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| author | pgww <pgww@lists.pglaf.org> | 2026-01-26 23:41:45 -0800 |
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| committer | pgww <pgww@lists.pglaf.org> | 2026-01-26 23:41:45 -0800 |
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diff --git a/deepsea.txt b/deepsea.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 33f29b9..0000000 --- a/deepsea.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,10280 +0,0 @@ -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 77774 *** - - - - -[Illustration: THE ROCKY SHORE AT LOW-WATER. - -_From photo by the Author._] - - - - - By the Deep Sea - - - A POPULAR INTRODUCTION TO THE - - WILD LIFE OF THE BRITISH SHORES - - - BY - - EDWARD STEP, F.L.S. - - - AUTHOR OF “WAYSIDE AND WOODLAND BLOSSOMS,” “BY VOCAL WOODS AND - WATERS,” “BY SEASHORE, WOOD, AND MOORLAND,” ETC. - - - _WITH 122 ILLUSTRATIONS BY P. H. GOSSE, W. A. PEARCE, - AND MABEL STEP_ - - - THIRD EDITION - - - LONDON - - JARROLD & SONS, 10 & 11, WARWICK LANE, E.C. - - [_All Rights Reserved_] - - 1896 - - - - - “There is a rapture on the lonely shore, - There is society where none intrudes - _By the deep Sea_, and music in its roar: - I love not Man the less, but Nature more.” - _Byron’s_ “_Childe Harold_,” Canto iv. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - I. THE SEA AND ITS SHORES 11 - - II. LOW LIFE 20 - - III. SPONGES 28 - - IV. ZOOPHYTES 37 - - V. JELLY-FISHES 49 - - VI. SEA-ANEMONES 64 - - VII. SEA-STARS AND SEA-URCHINS 86 - - VIII. SEA-WORMS 107 - - IX. CRABS AND LOBSTERS 130 - - X. SHRIMPS AND PRAWNS 160 - - XI. SOME MINOR CRUSTACEANS 172 - - XII. BARNACLES AND ACORN-SHELLS 176 - - XIII. “SHELL-FISH” 185 - - XIV. SEA-SNAILS AND SEA-SLUGS 207 - - XV. CUTTLES 231 - - XVI. SEA-SQUIRTS 236 - - XVII. SHORE FISHES 246 - - XVIII. BIRDS OF THE SEA-SHORE 277 - - XIX. SEAWEEDS 288 - - XX. FLOWERS OF THE SHORE AND CLIFFS 303 - - CLASSIFIED INDEX OF SPECIES - REFERRED TO IN TEXT 309 - - ALPHABETICAL INDEX 315 - - - - -ILLUSTRATIONS. - - - The Rocky Shore at Low-water _Frontispiece_ - - The Sandy Shore at Low-water _facing_ 11 - - Foraminifera 22 - - Polycistin 23 - - Sponges 29 - - Section through Crumb-of-Bread Sponge 32 - - Grantia compressa 35 - - Grantia ciliata 35 - - Sea Oak Coralline 39 - - Calycles of Sertularia enlarged 39 - - Plumularia pinnata 43 - - Plumularian, portion enlarged 43 - - Haliclystus 45 - - Sea-Mat (Flustra) 46 - - Larvæ of Aurelia 53 - - Marigold (_Aurelia aurita_) 54 - - Portuguese Man o’ War 56 - - Tube-mouthed Sarsia 57 - - Forbes’ Æquorea 58 - - Beröe and Young 61 - - Beadlet 65 - - Snowy Anemone 68 - - Rosy Anemone 68 - - Orange-disk Anemone 69 - - Opelet 73 - - Dahlia Wartlet 81 - - Sun Star 91 - - Purple-tipped Urchin 93 - - Feather-star 93 - - Starlet 93 - - Granulate Brittle-star 95 - - Sipunculus 103 - - Sea-cucumber 103 - - Trumpet Sabella 109 - - Brush Sabella 109 - - Common Sabella 109 - - Scarlet Serpula 113 - - Pearly Nereis 118 - - Rainbow Leaf-worm 119 - - Banded Flat-worm 125 - - Long Worm 125 - - Zebedee (_Xantho incisus_) 137 - - Hairy-crab 138 - - Velvet Fiddler 140 - - The Hermit-crab and the - Cloaklet Anemone 145 - - Scaly Squat-lobster 148 - - Broad-claw 148 - - Prickly Spider-crab 152 - - The Masked-crab (male) 153 - - Nut-crab 157 - - Angular-crab 157 - - The Prawn 163 - - Common Shrimp 167 - - Sea Slater 173 - - Ship-barnacle 177 - - Pyrgoma 183 - - Scalpellum 183 - - Porcate barnacle 183 - - Acorn-shell 183 - - Spiny Cockle 186 - - Banded Venus 186 - - Smooth Venus 191 - - Rayed Artemis 192 - - Cross-cut Carpet-shell 193 - - Common Scallops 195 - - Scallop hung up 196 - - Comb-shell 198 - - Rayed Trough-shell 199 - - Red-nosed Borer 203 - - Piddock 203 - - Limpets 208 - - Purples 208 - - Smooth Limpet 211 - - Smooth Limpet, thick variety 211 - - Netted Dog-whelk 213 - - Red Whelk 214 - - Cowry 215 - - Horn-shell 218 - - Pelican’s-foot 220 - - The Common Top 221 - - Violet-shell 222 - - Raft of Violet-shell 222 - - Slit Limpet 223 - - Hungarian Cap 224 - - Tusk-shell 224 - - Smooth Mail-shell 225 - - Sea Lemon 226 - - Crowned Eolis 228 - - Sea-hare 229 - - Sea-hare, front view 230 - - Octopus 232 - - Sepia 234 - - Squid (_loligo_) 235 - - Ascidia virginea 237 - - Cynthia quadrangularis 237 - - Diagrammatic section of an - Ascidian 238 - - Orange-spotted Squirt - (_Cynthia aggregata_) 239 - - Ascidia mentula 240 - - Currant-squirter - (_Styela grossularia_) 240 - - Clavelina 241 - - Salpa maxima 242 - - Part of a chain of Salpæ 242 - - Botryllus 243 - - Botryllus violaceus 244 - - Larva of a Tunicate 245 - - Shanny 247 - - Father Lasher 251 - - Worm Pipe-fish 251 - - Little Goby 257 - - Butterfly Blenny 257 - - Corkwing Wrasse 259 - - Gunnel 264 - - Three-bearded Rockling 266 - - Fifteen-spined Stickleback 267 - - Lesser Weever 267 - - Two-spotted Sucker 271 - - Montagu’s Sucker 273 - - Topknot 274 - - Lesser Launce or Sand-eel 275 - - Shag 279 - - Solan Goose 281 - - Oyster Catcher 281 - - Razorbill 285 - - Puffin 285 - - Channelled Wrack 289 - - Bladder Wrack 291 - - Saw-edged Wrack 291 - - Pod-weed 292 - - Peacock’s Tail 296 - - Chondrus crispus 299 - - Ash-leaved Seaweed 300 - - -[Illustration: THE SANDY SHORE AT LOW-WATER. - -_From photo by the Author._] - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -THE SEA AND ITS SHORES. - - -The sea is the very fountain and reservoir of the life of this globe. -As the heart is to man and his fellow vertebrates, so is the ocean to -the world. It is the centre of the circulatory system; and that system -means the life, the health, the sustenance of the body through which -it sends its fluids. With the destruction of the heart the human life -must cease; and with the annihilation of the sea, could such a thing be -possible, all life on the globe must come to an end. We know it is the -source of all our vitalizing showers, of every fertilizing stream, of -every commerce-laden river. The sun and the winds distil its waters, -and carry the sponge-like clouds over the lands, to drop their moisture -in rain and mist and snow, making vegetation possible, and giving man -two-thirds of his entire substance; for there are ninety-eight pounds -of water in the man of ten stone! - -The ocean does almost everything for man. Consider this statement -well, and you will be astounded at the way in which we are everywhere -dependent, directly or indirectly, upon the sea as the great reservoir -of the world’s water, and as the manufacturer, by means of its myriads -of living contents, of new and useful material from the old and -worn-out rubbish, the very refuse and filth, that we daily pour into -it. In fact, one of the principal occupations of civilised man may be -said to consist in making clean water dirty; and one of the greatest -operations of Nature is to make the dirty water clean and pure again. -Like the man in the fairy story, the sea gives us new lamps for our -old battered and bruised ones; and it is mainly enabled to do this by -reason of its immensity and the enormous variety of its population, -each able to turn some portion of our rubbish to account. According -to the most recent estimates, the cubical contents of the ocean is -fourteen times greater than the bulk of the land, and this means that -the whole of the land could be lost in the oceans. Not only so, but -if all the continents and all the islands were dumped down into the -Atlantic, there would still be two-thirds of that great ocean quite -clear, and the whole of the other oceans would be undisturbed. It is -calculated that the entire surface of the globe is 188 millions of -square miles, and of this, the small portion of 51 millions of square -miles represents the land surface, whilst the Pacific Ocean alone has a -surface area of 67 millions of square miles. - -It is no wonder that the immensity and mystery of the sea have -always exercised a fascination over man. Emerson declares that “the -Scandinavians in our race still hear in every age the murmurs of their -mother, the ocean;” but he need not thus have limited the thought--in -this respect, at least, we are all Vikings, and the murmurs of our -mother still draw us to her side. Whether we be Scandinavians or Celts, -the sea has power to bring us to her to-day as strong as ever it had -over our forefathers, who found in the seas that lap our little isles -the secret of national liberty, wealth, and power, such as no other -country has ever enjoyed. What a part the sea has played in the making -of the great Anglo-Saxon race! It is but meet that we should try to -understand something of that great heart of Nature; and for years we -have been sending expeditions here and there to sound its depths, and -collect facts that shall one day enable us to know it thoroughly. -We cannot all undertake, or accompany, such expeditions, and must, -therefore, be content to read with delight of their results; but great -numbers of us make our annual pilgrimage to the sea-shore, and, if we -will, may learn much of its wonders and beauties without running into -danger, experiencing the discomfort of sea-sickness, or risking more -than the wetting of a foot. - -In the present volume it is the author’s desire to act as a friendly -go-between, introducing the unscientific seaside visitor to a large -number of the wonderful and interesting creatures of the rocks, -the sands, and the shingle beach. Some may think this a work of -supererogation, for already many volumes have been issued with a -similar object. It is true that there are a number of manuals upon -the wonders and the common objects of the shore, but the best are -out-of-date or out-of-print, and the recent ones are such shocking -examples of bookmaking without much knowledge of the subject in -hand, that the practical ’long-shore naturalist smiles and writhes -alternately as he turns their pages. Whatever else the present effort -may lack, I claim for it this merit, that it has been written in close -contact with the things it describes--not only of cabinet specimens, -but of the living creatures under natural conditions. There is not a -line in the whole volume that has not been written within a few yards -of, and in full view of the rocks where the waves forever break, -sometimes gently with a low murmuring, almost a whisper; at other times -rearing their white crests a mile away, then sweeping across the bay, -flinging their malachite curves upon the rocks with giant force and -thunderous roar, whilst the foam flakes flying high tap softly at my -window. - -As far as possible I have dealt with the fauna of the rocky shore -separately from that of the sands or the shingly beach, but it must -be understood that in Nature there is a good deal of overlapping. It -will also be no surprise to the reader that the rocky shore bulks more -largely in these pages than sand or shingle; the rocks with their -cracks and caves and pools affording protection to many delicate -organisms against the fury of the waves. Naturalists have marked off -the sea-bed into a series of zones, an arrangement which may seem -somewhat arbitrary, but which is found very useful in practice. The -first or highest of these zones is known as the Littoral zone (Latin, -_litoralis_, the shore), and includes all the shore, be it rocks, -sand, shingle, or mud, that lies between the highest and the lowest of -spring-tide marks. Next to this comes the Laminarian zone, so-called -because between very low tide and a depth of about fifteen fathoms -of water, the _Laminaria digitata_, or Oar-weed, grows profusely -over the rocky ground, and forms a splendid cover for the luxuriant -animal life that haunts it. Our district is the Littoral zone, and the -Laminarian zone forms our seaward boundary, which we cannot cross, -for its exploration needs the use of boat and dredge. It is a very -tempting province to enter, for it contains the oyster-banks, and many -interesting forms of life. - -He who would see the most that the shore has to exhibit to him, must -consult the local tide-table, and the table of the moon’s changes. If -his stay at the seaside is to be brief, he must endeavour to let the -date of his start be governed by lunar considerations. Many business -men cannot get away for more than a fortnight, and if any such should -wish to make the best use of his time in connection with natural -history, we should advise him to begin his holiday at the period of -the moon’s first or third quarter. He will thus arrive at the time of -_neap_-tides; that is, when high-water is low, and low-water not much -lower--when, in a word, there is the least difference between high and -low water. The local weekly newspaper will in all probability contain -the times of high-water for every day in the coming week. If not, he -must find out on his first day at what hour low-water is reached, and -for at least an hour before that time he must be on the shore with -basket of wide-mouthed bottles--glass jam-jars are the best, for they -are easily obtained everywhere, and should an accident happen to one -through collision with a rock, no great harm is done. Now bear in mind -that the time of low- or high-water will be about forty-five minutes -later to-morrow than it was to-day, and the same number of minutes must -be added on each day to give the correct time for your visit to the -shore. Arrived there, it is best to keep close to the ebbing tide, and -as it goes further and further back, to turn over the stones and weeds -that have just been left by it. In this way you will get acquainted -with the best manner of proceeding, according to the peculiarities -of the special bit of coast you are on, so that when, a week after -your arrival, there comes the spring-tides, you will be able to make -far better use of your opportunities than if you had arrived in the -locality just at the period of spring-tides. - -The lowest tide is the third after New and Full Moon. Then the water -goes out to a great distance, and if on a rocky shore you will be -able just to step over the border among the Laminaria, and hunt for -specimens on its roots and under its long broad fronds. If you really -desire to see and find as much as possible with the greatest amount of -comfort, then pay attention to your dress before seeking the shore. -You should don an old suit of clothes that has become too shabby for -ordinary wear. If it is a bicycling outfit, so much the better, for -the knickerbockers will be more handy for wading. There is, of course, -no necessity for wading, but often it will be found that a “likely” -looking rock is cut off from us by a few feet of shallow water, too -wide to jump. In such a case wading pays. But it is really best to -make up the mind to wade. Take with you an old pair of shoes, and -above high-water mark you will find some safe place in the rocks for -depositing your walking-shoes, socks, and such other articles of -clothing as you wish to doff. Put the old shoes on your naked feet, -and roll up your trousers or knickerbockers as high as they will go. -You thus run little risk of getting your clothes wet, and your feet -will be protected from the sharp edges of newly-fractured rocks and -broken shells, or even from the nip of a too-familiar crab. Should -the idea of old clothes be an objectionable one to you, and you have a -preference for something appropriate, I would strongly advise a good -knitted Jersey, worn without a coat--at least when the collecting -ground is reached. Such a garment is warm without being heavy, and is -a protection against the changes of temperature that frequently take -place by the sea; there are no tails to get wet when you sit or kneel -on low rocks, and no pockets out of which things can fall when you -stoop. For the head a cloth cap is best; whilst at work wear it with -the peak behind, otherwise when you peer closely into a pool it will -get wet. - -If you visit the village shop or store you can buy for a few pence -one of the handy open chip baskets with handle across the middle, -that are so much used for gardening purposes. In this you can store -your glass-jars, and have them always handy without any lid to open, -and can find room for seaweeds, shells, etc. If you are going to the -sands you should carry a garden trowel; if to the rocks, a good strong -putty knife with straight edge. You will find in most cases this will -do instead of the more cumbersome cold-chisel and hammer that you may -_have_ to use on special occasions. With it you can separate the upper -flake of a slaty rock upon which are desired specimens, by driving the -knife in at the edge. For getting anemones off rocks you will find this -knife very valuable. In such situations the anemone’s base usually -rests upon a crust of old acorn-shells, sponge, coralline, or other -foreign growth on the rock. The edge of the knife should be driven -through this crust at a little distance from the desired specimen, and -then pushed firmly towards and under it. It will come off with its -base--the most delicate part of an anemone--uninjured and undisturbed, -so that when placed in an aquarium it will spontaneously glide off the -crumbling rubbish and obtain a firmer footing. - -Some of the anemones and other fixed objects in the rock-pools you -will find are in too great a depth of water to be got at with ease or -comfort; but by using one of your bottles as a baler you can rapidly -reduce the level of the water to a working height. I have in this way -almost completely emptied a deep and narrow rock basin, where there -was no play for the arms. You need have no scruples about destroying a -natural aquarium by so doing, for the rising tide will soon put that -matter right again. Where I have had to reduce the water in a large -pool that would have taken a long time to bale out in this fashion, I -have taken down a portable garden pump with splendid results. - -In working a “drang” or rock gulley at low-water, pay special attention -to the lower part of the perpendicular rock-walls, that are most -protected from the full force of the waves in stormy weather. Where -such a fissure runs parallel with the cliffs, the most productive wall -will be that which faces the cliffs, for it is easy to see that in -heavy seas this is the part that is protected from the sledge-hammer -force of the waves and the big stones with which they batter and -bombard the land; therefore, it is the part where soft and delicate -organisms have the best chance of flourishing. It will be well also to -carefully scrutinise the opposite wall, but when there is only a brief -time at disposal devote it to the one we have indicated as the best. - -Should you desire to obtain specimens for preservation in the cabinet -instead of the aquarium, then you must take a jar of _fresh_ water, -which should be of a distinctive shape or material, to prevent -mistakes. Most of the marine creatures are killed by immersion in -fresh-water, which has the advantage of not altering their colours, as -spirit does in too many cases--notably among the Crustacea. A few of -the corked glass tubes that most naturalists use, will be found handy -for minute specimens, which are liable to be overlooked if put into -the general collecting jars with larger creatures. Overcrowding of the -live stock must be avoided, or all will be dead or dying before your -collecting is well through. - -For small fish, shrimps, and other swimming creatures, you will -require a small net, or rather two nets, for one that is suitable for -catching the small and delicate forms one finds in the rock-pools or -swimming near the surface of a smooth sea, will not be strong enough -for drawing through the rough weeds. The one should be of fine muslin -to retain minute forms; the other should be really a “net,” of the very -smallest mesh possible. - -On the rocky shore you will find the greatest abundance and variety of -the marine algæ or seaweeds, most of the crustaceans, nearly all the -anemones of the littoral zone, a number of species of fishes, many of -the tube-worms, the sponges, the tunicates, and such molluscan forms -as the periwinkle family, the limpets, dog-whelk, tops, slit limpet, -smooth limpet, cowry, and sea lemon. On the sandy beaches you will find -only such seaweeds as have been washed in by the waves, shrimps, the -masked crab and the angled crab, launce or sand-eel, the razor-shell, -cockle, tellen-shells, horn-shells, the natica, and other shells. - -On the shingle beach little will be found besides empty shells and -heaps of more or less damaged seaweeds, which, however, are well worth -examining, for occasionally one may find uncommon kinds there, and -among them specimens of animal life. But it is to the rocky shore we -advise our readers to give most attention. The rocks, their pools and -crannies, will engross the attention more, and the harvest will be -greater. By a little local study it will be found that certain winds -will cause the heaping up of certain shells on one particular part of a -beach, whilst other winds bring other things to the same or different -parts. This knowledge acquired, you will put it to practical use by -finding out what was the direction of that stiff gale that blew last -night, and then bending your steps in a particular direction, you will -be able to take your pick of the shells before the hinges have become -broken and the valves separated. There are many species of mollusca -whose shells you will only acquire in this way, unless you are able to -go dredging, and thus get up the living creature from the sea-bottom. -All such shells, though they may look perfectly clean, should be -carefully washed in _fresh_ water, to get rid of the salt, that would -otherwise hang about them, and prevent them becoming absolutely dry, as -cabinet specimens should be. - -Probably, after you have really seen something of the exceeding beauty -of the rock-pools and the little marine caverns, you will be fired -with the ambition to start a small marine aquarium when you return -to your own home. You really ought to be filled with this desire a -month or so before you seek the shore, so that you might provide a -suitable vessel or vessels, and allow the sea-water to settle down and -the contained germs of vegetation to start into active life, and so -be ready to support animal life. We will suppose you have made some -provision of this sort before leaving home, and now desire a suitable -selection of creatures to fill it. My advice is, be modest in scheming, -and for a first experiment start with creatures that consume very -little oxygen--you cannot have better subjects than the anemones. These -should be conveyed not in water, but each specimen wrapped lightly and -separately in soft weed, and the whole packed in more weed in a light -wooden box. The pools should be searched for a rough, uneven piece -of rock, upon which small _green_ weeds are growing, and this should -also be placed in your aquarium as a suitable base for the anemones. -Most marine animals travel better in weed than in water, which rapidly -becomes foul in travelling, and destroys all that have been entrusted -to it. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -LOW LIFE. - - -Some persons go to the seaside every year for several weeks, and -yet know little of its treasures. Take away the bands, the bathing -machines, the itinerant entertainers of various kinds, the bustling -crowds that pass and repass on the grand parade, and they are lonely, -miserable, with nothing to occupy their minds. Of the illimitable sea, -the cliffs, the sands, the passing sails they soon tire. For a very -small sum, as money is considered to-day, such a person could acquire -a tolerable microscope, and a very little application to books would -put him in the way of getting an absolutely endless fund of interest, -knowledge, even amusement from it. Through the magic glasses he enters -another world; or, rather they enable him to see that other half of -Creation with which he has been rubbing shoulders all his life, yet -without seeing the creatures. With such an instrument and the knowledge -how to use it, a man may defy the demon _ennui_ wherever he may be. -With such an instrument at home a person who is not a naturalist may -be induced to look into a rock-pool, to take samples of its fauna -and flora, and by and by to become a naturalist without intending or -knowing it. - -Behold how easy a thing it is! He has but to take away a phial full -of the water, a tiny bunch of coralline, the finer green weed, or a -snippet of sponge from the walls of the pool, and he has abundance of -material whose marvellous beauties of form and colour will delight and -astonish him when he has had time to examine it under the microscope. -For the coralline tuft and the lowly weed, when washed out in the -sea-water, will yield him multitudes of Infusoria, Rhizopoda, and the -infantile stages of many of the higher groups of life. - -The Foraminifera are the minute creatures which have so largely -contributed to the formation of the enormous beds of chalk we find in -Surrey, Kent, Sussex, and other counties, such as the explorations of -the _Challenger_ showed us are being formed in the deep sea at the -present time. So minute are they that one hundred and fifty of them -placed side by side would not measure more than one inch, and of such -insignificant creatures the chalk is almost entirely composed. What -are they? How are they fashioned? How do they live? These questions -probably occur to the reader, and I must do my best to briefly answer -them. - -There is a minute creature, plentiful in ditches and similar -accumulations of stagnant water into which decaying vegetation -has fallen. It is a minute speck of animated jelly, without form, -substance, or limbs. There is, in fact, no closer analogy than the -speck of almost clear jelly, to which in some mysterious way life has -been given. In the words of the late Dr. W. B. Carpenter, who made a -special study of these creatures: “A little particle of homogeneous -jelly[1] arranging itself into a greater variety of forms than the -fabled Proteus, laying hold of its food without members, swallowing -it without a mouth, digesting it without a stomach, appropriating its -nutritious material without absorbent vessels or a circulating system, -moving from place to place without muscles, feeling without nerves, -propagating itself without genital apparatus, and not only this, but in -many instances forming shelly coverings for symmetry and complexity not -surpassed by those of any testaceous animal.” - -[1] It is now known that this jelly-like material is not of so simple -a character as was supposed a few years since: the most modern -microscopes prove it to be not devoid of structure. - -With the exception of the last three-and-twenty words the above -description refers to the _Amæba_ and its allies; but in the -Foraminifera we have a sort of advanced type of amæbæ, a more æsthetic -race that have taken to build themselves houses, in most cases of -graceful form, such as are referred to in Dr. Carpenter’s concluding -words. One of the fresh-water amæbæ is named _Difflugia_, and it -distinguishes itself by coating the greater part of its small body -with particles of sand and other matter picked up as the _Difflugia_ -rolls along. The Foraminifera do not resort to so clumsy a method -of satisfying their architectural instincts. In the course of their -feeding they take into their primitive systems a good deal of carbonate -of lime, and instead of casting this out as innutritious, useless -stuff, they secrete it as shell, in many cases not unlike the shells of -mollusks, but with minute pores (_foramina_) all over them. From this -character they derived their name _Foraminifera_ or pore-bearers. - -[Illustration: FORAMINIFERA. - - 1. Polymorphina. 2. Textularia. 3. Cristellaria. -] - -Within these perforated shells live the amæba-like animals, and -through all these minute pores they protrude still more minute threads -or wisps of their living jelly to use as limbs wherewith to pull -themselves along, and to catch their food. There is a very ancient -conundrum which asks: “What is smaller than a mite’s mouth?” a mite -being formerly considered to be the least of all animals and a very -minute thing indeed; therefore, to imagine the mouth of a mite was to -conceive of something so very small as to be almost beyond conception. -But then came the answer: “That which goes into it!” Of course, if a -mite had a mouth it must have it for the purpose of eating, so that -though nothing were known smaller than a mite, yet a mite must have a -mouth, and that could scarcely be quite as large as the mite, and its -food must be smaller than its mouth. A naturalist would say that this -line of reasoning is weak, and it undoubtedly is so, for there are -creatures that contrive to swallow things that are much larger than -their mouths; but there is no occasion to split hairs just now. These -Foraminifera are in some cases invisible to the unassisted vision, but -as each is pierced with many pores, it follows that the individual -pore must be almost inconceivably small, though still smaller are the -wisps of jelly that protrude through them and invest the outside of the -shell. For it must not be supposed that these structures are secreted -like the shell of the snail, that the animal may live within it; rather -it is like our own skeleton, built up within our bodies. - -Some of these shells have but one chamber, like _Lagena_, which is -flask-shaped, and _Entosolenia_, in which the long neck of the flask -has been pushed down inside the globose portion. Others have many -compartments, but these are subject to great variety of arrangement, -each species having its own special form. _Dentalina_ has the -chambers placed one behind the other in a straight or curved line. In -_Nonionina_, _Polystomella_, _Rotalina_, _Globigerina_, and others -they are rolled in a spiral, and resemble the chambered shell of the -Nautilus; or they may be twined, _not_ spirally, round an axis, each -making a half-turn. - -[Illustration: POLYCISTIN.] - -In some respects similar to the Foraminifera are the Polycistina, which -are equally minute creatures, whose skeletons are of flint instead of -chalk, and the perforations are so large and so close together that -the term pore no longer adequately expresses their proportionate size. -They are more like windows, but with little intervening stonework. The -jelly-substance, called _sarcode_, flows out through all these windows -in the form of threads (called _pseudopodia_ or false feet) as in the -Foraminifera, spreading over the outer surface and acting as legs and -arms by means of which the creature moves and captures its food. They -feed upon infusoria of various kinds, and the diatoms and desmids, -which appear to be paralysed by contact with the pseudopodia. They -also seem to derive part of their nutriment from the exertions of some -minute yellow-bodies, a species of algæ (_Xanthellæ_) that are lodgers -within their substance. These lowly plants, which have sometimes been -incorrectly alluded to as parasites, elaborate starchy products by the -aid of their chlorophyll, and on their death this material is available -for the nutrition of the Polycistin, which also can make use of the -oxygen given off by the plant. - -There is one of these low forms of life in which almost all visitors -to the sea-shore take an interest--or rather they are interested in -certain signs of its vital activity--the mysterious phosphorescence of -the sea. There is no moon visible, the sea is quiet, and our reader -late in the evening takes a stroll along the edge of the waves, “before -turning in.” He is charmed to see the ripples as they break upon the -shore brightly outlined with glow-worm light, and stays long to enjoy -the elfish illumination. Now my advice is, do not stay long, but hasten -back to your “diggings” and get a bottle; then return and fill it with -sea-water at a spot where the phosphorescence is most abundant. You can -then examine the creature that produces the strange light. - -If now you continue your stroll along to that part of the sea-wall -where the male villagers most chiefly congregate to spin yarns with -a more or less saline flavour, and to discuss village politics, you -will probably hear them talking about fishing prospects, and if it is -in early summer, mackerel will be in their talk. “Well,” says one, -“there’s no doubt the fish are about, and I propose that we get the -sean-boats ready, and to-morrow night we’ll try the briming.” The -meaning of which dark saying is that to-morrow evening they will row -across the bay till they come under the shadow of the great headland, -and there they will adapt the focus of their eyes to seeing below -the surface of the crystal waters, and watching for the streaks of -phosphorescent light that break from the fins and tails and scales of -the mackerel as they pass through the sea. This light is the “briming” -of the fishermen. It is due to the movement of the fish exciting the -light-producer, just as in a marine aquarium in a dark room you can -produce a similar effect by blowing the surface of the water into -ripples. The six long oars of the big sean-boat every time they dip -into the water send a spray of light into the air, and as they again -leave it a shower of glowing pearls drops from each. The prow of the -boat sends up a fountain of pale heatless fire on either side, and an -ever-widening track of the same mysterious light marks the way the boat -has come. - -All these brilliant effects are produced by millions of a tiny -Infusorian, individually so small that twenty of the finest specimens, -placed closely together in Indian file, would only produce a procession -one inch in length, whilst of mediocre examples it would require from -fifty to eighty to cover the same space. Its size may be insignificant, -but it has a name which will at least inspire respect with some -persons--_Noctiluca miliaris_--which may be Englished as the Sea -Night-light. If now we go together to your lodgings and examine that -bottle of sea-water with a lens we shall be able to make out a large -number of these creatures swimming about, and by means of a pipette -or dipping tube we can isolate a specimen and place it under the -microscope. There it is revealed to us as a peach-shaped individual, -the spherical mass being partly mapped into two lobes by the slight -groove that, as in the peach, runs down from the depression in which -the stalk is attached. The stalk in this microscopic night-light is -represented by a long flexible tentacle, or _flagellum_, by means -of which _Noctiluca_ moves through the waters, much as a fisherman -will propel his boat by the skilful use of a single paddle at the -stern. There is a shell-like envelope of transparent material through -which may be seen a meshwork of granular material, denser than the -body-mass. A funnel, opening near the _flagellum_, becomes lost in -this granular matter; this is the creature’s mouth and gullet, within -which lies a smaller flagellum. The gullet simply opens into the -central protoplasm; no continuing alimentary canal has yet been made -out. Reproduction is effected by several methods: one is the division -of the creature transversely into two, each complete, but for the time -smaller; a second method is the conjugation of two individuals and -the subsequent breaking up of the protoplasm into numerous spores, -each provided with a flagellum. But this breaking up process may occur -independently of conjugation. The spores move by the lashing of the -flagellum, and gradually develop into the adult form. The light is -produced in flashes just under the clear cell wall, and pure sea-water, -rich in oxygen, is necessary for its continued brilliancy. At times, -on summer evenings, _Noctiluca_ is extremely abundant in the littoral -zone, and it is then impossible to take up a glass of water without -getting thousands of specimens. - -If you occasionally indulge in boating, many forms of low life, or the -larval condition of higher forms may be obtained without difficulty. -Take a piece of thin, round cane--about the thickness used in training -a child in the way he should go--and bend it into a hoop. The two ends -should be cut half through for an inch of their length, so that their -flat surfaces can be brought together and secured by several turns -of a piece of thin copper wire. Now to this cane secure a small flat -piece of lead, so that when thrown into the water the hoop will assume -an erect position. If you should have a couple of inches of “compo” -gas-tubing handy, this will do admirably, and may be slipped over the -cane before the ends are lashed together. Upon the hoop now stitch a -muslin bag to serve as a net; and to three or four equi-distant points -on the frame attach short, strong strings of equal length, and join -their ends to a length (say three fathoms) of fishing line. This may -be made fast to one of the thwarts of the boat, or held in the hand, -whilst the net is thrown overboard. The movement of the boat will cause -the net to collect a large number of minute creatures that float on -the surface or immediately below it. From time to time it should be -hauled in, and the bag turned inside out and washed in a glass jar of -sea-water. In this way many interesting forms may be secured. A calm, -sunny afternoon should be selected for this work, and the boat should -be rowed gently. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -SPONGES. - - -To many persons the statement that we are going for a ramble among the -rocks in quest of sponges will merely suggest the idea of wreckage, and -they will suppose that we have had information that a vessel, part of -whose cargo was Turkey sponges, has gone to grief on the rocks near, -and that sponges are to be had for the trouble of picking them up. And -should they venture to accompany you on so promising an expedition, -they would certainly consider you demented as, having reached the rocks -that are only uncovered at very low tides, you proceeded to point out -the green and orange and brown and whity-yellow expanses that coat -the vertical faces of the rocks. All these things to them bear no -resemblance to the only sponges they know--the ones they use daily for -purposes of ablution. You can show them something approaching nearer to -their ideal, if you hunt among the thick stems of the shrubby weeds on -the rock. There, encrusting a branch, is a yellowish-brown form with -rough surface and large pores very much like those they know all about. -And attached to various weeds are others of the shape, size, and colour -of melon seeds, with porous surface and open end. - -[Illustration: SPONGES. - -Hymeniacidon albescens; Pachymatisma johnstoni; Halichondria panicea; -Grantia coriacea; Halichondria incrustans; Leuconia nivea; Leuconia -gossei.] - -Your friend, though disappointed, maybe, that he is not to share in -the salvage of some splendid bath sponges from the supposed wreck, -cannot help feeling some interest in the extensive layers of colour -on the rocks, some of it raised into conical hillocks, and suggesting -a fairy plain thickly studded with volcanoes. You tell him that these -are really aquatic volcanoes so-to-speak, and that if you could get a -portion off the rock, you could exhibit the phenomenon to him at -work in a shallow dish of sea-water. Thereupon he, thinking to be of -service to you tears off a slice of the pale green, hillocky sponge -(_Halichondria panicea_) and breaks it up hopelessly. However, we will -turn his clumsiness to account and take a view of the interior thus -violently exposed. We see that these crater-like openings are the -outlets to tubular spaces running through the sponge, and from these -passages smaller branches go off at right angles, whilst these and the -larger openings are surrounded by tissues that are very like bread in -consistence; and that is really only a way of explaining that they are -spongy. Now the whole of the substance of these sponges, as you may -see by microscopical examination, is composed of myriads of minute -flint spicules, finer than the most delicate fragments of “spun glass,” -and of beautiful forms. Some are simple rods, straight and curved; -others forked at one end; some like a gribble; others what is known as -quadriradiate in form. - -Now in some species these spicules are not arranged in any order; they -are merely jumbled together, and their remarkable forms make it easy -for them to become entangled. When so entangled they form the skeleton -of the sponge. Each sponge is a co-operative colony containing many -thousands of members, and these are represented to our view, through -my pocket lens, in the mass only, as a thin clear jelly investing the -spicule-tangles, or rather the spicules are imbedded in the _sarcode_ -as this living matter is termed. If we were to chip off a thin flake of -rock with its investing sponge intact, and place the whole in a glass -vessel full of water, we could observe the movements which manifest -its vitality. A little finely powdered indigo or other colouring -matter should be dropped into the water near the specimen. On closely -observing it would be seen that many of these minute granules were -flowing towards the sponge, then that they entirely disappeared through -the very fine openings in the surface. A little later these particles -will reappear, not where they went in, but in a denser stream issuing -from one of the craters, which are scientifically designated _oscula_ -to distinguish them from the minute pores. - -[Illustration: SECTION THROUGH CRUMB-OF-BREAD SPONGE.] - -If we dissect the sponge under a microscope, we shall find that from -one of these _oscula_ a broad passage runs through the centre of the -mass, and from the walls of this the minute pores run off to the -outer surface. This central cavity is invested by a living membrane -which, when examined through a higher power of the microscope, is seen -to consist of myriads of organisms closely packed together side by -side, and each resembling a glass vase, spherical below, with a wide -neck, and from its centre there issues a long antenna-like process. -This is called the _flagellum_ (Latin, a whip), because its office -is to lash the water. These flask-like organs, with their flagella, -present a wonderful likeness to some free infusoria known as collared -monads, and over this likeness and all that it may or may not imply -to the systematic naturalist much ink has been shed, and the sounds -of controversial strife it engendered, though now faint, are still -audible. Into _that_ question we do not go. - -The combined lashing of these little whips in unison sets a strong -current of water flowing through the central passages and out at the -_oscula_. To feed this stream, water flows in automatically through all -the little pores, and brings with it the infusoria and other minute -particles of life with which the sea is swarming. These come in contact -with the lips of the flasks in the interior over which the living jelly -of the sponge is steadily flowing. The infusoria flow with it and are -carried away by the current to a little clear space (_vacuole_) in the -lower part of the flask, where it is digested, and the refuse portions -are thrust out to go in the general stream and be carried out through -the oscula. Each of these cells may be taken therefore as a separate -individual, enjoying home rule, yet taking part in general efforts -for the whole sponge-community, for we find that by some strangely -communicated understanding, all these cells cease lashing the water for -a time as though resting (or digesting their food), and the craters -cease to pour forth their streams. But then after a time activity is -resumed, the craters belch forth again, and we know thereby that the -flagella are in active operation down below, not merely capturing and -digesting food, but also absorbing oxygen from the inflowing streams, -whereby vital energy is maintained. - -After the cells have become full grown, they split transversely or -longitudinally, and so increase their number, which means that the size -of the colony increases. But some of these divided portions develop -into eggs, which after fertilization are swept out into the ocean by -the outflowing current, and settling upon some rock become glued down -and grow, gradually, by division and subdivision, producing a new -colony. Such is a highly condensed account of the general phenomena -of sponge life. There are variations upon it in the life-history of -well-nigh every species; but this will suffice to give my reader -a general idea of what sponges are. For the rest, he must go down -among the rocks, and search out the various species of many forms, -and endeavour to add to the general sums of knowledge by some fresh -observations respecting British Sponges. - -However startling the statement may sound, there is no lack either -of specimens or species on the British coasts. Some of the most -conventionally sponge-like of these must be sought by the dredge in -deep waters, but our own hunting ground, the rocks that mark the -shoreward-bounds of the laminarian zone, if carefully inspected at low -spring tides, will afford more specimens in half an hour than we can -exhaust the interest of in a week. That this is no mere figure of -speech you will agree when I add that Dr. Bowerbank published a work -in three volumes dealing only with British Sponges, and to these a -supplementary posthumous volume, edited by Dr. Norman, has since been -added. - -Where the rocks rise high above the shore with their upper portions -tilted towards the cliffs, we shall find several species incrusting the -vertical or overhanging surfaces of these rocks, such as _Halichondria -incrustans_, whose buff-coloured bread-like surface is diversified with -slightly raised oscula. Its principal spicules are knobbed at one end, -in which respect it differs from the similar _Halichondria panicea_ -which is peculiar in having only one type of spicules--a rounded -rod, slightly curved or quite straight, but pointed at each end. -Ellis called this species the Crumb-of-bread sponge, a name which is -reflected in the scientific cognomen _panicea_. It is one of the most -plentiful of the encrusting species, and may be readily known by the -greenish-yellow or distinctly green colour of its extensive patches. - -Not far from the Crumb-of-bread will in all probability be found -the similar Sanguine sponge (_Halichondria sanguinea_), of a bright -red colour. The conical elevations of the _oscula_ in these species -distinguish them readily from the plump, though narrow bands of -_Microciona carnosa_, a plentiful species that creeps extensively -between the other kinds, its pale red branches being very unequal -in width, and alternately contracting and swelling out, joining and -separating. This will be found figured in the lower left-hand corner of -our illustration on page 29. - -[Illustration: GRANTIA COMPRESSA.] - -[Illustration: GRANTIA CILIATA.] - -A very noticeable species on account of its neat compact shape will be -found attached to various red seaweeds, with which its whitish colour -contrasts well. It is a small oval, usually from a quarter to an inch -in length, very flat, but yet hollow, with a large vent at the free and -larger end. This is the _Grantia compressa_. Careful search among the -indescribable medley of “unconsidered trifles” that crust the rocks -beneath the shelter of the Fucus-growth, will reward us with a little -spherical sponge with tubular oscula at the summit formed of spicules, -and its general surface bristling with long spicules. This is the -_Grantia ciliata_, looking like a little gooseberry. - -There are many other forms, for which I must refer my readers to Dr. -Bowerbank’s work, where also will be found descriptions and figures -of many deep-water species, such as the more conventional sponge-like -_Chalina oculata_, in branching masses nine or ten inches high. - -There is, however, one other we must mention; the so-called -Boring sponge (_Cliona celata_), which attacks various shells and -stones. It is quite a common occurrence for the rambler along the shore -to pick up the shell of some mollusk, and find it so tunnelled, the -borings branching in every direction, that what would otherwise be as -strong as stone is now as weak as poor strawboard, and will yield to -very slight pressure or strain. On breaking such a shell across we get -both cross and longitudinal sections of these tunnels and chambers, -and find some of them to be lined with a dark brown filmy tissue, -the remains of some past inhabitant; others contain portions of this -_Cliona_ sponge, living or dead; others again contain little bivalve -shells that just fit the aperture, whilst yet another set exhibit clean -walls that may not have had any animal inmate. Much controversy has -raged over the question whether these excavations have been made by -the sponge, or by some boring worm, and there have not been wanting -as advocates of either view men whose authority on sponge matters is -unquestioned. Where such doctors differ how shall humble observers -venture to give a verdict? For my part, I cannot give my support to -the contention that the sponge has bored the clean holes, hollows, -and tubes that I have seen in the large numbers of attacked shells I -have broken; neither am I prepared with an opinion as to the creature -that did make them. I believe that on this matter, as on many others -connected with natural history, we have much still to learn, and -every student of Nature should have his eyes and his mind ever open -to receive hints from Nature herself as to her methods. One of these -days, some lonely wanderer by the margin of the wave will show us how -simply this boring is accomplished, and we shall all wonder that we -never thought of the possibility before. But whatever views or lack of -views we may have upon the question, “who made the burrows?” there is -no doubt that the sponge does exist in some of them, and its spicules -embedded in the yellow sarcode are well worthy of minute observation. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -ZOOPHYTES. - - -Not many years ago our knowledge of the lower forms of life was very -imperfect, and it was believed that the gulf between the animal -and vegetable kingdoms was bridged over by certain creatures which -could not properly be classed in either, because they appeared -to unite the characters and organization of each. Such was the -case with the sponges, already dealt with, and with the creatures -now to be considered. These last were on that account called -Zoophytes, or animal plants, a term which we must render to-day as -plant-like animals. Some of us have again got to the notion that there -is no sharp division between animal and plant-life; but with increased -knowledge we have put back the debatable or common ground much lower in -the scale of life. - -With the whole of the families included in this division of life, I -do not propose to deal in the present chapter: the Sea-Anemones and -the Sea-Jellies, for instance, being treated in succeeding chapters, -for each group deserves and demands a chapter to itself. It is -characteristic of the Zoophytes that they form a bag of jelly-like -material, with an opening at one end which may be regarded as a mouth, -though it is without tongue or teeth, and opens directly into the -stomach. Around this mouth are set a number of limb-like organs, called -tentacles, which are used for seizing the prey and conveying it within -the orifice. Their entire structure is very simple, and apart from -primitive muscular and nervous systems, and the possession of stinging -threads, which can be quickly extruded through the exterior walls of -the body, they appear to be almost innocent of organs. This form of -structure is generally referred to as a Polypite, and its appearance -has been made familiar by the descriptions and figures of the Hydra or -Polyp of our stagnant fresh-water ponds. From their general agreement -in structure with the Hydra, the creatures to which much of this -chapter will be devoted, are called Hydroid Zoophytes. There are, -however, but few species that occur solitarily, like the Hydra. In -most cases they are associated in inseparable colonies. The egg of a -zoophyte gives rise, it is true, to an organism resembling Hydra, but -this individual does not long remain solitary; it produces many buds, -which rapidly develop, and in turn produce other buds, so that before -long there is a colony that may number its thousands of polypites. -However numerous the individuals may be, we may be sure that the colony -has been the production of a single egg. One came from that egg, but -all the others were produced vegetatively by budding from the original -polypite, or as later generations from such bud-originated polyps. - -A slight examination of such a colony will show that the polypites -themselves are held in association by an investing substance -(_cœnosarc_), which takes the form of a living tube of thin flesh, -which adheres to rock or shell or seaweed, acting as a support for -the community, and also reproducing the polypites. It consists of two -distinct layers, an inner and an outer, and sometimes there is a third -layer of a different kind between these two, muscular in character. -In most cases the outer wall of this tube secretes a sheath of a -substance called _chitin_, of which the external skeletons of insects -are composed. This sheath is known as the polypary, because into it -the individual polypite withdraws itself. It is this polypary that the -seaside visitor finds attached to weeds or shells, and concludes, from -its moss-like aspect, it is a seaweed, and probably adds it to his -collection as such. - -[Illustration: SEA OAK CORALLINE.] - -Now if we get down among the rocks near low-water, and look among -the coarse brown weeds, we shall not look long before we find one -whose stem and parts of the frond are covered with a plantation of -erect-growing “somethings,” that look like the backbones of some small -fishes. They are only about an inch in height, very slender, and -regularly notched on each side. Some of the specimens have one or two -branches, but most of them are simple erect stems. It is known as the -Sea Oak Coralline (_Sertularia pumila_), and if we examine it with -our lens, we shall find that each of the notches represents the space -between the elegant crystal vases that are arranged symmetrically along -each side of the stem. These vases are known as _calycles_, and in each -there stands a polypite, reaching out its upper portion and waving its -tentacles. In case of danger the polypite can be withdrawn into the -calycle; and certain species have an automatic contrivance for closing -the mouth of the vase when they have retreated within. All genera have -not these calycles. - -[Illustration: CALYCLES OF SERTULARIA ENLARGED.] - -Returning to the animal for a moment, it should be explained that -its organization is so low that there is no true circulatory system -for the renewal of the body, by the carrying of elaborated food -from the stomach to distant parts of the body; but by the activity -of innumerable eye-lash-like hairs on the surface the whole of the -particles of food digested in the stomach are carried all over the -system to be then assimilated by different parts. - -Within the circle of tentacles is the mouth, which is sometimes cut -into lobes, and is generally borne upon a very mobile proboscis, -which may be withdrawn or protruded, and in some genera takes a -trumpet-shape; in others it is conical. In the winter the cœnosarc may -frequently be found with all its calycles empty; and it might then -be supposed that the zoophyte is dead and only its skeleton remains. -But this is not necessarily so, and a closer inspection may convince -us that the organism is alive. In spring it will furnish its calycles -with new polypites, and all will go merrily again. At certain seasons -buds of a peculiar structure are formed, which develop into polypites, -whose function it is to produce eggs, instead of catching and digesting -food for the colony. These are known as _gonophoræ_, and sometimes they -remain where they were produced, simply bursting to discharge their -contents. In other cases they detach themselves from the parent colony -at a certain stage in their development, and float off, having all the -appearance of minute jelly-fishes. Some of these, instead of remaining -small, attain an enormous size, so that it is difficult to credit their -origin to the so-called coralline upon which they were produced, and of -which in turn they are really the egg-bearers. The eggs they scatter -will develop into plant-like growths such as they were produced by; -from the edge of their jelly-umbrella and from its handle, buds are -given off, which open as jelly-fish like itself. - -Growth proceeds rapidly among these creatures, and if a balk of timber -be immersed in the sea, it is not long ere there is a fine forest -in miniature upon its surface, and that forest will consist of some -of these corallines. The species are generally distributed along -our coasts, but a few are local. Thus the finest of all the British -species of _Sertularia_--_Diphasia pinnata_--is found only on the -coasts of Devon and Cornwall, where most other species attain their -maxima of beauty and luxuriance. Its relative _Diphasia alata_, as -well as _Calycella fastigiata_ and _Aglaophenia tubulifera_, have been -found in Britain, only in Cornwall, Shetland, the Hebrides, and on -the west coast of Scotland. On the other hand, certain species belong -to the north, and such species as _Salacia abietina_, the Sea-fir, -and _Sertularia tricuspidata_ are not found on our shores below the -north-east coast. _Sertularia fusca_ is similarly confined, so far -as our seas are concerned, to the east coast of Scotland and the -north-east of England; and _Thuiaria thuja_, found on the east coast, -is rare in Devon and Cornwall; whilst the species of _Aglaophenia_ are -plentiful on our south-west and north-west coasts, and rarely seen on -the north-east. - -Although some species are distinctly deep-water forms, necessitating -the dredge for their capture, the vast majority inhabit the littoral -and laminarian zones. Among the littoral species are many of the rarer -forms, and some of these are found only on special species of seaweeds, -or on the shells of particular mollusks. Mr. Hincks, whose beautiful -work on the “Hydroid Zoophytes” you must see, gives some very good -advice as to collecting in the littoral zone. He recommends my own -favourite plan of lying flat beside the rock-pool, and bringing the eye -close to the water. “He should bring his eye to the edge of the pool, -and look _down_ the side, so as to catch the outline of any zoophytes -that may be attached to it amidst the tufts of minute _Algæ_. He must -not be content with a hasty glance, but look and look again until his -eye is familiar with the scene, and may accurately discriminate its -various elements. And let him watch for the _shadows_; for in following -them he will often secure the reality. I have frequently detected -the tiny _Campanulariæ_ and _Plumulariæ_ in this way, by means of -the images of their frail forms which the light had sketched on the -rock beneath them. For tools, the hunter must have his stout, flat, -sharp-edged, collecting knife, a long-armed and substantial forceps, -and a varied array of bottles, ranging from the homœopathic tube to -the pickle-jar. If his choice of ground be good, and his patience -proof, and his eye quick, he will have an ample reward for his labour -in the rich spoil of beauty which he will bear away, even if he should -not hit upon any novelty; but amongst the minute zoophytes there is -still, I have no doubt, much to be done in the discovery of new forms, -as there certainly is in working out thoroughly the history of those -that are known.” I hope that in the foregoing remarks I have made -it quite clear that our Sea Oak Coralline is not an individual but a -community of individuals--a community on the strictest of co-operative -principles, in which the good fortune accruing to one of the polypites -by food falling in its way, is shared by all alike; for a polypite -cannot digest it and retain it to its own selfish use, instead, it goes -to the nutriment of the commonwealth. - -Some of these Hydroid Zoophytes, though sharing the communist -character, are much simpler in form, and we shall find a common example -ready to our hand on almost anything in the way of stone or shell -removed from a rock-pool. It is a minute creature, as stout as a “short -white” pin, and about a third of the length, white or pinkish; a number -of them spring in a row from a creeping stem of firmer substance, in -which are well-defined tubular openings, in which the upright bodies -stand. These answer to the calycles of _Sertularia_, just as the -upright bodies agree with the polypites of that genus. The name of this -creature is _Clava multicornis_, and it may conveniently be called -the Many-horned Club. It gets its name _Clava_ from the shape of the -polypite which thickens towards the top, and then tapers off again to -the summit, where its mouth is situated. It has a number of tentacles, -varying from ten to forty, according to age, but these do not form a -regularly disposed crown round the mouth; instead, they are placed -anyhow on the thickened part of the polypite. The name _multicornis_ -refers to these many-horns or tentacles. An advance on this type is -seen in _Coryne pusilla_, a much larger but equally common inhabitant -of our rock-pools, in which the tentacles are knobbed, and are arranged -in a series of more definite whorls. - -[Illustration: PLUMULARIA PINNATA.] - -There is another group which is more likely to be confounded with the -Sertularians by those who are content with hasty glances at things; -but species of the one group may be readily distinguished from the -other by the aid of a simple lens. The Sertularians, as we have seen, -have the calycles arranged symmetrically on each side of the axis. -The Plumularians, as the other group are called, have their calycles -arranged along one side only of stem and branches. The Sertularians -are frequently spoken of as Sea-firs, the arrangement of the calycles -giving some species a very close resemblance to the branches of -fir-trees. In the Plumularians, the resemblance much more nearly -approaches a feather. - -[Illustration: PLUMULARIAN, PORTION ENLARGED.] - -Hincks, describing _Plumularia cornucopiæ_ says:--“In the present -species a conspicuous band of opaque white encircles the body, like a -girdle, a little below the tentacles, and adds much to the beauty of a -colony in full life and activity, when its many polypites are in eager -pursuit of prey, stretching themselves forward, and casting forth their -flower-like wreaths, now suddenly clasping their arms together, and -then as suddenly flinging them back; now holding them motionless, the -tips elegantly recurved, and then on some alarm shrinking into half -their size, and folding them together like flowers closing their petals -when the sun has gone.” - -In addition to the calycles in which the polypites live, there are -special reproductive chambers as in the Sertularians. In this species -(_P. cornucopiæ_) “they assume the shape of an inverted horn, and are -formed of material translucent as the finest glass. Each one of them, -in fact, is a little crystal cornucopia, in which is lodged one of the -reproductive members of the commonwealth, a class totally distinct -from that which is charged with the function of alimentation. These -graceful receptacles are several times larger than the calycles, from -the base of which they spring, singly or in pairs, and within them the -ova are produced and the embryos matured which are to give rise to new -colonies.” - -One of this group, the Lobster-horn or Sea-beard (_Antennularia -antennina_), shown at the back of the illustration of acorn-shells on -page 183, has the calycles arranged in whorls all around the axis, -which produces a very singular appearance, not at all unlike the -antennæ of some of the larger crustacea. - -In the Creeping Bell (_Calycella syringa_) so common on seaweeds, etc., -the calycles are more bell-shaped, and the mouth of the bell is fringed -with a series of large triangular teeth, similar to the _peristome_ of -many moss-fruits. When the polypite withdraws into his calycle, these -teeth bend inwards, and so close the opening. - -Many of the forms of Jelly-fish to be described in the next chapter, -though they are described with separate names, are now known to be -merely stages in the history of some of these Hydrozoa or Hydroid -Zoophytes--the developed free-swimming gonophoræ previously mentioned. - -[Illustration: HALICLYSTUS.] - -A singular member of the group has the form of a jelly-fish, but does -not act as one. This was formerly named Lucernaria, but is now known as -_Haliclystus octoradiatus_. It was thought to swim like a jelly-fish, -but it really creeps. Its form is like a ladies’ sunshade that, instead -of being the ordinary umbrella shape, tapers off to the stick at the -top. What would be the ferrule of the sunshade is the footstalk of -_Haliclystus_. By this footstalk it attaches itself to a weed, say, and -hangs down its eight arms with their connecting web, and by means of a -little knob on the edge of the web alternating with its “arms,” it is -able to take hold until it has “looped” like a geometer caterpillar, by -bringing its footstalk forward and taking fresh hold. The extremities -of the eight arms (or ribs of the sunshade) are ornamented with tassels -of tentacles, and it uses these after the manner of a sea-anemone when -it wishes to secure food. It, in fact, has some of the peculiarities of -both jelly-fish and anemone, though it will not act quite consistently -with either character. I have found it on Laminaria and other weeds at -low water, and a few months since I picked one off the plumage of a -dead guillemot, that had been drowned in a storm and afterwards washed -ashore. - -There is an important group of incrusting organisms that you will -find represented on almost the first specimen of _Fucus_ you pick -up, and which you may be tempted to class with these zoophytes; but -they occupy a much higher position in the scale of life. I refer to -the Sea-mats, the Sea-scurfs, the Bird’s-head Coralline, and allied -forms, whose proper designation is Marine Polyzoa. They are more -nearly allied to the mollusks, the structure approaching towards that -of the Lamp shells. They are associated in colonies (_zoaria_), but -there is no connecting _cœnosarc_ as in the Hydrozoa, although there -is communication between the chambers by wisps of animal matter. Each -chamber of the Sea-mat marks the habitation of a complete individual, -who catches, eats, and digests for himself alone, not for the colony. -These chambers are of a horny, persistent character, secreted of course -by the polypide; with a small opening through which the creature -protrudes its mouth and fringe of tentacles. Its body consists of a -thin bag filled with a clear fluid, in which can be traced the gullet -enlarging into a simple stomach, contracting again into the intestine. -There are muscles by means of which the upper part of the sac with the -mouth and tentacles are withdrawn inside the lower part. Add to this a -nerve-ganglion beside the gullet, sexual organs within the sac, and -the polypide is fully described. - -The original founder of the colony was produced from an egg, and was -for a time a restless larva, swimming and creeping and whirling around -by the aid of _cilia_. Finally it settles down on weed or stone, and -becomes anchored; drops its cilia and develops its horny chamber and -its crown of tentacles. Having reached its full degree of growth, -it buds at the sides, and originates other creatures like itself. -Just as the solitary daisy root or chrysanthemum throws out what the -gardener terms suckers, and soon becomes the centre of a clump of -similar plants; so the solitary Sea-mat soon becomes only one in a -symmetrically arranged colony, containing hundreds of individuals, all -produced by budding from the original egg-produced polypide. - -Some of these colonies have a number of queer adjuncts, which bear a -startling likeness to the head of a bird of prey, with moveable jaws, -that are for ever snapping. These have, of course, given rise to many -theories to account for them; but it appears now to be generally -accepted that the “bird’s-head” is a specialised member of the zoarium -who serves some purpose, probably of defence, or of scavenging, that is -of advantage to the whole colony. In some species, this differentiation -of individuals takes the form of a long whip-like process, constantly -lashing, instead of the snapping jaws. The forms of the marine polyzoa -are very varied, but we shall be unable to do more than indicate a few -of them here, leaving the reader to make wider acquaintance with a most -interesting group by studying the species in Hincks’s _British Marine -Polyzoa_. - -[Illustration: SEA-MAT (FLUSTRA).] - -The Sea-mat (_Flustra foliacea_) is a deep-water form, whose colonies -take the shape of fronds, resembling _Fucus serratus_ in outline; but -it is thrown up on the beach in great quantities, and it will be one -of the first things you will find on the shore, especially if you -rout about among the weeds washed up by every tide. Creeping over -these flat frond-like masses you will probably find other species that -take a more branching form, such as the common Creeping Coralline -(_Scrupocellaria reptans_), or the more bushy Bird’s-head Coralline -(_Bugula avicularia_). The Tufted Ivory Coralline (_Crisea eburnea_) -has tubular chambers of ivory whiteness; it is of branching habit, -and occurs on some of the red seaweeds. The Foliaceous Coralline -(_Membranipora pilosa_) runs in very narrow ribbons, covered with a -“pile” of bristles, up the stems of various weeds; and many another of -the nearly two hundred and fifty British species will be sure to fall -to the patient and sharp-eyed investigator. - -The horny cell in which the polypide resides is really its own -cuticle or outer skin, to which it is inseparably attached. If -careful examination be made, it will be found that at the mouth of -the so-called cell the horny material suddenly changes its character -and becomes a very fine and delicate tissue, capable of the greatest -freedom of movement and folding such as is absolutely impossible -with the horny portion. This remarkable change of character in the -two portions of the same cuticle allows the anterior portion of the -polypide, with its crown of tentacles, to be suddenly and completely -withdrawn out of danger, just as easily as the tip of a glove-finger -can be withdrawn into its lower portion. - -The tentacles that encircle the mouth of the polypide are hollow, and -covered with ever-waving cilia, whose beating causes currents of -water to set in towards the animal’s mouth, bringing food with them. -These tentacles appear to be also the only sense organs possessed -by the polypide, and to serve the further purpose of gills. None of -the Polyzoa to which we here make reference possesses a heart or -blood-vessels. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -JELLY FISHES. - - -It has been remarked that we get our best ideas of geography from the -newspaper-man’s special correspondence in war time. Certainly, at such -times certain places that are not even marked on ordinary maps are -thrust into such prominence that they become familiar to thousands -who otherwise would never have known of their existence. In a similar -fashion many scraps and fragments of useful knowledge that will stick -in the memory will be picked up by the newspaper reader who is simply -bent on following the moves in the great political game. For instance, -it is not many years since a well-known Scots peer, in order to cast -ridicule upon his opponents, enlightened the world upon the subject -of Jelly-fish organization. The party he held up to scorn resembled -Jelly-fishes in his estimation because they were invertebrate--they -possessed no backbone, and could make no progress against the tide, -but were forced to float aimlessly with the current. The political -small-fry took up the parable from the venerable duke, some reproducing -it with variations that appeared marvellous indeed to the mere -naturalist; but it was soon quite generally known without recourse to -text-books, that the Jelly-fish was not a vertebrate animal, and that -it had no muscular power sufficient to enable it to move against the -tide. - -Now these facts in the natural history of the _Medusæ_, elementary -though they be, are such as in the ordinary way might have taken -generations to get fixed on the public mind. Many persons who spend -their autumnal holiday at the seaside, become fairly familiar with -the more or less broken and lifeless forms of one or two common -species, as they get drifted upon the beach and are unable to get off -again; but they have probably little idea of the beauty and elegance -of these frail creatures when fully expanded and pulsating with life a -short distance from the shore. - -There are two things which stand in the way of a more familiar -knowledge of these Jelly-fish, on the part of the public. First, -they are almost entirely composed of water, and, having no muscular -tissue, are soft and flabby to the touch--a characteristic which -inspires feelings of abhorrence in the average man or woman. A man may -courageously face a dangerous wild beast, and yet shrink with loathing -and disgust from contact with a slug or a Jelly-fish--though, with -strange inconsistency, he may swallow a living oyster with gusto! -Having found a stranded Jelly-fish on the beach, he will probably turn -it over with his stick, call to mind the Duke of Argyll’s political -simile, and pass on. - -The second reason is that certain common forms have an unpleasant trick -of stinging slightly. This is a power given to them for the purpose of -paralysing small creatures they secure as food, but they have sometimes -mistakenly exerted it upon a timorous thin-skinned bather, against whom -they have drifted. - -There are, however, only two or three of our native species that -have that power, and though they have been known from ancient days -as Sea-nettles, Stingers, and Stangers, there is no doubt that their -virulence has been greatly exaggerated. This exaggeration probably owes -something to the graphic word-picture of the late Professor Forbes, -in which he described the Hairy Stinger (_Cyanea capillata_). In -picturesque language he depicted it as “a most formidable creature, and -the terror of tender-skinned bathers. With its broad, tawny, festooned -and scalloped disk, often a full foot or more across, it flaps its -way through the yielding waters, and drags after it a long train of -riband-like arms, and seemingly interminable tails, marking its course, -when the body is far away from us. Once tangled in its trailing ‘hair,’ -the unfortunate, who has recklessly ventured across the monster’s -path, soon writhes in prickly torture. Every struggle but binds the -poisonous threads more firmly round his body, and then there is no -escape, for when the winder of the fatal net finds his course impeded -by the terrified human wrestling in his coils, seeking no combat with -the mightier biped, he casts loose his envenomed arms and swims away. -The amputated weapons, severed from their parent body, vent vengeance -on the cause of their destruction, and sting as fiercely as if their -original proprietor gave the word of attack.” - -No doubt Forbes had good grounds for his statement in the experience of -one of these delicate and nervous persons who suffer more mentally than -physically, and whose imaginative powers would create a horror out of -their contact with a spider, or even its web. The mischief is that the -bookmakers, who have no practical knowledge of their subjects, go on -quoting Forbes approvingly, and on this slight foundation characterise -the whole jelly-fish race as stinging creatures. It seems very probable -that some of the larger tropical forms that have the stinging power -are far more virulent than those inhabiting British seas; but I have -handled the Hairy Stinger and lifted it from the water with my bare -hands and experienced no discomfort from the operation. - -The Rev. J. G. Wood improved upon Forbes, and described the pain -inflicted by _Cyanea_ as being at first like that following contact -with the stinging nettle of our hedgerows; getting more severe it -causes a sharp pain to flit right through the nervous system, the heart -and lungs suffer spasmodically. This state of affairs lasts for ten or -twelve hours, and then for several days the skin is so sensitive that -the sufferer can scarcely bear the contact of clothes; and it is months -before the shooting pains depart. - -With such a character it is little wonder that the unscientific public -should decline an intimate acquaintance with the family. And yet the -story they have to tell is as marvellous as any that will be found in -the whole range of Mr. Lang’s Blue, Red, and Green Fairy Books. It is -the story of the insignificant and despised dwarf, who one day bursts -through his squalid exterior and stands revealed as the handsome prince -magnificently attired, whom all the princesses desire to marry. It -begins in the orthodox way with, Once upon a time there was a simple -and very tiny creature, with soft white flesh and no bones, who dwelt -on a rock on the sea-shore. He was just a little tube of jelly, and -though he had a mouth he had no head. His many arms were arranged -in a circle round his mouth, and from his body sprouted out several -creatures like himself, but much smaller. Learned men had examined -him and declared that his proper name was _Hydra tuba_. He remained -fixed to this rock from the autumn right through the winter’s storms, -and in the spring it was noticed that he was getting old, for a large -number of wrinkles appeared on his tubular body. Weeks went by and the -wrinkles became deeper and the edges of them turned up, so that the -upper part of the creature’s body looked like a dozen saucers piled up -one in the other. Then these saucers each grew a series of eight arms -from its edge, and the uppermost of the pile broke away from the others -and began to float off through the water. The next, and the next, and -every one of the remaining saucers floated off in the same fashion, -and those who watched them do so, say that they gradually grew into -glorious Marigolds or Sea-Jellies, with umbrella-like bodies of clear -jelly, marked on the top with rings and streaks of red, and all around -its edge each had a delicate fringe looking like the finest of silk. -And so they floated off to see the world and seek their fortunes. - -[Illustration: LARVÆ OF AURELIA.] - -The Jelly-fish produces ova, which develop _cilia_--eye-lash-like -processes, by means of which they swim through the water. Settling on -a rock or shell, they develop into _Hydra tuba_, with long tentacles, -as at _a_ _a_. Then comes the saucer-like stage, as at _b_; finally the -free-swimming segment, _c_, which ultimately becomes the huge creature -of our next illustration, which is so plentiful in our seas during -summer and early autumn. - -Every person that has any acquaintance with Jelly-fishes at all knows -this species well--by sight. It is probable that many of those who -think they know it would be somewhat puzzled if asked to point out -the creature’s mouth and to give a rough outline of its organization. -It may be described roughly as umbrella-shaped. There is an arched -disk, from the centre of which, on the concave or lower surface there -depends a thick cylindrical body, the _manubrium_ or handle, sometimes -erroneously termed the _polypite_, which finally terminates in four -lobes assuming the form of trailing ribbons. In the centre of these -lobes is the creature’s mouth, and the stomach is continued from the -mouth _up_ the middle of the manubrium. Here digestion takes place, -and the nutriment thus obtained is carried up to the centre of the -umbrella, and thence distributed to all parts by means of nutrient -tubes which may be seen running straight from the centre to the -circumference. - -Looked at from above, the _Aurelia_ will be seen to have its disk -symmetrically marked off into eight portions by these nutrient tubes, -each of which reaches the edge where there is a little notch, and then -continues round the margin. Now at the notch there is a ganglion, or -nerve centre, a kind of local brain, for the Jelly-fish is very low in -the scale of nervous organization, and possesses no central brain; -in fact, its ganglia are only the beginnings of a nervous system of -primitive type. At one time these spots were thought to be eyes, -and the Jelly-fishes were divided into naked-eyed and hooded-eyed -according to whether these sense organs were covered with a kind of -flap or not. It is now more clearly established that they are olfactory -organs, possibly in some cases they combine the functions of both -nose and eyes. They are known to naturalists as _tentaculocysts_. The -_Aurelia_ moves slowly through the water by the alternate expansion -and contraction of its umbrella-disk. The four crimson lunar marks -on the disk are the ovaries in which the eggs of the Jelly-fish are -produced. The eggs make their way through the stomach to the mouth of -the manubrium, where there are little cavities for their reception, and -here they stay until they have developed a fringe of cilia, when they -swim off. In this condition they are quite flat, and of old they were -regarded as a distinct species of animal under the name of _Planula_. -It afterwards becomes pear-shaped, tires of wandering, and settles -down on a rock or shell to undergo the series of developments we have -already described, every stage of which was formerly considered a -different animal and bore its special name. - -[Illustration: MARIGOLD (_Aurelia aurita_).] - -In spite of the structureless appearance presented by these -Jellies--owing to the presence of a thick layer of transparent -gelatinous material--they are endowed with true muscular fibres, which -are confined to the under surface of the umbrella, to the manubrium -and tentacles, and to a flap of the umbrella margin which is directed -inwards and known as the _velum_. It is by the contraction of the velum -that water is expelled from beneath, and this has the effect of forcing -the Jelly-fish in the opposite direction. - -Somewhat similar to the _Aurelia_ in general form is the Hairy Stinger -(_Cyanæa capillata_), to which allusion has already been made. Its -umbrella is not so disk-like, but has a raised central dome, and its -edges are beautifully fringed with long threads. The lobes around -the mouth are developed into very long appendages, all frills and -furbelows. An allied species, _Cyanæa chrysaora_, has a very thick and -bulging manubrium, but no long streamers depending from it. - -A very common form which swarms in harbours is _Thaumantias_, of which -there are several species. In these the jelly is very thick at the -crown of the umbrella, which is more bell-shaped than in _Aurelia_ -or _Cyanæa_. The nutrient tubes are four, and the ovaries are beside -them. A very small species, _Turris digitalis_, is bell-shaped, with -a conical top and a deep fringe of tentacles round the margin. It -originates as a polypite on a so-called coralline similar to those -described in Chapter IV. - -On our South-western shores we sometimes receive visits from -Jelly-fishes which must be regarded as distinguished foreigners. Among -these is the beautiful creature to which seamen give the name of -the “Portuguese Man o’ War” (_Physalia pelagica_). It is of a shape -entirely different from those we have noted. Instead of an umbrella -it has a spindle-shaped bladder distended with air and coloured with -blue, whilst along its upper surface there runs a beautiful pink frill -which serves as a sail. From the lower surface there hangs down a -cluster of long trailing corkscrews, beautifully coloured and capable -of stinging. Occasionally individuals from this floating colony develop -into Jelly-fish of distinct form, and swim away from the community. - -[Illustration: THE “PORTUGUESE MAN O’ WAR” (_Physalia pelagica_).] - -There seems no doubt of the stinging powers of this species, for Dr. -Bennett, a naturalist, has given us his account of the unpleasant -effects following upon his handling of this “Man o’ War.” He took hold -of the bladder, and the creature raised its long appendages, twining -them round his hands and stinging with great severity, and clinging so -tightly that he had difficulty in removing them. He says the pain was -like that caused by severe rheumatism, and extended up his arm to the -muscles of his chest. Symptoms of fever followed, with rapid pulse and -difficult breathing. This continued for three-quarters of an hour; but -even then he was not free, for his skin was marked with raised white -wheals for several hours. The tentacles, he says, can be thrown out -to a distance even of eighteen feet for the purpose of stinging its -prey. This species is often met by mariners in extensive fleets, so to -speak, and sometimes great numbers of them are wrecked upon the coasts -of Devon and Cornwall; occasionally they have been found on the eastern -shores of England, but they really belong to the Mediterranean and the -open ocean. - -[Illustration: TUBE-MOUTHED SARSIA.] - -A common form on the south coasts is the Tube-mouthed Sarsia (_Sarsia -tubulosa_), of which we give a portrait. It is bell-shaped, with what -looks like a very long clapper hanging from its centre, and four long -tentacles from the edge. The clapper is, of course, the manubrium, -and contains the mouth and stomach, which it can stretch out to very -accommodating proportions. The bell is only about half an inch in -height, but the manubrium is more than twice that length. - -[Illustration: FORBES’ ÆQUOREA.] - -Scarcely to be found on our coasts away from Devon and Cornwall are two -species of _Æquorea_, of which the one represented is dedicated to the -memory of the late Professor Edward Forbes, who did so much to extend -the knowledge of marine life, especially in relation to jelly-fishes, -anemones, star-fishes, and mollusks. It is therefore designated -_Æquorea forbesiana_, and a man might well feel proud to have so -beautiful a creature named with his name. It is a little larger than -our figure. Its upper portion is of thick crystalline jelly, coloured -with a lovely sky-blue tint lower down. Below the blue region are a -number of curved lines of bright crimson--the nutrient channels--and -the four lobes of the manubrium are similarly coloured. There are -streaming tentacles around the margin which lay hold of minute -creatures that pass by. The early history of this form of Jelly-fish is -unknown--whether it passes through stages resembling those of _Aurelia_ -or of _Turris_, or attains the medusa-form direct from the egg. Any of -our readers that may have the opportunity for observing this beautiful -creature, should make a point of recording what he sees. It may be of -great assistance in working out the true relation of this species to -other forms. - -One that must be classed with the “Portuguese Man o’ War” as a visitor -to our south-western coasts, is called the Sallee-Man (_Velella -scaphoidea_), a kind of Jelly-raft, upon which is hoisted a little -sail, and whose margin is fringed with tentacles. As in _Physalia_, -the underside of this float consists of a colony of many individuals, -which from time to time develop into free-swimming jellies. - -But in spite of the colour-glories and imposing size of these larger -forms, we have upon our shores swarms of a veritable gem that, in -its way, for delicate beauty outshines them all. It is the Globe -Beröe (_Pleurobrachia pileus_), sometimes called the Sea Gooseberry. -In early summer, when the seas are still, and everything for five -fathoms or more can be clearly seen through the crystal waters of -the Cornish coast, this fairy form may be clearly seen in spite of -its short diameter (half-inch) and its perfect transparency. You are -lazily drifting in a boat, but your eye catches minute flashes of -iridescent colour in the water, and you must lean over the boat’s side -to see what it is. You then discover a number of these crystal globes -passing gracefully and without seeming effort through the water, not -always in our plane, now upwards to the surface, then downwards out of -reach. You are fascinated by the exquisite beauty, and hope the one -you are watching will not pass out of sight. As if in response to your -unexpressed wish, it ceases its downward course, and whilst suspending -itself in the water begins to revolve laterally. Your astonishment -increases, for you now see that it is furnished with paddle-wheels, -or else it is an animated paddle-wheel itself. No; a turn convinces -you again it is globular in form, but the paddles are equally obvious. -How can it be? What machinery turns them? and what are the two almost -interminable threads of gossamer that trail behind, below, or above it? - -You watch your opportunity, and the next time one comes near the -surface you skilfully trap it in a glass jar, and then some of its -mystery is made clearer. The paddle-wheels are eight bands that -stretch from pole to pole, and across these at short intervals are -rows of “eye-lashes.” There is no rotatory motion of the bands, but -by the alternate depression and raising of the eye-lashes, an optical -illusion is produced. And yet the effect is the same as if these bands -revolved with fixed “floats;” the movements of the eye-lashes _row_ the -fragile vessel through the water, and with every movement the light -is reflected in prismatic tints that seem to pass in rapid flashes -along each of the eight bands. But whilst we have been investigating -the mystery of propulsion, what has become of those long attenuated -streamers? Broken off by our rough handling as we potted it? No; the -creature, as though sensible of danger, has carefully tucked them away -into suitable pockets. We can behold them through the clear jelly in -curved club-shaped receptacles. Look; here they come! The Beröe is -getting confident, and the tentacles stream out again to six times the -length of the animated globe. They can be lengthened or shortened at -the creature’s will; and each one is provided with an enormous number -of short side-branches, like tendrils on a vine. There is no pendulous -stomach and mouth hanging from the floating body, for the Beröe differs -from the Marigolds and Stingers, and is more closely allied with the -Sea-Anemones. Its mouth is at the top of the globe, and its digestive -cavity is central. - -[Illustration: BERÖE AND YOUNG.] - -I have described its appearance as seen from a boat, but it must not be -inferred that it cannot be obtained from the shore. A sharp eye will -see them in ports and harbours when gazing from low rocks or landing -slips. If our reader is desirous of watching these, a few should be -entrapped into a clear glass jar of sea-water, but other creatures -should not be introduced. I find that small crabs, prawns, or even -anemones are not to be trusted with _Pleurobrachia_, or these will -rapidly disappear. - -The creatures we have brought together in this chapter under the -popular term Jelly-fish, really belong to very distinct groups of -animal life, and their developmental histories are different. Many of -them, in fact, are nothing more than buds from the branching Zoophytes -incorrectly called corallines that grow from shells and stones, and of -which we have had something to say in a previous chapter. - -Agassiz has described a huge form of Stinger (_Cyanæa arctica_), with -an umbrella-disk like those we have mentioned, but measuring no less -than seven feet across, yet originating as a bud from a lowly coralline -not exceeding half an inch in stature. Others are not solitary -individuals, but companies of polyps that share the organ which bears -them through the waters. Such is the case with the _Physalia_ and -the _Velella_, the appendages of which consist not of one mouth and -stomach, but of many. - -I remarked near the beginning of this chapter that the Jelly-fish was -very largely composed of water. Professor Owen, not content with having -to make an indefinite statement of that kind, went carefully into the -matter of pounds and ounces and grains. He said: “Let this fluid part -of a Medusa (Jelly-fish), which may weigh two pounds when recently -removed from the sea, drain from the solid parts of the body, and -these, when dried, will be represented by a thin film of membrane, not -exceeding thirty grains in weight.” - -As a practical illustration of the value of having _that_ amount of -knowledge respecting such trivial things as Jelly-fish, the late Robert -Patterson, F.R.S., gives the following story, which was told to him as -a personal experience by an eminent zoologist, whose name he does not -mention. - -“This gentleman had been delivering some zoological lectures in a -seaport town in Scotland, in the course of which he had adverted to -some of the most remarkable points in the economy of the Acalephæ. -After the lecture a farmer, who had been present, came forward and -inquired if he had understood him correctly, as having stated that -the Medusæ contained so little of solid material, that they might be -regarded as little else than a mass of animated sea-water. On being -answered in the affirmative, he remarked that it would have saved him -many a pound had he known that sooner, for he had been in the habit -of employing his men and horses carting away large quantities of -Jelly-fish from the shore, and using them as manure on his farm; and -he now believed they could have been of little more real use than -an equal load of sea-water. Assuming that so much as one ton weight -of Medusæ, recently thrown on the beach, had been carted away in one -load, it will be found that, according to the experiments of Professor -Owen, the entire quantity of solid material would be only about four -pounds of avoirdupois weight, an amount of solid material which, if -compressed, the farmer might, with ease, have carried home in one of -his coat pockets.” - -Let me, in closing this very inadequate glimpse of a most interesting -group, add that many of these creatures contribute to that -phosphorescent appearance of the sea, which is such a wonder and a -revelation to those who behold it for the first time. The limits set -for the entire volume will not permit me to deal with all the British -species; but I trust sufficient has been said to awaken real interest -in these despised Stingers, Jellies, and Sea-blubbers. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -SEA-ANEMONES. - - -The visitor to a rocky coast possesses the greatest advantage for -the study of the Sea-Anemones. These are among the surprises for the -inlander whose get-up is not too fine to allow him to scramble over -the rocks. If he has already gained some introduction to the beauties -of form and colouring in this group, and wishes to get a more intimate -knowledge, let him visit some coast village in South Cornwall. - -Anemones, with few exceptions, dislike a muddy shore, and are not very -partial to sand; nor are they easily seen in thick water. But where -the cliffs and fringing rocks are hard and insoluble, the waters are -crystalline, and every detail of life in the rock-basins, and even on -the submerged reefs, can be plainly observed. Such conditions Cornwall -offers, and there anemone-life may be said to attain its greatest -luxuriance. - -Between the limits of high and low-water the rocks will be found -thickly studded with the common Beadlet (_Actinia equina_), in several -well-defined colour varieties. In the rock-pools more Beadlets, with a -few large specimens of the Opelet (_Anemonia sulcata_) and many young -ones. Huge Dahlia Wartlets (_Urticina felina_) lurk under gravel at the -bottom. Almost invisible, though exceedingly abundant, are the Daisies -(_Cereus pedunculatus_) and the Gem Pimplets (_Bunodes verrucosa_). - -For others we must wait until the ebb of the spring-tides brings us a -few days of exceptionally low water. Then, when we can get to a floor -of a big “drang,” like that shown in our frontispiece, we may take -such species as the Plumelet (_Metridium senilis_), the Rosy Anemone -(_Sagartia rosea_), the Snake-locked (_Cylista viduata_), the Globehorn -(_Corynactis viridis_), and others to be named hereafter. - -Now these, I think, make a fairly representative list, though it by no -means exhausts the British species. However, if the reader can manage, -during two or three visits to the seaside, to find and identify the -species named, he will be fairly well acquainted with the Anemones of -the shore, as distinguished from those found solely in deep water, -which can only be explored with the trawl or dredge. With this class we -have no concern in the present volume, as the deep water is beyond our -province; except so far as certain of them may come ashore attached to -deep-water mollusks and crabs. - -[Illustration: THE BEADLET.] - -The Beadlet being at once so widely distributed round our shores, -and so abundant wherever found, becomes very suitable for use as a -type of the whole class. We are not to be tempted into repeating -or plagiarising the gushy nonsense that has been so lavishly poured -out by many writers, in which the Anemones have been commended to -popular notice because of their wonderful resemblances to flowers. -Even the older naturalists were not free from blame in this matter, -for they named the animals zoophytes (animal plants) and anthozoa -(flower-animals), names that have stuck, and of which we cannot be rid. -The term “anemone” (wind-flower) itself is utterly absurd when applied -to the Actinia. Beyond the brilliant colours and the petal-like rays -of certain species, there is no parallel between these creatures and -flowers, and the institution of such poetical similes in too many cases -only serves to hide the true nature of these interesting forms of life. - -On a rocky coast at low-water we shall find the Beadlet thickly -studding the rocks that stand up high above the sand or pebbles. Those -that are on the perpendicular face of the rock are smooth hemispheres -of dark crimson, bottle-green, olive, or ruddy-brown, with a more or -less vivid thin margin of blue where the base is attached to the rock. -Lower down, a little above the water, we shall find them more elongated -and hanging downwards, some with the rays or tentacles partly extended, -but the whole animal looking somewhat flaccid. _In_ the water, however, -whether it be of the rock-pool or the actual sea, the tentacles are so -widely spread that, looking down upon them, we can see but little of -the fleshy column or even of its base. These tentacles are never very -long in this species, but they are fairly numerous, there being 192 in -an adult specimen, arranged in six series. Their general tendency is -to arch over towards the column, and so hide the row of blue eye-like -spherules that peep out between the column and the tentacles. Within -the radius of the tentacles is an almost flat, smooth expansion of -flesh, called the disk, in the centre of which, on a conical eminence, -is the mouth. The mouth is the opening of a bottomless sack which -serves as stomach, and from the internal cavity, into which the -digested food falls, there are channels which convey it all over the -body, whilst the indigestible portion is rolled up and thrown out by -the way it entered. - -The entire quantity of solid matter in an Anemone is very small, as -may be seen in certain species (_i.e._, the Snake-locked Anemone) that -become exceedingly thin and flat in the daytime, but expand into a -tall graceful column at night. In a similar fashion the tentacles are -constantly withdrawn by becoming very small; and the full expansion of -these and of the column is alike affected by the absorption of much -water. - -Most of the Anemones attach themselves to rocks, shells, or weeds, -by means of the broad base of the column; others have a rounded base -which is thrust down into sand and there retained by inflation. They -can move on this base, much after the manner of a snail or slug, but -more slowly; some, such as the Opelet, constantly inflate it to such an -extent that it becomes a swimming bladder, buoying them to the surface -of the water, along which they float inverted. - -Reproduction takes place in three ways: first, a division may take -place across the disk and mouth, and this be continued right down the -column to the base; second, buds may appear on the disk or column and -develop into complete Anemones; third, by eggs, which are usually -retained until the germs have developed a row of tentacles, when they -are cast out from the mouth in batches. This last is the commonest -mode; and the extruded young at once attach themselves to the surface -upon which they fall. - -The Beadlet gets its popular name from the row of blue bead-like -spherules to which notice has already been directed. In one -well-marked variety of this species the spherules lose their azure -hue and become quite white, whilst the normally blue line at the -base becomes flesh-coloured, or is entirely absent. There are many -other colour variations which it would be foreign to the purpose of a -simple handbook to enumerate in detail. We will mention one, because -otherwise it might be taken for some other species: if the ground -colour of its column is green, it may be marked with short lines or -dashes or spots of yellow; or if it is dark red or liver-coloured, it -may be studded with green dots. It is one of the hardiest kinds to keep -in an aquarium, where it will soon multiply by discharging a number of -tiny replicas of itself, though sometimes these will be sent out as -mere eggs, which will not get their tentacles until a week or ten days -later. - -[Illustration: - - SNOWY ANEMONE. ROSY ANEMONE. -] - -There are several species of Anemone which, though they differ strongly -in the eyes of a naturalist, may easily be confused with the Beadlet -on a cursory glance when they are in the “button” or closed condition. -Two of these are represented in this illustration. The Rosy Anemone -(_Sagartia rosea_) is representative of an entirely different genus -from that to which the Beadlet belongs. When expanded the column -is cylindric in shape, its base not nearly so broad as that of the -Beadlet. Near the base the colour is buff, deepening above into a -rich ruddy-brown; on the upper part there are a number of little -suckers, to which fragments of shell and gravel adhere. The tentacles -are rosy, with an inclination to become purplish, and some of them -are indistinctly marked by two transverse bands of a darker hue. The -disk is pale olive, and the mouth white or pinkish-white, not raised -like that of the Beadlet. Its usual habitat is in rock-pools that are -uncovered only at very low water. One called the Pallid Anemone (_S. -pallida_) is, I feel sure, a mere colourless variety of _S. rosea_. - -[Illustration: ORANGE-DISK ANEMONE.] - -The Snowy Anemone (_Sagartia nivea_) is in form much like the -last-mentioned species, but its column is coloured pale olive-brown, -paler near the base. The whitish suckers on the upper part are more -prominent than in the Rosy Anemone. The disk, the tentacles, and the -mouth are all a beautiful white. It will be found in the low-lying -rock-pools. - -There is another species, nearly allied, that has white tentacles -with grey tips, but the disk is of a dull, orange tint, with a dusky -border at the roots of the tentacles. This is the Orange-disk Anemone -(_Sagartia venusta_), a species that likes to hide its brown column in -a hole or a crevice of some overhanging rock or in a cavern. It is very -local. - -_S. venusta_ is very shy, and readily folds in her tentacles--in truth, -she seldom opens them very widely. _S. rosea_, on the other hand, will -fully display her charms immediately after she has been transferred -to an artificial home. _S. venusta_ is but little inclined to rove -about an aquarium, but whenever she does so she appears bound to leave -a portion of her base behind her. In the course of about ten days -this detached portion develops tentacles, and sets up an independent -existence. - -There is a group of which the members are invisible unless their -tentacles are expanded, and even then they harmonise so well with their -surroundings that they are seen only with difficulty. Of course, when -the eye has got accustomed to their forms and colours, and knows what -to look for, it finds them, if they are present. - -I have shown a small rock basin to a friend whose eye is pretty keen -where natural objects are concerned, but he has utterly failed to see -the crowd of Anemones in full expansion that were there, until several -had been almost touched by my finger in pointing them out; then a -minute or two later he was finding out the others that were there, -without any assistance from me. One of the species concerned was-- - -The Cave-dweller (_Cylista undata_), which is exceedingly liable to -variation in form and colour. It is difficult to obtain, owing to its -awkward habit of fixing its base in some narrow chink of the rock, -and spreading out its broad disk above the crevice. Unless one is -very careful in excavating the troglodyte, one may cut it in two, or -hopelessly smash it. The column is of a dirty-looking drab colour, -shading off into grey near the summit. The disk is variable in -colour, and indefinite in detail; but in general effect it is a minute -patchwork of black, brown, and yellowish-drab lines radiating from the -whitish mouth, and minutely dotted with white. From each angle of the -mouth there is a very distinct, short, opaque white line. The tentacles -are numerous, and variable in length; their ground colour is a clear -grey, with several cross bands of white, and at the base there are two -small patches of white surrounded by black in such fashion as to form -an obscure B. This is a pretty constant mark in the identification of -the species, though the white patches are sometimes missing. - -The Cave-dweller, though not easily seen at first, is widely -distributed upon our shores, whether rocky or sandy, and careful -examination of the pools on hands and knees will probably reveal -large numbers. Occasionally we shall come upon a cleanly-hollowed -basin in the rocks, about two feet across and almost as deep, the -interior thickly coated with a dense growth of coralline. In this -the Cave-dweller and the Gem Pimplet delight to grow, and in such -situations they can be more easily obtained than from the chinks of -rock that will not admit the fingers. - -The Daisy Anemone (_Cereus pedunculatus_) is similar at first sight to -the Cave-dweller. Why it was named daisy it is difficult to imagine, -for I have seen no specimens that suggested the most remote resemblance -to that flower. It is similar to the Cave-dweller both in form and -habits, but it is more soberly coloured, the very broad disk being -dark brown or black, crossed by very fine red lines radiating from the -mouth and continued along the sides of the tentacles. The brown of the -tentacles has a yellowish bias. Near the base of some tentacles there -are two white bands separated by a patch of brown; others are uniformly -coloured throughout, save for tiny specks of white sprinkled without -order over them. The tentacles are very numerous (400 or 500), and -mostly small. The Daisy is found in the crevices of pools left by the -ebbing tide rather than in those of perpendicular rock-walls. - -The Scarlet-fringed Anemone (_Sagartia miniata_) has a crimson-brown -column with buff-coloured suckers. The disk is greenish-grey with -darker mottlings. The tentacles are clear glassy, of a brown tint -with darker rings; on the surface a pair of longitudinal dark lines -converging to one point at the tip of the tentacle; at the base two -patches each of black and white alternating. The outer row of tentacles -differ by having the interior coloured with orange or scarlet, which -shows clearly through the thick but colourless substance of the -tentacle; from these the Anemone gets its name of Scarlet-fringed. It -inhabits holes in the rock-pools, and in the rocks of deep water, but -does not affect such deep and narrow crevices as the Cave-dweller. - -Occasionally, when we are engaged in stone-turning at low-water, -we shall come across a colony of the pale spectral forms of the -Snake-locked Anemone (_Cylista viduata_), but it is one found only -with difficulty, because in the daytime it compresses itself into a -dirty yellow button as thick as about six of the pages of this book, -with pale lines radiating from the centre. In this condition it offers -to the eye the appearance of a limpet-shell, or a flake of rock. I -once found a colony of seven individuals on the back of the Gabrick -Spider-crab (_Maia squinado_), where no doubt they had been planted -by the crab with a view to getting artistic effects. This suggests to -us that some of the deep-water species, not referred to here, may be -obtained by examining the shells of oysters, quins, whelks, etc., which -are dredged in deep waters. - -Supposing you have been fortunate enough to find a small-sized stone -supporting two or three of these compressed Anemones (_Cylista_), -and having taken it home have placed it in a thin glass tumbler of -sea-water for observation. At night you look at the glass to see how -the strangers are doing, and behold with astonishment the change that -has taken place. The depressed yellow button has gone, and where it lay -there stands a tall and elegantly-formed column, two inches in height, -tapering from the base and the summit to the middle, and supporting -a crown of many pellucid tentacles. The inner row of these stand up -and arch outward, the outer ones hang out a little way and then droop -with perfect grace. The contrast between the two conditions is really -startling; and as you observe the tentacles slowly but continuously -writhing you admit the propriety of the English name. - -[Illustration: THE OPELET.] - -The column is marked with a series of paler longitudinal lines, and on -its upper portion there are small suckers, though the creature does -not appear to use them. The distinctive mark of the species is its -long, lithe, transparent grey tentacles. There is a very fine black -line running along each side of these, and at right angles to them is a -couple of bands of white--one at the base and one about the middle. - -On the rocks that are uncovered only at the recess of the spring -tides, and in the shallow pools a little higher up the shore, we shall -find abundant supplies of Opelets (_Anemonia sulcata_), here buried -in holes with only the tentacles protruding, there attached to the -bare rock-surface and exhibiting a substantial brown column, short -but very broad, and bearing an innumerable, almost disorderly crowd -of snaky-tentacles, ever writhing and intertwining. In some specimens -these are a lovely lustrous green with lilac tips; in others grey, -or white, or yellow. The grey and the green are the most abundant -forms, and we may take the satiny green as the typical form. One -peculiarity will soon strike him that makes its acquaintance for the -first time--that unlike the other Anemones he knows, he cannot see one -with tentacles withdrawn. There is no button stage in the Opelet, but -there is a corresponding restful condition when the waters have receded -from its rock, and the previously solid-looking column has collapsed, -and the flaccid tentacles hang in an empty, lifeless manner among the -weeds. The Opelet does not settle down permanently on one spot. He -likes a change, and so never attaches his broad base very strongly. -It is easy to get him off the rock when he is wanted for an aquarium -specimen, and it is equally easy for him to slide off, and, inflating -his base to a great size, float on the surface of the water with his -tentacles waving downwards. - -The Opelet attains a great size, and then appears to delight in sitting -on the broad leathery fronds of _Laminaria_, with which his olive -column harmonises well. - -I had a specimen for about eight months that practically filled a -bell-glass, nine inches in diameter. Stationed in the middle, he could -nearly touch the glass all round with the tips of his tentacles; as a -matter of fact he was nearly an inch away, which meant that the area -occupied by his tentacles was at least seven inches across, and when -he chose to inflate himself fully he could improve upon this. He was -a very voracious feeder, and there was always room in his capacious -column for a good meal. Alas! he was a victim to gluttony. One day I -brought home a Butterfish, or Gunnel (_Murænoides guttata_), about six -and a half inches in length. Thinking he was large enough to take care -of himself, I put him in with the big Opelet. He had been there but a -few minutes, when I looked in to see how he was settling down in this -new world. He was already dead or insensible, in the snake-like folds -of the green tentacles which were tightly coiled around the fish. I -attempted a rescue, but these tentacles are wonderfully adhesive, and -feel as though they had been painted with patent glue: they adhere on -the slightest touch. - -I was too late to save his life, so I did not trouble to recover -the corpse. Before long it had reached the mouth, which extended -considerably in order to accommodate it; but it was a little while -before the intelligence of the Opelet could be so brought to bear on -the matter in hand that the Anemone could comfortably get the Gunnel -“end on.” Now the task was easy, and although the Gunnel considerably -exceeded the Opelet in length, the Anemone tucked him safely in. It -was not a comfortable arrangement in spite of the elasticity of the -Opelet; and the fish, as could plainly be seen from outside, had to be -slanted. Whether this caused a rupture of any vital part, or whether -the Gunnel was too much for the Opelet’s digestive powers, cannot -now be ascertained; but the Opelet sickened, and though the fish was -discharged next day, the Anemone never recovered, but finally died -about a week after this inordinate meal. - -The late Mr. Gosse experimented upon the Opelet as an addition to our -breakfast table, and declared it good. He says that “the dish called -_Rastegna_, which is a great favourite in Provence, is mainly prepared -from the Opelet.” - -Perhaps some of our readers would like to experiment in the same -direction whilst they are at the seaside; in that case we should be -glad to have their experience and candid opinion on the suitability of -our native Anemones for human food. - -Dr. Andrew Wilson, in the days of his youth, desirous of emulating -Mr. Gosse’s example, cooked a specimen of the Dahlia Wartlet, but the -result was not such as to confirm him in this line of alimentation, -though he admits that the Dahlia is probably a tougher subject than the -Opelet, and requires different treatment to make it equally inviting as -a _bonne bouche_. - -One of the most delicately beautiful of our Anemones is the Gem -Pimplet (_Bunodes verrucosa_), which may be sought in rock-pools near -low-water; also at low-water, half buried in the sand, at the base of -rocks. - -Its name of Pimplet is a soft way of describing its column, which is -crowded with pimples. As a rule these are of a light pinky-brown or -rosy tint, diversified by six vertical bands of larger white pimples. -In several specimens I have before me as I write, however, the column -is uniformly grey with a pinkish tinge, the pimples being of the same -hue and of equal size. The disk is dark grey, marked with fine lines -of the darker rays proceeding to the tentacles, and the space around -the elevated mouth is yellow, marked with a small clear spot of carmine -at the angles of the lips. The tentacles are conical, rounded, with -blunt tips; the underside transparent grey, the upper side darker, with -many thin lines and broad rounded bars of opaque white across it. When -the tentacles are withdrawn and we have the rounded top of the button -stage, the effect of the six white rows of pimples converging at the -summit and forming a star pattern is very pretty. But when the whole -of the tentacles are fully expanded, the outer row bending slightly -downwards, the next row curving upwards and outwards, whilst the inner -ones stand more or less erect, the effect of the delicate pencillings -and the pellucid greys in contrast with the warmer tints of the column -is exceedingly fine. - -When the specimens are growing in a coralline-lined basin, however, -this peculiar style of beauty does not render them at all conspicuous; -on the contrary, the Gem Pimplet is a species that will not fall to -the hasty collector who rushes with a mere glance from pool to pool, -but it will soon reward the careful and patient investigator who is -willing to recline at the side of a small pool until his eyes have -closely scrutinised every inch of the bottom, and given the fixed -objects a chance of revealing themselves by a slight movement. - -Owing to the transparency of the tentacles in _B. verrucosa_, an -interesting point in the natural history of the species may be observed -without difficulty. The larvæ are retained by the Pimplet until -they have developed their first series of tentacles, and the hollow -tentacles of the parent are made use of as convenient receptacles -in which to store the brood until it is ready to be sent forth into -the surrounding waters. Four or five of these may be seen in one -tentacle. For some time after their discharge these young Pimplets are -exceedingly beautiful. They are pellucid, and in them the remarkable -structure of anemones may be clearly seen. When first excluded they are -nearly globular, about one-twelfth of an inch in diameter, crowned with -a double circlet of tentacles, the outer arching outward and downward, -the inner more erect. Within a few minutes they have increased in size -to one-sixth of an inch, by the mere absorption of water, their tissues -becoming relatively more transparent, and their forms protean. From the -globular form they have quickly changed to one more cylindrical, or to -a cylinder with a bulbous base, then to a long inverted cone. - -The Pimplet is easily removed; he has not got that unpleasant habit -of squeezing himself into a crevice, like the Cave-dweller; and -when placed in the aquarium he shows no resentment of his change of -quarters, but makes himself at home and reveals his beauties at once, -even before he has well fixed his base. - -An allied species, the Red-specked Pimplet (_Bunodes ballii_), may be -found under stones at low-water, but is more frequent in the deeper -water outside our zone. It is of a warmer hue than the Gem, its -pimples less prominent, and each one with a tiny crimson speck at -its centre; the interspaces between the pimples being freckled with -crimson. In the aquarium it will be found to select an obscure angle -between the floor of the tank and a stone. It is very sluggish, and -readily settles down to aquarium life. - -In strong contrast to the quiet loveliness of the little Pimplet, is -the massive and showy beauty of the Dahlia Wartlet (_Urticina felina_). -The Pimplet reaches up to the light and adds grace to its beauty; -but the Dahlia Wartlet spreads itself out as widely as possible, so -that its diameter exceeds its height about three times. In spite of -its size and its magnificence, one has got to learn _how_ to see it -before it appears at all plentiful; _then_, if we are on the rocks -near low-water, we shall find it in abundance. It is fond of crevices -and places where gravel and broken shell accumulate. Beneath these -it buries its broad base and attaches bits of shell and stone to the -many whitish suckers with which the upper part of its dark crimson -column is thickly studded, and when the tide recedes and leaves it, -the collector has to look, not for an expanse of brilliant tentacles, -but for a little rounded heap of gravel. In permanent pools, however, -where it has crimson weeds and white corallines around to harmonise -with its bright hues, the Wartlet seldom closes, except for the purpose -of securing its food; there its sucker-warts are little used, and -consequently they dwindle in size. The tentacles are thick, transparent -cones, marked with transverse bands of dark crimson and white. The disk -is of a transparent olive hue at the circumference, merging into full -crimson nearer the centre, where the disk swells into a low elevation -with the mouth in a depression at its summit. It is a very voracious -creature, and its large mouth and capacious stomach enable it to -swallow half-sized specimens of the Shore Crab (_Carcinus mænas_), -sea-urchins, dog-whelks, and small fishes. On this account it is not so -suitable as an inmate of the aquarium as the others we have described. -It is subject to great variation of colour and markings; that which we -have described and figured is perhaps the most plentiful form, but by -no means the most beautiful. - -[Illustration: THE DAHLIA WARTLET.] - -There is a pretty little species called the Globehorn (_Corynactis -viridis_), to be found by the observant eye, growing in patches on -the under surface of overhanging rocks near to low-water, on our -south-western coasts. It is seldom a quarter of an inch in stature, -and its breadth is a little more; but they are always close together -in colonies of from twenty to fifty individuals. It is very variable -in colour, but as a rule the members of one colony will resemble each -other very closely, in this as in other respects. The peculiarity -which separates it from the several species we have been describing, -is in the form of the tentacles. These, instead of being more or less -conical, and ending in a point, consist of globular heads set on -stalks--from which circumstance the popular name Globehorn is derived. -The column is of even breadth throughout, the base slightly broader, -transparent, but coloured white, grey, yellow, green, brown, crimson, -or scarlet. Probably the most common form is that which has the -column and disk of emerald green. The footstalks of its tentacles are -colourless and transparent, but studded with rich brown warts, whilst -their heads are rich crimson. The thick-lipped mouth is bright green. - -At low-water we shall probably come upon a rock upon which is a group -of dumpy masses of clear white jelly. Carefully remove some of these to -your collecting bottles, and in the evening, when they have had time to -recover from the shock, they will astonish you. The squat jelly-lump -erects itself into a shapely alabaster column, a couple of inches high, -and near the top a rounded parapet, above which the lobes of the crown -will spread out, densely clothed with feathery tentacles. It is well -named the Plumose Anemone (_Metridium senilis_). - -In the straightness and tallness of its column, the Plumose Anemone -is suggestive of a deep-water species that you may sometimes have -brought in shore by a fisherman who has discovered your weakness for -what he will term “curios.” This is the Parasite Anemone (_Cribrina -effoeta_), which will almost always be found perched on a full-sized -shell of the common whelk (_Buccinum undatum_), or the red whelk -(_Fusus antiquus_). Yet the whelk-shell will not be tenanted by the -whelk, but by the Hermit-crab (_Eupagurus bernhardus_). The Parasite, -when fully expanded, is about four inches high, and the measurement -across the tentacles is not much less. Its column is pale drab in -colour, the tentacles creamy white, and the disk somewhat conical. -To see a weak creature like the Hermit hauling a heavy-looking shell -along is a trifle amusing; but when Cribrina’s huge tower of apparently -solid flesh is perched on top of that, the picture is absurd. Owing to -its large size and its unhappiness when deprived of the society of the -Hermit, the Parasite is not a desirable aquarium specimen, except where -one has very large tanks affording sufficient depth and range for the -Hermit-crab. It is not clear what advantage each of the parties to this -strange co-operation gain, though it is easy to propound theories to -account for it. - -Such partnerships (_commensalism_) are by no means uncommon in Nature; -and there is one subsisting on our own coasts between another species -of Hermit-crab (_Eupagurus prideaux_) and the Cloaklet Anemone -(_Adamsia palliata_). It is probable that the Anemone derives advantage -from being carried about from place to place, and thus has better -opportunity for securing food than if stationary; whilst the crab is -probably saved from being swallowed by a big-mouthed fish, owing to -the unpleasant odour of the Anemone. One other way in which the Hermit -may benefit is by feeding on the crumbs that fall from the Parasite’s -table. I have had specimens brought to me that had been hauled up on -“spiller lines,” the fishermen characterising the Anemone as _an enemy_ -for stealing his bait. Here probably the advantage gained by being -perched atop of the whelk-shell alone enabled the Parasite to reach -and swallow the bait on the spiller hook. It should be added that the -base of the Anemone gradually absorbs that portion of the whelk-shell -to which it is attached, as may plainly be seen on removing a large -individual from the shell. - -It may be presumed that a large number of our readers not only desire -to be able to identify the natural objects they encounter by the deep -sea, but would like, also, to watch the habits and conduct of some of -them under more favourable conditions for continuous observation than -the constant ebbing and flowing of the tides will allow on the shore. -For their benefit let us add a few words. - -Certain of the Anemones, which we have already indicated, adapt -themselves to the artificial life of an aquarium very readily, and -without any great exhibition of shyness. For this purpose it is -advisable to take medium-sized specimens, rather than to look out -for the largest example we can find, remembering that the younger -individuals in time become large; but what is of greater importance -they are less likely to be injured by removal. In many cases patient -search will show us examples of such species as the Beadlet attached -to small stones, and it is much better for our purpose to take these, -stone and all, than to disturb the attachment of others to the rock. -Others may be found on weeds, especially the broad smooth fronds of -the great oarweed; but some of the more delicate in texture must be -removed by chipping off with cold-chisel and hammer a flake of the rock -with Anemones attached. - -Anemones are not great consumers of oxygen, and consequently the water -in the vessels to which they are consigned does not readily become -fouled, except as the result of feeding. Do not give food more often -than once in a fortnight or ten days, but be sure then that it is -suitable food, and in small fragments only. Some people think the best -thing to give to such delicate creatures is a piece of raw steak. It -is probably unnecessary to tell _you_ that we have the best guarantee -of success when we imitate Nature as closely as possible. Anemones in -a state of Nature do not often get a chance of raw beef, except when -a bullock has been washed overboard from a ship and comes in a very -inflated and “gamey” condition, begging the Coastguard to bury it -decently. - -If oysters or mussels can be obtained where you are staying, give -Anemones tiny pieces uncooked; or a piece out of the side of a young -sole or plaice. Do not give them fish that is all hard muscle, for they -cannot readily digest it. They require so very little to eat, that we -may easily select that little from a fish that is known to be easily -digestible. - -Here, too, let me warn you against a misapprehension that may cause you -to be much concerned about the supposed lack of appetite in your pets. -The nutriment they extract from their food appears to be entirely of -a fluid character; they suck the juices from it, and having done so -completely, what remains becomes pearly white, and having been wrapped -in a thick transparent _glaire_, is thrust out by the way it entered. - -Now this excrement is of a very objectionable character, and if allowed -to remain for a short time will infect the whole of the water in the -vessel, and begin to destroy all the life therein: so it must be -removed at once. Persons who have had no previous experience in keeping -Anemones, suppose that the individual fed had no appetite, and had -rejected his food without change. - -The ordinary rectangular aquarium is very suitable for the reception of -the Anemones, and a special piece of rock should be selected from one -of the rock-pools to serve them as a residence. This stone should not -cover more than half the floor space of the tank; and it should be very -irregular as regards its surface, pitted with holes and recesses into -which the more retiring species may partially withdraw their columns. -If no suitable piece can be found readily, then one must be made by -means of the cold-chisel and hammer. Look out a rock whose surface is -broken with the holes of the _Pholas_. Taking advantage of these holes -as weakening the rock, a piece of the required size can be marked off -with the cold-chisel, and then by vigorous chipping can be separated. - -If a suitable stone can be found ready to hand in the rock-pool, -and it has green weed growing from its surface, you need nothing -better, especially if that weed be the thin membrane-like tubes of -_Enteromorpha_, for it will continue to grow in the aquarium. But -beware of stones with a growth of any of the thick-fronded leathery -olive weeds. For a few days they will look well, but then they will -begin to decay and melt in slime, with a putrid odour that will -assuredly kill everything in a day or two more, and drive you out of -the house. - -Should you be staying at the seaside only for a few weeks, and desire -to see as much as you can of these creatures, yet have no proper -aquarium to accommodate them, remember that any vessel not too deep -that allows you to look into it will serve your purpose. Even a -soup-plate, or an old-fashioned saucer may at times serve better -than anything else for observation purposes. But if greater depth be -required, a china “slop-basin,” or a thin glass tumbler may be borrowed -or otherwise brought into requisition. - -To convey Anemones from the sea to a distance, it is best to wrap them -lightly in some of the finer seaweeds and put them into a weed-lined -box. This is much better than attempting to carry them in water, and -will be attended with more satisfactory results. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -SEA-STARS AND SEA-URCHINS. - - -At low-water, turning over stones and looking into rock-crevices, we -are sure to come across members of the _Echinodermata_--the creatures -with tough and rough or spiny coverings, popularly known as Star-fish -and Sea-urchins. There are many forms of these to be found on the -British coasts, though some of them are peculiar to deep water, and not -likely to fall in our way, unless it be their dead bodies washed up to -our part of the shore. But we can obtain a fair knowledge of the class -to which they belong, from the specimens we can find living their lives -in our own littoral zone. Here, hunched up into an almost globular form -under this drooping mass of leathery wrack, is the common Five-fingers, -Cross-fish, or Star-fish (_Uraster rubens_). Turning him on his back we -see the reason for the contracted condition of his five rays: in the -hollow thus formed he holds no less than three specimens of the Purple -or Dog Winkle. Why? He is a glutton, and is eating those three poor -mollusks at one sitting. - -Not many years ago we all believed literally the tales that were told -of the Star-fish swallowing oysters as large or larger than itself. It -was well known that they caused havoc to oyster and mussel beds, and -that seemed the most likely way in which the valuable bivalve would -be destroyed. Some went so far as to assert that Five-fingers waited -his opportunity to catch the oyster gaping, and then slipped in one of -his fingers, and so prevented the shell closing. It was left to the -imagination to picture that same finger hooking out the native and -swallowing it in the approved fashion--off the shell. - -The Uraster’s mouth is small, and the integuments tough and not capable -of great distention; but its stomach is a most accommodating organ, -though a very delicate one, and when the Star has come upon food too -large to pass through the mouth to the stomach, the stomach passes -through the mouth to the food. It surrounds the victim with its fine -membrane, pours out its gastric juice, and having reduced it to a fluid -condition, re-absorbs the whole, and returns to its natural position -inside the Star. That is a wonderful process, but it is quite a common -one, and you will certainly catch the animal in the act before you have -long been shore-hunting. - -This is probably the way in which the securely boxed up oyster falls a -victim to Five-fingers. The oyster’s powerful adductor muscles keep the -valves closed, and appear to defy any burglariously-disposed creature -of its own size; but Five-fingers’ gastric juice is a penetrating -solvent which paralyzes the muscles and kills the oyster. The elastic -hinge then opens the shell automatically, and allows Five-fingers to -make an unresisted entrance, and a short end of the oyster. - -As we have shaken off the dog-winkles, the Star-fish takes in his -stomach for safety, and we are enabled to have a look at his exterior. -When we say that he has five rays proceeding from a common centre, we -have said well-nigh all that is to be said about his form. But the -minutiæ of the organs disposed over those rays, and within them--for -their interiors form part of the general body-cavity--requires much -describing and explaining. The creature has no legs, yet he moves -with considerable celerity in any one direction as easily as another, -and inequalities of surface present no difficulties to him. And yet -the five rays, from their stiffness, are practically useless for this -purpose; but on the under surface of these rays are hundreds of pliable -and active little suckers, worked by hydraulic power, and it is all one -to them whether they have to walk on rock, weed, or glass, up or down, -across the floor, or under the ceiling. - -Looking at the underside of this Star, we find that each of the rays is -deeply channelled along its centre. Only the true Stars have got this -channel; the Sand-stars and Brittle-stars have not, neither have they -got the wonderful suckers; but along each side of the channel, under -each of Five-fingers’ arms, there are two rows of soft filaments that -bend and wave in any direction, and that end each in a little knob -containing a tiny limy plate. By means of this little plate each knob -is converted into a sucker, similar to those by which trades-people -suspend their goods from the surface of their plate-glass shop-fronts, -but worked by water instead of air. There are hundreds of these to -each ray, and all act in unison, so that real progress is made when -Five-fingers’ olfactory sense informs the sucker-feet of the direction -in which food may be sought. - -Ah, you say, has it a nose? No, it has not; but experiments have shown -that the entire underside is sensitive to odours. At the tip of each -ray there is a spot that is ordinarily spoken of as its eye, but it has -no true eye, though these spots are sensitive to light. Its mouth is in -the centre of its under surface, and opens directly into the stomach, -which has branches running into each of the rays. The vent for the -undigested particles of food and for waste, is on the upper surface. - -Near the junction of two of the rays on the upper surface will be seen -a round stony knob, which is sometimes taken for the creature’s eye. -This is not a very wild shot at its purpose, though it is entirely a -wrong one, for as placed it certainly does suggest some such function. -Its real office could not suggest itself to any person unacquainted -with the internal economy of the Star-fish. Looked at through a lens, -it will be found to have a number of minute pores in its surface. -Strange as it may seem that the Star-fish should require such a -convenience, this is really a filter. Scientific men honour it with -the important-sounding name of the “madreporiform plate,” because -its tubes resemble somewhat those of the madrepore coral. I have -already referred to the hydraulic system by which the sucker-feet are -distended and worked, and this is the “intake” of the supply, as a -water-company would call it. Within these is a tube, running near to -the creature’s mouth on its lower surface, and connecting with a ring -of tube that surrounds the mouth, and sends out a branch to each of the -five rays. To this branch-pipe all the sucker-feet in a particular ray -are connected, and the pressure can be so regulated as to alternately -distend the sucker-feet, or to leave them partly empty and flaccid. - -Upon one occasion, when I was describing these arrangements of the -Stars to a jocular friend, he said the idea of having a big mouth -that let in water freely, and a number of minute mouths that let it -in slowly, reminded him of the poet Cowper’s whim in making a large -aperture for his big hares to pass through, and a small one for the -little hares. He thought the mouth would have served both purposes; but -as I pointed out to him, the water that the Star takes in involuntarily -with its food goes into the stomach, where the food is retained and the -water strained off by the mouth again. This water would contain grains -of sand, vegetable _débris_, and other impurities, which would clog the -delicate tubes and spoil a beautiful piece of mechanism. The water that -percolates through the minute pores of the stony plate must be pure, -and free from all extraneous matter, so that the special supply-pipe -is a necessity. The scientific appellation of the sucker-feet is -_pedicels_ or _ambulacral feet_. - -We must not omit to mention organs of another sort that occur in -plenty among the sucker-feet, and for many years presented a puzzle to -naturalists, who long regarded them as parasites--something foreign -to the Star-fish. They are now understood to be pedicels that have -been specialised to adapt them for particular functions. They consist -of slender flexible stalks, ending in an enlarged head of three claws -which normally converge to a point, but they are for ever opening and -shutting and taking hold of something. They are analogous to those -curious bird’s-head organs on some of the zoophytes, to which attention -has already been directed. Their function is to take hold of seaweeds -and other substances, until the suckers can be got to work; also to -keep the sucker-feet clean by removing all matter tending to clog them -and impede their efficient working. - -The upper side of a common Star-fish is covered with rough or spiny -plates, and bosses of carbonate of lime secreted by the creatures, and -these take definite patterns in different species. - -The Common Star-fish (_Uraster rubens_) is well-known for its rough -orange-coloured exterior, and its profusion, in some seasons, upon -certain parts of the coast. It swarms on oyster and mussel beds, -and causes considerable annoyance to fishermen, who find it taking -possession of the bait on their lines, and so keeping off the fishers’ -rightful prey. - -There is a less common but prettier species, the Spiny Star (_Uraster -glacialis_), you may find among the rocks at low-water. It is much -larger than the common Cross-fish, and in proportion the rays are -longer, their sides more parallel, the upper side more distinctly -spiny, and the colour a glaucous green, with variations towards violet. -It is more angular-looking than the common species. - -Another species is the Eyed Cribella (_Cribella oculata_), which has an -upper surface quite free from spines or roughnesses, and of a purple -colour. - -These Stars go through a remarkable metamorphosis. In the year 1835, -Sars, the celebrated naturalist, discovered a peculiar creature about -an inch in length, to which he gave the name, _Bipinnaria asterigera_, -and classed it among the Jelly-fishes. Nine years later, however, some -further observations caused him to reconsider this view, and to regard -the creature as more probably the larva of a Star-fish; and in the -course of a few years this opinion was confirmed by the researches of -Messrs. Koren and Danielssen. - -The Sun Star (_Solaster papposa_) is really a glorious creature, with a -broad central cushion of rich crimson, from which radiate from twelve -to fifteen arms of the same colour, but with a band of lighter tint at -their base. The upper surface is covered with a network of slightly -raised lines, upon which are threaded, as it were, a great number of -little cushions, supporting erect brushes of spines. It may be found at -low-water, but is more frequently obtained from trammels set in deeper -water, and from the fishermen’s lines. It is sometimes nearly a foot -across from tip to tip of opposite rays. - -[Illustration: SUN STAR.] - -In the bottom right-hand corner of the plate on page 93, will be seen -a figure of the Gibbous Starlet (_Asterina gibbosa_), in which it -will be seen that the figure of the Common Star has been considerably -modified by the partial filling up of the angles between the rays, -so that the body appears to be more extensive than the rays. This -pretty species--it is represented natural size--is fairly plentiful in -rock-pools where there is sand and a vigorous growth of coralline and -fine weeds. In such pools it is not easily seen, owing to the manner in -which it harmonises with its surroundings. It is covered with a short -“pile” of spines, of a greenish-grey tint, with an indefinite shade of -brown. It is cushion-shaped; and the underside is channelled from the -five points to the central mouth. These channels are bordered with a -row of spines on each side, to protect the double range of sucker-feet -within. - -[Illustration: - PURPLE-TIPPED URCHIN. FEATHER-STAR. STARLET. -] - -In the same pools, among the rubbish at the bottom, under stones at -low-water, and climbing about corallines and weeds, we shall be sure to -find in plenty a little Brittle-star (_Ophiocoma neglecta_), of very -attenuated proportions, and not exceeding an inch across, if you can -get it to keep still whilst you measure it. It is exceedingly active, -and all its tiny rays bend and wriggle at the same time. - -The Brittle-stars pass to the other extreme from the Starlet, in -modifying the five-rayed plan of the Common Star. Here the creature -runs almost entirely into the five writhing arms, which leave but -little material for the circular trunk, which looks, in truth, as -though five active worms had simultaneously seized a minute button by -its edge. - -There are several other species of Brittle-star to be found between -tide-marks, but they all share, more or less, the peculiarity which -gives them the popular name. They are so “touchy” that you need -scarcely do more than look at them to cause them to voluntarily snap -off a part or whole of a ray, or several rays--and they commonly throw -off the lot, if they commence self-mutilation. The amputated members -are replaced by new growths, if the Star lives; for sometimes this -act of renunciation of limbs that offend, is but a prelude to the -extinction of vitality in the trunk. - -[Illustration: GRANULATE BRITTLE-STAR.] - -In the illustration here given of the Granulate Brittle-star, it will -be seen that the rays do not merge imperceptibly into the trunk, but -are attached to it by a kind of dovetail joint on the upper side. -Below, the arms, at their termination, form a ring, within which is the -mouth, whilst the trunk acts as a roof above the mouth, and overhanging -all round. The rays are composed of a series of joints, which allow -free lateral action, or wriggling, but not much vertically. Each of -these joints consists of four little plates, one each above and below, -and one on each side. The side plates bear each from five to ten stiff -and granular spines of varying length; and short tentacles come out -beside the lower plates. These tentacles are not sucker-feet, like -those of Five-fingers, but rigid, hooked processes; and there are no -_pedicellariæ_ with their snapping jaws. The mouth is a very extensive -opening, but its area is largely occupied by the five jaws, the free -ends of which extend upwards far into the body cavity, and are covered -with rows of long, close-set teeth. These teeth, on the five jaws -being brought together, must form a wonderfully efficient masticatory -apparatus. - -One of the commoner forms of these Brittle-stars is the Granulate -Brittle-star (_Ophiocoma granulata_), represented in part in our -illustration. I have seen crab-pots brought in with this species -thickly coating the bottoms inside, and attached to well-nigh every -bar; there must have been thousands in each “pot.” - -An allied species that is more plentiful as an inhabitant of the -littoral zone, is the Red Brittle-star (_Ophiothrix rosula_), which -will be found sprawling over the under surfaces of big stones at -low-water, in company with the Broad-claw Crab. Of this species Edward -Forbes truly remarks:-- - -“Of all our native Brittle-stars, this is the most common and the most -variable. It is also one of the handsomest, presenting every variety of -variegation, and the most splendid displays of vivid hues, arranged in -beautiful patterns. Not often do we find two specimens coloured alike. -It varies also in the length of the ray-spines, the spinuousness of the -disk, and the relative proportions of rays and disk; and in some places -it grows to a much greater size than in others. It is the most brittle -of all Brittle-stars, separating itself into pieces with wonderful -quickness and ease. Touch it, and it flings away an arm; hold it, and -in a moment not an arm remains attached to the body.” - -Another species, the Long-armed Brittle-star (_Ophiocoma brachiata_), -has the rays about twenty times the diameter of the disk, each -consisting of three or four hundred joints; so that if one reckons -up the four plates that go to make one joint, then adds to these the -eight to ten spines on each joint, and multiplies the first total by -say three hundred and fifty (the number of joints), and this second -total by five (the number of rays), one gets a grand total of seventy -thousand pieces, constituting merely the external covering of the rays -of this small creature--leaving entirely out of the reckoning the -internal bony framework upon which these are placed. - -These Brittle-stars go through a peculiar stage of existence, prior to -their assumption of rays. When summer is verging upon autumn, their -minute larval forms may be gathered in a fine muslin net, from the -surface of the sea. Gosse has given a description of this stage with -admirable brevity. He says:-- - -“A painter’s long easel affords the only object with which to compare -the little creature; for it consists of four long, slender, calcareous -rods, arranged two in front and two behind, with connecting pieces -going across in a peculiar manner, and meeting at the top in a slender -head. On this shelly, fragile, and most delicate framework, as on a -skeleton, are placed the soft parts of the animal, a clear gelatinous -flesh, forming a sort of semi-oval tunic around it, from the summit -to the middle; but thence downward the rods, individually, are merely -encased in the flesh, without mutual connection. The interior of the -body displays a large cavity, into which a sort of mouth ever and anon -admits a gulp of water. Delicate cilia cover the whole integument, and -are particularly large and strong on the flesh of the projecting rods. - -“The appearance of this most singular animal is very beautiful; its -colour pellucid-white, except the summit of the apical knob, and the -extremities of the greater rods, which are of a lovely rose-colour. It -swims in an upright position, with a calm and deliberate progression. -The specimens which I have seen were not more than one-fortieth of an -inch in length. - -“From this form the Brittle-star is developed, but in a manner -unparalleled in any other class of animals. The exterior figure is not -gradually changed, but the star is constructed within a particular part -of the body of the larva, ‘like a picture upon its canvas, or a piece -of embroidery in its frame, and then takes up into itself the digestive -organs of the larva.’ The plane of the future Star-fish is not even the -plane of the larva, but one quite independent of, and oblique to it. -Strange to tell, the young Star does not absorb into itself the body of -the larva, which has acted as a nidus for it, but throws it off as so -much useless lumber--flesh, rods, and all!” - -Prof. A. Agassiz, however, would have taken exception to that last -sentence, for he declared that “the whole larva and all its appendages -are gradually drawn into the body, and appropriated.” - -In the plate on page 93 there are two figures besides the Starlet--the -Feather-star and a Sea-urchin. The Feather-star (_Comatula rosacea_) -is really a deep-water form, but it has been taken occasionally within -the littoral zone, and may occur there in the experience of the reader. -It is undoubtedly the most beautiful of the entire group, so far as -British waters are concerned, and it possesses a special interest -for us, as being the only British representative of the Stone-lilies -or Encrinites that so abounded in Palæozoic times that their remains -make up whole strata, but of which, until the deep-sea explorations -of recent years, no living European species was known. But the -Feather-star, as shown in our illustration, had been long known, for -in several localities round Britain and Ireland it came up abundantly -in the dredge, yet no one suspected it was closely related to the -Encrinites. - -In the year 1823 Mr. J. Vaughan Thompson, when dredging in the Cove of -Cork, brought up a tiny creature less than an inch in length, but which -might have been one of these Encrinites, into which life and mobility -had been infused. The discovery was hailed with joy by naturalists, -and the little stranger was named _Pentacrinus europæus_. Thirteen -years later Thompson came to the conclusion that his _Pentacrinus_ was -only the larval form of _Comatula_; and in 1840 Edward Forbes, Robert -Ball, and C. Wyville Thomson were dredging in Dublin Bay, when the -dredge brought up specimens of the so-called _Pentacrinus_ in a more -advanced stage than had been seen hitherto, and behold, some of these -underwent the final change in their early history under their eyes: the -Feather-star left its stalk and floated off, a true _Comatula_. Sir C. -Wyville Thomson has given this interesting account of its progress from -the egg condition:-- - -“The young escapes from the egg a pear-shaped free animalcule, swimming -and gyrating rapidly through the water, large end foremost, by four -transverse bands of cilia, and by a tail-like tuft of long cilia, -which it uses somewhat in the style of a screw propeller. On one side -of the body there is a large oval mouth, richly ciliated, and a short -curved stomach. After swimming freely in this form for several days, -a network of calcareous plates begins to appear, at length making a -closed chamber in the wide end of the pear, and extending as a sort -of stalk to the narrow end. The stalk now lengthens, and the creature -loses its symmetrical form; it attaches itself to a stone or seaweed, -and from the free, wide extremity, there springs a little circlet of -branches--the arms of the second stage.” - -On turning again to the illustration (page 93), it will be seen that -the Rosy Feather-star, to give it the full title, is possessed of -ten rays, or rather five rays each forking into two, and that these -branches are _pinnate_, or feathered with little appendages which -contain the ova. The ordinary organs are all contained in the central -body, and do not extend into the rays as in Five-fingers. - -The remaining figure in that plate is the Purple-tipped Sea-urchin -(_Echinus miliaris_), which is a well-known inhabitant of rock-pools. -It is enclosed in a stone box, which is a miracle of design, for -although there is no elasticity about it, and it cannot be stretched, -it yet serves the growing Urchin for years, and never cramps him. There -is never any necessity for throwing it off, as the crabs and lobsters -have to do repeatedly with _their_ suits of armour. The nearest -parallel to it in nature is the human skull, which although consisting -only of a few pieces, enlarges in a similar manner to accommodate the -growing brain. - -It is remarkable how, in the whole sub-kingdom Echinodermata, all the -wonderful variety displayed by the many species is found compatible -with rigid loyalty to the dominating “number” principle: in these -animals everything is governed by the number five. With a few -exceptions, the rays are in fives, or multiples of that number; so are -the jaws, the boundaries of the plates, and other details, as may be -seen in any of the Stars to which we have alluded. - -In the Sea-urchins we get an advance in that direction, for its stone -box is built up of nearly six hundred five-sided[2] plates of lime, -securely attached to each other by their edges, and fitting with such -beautiful accuracy, that there is not the ghost of a crevice from base -to crown of this wonderful cupola. - -[2] Dr. Andrew Wilson, in his “Glimpses of Nature,” impresses upon -his readers this “pentarchy” in the building of an _Echinus_, but -curiously describes the plates as being _six_-sided. He evidently had -none but living specimens to refer to when he thus wrote. It is only in -a specimen from which the spines and skin have been carefully cleaned -that the form of the plates can be seen. - -But if there are no crevices there are many apertures--over five -thousand of them in a full-grown _Echinus esculentus_. Forbes, many -years ago, calculated there were 3,720 in a _moderate-sized_ specimen; -and his figures, though used in all the books since his day, do not -appear to have been checked. But I have counted the pores in what -I should describe as a moderate-sized individual, _i.e._, one that -measured, when denuded of its spines, twelve inches in circumference, -and find no less than 4,800. The calculation is as follows: ten -bands, each consisting of eighty rows of six holes (10 × 80 = 800 × 6 -= 4,800). The specimens that the crabbers take out of their crab-pots, -and smash against the rocks, are commonly much larger than this. It -always grieves me to see such wonderful structures destroyed in that -fashion. - -The five thousand pores are in pairs, each pair giving rise to one -_pedicel_ or sucker-foot, like those we described in the Five-fingers. -The ten bands of pores are also arranged in pairs, the bands forming -a pair being separated by about five rows of spines, and each pair -of bands being separated from the next by twenty (4 × 5) rows of -spines. These intervening spines are borne on two series of long, yet -still five-sided, plates; the number of spines to each, in a growing -specimen, varying; but from counting many of these I should suppose a -fully-grown plate, from the middle of a series, would support twenty -spines; at the top and bottom of the series, however, there are only -two or three spines to each plate. These spines are not mere rigid -outgrowths like the prickles on a chestnut bur; they are beautifully -finished pieces of mechanism, with considerable latitude for movement -in any direction. Although only about five-eighths of an inch in -length, each is a beautiful column in alabaster, tapering slightly to -the top, and decorated from near the base with a series of thirty (6 × -5) parallel rounded ridges. The bottom of this spine is hollowed out -and polished perfectly, to enable it to move freely on the polished -knob upon which it fits. These knobs are the bosses left on the shell -when the spines have been cleaned off; the spines being held to them -and moved by a circular band of muscular tissue. - -If we look at the underside of the Urchin we shall find the mouth -occupying the centre, with five polished white teeth protruding. -Although these are not much to look at from outside, they form a -large and complicated structure within, which goes by the name of the -“Lantern of Aristotle,” because the famous Stagyrite appropriately -compared its shape to a lantern. Within we find a set of organs -similar to those described in connection with Five-fingers, much of -the space being occupied with the water-vascular system by which the -enormous number of sucker-feet are worked. The Urchin also possesses -a great number of pedicellariæ which keep the upper parts of the -huge sphere clean, by passing any particles of dirt from one to the -other, until they are passed off altogether. The madreporiform plate -is situate right at the summit of the edifice, near the five eyes and -the vent. As its specific name suggests, this urchin is edible; it is -boiled like an egg. - -The Purple-tipped Urchin (_Echinus miliaris_) is depressed in form, -and its outline would represent an oval from which one-fourth had been -cut away, whilst _E. esculentus_ would represent a circle from which -about one-sixth had been abstracted. The skin of _E. esculentus_, -when the spines are removed, is reddish; that of _E. miliaris_, a -dusky greenish-grey. _Miliaris_ is common in rock-pools and about the -rocks at low-water; but _esculentus_ is found in deeper water, though, -from the frequency with which it is brought in by the crabbers for -destruction, rather than throw it overboard where they find it, and -from its empty house being rolled in by the waves, it is a fairly -common object of the shore. - -There is a rarer shore species, called the Purple Urchin -(_Strongylocentrus lividus_), which excavates circular holes in the -rocks large enough to house itself, spines and all. This is more -plentiful in Ireland than on the English coasts; and it is remarkable -not only for its excavating propensities, but also because it sheds its -thick purple-spines annually, and produces a new crop. - -[Illustration: - SIPUNCULUS. SEA-CUCUMBER. -] - -Closely allied to the Sea-stars and Sea-urchins are the Sea-cucumbers, -of which we have a number of native species, though many of them -belong too exclusively to the deeper waters to be mentioned here. -Several of the genus _Cucumaria_, however, may be met among the rocks, -at low-water, on our southern coasts. One of these is represented in -the accompanying plate, protruding from a crevice in the rock. It -is the Sea-cucumber (_Cucumaria pentactes_), a species that requires -a fair pair of eyes to detect it. Certainly, when seen for the first -time, unless the finder had previously read about Sea-cucumbers, -it would never strike him as being a relation of the Sea-stars and -Urchins. There are no spines, no limy plates; instead, the body is soft -and molluscous, so that it can progress by its alternate extension -and contraction. But a careful scrutiny of the appendages encircling -the mouth might awaken suspicion, for there are ten branching rays, -and then it might be noted that the body has five distinct angles, -and that these angles are pierced with pores not unlike those of the -Urchins, through which protrude sucker-feet. This, he would consider, -constituted a very strong case in favour of their relationship to the -Echinoderms; and in this conclusion he would be in agreement with -the scientific men, who have, however, also taken the Sea-cucumber’s -internal arrangement into consideration. Another point which suggests -affinity with the Sea-stars--especially with the Brittle section--is -their trick when suffering from want of food or lack of oxygen in the -water surrounding them, of throwing off portions of their body, and -thus increasing their chances of life by their reduction of the area or -bulk that has to be fed or refreshed. The animated Cucumber not only -throws off its rays for such reasons, but also its mouth and dental -apparatus, and its intestines and ovaries are turned out, and only an -empty hollow bag remains. Should its prospects brighten through the -access of food and the oxygenating of its surroundings, it will, in the -course of a few months, reproduce these sacrificed organs, and make a -fresh start with a new lease of life. This is a close connection of -the tropical Beche de Mer, of which the Malays make Trepang, a very -important item in their trade with China, by whom it is used as a -choice article of food. - -The creature to the left of the Sea-cucumber, on page 103, is the -Dotted Siphon-worm (_Sipunculus punctatissima_), formerly included -with the Sea-cucumbers, but now relegated by the systematist to the -biological lumber-room, whose door is labelled “Vermes,” that limbo -to which all sorts of creatures are sent who cannot be satisfactorily -classified, in the hope that future discoveries may make their -affinities more clear. The Siphon-worm has a cylindrical proboscis that -is almost as long as its body, and a wreath of simple tentacles around -the mouth. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -SEA-WORMS. - - -A chance reader picking up this volume by accident, or from curiosity, -and opening it at this chapter, will in all probability put it down -quickly with the remark, “Worms indeed! and who wishes to read about -such disgusting creatures?” - -Our prejudices trip us up at every other step we take, and interfere -with our seeing and learning much that would interest and edify us. Our -notions of worms are suggested by our imperfect knowledge of the common -earth-worm (_Lumbricus_) which few persons have properly seen. It is a -nasty, slimy, wriggling creature, that spoils the look of the lawn with -its unsightly casts, and is a further nuisance in that it disturbs the -seedlings in our seed-beds. - -Well, as a naturalist I have no great sympathy with this view, for -a worm is a wonderful creature; but there are worms and worms, and -probably the most sensitive soul who would shrink from a near view -of the loathly earth-worm would have his or her interest awakened by -a sight of the Rainbow Leaf-worm, the golden-haired Sea-mouse, the -cinnabar Cirratulus, or the glowing plumy crown of the Tube-worm. -So, too, their imagination may be stirred at the marvellous power -of elongation possessed by the _Lineus_, whose full length can only -be estimated with difficulty, but which has been ascertained to be -something over twenty feet. - -There are among them builders--in porcelain, stone, sand, mud--and -spinners of submarine webs like those of spiders. Brilliant colours, -elegant forms, wonderful structures and mechanism, ease of motion, and -symmetry, are among the attributes of the humble sea-worms. Let us -look at a few representative forms. - -Flat, or nearly flat rocks that are only uncovered by the recess of the -spring tides, will often be found to be strangely coated with coarse -sand in which are immersed round tubes with their mouths protruding. -This is a colony of the common Sabella (_Sabella alveolaria_), which -cements the sand together in long tubes, and appears also to spill -some of its liquid glue around; for the spaces between the tubes are -filled with sand similarly agglutinated, so that the whole surface of -the rock is uniformly coated with sand in which are the sabellæ-tubes. -There is nothing to see, so long as the sea remains out; but when the -incoming tide covers this rock it is a sight worth seeing. From every -one of these tubes there comes forth a plume of feathers in shape like -a funnel. The tubes are fashioned by curiously-modified antennæ, which -serve the purpose of a couple of trowels to manipulate the material -that has been scooped up by another organ, to mould and smooth it, and -make it comfortable for habitation. - -Its methods of working can be clearly seen by capturing a specimen or -two, evicting it from its home, and placing it in a glass vessel with -a little clean sand on the bottom. It will immediately proceed to the -elaboration of a new tube; and with that eye for economy of labour -and material which characterises the majority of natural builders, it -will make the glass serve as the base of its tube, and thus reduce its -labour by a third. - -[Illustration: - TRUMPET SABELLA. BRUSH SABELLA. COMMON SABELLA. -] - -The breathing organs (_branchiæ_) of these tube-masons are external, -and form a very beautiful object when the worm lies on the threshold -of his house and pushes this apparatus out, that his blood may benefit -from the abundant oxygen of the ever-moving waters. At first the -branchial plume issues very cautiously and with slight pauses and -withdrawals; but finding all safe the _Sabella_ at length gets it quite -out and expands it to its glorious fulness, delicate in structure, -splendid in colour as the light is variously reflected from the -finely-toothed threads. - -We must use the lens if we are to get an idea of the structure of -this beautiful crown. By its aid we find there are a great number of -filaments, each one fringed with finer processes on each side. Fine as -these are, they are all hollow, and through them the blood constantly -flows, to be brought in contact with, and to absorb the oxygen of the -sea-water, which can pass through the microscopic meshes of their walls -through which, however, the free cells of the blood cannot pass. In -some species these gills are arranged not in circular form but spirally -round a central shaft. - -Among the numerous species of _Sabella_ to be found on our shores, -there is one that is not inaptly termed the Silkworm Sabella (_S. -bombyx_), and indeed, being a real worm it has more claim to the -title than has the caterpillar that is called the Silkworm. This -silk-producing Sabella, however, could scarcely be pressed into the -service of man, though one could fancy an imaginative writer employing -this spinner to make gossamer vestments for sea-fairies, for the -material produced is of just the texture a fairy would desire. Not -long ago, I introduced to one of my aquarium vases a flat stone that -supported a sea-anemone, which I was loth to disturb, and would rather -he moved off on his own account. In doing this, one never knows what -one may be introducing in addition to the specimen desired, unless one -takes the precaution of scraping or scrubbing the stone. A week or two -later, I was surprised one morning to find several threads--so clear -as to be scarcely visible--running up from this stone at the bottom to -a point about four inches up the glass. Next day there was more of it, -and so on from day to day the quantity increased, and the older portion -became more visible than before, for its extreme transparency passed -away, and it became dusty-looking--in fact, cobwebby. By this time it -was clear that what had at first looked like purposeless threads and -filaments were really part of a quite voluminous tube. - -One of these tube-worms, the Trumpet Sabella (_S. tubularia_), is -represented in our illustration on page 109. It does not form its tube -of foreign material, but of shelly matter secreted by its own body. It -does not associate with other individuals of its species as does the -common kind (_S. alveolaria_), but attaching the small beginnings of -its tube to a shell or stone, it builds by itself and secretes a long -tube that gradually rises from its support and attains a more or less -erect attitude. From this “coign of vantage” it expands its glorious -jewelled coronet, and instantly vanishes far into its depths on the -slightest alarm, real or false. - -The tubes of another family, the Serpuladæ, resemble those of the -Trumpet Sabella in their material, but instead of the semi-erect, -free tube of that species, most of the Serpulæ are cemented to shells -and stones for the greater part of their length, and are irregularly -twisted. There is an important feature, however, which will enable us -to distinguish between Serpula and Sabella at a glance. Serpula is -furnished with a peculiar organ in shape like a long inverted cone, so -placed that it is the last part of the animal to be withdrawn into the -tube, which it accurately fits and effectually closes like a stopper. -This organ is really one of the tentacles specially developed to serve -the purpose of a house-door. - -The species represented in the accompanying figure is a very beautiful -one, the Scarlet Serpula (_Serpula contortuplicata_). Its scarlet -stopper and fine fanlike branchiæ present a splendid contrast with the -smooth white, china-like tubes. - -Along the sides of these creatures are peculiarly shaped and toothed -hooks, and bunches of bristles which serve in lieu of limbs to enable -the worm to push out its breathing apparatus and to rapidly withdraw it. - -We must look for the Scarlet Serpula on shells and stones that have -been washed in from deeper water; but there is a more plentiful -species to be found in abundance between tide-marks, sometimes almost -completely covering loose flat stones with its ridge-shaped tube, -which earns its scientific name (_Serpula triquetra_). Of the three -flat surfaces implied in that name one is cemented throughout its -length to the shell or stone it has selected for its freehold. A third -species (_S. vermicularis_) secretes a round tube, but may be readily -distinguished from _S. contortuplicata_, by its possession of a double -stopper with toothed edges. - -[Illustration: SCARLET SERPULA.] - -One of the most plentiful of these tube-making worms is the Spirorbis, -which is to be found everywhere on stones, rocks, and weeds in the -littoral zone. More especially shall we be struck by its numbers -when we observe it thickly studding the fronds of the Toothed Wrack -(_Fucus serratus_), for the dark olive hue of the Wrack throws up the -dead-white Spirorbis tubes very strongly indeed. These tubes and the -animals that form them are very like Serpulæ, but the tube instead of -being more or less straight, or merely twisted, is coiled in a flat -spiral, like the shell of the fresh-water Trumpet snail (_Planorbis_). -Normally these are very flat at the base, and regularly formed, but -where (as in specimens before me) they are densely crowded on the -Wrack, there is not sufficient room for this regular growth when they -get large, and the outer turns of the spiral are twisted aside and -greatly distorted. The worm is very like a Serpula, closing its shell -with a similar stopper, but the branchial plumes are not nearly so -extensive, these rosy appendages being but six in number in Spirorbis. - -It is impossible to do much work upon the shore before coming upon some -specimens of another species of tube-maker, though of a less artistic -character. The probability is that you will turn over a flat stone -that is partly imbedded in the sand, and under it will find a furrow -with an active worm wriggling through it. On glancing at the stone the -explorer finds that he has ruined a habitation by forcibly tearing off -the roof which had been cemented to the stone for greater security, and -continued for some distance beyond the stone on either side. The tube, -as a fact, is of great length, so that the worm, which is not more than -six inches long, may have ample room for exercise without going into -the dangerous glare of daylight, to be seen by some ravenous fish. This -species is commonly known as the Sand-worm (_Arenicola piscatorum_). -In some districts it is the “Lug.” It is popularly thought to be a -favourite bait with fishermen, and it is so described in all the books; -but in the part of Cornwall where this book is being written the -fishermen do not set great value upon it, though they highly appreciate -the Wilfry or Woolfry (_Nereis pelagica_). - -The Lug does not produce a very favourable impression when you have -turned him out of his burrow, for his very dark greenish hue looks -black at a little distance, and his branchial tufts give him a ragged -appearance. The fore part of his body is much swollen, but runs off to -a point where the proboscis is situated. The branchiæ are attached to -about a dozen of the middle rings only, in branching tufts that change -from green to crimson. It is a rapid burrower, opening a way through -the sand with its proboscis, widening it with the thicker part of its -length just beyond, and exuding a mucous cement that agglutinates the -grains of sand and leaves the passage open for further use. Its body is -cylindrical throughout. - -In similar situations we shall find a vertical shaft of sand protruding -from the shore, with a kind of halo of fine branching sandy tubes -around the mouth. The whole structure will consist either of grains of -sand or fragments of shell cemented together on a silky lining. Its -mouth is about an inch above the level of the sands, but the tube, if -carefully dug out, will be found to extend to a foot or more. This is -the home of the Sand Mason or Shell-binder (_Terebella littoralis_); -and now that the tide is out the master of the house will probably -be lying, like Truth, at the bottom of his well-like structure, and -ready to bolt still deeper in the sand if necessary. He is about four -inches long, and the most distinguishing feature is a regular mop of -pink tentacles around his--I had almost said head, but he has no head, -so we will substitute the more correct expression “anterior segment.” -The gills are much branched, and there is a bright red stripe along -the under surface. There are several allied species; one known as the -Potter (_T. figulus_) from its choice of mud or clay as the material -for its tube. - -There is a remarkable worm called _Cirratulus_ that lives in stones. -Some say he bores the stone, but of that I am very doubtful; but there -is no question that he lives in the perforation. Gosse says “under -stones,” and I have no doubt Gosse is right; it is sometimes taken -under stones, I dare say, for it leaves its burrow occasionally and -sees the outside world. A living specimen now before me is in that free -condition, having quitted its stone yesterday, Boxing Day, 1895, and -not yet settled down again. He is evidently an up-to-date worm, and -goes out on Bank Holidays! He is about four inches long, though from -his restless wriggling and obvious objection to assuming a straight -form, it is not easy to measure him accurately. His body proper is of a -fine cinnabar colour, and appears to be hung loosely in a clear outer -skin, which is very roomy in the fore half, sufficiently so to allow -the contained body to curl and twist and double upon itself without -affecting the envelope. A series of sausage-shaped expansions of this -envelope constantly travel from the rear, forwards, and are caused by -water that has passed through the creature’s gills and is now making -its way out along the outer envelope. Cirratulus has a head, a rather -poor one, and a mouth, but it is not easy to find either, for the -segments near the head produce an enormous mop of tentacular processes, -many of them five inches in length, which completely hides the head and -mouth. These are of the same bright red as the body, and when they are -extended in all directions, and the creature in a good light is shown -to those ignorant of Annelid-beauty as a worm, it causes a considerable -shock to their notions of worm-repulsiveness. This shock is not abated -when the light plays on the bristles and a ripple of silvery flashes -runs along them. In the dark a gentle touch will cause the entire -creature to flash with a bluish electric light, which runs also along -every one of the hundreds of finely attenuated filaments from the -head-region. - -There is a group of these lowly creatures that are really magnificent. -They build no tubes, neither do they sink definite tunnels, but they -shun the light and lurk under stones, in the chinks of rocks, and -round about the roots of seaweeds. Such are the Leaf-worms (_Nereis_), -of which several are of great length. They have more or less linear -bodies, of equal thickness for the greater part of their length, -and consisting of a great number of joints. The head is conical, -and adorned with several antennæ. They are carnivorous creatures, -and have the proboscis armed with a pair of jaws well toothed. The -well-developed feet protrude from the side, and bear gill-warts at -their tips, and jointed bristles. One of the most plentiful and -striking of these is the Wilfry (_Nereis pelagica_), previously alluded -to, a killing bait for sea-fishing, for no fish can resist its glowing -play of iridescence. The colour is a pale fleshy-fawn, but with a -succession of metallic gleams shooting over it. It is six or eight -inches long, and exceedingly active in its movements. Its favourite -habitat is the fœtid black muddy sand, rich in organic matter, that -collects in hollows between the rocks, or in the mud of brackish creeks. - -If you desire a real good day’s fishing, spend half of the day before -in grubbing for this worm, with bare legs in the rich mud of such a -creek; a better plan is to pay somebody a few pence per dozen to get -them for you, and save yourself much discomfort. - -Another species is the Pearly Nereis (_Nephthys margaritacea_), similar -to the Wilfry, but much smaller and running off to a very slender -point behind. The warm fawn colour of the upper surface exhibits -lively silvery iridescence, very suggestive of mother o’ pearl. The -large proboscis is cleft in two and adorned with a fringe of greenish -processes. The large feet carry each a leaf-like expansion in front of -each branch, and tufts of bristles. It occurs chiefly in the sand near -low-water. - -The Rainbow Leaf-worm (_Phyllodoce lamelligera_) is one of the most -glorious of this group of worms, for each of its three or four hundred -segments bears a couple of expansive leaf-like plates, which are the -breathing organs. These are of a vivid green colour, and on the back -of the body proper this hue changes to blue-green shot with purple -and olive gleams. Its head is rounded, and is distinguished by the -tentacles about it. This species attains a length of over twenty -inches, but there is, among several others, a small intensely-green -form (_Phyllodoce viridis_) about two inches long, to be found among -the roots of weeds on low rocks. As this is very slender and of -thin texture, it can be well examined under the one-inch power of -the microscope, when the rowing action of the gill-leaves, and the -extrusion and withdrawal of the bundles of crystal bristles will be -seen. - -[Illustration: RAINBOW LEAF-WORM.] - -[Illustration: PEARLY NEREIS.] - -Another family of these tubeless worms is represented in the Sanguine -Eunice (_Eunice sanguinea_), of which specimens may be found a couple -of feet in length, and of considerable thickness. It is green in -colour, but the gill-plates are of a glowing blood-red. One edge of -these plates is cut up after the fashion of a comb; and its head -is ornamented by fine antennæ. M. Quatrefages has left a graphic -description of this worm under the microscope, and as that account has -not been greatly hackneyed, I reproduce part of it here. He says: “We -have just placed upon the stage [of the microscope] a little trough -filled with sea-water, in which an Eunice is disporting itself. See -how indignant it is at its captivity; how its numerous rings contract, -elongate, twist into a spiral coil, and at every movement emit flashes -of splendour in which all the tints of the prism are blended in the -brightest metallic reflections. It is impossible, in the midst of -this tumultuous agitation, to distinguish anything definitely. But it -is more quiet now. Lose no time in examining it. See how it crawls -along the bottom of the vessel, with its thousand feet moving rapidly -forwards. See what beautiful plumes adorn the sides of the body; these -are the branchiæ, or organs of respiration, which become vermilion as -they are swelled by the blood, the course of which you may trace all -along the back. Look at that head enamelled with the brightest colours; -here are the few tentacles, delicate organs of touch, and here, in the -midst of them is the mouth, which, at first sight, seems merely like an -irregularly puckered slit. But watch it for a few moments; see how it -opens and protrudes a large proboscis, furnished with three pairs of -jaws, and possessing a diameter which equals that of the body within -which it is enclosed, as in a living sheath. - -“Well; is it not wonderful? Is there any animal that can surpass it in -decoration? The corselet of the brightest beetle, the sparkling throat -of the humming-bird, would all look pale when compared with the play of -light over the rings of its body, glowing in its golden threads, and -sparkling over its amber and coral fringes. - -“Now let us take a lens of higher power, and move the lamp in such a -manner as to let its rays fall on the reflector of our microscope, -and examine a few of the hairs taken from the sides of the Annelid we -have been describing. To the outer edge of every foot are appended two -bundles of hairs (_setæ_); these are far stiffer than ordinary hairs, -and appear to be placed on either side of the animal to defend it from -its enemies. A moment’s consideration will suffice to confirm this -view, for there is perhaps scarcely a weapon invented by the murderous -genius of man, whose counterpart could not be found amongst this class -of animals. Here are curved blades, whose edges present a prolonged -cutting surface, sometimes on the concave edge, as in the yatagan of -the Arab, sometimes on the convex border, as in the oriental scimitar. -Next we meet with weapons which remind us of the broad-sword of the -cuirassier, the sabre, and the bayonet; here are harpoons, fish-hooks, -and cutting blades of every form, loosely attached to a sharp handle: -these moveable pieces are intended to remain in the body of the enemy, -while the handle which supported them becomes a long spike, as sharp as -it was before. Here we have straight or curved poniards, cutting-bills, -arrows with the barbs turned backwards, but carefully provided with a -sheath to protect the fine indentations from being blunted by friction, -or broken by any unforeseen accident. Finally, if the enemy should -disregard his first wounds, there darts from every foot a shorter -but stronger spear, which is brought into play by a special set of -muscles, so soon as the combatants are sufficiently near to grapple in -close fight.” - -From the use of the word “feet” in the foregoing it must not be -inferred that worms have true jointed feet, like those of crabs or -insects, for instance. What are sometimes spoken of as feet in the -case of the worm-class are lateral warts, which carry glassy and -elastic bristles in little bundles, like paint brushes; and these are -partially withdrawn into a sheath, or pushed out and used like oars -with a rowing motion that, all moving rhythmically, send the creature -along very speedily, especially when burrowing in sand or mud. To -such of my readers as possess a microscope I would advise the careful -examination of these bristles, their variety of form, as mentioned by -M. Quatrefages, will afford subjects for considerable study; though it -is open to doubt whether they are ever used for offensive or defensive -purposes. - -There is a family of these Sea-worms whose members are mostly -characterised by the possession of broad overlapping scales upon their -backs, and beneath these are the rudimentary gills, the plates being -evidently intended to create currents to supply the blood with oxygen. -Two of the most-likely-to-be-met-with of these are _Polynoe squamata_ -and _P. cirrata_. The former is uniformly pale brown on the upper side, -completely clothed with the large, loose-looking scales, beyond which -the three pairs of tentacles, and the lateral organs of touch (_cirri_) -project. It is not easy to examine this creature closely whilst it -is in a living condition, it is so sensitive to the light, and ever -seeking to avoid it. Its chief concern is, “where can I hide?” It -possesses four eyes, and its scales are delicately fringed. _Polynoe -cirrata_ is larger, darker, and its feet protrude further beyond the -edge of the scales. - -The Sea-mouse (_Aphrodita aculeata_) belongs to this section. It is a -species that prefers deeper water, but sometimes comes to shore with a -heavy sea. In addition to its scales the arched back is covered with a -thick brown felt, thinner in the middle, from which emerge long brown -bristles and hairs of yellow and green, that are also iridescent and -reflect all the colours of the spectrum. - -All the worms we have been considering belong to the Class Annelida, -the true worms, with their bodies formed of a long series of rings -or segments. There is another group of worms, belonging to the Class -Turbellaria, of much lower organization, and generally spoken of as -Planarians. Most of them are thin textured creatures that appear -capable of almost indefinite expansion, and, on the other hand, they -have the power of contraction to a mere speck of jelly. Their voracity -is in inverse proportion to their size; and the mouth is situated on -the middle line of the under surface, usually not far from the centre -of the body, and opening directly into the stomach. The whole of the -body is covered with very fine cilia, by whose movements they appear to -owe their power of gliding and swimming. Some of them have a pair of -tentacles, though in some instances these are little more than backward -folds of the body, and on them or in their neighbourhood is frequently -gathered a cluster, or two clusters, of eye-like sensitive spots which, -however, do not appear to be very perfectly fitted for visual purposes. -In some cases the mouth is the only opening to the organism, and has to -serve several purposes. - -The student who would collect and study the Planarians must be gifted -with patience and keen sight. The fronds, stems, and roots of seaweeds -are suitable places to examine; also the narrowest cracks and fissures -of slaty rocks, where there appears to be no room even for a fine piece -of tissue paper. Where such rocks show a loosening of the laminæ, break -a portion off by inserting the putty-knife and separate the flakes. You -will see some delicate specimens of the conventional worm-shape, but -very thin; you will see mere specks of almost transparent jelly. Lift -these off the stone carefully. How? Ah, that is a difficult matter, -for they are so soft that our clumsy fingers could do nothing with -them; but you must be prepared for this, and bring with you a clean -camel’s hair brush. With this you can pick them up, and by dipping it -into a jar of sea-water, and giving a quick rotatory motion to the -brush, the Planarian will be dislodged, and will probably settle on -the side conveniently for your examination of it with your lens. Any -slimy-looking spot of colour that appears upon a stone or sponge you -should attempt to move with your brush, and in many cases it will prove -to be a Planarian that may afterwards so expand as to surprise you with -its beauty. - -Sir John Dalyell, many years ago, described how he cut up a specimen -of the common Black Planaria (_P. nigra_) of our fresh-water ditches, -each portion of which became a complete animal; and upon this slender -basis appears to have been founded the statement, which is copied in -all the books, that worms of this class partly propagate by spontaneous -division, in addition to their interesting egg-laying. - -Dr. Collingwood, who has paid considerable attention to this -comparatively neglected group, doubts this, and I think with good -reason. He has never seen this division take place; and I would humbly -add that I have kept large numbers of the fresh-water species for -years, but never observed the phenomenon, though I have carefully -watched for and really expected it to take place--as such fission -undoubtedly occurs in the Sea-anemones. - -One of the largest and most conspicuous of our native species is -the Banded Flat-worm (_Eurylepta vittata_), which is marked with -longitudinal black lines on a whitish ground. It has a pair of -tentacles in front of the broad, flat body, which gradually tapers away -to a point behind. It has a large mouth opening near the centre of the -underside. - -A more worm-like group is the Nemertea, which is divided into genera, -founded on the number or absence of eye-spots. One of these is the -Red-faced Blind-worm (_Astemma rufifrons_), about an inch and a half -in length, with a roundish body, no eyes, and the mouth near the front -end. - -The Four-eyed Worm (_Tetrastemma quadrioculatum_) is similar in form, -but larger, thicker in the middle, and with four eye-spots arranged in -a semicircle parallel with the front margin. - -The Many-eyed Red-worm (_Polystemma roseum_) has a distinct snake-like -head and neck, with many eye-spots in groups around the margin of the -head and towards the neck, and in the latter there are two red spots -which appear to be hearts. Just below these is the mouth. Viewed -laterally the head is wedge-shaped. It is to be found in rock-crevices, -and among the rubbish at the roots of seaweeds on the rocks. - -The most marvellous, in certain respects, of all these worms is _the_ -Long Worm (_Lineus marinus_[3]), so long, indeed, that it is all but -impossible to give its measurement. It is extremely soft like the -others of its tribe, very narrow and quite linear, that is, slender -with parallel sides. You will probably find it--for it is fairly -common--beneath some deserted shell, resting for the day, away from -the light; and it will no doubt be twisted and tangled and coiled -upon itself in such a manner as would lead you to say--if you have no -experience of its ways--that it were impossible for it or any other -creature to disentangle it without many breakages. How any creature -can carry on the ordinary functions of life so tightly coiled and -twisted and knotted is a marvel. And yet, hopeless as the task of -disentanglement appears, _Lineus_ accomplishes it without any of -those strainings that the juggler puts on when he has been tied up by -the sailor, until the confining rope is all knots. Whilst it is day -the _Lineus_ has no particular desire to uncoil; he is happier as he -is, his enormous length more under control and, like an army that is -concentrated in one mass, is less open to the assaults of an enemy. -But when the fitting occasion has arrived, and _Lineus_ wishes to be -elsewhere, he solves your difficulties in a way you can scarcely -understand, though you see the whole performance. He simply unravels -himself; taking the right end of him, and applying a little pressure, -he glides off without any fuss, and you see that there is a flowing -motion of the black string; no untying, no contortions. He has uncoiled -about a foot of himself and laid hold of a stone, a shell, or a weed -that distance away, and to the horror of yourself, who hoped now to -be able to measure this animated bootlace, he has commenced twisting -himself into an equally hopeless tangle at the other end. - -[3] Better known by its former name, _Nemertes borlasii_. - -[Illustration: - BANDED FLAT-WORM. LONG WORM. -] - -He is so remarkably elastic too! You may look at this living Gordian -knot and see about a quarter of an inch of the head end protruding -from a tight kink; you may watch the kink and certify that no movement -takes place in it; yet the head moves away to a distance of five or six -inches, simply by the stretching and consequent attenuation of that -free quarter of an inch. - -The Rev. Hugh Davis many years ago contributed to the Transactions of -the Linnean Society an account of his dealings with this Planarian, -and as does not often happen to contributions to that useful but -technical work, it became much quoted. It was all sober fact, as became -the calling of the author and the character of the eminent society to -which he communicated the story; but we were greatly amused not many -years ago seeing Davis’ account of its length, etc., put forward as a -specimen of a “traveller’s tale,” drawn chiefly from the imagination. - -Later, but practically identical accounts have been published by Gosse, -Charles Kingsley, and others. Kingsley, if we remember rightly, had -to defend himself from the charge of shooting with the long-bow, or -“slinging the hatchet,” and in doing so he said there was so much -that was truly marvellous in Nature that it was unnecessary for an -author to invent lies wherewith to startle his readers. Yet the story -was too much for a well-known and generally well-informed science -lecturer, for on the editor of one of the snippety periodicals printing -Kingsley’s account with the sensational headline, “A living fish-line,” -and without acknowledgment of the source from which quoted, Mr. W. -Mattieu Williams, F.R.A.S., F.C.S., requoted it in his monthly “Gossip -on Current Topics,” contributed to “Science Gossip,” and headed it -“Munchausen Science.” He coupled it with what he called “an equally -sensational account of the latest method of disposing of the dead, by -electroplating the corpse,” and concludes, “It is not my wont to be -presumptuous, but in this case I do venture to suggest that for such -revelations the general title of Popular Science should be exchanged -for that which I have given, Munchausen Science.” Of course, Mr. -Williams was a physicist, rather than a biologist, but Dr. Taylor, -the editor, professed to have a knowledge of marine biology, and -how he could have let Williams’ strictures pass without comment or -explanation, is more wonderful than the account of _Lineus_. - -Davis gave up the attempt to measure the living _Lineus_, but when -it was dead he unravelled it without stretching, and found it to be -twenty and two feet long. He adds: “I give it as my firm opinion, that -I speak within bounds when I say the animal, when alive, might have -been extended to four times the length it presented when dead. It is, -therefore, by no means impossible that this most astonishing creature -may have been susceptible of being drawn out to the length of twelve -fathoms, or, according to the accounts of the fishermen, to thirty -yards or fifteen fathoms.” - -I would only add that from my acquaintance with the living _Lineus_, I -see no occasion whatever for taxing the Rev. H. Davis or Canon Kingsley -with exaggeration. Neither, I think, will my readers, when they have -read the following quotation from Prof. W. C. MacIntosh’s “Monograph of -British Annelida”:--“This is unquestionably the giant of the race, and -even now I am not quite satisfied about the limit of its growth, for -after a severe storm in the spring of 1864, a specimen was thrown on -shore at St. Andrews, which half filled a dissecting jar eight inches -wide and five inches deep. Thirty yards were measured without rupture, -and yet the mass was not half uncoiled.” - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -CRABS AND LOBSTERS. - - -The professional crab and lobster catcher has to provide himself with -“pots” and “hullies” for the taking and storing of his crustaceans for -the market, and ultimately the table. As we are concerned more with the -unmarketable smaller fry, to which the fisherman almost denies the name -of crab, we need no such cumbrous paraphernalia; our handy open basket, -with its stock of glass jam-jars, is all we require. - -Our occupation to-day consists in turning the large stones at low-water -in the “long drang,” and lifting the heavy tapestry of olive weeds that -covers the rocks. In this occupation we shall encounter several species -of the crab class, or the Crustacea, as naturalists term that division -of the animal kingdom which includes the crabs, lobsters, shrimps, -prawns, and barnacles. The crab and the lobster of the fishmonger’s -shop are creatures that, as adults at least, are chiefly found in deep -water, and therefore do not concern us much. But in seeking for other -sorts we shall turn out no end of young specimens of the Great Crab, -up to three or four inches across the longest part of his _carapace_, -as the upper “shell” of a crab is styled in the precise language of -science. As this Great Crab, from its occasional appearance on our -tables and its large size, is the best known of the whole tribe, we -shall do well to use it for a type of the Crustacea, and write a few -words concerning it. Any of these small specimens that we can catch -under the stones or in rock-holes will serve our purpose, and having -taken the precaution to hold his longest diameter between our thumb and -forefinger, so that he may not inflict a painful nip with his pincer -claws, we shall be able to examine him at leisure. - -The most striking feature of the Great Crab (_Cancer pagurus_) is -its heavy pincer-claws (_chelæ_), which in a really large male, or -Jack-crab, assume enormous proportions. I measured a specimen that a -few months since found its way to the cooking pot at home. Across the -back, measuring the “shell” only, it was ten and a quarter inches long -by six and three-quarters from back to front. I took no account of the -walking feet, but the big _chelæ_ measured sixteen and three quarter -inches from the root to the tip, and their girth at the thickest part -of the “hand” was eight inches and a half. One of these large specimens -of the Great Crab always reminds me of a well-baked pie, when I look at -him tucking his legs beneath his roof. It is not alone the substance of -his shell and the brown tint that suggests pastry, but there are those -deep lines in the frontal margin, marking off the “quadrate lobes” of -the scientific describer, that at once reminds you of the marks the -cook impresses upon her paste with a fork. Then, of course, there is -the pale undercrust; and the resemblance will be strengthened when you -observe the voracious Shore Crab, after dining upon a younger brother, -holding the empty carapace to his mouth in his pincer-claw, like a -piece of pastry, whilst he nibbles at the edge until it is all gone. - -So much for this fanciful notion; now let us to business. This shell -or carapace of the crab has no more than the merest superficial -resemblance to the shells of oysters or other shell-_fish_, falsely -so-called. Its relationship is much closer to the horny integuments -of beetles and other insects. These are formed of a substance called -_chitin_, and of _chitin_ also are all the hard parts of a crab -composed, with the addition to it, when in a fluid condition, of -calcareous matter, which hardens upon a short exposure to the air -or water. Where the limb is to bend the calcareous salts are not -deposited, so we find the joints covered with a membrane of soft chitin -alone. - -The Crustacea belong to that grand division of the animal kingdom -known as the Arthropoda, _i.e._, animals whose bodies consist of a -series of variously-shaped segments, the skeleton being external, and -giving more definite form to those rings, which are placed edge to -edge, and some of which have limbs attached to them. Taking a bird’s -eye view of the crabs, and seeing only the continuously solid surface -of the carapace, it would be difficult to accept this statement; more -especially should we stare hard at the crab’s back if we were told -that the typical number of such rings or segments in the Crustacea is -twenty (some authorities say twenty-one). But if we turn the crab over -so that we can get a fair view of his smooth white underside, we begin -to think there may be something in this ring theory after all, for the -undercrust is not solidly continuous like the upper, but marked off -by grooves to indicate the segments. The idea is that in the original -progenitor of the race the whole twenty segments were distinct and -had independent movement, but that in the process of evolution of the -various species it has served their purpose in life to have some of -these segments soldered together. And so in the many genera into which -the vast army of crustaceans are classified, we find great variations -in this respect; also in the various functions which the pair of limbs -or otherwise modified appendages that spring from each segment is -called upon to play. - -Under the carapace of the Great Crab are gathered together no less than -fourteen segments, nine belonging to the head and bearing appendages -transformed into eyes, antennæ, jaws, etc.; whilst five belong to -the trunk and bear the great _chelæ_ and the four pairs of walking -limbs. The remaining six segments belong to the tail (_pleon_), and in -the crabs are folded over under the united head and trunk. Among the -different groups of crustacea we shall find the widest variations in -the arrangements of these parts; even in different genera of crabs is -this so, as we shall see before we have left the long drang. “Glancing -along the whole line of limbs, as the outgrowths from the segments -have some right to be called, twenty pairs in number, we find them -successively devoted to seeing, feeling, and otherwise perceiving, -feeding, and presumably tasting, grasping and striking, walking -and digging, swimming and leaping. But although the order in which -they act may thus be generally stated, there is not unfrequently a -transfer of function from one part of the line to another. The feelers -may be employed to assist in swimming or climbing or clasping. The -mouth-organs of one group are the grasping weapons of another. The -walking legs of one set are elsewhere adapted for swimming. There are -also other functions conjugal or maternal, in which the swimming legs -or the walking legs may take part, while the breathing apparatus, -simple or complicated, may be connected with the mouth-organs or -limbs of the trunk or both, or else with the swimming organs of the -tail-part, commonly called the pleon.”--(_Stebbing._[4]) - -[4] History of Recent Crustacea: International Scientific Series, 1893. - -What may be called the personal or life-history of the Great Crab -is a scientific romance. Once upon a time there was a grotesque sea -monster--as big as the head of a good-sized pin--that resembled in -a small way a German soldier’s spiked helmet, with a couple of huge -eyes in front of it, a long jointed tail behind it, and a few bristles -around its edge. This creature naturalists recognised as a distinct -species, to which they gave the name _Zoea taurus_. It was first -taken from the sea by a Dutch naturalist, one Martin Slabber, in the -year 1768, but his account was not published until ten years later, -whereupon Bose created a new genus to receive the little oddity. Then -there was another sea creature, not much larger, but having a distant -resemblance to a lobster, and for this form Leach founded his genus -Megalopa. Now it chanced that an Irish naturalist, Mr. J. Vaughan -Thompson, nearly fifty years later, thought he would like to verify -Slabber’s observations, and he searched for the supposed-rare _Zoea_, -and found it in profusion. He watched its progress in life, and lo! -he beheld _Zoea_ cast its skin and became at once a _Megalopa_. This -was sufficiently startling, when the best authorities had agreed that -the Crustacea went through no metamorphoses whatever; but continuing -to watch and observe, Megalopa was found at its next moult to assume -an undoubted crab-shape, and its progress thereafter revealed what has -ever since remained one of the most important facts of crustaceology, -that no such _species_ as _Zoea_ and _Megalopa_ exist, but that these -_forms_ are mere stages in the development of a crab. - -As the crab grows and gets too large for its shell, the difficulty of -stretching or otherwise increasing the capacity of such a strong-box -arises. It cannot be met as in the case of mollusks, by the simple but -sufficient method of increasing the length and breadth of the shell by -adding new shelly matter to the edge; because the principal part of -the crab’s internal machinery is in that part of his shell that has no -proper edge. There is no help for it--he must do as man does when his -garments get too small to accommodate his growing body and lengthening -limbs: he gets a new suit. But a glance at his armour-plated condition -would suggest that the most difficult part of the business would be, -how to get out of the old suit! It might not be such a hopeless task -if his limbs were straight and of equal thickness throughout; but in -every case the joints are very much narrower than the rest of the limb. -Yet, in spite of this difficulty, by the shrinking of the body and its -limbs, and by the dissolution of partnership between the upper and -lower crusts, the crab, clad in a kind of parchment suit, comes clean -out, and leaves his old clothes intact, even to the coverings of the -eyes, the antennæ, and the old jaws and mouth-fittings. When the crab -emerges from his old home, he is, strange to say, much bigger than that -empty presentment of himself, and you might as well attempt to put back -the chick into the eggshell it has just vacated as to squeeze the soft -crab into his old husk. - -Very probably my reader will be so fortunate in some of his captures -as to take a specimen that is on the eve of casting his shell. He may -see, as I have several times seen, the whole process, and be rewarded -with a beautifully clean cabinet specimen of the crab’s shell, perfect -in every part. It only requires careful rinsing in _fresh_ water, and -drying on a blotting pad away from the sun or heat, and is then ready -to label and put away. - -Many human creatures when they chance to get a new “rig-out”--to use -a nautical expression--are only too anxious to appear in public, that -the cut and colour and pattern of the garments may be admired, and the -wearer--if of the fair sex--envied; but our crab’s paramount desire -is to get into a deep dark hole in the rock, or under a stone, and -hide himself. It is not modesty or shame that thus impels him to hide -the newness of his coat, but the knowledge that he is a wee bit soft, -and too new to meet his own brother, who would instantly improve the -occasion by eating him. He would not like his own brother to be guilty -of the hideous sins of fratricide and cannibalism at one gulp, and he -feels it his duty as his brother’s keeper to put temptation out of his -way by seeking seclusion, until the new crust has set firm and hard. - -Here, in this drang, you may frequently find a soft crab in a hole, -awaiting the hardening process; you may as frequently find a hardened -one, or a lobster. They are, in fact, generally of a retiring -disposition, except when looking for breakfast. Then they quit their -holes and cavernous recesses, and come out on the open rocky bottom -where the crabber has dropped his row of “pots,” each with something -high and “gamey” skewered within. Of such a full bouquet is this -bait--delicious to the olfactory apparatus of the crab--that he scents -it from afar, and rapidly makes a one-sided progress to the string of -pots. There, within, are the lumps of delight in the shape of split -wrasse, and the osier bars of the pot are so conveniently arranged -that he can easily ascend to the top, and more easily descend to the -interior through the tubular opening. The prevailing notion is that -these pots are so constructed that it is well-nigh impossible for a -crab to get out again; but this is not so, and the fishermen know they -must go round every morning whilst the crab or lobster is still at -breakfast on the savoury viands they have provided, and haul their pots -before he has thoughts of finding the way out. Improved pots have been -invented, from which it is impossible for a crab or lobster to escape, -but the fisherman is extremely conservative, and sticks religiously to -the ways and means of his father’s great-grandfather. - -Having taken his captures from the pots and thrown them into the bottom -of his boat, the fisherman rows with them to a protected area of -deep water near the shore, in which each of the crabbers keeps his own -store-pot or _hully_, and hauling his own particular hully, puts his -new captures in. This he will continue to do perhaps till the end of -the week, or until the merchant comes round with his boat to buy. - -Now, having spent so much time over _Cancer pagurus_, we must leave -him, and pay some brief attention to other members of his family--of -small concern in the crabber’s eyes, but of equal interest to the -student of nature. Under the overhanging masses of _Fucus_ that drape -the rocks, in the smaller holes of those rocks and among the stones on -the floor of the drang, we are bound to meet with innumerable specimens -of two crabs that possess no English name. It is true that if you ask -the boys of the place whom you will find at times among the rocks (and -they are the most reliable of local informants on such matters), they -will tell you, with a flavour of contempt for the crabs, that these -are “devil crabs;” but later on you will find that this term is not -specific but generic, for they apply it to several species that are -worthless in their eyes. In a similar mood, the adult fisherman will -tell you they (and a number of others) are “Zebedees or devil crabs.” -Well, Dr. Leach, who founded the genus in 1813, would probably have -called it yellow-crab in the vernacular, for he dubbed it _Xantho_, -in scientific language, from the Greek _Xanthos_, yellow. Many of us -are more or less colour-blind, and should therefore be careful to -abstain from dogmatism in relation to tints, but I should certainly not -describe either of the British species of _Xantho_ as being yellow, -although some specimens of _X. hydrophilus_ are certainly yellow_ish_. - -[Illustration: ZEBEDEE (XANTHO INCISUS).] - -_Xantho hydrophilus_ is rather an odd, clumsy-looking creature, owing -to the want of proportion between his trunk and the large pincer-claws. -The carapace is peculiarly wrinkled, and the margin on the outside -of the eye on each side (_latero-anterior_) is marked by four stout -triangular teeth. The four pairs of smaller legs (2 to 5) have a row -of fine hairs along the upper edge of each joint; and the fingers of -the pincer-claws are brown, the moveable one being also grooved on the -upper surface. Colour yellowish-brown with darker markings. - -_Xantho incisus_ is very like the last, and some specimens will prove -difficult to determine with satisfaction. The description of the -carapace and its toothed margin will apply equally to either species; -but the distinctive characters of this as compared with the last are -that (1) the fingers of the pincer-claws are _black_, (2) that they -are _not_ grooved, (3) the second to fifth pairs of legs instead of -having the fringe of hairs all along their upper margin have only the -third (or longest) joint of each leg so decorated. The second and third -points are, I believe, reliable--the first is not. I have seen many -specimens with the fingers of a paler brown even than the general hue -of the big claws, and have such a specimen alive before me as I write. - -[Illustration: HAIRY-CRAB.] - -In the course of our stone-turning we are likely to come upon a little -purplish-brown crab, about an inch across the carapace, and bristling -all over with hairs and spines. It is known to the naturalist as -_Pilumnus hirtellus_, but none of the writers on crabs appears to -have troubled about a popular name for it, so it is incumbent upon me -to supply the deficiency. For the purpose of communication with my -readers, I therefore dub _Pilumnus hirtellus_ with the nickname or -alias of Hairy-Crab. The front of the carapace is cut up into a number -of teeth much sharper than those of _Xantho_; in fact, in comparison -with those, these of the Hairy-crab are spines. One of these spines -protects the orbit of the eye, and there are four others on each side -between it and the base of the pincer-claws. The pincer-claws have -a very robust appearance in comparison with the size of the trunk, -being thick and rounded; one is usually larger than its fellow, but -it may be either the right or the left. The smaller of the two is -covered with tubercles on the upper parts, the larger is smooth. The -smaller legs are very hairy indeed, and similar hairs are scattered -over the carapace among the short down with which it is covered. It is -common all along the Southern and Western coasts of England and around -Ireland, under stones at low-water, though by no means so abundant -as _Xantho_, and others we have to mention. Bell, in his “History of -Stalk-eyed Crustacea,” almost seems to question Dr. Leach’s statement -that it is found at low tide mark, for he adds, “those which I have -obtained have been from deep water.” Dr. Leach, however, was quite -correct in his statement, and Bell could easily have substantiated it, -as we have done. - -We shall not be long at our work before we meet with far too many -examples of the Common Shore Crab, Green Crab or Harbour Crab -(_Carcinus mænas_); young specimens of which will scuttle away sideways -with marvellous alacrity, but bigger examples will at once put up their -heavy hands and challenge us to fight. Everybody that has been to the -sea-shore knows this crab, for even if entirely void of curiosity as -to the wonders of the shore, _Carcinus mænas_ will not be ignored. -Whether the shore be sandy or rocky, or of that nondescript character -that pertains to many harbours, a mixture of sand, stones, and domestic -rubbish, this crab will be seen strolling along at a little distance -from the water. All know its mottled greeny-yellowy-brown back, and the -strength of its sharp nippers! There is only this one member of the -genus, so that there is little danger of confusing it with its nearest -relations. It most closely resembles certain of the swimming-crabs -(_Portunus_), to be described hereafter, but may be readily separated -from them by glancing at the terminal joint of the last pair of feet. -In _Portunus_ this is flattened out as though it had been beaten on an -anvil until it was very broad and very thin, to serve as a swimming -plate. In _Carcinus_, though the smaller legs are obviously compressed, -this last joint of all is stout and runs off to a rounded point, more -suited for obtaining a good hold of a sandy bottom than for swimming. -We shall find it frequently under both weeds and stones. It is an -omnivorous feeder, accepting fish, flesh, or fowl; stealing bait from -the fisherman’s lines and from his crab-pots, disfiguring the fish -which has been already caught on spillers, and, worse than all, causing -great havoc among the young oysters that have been laid down in the -beds, by eating them, shell and all. They are said to form an important -article of food along the shores of the Adriatic, and they were at one -time not unknown in the London markets. Leach says that in his time -(early in the century), immense quantities were eaten by the London -poor. Whether there is any considerable trade of this kind now I do -not know; but I remember how more than thirty years ago I considered -them very sweet and toothsome, and used to go as a boy to buy them, -all alive, of an old woman in one of that intricate maze of courts and -alleys that then existed where now the Royal Courts of Justice stand. -I think they were sold at about eight or ten for a penny. Had they not -been sold alive I should probably never have desired to have them. - -[Illustration: VELVET FIDDLER.] - -When throwing aside the heavy bunches of _Fucus_ that hang over the -rocks, in order that we may see their surfaces, we shall catch sight -of a more pugnacious crab even than _Carcinus_, leaping, rather than -running sideways, with such rapidity that we need to be smart to catch -it. Aye, and we need to have a little nerve, or the Velvet Fiddler -will alarm us into letting him pass into the oblivion of the seaweed -jungle, or one of those rock-crevices which always seem to be in the -right place to afford sanctuary to a poor hunted crab. Most crabs -are so flattened that these cracks seem specially provided for them, -whereas the evolutionist will tell you it is the rock-haunting crabs -that have become specially adapted to find salvation in these asylums. -This is the crab we alluded to especially when speaking of the -likeness between the swimming-crabs (_Portunus_) and the Shore Crab. -The Velvet Fiddler (_Portunus puber_) is one of the swimming-crabs; -this may easily be seen on reference to the hindmost pair of legs, -as already indicated. The Velvet Fiddler gets the two words of his -queer name from two distinct characters. He is clad in a dingy suit of -velveteen, which appears to be much the worse for wear--rusty, and in -places the nap is worn right off, probably by too much squeezing into -tight places in the rocks. On his limbs the velveteen is marked in -such definite patterns, that we feel inclined to abandon the hard-wear -theory, and to fall back upon one of natural artistic adornment. He is -really a very fine fellow; his legs being covered on the upper sides -with this velvet pile, with the exception of certain longitudinal -raised lines of polished blue-black. The square-looking back of the -carapace has a similar smooth raised border, with two raised lines of -the same character below it. Then all the smaller legs have the longest -joint fringed along the upper edge, but the hindmost pair in addition -have a close broad band of stiff feather-like fringe standing out -all round the three last joints. The last two of these are flattened -out to such an extremity of thinness that there seems to be no room -for living flesh within. The pincer-claws are not so heavy or robust -as those of the species we have already considered. They are more -uniform in thickness, more elegant in their slim tapering, so that the -members of this genus are often called Lady-crabs. The upper surface -is velvety, picked out here and there with blue, and the hand, with -its fixed nipper, is decorated below with white and blue tubercles. -The moveable nipper is finely ridged, and both of them have a fine -row of teeth. Then these pincer-claws are well-armed with long sharp -spines; the _antero-lateral_ margins of the carapace are finished off -with five sharp curved spines on each side, and the space between the -eye-orbits are similarly protected, but with thinner, straight spines. -The large round eyes are a pair of gleaming rubies, and the tough skin -that hinges the joints of the limbs together is of the same hue as the -eyes. Such is the appearance of the living Velvet Fiddler; the museum -specimens lack much of his brightness and beauty. - -The name of Fiddler has been given to him, according to Mr. Gosse, -“because the see-saw motion of the bent and flattened joints of the -oar-feet is so much like that of a fiddler’s elbow.” You will, I am -sure, agree that this is a satisfactory explanation when you see the -Velvet Fiddler flinging these feet about in a perfectly unnecessary, -and ineffectual manner, considering that he is out of water. When -we disturb him during our exploration of the drang, he puts up -his pincer-claws in similar fashion to the tactics adopted by the -Shore Crab; but we are not to be alarmed in that manner. Pretending -to hit him between the eyes with one hand, we slip the other behind -him, and catch the longest part of his carapace between our finger and -thumb, and his kicks and threats are thrown away. - -There are seven other species of Swimming-crabs belonging to this -genus, _Portunus_, found in British waters, but as they all inhabit -deep water, and can be obtained only with the dredge, or by arrangement -with the crabbers, who regretfully find them in their pots, they are -not likely to thrust themselves on the notice of the shore-naturalist. - -Gazing into the rock-pools, an observer who was acquainted with -molluscan life, but not with the Crustacea, would be astonished at the -marvellous rate at which winkles, dog-whelks, tops, and other shells -move over the bottom; but if he lifted one of these he would discover -that the builder of the house had given up possession, and a tenant had -taken it for a term. This tenant is one or other of a dozen species -of crabs known indiscriminately to the great British Public as _the_ -Hermit Crab or Soldier Crab. The fact that it shuts itself up in a -solitary cell is sufficient to account for its name of Hermit-crab; and -a strong tendency to wage war upon a fellow crab, who may live in a -slightly larger shell, is probably the reason for its military name. -The Hermit-crabs are among the curiosities of crab life--though for -the matter of that, so are all crabs. If there were but one species, -we could say it was singular in the fact that the carapace is reduced -to the smallest proportions, and the greater part of the crab’s body -without a shell of its own secretion. Nature has been unkind to it in -this respect, so the first thought or prompting in the baby Hermit -is to look around for a deserted gasteropod-shell. It must be an -exceedingly small one to fit him, but he will find plenty such. It has -been a matter for considerable debate whether the Hermit is content -with an abandoned shell, of which the builder is dead, or whether he -first murders and eats the original owner, and then takes possession -of his victim’s real estate. It is remarkable that naturalists should -raise such a question, for anyone who has had any acquaintance with -mollusks must know that if a Hermit-crab were to kill, say a Purple, a -Top, or a Winkle, he would not be able to get the dead body cleaned out -of the shell until putrescence had loosened the muscular attachment. -The Hermit could not wait for this process, and therefore I imagine -this theory must stand aside until observers have actually seen -the crabs in a state of nature forcibly ejecting the mollusk, and -appropriating its shell. But it is pretty certain that the Hermits do -rob each other of desirable shells, not always with good judgment. -A Hermit in my possession lived in a large Top-shell, but coveted a -smaller, though large Winkle-shell, which was inhabited by a brother -Hermit. For about a week these two were dodging and chasing each other, -but to no purpose, for each is powerless to make any impression when -the other suddenly shuts himself in his shell with a snap, leaving only -the tips of his claws blocking the entrance. However, by some means he -got his brother ejected, and eaten by a Shanny; he quitting his own -commodious Top-shell and putting on the Winkle-shell. He was evidently -trying hard to persuade himself that it was a splendid fit and most -becoming; but the whole business was absurd. The shell was so small -that it did not protect his soft parts, and in case of danger he could -not defend himself from an attack in the rear. To add to his troubles -he cast his natural shell, and was, of course, much larger than before. -For a day or two he still pretended that he lived in a sufficiently -roomy house; then I suppose the pressure on his abdomen became awkward -at dinner time, for he publicly owned up that he had committed an error -of judgment, quitted the Winkle-shell, and resumed possession of his -old top-coat, though this necessitated another murder. After he had -vacated it a much smaller individual took possession, but as he fitted -very loosely it was no very difficult matter for the previous owner to -have him out “by the scruff of his neck,” and give him his quietus. - -The most familiar of the Hermits is _Eupagurus bernhardus_, the Common -Hermit-crab, but we are not likely to find full-grown individuals, -which keep out in deep water. When full grown, they are about five -inches long, and house themselves in large Whelk-shells. The characters -by which this species may be distinguished are: the right pincer-claw -(_cheliped_) is usually much larger than the left, and the plentiful -granulations of its surface are almost large enough to be described -as tubercles; the last joints of the second and third pairs of legs -are edged on the upper side with spiny teeth, and they are a wee bit -twisted. - -Prideaux’s Hermit-crab (_Eupagurus prideaux_), is so-called because -Dr. Leach, who first identified it as a species distinct from _E. -bernhardus_, received it from his friend Prideaux, who had taken large -numbers of it in Plymouth Sound. The granulations of the pincer-claws -are much smaller than in _bernhardus_, and whereas the next joint -to the pincers in the latter species has its inner margin decorated -with a row of spines, those in _prideaux_ are innocent tubercles. -Then, again, the second and third pairs of legs are nearly smooth, -and their last joints have no twist, but instead have a groove -carved in each side; the eye-stalks are stouter and the inner antennæ -longer than in the Common species. It does not attain such large -proportions as _bernhardus_. An interesting point in the natural -history of _prideaux_, is the friendly relations subsisting between it -and a peculiar species of anemone--the so-called Cloaklet (_Adamsia -palliata_)--which attaches itself to the shell serving as the Hermit’s -cell, and spreads its base out in two lobes, that almost encircle the -mouth of the shell. There is no doubt that this _commensalism_, as such -alliances are called by naturalists, is of advantage to both parties to -it: the anemone is thus brought into contact with food at the Hermit’s -own table, so-to-speak, and the crab may be in turn protected from the -cavernous jaws of fishes, whose gorge rises at the nauseous odour of -all anemones. Several such alliances are known in connection with other -species of Hermits. - -[Illustration: THE HERMIT-CRAB AND THE CLOAKLET ANEMONE.] - -To return to our overhauling of stones: this should be done with care, -especially when we are dealing with large masses. I have, when serving -my apprenticeship at this kind of work, years ago, had the misfortune, -on more than one occasion, to so miscalculate the weight and shape of a -large stone, that it has fallen with greater force and in a different -direction from that expected--and my toes have been on the spot where -it fell! But apart from such accidents, the stone must be turned -sharply, or the queer creatures which Nature has specially contrived -for living beneath it, will vanish into holes, under other stones, in -the sand or mud, or in some other manner. - -[Illustration: - - SCALY SQUAT-LOBSTER. BROAD-CLAW. -] - -Among those that require a sharp eye to see them is the Hairy Porcelain -Crab, Shaggy Flat-crab, or Broad-claw (_Porcellana platycheles_). -Here is his portrait, but it is only fair to the reader I should -explain that, like many other portraits, it was taken after the -subject of it had been carefully washed and brushed up. _Platycheles_ -is a ragamuffin, a crustacean mud-lark. There is none other like him -in the whole range of British crab life, though several are fond of -dressing themselves up in a variety of living rubbish; but they do -not get themselves so bedaubed with mud on a coast where mud has to be -searched for if wanted. He has really made it one of the objects of -his life to collect that mud, particle by particle, and entangle it in -the luxuriant crop of hair with which he is covered. He is a little -fellow--only measuring about half an inch from back to front edges of -the carapace--and I suppose, were he built upon the same plan as other -crabs, he would be smaller, if only the same quantity of material were -to be allowed; for he is flattened out, and looks as though he had at -one time formed part of a travelling show and the fat woman had sat -upon him. His body is flat, but his pincer-claws are flatter, and the -area of each of the latter is equal to that of his carapace; they are -enormous. And yet, if he had the sense to keep still when the stone is -overturned, you would probably fail to see him; he sits so tightly, -and presses the cleaner side of him to the stone. But he has that -fatal _crabbiness_, the desire to fight, and whilst he is sidling off -somewhere, he thinks he may as well give you a nip, and he puts up one -of his massive-looking pincers, and grips your finger with spirit. -With your other hand you grip the offending pincer, and say, “Aha! my -friend, you’ve caught a Tartar this time; let go!” He does, but instead -of loosing his hold on your finger, he just touches a spring or some -other mechanism, and separates his claw from his body without any -compunction whatever, whilst his other claws and his body go sliddering -off beneath the stone again. - -If you catch your Broad-claw young, you will find that his upper -surfaces are of a ruddy-brown tint, with hair to match, but when he has -got this well filled up with filth, he might pass for a daub of mud. -Hold him over on his back, if you can, and you will understand why he -is called Porcelain crab. He is smooth and comparatively clean beneath, -and his under surface is of a creamy-white colour. - -Broad-claw has an equally odd-looking relative, the Minute Porcelain -Crab (_Porcellana longicornis_), which really belongs to deeper waters -than our researches at present extend to, but one or two can usually -be found under, or among, the stones at extreme low tide. Its colour -is red, and its carapace comes very near to being circular. It has not -that depressed appearance that makes you pity _platycheles_ for having -to support such heavy stones upon his back; in truth, the circularity -of the carapace, its convexity, and the fact that it has some depth as -well as breadth, makes it appear almost rotund. Its larger pincer-claw -is almost three times the length of the carapace; the other about -one-third less, and not nearly so thick. They are both rugged in -character, and convex, the larger being slightly keeled on top, and -the lesser strongly keeled and grooved. The antennæ are very long, a -circumstance to which the creature owes its second name. There is very -little hair about this species, and consequently he is able to keep -himself clean and neat. - -In close alliance with the Porcelain-crabs is a group popularly known -(as far as they are known at all, which is but slightly) as Squat -Lobsters. They are not lobsters however, though the long slender -pincers, the elongated carapace, and the lobster-like tail all -contribute to the likeness. The most plentiful species is that figured -on page 148, with Broad-claw, viz.:-- - -The Scaly Squat-lobster (_Galathea squamifera_), which we shall find -freely under the stones at very low-water in our drang. He is a very -lively fellow, who objects to too much publicity, and is very anxious -to get into a hole or under another stone the moment you lift the roof -off his former retreat. He shoots backwards in true lobster fashion, -his pincers held straight out in front. If, however, you interfere with -his retrograde movement, the nippers will not be trailed uselessly, -but raised and brought into action. Like Broad-claw, he does not set -great store by a limb or two, and will willingly part with several as -the price of liberty. In colour, _squamifera_ is very dark olive, the -carapace covered with waved lines across it, said lines being evenly -fringed with short hairs. Similarly fringed scales occur plentifully -over all the legs. The carapace begins in front, with a distinct beak, -and an awful array of fixed bayonets. The first of these is a stout -sharp spine in the very front, and behind it on either side just above -the eyes is a series of four similar spines slightly curved, of which -the first is the largest, and the fourth very short. Along each side -of the carapace is a closely-set row of spines, and the outer edge of -the “hand” is protected in a like manner. The next three limbs have -smaller spines upon their upper margin, and of larger size, on what -might, from its apparent position, be popularly regarded as the knee. -All these spines, wherever fixed, agree in having red points. But -these particulars are not sufficient by themselves to distinguish this -species from certain of its congeners, and I am compelled to ask my -readers to enter into some minute, and I fear to them, tedious details -of description. Of the various appendages to the segments comprised -in the head of these crustaceans, some constitute the eyes, antennæ, -and jaws. Outside the jaws, and immediately between the pincer-claws -of _squamifera_, is a pair of appendages called the third pair of -maxillipeds or footjaws, with long hairy fringes to the extremities. -Study these carefully, for from these we can tell at once which of -three species we are looking at. Each of these mouth-organs, like the -larger legs, is made up of seven joints; but it is not always easy to -reckon these up from the base, because sometimes a joint is hidden or -coalesces with another. If now we commence at the other end, calling -the top-joint No. 7, and reckoning backwards, we shall have less -difficulty. To save further description, and to make easy of reference, -I have drawn up a table of distinguishing features for the British -species of Galathea:-- - - { Third footjaws } - { (_maxillipeds_) with } - Specimens having branch { 3rd joint shorter than 4th } _squamifera_ - (_epipod_) from basal { 3rd joint longer than 2nd } - joint of pincer-legs { - and two next pairs { 3rd joint equal to 4th. } _nexa_ - of legs { 3rd joint shorter than 2nd } - { - { 3rd joint longer than 4th } _dispersa_ - - Branch (_epipod_) from { } _intermedia_ - pincer-legs _only_ { } - - No epipods from either { 2nd joint longer than 3rd } _strigosa_ - pair of legs { } - -The Spinous Squat-lobster (_Galathea strigosa_) has spines on his hands -along both the inner and the outer margins; and the antennæ are so long -that if extended over the back they will reach for some distance beyond -the tail. Its colour is inclined to red, with spots and lines of blue. -These are the only two we are _likely_ to find in our stone-turning, -and even _strigosa_ appears to be more at home in deeper water. -According to Couch and Spence-Bate, _dispersa_ is the commonest form in -Cornwall below the low-water mark. _Nexa_ is also a deep-water species. - -At extreme low water (spring-tides) one may be so fortunate among these -rocks to come across a stray lobster or two. Just outside you can see -the corks which mark the ends of the long series of lobster pots that -are put down to catch them, so that it is not very far for them to -stray up to this level. I think my readers could be trusted to know -the Lobster (_Astacus gammarus_) if they saw it, without bothering -them with a description? Probably they would not be expecting to see a -creature with a coat of the same colour as the uniform of a grenadier -guard, instead of blue-black relieved on the underside by dull orange. -They may also be trusted to know the Spiny Lobster, Crawfish or Greek -(_Palinurus vulgaris_), with its very horrid carapace of purplish -brown, its lack of heavy pincer-legs, its red-tinted white legs, and -its long, thick and strong antennæ. If you do not come across either of -these at low-water, you may see them when the crabbers bring in their -catches. Their boats should be watched as they come in each morning, -for you can frequently pick up deep-water specimens of _Echini_, -spider-crabs, and so forth, that have dropped out of the crab-pots into -the boat. - -[Illustration: PRICKLY SPIDER-CRAB.] - -On our south-western shores you will see, brought in by the crabbers, -or occasionally at liberty among the rocks, a rough, long-legged fellow -called the Prickly Spider-crab, Corwich, or Gabrick (_Maia squinado_), -with a convex carapace of oval form, the broadest part behind. His -pincer-legs are but little thicker, though much longer, than the -others. On that account he is not greatly esteemed as merchandise, -but his flesh is far sweeter than that of the Great Crab. He is a -creature of slow and languid habit, who takes as much pains with the -“get-up” of his carapace as a lady does with her hair or her bonnet. -His notion is to make it look like a rough piece of rock, with its -characteristic flora and fauna, and to this end he takes cuttings of -plants, sponges, ascidians, and anemones, and giving them a lick with -his lips, as though they were postage stamps, he carefully sticks them -in the valleys between the spines and tubercles on his back, adjusting -them by means of his conveniently long arms. The seeker after zoophytic -treasures might look in many a worse place for them than on the -Gabrick’s back. - -We have now done as much as possible with the crabs of the rocky shore, -and must shift our ground for a while to the flat sands that run out -from the upper part of the bay, and taking advantage of the very lowest -tides, must go, armed with trowel or spade, to dig in the treacherous -sands. Many things we may find other than those we came specially to -seek, and those we specially want just now may not come to light; still -it is in the sand we shall find the Masked-Crab and the Angular-Crab, -if they occur in the district. - -[Illustration: THE MASKED-CRAB (MALE).] - -The Masked-crab (_Corystes cassivelaunus_) has a carapace that is much -longer than it is broad, almost elliptical in outline, and so marked -with depressions that some specimens present a remarkable likeness -to a human face, more especially so if the crab is held in a way -that will accentuate the prominences by casting small shadows. It is -prettily coloured with yellow and red. The male has deeper tints than -the female, and his pincer-legs are much longer than hers. Their habit -is to burrow into the sand in rather deep water, and lie buried, with -only the tips of their long antennæ at the surface. These antennæ are -furnished with a double row of hairs throughout their length, and by -placing the antennæ so close together that these hairs interlock, a -tube is formed through which the crab can draw in the current of water -necessary for respiration. After storms, great numbers of this crab are -sometimes cast up on the shore, dead. - -Another crab of singular aspect is the Angular-crab (_Gonoplax -rhomboides_), so-called on account of the many sharp angles of the -flesh-tinted carapace. Its pincer-legs look as though they had been -drawn out when the animal was soft, for in the adult male they are -quite four times the length of the carapace--in the female and young -male they are much less. Another distinction of the sexes will be found -in the colour of the moveable finger of the pincers, which is black -in the male only. The eyes are mounted on such long stalks that they -reach nearly to the sides of the carapace, which run out into a long -sharp spine at each front corner for the protection of the eyes. These -are mounted very much like the eyes of the Racer-crab (_Ocypoda_) of -other lands, and they are used for a similar purpose. The footstalks -are erected so that the crab can see over a wider extent of territory, -and behind as well as before. They appear to live in excavations in the -mud on our southern and western coasts. They are much esteemed as food -by various kinds of fish, and many specimens have been taken from the -stomach of the cod particularly. - -[Illustration: - NUT-CRAB. ANGULAR-CRAB. -] - -If it be desired to keep living crabs for the purpose of observing -them, a shallow vessel will be found the best; or at least, a vessel in -which they can easily get into shallow water. Provision should always -be made whereby a crab can climb right out of the water, yet so that -he cannot get out of the vessel; otherwise he will wander all over the -house, and either get stepped upon, or get dried up in some obscure -corner. It must be remembered that the crab consumes much oxygen, and -if specimens of any size are put into tanks containing more delicate -creatures, much harm may result. It should also be borne in mind that -they are of ravenous and omnivorous appetite, and your choice specimens -of soft-bodied creatures will not be held sacred by the crabs. We -should therefore advise a separate receptacle for crustaceans; and -some of the smaller, more delicate kinds, must be kept each in their -own vessels. The smaller species will probably be able to pick up -sufficient food from the minute animal and vegetable life of your -tanks, but the large ones will require to have food specially provided -for them. Small pieces of fish will be found the most convenient for -this purpose, and it will be more highly appreciated if it be not too -fresh. Like the slum-boy who could not relish farmhouse eggs because -they were deficient in flavour, the crab prefers his food to be kept -for a time. - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -SHRIMPS AND PRAWNS. - - -Popularly there are about three British species of shrimps, including -the Prawn; and the reader whose knowledge of our Crustacea is slight -will look for a very brief chapter this time. But he who has paid a -little attention to this group will know that we have a difficulty -before us in giving anything like a reasonable account of British -shrimps without the chapter running into a book. However, our task is -greatly lightened for us by the fact that many of these are to be found -only in deeper water than lies within the littoral zone, and therefore -must be excluded from our survey. By a course of proceeding then from -the known to the unknown, we would call attention to the largest of the -well-known trio. - -The Great Prawn (_Leander serratus_), which we fear is best known in -its brilliant red colouring, as seen on the breakfast tables of the -well-to-do, and in the shop of the first-class fishmonger. Neither of -these places offers great advantages for the pursuit of natural history -studies so far as the external appearance of living creatures is -concerned. It is in the rock-pools that we must make our acquaintance -with the noble Prawn in all the glow and glory of life and activity. It -is true he then lacks the fine colour of the boiled article, but he has -the greater beauty with which Nature has endowed him; and when you have -seen him in his native haunt you will confess that we have not misused -the term “noble” in applying it to the bearing of the Prawn. - -Not many years ago a learned Professor wrote a book on the sea-shore, -and in it stated, among many other curious things, curiously said, -that the Prawn could scarcely be called a shore animal except in its -younger condition. Probably he had got most of his natural history from -the University, and his Professorial dignity would not allow him to go -on hands and knees beside a rock-pool that he might learn of the living -creatures there: for in all the pools on a rocky coast, Prawns of all -sizes, including the giants of the species, are very plentiful. - -The young prawns, though somewhat lacking the grandeur of the older -ones, are more beautiful; their shelly armour is so crystalline, and -their flesh is so clear. But with adult-growth comes a thickening of -the armour-plates, and a very pale brown coloration produced by the -greater density of the muscular tissue with which it is principally -filled. You cannot help being struck with the pretty colouring of those -limbs which the late Thomas Bell called the Prawn’s hands; these are -the limbs that are furnished with nippers or pincers at their ends, of -which the Prawn has two pairs. The first two are very delicate organs, -and are only used for delicate work. The second pair the Prawn always -carries in front of him, ready for action, but the first are carefully -folded up and held close under the jaws. In an aquarium where you have -introduced a mossy-looking stone from low-water, you will see the Prawn -ranging over it and picking up with his smaller pincers some minute -objects that his eyes enable him to see, but which we cannot make out -without a lens. In the securing of larger masses of food the heavy -“hands” would be employed, but to convey small particles of the mass -to the mouth the smaller hands are brought into requisition, and very -daintily they perform their work. - -The Prawn resembles the crab in his bold, fearless spirit, and it is -of little moment to him how he comes by his food. In the rock-pools, -as in the aquarium, I have seen him pull some tit-bit out from the -depths of an anemone’s mouth without the slightest ceremony. He does -not quarrel--not a bit. He just walks up to the anemone, and keeping -his body clear of her tentacles by means of his spindly walking legs, -reaches to her mouth with his widely extended pincers--the larger pair. -There is such a matter-of-fact, business-like air about his action that -you would scarcely be surprised if you heard him say, “Hallo! what have -we got for dinner to-day? Young goby, eh! Thanks; I’ll take a little!” -and you see the luckless goby that has been stung by the anemone -quickly withdrawn from her throat and taken off to the Prawn’s den -beneath the big stone at the other end of the pool. In all probability, -if he has happened to arrive just too late, when the anemone’s meal has -entirely disappeared from sight, you will see him giving a sly tweak to -her tentacles. - -The young ones swarm in the pools, and you have only to disturb the -drapery of weeds that lines the wall to see a number of them come -out into the middle; but the big fellows, of four inches and more in -length, keep close, as a rule, in a hole or under a stone. Oftentimes -a huge stone that cannot be lifted will be found in a pool supported -upon other stones, or kept away from the floor by the concavity of the -bottom. A thin stick introduced beneath that stone and moved from side -to side will cause several splendid specimens to emerge from obscurity. -It now remains for the disturber of their peace to show his activity by -catching them: by no means an easy thing to do. - -I have already dealt in the previous chapter with the principle of -construction in the Crustacea, and the intelligent reader can easily -apply the description there to the case of the shrimps here. As in the -crabs and lobsters the eyes, antennæ, and various parts of the mouth -are all modified feet. - -[Illustration: THE PRAWN.] - -I would strongly advise my readers to catch a full-grown Prawn, kill it -by immersion in fresh cold water, cut the body through at the junction -between the helmet-like carapace and the first plate of the abdomen, -when the entire contents of both head and body can be cleaned out, -and the space filled with white cotton-wool. When thoroughly dry the -two parts may be reunited by a mere touch with Lepage’s Liquid Glue. -It would be well to do this in duplicate, and whilst still fresh to -take one specimen to pieces, and mount the various appendages on a -white card, gumming them down in their natural sequence. Leaving the -pear-shaped eyes where they are, we commence with the first or internal -antennæ, which we shall thus see has its basal joint spread out into -a broad scale which ends in a sharp spine at the side of the second -joint. It is in this basal joint that the Prawn’s organ of hearing is -contained. Spence-Bate and others have investigated this remarkable -organ in various species, and find there is a little chamber with a -slit-like opening, only to be seen when the creature has just shed his -coat of mail, at which time he picks up with his “finger and thumb” -a few minute grains of sand and carefully introduces them into this -auditory chamber, where they mix with some fine hairs or cilia, and -their agitation when acted upon by sound-vibrations transmits sensation -to the nerves. The third joint gives support to two lashes or “horns,” -one of which in this species is branched. - -The basal joint of the second antennæ also bears a flattened scale that -is enormous, being three-quarters of an inch in length and a quarter -of an inch in breadth. There is but one lash (_flagellum_) to this -external antenna, and this strong, long organ measures over six inches -in full-grown specimens; that is, one and a half times the extreme -length of the Prawn from the tip of the forbidding rostrum to the -extremity of the tail. - -We have mentioned the two pairs of “hands” (_chelæ_), and behind these -are three pairs of long and slender walking feet. Then, further back, -beneath the abdomen, there are five pairs of swimming organs, and to -these in the female the eggs are attached. The tail-fan must not be -forgotten; it is a beautiful and most effective organ. The four plates -of which it is composed are finely fringed with delicate hairs, and -are so hinged that they can be partially closed one over the other, -or fully expanded to have greater power when opposed to the water. -It is by means of this valuable organ that the Prawn takes those -astonishingly rapid backward leaps which make him hard to be caught -either by man or smaller enemies. - -Before leaving the Prawn, I would like to say that our portrait of -him does not pretend to show the length of his antennæ; and it would -be well to make clear how he carries so many to be useful to him. He -is always waving these about, and there can be little doubt that he -receives impressions through their agency, olfactory and otherwise. It -does not matter how far away a Prawn may be; if you give an anemone a -small portion of food, and there is a Prawn at the far end of the tank -he will know it, and will come prancing up to the right neighbourhood. -But his olfactory sense though it helps him to this extent, appears -to act best at a little distance from the fragrant object. I have -frequently observed a Prawn come quickly to the _locality_ where food -has been introduced and evince great excitement and interest; but his -sense has not been fine enough to tell him at once the particular spot -in the locality where it lay. I have on such occasions seen him walk -over what he was seeking, whilst his hands were nervously scraping the -ground and casting around for the delicacy he knew was close by. Now -this is the order of his antennæ-bearing: of the first or internal -antennæ that lash which has the short branch is carried half erect -pointing outwardly, the companion lash pointing forwards, so that he -cannot run against any obstruction without knowing it. The second or -external antennæ are borne with a slight curve forward, then far abroad -on either side. He is thus fairly guarded by sensitive organs well-nigh -all round. - -There are two other British species of _Leander_--_L. squilla_ and _L. -fabricii_--which occur in the rock-pools, and may easily be mistaken -for young specimens of _L. serratus_. The distinguishing feature is to -be found in that awe-inspiring, saw-edged rostrum that projects far in -advance of the Prawn’s head, and of which no one has yet discovered -the purpose. In the _bona fide_ Prawn this has a very decided curve -upwards all the way, and on its upper edge it has seven sharp spines -closely following each other, with an eighth lagging a sixth of an -inch behind the seventh, and really on the carapace, not the rostrum; -on the underside there are four close together in the middle, and a -half-hearted one midway between the first of these and the tip of the -rostrum. So much for the type; now for _L. squilla_. The rostrum is -almost straight with a slight upward curve towards its tip. Like its -big relative it has seven or eight teeth above, but _two_ of these -are really part of the carapace, and there are only _three_ spines -below. The second pincer-legs are not proportionately as robust as in -the Prawn, and the creature does not attain to more than half the -Prawn’s dimensions. _L. fabricii_ has the rostrum nearly straight, -with five teeth above and three beneath; in addition, this species has -the rostrum covered with a multitude of minute reddish dots. There are -similar dots in the Prawn, but none in _L. squilla_, with which it -agrees more closely in size. These two, with young specimens of _L. -serratus_, get mixed up and sold together under the name of Red Shrimps -or Cup Shrimps. - -There is a somewhat similar form called the Æsop Prawn (_Pandalus -montagui_). It may be distinguished by the fact that the carapace is -distinctly keeled along the foremost half of its upper part, and this -keel is continued forward as the rostrum, which is armed above with -moveable spines, while below it has five fixed teeth. The outer antennæ -are long, and marked throughout by alternate light and dark bands. -The inner antennæ have two lashes, the outer of the two thicker than -its fellow. The first pair of legs are _not_ furnished with nippers; -and the second pair are very unequal in length and stoutness. It is -reddish-grey in colour, dotted with a darker tint. Its length on our -shores, according to Bell, does not exceed two and a half inches; but -on the coasts of the United States it is said to attain to a length of -four or five inches. - -There is a beautiful little Crustacean, which may fitly be named the -Varying Prawn (_Hippolyte varians_); it swarms in certain rock-pools -and among the rocks at low-water. In such situations it is not so -widely distributed as some of the species we have named, but it is -worth looking for on account of its remarkable sensitiveness to the -colour of its surroundings. Specimens taken from a pool in which the -green _Ulva_ or _Enteromorpha_ is the prevailing vegetation are green; -but if transferred to a vessel containing only brown, red, or yellow -weeds, will in the course of a few hours be found to have changed their -colours to harmonise with their new environment. So complete is this -change that one can well understand how this shrimp may be commonly -distributed all round our coasts, and yet only known from a few -localities, because a careless observer would never see it. Like the -species of _Leander_ this has a rostrum--in this case quite straight, a -sharp point. On the upper edge there are usually four teeth, but this -number may be increased to five or even six; on the underside they -never exceed two, and there may be only one. - -[Illustration: COMMON SHRIMP.] - -Whilst referring to these little-known species of Prawns, we must not -forget to mention the very well-known Common Shrimp or _the_ Shrimp -(_Crangon vulgaris_), which affects sandy shores and rivers rather than -rocky coasts. The natural colour of the Shrimp before it has been in -the pot and made to reappear as the _Brown_ Shrimp, is a pale brownish -grey, thickly dotted with darker brown, which harmonises well with the -sandy flats on which it loves to live. Looking at this species we see -how great a finish is given to the Prawns by the possession of that -saw-edged rostrum. By comparison the Shrimp has a square front, which -is by no means so prepossessing. His eyes are not so distant one from -the other as are those of the Prawn, and only one pair of his antennæ -(the external) are at all long. There are three small spines on the -carapace, one on the middle line and one on each side. The first pair -of legs are stout, and what is technically described as _sub-chelate_, -those of the Prawn’s being _chelate_. The Shrimp’s nippers have not -got the well-formed moveable finger and fixed thumb of the Prawn, but -a moveable finger and a little stump upon which it folds down. I do -not pretend that it is not as efficient for the Shrimp’s use as the -better-looking contrivance of the Prawn. The plates of the tail-fan, -too, are narrower than those of the Prawn, but the swimming feet are -longer. - -Now these two things would lead us to suppose that the Shrimp depends -less on jumping back from danger than on swimming, and this is true. -If the Shrimp suspects harm he sinks upon the sand, and setting his -swimming feet rapidly to work they “kick up such a dust” in the water -that he is hidden in a cloud of fine sand, which as quickly settles -down and partially buries him--sufficiently so with his sandy hue to -effectually hide him. Upon those swimming feet the female carries her -eggs. From the fact that shrimps may be found laden with these eggs at -almost all seasons, it would appear that they have no special breeding -time; and this fact probably accounts for the endless supply of them. -In common with most other small Crustacea they are constantly preyed -upon by fishes, and we know something of the enormous mortality among -them caused by man, when we think of the heaps in the fishmongers’ -shops and in the baskets of the itinerant vendors in towns. But the -united efforts of man and fish do not appear to make them at all scarce. - -There are quite a multitude of distinct species of British shrimps, but -many of them keep away from the shore and are only caught in the dredge -or the trawl. Some others swarm after the bait in lobster pots, though -the lobster catcher does not want them, and does not even dignify them -with a name--scarcely notices their existence, in fact. There remain, -however, several species to which I must call attention, even though -my readers may have expected me to have exhausted the list long before -this. - -The Chameleon Shrimp (_Mysis flexuosus_) will be found in summer to -abound around the rocks and in the pools. It partakes somewhat of -the character of _Hippolyte varians_ in respect of colouring. If you -take it around rocks that are covered with the _Laminaria_ it is pale -brown, or darker if from among _Fuci_, and in the pools where _Ulva_, -_Enteromorpha_, and _Cladophora_ prevail, its colour will be a light -or dark green. It is a singular-looking shrimp on account of its long -and slender carapace and the cylindrical abdomen. It has six pairs -of feet, and not one among them all possesses a pair of pincers. The -external antennæ are very long, and each is accompanied by a long flat -scale similar to that of the Prawn’s. The eyes are large and very -prominent. The carapace is inclined to have a rostrum, but it is a poor -attempt, and does not extend to more than a third of the eye-stalk. It -is sometimes called Opossum Shrimp, because it has a peculiar pouch in -which the eggs are retained until hatched, and where the young pass -their early days. - -There remain several species which should more fitly be included with -the Lobsters, but from their small size they may pass muster with the -Shrimps. They are exceedingly interesting, even if we take but one fact -into account: their habit of burrowing in deep sand like mole-crickets. -Right back in the early days of the present century an enthusiastic -naturalist, Colonel Montagu, was digging for Razor-shells (_Solen_) in -a sandbank near Kingsbridge in Devonshire, when he had the good fortune -to turn up some things he was neither looking for nor suspecting the -existence of--as a matter of fact they were quite unknown until Montagu -unearthed them. Now here is encouragement for anybody and everybody who -turns over weeds, pries into rock-pools and crannies, or digs in the -sand for Launce or Razor-shells. You may or may not find what you seek, -but something of interest you cannot help finding, and it may be a new -fact--if not a new species. - -When Montagu published a description of his find in 1808--three years -afterwards--it was under the three-barrelled name of _Cancer Astacus -subterraneus_; but Dr. Leach, six years later, saw that it could not -go into the same genus with the crabs or lobsters, and he called -it _Callianassa subterranea_, by which name it has been known ever -since. So far the account is plain sailing enough, but to attempt a -description of _Callianassa_ is not nearly so simple. The carapace -is very small, with the slightest pretence to a rostrum, flattened -at the sides, rounded above. The eyes very small, like those of its -fellow-digger the mole, though more exposed than his. There are two -pairs of antennæ; the internal ones double. The first legs are adorned -with nippers, but they are very unequal in size, one being scarcely -larger than the second or third feet, and the other much larger than -the carapace, broad, flat, and hairy on the edges. On the outer side of -the arm of this big limb there is a process which looks like a reaping -hook. Now, the word _Callianassa_, I presume, is made up from two Greek -words (Kalli, anassa), signifying Beautiful Queen; but I fancy that -if a female monarch had one of her hands normal and the other bigger -than her chest and head combined, none but courtiers would flatter -her by declaring she was beautiful, and possibly they might be partly -actuated thereby through a wholesome fear of that big hand. However, -she is beautiful in respect of colouring--a fine bright pink, which -departs with life. The second pair of legs are small and terminate in a -little pair of pincers; the third have one finger which works against -the enlarged next joint; the fourth terminate simply in a claw; the -fifth in an intermediate condition as though the extremities intended -to develop into pincers. The seven-jointed abdomen is long, the fifth -segment broadest, from which it narrows gradually to the front, and -suddenly to the rear, where it is finished off with a tail-fan of four -plates. From a glance at the Beautiful Queen’s hands and with knowledge -of her burrowing habits, I should suppose that the bigger of the two -served the double purpose of a digger and a street-door; the latter -to keep enemies and prying intruders out of her burrow. Her majesty -measures about two inches in length, and her crust is very thin and -parchmenty. - -That was a day to be remembered by Colonel Montagu, for on the same -occasion he unearthed another burrower--_Upogebia stellata_--new to -science. This is more lobster-like than Callianassa in form, though -less so in size, for it is only about an inch and a half in length. It -is content with having pincers to the first pair of legs, and these are -nearly equal in size. All the limbs are liberally fringed with long -hairs. The carapace begins with a small and sharp rostrum. Dr. Leach -records it from mud in Plymouth Sound. Its colour is yellowish-white, -sprinkled with minute orange spots. - -And now, though we have by no means exhausted the list of British -species, we must close this chapter. It should be stated that all these -creatures go through a series of transformations similar to, but not -identical with, those marking the early life of the crab and lobster. - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -SOME MINOR CRUSTACEANS. - - -Besides the crabs and shrimps already enumerated there are to be found -upon our shores a great variety of smaller species of Crustacea, -representing widely differing tribes and orders. We cannot fill a phial -with water from a rock-pool without getting a number of specimens -of the crystal-cased water-fleas (_Entomostraca_), of which we are -probably already acquainted through several well-known fresh-water -forms. We cannot pull up a tuft of fine weed from the same pool but -we shall find on putting it into a tumbler of water that it harbours -a multitude of Crustaceans much larger than the water-fleas; and so -when we place in our aquarium a rough bit of rock, because it is the -resting-place of a tube-worm, an acorn-shell, or a patch of polyzoa, we -shall find it is also occupied by little shrimp-like, or woodlouse-like -creatures. There is every probability, too, that we shall get with -these the minute larval forms of crabs and lobsters. It is a delight -to introduce them in this way, and to be constantly making the -acquaintance of unsuspected inmates of an aquarium that perhaps only -holds a couple of quarts of water. - -Of course, there is no difficulty in collecting these smaller species -of set purpose, any more than there is in looking for anemones and -sponges; but whether the shore-naturalist seeks them or not, he is -bound to get a large variety. - -The majority of these will be species of the two important sub-orders, -Isopoda and Amphipoda, and one of the most conspicuous, because -largest, of them is the Sea Slater (_Ligia oceanica_), represented in -our next illustration. It will be found crawling up the perpendicular -faces of rocks about half-tide mark; and the finder will not need to -have explained to him the fact that it is related to the terrestrial -Woodlouse or Slater of our hedgebanks. The whole tribe have the -respiratory apparatus adapted for breathing air, but they appear to -require a damp atmosphere. - -[Illustration: SEA SLATER.] - -Among the fringing weeds of the rocks there will be found great numbers -of a lively creature of somewhat similar build to the _Ligia_, but very -narrow (oblong-ovate is the technical description), and without the -terminal appendages (_uropods_) of that creature. It varies in colour -from pale brown to a dark brown, perhaps mottled with black. There are -several British species, but the common shore-haunting kind is _Idotea -marina_. Its great variation has caused it to be called by at least a -dozen names. - -In turning over any organic remains above the reach of the waves, -we shall uncover swarms of the Shore-hopper (_Orchestia littorea_), -distinguished from the similar Sand-hopper (_Talitrus locusta_) by its -more compressed body, and by having both the first and second pairs of -feet clawed, whereas in _Talitrus_ the second pair are not clawed. - -Among the dried up, black-looking foliage of _Lichina pygmæa_, -which grows on the rocks that are covered only for a short time at -high-water, will be found the queer Isopod, _Campecopea hirsuta_, which -seems to mimic the plant that shelters it. They curl up tightly into a -ball, and roll about if dislodged. The projections at the end of the -body (_uropods_) help their resemblance to the _Lichina_. This species -must not be confounded with the similar and allied _Næsa bidentata_, -which has the sixth segment of the trunk much larger than the others, -and produced backwards in the _two teeth_-like processes, which -suggested its Latin name. - -If one is so fortunate as to get access to the rocks at the equinoctial -low tides, which are lower than the ordinary fortnightly “springs,” -he will see rocks covered with a muddy felt, much of which appears -to be the work of marine worms, who live in it. A portion of this -coating should be rapidly prised off with the putty-knife, and put -into a bottle of sea-water by itself. At the same time look for a -dirty-looking slaty rock, at the same level, and take off the upper -flakes, with their investing crust of acorn-shells, corallines, -zoophytes, etc. On this will almost certainly be found the absurd -acrobat or contortionist, the Skeleton-shrimp (_Caprella linearis_), -sprawling about, his walking feet on the extreme segments of an -extremely long and thread-like body. Here will, in all probability, -also be found a Crustacean with a body not more than half an inch -long, but looking much longer by reason of an enormous development of -its outer antennæ, which it flourishes about as though they were long -arms. The chief use it makes of these is as flails to thresh out its -prey, certain marine worms that inhabit the mud-felt to which we have -referred. By repeated heavy beatings on the mud with these antennæ, the -worms are induced to come outside their burrows to see what danger is -threatening them, and find out only too quickly. - -The first time I saw this remarkable creature, I was greatly moved -to mirth. I had wrested a flake of rock from a huge mass that was -ordinarily covered at low-water, but which now at the equinox reared -its head high above the waves, and exposed treasures in the shape -of the Globehorn and the Rosy Anemones. _Corynactis_ was growing at -the edge of this flake, which was placed near the glass of a small -aquarium, where it could be easily scanned with a lens. A few hours -later I took a glance at my Globehorns, and was astonished to witness -the activity and vigour of the varied colony that was settled on these -few square inches of stone. Several acorn-shells were in “full swing,” -a tube-worm (_Sabella_) had put out its plumes from the mouth of its -tube, a patch of polyzoa exhibited its crowns of prismatic tentacles, -a couple of _Caprellæ_ were sprawling around in an inebriated fashion, -whilst near one corner was the figure that chiefly attracted my -attention. _Corophium longicorne_ was standing erect in a mud-pulpit, -above the walls of which he was flourishing his arm-like antennæ as -he--a Crustacean St. Anthony--harangued the other members of the -community who appeared to be paying great attention to his discourse. -I felt that if I could but restrain my laughter, I should hear the -“thirdly, my brethren beloved,” and the telling sentence he emphasised -by a hearty smack on the pulpit; the ridiculous _Caprellæ_ profoundly -bowing in assent to his postulates all the time. - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - -BARNACLES AND ACORN-SHELLS. - - -Occasionally in strolling along a beach after a storm we shall -encounter some wreckage that came ashore with the last wave of the -incoming tide, and so failed to be washed off again. It may be a spar, -a rudder, a stern-board with a name upon it that tells a tale of a -vessel that has gone down. It may come in clean, with the splintered -wood looking as though just smashed, and we may judge from such -appearances how long it is since the catastrophe happened. On the other -hand, it may bear evidence of having floated in the sea for a long -period before getting into a current running coastwards. Such evidence -will consist in the wood being heavily soaked with water, or in its -surface being covered with hundreds of writhing snake-like creatures -with pale blue heads. We have met under such circumstances, with balks -of timber with scarcely an inch of their surface not covered with this -foreign growth; with casks on which they grew all round the edges of -the heads and the hoops. - -A few months ago there drifted into our “porth” a small keg-buoy with -a long thick hawser attached, and the submerged half of the buoy had -a fine crop of the writhing things hanging from it, whilst they hung -from the rope in clusters a few inches apart. The finder very kindly -hauled it upon the rocks, and coiled the hawser round it that I might -photograph the entire lot. As it lay there in the autumn sunshine it -looked a very pretty group, and I regret that the camera would not -reproduce the snaky movements, nor the fine colouring. - -Now the creature is no other than the Ship-Barnacle (_Lepas -anatifera_), one of the chief obstacles to speed in the old days of -“the wooden walls of England.” When a ship had made an ocean voyage -it was necessary to dock her and scrape off the enormous quantities -of Barnacles that not merely added to her weight, but offered strong -opposition to her passage through the waters. To-day, what with steel -vessels and patent anti-fouling compositions with which to paint the -ship’s bottom, the poor Barnacles find their world much narrower than -formerly, and with fewer openings for the enterprise of their race. -Should you come across such a barnacle-ridden waif of the sea, consider -it carefully. You shall find in it matter of interest, and, in addition -to its provision of something for your imagination to play round, in -your efforts to get a clue to the vessel of which the wreckage once -formed part, the life-story of the Barnacle itself is a romance. - -[Illustration: SHIP-BARNACLE.] - -Before we attempt to tell this story briefly, let us look at one of -the specimens before us. The long and evidently muscular neck ends in -a composite shell, which is seen to be composed of four portions, or -valves hinged together, opening in front, and strengthened at the back -by a fifth valve, a long, narrow, and curved piece. At short intervals -the two halves into which this “shell” is obviously divided part in -front, and out comes a mass of coiled up, slender, and hairy processes -which separate and uncoil as though attempting to catch some invisible -body, then coil up again and withdraw as though they had really caught -it and meant to keep it. Now this is the principal, one might almost -say the sole occupation of their adult lives, but writhing is another -to which they pay some attention. Probably it may strike you as a -monotonous, perhaps senseless way of spending one’s days; but it is -quite evident, from the great numbers of Barnacles crowded within a few -square feet, and all looking prosperous, that it is a paying game. - -It must be remembered that however clear and crystalline the sea-water -appears, there is really great truth in the remark of the scientific -luminary, who said that the sea was a kind of thin soup or broth, -holding enormous quantities of animal and vegetable matter in solution, -most of it invisible to the unassisted vision. Whoever possesses a -retentive hand like that of the Barnacle, has only to spread the palms -and fingers wide, then close them tightly, to have _something_ enclosed -therein. Such is the Barnacle’s experience; and it is by the mere -opening and shutting of his hand that he gets a good living. Strictly -speaking, this hand is _not_ his hand, but a number of feet and hands -which correspond with the limbs of the crabs, lobsters, and shrimps. - -Strange as the assertion may sound, unlike as the creatures appear, the -Barnacles belong to the same great class (Crustacea) as the animals -described in the last two chapters, though they are partly separated -from them and put into an order (Cirripedia) by themselves. No wonder -if you hesitate to accept this statement as a fact; you are in good -company, for no less a naturalist than the great Cuvier failed to see -the relationship. - -That this order is an important one will appear when it is stated -that the great Charles Darwin wrote an important work in two volumes, -devoted to the “recent” Cirripedes, and two other volumes on the -“fossil” species of the order. - -These Cirripedes are divided into two main groups--the pedunculated or -stalked Cirripedes, represented by the lively Barnacles before us, and -the sessile or stalkless Cirripedes, of which the familiar Acorn-shell -of the littoral rocks are the examples. - -Now these two groups may strike you as having little in common, and -yet their early history is practically identical, one group with the -other. Longfellow was quite right when he stated that “things are -not what they seem,” at least, they are not _always_ what they seem; -conversely, they do not always seem what they are. We must not be -content with taking a couple of creatures at one particular stage in -their existence, and say these organisms differ so widely from each -other that we must put them into equally widely separated classes or -groups; we must try to find out and compare all the stages in their -life-histories, before we can talk of separating or bringing together, -except in the most temporary fashion, there to be kept, as it were, -in quarantine until we have found out what we wish to know concerning -their antecedents. - -No one, until he had evidence of the successive stages in the life -of a butterfly, would dream of putting such dissimilar things as a -caterpillar and a butterfly into the same order; yet their wonderful -course of development was long ago traced out, and it is within the -power of any person to check off the whole progress from the batch of -elegant eggs laid on a cabbage leaf, through the ravenous worm-like -caterpillar stage, and the apparently inanimate chrysalis to the -beautiful white butterfly that can take no solid food, and which by -depositing another batch of exactly similar eggs, completes the cycle, -and so assures us we have made no mistakes in our observations. - -In a like manner we can watch the series of stages, utterly unlike -each other, through which a crab, a lobster, a shrimp or a Barnacle -passes before it attains the adult condition; and when we find the -early forms of the Barnacle agreeing in a very curious way with stages -in the life-history of typical Crustaceans, we are perfectly justified -in grouping them in the same class of animal life. We have, in fact, -pierced through the disguise with which some of the adult forms have -sought to hide their identity, and have found out their true characters. - -It must be confessed that the course of development in some of these -creatures partakes of the character of what has been termed “an -Irishman’s rise.” In the case of the caterpillar and the butterfly, -everybody recognises that development is progress, that the butterfly -is a higher being than the caterpillar. But in others development -spells retrogression. Such is undoubtedly the case with the Cirripedes, -and with certain crustaceans which lead the life of parasites. The -course of development in the Barnacles and Acorn-shells has been very -succinctly stated by Darwin. - -“The larvæ in the first stage have three pairs of locomotive organs, -a simple single eye, and a probosciformed mouth, with which they -feed largely, for they increase much in size. In the second stage, -answering to the chrysalis stage of butterflies, they have six pairs -of beautifully constructed natatory legs, a pair of magnificent -compound eyes, and extremely complex antennæ; but they have a closed -and imperfect mouth, and cannot feed: their function at this stage is -to search out by their well-developed organs of sense, and to reach -by their active powers of swimming, a proper place on which to become -attached and to undergo their final metamorphosis. When this is -completed they are fixed for life: their legs are now converted into -prehensile organs; they again obtain a well-constructed mouth; but they -have no antennæ, and their two eyes are now re-converted into a minute, -single, simple eye-spot. In this last and complete state, Cirripedes -may be considered as either more highly or more lowly organized than -they were in the larval condition. But in some genera the larvæ become -developed into hermaphrodites, having the ordinary structure, and -into what I have called complemental males; and in the latter the -development has assuredly been retrograde, for the male is a mere sack, -which lives for a short time, and is destitute of mouth, stomach, and -every other organ of importance, excepting those for reproduction.” - -In this early condition these Cirripedes much resembled the minute -so-called water-fleas that swarm in our fresh-water ponds and streams, -and when upon the point of their last change they laid their heads down -upon the spot selected for their future station in life. Then a natural -marine glue, that sets under water, exuded from their antennæ, and they -became fixtures, head downwards. The two valves of their old shells -were thrown off, and the new ones, largely composed of carbonate of -lime, grew up from the base. - -Some of the Barnacles on our buoy are apparently dead, and one of these -we can take to pieces. Taking off one half of the compound shell, we -find the creature attached to the floor of the chamber, evidently on -its back. From the upper end there arise the twelve limbs, six on each -side, and each one dividing into two branches, each branch a beautiful -feather with a wonderfully jointed, supple, purple-black stem, closely -fringed with purple hairs. It is from this plume-like cluster of -curling limbs that the order obtains its name (Latin, _cirrus_, a -curled lock of hair, and _pes_, a foot = curl-footed). - -When the shell opens and the trunk which supports all these limbs is -thrust forward, each branch separates from its fellows and becomes -almost straight, spreading out its hairs as widely as possible. Thus -extended, the entire plume of feathers sweeps through a limited space -of water, and many minute creatures are entangled in its hairs, and so -brought into the currents that flow towards the Barnacle’s mouth. - -Huxley has described the Barnacle as standing on its head and kicking -food into its mouth; but we question whether this partakes of his usual -accuracy of description. So far as we have been able to make out the -process, the food particles are strained off from the sea-water by this -exquisite net, and brought, not kicked to the mouth. - -It is to this plume of feathers that the Barnacle owes its specific -name, _anatifera_ = goose-bearing. It was formerly thought to be a -vegetable production, whose fruit, when ripe, gaped open, and dropped -out an embryo bird, which fell into the water and developed into a -Bernicle Goose. Gerarde, three centuries ago, wrote a wonderful and -circumstantial account of the whole business, which he declared he -had seen with his own eyes; and every writer of popular works on the -sea since then has seen fit to reproduce his account as one of the -curiosities of natural history. I have no intention of doing so, for it -is time it had a little rest after being so hard worked. For a similar -reason I have in this book utterly ignored Montgomery’s “Pelican -Island;” and the equally hackneyed quotations from Southey, Crabbe, and -Coleridge, that have been a boon to some of my predecessors in filling -their pages, I have also put upon a retired list. - -Cirripedes, not being so completely boxed up as the majority of -crustaceans, can enlarge their dwellings by additions to the edges of -the shells, and therefore do not need to throw off the entire envelope -from time to time. But it is difficult to entirely get rid of racial -characteristics, even when there is no special need to retain them; and -so we find the Cirripedes casting the skins of their bodies from time -to time, though the limy shell is made to serve for all their life. - -There is a smaller species of Necked Barnacle (_Scalpellum vulgare_), -the shelly portion of which, seen edgeways, looks like a penknife, -whence the Latin name. It is usually found growing among corallines; it -is figured in accompanying group. - -[Illustration: - - PYRGOMA. SCALPELLUM. PORCATE BARNACLE. - - ACORN-SHELL. -] - -There is a peculiar little Barnacle called _Pyrgoma anglicum_, which -is parasitical upon the pretty Devonshire Cup-coral (_Caryophyllia -smithii_). It is shown on the coral in the upper left-hand side of our -illustration above, and may be looked for in any of the localities -where this coral occurs. It attaches itself to the outer edge of the -plates of the corallum. - -Let us turn now to the more familiar Acorn-shells (_Balanus -balanoides_) that crust the rocks between tide-marks. We might have -used the expression “too-familiar,” for whoever has had to put a -bare foot upon them in bathing or swimming from the rocks, will have -had cause for remembering their sharp edges. It is not easy to keep -the Ship-barnacle in an aquarium; but a flake of rock, or a disused -limpet shell, crusted with _Balanus_, is conveniently kept in a glass -of sea-water, and will long continue at once a thing of beauty and -a wonder to friends who are ignorant of natural history. These are -sessile Cirripedes, that is, they have no stalks upon which to writhe, -but _sit_ directly upon the rock. - -If we scrape one of these Acorn-shells off the rock with our useful -putty-knife, we shall find that it has a thin base of shelly matter -upon which it reposes much as the Ship-barnacle does upon the floor -of its shelly chamber. But it will be seen that the sloping outer -walls of the Acorn-shell are firmly cemented together, and allow of no -movement; the top, however, is open, but the animal within is protected -by an interior door of four pieces, that opens in the middle like the -cellar flaps seen in connection with business basements. These doors -“butt” together accurately, and open easily by pressure from inside. -Then out comes a more beautiful and delicate “hand” even than that -of the Barnacle, for this is so fine and transparent that it looks a -thing of spun glass. There is the same movement as in the Barnacle, -the everlasting grasping at something, the opening and shutting of -the cellar flaps. Its earlier history is also similar to that of its -stalked relation. There is a larger species of Acorn-shell known as -the Porcate Barnacle (_Balanus porcatus_), the name having relation to -the form of the conical shell; porcate signifying that it has ridges -between the furrows that mark its outside. Other species, smaller, some -almost flat, will be found on some parts of our coast, but we would -refer our readers to Mr. Darwin’s work[5] for the further study of the -Cirripedes. - -[5] A Monograph of the Cirripedia, 2 vols. Ray Society. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII. - -“SHELL-FISH.” - - -One of the greatest hindrances to the unscientific, in the way of a -proper understanding of the true nature and relative position of many -forms of life, is to be found in our misuse of words--our poverty of -language, which compels us to make one word serve for quite dissimilar -and unrelated things. This unfortunate term, “Shell-fish,” which we -have felt compelled to put at the head of this chapter, in place of -the more accurate “Bivalve Mollusks,” is a case in point. I really -want a name that only includes these; but in order to be strictly -popular in my chapter-heads, I must use this very general term. Just -now I turned to a popular and portable dictionary to see what was a -familiar definition of the compound, and I read there, “Shell-fish, -testaceous mollusks,” but even for a popular explanation that does not -go far enough, for Shell-fish also includes crabs and lobsters, which -are not mollusks, but crustaceans. I daresay, too, that in a fishery -suit, if it served their purpose, lawyers would show plainly that it -embraced tortoises and turtles, which are chelonian reptiles. We are -all aware that in popular and legal language everything that comes out -of the sea is a fish, excepting the coral-polyp which everybody, except -naturalists, knows is an insect! - -What I really wish to make clear, after this little growl, is that the -present chapter will deal only with such creatures as are (like oysters -and cockles) sandwiched or boxed between two valves or half-shells, and -will not even glance at those mollusks that are contented with a shell -all in one piece; these are relegated to the next chapter. - -[Illustration: - SPINY COCKLE. BANDED VENUS. -] - -The Mollusca that actually live between tide-marks, though numerous as -individuals, do not represent many species; but those of which we may -find the recently-vacated shells, thrown up by the tide from greater -depths, will total up to a considerable number. The bivalves must be -sought for on sandy beaches and mud flats, especially at the mouths of -rivers. Most of them are burrowers, excavating a way by means of the -powerful foot with which they are provided. This instrument is well -seen in the Razor-shells (_Solen_), or the Cockles (_Cardium_), where -it reaches extraordinary development. Even where the animal lives far -beyond our limits in deep water we can, by a little thought, get some -notion of their habits by examining the empty shells that are cast -up within the littoral zone by heavy seas. Those that are fresh and -clean externally, though without any signs of wear from long washing -among the shingle, may be safely regarded as burrowers that habitually -lie beneath the sand or mud. These, too, will be found to have both -_valves_ of the shell almost, if not quite, equal in size and shape; -whilst those which, like the Oyster and the Scallop, lie upon the -sea-bottom, have very unequal valves, the under one being deeper and -concave, whilst the upper valve is flat and more brightly coloured, to -harmonise with its surroundings. Often, too, this exposed upper valve -will be crusted with acorn-shells, _Serpulæ_, _Sertulariæ_, or seaweeds. - -It may prevent confusion further on if we now say a few words by way -of defining the parts of a bivalve shell, its latitude and longitude, -and its relation to the animal whose vital activities produced the -valves. The Spiny Cockle, or Red Nose (_Cardium aculeatum_) of our -illustration, is on its back. If we were to take it, or any other -bivalve shell, and turn it the other way, so that the hinge connecting -the two valves was uppermost, we should have it in the natural position. - -A bivalve mollusk is an inferior creature to a limpet or a winkle, -because these have heads with eyes, but the bivalve has not. In the -larval condition it has eyes, but by a retrograde movement like that of -the cirripedes, it gets rid of these as useless in the life it is to -live henceforth. But in spite of its want of a head, we know which is -its anterior and its posterior end, its dorsal and its ventral surface; -and with our knowledge of the relation of animal and shell, we are not -troubled to open the valve to look at the creature, when we wish to -describe the parts of a shell. It will be noticed that each valve curls -over near the hinge and takes a form not greatly unlike a beak. This -is more strongly marked in some species than in others; anyhow, it is -popularly known as the beak, though it is technically distinguished as -the _umbone_, or boss. - -If these beaks have the slightest tendency to either end of the shell, -it will be to the front, where we should expect the creature’s head to -be, if it had one. This point made clear, by reference to the shell we -have just picked up, we can say which is the right and which the left -valve. The valves are hinged by a band of a substance that looks much -like catgut. It is elastic in character, and is always pulling at both -valves, so that the natural tendency of the shell is to gape open. But -inside the shell there are, in most bivalves, two much more powerful -bands of muscular fibres (the oyster has but one), which, by their -tension, can slowly or suddenly bring the edges of both valves closely -and tightly together, and hold them so for an indefinite period. You -can see the marks where these muscles were attached, one at each end of -the valve. Between these two marks (“muscular impressions”) there runs -a colourless line marking the area to which the _mantle_ was attached -(“pallial impression”), but this line is often interrupted, towards the -hinder end of the shell, by a bay or sinus (the “pallial sinus”). - -The mantle is a delicate membrane on each side of the mollusk’s body, -which has the power of forming the shell, to which it is attached save -at the margins. The “pallial sinus” is caused by the syphons which -are protruded at that end of the shell. At the other end, as shown -in the figure of the Banded Venus, is the “foot.” The “syphons” are -two delicate tubes, and if you were to put a living Venus, or other -syphon-bearing mollusk into a glass of clear sea-water, and drop -a little finely-divided indigo, or other colouring matter, in the -immediate neighbourhood of these syphons, you would observe a stream -of the minute colour-particles rushing into one of these tubes, and -a stream of clear water issuing from the other. The inflowing stream -passes between the leaf-like gills, or respiratory organs (“branchiæ”), -where it is effectually strained, all solid matter being retained and -passed on to the stomach, whilst the filtered water passes out through -the second syphon. The length and form of these syphons differ in -distinct species, but each kind is pretty true to its own type, and, -consequently, the impression that it makes on the interior of the -shell, taken in conjunction with the muscular and pallial impressions -and the hinge-teeth, are a certain guide to the discrimination of -species. - -These are matters that are essential to one’s knowledge of the -mollusca, and they must be learnt; but the few species we shall be -able to mention in this chapter will be indicated more by their -external shape, marks, and colouring. When so identified, the reader -should strengthen his knowledge by a practical study of these internal -impressions, and the characters of hinge and teeth. - -This Spiny Cockle, or Red Nose (_Cardium aculeatum_), is not the -Vulgar Cockle (_C. edule_), although it is much sought for food on -its native Devonshire coasts. It is a very much larger species than -the last-named, and gets its name of Red Nose from the brilliant hue -of its long strong foot, which is at once a burrowing instrument and -a leaping pole. By pushing its pointed end down into the sand, and -then bending it into a hook, it can, by contracting the foot, pull the -thick prickly shell down after it. On the other hand, by pressing its -bent tip against some unyielding substance, it can use it as a spring, -which shall suddenly send the shell flying through the water to some -considerable distance. The Spiny Cockle is a creature of clean, sandy -beaches, where it may be found at low-water, but only on the Devonshire -coast. - -The Common Cockle (_C. edule_) is very much smaller, its shell free -from prickles, and marked merely with bold rounded ridges. It is more -likely to be found where the sands are not wholly of sand, but contain -a liberal admixture of mud. On some of our coasts it is exceedingly -abundant, and in times of famine has saved populations from starvation. -It is certainly on record that the people of the Isle of Barra, in the -Hebrides, have been thus preserved many years ago, when all the people -sought the Cockle on the great expanse of sands at the northern end of -the island. “It was computed that for a couple of summers, at the time -alluded to, no less than from one to two hundred horse-loads were taken -at low-water, every day of the spring-tides, during the months of May, -June, July, and August.” - -The Cockles have gained their name of _Cardium_ and Cardiaceæ from -the fact that if the shell is viewed “end on”--the curving beaks, -of course, uppermost--it will present the conventional heart-shape -(_Kardia_, Greek--heart). Some nearly allied genera, exhibit a similar -form, but narrower, and therefore not so suggestive of hearts; but -the Heart Cockle (_Isocardia cor_) is more truly heart-shaped than -the Cockles of the genus _Cardium_. It is about three inches across -its longest diameter, very thick and heavy, and the beaks are so -greatly curled that no one will be disposed to quarrel with the name, -either of the genus or the species. It is a deep-water species, but in -suitable localities the empty shell may be found washed in by gales. -It is chiefly found on the west coast, and it is probable that its -headquarters, in British waters, is around the Isle of Man. - -Several of our most familiar bivalves are not very distantly related to -the heart shells. There are, for instance, the Venus shells of which we -have already given a figure of one species, the Banded Venus (_Venus -fasciata_). It is a solid, heavy little shell, of some shade of brown, -with broad bands of a lighter hue radiating from the beak. A series of -strong ridges run parallel with the margins, or, as usually expressed, -the ridges are concentric. The various species of the genus inhabit -sand and gravel from low-water mark to a hundred and forty fathoms. The -animal must be obtained by the dredge, but the empty shells are thrown -up freely after storms. A much larger species is:-- - -The Warted Venus (_V. verrucosa_), a drab-coloured shell, with very -rough and unequal ridges. In some specimens these ridges are so broken -by radiating lines, that the ornamentation has the appearance of being -warty. The various species of Venus have three strong hinge-teeth on -each valve, and the inner edge, though at first sight smooth, is very -finely “milled.” - -[Illustration: SMOOTH VENUS.] - -The finest of these shells is the large, heavy Smooth Venus (_Cytherea -chione_). It is a deep-water species, found chiefly on the southern -and western coasts, where, in spite of its great weight, it is -frequently washed up after storms. It is wonderfully smooth, inside -and out; even the lines of growth are not high enough or sharp enough -to take off this smoothness of the outside, which is coloured of -a pale pinkish-brown tint marked by concentric lines of a lighter -hue, and by much darker radiating bands. It is all very simple, but -very effective. The inside is coated with white, and the muscular -and pallial impressions are very strongly marked, though in no way -interfering with the general plan of entire smoothness. The edges, -too, are rounded and as smooth as the edge of a tea-cup. It is three -and a half inches across the longest diameter of the shell, and its -circumference, at right angles to the last measurement, is eight -inches. The hinge-ligament is an inch long, and the teeth are very -strong and prominent. - -It is by no means a common shell outside the districts mentioned, but -I have frequently found it on sandy shores in Cornwall, thrown up by -storms, with the living animal still within. I believe most of the -entire shells found on beaches have been thrown up whilst the animal -is still in possession, and evidence upon this point may be obtained -by examining the ends of the shells. It will be found that those which -came to the surface with the animal are more or less chipped at the -ends, where a Puffin, or other sea-bird, has cracked off a portion to -enable it to prize the valves open; additional evidence will be found -in portions of the muscular bands still adhering to the valves. - -[Illustration: RAYED ARTEMIS.] - -On the same sand and pebble beaches we shall find in greater plenty -another of the Venus shells, the Rayed Artemis (_Artemis exoleta_). -We presume that Linnæus, in giving this species its name of _exoleta_ -(Latin, worn-out), was struck by the fact that however fresh a specimen -may be, it has the appearance of having been knocking about with sand -and shingle for some time. The shells are white, with variable rays of -pinky-brown (sometimes entirely absent), and finely and evenly marked -with concentric grooves. In proportion to its size, it is a very thick -shell; very round in outline, except that a piece appears to have been -nicked out of the edge in front of the beak. When the shell is closed, -these marks on the two valves, coming together, form a heart-shaped -depression of a brown tint, and called the _lunule_. - -The lunule is not peculiar to this species, but is shared by a large -number of bivalves. It is well-marked in the Smooth Venus, but -not so completely heart-shaped as in the Rayed Artemis. There is -a finely-developed set of hinge-teeth, and the pallial impression -is deeply sunk. A closely allied species, the Smooth Artemis (_A. -lincta_), is smaller, not banded, and the concentric ridges are finer -and less perceptible. It is this peculiar type of smoothness that -suggested the specific name of _lincta_ (Latin, sucked), its appearance -being as though a specimen of _exoleta_ had been sucked until smooth. -Both these have a hatchet-shaped foot for digging into the sand. -Great quantities of this bivalve are washed up in winter, and I have -frequently come across a piece of rock protruding through the sand, -around which there were dozens of these shells, broken or chipped, -giving evidence, from their fresh muscles, that they had but recently -been destroyed. It has reminded me of the favourite stone under the -hedge, whereto the Thrush brings her snails to be hammered until the -shell yields up its luscious contents. Artemis has met with a fate -similar to that of the hedgerow snails, for her fortress has been -broken by gulls, puffins, or even by ravens when winter has taught them -not to be too particular about their food. - -[Illustration: CROSS-CUT CARPET-SHELL.] - -There is a group of Venus shells whose exterior is ornamented with -concentric and rayed rounded ridges, in some cases strong, though -regular and even, whilst in others they are but slightly perceptible; -but their place is, to some extent, taken by colour. They bear the -generic name of _Tapes_ (Latin, tapestry) which is exceedingly -appropriate, for the patterns of some species is very suggestive -of tapestry and carpet. Especially is this so with the Cross-cut -Carpet-shell (_Tapes decussata_), whose exterior looks like the back -of a piece of tapestry carpet, both in texture and colour. The latter -is of a nondescript drab, with occasional tinges of red and stain-like -smears of bluish-grey. The ridges radiate from the beak, and they are -nicely rounded, but their lines are by no means straight. They are cut -across by fine concentric incised lines, which, with the grooves beside -each rayed ridge, produce the cross-cut, or _decussate_ appearance -which suggested the name. The interior is dull white, like the surface -of an enamelled card, the muscular and pallial impressions polished, -and consequently very obvious. - -The Virgin’s Carpet-shell (_T. virginea_) is smaller, the exterior -very smooth, the ornamentation taking the form of shallow concentric -lines. The colouration is a mottling of salmon-pink, with little specks -of white showing through, and irregularly shaped spots of dark brown -sprinkled sparingly over all. Viewed not too closely, it will be seen -that the whole surface is divided between about six broad rays of -lighter and darker tints. The interior is white and glossy, deepening -to pink or yellow towards the beak and hinge. - -The Golden Carpet-shell (_Tapes aurea_) is similar, but some shade of -yellow takes the place of the pink in the last-mentioned species. - -The Pullet Carpet-shell (_T. pullastra_) is broader from the hinge to -the edge of the shell, in proportion to its length at right angles -with that measurement. Its name, _pullastra_ (Latin, a pullet), has -evidently a relation to its colouring, which is similar to that of -_virginea_, though darker. If the two are compared it will be found -there is a further difference in the fact that whilst _virginea_ can -scarcely be said to have any radiate-grooves, _pullastra_ is covered -with them; but they are not appreciable to the sense of touch, and -scarcely so to ordinary eyesight, unless special attention is drawn to -them--they are so exceedingly finely cut. Inside, the shell is white, -that part lying between the impressions and the hinge being dull like -the whole interior of _decussata_; but the impressions and the outer -margin are polished. - -The Tapes animals spin a byssus like the Mussel; they burrow in the -sand at low-water with their thick fleshy foot, or spin up to the roots -of _Laminaria_ and other seaweeds among the low-water rocks. Around -the shores of the European continent they are used as food, but do not -appear to be so utilised in Britain. - -The Scallops are familiar to all in a general way, from the frequency -with which one species occurs on the fishmongers’ slabs. This is the -largest British species, and is generally distinguished as the Common -Scallop, Quin or Queen (_Pecten opercularis_), a deep-water species, -whose valves are frequently washed up on the beach. They occur in beds, -but are not fixed like the Oyster; on the contrary, by the sudden -closing of their valves and the consequent rapid expulsion of water, -the shell shoots hinge foremost through the water to some considerable -distance. The young ones can attach themselves by a byssus to the -rocks, as is done by the Mussels, Carpet Shells, and others. It is -a peculiarity of the Pectens that they have a pair of “ears” to the -shell, the edges of which afford a good foundation for the hinge -ligament, whilst in lieu of hinge-teeth to keep the valves firmly -together when closed by the muscles, the corrugations of the valves -extend right to the margins, and the ridges of the right valve fit into -the furrows of the left valve and _vice versâ_. It will be noticed -that these ears are not a good pair--one is always larger than the -other, and the smaller one is popularly supposed to have been broken; -that, however, is a mistake, the Pectens are built that way. The most -prominent ear is always the front one, and below that of the right -valve there is a notch where the byssal threads issue. In the Common -Pecten these ears are much more nearly equal than in the others, whilst -in _P. varius_ there is a great contrast in the size and shape of the -two, and in _P. tigrinus_ one is almost absent altogether. - -[Illustration: COMMON SCALLOPS.] - -The Common Pecten is sometimes dredged for, but as a rule it is -avoided by the fishermen, on account of the risk to their nets and the -small price realised for the mollusks after they have caught them. It -will be noted more conspicuously in this species, on account of its -size, that the right valve, which is the lower one when the creature is -lying on its bed, is far more convex than the left or upper one. It is -exceedingly variable in colour. - -[Illustration: SCALLOP HUNG UP.] - -The Variable Pecten (_P. varius_) carries out its name to the letter, -for out of a score one could scarcely find two that agreed in colour -and the disposition of the markings. Their usual tint will be found -among the red series of the chromatic scale; sometimes almost white -with dark red blotches, at other times dark red-brown with faintly -perceived cloudings of a still darker hue. The exterior is ornamented -by about twenty-eight bold ridges radiating from the sharp beak, and -each of these, as it approaches towards the other edge of the shell, -gives off irregular spiny processes. There is a rare variety of this -almost entirely white. _P. varius_ is not content with using its byssus -only in the days of its youth, but continues to do so, even when at -full age; it may sometimes be found thus hung up to a rock, as shown in -our illustration, or attached to the roots of _Laminaria_. - -A live Scallop of any species, in a glass vessel of sea-water, is -a beautiful object. It will soon open its valves and exhibit the -richly-frilled edges of its brightly-coloured mantle; this organ, in -fact, has a double margin, the inner of the two finely fringed, and at -its base a row of eye-like beads. - -When prying curiously about the rocks at low-water, under the scrub of -weeds and corallines, we are sure to discover little flat pearly shells -which we shall almost as surely decide to be young oysters. They are a -kind of oyster, though not edible oysters of the genus _Ostrea_, but -Saddle Oysters, of the genus _Anomia_ (_A. ephippium_). Although they -appear to be firmly cemented to the rock by the lower (right) valve, -this is not really so. The thin blade of a penknife gently pushed -beneath will move it off with the merest touch, for instead of being -fixed by its whole under surface, it is merely attached by a muscular -plug that passes through a comparatively large oval hole in the under -shell, near the hinge, and sticks like a sucker to the rock. As it -grows older it will probably alter its form, to adapt itself to things -it comes in contact with, as its diameter increases. Small specimens, -not so large as a threepenny-bit, usually have a colony of much younger -individuals located on their upper shell. - -Odd specimens of the Common Mussel (_Mytilus edulis_) will be found -among the roots of weeds on the low-water rocks, but to obtain them -in quantity one must go to a mud-bank, as at the mouth of a river; or -they may be found clinging in masses to the wooden piles of piers and -breakwaters by means of their byssus-threads. The first thing a mussel -does on being placed in an aquarium is to attach itself to the side by -this means. Possibly he will wander a little, by means of his foot, -to make sure of the right spot upon which to cast anchor, but having -settled that point and found that he has made the right choice, there -he will remain. - -A mussel is the best of all bivalves for aquarium life. It is true -he is not very lively, and does not flit through the water like the -young Scallops. He is anchored, and there he stays, simply opening his -shell a little way and putting out the frilled edges of his mantle, -with their openings for the inward and outward currents--the inward -bringing both oxygen and food, the outward carrying off carbonic acid -gas and other waste. - -The large, thick, coarse-looking mussel shells we occasionally find -on the sands, measuring five or six inches in length, belong to a -different genus, and are called Horse Mussels (_Modiola modiolus_). -The valves in question may not have come far, for the species occurs -in sand and mud as near as low-water. But it will not be found moored -to rocks and weeds by its byssus; instead, it burrows and weaves its -enormous byssus into a nest with sand and gravel mixed up with the -threads. They are said to be coarse and unpleasant tasting, so that -they are not used as food, and hence the name, Horse-mussel; the -prefix, horse or dog, before a popular name for animals or plants, -denoting its worthlessness as food, the sole criterion of worth to the -popular imagination being found in the answer to the query, “Is it good -to eat?” - -[Illustration: COMB-SHELL.] - -A very handsome shell, as well as a common one, is the Comb-shell -(_Pectunculus glycimeris_), whose thick round valves may be found -rolling on the beach, where they have been washed up from the -zoophyte ground in deep water. It is very variable in its markings, -and yet there is so strong a family likeness running through all -its variations, that there is not the slightest difficulty in its -identification. To the touch the exterior is quite smooth, though not -glossy, but examined with a lens it will be found to be covered with -very fine and regular lines running from the beak to the opposite -edges. So fine and close-set are these, that a line an inch long, -drawn across them at right angles, will cross about ninety of them. -The valves are more or less covered with a colouring of rusty red, -relieved by numerous long sharp wedges of white. These are on parts or -the whole of the shell, sometimes so plentiful that there is no room -for solid masses of the red colour, and it only shows in zigzag lines. -It is difficult to get two shells that at all agree in the distribution -of white and red, and even the two valves of the same shell will -differ widely in this respect. The interior, also, exhibits characters -sufficiently striking to prevent its mis-identification. There is a -broad flange below the hinge, whereon are cut about twenty teeth, in -two series. Immediately below the ligament is a smooth space, clear of -teeth, but these are arranged in a row of about ten on each side of -this space. As the shell grows the flange lengthens, and more teeth are -added to the ends of the rows farthest from the beak; but those nearest -the smooth central space are being rubbed down or absorbed at the same -rate, so that the net increase is about _nil_. The free edge of the -valves, internally, has a series of raised marks, like the tips of the -teeth of a comb, and it is from these the creature gets its name. The -pallial impression is much deeper than those of the muscles at each end -of it, and it is uninterrupted by any sinus. This shell is about two -inches in length. - -We must not omit to mention a group of shells that are fairly common -upon many shores, and are usually found among the bucketful the -children have collected. - -[Illustration: RAYED TROUGH-SHELL.] - -First of these is the bold Rayed Trough-shell (_Mactra stultorum_), -more plentiful in the north than the south of Britain. The various -species of Mactra are inhabitants of sand in deep water, but their -shells are freely cast up on the shore. These are smooth, except that -the annual periods of rest from shell-making is plainly marked in deep -concentric grooves. Like that of the Spiny Cockle, the foot of Mactra -can be extended and used like a finger, and also as a leaping pole. -They are destroyed in great numbers by star-fish, and many empty valves -may be found with the clean round boring that shows the animal fell a -victim to the whelk. _M. stultorum_ is usually coloured some shade of -brown, with a number of white bands radiating from the beak. The hinge -arrangements in this genus are worthy of note, as indeed they are in -all the genera, and must be carefully studied by anybody who wishes to -have anything more than the merest superficial knowledge of conchology. - -In the Trough-shells the ligament of the hinge is short and thick, -and contained in a spoon-like cavity in each valve. Immediately in -front of it there are two shelly teeth, joined above in the form of a -Ʌ, and from each side of the beak there runs off a strong ridge-like -tooth, the surface of which is “milled” like the edge of a shilling -or a sovereign. The Elliptic Trough-shell (_M. elliptica_) is not so -triangular as _M. stultorum_, and is without the white rays. The Cut -Trough-shell (_M. truncata_) might be appropriately styled the hatchet -shell, for its truncated ends give it a very close likeness to the head -of a hatchet. - -Related to the Trough-shells are the Otter-shells (_Lutraria_), of -which we have two species. They burrow in the mud and sands, of -estuaries especially, and are found from low-water to about twelve -fathoms. Having found a complete, though empty, shell, you will be -surprised to discover that it will not close properly, and you not -unnaturally suppose that you have got hold of a malformed specimen, -whose shell has got a twist somehow. That, however, would be a mistake, -as you would find when other specimens came in your way, and you found -they all had the same objection to closing at the ends. From one end, -when the creature is alive, protrude its united syphons, large and -thick; and from the other end is thrust out the useful “foot,” with -which its burrowing is effected. Where you happen to find the usually -broken valves of the Otter-shells, it is worth while to dig in the -muddiest spots thereabout at extreme low-water, and you will probably -be rewarded with perfect specimens, and have the greater satisfaction -of seeing the living creature within. - -Then there are the Tellen-shells (_Tellina_), a bright and -delicate-looking group, with shells that appear as though they had -been subjected to considerable pressure. They are finely grooved with -concentric lines, and decorated with broad bands of pink. One of the -most plentiful of these is the Thick Tellen (_Tellina crassa_), in -which the pink bands radiate from the beak across the shell. Thick is -a comparative term, and is so used here, for the shell, as compared -with a _Mactra_, for instance, would be considered rather thin; but in -contrast with other Tellens, it is solid and substantial. The interior -is delicately tinted with pink or orange. The pallial sinus is large -and rounded. The Fragile Tellen (_T. tenuis_) has thin shells that -are very easily broken. Its surface is very smooth, of an orange tint -marked with bands of pink and white. There are half-a-dozen other -British species. The Tellens burrow slightly in sandy mud, frequently -in shallow water. They may be dug for on a suitable beach between -tide-marks, though their range extends to about fifty fathoms. - -Somewhat similar to the Tellens in their delicacy and style of ornament -are the Sunset-shells (_Psammobia_), so called on account of the -crimson patch around the beak, from which rays of a similar hue run off -to the margin. If the shell is so placed before you that the beak is -downwards, these rays suggest the far-reaching rays from the sun that -streak all the western sky, when Sol dips below the horizon for the -night. There are four British species. The two ends of the shell are -nearly equally rounded, but in an allied genus-- - -The Wedge-shells (_Donax_), the hinder end is much more acute than -the front, so that their popular name is very suitable. They have a -suggestion of sunset rays, too, but not so strong or so symmetrical as -in _Psammobia_. The most familiar species is the Common Wedge-shell -(_Donax anatinus_), which may easily be distinguished from the others -by the milling of the interior edge of the valves. The Polished Wedge -(_D. politus_) may be equally well separated by its superior gloss, and -by a white band which runs backward from the beak. - -Then there are the familiar Razor-shells (_Solen_) that must be dug -out of the sand at low-water; and quick work you will find it, if -you succeed in catching any specimens. Very good examples may often -be picked up on a wide sandy beach, but minus the animal. They are -sought for food, and the professional catchers are very expert in their -movements--they need to be, or the business would not pay a dividend. -Everybody knows the razor-handle-like shells of _Solen siliqua_, -if they have no acquaintance with the animal. They are flattened -cylinders, widely open at each end for the extrusion of the foot and -the syphons. The hinge is near the front extremity of the shell, the -ligament in a full-grown specimen measuring an inch and a half. There -are two teeth in each valve, though some have three in the left; but -it is difficult to pick up empty shells in which the teeth are intact. -The Razors spend all their lives buried vertically in the sand. When -the sands are covered by water they rise to the mouth of their burrow -and protrude the syphons, but those that are situated so far in shore -as to be uncovered at low-water, then plunge in to a depth of a foot or -two. They never leave their burrows, except on compulsion, in the shape -of the salt and spade of their enemy, the fisherman. The species, with -a very straight margin to its shell, is the Pod Razor (_S. siliqua_) -which attains a length of eight inches; that with a distinctly curved -outline is the Sabre Razor (_S. ensis_). - -[Illustration: - RED-NOSED BORER. PIDDOCK. -] - -A brief glance at some borers and excavators must suffice to close -this long chapter. The small, upper figure in accompanying plate is -the Red-nosed Borer (_Saxicava rugosa_), a species that largely helps -the sea in its ceaseless attacks upon the coast line. It is the office -of the Borer to excavate cells in the face of the rock, and as it is -never solitary in its work, but attacks a rock in “gangs,” as a human -excavator would put it, the result is the complete honey-combing of -the surface. They may often be found free in crevices of the rocks -and about the roots of seaweeds--that Alsatia for a very varied -population. The shell has a distorted look about it, and the valves -will not fit properly, the ends gaping to allow the foot and the -syphons free play. It is very variable, however, and consequently has -been a splendid subject for the variety-mongers and species-splitters, -who have manufactured quite a long list of species and genera out -of it. It changes a good deal at different periods of its life, -and thus affords opportunities for careful descriptions made from -isolated specimens utterly disagreeing with each other; therefore, -the individuals described must belong to different species! In its -early state the shell is symmetrical, and has two minute teeth in each -valve; but before it has reached maturity it has lost its claim to be -considered graceful or symmetrical, and has either worn its milk-teeth -out or abandoned them as useless. The shell is covered with ridges and -wrinkles, and it is by their help that it carves out its chamber in the -rock. Sometimes on turning aside a curtain of weeds from a rock-face -you will see a large number of crimson points, which, however, -instantly disappear if they have been ever so lightly touched by the -weeds. These are the ends of the borers’ syphons, protruded from their -ventilation holes; they are united almost to their extremities, and -present the appearance shown in our figure. - -The Piddock, or Finger Pholas (_Pholas dactylus_), is a much larger -species with some difference of structure. Its pure white shell, though -thin and fragile, is covered in front with rasp-like ridges, and by -means of it the chambers and tunnels of the rock are bored. Holding -to the rock with the clear crystalline foot, the Pholas gives its -shell a swing half way round in one direction, then a swing back, and -so by alternate half-revolutions, the rasping of the shell gradually -excavates a chamber sufficiently large to shelter it, communication -with the outer world being maintained by the large syphons. So far -there is no very great difference between the Pholas and the Saxicava; -but the Pholas is peculiar in that it possesses neither ligament -nor hinge, and in addition to the orthodox two valves, it has some -additional ones. The hinge-plates are reflected back over the beaks, -and a powerful muscle is attached thereto to keep the ordinary valves -together. Above these, and to protect this muscle, are two short -accessory valves, and a third, which is long, and extends back over -the dorsal edges of the big valves. In other species of Pholas these -arrangements give scope for variation. - -And now it is time we gave some thought to the one-valved and valveless -mollusks of the shore. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV. - -SEA-SNAILS AND SEA-SLUGS. - - -Mollusks that have their shell all in one piece are technically known -as the Gasteropoda, or belly-footed creatures; but for our purpose the -term sea-snail will serve admirably, for it is a popular term that -will not cause misunderstandings, as many popular general terms do. -The sea-snails, as living creatures, are more amenable to study by -the shore-naturalist, than is the case with the bivalves; and every -rock, whether it be thickly clothed with weeds, or bare and exposed -to the full fury of the waves, will provide us with specimens. It is -true, that all visitors to the sea-shore are well acquainted with the -most plentiful of these--the periwinkle, the purple, and the limpet. -But though they are familiar with the forms and names of such common -objects, there may be among my readers some to whom the principal facts -in the economy and structure of these species may be new or interesting. - -[Illustration: - LIMPETS. PURPLES. -] - -I fear, that in popular estimation, there is but one kind of Limpet. -As a matter of greater exactitude, I may say that eight or nine -species may be found on our shores; and we may find some points of -interest even in the too common species (_Patella vulgata_). Only -those perhaps who have been badly in want of bait for a little fishing -have troubled to see what is beneath the conical shell; but the shell -itself is worthy of a little attention. What could be better adapted -for the animal’s mode of life than this? The Limpet is not a deep-water -mollusk, but lives between tide-marks, where it receives the full force -of the waves as they beat and hammer the rocks in stormy weather. -But the Limpet has a broad foot, which exudes a thick glue, whereby -it sticks tightly to the rock. Then his muscles are powerful, and by -their aid he pulls his conical roof well down till its edges fit into -the little pit he has sunk in the rock-surface, and thus ensconced he -can defy the hardest gale that may chance to blow and the heaviest -water-hammers that the sea uses against the land. The Limpet is -typical of the Briton, alike in his tenacity of purpose and his love -of privacy. But with all his exclusiveness John Bull likes to open his -doors and windows wide to let in the air, and we shall find the Limpet -resembling him in this detail; for if you seek him when the tide is -out, you may surprise him with his roof so lifted up that the edges are -a quarter of an inch away from the rock. Then is the time to take him -unawares, and force his foot from its firm hold. Having secured him, we -are at liberty to inspect the owner of this strange house, but we can -best do this by placing him in our clear glass bottle, and letting him -crawl up the side. - -That which is known as the mollusk’s “foot” has no relationship with -the feet of vertebrate animals, the name being suggested by the similar -use to which dissimilar organs are put. We have already explained that -the term gasteropod signifies “belly-foot,” and if we were to cut -through the “foot” of the Limpet, we should find that it is indeed its -belly, for it contains the principal portion of its viscera. We are not -going into the anatomy of the mollusca, just now, but will confine our -attention to its exterior. It has now begun to climb up the glass, and -we can see that the foot is spread out so that it occupies the greater -portion of the area covered by the shell. At the fore part it has a -distinct head, with a pair of tentacles, ditto eyes, and a very evident -mouth, for the Limpet’s principal occupation appears to be to lick the -surface upon which it is gliding. Around the foot and the head there -runs a frill which is really the creature’s breathing apparatus, and -between that and the shell there is, of course, the mantle by which the -shell was secreted, and is enlarged as occasion requires. The Limpet is -now in rapid motion, and we can see that it progresses in exactly the -same fashion as do the garden snails and slugs, that is, by a series -of muscular contractions, evidenced by the constant ripple along the -surface of the foot. The foot exudes a very tenacious slime, which -enables it to obtain perfect contact with the surface over which it is -gliding, or upon which it is resting. It is perfectly astonishing how -much nonsense is still written in books upon this subject by persons -who ought to know better, and who could easily test the correctness -of their views by occasionally studying Nature, instead of relying -so much upon academical teaching, and that of an antique character. -Their statement is, that the Limpet holds on so tightly by creating a -vacuum, some say under the foot, others under the shell. So ancient an -authority as Reaumur disproved these notions. He tested the matter by -cutting a Limpet in two, shell and all. According to the teaching of -the vacuumites, the animal’s hold should then have loosened; but no, -the two portions still adhered to their base. Anyone by observation -can testify to the truth of Reaumur’s explanation; there is the same -powerful hold in the foot of a garden snail on a damp surface, but in -that case it does not seem so great, because his shell affords a better -hold for the experimenter. The annoying feature of the Limpet is the -shape of his shell, which prevents our taking hold of it. Where the -surface of the rock is friable, as some of our Cornish Killas rocks, -and the chalk rocks of the Kentish coast, the Limpet’s foot, when -forcibly pulled up, brings with it particles of the surface, which have -separated from the parent rock more easily than from the glue of the -mollusk’s foot. - -A wonderful thing about the Limpet is its power to sink a shallow pit -in the surface of the rock, corresponding to the shape of the shell; -and this, of course, has led to much theorising to explain how it is -accomplished. Patent solvents secreted by the animal, the carbonic -acid gas given off from the breathing apparatus (which strangely does -not destroy its own shell!), and so on. A little study of Nature would -show that the wonderful organ which enables them to scrape away the -surface in long zigzag lines, as they crop the minute vegetation, -would be equally effective if applied to the spot upon which they -prefer to roost, and to which they habitually return after their -pastoral wanderings. The action of this tongue on the rocks can be very -distinctly _heard_ on the shore, though possibly not in the library or -the museum, where only the empty shells are admitted. It is worth while -dissecting a Limpet, and getting out this remarkable tongue, which is a -ribbon-shaped organ, closely studded with minute hooks of flint, to the -number of nearly 2,000. A similar _lingual ribbon_, as it is termed, -will be found in most of the Gasteropods. - -I have dealt at such length with the Limpet, because its structure will -enable us to understand the other mollusks we have to mention, widely -as they may appear to differ in the forms of their bodies and shells. -The Limpet’s shell is a low cone, and the shell of a Whelk is a greatly -elongated cone, coiled spirally upon itself; the animal adapting itself -to that form. - -[Illustration: - SMOOTH LIMPET. SMOOTH LIMPET, THICK VARIETY. -] - -In addition to the Common Limpet (_Patella vulgata_) we have the Smooth -Limpet (_Patella pellucida_), which must be sought at low-water on -the borders of the laminarian zone. It feeds upon the Great Oar-weed, -and a peculiar variation will be found between the specimens feeding -on the smooth flat fronds and those feeding on the great stems. The -shell of the first is coloured a pale brown, pellucid as its specific -name suggests, the apex set very far forwards, and from it there start -backwards from three to six exceedingly fine radiating lines of a -dazzling brilliant blue. The specimens that live upon the Oar-weed’s -stems look entirely different, for the shell becomes thickened, -and consequently much more opaque, and its shape alters to enable -it to sit close on a rounded surface. It was formerly considered a -distinct species, and was named _Patella lævis_. So, too, the little -Tortoise-shell Limpet (_Acmæa testudinalis_), changes its form when -feeding upon the leaves of the Grass-wrack (_Zostera marina_), and has -then had the name of _Acmæa alvea_ bestowed upon it. - -There are other forms of Limpets (though not species of Patellidæ) -to which we wish to refer, but we are getting far away from our -illustration of the Purple (_Purpura lapillus_), on page 208, to which -we must now hark back. The Purple is often known as the Dog Winkle. -It abounds upon the rocks between tide-marks, whence it may be picked -without the formalities necessary in the case of the Limpet. It comes -off easily, for its foot is small, but the moment it is disengaged from -the rock it retires into its shell and closes its door. Now apart from -the difference in the shape of the shell, here is another departure -from molluskan arrangements as illustrated by the Limpet. It is called -an _operculum_ (Latin, a cover or stopper), and is so attached to -the foot, that when the Purple withdraws from public view this comes -last, and fits the mouth of the shell so accurately that there is no -getting inside. In this case it is a horny oval disk, but in some -species it is strengthened by the deposit of layers of shelly matter -until it becomes of considerable thickness and quite stony. If we mark -our disapproval of the Purple’s lack of courtesy in slamming his door -in our face, by pushing against his door, he retaliates by exuding -a purple fluid, which is said to permanently dye fabrics a similar -hue. The Purple is not a vegetarian like the Limpet. His mouth forms -a fleshy proboscis, which contains a marvellous boring apparatus--the -modified tongue. Often you may pick up bivalve shells on the beach, -of which one has been pierced with a very clean and smooth round hole -near the beak. If you did not know otherwise, you might suppose that -this was the work of a person who desired to make a shell-necklace or -other ornament, and had bored this hole with the greatest of care, -and then had unfortunately dropped it on the beach. The truth is, -it is the work of the Purple, or some other carnivorous sea-snail. -He has the reputation of being very destructive to mussel beds, by -boring these workmanlike holes in their shells, and literally eating -the poor mussel out of house and home. That is the style in which -the Purple gets his living; but he has a Nemesis in the shape of the -Star-fish, and I have seen one Star-fish eating or digesting three -Purples at once. It is a case of “diamond cut diamond,” for you would -think a Mussel or a Limpet would be safe enough with the shell closed -down, and so you might suppose the Purple’s operculum would shield -him from the Star-fish; but as I have already described in an earlier -chapter, the Star-fish knows well how to deal with obstinate victims -who won’t show their noses outside the door when their enemy calls--he -digests them first, and swallows them afterwards. Here is a complete -reversal of the Shakespearean motto, “May good digestion wait on -appetite;” to be complimentary to the Star-fish we should say, “May -appetite on good digestion wait!” In the bottom left-hand corner of -the purple-and-limpet illustration, is a baker’s dozen of nine-pins: -they are the egg-cases of the Purple, which may be found in larger or -smaller patches on any rock where these mollusks abound. - -[Illustration: NETTED DOG-WHELK.] - -Among the weeds on the rocks we are sure to find the Netted Dog-whelk -(_Nassa reticulata_), with a rather dirty-looking shell. It is covered -with broad grooves crossed by fine lines at right angles, producing the -appearance of network, which gives it the distinctive name, netted. -Its scientific name also is suggested by the same appearance, for -_Nassa_ is Latin for a special kind of fishing-net. Like the Purple, -the Dog-whelk is carnivorous. There is a prettier species, with a thick -lip, called _Nassa incrassata_. - -The true Whelk (_Buccinum undatum_) only comes within our province in -the shape of empty shells cast up on the beach, for its range is from -low-water to a hundred fathoms. In deep water it is very plentiful, -and fishermen who want it for bait, let down baskets containing pieces -of fish, which attract a large number to their doom. Their remarkable -clusters of egg-nests are frequently washed ashore with seaweeds; each -capsule in the bunch contains about half-a-dozen eggs. The shell of -the Whelk, rubbed down on a smooth slab of stone, affords an admirable -vertical section illustrating the structure of gasteropods. - -[Illustration: RED WHELK.] - -The Red Whelk is the _Fusus antiquus_, so-called because it abounds -in a fossil condition in the Red Crag of Essex, where also occurs a -reversed form--that is, with the spire coiled the contrary way, and -hence called _Fusus contrarius_. In Scotland it is the Buckie, or -the Roaring Buckie, for this is the shell in which the roar of the -sea resides. It is more esteemed than the Common Whelk as food by -the poorer population of Scotland. It occurs, like _Buccinum_, from -low-water to a hundred fathoms. - -There is a fairly common shell, similar in size and general form to -the Purple, but bristling all over with flattened recurved hooks, in -clusters of threes. It is generally known as the Sting-winkle (_Murex -erinaceus_), one of a genus from which the celebrated purple dye of -ancient Tyre was obtained. Its familiar name it owes to its sharing in -the hideous crime of destroying edible species for the sole purpose of -gratifying its own base appetite. The fishermen have actually noticed -it in the act, and seeing the peculiar boring apparatus at work, have -thought this a sting. It is far worse than that, for a sting may be -survived, but no mollusk, I believe, gets over the attack of the boring -tongue, which changes its function when the boring is finished, and -becomes an instrument for tearing and masticating its victim’s flesh. - -The exotic representatives of the great Cone-family of shells are -familiar and admired objects in collections as well as on nick-nack -tables in the drawing-room. We have no native species of the genus -_Conus_ but we have a number of representatives of the _family_ in the -Pleurotomas and Mangelias, though they do not approach very closely -to the typical form of a Cone-shell, with which we commonly associate -the spotted Cone (_Conus marmoreus_) of Chinese seas. The Seven-ribbed -Conelet (_Mangelia septangularis_) is like a tiny Buckie-shell--it is -but half an inch long--with bold longitudinal ribs, of which you can -count seven in one revolution of the shell. The shell is thick, of a -dull pinkish hue, and unprovided with an operculum. The outer lip is -notched where it joins the previous whorl. There are several British -species. - -[Illustration: COWRY.] - -One of the most charming of our native shells is the little Cowry -(_Cypræa europea_), which is so plentiful on most of our shores. Most -of us who have visited the sea-shore in childhood have had the delight -of hunting for this shell, empty and clean, among the ingredients of a -fine beach; but probably some of those who are most familiar with it -as an empty shell would scarcely recognise it for the same species if -they saw the living Cowry gliding along with his shell on his back. He -carries a pair of tentacles, with eyes at their base, and the long -curved tubular tongue ready for service; but the most singular feature -is that his mantle is used not merely to clothe the delicate body, -but a portion of it comes outside, and closely wraps the greater part -of the shell. In its younger days it had not its present beautifully -arched lip, which almost closes up the doorway of the shell, and -leaves but a narrow slit, delicately denticulated, to allow the foot -and mantle to pass through. Before maturity it had a wide mouth, with -a sharp thin edge to the outer lip, but that, you see, has now grown -over towards the inner lip. The colour of the shell may be described -as a flesh-tint on the upper surface, varying in intensity to both -lighter and darker. Many specimens bear on the crown of the shell three -ill-defined blotches of a very dark brown. The under surface is white. -The whole shell is ornamented by very regularly disposed transverse -ribs, which are rounded and polished. - -There are several other cowry-like shells to be found generally -distributed, but by no means so plentifully on our coasts. One of these -is the Smooth Margin-shell (_Erato lævis_), smaller than the Cowry, and -with the lip curved outward, instead of inward as in the Cowry: it has -thus an external margin, whence the name. It is white and exquisitely -smooth. The animal is very similar to _Cypræa_, and it envelops its -shell in the same fashion. Of similar habit is the Poached Egg (_Ovula -patula_), though the shell is very different. The mouth of the shell -gapes widely, and the lip is thin and sharp. Its colour is white with a -pink tinge, and its appearance is so suggestive of its name that there -is little likelihood of mis-identification. It is a South Coast form. - -A solid-looking shell, with a highly-polished surface, over which three -lines of arrow-heads are chasing each other, a perforation of the shell -just outside the inner lip, a fairly wide mouth, closed when at rest by -an operculum: these are the principal features of the Necklace Natica, -so-called because it deposits a large number of eggs, so agglutinated -into a broad spiral band, that the whole has been likened to a -necklace. So it is called _Natica monilifera_, and _monilifera_ means -necklace-bearing. The animal is an odd creature, whose mantle laps -partly over the shell, and the large foot is furnished in front with -a broad fold, which is turned back as a protection to the head. It is -herbivorous, and crops the seaweeds on sandy and gravelly shores, from -low-water to about ninety fathoms. - -There is a very thin, ear-shaped shell, clear and fragile, known as -_Lamellaria perspicua_. It is not sufficiently capacious to accommodate -the whole of the animal, so parts of it have to remain permanently -outside; the mantle, for instance, cannot be withdrawn, and it folds -over, completely wrapping up the shell and hiding it from view. It is -an awkward thing to have your house so small that you cannot get right -inside, because in the sea there are so many hungry creatures always -roving about, and snapping up any delicate morsel that is unprotected; -and even some that are protected get swallowed up in like manner. But -_Lamellaria_ has learned how to make up to some extent for Nature’s -stinginess in the matter of shell-stuff. About a quarter of a century -since, Giard showed that _Lamellaria_ was to be found in association -with compound ascidians, a group to which we shall call attention in a -later chapter. Quite recently[6] Prof. W. A. Herdman, Director of the -Port Erin Biological Station, added greatly to the interest of Giard’s -observation by one of his own, which shall be given in his own words:-- - -[6] “Conchologist,” 1893. - -“_Lamellaria perspicua_ is not uncommon round the south end of the Isle -of Man, and is frequently found under the circumstances described by -Giard; but I met lately with such a marked case on the shore near the -Biological Station at Port Erin, that it seems worthy of being placed -on record. The mollusc was on a colony of _Leptoclinum maculatum_, in -which it had eaten a large hole. It lay in this cavity so as to be -flush with the general surface; and its dorsal integument was not only -whitish with small darker marks which exactly reproduced the appearance -of the _Leptoclinum_ surface with the ascidiozooids scattered over it, -but there were also two larger elliptical clear marks which looked like -the large common cloacal apertures of the Ascidian colony. I did not -notice the _Lamellaria_ until I had accidentally partly dislodged it -in detaching the _Leptoclinum_ from a stone. I then pointed it out to -a couple of naturalists who were with me, and we were all much struck -with the difficulty in detecting it when _in situ_ on the Ascidian. - -[Illustration: HORN-SHELL.] - -“This is clearly a good case of protective colouring. Presumably the -_Lamellaria_ escapes the observation of its enemies through being -mistaken for a part of the _Leptoclinum_ colony; and the _Leptoclinum_ -being crowded like a sponge with minute sharp-pointed spicules is, -I suppose, avoided as inedible (if not actually noxious through -some peculiar smell or taste) by carnivorous animals which might -devour such things as the soft unprotected mollusc. But the presence -of the spicules evidently does not protect the _Leptoclinum_ from -_Lamellaria_, so that we have, if the above interpretation is correct, -the curious result that the _Lamellaria_ profits by a protective -characteristic of the _Leptoclinum_ for which it has itself no respect, -or to put it another way, the _Leptoclinum_ is protected against -enemies to some extent for the benefit of the _Lamellaria_ which preys -upon its vitals.” - -Since the publication of Prof. Herdman’s note, I have frequently found -_Lamellaria_ on the undersides of large stones at low-water on the -Cornish coast. I have always found it on _Leptoclinum gelatinosum_, and -can quite endorse his remark as to the difficulty of distinguishing -it. On one occasion I found no less than four specimens feeding upon -one patch of the ascidians, and pointed them out to a friend, who, -however, failed to see them until they were absolutely touched by my -finger. The shell is exceedingly delicate, and in the hands of most -persons would be hopelessly ruined at the first touch. The ordinary -methods adopted by conchologists for getting the animal from the -shell will not answer in this case; but I have a plan which succeeds -admirably. I give a specimen of _Lamellaria_ to an anemone of refined -tastes, who will deal with it carefully. _Bunodes verrucosa_ is my -favourite assistant, and he returns the shell clean and sound in a day -or two. - -There are several species of Spire-shells (_Rissoa_) to be found -feeding in great numbers on Grass-wrack and Sea lettuce, and we shall -also find the empty shells in the sand. There are, however, other -forms that may be confused with them and with each other, that are -very plentiful in sand. These are the comparatively large Turret-shell -(_Turritella communis_), which is ornamented with spiral ridges, each -one running continuously from the apex to the mouth. In the Ruddy -Pyramid (_Chemnitzia rufescens_), which is much smaller, but of similar -form, the ridges run _across_ instead of _along_ the whorls, whilst in -the Horn-shell (_Cerithium reticulatum_), a similar effect is obtained -by several rows of very regularly arranged round dots in high relief. -A more distinct member of the family of Cerites is to be found in the -well-known Pelican’s-foot or Spout-shell (_Aporrhais pes-pelicani_), in -which the whorls are boldly tuberculated. When the shell has grown to -its full length, its annual stages of growth take a somewhat different -direction, and spread out in expansive lobes and corrugations until it -bears a fanciful resemblance in outline to the foot of the pelican. The -shell is about an inch and a half in length, and very thick. The animal -is carnivorous. - -[Illustration: PELICAN’S-FOOT.] - -Delicate specimens of the well-known Wentletraps (_Scalaria_) may -be found among fine sands. They are readily known by their dazzling -whiteness, the nearly round and flat-lipped mouth, and the bold curved -ridges that stand out across the whorls like cogs on a wheel. To this -genus belongs the Precious Wentletrap (_S. pretiosa_), from China, for -a single specimen of which as much as forty guineas has been paid. This -was in the days when shell-collecting without any scientific object -in view was a mania with some wealthy people; just as we have had the -tulip-mania, and now have the orchid-mania affecting persons who are -impelled by fashion rather than a love of knowledge or the beautiful in -Nature. - -However we may be inclined to pass over the Periwinkle (_Littorina -littorea_) as a species too common to need any attention, it is bound -to thrust itself upon our vision at every turn among the rocks, where -it swarms. It appears strange that whilst this species is so largely -eaten by the poorer classes in towns as a “relish” for tea, the allied -and almost equally common species, _L. rudis_, should be let severely -alone. But the explanation is probably to be found in the fact that -whereas _littorea_ deposits her eggs in the ordinary way, _rudis_ -retains hers until they have hatched out. Now seeing that the Winkles -of both species develop their hard stony shells before they hatch, it -would be impossible to eat _L. rudis_ without the great inconvenience -of having these hard gritty infants damaging one’s teeth. The smaller -red, or bright yellow shell, that may be found in abundance on the -rocks and weeds between tide-marks, is _Littorina littoralis_. - -The seeker for shells on a sandy shore must do as the children -do--throw himself prone upon the beach, and hunt thoroughly, inch by -inch, examining the topmost layer first, then lightly scraping it off -and bringing fresh treasures to light. In this manner he will certainly -turn up the exquisite little Pheasant shells (_Phasianella pullus_), -that have the misfortune to be so small, or they would be greatly -esteemed for their rich colouring. They are very smooth, and of a white -or pale yellow hue, but so thickly covered with fine crimson lines -that at first sight this appears to be the colour of the shell. These -lines run parallel with each other, but with many curves, some flowing -gently, others short and acute. These lines vary much in thickness -throughout their length, here being very fine, there thickening -gradually and thinning off again. The shells are less than a quarter -of an inch in length, and the mouth is closed with an operculum. The -animal has the peculiar habit of moving first one half, then the other, -of its foot in progressing. - -[Illustration: THE COMMON TOP.] - -One of the handsomest of our common rock-shells is the so-called Common -Top (_Trochus zizyphinus_), though it is scarcely as plentiful as the -much smaller Grey Top (_Trochus cinereus_). It is pyramidal in form, -with an almost flat, broad base; the mouth closed by a spiral, horny -operculum. In some species there is an umbilicus, in others it is -wanting. The animal has two small fringed lobes between the tentacles, -and similarly fringed lappets to the neck. The sides, too, are lobed, -and several tentacle-like processes are given off from them. - -The Grey Top (_T. cinereus_) is variable in colour. Usually it is -a dull yellowish grey, with inconspicuous dark zigzag marks upon -it; sometimes the ground colour is pinkish-white, with decided pink -markings, which present a checkered appearance. There is a deep and -wide umbilicus. In _Trochus zizyphinus_ there is no umbilicus, and in -the large Painted Top (_T. magus_), again, there is a very wide one. -This last-mentioned species lacks the smoothness of outline exhibited -by the other two, its whorls being more boldly ridged at their -junctions (_suture_). The animal has the head-lobes largely developed, -and it is brilliantly and variously coloured; hence its name. The Tops -are vegetable feeders. - -[Illustration: - VIOLET-SHELL. RAFT OF VIOLET-SHELL. -] - -On our South-western shores, when strong winds have blown from the S.W. -for days together, there are borne to us on the waves, and wrecked -upon our beaches, singular sea-snails from the mid-Atlantic. There the -Violet-shells (_Janthina_) float in myriads, and consume the still more -plentiful “Sallee-man” (_Velella_), a Jelly-fish we have mentioned -in a previous chapter. There are many singular features about this -_Janthina_. Like a shipwrecked mariner, it constructs a raft, secreting -glutinous material from the foot, in the form of many air-chambers -cemented together, and bearing beneath a large number of egg-capsules. -The shell is of somewhat similar shape to that of the Tops, but with -a much larger mouth. Its material, too, is so thin it can almost be -seen through; and on the upper part it is white, whilst beneath it is -coloured violet, whence its names. The animal has its head produced -into a thick muzzle, with a pair of tentacles and a pair of eye-stalks, -_but no eyes_. The breathing organs are two plume-like gills which -protrude from the shell. - -[Illustration: SLIT LIMPET.] - -We must return now to certain limpet-like forms, of which one, the -Keyhole Limpet (_Fissurella græca_), might be easily passed by as a -Common Limpet that has got damaged. In form and appearance the shell -is not unlike the common kind; the peculiarity consists in a short and -narrow slit at the summit, which has suggested the name. As a living -mollusk it must be sought in the laminarian zone, but the empty shells -are to be found between tide-marks. A smaller, but not very dissimilar -shell, has the keyhole not on the apex, but a little in advance of it. -This is the Perforated Limpet (_Puncturella noachina_). It is rarer -than the last, and is to be sought on the North coasts, where it lives -below the twenty-fathom line. - -Yet another species is depicted in this cut. It is the Slit Limpet -(_Emarginula reticulata_), in which the notch or slit is in the fore -edge of the white shell; length of slit variable. Internally the shell -is thickened near the notch, and outside it is deeply grooved, so that -strong ribs radiate from the summit, and are themselves partly cut up -by lighter grooves transversely to the others. It comes up to low-water -mark, so may be taken alive from the shore. There is a second British -species, the Rosy Slit Limpet (_E. rosea_), much smaller, and sometimes -with the slit rosy, but this is not a reliable character. - -On our Southern shores may be found--frequently on oysters--a shell -that may be said to be the highest development of the limpet type. Seen -from the point of view taken for our illustration, there is a long -gentle curve from the mouth to the beak, which is spirally twisted. The -general effect is to remind one of the conventional representations -of the Cap of Liberty. Owing to this cap-like form, it is known as -the Hungarian Cap, and the Torbay Bonnet (_Pileopsis hungaricus_). In -colour it varies from brown to an indefinite dirty-white hue. - -[Illustration: - HUNGARIAN CAP. TUSK-SHELL. -] - -The miniature elephant’s tusks represented in the illustration with -the Hungarian Cap are really shells, called Tusk or Tooth-shells -(_Dentalium_). They are represented of the natural size. The shell is -open at each end, and is tenanted by a strange little animal who is -attached to it near the small end. The Dentalium is not a very highly -developed creature, for though it has a head, it is quite a rudimentary -one, without eyes. But though it lacks eyes, it has a mouth, surrounded -by eight tentacles and into this go foraminifera and other minute -creatures it picks up on the sands and mud in deep water. We have two -British species, of which we may occasionally find the empty shells -washed up on the sands. Of these the Elephant’s-tusk (_Dentalium -entalis_) is very smooth and quite white throughout; whereas the -Grooved-tusk (_D. tarentinum_) is delicately grooved at the larger or -fore end, and tinged with pink at the small end. - -[Illustration: SMOOTH MAIL-SHELL.] - -In chipping off fragments of rock at low-water, upon which anemones -and other specimens are sitting, you may often get more than you -had thought, for sometimes when the piece of rock is placed in an -aquarium, other creatures will make their appearance, which were -unobserved before, owing to their colour, and the closeness with -which they attach themselves. One of these is the Bristly Mail-shell -(_Chiton fascicularis_), distinguished from other British species -by the possession of little bunches of short bristles, which are -arranged along the shell-border opposite each plate of mail. There is -considerable resemblance between these creatures and limpets, though -there are also important differences. Instead of the shell being in -one piece, it is composed of eight transverse plates, which overlap -at their edges, and allow it to be rolled up like a woodlouse. Each -plate is attached to the mantle by its front margin, and the mantle -forms a narrow border all round the shell. The animal, like the limpet, -has a broad foot upon which it creeps, mostly at night, so far as my -observations of _C. fascicularis_ go. Its head chiefly consists of its -mouth and jaws, eyes and tentacles being dispensed with as unnecessary -to its manner of life. The breathing organs are similar to those of the -limpet, but are arranged round the posterior end of the body only. The -shell is very flexible in all directions, so that the animal is not -constrained, like the limpet, to return to the same roosting spot each -time it wishes to rest. - -There are a number of British species; the one figured is known as the -Smooth Mail-shell (_C. lævis_). It has a glossy shell of a reddish hue, -with a central ridge. The largest of the native forms is the Marbled -Mail-shell (_C. marmoreus_), whose delicately sculptured shell is -further ornamented with a mottling of browns and yellows. It is about -an inch and a quarter in length. The British species is almost as long, -but of much more slender proportions. The most plentiful form is the -Grey Mail-shell (_C. cinereus_), which does not greatly exceed half an -inch in length. It is not entirely grey, though this is the prevailing -tint, but there are delicate mottlings and streaks of many colours upon -it. - -We now reach what we may very fitly term the Sea-slugs, for they -are creatures that externally have considerable resemblance to the -land-slugs, though structurally they are very different, and they are -far removed from each other in classification. The land-slugs (_Limax_) -carry a little shell embedded in their back, and their breathing organs -are internal; the Sea-slugs are entirely shell-less, except in the -embryo-stage, and their breathing apparatus is always exposed, and -situated on the back or sides. In consequence of this characteristic, -the Sea-slugs, as a group or section of the Gasteropods, are called -the Nudibranchiata, or naked-gilled mollusca. They are plentiful on -rocky coasts, where they range from half-tide to a great depth. The -best plan is to seek for them at low spring-tides, turning over stones -at the edge of the laminarian zone, when the slugs will be found at -rest on the under surfaces, in a more or less collapsed condition. They -will readily respond, however, to the attention paid them by putting -them in the calm clear water of our collecting bottles, and extending -their tentacles and branchial plumes, will explore their new quarters. -One of the most striking of these sea-slugs is the Sea Lemon (_Doris -tuberculata_), which is about three inches in length, broad, and with -the upper surface thickly studded with tubercles; this, in conjunction -with its colour, gives it a very close likeness to the half of a lemon -adhering to the rocks. As will be seen in the illustration, there are -two tentacles, and these are retractile within special cavities. The -branchial plumes are arranged in a crown-like circle in the middle -of the back, but near to the posterior end; and these also can be -withdrawn at the creature’s will. There are several British species, -some of them very small, and they range from low-water to twenty-five -fathoms, feeding upon zoophytes, sponges, anemones, and their own kind. - -[Illustration: SEA LEMON.] - -_Doris johnstoni_ is a smaller species than _tuberculata_, but -is worthy of attention on account of a certain resemblance to -_Lamellaria_. It is “got up” to mimic a sponge. There are no tubercles -on its surface, which is very finely roughed, so that it is sponge-like -to the touch. In colour it is creamy, wonderfully speckled with larger -and smaller spots of pale brown, that produce the effect of the porous -surface of a sponge, and the large spots are touched up with a darker -brown, to give depth to these false pores. When it is explained that -_D. johnstoni_ feeds on sponges like _Halichondria panicea_, this -colouring is easily understood, but its marvellous nature is not -lessened. - -Some species of allied genera are quite remarkable, one might almost -say eccentric, in their ornamentation. _Ægirus punctilucens_, a species -found between tide-marks, is elaborately covered with large tubercles -and shining points; the branchial tufts assuming quite a tree-like -growth in miniature, around the orifice, which is placed further -forward than in _Doris_. - -[Illustration: CROWNED EOLIS.] - -The Crowned Eolis (_Eolis coronata_) has a slender body, long slender -tentacles, that cannot be withdrawn, and the back is covered with long -papillæ, gathered into a dozen spreading bunches. The two _erect_ -tentacles behind the long pointed pair, if examined with a lens, will -be found to be beautifully ornamented by a series of annular plates. -It may be sought among the rocks at low-water, feeding chiefly on -the sertularian zoophytes. It is an active species, gliding over the -rocks, or swimming at the surface with its back downwards. They are -constantly waving their tentacles and moving their papillæ, from which -they exude a milky fluid when irritated, and even throw them off, as -a crab “shoots” his lesser limbs under similar circumstances. If kept -in an aquarium without suitable food, they become cannibals. _Eolis -papillosa_ is a similar species, the upper surface almost completely -covered with papillæ. It will be found under stones at low-water, -feeding on _Botrylli_ and other ascidians. If on a white species, it -will be wholly white, for like _Lamellaria_ and _Doris_, it goes in for -protective colouring. Introduce a specimen from a white ascidian into a -vessel containing, say, a crimson or brown Beadlet Anemone, and after a -few hours you will find the Anemone has disappeared, whilst the Eolis -has changed to the colour that the Beadlet was of. The papillæ of the -Eolis are really continuations of its digestive apparatus, and by this -simple arrangement a protective harmony is set up as often as it may -change its diet. Scientifically these papillæ are termed _cerata_. - -[Illustration: SEA-HARE.] - -[Illustration: SEA-HARE, FRONT VIEW.] - -The last of our Sea-slugs does not belong to the Nudibranchiata, -for its branchiæ are concealed, and it possesses a shell--a thin, -flexible, translucent, convex plate, that covers the branchial plume, -and is itself covered by the mantle. My first Sea-Hare (_Aplysia -depilans_), was taken in ignorance. A hurried glance at a globular mass -of purple-brown jelly, among some small weeds, as I was hunting for -anemones, assured me I had something new to me, and I put it down at -the moment as a colony of compound ascidians; but on putting it into an -aquarium, I saw my mistake at once. The bundle unrolled, and some loose -wraps, shaking themselves out, resolved themselves into tentacles and -marginal lobes. The foot lengthened out, and I saw the creature had a -distinct neck, with a broad muzzle between the first pair of tentacles. -The second pair were folded, so as to present a strong suggestion -of the ears of a hare, and this is precisely the idea suggested to -fishermen in many countries, by whom the _Aplysia_ was first called -Sea-hare, or _Lepus marinus_. When it is viewed from the front, as in -the smaller illustration, the illusion is strengthened. It has the -habit of pouring out a violet fluid from the edge of the mantle when -handled, which is probably intended, like the Sepia’s ink, to produce a -cloud, under cover on which the Sea-hare can safely retreat. In other -days, this fluid was regarded with horror as a poison, and an indelible -stain. From this last notion the creature got its name, _Aplysia_, -which is from two Greek words, meaning unwashable, filthy. Its second -name, _depilans_, is also reminiscent of those old notions, for it was -thought that mere contact with the dreaded creature would cause the -hair to fall off. The Sea-hare of the present generation, however, is -quite harmless, as I can testify, whatever may have been the real or -assumed character of his ancestors. - - - - -CHAPTER XV. - -CUTTLES. - - -The old trouble about a name crops up again. We have had to endure -star-fish, jelly-fish, shell-fish, and now there remains cuttle--no, we -will not say cuttle-_fish_. My neighbours, the brave Cornish fishermen, -do not say the word, neither will I. With them it is “cuddle,” with me -it shall be Cuttle, Squid, Octopus, and so forth. - -The term Gasteropoda has been explained as comprising those mollusks -whose belly is also their locomotive base, so it will be easy to show -that the class Cephalopoda consists of those mollusks whose feet -(_tentacles_) are ranged round their head (Greek, _Kephale_, head, and -_poda_, feet). They are the most highly developed of all the mollusca, -and consequently come nearest to the back-boned animals (_vertebrata_). -In them we find the first form of a skull, for the nervous system is -more concentrated, and the brain has a cartilaginous covering. The head -is distinct, and there are two large and prominent though stalkless -eyes. The jaws are powerful, and these work in a similar manner to the -bill of a bird. There is a thick, fleshy tongue partly covered with -hooks for tearing flesh. The round or elongated body has usually a flap -on each side, which serve the office of fins. The respiratory apparatus -consists of two plume-like gills, enclosed in a large branchial cavity, -communicating with the outer waters by a siphon or funnel. They also -possess a bag of reliable black ink, of so readily soluble and miscible -a character that a little ejected through a special duct will raise -a dense cloud in the water with great rapidity, and under its cover -the cuttle can quickly disappear. The tentacles number eight in some -species, ten in others, and they are studded with a great number -of suckers, which appear to be set to work almost automatically on -coming into contact with any animal substance, to which they adhere so -perfectly that, unless the will of the animal interposes to release -their hold, it is easier to tear off the tentacle from the cuttle’s -body than to separate it from its victim. - -[Illustration: OCTOPUS.] - -The Cuttles cannot strictly be called shore creatures, but they are -very active, and come into every zone, the littoral as well as others; -and though we are not very likely to come across the animal itself, we -are sure to find Cuttle-“bones” upon the beach, and bunches of their -eggs. In our investigations of the rocks at low water, we may perchance -come across a specimen of the Octopus, hiding in its hole under the -weeds, or beneath a big stone we have just overturned. Occasionally, -too, it may be found in a pool that is covered by a fathom or so of -water at ordinary low tides. On being discovered, it immediately, and -with considerable force, ejects a stream of water through its syphon -from the branchial chamber, and by the recoil is sent backward through -the water. As it does so we can see the play of colour over its body, -showing that the pigment-cells are ever ready to accommodate themselves -to the surroundings, that the Cuttle’s skin may imitate them. It is not -very likely to discharge its inky cloud, for _Octopus vulgaris_ is not -so ready as other species to empty its ink-bag, and the ink is of a -thicker, less soluble nature. - -The principal food of the Octopus appears to be the smaller crustacea, -and their hunting period after sunset. This is the reason why so common -an animal is so little seen. The shell is represented in the Octopus -by two short rods of shelly matter embedded in the mantle. The body is -like a round-bottomed bag, there being no side expansions (so-called -_fins_), and the arms are connected by a web at their base, the suckers -in two rows. The eyes fixed and staring. - -Much more in evidence as a shore animal is the Sepia, the true Cuttle -(_Sepia officinalis_), which lives in shallow water, and whose -egg-clusters and broad internal shell we frequently encounter on the -beach. The Octopus has but eight arms all told; the Sepia is adorned -with other two, but these are different from the eight, and may be more -correctly distinguished as tentacles. They are much longer than the -Sepia’s body, very narrow, and without suckers, except near their free -ends, where they expand considerably. The outline of the body, apart -from the head and arms, is like that of a shield with pointed base. -There are narrow expansions right along the sides, serving as fins, the -suckers are stalked, and the large eyes are moveable in their sockets. -There are four rows of suckers on each arm, and the arms are short. The -shell is the familiar “Cuttle-bone” sold by bird dealers, to provide -imprisoned songsters with the necessary lime, and by chemists to be -pounded and used as a dentifrice. These shells are familiar to all, and -need not be described. They are exceedingly light for their size, one -of average proportions(7¼ by 2½ inches) weighing less than one ounce. -This is the average of the large shells one finds upon the beach, but a -full-sized one would be about ten inches in length. It is technically -known as the _sepiostaire_, but “Cuttle-shell” (not “bone”) is good -enough for common use. It should be observed that this shell serves as -a complete shield for the back of the Sepia, it being merely covered by -the mantle, to which, however, it is not attached. Besides its value as -a shield to the Sepia, it is also useful as a float, for the Sepia is -an active swimming creature, not a crawler on the sea-bottom like the -Octopus. - -[Illustration: SEPIA.] - -The Sepia’s ink-bag must not be forgotten; you are not likely to -forget it if you capture a Cuttle. On one occasion when I had been out -in the sean-boat capturing mackerel, I saw several Sepias swimming -about among the imprisoned fish, and a couple of these contrived to -be dipped up in the tucking mound, and cast into the boat with the -fish. One of these I claimed as part of my share, but when we landed -the creature was in such a mess with his own spilt ink that I essayed -to wash him in a pool. I soon tired of that, for the more I washed, -the more freely the ink was poured out. The Sepia sometimes visits the -fish-nets and seans in shoals, and does great damage to the catch; but -fish are equally fond of Sepia, and if you can get hold of a couple -of these, or of Squid, on starting for a fishing excursion, to cut up -for bait, you will scarcely want anything better. The Sepia’s eggs, in -clusters not unlike bunches of grapes, are frequently cast up on the -shore by storms, and there is no great difficulty in hatching out such -of the eggs as have not been injured by the buffeting against rocks -and shingle they have experienced. The young Cuttle is a miniature -_replica_ of its parent, and conducts itself as “a chip of the old -block.” - -[Illustration: SQUID (_loligo_).] - -The Squid (_Loligo vulgaris_) is a much longer and narrower species of -Cuttle, similar to the Sepia in its head parts, but the arms have but -two rows of suckers on each, though the clubbed ends of the tentacles -have four rows. The fins are short and angular, placed at the hinder -end of the body, which runs off to a long sharp point behind them. The -shell is not a broad expansion like that of Sepia, but more like a -pen with a long holder or shaft in front of it. Whilst the Squids are -splendid swimmers, they also crawl, head downwards. This is the species -that is chiefly sought for bait, and vast numbers are used in the -Newfoundland Cod-fishery. - -There are a number of species of Cephalopods to be caught off our -coasts, but the only other that we are likely to find any trace of -upon the shore is the Little Cuttle (_Sepiola rondeletii_), whose body -is short, with rounded side fins, contracted at their base, and whose -entire length is only a couple of inches. The suckers are in two rows -on the arms, and in four rows on the tentacles; in this respect it -agrees with _Loligo_, to which it is much more nearly related than to -_Sepia_. It is a very active swimmer, and it has a small pen similar to -that of _Loligo_. - - - - -CHAPTER XVI. - -SEA SQUIRTS. - - -The other day I was down in our porth when some of the fishermen of the -village came in after hauling their trammels. There had been a “good -bit of sea” running during the night, and the trammel had got fairly -filled with weed, so that it was necessary to bring it ashore to clean -it. If the naturalist is about when this happens, he stands a chance -of obtaining some deep-water specimens of interest to him. My eye fell -upon several masses of a clear greenish-white jelly, pear-shaped, and -firm to the touch. I knew what they were, but always anxious to get -local names for natural objects where they exist, I asked the fisherman -what they were. “Oh, I dare say you know, sir; but we always call -_they_ congealed water. Isn’t that right?” I admitted that they were -composed almost entirely of water, but denied that it was congealed. -It would be better, I added, to speak of it as a living leather bottle -full of water--and other things. - -“What was it?” - -Popularly speaking, it was a Sea Squirt. A naturalist would speak of -it as a simple _Ascidian_--_A. mentula_, to wit; and on being further -pressed, might tell you that the Ascidiaceæ constitute an order of the -Tunicata, which is now included among Vertebrate animals, though no -Tunicate possesses a backbone. - -Our description of it as a leather bottle is more to the point, and -equally scientific, for the naturalist who bestowed the name Ascidian -upon this remarkable group of animals got that name from the Greek word -_askos_, a leathern bottle. - -[Illustration: - A. ASCIDIA VIRGINEA. - - B. CYNTHIA QUADRANGULARIS. -] - -Look at these diagrams: they represent two common forms of Ascidians, -and it will be noted that they have a general agreement in shape with -the large specimens of _A. mentula_ we were looking at just now. Like -that, these have each two necks, though those of _mentula_ were closed, -and these are open at their mouths. If we had these in a glass vessel, -but still attached to pieces of the rock upon which they grew, we -should be able to see why one bottle need have two necks. If we were -then to drop a little finely-divided colour-powder such as indigo, -into the water, we should see two currents were in operation, one -flowing to the animal, the other proceeding from it. The first would -be flowing to the neck marked _a_ in the figures, and the second would -be issuing from the mouth of _b_. Naturally, we should at once suppose -that by means of some internal mechanism and system of valves, the same -current that was being induced at _a_, was being continued through the -creature’s body, and pumped out at _b_. Our supposition would be proved -correct by the fact that the colour grains streaming in were also -streaming out. But what happens to them between entering and departing -we cannot clearly see. - -By the aid of another diagram (next page) we may get a better notion -of the Ascidian’s internal arrangements than by gazing through its -integuments. Here are all its parts marked with a letter as a guide to -its anatomy. It is a matter of astonishment to many fairly intelligent -people, to find that such soft creatures as Sea-squirts, Jelly-fishes, -Slugs and Caterpillars, are provided with a more or less intricate -machinery for carrying out all the functions of life. But so it is; -and here is the typical plan of arrangements inside our Ascidian. Here -the necks of the bottle are marked _a_ and _n_ respectively, and _a_, -by which the current of water flows in, is called the oral orifice. -Just inside is a series of tentacles (_b_), and below these we are in -the branchial chamber (_c_), where the great work of supplying the -blood with oxygen is carried on. The walls consist of a lattice-work of -blood-vessels, through whose tissues the blood takes up the molecules -of the life-supporting gas. Below this chamber the gullet opens and -is continued into the stomach (_g_), and beyond it is the intestine -(_h_), which in turn opens out through the anus (_l_) into another -roomy chamber, the _atrium_ (_m_) or atrial chamber, with its external -opening (_n_). _O_ is a ganglion or small brain, and _f_ indicates the -heart. - -[Illustration: DIAGRAMMATIC SECTION OF AN ASCIDIAN.] - -Now in order to get a correct idea of the Tunicates--as the group -in which the Ascidians are included is called--I wish you to note -the figures _d_ and _e_ in the same diagram. You will see that they -indicate two separate envelopes. The outer of these, represented by -the thick dark line, is of a tough, leathery nature, and is much -akin to vegetable cellulose in its character--a fact that caused -some little commotion in scientific circles years ago, when it was -first satisfactorily made out, for prior to that date cellulose was -considered to be purely a vegetable product. This outer coat is known -as the _tunic_, or test, and from the fact that all the species are -enclosed in such a tunic, the group gets its name Tunicata. The inner -coat represented in the diagram by the clear space between the thick -and thin marginal lines, is of a more delicate, more animal nature: -it is composed of soft though powerful muscular tissue, and by its -contraction the water, which always fills the interior of this “leather -bottle,” can be violently spurted forth--a phenomenon which has brought -upon these creatures the name of Sea-squirts. This muscular coat is -known as the _mantle_. - -[Illustration: ORANGE-SPOTTED SQUIRT (_Cynthia aggregata_).] - -The Ascidian has no proper system of blood-vessels, as we are generally -acquainted with them in higher animals. The blood flows about the -general body cavity, and is not confined to narrow channels as in -our arteries and veins. There is a heart, it is true, but one of the -simplest character, without any elaborate system of ventricles and -auricles, with their regulating valves. The Ascidian’s heart is simply -a tube open at each end, and by its steady pulsation--that is, its -alternate contraction and expansion, it sets the blood flowing to the -blood-vessels that line the walls of the branchial cavity, where it -absorbs oxygen from the continuous flow of fresh sea-water that passes -through it. When this end has been attained, a curious and unique -“reversal of the engine” takes place: there is such an opposite action -of the heart, that all this vivified blood is withdrawn from the -neighbourhood of the branchial chamber and sent flowing to remote parts -of the body. - -[Illustration: _Ascidia mentula._ - -CURRANT-SQUIRTER - -(_Styela Grossularia_).] - -The flow of water through the branchial chamber is kept up by the -regular and unceasing lashing of eye-lash-like _cilia_, with which the -blood-vessels are fringed. This constant inflow at the oral orifice -forces the water through to the atrial chamber, from which it is pumped -out by the contraction of the mantle. Minute particles of matter that -serve as food are also brought in by the current, and find their way -into special grooves for their reception and digestion. The other -arrangements of the creature are equally simple. The nervous ganglion, -to which we have made reference, is its only brain, and it has no -proper eyes, only some pigment granules near the tentacles appear to be -sensitive to light. - -Most of the Ascidians inhabit deeper water than comes within our range, -but we shall find specimens at low-water attached to stones and the -roots of seaweeds. We may even find specimens of _Ascidia mentula_ in -rock-pools, and others we shall discover on smaller stones and shells -that have washed in on sandy shores from greater depths. Among such -will be the Quadrangular-squirter (_Cynthia quadrangularis_), so-called -on account of the squareness of its apertures; and the Currant-squirter -(_Styela grossularia_), a very common form on dead shells, which gets -its name partly from its colour and partly from its form when it has -closed both apertures and become more rounded. - -[Illustration: CLAVELINA.] - -But there are many other forms of Tunicates that haunt our shores -either in deep water or upon the vegetation of the lower rocks. There -are some of more slender, more elongated form that live together in -bunches, their bases being connected by a kind of running rootstock, -which has the power to produce young individuals by budding from it. -This form is known as _Clavelina lepadiformis_, and is only about an -inch in height, of the form shown in the annexed diagram. In the -figure the reference letters are of the following signification: _a_, -branchial apertures; _b_, atrial apertures; _c_, young individuals -arising from the runners _s_. - -[Illustration: SALPA MAXIMA.] - -From this form it is an easy transition to the Ascidians known as -_Salpæ_. These have the branchial aperture (_b_) at one end, and the -atrial opening (_a_) at the other. In the figure the heart is shown at -_e_, and the branchial chamber at _d_. These _Salpæ_ are both solitary -and compound Ascidians, for it is a singular fact that the solitary -form as here shown produces buds which develop into a connected series -or chain of individuals. These, in turn, instead of reproducing the -species, in a similar manner produce eggs, each of which gives rise to -a solitary individual. In our figure of _Salpa maxima_, the letters _c_ -indicate the points of attachment of the Salpa colony; and the next -figure represents a portion of the Salpa-chain. - -[Illustration: PART OF A CHAIN OF SALPÆ.] - -Frequently, in gazing down the sides of a still, deep rock-pool, we -shall observe a coating of dark grey jelly, in patches as big as one’s -hand, and on carefully taking off an inch or two of this, and examining -it with the lens, or a low power of the microscope, we shall observe a -number of elegantly-formed jars to be set in the jelly, and as we look -their mouths and necks are raised above the surface of the jelly and -opened. These are the branchial apertures of a colony of Ascidians -(_Leptoclinum gelatinosum_), and if we search around the mass we shall -shortly find a cone-shaped opening in the clear jelly, through which -a current of water flows. This is the common atrial chamber of the -whole colony. The clear jelly is the common outer tunic of the whole -community. - -On the walls of overhanging rocks, at low-water, many fleshy clusters, -like pale-coloured strawberries will be found, of firm gelatinous -material, with a clear jelly envelope, through which the crimson dots -of the contained squirts may be seen. One form has a thick trunk, with -but slightly enlarged head, and consisting of a number of groups of -squirts: this is _Aplidium_; it has no common aperture. A more globose -head on a shorter stalk has a distinctly marked common opening: this -is _Polyclinum_. _Amaroecium_ has a corrugated exterior, and is more -cylindrical in form. - -[Illustration: BOTRYLLUS.] - -Other species will meet us of more symmetrical form, on flat weeds, -smooth stones, and under the overhanging brows of the large rocks -at low-water. These are of varied tints according to species, but -each with a starry pattern worked in with little purple or yellow -Ascidians. It looks as though six or seven of these had agreed to live -together for company’s sake and for economy; and here we find them set -in the jelly, and radiating from a central aperture, the common atrial -opening of the colony. - -[Illustration: BOTRYLLUS VIOLACEUS.] - -Here is a figure showing part of a patch of _Botryllus violaceus_, such -as you may find abundant on the rocks. _C_ shows the combined tunic -of the colony, _a_ the branchial openings, and _b_ the common atrium. -The general verdict on a patch of Botryllus would probably be that it -was some low form of sea-plant, for a naked-eye view of it reveals -no evidence of animal processes; yet, in spite of its vegetative -condition, this--in common with other Tunicates--is held to approach -nearest to the great back-boned races, the aristocracy of animal life. - -But it is a sad story of missed opportunities and consequent -degeneration that the Tunicates have to tell of their race. Some -evolutionists hold that in the primeval Ascidian we must look for the -progenitor of the vertebrates. We know what the primeval Ascidian was -like, for the form is retained, according to a natural law, in the -larval stage of its present-day representatives. Roughly speaking, it -was like a tadpole, with a broad head-and-trunk combined, and a very -long, narrow tail, by the lashing of which from side to side it made -way through the waters, much as the boatman gets along by sculling -from the stern. At the front there was a rudimentary mouth with three -suckers, an optic organ, with a retina, lens, cornea, and so forth; an -auditory organ; the promise of a well-formed brain and nervous system; -and a rod in the tail might be developed into that backbone which is -the distinguishing mark of all the birds, beasts, fishes, reptiles, and -man himself. - -[Illustration: LARVA OF A TUNICATE.] - -Some of the primeval squirt-larvæ are supposed to have cultivated these -possibilities, and the grand vertebrate division of the animal kingdom -is said to be the result; but others went in for the _status quo_ and -inglorious ease. No developments for us, said they. They may even be -supposed to have anticipated the prayer formerly taught to rural school -children: - - “God bless the squire and his relations, - And keep us in our proper stations.” - -Then they gave up wandering at random through the waters, and settled -down to a quiet and retired life on a piece of rock at the root of a -branching weed. Taking hold with their suckers, they soon discovered -that tails and sense organs were of no use to those who had forsworn -wandering, so they threw them off, and gradually assumed the wine-skin -shape that has ever since been the ruling fashion among Ascidians. All -that remains of the tail is a few fatty cells in the posterior part -of the trunk. The suckers by which it was attached disappear, and the -test grows over surrounding objects; the auditory organ disappears, -the eye retrogrades into a mere pigment spot, and the nervous system -degenerates into the solitary ganglion to which we have already -referred. It will thus be seen that the life-history of the Tunicates -is a dismal story of degeneration instead of development; but it is -none the less interesting on that account. - - - - -CHAPTER XVII. - -SHORE FISHES. - - -We have no intention of attempting to give in this little book an -account of British marine fishes. That is a task that needs several -volumes for its accomplishment. But without going from the shore we may -make acquaintance with a considerable number of fishes. Where trawlers -come in we may, of course, see fish of all sorts, but as in most cases -the trawlers put in with their catch to the nearest market-port, we -shall take no account of this method of increasing our knowledge. From -time to time the local fishermen get strange things in their trammels, -such as enormous angler-fishes; one day one of our fishermen got a -porpoise in this way, and brought it ashore for my special benefit. But -these things also I shall treat as outside our bounds, which includes -only the fish we can find in the rock-pools, or under stones at -low-water, or can catch from the fringing rocks as they haunt the weedy -jungles of such places. - -To begin, let us take some fair-sized rock-pool, between tide-marks; -one with irregular walls overgrown with green and purple weeds, and -pinkish coralline--with miniature caverns and clefts in the walls, -and a heavy stone or two at the bottom. In such a pool--and we know -hundreds such--we shall not fail for several examples of fish, though -we are not likely to find all the species here named in one and the -same pool. Three or four species of fish at the most is what we may -expect from one pool; but in several basins within a few yards of each -other we may get a greater variety. - -In all probability the first species we shall see in the pool is the -Smooth Blenny or Shanny (_Blennius pholis_), which the boys in my -neighbourhood (South Cornwall) call Janny, and in other districts it -is the Mulligranoc. It is a true rock-fish, never venturing into very -deep water, and preferring those pools between tide-marks where it can -find convenient shelter in holes, or if so inclined can climb out and -pass a few hours under the moist weeds which the ebbing tide has left -uncovered. But it is never many inches from the water, and on the least -sign of alarm it is in the pool and invisible. - -[Illustration: SHANNY.] - -In many respects it is a clumsy, heavy fish, but its quick intelligence -makes up for defects of form--and we may add, makes it an interesting -fish to keep in a shallow pan with a few stones. You must have the -stones if you would have the Shanny comfortable, for he is strongly -averse to too much publicity. He likes to see and not be seen; and his -favourite attitude, so far as I have observed a number of specimens in -confinement, is on his side under a stone, with the head just peeping -out. In this position he appears to have one eye on the floor of -the tank, the other on the surface of the water. Look at him and he -follows your every movement with one eye. In this position he reminds -me strongly of a dog; indeed, in certain aspects of his profile his -head much resembles that of a dog. He acts like a dog, too, when he has -taken a limpet unawares, and has wrested it from the rock. This is not -an easy thing for a fish to do, and you might almost as well speak of -taking a limpet off-guard as of catching a weasel asleep. But for some -reason--perhaps to thoroughly ventilate his shell, or for the submarine -equivalent for ventilation--the limpet occasionally lifts his shell so -that there is about an eighth of an inch clear space between the edges -of his shell and the rock. He still retains his hold by means of his -powerful sucker-foot, but the wily Shanny, creeping silently up seizes -the shell in his strong lips, and before the limpet can exercise his -muscular powers by pulling down the shell and pinching the shanny’s -lower jaw, the fish, with a shake of his head, has wrested it off -the rock. He carries it about for some time, biting at the flesh and -gradually reducing it in quantity. - -Each Shanny occupies his own private corner or crevice of the pool -and shuns the company of his fellows. In this matter he appears to -be a very morose fish, and further he resents anything in the way of -a friendly call. Should the Shanny, who lives in the grotto about -half way along the southern side of the pool, seek to call upon his -neighbour who lives in that delightful retreat at the bottom of -the west end, the latter will rush out at him like a mad bull and -effectually put the visitor to the rout. - -In every pool there are a number of juvenile Shannies of various ages -and sizes, but of these the adults do not appear to take much notice. -One of the most noteworthy things about the Shanny--shared I admit -with many other fish, but still worthy of observation--is the rapidity -with which he can make himself practically invisible. It is not easy -to describe the Shanny’s coloration and markings, because it varies -so much in different individuals, and even in the same individual at -different times; but it may be said to be a mottling of greenish-grey -or brown marks, of which the strongest elements are a series of dark -broad stripes, running from the back to about half way down the sides. -The whole of the upper surfaces are liberally sprinkled with small -black or grey dots, and larger ones are scattered over the dorsal fin, -which is continuous from above the gills right along almost to the -tail, which is similarly spotted. There are very few spots on the long -anal fin which is hidden when the fish is resting; but the expansive -oval pectoral fins, which are often spread out widely, have the rays -well-spotted. - -You lift up a big stone from the bottom of a pool and out rushes a big -Shanny, causing a great commotion in the water. He makes for a narrow -cleft where there does not seem to be nearly sufficient room for so -big a fish as he; but he has vanished. Knowing where he disappeared -you rout him out again, and once more he frantically flies round and -round the pool, perhaps leaping right out of the water into a tuft of -overhanging _Fucus serratus_. But as likely as not, after dodging about -for two or three turns and splashing the water about, he will quietly -drop to the coralline-covered floor right under your eyes, and you -cannot see him. So admirably does the indefinite marking of his upper -surface harmonise with the coralline and other matters, that he has -become as invisible as a nightjar on the moorland, or as certain moths -on lichen-covered tree-trunks. It will do you no harm to carefully -scrutinise every millimetre of the pool’s floor until you have detected -the Shanny’s whereabouts, but probably you will be assisted in this by -the Shanny himself, who, observing your quietness, will imagine all -danger is past and make a move. - -Juvenile Shannies, though as ready to rush into cover as their elders, -are endowed with considerable curiosity; and if in early summer you -come upon a dozen of them sporting about a rock-pool, and will lie down -with your head and shoulders over the water, you will find that their -inquisitiveness is greater than their fear. One after another will come -from his retreat among the weeds and look up at you, rolling his little -eyes knowingly. Then they will creep up the sides of the pool, using -their ventral fins as feet, until their muzzles are out of water. Dip -in the tip of a finger, and they all vanish for a moment; then out -they come again, and slowly approach until they reach your finger; they -attempt to bite it, but their mouths are as yet too small, and then -rush off again. So you may keep them employed for some time, and it -will not be many minutes before several prawns join in the fun. This -may read like an ordinary “fish-story,” but it is a fact that may be -verified by any visitor to a rocky shore. - -Next to the Shanny we shall probably find the most reliable fish as -a pool _habitué_ is the Father Lasher, Horny Cobbler, or Sting-fish -(_Cottus scorpio_). Put but the point of a stick in the pool where -the Father Lasher has his retreat under a stone, or drop a winkle -or a pebble in; in an instant he is out with open mouth ready to -swallow anything not too large for his very capacious maw. His -singular name appears to have been given to him on account of his -pugnacity and the villainous expression of his countenance, which -are supposed to belong to a creature who would not hesitate to give -his own parent a thrashing. My own opinion, based upon considerable -personal acquaintance with the Father Lasher is, that he is not -nearly so villainous as he looks. His case is similar to that of the -bull-dog, whose face is no index to the qualities of heart I am told he -possesses. The artists have not been fortunate in depicting the Father -Lasher, and I am not greatly surprised, for even the camera fails to -give a correct and life-like impression of him, which depends not alone -upon curves and lines, but upon colour also. - -In some respects he resembles the Shanny in build, but is much broader -across the head and shoulders. He has the same wealth of fins, though -the dorsal fins are not continuous as in the Shanny, and the fin rays -though stout are soft. There is an inclination towards the tadpole -form, especially on the underside, and this tendency is exaggerated -by the fish puffing out his gills and sticking out his pectoral fins -when threatened or alarmed--or when he wishes to inspire with awe. -Just behind each eye and at the top of each gill-cover he has a -bony spine, with smaller ones all over his head, and the inflation of -his jaws and gills is for the purpose of forcing these out. Whether -he makes any use of them in actual warfare I am unable to state, but -they certainly add to his ferocious aspect, and in that way may protect -him from many assaults. The more barbarous of the coast-boys delight -in fixing corks to these spines, and setting Father Lasher free, get -amusement out of his vain efforts to seek his hole at the bottom of the -pool. - -The Father Lasher’s colouring is a confusion of bands and circles -and spots; of browns and greens and greys; a serviceable coat that -harmonises well with all its surroundings, and one that is capable of -adaptation when the fish moves from a bare rock basin to one that has a -coralline lining. It can change from dark to light, or _vice versâ_. I -have had them almost white by keeping them in a white porcelain dish. -The underside is delicate yellow, or pearly white, or iridescent green -with darker mottlings. - -[Illustration: - FATHER LASHER. WORM PIPE-FISH. -] - -In his native pool the Father Lasher likes to take up his quarters -under a stone at the bottom, from which he can suddenly rush out at -anything he sees move across his field of vision. He does not wait to -see what it is; sufficient that it moves. Satisfied that movement is a -sign of life, he secures it in his cavern-like mouth, and then finds -out whether it is a palatable morsel or not; if not, it is summarily -ejected and, as he thinks, no harm is done. An angler who simply -desires sport can get it in a pool where lives a Father Lasher. Drop -down a baited hook, and it will soon be seized by him, but, as he -immediately retires to his den to chew it over, you may pull and pull -before you get him out. Probably you will lose several hooks before -you secure your fish. He is not at all a bad subject for an aquarium -proportioned to his size, and he soon becomes quite affable, allowing -himself to be taken out to exhibit the beautiful marbling of his -underside to friends. For this purpose I have held him gently with my -finger and thumb behind his pectoral fins, when he would obligingly -open his enormous mouth to show how well the jaws and palate are -furnished with teeth. When fully grown he attains a length of five or -six inches. - -Our illustration on page 251 contains a portrait of the long and -slender Worm Pipe-fish (_Syngnathus lumbriciformis_), besides that -of the Father Lasher. A more striking contrast could not be desired -between fishes of the same length, for the Father Lasher is thick and -spiny, whilst the Worm Pipe-fish almost comes within the definition of -a line, “length without breadth,” and in addition he is as smooth as an -eel, though of harder exterior. This little fellow might more easily -pass muster as a worm than as a fish. It will more frequently be found -under stones at low-water, but occasionally we shall find it in the -pool twining S-shaped round some seaweed. - -The peculiarity of the pipe-fishes, of which we have several native -species, is to have these long tapering bodies, with the snout drawn -out into the form of a beak, but which instead of separating into two -mandibles, opens only at the extremity with a little mouth. Another -distinguishing feature is found in the gills: instead of these being -a series of crimson frills covered by a large plate, fixed only by a -small portion of its edge, and freely opening to allow the passage of -water to and from them, their blood-vessels are gathered into little -tufts which are arranged in pairs. These are all covered in by a bony -plate that is fixed all round, with the exception of a small opening -near the top edge. Then instead of the body being covered with scales -as in many, or most, fishes, these are encased in large plates of mail. -In the male of our Greater Pipe-fish or Greater Sea Adder (_S. acus_), -there is another remarkable item in the shape of a marsupial pouch -of the same practical value as that of the Kangaroo, into which the -female transfers her eggs, and where they not only remain until they -are hatched, but the young fish also use it as a shelter for a time, -coming home unfailingly to roost. This is a fish that may be taken -freely among the weeds of bays and harbours, and as it reaches a length -of from twelve to fifteen inches, it is a giant compared with the -little Worm Pipe-fish. - -The Worm Pipe-fish has no fins except that along the back (_dorsal_), -and its tail-fin is almost non-existent; it can, however, be found by -looking for it. It has no marsupial pouch, but the female contrives to -transfer her eggs to the abdomen of the male, where each sinks into a -little pit in which it is held until hatched. How this is accomplished -I have not observed; but as I have found the strings of ova -independently in my aquaria, I should suppose the male presses his body -upon them until they adhere. These eggs are one millimetre in diameter, -amber-coloured, and opalescent. They are firmly attached together in -rows of twos or threes, and these rows in circular strings. They are -firm to the touch and not at all adhesive, so the glutinous matter, -necessary for their adhesion to the male, must be contributed by that -parent. It is interesting to note that when these tiny creatures leave -the egg the tail has a proper broad fin at its extremity and extending -along both the back and underside. It has also pectoral fins; but all -these except a part of that along the back become absorbed, or are -otherwise got rid of as the fish grows and becomes more worm-like. -So smooth and round is this species that it presents little evidence -of being clothed in plates instead of scales, until one looks very -closely, when the outlines of each plate will be found indicated. - -If the Worm Pipe-fish be captured with care, and soon transferred -to the aquarium, it will be found quite a hardy and interesting -inhabitant. Of course, its comfort must be studied, and to this end you -must provide a flat stone, so propped up that it is very close to the -bottom of the tank, yet with sufficient space beneath for the Pipe-fish -to wriggle about. I write these notes with such an arrangement before -me, and as I look down through the shallow water I see five slender -cylinders protruding like the barrels of tiny rifles from an ambuscade. -Couch makes the extraordinary statement that, “observation seems to -show that it is not able to raise itself above the ground, on which -it creeps in its endeavours to escape being caught, with a serpentine -motion much like that of a slow-worm.” Observation in my case serves to -controvert Couch. It certainly prefers to remain under stones, and it -is not constructed as a constant swimmer; but it does swim for short -lengths in its pursuit of minute crustaceans, and can be very active -when it pleases. - -There are other blennies in the pool besides that one called the Smooth -Blenny or Shanny, and among those that we fancy are young Shannies we -may chance to find Montagu’s Blenny (_Blennius galerita_), a species -easily distinguished by a crimson crest with fringed edges, which it -erects on its head just above the eyes. Its tail and its pectoral -fins, too, are tinged with crimson. Another Blenny, though by no means -so likely to be found generally distributed along the coast is the -striking Butterfly Blenny (_Blennius ocellaris_). It is much like the -Shanny, but with larger and more rounded pectoral fins, and a much -higher dorsal fin. This fin is the feature that at once enables us to -identify the Butterfly among Blennies. It is often divided by one or -two depressions, so that it appears to be two or three fins; but the -important sign is a large deep blue spot surrounded by a light ring -over the centre of the body. This eye-spot gives it the specific name -_ocellaris_. It should also be noted that the first ray of this dorsal -fin is considerably longer than the membranous portion of the fin. The -colour of the fish is olive mottled with brown, but of course it varies -considerably like the species we have already described. Ocellaris has -two little crests upon its head similar to Montagu’s Blenny, and the -Tompot as afterwards mentioned. - -In the illustration of the Butterfly Blenny there is a portrait of -a little rock-fish, one of the numerous tribe of Gobies. Several of -them occur in the pools, among them the Rock Goby (_Gobius niger_), or -Black Goby, as he is more often but inappropriately named, for he can -scarcely be said to have any permanent colour when his hues constantly -change as he changes his surroundings. Living among rocks he is more -often brown than black, with lighter and darker mottlings according to -circumstances. - -[Illustration: - LITTLE GOBY. BUTTERFLY BLENNY. -] - -The reader is advised to make himself acquainted with the names of the -various fins, and to count the rays in each, for these vary with the -species, and are often used in describing and identifying species. We -have introduced the names of these already, but we think it would be -an advantage to repeat them here, and then to use them throughout the -remainder of this chapter. - - The Dorsal fin is on the back; if more than one they are first - dorsal and second dorsal. - - The Pectoral fins are a pair having their origin just behind the - gills. - - The Ventral fins are a pair on the belly, behind and below the - pectorals. - - The Anal fin is single, in the middle line of the underside - between the vent and the tail. - - The Caudal fin is the termination of the tail, and the form of - this is very important. - -The Rock Goby has two dorsals, the first with six rays decreasing in -length as they get further from the head; the second with fifteen rays -of equal length. The pectorals are rounded behind; so are the ventrals, -which are united by a membrane. The anal fin is just under the second -dorsal, if we reckon from the tail forwards, but the second dorsal is -longer than the anal. The space between the dorsal and anal fins is -occupied by eleven or twelve lines of scales. Full-grown specimens vary -from six to nine inches in length. - -The species figured in our illustration (page 257) is the Little -Goby (_G. minutus_), a fish from two to three inches in length, of -a yellowish ground colour minutely stippled with brown, its sides -alternately streaked with long and short dark stripes. Dorsal fins two, -the first rounded, narrow from back to front; the second wide from back -to front, and with slightly concave outline. It appears to be more at -home on the sandy than the rocky shore. - -In pools that are lavishly decorated with hanging weeds we may find a -number of pretty fishes of a clear green or a rich brown colour. They -are the young of the Corkwing Wrasse, or Rath, as Cornish fishermen -term it (_Crenilabrus melops_), a species that grows only to a length -of six or seven inches. The Wrasses proper (_Labrus_), of which we -shall have something to say directly, are distinguished by the oblong -form of body, by having the gill-covers laid over with scales, and -by the long dorsal fin spread partly over spines and partly over -soft rays. The spiny portion is the three-fifths nearest the head, the -remainder being supported by soft rays. Other characters are thick, -fleshy lips and protruding teeth. The Corkwing is included in the genus -Crenilabrus, which is separated from Labrus on account of the margin of -the first plate of the gill-covers being toothed. - -[Illustration: CORKWING WRASSE.] - -In general the colouring of the Corkwing Wrasse is brown above, nicely -merging into green on the sides; the gill-covers ornamented with -stripes of red and green. But as we have already indicated, individuals -vary much in colour. From immediately behind the head there runs -parallel with the outline of the back a dark line (the _lateral line_), -which terminates in a well-defined round black spot close to the tail. -We must not look for large specimens, nor for the larger species of -Wrasse, in the pools; but if we get on the edge of the rocks when the -tide is coming in we are almost sure to see some of considerable size -gliding in and out the waving fronds of the rock weeds. They are easily -taken on a line cast from the rocks at this time, the hook being baited -with pilchard or a piece of shore crab. Many are caught in this way for -sport, and then handed over to the crabbers as bait for their pots. For -this purpose they are much appreciated, and special pots are put down -to capture “rath” for bait. - -One of the commonest species is the Ballan Wrasse (_Labrus maculatus_), -which is _the_ Wrasse. The ground colour is usually some variation upon -golden orange, and many of the scales have a large pale spot which -earns for the species the name _maculatus_. The spines in the dorsal -fin are twenty, and the soft rays ten or eleven. Certain forms are -known as the Green Wrasse and the Comber Wrasse, under the impression -they are distinct species, whereas they are really colour varieties of -the Ballan Wrasse. The length varies in adults from fifteen inches to -two feet, with a weight of eight or ten pounds. - -The Cook or Cuckoo Wrasse (_Labrus mixtus_) is another common kind, -not so large as the Ballan, but more striking in its vivid colouring. -This varies from yellow to red as a ground tint, with two roughly -parallel purple or bright blue thick lines running from above the eye -nearly to the tail. The large eye is crimson with a purple ring round -it, from which run off three short bands of blue or purple across the -gill-covers. All the fins red, the fore part of the dorsal suffused -with blue; a triangular patch of blue also on the upper and lower parts -of the tail. The dorsal fin has eighteen spines and thirteen soft rays. - -Should we desire to see the life of the rocks without troubling to -obtain “specimens,” it is a good plan to repair at low tide to the edge -of a drang, and, selecting a station where we shall have a high rock -in front of us and a channel between ourselves and that, wait until -the tide turns. At first there is nothing but the rough floor of the -drang, with stones and rocks of all sorts and sizes scattered untidily -over it. The great broad, leathery fronds of oarweed and the smaller -fronds of bladder wrack and knotted wrack hang over the rocks in great -shaggy masses, and here and there, as though in utter collapse, are -the flaccid forms of the green and drab Opelet Anemone. But as we are -taking stock of the surroundings, there comes a ripple of water along -the deeper ruts and pools of the drang. Silently it streams along -filling the holes, and then gradually spreading right across the stony -floor, and creeping up and up the rocks until there is an inch or more -of it. Then what a change ensues. The free ends of the weeds float -in the stream, the smaller weeds on the bottom pick themselves up, -and shapeless masses become forms of elegance and beautiful colour. -What a few minutes ago looked like the “abomination of desolation,” -is now full of life. The waters are teeming with forms that seem to -rise out of the ground. Certainly they did not--many of them--come in -with the tide. No, they were hidden in holes, under stones, under the -limp weeds, and in crevices of the rock. Here they come. Prawns in -shoals, little Wrasse and big ones, the long lithe forms of Gunnel and -Rockling, the attenuated Fifteen-spined Stickleback, the Weever, and -many another. Our attention is taken by a waving black form near at -hand, and for a few minutes we are at a loss to make out what it can -be. It appears to be a plant of strange nature, for it is evidently -rooted at the bottom. And then a suspicion arises that the swaying -and waving of the ribbon is not entirely caused by the influx of the -tide, but we have not decided what it is, when up it comes with a -green shore crab at the other end of it. It is a small Conger that has -been struggling to bring into the light of day this crab, which it had -tracked to his hole in the bottom. In such a position the crab had -evidently something to cling to, but the Conger had fixed his teeth in -the crab, and it was only a question of time when the crab should be -unable longer to hold out. The Conger is rapidly off to his own special -haunt, there to eat the crab in peace. - -The Conger Eel (_Conger vulgaris_) is for its size among the most -powerful of our fishes. The largest specimens, of course, are taken in -deep water, but individuals of considerable size are taken from the -rocks, where they have their retreats in little caverns beneath the -broad fronds of _Laminaria_. Jonathan Couch remarked that he had a note -of a Conger that had been taken weighing one hundred and four pounds, -and of another measuring seven feet two inches which weighed ninety -pounds. Even much smaller monsters than this have to be treated with -caution when caught, the fishermen usually striking them a smart blow -on the tail to disable them and so prevent much mischief. The upper jaw -of the Conger projects over the lower one, which is the reverse of what -obtains among the true eels (_Anguilla_); the dorsal fin, too, begins -much nearer, and as in the eels combines with the ventral fin to form -the tail. - -When on the floor of the emptied drang turning stones and lifting weeds -aside, we shall probably hear a great splashing in the shallow pool -behind us, and turning quickly see the waters in commotion, but fail -to detect the cause. But we know from former experience that it is -either a Tompot, a Gunnel, or large Rockling. Fixing our eyes upon a -large stone towards which the surface ripples are setting, we advance -towards it and turn it over. “There he is! quick!” But no; he is as -slippery as butter and glides rapidly through our hands, though not so -quickly but that we could identify him as the Gunnel or Butterfish. We -set out after him again, and rout him out of the corner into which he -had retired in fancied safety. Next time he attempts to shelter under -a stone where there is a cavity only large enough to accommodate his -head and shoulders, but ostrich like, he thinks he is wholly concealed. -Keeping our shrimp-net close up, we seize him just behind the head, -but with a rapid turn his head is withdrawn from the hole and his body -glides through our hand again, and he rushes headlong into the net. -Safe this time, and soon he is transferred to the glass jam-jar where -we can admire his lithe form. - -[Illustration: GUNNEL.] - -The Gunnel (_Centronotus gunnellus_) looks as though by continually -pushing his way through narrow crevices in the rocks, he had become -laterally flattened. Were he a little rounded we might say his shape -was eel-like, for he is very long, and his dorsal fin stretches from -above the pectoral fin along to the root of the tail. On the lower side -the anal fin similarly extends to the tail, but neither of them merge -into the tail-fin as in the Conger. The colour is a yellowish-brown, -darker on the upper side, which is slightly mottled. Pectoral fins -yellowish. Close up to the dorsal fin on each side of the back is a -series of from eight to twelve--usually nine--very dark round spots, -each encircled with pale brown. The head tapers gently from the dorsal -fin to the small, equal jaws. It is generally known as Butterfish, and -anyone who has undertaken to capture one with his hands alone will -appreciate the fitness of the name, for it is so slippery that it might -have been freshly greased. - -Other local names for it are Swordick, in allusion to its sword-shape; -and Nine-eyes, suggested by the ocelli on its back. The name by which -it is best known in books is the Gunnel, which originated in a singular -manner, according to Couch. It appears that John Ray, the celebrated -naturalist, made his acquaintance with this fish on the Cornish coast, -where it is common, and applied to a native for its name. The native -was probably a fisherman, one of a class that takes little account of -the inhabitants of the deep unless they are marketable sorts. He knew -no more about it than John Ray did, but casting around for some analogy -in the shape of the fish, he answered, “It looks like a gunwale” -(pronounced “gunnel”). He thought it resembled the gunwale of a boat; -but Ray naturally took “gunnel” to be the local name for the fish, -and so he inscribed it in his book, and Gunnel has been the English -book-name ever since, and has also been Latinized into _gunnellus_ to -form a scientific name. - -To those who are satisfied with a cursory glance at natural objects as -they flash by in life, the Rocklings might pass for Gunnels, and the -Gunnel for a Rockling. The Rocklings’ colour, though more ruddy and -deeper, and their general form though much rounder, are sufficiently -similar to warrant the superficial observer in classing them together. -Their habitat, too, is much the same as the Gunnel’s; and if we go down -at low-water to the edge of the tide, and turn over the large flat -stones that are there, we shall be sure to find a few Rocklings of -various sizes--some a foot or more in length. - -Our turning over of the stone is the signal for an excited rush, and a -splashing up of the water as the Rockling dashes from stone to stone, -from hole to hole. After having let him slip through our fingers, or -over our hands, several times, we corner him at last, and transfer -him to a large bottle in spite of his slipperiness. He proves to be -the Five-bearded Rockling (_Motella mustela_), as we see at once by -the four barbs on the upper jaw and the solitary one beneath. These -are really sufficient for identification purposes, for no other of -our shore-haunting fishes is decorated in precisely the same manner. -However, we will briefly indicate the appearance of the fish. The -dorsal fin commences at about one-third of the Rockling’s length, -reckoning from the front, and continues close up to the tail. The -anal fin starts a little beyond the vent and continues near to the -tail below. Pectorals rounded; ventral long and pointed. Just before -the beginning of the dorsal fin there is a long, narrow, and delicate -membrane that looks like another dorsal fin, but is not. Of the barbs -from which the fish gets its distinctive name, two are directed -forwards and upwards, two forwards and outwards, whilst the fifth goes -forwards and downwards. - -[Illustration: THREE-BEARDED ROCKLING.] - -The Three-bearded Rockling (_Motella vulgaris_) is very like the -last-named species, but has only one pair of barbs on the upper jaw, -and a single one on the lower. Mr. R. Quiller Couch discovered that one -or other of the Rocklings, probably all three--for there is another -species, the Four-bearded (_Motella cimbria_)--build a kind of nest by -jamming fragments of coralline into a cranny, and depositing their eggs -in the mass as the work proceeds. - -From one nest-building fish to another is a very easy transition. - -The Fifteen-spined Stickleback (_Gasterosteus spinachia_) has long -been famed to be a capital builder of nests. It is at low tide we are -most likely to find this fish, though it does occasionally occur in -the rock-pools higher up. We may be inclined at first sight, previous -to capturing it, to regard it as one of the Pipe-fishes, already -described; but its short and broad dorsal and ventral fins and its -deeply-cut jaws should be sufficient to at once identify it, especially -if an eye is turned to the threatening array of fifteen short stout -spines that arm the back in front of the dorsal fin. Its colour varies -from green to brown; in fact, the one individual changes in hue at -times. It is much larger than its familiar three-spined relative of -fresh-water streams and ponds, and usually attains a length of six -inches. The lower jaw is longer than the upper, and both are furnished -with teeth. By means of a mucus thread they are able to produce, they -weave and bind together some of the softer and more delicate seaweeds, -giving solidity by working in a few branching corallines, until they -have elaborated a large pear-shaped mass, as big as a man’s fist. In -this the eggs are deposited, and thereafter are watched assiduously -by the male parent, who will brook no interference, but will fiercely -attack any would-be spoiler of his nursery. - -[Illustration: - FIFTEEN-SPINED STICKLEBACK. LESSER WEEVER. -] - -Beneath the illustration of the Stickleback on page 267, there is -represented the fore-portion of the Lesser Weever (_Trachinus vipera_). -It is not strictly a shore fish, but it has the habit, shared by a -larger relative, the Greater Weever (_T. draco_), of half-burying -itself in sand and getting left dry by the ebbing tide. It _may_, -therefore, be found by one of my readers in one of those spits of -sand that occur between the rocks, and it is mentioned here, for the -sake of warning. It must not be caught in the hands like a Shanny or -Gunnel, for on the gill-covers of each side there is a long, hard, and -sharp spine, which the fish knows how to use with such effect that -whoever handles the Weever is likely to have a badly-injured hand. -Terrible stories are told by fishermen of its effects, much of which -are exaggerations; there is sufficient solid basis, however, to make -Weevers undesirable acquisitions, unless we require them for museum -specimens. - -There is a glorious, or perhaps I should say a glorified, Blenny to be -obtained sometimes at low spring-tides. It is vulgarly known as the -Tompot, but it has also a literary name (by which I mean a term used -only in books) borrowed from the Italian, namely, Gattorugine; and its -scientific pseudonym is _Blennius gattorugine_. Its colouring is very -similar to that of the Rocklings, except that it is more finely mottled -and dotted. It has the general build and facial expression of the -Shanny, with the crest of Montagu’s Blenny. Its cheeks are full, its -lips thick, eyes large and prominent. The dorsal fin begins immediately -behind the head and continues right along the back to the rounded tail. -The anal fin is continuous from the vent to the tail; the pectorals -rounded, with fleshy rays, and the ventral reduced each to two -fleshy processes with which it feels its way, as do other species of -_Blennius_. It is frequently caught in crab-pots, whither it has gone -for the bait, but it is in turn skewered up as bait when the crabber -hauls and resets his pots. It grows to about nine inches in length. -Being scaleless, like most of the rock-fishes, it is exceedingly -difficult to catch with the hands. - -[Illustration: TWO-SPOTTED SUCKER.] - -The last of the rock-fishes to which we propose to call attention -are the Suckers (_Liparis_), which must be looked for under stones -at low-water. One of these is the pretty little fish represented in -our illustration, and known as the Two-spotted Sucker (_Lepadogaster -bimaculatus_), a species that rarely exceeds a couple of inches in -length. Its head is broad and flat, the snout sharp, and the tail -rounded. The lower jaw is shorter and narrower than the upper; and -the dorsal and anal fins are both remarkably short, each consisting -only of a few rays (five to seven) with the connecting membrane. They -are placed very far back, though widely separated from the tail. -On the underside at the broadest part of the body there is a sucking -organ, consisting of a double disk united to the pectoral and ventral -fins, and by means of which it quickly attaches itself to stones and -other objects. The general colour is orange mottled with red; but -specimens have been taken of a light brown, dotted with blue. There is -a beautiful eye-like spot on each side, a little behind the pectoral -fin; and it is to the pair of these that the species owes its name. -It should, however, be added, that specimens taken on the shore are -frequently deficient in this ornamental marking. It has a trick when at -rest--and these Suckers appear to be always at rest--of throwing the -hinder portion of the body round until the tail and the pectoral fin -nearly touch. - -A much larger species is the Cornish Sucker (_Lepadogaster gouani_), -so called because it was first obtained from the Cornish coast. It is -about four inches in length, of a purple or crimson tint, the under -parts more inclined to pale red. Behind the eyes are two dark spots -in paler rings, and with blue centres. Near the nostrils on each side -are two branched thread-like processes, but of very brief length. The -dorsal fin quite occupies the hinder third of the Sucker’s back, and -with the shorter anal fin runs right up to the tail. - -[Illustration: MONTAGU’S SUCKER.] - -Montagu’s Sucker (_Liparis montagui_) belongs to another genus. It is -so soft and delicate that certain yellow specimens I find attached to -stones just below my study windows, look as though modelled in butter, -like young Canova’s butter lion. But Couch says its general colour is -chestnut-brown, lighter beneath. The head is broad and flat, the cheeks -chubby, the eyes small. The dorsal fin, which is marked with irregular -dusky clouds, has its fore-end just above the pectorals; it is there -very slight, but a quarter of an inch further back it gently rises to -its full height and continues with equal depth to the tail. The anal -fin is about one-third shorter than the dorsal, the curtailment being -at the fore-end. The tail and some of the fin-rays are prettily dotted -with black. Like the Two-spotted Sucker it reposes with its tail beside -its head. - -[Illustration: TOPKNOT.] - -And now for a short time we will leave these rocks, and step across -to the sandy shore that spreads for a little distance round this -segment of the bay. We shall not find much animal life there, except -what has been washed in with the loose weeds and rubbish. You see from -the absence of rocks there is no protection, and no firm basis in -the ever-shifting sands for one to make a home. It is only burrowing -molluscs, a crab or two, and two or three fishes that we may expect to -find. Occasionally, where the water is very clear, we may see small -flat-fish swimming in their strange but elegant fashion, and when -wading we may chance to put a bare foot on one that is resting on the -sand, where they are invisible. Among these may be the little Topknot -(_Rhombus punctatus_) of our figure, and the Flounder (_Pleuronectes -flesus_). - -[Illustration: LESSER LAUNCE OR SAND-EEL.] - -It is a common error to refer to the coloured upper surface of all -flat-fishes as the back; but they are not _de_pressed, they are -_com_pressed, as the position of the fins and gills should teach us. -When quite young their eyes were situated one on each side of the -dorsal line, but from their habit of resting always on one side at the -bottom of the sea, the eye that is below gradually comes to the other -side, so that in the adult flat-fish the pair are close together. The -Skates and Rays, on the other hand, have been flattened from above; -the mouth is underneath, where also are the gill openings, whilst -the eyes, at a proportionate distance from each other, are placed -symmetrically on the upper side. - -If we take a trowel or spade we may succeed in digging up some -specimens of the Lesser Launce (_Ammodytes tobianus_), often -incorrectly termed the Sand-eel. He who would catch this beautiful -little fish must be very quick, for if, on being dug out, it is allowed -again to touch the sand, it will disappear with such speed as makes it -well nigh impossible to overtake it again. Couch says it rarely goes -from the sandy shores far into deep water. It swims in small schools in -the quiet waters of bays and harbours where it may be seen in summer -to be chased by mackerel and other fishes. It will be observed in the -accompanying figure that the lower jaw is longer than the upper, and -when the mouth is closed, the fleshy pointed edge of the under jaw -furnishes a valuable instrument for piercing the soft sand when the -Launce is thus beset by enemies. The outline of the fish is so evenly, -gently tapering that there are no elevations that can offer resistance -to its rapid progress through the sand. It has a clean, keen look, -as though the sand had been used for scouring and sharpening it. The -pectoral fins are long and narrow, but there are no ventral fins. The -dorsal fin extends almost from the pectorals to the tail at one height -throughout, and the same description applies to the anal fin in its -course from the vent to near the tail. - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII. - -BIRDS OF THE SEA-SHORE. - - -One of the greatest charms of the sea-shore to the majority of visitors -is afforded by the marine birds in their varied occupations of flying, -swimming, diving, and walking. In these beautiful creatures the British -coasts are rich, even when we exclude (as we propose to do from this -chapter) the many species that frequent the mud flats of estuaries in -preference to the rocks and sands of the sea-coast proper. Strange -as it may at first sight seem, the sea-sands are in the hard weather -of winter the resort of multitudes of small birds from inland woods -and commons, which here seek their sustenance at the very time when -hunger induces the gulls to follow the plough and to penetrate far up -the rivers--even to such uncongenial places as London itself, where, -however, they are sure of a cordial welcome and a plentiful repast. -Then is the season for the starlings and the thrushes to take their -sea-change, and I have seen them in winter in great crowds upon the -sands, hobnobbing and competing with rooks, redbreasts, lapwings, and -finches of many kinds, for the odds and ends brought in by every wave, -and for the smaller mollusks, the marine worms and minor crustaceans -that the shore affords to the quick-eyed and the patient seeker. - -But our business just now is more with those birds to whom the shore -and the adjacent waters are their every-day hunting-grounds, the place -where many of them lay their eggs and rear their young. One of the most -constant of these is the Rock Pipit (_Anthus obscurus_), whose happy -chirrup and light-hearted springy flight from sand to rock, or rock -to rock, are every day and all the year round features of the shore -on certain parts of our coast. In other places it is only seen at the -period of migration or in the winter months. It is a larger and darker -bird than the well-known Meadow Pipit (_A. pratensis_), and its hind -claw is more curved and not so long. The bill is black, with a little -yellow at its base, and the tail dark. - -It prefers a spot where the cliffs are not too precipitous, or where -they exhibit sloping terraces grown with thrift and samphire, in which -the Rock Pipit may find a suitable little cave for its nest, with a -beetling brow in the shape of an overhanging piece of rock to protect -it from the rain. There it will make its nest of grass, hair-lined, and -deposit in it the five pretty green-grey eggs with evenly distributed -reddish-brown specks. I have often sat on Cornish rocks and watched the -Rock Pipit on the shore below, running along the lines of washed-in -weeds, and evidently picking out small mollusks and shore-hoppers; I -have found its nest also in the hollows of steep cliffs difficult of -access. - -The Chough (_Pyrrhocorax graculus_) was at one time a common bird in -England, but it is now restricted to Ireland, the Isle of Man, parts -of Wales, and south-west England. Cornwall was formerly regarded as -its headquarters, and it was variously known as the Cornish Chough, -Cornish Daw, Cornwall Kae, Market-jew Crow, as well as by other names -not connected particularly with the Duchy; but so great have been the -onslaughts upon it that the Cornwall County Council has had to get the -Home Secretary to declare it a protected species, with a price upon the -head of the miscreant who dares to take its eggs in the Western Duchy. -Its plumage is black, with purple and green reflections, and its bill -and legs bright red. It fortunately nests in difficult places in high -cliffs, where it makes the nest which Yarrell describes as built of -“sticks lined with wool and hair,” in which it lays “four or five eggs -of a yellowish-white colour, spotted with ash-grey and light brown.” - -The Jackdaw (_Corvus monedula_) often builds in holes in high cliffs. -We have found its nest far inside a rabbit hole that was probably -never intended by the rabbit as a means of entrance to or exit from -his burrow, but as a secluded place whence he could look out upon -the blue sea hundreds of feet below. But the rabbit had probably -been evicted, or had fallen a prey to the ravens that built hard by, -and the Jackdaw had taken possession. I knew the nest was there from -watching the excursions of the old birds, but it was only by lying -along a dangerously narrow ledge and pushing my arm in, right up to -the shoulder, that I could feel the nest and count the heads of the -five young Jacks. The nest of the Raven (_Corvus corax_) was in a hole -so high up the perfectly straight face of the rock, that its entrance -could only be reached by a person swung from the cliff fifty feet -above it. All one could do was to watch the young birds fly out in a -batch and hear the parental croaking that was evidently intended as -approbation of their progress. - -[Illustration: SHAG.] - -But to get to the distinctly maritime species, and first those of the -Pelican family. We have two native species of Cormorant, the Common -Cormorant (_Phalacrocorax carbo_) and the Shag (_P. graculus_). The -Common Cormorant, Great Black Cormorant, Cole Goose, or Skart, as it is -variously styled in different localities, is a bird of the rock-bound -coast, where there are detached masses of rock forming little islets, -and where the face of the high cliffs is broken into narrow ledges. -Such a coast will have at distances of a few miles its Shag-rocks -and Shag-stones, which are well-marked by an abundant coating of -white-wash. These are the resting-places whither the Cormorant and -Shag repair to eat and digest the fish they have just captured, two or -three miles further along the coast it may be. Similarly you may always -tell the situation of their nests on the high ledges of the cliffs, -though from the shore no part of the nest itself may be seen: but the -streaks of white-wash splashed far down the precipice have only to be -followed upward with the eye, and they will be seen to end just below -a narrow shelf. Upon that shelf the rough nest is placed, and in it -lie the four or five bluish-green eggs that afterwards become coated -with a white crust. The colouring of the adult is more or less green, -with patches of white on the neck and the outer part of the thighs. In -winter these white patches become less conspicuous, and the green of -its upper parts changes to a rusty black. - -The Shag, Green Cormorant, Crested Cormorant, or Crested Shag, may be -distinguished from the other species by its entire green colour and its -smaller size. This difference in measurements, etc., may be put into a -readily-seen form thus:-- - - BILL WING TAIL FEATHERS EGGS - _P. carbo._ 4½ to 5 ins. 14½ ins. 14 4 to 6 - _P. graculus_ 3½ ins. 10 ins. 12 3 to 5 - -The two species are very similar in their habits, watching for fish -from their favourite rock, and when their prey is seen diving after it. -Sometimes they skim the waters and suddenly dive in after fish seen -through the water. - -[Illustration: SOLAN GOOSE.] - -Our other British Pelican is the Gannet or Solan Goose (_Sula -bassana_), whose breeding-places are restricted to certain islets -off the north-western coasts, such as the Bass Rock, Ailsa Craig, -and some of the jutting headlands of the Hebrides, where they build -extensive nests of dry grass, seaweed, and anything else that happens -to be handy when they are building. On this they lay their solitary -white egg, which must be described as small in proportion to the bird, -and ridiculously small compared with the nest. Great numbers gather -at their favourite breeding-places in the spring, and they are then -said to be very tame. In autumn these great assemblages, with the new -generation they have reared, break up, and the individuals distribute -themselves widely over the seas, where they follow at a height the -shoals of fish, suddenly diving straight to the mark and capturing the -fish selected for their prey. - -The Common Grey Heron, or Hern (_Ardea cinerea_), though not usually -reckoned among maritime birds, is frequent on our shores, and may often -be seen to fly along, then settle with his feet in the water beside -some grey rock where he is all but invisible, and watch for fish and -other marine creatures. - -[Illustration: OYSTER CATCHER.] - -The ill-named Oyster Catcher (_Hæmatopus ostralegus_) is well -distributed along our shores, and it is no uncommon thing to hear its -loud and shrill rattling pipes, and turning at the sound, to see its -elegant form perched on a rock that is surrounded by water. In such a -prominent position its black and white plumage, its red legs, and long -red beak render it very conspicuous. I do not think it catches many -oysters, unless they be the fragile Saddle-oysters (_Anomia_) from the -rocks. The oyster of commerce and gastronomy (_Ostrea_) has too thick -and large a shell for it, though its bill is a strong one and capable -of breaking into the strongholds of small cockles, mussels, and Venus -shells. So far as the coast is concerned it selects sandy shores for -its breeding-places, where it may be seen running quickly up and down -at the very edge of the water. It makes no nest, merely selecting the -slight shelter of a tuft of grass on the higher, drier part of the -sands, and there it lays its three or four clay-coloured eggs, spotted, -blotched, and streaked with dark brown, and arranged with their narrow -ends close together. If there are four eggs in the clutch they will be -arranged cross-wise. - -The Purple Sandpiper (_Tringa striata_) must not be looked for by -the summer visitor, for it only comes to these shores when it has -donned its winter dress. The same may be said of the Knot (_Tringa -canutus_), which is sometimes confused with the Purple Sandpiper, but -they may be readily distinguished in winter dress by examining the -upper tail-coverts. In _T. striata_ these are quite black, but in _T. -canutus_ they are white barred with black. - -The Sanderling (_Calidris arenaria_) is plentiful in spring and autumn, -on the wet sands and adjacent rocks; its whitish underside showing -distinctly. The Redshank (_Totanus calidris_) is also common on many of -our shores; its winter plumage is uniformly grey above, white beneath; -but in spring this changes to brown, spotted and barred with black on -the upper parts, and the white of the lower surfaces becomes greatly -modified by the many streaks and spots of dark brown. - -The Curlew (_Numenius arquata_) in its seasonal migrations has usually -some representatives upon the coast, though it is in the winter that -they are most commonly seen there, especially in the south, where they -spend the winter in flocks. The Whimbrel (_Numenius phæopus_), which -is a smaller Curlew, is often found on the same shores in winter and -spring. It may be distinguished not merely by the smaller stature, but -by a difference in the colour and markings of the head. In the Curlew -this has a light brown crown streaked with black, whereas in the -Whimbrel the same part is dark brown, with a pale buff stripe dividing -the brown into two equal portions. - -The Terns (_Sterna_) have been well-named Sea-swallows, and a flock of -them flying, wheeling, and doubling, over the waters, presents a very -close resemblance of movement to that of the real Swallow. Several -species haunt our shores, some coming here to breed. Among these may be -noted the Sandwich Tern (_Sterna cantiaca_), the largest of the genus -that breeds here, which has a yellow-tipped black bill; the Common -Tern (_S. fluviatilis_), which has a _red_ bill, the tip of the upper -mandible only being black, and that not a very good black; and the -Little Tern (_S. minuta_) with a _yellow_ bill, black-tipped, and a -white forehead. - -The Gulls (_Larus_) are, of course, abundant, and much time may be -pleasantly spent sitting near the edge of a grassy cliff, or some -distance up its face, and watching the flight of the gulls below, -sometimes rapidly as though time and tide wait for no gull; at other -times with an easy undulating motion as though it were not necessary -to hurry about anything, and scarcely necessary to move a wing when -sailing on a pair outstretched is so easy a matter. But the visitor -is often puzzled to make out the difference between those he commonly -sees, and this is never an easy task to a naturalist until he has spent -much time with them and made himself acquainted with the colour changes -of the birds from youth to adult age. - -Below I am attempting to tabulate the most striking differences between -several species, taking in each case the adult plumage. - - +---------+-----+-------+--------------+------+--------+-----------+ - | |HEAD | BILL | PRIMARIES | BACK | LEGS | FEET | - | +-----+-------+--------------+------+--------+-----------+ - |Black- |Dark |Red |White, the |Pearly|Red |Red | - |headed |brown| |fore-edge |grey | | | - |Gull | | |of the first | | | | - | | | |black; hinder | | | | - | | | |edges and tips| | | | - | | | |of all black | | | | - | | | | | | | | - |Common |White|Yellow,|Black, spotted|Bluish|Lead |With well- | - |Gull | |dusky |with white |grey |grey |developed | - | | |at base|near tips | | |hind toe | - | | | | | | | | - |Herring |White|Yellow |Black, tipped |Ash |Flesh |Pale flesh | - |Gull | | |with white |grey |coloured|coloured | - | | | | | | | | - |Lesser |White|Yellow |Ditto |Dark |Yellow |Yellow | - |Black- | | | |grey | | | - |backed | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | - |Greater |Pure |Yellow |Black, tipped |Pure |Flesh |Flesh | - |Black- |white| |and barred |black |coloured|coloured | - |backed | | |with white | | | | - | | | | | | | | - |Kittiwake|Pure |Dull |1st outer web |Pearl |Dark |Hind toe | - | Gull |white|clouded|black, others |grey |lead |undeveloped| - | | |yellow |pearl grey | |coloured| | - | | | |tipped | | | | - | | | |with black; | | | | - | | | |tips of 4th | | | | - | | | |and 5th | | | | - | | | |spotted with | | | | - | | | |white | | | | - +---------+-----+-------+--------------+------+--------+-----------+ - -[Illustration: RAZORBILL.] - -The Razorbill and the Guillemot are common birds on most of our coasts -where there are cliffs, but we shall see them chiefly as swimming and -diving birds as we walk along the shore. The Razorbill (_Alca torda_) -when swimming carries its tail parts higher out of the water than -the Guillemot (_Uria troile_), and is further distinguished by the -high compressed bill with white transverse stripes, the white stripe -from the bill to the eye, and the dark brown throat. The Guillemot -has a long, straight, pointed beak, white throat crossed by a greyish -cravat, continued from the mottled black and white of the back of the -head and neck. It is too common as a dead, sodden-plumaged bird in the -rock-pools after winter storms, which prevent it fishing, and starve it -to death. The legs and feet are greyish, the webs black. - -The Black Guillemot (_Uria grylle_) breeds on cliffs in Scotland, -Ireland, and Man, but in winter also visits the south and south-west -coasts. Its summer dress is wholly black, save for a patch of white on -the coverts, but in winter the black is all replaced by white and very -pale grey. The legs and feet differ, too, from those of _U. troile_ in -being vermilion in the present species. - -[Illustration: PUFFIN.] - -The Puffin (_Fratercula arctica_) is identified readily, wherever seen, -by its conspicuous compressed orange beak of great depth from top to -bottom. This gives it a humorous aspect that belongs to itself alone; -but it is useful to it also, for it makes a very efficient cracking -instrument wherewith certain of the thinner shelled bivalves may be -utilised for the Puffin’s food. It is a great diver, and sometimes the -habit is its ruin. I have a fine specimen that was drowned by running -its head into the mesh of a mackerel-net, and failing to extricate -itself in time to prevent death by drowning. Young specimens are -sometimes blown in exhausted during winter gales. Many other birds are -similarly overcome. - -The pretty little Storm Petrel, or Mother Carey’s Chicken (_Procellaria -pelagica_), whose stuffed body is before me as I write, was blown in -early in November, 1895. I tried to restore it to vigour, but it was -too far exhausted to take food, and this appears to be the common -condition of those that are blown in. On the same day many Gulls, -Guillemots, and Shags were washing into our “porth,” and several of -these were cared for, restored to health, and given their liberty a few -days later. - -The Great Northern Diver (_Colymbus glacialis_) and the Fulmar -(_Fulmarus glacialis_) are also winter visitants to most of our shores. -It is thought the Diver may breed on some of our extreme northern -islands, but there appears to be no evidence that it does so. It is a -regular visitor to the Cornish coasts in winter, and it is well worth -watching from some rocky headland. It is large and powerful, and excels -not merely as a proficient diver with plenty of “staying power,” but is -a vigorous swimmer, and a very capable flier. It is a pity those who -see it are not more content with the sight, instead of being possessed -with the desire to get a gun and shoot it. One would like to see it -more often alive, and less frequently adorning the halls of country -houses near the coast. - -The Fulmar is not of such general occurrence as the Diver, except -in the far north--St. Kilda, Orkney and Shetland. St. Kilda is -its breeding-place, and they are merely stragglers that put in an -appearance during winter on more southern shores. The hooked-bill and -tubular nostrils distinguish it from the gulls at a glance. - -The Manx Shearwater (_Puffinus anglorum_) breeds on islands all down -the western coast as far south as Scilly; it is therefore a more -frequent visitor to our southern and western coasts, especially before -and after it is engaged on the important work of hatching and rearing -its solitary chick. - - - - -CHAPTER XIX. - -SEAWEEDS. - - -It is to the rocky shore we must first turn our steps, if we desire to -obtain a wide acquaintance with the British Seaweeds: that is the grand -hunting ground for the Phycologist. In the rock-pools he will find very -many of the smaller species, and thickly coating the fringing rocks -are the larger, tough and leathery species of _Fucus_ and _Laminaria_, -forming at once a breakwater that largely destroys the force of heavy -seas, and a splendid cover for the soft-bodied creatures that swarm on -the rock-surface, and feed on the plants that protect them from the -fury of the waves. The ancients called them _inutiles algæ_, but in -the ocean’s ceaseless warfare with the land, the greatest obstacle the -former has to encounter is the network shield of seaweed, that breaks -the force of its heaviest blows. This is an utilitarian characteristic -of the seaweeds, for which Britons, at least, should be thankful, quite -apart from their minor importance as sources of food, physic, fodder, -and manure, and their æsthetic qualities. - -The whole class of Seaweeds, with the solitary exception of the -Grass-wrack (_Zostera maritima_) belong to the flowerless division of -plant-life, and to that section called Algæ. They are plants of simple -organization, being innocent of wood or other complicated tissue; the -whole plant being made up of cells, though in the higher families -there is an approach to the formation of vessels and tissues. They are -absolutely without roots, though the larger species are attached to -rocks or other algæ, by what appears to be a root. This organ, however, -does not penetrate into the substance to which it is attached, but is -a mere sucker, sticking tightly to the surface, and taking no part in -the absorption of food for the plant, which is effected by the entire -general surface of the frond from the surrounding waters, in which it -floats in a more or less erect attitude, but yielding to every movement -of the sea. - -The seaweeds are all reproduced by spores, but the structure and -production of these differ in the different groups, some being asexual, -and others the result of a distinct sexual process. To this matter we -shall give further attention by and by. - -[Illustration: CHANNELLED WRACK.] - -The most striking seaweeds owing to their size and abundance are those -comprised in the _Fucaceæ_, all the species of which are olive-brown -in colour. There are four species of Fucus which are very abundant on -our shores, as well as representatives of other genera included in -the family. On the highest of the rocks, that only become covered by -high spring-tides, and are only washed by rough seas, there grows in -abundance a little leathery plant called the Channelled Wrack (_Fucus -canaliculatus_). During the greater part of its existence it is dry and -shrivelled and of black hue, but when covered by the tide it absorbs -the water, and becomes soft, with an olive-brown tint. The frond is -much branched, the segments long and narrow, the edges being turned -in so that on one side they appear to be deeply channelled. It is -the smallest of our species of _Fucus_, and is readily distinguished -from its congeners, not only by its size, but by the channel-like -folding, the absence of air bladders, and the lack of a mid-rib. At -the extremity of some of its fronds there are irregular warty pod-like -organs of a dark orange tint. These are known as the _receptacles_, -and they contain the elements necessary for the production of spores, -whereby the plant is reproduced. In one plant these elements will be -all male (_antherids_), in another all female (_oogones_). If you will -examine one of these club-shaped orange organs with your pocket lens, -you will observe that its surface is pitted with a considerable number -of round pores, and if you cut across the whole body just on the edge -of one of these pores, you will find it communicates with a globular -cell in the substance of the receptacle. These cells are known as -_conceptacles_, and their number corresponds to that of the pores. -Their walls are clothed with a felt-work of threads, upon which are -borne, in the male conceptacles, minute egg-shaped cells (_antherids_), -which ultimately burst, and set free thirty-two or sixty-four -tadpole-like bodies (_antherozoids_), each with two tail-like threads -(_cilia_) attached to the under part. By the lashing of these organs -they make their way out through the pore of the receptacle into the sea. - -With the development of the antherozoids, a similar activity has taken -place in the female conceptacles, where bodies approaching more to an -ellipsoidal or spherical form (_oogones_) have appeared, and their -contents have broken up into two, four, or eight smaller bodies (the -_oospheres_). On their escape into the water, they are each surrounded -by a number of the antherozoids, which pierce the substance of the -oosphere, become absorbed in it, and so fertilise it. Development then -commences in the oosphere, and it gives rise to a new _Fucus_ plant. -This form of reproduction is by no means common to the whole class of -seaweeds; on the contrary, there are many important variations of it, -which for want of space we shall be unable to refer to in detail. This -is the highest type of reproduction in the Algæ. - -The Channelled Wrack never exceeds a few inches in length, but another -species, which agrees with it to the extent of possessing no mid-rib, -varies from two to six feet. This is the Knotted Wrack (_Fucus -nodosus_), which may be at once identified by the possession of -solitary bladders in the centre of its rib-less frond, and producing -a very gouty appearance at intervals. These are air-cells, sometimes -measuring two inches, which give buoyancy to the plant. Above the -bladders the frond divides, and from these branches (but not at their -extremities, as in the Channelled Wrack) the pear-shaped reproductive -organs are produced. - -[Illustration: BLADDER WRACK.] - -Another Wrack that possesses these vesicles, is the so-called Bladder -Wrack or Black Tang (_Fucus vesiculosus_), though there is little -danger of confusing the two species. The Bladder Wrack has a much -broader, flatter frond than the Knotted Wrack, and a very distinct -mid-rib. The bladders, too, are smaller, and instead of being solitary, -are arranged in groups on each side of the mid-rib. The plant is about -two feet in length, and exceedingly plentiful. - -[Illustration: SAW-EDGED WRACK.] - -Very similar, and equally plentiful, is the Saw-edged Wrack (_Fucus -serratus_), with flat, branched fronds and mid-rib, the branches much -broader than in Bladder Wrack, and the edges cut into bold, sharp, -distant teeth. Its usual length is from two to three feet, but it may -occur as long as five or six feet. The width of frond also varies, for -it may be anything between half an inch and two inches. Where the -frond branches the mid-rib becomes thicker and bolder. It is quite -innocent of bladders. The name of the genus is founded upon the word -_Phukos_, which is the Greek name for a seaweed. - -[Illustration: POD-WEED.] - -Almost equally plentiful with those species of _Fucus_ we have -named, is the Pod-weed (_Halidrys siliquosa_), with long attenuated -compressed fronds, four or five feet in length, much branched, most of -the branches being exceeding short, but others ending in air vessels. -These are ribbed transversely, and bear a very close likeness to the -seed-pods of the furze. They run out to a narrow point at the free end, -and are divided into small air-chambers within. But there are other -pods that contain the reproductive elements, and these may be known by -the pores by which their surfaces are perforated. The name _Halidrys_, -signifies sea oak (Greek, _Hals_, the sea, and _drus_, oak), but -the why and wherefore of the name are not easily determined. If the -abundant pod-like vessels are kept in mind, there is no difficulty in -knowing this species the first time it is seen. - -At low-water, you will often find, attached to the rocks, a shallow -horny cup, or button, of olive hue, about the size of a penny. This is -the Sea-thongs (_Himanthalia lorea_), which gets its name from a very -long, branched, strap-like growth from the centre of the cup. The cup -is the frond--the plant proper--and the extraordinary straps, which may -be half an inch wide and twenty feet long, are merely the receptacles -containing the reproductive organs, which open by pores all over their -surfaces. The receptacles are not produced until the second year of -the plant’s life, so that many examples will be met consisting of the -cup-like frond only. It is a local plant, and not therefore to be found -on all parts of the coast. - -In the lower series of tide-pools, a tufted weed attracts the sight -by reason of its brilliant iridescence, which often causes it to be -plucked from its native pool, only to be thrown back again, for on -emergence from the water all the beautiful play of colour has gone. -It does not appear to have any common name, but to give it a chance -of being popularly known, let us call it the Rainbow Bladder-weed -(_Cystoseira ericoides_). The many branches of its frond are full of -little bladders, whence its scientific name (_Kystos_, a bladder; -_seira_, a cord), and it gets its specific title of _ericoides_ from -its habit somewhat resembling that of the Heath-plant (_Erica_). A -tuft pulled up and carefully overhauled will afford the zoologist a -number of diverse forms of life. Several species of crustacea make it -their home, and the leaf-worms hide themselves in the centre of the -little bush. Mollusks, sponges, and ascidians are there also, and the -description of the animal inhabitants of such a tuft would make a fair -chapter. - -All the species of seaweeds to which we have already referred, are -members of the class Fucaceæ. We have now to take a glance at other -brown and olive weeds, some of which are the giants of the tribe, but -which belong properly to the deeper waters, though every gale will -make us well acquainted with their forms heaped up upon the shore. In -this class--known to botanists as the Phæosporeæ--the reproduction is -generally of a lower type than in those we have been considering. In -the majority of forms there is no sexual process, the species being -reproduced, as a rule, by zoospores, which are somewhat similar to -the antherozoids of _Fucus_. They are produced in special cells, the -contents of which break up into a number of these zoospores, which -escape through a pore, and germinate. - -Getting down into a drang at extreme low spring-tide, we shall find -the rocks to seaward covered with Tangle (_Laminaria digitata_), whose -huge round stems clasp the rocks with their claw-like false roots. -The leafy portion is broad, of a pale olive-brown, and slit up into -several sections, so that the whole frond has a rough resemblance -to the diverging fingers of a huge hand: hence its name, _digitata_ -(having fingers). The substance of the frond is thick and leathery. A -species with undivided glossy narrower fronds, puckered and frilled, -is the Sugar Tangle (_Laminaria saccharina_), so-called because, when -drying, it produces on its surface a white powder of a sweet taste, -called _mannite_, or manna. This substance can also be obtained from -the cells by maceration. Subsequent evaporation of the brew results in -a deposit of crystals. This is the species that inland trippers carry -away on their visit to the coast to act as a hygrometer, hanging it on -a nail, and feeling it from time to time to find if it is dry and hard, -or moist and pliable, for its cells readily absorb moisture from the -atmosphere, and as readily part with it when the air is again dry and -clear. - -A third species is called the Sea Furbelows (_L. bulbosa_), and it may -often be found washed up in great heaps after a storm. It springs from -a great hollow sphere, which is perforated, and thus affords a home for -many creatures. This so-called bulb is sometimes a foot across, and -from its stem there is a great expanse of thin leather split up into -many broad ribbons. These three species, with the larger _Fuci_, are -largely used by farmers near rocky coasts for manuring their fields, -and in former days, more widely than now, they were employed in the -manufacture of “kelp” and iodine. These Laminarians have the curious -habit of casting off the _lamina_ or blade of the frond each year, by -a constriction above the stem, whence a new one grows. This, too, it -should be stated, is the growing point, the blade increasing in length -by additions near the stem, instead of by the lengthening of the free -end. The spores are produced in large patches upon the surface of the -frond. - -The Badderlocks or Murlins (_Alaria esculenta_) of our northern coasts, -belongs to this group, but is distinguished from the _Laminaria_ by -the possession of a mid-rib or central nerve. The stem is short and -cylindrical, and the blade of the frond ranges from three to twenty -feet in length, usually much torn by the waves. There are a number -of finger-like receptacles given off by the stem, and in the outer -coats of these are the conceptacles bearing the spores. The plant is -used as food by the poorer classes resident on the shores where it -is plentiful, and is eaten raw, when it is said to be the best of -our esculent seaweeds; the parts preferred are the mid-rib and the -receptacles. “Badderlocks” is a corruption of Balder’s locks, the split -fronds being likened to the locks of the Scandinavian hero Balder, to -whom all plants except mistletoe swore fealty. - -To this class also belongs the slender and very extensive Sea Lace -(_Chorda filum_), which consists of a rounded frond, hollow, and -without branches. It is remarkable how tenacious the thong-like, slimy -fronds are, and it is not difficult to imagine the difficulties of a -swimmer who should have to force his way through a bed of them. The -tubular interior is divided up into a number of cells by transverse -partitions; and the spores are embedded in the outer surface. It -prefers a sandy or muddy bottom in creeks and harbours, and in such -places it grows in dense patches, the fronds attaining a length of from -twenty to forty feet. The free end is constantly dying off, but the -plant increases by growth at the lower end, just above the false roots. - -The Fennel-leaved Netweed (_Dictyosiphon fœniculaceus_) is abundant in -rock-pools all round our coast. As its name implies, the frond is much -branched and thread-like. It is a light olive in colour, and grows in -tufts on stones and larger weeds. The arrangement of the cells in the -walls of the frond produce a net-like appearance. - -Everyone knows the thin flat transparent fronds of Sea Lettuce (_Ulva -latissima_), which grows everywhere on the coasts, its margins -crisped, folded, torn, or otherwise diversified by Nature, or the many -things that feed upon it. It is mentioned out of its place here, -in order that we may bring into its proper order a plant that is -frequently taken as a mere aberration of the _Ulva_. This weed is the -_Asperococcus turneri_, a hollow green bladder on a short stalk, and -rough with the spore-bearing organs. It is commonly found adhering to -stones between tide-marks. - -[Illustration: PEACOCK’S TAIL.] - -One of the most beautiful of our seaweeds is known as the -Peacock’s Tail (_Padina pavonia_). It is really a tropical species, but -its range of distribution extends to our most southern shores, and, -strange to say, without suffering any deterioration in its brilliance -of hue or its stature. From a very narrow base the frond gradually -expands to a broad fan-shape, and the edges are curled in so that it -assumes a cup-shape. But the chief beauty of the plant is given by -a number of concentric lines and bands. Several of these bands are -white, as though they had been chalked: their colour is in fact due to -a chalky powder, _calcium carbonate_, which is secreted by the plant. -Many of the lines are formed by a fringe of glistening hairs, which -reflect the light and break it up into all the colours of the spectrum, -and a more distinct fringe decorates the upper margin of the frond. -Reproduction takes place by the formation of large spores, which are -found in heaps between the zones. These are known as _tetraspores_, -because the contents break up into four smaller spores. Sometimes this -weed is what botanists term _proliferous_, that is, it produces new -plants upon its frond. Like all those showing iridescence, it is a -much more beautiful species in the water than in the herbarium; though -it is not without beauty there, and it is a prize eagerly sought by -collectors. - -It is worthy of note that fresh-water Algæ are, with very few -exceptions, green, whilst few of the marine species are truly green; -brown and olive, and red, are the prevailing hues. The green marine -weeds are nearly all found in shallow water. Of course, they all -possess the green colouring matter called _chlorophyll_, but in the -deep-water species, according to Murray and Bennett, “it appears to -be essential ... that the green colour of the chlorophyll should be -masked by a coloured pigment, red in the case of the Florideæ, brown -in those of the Phæosporeæ and Fucaceæ.” It is from these latter -classes our examples have been already drawn; we must now give a turn -to the Florideæ, which contains many of the most popularly sought -species, because they are often so charmingly tinted and so delicate in -structure. - -It must not be supposed from the foregoing remarks that the whole of -this class are red weeds; the majority are not only red but brilliant -red; whilst others are purple, brown, yellowish, or dirty-white. They -are chiefly small weeds, but they make up for the want of stature in -their delicacy of texture and fineness of division. - -A very beautiful genus of delicate red and purple weeds, chiefly -growing upon the larger and coarser kinds, is called _Callithamnion_ -(Greek, _Kalli_, beautiful, and _thamnos_, shrub). Some attain the -length of half a foot, but most of them are much smaller. They require -careful examination with lens or microscope to decide the species, and -oftentimes in order to distinguish them from other finely branched -red weeds. For their proper discrimination we advise reference to -a book devoted exclusively to Seaweeds, such as Landsborough’s, -Gray’s, or the splendid “Phycologia Britannica” of Harvey. The general -characters of the genus are: frond branched, often pinnate, consisting -of jointed threads, with tetraspores scattered along the branches. - -Other small red seaweeds will be found, representing several -genera, but they require the assistance of coloured figures to make -descriptions interesting and useful. There is the silky _Ptilota_, -with finely divided fronds, consisting of cells alternately filled -with a pink and a transparent fluid; the rosy red _Griffithsia_, with -thread-like fronds and clear transparent joints; the forking threads -of _Ceramium_, their tips curled in towards each other; the exquisite -_Plocamium_, with its flat crimson, hair-like branches, toothed on one -side only. - -The Coralline (_Corallina officinalis_) grows in every pool, and its -stony-coated joints are well-known, though it is a shock to some -persons to find it classed among plants, when they had long imagined -it to be related to the corals of which necklaces and islands are -constructed. There are, in fact, several genera whose members secrete -carbonate of lime, and so hide their vegetable character. The coralline -was, however, once soft and flexible. _Melobesia_ is equally stony, -but grows in thin horizontal pink and purple plates or solid masses. -A little weak muriatic acid will soon dissolve the lime, and reveal -its true character. _Jania_ somewhat resembles _Corallina_, but its -branches are exceedingly slender, and much shorter than _Corallina_. - -Among the larger red weeds that will attract attention at low-water, is -the coarse textured _Halymenia ligulata_, of dark crimson hue, whose -strap-shaped fronds support other straps by very slender attachments. -It is closely related to _Rhodymenia palmata_, a very common red -seaweed, that is eaten in Scotland, Ireland, and on the West coast -of England, under the name of Dulse or Dillisk, though it is said to -be a not very desirable food when anything else is to be obtained. -Its fronds are roughly fan-shaped, consisting of a great number of -radiating ribbon-like lobes, of a purple colour. Its texture is like -that of parchment. It will be found parasitic upon the stems of _Fucus_ -and _Laminaria_, at very low-water. A more slender and ragged, thin -textured species is _Rhodymenia jubata_ with irregular outgrowths all -along its edge, some of these fringes developing into long lobes. -Another species that is also eaten as Dulse is the _Iridea edulis_, -which glitters with bluish iridescence when immersed. It has fronds -about six or seven inches long, expanding into a broad oval at the free -end, and thinning off to a wedge-shape at the base. It is represented -in the illustration of the Prawn, on page 163. - -The Pepper Dulse (_Laurencia pinnatifida_) is a much smaller species, -that grows abundantly in the pools and the rocks around them, standing -the repeated scorching-up when the tide withdraws, as well as does -the Channelled Fucus, its companion. It roughly resembles a miniature -Polypody fern, but of a purple colour. - -[Illustration: CHONDRUS CRISPUS.] - -Another edible weed is the well-known Irish Moss or Carrageen -(_Chondrus crispus_), which was in such favour years ago as an -invalid’s food. It is well shown in the illustration, but is subject -to great variation, especially as regards colour, ranging from -greenish-white, and yellow, to a dull purple. In some of its forms -it closely resembles _Gigartina mamillosa_, to which it is not very -distantly related, and the danger of confusing the two is increased by -_Gigartina_ often growing amongst _Chondrus_. The tips of _Gigartina’s_ -frond, however, are usually broader than those of _Chondrus_, and -the frond is rough, with little tubercles like grape-stones (Greek, -_gigarton_), which contain the spores. The usually purplish fronds will -be found, on cutting them across, to be not solid, as they appear, but -composed of delicate threads, in a firm clear jelly. - -A pretty little red weed, that is abundant in the rock-pools, growing -upon other weeds, is the _Chylocladia parvula_, which has swollen, -cactus-like ovate joints, of a clear red, appearing as though they were -skins filled with liquid. It is allied to _Plocamium_ and _Rhodymenia_. - -[Illustration: ASH-LEAVED SEA-WEED.] - -The most striking of all these red-spored algæ, at least, so far as -the British flora is concerned, is the (for a seaweed) extraordinary -Ash-leaved Seaweed (_Wormskioldia sanguinea_), whose frond has a -distinct leaf-like form, with a mid-rib and branching nervures. Its -texture is so very thin, that in spite of its beautiful rosy tint, if a -specimen were laid upon this page, the print could be read through it. -Its margins are more lax than the mid-rib, so that when mounted for the -herbarium, the edges show many foldings over. The plant was formerly -placed in the genus _Delesseria_, but is now separated on account of -important differences in the matter of propagation. In this species -minute leaf-like organs spring from the mid-rib, and may be taken for -young plants springing from the parent, but these are really the bodies -that bear the spores. - -The Winged Delesseria (_Delesseria alata_) is a finely and intricately -branched plant, of a rich dark crimson colour, with a suggestion of a -mid-rib, along each side of which is a narrow expanse of thin membrane, -the “wings” of its popular and technical names. It occurs in thick -tufts on the stems of _Laminaria digitata_. - -My space is getting rapidly used up, though I have only been able to -mention a few of our fairly common seaweeds. There are still two or -three that I must mention. One of these is an exceedingly pretty little -form, which would be very like a soft feather that has been cast by -one of the greener varieties of the canary-bird, if it were not so -vividly green. The weed is called _Bryopsis plumosa_. It will be found -growing on the shaded walls of deep pools, and if the eye is placed -just over the edge of the pool, the Bryopsis will be found growing at -right angles with the wall, and looking so very feathery that it will -be identified at once. - -Another green weed that should be mentioned is the _Enteromorpha -compressa_, of the same texture as the Sea Lettuce (_Ulva_), already -mentioned, but forming a narrow tube of rugged shape, that is -ordinarily collapsed, but sometimes inflated with oxygen gas. It is -represented in the illustration of the Sand Launce on page 275. A -tuft growing on a stone or limpet-shell, is a valuable addition to -the aquarium, for it will continue to grow, and many of the animal -inhabitants will find their food in it. Crustaceans, fishes, and -mollusks are all fond of it. - -The reader who has patiently accompanied me thus far, will probably -make up his mind to preserve some of these beautiful weeds, and I -should strengthen any such intention; but let me advise that some care -be expended upon the work. Select your specimens with care, and be not -satisfied until you have, by patient seeking and overhauling, secured -fairly perfect examples with, as far as possible, the fruiting organs. -These must be carefully laid out, and gently pressed between sheets of -absorbent paper, just as in the case of flowering plants. But it should -be always remembered that the specimens as taken from the sea are more -or less coated with salt, and will never thoroughly dry until this is -removed. The first care then should be to well rinse them in clear soft -water, a few specimens at a time, to avoid leaving any for long in the -fresh water, which rapidly destroys certain species if they are left -in it for more than half an hour. Lay them out in as natural a manner -as possible, separating the delicate divisions of the frond with a -camel-hair brush. When thoroughly dry and hard, mount specimens of one -species only on the same sheet of paper, and neatly write the name of -species near the bottom left-hand corner, and near the opposite margin, -the place where, and the date when, collected. - - - - -CHAPTER XX. - -FLOWERS OF THE SHORE AND CLIFFS. - - -Just as in walking along the shore we have on one hand a region -inhabited by specialised races of animal and plant-life altogether -different from those of the land, so also on the landward side we have -flowering plants distinct in most cases from those found but a short -distance inland. Strictly speaking, the stretch of shore, whether it be -shingle, sand, or rocks, does not form a barrier separating sea plants -from those of the land, for the terrestrial and the submarine overlap -through the medium of the frondose lichen, _Lichina pygmæa_, which, -belonging to a terrestrial group, spends half its day in the water -and the other half exposed to the atmosphere. The pretty Sea-Milkwort -(_Glaux maritima_) takes up the connecting thread on the land side, -and establishes its roots and woody base jammed in the crevices of -rocks, where they must absorb more salt water than fresh, and at times -it must be entirely covered by the sea. That this salt is thoroughly -congenial to its nature we may gather from the fact that the only -inland localities where _Glaux_ grows are the salt-producing districts. -It attains to only a few inches in height, and its small, smooth, -stalkless, glaucous leaves are thickened like many other shore plants, -and dotted all over with minute pits. The flowers are devoid of petals, -but the bell-shaped calyx is coloured of a flesh-tint, and sprinkled -with very small dots of crimson. Its flowering period is from May to -August. - -In similar situations grows the beautiful little Sandwort Spurrey -(_Spergularia rubra_), with many slender compressed, ruddy stems -radiating from a woody rootstock; the leaves slender, awl-shaped, -unequal in size. Petals fine, bright rosy; anthers yellow. Flowers June -to September. - -Like conditions of life often produce similar effects on different -organisms. Growing close to the Sea-Milkwort, just above high-water -mark, and continuing thence some distance up the cliffs, is the -Samphire (_Crithmum maritimum_), with similar woody rootstock similarly -wedged in rock-crevices, and with all its parts thickened. The glaucous -leaves are cut up into cylindrical fleshy segments, and the yellow -flowers are borne in clusters, the fleshy stalks of the individual -blossoms radiating from a common centre like the ribs of an umbrella. -It may be unnecessary to explain that this type of flower-cluster is -characteristic of the Natural Order Umbelliferæ, to which the Samphire -belongs, and that it is to the same order that such well-known plants -as carrot, hogweed, fool’s-parsley, and celery belong. Samphire is much -sought for pickling, and this has led to its extermination on many -parts of the coast. It flowers from June to September. - -Fennel (_Fœniculum officinale_) is another seaside umbellifer, and -its tall, straight, and polished stems may be found growing up the -face of the cliffs, the much-divided feathery leaves producing a green -cloud-like effect. The same glaucous tint characterises the whole -plant, except that the flowers are yellow. July and August are the -months in which it may be found in blossom. - -One other umbelliferous plant that is strictly confined to the shore -is the so-called Sea-Holly (_Eryngium maritimum_), though this must be -sought not on the rocky cliffs, but on sandy shores. Its dense heads -of pale-bluish flowers without a stalk nestle close to the broad and -spiny-edged glaucous leaves (glaucous again), that bear a wonderful -_primâ facie_ resemblance to those of the unrelated holly-tree. It -flowers in July and August, but the plant is easily recognised out of -its flowering season by means of the bold leaves. - -But the glory of cliff vegetation to my mind is the beautiful -Thrift or Sea-Pink (_Armeria maritima_), whose tufts of thick, -narrow, grass-like leaves extend from the wave-washed rocks right -up the cliff-side, and over the stony hedges at the top. It flowers -sparingly all the year round--I have gathered it within a few days of -Christmas--but the brilliant display is in April and May, when every -clump supports many long-stalked, half-round heads of the rosy flowers, -that make so beautiful a setting for the nests of the cliff-building -birds. Thrift is not absolutely peculiar to the coast, for it is found -also on high mountains; in the Scottish Highlands it occurs at an -altitude of nearly four thousand feet above the sea. There is a larger -and more rigid species (_A. plantaginea_) that grows on sandy banks in -Jersey. - -A relation of the Sea-Pink is the Sea-Lavender (_Statice limonium_), -which grows where sand and mud are more abundant than rocks, and in -some places covers the sand-hills with a growth not unlike that of the -heather on inland sand-hills, and at a distance the purplish flowers -are very suggestive of heather in such a situation. They are not -gathered into a compact head as in Thrift, but are scattered along a -branching spray. It has a creeping rootstock of a woody character, -from which all the leaves spring directly. These are oval in general -outline, running off to a point at the upper end. It flowers from July -to November. - -On the sandy shore where grows the Sea-Lavender there will, in all -probability, also be seen a bold-leaved plant, with large, golden -yellow flowers, which the tyro in botany will notice at a glance has -some sort of relationship with the familiar Eschscholtzia of the -garden. It is the Yellow Horned Poppy (_Glaucium luteum_), and the -above-mentioned tyro will say that this time the glaucous hue of -the leaves (from which this species and _Glaux_ both derive their -scientific names) is not wholly due to its seaside habit, for the same -hue is characteristic of Eschscholtzia and the Opium Poppy (_Papaver -somniferum_), which are cultivated flowers. Quite so, but probably -their original home may be near the sea, though the texture of their -leaves is not so fleshy as in our maritime plants of glaucous hue. -The bold, rough leaves make the plant conspicuous even in winter. The -name of Horned Poppy is suggested by the form of the seed vessel, -which is similar to that of Eschscholtzia, but thicker. It is a -prominent feature of the flower--which loses its petals after one day’s -blossoming--but they ultimately extend to a foot in length. The flowers -may be found from June till October. - -Saltwort (_Salsola kali_) is also a plant of the sandy shore, with -rigid brittle stems, striped and bristly, and fleshy, glaucous leaves, -nearly cylindrical in shape, with spiny points. At their base the -leaves become broader and partially clasp the stem. The little flowers -are leafless, borne in the axils of the leaves, and to be seen only -in July and August. This is one of several plants that were formerly -burned to make Barilla, an impure carbonate of soda, much used in -the manufacture of soap and glass, before the discovery of the cheap -production of soda from common salt. - -If my friend the reader is acquainted with the beautiful white-flowered -Bladder Campion (_Silene cucubalus_), of inland hedgebanks, and -he should chance to come upon the nearly allied Sea-Campion (_S. -maritima_), he will think he has the old familiar plant, so closely -are the two related; but a comparison will convince him there are -differences. For instance, the stems of _maritima_ are shorter and less -erect than those of _cucubalus_. The flower-cluster (_panicle_) is in -_cucubalus_ many-flowered; in _maritima_ the flowers vary only between -one and four in a cluster, and their petals are not so deeply cleft. -The two scales that are obvious at the base of the broad part of the -petal in _maritima_, are very obscure in _cucubalus_. _Maritima_, too, -has smaller leaves and larger flowers, and the scales (_bracts_) below -the flowers, which are dry and semi-transparent in _cucubalus_, are -here more fleshy. It flowers from June to September. - -Everybody is well acquainted with the pretty Field Convolvulus, or -Small Bindweed (_Convolvulus arvensis_), and as they have just seen -it growing in abundance in the fields they passed through on the way -to the shore, they may reasonably conclude that these larger, more -richly-tinted blossoms that grow on the sandy shore, are simply more -luxuriant examples of the same species. In reality they are produced -by a distinct kind, the Sea-Convolvulus (_C. soldanella_), which -differs from the common kind in the fact that clasping the base of the -flower and covering the sepals, there are two large leaf-like bracts, -whereas in _arvensis_ these are small and placed at some distance below -the sepals. The leaves are fleshy, broader than long, the stems are -shorter, seldom more than a foot in length, and very rarely do they -twine around anything. The flowers, as we have said, are larger and -more richly coloured, only one on a stalk, whilst the common sort have -usually from two to four. - -The Sea-Rocket (_Cakile maritima_) is abundant on most sandy shores. -It is a large succulent plant, about two feet in height, with -zigzag branches, and smooth, fleshy, glaucous leaves; flowers with -four purplish white petals, arranged cross-wise. The flowers are -succeeded by large succulent pods, that are divided into two by a -cross-partition; each chamber contains a solitary seed. It is this pod -that is most likely to arrest attention. It flowers in June and July. - -Wall Pennywort, or Navelwort (_Cotyledon umbilicus_), is an abundant -weed in the rocks and walls of the west coast, but travels no further -east than to Kent. Its tuberous rootstock is wedged into the crevices -of the rocks and cliffs, or between the flakes of which stone dykes -are built. The leaf, as the name suggests, is round, with the stalk in -the centre; it is also thick and fleshy, the severity of the margin -taken off by a series of low, rounded teeth. Some of these leaves are -large--as much as three inches across. When the flowering stalk makes -its appearance, another type of leaf comes with it--spoon-shaped. The -flower-stalks bear drooping cylindrical flowers, greenish-white in -hue, densely crowded, and all hanging downwards. It is a very striking -ornament of the places where it is common, especially from June to -August, when it flowers. - -In company with the Navelwort, on rocks and walls, will be found one, -if not two, species of Stonecrop (_Sedum_). One of these, the common -Yellow Stonecrop or Wall Pepper (_Sedum acre_), is too well-known to -need describing. The other is the White Stonecrop (_Sedum anglicum_), -of similar habit, but with the inevitable glaucous leaves (those of _S. -acre_ are _not_ glaucous, but bright green); though sometimes these -take on a reddish hue. The flowers are more star-like than those of -_S. acre_, and of a whitish or pinkish colour--in evidence from May to -August. - -I do not pretend to furnish an exhaustive list of the plants of the -sea-shore: that properly treated would make a volume by itself. Such -as I have mentioned belong almost solely to a habitat where they can -receive the salt spray upon their leaves. Mention should also be made -of the Sea-Spleenwort (_Asplenium marinum_), among ferns, that loves to -grow over the entrance to a sea-cave, there hanging down its boldly-cut -and well-varnished dark green fronds, well out of reach. Then there is -a distinctly marine _Carex_, the Sea-Sedge (_Carex arenaria_), which -shares with Marram-grass (_Ammophila arenaria_), the work of binding -the sands together with its thick, creeping rootstock. - -But the seaside visitor, with botanical tastes, will find the shores -abundant in vegetation generally, and he must have recourse to a -special handbook to help in their discrimination. - -Were it not for fear of laying himself open to a charge of presumption, -egoism, favouritism, and a few other isms, the author would, in this -connection, recommend his own “Wayside and Woodland Blossoms,” Second -Series,[7] which includes many of the maritime flowers. - -[7] Frederick Warne and Co. - - - - -CLASSIFIED INDEX - -TO - -_Species mentioned in the foregoing pages_. - - - ANIMAL KINGDOM. - - - Sub-kingdom--=Protozoa=. - - Class _LOBOSA_-- - Amæba, 21 - - Class _RETICULARIA_-- - Textularia variabilis, 22 - Cristellaria subarcuatula, 22 - Polymorphina lactea, 22 - Globigerina sp., 23 - Rotalina, 23 - Nonionina, 23 - Polystomella, 23 - - Class _RADIOLARIA_-- - Podocyrtis schomburghii, 23 - - Class _RHYNCO-FLAGELLATA_-- - Noctiluca miliaris, 25 - - - Sub-kingdom--=Parazoa (Spongiæ)=. - - Class _CALCAREA_-- - Grantia compressa, 34; - G. ciliata, 35 - - Class _SILICISPONGIA_-- - Halichondria panicea, 31, 34; - H. incrustans, 34; - sanguinea, 34 - Chalina oculata, 35 - - - Sub-kingdom--=Cœlenterata=. - - Class _HYDROZOA_-- - Haliclystus octoradiatus, 44 - Cyanea capillata, 50; - C. chrysaora, 55; - C. arctica, 62 - Aurelia aurita, 53 - Sarsia tubulosa, 57 - Coryne pusilla, 42 - Clava-turris multicornis, 42, 55 - Plumularia cornucopiæ, 41, 43 - Salacia abietina, 40 - Thuiaria thuja, 41 - Antennularia antennina, 44 - Calycella fastigiata, 40; - C. syringa, 44 - Sertularia pumila, 39; - S. fusca, 40; - S. tricuspidata, 40 - Diphasia alata, 40; - D. pinnata, 40 - Aglaophenia tubulifera, 40 - Campanularia johnstoni, 41 - Thaumantias sp., 55 - Æquorea forbesiana, 59 - Physalia pelagica, 56 - Velella scaphoidea, 59 - - Class _ACTINOZOA_-- - Actinia equina, 64 - Sagartia rosea, 68; - S. pallida, 69; - S. nivea, 69; - S. venusta, 70; - S. miniata, 72 - Cylista undata, 70; - C. viduata, 71 - Anemonia sulcata, 74 - Bunodes ballii, 77; - B. verrucosa, 76 - Urticina felina, 78 - Corynactis viridis, 79 - Metridium senilis, 79 - Cribrina effoeta, 80 - Adamsia palliata, 80, 147 - Pleurobrachia pileus, 59 - - - Sub-kingdom--=Echinozoa=. - - Class _ECHINOIDEA_-- - Echinus esculentus, 100; - E. miliaris, 100 - Strongylocentrus lividus, 102 - - Class _ASTEROIDEA_-- - Uraster rubens, 86; - U. glacialis, 90 - Cribella oculata, 90 - Solaster papposa, 91 - Asterina gibbosa, 92 - - Class _OPHIUROIDEA_-- - Ophiocoma neglecta, 92; - O. granulata, 96; - O. brachiata, 97 - Ophiothrix rosula, 96 - - Class _CRINOIDEA_-- - Comatula rosacea, 98 - - Class _HOLOTHUROIDEA_-- - Cucumaria pentactes, 105 - - - Sub-kingdom--=Annullosa=: Division Scolecida. - - Class _PLATYHELMINTHES_-- - Planaria nigra, 123 - Eurylepta vittata, 123 - Astemma rufifrons, 123 - Tetrastemma quadrioculatum, 124 - Polystemma roseum, 124 - Lineus marinus, 124 - - Division Anarthropoda. - - Class _ANNELIDA_-- - Serpula contortuplicata, 112; - S. triquetra, 113; - S. vermicularis, 113 - Sabella alveolaria, 108, 112; - S. bombyx, 111; - S. tubularia, 112 - Spirorbis communis, 114 - Terebella figulus, 115; - T. littoralis, 115 - Arenicola piscatorum, 114 - Nereis pelagica, 114, 117 - Cirratulus borealis, 115 - Nephthys margaritacea, 117 - Phyllodoce lamelligera, 117; - P. viridis, 118 - Eunice sanguinea, 118 - Polynoe squamata, 121; - P. cirrata, 121 - Aphrodita aculeata, 121 - - Division Arthropoda. - - Class _CRUSTACEA_-- - Sub-class Cirripedia-- - Lepas anatifera, 177 - Scalpellum vulgare, 183 - Balanus balanoides, 183; - B. porcatus, 184 - Pyrgoma anglicum, 183 - - Sub-class Malacostraca-- - Talitrus locusta, 173 - Orchestia littorea, 173 - Caprella linearis, 174 - Corophium longicorne, 175 - Ligia oceanica, 172 - Idotea marina, 173 - Campecopea hirsuta, 174 - Næsa bidentata, 174 - Mysis flexuosus, 169 - Leander serratus, 160; - L. squilla, 165; - L. fabricii, 165 - Pandalus montagui, 166 - Hippolyte varians, 166 - Crangon vulgaris, 167 - Astacus gammarus, 152 - Palinurus vulgaris, 152 - Upogebia stellata, 171 - Callianassa subterranea, 170 - Galathea squamifera, 150; - G. nexa, 151; - G. dispersa, 151; - G. intermedia, 151; - G. strigosa, 151 - Porcellana platycheles, 147; - P. longicornis, 149 - Eupagurus bernhardus, 144; - E. prideaux, 144 - Maia squinado, 152 - Gonoplax rhomboides, 156 - Corystes cassivelaunus, 155 - Portunus puber, 140 - Carcinus mænas, 139 - Pilumnus hirtellus, 138 - Xantho incisus, 137; - X. hydrophilus, 137 - Cancer pagurus, 131 - - - Sub-kingdom--=Mollusca=. - - Class _GASTROPODA_-- - Fissurella græca, 223 - Emarginula reticulata, 223; - E. rosea, 223 - Patella vulgata, 207 - Patella pellucida, 211; - P. lævis, 211 - Acmæa testudinalis, 211 - Phasianella pullus, 221 - Trochus cinereus, 221; - T. magus, 222; - T. zizyphinus, 221 - Scalaria communis, 219 - Janthina fragilis, 222 - Cerithium reticulatum, 219 - Turritella communis, 219 - Natica monilifera, 216 - Pileopsis (or Capulus) hungaricus, 223 - Littorina littoralis, 220; - L. littorea, 220; - L. rudis, 220 - Rissoa ulvæ, 219 - Aporrhais pes-pelicani, 219 - Cypræa europea, 215 - Ovula patula, 216 - Erato lævis, 216 - Murex erinaceus, 214 - Fusus antiquus, 214; - F. contrarius, 214 - Buccinum undatum, 213 - Nassa incrassata, 213 - Purpura lapillus, 212 - Aplysia depilans, 229 - Doris johnstoni, 227; - D. tuberculata, 227 - Eolis coronata, 227; - E. papillosa, 228 - - Class _SCAPHOPODA_-- - Dentalium entalis, 224; - D. tarentinum, 224 - - Class _CEPHALOPODA_-- - Sepia officinalis, 233 - Loligo vulgaris, 235 - Sepiola rondeletii, 235 - Octopus vulgaris, 232 - - Class _LAMELLIBRANCHIA_-- - Pectunculus glycimeris, 198 - Isocardia cor, 190 - Cardium aculeatum, 187; - C. edule, 189 - Tapes aurea, 194; - T. decussata, 193; - T. pullastra, 194; - T. virginea, 194 - Cytherea chione, 191 - Venus fasciata, 190; - V. verrucosa, 190 - Psammobia sp, 201 - Tellina crassa, 201; - T. tenuis, 201 - Donax anatinus, 201; - D. politus, 201 - Mactra elliptica, 200; - M. stultorum, 199; - M. truncata, 200 - Lutraria sp, 200 - Saxicava rugosa, 202 - Solen ensis, 202; - S. siliqua, 202 - Pholas dactylus, 205 - Mytilus edulis, 197 - Modiola modiolus, 198 - Anomia ephippium, 197 - Pecten opercularis, 194; - P. tigrinus, 195; - P. varius, 196 - - - Sub-kingdom--=Gephyræa=. - - Class _SIPUNCULOIDEA_-- - Sipunculus punctatissima, 106 - - Class _POLYZOA_-- - Crisea eburnea, 47 - Scrupocellaria reptans, 47 - Bugula avicularia, 47 - Flustra foliacea, 47 - Membranipora pilosa, 47 - - - Sub-kingdom--=Vertebrata=. - - Class _TUNICATA_-- - Clavelina lepadiformis, 241 - Ascidia mentula, 236; - A. virginea, 237 - Cynthia aggregata, 239; - C. quadrangularis, 241 - Styela grossularia, 240 - Botryllus violaceus, 244 - Leptoclinum gelatinosum, 218, 243; - L. maculatum, 217 - Polyclinum, 243 - Aplidium, 243 - Amaroecium, 243 - Salpa maxima, 242 - - Class _PISCES_-- - Syngnathus acus, 254; - S. lumbriciformis, 254 - Conger vulgaris, 263 - Liparis montagui, 273 - Lepadogaster bimaculatus, 270; - L gouani, 273 - Ammodytes tobianus, 276 - Motella cimbria, 266; - M. mustela, 266; - M. vulgaris, 266 - Rhombus punctatus, 275 - Pleuronectes flesus, 275 - Labrus maculatus, 261; - L. mixtus, 262 - Crenilabrus melops, 258 - Centronotus gunnellus, 264. - Gasterosteus spinachia, 269. - Cottus scorpio, 250 - Trachinus draco, 269; - T. vipera, 269 - Gobius minutus, 258; - G. niger, 257 - Blennius galerita, 256; - B. gattorugine, 270; - B. ocellaris, 256; - B. pholis, 247 - - Class _AVES_-- - Alca torda 285 - Uria grylle, 285; - U. troile, 285 - Colymbus glacialis, 286 - Phalacrocorax carbo, 279; - P. graculus, 279 - Sula bassana, 280 - Sterna cantiaca, 283; - S. fluviatilis, 283; - S. minutus, 283 - Larus sp. 283 - Procellaria pelagica, 286 - Fulmar us glacialis, 286 - Puffinus anglorum. 287 - Tringa canutus, 282; - T. striata, 282 - Calidris arenaria, 282 - Hæmatopus ostralegus, 281 - Ardea cinerea, 281 - Corvus corax, 279; - C. monedula, 279 - Pyrrhocorax graculus, 278 - Anthus obscurus, 277 - - - VEGETABLE KINGDOM. - - - Sub-kingdom--=Cryptogamia=--=Thallophyta=. - - Class _FLORIDEÆ_-- - Callithamnion, 297 - Griffithsia corallina, 298 - Ptilota, 298 - Ceramium, 298 - Corallina officinalis, 298 - Melobesia, 298 - Halymenia ligulata, 298 - Chondrus crispus, 299 - Gigartina mamillosa, 299 - Rhodymenia jubata, 299; - R. palmata, 298 - Chylocladia parvula, 300 - Plocamium coccineum, 298 - Delesseria alata, 300 - Laurencia pinnatifida, 299 - Ulva latissima, 295 - Enteromorpha compressa, 301 - - Class _FUCACEÆ_-- - Himanthalia lorea, 292 - Halidrys siliquosa, 292 - Fucus canaliculatus, 289; - F. nodosus, 290; - F. serratus, 291; - F. vesiculosus, 291 - Cystoseira ericoides, 293 - - Class _PHÆOSPOREÆ_-- - Alaria esculenta, 294 - Laminaria bulbosa, 294; - L. digitata, 293; - L. saccharina, 294 - Chorda filum, 295 - Dictyosiphon fœniculaceus, 295 - Asperococcus turneri, 296 - Padina pavonia, 296 - - Class _MULTINUCLEATÆ_-- - Bryopsis plumosa, 301 - - Vasculares. Class _FILICINEÆ_-- - Asplenium marinum, 308 - - - Sub-kingdom--=Phanerogramia=. - - Class _DICOTYLEDONES_-- - Glaucium luteum, 305 - Cakile maritima, 307 - Silene maritima, 306 - Spergularia rubra, 303 - Cotyledon umbilicus, 307 - Sedum acre, 308; - S. anglicum, 308 - Eryngium maritimum, 304 - Fœniculum officinale 304 - Crithmum maritimum, 304 - Armeria vulgaris (maritima), 305; - A. plantaginea, 305 - Statice limonium, 305 - Glaux maritima, 303 - Convolvulus soldanella, 307 - Salsola kali, 306 - - Class _MONOCOTYLEDONES_-- - Carex arenaria, 308 - Ammophila arenaria, 308 - - - - -INDEX. - -(The _popular_ names are printed in _italics_.) - - - Acmæa alvea, 211 - - ---- testudinalis, 211 - - _Acorn-shells_, 179 - - Actinia equina, 64, 65 - - Adamsia palliata, 80, 147 - - Ægirus punctilucens, 227 - - Æquorea forbesiana, 59 - - _Æsop Prawn_, 166 - - Aglaophenia tubulifera, 40 - - Alaria esculenta, 294 - - Alca torda, 285 - - Amæba, 21 - - Amaroecium, 243 - - Ammodytes tobianus, 276 - - Ammophila arenaria, 308 - - Amphipoda, 172 - - _Anemones, Sea_, 64 - - Anemonia sulcata, 64, 74 - - _Angular-Crab_, 156 - - Anomia ephippium, 197 - - Antennularia antennina, 44 - - Anthus obscurus, 277 - - Aphrodita aculeata, 121 - - Aplidium, 243 - - Aporrhais pes-pelicani, 219 - - Aplysia depilans, 229 - - _Aquarium hints_, 84 - - Ardea cinerea, 281 - - Arenicola piscatorum, 114 - - _Aristotle’s Lantern_, 101 - - Armeria maritima, 305 - - A. plantaginea, 305 - - Artemis exoleta, 192 - - Ascidia mentula, 236 - - A. virginea, 237 - - _Ash-leaf Seaweed_, 300 - - Asperococcus turneri, 296 - - Asplenium marinum, 308 - - Astemma rufifrons, 123 - - Asterina gibbosa, 92 - - Aurelia aurita, 54 - - _Badderlocks_, 294 - - Balanus balanoides, 183 - - ---- porcatus, 184 - - _Banded Flat-worm_, 123 - - _Banded Venus_, 190 - - _Barnacle_, 177 - - ---- _Necked_, 183 - - _Beadlet_, 64 - - _Beautiful Queen Shrimp_, 170 - - _Bennett Dr., on_ Physalia, 57 - - _Beröe_, 60 - - Bipinnaria asterigera, 90 - - _Bird’s-head Coralline_, 47 - - _Birds of the Shore_, 277 - - _Black Goby_, 257 - - _Black Planarian_, 123 - - _Black Tang_, 291 - - _Bladder wrack_, 291 - - _Blennies_, 247, 256 - - Blennius galerita, 256 - - ---- gattorugine, 270 - - ---- ocellaris, 256 - - Blennius pholis, 247 - - _Boring Sponge_, 35 - - Botryllus violaceus, 244 - - _Bristly Marl Shell_, 225 - - _Brittle-star_, 92 - - _Broad-claw_, 147 - - Bryopsis plumosa, 301 - - Buccinum undatum, 80, 213 - - Bunodes ballii, 77 - - ---- verrucosa, 64, 76 - - _Butterfly Blenny_, 256 - - Cakile maritima, 307 - - Calidris arenaria, 282 - - Callianassa subterranea, 170 - - Callithamnion, 297 - - Calycella fastigiata, 40 - - ---- syringa, 44 - - Calycles, 39 - - Campanularia, 41 - - Campecopea hirsuta, 174 - - Cancer pagurus, 131 - - Caprella linearis, 174 - - Carcinus mænas, 139 - - Cardium aculeatum, 187 - - ---- edule, 189 - - Carex arenaria, 308 - - _Carpet Shells_, 193, 194 - - _Carrageen_, 299 - - _Cave-dweller_, 70 - - Centronotus gunnellus, 264 - - Cephalopoda, 231 - - Ceramium, 298 - - Cereus pedunculatus, 64, 71 - - Cerithium reticulatum, 219 - - _Chameleon Shrimp_, 169 - - _Channelled Wrack_, 289 - - Chemnitzia rufescens, 219 - - Chiton cinereus, 225 - - ---- fascicularis, 225 - - ---- lævis, 225 - - ---- marmoreus, 225 - - Chondrus crispus, 299 - - Chorda filum, 295 - - _Chough_, 278 - - Chylocladia parvula, 300 - - Cirratulus borealis, 116 - - Cirripedes, 176 - - Clava multicornis, 42 - - Clavelina lepadiformis, 241 - - Cliona celata, 35 - - _Cloaklet Anemone_, 147, 180 - - _Cockles_, 186, 187 - - Colymbus glacialis, 286 - - Comatula rosacea, 98 - - _Comb-shell_, 198 - - _Commensalism_, 80 - - _Conelet_, 215 - - _Conger Eel_, 263 - - Conger vulgaris, 263 - - Convolvulus soldanella, 307 - - _Cook_, 262 - - Corallina officinalis, 298 - - _Coralline_, 298 - - _Corkwing Wrasse_, 258 - - _Cormorants_, 279 - - Corophium longicorne, 175 - - Corvus corax, 279 - - C. monedula, 279 - - Corynactis viridis, 65, 79, 175 - - Coryne pusilla, 42 - - Corystes cassivelaunus, 155 - - Cottus scorpio, 250 - - Cotyledon umbilicus, 307 - - _Cowry_, 215 - - _Crabs_, 130 - - Crangon vulgaris, 167 - - _Creeping Coralline_, 47 - - Crenilabrus melops, 258 - - Cribella oculata, 90 - - Cribrina effoeta, 80 - - Crisea eburnea, 47 - - Cristellaria, 22 - - Crithmum maritimum, 304 - - _Cross-cut Carpet-shell_, 193 - - _Cross-fish_, 86 - - _Crumb-of-bread Sponge_, 34 - - _Cuckoo Wrasse_, 262 - - Cucumaria pentactes, 105 - - _Cup Shrimp_, 166 - - _Curlew_, 280 - - _Currant-squirter_, 241 - - _Cuttles_, 231 - - _Cut Trough-shell_, 200 - - Cyanea arctica, 62 - - ---- capillata, 50, 55 - - ---- chrysaora, 55 - - Cylista undata, 70 - - ---- viduata, 65, 72 - - Cynthia aggregata, 239 - - ---- quadrangularis, 237, 241 - - Cypræa europea, 215 - - Cystoseira ericoides, 293 - - Cytherea chione, 191 - - _Dahlia Wartlet_, 78 - - _Daisy Anemone_, 71 - - _Darwin C., on Barnacles_, 180 - - Delesseria alata, 300 - - Dentalina, 23 - - Dentalium entalis, 224 - - ---- tarentinum, 224 - - _Devil Crabs_, 136 - - Dictyosiphon fœniculaceus, 295 - - Difflugia, 22 - - Diphasia alata, 40 - - ---- pinnata, 40 - - Donax anatinus, 201 - - ---- politus, 201 - - Doris johnstoni, 227 - - ---- tuberculata, 227 - - _Dotted Siphon-worm_, 106 - - Echinus esculentus, 102 - - ---- miliaris, 102 - - _Elliptic Trough-shell_, 200 - - Emarginula reticulata, 223 - - ---- rosea, 223 - - Enteromorpha compressa, 301 - - Entomostraca, 172 - - Entosolenia, 23 - - Eolis coronata, 227 - - ---- papillosa, 228 - - _Equipment for Shore-hunting_, 15 - - Erato lævis, 216 - - Eryngium maritimum, 304 - - Eunice sanguinea, 118 - - Eupagurus bernhardus, 80, 144 - - Eupagurus prideaux, 80, 144 - - Eurylepta vittata, 123 - - _Eyed Cribella_, 90 - - _Father Lasher_, 250 - - _Feather-Star_, 98 - - _Fennel_, 304 - - _Fennel-leaved Netweed_, 295 - - _Fifteen-spined Stickleback_, 269 - - _Finger Pholas_, 202 - - Fissurella græca, 223 - - _Five-bearded Rockling_, 266 - - _Five-fingers_, 86 - - _Flounder_, 275 - - _Flowers of the Shore_, 303 - - Flustra foliacea, 46 - - Fœniculum officinale, 304 - - _Foliaceous Coralline_, 47 - - _Food for Anemones_, 83 - - Foraminifera, 21, 22 - - _Forbes E., on the Hairy Stinger_, 50 - - ---- on _Brittle-star_, 96 - - _Four-bearded Rockling_, 266 - - _Fragile Tellen_, 201 - - Fratercula arctica, 285 - - Fucus canaliculatus, 289 - - ---- nodosus, 290 - - ---- serratus, 291 - - ---- vesiculosus, 291 - - _Fulmar_, 286 - - Fulmarus glacialis, 286 - - Fusus antiquus, 80, 214 - - ---- contrarius, 214 - - _Gabrick_, 152 - - Galathea dispersa, 152 - - ---- nexa, 152 - - ---- squamifera, 150 - - ---- strigosa, 151 - - _Gannet_, 280 - - Gasterosteus spinachia, 269 - - _Gattorugine_, 270 - - _Gem Pimplet_, 64, 76 - - _Gibbous Starlet_, 92 - - Gigartina mamillosa, 299 - - Glaucium luteum, 305 - - Glaux maritima, 303 - - _Globe Beröe_, 59 - - _Globehorn_, 65, 79 - - Globigerina, 23 - - _Gobies_, 257, 258 - - Gobius minutus, 258 - - ---- niger, 257 - - _Golden Carpet-shell_, 194 - - Gonoplax rhomboides, 156 - - _Gosse on Star-fish larvæ_, 97 - - Grantia ciliata, 35 - - ---- compressa, 35 - - _Granulate Brittle-star_, 95 - - _Grass-Wrack_, 288 - - _Great Crab_, 132 - - _Great Northern Diver_, 286 - - _Green Crab_, 139 - - _Grey Heron_, 281 - - Griffithsia, 298 - - _Guillemots_, 285 - - _Gulls_, 283, 284 - - _Gunnel_, 264 - - Hæmatopus ostralegus, 281 - - _Hairy Porcelain Crab_, 147 - - _Hairy Stinger_, 50, 55 - - Halichondria incrustans, 34 - - ---- panicea, 31 - - ---- sanguinea, 34 - - Haliclystus octoradiatus, 44 - - Halidrys siliquosa, 292 - - Halymenia ligulata, 298 - - _Heart Cockle_, 190 - - _Herdman Prof. on_ Lamellaria, 217 - - _Hermit-crabs_, 142 - - _Heron_, 281 - - Himanthalia lorea, 292 - - Hippolyte varians, 166 - - _Horn-shell_, 219 - - _Horny Cobbler_, 250 - - _Horse-mussel_, 198 - - _Hungarian Cap_, 223 - - Hydra tuba, 52 - - _Hydroid zoophytes_, 38 - - Idotea marina, 173 - - Iridea edulis, 299 - - _Irish Moss_, 299 - - Isocardia cor, 190 - - Isopoda, 172 - - Jania, 298 - - Janthina, 222 - - _Jelly-fishes_, 49 - - _Keyhole Limpet_, 223 - - _Knot_, 282 - - _Knotted Wrack_, 290 - - Labrus maculatus, 261 - - ---- mixtus, 262 - - Lamellaria perspicua, 217 - - Laminaria bulbosa, 294 - - ---- digitata, 14, 293 - - ---- saccharina, 294 - - _Laminarian Zone_, 14 - - _Lantern of Aristotle_, 101 - - Larus, 283 - - Laurencia pinnatifida, 299 - - _Leaf-worms_, 116 - - Leander fabricii, 165 - - ---- serratus, 160 - - ---- squilla, 165 - - Lepadogaster bimaculatus, 270 - - ---- gouani, 273 - - Lepas anatifera, 177 - - Leptoclinum gelatinosum, 218, 243 - - ---- maculatum, 217 - - _Lesser Launce_, 276 - - Lichina pygmæa, 173, 303 - - Ligia oceanica, 172 - - _Limpets_, 207, 211, 223 - - Lineus marinus, 124 - - Liparis montagui, 273 - - _Littoral Zone_, 14 - - Littorina littoralis, 220 - - ---- littorea, 220 - - ---- rudis, 220 - - Loligo vulgaris, 235 - - _Long-armed Brittle-star_, 97 - - _Long worm_, 124 - - _Lug-worm_, 114 - - Lutraria, 200 - - Mactra elliptica, 200 - - ---- stultorum, 199 - - ---- truncata, 200 - - Maia squinado, 152 - - _Mail-shells_, 225 - - Mangelia septangularis, 215 - - _Many-eyed Red-worm_, 124 - - _Manx Shearwater_, 287 - - _Margin-shell_, 216 - - _Marigold_, 54 - - _Marine polyzoa_, 45 - - _Marram-grass_, 308 - - _Masked-crab_, 155 - - Megalopa, 133 - - Melobesia, 298 - - Membranipora pilosa, 47 - - Metridium senilis, 65, 79 - - Microciona carnosa, 34 - - Modiola modiolus, 198 - - Mollusca, 185 - - _Montagu’s Blenny_, 256 - - Motella cimbria, 266 - - ---- mustela, 266 - - ---- vulgaris, 266 - - _Mother Carey’s Chicken_, 286 - - Murex erinaceus, 214 - - _Murlins_, 294 - - _Mussel_, 197 - - Mysis flexuosus, 169 - - Mytilus edulis, 197 - - Nacella (Patella) pellucida, 211 - - Næsa bidentata, 174 - - Nassa incrassata, 213 - - Natica monilifera, 217 - - _Necked Barnacle_, 183 - - _Necklace Natica_, 216 - - Nemertes borlasii, 124 - - Nephthys margaritacea, 117 - - Nereis pelagica, 114, 117 - - _Netted Dog-whelk_, 213 - - Noctiluca miliaris, 25 - - Nonionina, 23 - - _Northern Diver_, 286 - - Numenius arquata, 282 - - ---- phæopus, 282 - - Octopus vulgaris, 232 - - _Opelet_, 74 - - Ophiocoma brachiata, 97 - - ---- granulata, 96 - - ---- neglecta, 92 - - Ophiothrix rosula, 96 - - _Opossum Shrimp_, 169 - - _Orange-disk Anemone_, 70 - - Orchestia littorea, 173 - - _Otter-shells_, 200 - - Ovula patula, 216 - - _Owen Sir Rich., on_ Medusa, 62 - - _Oyster Catcher_, 281 - - Padina pavonia, 296 - - _Pallid Anemone_, 69 - - Pandalus montagui, 166 - - _Parasite Anemone_, 80 - - Patella lævis, 211 - - ---- pellucida, 211 - - ---- vulgata, 207 - - _Peacock’s Tail_, 296 - - _Pearly Nereis_, 117 - - Pecten opercularis, 194 - - ---- tigrinus, 195 - - ---- varius, 196 - - Pectunculus glycimeris, 198 - - _Pelican’s-foot_, 219 - - Pentacrinus europæus, 99 - - _Pepper Dulse_, 219 - - _Perforated Limpet_, 223 - - _Periwinkles_, 220 - - _Petrel_, 286 - - Phalacrocorax carbo, 279 - - ---- graculus, 279 - - Phasianella pullus, 221 - - Pholas dactylus, 205 - - _Pheasant-shell_, 221 - - Phyllodoce lamelligera, 117 - - ---- viridis, 118 - - Physalia pelagica, 56 - - _Piddock_, 205 - - Pileopsis hungaricus, 223 - - Pilumnus hirtellus, 138 - - _Pipe-fishes_, 254 - - Planarians, 122 - - Planaria nigra, 123 - - Planula, 55 - - Pleurobrachia pileus, 59 - - Pleuronectes flesus, 275 - - Plocamium coccineum, 298 - - _Plumelet_, 64, 79 - - Plumularia cornucopiæ, 43 - - Plumulariæ, 41 - - _Poached Egg-shell_, 216 - - _Pod-weed_, 292 - - Polycistina, 23 - - Polyclinum, 243 - - Polymorphina, 22 - - Polynoe cirrata, 121 - - ---- squamata, 121 - - Polypite, 53 - - Polystemma roseum, 124 - - Polystomella, 23 - - Polyzoa, 45 - - Porcellana longicornis, 149 - - ---- platycheles, 147 - - _Portuguese Man o’ war_, 56 - - Portunus puber, 140 - - _Prawn_, 160 - - ---- _Æsop_, 166 - - ---- _Varying_, 166 - - Procellaria pelagica, 286 - - Psammobia, 201 - - Ptilota, 298 - - _Puffin_, 285 - - Puffinus anglorum, 287 - - _Pullet Carpet-shell_, 194 - - Puncturella noachina, 223 - - _Purple_, 212 - - _Purple-tipped Urchin_, 100 - - _Purple Urchin_, 102 - - Purpura lapillus, 212 - - Pyrgoma anglicum, 183 - - Pyrrhocorax graculus, 278 - - _Quatrefages M., on_ Eunice, 218 - - _Quin_, 194 - - _Rainbow Bladder-weed_, 293 - - _Rainbow Leaf-worm_, 117 - - _Rastegna_, 75 - - _Rayed Artemis_, 192 - - _Rayed Trough-shell_, 199 - - _Razorbill_, 285 - - _Razor-shells_, 186, 202 - - _Red-faced Blind-worm_, 123 - - _Red-nosed Borer_, 202 - - _Redshank_, 282 - - _Red-shrimp_, 166 - - _Red-specked Pimplet_, 77 - - _Red Whelk_, 214 - - Rhodymenia jubata, 299 - - ---- palmata, 298 - - Rhombus punctatus, 275 - - Rissoa ulvæ, 219 - - _Rock Goby_, 258 - - _Rock Pipit_, 277 - - _Rosy Anemone_, 65, 68 - - Rotalina, 23 - - _Ruddy Pyramid-shell_, 219 - - Sabella alveolaria, 108 - - ---- bombyx, 111 - - ---- tubularia, 112 - - _Saddle-oyster_, 197 - - Sagartia miniata, 72 - - ---- nivea, 69 - - ---- pallida, 69 - - ---- rosea, 65, 68 - - ---- venusta, 70 - - Salacia abietina, 40 - - _Sallee-man_, 59 - - Salpa maxima, 242 - - _Saltwort_, 306 - - _Samphire_, 304 - - _Sanderling_, 282 - - _Sandpiper_, 282 - - _Sand Mason_, 115 - - _Sand-worm_, 114 - - _Sandwich Tern_, 283 - - _Sandwort Spurrey_, 303 - - _Sanguine Eunice_, 118 - - Sarsia tubulosa, 57 - - _Saw-edged Wrack_, 291 - - Saxicava rugosa, 202 - - Scalaria, 219 - - _Scallops_, 194 - - Scalpellum vulgare, 183 - - _Scarlet-fringed Anemone_, 72 - - _Scarlet Serpula_, 112 - - Scrupocellaria reptans, 47 - - _Sea: extent and importance_, 11 - - ---- _Adder_, 254 - - ---- _Anemones_, 64 - - ---- _Campion_, 306 - - ---- _Convolvulus_, 307 - - ---- _Cucumber_, 102 - - ---- _Furbelows_, 294 - - ---- _Gooseberry_, 59 - - ---- _Hare_, 230 - - ---- _Holly_, 304 - - ---- _Jellies_, 49 - - ---- _Lace_, 295 - - ---- _Lavender_, 305 - - ---- _Lemon_, 227 - - ---- _Lettuce_, 295 - - ---- _Mat_, 46 - - ---- _Milkwort_, 303 - - ---- _Mouse_, 121 - - ---- _Nettles_, 50 - - ---- _Night-light_, 25 - - ---- _Oak Coralline_, 39 - - ---- _Pink_, 305 - - ---- _Rocket_, 307 - - ---- _Sedge_, 308 - - ---- _Slater_, 172 - - ---- _Slugs_, 226 - - ---- _Spleenwort_, 308 - - ---- _Squirts_, 236 - - ---- _Stars_, 86 - - ---- _Swallows_, 283 - - ---- _Thongs_, 292 - - ---- _Urchins_, 86, 100 - - ---- _Weeds_, 288 - - ---- _Worms_, 107 - - Sedum acre, 308 - - ---- anglicum, 308 - - Sepia officinalis, 233 - - Sepiola rondeletii, 235 - - Serpula contortuplicata, 112 - - Serpula triquetra, 113 - - ---- vermicularis, 113 - - Sertularia pumila, 39 - - ---- fusca, 40 - - _Shag_, 279 - - _Shanny_, 247 - - _Shell-binder_, 115 - - _Ship-barnacle_, 177 - - _Shore Crab_, 139 - - _Shore Fishes_, 246 - - _Shore-hunting_, 16 - - _Shore-zones_, 14 - - Silene maritima, 306 - - _Silkworm Sabella_, 112 - - Sipunculus punctatissima, 106 - - _Skeleton-shrimp_, 174 - - _Slit Limpet_, 223 - - _Smooth Artemis_, 192 - - _Smooth Limpet_, 211 - - _Smooth Venus_, 191 - - _Snake-locked Anemone_, 65 - - _Snowy Anemone_, 69 - - _Solan Goose_, 280 - - Solaster papposa, 91 - - Solen ensis, 202 - - ---- siliqua, 202 - - Spergularia rubra, 303 - - _Spiny Cockle_, 187 - - _Spire-shells_, 219 - - Spirorbis communis, 113 - - _Sponges_, 28 - - _Squat-lobsters_, 150 - - _Squid_, 235 - - _Star-fish_, 86 - - _Starlet_, 92 - - Statice limonium, 305 - - _Stebbing T. R., on Limbs of Crabs_, 132 - - Sterna cantiaca, 283 - - ---- fluviatilis, 283 - - ---- minuta, 283 - - _Stickleback, Fifteen-spined_, 269 - - _Sting-fish_, 250 - - _Sting-winkle_, 214 - - Strongylocentrus lividus, 102 - - Styela grossularia, 240 - - _Sugar Tangle_, 294 - - Sula bassana, 280 - - _Sunset-shells_, 201 - - _Sun Star_, 91 - - Syngnathus acus, 254 - - ---- lumbriciformis, 254 - - Talitrus locusta, 173 - - _Tangle_, 293 - - Tapes aurea, 194 - - ---- decussata, 193 - - ---- pullastra, 194 - - ---- virginea, 194 - - _Tellen-shells_, 201 - - Tellina crassa, 201 - - ---- tenuis, 201 - - Terebella figulus, 115 - - ---- littoralis, 115 - - _Terns_, 283 - - Tetrastemma quadrioculatum, 124 - - Textularia variabilis, 22 - - Thaumantias, 55 - - _Thomson, Sir Wyville, on_ Comatula, 99 - - _Thrift_, 305 - - Thuiaria thuja, 41 - - _Tides_, 14 - - _Tompot_, 270 - - _Tooth-shells_, 224 - - _Topknot_, 275 - - _Top-shells_, 221 - - _Torbay Bonnet_, 223 - - _Tortoise-shell Limpet_, 211 - - Totanus calidris, 282 - - Trachinus draco, 269 - - ---- vipera, 269 - - Tringa canutus, 282 - - ---- striata, 282 - - Trochus cinereus, 221 - - ---- magus, 222 - - ---- zizyphinus, 221 - - _Trough-shells_, 199 - - _Trumpet Sabella_, 112 - - _Tube-mouthed Sarsia_, 57 - - Tunicata, 236 - - Turbellaria, 122 - - Turris digitalis, 55 - - Turritella communis, 219 - - _Turret-shells_, 219 - - _Tusk-shells_, 224 - - Ulva latissima, 295 - - Upogebia stellata, 171 - - Uraster glacialis, 86 - - ---- rubens, 86 - - Uria grylle, 285 - - ----troile, 285 - - Urticina felina, 78 - - _Varying Prawn_, 166 - - Velella scaphoidea, 59 - - _Velvet Fiddler-crab_, 140 - - Venus fasciata, 190 - - ---- verrucosa, 191 - - _Violet-shell_, 222 - - _Virgin’s Carpet-shell_, 193 - - _Wall Pennywort_, 307 - - _Wall Pepper_, 308 - - _Warted Venus_, 190 - - _Wedge-shells_, 201 - - _Weevers_, 269 - - _Wentletrap_, 219 - - _Whelks_, 214 - - _Whimbrel_, 282 - - _White Stonecrop_, 308 - - _Wilfry_, 114 - - _Winged Delesseria_, 300 - - _Wood J. G., on Hairy Stinger_, 51 - - _Worm Pipe-fish_, 254 - - Wormskioldia sanguinea, 300 - - _Wrasse_, 258 - - Xanthellæ, 24 - - Xantho hydrophilus, 137 - - ---- incisus, 137 - - _Yellow Horned Poppy_, 305 - - “_Zebedees_”, 136 - - Zoaria, 45 - - Zoea taurus, 133 - - Zoophytes, 37 - - Zostera marina, 288 - - -Transcriber’s Notes. - -Italic text is indicated with _underscores_, bold text with =equals=. -Small/mixed capitals have been replaced with ALL CAPITALS. - -Evident typographical and punctuation errors have been corrected -silently. Inconsistent use of italics in the Index likewise. - -Inconsistent/spelling hyphenation has been normalised. - -The author’s use of the form “amæba” and its variants has been -retained. Likewise both “mollusc” and “mollusk”. - -Two references to Ianthina on page 222 have been corrected to -Janthina, and the index amended accordingly. Neither of the two -indexes has otherwise been checked for correct alphabetization or -page references. - -Footnotes are placed immediately after the paragraph in which they are -referenced. - -Some illustrations have been moved between paragraphs or to a more -relevant position in the text. - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 77774 *** |