures up +a fresh, youthful vegetation on the barren soil and +awakens them to life.</p> + +<p>It is different in the steppes which stretch from +southern Russia eastward through central Asia. I +will only mention the strange salt-steppes, which in +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1144">[1144]</span>summer often glitter like newly fallen snow, from the +salt which effloresces from the soil and nourishes a +wholly peculiar vegetation. Yet I can not refrain +from attempting a brief description of the sparingly +populated but still inhabited Tartarian steppes of +Pontus. These do not uniformly present a level surface, +being broken by the durrinas, low tracts of +bush of blackthorns, hawthorns, roses and brambles. +But the remaining part of the vegetation is also divided +by the inhabitants of lesser Russia, according +to its use for pasture, into two essentially distinct +groups, the truwa, the turf, and the burian, the +rough, branching plants which, on account of their +woody stem, afford no sustenance to the herds of the +steppes. The feather-grass⁠<a id="FNanchor_7_7" href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> is the principal among +the Graminaceous plants. Directly after flowering, +it expands its long, delicately feathered awns, not +unlike marabout feathers, from the spike which rises +high above the tuft of narrow, dry leaves. The older +the steppe, the higher develops the woody root-stock +above the soil, to the annoyance of the mower. Whoever +travels but a few miles into the steppes soon +hears the word burian. Against the burian inveighs +the herdsman with his oxen and horses; over the +burian laments the husbandman; the burian is the +curse of the gardener and the hope of the cook. For +in the soil of the steppe, which is peculiarly fertile +for certain plants, which we call weeds, these shoot +up to an incredible height, wherever cultivation has +loosened the solid soil, which they avoid, and their +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1145">[1145]</span>peculiar use is that, dried up in the autumn, they +furnish the only fuel of those regions. Above all, as +in the pampas of Buenos Ayres, the thistles distinguish +themselves, acquiring a size, a development, +and ramification which is really marvelous. Often +do they stand like little trees around the humble +earth-hovels of the country people; on favorable soil, +they often form extensive bush, even overtopping the +horseman, who is as helpless in it as in a wood, since +they intercept the sight and yet afford no trunk +which might be climbed. Beside the thistle rises the +wormwood, intermingled with the gigantic mullein +or hightaper, the “steppe-light” of lesser Russia. +Even the little milfoil grows several feet high and +is not a little prized, since the inhabitants, from +their poor provision, value it as the best material +for fuel. But the most characteristic of all the plants +of the burian is that which the Russians call “Perekatipole,” +the “Leaf in the Field,” and the German +colonists, almost more happily, the “Wind Witch.” +A poor thistle-plant, it divides its strength in the +formation of numerous dry, slender shoots, which +spread out on all sides and are entangled with one +another. More bitter than wormwood, the cattle +will not touch it even in times of the utmost famine. +The domes which it forms upon the turf are often +three feet high and sometimes ten to fifteen in circumference, +arched over with naked, delicate thin +branches. In the autumn the stem of the plant rots +off, and the globe of branches dries up into a ball, +light as a feather, which is then driven through the +air by the autumnal winds over the steppe. Numbers +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1146">[1146]</span>of such balls often fly at once over the plain with +such rapidity that no horseman can catch them; now +hopping with short, quick springs along the ground, +now whirling in great circles round each other, rolling +onward in a spirit-like dance over the turf, now, +caught by an eddy, rising suddenly a hundred feet +into the air. Often one wind witch hooks on to another, +twenty more join company, and the whole gigantic +yet airy mass rolls away before the piping east +wind.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-1146"> + THE HIGH WOODS<br> + —<span class="smcap">Charles Kingsley</span> +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">My first feeling on entering the high woods was +helplessness, confusion, awe, all but terror. +One is afraid at first to venture in fifty yards. Without +a compass or the landmark of some opening to +or from which he can look, a man must be lost in +the first ten minutes, such a sameness is there in the +infinite variety. That sameness and variety make it +impossible to give any general sketch of a forest. +Once inside “you can not see the woods for the trees.” +You can only wander on as far as you dare, letting +each object impress itself on your mind as it may, +and carrying away a confused recollection of innumerable +perpendicular lines, all straining upward, +in fierce competition, toward the light-food far +above; and next on a green cloud, or rather mist, +which hovers round your head, and rises, thickening +and thickening to an unknown height. The upward +lines are of every possible thickness, and of almost +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1147">[1147]</span>every possible hue; what leaves they bear, being for +the most part on the tips of the twigs, give a scattered, +mist-like appearance to the under foliage. +For the first moment, therefore, the forest seems +more open than an English wood. But try to walk +through it, and ten steps undeceive you. Around +your knees are probably Mamures, with creeping +stems and fan-shaped leaves, something like those +of a young cocoanut palm. You try to brush among +them, and are caught up instantly by a string or wire +belonging to some other plant. You look up and +round: and then you find that the air is full of +wires—that you are hung up in a network of fine +branches belonging to half a dozen sorts of young +trees, and intertwined with as many different species +of slender creepers. You thought at your first glance +among the tree-stems that you were looking through +open air; you find that you are looking through a +labyrinth of wire-rigging, and must use the cutlass +right and left at every five steps. You push on into a +bed of strong sedge-like Sclerias, with cutting edges +to their leaves. It is well for you if they are only +three, and not six, feet high. In the midst of them +you run against a horizontal stick, triangular, +rounded, smooth, green. You take a glance along +it right and left, and see no end to it either way, +but gradually discover that it is the leaf-stalk of a +young Cocorite palm. The leaf is five-and-twenty +feet long, and springs from a huge ostrich plume, +which is sprawling out of the ground and up above +your head a few yards off. You cut the leaf-stalk +through right and left, and walk on, to be stopped +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1148">[1148]</span>suddenly (for you get so confused by the multitude +of objects that you never see anything till you run +against it) by a gray lichen-covered bar, as thick +as your ankle. You follow it up with your eyes, and +find it entwine itself with three or four other bars, +and roll over with them in great knots and festoons +and loops twenty feet high, and then go up with them +into the green cloud over your head and vanish, as +if a giant had thrown a ship’s cables into the tree-tops. +One of them, so grand that its form strikes +even the negro and Indian, is a Liantasse. You see +that at once by the form of its cable—six or eight +inches across in one direction, and three or four in +another, furbelowed all down the middle into regular +knots, and looking like a chain cable between two +flexible iron bars. At another of the loops, about +as thick as your arm, your companion, if you have a +forester with you, will spring joyfully. With a few +blows of his cutlass he will sever it as high up as he +can reach, and again below, some three feet down; +and while you are wondering at this seemingly +wanton destruction, he lifts the bar on high, throws +his head back, and pours down his thirsty throat a +pint or more of pure, cold water. This hidden +treasure is, strange as it may seem, the ascending sap, +or, rather, the ascending pure rain-water which has +been taken up by the roots, and is hurrying aloft, to +be elaborated into sap, and leaf, and flower, and +fruit and fresh tissue for the stem up which it originally +climbed, and therefore it is that the woodman +cuts the water-vine through first at the top of +the piece which he wants and not at the bottom; +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1149">[1149]</span>for so rapid is the ascent of the sap that if he cut +the stem below the water would have all fled upward +before he could cut it off above. Meanwhile +the old story of Jack and the Beanstalk comes into +your mind. In such a forest was the old dame’s hut, +and up such a beanstalk Jack climbed to fight a +giant, and a castle high above. Why not? What +may not be up there? You look up into the green +cloud, and long for a moment to be a monkey. +There may be monkeys up there over your head—burly +red Howler, or tiny, peevish Sapajou, peering +at you, but you can not peer up at them. The +monkeys and the parrots and the humming-birds and +the flowers and all the beauty are upstairs—up +above the green cloud. You are in “the empty nave +of the cathedral,” and “the service is being celebrated +aloft in the blazing roof.”</p> + +<p>We will hope that as you look up you have not +been careless enough to walk on, for if you have you +will be tripped up at once; nor to put your hand out +incautiously to rest it against a tree, or what not, for +fear of sharp thorns, ants, and wasps’ nests. If you +are all safe, your next steps, probably, as you struggle +through the bush between tree-trunks of every +possible size, will bring you face to face with huge +upright walls of seeming boards, whose rounded +edges slope upward till, as your eye follows them, +you find them enter an enormous stem, perhaps +round, like one of the Norman pillars of Durham +nave, and just as huge; perhaps fluted, like one +of William of Wykeham’s columns at Winchester. +There is the stem, but where is the tree? Above the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1150">[1150]</span>green cloud. You struggle up to it between two +of the board walls, but find it not so easy to reach. +Between you and it are half a dozen tough strings +which you had not noticed at first—the eye can not +focus itself rapidly enough in this confusion of distances—which +have to be cut through ere you can +pass. Some of them are rooted in the ground, +straight and tense; some of them dangle and wave +in the wind at every height. What are they? Air-roots +of wild pines, or of Matapolos, or of figs, or +of Seguines, or of some other parasite? Probably; +but you can not see. All you can see is, as you put +your chin close against the trunk of the tree and look +up, as if you were looking up against the side of a +great ship set on end, that some sixty or eighty feet +up in the green cloud arms as big as English forest trees +branch off, and that out of their forks a whole +green garden of vegetation has tumbled down +twenty or thirty feet, and half climbed up again. +You scramble round the tree to find whence this +aerial garden has sprung; you can not tell. The +tree-trunk is smooth and free from climbers, and +that mass of verdure may belong possibly to the very +cables which you met ascending into the green cloud +twenty or thirty yards back, or to that impenetrable +tangle a dozen yards on, which has climbed a small +tree, and then a taller one again, and then a taller +still, till it has climbed out of sight, and possibly +into the lower branches of the big tree. And what +are their species? What are their families? Who +knows? Not even the most experienced woodman +or botanist can tell you the names of plants of which +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1151">[1151]</span>he only sees the stems. The leaves, the flowers, the +fruit, can only be examined by felling the tree; and +not even always then, for sometimes the tree, when +cut, refuses to fall, linked as it is by chains of liane +to all the trees around. Even that wonderful water-vine +which we cut through just now may be one of +three or even four different plants.</p> + +<p>Soon you will be struck by the variety of vegetation, +and you will recollect what you have often +heard, that social plants are rare in the tropic forests. +Certainly they are rare in Trinidad, where the only +instances of social trees are the Moras (which I have +never seen growing wild) and the Moriche palms. +In Europe a forest is usually made up of one dominant +plant—of firs or of pines, of oaks or of beeches, +of birch or of heather. Here no two plants seem +alike. There are more species on an acre here than +in all the New Forest, Savernake, or Sherwood. +Stems rough, smooth, prickly, round, fluted, stilted, +upright, sloping, branched, arched, jointed, opposite-leaved, +alternate-leaved, leafless, or covered with +leaves of every conceivable pattern, are jumbled together, +till the eye and brain are tired of continually +asking, “What next?” The stems are of every +color, copper, pink, gray, green, brown, black, as if +burnt, marbled with lichens, many of them silvery +white, gleaming afar in the bush, furred with +mosses and delicate creeping film-ferns, or laced with +the air-roots of some parasite aloft. Up this stem +scrambles a climbing Seguine with entire leaves; +up the next, another quite different, with deeply cut +leaves; up the next, the Ceriman spreads its huge +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1152">[1152]</span>leaves latticed and forked again and again. So fast +do they grow, that they have not time to fill up the +spaces between their nerves, and are consequently +full of oval holes; and so fast does its spadix of flowers +expand, that (as indeed do some other Aroids) +an actual genial heat, and fire of passion, which may +be tested by the thermometer, or even by the hand, is +given off during fructification. Beware of breaking +it or the Seguines. They will probably give off +an evil smell, and as probably a blistering milk. +Look on at the next stem. Up it, and down again, +a climbing fern, which is often seen in hothouses, +has tangled its finely cut fronds. Up the next a +quite different fern is crawling, by pressing tightly +to the rough bark its creeping root-stalks, furred like +a hare’s leg. Up the next, the prim little Griffechatte +plant has walked, by numberless clusters of +small cat’s claws which lay hold of the bark. And +what is this delicious scent about the air? Vanille? +Of course it is; and up that stem zigzags the green +fleshy chain of the Vanille Orchis. The scented pod is +far above, out of your reach, but not out of the reach +of the next parrot, or monkey, or negro-hunter who +winds the treasure. And the stems themselves—to +what trees do they belong? It would be absurd for +one to try to tell you who can not tell one-twentieth +of them himself. Suffice it to say that over your +head are perhaps a dozen kinds of admirable timber +which might be turned to a hundred uses in Europe, +were it possible to get them thither: your guide will +point with pride to one column after another, straight +as those of a cathedral, and sixty to eighty feet without +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1153">[1153]</span>branch or knob. That, he will say, is Fiddle-wood; +that a Carap; that a cedar; that a Roble +(oak); that, larger than all you have seen yet, a +locust; that a Poui; that a Guatecare; that an +Olivier—woods which, he will tell you, are all but +incorruptible, defying weather and insects. He will +show you, as curiosities, the smaller but intensely +hard letter wood lignum-vitæ, and purple heart. +He will pass by as useless weeds Ceibas and sandbox-trees, +whose bulk appalls you. He will look up, with +something like a malediction, at the Matapalos, +which every fifty yards have seized on mighty trees, +and are enjoying, I presume, every different stage +of the strangling art, from the baby Matapalo, who +has let down his first air-root along his victim’s +stem, to the old sinner whose dark crown of leaves +is supported, eighty feet in air, on innumerable +branching columns of every size, cross-clasped to +each other by transverse bars. The giant tree on +which his seed first fell has rotted away utterly, and +he stands in its place, prospering in his wickedness, +like certain folk whom David knew too well. +Your guide walks on with a sneer, but he stops +with a smile of satisfaction as he sees lying on the +ground dark green glossy leaves, which are fading +into a bright crimson, for overhead somewhere there +must be a Balata, the king of the forest; and there, +close by, is his stem—a madder-brown column, +whose head may be a hundred and fifty feet or more +aloft. The forester pats the sides of his favorite tree +as a breeder might that of his favorite race-horse. +He goes on to evince his affection, in the fashion of +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1154">[1154]</span>the West Indians, by giving it a chop with his cutlass, +but not in wantonness. He wishes to show you +the hidden virtues of this (in his eyes) noblest of +trees—how there issues out swiftly from the wound +a flow of thick white milk, which will congeal, in an +hour’s time, into a gum intermediate in its properties +between caoutchouc and gutta-percha. He talks of +a time when the English gutta-percha market shall +be supplied from the Balatas of the northern hills +which can not be shipped away as timber. He tells +you how the tree is a tree of a generous, virtuous, and +elaborate race—“a tree of God, which is full of +sap,” as one said of old of such—and what could he +say better, less or more? For it is a Sapota, cousin +to the Sapodilla, and other excellent fruit-trees, itself +most excellent even in its fruit-bearing power; +for every five years it is covered with such a crop +of delicious plums that the lazy negro thinks it worth +his while to spend days of hard work, besides incurring +the penalty of the law (for the trees are +government property), in cutting it down for the +sake of its fruit.</p> + +<p>But this tree your guide will cut himself; so he +leaves a significant mark on his new-found treasure +and leads you on through the bush, hewing his way +with light strokes right and left, so carelessly that +you are inclined to beg him to hold his hand and +not destroy in a moment things so beautiful, so +curious—things which would be invaluable in an +English hothouse.</p> + +<p>And where are the famous orchids? They perch +on every bough and stem; but they are not, with +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1155">[1155]</span>three or four exceptions, in flower in the winter; and +if they were, I know nothing about them—at least I +know enough to know how little I know. Whosoever +has read Darwin’s <cite>Fertilization of Orchids</cite>, and +finds in his own reason that the book is true, had best +say nothing about the beautiful monsters till he has +seen with his own eyes more than his master. And +yet even the three or four that are in flower are +worth going many a mile to see. In the hothouse +they seem almost artificial from their strangeness; +but to see them “natural,” on natural boughs, gives +a sense of their reality which no unnatural situation +can give. Even to look up at them, as one rides by, +and to guess what exquisite and fantastic forms may +issue, in a few months or weeks, out of those fleshy, +often unsightly, leaves, is a strange pleasure—a spur +to the fancy which is surely wholesome, if we will +but believe that all these things were invented by +A Fancy, which desires to call out in us, by contemplating +them, such small fancy as we possess; +and to make us poets, each according to his power, +by showing a world in which, if rightly looked at, +all is poetry.</p> + +<p>Look here at a fresh wonder. Away in front of us +a smooth gray pillar glistens on high. You can see +neither the top nor the bottom of it. But its color +and its perfectly cylindrical shape tell you what it +is—a glorious Palmiste; one of those queens of the +forest which you saw standing in the fields, with its +capital buried in the green cloud and its base buried +in that bank of green velvet plumes, which you must +skirt carefully round, for they are a prickly dwarf +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1156">[1156]</span>palm, called here Black Roseau. Close to it rises +another pillar, as straight and smooth, but one-fourth +of the diameter—a giant’s walking-cane. Its head, +too, is in the green cloud. But near are two or three +younger ones only forty or fifty feet high, and you +see their delicate feather heads, and are told that +they are Manacques; the slender nymphs which attend +upon the forest queen, as beautiful, though not +as grand, as she.</p> + +<p>The land slopes down fast now. You are tramping +through stiff mud, and those Roseaux are a sign +of water. There is a stream or gully near; and now, +for the first time, you can see clear sunshine through +the stems, and see, too, something of the bank of +foliage on the other side of the brook. You catch +sight, it may be, of the head of a tree aloft, blazing +with golden trumpet-flowers, which is a Poui; and +of another lower one covered with hoar-frost, perhaps +a Croton; and of another, a giant covered with +purple tassels: this is an Angelim. Another giant +overtops even him. His dark, glossy leaves toss off +sheets of silver light as they flicker in the breeze, +for it blows hard aloft outside while you are in +stifling calm. That is a Balata. And what is that +on high—twenty or thirty square yards of rich crimson +a hundred feet above the ground? The flowers +may belong to the tree itself. It may be a mountain +mangrove, which I have never seen in flower; but +take the glasses and decide. No. The flowers belong +to a liane. The “wonderful” Prince of Wales’s +feather has taken possession of the head of a huge +Mombin, and tiled it all over with crimson combs, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1157">[1157]</span>which crawl out to the ends of its branches, and +dangle twenty or thirty feet down, waving and leaping +in the breeze. And over all blazes the cloudless +blue.</p> + +<p>You gaze astonished. Ten steps downward and +the vision is gone. The green cloud has closed again +over your head and you are stumbling in the darkness +of the bush, half blinded by the sudden change +from the blaze to the shade. Beware. “Take care +of the Croc-chien!” shouts your companion; and +you are aware of, not a foot from your face, a long, +green, curved whip armed with pairs of barbs some +four inches apart; and are aware also at the same +moment that another has seized you by the arm, +another by the knees, and that you must back out, +unless you are willing to part with your clothes first +and your flesh afterward. You back out, and find +that you have walked into the tips—luckily only +into the tips—of the fern-like fronds of a trailing +and climbing palm such as you see in the Botanic +Gardens. That came from the East, and furnishes +the rattan canes. This furnishes the gri-gri canes, +and is rather worse to meet, if possible, than the +rattan. Your companion, while he helps you to +pick the barbs out, calls the palm laughingly by +another name, “Sueltami-Ingles,” and tells you the +old story of the Spanish soldier at San Josef. You +are near the water now, for here is a thicket of +Balisiers. Push through, under their great plantain-like +leaves—step down the muddy bank to that patch +of gravel. See first, though, that it is not tenanted +already by a deadly Mapepire, or rattlesnake, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1158">[1158]</span>which has not the grace, as his cousin in North +America has, to use his rattle.</p> + +<p>The brooklet, muddy with last night’s rain, is +dammed and bridged by winding roots, in shape +like the jointed wooden snakes which we used to +play with as children. They belong probably to +a fig, whose trunk is somewhere up in the green +cloud. Sit down on one, and look, around and aloft. +From the soil to the sky, which peeps through here +and there, the air is packed with green leaves of every +imaginable hue and shape. Round our feet are +Arums, with snow-white spadixes and hoods, one +instance among many here of brilliant color developing +itself in deep shade. But is the darkness of the +forest actually as great as it seems? Or are our eyes, +accustomed to the blaze outside, unable to expand +rapidly enough, and so liable to mistake for darkness +air really full of light reflected downward, +again and again, at every angle, from the glossy surfaces +of a million leaves? At least we may be excused; +for a bat has made the same mistake, and +flits past us at noonday. And there is another—no; +as it turns, a blaze of metallic azure off the upper +side of the wings proves this one to be no bat, but a +Morpho—a moth as big as a bat. And what was +that second larger flash of golden green, which dashed +at the moth and back to yonder branch not ten feet +off? A Jacamar—kingfisher, as they miscall her +here, sitting, fearless of man, with the moth in her +long beak. Her throat is snowy white, her under +parts rich red brown. Her breast and all her upper +plumage and long tail glitter with golden green. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1159">[1159]</span>There is light enough in this darkness, it seems. But +now look again at the plants. Among the white +flowered Arums are other Arums, stalked and +spotted, of which beware; for they are the poisonous +Seguine-diable, the dumb-cane, of which evil +tales were told in the days of slavery. A few drops +of its milk, put into the mouth of a refractory slave, +or again into the food of a cruel master, could cause +swelling, choking, and burning agony for many +hours.</p> + +<p>Over our heads bend the great arrow leaves and +purple leaf-stalks of the Tanias; and mingled with +them leaves often larger still: oval, glossy, bright, +ribbed, reflecting from their under side a silver light. +They belong to Arumas; and from their ribs are +woven the Indian baskets and packs. Above these, +again, the Balisiers bend their long leaves, eight or +ten feet long apiece; and under the shade of the +leaves their gay flower-spikes, like double rows of +orange and black birds’ beaks upside down. Above +them, and among them, rise stiff, upright shrubs, +with pairs of pointed leaves, a foot long some of +them, pale green above, and yellow or fawn-colored +beneath. You may see, by the three longitudinal +nerves in each leaf, that they are Melastomas of +different kinds—a sure token that you are in the +tropics—a probable token that you are in tropical +America.</p> + +<p>And over them, and among them, what a strange +variety of foliage. Look at the contrast between the +Balisiers and that branch which has thrust itself +among them, which you take for a dark, copper-colored +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1160">[1160]</span>fern, so finely divided are its glossy leaves. +What a contrast again, the huge feathery fronds of +the Cocorite palms which stretch right away hither +over our heads, twenty and thirty feet in length. +And what is that spot of crimson flame hanging in +the darkest spot of all from an under bough of that +low, weeping tree? A flower head of the Rosa del +Monte. And what that bright, straw-colored fox’s +brush above it, with a brown hood like that of an +Arum, brush and hood nigh three feet long each? +Look—for you require to look more than once, +sometimes more than twice—here, up the stem of +that Cocorite, or as much of it as you can see in the +thicket. It is all jagged with the brown butts of its +old fallen leaves; and among the butts perch broad-leaved +ferns and fleshy orchids, and above them, +just below the plume of mighty fronds, the yellow +fox’s brush, which is its spathe of flower.</p> + +<p>What next? Above the Corcorites dangle, amid a +dozen different kinds of leaves, festoons of a liane, +or of two, for one has purple flowers, the other +yellow—Bignonias, Bauhinias—what not? And +through them a Carat palm has thrust its thin, bending +stem and spread out its flat head of fan-shaped +leaves twenty feet long each: while over it, I verily +believe, hangs eighty feet aloft the head of the very +tree upon whose roots we are sitting. For amid +the green cloud you may see sprigs of leaf somewhat +like that of a weeping willow; and there, probably, +is the trunk to which they belong, or rather what +will be a trunk at last. At present it is like a number +of round edged boards of every size, set on end, and +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1161">[1161]</span>slowly coalescing at their edges. There is a slit +down the middle of the trunk, twenty or thirty feet +long. You may see the green light of the forest +shining through it. Yes, that is probably the fig; +or, if not, then something else. For who am I, that +I should know the hundredth part of the forms on +which we look?</p> + +<p>And above all you catch a glimpse of that crimson +mass of Norantea which we admired just now; and, +black as yew against the blue sky and white cloud, +the plumes of one Palmiste, who has climbed toward +the light, it may be for centuries, through the green +cloud; and now, weary and yet triumphant, rests +her dark head among the bright foliage of a Ceiba, +and feeds unhindered on the sun.</p> + +<p>There, take your tired eyes down again; and turn +them right or left, where you will, to see the same +scene, and yet never the same. New forms, new +combinations; wealth of creative Genius—let us use +the wise old word in its true sense—incomprehensible +by the human intellect or the human eye, even +as He is who made it all, whose garment, or rather +whose speech, it is.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-1161"> + MILK-SAP PLANTS<br> + —<span class="smcap">M. J. Schleiden</span> +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">All the plants which count caoutchouc among +their products belong to the torrid zone. A. +von Humboldt, in his <cite>Ideas of a Geography of +Plants</cite>, remarked that the plants yielding <em>milky</em> juices +multiply as we approach the tropics. This <em>milky +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1162">[1162]</span>juice</em> of plants it is which contains the peculiar elastic +substance. The tropical heat seems to exert a distinct +influence in its perfect formation, for it has been +remarked that the same plants which under the equator +yield abundance of caoutchouc contain instead, +with us, even in hothouses, a substance which resembles +the bird-lime obtained from our native mistletoe.</p> + +<p>Who among my readers has not seen our indigenous +wolf’s-milk or spurge, the white milky juice +of which popular superstition recommends as a remedy +against warts? Who has not in youth at least +become acquainted with the celandine, from the +broken stalk and leaf of which a bright orange-colored +juice runs out? Who has not observed that the +lettuce, when it has run up to flower, ejects a milk-white +fluid at the slightest touch? But the occurrence +of milky juices in plants is not limited to these +few. The vegetable world presents to us most useful +as well as poisonous matters in this milky sap, and I +will content myself at present with recalling to recollection +opium, the dried milky juice of our large +garden poppy.</p> + +<p>A great number of plants, which principally belong +to three great families, namely, the Spurges, the +Apocynoceæ, and the Nettle plants, are distinguished +by a peculiar anatomical structure. In their bark, +and also partly in their pith, we find a quantity of +long, variously curved and branched tubes, which +are not unlike the veins of animals. In these tubes +we find a thick juice of the consistence of very rich +milk, whence it is called milk-sap. Its color is usually +milk-white, but yellow, red, and, very rarely, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1163">[1163]</span>blue milk-saps are met with, but more frequently +still they are wholly colorless. Like animal milk, +this juice consists of a colorless fluid and small globules. +The composition displays the most varied +constituents, and upon the variation of quantity and +modes of mixture of these matters depend the abundant +varieties of this juice. All contain more or less +caoutchouc, which occurs in the form of little globules. +These are prevented from coalescing by an +albuminous substance, in the same way as are the +butter globules in milk. Exactly like the cream (the +butter) in milk, the caoutchouc globules rise to the +surface of the milk-sap of plants when left to stand, +here form a cream, and can not, any more than butter, +be separated again into their distinct globules.</p> + +<p>All those three great families which are distinguished +by their abundance of milk-sap, although +differing very widely botanically, exhibit some most +remarkable agreements through the nature of their +milk-sap.</p> + +<p>The spurges or Euphorbiaceæ constitute the most +important group in reference to the amount of caoutchouc +contained. From the Port of Para in South +America, from Guiana, and the neighboring states, +an incredible quantity of India-rubber is shipped for +Europe, and this is principally obtained from a large +tree growing in those regions, called the Siphonia +elastica. That beautiful tree, the Siphonia, is about +sixty feet high, and has a smooth brownish-gray bark, +in which the Indians make long and deep incisions +down to the wood, from whence the white juice then +abundantly flows forth.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1164">[1164]</span></p> + +<p>Many other plants of this group contain caoutchouc, +but from none is it so easy to obtain in large +quantity. Though the sap of Siphonia is at least +harmless, though the juice of the Tabayba dolce +(Euphorbia balsamifera) is even similar to sweet +milk and, thickened into a jelly, eaten as a delicacy +by the inhabitants of the Canary Islands, as Leopold +von Buch relates in his interesting description of the +Canaries; yet most of the plants of this group are +to be counted among the suspicious, or even most actively +poisonous, on account of this very juice. And +yet, strangely enough, they also furnish a most wholesome +food, which we have scarcely anything to compare +with. Throughout all the hotter part of America +the culture of the mandioc-root (Jatropha Manihot) +is one of the most important branches of husbandry. +The native savages and the Europeans, the +black slave and free man of color alike substitute for +our white bread and rice the tapioca and the Mandiocca +farinha, or Cassava-meal, and the cakes prepared +from it (<i lang="es">pan de tierra caliente</i> of the Mexicans). +The sweet yucca (Yuca dulce), which is the +name applied there to the mandioc plant, must be +distinguished from the sour or bitter kind (Yuca +amara). The former, which is therefore cultivated +with great care, may be eaten at once without danger; +while the latter, eaten fresh, is an active poison. +They serve the uncivilized son of the South American +tropics for food.</p> + +<p>The sated savage saunters round to seek a new +sleeping-place, but woe to him! inadvertently he has +prepared his couch beneath the dreadful manchineel +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1165">[1165]</span>(Hippomane Mancinella), and in a sudden shower +the rain drips from its leaves upon him. In frightful +pain he wakes up, covered with blisters and +ulcers, and if he escapes with life, he is at least the +richer of a fearful experience of the poisonous properties +of the Euphorbiaceæ. But this will seldom +happen to a native; the manchineel is avoided in +America with the same mysterious and almost superstitious +awe as the fabulous poison-tree in Java. +Happily, the trumpet-tree (Bignonia leucoxylon), +the sap of which is the surest antidote against the +manchineel, usually rears its beautiful purple blossoms +close at hand, the constant companion of that +dangerous Euphorbiacean.</p> + +<p>The planter of the Cape strews over pieces of flesh +the pounded fruit of a plant that grows there (Hyænanche +globosa), and lays them as an infallible poison +for the hyena. The wild inhabitants of southern +Africa, according to Bruce, poison their arrows with +a spurge (Euphorbia caput Medusæ). Virey states +that the Ethiopians make a similar application of +others (Euphorbia heptagona, Euphorbia virosa, Euphorbia +cereiformis), while the savages of the most +southern part of America use the sap of a third (Euphorbia +cotinifolia). Nay, even our seemingly so +innocent box, which also belongs to this family, is +so injurious that in places in Persia, where it much +abounds, no camels can be kept, because it is impossible +to prevent their feeding on this plant, which is +deadly to them. I can not take leave of this family +without mentioning a remarkable phenomenon, reported +to us by Martius, in that work so full of information, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1166">[1166]</span>his <cite>Travels Through Brazil</cite>. A spurge +grows there (Euphorbia phosphorea), the milk of +which, when it flows forth from the stem in the dark, +hot summer nights, emits a bright phosphoric light.</p> + +<p>While the family just alluded to, the blossoms being +generally insignificant, attract the attention of our +horticulturists almost solely through their strange +forms, which, in some of them, approach to those of +the cactus plants, the family of the Apocynaceæ is, +on the contrary, a rich ornament of our gardens and +hothouses, on account of the wonderful beauty of its +blossoms, and is often still more attractive from the +remarkable structure of the flowers, and the aberrant, +also cactus-like form of the plant itself. What +lover of flowers knows not the splendid blossom of the +species of Carissa, Allamanda, Thevetia, Cerbera, +Plumieria, Vinca, Nervium, and Gelsemium; the +strange stalk and toad-colored, ill-smelling flowers of +the Stapelia? But this family is not less interesting in +other respects. The best caoutchouc at present +known, that from Pulo Penang, comes from a plant +of this family (Cynanchum ovalifolium). Also that +from Sumatra (Urceola elastica), from Madagascar +(Vahea gummifera), a part of the Brazilian Collophora +utilis and Hancornia speciosa, and the East +Indian Willughbeia edulis are obtained from plants +which belong to the group of Apocynaceæ.</p> + +<p>Most strangely, this family also, as well as the +following and last, exhibits the peculiar phenomenon +which was described in the first-named, the Euphorbiaceæ, +namely, that the milk-sap is in some species +rich in India-rubber, in others it is tempered +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1167">[1167]</span>into a clear, agreeably smelling and wholesome milk, +while in certain others, on the contrary, this fluid +grows, step by step, through successively increasing +quantity of noxious matter to a most dreadful poison. +In the forests of British Guiana grows a tree which +the natives call Hya-Hya (Tabernæmontana utilis). +Its bark and pith are so rich in milk that an only +moderate-sized stem, which Arnott and his companions +felled on the bank of a large forest brook, in the +course of an hour colored the water quite white and +milky. This milk is perfectly harmless, of a pleasant +flavor, and is taken by the savages as a refreshing +drink. Still more pleasant must be the taste of the +milk of the Ceylon cow-tree, the Kiriaghuma (Gymneura +lactiferum), which, according to Burmann’s +narrative, the Cingalese use exactly as we do milk.</p> + +<p>Dreadful, on the contrary, is the action of the terrible +wourali poison, which the inhabitants of the +banks of the Orinoco concoct with mystic conjurations, +the chief ingredients of which are furnished +by the juice of a plant belonging here (Echites suberecta) +and the bark of another, likewise an Apocynaceous +tree, Strychnos guinanensis and Strychnos +toxifera. The North Americans also use an Apocynaceous +plant (Gonolobium macrophyllum) to +poison their arrows; and Mungo Park related the +like of the Mandingoes of the Niger (according to +him it is a species of Echites).</p> + +<p>Many allied plants are among the most active poisons +(Cerbera Thevetia and Cerbera Ahovai), and +the seeds of this group, in particular, are almost more +remarkable for their deadliness than those of the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1168">[1168]</span>foregoing, for two of the most violent vegetable poisons, +strychnine and brucine, occur in them. Some of +our most active medicinal substances are especially +known on this account; for instance, the St. Ignatius’s +beans (Ignatia amara from Manila), and the +Nux vomica (Strychnos nux Vomica), distributed +throughout the tropics.</p> + +<p>It would not be difficult to make some of the more +important characters of the two families I have mentioned +so clear, even to a person unacquainted with +botany, that he would be enabled readily to distinguish +any plant belonging to them. Very different +is it with the following, the last group, the Jussieuan +family of nettle-plants, or Urticaceæ. The plants belonging +to this vary in the most striking manner in +their external forms, from the smallest, most insignificant +weeds, like our common pellitory of the wall +and our nettles, to vast and stately trees like the breadfruits +(Artocarpus integrifolia and incisa), which, +with their wide-stretched branches and broad, beautifully +formed leaves, overshadow the huts of the +South Sea Islander, who lives upon their savory fruit. +As in the family of the spurges, only some few plants +bestow in their seed a pleasant nut-like kernel (as +Aleurites triloba in the Moluccas, Conceveiba guianensis +in South America); as in the Apocynaceous +group, several trees afford cooling, juicy, and therefore +highly valued fruits to the inhabitants of hot +regions (Carissa Carandas in the East Indies, Carissa +edulis in Arabia, etc.), so the family of the Urticaceæ +includes the strangest multiplicity of fructifications. +The little oil grains of the hemp, the green grape-like +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1169">[1169]</span>bunches which gracefully adorn the slender twining +hop, the aromatic mulberry, the sweet fig, the useful +bread-fruit, all those so various forms belong to one +group of plants, and the botanist traces in all the +same fundamental structure, however incongruous +these manifold shapes may appear to the eye of the +uninitiated. One peculiarity alone extends without +exception throughout all the species of this large +order, namely, the presence of fine but strong bass-fibres +in the bark. The German name for muslin, +<span lang="de">Nessel-tuch</span> (nettle-cloth), denotes the source from +whence the fibre of which it is made was originally +obtained (Urtica cannabina), and the skilful industry +of the gentle Tahitan prepares the most delicate +stuff, without spinning-wheel or loom, from the fine +white bass of the auté of paper-mulberry (Broussonetia +papyrifera).</p> + +<p>An elegant tree, allied to the last, the Holquahuitl +of the Mexicans, or Ule di Papantla of the +Spaniards (Castilloa elastica Deppe), furnishes the +caoutchouc of New Spain, and the inconceivable +quantities of this substance which are brought to our +ports from the East Indies are collected in great +part from the venerable fig-trees in which that Asiatic +tropical world is so rich. On a trunk of giant +girth, but seldom more than fifteen feet high, rests +the enormous crown of the banyan, or holy fig (Ficus +religiosa); the branches often run a hundred feet +horizontally out from the trunk, sending down to the +ground, at various intervals, long straight roots, +which quickly penetrate and take firm hold, thus +becoming props to the long branches. These wonderful +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1170">[1170]</span>trees, each one resembling a small wood, are +dedicated to the god Fo, and the helpless, lazy Bonze +builds his hut, not unlike a bird-cage, in its branches, +in which he passes the day, sometimes asleep, sometimes +dreaming in contemplative indolence in the +pleasant cool shade. These great fig-trees (Ficus +religiosa, indica, benjaminea, elastica) have sweet +fruits, and their milk-sap contains the interesting +caoutchouc. Some of these plants also yield a harmless +juice. By far the most remarkable in this respect +is the <span lang="es">Palo de Vacca</span> or <span lang="es">Arbol de Leche</span>, the cow-tree +of South America (Galactodendron utile), which +was first made known to us by Alexander von Humboldt. +When a tolerably large incision is made into +the trunk of this tree, a white, oily, fragrant, and +sweet fluid, very similar to animal milk, flows out +in sufficient quantity to refresh and satisfy the hunger +of several persons.</p> + +<p>A striking contrast to this is afforded by the properties +of other nettle-plants. One is tempted to call +them the serpents of the vegetable kingdom; and +the parallel is not difficult to carry out. The similarity +between the instruments with which both produce +and poison their wounds is very remarkable. +The snakes have in the front of the upper jaw two +long, thin, somewhat curved teeth, which are perforated +lengthwise by a minute canal, which opens in +front at the sharp point. These teeth are not fixed +firmly in the jaw like the others, but movable, like, +but in a less degree, the claws of a cat. Beneath each +tooth, in a cavity in the jaw, lies a little gland, in +which the poison is prepared, and the excretory duct +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1171">[1171]</span>of this gland runs through the canal in the tooth, +and opens at its apex. When the animal bites, the +resistance of the bitten body pushes back the tooth, so +that it presses upon the gland, which squeezes out of +it the deadly fluid into the wound. If we examine, +now, the hairs on the leaf of the nettle, we find a +wonderful agreement. The stinging hair consists of +a single cell, terminating above in a little knob. Below, +it expands into a small sac, which contains the +irritating juice.</p> + +<p>The slightest touch breaks off the brittle point with +the little knob, the canal of the hair is thus opened, +and it penetrates any soft substance; in consequence +of the pressure which the resistance to its entry exerts +upon the sac, a portion of the poisonous juice is +ejected out into the wound. The poisons of our native +nettles and snakes are not of much consequence, +but the nearer we approach the tropics, the more frequent +and more deadly they both become. Where +the glowing Indian sun ripens the poison of the fearful +spectacle snake, there grow the most dangerous +nettles.</p> + +<p>Every one among us has felt the slight but irritating +sting of the nettle which it produces by its +slender poisonous hair, but we have no notion of the +torture which its near allies (Urtica stimulaus, Urtica +crenulata) produce in the East Indies. A gentle +touch suffices to cause the arm to swell up with the +most frightful pain, and the suffering lasts for weeks; +nay, a species growing in Timor (Urlica urentissima) +is called by the natives Daoun Setan (devil’s +leaf), because the pain lasts for years, and often even +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1172">[1172]</span>death can only be avoided by the amputation of the +injured limb.</p> + +<p>We do, indeed, find many violent poisons in this +family, and even some species of fig are included +among the most dangerous plants (Ficus toxicaria), +but it is not worth while to linger among those of +lesser importance. The tales recounted of the Upas +and the Poison-valley mingle almost like a dark and +gloomy legend in our knowledge of the East Indian +islands.</p> + +<p>In the Sixteenth Century stories circulated about +the macassar poison-tree of the Celebes; and physicians +and naturalists came gradually to tell of the +action of the poison, the descriptions of which had +become so terrible that if the smallest quantity entered +the blood, not only immediate death resulted, +but its action was so fearfully destructive that within +half an hour afterward the flesh fell from the bones. +From Rumph we learned that the poison-tree is also +met with in Sumatra, Borneo, and Bali, as well as in +Celebes. But the Dutch surgeon, Försch, first spread +the wild tales of the poison-tree of Java about the end +of the Eighteenth Century.</p> + +<p>Two very different trees grow in those little visited +primeval forests of Java. All the paths leading to +them are closed and watched, like those leading to +the gates of the Holy of Holies. With fire and axe +must the road be made through the impenetrably interwoven +mass of lianes, the paullinias, with their +clusters of great scarlet blossoms several feet long, +the cissi or wild vines, on the widespread creeping +roots of which thrives the gigantic flower of the Rafflesia +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1173">[1173]</span>Arnoldi. Palms, with spines and thorns, rush-like +plants with cutting leaves, wounding like knives, +warn the intruder back by their attacks, and in every +part of the thicket threaten the fearful nettles formerly +mentioned. Great black ants, whose painful +bite tortures the wanderer, and countless swarms of +tormenting insects pursue him. Are these obstacles +overcome? Yet follow the dense bundles of bamboo +stems, as thick as a man’s arm, and often fifty feet +high, the firm glassy bark of which repels even the +axe. At last the way is opened and the majestic aisles +of the true primeval forest now display themselves. +Gigantic trunks of the bread-fruit, of the iron-like +teak (Tectona grandis), of Leguminosæ, with their +beautiful blossoms, of Barringtonias, figs, and bays, +form the columns which support the massive green +vault. From branch to branch leap lively troops of +apes, provoking the wanderer by throwing fruit upon +him. From a moss-clad rock the melancholy orang-outang +raises himself gravely on his staff, and wanders +into deeper thickets. All is full of animal life; +a strong contrast to the desert and silent character of +many of the primeval forests of America. Here a +twining, climbing shrub, with a trunk as thick as +one’s arm, coils round the columns of the dome, overpassing +the loftiest trees, often quite simple and unbranched +for a length of a hundred feet from the +root, but curved and winding in the most varied +forms. The large, shining green leaves alternate +with the long and stout tendrils with which it takes +firm hold, and greenish-white heads of pleasant +smelling flowers hang pendent from it. This plant, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1174">[1174]</span>belonging to the Apocynaceæ, is the Tjettek of the +natives (Strychnos Tieute), from the roots of which +the dreadful Upas Radia, or Sovereign Poison, is +concocted. A slight wound from a weapon poisoned +with this—a little arrow made of hard wood, and +shot from the blow-tube, as by the South Americans—makes +the tiger tremble, stand motionless a minute, +then fall as though seized with vertigo, and die in +brief but violent convulsions. The shrub itself is +harmless, and he whose skin may have been touched +with its juice need fear no consequences. As we go +forward, we meet with a beautiful slender stem, +which overtops the neighboring plants. Perfectly +cylindrical, it rises sixty or eighty feet, smooth and +without a branch, and bears an elegant hemispherical +crown, which proudly looks down on the more +humble growths around, and the many climbers +struggling up its stem. Woe to him who heedlessly +should touch the milk-sap that flows abundantly from +its easily wounded bark. Large blisters, painful +ulcers, like those produced by our poisonous sumach, +only more dangerous, are the inevitable consequences. +This is the Antiar of the Javanese, the Pohon Upas +(signifying poison-tree) of the Malays, the Ipo of +Celebes and the Philippines (Antiaris toxicaria).</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-1174"> + NUTS<br> + —<span class="smcap">Grant Allen</span> +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">On the wooded slope where the park shelves +slowly toward the Bourne Brook, the ground +to-day (October) is thickly strewn in many places +with the sharp, prickly husks and small, barren, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1175">[1175]</span>angular nutlets of the beautiful Spanish chestnuts. +They are not truly indigenous to Britain, these +noble spreading forest trees, though they have been +planted so long in our pleasure grounds and lawns +that we have got to look upon them almost as naturalized +British subjects; and the climate, though +it suits the leaves and wood well enough, is not +sufficiently kindly to ripen the fruits in due season; +they are almost always mere empty, shriveled shells +here in England, so that we have to import seed for +sowing from the mountain regions of Southern +Europe. There we have all seen them growing in +their own wild luxuriance on the lower escarpments +of the Alps or the Apennines, and bringing forth +fertile nuts sufficient to feed half the teeming population +of the Lombard plain in seasons of scarcity. Side +by side with them in the park here, the boys are impartially +shying sticks at the very similar, though +wholly unrelated, clusters of the common horse-chestnuts, +which, in spite of their close external likeness, +belong in reality to a totally different and much more +restricted family. The true chestnut is a catkin bearer, +a near relation of the English oak, as one might almost +guess at sight from its foliage and habit; the +horse-chestnut is a member of a tribe unrepresented +in our native English flora, but not very unlike the +maples and sycamores in its principal characters. +It is interesting to note how in the case of these two +wholly different and originally dissimilar trees +similarity of circumstances has at last produced such +great similarity of adaptive peculiarities.</p> + +<p>The key to this strange resemblance between the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1176">[1176]</span>chestnut and the horse-chestnut is to be found in the +fact that they are both <em>nuts</em>—they have survived in +the struggle for existence by adopting for their seed-vessels +the exactly opposite tactics from those +adopted by the true fruits. A fruit, as we have +often seen, is a seed-vessel which lays itself out, by +all the allurements of bright color, sweet scent, +sugary juices, and nutritive properties, to attract +animals who will aid it by swallowing it, and so +eventually dispersing its seeds. But a nut is a seed-vessel +which, on the contrary, being richly supplied +with starches and oils for the supply of the young +plantlet, would be injured and diverted from its real +intent and purport if it were to be eaten and digested +by any animal. Accordingly, nuts have concentrated +all their efforts upon repelling rather than attracting +the attention of animals; or, to put it in a more +strictly physical way, those nuts which have happened +to be least attractive in color and most protected +by hairs, spines, prickles, or bitter juices have +best succeeded in escaping the attacks of animals, +and so have prospered best in the struggle for existence. +Thus, to drop into metaphor once more, +while the fruits want to be eaten, the nut, on the contrary, +wants to escape.</p> + +<p>We may take the chestnut as a very good example +of the general result which the necessity for protection +usually produces in these peculiar seed-vessels. +While it still grows on the tree the entire fruit +is green and unobtrusive, hardly noticeable at a little +distance among the heavy foliage which covers +it on every side. Compare this shrinking and +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1177">[1177]</span>secretive habit with the brilliancy and vividness of +oranges and mangoes, or even with our own bright-colored +northern rose-hips, and haws, and mountain +ashes, and holly-berries. Again, instead of being +smooth skinned and soft, like these bird-enticing +fruits, the outer rind of the chestnut is rough and +repellent with serried prickles, which rudely wound +the tender nose of the too inquisitive squirrel, or +even the feathery cheeks of the more protected nut-hatch. +Once more, when the separate nuts inside +have fallen out upon the ground, they are no longer +green like the foliage upon the tree, but light brown +or “chestnut,” like the dead leaves and withered +bracken into whose midst they have gently fallen. +Chestnuts themselves are apparently sufficiently protected +by these devices of color and prickliness; they +do not seem further to require the special nut-like +covering of a hard and woody shell; but the filbert, +which suffers far more from the depredations of +dormice, squirrels, nut-hatches, and other birds or +mammals, has not only incased itself without in a +green husk covered by sharp and annoying little +hairs, but has also acquired a very solid and difficult +shell, which often succeeds in baffling even the keen +teeth or beaks of its persistent and aggressive animal +foes.</p> + +<p>Indeed, even among British nuts, one may trace +a regular gradation (not, of course, genealogical) +from the softest and least protected to the hardest +and most defensive kinds. The acorn, produced in +vast numbers by a very large and long-lived tree, +the oak, has hardly any need of a strong outer coat +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1178">[1178]</span>of armor, especially as its kernel is rather bitter and +far from attractive to most animals, though it still +feeds a considerable legion of hoarding squirrels, +and must once have been munched in immense quantities +by the native wild boars, or their mediæval +successors, the half-tamed forest swine. In the +beech, the shell of the actual nut itself is merely +leathery; but the outer coat or involucre is sprinkled +over with distinctly protective prickles. (It is worth +while to note in passing that the beechnuts or mast +rarely contain a kernel in Britain—in other words, +they are almost always sterile; whereas in other +countries where the beeches are more sturdy, the nuts +are usually fertile; and this fact may be put side by +side with the corelative fact that the beech is a decadent +tree in England, where it was once dominant, +but is now rapidly dying out before our very eyes, at +least in its indigenous form.) In the lime, the very +small nut has a decided shell, while its globular +shape also makes it difficult for quadrupeds to open +with their paws and teeth. Finally, in the hazel, +the filbert has a very hard integument indeed, and a +disagreeable, husky covering of smarting hairs.</p> + +<p>Our own English nuts are only exposed to the attacks +of extremely small and comparatively harmless +mammals, or of inconsiderable native birds; +and, therefore, their defensive tactics have never +been carried any further than in the case of the +hedgerow filbert. But in southern climates, and especially +in the tropics, nuts are exposed to far larger +and more dangerous forestine foes, like the monkeys +and parrots, against whose teeth or bills, as we all +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1179">[1179]</span>know, even the solid shell of the Barcelona cob is +absolutely no protection. Hence, under these circumstances, +only the very hardest or most disagreeable +nuts have been able to survive and to grow up +in due time into flourishing nut-trees. Sometimes, +as in the walnut, the chief protection is afforded by +a nauseous outer rind—a system which reaches its +climax in the South American cashews, whose pungent +juice blisters the skin like a cantharides plaster; +sometimes, as in the cocoanut, it is afforded by great +thickness and hardness of shell, which sets at naught +the most persistent endeavors of the hungry aggressor. +In the Brazil nut, a number of sharp, angular +nuts are crowded together inside a large and hard +outside shell, so that even after the monkey has +managed to crack the big outer nut, he has still to open +all the inside nuts one by one in detail. It is worth +while to notice, too, that an exactly similar modification +is undergone in the tropics by the stones of +stone-fruits; which are really nuts in disguise, covered +only by a soft, sweet pulp that entices animals +to aid in dispersing them, by dropping the hard seed +on to the ground in favorable spots for its growth. +In temperate climates the stones are only hard +enough to defy squirrels and birds: in tropical countries +they are hard enough to defy monkeys and +parrots. Compare, for example, the English sloe +or bird-cherry with the peach-stone, and the English +haw with the mango or vegetable ivory. This last +nut is one of the oddest in the whole range of nature, +for it is here the actual kernel itself that grows +so hard and horny. Yet even the vegetable ivory, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1180">[1180]</span>which consists really of very solid starchy cells, +softens and yields up its material to the growing +plant as soon as the embryo it incloses begins to +sprout under the influence of warmth and moisture.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-1180"> + THE CACTUS TRIBE<br> + —<span class="smcap">M. J. Schleiden</span> +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">Let us leave the forest of Guiana, the last mat-roof +of the Guaranese between the trunks of the +<ins class="corr" id="tn-1180" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: 'the Mauritus palm'"> +Mauritius</ins> palm, and enter the pampas of Venezuela, +of which Humboldt has sketched such a clever and +vivid picture. No smiling verdure clothes the glowing +rock-soil here; here and there in its crevices the +Melocactus displays its round balls, “horrid” with +threatening thorns. Ascend we thence the Andes; +instead of tender grass, the earth is covered with +pale, gray-green globes of spiny Mamillarias, +while, intermingled, rises the solemn and mournful +old-man cactus, with its venerable-looking long gray +hair. Borne on the wings of fancy further north, +we descend into the plains of Mexico, where the gigantic +fragments of the city of the Aztecs, a product +of a solitary era of civilization long lost to history, +display themselves; the landscape spreads out before +us as the bare and naked Tierra caliente, parched +by the glowing sun; of a dull green hue, without a +branch or leaf, the angled-columns of the torch-thistles +rise twenty or thirty feet high, hemmed in +with an impenetrable thicket of irritably pricking +Indian figs, while round about appear the strangest, +ugliest forms, in the groups of the Echinocacti and +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1181">[1181]</span>little Cerei, between which creeps snake-like, or as +some great poisonous reptile, the long, dry stem of +the great flowered cactus (Cereus nycticallus). In +short, one family accompanies us through all our +wanderings, that of the cactus plants, which seems in +all its wondrous forms to withdraw itself entirely +from the principle of beauty, and yet at the same time +presses forward so strikingly, so determinately marking +the peculiar character of the landscape, that we +are compelled to turn our attention to it. And in +truth, a group which appears to retreat so far from +all the laws of other plants deserves our interest in a +very high degree.</p> + +<p>Everything about these plants is wonderful. With +the exception of the genus Peireskia, no plant of the +order possesses leaves. Those parts of Cactus alatus, +and the Indian fig, which are commonly called +leaves, are nothing but flattened expansions of the +stem. On the other hand, they are all distinguished +by an extraordinarily fleshy stem, which, clothed by +a grayish-green, leathery cuticle, and beset, in the +places where leaves are situated in regular plants, +with various tufts of hair, spines, and points, +gives by its very varied degrees of development the +varied character of the plants. The torch-thistles +rise in form of nine-angled or often round columns +to a height of thirty or forty feet, mostly branchless, +but sometimes ramifying in the strangest ways, and +looking like candelabra; the Indian figs are more +humble; their oval, flat branches, arranged upon one +another on all sides, produce special forms. The +lowest and thickest torch-thistles connect themselves +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1182">[1182]</span>with hedgehog and melon-cacti, with their projecting +ribs, and thus lead us to the almost perfectly +globular Mamillarias, which are covered very regularly +with fleshy warts of various heights. Finally, +there are forms in which the growth in the longitudinal +direction prevails, which with long, thin, often +whip-like stems, like those of the serpent-cactus, +hang down from the trees upon which they live as +parasites.</p> + +<p>Few families have so limited a range of distribution +upon the globe. All the species of cactus, perhaps +without a single exception, are indigenous in +America, between the parallels of 40° S. lat. and 40° +N. lat. But some of them were so rapidly distributed +through the Old World directly after the discovery +of America, that they may almost be looked upon as +fully naturalized there. Almost all delight in a dry +situation, exposed to the burning rays of the sun, +which contrasts strangely with their fleshy tissue, +tumid with watery and not unpleasantly flavored +with acid juice. This peculiarity gives them inestimable +value to the fainting traveler, and Bernardin +de St. Pierre has aptly called them the “Springs of +the Desert.” The wild ass of the llanos, too, knows +well how to avail himself of these plants. In the dry +season, when all animal life flees from the glowing +pampas, when cayman and boa sink into death-like +sleep in the dried-up mud, the wild ass alone, traversing +the steppe, knows how to guard against +thirst; cautiously stripping off the dangerous spines +of the Melocactus with his hoof, and then in safety +sucking the cooling vegetable juice. In vertical extension, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1183">[1183]</span>the cacti are not confined within such narrow +limits, and they stretch from the lowest tracts +along the coast, through the vast plains, up to the +highest ridges of the Andes chain. On the shore of +Lake Titicaca, 12,700 feet above the level of the sea, +are seen the tall-stemmed Peireskias with their splendid +deep brown-red blossoms, and on the plateaus of +southern Peru, near the limit of vegetation, therefore +about 14,000 feet high, the wanderer is surprised +by peculiar shapes of a yellowish-red color, which at +a distance look like reposing savages, but which a +closer inspection reveals to be shapeless heaps of +low cacti, closely beset with yellowish-red spines.</p> + +<p>What Nature has withheld, however, in external +aspect, she has, in most, richly replaced in the magnificent +blossom. We are astonished to find the deformed +gray-green mass of the Mamillaria decked +with the most beautiful purple-red flowers. Strange +is the contrast between the wretched and gloomy aspect +of the naked, dry stem of the large-flowered +torch-thistle (Cereus grandiflorus), and its large, +splendid, Isabel-colored,⁠<a id="FNanchor_8_8" href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> vanilla-scented, flowers, +which, unfolding under cover of the silent night, +beam like suns, and in the wonderful sporting of +their stamens, seem almost to strive toward a higher—an +animal life.</p> + +<p>But it is not the beauty of the blossom alone which +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1184">[1184]</span>gladdens us, not the refreshing sap alone that revives +the languishing traveler. The economic uses are +also manifold. Almost all the cacti bear edible fruit, +and a portion of them are among the most delightful +refreshments of the hot zones which ripen them. Almost +all the Opuntias, known by the name of Indian +figs, furnish, in the West Indies and Mexico, a favorite +dessert fruit, and even the little rose-red berries +of the Mamillarias, which with us are tasteless, +have, beneath the tropics, a pleasant, acidulated, +sweet juice. We may say, in general terms, that their +fruit is a nobler form of our native gooseberry and +currant, to which also they are the nearest allies in a +botanical point of view. Succulent as is the stem +of most of the cacti, yet, in the course of time, they +perfect in it a wood as firm as it is light. This is +especially the case in the tall columnar species of +cereus, the old dead stems of which, after the decay +of the gray-green rind, remain erect, their white +wood standing ghost-like among the living stems, +till a benighted traveler seizes it in that scantily +wooded region, to make a fire to protect him from the +mosquitoes, to bake his maize-cake, or burns it as a +torch to light up the dark tropical night. It is from +the last use that they have obtained the name of torch-thistles. +These stems, on account of their lightness, +are carried up on mules to the heights of the Cordilleras, +to serve as beams, posts, and door-sills in the +houses; as, for instance, in the mayoral of Antisana, +perhaps the highest inhabited spot in the world (12,604 +feet). Just as their allies, the gooseberry bushes, +are used by our country people to form hedges to +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1185">[1185]</span>their gardens, are the Opuntias in Mexico, on the west +coast of South America and in the southern part of +Europe, and with greater success in the Canaries; +their firm, shapeless branches soon interweave themselves +into an impenetrable barrier, opposing, by +their dreadful spines, an insuperable obstacle to the +intruder. Lastly, the medicine-chest does not go +away empty, for the physicians of America make +abundant use of the acid juice for fomentations in +inflammations, not to mention some other prescriptions.</p> + +<p>In the same way that grass and clover are not +immediately valuable to man, but serve as food for +useful animals, so it is with a number of cacti, which +support an insect of extraordinary importance. This +is the cochineal insect (Coccus Cacti), a little, very +insignificant creature, externally just like the little, +white, cottony parasite, which is so often found upon +the plants in our hothouses, and yet, through the +invaluable coloring matter it contains, so infinitely +different from it.</p> + +<p>While the ugly form, the splendor of the blossom, +and the manifold uses of the cactus plants attract general +interest in a high degree, they are not less interesting, +in a narrower sphere, to the botanist. Zoologists +have at all times found in the examination of +monstrosities and aberrant forms rich material toward +the clearing and expanding of their knowledge +of the regularly developing organism. It is to be +expected, therefore, that similar conditions will have +similar value in the vegetable world; and what family +could be better selected for this purpose than the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1186">[1186]</span>Cactaceæ, which seems to be but a natural museum +of monstrosities, where the forms are, in some cases, +so abnormal that no other name could be thought of +for one species but that of the deformed cactus +(Cereus monstrosus)?</p> + +<p>It is believed that from the vast amount of watery +juice in the cactus tribe, joined to the fact that most +of them, and exactly those richest in sap, vegetate +on dry sand, almost wholly devoid of vegetable +mould, where they are besides exposed often three-fourths +of the year to the parching sunbeams of an +eternally serene sky; from this combination of circumstances, +even, it is thought that we may the more +safely conclude that these plants draw their nourishment +from the air, since in our own hothouses also +it has been observed that the branches of cactus +stems cut off and left forgotten in a corner without +further care, far from dying, have frequently +grown on and made shoots three feet long or more. +De Candolle first found the right path when he +weighed such cactus shoots which had grown without +soil, and found that the plant, though larger, was +always lighter, therefore, instead of abstracting anything +from the atmosphere, must rather have given +up something to it. All the growth takes place, in +such cases, at the expense of the nutritive matter previously +accumulated in the juicy tissue, and it generally +exhausts the plant to such a degree that it is +no longer worth preserving. It is that succulent tissue +which enables the cactus plants—one might compare +them with the camels—to provide themselves +beforehand with fluid, and thus to brave the rainless +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1187">[1187]</span>season. Their anatomical structure also assists them +in this respect in a peculiar manner. We know from +the experiments of Hales that plants chiefly evaporate +the water they contain through their leaves, and +the cactus tribe have none. Their stem, too, unlike +that of all other plants, is clothed with a peculiar +leathery membrane, which wholly prevents evaporation. +This membrane is composed of very strange, +almost cartilaginous, cells, the walls of which are +often traversed by elegant little canals. Its thickness +varies in different species, and it is thickest, and +therefore most impenetrable, in the Melocacti, +which grow in the driest and hottest regions, while +it is least remarkable in the species of Rhipsalis, +which are parasites on the trees of the damp Brazilian +forests.</p> + +<p>Another striking point about this group is the formation +of an extraordinary quantity of oxalic acid. +If this acid were collected in large amount in the +plant, it must necessarily be dead to it. The plant, +therefore, takes up from the soil on which it grows +a proportionate quantity of lime, which combines +with the oxalic acid, forming insoluble crystals, +which occur in abundance in all the Cactaceæ.</p> + +<p>A third peculiarity is exhibited in the globular +forms of Melocactus and Mamillaria, in the structure +of the wood, which differs entirely from that +of the common ligneous plants. Common wood, for +example that of the poplar, is composed of long +<em>wood-cells</em>, the walls of which are quite simple and +uniform, and of cells containing air, the so-called +<em>vessels</em>, the walls of which are very thickly beset +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1188">[1188]</span>with little pores. Wholly unlike this, the wood +of the cactus, above-mentioned, exhibits only short, +spindle-shaped cells, inside which wind most elegant +spiral bands, looking like little spiral staircases.</p> + +<p>Lastly, the hair, spines, etc., situated in the places +of leaves, deserve a special mention. Generally +speaking, three forms may be distinguished, all three +usually occurring together on the same spot. The +first are very flexible, simple hairs, which form a +little flat, soft cushion; among these is found a bunch +of longish but thin spines. These it is chiefly which, +on account of their peculiar structure, make the careless +handling of the cactus plants so dangerous. +These little spines are very thin and brittle, so that +they readily break off, and are covered with barbed +hooks directed backward from the point. When +touched, a whole bunch penetrate the skin; if an attempt +is made to draw them out, the separate spines +break in the skin, and the fragments pierce in other +places; when the hand is drawn over them, they catch +in, and an insufferable itching, terminating in a slight +inflammation, spreads over all the parts which have +been touched. The Opuntia ferox is especially remarkable +for these spines, whence its name, the <em>savage</em>. +Among the hairs and smaller spines arise very +long and thick spines, in different form and number, +which give the best characters for the determination +of the species. In some these are so hard and strong +that they even lame the wild asses which incautiously +wound themselves, when kicking off the spines to +reach the means to still their thirst. In Opuntia Tuna, +which is the kind most frequently used for hedges, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1189">[1189]</span>they are so large that even the buffaloes are killed +by the inflammation following from these spines running +into their breasts.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-1189"> + FUNGI<br> + —<span class="smcap">Hugh Macmillan</span> +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">Fungi are intimately associated with autumn; +unrobed prophets that see no sad visions themselves, +but that bring to us thoughts of change and +decay. Indeed, so close is this association that they +may be called autumn’s peculiar plants. The bluebell +still lingers on the wayside bank, and in the +woods a few bright but evanescent and scentless flowers +appear, but fungi and fruits form the wreath that +encircles the sober and melancholy brow of autumn: +fruits, the death of flower-life; fungi, the resurrection +of plant-death. The seasonal conditions which +arrest the further progress of all other vegetation, +which cause the leaf to fall, and the flower to wither, +and the robe of nature everywhere to change and +fade, give birth to new forms of plant-life which +flourish amid decay and death. From the relics of +the former creations of spring and summer reduced +to chaos, springs up a new creation of organic life; +and thus nature is not a mere continuous cycle of +birth, maturity, and decay, but rather a constant appearance +of old elements in new forms.</p> + +<p>In many respects they are the most mysterious and +paradoxical of all plants. In their origin, their +shapes, their composition, their rapidity of growth, +the brevity of their existence, their modes of reproduction, +their inconceivable number and apparent +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1190">[1190]</span>ubiquity, they are widely different from every other +kind of vegetation with which we are acquainted. +In studying their history we walk amid surprises; +and as we lift each corner of the veil, more and more +marvelous are the vistas that reveal themselves.</p> + +<p>The first thing that suggests remark in regard to +these curious organisms is their origin. Incapable +of deriving the elements of growth from the crude +unorganized crust of the earth, they are parasitical +upon organic bodies, and are sustained by animal +and vegetable substances in a state of decomposition. +That living and often nutritious objects should +spring from festering masses of corruption and decay; +that plants, endowed with all the organs and +capacities of life, should start into existence from +the dead tree that crumbles into dust at the slightest +touch, or draw their nourishment from dried and +exhausted animal excretions, which have lain for +months under the influence of drenching rains and +scorching sunbeams, is indeed a profound mystery +of nature. No sooner does the majestic oak yield +to the universal law of death, than several minute +existences, which had been previously bound up and +hid within its own, reveal themselves, seize upon the +body with their tiny fangs, fatten and revel upon its +decaying tissues, and in a short space of time reduce +the patriarch and pride of the forest, which had +braved the storms of a thousand years, into a hideous +mass of touchwood, or into a heap of black dust. +How strikingly do these plants illustrate the great +fact, that in nature nothing perishes; that in the wonderful +metamorphoses continually going on in the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1191">[1191]</span>universe there is change, but not loss; that there is +no such thing as death, the extinction of one form +of existence being only the birth of another, each +grave being a cradle.</p> + +<p>In many of their properties the fungi are closely +allied to some members of the animal kingdom. +They resemble the flesh of animals in containing a +large proportion of albuminous proximate principles; +and produce in larger quantity than all other +plants azote or nitrogen, formerly regarded as one +of the principal marks of distinction between plants +and animals. This element reveals itself by the +strong cadaverous smell, which most of them give +out in decaying, and also by the savory meat-like +taste which others of them afford. Of all known +bodies, nitrogen is the most unstable. Its compounds +are decomposed by slight causes; and, therefore, its +presence in the animal frame is the cause of its activity +and proneness to change. To this circumstance +also is owing the fugacious character of fungi, +their speedy growth and decay. Unlike other vegetables, +fungi possess the remarkable property of exhaling +hydrogen gas; and the great majority of +species, like animals, absorb oxygen from the atmosphere, +and disengage in return from their surface +a large quantity of carbonic acid. By chemical +analysis, they are found to contain, besides sugar, +gum, and resin, a yellow spirit like hartshorn, a yellow +empyreumatic oil, and a dry, volatile, crystalline +salt, so that their nature is eminently alkaline, like +animal substances extremely prone to corruption. +The cream-like substance, of which the family of +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1192">[1192]</span>Myxogastres is composed, resembles sarcode, and +exhibits Amœba-like movements. Some of them +contain such a quantity of carbonate of lime that a +strong effervescence takes place on the application +of sulphuric acid. Fungi feed like animals upon +organic compounds elaborated by other plants. +They contribute in no way as vegetables to the balance +of organic nature.</p> + +<p>Another property they possess, which connects +them with animals, is their luminosity. This quality +is very rare among plants, and is almost peculiar to +the lowest order of animals, particularly those which +inhabit the ocean. A species of mushroom (Agaricus +olearius) grows on the olive-tree which is often +luminous at night, and resembles the faint, lambent, +flickering light emitted by the scales of fish and sea-animals +kept in a dark place. Anomalous conditions +of various species of Polyporus, Hypoxylon, etc., +formerly referred to the genus Rhizomorpha, from +their root-like appearance, cover the walls of dark +mines with long, black, branchy, flat fibres, and give +out a remarkably vivid phosphorescent light, almost +dazzling the eye of the spectator. In the coal +mines near Dresden, these fungoid bodies are said +to cover the roof, walls, and pillars with an interlacing +network of beautiful, flickering light like +brilliant gems in moonlight, giving the coal mine the +appearance of an enchanted palace on a festival +night.</p> + +<p>Fungi growing in mines exhibit the same characteristic +colors which they display on the surface +of the ground. Sometimes, however, species that +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1193">[1193]</span>grow in caves, or in hollow trees, assume the most +curious abnormal forms, their metamorphosis remaining +incomplete, so that instead of producing +fructification the whole fungus becomes a monstrous +modification of the mycelium. Their love +of seclusion and darkness gives an etiolated, sickly +complexion to the whole tribe. In consequence of +this habit, they are, as a rule, the most sombre of all +plants, although instances occur in which the prevailing +neutral tints are exchanged for the most +brilliant scarlets and yellows. Green, which is the +most frequent of all colors, the household dress of +our mother earth, more characteristic of ferns, +mosses, lichens, and algæ than of the higher plants, +is almost unknown in the fungi; and even when it +occurs, it is always more or less of a verdigris tint, +and does not appear to be owing to the action of +light and oxygen upon the contents of the cell.</p> + +<p>Another of the remarkable peculiarities of the +fungi is the extreme rapidity of their growth, a +peculiarity more frequently to be seen among the +lowest forms of animal life than among plants. They +seem special miracles of nature, rising from the +ground, or from the decaying trunk of the tree, full-formed +and complete in all their parts in a single +night, like Minerva from the head of Jupiter, or +the armed soldiers from the dragon’s teeth of +Cadmus, sown in the furrows of Colchis. It has +long been known that the growth of fungi takes +place with great rapidity during thundery weather, +owing, in all probability, to the nitrogenized products +of the rain which then falls. One is surprised +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1194">[1194]</span>after a thunderstorm in the beginning of August, or +a day of warm, moist, misty weather, such as often +occurs in September, to see in the woods thick clusters +of these plants which had sprung into existence +in the short space of twenty-four hours, covering almost +every decayed stump and rotten tree. In +tropical countries, stimulated by the intense heat +and light, the rapidity of vegetable growth is truly +astonishing; the stout, woody stem of the bamboo-cane, +for instance, shooting up in the dense jungles +of India at the rate of an inch per hour. In the +Polynesian Islands, so favorable to vegetable life are +the climate and soil that turnip, radish, and mustard +seed when sown show their cotyledon leaves in +twenty-four hours; melons, cucumbers, and pumpkins +spring up in three days, and peas and beans in +four. But swift as is this development of vegetation +in highly favorable circumstances, the rapidity +of fungoid growth, under ordinary conditions, is +still more astonishing. These plants usually form at +the rate of twenty thousand new cells every minute. +The giant puff-ball (Lycoperdon giganteum), occasionally +to be seen in fields and plantations, increases +from the size of a pea to that of a melon in +a single night; while the common stinkhorn (Phallus +impudicus) has been observed to attain a height of +four or five inches in as many hours.</p> + +<p>Rapidity of growth in fungi is necessarily followed +by rapidity of decay. Though some of the +larger and more corky species last throughout the +summer, autumn, and winter, and a few are perennial, +growing on the same trunk for many years, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1195">[1195]</span>slowly and almost insensibly adding layer to layer, +and attaining an enormous size, yet the vast generality +of fungi are very fugacious. They are the +ephemera of the vegetable kingdom. The entire life +of most of the species ranges from four days to a +fortnight or month; while there are numerous microscopic +species of the mould family whose lives are so +brief and evanescent as scarcely to allow sufficient +time to make drawings of their forms.</p> + +<p>Fungi are extremely simple in their organization. +They bring us back to first principles, and reveal to +us the secret manner in which Nature builds up her +most complicated vegetable structures. They are +composed entirely of cellular tissue, of a definite +aggregation of loose, more or less oval, elliptical +cells with cavities between them. These cells in +many species may be seen by the naked eye, and consist +of little closed sacs of transparent colorless membrane. +Here is the starting-point of life. Such cells +are the primary germ or element from which every +living thing, whether plant or animal, is produced. +The whole process of vegetable growth is but a continuous +multiplication of these cells.</p> + +<p>Although the structure of fungi is generally of a +loosely cellular nature, yet they exhibit an astonishing +variety of consistence. Each genus, and in many +instances each species, displays a different texture. +They range in substance from a watery pulp or a +gelatinous scum to a fleshy, corky, leathery, or even +ligneous mass. Some are mere thin fibres of airy +cobweb spreading like a flocculent veil over decaying +matter; while others resemble large, irregular +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1196">[1196]</span>masses of hard, tough wood. Their qualities are +also exceedingly various. Like the ferns, they all +possess a peculiar odor by which they may be easily +recognized, although it is somewhat different in different +individuals, some smelling strongly of cinnamon +and bitter almonds, others of onions and +tallow, while others yield an insupportable stench. +As regards their tastes, the fungi are equally diversified, +being insipid, acrid, styptic, caustic, or rich and +sweet. Some have no taste in the mouth while masticated, +but shortly after swallowing there is a dry, +choking, burning sensation experienced at the back +of the throat, which lasts for a considerable time. +Upward of 3,000 distinct species have been found +and described in Britain alone; while more than +20,000 species altogether are known to the scientific +world. In round numbers it may be said that fungi +form about a third of the flowerless plants.</p> + +<p>The following instances may be brought forward +as illustrations of the remarkable shapes which many +of the fungi exhibit. On the trunk of the oak, the +ash, the beech, and the chestnut may occasionally be +seen a fungus so remarkably like a piece of bullock’s +liver that it may be known from that circumstance +alone. This is the Fistulina hepatica, or liver +fungus. Its substance is thick, fleshy, and juicy, of +a dark Modena red, tinged with vermilion. It is +marbled like beet root and consists of fibres springing +from the base, from which a red pellucid juice +like blood slowly exudes. Of all vegetable substances +this exhibits the closest resemblance to animal +tissue. Even in the minutest particular it seems +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1197">[1197]</span>to be a caricature of nature, a sportive imitation on +an unfeeling oak tree of the largest gland of the +animal body. Like the liver it is also nutritious, and +forms a favorite article of food in Austria, though it +is somewhat tough and acrid in taste. Another +remarkable species of fungus, called Jew’s Ears +(Hirneola Auricula-Judæ), from its close resemblance +to the human ear, clings to the trunks of +living trees, particularly the elder, throughout the +whole autumnal season. Another remarkable species, +the Tremella mesenterica, common all the +year round, on furze and sticks in woods, bears a +strong resemblance to the human mesentery. It is +of a rich orange color. This extraordinary resemblance +which different fungi bear to the different +parts of the animal body served to confirm the +opinion of the ancient botanists and herbalists that +they were animal structures, or at least intermediate +links between the animal and vegetable kingdoms.</p> + +<p>Although fungi in general are sober, nun-like +plants, preferring quiet Quaker colors suitable to +the dim, secluded places which they usually affect, +yet some of them depart widely from this soberness +and exhibit themselves in the most gaudy hues. Some +species are of a brilliant scarlet color; others of a +bright orange. Many are yellow, while a few don +the imperial purple. In short, they are to be found +of every color, from the purest white to the dingiest +black, dark emerald or leaf-green alone excepted. +Some are beautifully zoned with iridescent convoluted +circles, or broad stripes of different hues. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1198">[1198]</span>Some shine as if sprinkled with mica; others are +smooth as velvet, and soft as kid-leather.</p> + +<p>Let us take a specimen of one of the most perfectly +formed and highly developed fungi, the common, +shaggy mushroom, for instance (Agaricus procerus), +which is also the most familiar example, and endeavor +to point out the peculiarities of its structure. +Like all plants, it consists of two distinct parts, the +organs of nutrition or vegetation and the organs of +reproduction; the former bearing but a very small +proportion in size to the latter. The organs of nutrition +or vegetation consist of grayish-white interlacing +filaments, forming a flocculent net-like tissue, +and penetrating and ramifying through the +decaying substances on which the mushroom grows. +These filaments are formed of elongated colorless +cells. They are developed under ground, and in +other plants would be called roots. This part of +the fungus is called by botanists mycelium, and is +popularly known as the spawn by which the mushroom +is frequently propagated. In favorable circumstances +this mycelium spreads with great rapidity, +sometimes, especially when prevented from +developing organs of reproduction, attaining enormous +dimensions. It may be kept dormant in a dry +state for a long time, ready to grow up into perfect +plants when the necessary heat and moisture are applied. +When the requisite conditions are present and +the mycelium begins to develop the reproductive tissue, +there is formed at first a small, round tubercle, +in which the rudiments or miniature organs of the +future plant may, after a while, be distinctly traced. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1199">[1199]</span>In this infantile condition, the mushroom is covered +completely with a fine, silky veil or volva, which afterward +disappears. The tubercle rapidly increases, +until at last it produces from its interior a long, +thick, fleshy stem, or stipe, surmounted by a pileus, or +round convex, concave, or flat cap, similar to that +anciently worn by the Scottish peasantry. This is +the organ of reproduction, equivalent to the thecæ of +mosses and the flowers of phanerogamous plants. +This cap is covered with a veil or wrapper, which is +ruptured at a certain stage, and retires to form an +annulus or ring round the stem. When it is removed +from the under side of the pileus, a number +of vertical plates or gills is revealed of a pale pinkish-yellow +or white color, different from the rest of the +plant, and radiating round the cap from a common +centre.</p> + +<p>The whole of this apparatus is called the hymenium. +Each of the gills when examined under +the microscope is found to consist of a number of +elongated cells called basidia, united together on +both sides of a cellular stratum, and bearing at their +summits four minute spores supported on tiny stalks. +It is by these spores, which become detached when +ripe, that the plant is propagated. These spores are +so very minute that many thousands of them are required +to make a body the size of a pin-head; and +they are capable of enduring a temperature at least +equal to that of boiling water. While upon the subject +of spores I may mention here that the remarkable +elastic force with which many of the fungi eject +their seed has often excited attention, and is fully +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1200">[1200]</span>equal to anything of the same kind observed among +flowering plants.</p> + +<p>The mushroom may be regarded as an ideal fungus +of the highest type. There are six large orders +of fungi in which the organs of fructification are +widely different. The first order is called Hymenomycetes, +or naked fungi, because the seed-bearing +organs are naked or placed externally. This is the +largest, most important, and most highly developed +order. The mushroom, toadstool, chantarelle, amadou, +are familiar examples of it. The hymenium +assumes various shapes in the different genera. +In the mushroom it forms gills, in the toadstool +tubes, in the chantarelle veins, in the amadou +pores, and in the hydnum spines. The second +order, called Gasteromycetes, has the seed-bearing +organs inclosed in a membraneous covering, like +the stomach of an animal, whence the name. The +stinkhorn, the Melanogaster, or red truffle of Bath, +the bird’s-nest fungus, and the puff-ball are familiar +examples of this order. Some of the forms, such +as Stemonitis fusca, common on rotten wood, are exceedingly +elegant. The third order is called Concomycetes, +or dust-fungi, because the spore-cases are +produced beneath the epidermis of plants, or the +matrix in which they are developed, in the form of +a minute collection of dust, entirely destitute of any +covering or receptacle, except that which is furnished +by the skin of the plant raised around them. This +class is the most destructive of the whole tribe. Smut, +bunt, and rust are too familiar examples of this most +notorious class. The fourth order is called Hyphomycetes, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1201">[1201]</span>or web-like fungi, because the spores +are free, developed or naked filament whose terminal +cells are often transformed into a series of spores +like a row of beads. The general appearance of the +plants belonging to this order is that of a quantity of +dust-like seeds, imbedded in a flaky, cottony substance, +like a spider’s web. The different kinds of +common mould, blue, yellow, and green, the potato +disease, caterpillar and silkworm blights, and various +kinds of mildew are common examples of this +order. The fifth order, called Physomycetes, is distinguished +by its stalked sacs containing numerous +spores, or sporidea. It is the smallest of all the +orders. The black, felty cellar-fungus and the gray +mucor or mould on preserves are familiar illustrations +of this order. The sixth and last order is that +of the Ascomycetes, or asci-bearing fungi, whose +spores, generally eight in number, are produced in +the interior of groups of elongated sacs or thecæ +contained in fleshy, leathery, or wart-like fructification. +These fungi, of which the morel, truffle, +and vine disease are well-known examples, resemble +lichens in every respect except that they are produced +on decaying substances, and are possessed of +a mycelium or spawn destitute of the green cellular +matter of lichens.</p> + +<p>Although fungi are in an especial manner capable +of universal dissemination, yet we find that in their +geographical distribution they are as much restricted +as other plants. Some representatives of the class +are found in every part of the world, and some particular +species have the power of indefinite extension +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1202">[1202]</span>and localization, but, as a whole, like the higher +cryptogams, they can only spread within certain +limited areas. In tropical forests, where the exuberance +of the vegetation excludes the rays of the +sun, and creates the dim light and the still, moist +air which they love, and where there is always an +immense quantity of decaying organic matter, we +might expect to find them in the greatest quantity +and luxuriance. But, strange to say, fungi, as a class, +are comparatively rare in tropical woods. Their +headquarters seem to be in northern latitudes, where +the temperature is mild and genial, and where there +is a constant supply of moisture. Professor Fries +of Upsal, the presiding genius of these plants, +gathered in Sweden, within a space of ground not +exceeding a square furlong, more than two thousand +distinct species. “This country,” says Mr. Berkeley, +“with its various soils, large mixed forests, and warm +summer temperature, seems to produce more species +than any part of the known world; and next in order, +perhaps, are the United States as far south as South +Carolina, where they absolutely swarm. A moist +autumn after a genial summer is most conducive to +their growth, but cold, wet summers are seldom productive. +The portion of the Himalayas which lies +immediately north of Calcutta is, perhaps, almost as +prolific in point of individuals as the countries +named above, but the number of species on examination +proves far less than might at first have been +suspected. It is probably not a fifth of what occurs +in Sweden. Great Britain, though possessing a considerable +list of species, is not abundant in individuals, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1203">[1203]</span>except as regards a limited number of species. +The exuberance, even in the most favorable +autumn, is not to be compared with that of Sweden +or many parts of Germany.” They are found in +Arctic and Antarctic regions, almost as far as the +limits of vegetation. They penetrate to the dreary +regions of Greenland and Lapland, supplying the +natives with their tinder, and with an excellent +styptic for stopping blood and allaying pain; and +they announce to the hapless exiles of Siberia, when +their gayly colored forms spring forth from the +crevices of the rocks, and in the dark haunts of the +gloomy fir-woods, that the stormy blasts of winter +and spring are past, and that the summer and +autumn, those short, sweet seasons of indescribable +beauty and pleasure, have come.</p> + +<p>Certain genera and species occur only in tropical +and sub-tropical regions, having their northern limit +in the north of Africa or the coast of the Mediterranean. +Several genera and species are confined to +New Zealand, others to Ceylon and Java, others to +the Cape de Verde Islands and the United States. +Like flowering plants, the fungi of different climates +and zones are found at different heights along the +sides of tropical mountains that rise above the snow-line. +In the Sikkim Himalayas, Polyporus Sanguineus, +and Xanthopus luxuriate in the stifling tropical +woods at the base of the hills; higher up the fungi +peculiar to Ceylon and Java grow among the palms +and tree-ferns of the mid regions; higher still, the +species of Southern Europe abound in the deodar +forests and among the rhododendron thickets of the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1204">[1204]</span>upper heights; while below the line of perpetual +snow, on grassy slopes and amid scrubby vegetation, +may be seen species, if not identical with, at least very +closely allied to, those of Britain and Sweden. One +species has been found at a height of 18,000 feet, +which is probably the highest range of fungoid +growth.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-1204"> + FAIRY RINGS<br> + —<span class="smcap">A. B. Steele</span> +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">The green circles, or parts of circles in pastures, +popularly known as fairy rings, have given +rise to many curious beliefs and sayings, and their +marvelously rapid growth has struck the uncultivated +as a supernatural phenomenon. The prevalent +belief was that they were caused by the midnight +dancing and revelry of the fairies; and Shakespeare +speaks of the elves—</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="verse indent14">“Whose pastime</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Is to make midnight mushrooms.”</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>In the west of England these rings are called +“hogs’ tracks.” In the myths and folklore of Sweden +they are said to be enchanted circles made by fairies. +The elves perform their midnight <em>stimm</em>, or dance, +and the grass produced after the dancing is called <em>ailfexing</em>. +A belief prevails in some parts of this country +that any one treading within the magic circles +either loses consciousness, or can not retrace his steps. +Many absurd theories have been propounded as to +the cause of these rings. Aubrey, who wrote the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1205">[1205]</span><cite>Natural History of Wiltshire</cite>, in the Seventeenth +Century, says that they are generated from the breaking +out of a fertile subterraneous vapor, which comes +from a kind of conical concave, and endeavors to +get out at a narrow passage at the top, which forces +it to make another cone, inversely situated to the +other, the top of which is the green circle. Another +remarkable theory by a writer, quoted in Captain +Brown’s notes to White’s <cite>Selborne</cite>, attributes these +rings to the droppings of starlings, which when in +large flights frequently alight on the ground in circles, +and are sometimes known to sit a considerable +time in these annular congregations. It was also +thought that such circles were caused by the effects of +electricity, and for this belief the withered part of the +grass within the circles may have given foundation. +Priestley was a strong advocate of the electric theory, +and was supported by many eminent men of his +time.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="verse indentq">“So from the clouds the playful lightning wings,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Rives the firm oak, and prints the fairy rings,”</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class="noindent">says Dr. Darwin, and appends a note that flashes of +lightning, attracted by the moister part of grassy +plains, are the actual cause of fairy rings. Archæologists +suggested that they might be the remains of +circles formed by the ancient inhabitants of Britain, +in the celebration of their sports, or the worship of +their deities. Naturalists formerly came to the conclusion +that the rings were caused by the underground +workings of insects, and a few years ago a +writer in the <cite>Transactions of the Woolhope Club</cite> attempted +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1206">[1206]</span>to prove that they were the work of moles. +These so-called fairy rings, which have long puzzled +philosophers, are caused by a peculiar mode of +the growth of certain species of fungi, the peculiarity +being their tendency to assume a circular form. A +patch of spawn arising from a single seed, or a collection +of seeds, spreads centrifugally in every direction +and forms a common felt from which the +fruit rises at its extreme edge; the soil in the inner +part of the disk is exhausted, and the spawn dies or +becomes effete there while it spreads all round in an +outward direction and produces another crop, whose +spawn spreads again. The circle is thus continually +enlarged and extends indefinitely until some cause +intervenes to destroy it. This mode of growth is far +more common than is supposed, and may be constantly +seen in our woods, when the spawn can be +spread only in the soil or among the leaves and decaying +fragments which cover it. In the fields this +tendency is illustrated by the formation of circles or +parts of circles of vigorous dark green grass. To +get at the cause, however, of the rank growth of the +grass composing these rings is not without its difficulties +still. It is known that fungi exhaust the soil +of plant-food and store it up in their own substance. +In the case of these fairy rings they take up from the +soil the organic nitrogen which is not available to the +grasses, and in some way become the medium of the +supply of the soil-nitrogen to the grasses forming +the circle. How exactly the nitrogen, one of the +most important plant-foods, is fixed by these fungi +has not yet been discovered, but the grasses immediately +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1207">[1207]</span>following the fungi have been analyzed and +found to contain a larger proportion of nitrogen than +the herbage in the neighborhood.</p> + +<p>Fairy rings are sometimes distinctly seen visible +on a hillside from a considerable distance, many of +them being years old and of enormous dimensions. +One recorded from Stebbing, in Essex, measured 120 +feet across, the grass all over it being very coarse +and dark green in color, chiefly of the cock’s-foot +species. Rings found in pasture lands are composed +of several species of fungi, all of which are edible. +They are most frequently observed to be formed by +marasmius oreades, a little buff mushroom which +most people know under the name of champignons, +or Scotch bonnets. It is abundant everywhere. For +several months in the year it comes up in successive +crops in great profusion after rain, and continually +traces fairy rings among the grass.</p> + +<p>Another and very delicious mushroom, agaricus +prunulus, sometimes called the plum agaric, and +known in America as the French mushroom, occasionally +succeeds a crop of the champignons which +had recently occupied the same site. It is sometimes +found throughout the summer, but autumn is the time +to look for it. The only other good edible fungi to +be found in any quantity forming rings are the horse-mushroom, +the giant-mushroom, and St. George’s +mushroom. The first two are excellent eating, and to +be had in the late summer and autumn; but the last +are reproduced in rings in spring every year—the +circle continuing to increase till it breaks up into irregular +lines. The continuity of the circle is a sign +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1208">[1208]</span>to the collector that there will be a plentiful harvest +next spring, while the breaking up is conclusive +proof that it is going to disappear from that place. +Spring is the only time it makes its appearance, and +the proper place to look for it is the borders of woodlands. +It is one of the most savory of mushrooms, +and difficult to be confounded with any other, as it +appears at a time when scarcely any other kinds +occur. Like the champignon, it has an advantage +over the common mushroom in the readiness with +which it dries, and is largely employed in the preparation +of ketchup. It is called St. George’s mushroom +on account of its appearing about St. George’s +Day, the 23d of April, and among the peasants of +Austria is looked on as a special gift from that saint. +In Italy a basket of early specimens is a favorite +present among all classes.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-1208"> + LICHENS<br> + —<span class="smcap">Hugh Macmillan</span> +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">Lichens are exceedingly diversified in their +form, appearance, and texture. About five +hundred different kinds have been found in Great +Britain alone, while upward of three thousand species +have been discovered in different parts of the +world by the zealous researches of naturalists. In +their very simplest rudimentary forms, they consist +apparently of nothing more than a collection of +powdery granules, so minute that the figure of each +is scarcely distinguishable, and so dry and utterly +destitute of organization that it is difficult to believe +that any vitality exists in them. Some of these form +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1209">[1209]</span>ink-like stains on the smooth tops of posts and felled +trees; others are sprinkled like flower of brimstone +or whiting over shady rocks and withered tufts of +moss; while a third species is familiar to every one, +as covering with a bright green incrustation the +trunks and boughs of trees in the squares and suburbs +of smoky towns, where the air is so impure as to forbid +the growth of all other vegetation. It also creeps +over the grotesque figures and elaborate carving on +the roofs and pillars of Roslin Chapel, near Edinburgh, +and gives to the whole an exquisitely beautiful +and romantic appearance. One species, the +Lepraria Jolithus, is associated with many a superstitious +legend. Linnæus, in his journal of a tour +through Œland and East Gothland, thus alludes to +it: “Everywhere near the road I saw stones covered +with a blood-red pigment, which on being rubbed +turned into a light yellow, and diffused a smell of +violets, whence they have obtained the name of violet +stones; though, indeed, the stone itself has no smell +at all, but only the moss with which it is dyed.” At +Holywell, in North Wales, the stones are covered +with this curious lichen, which gives them the appearance +of being stained with blood; and, of course, +the peasantry allege that it is the ineffaceable blood +which dropped from Ste. Winifred’s head, when she +suffered martyrdom on that sacred spot. A higher +order of lichens (Bæomyces) is furnished besides +this powdery crust, with solid, fleshy, club-shaped +fructification like a minute pink fungus; while a +singularly beautiful genus (Calicium), usually of a +very vivid yellow color, spreading in indefinite +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1210">[1210]</span>patches over oaks and firs, is provided with capsules +somewhat like those of the mosses.</p> + +<p>Most of the crustaceous lichens are merely gray +filmy patches inseparable from their growing places, +indefinitely spreading, or bounded by a narrow dark +border, which always intervenes to separate them +when two species closely approximate, and studded +all over with black, brown, or red tubercles. The +foliaceous species are usually round rosettes of various +colors, attached by dense black fibres all over +their under-surface, or by a single knot-like root in +the centre. Some are dry and membranaceous; +while others are gelatinous and pulpy, like aerial sea-weeds +left exposed on island rocks by the retiring +waves of an extinct ocean. Some are lobed with +woolly veins underneath; and others reticulated +above, and furnished with little cavities or holes on +the under-surface. The higher orders of lichens, +though destitute of anything resembling vascular tissue, +exhibit considerable complexity of structure. +Some are scrubby and tufted, with stem and branches +like miniature trees; others bear a strong resemblance +to the corallines of our seashores; while a third class, +“the green-fringed cup-moss with the scarlet tip,” as +Crabble calls it, is exceedingly graceful, growing in +clusters beside the black peat moss or underneath the +heather tuft,</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="verse indent10">“And, Hebe-like, upholding</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Its cups with dewy offering to the sun.”</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>As an illustration of the extraordinary appearance +which lichens occasionally present, I may describe +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1211">[1211]</span>the Opegrapha, or written lichen, perhaps the most +curious and remarkable member of this strange tribe. +In her cacti and orchids sportive Nature often displays +a ludicrous resemblance to insects, birds, animals, +and even the “human face and form divine”; +but this is one of the few instances in which she has +condescended to imitate in her vegetable productions +the written language of man. A cryptogam is in this +case a cryptogram! The crust of the curious autograph +of nature is a mere white tartareous film of +indefinite extent, sometimes bounded by a faint line +of black, like a mourning letter. It spreads over the +bark of trees, particularly the beech, the hazel, and +the ash. On the birch-tree—whose smooth, snow-white +vellum-like bark seems designed by nature for +the inscription of lovers’ names and magic incantations—it +may often be seen covering the whole trunk. +The fructification consists of long wavy black lines, +sometimes parallel like Runic inscriptions; sometimes +arrow-headed, like the cuneiform characters engraved +upon the monumental stones of Persepolis and +Assyria; and sometimes gathered together in groups +and clusters, bearing a strong resemblance to Hebrew, +Arabic, or Chinese letters.</p> + +<p>Lichens are extremely simple in their construction. +They are composed of two parts, the nutritive +and the reproductive system. The nutritive portion +is called the thallus, which, in the typical plant, +spreads equally on all sides from the original point +of development, in the from of an increasing circle; +the circumference of which is often healthy, while +the central parts are decayed or completely wanting.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1212">[1212]</span></p> + +<p>Nature has bestowed upon the lichens a peculiar +mode of reproduction which appears quite different +from that of the higher orders of the vegetable kingdom; +and yet they are propagated with as unerring +certainty and as great rapidity as the most prolific +family of flowers. Every one who has an attentive +eye must have often noticed the curious round disks +or shields, usually of a different color from the rest of +the plant, with which their surface is often studded. +These are called apothecia, and correspond with the +flowers of the higher plants; for in them are lodged +the seeds or germs by which the lichens are perpetuated. +When examined under the microscope they are +found to consist of a number of delicate flask-shaped +cells, called thecæ, containing 4, 8, 12, or 16 sporidia, +that is, cells of an oval form, with spores or seeds in +their interior. The mode in which these spores are +ejected affords as wonderful a proof of design as in +the case of ferns and mosses.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="i_376" style="max-width: 50em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/i_376.jpg" alt="Drawings of various nuts"> + <figcaption class="caption"> + Typical Nuts and Tree-Products<br> +<p class="fs80"> + 1, Cinnamon; 2, Camphire (Camphor); 3, Pomegranate; 4, Sycamore Figs; + 5, Olive Twig and Fruit; 6, Theobroma Cacao (Chocolate)</p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Lichens are very slow-growing plants. They +spring up somewhat rapidly during the first year or +two, as is evinced by the luxurious growth which they +form over young fruit-trees and espaliers in gardens; +but after a circular frond is formed, they subside into +a dormant state, in which they remain unaltered for +many years. The foliaceous and scrubby species are +the most fugacious, though even these have great +powers of longevity. We have no data from which to +ascertain the age of tartareous species, which adhere +almost inseparably to stones. Some of them are probably +as old as any living organisms that exist on the +earth.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1213">[1213]</span></p> + +<p>In the Arctic regions—those outer boundaries of +the earth where eternal winter presides—these humble +plants constitute by far the largest proportion of +the flora, and by their prodigious development, and +their wide social distribution, give as marked and +peculiar a character to the scenery as the palms and +tree-ferns impart to the landscapes of the tropics. In +the Southern Hemisphere also lichens extend almost +to the pole. They mark the extreme limit at which +land vegetation has been found; one scrubby species, +with large, deep, chestnut-colored fructification, +called Usnea fasciata, having been observed by Lieutenant +Kendal on Deception Island, the Ultima +Thule of the Antarctic regions.</p> + +<p>In tropical countries, where there is not too much +moisture and shade, the trees are shaggy with lichens; +and some of the most magnificent species, both as regards +size and color, have been gathered in the Cinchona +forests which clothe the lower slopes of the +Andes, and in the warmer and more densely wooded +parts of Australia and New Zealand. The thick impervious +forests of Brazil, however, are said to be +almost destitute of them. On the Alps of Switzerland +the last lichens are to be found on the highest +summits, attached to projecting rocks, exposed to the +scorching heats of summer and the fierce blasts of +winter; and from forty to forty-five kinds have been +found in spots, surrounded by extensive masses of +snow, between 10,000 and 14,780 feet above the level +of the sea. It is interesting to know that the only +plant found by Agassiz near the top of Mont Blanc +was the Lecidea geographica, a very beautiful +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1214">[1214]</span>lichen, which covers the exposed rocks on the sides +and summits of all the British hills, with its bright-green, +map-like patches. This species was also gathered +by Dr. Hooker at an elevation of 19,000 feet +on the Himalayas, and occupied the last outpost of +vegetation which gladdened the eyes of the illustrious +Humboldt, when standing within a few hundred +feet of the summit of Chimborazo, the highest peak +of the Andes.</p> + +<p>The Lecidea geographica affords, I may mention, +the most remarkable example of the almost universal +diffusion of lichens, being the most Arctic, Antarctic, +and Alpine lichen in the world—facing the +savage cliffs of Melville Island in the extreme north, +clinging to the volcanic rocks of Deception Island in +the extreme south, and scaling the towering peak of +Kinchin-junga, the most elevated spot on the surface +of the earth.</p> + +<p>It is somewhat remarkable that Alpine lichens +generally are more or less of a brown or black color. +This peculiarity seems to be owing to the presence of +usnine or usnic acid, which in a pure state is of a +green color, as in the lichens which grow in shady +forests, but which becomes oxidized, and changes to +every shade of brown and black, when exposed to the +powerful agencies of light and heat on the bleak barren +rocks on the mountain side and summit. These +gloomy lichens, associated as they always are with +the dusky tufts of that singular genus of mosses, the +Andræas, give a very marked and peculiar character +to many of the Highland mountains, especially to +the summit of Ben Nevis, where they creep, in the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1215">[1215]</span>utmost profusion, over the fragments of abraded +rocks which strew the ground on every side, otherwise +bare and leafless, as was the world on the first +morning of creation, and reminding one of the ruin +of some stupendous castle, or the battlefield of the +Titans. Some of the Alpine lichens, however, are +remarkable for the vividness and brilliancy of their +colors. The mountain cup-moss, with its light green +stalk clothed and filigreed with scales and emerald +cup studded round with rich scarlet knobs, presents +no unapt resemblance to a double red daisy. It +grows in large clusters on the bare storm-scalped +ridges, and forms a kind of miniature flower-garden +in the Alpine wilderness. The loveliest, however, of +all the mountain lichens is the Solorina crocea, which +spreads over the loose mould in the clefts of rocks, +and on the fragments of comminuted schist on +the summits of the highest Highland mountains, +forming patches of the most beautiful and vivid +green, varied, when the under side of the lobes is +curled up, by reticulations of a very rich orange-saffron +color. This species is not found at a lower +elevation than 4,000 feet; hence it is unknown in +England, Ireland, and Wales, whose highest mountains +fall considerably short of this altitude. I have +gathered it on Cairngorm, Ben Macdhui, and Ben +Lawers. In this last locality, which is well known to +botanists as exhibiting a perfect garden of rare and +beautiful Alpine plants, it grows in greater abundance, +I believe, than in any other spot in the Highlands.</p> + +<p>On account of the large quantity of starchy matter +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1216">[1216]</span>which they contain, they often considerably, and +sometimes even entirely, form the diet of man and +animals in those dreary inhospitable regions where +the wintry rigor, or the scorching heat of the climate, +forbids all other kinds of vegetation to grow. +Every one is familiar with the fact that the reindeer-moss +(Cladonia rangiferina) forms altogether the +food of that animal during the prolonged northern +winters. This lichen grows sparingly in little tufts +among the heather in Scotland, and sometimes +whitens the sides and plateaus of the Highland hills, +covering bare and verdureless places where the snow +first falls in winter and lingers longest in summer; +but it is in the vast sandy plains, called by the Laplanders +Flechten-tundra and Moos-tundra, as lichens +or mosses predominate, which border the Arctic +Ocean, that it flourishes in the greatest profusion and +luxuriance. There it completely covers the ground +with its snowy tufts, and occupies as conspicuous a +place in the economy of nature as the grass in warmer +regions. Linnæus says that no plant flourishes so +luxuriantly as this in the pine-forests of Lapland, the +surface of the soil being completely carpeted with it +for many miles in extent; and that if by an accident +the forests are burned to the ground, in a very short +time the lichens reappear, and resume all their original +vigor.</p> + +<p>When the ground is covered with hard and frozen +snow, so that the reindeer can not obtain its usual +food, it finds a substitute in a very curious lichen +called rock-hair (Alectoria jubata), which covers +with its beard-like tufts the trunk of almost every +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1217">[1217]</span>tree. In most severe weather the Laplanders cut +down whole forests of the largest trees, that their +herds may be enabled to browse at liberty upon the +tufts which cover the higher branches. The vast, +dreary pine-forests of Lapland possess a character +which is peculiarly their own, and are perhaps more +singular in the eyes of the traveler than any other +feature in the landscapes of that remote and desolate +region. This character they owe to the immense +number of lichens with which they abound. The +ground instead of grass is carpeted with dense tufts +of the reindeer moss, white as a shower of new-fallen +snow; while the trunks and branches of the trees are +swollen far beyond their natural dimensions with +huge, dusky, funereal bunches of the rock-hair hanging +down in masses, exhaling a damp earthy smell, +like an old cellar, or stretching from tree to tree in +long festoons, waving with every breath of wind, and +creating a perpetual melancholy twilight.</p> + +<p>Another beard-like lichen (Usnea florida), often +growing along with the rock-hair, is gathered in +great quantities in North America, from the pine-forests, +and stored up as winter fodder for cattle in +inclement seasons. Goats, and especially deer, are +fond of it; and in winter when other food is scarce, +they hardly leave a vestige of it on the trees within +their reach. The tortoises of the small rocky islands +of the Galapagos Archipelago subsist almost entirely +upon it. In Scotland it is one of the most picturesque +ornaments of the pine-forests. When fully +developed it forms tufts nearly a foot in length. It +is quite a miniature larch-tree, with root, stem, and +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1218">[1218]</span>most intricate branches and twigs. Its color is pale +sea-green; and a central white thread or pith runs +through the main stem, and lateral branches, on +which, when cracked with age, the segments of cellular +tissue are strung like beads on a necklace. A +kind of farinaceous meal is plentifully sprinkled on +the ultimate branches. Altogether it is one of the +most beautiful and interesting lichens. A reddish +variety grows in such quantities on trees of Conyza +arborea, forming the alley near Napoleon Bonaparte’s +residence in St. Helena, that this hanging +vegetation is the first thing that attracts the eye of +the visitor.</p> + +<p>But it is not to animals alone that lichens furnish +a supply of food. There are few, I presume, who are +not acquainted with some particulars regarding the +history and uses of that remarkable lichen sold in +chemists’ shops under the name of Cetraria islandica, +or Iceland moss. What barley, rye, and oats are to +the Indo-Caucasian races of Asia and western Europe; +the olive, the grape, and the fig to the inhabitants +of the Mediterranean districts; the date-palm to +the Egyptian and Arabian; rice to the Hindu; and +the tea-plant to the Chinese—the Iceland moss is to +the Laplanders, Icelanders, and Esquimaux.</p> + +<p>It may be mentioned that, notwithstanding its +name, the Iceland moss is not only more plentiful, +but more largely developed in all its varied forms in +Norway than in Iceland, and it is in Norway that +it is now almost exclusively collected for the European +market.</p> + +<p>Those who have read the affecting account which +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1219">[1219]</span>Franklin and Richardson give of their expedition to +Arctic America must be familiar with the name of +the Tripe de Roche, which occurs on almost every +page, and is intimately associated with the fearful +sufferings which these brave men endured, a part of +which only would have sufficed to unseat the reason +of most individuals. During their long and terrible +journey from the Coppermine River to Fort Enterprise, +one of the stations of the Hudson’s Bay Company, +in the almost total absence of every other kind +of salutary food, their lives were supported by a bitter +and nauseous lichen, to which the name of Tripe +de Roche (Gyrophora) has been given as if in +mockery.</p> + +<p>The Tripe de Roche consists of various species +of Gyrophora—black, leather-like lichens, studded +with small black points like coiled wire buttons, and +attached by an umbilical root, or by short strong +fibres to rocks on the mountains. Some of them bear +no unapt resemblance to a piece of shagreen; while +others appear corroded, like a fragment of burned +skin, as if the rock on which they grew had been +subjected to the action of fire. They are found in +cold exposed situations on Alpine rocks of granite +or micaceous schist, in almost all parts of the world—on +the Himalayas and Andes as well as the British +mountains. But it is in the Arctic regions alone that +they luxuriate, covering the surface of every rock, to +the level of the seashore, with a gloomy Plutonian +vegetation that seems like the charred cinders and +shriveled remains of former verdure and beauty.</p> + + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1220">[1220]</span></p> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-1220"> + MOSSES<br> + —<span class="smcap">Hugh Macmillan</span> +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">Mosses belong to the foliaceous or highest +division of flowerless plants. Although consisting +entirely of cellular tissue and increasing by +simple additions of matter to the growing point or +apex of parts already formed, they point to far higher +orders of vegetation; they are prefigurations of the +flowering plants, epitomes of archetypes in trees and +flowers. There is nothing in the appearance or +structure of the lichens, fungi, or algæ to remind the +popular mind of higher plants; they form, as it were, +a strange microcosm of their own—a perfectly distinct +and peculiar order of vegetable existence. But +when we ascend a step higher and come to the mosses, +we find for the first time the rudimental characters +and distinctions of root, stem, branches, and leaves—we +recognize an ideal exemplar of the flowering +plants, all whose parts and organs are, as it were, +sketched out, in anticipation, in these simple and +tiny organisms. Through the small, densely cushioned, +moss-like Alpine flowers, they approximate +analogically to the phanerogamous plants in their +leaves and habits of growth; and through the cone-like +spikes of the club-mosses they approximate to +the pine tribe in their fructification. From both +these classes of highly organized plants, however, +they are separated by wide and numerous intervening +links. But still it is curious and interesting to find +in them an exemplification of the universal teleology +of nature—the humblest typical forms pointing to +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1221">[1221]</span>the grand archetypes, the simplest structures anticipating +and prefiguring the most highly organized +and complicated.</p> + +<p>In no tribe of plants is there so great a similarity +between the different species as in the mosses. This +remarkable similarity, concealing a no less remarkable +diversity, has led to the popular belief that +there is only one kind of moss. Closely examined, +however, by an educated eye, their exceeding variableness +of form will at once become evident, some +being slender, hair-like plants; some resembling +miniature fir-trees, others cedars, and others crested +feathers and ostrich-plumes. In size they vary from +a minute film of green scarcely visible to the naked +eye to wreaths and clusters several feet in length. +Nor are their colors less variable, ranging from +white through every shade of yellow, red, green, and +brown, to the deepest and most sombre black.</p> + +<p>The leaves of mosses are their most prominent +parts. To the careless and superficial eye, accustomed +to look at a tuft of moss as merely a patch of +velvety greenness, creeping over an old tree or dike, +the leaves of all mosses may appear precisely similar; +but the attentive observer who examines them under +a microscope will find that the leaves of different +kinds of trees are not more distinct from each other +than are those of the mosses.</p> + +<p>The organs of fructification, however, with which +mosses are furnished, are, perhaps, the most wonderful +parts of their economy. When the requisite +conditions are present, these are generally developed +during the winter and spring months, and may be +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1222">[1222]</span>easily recognized by their peculiar appearance. At +first a forest of hair-like stalks, of a pale pink color, +rises above the general level of the tuft of moss to +the height of between one and three inches, giving +to the moss the appearance of a pincushion well provided +with pins. These stalks, through course of +time, are crowned with little wen-like vessels called +capsules, which are covered at an early stage with +little caps, like those of the Normandy peasants, with +high peaks and long lappets—in one species bearing +a remarkable resemblance to the extinguisher of a +candle—a curious provision for protecting them +alike from the sunshine and the rain, until the delicate +structures underneath are matured. When the +fruit-stalk lengthens and the capsules swell, this hood +or cap is torn from its support and carried up on the +top of the seed-vessel, much in the same way as the +common garden annual, the Eschscholtzia or Californian +poppy is borne up on the summit of the cone-like +petals before they expand. When the seed-vessel +is riper it falls off altogether, and discloses a +little lid covering the mouth of the capsule, which +is also removed at a more advanced stage of growth. +The mouth of the seed-vessel is then seen to be +fringed all round with a single or double row of +teeth, which closely fit into each other, and completely +close up the aperture.</p> + +<p>It is extremely interesting to note that the leaf is +the type of the plant in the moss as in the flowering +plant; the veil being merely a convolute leaf, the +lid a metamorphosed leaf, the teeth one or more +whorls of minute, flat leaves. It is by no means rare +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1223">[1223]</span>to find individual mosses in which leaves appear at +the top of the fruit-stalk in place of the spore-case, +just as happens in the phyllode of flowering plants, +when the colored parts of the flower are converted +into green foliage.</p> + +<p>Mosses possess in a high degree the power of reproducing +such parts of their tissue as have been injured +or removed. They may be trodden under foot; +they may be torn up by the plow or the harrow; +they may be cropped down to the earth, when mixed +with grass by graminivorous animals; they may be +injured in a hundred other ways; but, in a marvelously +short space of time they spring up as verdant +in their appearance and as perfect in their form as +though they had never been disturbed.</p> + +<p>Mosses also possess the power of resisting, perhaps +to a greater extent than most plants, the injurious +operation of physical agents; and this likewise is a +wise provision to qualify them for the uses which +they serve in the economy of nature. The influence +of heat and cold upon many of them is extremely +limited; some species flourishing indiscriminately on +the mountains of Greenland and the plains of Africa. +They have been found growing near hot springs in +Cochin-China, and fringing the sides of the geysers +of Iceland, where they must have vegetated in a heat +equal to 186 degrees; while, on the other hand, they +have been gathered in Melville Island at 35 degrees, +or only just above the freezing-point. Though frozen +hard under the snow-wreaths of winter for several +months, their vitality is unimpaired; and though subjected +to the scorching rays of the summer’s sun +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1224">[1224]</span>they continue green and unblighted. Even when +thoroughly desiccated into a brown, unshapen mass +that almost crumbles into dust when touched by the +hand, they revive under the influence of the genial +shower, become green as an emerald; every pellucid +leaf serving as a tiny mirror on which to catch +the stray sunbeams. Specimens dried and pressed in +the herbarium for half a century, have been resuscitated +on the application of moisture, and the seed +procured from their capsules has readily germinated. +They grow freely in the Arctic regions, where there +is a long twilight of six months’ duration; and they +luxuriate in the dazzling, uninterrupted light of the +tropics. They are found thriving amid moist, steam-like +vapors, with orchids and tillandsias, in the deep +American forests; and they may be seen in tufts here +and there on the dry and arid sands of the Arabian +deserts. It matters not to the healthy exercise of +their functions whether the surrounding air be +stagnant or in motion, for we find them on the mountain +top amid howling winds and driving storms, and +in the calm, silent, secluded wood, where hardly a +breeze penetrates to ruffle their leaves.</p> + +<p>Unlike the ferns, the size and number of which +gradually diminish in passing from tropical to +temperate countries, the maximum of mosses is found +in cold climates, increasing in luxuriance, beauty, +and abundance as we approach the North Pole. Like +the ferns, moisture and shade are highly favorable +to their growth and well-being; hence, as a rule, +they produce a larger number of species and individuals, +and spread over wider areas in islands and +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1225">[1225]</span>the vicinity of rivers and lakes than in the interior +of continents, unless when well wooded and watered. +Their favorite habitats appear to be rocky dells or +ravines at the foot of mountains, with streamlets +murmuring through them and dense trees interweaving +their foliage over their sides and creating a +dim twilight in the recesses beneath. In such hermit +seclusions the botanist may expect to reap the richest +harvest of species.</p> + +<p>Mosses, in many instances, are limited to rocks +and soils of the same mineral character; their limits +of distribution, and of the rocks and soils possessing +such character being identical. For instance, some +are confined to limestone districts and chalk cliffs; +a calcareous soil being indispensable to their existence. +Others affect granite; numerous species +luxuriate in soil formed by the disintegration of +micaceous schist; while not a few are found growing +chiefly on sandstone and clay. Some are found +only on and near the seashore; others are confined +to the beds of streams and cliffs moistened by the +spray of cascades, where, however impetuous the torrent +may be, they cling tenaciously to the rocks and +form carpets of greenest verdure for the white, +glistening feet of the descending waters. Some are +restricted exclusively to trees whose trunks and +boughs they clasp like emerald bracelets; others lead +a lonely, hermit-like existence in the dim moist caves +and crevices of rocks, where they are discovered only +by the glistening of a stray adventurous sunbeam on +the drops of dew trembling upon their shining golden +leaves.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1226">[1226]</span></p> + +<p>Mosses are sometimes found in an isolated state +as single individuals, but they are far oftener found +in a social condition. It is a peculiarity of the +family to grow in tufts or clusters, the appearance of +which is always distinct and well-marked in different +species, and often affords a specific character. +This disposition to grow together, which is exhibited +in no other plants so strongly, redeems them +from the insignificance of their individual state, and +enables them to modify in many places the appearance +of the general landscape. As social plants they +often cover vast districts of land. Along with the +lichens they give a verdant appearance to the desert +steppes of Northern Europe, Asia, and America. +Mixed with grass they luxuriate in parks, lawns, and +meadows, particularly in moist, low-lying situations. +They spread in large patches over the ground in +woods and forests; and at a certain elevation on +mountain ranges they take exclusive possession of +the soil, forming immense beds into which the foot +sinks up to the ankles at every step, bleached on the +surface by the sunshine and rain, blackened here and +there by dissolving wreaths of snow which lie upon +them through all the summer months, and gradually +decomposing underneath into black vegetable mould.</p> + +<p>The plants whose peculiarities have been described +in the preceding pages are called Urn Mosses, their +fructification being urn-shaped, furnished with teeth +and closed with a lid. There is another large class +called Scale-Mosses, so closely allied to the true +mosses that they are frequently confounded even by +an educated eye. There are upward of a hundred +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1227">[1227]</span>species of scale mosses indigenous to Great Britain +and Ireland, some of which are so small as to be +scarcely visible and others much larger than any of +the true mosses. With the exception of a few prominent +species, which are found in every moist wood +and on every shady rock, they are somewhat local +and limited in their distribution, many of them +being remarkably rare and confined to remote and +isolated localities. The greatest number of species +occurs in the tropics; and nowhere do they luxuriate +so much as in the dark woods and mountain ravines +of New Zealand. Some of them grow in the bleakest +spots in the world, and are to be found even at a higher +altitude than the urn-mosses on the great mountain +ranges of the globe. They form the faintest tint +of green on the edges of glaciers and on the bare, +storm-seamed ridges of the Alps and Andes, where +not a tuft of moss or a trace of other vegetation can +be seen; and this almost imperceptible film of verdure, +when cleansed from the earth and moistened +with water, presents under the microscope the most +beautiful appearance.</p> + +<p>The peculiarities of these plants are so remarkable +and interesting that they deserve more than a passing +notice. As a rule, to which, however, there are +a good many exceptions, they do not grow upright +in tufts like the mosses, but have a flat, creeping, +lichen-like habit, spreading over rocks and trees in +closely applied circles which radiate from a common +centre. The whole typical plant is like a series +or necklace of roundish, flat, imbricated scales, several +of which branch from a common point in the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1228">[1228]</span>middle. The leaves, unlike those of the mosses, are +entirely destitute of a central nerve, for what is called +the nervure in the membraneous or leafy species is +nothing more than the stalk itself on the edges of +which the leaves are fastened together in such a manner +as to form apparently a continuous whole.</p> + +<p>The Hepaticæ, or scale-mosses, may be divided +into two groups, consisting of those species in which +the vegetation is frondose, that is, in which leaf and +stem are confounded, and of those in which the +vegetation is foliaceous, that is, in which leaves +and stem are distinct.</p> + +<p>The most interesting of all the frondose group of +scale-mosses is the common Marchantia or Liverwort +(Marchantia polymorpha). It is very common, +creeping in large, dark-green patches over +rocks in very moist and shady situations, such as the +banks of a densely wooded stream in a deep, narrow +glen, or the sides of rivers and fountains. It may +often be seen also on the moist walls of hothouses +and in the pots and tubs. It adheres closely to rocks, +which it sometimes completely covers with its imbricated +fronds by the numerous white, downy +radicles with which the under surface is covered.</p> + +<p>The second or foliaceous group of scale-mosses, +in which the leaves and stem are distinct, is called +Jungermanniæ, and contains by far the largest number +of species and the richest variety of form and +color. On either side of the thread-like stem arise +in a more or less oblique position the membraneous +overlapping leaves; while the fruit-vessel springs +from the end of the stem, and is produced upon little +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1229">[1229]</span>silvery foot-stalks. It bursts into four valves, and +when fully expanded spreads out into the form of a +cross. There is a class of plants whose external appearance +and mode of growth would indicate that +they belong to the tribe under review, but whose +structure and functions are so different that they +are commonly supposed to bear a closer analogy to +the ferns. They occupy an intermediate position, +and form a connecting link between ferns and +mosses; I allude to the Lycopods, or club-mosses. +They are usually found in bleak, bare, exposed +situations in all parts of the world, and sometimes +attain a large size; forsaking the creeping habit peculiar +to the family, and becoming slightly arborescent +in tropical countries, particularly New Zealand, +rivaling in rank luxuriance the smaller shrubs of +the forest.</p> + +<p>The club-mosses are all very graceful and beautiful +plants. The Spanish moss (Lycopodium denticulatum) +is a great ornament to conservatories +and hothouses, where it conceals with its luxuriant +drapery the mould in the pots, and keeps the roots +of the plants moist. Nothing can be lovelier or more +elegant than a basket of orchids in full flower, with +clusters of this moss in careless grace from its sides. +Lycopods may be said to present the highest type of +cryptogamic vegetation, the highest limit capable of +being reached by flowerless plants.</p> + +<p>The first pages of the earth’s history reveal to us +very extraordinary facts with relation to members +and allies of the moss tribe. The club-mosses, in +particular, at a former period, seem to have played +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1230">[1230]</span>a more important part, or to have found conditions +more suitable to their luxuriant development than +is the case at the present day. The two or three hundred +species at present existing are the mere remnant +of a once magnificent group. Some of them are +stated to have formed lofty trees eighty feet high, +with a proportionate diameter of trunk. They are +among the most ancient of all plants. The oldest +land-plant yet known is supposed to be a species of +lycopodium closely resembling the common species +of the moors. In the upper beds of the Upper Silurian +rocks they are almost the only terrestrial plants +yet found. In the lower Old Red Sandstone they +also abounded; while they occupied a considerable +space in the Oolite vegetation. But it is in the Coal-measures +that they seem to have attained their utmost +size and luxuriance, sigillaria, lepidodendron, etc., +being now considered by competent botanists to be +highly developed lycopodia. Along with ferns they +covered the whole earth from Melville Island in the +Arctic regions to the Ultima Thule of the Southern +Ocean, with rank majestic forests of a uniform dull, +green hue.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-1230"> + EUROPEAN SEA-WEEDS<br> + —<span class="smcap">P. Martin Duncan</span> +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">The zones of life are (1) the littoral zone, or +tract between tide-marks; (2) the laminarian +zone, from low water to fifteen fathoms; (3) the +coralline zone, from low water to fifteen fathoms. +Then come other zones leading to the great depths.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1231">[1231]</span></p> + +<p>The broad-leaved tangles live in the laminarian +zone, and it is called so from their Latin name, and +therefore they limit the plants and animals of the +shore, seaward.</p> + +<p>It has been noticed that the animals and plants of +the shores of our coasts are not the same everywhere, +and that in certain parts some peculiar kinds are to +be found. This is produced by climate, the nature +of the sediment on the shore, the geological nature of +the coast-line and inland parts, and the mineralogy +of the district. And with regard to this last, it may +be noticed, that where the rocks contain lime, or +limestone and chalk, there certain shell-fish and +corallines abound; but where this mineral does not +exist, there they are comparatively or entirely absent. +The British Islands, extending to the north and south, +and being washed by the North Sea, the Atlantic, the +German Ocean, and the Channel seas, come within +the limits of certain natural history provinces. One +is called the Boreal, and it extends across the Atlantic +from Nova Scotia and Massachusetts to Ireland, the +Faroe Islands, and Shetland Islands, and along the +coast of Norway. That is to say, there are marine +animals and plants which are found on the American, +Irish, Scottish, and Norwegian shores, and which are +either of the same kind or species, or of the same +genus or group.</p> + +<p>The next province is the Celtic, and it includes the +coasts of England, Scotland, Denmark, southern +Sweden, and the Baltic, and all these places have +animals of the shore and other zones in common. +The Channel Islands and parts of British south coasts +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1232">[1232]</span>come within range of another province, called the +Lusitanian, which is that of the west coasts of France, +Spain, and of the islands off the coast of Africa. The +Celtic province is that to which most of the British +coasts belong; and it is a subject of great interest +to know that many of the kinds of shelly mollusca, +which are now living, lived in the last geological +ages, and their remains are found fossil; so that the +condition of the coast-lines and shores and a part +of the assemblage of animals and plants now living +on them have a remote ancestry.</p> + +<p>It is by no means easy to say where the seashore +begins landward. It may be limited by cliffs and +mountain-ground, so that there is but little shore, and +the tide-water then comes up the sides of the cliff; +and it may reach for miles inland, among salt +marshes, the ditches of which have salt water and +marine animals and plants in them. Again, even +when the shore is perfectly limited inland, there are +proofs that the sea is near, long before it is reached. +Trees usually get scarce, and often those which are +seen are much gnarled and bent and covered with +lichens. A new set of flowering plants is noticed, and +the old favorites of the meadow and wood are absent; +and grasses, reeds, rushes, and many singular plants +straggle on the sand and pebbles, out of the range of +the tide, but within that of the spray sent in by a high +wind. Common observation has enabled even the +most unscientific collectors of plants to recognize +what may be called a maritime, coast, or shore flora, +just as they can distinguish a marsh, mountain, or +wood flora beyond the range of the sea. A flora is +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1233">[1233]</span>the name for all the plants of a district, and it has +been found that the seaside and seashore floras of +these islands are very rich in kinds. Indeed, there +are many little local floras included in the great seaside +one, for the landscape, the nature of the rocks, +and the vegetation of the shore, differ greatly in +<ins class="corr" id="tn-1233" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: 'in differnt parts'"> +different</ins> parts. Each particular landscape by the sea, +and every kind of soil there, has its little set of +peculiar plants, some liking limestone, others clay, +many rejoicing in sand, and some even finding nourishment +among the highest pebbles.</p> + +<p>Hence, on walking round British coasts, the plants, +as a whole, will differ from those found inland, and at +every turn or change of rock and scenery new kinds +appear. But many of the inland plants do go down +far to the seaside, and the art of gardening and all +sorts of accidents have dispersed many plants which +originally were not dwellers near the sea; and, on the +contrary, they have also removed seaside plants, like +sea-kale and asparagus, inland and into our gardens. +In many places, however, and where the sea comes +up very close, the inland plants are not found. There +is a very remarkable thing about this seashore and +seaside flora, and it is this, that nearly all the important +groups, families, or genera of inland plants have +a kind or two in it, and that there are few extraordinary +novelties which would enable us to say that such +a set of plants was destined for the seaside. Thus +the pod-bearing order, which contains the pea, bean, +clover, and such plants, has many species which are +only found near the sea. The toothed medick (Medicago +denticulatus), and the common melilot, love +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1234">[1234]</span>sand and gravel near the sea; the star clover lives +on a shingly beach near Shoreham; while two kinds +of the genus lotus live on dry places, two being found +near the sea in Devon and Cornwall. There is a +vetch, with a pale purple flower, on the pebbly beach +of Weymouth, and another of a sulphur-color likes +such situations. Even the poppy order has a kind +with large golden-yellow flowers, with seed-cases +from 6 to 12 inches long, living on sandy seashores; +and this “horned poppy” has a very interesting companion, +for a poppy with a bluish-white flower with +a violet spot lives in the fens and on sandy ground +near the sea, and it is the kind which yields opium. +The cruciferous plants, of which the wall-flower, the +rocket, cabbage, mustard, etc., are examples, are well +and interestingly represented at the sea. There is a +sea-stock living on the sandy seacoasts of Wales, +Cornwall, and Jersey. The wild cabbage, the parent +of all domestic cabbages, lives on cliffs by the +sea; a wild mustard is at St. Aubin’s Bay, Jersey; a +white draba, not very unlike the common whitlow +grass, is on sandhills by the sea in Islay. The scurvy +grasses are all found on seashores, and constitute a +shore group. Finally, there are the purple sea-rocket +and sea-kale, loving sandy shores, and there +is a rare wild sea-radish. Among other well-known +inland orders of plants, such as the violets, there is +a rare one with its flowers wholly yellow, or yellow +with the upper part purple, living on sands by the +sea. Of another order, the tamarisk may be seen +close to the waves on the Essex coast; even the pink +tribe has a sea bladder-campion, an alsine, and a cerastium. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1235">[1235]</span>Again, the tree mallow lives on rocks +by the sea. The rose tribe are certainly not lovers +of the seashore, but there is one kind belonging to +the whitethorn tribe (Cotoneaster) which ornaments +the rocks of the Great Orme’s Head, in Carnarvonshire; +and a solitary kind of the thick-leaved plants, +a sedum, lives there also, loving the limestone soil. +The Corrigiola littoralis of the southwest of England +has white-stalked flowers. The sea-holly, with its +blue flowers in a head or umbel, lives on sandy seashores; +the wild fennel, the Scottish lovage, and the +fleshy-leaved, whitish-flowered samphire love rocks +by the sea. The sea-carrot lives on the southwestern +coasts.</p> + +<p>The red valerian is found on chalk cliffs; but no +other of its tribe, or of the teazels or scabious set, is +found particularly as a seashore plant. Both the +composite orders, of which the daisy and the asters +are examples, and which form so large a part of the +inland flora, have many seashore species. Thus, +there is the golden samphire, allied to the elecampane +plant, the sea-diotis, the sea-feverfew, and the +sea-wormwood. There is, or was, a wild cineraria +on the rocks of Holyhead, and there is a thistle with +pink flowers which loves sandy places by the sea. +The least lettuce likes chalky places. One of the +centaury kinds lives on sandy seashores, and there is +a seaside bindweed with very handsome pink flowers +with yellow bands. One of the bugloss tribe lives on +northern seashores, and there is a curious great snap-dragon +which is to be found about cliffs overhanging +the sea. The primroses and pimpernels are not inhabitants +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1236">[1236]</span>of the seashore, but two sets of plants, called +glaux and samolus, belonging to their order, frequent +the shore and salt marshes. Then there is the sea-lavender +tribe with four kinds, all living in England, +or Ireland, on rocky shores and salt marshes; and the +thrift plant likes the shore as well as the mountain +top, a distribution which is noticed also in the sea-plantain. +Many of the spinach tribe, such as the +glass worts, the sea-beet, the salsolas, and the sea-purslane, +inhabit the shores, and some of them were +formerly used in the preparation of barilla. Such a +common thing as the dock could hardly be found +away from the sea, and there is really a sea-dock +found on the marshland; and the Channel Islands +have a sea-snake-weed. A thorny shrub with lancet-shaped +<ins class="corr" id="tn-1236" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: 'slivery leaves'"> +silvery</ins> leaves, and attaining the length of from +four to six feet, frequents sandy spots and cliffs, on +the southeast and east coasts, and is called the sea-buckthorn. +There is also a sea-spurge. The wild +asparagus, with a stem not one-third of the height of +the cultivated kind, but the true parent of all asparagus, +is a rare plant, but it has been found at Kynance +Cove, Cornwall, Callar Point, Pembroke, and at Gosford +Links in Scotland. Another important plant, +the onion, has its representatives on the rocks of +Guernsey, and another called chives is a Cornish cliff +seaside dweller. The rushes have several kinds on +salt marshes and shores, and there is a plant called +the zostera, with long leaves, which flourishes under +water on many parts of the eastern coast. Belonging +to the same botanical order is the Ruppia maritima, +found at Newhaven and Guernsey.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1237">[1237]</span></p> + +<p>The sea-sedges, a cat’s-tail grass, a foxtail grass, +an agrostis, a sea reed, and a common poa grass, with +a root-like bulb, are familiar objects on swampy seashores; +and a whole group of grass plants belonging +to a tribe called Sclerochloa inhabit sandy seasides. +The couch-grass dwells there also; and the list may +be closed by noticing the sea-barley, a tiny plant, but +loving sandy pastures near the sea. And among the +ferns a spleenwort lives on rocks over the sea.</p> + +<p>These are all plants of a complicated structure, and +produce seed. But those about to be noticed are the +true sea-weeds, which have a simple construction and +belong to the cellular plants.</p> + +<p>Where the land-plant ends, the sea-weed begins, +and as some flowering plants or grasses come close to +the edge of the high spring tide, so some sea-weeds +choose that position, and appear to like a dry time +for a while, and a refreshing return of the salt water +at distant intervals.</p> + +<p>One of these sea-weeds abounds on muddy seashores, +at the entrance of rivers and marshes, and +positively adheres to the roots of flowering plants. +North Wales, Shoreham, the Essex coast, and the +Shannon are places where it is found in abundance. +Moreover, like most of the sea-weeds, it has a wide +distribution, for it is found on the Atlantic shores of +Europe as far south as Spain. The plant is from 2 +to 4 inches high, and consists of stems about as thick +as stout bristles. They branch and give off side-twigs, +like the veins of leaves in shape, and each ends +in a curious curl. The whole plant is limp, and +easily squeezed flat. It is of a dull purple color, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1238">[1238]</span>and from its curl endings has received a Greek name, +“bostrukos,” a ringlet. Old authors called it “Amphibia,” +from its locality, which has just been noticed; +and it is remarkable, because most of the other +red or reddish sea-weeds of its group live in deep +water.</p> + +<p>Another sea-weed which lives at the very top of +high-water mark, but which is also found on the +shores down to low-water mark, and still lower, is +a fine plant often growing a foot in height. Its stem +is round and solid, and branched in what is called +a pinnate manner, like a mimosa leaf. It is yellow +or livid green in color, and is very small and starved +at high-water mark, but it grows larger and larger +until well under the sea. One of the kind is found on +loose stones, where a rill of pure fresh water runs +into the sea. In Scotland it was formerly eaten under +the name of pepper dulse; but better things are now +to be had. It is named Laurencia after a French +botanist.</p> + +<p>A membrane-like sea-weed, which grows upward +with swellings like a cactus which give it the +appearance of a chain, is called the little chain sea +opuntia (Catenella Opuntia). It is also a dweller on +rocks, close up to high-tide mark, on our shores as +far as the Orkneys.</p> + +<p>Often at high-water mark, and on wood and stones +down to half-tide level, there is a quantity of dark +olive-green sea-weed, in small tufts, getting larger +nearer the sea, which often looks dried up, shriveled, +and crisp. It grows in tufts when the water goes off +rapidly, and it evidently requires exposure to the air +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1239">[1239]</span>for several hours in the day. Nearer the ever-rolling +sea the plant grows larger. It is called the channeled +fucus, and has an expanded part or root, and a stem +which branches in twos, and ends in two long cones +of softish stuff which contain the reproductive organs +or spores, called receptacles. It belongs to the same +group of sea-weeds as the commonest of all, or that +which has air-bladders on it and which crackle and +burst under the feet. A differently colored high-water-mark +weed is found at Yarmouth, Bantry Bay, +Torquay, and Sunderland on sand-covered rocks. It +lies prostrate and is of a pale green color, forming +masses or layers of excessively minute threads of +vegetable tissue. It belongs to the genus Codium.</p> + +<p>The sea-weeds called wracks or fucus are among +the most common of the dark greenish-olive kinds, +and one of them lives in a curious place on the shore. +The stem or frond is from one to two feet long; there +is a kind of midrib to it, besides the cones or receptacles, +at the tip of each branch. It is common from +Orkney to Cornwall in many places, and is found +where a good deal of fresh water mixes with the sea, +but it is not restricted to such peculiar positions, for +some of the most vigorous plants live in salt water, +and some very transparent and weak ones in brackish +water. The common bladder fucus is found everywhere +on rocks and stones and wood left exposed at +low water, and on artificial quays in estuaries extending +up rivers as far as the water is decidedly brackish. +Even in salt water it is noticed to flourish. The plant +or frond is in long, flat, thin branches with a midrib, +on either side of which are the bladders, which +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1240">[1240]</span>contain air. The branches end in thick gummy-feeling +masses, which are turgid, rather pointed, and +contain the spores. The color is olive and it is lighter +in the younger parts. It is found along the shores +of the Northern Atlantic, extending even to the tropics. +It is used as manure, and also in forming kelp +for the purposes of the manufacture of iodine. Cattle +eat it in the winter, and of late it has been used +in baths. A larger kind of fucus grows from high-tide +mark to mid-tide level, and it has large swellings +on its stem, and the branches, which come off in +whorls, are distended, as it were. It is used in the +kelp manufacture and for covering up oysters. The +Scotch shore-men call it the sea-whistle, for boys +make whistles out of the larger air-vessels.</p> + +<p>The serrate fucus, so called from its saw-like +edges, has no bladders, it clothes the rocks at half-tide +level, is very common, and is found on the western +shores.</p> + +<p>On the rocky bottoms of submarine tide-pools, near +low-water mark, all round the coasts of Scotland and +England, is a weed with narrow fronds and pinnate +ones of a lance-head shape, with spiny teeth on their +edges. It is a clear olive-brown plant, and gets a +verdigris tint when it is exposed. It is called the +ligulate desmarestia.</p> + +<p>Perhaps more beautiful, but not more interesting +than these kinds of fucus, are the ulvæ, those broad, +flat, wrinkled edged, green sea-weeds, looking like +half-transparent membranes. One of them, the +broad ulva, has a small disk by way of a root, and +grows from six to twenty inches in length and from +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1241">[1241]</span>three to twelve in breadth, in tufts of different shapes. +It is very common on all shores, on rocks and stones +between tide-marks, and extends downward to a +depth of ten fathoms. It has a wonderful geographical +distribution, for, with the exception of the coldest +regions of the globe, it inhabits every shore. It +used to be eaten under the title of oyster green, being +prepared like laver; and the Icelanders used to, and +perhaps may still, ascribe an anodyne virtue to it. +They bind it on the forehead in fevers, writes a Scottish +botanist.</p> + +<p>The other ulva, which is nearly as common as this, +is smaller, and grows in the form of an inflated bag, +which opens and expands. It is of a very bright and +yellowish green, and it is thinner and more delicate +than the other kind. It is seldom seen except in +spring or early summer, on rocks, stones, and shells +between tide-marks, and it is generally distributed +around British shores and those of Europe.</p> + +<p>A very common green weed, found between tide-marks +and also in ditches running into the sea, was +supposed by its first describers to resemble an entrail +or intestine; hence it has been called Enteromorpha +intestinalis, from the Greek words <em>enteron</em>, entrail, +and <em>morpha</em>, form. It grows from a few inches to +a foot or more in length, and from a line to three or +four inches in diameter. Seen where it is attached to +a stone, it is like a tube, hollow, membrane-like, and +green; but further out it is larger and swells out into +an irregular bag, crisped and curled here and there. +It is very common all over the world, and finds its +way sometimes into fresh water. The Rev. J. Pollexfen +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1242">[1242]</span>notices that it is prepared for culinary purposes +by the Japanese for an ingredient in their +soups.</p> + +<p>The other common green Enteromorpha is called +“the compressed.” It is in the form of a branching +green, delicate tube, flattened here and there; and it +clothes rocks between tide-marks, being sometimes +as fine as a hair. It gets narrower at its attachment +and is broad at the ends. Near high-water mark it +forms a short, shaggy pile of slender fronds spreading +over rocks and stones, and most treacherous to the +stepping of unwary feet, being most slippery. A little +lower down, in the rock-pools, it is larger, tubular, +branched, and thin near the root; and where +fresh water runs in close to it, the fronds get larger, +broader, and more inflated. Almost everything on +floating timber or on stone is this kind of weed. +From being more or less tubular, these Enteromorphæ +have a double green membrane. Now there is +a beautiful ribbon-shaped ulva which has this double +formation and which is found at half-tide level. It is +long, even reaching to two feet, and is only half an +inch to two inches broad. Very elegant and graceful +are its tapering, curling, wrinkling, and plaiting of +the edges; it is called Ulva linza, and is of a bright +green color. Among the commonest of the small +green sea-weeds are the confervæ, hairy-like green +threads, which collect in layers and fleeces and cover +much surface, or wave in the rock-pools. One kind +called the sandy conferva lives at half-tide level at +Bantry Bay and also in Scotland at Appin. It forms +fleeces a yard or more in extent, made up of thin +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1243">[1243]</span>layers placed over each other, but so slightly connected +that they may be separated like gauze, for +some inches, without breaking. The hairs or filaments +are five or six inches long and are rather rigid; +they are very long-pointed, and consist of a delicate +tube membrane which incloses a series of long cells. +Another conferva, found attached to other sea-weeds +at Bantry Bay, Berwick, Firth of Forth, and Torquay, +has its filaments forming densely interwoven +layers which cling over their supporting plant. It +is of a dark green color. A third frequents salt pools +by the edge of the sea and rocks at half-tide level. It +is a very twisted thing, and forms crisped layers from +a few inches to several feet thick, which closely adhere +to the inequalities of the rock, or to the plants +which grow on it. It is of a glossy brilliant green +color, and is called the tortuous conferva.</p> + +<p>There is a pretty green hair-like plant which +branches and gives off branchlets on one side more +than on the other. It comes from a little group of +stems on a stone, and forms a small stunted but very +elegant bush, three or four inches high. This cladophora +lives in the purest and clearest sea-water only, +and in rocky pools left by the tide near low-water +mark. It is only got at low spring tides at Dingle +and Dublin, and it evidently likes the cool sea-water +and darkness. A sea-weed called the Adherent Codium +forms a velvet-like pile on the surface of rocks +in the southwest of England near low-water mark, +but it is rare. Sometimes the green velvet-looking +film may be three feet across, and it consists of myriads +of short cylindrical filaments with simple club-shaped +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1244">[1244]</span>hairs on them. It is soft and gelatinous, sticks +to paper, and appears to grow slowly. Another codium, +called the amphibious, has been mentioned already. +It occupies a different position on the shore +to the other. It frequents turf banks on the west of +Ireland, in County Galway, where the bog touches +the shore. It is a very mesh of entangled filaments, +and it dries up to almost nothing in dry weather, +and increases and grows again on the coming of the +welcome tide, spray, or rain. There is also a large +codium with branches, which looks like a sponge.</p> + +<p>Barnacles and shells, living at low-water mark, in +exposed situations on the western shores of Scotland +and Ireland, Falmouth, and the Land’s End, have a +weed upon them of a purplish-brown color like a +“crop of threads” (Nemaleon) of from three to ten +inches long. They are slender, solid, and divide in +twos from a little expanded base. In some places it +chooses particular positions, and in our Irish localities +it grows in shallow pools on the granite rocks, +and nowhere else.</p> + +<p>A common weed, sometimes twenty inches in +length, varies from pale yellow in shallow water to +dark purple in deeper places; it lives at half-tide +level, and is made up of tubular fronds filled with +watery gelatine. Its tube swells, here and there, and +bends at the end in a curious manner. It is called, +after a French naturalist, Dumontia. Another weed +with a cylindrical stem has many branches, and has +swellings at their origin like so many knots. These +are air-vessels and help to support the plant, which +is rather leathery. It is found on the English and +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1245">[1245]</span>Irish shores, and is called the bladder chain-weed +(Cystoseira). But the most elegant of the weeds +with air-bladders is called the sea oak (Halidrys) +and it is found commonly on rocks and stones in the +sea, below half-tide level. The fronds are from one +to four feet in length, and the branches bear numerous +long pods with compartments in them, the whole +looking like a mustard-pod, and these are the air-chambers.</p> + +<p>The waving, slender, long weed, so slimy to the +touch, and which is so abundant on all British shores—the +dread of the bather when it forms submarine +meadows, over mud flats—is called the cord-weed +(Corda filum). It is sometimes forty feet, but usually +from one to twenty feet in length, and is not +twice as thick as a bristle where it starts from a +stone, tapering and clothed with delicate hair, getting +wider in the middle, and slender and hairy at the top.</p> + +<p>There are some remarkable sea-weeds, which certainly +do not look like things belonging to the sea, +but rather to the land, where lichens and fungi live +on stones and trees. One often is called rivularia, +and is found on rocks, at half-tide level, on the +southern shores of England, and in the South and +west of Ireland. It incrusts the rocks, rising in short +lobes, and it feels fleshy and firm. It begins with a +globe-shaped substance, which sends forth ragged-looking +pieces; and although it is so dense, the surface +is covered with a close pile of exquisite filaments. +Many a dark rock, otherwise perfectly barren +at the end of summer, is clothed with the bright +green patches of this singular weed. Another of +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1246">[1246]</span>these incrusting things is often as round as a half-crown, +and looks like a lichen. It is leathery, and +gets ragged and warty with age, and is of a coffee-brown +color. It is called Ralfsia, after Mr. Ralf. A +third kind looks like a flat thin clot or stain of blood; +hence its name cruoria, from “cruor,” blood. It +forms a scum on the smooth, exposed rocks between +tide-marks, and is especially abundant in the west +of Ireland and Jersey. The patches are from one to +three inches in diameter, and their edges are very +clearly curved; they are brown and red, and the hairs +or filaments of which they are composed are purplish +red. It can be removed in flakes with a knife.</p> + +<p>Many sea-weeds are found upon others; and indeed +some of the most beautiful kinds are thus parasitic +upon larger ones. An instance of this occurs to one +of the humble crust-like weeds which is found on +pebbles at half-tide mark. So small is the parasite +that a slight magnifying power is required to make +it distinct, and then it is found to be made up of +thousands of minute forked threads, each of which +consists of several long cells, one placed before the +other, and some of the cells are large and egg-shaped, +and contain the seeds or spores. It is called the +Myrionema, from two Greek words which mean +numberless thread.</p> + +<p>The next great group of sea-weeds to be noticed +on the shore has many more kinds below low-water +mark, where they are never uncovered, than above. +They are the great dark, olive-colored, ribbon-shaped, +wavy-edged weeds, which have a tough skin +and roots, which adhere to rocks, and which are +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1247">[1247]</span>called tangles and laminariæ by botanists. Their +proper position, as a rule, is not on the shore, for +they almost characterize a particular zone of depth; +but there are kinds to be met with on rocks and timber, +close to the low-water mark, and on the shore. +Some of them are very remarkable when they are +placed, as they are in the north of England, on the +sea-beaten parts of white or gray rocks. They then +often form a dense layer—a sort of black, moving +fringe, which is sometimes uncovered. Most of them +flourish in the most boisterous seas, and it would +appear that those which may, with some reason, be +called shore-plants, because they are close to low-water +mark, and now and then uncovered, are smaller +and more delicate. Thus one kind, which has been +called the weak, or the papery tangle (Laminaria +fascia), has a stem not bigger than a bristle, which +gradually widens into a frond about twelve inches +long and two broad. It is greenish or brownish-olive +in color, and is very fragile. It has the remarkable +geographical distribution which is very +common to all those weeds living on the brink of the +sea, for it is found as far off as the Falkland Islands. +On British coasts it covers sandy rocks and stones +near low-water mark, and is to be found in the north +of Ireland, the western islands of Scotland, and the +southwest of England.</p> + +<p>Another kind fringes precipitous rocks at low-water +mark, and is abundant on the shores of Scotland +and of the north and west of Ireland, the west +and southwest coasts of England, and the northeast +coast. Mr. Harvey notices it as one of the kind luxuriating +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1248">[1248]</span>in a furious sea, although its frond can be +readily torn with the hand. It has a stem as thick as +a quill, and a root of many branching fibres. The +frond, or ribbon-shaped leaf, is from three to twenty +feet in length, and only grows three to eight inches +broad. It has a midrib running down its whole +length, and the following peculiarities: there are +many little leaflets on either side of the stem before +it merges into the broad frond, and the surface is +perforated with small pores, out of which come tufts +of shred-like fibres. It seems to be an everlasting +weed, and the first growth in the frond occurs from +the stem.</p> + +<p>The new parts are lighter colored than the old, +and after a while intersection takes place, where the +new part joins the old, and the old leaf falls. This +plant, from the side leaves giving it a winged appearance, +is called the Alaria (from <i lang="la">ala</i>, a wing), and it +is eaten in some parts of Scotland and Ireland. +The midrib is the delicacy, but it is very insipid. +The Scottish name is badderlocks, or henware, and +the Irish, murlins.</p> + +<p>A most graceful and delicate tangle is to be found +on the south and east coasts of England, all round +Scotland, and at Bantry Bay, Howth, Balbriggan, +and Kingston, in Ireland, on rocks and stones in +pools left by the tide. When fresh, it is a clear +brown-olive in color, and it changes to green when +dry or when placed in fresh water. The leaf comes +from a stalked root, tapers to the end, is frilled at +the sides, and may be from six inches to three or +more feet in length, and from one to six inches broad. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1249">[1249]</span>It is thin, but is traversed by a double layer of large +air-cells.</p> + +<p>There is a large tangle which goes by the name of +furbelows; and when spread out on the shore may +make a circle of fronds twelve feet in diameter. It is +a clear brown-olive in color, and the root gives rise +to a stem with large hollow knobs on it. The +leaf is oblong, and is deeply split into many parts. +The plant grows on rocks at low-water mark, and is +abundant.</p> + +<p>But the commonest of all these tangles, with its +long stem and branching roots, and beautiful, slippery, +crumpled leaf, forms a belt, about low-water +mark, round rocky shores, where its long, ribbon-like +fronds wave gracefully in the water. When it is in +deeper water it is much larger, and is then called the +broad-leaved tangle. The great tangles which are +employed to form kelp are not shore plants, but live +covered with water.</p> + +<p>The gems of the seashore are, however, not the +olive and green weeds, but the red kinds, and they +abound. There is a very large and handsome one, +which is rare in deep, shady pools at extreme low-water +mark, but which is often washed up in +storms, about the southwest coast of England, +Bantry Bay, Antrim, Down, and Orkney. It is +somewhat kidney-shaped, in the outlines of the large +blood-red fronds, and has a stout, round stem. It +is made up of three layers, and some plants are male, +and others are female. This plant is called Kalymenia, +from the Greek words that mean beautiful +and membrane. Another kind of the Kalymenia, found +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1250">[1250]</span>at Falmouth, Plymouth, and Bantry Bay, is something +like a short, broad tangle with crisped leaves +in shape. It is red, and the root is a disk, and the +fronds are about a foot in length. It is found +on rocks and stones, within tide-marks, in land-locked +bays. It is very thin and delicate, and may +be compared with a totally different-feeling red sea-weed, +which has flat fronds of irregular shape, +fringed with little leaflets, the whole being half-gristly +to the touch, and of a dull purplish color. It +is common on the shores of the south and west of +Ireland and Jersey. The root is very fibrous, and +altogether it is a most peculiar weed. There is another +of these leathery weeds which grows to some +size, and has well-grown leaflets on its edges, besides +large circular markings on its purple surface, which +is pretty common everywhere. They belong to the +genus Rhodymenia, so called from the Greek words +red and membrane.</p> + +<p>The last kind is the dulse of the Scotch, and the +dillisk of the Irish. Mr. Harvey thus notices its +edible peculiarities: “In Ireland and Scotland this +plant is much used by the poor as a relish for their +food. It is commonly dried, in its unwashed state, +and eaten raw, the flavor being brought out by long +chewing. On many parts of the west of England it +forms the only addition to potatoes in the meals of +the poorest class. The variety which grows on mussel +shells between tide-marks is preferred, being less +tough than other forms, and the minute mussel-shells +and other small shell-fish which adhere to its folds +are nowise unpleasing to the consumers of this simple +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1251">[1251]</span>luxury, who rather seem to enjoy the additional +<i lang="fr">goût</i> imparted by the crunched mussels. In the +Mediterranean this plant is used in a cooked form, +entering into ragouts and made dishes; and it formed +a chief ingredient in one of the soups recommended +under the name of St. Patrick’s Soup by M. Soyer +to the starving Irish peasantry.” It should be noticed +that Dr. Harvey was keeper of the herbarium in the +University of Dublin, and that he wrote in 1846.</p> + +<p>Another dark-red sea-weed, which is very iridescent, +when waving under water at low spring tides, is +also said to be eaten in Cornwall, but, Harvey says, +more by women than men. It is called the Edible +Iridæa from its rainbow colors, is about six inches in +length, is gristly to the touch, and is rather like a +battledore in shape.</p> + +<p>The supposed luxury which is served at the tables +of many, and which is called laver in England, and +sloke, sloak, or sloukawn in Ireland, comes from +some sea-weeds which are delicately membranaceous, +flat, and more or less purple. The color gives the +name Porphyra, from the Greek word “porphuros,” +purple. One kind is something like a large, crumpled +lettuce-leaf in shape, without the veins and stalk, and +the other, which is the commonest, has a long frond +like a tangle, of one or two feet long; but there is no +long stalk. The edges are crisped, and the end of +the frond is rather sharp and long. It is very thin, +glossy, and more or less of a vivid purple. It is +abundant on rocks and stones between tide-marks on +our British shores, and is an annual.</p> + +<p>There is a handsome sea-weed called Nitophyllum +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1252">[1252]</span>punctatum, “a shining leaf.” It is of a rose-red color, +and its membranaceous frond has its edge cleft; it is +veinless, or has irregular veins toward its base. The +thin expansion is very delicate, and is characterized +by the want of “nervures” or veins, and the presence +of spots or tubercles immersed in it. These are +large, oblong, and very general, and contain the +spores. In other plants of the same kind the spots +contain tetraspores. The root is from a small +disk, and the fronds grow in small tufts from twelve +to twenty inches in length. They are attached to +other weeds at low-water mark; and are found on +rocks down to fifteen fathoms. It is very abundant +on the coast of Antrim, and all round the British +coasts.</p> + +<p>A rose-red filamentous sea-weed being from two to +six inches in height, with the stems not much +thicker than bristles, their fronds being long, is found +on rocks near low-water mark, and generally in +deep pools from Orkney to Cornwall. It is called +Griffithsia Corallina.</p> + +<p>Other kinds of Rhodymenia are common on rocks +and stones, or on the stems of the tangles, near the +very verge of low-water, or higher up. One found +in the first situation is most common in the southwest +of England, but is found everywhere on the +British shores. It has a little disk for a root, and a +long, slender stem, rather round near the root and +flat above, where it gradually expands into a red +membrane in the shape of a fan. But it is not +whole, for it rather resembles a skeleton of a fan +with notches at the edges, a dark spot being at their +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1253">[1253]</span>ends. The whole may be four inches long. The +other kind is purplish, and the stem has branches, +each of which ends in a ragged fan. It has little +knobs on the side of the stem and on the membraneous +parts which bear the spores. It is sometimes +called by another generic name, that of leaf-bearer, +or Phyllophora.</p> + +<p>A rose-red sea-weed which has a midrib along all +its thin branching fronds, and which is like a flat +miniature bushy tree, is common all round British +coasts, between tide-marks and more deeply. The +tips of the fronds have little bodies on them which +are whiter than the rest, and which contain peculiar +spores, and there are also little knobs or tubercles +which are attached to the midrib, and these contain +another kind of spore. It belongs to a number of +sea-weeds which have been named Delesseria, after +Baron Delessert, a former distinguished botanist. +Another, which is called Delesseria sanguinea, from +its blood-red, or rather rose-fed color, has a frond +like a laurel-leaf, but it is crumpled at the edges. It +is thin, has a midrib, and several spring from a stalk. +Little fronds come from the midrib, in the middle +of the larger fronds. It is one of the many weeds +that fruit in winter time, and it is to be found in +deep rock-pools, between tide-marks, and generally +at the shady side of the pool under projecting ledges +of rock. It is a great favorite, and grows to a considerable +size, the fronds reaching sometimes ten +inches in length.</p> + +<p>Perhaps the most beautiful of the red weeds is +found on rocks, and on other sea-weeds, at low-water +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1254">[1254]</span>mark. It resembles a number of skeleton leaves on +a stem dyed a fine red, for the frond is not a membrane, +but a number of branching threads or hairs, +and it arises from a stem. It is from six to eight +inches in length, and is named Dasya, from <em>dasus</em>, +the Greek for hairy. It is much used for ornamental +purposes in the collections of sea-weeds.</p> + +<p>One of these dissected skeleton-leaved sea-weeds +is found on rocks and on other sea-weeds, near low-water +mark around British coasts. It is a tender and +soft plant of a fine carmine color, and it arises from +a stem, which, after growing for a while, branches in +twos. Then side-twigs come off opposite each other, +and one on either side of the stems and branches, and +numerous hairy-looking projections arise from the +upper edge of each of the twigs. Each hairy process +has others on one side of it, and some of them bear +little bulbs which contain the spores. It is singularly +regular in its growth, and, as it is small, it looks well +under low magnifying power. It is a pretty shrub-like +thing, and hence its name beautiful little shrub, +or Callithamnion. Another Callithamnion is that +branching weed which is seen waving under water +upon the stems and fronds of the tangle. It is a +robust and shrubby-looking weed, which, even when +dry, retains some of its elegance of form. It is of a +brownish-red color, and when fresh water is added it +becomes of a brilliant orange tint, and gives out a +rose-colored powder.</p> + +<p>One of the many instances in which one kind of +sea-weed is much more luxurious in growth on the +Irish than on the British shore is noticed in the case +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1255">[1255]</span>of a beautiful skeleton-looking, crisp, red weed called +“Wrangelia,” after a Swedish naturalist. Its fine +stem has little whorls of fibrils one above the other, +so that it presents a most strange resemblance to the +common horsetails of our marsh ground. Branches +come off from the whorls, which, horsetail fashion, +have their bracelets on successive whorls. It has +a root of fibres, and a good-sized specimen would +cover a quarto page of paper. They are found on +the steep sides of pools near low-water mark, under +the shade of other sea-weeds, and they are to be +picked on the south of England, Jersey, Belfast, and +the west of Ireland.</p> + +<p>The braided-hair weed, Plocamium, from plokamos, +braided hair, is the pinky-red, ribless, much-branched, +rather gristly weed, which, from its +elegant arborescence and beautiful color, is an especial +favorite with the workers in ornamental sea-weed +decorations. It is cast up in quantities on the +British shores; but, as a rule, it lives beyond the shore, +that is to say, below low-tide level. Another equally +common weed has a slightly darker red color, and its +frond is horny, flat, branching in twos, and with little +fronds on the edges. It is found from the very verge +of high water to the extreme of low water, fringing +the margins of the rock-pools, and is very common. +From its hard condition and horny nature it has been +called Gelidium, from <i lang="la">gelu</i>, frost. The beautiful +red weed, whose resemblance to a great branching +tree pressed flat is so great, and which bears thousands +of little berry-looking knobs on short stalks, +on the sides of its fronds, is called Sphærococcus, or +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1256">[1256]</span>globe-fruit or berry. It is not known on the eastern +coast of Britain, but is common on the Irish shores +at extreme low-water mark. Another red weed, +with a dull purple color, has a frond of from six +inches to two feet in length, and every minute ramification +of its skeleton-leaved frond has one or more +berry-shaped swellings. It is common all round the +coast within tide-marks, and has been called after a +genus of mosses, Hypnæa.</p> + +<p>The last kinds of filamentous, or skeleton-leaved +red weeds, to be noticed, are remarkable for their +tufty nature, their spreading out in water and showing +tree-like branching from a stem, which, when +magnified, is seen to be made up of many long cells +placed side by side. Some live between tides on +rocks, and others at the edge of low tide, but the most +interesting are parasitic upon other weeds. From +their many-tubed nature they are called Polysiphonia. +The parasitic kind (so named) is rather +rare, and settles on some of the calcareous weeds. +The lanceolate kind is found on the stems and fronds +of the tangle; and a dark red species, called Formosa, +is found near low-water mark. Brodie’s +Polysiphonia is known by the little tufts of branches +which come from the main branches, and it has a +good stem. It is found on corallines and on rocks.</p> + +<p>The fibrous Polysiphonia has tufts at the end of its +branches, and is found on mussel-shells; and the +violet kind is brownish-red or purple, has a small +root-like disk, and fronds which are from six to ten +inches in length. It is feathery and much branched.</p> + +<p>It has been noticed that some sea-weeds are +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1257">[1257]</span>parasitic, or live on others, fixed certainly, but +whether they get any nourishment through their roots +is doubtful. One of these is very common on Fuci, +the bladder one especially; and it occurs as dense +little tufts on the leaves. These, when examined, are +found to be made up of long, flaccid, olive-colored +hair-like filaments, about an inch in length. They +rise from a little hard spot, and form a tuft with a +broad circular outline. They belong to a genus +called Elachista, from the Greek word for “the +least.” The hairy Ceramium is a tufty weed, which +is sometimes parasitic and sometimes not. It has a +very peculiar shape, being made up of filaments +placed side by side in great numbers, but they branch +and rebranch, have little whorls of minute prickles +along them, and the ends curl gracefully.</p> + +<p>Among the more remarkable sea-weeds is the +Carrageen, or Irish moss. It is a very variable plant +in its color and shape, and it may be a yellowish-green, +a livid purple, or of a brownish tint, and it +may be in the shape of a wrinkled, crumpled fern, +or of a bush. It has a root-stem, reaches a foot in +height, and the largest are found in estuaries where +mud comes down with fresh water. The weed is +found abundantly on the shores of Great Britain, +and formerly was used in the place of isinglass for +making blanc-mange, an edible which has degenerated +with the progress of imitative culinary art. +It was a fashionable remedy for consumption, and +many of the peasantry of the west coast of Ireland +used to collect it.</p> + +<p>A most extraordinary fan-shaped sea-weed has a +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1258">[1258]</span>root covered with woolly filaments and fronds, from +two to five inches in length, wide at the base, and +expanding in almost perfect half-circles. The frond +is curved, marked across, and has a disposition +to form funnel-shaped pieces. A fringe of orange-colored +filaments is on the markings, and at the +edge, which is often strongly rolled inward. The +outer surface is covered with a kind of whitish powder. +The general color is yellow and olive, with +a dash of red. This peacock-tail weed is found on +rocks in shallow pools, on parts of the south of England +coast, and is abundant at Torquay. It is remarkable +for being an extension, northward, of a +common tropical sea-weed.</p> + +<p>A very common plant is to be found, either growing +in little tufts on the rocks at low-tide mark, or +as a waif cast up by the waves, in bunches, near +where the coast contains rocks or earths which have +carbonate of lime in them. It is also a dweller in +deeper water on the floor of the sea, and oftentimes +it may be seen waving lightly in a rock-pool; but +it does not look like a plant. There are no leafy +fronds, and it does not resemble any other common +sea-weed in outside appearance. It has a stony look, +and is hard to the touch; it will stand a pinch, and +although it may break into separate pieces it can +hardly be crushed by the finger and thumb. Usually, +as seen by most people, it is of a glistening white +color, with some purple about it, and is made up +of a number of joints. The coralline, for so it is +called, has a sort of broad crust where it adheres to +the rock, which gives out a stem. This stem is slender, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1259">[1259]</span>and is made up of many pieces, placed one before +the other, narrow where they join, and rather +swollen in the middle or at the end. Other pieces, +usually two, come off from the piece at the joint, +and there may be hundreds of them or only a few. +The end of the plant is made up of tufts of pieces, +some of which have a little hole in the end, as if there +were a hollow place. Now, if the spots where the +pieces join be looked at carefully, there appears to +be something like very thin threads uniting one piece +to another, and they are not covered, as all the rest +is, with the glistening white stuff, which feels gritty +between the teeth. These corallines, if placed in +vinegar, begin to bubble as if they were made up of +chalk, and their outsides are composed of a mineral +called carbonate of lime. After a while the vinegar +dissolves all the hard white part, and leaves the +threads, which are now seen to run the whole length +of the coralline. These threads are portions of +vegetable fibre, and constitute the inside stem as it +were, which is surrounded by a sort of bark of carbonate +of lime.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="i_426" style="max-width: 50em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/i_426.jpg" alt="Drawings of various lichens and fungi"> + <figcaption class="caption"> + Lichens and Small Fungi<br> +<p class="fs80"> + 1, Lecanora; 2, Opeographa; 3, Parmelia; 4, Cetraria Islandica; 5, 11, Cladonia; 6, Usnea + Barbata; 7, Red Wart Fungus; 8, Pertusaria; 9 Bæomyses; 10, Erysiphe; 12, Cyanthus</p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>But this is only a popular manner of explaining, +for if more care is taken, it will be found that, +although some fibres run through more than one +joint, others, when they are in the midst of a piece, +turn outward from the middle, and come near the +surface where the carbonate of lime is. There they +end in delicate bags or cells in rows, the last of which +is quite at the surface; so that the outside of the pieces +is made up of a mass of these small microscopic cells, +and the rest of the long fibres. The older the plant, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1260">[1260]</span>the more carbonate of lime is there in this mass of +cells; but in very young plants, in the spring of the +year, there is but little of the mineral, and they may +sometimes be got quite soft. They are then short +little stumps fixed on to the expanded root, which +sticks on to stones, and they are not white, but of a +beautiful claret or port-wine color, the joints, where +the fibres are, being greenish or without color. This +immature plant can be examined with the microscope, +and then the secret of how the carbonate of +lime is put in is divulged. First, it appears that any +part of the young coralline which is growing, does +not have any of the opaque mineral in it, and that +the fibres never have it in them, nor has a very delicate +skin which covers the whole, and which is very +difficult to get a sight of, for it is easily washed off. +By putting a young piece in weak acid, bubbles come +out, and every now and then one blows up this exquisitely +thin pavement-looking film from off the +surface. It is then seen to be made up of flat cells, +placed side by side, and colorless. This is the important +tissue by which the plant lives, for it exists +long after all within is hard. It is always growing +and being repaired; and in the tropics, where the +water is warm, the little cells of it are covered with +very long hairs, and, indeed, they may sometimes be +traced in English specimens. Leaving these outside +cells and the membrane for a while, it is necessary +to consider those beneath, and which are more or less +connected with the long fibres of the joints. A row +of these more deeply seated cells is on the outside, +just beneath the membrane, and other rows are +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1261">[1261]</span>deeper and deeper still, until the ends of the fibres +are seen to end, as it were, in contact with the innermost. +The outer row of all these is of a pale green +color, and gradually the port-wine tint comes with +depth from the edge. Each of the cells of these +rows is not quite covered with the hard mineral, and +they communicate their fluid contents to another; +and it is found that it is between the cells that the +carbonate of lime is deposited, and which can be dissolved +out by vinegar. As soon as a set of cells has +done growing, the mineral is deposited, invests, and +comes outside them, until it invades the delicate +membranes of their bag as well. How does this plant +live? and where does it get its lime from? It does +not absorb anything by its root, for it is placed on a +stone, but all nourishment enters by the thin outside +layer.</p> + +<p>In all sea-water there is some organic stuff or +sea soup, the result of the decomposition of tiny +things, and there is some air in the water which contains +oxygen and nitrogen and carbonic acid. Under +the influence of life, the organic stuff is absorbed by +the cell-membrane, and is rendered useful to the rest +of the plant, into whose cells, not quite walled up by +carbonate of lime, it enters like sap, and circulates. +The carbonate of lime can only get in by there +being some minute quantity in the sea-water, and +there is sufficient in the chalky spots and limestone +shores, not only dissolved by the sea-water, but held +in suspension by it. The water is ever on the +move, passing over the coralline, and in a few weeks +a few grains, for they make a great show, are absorbed +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1262">[1262]</span>and deposited in it. Small sea-snails browse +on the corallines, and have to thank them for their +lime, which is necessary for their shell.</p> + +<p>There are some other plants found at low-tide +marks which are calcareous, but instead of being +jointed, like the corallines, they form irregular and +rounded little blocks, or simple papery-looking expansions +on some of the larger-leaved sea-weeds. +They are usually white and hard, and no one would +consider them to be of a vegetable nature were their +microscopic anatomy not known. They have a great +resemblance in mineral structure to the coralline, and +are called Melobesia or Nullipores.</p> + +<p>The sea-weeds are, as may have been gleaned +from the last few pages, divisible into red, olive, or +dark and green kinds, and one of their most interesting +studies relates to the method of reproduction. +Many sea-weeds are annual and die in the winter, +so they must be reproduced by seed, or something +like it; others are of two or more years’ growth, and +outlive the winter, but in the end they must have +some method of perpetuating their kind. Some are +perennial, or constantly growing. Certain kinds are +only found in the spring and summer, others are always +to be met with, and some produce spores, or +the matter out of which future weed grows, in summer, +and others in the autumn and winter. The +geographical range of some of the British sea-weeds +is immense, and not a few kinds are found at the +Antipodes.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1263">[1263]</span></p> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-1263"> + SARGASSUM<br> + —<span class="smcap">Cuthbert Collingwood</span> +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">Among the many remarkable phenomena connected +with the Gulf Stream not the least remarkable +is the existence of those floating meadows +of sea-weed commonly known as the Gulf-weed or +Sargassum, whose accumulations, within certain +parallels of latitude and longitude, have given to that +area the name of the Sargasso Sea. These marine +prairies, as they have been called, have attracted +the notice of all navigators since the time of Columbus, +who, in his first voyage, received his earliest +check upon falling in with them. The great pioneer +entered the Sargasso Sea in lat. 26° N., and long. +48° W., and his timid shipmates at once took fright +at the marvelous appearance, feeling assured that +their ships would be entangled in the weed until they +were starved to death, or that they were about to +strike on some unknown coast. In this part, he says, +“the sea was covered with such a quantity of sea-weed, +like little branches of the fir-trees which bear the pistachio +nuts, that we believed the ships would run +aground for want of water.” They could not understand +how such vast quantities of vegetation could +merely float on the surface, and the appearance of +a lobster among the weed confirmed their fears; and +deeming it necessary that they must be either in, or +approaching shoal water, they entreated the heroic +discoverer to turn the ship’s head. But happily he +never wavered, and on the tropic, in long. 66°, the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1264">[1264]</span>first vessel which had ever entered the Sargasso Sea +emerged again into clear water.</p> + +<p>The extent of the Sargasso Sea is in due proportion +to the vast natural agency to which it primarily owes +its existence. It stretches from 20° to about 65° West +longitude, and from between the parallels of 20° and +45° is of considerable width, narrowing from 12° +in its widest part to about 4° or 5° where least developed; +while the remaining 20° of westerly extent +takes the form of a narrow belt of various detached +tracts, influenced as to situation by local currents, +and averaging 4° or 5° only in width. An idea may +be obtained of its area by the comparison of Maury, +who states that it is equal to the great valley of the +Mississippi; or still better, perhaps, from Humboldt’s +estimate, that it was about six times as large +as the Germany of his day.</p> + +<p>But, although the geographical boundaries given +above are those usually recognized by hydrographers +for the Sargasso Sea, it must not be supposed that +they are invariable. It may, however, be correctly +stated, that it occupies the great sweep made by the +Azores, Canaries, and Cape de Verde Islands in the +East; while the elongated westerly belt extends as +far as between the Bermudas and West Indian islands.</p> + +<p>The earlier navigators often found the Gulf-weed +a serious impediment to their progress. Lærius mentions +that for fifteen continuous days he passed +through one unbroken meadow (<span lang="es">Praderias de yerva</span>, +or sea-weed prairies, as Oviedo characteristically +calls them), so that he could find no way through for +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1265">[1265]</span>oars. On certain occasions it has been found that +the speed of vessels through the Sargasso Sea has been +materially retarded; and it has been described as so +thick that, to the eye, at a little distance it appears +to be substantial enough to walk upon.</p> + +<p>That this is not the condition met with under all +circumstances is proved by the fact that passing +through this region in 1867, the writer made a seven +days’ voyage through its central portion, during +which the sea was at no time covered with the weed, +so as to form a continuous meadow. It made its appearance +usually in large patches, generally upon the +surface, but sometimes apparently sunk to some distance +below it. It varied considerably in appearance—was +sometimes dark-colored, dense, and compact, +and covered with berries; at others, pale and attenuated, +with few berries. The masses, on some days +were round and shapely, and usually scattered somewhat +indiscriminately over the surface of the sea. +Occasionally only a few small tufts appeared for +many hours; and on one day the only sign of its +presence was a long narrow streak, extending across +the ocean as far as the eye could reach in the direction +of the wind. The fact, indeed, is that the Sargasso +Sea, dependent as it is upon a great physical +phenomenon, changes its position according to the +seasons, storms, and winds: its mean position remaining +the same as it has been ascertained by observations +during many years past. The Gulf Stream +is the great power which maintains these marine pastures—a +current whose impulse and origin, according +to Humboldt, are to be sought to the south of the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1266">[1266]</span>Cape of Good Hope—after a long circuit it pours itself +from the Caribbean Sea and the Mexican Gulf +through the Straits of the Bahamas, and following +a course from south-southwest to north-northeast, +continues to recede from the shores of the United +States until, further deflected to the eastward by the +banks of Newfoundland, it approaches the European +coast. At the point where the Gulf Stream is +deflected from the banks of Newfoundland toward +the east, it sends off branches to the south near the +Azores. This is the situation of the Sargasso Sea.</p> + +<p>Patches of the weed are always to be seen floating +along the outer edge of the Gulf Stream. Now, +if bits of cork, or chaff, or any floating substance, +says Captain Maury, be put in a basin, and a +circular motion be given to the water, all the light +substances will be found crowding together near the +centre of the pool, where there is the least motion. +Just such a basin is the Atlantic Ocean to the Gulf +Stream; and the Sargasso Sea is the centre of the +whirl.</p> + +<p>The Gulf-weed itself has so peculiar a history that +it forms not the least remarkable point of interest +in the description of the Sargasso Sea. It is one of +the numerous species of the genus Sargassum, which +is among the most natural and readily distinguished +genera of the family of Fucaceæ. The great cryptogamist, +Agardh, enumerates sixty-two species of +Sargassum, of which the one concerning which we +are speaking is the Sargassum bacciferum, called +Fucus natans by Linnæus, and Fucus sargasso by +Gmelin. The Spanish word Sargazo, or Sargaço, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1267">[1267]</span>meaning sea-weed, supplies its common English +name.</p> + +<p>The integument is leathery and the general color +brown, of varying shades, sometimes light and sometimes +dark. The most striking peculiarity, on a +cursory view, is the abundance of globular cells, +which have been taken by the unlearned for fruit, +but which are in reality merely receptacles of air, +by means of which the plant not only floats +upon the surface of the ocean, but also is enabled +to support vast numbers of marine animals, +which find shelter among its tangled fronds. Columbus, +the first discoverer of the Sargasso Sea, described +the meadows as yellow like dry hay-seed, bearing +leaves of common rue, with numerous berries, which +turn black in drying like juniper berries. These +berries have received the name of <span lang="fr">rasins de tropique</span>.</p> + +<p>There is one point in the history of the Sargassum +which has excited the attention of all observers, and +more particularly of botanists. It is the fact that the +Sargassum is always found floating upon the deep +sea, and is yet destitute of any apparent means of +propagation. Agardh remarked that no fruit nor +root could be detected; and expressed his belief that +it grew in the depths of the ocean and was torn up +by the waves. This belief was very general at one +time, and it was supposed that the perfect plant was +unknown; but that the Gulf Stream collected together +the torn-off masses of its vesicular summits. +Rumphius suggested that the Sargassum fed upon +the fat exhalations and oily effluvia of dead fish, and +other organic substances entangled in it. Even +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1268">[1268]</span>modern publications state that there is reason to think +that it is first attached to the bottom of the comparatively +shallow parts of the sea; but the Gulf-weed +is never found so attached. It always floats; +and is healthy and abundant in that condition, never +exhibiting any organs of fructification, though constantly +putting out new fronds.</p> + +<p>It does not appear that any other species of Sargassum +is originally destitute of roots, even those most +closely allied to Sargassum bacciferum, though some +of them are not infrequently found both in the fixed, +and in considerable masses in the floating state, retaining +vitality, and probably propagating themselves +in the same manner. Professor Hervey conjectured +that the Gulf-weed might be a pelagic +variety of Sargassum vulgare, in the same way as +the variety subcostatus of Fucus vesiculosus has never +been found attached, growing in salt marshes. In +the Mediterranean vast quantities of Fucus vesiculosus +occur under a peculiar form, consisting entirely +of specimens derived from sea-born weed, +carried in by the current which sets in to that sea +from the Atlantic.</p> + + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1269">[1269]</span></p> +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2 class="p2 nobreak" id="GLOSSARY"> + GLOSSARY OF BOTANICAL TERMS + </h2> +</div> + + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><span class="pad50pc">A</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Abbreviate</span> (<i lang="la">abbreviare</i>, to shorten), +used to indicate that one part is +shorter than another.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Aberrant</span>, deviating from the natural +form.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Abortion</span>, suppression of an organ, depending +on non-development.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Abraded</span>, rubbed off.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Abrupt</span>, ending in an abrupt manner, as +the truncated leaf of the tulip-tree; +<em>abruptly pinnate</em>, ending in two +pinnæ—in other words, paripinnate; +<em>abruptly acuminate</em>, a leaf with a +broad extremity, from which a point +arises.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Acaulescent</span>, without an evident stem.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Accessory</span>, an addition to a usual number.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Accrescent</span>, when parts continue to +grow and increase after flowering, as +the calyx of <i>Physalis</i> and the styles +of <i>Anemone pulsatilla</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Accretion</span>, growing of one part to another.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Accumbent</span>, applied to the embryo of +<i>Cruciferæ</i> when the cotyledons have +their edges applied to the folded +radicle.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Acerose</span>, needle-like, narrow and slender, +with a sharp point.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Achæne</span>, or <span class="smcap">Achænium</span>, a monospermous +seed-vessel which does not open, +but the pericarp of which is separable +from the seed.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Achlamydeous</span>, having no floral envelope.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Achromatic</span>, applied to lenses which +prevent chromatic aberration, <em>i. e.</em>, +show objects without any prismatic +colors.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Acicular</span>, like a needle in form.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Aciculus</span>, a strong bristle.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Acinaciform</span>, shaped like a sabre or +cimeter.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Acotyledonous</span>, having no cotyledons.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Acrocarpi</span>, mosses having their fructification +terminating the axis.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Acrogenous</span>, having a stem increasing +by its summit.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Aculeate</span>, furnished with prickles.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Aculeus</span>, a prickle, a process of the +bark, not of the wood, as in the +rose.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Acuminate</span>, drawn out into a long +point.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Acute</span>, terminating in a sharp point.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Adherent</span>, adhesion of parts that are +normally separate, as when the calyx +is united to the ovary.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Adnate</span>, when an organ is united to +another throughout its whole length; +as the stipules to the petiole in roses, +and the filament and anther in <i>Ranunculus</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Adpressed</span>, or <span class="smcap">Appressed</span>, closely applied +to a surface.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Adult</span>, full grown.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Adventitious</span>, organs produced in abnormal +positions, as roots arising +from aerial stems.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Æruginous</span>, having the color of verdigris.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Æstivation</span>, the arrangements of the +parts of the flower in the flower-bud.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Agglomerated</span>, collected in a heap or +head.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Aggregate</span>, gathered together.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ala</span>, a wing, applied to the lateral petals +of papilionaceous flowers, and to +membranous appendages of the fruit, +as in the elm, or of the seed, as in +pines.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Albumen</span>, the nutritious matter stored +up with the embryo within the seed, +called also Perisperm and Endosperm.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Alburnum</span>, the outer young wood of a +dicotyledonous stem.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Alexipharmic</span>, that which counteracts +poisons.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Algology</span>, the study of sea-weeds.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Alternate</span>, arranged at different heights +on the same axis, and toward different +sides.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Alveolæ</span>, regular cavities on a surface, +as in the receptacle of the sunflower, +and in that of <i>Nelumbium</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Alveolate</span>, like a honeycomb.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Amentum</span>, a catkin, or deciduous unisexual +spike; plants having catkins +are <i>Amentiferous</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Amnios</span>, the fluid or semi-fluid matter in +the embryo-sac.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Amorphous</span>, without definite form.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Amphisarca</span>, an indehiscent, multilocular +fruit, with a hard exterior, +and pulpy round the seeds, as seen in +the Baobab.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Amphitropal</span>, an ovule, curved on itself, +with the hilum in the middle.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Amplexicaul</span>, embracing the stem over +a large part of its circumference.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ampulla</span>, a hollow leaf, as in <i>Utricularia</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Amylaceous</span>, starch-like.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Anastomosing</span>, inosculation of vessels.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1270">[1270]</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Anastomosis</span>, union of vessels; union +of the final ramifications of the veins +of a leaf.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Anatropal</span>, an inverted ovule, the +hilum and micropyle being near each +other, and the chalaza at the opposite +end.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Anceps</span>, two-edged.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Andrœcium</span>, the male organs of the +flower.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Androgynous</span>, male and female flowers +on the same peduncle, as in some +species of <i>Carex</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Androphore</span>, a stalk supporting the +stamens, often formed by a union of +the filaments.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Anfractuose</span>, wavy or sinuous, as the +anthers of <i>Cucurbitaceæ</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Angiospermous</span>, having seeds contained +in a seed-vessel.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Anisostemonous</span>, stamens not equal in +number to the floral envelopes, nor +a multiple of them.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Annotinus</span>, a year old.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Annulus</span>, applied to the elastic rim +surrounding the sporangia of some +ferns, also to a cellular rim on the +stalk of the mushroom, being the remains +of the veil.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Anterior</span>, same as inferior when applied +to the parts of the flower in +their relation to the axis.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Anthelmintic</span>, a vermifuge.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Anther</span>, the part of the stamen containing +pollen.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Antheridium</span>, the male organ in +cryptogamic plants, frequently containing +moving filaments.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Antheriferous</span>, bearing anthers.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Antherozoids</span>, moving filaments in an +antheridium.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Anthesis</span>, the opening of the flower.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Anthocarpous</span>, applied to fruits, +formed by the ovaries of several +flowers.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Anthodium</span>, the capitulum or head of +flowers or the Composite plants.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Anthophore</span>, a stalk supporting the +inner floral envelopes, and separating +them from the calyx.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Anthos</span>, a flower; in composition, <i>Antho</i>; +in Latin, <i lang="la">Flos</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Anthotaxis</span>, the arrangement of the +flowers on the axis.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Apetalous</span>, without petals; in other +words, monochlamydeous.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Aphyllous</span>, without leaves.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Apiculate</span>, having an apiculus.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Apiculus</span>, or <span class="smcap">Apiculum</span>, a terminal +soft point, springing abruptly.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Apocarpous</span>, ovary and fruit composed +of numerous distinct carpels.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Apophysis</span>, a swelling at the base of +the theca in some mosses.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Apothecium</span>, the rounded, shield-like +fructification of lichens.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Apterous</span>, without wings or membraneous +margins.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Arachnoid</span>, applied to fine hairs so +entangled as to resemble a cobweb.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Arboreous</span>, tree-like.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Archegonium</span>, the female organ in +cryptogamic plants.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Arcuate</span>, curved in an arched manner.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Areolæ</span>, little spaces on a surface.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Areolate</span>, divided into distinct angular +spaces, or areolæ.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Arillate</span>, having an arillus.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Arillus</span> and <span class="smcap">Arillode</span>, an extra covering +on the seed; the former proceeding +from the placenta, the latter +from the exostome, as in mace.</p> + +<p id="AR"><span class="smcap">Arista</span>, an awn, a long pointed process.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Armature</span>, the hairs, prickles, etc., +covering an organ.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Articulated</span>, jointed, separated easily +and cleanly at some point.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ascending</span>, applied to a procumbent +stem which rises gradually from its +base: to ovules attached a little +above the base of the ovary; and to +hairs directed toward the upper part +of their support.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Asci</span>, tubes containing the sporidia of +the cryptogamia.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ascidium</span>, a pitcher-like leaf, as in +<i>Nepenthes</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Asperity</span>, roughness, as on the leaves +of <i>Boraginaceæ</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Atropal</span>, the same as orthotropous.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Attenuate</span>, thin and slender.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Auriculate</span>, having appendages; applied +to leaves having lobes (ear-shaped) +or leaflets at their base.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Awn</span> and <span class="smcap">Awned</span>. See <a href="#AR"><em>Arista</em></a>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Axil</span>, the upper angle, where the leaf +joins the stem.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Axile</span>, or <span class="smcap">Axial</span>, belonging to the axis.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Axil-flowering</span>, flowering in the +axilla.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Axillary</span>, arising from the axil of a +leaf.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Axis</span> is applied collectively to the stem +and root—the ascending and descending +axis, respectively.</p> + + +<p><span class="pad50pc">B</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bacca</span>, berry, a unilocular fruit, having +a soft outer covering and seeds +immersed in pulp.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Baccate</span>, resembling a berry.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Balausta</span>, the fruit of the pomegranate.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Barbate</span>, bearded, having tufts of hair.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bark</span> (<i>cortex</i>), the outer cellular and +fibrous covering of the stem; separate +from the wood in dicotyledons.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Barren</span>, not fruitful; applied to male +flowers, and to the non-fructifying +fronds of ferns.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Basal</span>, or <span class="smcap">Basilar</span>, attached to the base +of an organ.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Basidium</span>, a cell bearing on its exterior +one or more spores in some +fungi, which are hence called <i>Basidiosporous</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bast</span>, or <span class="smcap">Bass</span>, the inner fibrous bark +of dicotyledonous trees.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Beaked</span>, like the sharp-pointed beak of +a bird in form.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bedeguar</span>, a hairy excrescence on the +branches and leaves of roses, caused +by an attack of a cynips.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1271">[1271]</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bidentate</span>, having two tooth-like processes.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bifarious</span>, in two rows, one on each +side of an axis.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bifid</span>, two-cleft, cut down to near the +middle into two parts.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Biforine</span>, a raphidian cell with an +opening at each end.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bilabiate</span>, having two lips.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bilobed</span>, divided into two lobes.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bilocular</span>, having two cells.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Binate</span>, applied to a leaf composed of +two leaflets at the extremity of a +petiole.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bipartite</span>, cut down to near the base +into two parts.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bipinnate</span>, a compound leaf, divided +twice in a pinnate manner.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bipinnatifid</span>, a simple leaf, with lateral +divisions extending to near the +middle, and which are also similarly +divided.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bipinnatipartite</span>, differing from bipinnatifid +in the divisions extending +to near the midrib.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Biplicate</span>, doubly folded in a transverse +manner.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Biserrate</span>, when the serratures are +themselves serrate.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Biternate</span>, a compound leaf divided +into three, and each division again +divided into three.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Blade</span>, the lamina or broad part of a +leaf, as distinguished from the petiole +or stalk.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Blanching</span>. See <a href="#ET"><em>Etiolation</em></a>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bletting</span>, a peculiar change in an +austere fruit, by which, after being +pulled, it becomes soft and edible, as +in the medlar.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Blistered</span>, applied to raised spots in +leaves.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bole</span>, the trunk of a tree.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bothrenchyma</span>, dotted or pitted vessels.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bract</span>, a leaf more or less changed in +form, from which a flower or flowers +proceed; flowers having bracts +are called <em>bracteated</em>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bracteole</span>, a small bract at the base of +a separate flower in a multifloral inflorescence.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Branchlets</span>, little branches.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bryology</span>, the study of mosses; same +as muscology.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bulb</span>, an underground stem covered +with scales.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bulbil</span>, or <span class="smcap">Bulblet</span>, separate buds in +the axil of leaves, as in some lilies.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Byssoid</span>, very slender, like a cobweb.</p> + + +<p><span class="pad50pc">C</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Caducous</span>, falling off very early, as the +calyx of a poppy.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cæsious</span>, gray.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cæspitose</span>, growing in tufts.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Calcar</span>, a spur, projecting hollow or +solid process from the base of an +organ, as in the flower of Larkspur +or Snap-dragon; such flowers are +called <em>calcarate</em>, or spurred.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Calceolate</span>, slipper-like, applied to the +hollow petals of some orchids; also +to the corolla of <i>Calceolaria</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Callosity</span>, or <span class="smcap">Callous</span>, a leathery or +hardened thickening on a limited +portion of an organ.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Calycifloræ</span>, a sub-class of polypetalous +Exogens, having the stamens attached +to the calyx.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Calycine</span>, belonging to the calyx.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Calyptrate</span>, in form, resembling an extinguisher.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Calyx</span>, the outer envelope of a flower.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cambium</span>, the young active cells between +the bark and the young wood.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Campanulate</span>, shaped like a bell, as +the flower of harebell.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Campylotropal</span>, a curved ovule, with +the hilum, micropyle, and chalaza +near each other.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Canaliculate</span>, channeled, having a +longitudinal groove or furrow.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cancellate</span>, latticed, composed of veins +alone.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Canescent</span>, hoary.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Capillary</span>, filiform, thread-like, or hair-like.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Capitate</span>, pin-like, having a rounded +summit, as some hairs.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Capitulum</span>, head of flowers in <i>Compositæ</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Capreolate</span>, having tendrils.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Capsule</span>, a dry seed-vessel, opening by +valves, teeth, pores, or a lid.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Carina</span>, keel, the two partially united +lower petals of papilionaceous flowers.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Carinate</span>, keel-shaped.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Carpel</span>, the leaf which contains the +ovules. Several carpels may enter +into the composition of one pistil.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Carpology</span>, the study of fruits.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Carpophore</span>, a stalk bearing the pistil, +and raising it above the whorl of +the stamens, as in <i>Lychnis</i> and <i>Capparis</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Caruncle</span>, a fleshy or thickened appendage +of the raphe of the seed.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Caryopsis</span>, the monospermal seed-vessel +of a grass, the pericarp being +adherent with the seed.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Catkin</span>, same as Amentum.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Caudate</span>, having a tail or feathery appendage.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Caudex</span>, the stem of palms and of tree +ferns.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Caudicle</span>, the process supporting a +pollen mass in orchids.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Caulescent</span>, having an evident stem.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Caulicle</span>, the rudimentary axis of the +embryo.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cauline</span>, produced on the stem.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Causticity</span>, having a burning quality.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cellular</span>, composed of cells.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cellulose</span>, the chemical substance of +which the cell wall is composed.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Centimetre</span>, a French measure, equal +to 0.3937079 British inch.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Centrifugal</span>, applied to that kind of +inflorescence in which the central +flower opens first.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Centripetal</span>, applied to that kind of +inflorescence in which the flowers at +the circumference or base open first.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1272">[1272]</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ceramidium</span>, an ovate conceptacle, +<ins class="corr" id="tn-1272" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: 'hav- a terminal'"> +having</ins> a terminal opening, and with a tuft +of spores arising from the base; seen +in Algæ.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cereal</span>, a general term applied to +wheat, oats, barley, and rye.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Chalaza</span>, the place where the nourishing +vessels enter the nucleus of the +ovule.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Chlorophyll</span>, the green coloring matter +of leaves.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Chorisis</span>, separation of a lamina from +one part of an organ, so as to form +a scale or a doubling of the organ; +it may be either transverse or collateral.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Chromule</span>, the coloring matter of the +cells of flowers; also of the lower +<i>Algæ</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cilia</span> (<i>cilium</i>), short, stiff hairs fringing +the margin of a leaf; also the +delicate vibratile hairs of zoospores.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ciliato-dentate</span>, toothed and fringed +with hairs.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Circinate</span>, rolled up like a crosier, as +the young fronds of ferns.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Circumscissile</span>, cut round in a circular +manner, such as seed-vessels +opening by a lid.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Circumscription</span>, the periphery or +margin of a leaf.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cirrhus</span>, a modified leaf in the form +of a tendril.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Clathrate</span>, latticed, like a grating.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Clavate</span>, club-shaped, becoming gradually +thicker toward the top.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Claw</span>, the narrow base of some petals, +corresponding with the petiole or +leaves.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cleft</span>, divided to about the middle.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cloves</span>, applied to young bulbs, as in +the onion.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Clypeate</span>, having the shape of a buckler.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Coccidium</span>, a rounded conceptacle in +<i>Algæ</i> without pores, and containing +a tuft of spores.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cochlear</span>, a kind of æstivation, in +which a helmet-shaped part covers +all the others in the bud.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cochleariform</span>, shaped like a spoon.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cochleate</span>, shaped like a snail shell.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Coleorhiza</span>, a sheath, surrounding the +radicles of a monocotyledonous embryo.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Collateral</span>, placed side by side, as in +the case of some ovules.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Collum</span>, neck, the part where the plumule +and radicle of the embryo unite.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Columella</span>, central column in the +sporangia of mosses.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Column</span>, a part of a flower of an orchid +supporting the anthers and +stigma, and formed by the union of +the styles and filaments.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Coma</span>, a tuft of hair on a seed.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Commissure</span>, union of the faces of the +two achænes in the fruit of <i>Umbelliferæ</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Comose</span>, furnished with hairs, as the +seeds of the willow.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Compound</span>, composed of several parts, +as a leaf formed by several leaflets.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Compressed</span>, flattened laterally or +lengthwise.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Concentric</span>, curves with common +centre.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Conceptacle</span>, a hollow sac containing +a tuft or cluster of spores.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Concrete</span>, hardened into a mass.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Conducting Tissue</span>, applied to the +loose cellular tissue in the interior +of the style.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Conduplicate</span>, followed upon itself, applied +to leaves and cotyledons.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cone</span>, a dry multiple fruit, formed by +bracts covering naked seeds.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Conferruminate</span>, indistinguishably united +together.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Confervoid</span>, formed of a single row of +cells, or having articulations like a +<i>Conferva</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Confluent</span>, when parts unite together +in the progress of growth.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Conjugation</span>, union of two cells, so +as to develop a spore.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Connate</span>, when parts are united, even +in the early state of development; +applied to two leaves united by their +bases.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Connective</span>, the part which connects +the anther-lobes.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Connivent</span>, when two organs, as petals, +arch over so as to meet above.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Constricted</span>, contracted in some particular +place.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Contorted</span>, when the parts in a bud +are imbricated and regularly twisted +in one direction.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Convolute</span>, when a leaf in the bud is +rolled upon itself.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cordate</span>, of leaves heart-shaped at the +base.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cordiform</span>, having the shape of a +heart.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Coriaceous</span>, having a leathery consistence.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Corm</span>, thickened underground stem, as +in <i>Arum</i> and <i>Colchicum</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cornute</span>, horned.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Corolla</span>, the inner envelope of the +flower.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Corollifloræ</span>, gamopetalous exogens.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Corona</span>, a coralline appendage, as the +crown of the daffodil.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Corpuscle</span>, a small body or particle.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Corrugated</span>, wrinkled or shriveled.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cortex</span>, the bark.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cortical</span>, belonging to the bark.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Corymb</span>, a raceme, in which the lower +stalks are the longest, and all the +flowers come very nearly to a level +above.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Costate</span>, provided with ribs; primary.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cotyledon</span>, the temporary leaf of the +embryo.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cremocarp</span>, the fruit of <i>Umbelliferæ</i>, +composed of two separable achænes +or mericarps.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Crenate</span>, having superficial, rounded, +marginal notches.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Crenatures</span>, divisions of the margin +of a crenate leaf.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Crest</span>, an appendage to fruits or seeds.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cribriform</span>, riddled with holes.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Crisp</span>, having an undulated margin.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1273">[1273]</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cruciform</span>, arranged like the parts of +a cross, as the flowers of <i>Cruciferæ</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Crustaceous</span>, hard, thin, and brittle.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cryptogamous</span>, with the organs of reproduction +obscure.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cucullate</span>, formed like a hood or +cowl.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Culm</span>, stem or stalk of grasses.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cuneiform</span>, or <span class="smcap">Cuneate</span>, shaped like a +wedge.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cupula</span>, the cup of the acorn, formed +by aggregate bracts.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cuspidate</span>, prolonged into an attenuated +point.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cuticle</span>, the thin membrane that +covers the epidermis.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cyclosis</span>, movement of the latex in +laticiferous vessels, and of the fluid cell +contents within the cell.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cymbiform</span>, shaped like a boat.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cyme</span>, a kind of definite inflorescence, +in which the flowers are in racemes, +corymbs, or umbels, the successive +central flowers expanding first.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cypsela</span>, monospermal fruit of <i>Compositæ</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cytoblast</span>, the nucleus of a cell.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cytogenesis</span>, cell development.</p> + + +<p><span class="pad50pc">D</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Deciduous</span>, falling off after performing +its functions for a limited time, as +the calyx of <i>Ranunculus</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Deciduous Trees</span>, those which lose +their leaves annually.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Decimetre</span>, the tenth part of a metre, +or ten centimetres.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Declinate</span>, directed downward from +its base.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Decompound</span>, a leaf cut into numerous +compound divisions.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Decorticated</span>, deprived of bark.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Decumbent</span>, lying flat along the +ground, and rising from it at the +apex.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Decurrent</span>, leaves which are attached +along the side of a stem below their +point of insertion; such stems are +often called winged.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Decussate</span>, opposite leaves crossing +each other in pairs at right angles.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Deduplication</span>, same as Chorisis.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Definite</span>, applied to inflorescence +when it ends in a single flower, and +the expansion of the flower is centrifugal; +also when the number of +the parts of an organ is limited, as +when the stamens are under twenty.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Deflexed</span>, bent downward in a continuous +curve.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Defoliation</span>, the fall of the leaves.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Degeneration</span>, when an organ is +changed from its usual appearance, +and becomes less highly developed +as when scales take the place of +leaves.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dehiscence</span>, mode of opening of an +organ, as of the seed-vessels and +anthers.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Deltoid</span>, like the Greek Δ in form.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Demulcent</span>, an emollient.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dentate</span>, toothed, having short triangular +divisions of the margin.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Denticulate</span>, finely toothed, having +small tooth-like projections along the +margin.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dentiform</span>, tooth-shaped.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dependent</span>, hanging down.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Depressed</span>, flattening of a solid organ +from above downward.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Detergent</span>, having a cleansing power.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Diadelphous</span>, stamens in two bundles, +united by their filaments.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Diandrous</span>, having two stamens.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Diaphanous</span>, transparent.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dichlamydeous</span>, having calyx and +corolla.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dichotomous</span>, stem dividing by twos.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Diclinous</span>, unisexual flower either +monœcious or diœcious.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dicotyledonous</span>, embryo having two +cotyledons.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dictyogenous</span>, applied to monocotyledons +having netted veins.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Didynamous</span>, two long and two short +stamens.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Diffuse</span>, scattered.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Digitate</span>, compound leaf, composed +of several leaflets attached to one +point.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Digynous</span>, having two styles.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dimerous</span>, when the parts of a flower +are in twos.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dimidiate</span>, when one-half of an organ +is smaller than the other half.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Diœcious</span>, staminiferous and pistilliferous +flowers on separate plants.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Diplostemonous</span>, stamens double the +number of the petals or sepals.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dipterous</span>, having two wings.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Discoid</span>, in the form of a disk or flattened +sphere; <em>discoid pith</em>, divided +into cavities by disks.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Disk</span>, a part intervening between the +stamens and the pistils in the form +of scales, a ring, etc.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Disks</span>, the peculiar rounded and dotted +markings on the fibres of coniferous +wood.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dissected</span>, cut into a number of narrow +divisions.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dissepiment</span>, a division in the ovary; +true when formed by the edges of +the carpels, false when formed otherwise.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Distichous</span>, in two rows on opposite +sides of a stem.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Divaricating</span>, branches coming off +from the stem at a very wide or +obtuse angle.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dodecandrous</span>, having twelve stamens.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dolabriform</span>, shaped like an axe.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dorsal</span>, applied to the suture of the +carpel which is furthest from the +axis.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Double Flower</span>, when the organs of +reproduction are converted into +petals.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Drupe</span>, a fleshy fruit like the cherry, +having a stony endocarp.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Drupels</span>, small drupes aggregated to +form a fruit, as in the raspberry.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Duramen</span>, heart-wood of dicotyledonous +trees.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1274">[1274]</span></p> + + +<p><span class="pad50pc">E</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Elaters</span>, spiral fibres in the spore-cases +of <i>Hepaticæ</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Elliptical</span>, having the form of an +ellipse.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Emarginate</span>, with a notch at the end.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Embracing.</span> This is said to be the +case when a leaf clasps the stem.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Embryo</span>, the young plant contained in +the seed.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Embryo-sac</span>, the cell in which the embryo +is formed.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Endocarp</span>, the inner layer of the pericarp, +next the seed.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Endochrome</span>, the coloring matter within +the cells of the lower plants.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Endogen</span>, a monocotyledon.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Endophlœum</span>, the fibrous inner bark or +liber.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Endopleura</span>, the inner covering of the +seed.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Endorhizal</span>, numerous rootlets arising +from <em>within</em> a common radicle, +and passing through sheaths, as in +endogenous germination.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Endosmose</span>, movement of fluids inward +through a membrane.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Endosperm</span>, albumen formed within the +embryo-sac.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Endostome</span>, the inner foramen of the +ovule.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Endothecium</span>, the inner coat of the +anther.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ensiform</span>, in the form of a sword, as +the leaves of <i>Iris</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Entire</span> (<em>integer</em>), without marginal divisions.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Envelopes, Floral</span>, the calyx and +corolla.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Epicalyx</span>, outer calyx formed either of +sepals or bracts, as in mallow and +<i>Potentilla</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Epicarp</span>, the outer covering of the +fruit.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Epichilium</span>, the terminal portion of +the lip (<i>labellum</i>) in orchids.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Epidermis</span>, the cellular layer covering +the external surface of plants.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Epigynous</span>, above the ovary by adhesion +to it.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Epipetalous</span>, inserted on the petals.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Epiphyllous</span>, growing upon a leaf.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Epiphytes</span>, attached to another plant, +and growing suspended in the air.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Episperm</span>, the external covering of the +seed.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Equitant</span>, applied to leaves folded +longitudinally, and overlapping each +other without any involution.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Erect</span>, applied to an ovule which rises +from the base of the ovary.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Eroded</span>, gnawed or bitten.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Erose</span>, irregularly toothed, as if +gnawed.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Erumpent</span>, as if bursting through the +epidermis.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Escharotic</span>, having the power to scar +or burn the skin.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Etærio</span>, the aggregate drupes forming +the fruit of <i>Rubus</i>.</p> + +<p id="ET"><span class="smcap">Etiolation</span>, blanching; losing color +through growth in the dark.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Exalbuminous</span>, without a separate +store of albumen or perisperm.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Exannulate</span>, without a ring; applied +to some ferns.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Excentric</span>, removed from the centre +or axis; applied to a lateral embryo.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Excipulus</span>, a receptacle containing +fructification in lichens.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Excoriated</span>, stripped of skin or bark.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Excurrent</span>, running out beyond the +edge or point.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Exogen</span>, dicotyledon.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Exorhizal</span>, radicle proceeding directly +from the axis, and afterward +branching, as in exogens.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Exosmose</span>, the passing outward of a +fluid through a membrane.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Exostome</span>, the outer opening of the +foramen of the ovule.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Exothecium</span>, the outer coat of the +anther.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Exserted</span>, extended beyond an organ, +as stamens beyond the corolla.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Exsiccated</span>, dried up.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Exstipulate</span>, without stipules.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Extine</span>, the outer covering of the pollen +grain.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Extra-axillary</span>, removed from the +axil of the leaf, as in the case of +some buds.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Extrorse</span>, applied to anthers which +dehisce on the side furthest removed +from the pistil.</p> + + +<p><span class="pad50pc">F</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fæcula</span>, starchy matter.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Falcate</span>, or <span class="smcap">Falciform</span>, bent like a +sickle.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Farinaceous</span>, mealy, containing much +starch.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fasciation</span>, union of branches of +stems so as to present a flattened +ribbon-like form.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fascicle</span>, a shortened umbellate cyme, +as in some species of <i>Dianthus</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fasciculate</span>, arranged in bundles.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fastidiate</span>, having a pyramidal form, +from the branches being parallel and +erect, as in Lombardy poplar.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fauces</span>, the gaping part of a monopetalous +corolla.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Feather-veined</span>, a leaf having the +veins passing from the midrib at a +more or less acute angle, and extending +to the margin.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fecundation</span>, fertilization.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fenestrate</span>, applied to a leaf with perforations.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ferruginous</span>, rusty.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fertile</span>, applied to pistillate flowers, +and to the fruit-bearing fronds of +ferns.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fibrous</span>, composed of numerous fibres, +as some roots.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fibro-vascular Tissue</span>, containing vessels +and fibres.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Filament</span>, stalk supporting the anther.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Filamentous</span>, a string of cells placed +end to end.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Filiform</span>, like a thread.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fimbriated</span>, fringed at the margin.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1275">[1275]</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fissiparous</span>, dividing spontaneously +into two parts by means of a septum.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fissure</span>, a straight slit in an organ for +the discharge of its contents.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fistulous</span>, hollow, like stems of +grasses.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Flabelliform</span>, fan-shaped, as the leaves +of some palms.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Flaccid</span>, feeble, weak.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Flagellum</span>, a runner, a weak creeping +stem, bearing rooting buds at +different points, as in the strawberry.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Flexuose</span>, having alternate curvations +in opposite directions.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Floccose</span>, covered with wool-like tufts.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Florets</span>, little florets forming a compound +flower.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Foliaceous</span>, having the form of leaves.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Follicle</span>, a fruit formed by a single +carpel dehiscing by one suture, which +is usually the ventral.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Foveolate</span>, having pits or depressions, +called foveæ or foveolæ.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fovilla</span>, minute granular matter in the +pollen grain.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Frond</span>, the leaf-like organ of ferns, +bearing the fructification.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Frondose</span>, applied to cryptogams with +foliaceous or leaf-like expansions.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fructification</span>, the seed or fruit of +plants.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Frustules</span>, the parts or fragments into +which diatomaceæ separate.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fruticose</span>, shrubby.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fugacious</span>, evanescent, falling off +early, as the petals of <i>Cistus</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fulvous</span>, tawny, yellow.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fungous</span>, having the substance of fungi +or mushrooms.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Funiculus</span>, the cord connecting the +hilum of the ovule to the placenta.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Furcate</span>, divided into two branches, +like a two-pronged fork.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Furfuraceous</span>, scaly or scurfy.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fuscous</span>, blackish brown.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fusiform</span>, shaped like a spindle.</p> + + +<p><span class="pad50pc">G</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Galbulus</span>, the polygynœcial fruit of +juniper.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Gamopetalous</span>, same as monopetalous, +petals united.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Gamophyllous</span> and <span class="smcap">Gamosepalous</span>, +same as monophyllous and monosepalous, +sepals united.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Geminate</span>, twin organs combined in +pairs; same as binate.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Gemmation</span>, the development of leaf-buds.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Gemmule</span>, same as plumule, the first +bud of the embryo.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Geniculate</span>, bent like a knee.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Germen</span>, or <span class="smcap">Germ</span>, a name for the +ovary.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Germinal Vesicle</span>, a germ contained +in the embryo-sac, from which the +embryo is developed.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Germination</span>, the sprouting of the +young plant.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Gibbosity</span>, a swelling at the base of +an organ, such as the calyx or corolla.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Gibbous</span>, swollen at the base, or having +a distinct swelling at some part +of the surface.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Glabrous</span>, smooth, without hairs.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Gland</span>, an organ of secretion consisting +of cells, and generally occurring +on the epidermis of plants.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Glandular Hairs</span>, hairs tipped with a +gland, as in <i>Drosera</i> and Chinese +primrose.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Glans</span>, nut, applied to the acorn and +hazel-nut, which are inclosed in an +involucre formed of consolidated +bracts.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Glaucous</span>, covered with a pale green +bloom.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Globose</span>, round-shaped.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Globule</span>, male organ of Chara.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Glochidiate</span>, barbed; applied to hairs +with two reflexed points at their +summits.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Glomerule</span>, a rounded cymose inflorescence, +as in <i>Urtica</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Glumaceous</span>, chaffy.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Glume</span>, a bract covering the organs of +reproduction in the spikelets of +grasses.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Gluten</span>, a highly nitrogenous substance +found in seeds.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Gonidia</span>, green cells in the thallus of +lichens.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Grain</span>, caryopsis, the fruit of grasses.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Grumous</span>, collected into granular +masses.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Gymnogen</span>, a plant with naked seeds, +<em>i. e.</em>, seed not in a true ovary.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Gymnospermous</span>, plants with naked +seeds, <em>i. e.</em>, seeds not in a true ovary; +such as conifers.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Gynandrous</span>, stamen and pistil united +in a common column, as in the +<i>Orchidaceæ</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Gynobase</span>, a central axis, to the base of +which the carpels are attached.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Gynœcium</span>, the female organs of the +flower.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Gynophore</span>, a stalk supporting the +ovary.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Gyrate</span>, same as circinate.</p> + + +<p><span class="pad50pc">H</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Habit</span>, general external appearance.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hastate</span>, halbert-shaped, applied to a +leaf with two portions at the base +projecting more or less completely +at right angles to the blade.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Haulm</span>, dead stems of herbs, as of the +potato.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Haustorium</span>, the sucker at the extremity +of the parasitic root of dodder.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Heart-wood</span>, same as Duramen.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Helicoidal</span>, having a coiled appearance +like the shell of a snail; applied to +inflorescence.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Herb</span>, a plant with an annual stem, opposed +to a woody plant.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Herbaceous</span>, green succulent plants +which die down to the ground in +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1276">[1276]</span>winter; annual shoots, with green-colored +cellular parts.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hermaphrodite</span>, stamens and pistils in +the same flower.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hesperidium</span>, the fruit of the orange +and other <i>Aurantiaceæ</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Heterocysts</span>, peculiar large cells in +<i>Nostochineæ</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Heterogamous</span>, composite plants having +hermaphrodite and unisexual +flowers on the same head.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Heterophyllous</span>, presenting two different +forms of leaves.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hilum</span>, the base of the seed to which +the placenta is attached either directly +or by means of a cord. The term +is also applied to the mark at one +end of some grains of starch.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hirsute</span>, covered with long stiff hairs.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hispid</span>, covered with long, very stiff +hairs.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Histology</span>, the study of microscopic +tissues.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Homogeneous</span>, having a uniform structure +or substance.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hyaline</span>, transparent or colorless.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hybrid</span>, a plant resulting from the +fecundation of one species by another.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hymenium</span>, the part which bears the +spores in Agarics.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hypanthodium</span>, the receptacle of +<i>Dorstenia</i>, bearing many flowers.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hypochilum</span>, the lower part of the +labellum of orchids.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hypocrateriform</span>, shaped like a salver, +as the corolla of <i>Primula</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hypogeous</span>, under the surface of the +soil; applied to cotyledons.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hypogynous</span>, inserted below the ovary +or pistil.</p> + + +<p><span class="pad50pc">I</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Imbricate</span>, parts overlying each other +like tiles on a house. <em>Imbricated +æstivation</em>, the parts of the flower-bud +alternately overlapping each +other, and arranged in a spiral +manner.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Impari-pinnate</span>, unequally pinnate; +pinnate leaf ending in an odd leaflet.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Inarching</span>, a mode of grafting by +bending two growing plants toward +each other, and causing a branch +of the one to unite to the other.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Inarticulate</span>, without joints or interruption +to continuity.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Incised</span>, cut down deeply.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Included</span>, applied to the stamens +when inclosed within the corolla, +and not pushed out beyond its tube.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Incumbent</span>, cotyledons with the radicle +on their back.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Incurved</span>, bending inward.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Indefinite</span>, applied to inflorescence +with centripetal expansion; also to +stamens above twenty, and to ovules +and seeds when very numerous.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Indehiscent</span>, not opening, having no +regular line of suture.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Indigenous</span>, an aboriginal native in a +country.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Induplicate</span>, edges of the sepals or +<ins class="corr" id="tn-1276" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: 'sepals or p tals'"> +petals</ins> turned slightly inward in +æstivation.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Indusium</span>, epidermal covering of the +fructification in some ferns.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Inferior</span>, applied to the ovary where +it seems to be situated below the +calyx, and to the part of the flower +furthest from the axis.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Inflexed</span>, bending inward.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Inflorescence</span>, the mode in which the +flowers are arranged on the axis.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Infundibuliform</span>, in shape like a funnel, +as seen in some gamopetalous +corollas.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Innate</span>, applied to anthers when attached +to the top of the filament.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Inspissated</span>, thickened or dried-up +juice or sap.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Internode</span>, the portion of the stem +between two nodes or leaf-buds.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Interpetiolar</span>, between the petioles.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Interruptedly-pinnate</span>, a pinnate leaf +in which pairs of small pinnæ occur +between the larger pairs.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Intine</span>, the inner covering of the pollen +grains.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Intramarginal</span>, within the margin.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Introrse</span>, applied to anthers which +open on the side next the pistil.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Inverse</span>, inverted.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Involucel</span>, bracts surrounding the partial +umbel of <i>Umbelliferæ</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Involucre</span>, bracts surrounding the general +umbel in <i>Umbelliferæ</i>, the heads +of flowers in <i>Compositæ</i>, and in general +any verticillate bracts surrounding +numerous flowers.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Involute</span>, edges of leaves rolled inward +spirally on each side in +æstivation.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Irregular</span>, a flower in which the parts +of any of the verticils differ in size.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Isomerous</span>, when the whorls of a flower +are composed each of an equal +number of parts.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Isostemonous</span>, when stamens and floral +envelopes have the same number of +parts or multiples.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Isothermal</span>, lines passing through +places which have the same mean +annual temperature.</p> + + +<p><span class="pad50pc">J</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Jugate</span>, applied to the pairs of leaflets +in compound leaves; <em>Unijugate</em>, having +one pair; <em>Bijugate</em>, two pairs, +and so on.</p> + + +<p><span class="pad50pc">K</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Keel</span>, same as Carina.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Knotted</span>, when a cylindrical stem is +swollen at intervals into a knob.</p> + + +<p><span class="pad50pc">L</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Labellum</span>, lip. one of the divisions of +the inner whorl of the flower in orchids. +This part is in reality superior, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1277">[1277]</span>but becomes inferior by the +twisting of the ovary.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Labiate</span>, lipped; applied to irregular +gamopetalous flowers, with an upper +and under portion separated more or +less by a hiatus or gap.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Laciniate</span>, irregularly cut into narrow +segments.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Lactescent</span>, yielding milky juice.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Lacuna</span>, a large space in the midst of +a group of cells.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Lamellæ</span>, gills of an Agaric; also applied +to flat divisions of the stigma.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Lamina</span>, the blade of the leaf; the +broad part of the petal or sepal.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Lanceolate</span>, tapering to each end, but +broadest <em>below</em> the middle.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Lateral</span>, arising from the side of the +axis, not terminal.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Latex</span>, granular fluid contained in laticiferous +vessels.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Laticiferous</span>, vessels containing latex +which <ins class="corr" id="tn-1277" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: 'which anastomose'"> +is</ins> anastomose.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Lax</span>, not compact.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Leaflets</span>, the small portions of compound +leaves.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Legume</span>, a pod composed of one carpel, +opening usually by a ventral +and dorsal suture, as in the pea.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Leguminous</span>, plants bearing pods.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Lenticel</span>, a small cellular process on +the bark of the willow and other +plants.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Lenticular</span>, in the form of a doubly-convex +lens.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Lepidote</span>, covered with scales or scurf.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Lianes</span>, twining woody plants.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Liber</span>, the fibrous inner bark of endophlœum.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Lid</span>, the calyx which falls from the +flower in one piece.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Lignine</span>, woody matter which thickens +the cell walls.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ligulate</span>, strap-shaped.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ligule</span>, a process arising from the +petiole of grasses, where it joins +the blade.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ligulifloræ</span>, composite plants having +ligulate florets.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Limb</span>, the blade of the leaf; the broad +part of a petal or sepal. When +sepals or petals are united, the combined +broad parts are denominated +collectively the limb.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Line</span>, the twelfth part of an inch.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Linear</span>, very narrow when the length +greatly exceeds the breadth.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Linguiform</span>, strap-shaped.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Lipped</span>, having a distinct lip or labellum.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Lobe</span>, large division of a leaf or any +other organ, applied often to the +divisions of the anther.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Loculaments</span>, divisions of the cells of +a seed-vessel.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Loculicidal</span>, fruit dehiscing through +the back of the carpels.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Loculus</span>, a cavity in an ovary. The +terms are also applied to the anther.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Locusta</span>, a spikelet of grasses.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Lodicule</span>, a scale at the base of the +ovary of grapes.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Lomentum</span>, an indehiscent legume or +pod with transverse partitions, each +division containing one seed.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Lurid</span>, a color combining yellow, purple, +and gray.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Lyrate</span>, a pinnatifid leaf with a large +terminal lobe, and smaller ones as +we approach the petiole.</p> + + +<p><span class="pad50pc">M</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Macropodous</span>, applied to the thickened +radicle of a monocotyledonous embryo.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Marcescent</span>, withering, but not falling +off until the part bearing it is perfected.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Medulla</span>, the pith.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Medullary Rays</span>, cellular prolongation +uniting the pith and the bark.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Medullary Sheath</span>, sheath containing +spiral vessels, surrounding the pith +in exogens.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Membraneous</span>, having the consistence, +aspect, and structure of a membrane.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Mericarp</span>, carpel forming one-half of +the fruit of <i>Umbelliferæ</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Merithal</span>, a term used in place of internode; +applied by Gaudichaud to +the different parts of the leaf.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Mesocarp</span>, middle covering of the fruit.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Mesochilum</span>, middle portion of the +labellum of orchids.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Mesophlœum</span>, middle layer of bark.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Metre</span>, equal to 39.3707 inches British.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Micrometer</span>, instrument for measuring +microscopic objects.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Micropyle</span>, the opening or foramen of +the seed.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Millimetre</span>, equal to 0.0393707 English +inch.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Monadelphous</span>, stamens united into +one bundle by union of their filaments.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Moniliform</span>, beaded; cells united with +interruptions, so as to resemble a +string of beads.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Monocarpic</span>, producing flowers and +fruit once during life, and then +dying.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Monochlamydeous</span>, flowers having a +single envelope.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Monoclinous</span>, stamens and pistils in +the same flower.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Monocotyledonous</span>, having one cotyledon +in the embryo.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Monœcious</span>, stamens and pistils in different +flowers on the same plant.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Monopetalous</span>, same as gamopetalous.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Monophyllous</span>, same as gamophyllous.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Monosepalous</span>, having one sepal or division +in the calyx. Same as gamosepalous.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Monstrosity</span>, an abnormal development; +applied more especially to +double flowers.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Morphology</span>, the study of the forms +which the different organs assume, +and the laws that regulate their +metamorphoses.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Mucilage</span>, a thick viscid fluid.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Mucro</span>, a stiff point abruptly terminating +an organ.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1278">[1278]</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Mucronate</span>, having a mucro.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Mucronulate</span>, having a little hard +point.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Muricate</span>, covered with firm sharp +points or excrescences.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Muriform</span>, like bricks in a wall; applied +to cells.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Mycelium</span>, the cellular spawn of fungi.</p> + + +<p><span class="pad50pc">N</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Naked</span>, applied to seeds not contained +in a true ovary; also to flowers without +any floral envelopes.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Napiform</span>, shaped like a turnip.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Naturalized</span>, originally introduced by +artificial means, but become apparently +wild.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Navicular</span>, hollowed like a boat.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Nectary</span>, any abnormal part of a flower. +It ought to be restricted to organs +secreting a honey-like matter, +as in the Crown Imperial.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Nervation</span>, same as Nevation.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Nerves</span>, the veins of leaves.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Netted</span>, applied to reticulated nevation.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Nodding</span>, drooping.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Node</span>, the part of a stem from which +the leaf-bud proceeds.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Nodose</span>, having swollen nodes or articulations.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Nucleus</span>, the body which gives origin +to new cells; also applied to the +central cellular portion of the ovule +and seed.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Nucule</span>, female part of fructification +in the <i>Characeæ</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Nut</span>, any dry one-celled indehiscent +fruit with hard pericarp.</p> + + +<p><span class="pad50pc">O</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Obcordate</span>, inversely heart-shaped, with +the divisions of the heart at the +opposite end from the stalk.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Oblong</span>, about three-fourths as long as +broad.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Obovate</span>, reversely ovate, the broad +part of the egg being uppermost.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Obsolete</span>, imperfectly developed or +abortive; applied to the calyx when +it is in the form of a rim.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Obtuse</span>, not pointed, with a rounded +or blunt termination.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ochraceous</span>, clay or ochre color.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ochrea</span>, the sheathing stipule of <i>Polygonaceæ</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Officinal</span>, sold in the shops.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Oleraceous</span>, used as an esculent pot-herb.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Olivaceous</span>, having the color of olives.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Oophoridium</span>, organ, in Lycopodiaceæ +containing large spores.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Opaque</span>, dull, not shining.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Opercular</span>, covered with a lid.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Operculum</span>, lid; applied to the separable +part of the theca of mosses; +also applied to the lid of certain +seed-vessels.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Opposite</span>, applied to leaves placed on +opposite sides of the same stem at +the same level.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Orbicular</span>, rounded leaf with petiole +attached to the centre of it.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Organography</span>, the description of the +organs of plants.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Orthotropal</span>, ovule with foramen opposite +to the hilum; embryo with +radicle next the hilum.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Osmose</span>, the force with which fluids +pass through membranes in experiments +on exosmose and endosmose.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Oval</span>, elliptical, blunt at each end.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ovary</span>, the part of the pistil which +contains the ovules.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ovate</span>, shaped like an egg; applied to +the broader end of the egg next the +petiole or axis.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ovoid</span>, egg-shaped.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ovule</span>, the young seed contained in the +ovary.</p> + + +<p><span class="pad50pc">P</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pale</span>, the part of the flower of grasses +within the glume; also applied to the +small scaly laminæ which occur in +the receptacle of some <i>Compositæ</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Palæphytology</span>, the study of fossil +plants.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Paleaceous</span>, chaffy, covered with small, +erect, membraneous scales.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Palmate</span> and <span class="smcap">Palmatifid</span>, applied to a +leaf with radiating venation, divided +into lobes to about the middle.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Palmatipartite</span>, applied to a leaf with +radiating venation, cut nearly to the +base in a palmate manner.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Panduriform</span>, shaped like a fiddle.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Panicle</span>, inflorescence of grasses, consisting +of spikelets on long peduncles +coming off in a racemose manner.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Paniculate</span>, forming a panicle.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Papilionaceous</span>, corolla composed of +vexillum, two alæ, and carina, as in +the pea.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Papillose</span>, covered with small nipple-like +prominences.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pappus</span>, the hairs at the summit of the +ovary in <i>Compositæ</i>. They consist of +the altered calycine limb. <em>Pappose</em>, +provided with pappus.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Paraphyses</span>, filaments, sometimes articulated, +occurring in the fructification +of mosses and other cryptogams.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Parasite</span>, attached to another plant, +and deriving nourishment from it.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Parenchyma</span>, cellular tissue.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Parietal</span>, applied to placentas on the +wall of the ovary.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Paripinnate</span>, a compound of pinnate +leaf ending in two leaflets.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Parthenogenesis</span>, production of perfect +seed with embryo, without the +application of pollen.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Patent</span>, spreading widely.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Patulus</span>, spreading less than when +patent.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pectinate</span>, divided laterally into narrow +segments like the teeth of a +comb.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1279">[1279]</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pedate</span> and <span class="smcap">Pedatifid</span>, a palmate leaf +of three lobes, the lateral lobes +bearing other equally large lobes on +the edges next the middle lobe.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pedicel</span>, the stalk supporting a single +flower.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Peduncle</span>, the general flower-stalk or +floral axis; sometimes it bears one +flower, at other times it bears several +sessile or pedicellate flowers.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pelagic</span>, growing in the ocean.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pellucid</span>, transparent.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Peloria</span>, a name given to a teratological +phenomenon, which consists in a +flower that is usually irregular becoming +regular; for instance, when +<i>Linaria</i>, in place of one spur, produces +five.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Peltate</span>, shield-like, fixed to the stalk +by a point within the margin; peltate +hairs, attached to their middle.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pendulous</span>, applied to ovules which are +hung from the upper part of the +ovary.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Penicillate</span>, resembling a camel’s-hair +pencil.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Penni-nerved</span>, and <span class="smcap">Penni-veined</span>, the +veins disposed like a feather, running +from the middle of the leaf to +the margin.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pentamerous</span>, composed of different +whorls in five, or multiples of that +number.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pepo</span>, the fruit of the melon, cucumber, +and other <i>Cucurbitaceæ</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Perennial</span>, living, or rather flowering, +for several years.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Perfoliate</span>, a leaf with the lobes at +the base, united on the side of the +stem opposite the blade, so that the +stalk appears to pass through the +leaf.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Perianth</span>, a general name for the +floral envelopes; applied in cases +where there is only a calyx, or where +the calyx and corolla are alike.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pericarp</span>, the covering of the fruit.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Perichætial</span>, applied to the leaves +surrounding the fruit-stalk or seta of +mosses.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pericladium</span>, the large sheathing petiole +of <i>Umbelliferæ</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Periderm</span>, a name applied to the outer +layer of the barks.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Peridium</span>, the envelope of the fructification +in gasteromycetous fungi.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Perigone</span>, same as Perianth. Some restrict +the term to cases in which the +flower is female, or pistilliferous. It +has also been applied to the involucre +of <i>Jungermannieæ</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Perigynous</span>, applied to the corolla and +stamens when attached to the calyx.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Perigynum</span>, applied to the pistil in the +genus <i>Carex</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Peripherical</span>, applied to an embryo +curved so as to surround the albumen, +following the inner part of the +covering of the seed.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Perisperm</span>, the albumen or nourishing +matter stored up with the embryo in +the seed.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Peristome</span>, the opening of the sporangium +of mosses after the removal +of the calyptra and operculum.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Perithecium</span>, a conceptacle in cryptogams, +containing spores, and having +an opening at one end.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Persistent</span>, not falling off, remaining +attached to the axis until the part +which bears it is matured.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Personate</span>, a gamopetalous irregular +corolla, having the lower lip pushed +upward, so as to close the hiatus between +the two lips.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pertuse</span>, having slits or holes.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Perulæ</span>, the scales of the leaf-bud.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Petaloid</span>, like a petal.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Petals</span>, the leaves forming the coralline +whorl.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Petiolate</span>, having a stalk or petiole.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Petiole</span>, a leaf-stalk; <i>Petiolule</i>, the +stalk of a leaflet in a compound leaf.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Phænogamous</span>, same as Phanerogamous.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Phanerogamous</span>, having conspicuous +flowers.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Phycology</span>, the study of <i>Algæ</i>, or sea-weeds.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Phyllaries</span>, the leaflets forming the +involucre of composite flowers.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Phyllodium</span>, the leaf-stalk, enlarged +so as to have the appearance of a +leaf.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Phyllotaxis</span>, the arrangement of the +leaves on the axis.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Physiognomy</span>, general appearance, +without reference to botanical characters.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Physiology</span>, vegetable, the study of the +functions of plants.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Phytology</span>, the study of plants; same +as botany.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Phytozoa</span>, moving filaments in the antheridia +of cryptogams.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pileate</span>, having a cup or lid like the +cup of a mushroom.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pileorhiza</span>, a covering of the root, as +in <i>Lemna</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pileus</span>, the cap-like portion of the +mushroom, bearing the hymenium on +its under side.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pilose</span>, provided with hairs; applied to +pappus composed of simple hairs.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pinna</span>, the leaflet of a pinnate leaf.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pinnate</span>, a compound leaf having leaflets +arranged on each side of a +central rib.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pinnatifid</span>, a simple leaf cut into lateral +segments to about the middle.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pinnatipartite</span>, a simple leaf cut into +lateral segments, the divisions extending +nearly to the central rib.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pinnule</span>, the small pinnæ of a bipinnate +or tripinnate leaf.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pistil</span>, the female organ of the flower, +composed of one or more carpels; +each carpel being composed of ovary, +style, and stigma.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pistillate</span> and <span class="smcap">Pistilliferous</span>, applied +to a female flower or a female plant.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pistillidium</span>, the female organ in +cryptogams.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pitchers</span>, vessels of this form at the +end of the leaves of <i>Nepenthes</i>, etc.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pith</span>, same as Medulla.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1280">[1280]</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Placenta</span>, the cellular part of the carpel, +bearing the ovule.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Placentation</span>, the formation and arrangement +of the placentas.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pleurenchyma</span>, woody tissue.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pleurocarpi</span>, mosses with the fructification +proceeding laterally from the +axils of the leaves.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Plicate</span>, folded like a fan.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Plumose</span>, feathery; applied to hairs +having two longitudinal rows of minute +cellular processes.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Plumule</span>, the first bud of the embryo, +usually inclosed by the cotyledons.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Plurilocular</span>, having many loculaments.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Podetium</span>, a stalk bearing the fructification +in some lichens.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Podosperm</span>, the cord attaching the seed +to the placenta.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pollard-trees</span>, cut down so as to leave +only the lower part of the trunk, +which gives off numerous buds and +branches.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pollen</span>, the powdery matter contained +in the anther.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pollen-tube</span>, the tube emitted by the +pollen grain after it is applied to +the stigma.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pollinia</span>, masses of pollen found in +orchids and asclepiads.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Polyadelphous</span>, stamens united by +their filaments so as to form more +than two bundles.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Polyandrous</span>, stamens above twenty.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Polycarpic</span>, plants which flower and +fruit many times in the course of +their life.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Polycotyledonous</span>, an embryo having +many cotyledons, as in firs.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Polygamous</span>, plants bearing hermaphrodite +as well as male and female +flowers.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Polymorphous</span>, assuming many shapes.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Polypetalous</span>, a corolla composed of +separate petals.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Polyphyllous</span>, a calyx or involucre +composed of separate leaflets.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Polysepalous</span>, a calyx composed of +separate sepals.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pome</span>, a fruit like the apple and pear.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Porous Vessels</span>, same as pitted or +dotted vessels.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Posterior</span>, applied to the part of the +flower placed next the axis; same as +Superior.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pouch</span>, the short pod or silicle of some +<i>Cruciferæ</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Premorse</span>, bitten; applied to a root +terminating abruptly, as if bitten off.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Prickles</span>, hardened epidermal appendages +of a nature similar to hairs.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Primine</span>, the outer coat of the ovule.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Primordial Utricle</span>, the lining membrane +of cells in their early state.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Process</span>, any prominence or projecting +part, or small lobe.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Procumbent</span>, lying on the ground.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Proembryo</span>, cellular body in an ovary, +from which the embryo and its suspensor +are formed. Sometimes Proembryo +is used for Prothallus.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap"><ins class="corr" id="tn-1280" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: 'Peoliferous'"> +Proliferous</ins></span>, bearing abnormal buds.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Prone</span>, prostrate, lying flat on the +earth.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Propagulum</span>, an offshoot or germinating +bud attached by a thickish stalk +to the parent plant.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Prosenchyma</span>, fusiform tissue forming +wood.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Prothallium</span>, or <span class="smcap">Prothallus</span>, names +given to the first part produced by +the spore of an acrogen in germinating.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Protoplasm</span>, the nitrogenous gelatinous +matter in which the vital activity +of cells resides.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pseudo-bulb</span>, the peculiar aerial stem +of many epiphytic orchids.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pubescence</span>, short and soft hairs covering +a surface.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pululating</span>, budding.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pulverulent</span>, covered with fine powdery +matter.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pulvinate</span>, shaped like a cushion or +pillow.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pulvinous</span>, cellular swelling at the +point where the leaf-stalk joins the +axis.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Punctated</span>, applied to the peculiar +dotted woody fibres of <i>Coniferæ</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Putamen</span>, the hard endocarp of some +fruits.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pycnides</span>, cysts containing stylospores +found in some lichens.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pyxis</span>, a capsule opening by a lid.</p> + + +<p><span class="pad50pc">Q</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Quatenary</span>, composed of parts in fours.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Quinary</span>, composed of parts in fives.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Quinate</span>, five leaves coming off from +one point.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Quincunx</span>, when the leaves in the bud +are five, of which two are exterior, +two interior, and the fifth covers the +interior with one margin, and has its +other margin covered by the exterior. +<em>Quincuncial</em>, arranged in a quincunx.</p> + + +<p><span class="pad50pc">R</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Race</span>, a permanent variety.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Raceme</span>, an indefinite inflorescence, in +which there is a primary axis bearing +stalked flowers.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Racemose</span>, flowering in racemes.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Rachis</span>, the axis of inflorescence; also +applied to the stalk of the frond in +ferns, and to the common stalk bearing +the alternate spikelets in some +grasses.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Radical</span>, belonging to the root; applied +to leaves close to the ground, +clustered at the base of a flower-stalk.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Radicle</span>, the young root of the embryo.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ramenta</span>, little brown withered scales +with which the stems of some plants +are covered.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ramifications</span>, subdivisions of roots +or branches.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Raphe</span>, the line which connects the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1281">[1281]</span>hilum and the chalaza in anatropal +ovules.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Raphides</span>, crystals found in cells, which +are hence called <em>Raphidian</em>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Receptacle</span>, the flattened end of the +peduncle rachis, bearing numerous +flowers in a head; applied also generally +to the extremity of the peduncle +or pedicel.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Reclinate</span>, curved downward from the +horizontal, bent back up.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Recurved</span>, bent backward.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Reduplicate</span>, edges of the petals or sepals +turned outward in æstivation.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Regma</span>, seed-vessels composed of elastic +cocci, as in <i>Euphorbia</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Regular</span>, applied to an organ, the parts +of which are of similar form and +size.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Reliquiæ</span>, remains of withered leaves +attached to the plant.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Reniform</span>, in shape like a kidney.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Repand</span>, having a slightly undulated or +sinuous margin.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Replum</span>, a longitudinal division in a +pod formed by the placenta, as in +<i>Cruciferæ</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Resupinate</span>, inverted by a twisting of +the stalk.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Reticulate</span>, netted, applied to leaves +having a network of anastomosing +veins.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Retinaculum</span>, the glandular viscid portion +at the extremity of the caudicle +in some Pollinia.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Retrorse</span>, turned backward.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Retuse</span>, when the extremity is broad, +blunt, and slightly depressed.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Revolute</span>, leaf with its edges rolled +backward in vernation.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Rhizome</span>, a stem creeping horizontally, +more or less covered by the soil, giving +off buds above and roots below.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Rhizotaxis</span>, the arrangement of the +roots.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Rhomboid</span>, quadrangular form, not +square with equal sides.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Rib</span>, the projecting vein of a leaf.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ringent</span>, a labiate flower in which the +upper lip is much arched.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Root-stock</span>, same as Rhizome.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Rosette</span>, leaves disposed in close circles +forming a cluster.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Rostellum</span>, a prolongation of the upper +edge of the stigmas in orchids.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Rostrate</span>, beaked.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Rotate</span>, a regular gamopetalous corolla, +with a short tube, the limbs spreading +out more or less at right angles.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Rubefacient</span>, that which reddens the +surface.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Rudimentary</span>, an organ in an abortive +state arrested in its development.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Rufous</span>, rust-red.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Rugose</span>, wrinkled.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ruminate</span>, applied to mottled albumen.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Runcinate</span>, a pinnatifid leaf with a triangular +termination, and sharp divisions +pointing downward, as in +dandelion.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Runners</span>, procumbent shoots which root +at their extremity.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Rusty</span>, rust-colored.</p> + + +<p><span class="pad50pc">S</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sagittate</span>, like an arrow; a leaf having +two prolonged sharp-pointed lobes +projecting downward beyond the insertion +of the petiole.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Samara</span>, a winged dried fruit, as in the +elm.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Saponaceous</span>, soap-like.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sarmentose</span>, yielding runners.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sarmentum</span>, sometimes meaning the +same as Flagellum, or runner; at +other times applied to a twining stem +which supports itself by means of +others.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Scabrous</span>, rough, covered with very +stiff short hair.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Scalariform</span>, vessels having bars like +a ladder, seen in ferns.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Scales</span>, small processes resembling minute +leaves.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Scandent</span>, climbing by means of supports, +as on a wall or rock.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Scape</span>, a naked flower-stalk, bearing one +or more flowers arising from a short +axis, and usually with radical leaves +at its base.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Scarious</span>, or <span class="smcap">Scariose</span>, having the consistence +of a dry scale, membraneous, +dry, and shriveled.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Scion</span>, the young twig used as a graft.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sclerogen</span>, the thickening matter of +woody cells.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Scorpioidal</span>, like the tail of a scorpion; +a peculiar twisted cymose inflorescence, +as in <i>Boraginaceæ</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Scurfy</span>, applied to stems and leaves +covered with loose scales.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Secund</span>, turned to one side.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Secundine</span>, the second coat of the +ovule, within the primine.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Segments</span>, divisions.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Segregate</span>, separated from each other.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Seminal</span>, applied to the cotyledons, or +seed-leaves.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sepal</span>, one of the leaflets forming the +calyx.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Septate</span>, divided by septa or partitions.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Septicidal</span>, dehiscence of a seed-vessel +through the septa or edges of the +carpels.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Septifragal</span>, dehiscence of a seed-vessel +through the back of the loculaments, +the valves also separating +from the septa.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Septum</span>, a division in an ovary formed +by the sides of the carpels.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sericeous</span>, silky; covered with fine, +close-pressed hairs.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Serrate</span>, having sharp processes arranged +like the teeth of a saw; <em>Biserrate</em>, +when these are alternately +large and small, or where the teeth +are themselves serrated.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Serrulate</span>, with very fine serratures.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sessile</span>, without a stalk, as a leaf without +a petiole.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Seta</span>, a bristle or sharp hair; also applied +to the gland-tipped hairs of +<i>Rosaceæ</i> and <i>Hieracium</i>, and to the +stalk bearing the theca of mosses.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Setaceous</span> and <span class="smcap">Setiform</span>, in the form +of bristles.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1282">[1282]</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Setiform</span>, bristle-shaped.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Setose</span>, covered with setæ and bristles.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sheath</span>, the lower part of the leaf +surrounding the stem.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Silicula</span>, a short pod with a double +placenta and replum, as in some +<i>Cruciferæ</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Siliqua</span>, a long pod, similar in construction +to the silicle.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Simple</span>, not branching, not divided +into separate parts. Simple fruits +are those formed by one flower.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sinuous</span>, with a wavy or flexuous margin.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sinus</span>, the base or recesses formed by +the lobes of leaves.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Slashed</span>, divided by deep and very +acute incisions.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Social Plants</span>, such as grow naturally +in groups or masses.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Soredia</span>, powdery cells on the surface +of the thallus of some lichens.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Spadix</span>, a succulent spike bearing male +and female flowers, as in <i>Arum</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Spathe</span>, large membraneous bract covering +numerous flowers.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Spawn</span>, same as Mycelium.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Specific Character</span>, the essential +character of a species.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Spermagone</span>, a microscopic conceptacle +in lichens, containing reproductive +bodies called spermatia; also a conceptacle +containing fructification in +fungi.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Spermatia</span>, motionless spermatozoids in +the spermagones of lichens and +fungi.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Spermoderm</span>, the general covering of +the seed, sometimes applied to the +episperm or outer covering.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Spheroidal</span>, nearly spherical.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Spike</span>, inflorescence consisting of numerous +flowers sessile on an axis.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Spine</span>, or <span class="smcap">Thorn</span>, an abortive branch +with a hard, sharp point.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Spiral Vessels</span>, having a spiral fibre +coiled up inside a tube.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Spongiole</span>, the cellular extremity of a +young root.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sporangium</span>, a case containing spores.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Spore</span>, a cellular germinating body in +cryptogamic plants.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sporidium</span>, a cellular germinating +body in cryptogamia, containing two +or more cells in its interior.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sporules</span>, the small spores in cryptogamia.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Squamiform</span>, like scales.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Squamose</span>, covered with scales.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Squarrose</span>, covered with processes +spreading at right angles, or in a +greater degree.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Stamen</span>, the male organ of the flower +formed by a stalk or filament, and +the anther containing pollen.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Staminate</span>, applied to a male flower, +or to plants bearing male flowers.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Staminodium</span>, an abortive stamen.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Standard</span>, same as Vexillum.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Stellate</span>, like a star.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sterigmata</span>, cells bearing naked +spores; also cellular filaments bearing +spermata and stylospores in the +spermogones and pycnides.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sterile</span>, male flowers not bearing +fruit.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Stichidia</span>, pod-like receptacles, containing +spores.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Stigma</span>, the upper cellular secreting +portion of the pistil uncovered with +epidermis.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Stigmatic</span>, belonging to the stigma.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Stipe</span>, the stalk of fern fronds; the +stalk bearing the pileus in Agarics.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Stipel</span>, appendage at the base of a +leaflet.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Stipitate</span>, supported on a stalk.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Stipulate</span>, furnished with stipules.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Stipule</span>, appendage at the base of +leaves.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Stolon</span>, a sucker at first aerial, and +then rooting.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Stoloniferous</span>, having creeping runners, +which root at the joints.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Stomata</span>, openings in the epidermis of +plants, especially in the leaves.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Stool</span>, a plant from which layers are +propagated by bending down the +branches so as to root in the soil.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Strap-shaped</span>, same as Ligulate; linear, +or about six times as long as +broad.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Striated</span>, marked by streaks or striæ.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Strigose</span>, covered with rough, strong, +<ins class="corr" id="tn-1282" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: 'adpresse hairs'"> +adpressed</ins> hairs.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Strobilus</span>, a cone, applied to the fruit +of firs, as well as to that of the +hop.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Strophiole</span>, a swelling on the surface +of a seed.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Struma</span>, a cellular swelling at the +point where a leaflet joins the midrib; +also a swelling below the sporangium +of mosses.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Style</span>, the stalk interposed between +the ovary and the stigma.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Stylopod</span>, an epigynous disk seen at +the base of the styles of <i>Umbelliferæ</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Stylospore</span>, a spore-like body, borne +on a sterigma, or cellular stalk, in +the pycnides of lichens.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Suberous</span>, having a corky texture.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Subterranean</span>, underground; same as +Hypogeal.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Subulate</span>, shaped like a cobbler’s awl.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Succulent</span>, soft and juicy.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Suffruticose</span>, having the characters of +an under-shrub.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sulcate</span>, furrowed or grooved.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Superior</span>, applied to the ovary when +free, or not adherent to the calyx; +to the calyx, when it is adherent to +the ovary; to the part of a flower +placed next the axis.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Supernatant</span>, floating on the surface.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Supra-decompound</span>, doubly compounded.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Suspended</span>, applied to an ovule which +hangs from a point a little below +the apex of the ovary.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Suspensor</span>, the cord which suspends +the embryo, and is attached to the +radicle in the young state.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sutural</span>, applied to that kind of dehiscence +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1283">[1283]</span>which takes place at the +sutures of the fruit.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Suture</span>, the part where separate organs +unite, or where the edges of a +folded organ adhere; the ventral suture +of the ovary is that next the +centre of the flower; the dorsal +suture corresponds with the midrib.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Symmetry</span>, applied to the flower, has +reference to the parts being of the +same number, or multiples of each +other.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Synantherous</span>, anthers united together.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Syncarpous</span>, carpels united so as to +form one ovary or pistil.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Syngenesious</span>, same as Synantherous.</p> + + +<p><span class="pad50pc">T</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Tap-root</span>, root descending deeply in a +tapering, undivided manner.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Tegmen</span>, the second covering of the +seed; called also Endopleura.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Tegmenta</span>, scales protecting buds.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Tendrils</span>, curling, twining organs, with +which plants grasp supports.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Teratology</span>, study of monstrosities and +morphological changes.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Tercine</span>, the third coat of the ovule, +forming the covering of the central +nucleus.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Terete</span>, nearly cylindrical.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Terminal</span>, at the top or end.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ternary</span>, parts arranged in threes.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ternate</span>, compound leaves composed +of three leaflets.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Testa</span>, the outer covering of the seed; +some apply it to the coverings taken +collectively.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Tetradynamous</span>, four long stamens +and two short, as in <i>Cruciferæ</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Tetragonous</span>, having four angles.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Tetramerous</span>; a flower is tetramerous +when its envelopes are in fours.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Tetraspore</span>, a germinating body in +Algæ, composed of spore-like cells, +but also applied to those of three +cells.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Thalamifloral</span>, parts of the floral envelope +inserted separately into the +receptacle of the thalamus.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Thalamus</span>, the receptacle of the flower, +or the part of the peduncle into +which the floral organs are inserted.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Thallogens</span>, or <span class="smcap">Thallophytes</span>, plants +producing a thallus.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Thallus</span>, cellular expansion in lichens +and other cryptogams, bearing the +fructification.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Theca</span>, sporangium or spore-case, containing +spores.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Throat</span>, the orifice of a gamopetalous +corolla.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Thyrsus</span>, a sort of panicle, in form +like a bunch of grapes, the inflorescence +being mixed.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Tigellus</span>, the young embryonic axis.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Tomentose</span>, covered with cottony, entangled +pubescence, called tomentum.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Tomentum</span>, dense, close hair.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Toothed</span>, dentated.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Torus</span>, another name for Thalamus; +sometimes applied to a much-developed +thalamus, as in <i>Nelumbium</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Transpiration</span>, the exhalation of fluids +by leaves, etc.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Triadelphous</span>, stamens united in three +bundles by their filaments.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Triangular</span>, having three angles, the +faces being flat.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Trichotomous</span>, divided successively +into three branches.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Trifoliate</span>, or <span class="smcap">Trifoliolate</span>, same as +Ternate. When the three leaves +come off at one point the leaf is +<em>ternately trifoliate</em>; when there are +a terminal stalked leaflet and two +lateral ones, it is <em>pinnately trifoliate</em>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Trigonous</span>, having three angles, the +faces being convex.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Trimerous</span>; a trimerous flower has its +envelopes in three or multiples of +three.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Tripartite</span>, deeply divided into three.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Tripinnate</span>, a compound leaf three +times divided in a pinnate manner.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Tripinnatifid</span>, a pinnatifid leaf with +the segments twice divided in a pinnatifid +manner.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Triquetrous</span>, having three angles, the +faces being concave.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Triternate</span>, three times divided in a +ternate manner.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Truncate</span>, terminating abruptly, as if +cut off at the end.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Tryma</span>, drupaceous fruit like the walnut.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Tuber</span>, a thickened underground stem, +as the potato.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Tubercle</span>, the swollen root of some +terrestrial orchids.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Tuberculate</span>, covered with knobs or +tubercles.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Tuberous</span>, applied to roots in the form +of tubercles.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Tubular</span>, bell-shaped; applied to a +campanulate corolla, which is somewhat +tubular in its form.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Tumid</span>, swelling.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Tunic</span>, a coat or envelope.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Tunicated</span>, applied to a bulb covered +by thin external scales, as the onion.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Turbinate</span>, in the form of a top.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Turgid</span>, swollen.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Typical</span>, applied to a specimen which +has eminently the characteristics of +the species, or to a species or genus +characteristic of an order.</p> + + +<p><span class="pad50pc">U</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Umbel</span>, inflorescence in which numerous +stalked flowers arise from one +point.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Umbellule</span>, a small umbel, seen in the +compound umbellate flowers of many +<i>Umbelliferæ</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Umbilicate</span>, fixed to a stalk by a point +in the centre.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Umbilicus</span>, the hilum or base of a +seed.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Unarmed</span>, without prickles or spines.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Uncinate</span>, provided with an uncus, or +hooked process.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1284">[1284]</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Unctuous</span>, oily.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Undulate</span>, waved.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Unguiculate</span>, furnished with a short +unguis.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Unguis</span>, claw, the narrow part of a +petal; such a petal is called <em>Unguiculate</em>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Unicellular</span>, composed of a single +cell, as some Algæ.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Unilateral</span>, arranged on one side, or +turned to one side.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Unisexual</span>, of a single sex; applied to +plants having separate male and female +flowers.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Urgeolate</span>, urn-shaped; applied to a +gamopetalous globular corolla with a +narrow opening.</p> + + +<p><span class="pad50pc">V</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Valvate</span>, opening by valves, like the +parts of certain seed-vessels, which +separate at the edges of the carpels.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Valvate Æstivation</span> and <span class="smcap">Vernation</span>, +when leaves in the flower-bud and +leaf-bud are applied to each other by +the margins only.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Valves</span>, the portions which separate in +some dehiscent capsules.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Vascular Tissue</span>, composed of vessels.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Veins</span>, fibro-vascular skeleton of leaves.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Velum</span>, veil; the cellular covering of +the gills of an Agaric in its early +state.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Venation</span>, the arrangement of the +veins.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ventral</span>, applied to the part of the +carpel which is next the axis.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Vernation</span>, the arrangement of the +leaves in the bud.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Verrucose</span>, covered with wart-like excrescences.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Versatile</span>, applied to an anther which +is attached by one point of its back +to the filament, and hence is very +easily turned about.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Vertex</span>, the uppermost point.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Vertical</span>, perpendicular.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Verticil</span>, a whorl; parts arranged opposite +to each other at the same +level, or, in other words, in a circle +round an axis. The parts are said +to be <em>Verticillate</em>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Verticillaster</span>, a false whorl, formed +of two nearly sessile cymes, placed +in the axils of opposite leaves, as +in dead nettles.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Vesicle</span>, another name for a cell or +utricle.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Vexillary</span>, applied to æstivation when +the vexillum is folded over the other +parts of the flower.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Vexillum</span>, standard, the upper or posterior +petal of a papilionaceous +flower.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Villous</span>, covered with long soft hairs, +and having a wooly appearance.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Virescent</span>, green.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Virgate</span>, long and straight, like a +wand.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Viscous</span>, or <span class="smcap">Viscid</span>, clammy, like bird-lime.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Vitellus</span>, the embryo-sac when persistent +in the seed.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Vittæ</span>, cells or clavate tubes containing +oil in the pericarp of <i>Umbelliferæ</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Viviparous</span>, plants producing leaf-buds +instead of fruit.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Volubile</span>, twining; a stem or tendril +twining round other plants.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Volva</span>, wrapper; the organ which incloses +the parts of fructification in +some fungi in their young state.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Vulnerary</span>, having a healing power.</p> + + +<p><span class="pad50pc">W</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Wattled</span>, having processes like the +wattles of a cock.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Whorled</span>, same as Verticillate.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Wings</span>, the two lateral petals of a +papilionaceous flower, or the broad +flat edge of any organ.</p> + + +<p><span class="pad50pc">X</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Xanthophyll</span>, yellow coloring matter +in plants.</p> + + +<p><span class="pad50pc">Z</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Zones</span>, stripes or belts.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Zoospore</span>, a moving spore provided +with cilia, called also Zoosperm and +Sporozoid.</p> +</div> + + +<p class="p4 pfs90">END OF VOLUME THREE</p> + + +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<div class="footnotes"> + <h2 class="nobreak" id="FOOTNOTES"> + FOOTNOTES: + </h2> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_1_1" href="#FNanchor_1_1" class="label">[1]</a> In the Eocene of Australia.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_2_2" href="#FNanchor_2_2" class="label">[2]</a> The writer has shown that much of the material of the +great lignite beds of the Canadian Northwest consists of wood +of <i>Sequoia</i> of both the modern types.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_3_3" href="#FNanchor_3_3" class="label">[3]</a> This famous tree was blown down by a storm in 1868. It +was believed to have been five or six thousand years old.—E. S.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_4_4" href="#FNanchor_4_4" class="label">[4]</a> Asplenium Ruta muraria.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_5_5" href="#FNanchor_5_5" class="label">[5]</a> I need hardly observe that, botanically, these are not +true seeds, but rather motile buds.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_6_6" href="#FNanchor_6_6" class="label">[6]</a> Some two out of one hundred and fifty species of Solanum +are useful to man.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_7_7" href="#FNanchor_7_7" class="label">[7]</a> Silk-plant, Stipa pennata.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_8_8" href="#FNanchor_8_8" class="label">[8]</a> Isabel color is a pale yellow, or buff, the shade of +old linen, and received its name from Isabel of Austria, +daughter of Philip II of Spain, who at the siege of Ostende, +made the singular vow not to change her linen until that town +fell into her hands. The siege lasted over three years.—E. S.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<div class="p4 transnote"> +<a id="TN"></a> +<p><strong>TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE</strong></p> + +<p>Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been +corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within +the text and consultation of external sources.</p> + +<p>Some hyphens in words have been silently removed, some added, +when a predominant preference was found in the original book.</p> + +<p>Except for those changes noted below, all misspellings in the text, +and inconsistent or archaic usage, have been retained.</p> + +<p> +<a href="#tn-913">Pg 913</a>: ‘sucessfully cultivated’ replaced by ‘successfully cultivated’.<br> +<a href="#tn-932">Pg 932</a>: ‘in in this zone’ replaced by ‘in this zone’.<br> +<a href="#tn-954">Pg 954</a>: ‘aborescent grasses’ replaced by ‘arborescent grasses’.<br> +<a href="#tn-1105">Pg 1105</a>: ‘of Delphinum’ replaced by ‘of Delphinium’.<br> +<a href="#tn-1180">Pg 1180</a>: ‘the Mauritus palm’ replaced by ‘the Mauritius palm’.<br> +<a href="#tn-1233">Pg 1233</a>: ‘in differnt parts’ replaced by ‘in different parts’.<br> +<a href="#tn-1236">Pg 1236</a>: ‘slivery leaves’ replaced by ‘silvery leaves’.<br> +<a href="#tn-1272">Pg 1272</a>: ‘hav- a terminal’ replaced by ‘having a terminal’.<br> +<a href="#tn-1276">Pg 1276</a>: ‘sepals or p tals’ replaced by ‘sepals or petals’.<br> +<a href="#tn-1277">Pg 1277</a>: ‘which anastomose’ replaced by ‘which is anastomose’.<br> +<a href="#tn-1280">Pg 1280</a>: ‘Peoliferous’ replaced by ‘Proliferous’.<br> +<a href="#tn-1282">Pg 1282</a>: ‘adpresse hairs’ replaced by ‘adpressed hairs’. +</p> +</div> + +<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 77827 ***</div> +</body> +</html> diff --git a/77827-h/images/cover-orig.jpg b/77827-h/images/cover-orig.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..b47dd24 --- /dev/null +++ b/77827-h/images/cover-orig.jpg diff --git a/77827-h/images/cover.jpg b/77827-h/images/cover.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..2118906 --- /dev/null +++ b/77827-h/images/cover.jpg diff --git a/77827-h/images/i_001.jpg b/77827-h/images/i_001.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..aec4857 --- /dev/null +++ b/77827-h/images/i_001.jpg diff --git a/77827-h/images/i_052.jpg b/77827-h/images/i_052.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..663d3e4 --- /dev/null +++ b/77827-h/images/i_052.jpg diff --git a/77827-h/images/i_102.jpg b/77827-h/images/i_102.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..b17167b --- /dev/null +++ b/77827-h/images/i_102.jpg diff --git a/77827-h/images/i_152.jpg b/77827-h/images/i_152.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a10378f --- /dev/null +++ b/77827-h/images/i_152.jpg diff --git a/77827-h/images/i_202.jpg b/77827-h/images/i_202.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..27aac38 --- /dev/null +++ b/77827-h/images/i_202.jpg diff --git a/77827-h/images/i_252.jpg b/77827-h/images/i_252.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..063660a --- /dev/null +++ b/77827-h/images/i_252.jpg diff --git a/77827-h/images/i_302.jpg b/77827-h/images/i_302.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..162a8e2 --- /dev/null +++ b/77827-h/images/i_302.jpg diff --git a/77827-h/images/i_376.jpg b/77827-h/images/i_376.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..bef7b5c --- /dev/null +++ b/77827-h/images/i_376.jpg diff --git a/77827-h/images/i_426.jpg b/77827-h/images/i_426.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..2d6fa4a --- /dev/null +++ b/77827-h/images/i_426.jpg |
