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diff --git a/77763-0.txt b/77763-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..afde1e2 --- /dev/null +++ b/77763-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2181 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 77763 *** + + + + + YALE UNIVERSITY · SCHOOL OF FORESTRY + + BULLETIN No. 6 + + LIGNUM-VITAE + + A STUDY OF THE WOODS OF THE ZYGOPHYLLACEAE + WITH REFERENCE TO THE TRUE LIGNUM-VITAE + OF COMMERCE--ITS SOURCES, + PROPERTIES, USES, AND + SUBSTITUTES + + BY + + SAMUEL J. RECORD + + Professor of Forest Products + + [Illustration] + + NEW HAVEN + + Yale University Press + + 1921 + + + + +CONTENTS + + + PART I: FROM THE BOTANICAL STANDPOINT + + TREES AND WOODS OF THE LIGNUM-VITAE FAMILY + + Page + + Porlieria 7 + + Bulnesia 8 + + _“Retama” or “Retamo”_ 8 + _“Palo Santo” or “Palo Balsamo”_ 9 + _“Vera” or “Maracaibo Lignum-vitae”_ 11 + + Guaiacum 14 + + _Description of Species_ 14 + _Minute Anatomy of the Wood_ 17 + _Distinguishing features of the Woods of Guaiacum and + Bulnesia_ 19 + _Check list of Common Names_ 20 + + + PART II: FROM THE COMMERCIAL STANDPOINT + + THE TRUE LIGNUM-VITAE OF COMMERCE + + _General Considerations_ 21 + _Present Sources of Supply_ 22 + _Future Sources of Supply_ 26 + _Value of Lignum-vitae Imports from 1900 to 1919_ 28 + _Uses of Lignum-vitae_ 28 + _Resin of Guaiacum: Its Properties and Uses_ 35 + + SUBSTITUTES FOR TRUE LIGNUM-VITAE + + _Woods of the Lignum-vitae Family_ 38 + _Woods of Other Families_ 39 + + + SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 44 + + REFERENCES 45 + PLATES 49 + + + + + LIGNUM-VITAE + + A STUDY OF THE WOODS OF THE ZYGOPHYLLACEAE + WITH REFERENCE TO THE TRUE LIGNUM-VITAE + OF COMMERCE--ITS SOURCES, PROPERTIES, + USES, AND SUBSTITUTES + + BY SAMUEL J. RECORD + _Professor of Forest Products, Yale University_ + + + + +PART I: FROM THE BOTANICAL STANDPOINT + + +TREES AND WOODS OF THE LIGNUM-VITAE FAMILY + +The true lignum-vitae belongs to the family Zygophyllaceae. The plants +included in this family are mostly herbs, undershrubs, and shrubs; +many of them are xerophytic. The only trees of the family belong to +three[1] closely related genera, namely _Guaiacum_, _Porlieria_,[2] and +_Bulnesia_. These are confined to tropical and sub-tropical regions of +the Western Hemisphere. + +[1] The genus _Balanites_ is included in the Zygophyllaceae by some +botanists, but the structure of the wood has no resemblance to that of +the three genera herein described. + +[2] Some botanists do not accord generic rank to _Porlieria_, but +include it as a section of the extended genus _Guaiacum_ (see 40, p. +59). + +These three genera are composed of mostly evergreen trees and shrubs +with opposite, compound, abruptly pinnate leaves, and with showy +flowers solitary or in umbel-like clusters. The fruits are 2-5 lobed or +parted, and each portion contains usually a single seed. + +_Guaiacum_ and _Porlieria_ are alike in having blue or purple flowers, +and leathery fruits containing seeds covered with a thin fleshy and +often highly colored exocarp. _Bulnesia_, on the other hand, has yellow +flowers, and the fruit, instead of being fleshy, is a 5-parted dry +capsule with each part flattened into a conspicuous wing. The seeds are +not provided with a fleshy covering. + +In _Guaiacum_ the stipules are deciduous, and the stamens are almost +invariably without appendages. In the other two genera the stamens have +prominent appendages and the stipules of the leaves are persistent, +being thorny in _Porlieria_. The latter genus is further characterized +by having small linear leaflets which exhibit nyctitrophic or “sleep” +movements, and flowers that are tetramerous instead of pentamerous as +they are in the other two. + +These trees are found commonly in very dry regions and are accordingly +of very slow growth, short-boled and bushy. The trunks, however, +are often very stout with little taper. Some of the species of each +genus are typically shrubs and others tend to become so in the most +unfavorable sites. In the better situations, however, the trees grow +more rapidly and are taller, straighter, and smoother, though such +timber is not necessarily better and may, indeed, be of poorer quality +on that account. + +The woods of _Guaiacum_, _Porlieria_, and _Bulnesia_ have many +properties in common. They are cross-grained, extremely hard and +horn-like, and are considerably heavier than water even when thoroughly +dry;[3] the heart portion is infiltrated with a fragrantly scented +gum-resin which gives the wood an oily appearance and feel. + +[3] The maximum density determined by the writer was 1.32 (about +82-1/2 lbs. per cubic foot) for Nicaraguan lignum-vitae. Krais (“Die +Hölzer”) gives the range for dry wood of _Guaiacum_ as 1.17 to 1.39, or +from 73 to nearly 87 pounds per cubic foot. Other reliable figures of +density are 1.248 (Laslett) and 1.33 (Beauverie). Stone (46) gives 89 +pounds per cubic foot for _Guaiacum sanctum_ and cites Sargent (40) as +authority. This is an error, as the values given by Sargent are 0.9563 +to 1.2736, average 1.1432. Boulger (5) uses the same figure as Stone. + +Growth rings are often distinct, largely on account of color +variations, though affected more or less by the relative abundance +of pores and by the distribution of wood parenchyma. The woods are +diffuse-porous and the pores, which vary in size from minute and +indistinct to readily visible in some cases, are open in the sapwood +but commonly filled with resin in the heart. They are often associated +with or surrounded by parenchyma which may extend into fine tangential +or irregularly spaced concentric lines. The rays are uniform and +numerous but are too fine to be seen without a lens. + +On the longitudinal surface, typically the tangential, very fine and +regularly-disposed cross-lines or “ripple marks” are visible with the +lens but not without it. These lines are at right angles to the axis +of the tree and are not affected in direction or regularity by the +criss-crossing of the fiber-layers. The number of these markings per +inch of length averages about 250, which is so much greater than in +any other wood that this feature alone is sufficient to establish the +identity of the group (36, p. 259).[4] These ripple marks are also +characteristic of the inner bark (secondary phloem). (For structure of +the bark of _Guaiacum officinale_ see Joseph Moeller’s “Anatomie der +Baumrinden,” Berlin, 1882, pp. 332-3.) + +[4] In a specimen (Yale No. 974) of the shrub _Larrea divaricata_ +Cav. (Zygophyllaceae) from Argentina the number of ripple marks is +about 270 per inch. In this wood the ground mass is composed of small +thick-walled fiber-tracheids with very abundant and prominent bordered +pits. The rays are 1 to 12, mostly 6, cells high, uni-seriate or more +commonly bi-seriate in the median portion; rather indistinctly storied. +The wood parenchyma contains crystals some of which are large and +conspicuous. + + +Porlieria + +The representatives of this genus are shrubs or small trees growing +in dry sub-tropical regions, and are not of commercial importance. +Four species have been described, one belonging to a group of +plants connecting the Mexican and Texas flora, two inhabiting the +corresponding zone in Argentina and Chile, and a fourth,[5] little +known, in Bolivia. + +[5] This fourth species is described by Baillon (Adansonia, 10:315-16, +1872) under the name of “_Guaiacum (Porlieria) microphyllum_.” It was +found in Bolivia. The leaves are only 1/5 inch long and 1/6 inch broad. + +_Porlieria angustifolia_ Gray (= _Guaiacum angustifolium_ Engl.) is +found in western Texas and adjacent regions of Mexico where it is +common on the dry gravelly mesas of the valley of the lower Rio Grande. +It is a small tree with very knotty branches, attains a height of 25 +to 30 feet and a diameter of 6 to 8 inches, becoming reduced to a low +shrub toward its eastern, northern, and western limits. “The hard and +heavy yellowish-brown wood is called ‘guayacan’ about Saltillo, and +used as a sudorific and in venereal diseases.” (12, p. 113.) + +“The wood is exceedingly heavy, very hard, close-grained, compact, the +open ducts smaller and less regularly distributed than in _Guaiacum_; +medullary rays very thin, numerous; color, rich dark brown turning +green with exposure, the sapwood bright yellow; sp. gr. 1.1101; ash +0.51; probably possessing medicinal properties similar to those of +lignum-vitae.” (39, p. 29.) + +_Porlieria Lorentzii_ Engl. is a shrub or small tree on the Argentine +steppes where it occasionally reaches a height of 25 feet and a +diameter of 10 inches. It is covered with a thin dark gray scaly bark. +The yellowish wood is very compact and fine-textured and makes a fairly +satisfactory substitute for boxwood in turnery and carving. Its most +common use is in the manufacture of domestic utensils, particularly +spoons, and to the latter owes its vernacular name of “cucharero” +(maker of spoons). The Indians use the wood, called by them “chukupi,” +for making smoking-pipes (44, p. 378; 49, p. 105.) + +The above is probably the species referred to by Castro (8, p. 77) +as “guayacan blanco,” “chuchupi,” “chucupi,” or “chucarea,” though +he gives the scientific name as _P. hygrometrica_. The following +information is on his authority: The tree is found in Córdoba, Salta, +Jujuy, Tucuman, Mendoza, San Luis, San Juan, and La Rioja, and is very +abundant in the Andean provinces. In its better development it reaches +a height of 13 to 20 feet and a diameter of 4 to 6 inches. The wood +is hard and very strong and resilient. Specific gravity 1.11. It is +susceptible of a high polish, has a high luster, and on account of its +flexibility is in demand for canes and whipstocks. It is also used for +turnery and carves with ease. In general carpentry it finds a place in +the making of sash, doors, and blinds. + +_Porlieria hygrometrica_ R. & P. (= _Guaiacum hygrometricum_ Bail.), +is an ungainly shrub with sprawling branches and dropping leaves. When +it “sleeps” it gives the appearance of being diseased or even in a +dying condition. It was discovered by Ruiz and Pavon, first in Peru +near Huanuco, where it was called “turucasa,” meaning “thorns fragile +and not sharp” (referring to the stipular spines); afterwards in Chile +where the Spaniards, who have imputed to it the sudorific property of +guaiac, call it “guayaco,” also “palo santo.” Misled, no doubt, by +the common name, Molina, who did not see the plant, has erroneously +referred to it as _Guaiacum officinale_ L. (13, pp. 465-6.) + + +Bulnesia + +This genus, so far as known, is confined to South America. There are +eight species, but only two, the “palo santo” of Argentina and the +“vera” of Colombia and Venezuela, supply timber of commercial value. +The others are low-branching shrubs on the dry foothills of the Andes +Mountains in Argentina. + +_“Retama” or “Retamo”_[6] + +[6] In Patagonia the name “retamo” is given to _Lippia juncea_ Sch. +(38, p. 194). + +_Bulnesia Retamo_ Gris. is one of the latter group which sometimes +develops into a short stout broom-like tree with a height up to 25 +feet and a diameter of from 10 to 20 inches. According to Castro (8, +pp. 131-2) the tree occurs in Misiones, San Luis, La Rioja, San Juan, +Córdoba, and Catamarca. The tree is said to be of fine appearance and +the branches, which are without leaves during the greater part of the +year, are slender and pendulous. The gray-yellowish-green bark is from +7 to 8 mm. thick and has prominent corky lenticels and shallow furrows. + +According to the same authority, the sapwood is yellowish-white, the +heartwood dark-yellowish with veins of deeper color. The specific +gravity is given as 0.917. The moduli of elasticity in bending, in +kilograms per square millimeter, are: maximum 1,053; mean, 897; +minimum, 780. The coefficients of resistance to rupture in bending, +in kilograms per square millimeter, are: maximum, 12.25; mean, 7.50; +minimum, 4.50. + +The wood is “hard as iron” and is used to a limited extent for +cross-ties, carpentry, posts, canes, tool handles, and also in +the construction of furniture of “great durability and beautiful +appearance.” The twigs and leaves have a place in medicine and the +boughs are used by the mountaineers for thatching their huts. The +charcoal from retamo wood is of a very high quality. Spegazzini (44, +p. 397) states that the wood makes excellent fuel and occasionally +supplies material for turnery. + + +_“Palo Santo” or “Palo Balsamo”_ + +This wood is supplied by _Bulnesia Sarmienti_ Lorentz which is +“indigenous to the Argentine province of Gran Chaco about halfway +up the Rio Berjemo” (17, p. 453); Castro (8, p. 56) says it grows +in Chaco, Salta, Tucamán, Jujuy, and Corrientes; it also occurs in +Paraguay. It attains a height of 50 or 60 feet and a diameter of 40 +inches (44, p. 376), has a straight bole with a very thin smooth gray +bark, and in the interior of the Chaco generally rises above all of the +other trees in the forest (49, p. 105). It is a tree of the dry regions +and is for the most part in groups or patches yielding at most only a +few hundred board feet per acre. Although the wood is well known to +certain local minor industries making small cabinets and turnery, it is +not obtainable in any considerable amount. + +The sapwood is narrow and light-colored; the heartwood is usually +deep-brown, often more or less greenish, and sometimes with alternate +lighter and darker bands. The pores are small, thick-walled, numerous, +and arranged in radial lines or groups, sometimes spreading or +branching outward as in the late wood of white oak. + +The specific gravity, as determined by the writer on two specimens, +oven-dry, is as follows: All-heart specimen, 1.21; specimen with +one-fifth sapwood, 1.18. According to Castro (8, p. 56) the sp. gr. is +from 1.216 to 1.303. The moduli of elasticity in bending, in kilograms +per square millimeter, are: maximum, 988; mean, 872; minimum, 827. +The coefficient of resistance to rupture in bending, in kilograms per +square millimeter, are: maximum, 14.07; mean, 10.81; minimum, 8.91. + +The heartwood is thoroughly impregnated with resin of the nature of +guaiac and contains in addition a small amount of essential oil which +is fragrantly scented, somewhat suggesting sandalwood. This odor is +quite pronounced upon heating and the wood is in local demand for +incense in churches; hence the name “palo santo”[7] (holy wood). It is +used by the Indians in northern Argentina for firewood, torches, and +the making of utensils for various purposes. + +[7] In Patagonia the name “palo santo” is given to _Flotowia +diacanthoides_ Less. (38, p. 192). + +The name “palo balsamo” is a commercial term which has been in use +since 1892, and refers to the oil content of the wood. By distillation +the heartwood yields 5 or 6 per cent of this oil which is known to the +trade as “oil of guaiac wood,” “oleum ligni guaiaci,” “Guajakholzöl,” +or “essence de bois gaïac.”[8] + +[8] The name “champaca oil” was later given to this same oil although +it has not the slightest resemblance to the genuine champaca oil from +_Michelia champaca_ L. (Bericht von Schimmel & Co., Apr. 1893, p. 33). +(17, p. 453.) + +For many years the manufacture of this oil was confined to Germany and +France, but during the war 2,000 pounds were distilled in New York. +Since the sale is limited, this represents at least a five years’ +supply. The wood is obtained in the form of logs, reduced to sawdust +and fine chips, and distilled. Efforts to obtain the oil from the wood +of _Guaiacum_ were without success. Apparently no effort has been made +to distill it from _Bulnesia arborea_. + +Oil of guaiac wood is a viscous, heavy oil, yellowish in color, which +at ordinary temperature gradually solidifies to a crystalline mass. The +crystals are needle-shaped, sharply outlined, and characterized by a +channel-like middle line. The solidified oil is white and of about the +consistency of cold lard. The melting point is between 40° and 50°C. +The odor of the specimens examined by the writer is mild, slightly +pungent, and vaguely suggesting rose. + +The following description of the properties and composition of the +oil of guaiac wood is from Gildemeister and Hoffman (17, pp. 453-4). +“The odor of the oil is very pleasant, being violet and tea-like. +The specific gravity lies between 0.965 and 0.975 at 30°; the angle +of rotation is -6° to -7° at 30°. The oil is soluble in 70 per cent +alcohol. The saponification number found of an oil was 3.9, the ester +number 2.4, and the acid number 1.4. + +“The crystalline constituent of the oil is guaiac alcohol or guaiol +(Wallach), a sesquiterpene hydrate C₁₅H₂₆O. Guaiol is an odorless +body, crystallizing in large transparent prisms, and melting at 91°. +It boils under ordinary pressure at 288°, at 10 mm. pressure at 148°. +Its solution in chloroform is laevogyrate. With dehydrating agents +a hydrocarbon C₁₅H₂₄ is formed, accompanied by an intensely blue +substance. On boiling guaiol with acetic acid anhydride a liquid acetyl +compound is produced which boils at 155° under a pressure of 10 mm. The +odoriferous constituent of the oil has not yet been investigated.” + +The New York manufacturers of oil of guaiac wood sell the oil in small +quantities to perfumers, mostly in France, the price (1919) being about +$2 an ounce. They inform the writer that they are not familiar with the +use the perfumers make of it. According to Gildemeister and Hoffman +(17, pp. 436, 454), it is used in the perfume industry for the purpose +of producing a tea-rose odor and also as an adulterant of oil of rose. + + +_“Vera” or “Maracaibo Lignum-vitae”_ + +These names are applied to _Bulnesia arborea_ Engl. (= _Zygophyllum +arboreum_ Jacq., = _Guaiacum arboreum_ DC.) which occurs in the +coastal region of Colombia and Venezuela. (See plate.) According to +Sargent (40, p. 60) this species is “widely distributed through the +northern countries of South America from Cartagena to Venezuela.” The +fact that it was formerly, and occasionally is now, referred to as a +species of _Guaiacum_ accounts for some of the conflicting statements +regarding the range of that genus. Flückiger says (14, p. 102): “This +tree, occurring in New Granada (Colombia), has already been noticed +(1571-1577) by Francisco Hernandez (Nova plantarum, animal. et mineral. +Mexicanor. hist. Romae 1651, fol. 63) under the name of guayacan. He +mentions its large umbels with yellow flowers, those of _Guaiacum +officinale_, the ‘hoaxacan’ or lignum sanctum, being blue.” + +Triana and Planchon (47, p. 362) describe this tree under the name +of _Guaiacum arboreum_ DC. and call attention to the differences in +flowers and fruit between it and _G. officinale_. They report its +occurrence in Colombia in the valley of the Magdalena up to an altitude +of 2,600 feet above sea level, in Cartagena, the savannas of the valley +of Uphar, Santa Marta; and in Estado Carabobo of Venezuela. The common +names of “guayacan” and “guayacan polvillo” are given for this species +and the wood is described as being of a dark yellow color tending to +greenish and with an almost pulverulent fracture. There is indication +of confusion of species here since the name “guayacan polvillo” is +commonly applied to a certain species of _Tecoma_ or _Tabebuia_ +(Bignoniaceae) and the pulverulent nature of the fracture would seem to +refer to the lapachol compound which abounds in the wood of this and +closely related species. + +Stone (46, p. 18) describes the wood of _Bulnesia arborea_ under the +name of _Guaiacum arboreum_ DC., and gives its source as Brazil, +citing Miers as authority. The only other reference to the occurrence +of this tree in Brazil that the writer has found is by Beauverie (3, +p. 248) who apparently follows Stone and it seems probable that this +information was incorrect, especially so in view of a statement by +Huber (24, pp. 179-180) to similar effect. + +The wood of _Bulnesia arborea_ is known to the trade as “vera,” +“vera-wood,” and “Maracaibo lignum-vitae.” The most common local name +for it is vera.[9] The variations in the color of the wood, attributed +to the effect of site, give rise to the names “vera aceituno” (olive), +“vera amarilla” (yellow), “vera azul” (blue), and “vera blanca” +(white). “Guayacan” and “palosano” are synonyms for vera (1, p. 178). +Another native name, a variant of vera, is “bera” or “berra.” Humboldt +(25, pp. 7-8) says: “On leaving Cumana we enjoyed during the short +duration of the twilight from the top of the hill of San Francisco, +an extensive view over the sea, the plain covered with _bera_ and its +golden flowers; and the mountains of the Brigantine.” A foot-note +referring to the tree reads: “Palo sano, _Zygophyllum arboreum_ Jacq. +The flowers have the smell of vanilla.” + +[9] The wood, along with true lignum-vitae, has recently been +introduced in the brush-back trade under the fantastic name of “Congo +cypress”! + +Vera usually grows in places more favorable for its development than +is the case of the other zygophyllaceous trees. Consequently it is +often comparatively slender, straight-boled, and of rather good timber +form. Sargent (40, p. 60) calls it a small tree, but all of the other +writers refer to it as attaining large dimensions. Few reliable figures +of size are available. Sievers (43, p. 194) says that it reaches a +height of approximately 100 feet in the Maracaibo region. The present +writer has seen logs of this species in New York, transshipped from +Curaçao, that were from 14 to 20 inches in diameter and from 8 to 12 +feet long. They were smooth, straight, cylindrical and free from knots, +indicating that they had come from rather tall trees. The bark was dark +gray, smoothish, with longitudinal wrinkles. The bark of a smaller stem +was very thin, of a gray-greenish color and showed fine longitudinal +wrinkling, crossed at right angles with numerous fine white lines. + +Mr. H. M. Curran supplies the following information regarding this +tree in Venezuela: “Vera is a common tree of the dry foothills lying +between Porto Cabello and the Lake Maracaibo. It does not extend into +the extremely dry coastal hills and sand dune areas, but where a little +more moisture and better soils are found it is often a very prominent +feature in the vegetation. Perhaps four or five trees per acre may be +found over considerable areas though the stand would probably be less +than 1,000 board feet per acre. The tree as commonly met with is from +40 to 50 feet in height, slender, with a rather small branched crown +and is fairly straight, though many individuals are twisted. The tree +seldom makes a clear length of more than 15 or 20 feet. The flowers +are bright yellow, and the tree is quite ornamental when in bloom. +The fruits following the fall of the flowers are rather membranaceous +winged pods. The wood is hard, very durable, and is commonly used for +fence posts, telegraph poles, and durable construction in general.” + +The wood of vera has many technical properties in common with the true +lignum-vitae (_Guaiacum_). In the specimens examined by the writer the +heartwood is more or less striped and banded, and varying in color +from light olive-green to chocolate-brown. The surface of fresh wood +often turns dark green upon exposure to the air and sun. The sapwood is +mostly thin and is light yellow except near the heart where the vessels +become green upon oxidation of their contents, thus giving a finely +striped effect. Generally the color is lighter than in _Guaiacum_. +One finds the same arrangement of pores as in _Bulnesia Sarmienti_ +except that the radial lines are usually narrower and not so inclined +to branch. The specific gravity of the heartwood, as determined by the +writer on oven-dry material, varies from 1.11 to 1.21. J. Martinex +Espino (see 1, p. 178) gives 1.14 as the average density. The heartwood +is impregnated with the mildly scented resin typical of the woods of +this family. + +The heartwood is very durable under exposure and will last indefinitely +in the ground. Mr. H. M. Curran found among the ruins of an old Spanish +fort on the tip of Araya Peninsula, Venezuela, a pole which was in +perfect preservation after some 300 years. A specimen of this wood was +examined by the writer and identified as the heartwood of _Bulnesia +arborea_. (For features distinguishing the woods of _Bulnesia_ and +_Guaiacum_ see page 19.) + + +Guaiacum + +This genus, the source of the true lignum-vitae of commerce, is well +distributed over the islands and coastal regions of tropical North +America. The range in South America seems to be limited to the northern +fringe of coast and adjacent islands. Most of the commercial timber is +supplied by the West Indies;--Cuba, Haiti, Dominican Republic, Jamaica, +and the Bahamas. Considerable material is also obtained from the west +coast of Nicaragua. + + +_Description of Species_ + +At least six species[10] are recognized by botanists but very +little reliable information is available regarding their respective +ranges. There are two species in the West Indies, namely, _Guaiacum +officinale_ L. and _G. sanctum_ L.[11] The latter is a small evergreen +tree sometimes reaching a height of 30 feet with a small and stout +trunk, rarely 12 inches in diameter,[12] clothed with a thin pale +or white scaly bark. The slender pendulous branches are enlarged at +the nodes and somewhat furrowed. The ovoid, five-cornered fruit is +greenish-yellow to bright orange, the seeds dark brown or black and +covered with a scarlet exocarp. It is often cultivated for decorative +purposes on account of the beauty of its flowers and foliage. It grows +naturally in southern Florida, “abundantly on Upper Metacombe and +Lignum-vitae Keys and less commonly on Lower Metacombe and Umbrella +Keys” (40, p. 63), and is the only representative of the genus reaching +the United States. The species occurs throughout the West Indies and, +according to Vail and Rydberg (48, p. 106), grows naturally in Yucatan. +It has never been of great commercial importance because of its small +size and is still less so now than formerly. Flückiger (14, p. 101) +says of it: “It is found in southern Florida, the Bahama Islands, +Key West, Cuba, San Domingo (including the part called Hayti), and +Puerto Rico, and is certainly the source of the small but excellent +lignum-vitae exported from the Bahamas as well as some of that shipped +from Hayti.” + +[10] For key to these species see Vail and Rydberg (48, p. 105). + +[11] Varietal forms of _G. sanctum_ exist in Haiti, but have not been +described. According to Mr. C. D. Mell, one of these produces a large +timber tree, the bera or so-called bastard lignum-vitae of Haiti. + +[12] Sargent (40, p. 63) gives maximum diameter of trunk as 2.5 to 3 +feet. + +The specific gravity of oven-dry wood of this species from Florida, +as determined by Sharples (see 39, pp. 268-9), varies from 0.9563 to +1.2736, average 1.1432. The variations are in part due to the presence +of more or less sapwood in some of the specimens. The specific gravity, +oven-dry, of a specimen from Florida was found by the writer to be 1.09 +for the sapwood portion and 1.19 for the heartwood. The sapwood of +_Guaiacum sanctum_ is usually thicker than in _G. officinale_. + +In longitudinal compression, the ultimate strength in kilos of two +specimens of Florida wood was found by Sharples (see 39, p. 420) to be +11,930 and 11,648, respectively. These values were somewhat in excess +of those for the best specimens of hickory but were materially exceeded +by some pieces of Osage orange, black locust, and some less common +woods. In resistance to indentation the wood of _Guaiacum sanctum_ is +given first rank (see 39, p. 253) among 405 woods tested, and is far +above any of the common woods of the United States. + +_Guaiacum officinale_ is a low or medium-sized evergreen tree with a +thick bole often 10 to 12, occasionally 18 to 20, inches in diameter. +Its branches are crowded and flexuose and the pinnate leaves are +leathery. The fruits are two-cornered and yellowish, bearing seeds +light to dark brown with a cream-colored exocarp. Its range includes +all of the West Indies and the northern coast of South America, +especially Venezuela and Colombia. Schomburgk (42, pp. 850, 1,012) says +it is cultivated in gardens along the coastal region of British Guiana +and also grows in the forests along the Essequibo, where it reaches +tree size. No other reference to its occurrence in British Guiana has +been found. According to Vail and Rydberg (48, p. 106) the species +grows naturally in Panama, and Harshberger (21, p. 664) mentions it as +occurring in Honduras. + +Oviedo (see 14, p. 101), who landed in America in 1514, mentions +this tree, under the name of “guayacan,” as a native. (This should +dispose of the claim of a Brazilian botanist (7, p. 81) that _Guaiacum +officinale_ L. was introduced into San Domingo from the Matto Grosso by +the Spaniards in 1508, and thereafter considered native there). Oviedo +appears to have been aware of two species, one of which he found in +Espanola (San Domingo) as well as Nagranda (Nicaragua), and the other +in the island of Sanct Johan (Porto Rico), whence it was called “lignum +sanctum.” This name is still in use, particularly for the wood of +_Guaiacum sanctum_. + +Four Mexican or Central American species of _Guaiacum_ are described +by Vail and Rydberg (48, pp. 106-7), but very little is available +regarding their commercial importance and range. _G. guatemalense_ +Planch. is said to be a small tree about 15 feet high with stems +clothed with somewhat corky bark. The flowers, which are azure blue, +appear before the new leaves; the fruit is reddish or orange, the seeds +reddish-brown. The type was collected on the hot plains of Zacapa, +Guatemala, and nothing further is known of its range. + +_Guaiacum Planchoni_ A. Gray is said to be a much branched shrub, 6 to +10 feet high, with grayish corky bark, leaves crowded or fascicled on +short modified branchlets; flowers solitary. The type was collected +between Tehuantepec and the Pacific Ocean, Oaxaca. + +_Guaiacum Palmeri_ Vail is, according to the same authorities, a shrub +or possibly a small tree, with leaves fascicled as in the preceding. +The fruit is yellowish-green, leathery, with seeds covered with a +dark-red (?) fleshy exocarp. The type was collected at Guaymas, Sonora. + +_Guaiacum Coulteri_ A. Gray produces wood of value, though to what +extent is undetermined. This tree is known to occur all along the +western part of Mexico from Sonora to Oaxaca and it is possible that +the commercial lignum-vitae of Nicaragua and the east coast of Mexico +is supplied by this species. According to the botanists the tree is +small, often reduced to a shrub, with clustered blue flowers and with +greenish fruit containing brown seeds covered with a pale yellowish +aril. + +Hemsley (22, p. 159) suggests the possibility of this and _G. +guatemalense_ Planch. being the same species, but the material at his +disposal was insufficient to decide the question. + +In 1913, Dr. H. N. Whitford made an examination of the forest on Maria +Magdalena Island, the middle one of the Tres Marias group off the coast +of Tepic, Mexico. He found a tree called “guayacan” which was afterward +identified as _Guaiacum Coulteri_. In a manuscript report he says: + +“This species is probably the lignum-vitae of commerce. It occurs +growing very scattered with the ‘palo prieto’ and on the flats near +the mouths of the arroyos. The trees are mostly small, between 8 and +12 inches in diameter, yielding logs from 6 to 10 feet in length. One +tree was 24 inches in diameter yielding a log only two feet long. It +had three branches 8 inches in diameter and 6 feet long that would make +good logs. The forests on the main coast are said to produce trees much +larger than those on the island. Guayacan is very hard, very durable +and very heavy. It is dark greenish-brown in color with concentric +rings of nearly black. It is very fine-grained.” + + +_Minute Anatomy of the Wood of Guaiacum_ + +The pores are circular or elliptical and are irregularly distributed, +being sometimes abundant and sometimes few and scattering. Usually no +definite arrangement can be noted, but occasionally they are in echelon +and in some cases a tendency to a ring-porous structure has been +observed. There may be considerable difference in the size of the pores +in the same specimen while in others they are fairly uniform. In a +piece of Cuban lignum-vitae, 14 of the largest pores were found to have +an average size of 0.15 × 0.11 mm.; the maximum was 0.18 × 0.14 mm. In +a specimen from Nicaragua the pores were nearly all small, the largest +measuring about 0.10 × 0.08 mm. The walls in both cases were about 0.01 +mm. thick. + +The vessel segments, wood fibers, wood parenchyma strands, and the +rays are in horizontal seriation. The bordered pits between contiguous +vessels are small, very numerous, and with rounded or hexagonal +outlines; the pits between the vessels and rays are small, numerous, +and half-bordered. The wood fibers are very thick-walled, very small, +short, crowded together without any definite arrangement, and provided +with numerous weakly bordered pits. The vessel segments are mostly 0.09 +to 0.10 mm. in length, with simple perforations throughout, without +tyloses, but with abundant resin (in heartwood) which dissolves readily +in alcohol. The rays are from 1 to 8, mostly 5 or 6, cells high and +either uni-seriate throughout or two cells wide in the middle portion. +The individual cells are very small, thick-walled, sometimes containing +crystals, and commonly resinous. Wood parenchyma is present in varying +amount in association with the vessels, or diffused, or in tangential +lines of irregular length or sometimes in concentric bands several +cells wide apparently limiting growth rings. The variations in the +amount and arrangement of the parenchyma are very noticeable, not only +in different woods but also in different parts of the same specimen. + +[Illustration: Cross section of Bulnesia arborea (Maracaibo) Note the +radial distribution of the pores] + +[Illustration: Cross section of Guaiacum from Haiti Note irregular +distribution of the pores] + + +_Distinguishing Features of the Woods of Guaiacum and Bulnesia_ + + _Guaiacum_ _Bulnesia_ + + Pores irregularly disposed. Pores in radial arrangement. (See + (See opposite page.) opposite page.) + + Pores often widely variable Pores small and fairly uniform in + in size; largest sometimes size; not individually distinct + visible without lens. without lens. + + Pores mostly circular or oval. Pores often angular in outline. + + Parenchyma paratracheal and Parenchyma paratracheal and + metatracheal; also often terminal diffuse; indistinct with lens. + in fine lines distinct with lens. + + Crystals present but not abundant Crystals very abundant in wood + in wood parenchyma and rays. parenchyma and rays. + + Rays mostly uni-seriate; Rays commonly 2-seriate + sometimes 2-seriate in middle (occasionally 3-seriate) in middle + portion. portion. + + Essential oil not known to be Essential oil known to be present, + present. at least in one species. + +Woods of the two genera are alike in being very dense, fine-textured, +cross-grained; dark brown or greenish in color with oily appearance +and feel; mildly and pleasantly scented when warmed; containing guaiac +resin with characteristic color reactions. Woods with very fine and +uniform ripple marks, invisible without lens, averaging about 250 +per inch of length. These ripple marks are likely to be absent in +small twigs (0.5 cm. or less) such as one commonly finds in herbarium +material. The characteristic alternating or fine-roe grain was not +found in stems or twigs less than 1 cm. thick. The interlocked grain is +not due, as sometimes supposed, to the crossing of true right and left +hand spirals around the stem, but to a weaving back and forth of the +fiber layers in an irregular “lazy-S” manner up and down the trunk. + + +_Check List of Common Names_ + + _Guaiacum officinale_: Lignum-vitae (U. S.; general trade); + guaiacum-wood (England); holy wood, wood of life, Indian wood (Lit.); + guayacan, guaiacan, guayakan (Spanish); hoaxacan, lignum sanctum, + guayacan blanco (Porto Rico); guayacan negro, guayacan prieto, palo + santo (Cuba); gayac jaune vert (Martinique); bois de gaïac or bois + de gayac, bois sant (Fr.); Pockholz, Guaiacholz, Guajak, Guajakholz, + Franzosenholz, Lignum Sanctum-holz (Ger.); guaiaco nero, legno santo, + legno benedetto, legno nefritico, legno di guaiaco (Ital.); pokhout + (Dutch); guaiaco (Port.); “Congo cypress” (Brush-back trade). + + _Guaiacum sanctum_: Lignum-vitae (America; general); Bahama + lignum-vitae (Eu. trade); palo santo, lignum sanctum, lignum + guaici (Spanish); vera, bera (Haiti); vera amarilla, vera prieta, + guayacancillo (Cuba); ironwood (Florida); guaiaco banco, legno santo, + legno benedetto (Ital.). The wood of this species is often not + distinguished from the foregoing and the same names may be used for + both. + + _Guaiacum_ spp.: Lignum-vitae (Trade); guayacan, palo santo + (Mex.). + + _Bulnesia arborea_: Vera, vera aceituna, vera amarilla, vera azul, + vera blanca, bera, berra (Venezuela, Colombia); Maracaibo lignum-vitae, + vera-wood (Trade); guayacan, palo sano (Colombia); gayac de Caracas + (Fr.); Vera-holz (Ger.); “Congo cypress” (Brush-back trade). + + _Bulnesia Sarmienti_: Palo santo (Argentina); palo balsamo + (Trade); palo santo negro (Paraguay); páo santo (Port.). + + _Bulnesia retamo_: Retama, retamo (Argentina). + + _Porlieria angustifolia_: Guayacan. + + _Porlieria Lorentzii_: Guayacan blanco (Argentina); cucharero, + chucarea, chukupi, chuchupi, chucupi (Indian names, Arg.). + + _Porlieria hygrometrica_: Guayaco, palo santo (Chile); turucasa + (Peru). + + + + +PART II: FROM THE COMMERCIAL STANDPOINT + + +THE TRUE LIGNUM-VITAE OF COMMERCE + +_General Considerations_ + +The wood of _Guaiacum_ is the true lignum-vitae of commerce. It enters +the market in the form of bolts or short logs from 2 to 10 feet in +length and 3 inches and upward in diameter. These logs usually retain +part or all of their bark and this provides one of the best features +for the ready separation of the different kinds recognized by the trade. + +The sapwood is usually thin or, if the logs have lain for a long time +on the ground or in the water, it may be entirely absent. Logs without +sapwood are commonly known as “nigger heads” because they are all black +and the surface is etched and channeled in such a way as to expose +the criss-crossing grain and give the appearance of being braided +or interwoven. It was formerly the practice to hew off the sapwood +before shipment, at least for certain grades of wood, but hewn logs +are comparatively rare now and such hewing as is done is to remove +irregularities. + +The logs are cut by natives and carried in some primitive way, often +on pack animals (see plate), to a dock to await shipment. They may lie +exposed to the weather for months or even years. Under the intense +tropical sun they are likely to check and become ring-shaken, at least +at the ends, though the various kinds are not equally susceptible to +this. Worms often get in and riddle the sapwood, and the writer has +seen a few logs with worm holes, the size of a lead pencil, in the +heart. + +One of the most serious defects of lignum-vitae is heart-rot or “doze.” +Although the heart is very durable when exposed to decay after the tree +is felled, it is subject to rot in the living tree just as in the case +of many of our most durable native woods. Although dealers specify +strictly sound wood, a certain amount of “dozey” material is likely to +be included in every shipment when the demand for lignum-vitae is heavy. + +The highest grade logs are smooth, cylindrical, free from knots, +checks, shakes, “doze,” and worm holes, with very thin sapwood or none +at all, with a finely interlocked grain, and heavily impregnated with +resin. The preferred lengths and diameters depend upon the uses to +which the wood is to be put. Thus the Navy Department specifies that +“sizes 3 inches average diameter and smaller shall be not less than 2 +feet in length; sizes 4 inches and 5 inches average diameter shall be +not less than 3 feet in length; sizes 6 inches average diameter and +larger shall be not less than 4 feet in length” except in special cases. + +The color of the heartwood exhibits a wide variation. The typical is +an oily olive-brown with concentric layers of alternately lighter and +darker shade. It is very common for the ends of the logs to show a +dark blue or green heart as a result of the oxidation of the coloring +matter. Upon oven-drying specimens of this color the blue or green was +found to disappear. + +Several different kinds of lignum-vitae are recognized in the trade +and they are usually designated by the name of the country or of the +port of origin. The principal kinds now found on the New York market +are Cuban, San Domingan, Jamaican, Haitian, and Nicaraguan. Others less +common are Bahaman, Mexican, and South American. Buyers usually specify +exactly the kind of wood they want and their likes and dislikes are +often very pronounced. To what extent these opinions are based on facts +and to what extent they are mere prejudices could not be determined, +but they do exist and exert a very material influence on the market. + +So far as the writer’s investigations have gone, specimens from the +same region and presumably of the same kind exhibit about as much +variation in structure as was found in material of the different kinds +recognized by the trade. In general, however, the Mexican, Nicaraguan, +and Haitian wood had smaller pores and finer rays than that from Cuba +and Florida. + + +_Present Sources of Supply_ + +The following notes are based largely upon data obtained from prominent +timber dealers in New York City. + +_Cuba._--Most of the Cuban lignum-vitae is obtained from Oriente +Province in the eastern part of the island and is shipped from +Santiago. According to a Government report in 1917 (20, p. 52) not more +than 4,000 tons exist in accessible places, not more than one-third of +this would repay the cost of getting it out, and the total supply is in +danger of early exhaustion. A New York dealer questions this conclusion +and cites the fact that a single operator in this region got out 1,000 +tons in 1918 and that others were also engaged in the business. During +the fiscal years of 1914 and 1915, 3,067 tons, valued at $127,000, were +exported from Santiago. More recent figures are not available. There is +some wood in Pinar del Rio, in the western part of the island, but it +is not now being exploited. + +Cuban lignum-vitae is considered the standard, at least for the larger +sizes. The logs are mostly from 4 to 8 feet long, with a few of the +smaller sizes 10 feet. The diameters range from 6 to 24 inches, but +only a very small percentage are over 16. + +The commercial species is _Guaiacum officinale_, although _G. sanctum_ +is also present and may enter to a minor extent into the supply. The +latter species is locally known as “guayacancillo” to distinguish it +from the other which is called “guayacan,” “guayacan negro,” or “palo +santo.” + +The bark of the Cuban wood is distinctive and is considered typical of +high-grade wood in general. It is thin, smooth, and flaky. These flakes +are of irregular size and shape and the scars, owing to the laminated +structure of the bark and to the variation in depth of different parts +of a scale, are marked like a contour map. (See plate.) The fresh +scars are glossy and vary in color from reddish-brown to olive-green, +the older patches becoming ashy-gray or nearly white. (A large Cuban +specimen of _Guaiacum_ in the collection of the Yale Forest School is +labeled “vera.” The color is lighter than that of the typical wood +and the bark is ashy-gray and granular, suggesting that of logs from +Nicaragua.) + +A specimen of Cuban wood taken from a storage yard in New York was +found to contain a little over 20 per cent moisture. The specific +gravity, oven-dry, was 1.17. + +_Jamaica._--The wood from Jamaica is small and is supposed to be of +_Guaiacum sanctum_. The logs are from 2 to 8 feet long and from 3 to +10, mostly 3 to 5, inches in diameter. (See plate.) Not over 5 per cent +exceed 8 inches. The sap is usually wide and the bark is smooth as in +Cuban logs. The wood is much in demand for mallets for which the small +size especially adapts it. It is reputed to be of as high quality as +the Cuban and is restricted in its uses only on account of the small +sizes now available. Flückiger (14, p. 102), referring to the wood of +this source on the market in the seventies, says that it is small and +of only ordinary quality. + +_Bahama Islands._--This wood is also of _Guaiacum sanctum_, is +accordingly of small size, rarely 5 inches thick, and is also largely +used for mallets. Almost no stock was obtained from the islands during +the war, owing largely to the lack of shipping facilities. The supply +remaining is believed to be small. The exports in 1914 and 1915 were +valued at $3,017 and $5,161, respectively. + +_Porto Rico._--The wood from this source is small but of good quality. +Both _Guaiacum officinale_ and _G. sanctum_ are native but the latter +is “now of only limited occurrence along the south coast” (6, p. +75). Although comparatively little Porto Rican wood has been on the +market during the past few years, due principally to lack of shipping +facilities, it is believed that the island will continue a source of +supply for small stock for many years. The logging conditions in the +mountains are very unfavorable. (See 23, pp. 44-45.) + +_Haiti._--“Lignum-vitae is scattered over the whole of Haiti” (20, p. +136). Most of the wood, however, is considered by dealers and users +as non-genuine and is often called “bastard lignum-vitae” in the +trade, and “vera” or “bera” locally. It is unquestionably a species +of _Guaiacum_ and not of _Bulnesia_, as the name “vera” or “bera” +would indicate, since it has blue flowers and the typical fruits of +_Guaiacum_.[13] + +[13] Specimens of the leaves and fruits of this tree recently collected +by Mr. C. D. Mell have been identified by Dr. Rydberg as an unnamed +variety of _G. sanctum_. + +Prejudice against this material is not of recent origin. Flückiger, +following a reference to San Domingan lignum-vitae, which he terms +the best on the market in the seventies, says (14, p. 102): “The wood +obtained from the Haytian ports (of the western part of the same +island) is much less esteemed in the London market.” + +The logs are from 3 to 5 feet long and from 4 to 14 inches in diameter. +The bark is rough, composed of fine scales partly slate-colored and +partly ashy-gray, somewhat resembling that of pignut hickory. (See +plate.) The sapwood is usually thick and the grain seems to be less +interwoven than in the Cuban wood. Several lots were examined by the +writer and a high percentage of the logs were found to be “dozey.” The +specific gravity, oven-dry, of a specimen of Haitian wood was 1.30. + +It is believed that a large amount of genuine lignum-vitae exists in +Haiti but the transportation facilities in the interior are extremely +poor. In 1915, 6,172,853 pounds, and in 1916, 6,226,574 pounds of +lignum-vitae were exported from Haiti. + +_Dominican Republic._--Wood from this region is called San Domingan. +It is recognized as genuine and has the characteristic bark and other +features of the Cuban. Only occasional logs of the “bastard” variety +are included, presumably more because of the small demand for it than +because it is not found. Wiesner (50, p. 950) states that the best wood +of _Guaiacum officinale_ comes from San Domingo. + +The logs now on the market are from 2 to 3 feet long and mostly between +4 and 10 inches in diameter, rarely as large as 16 inches. Some +wood-users consider it the best lignum-vitae in the trade, especially +for the smaller sizes. It is said that much larger wood than is now +being obtained is available in considerable quantity in this country +but that the natives lack the necessary facilities for getting it out. +“Lignum-vitae is plentiful, especially from the bay of Samana southward +and westward to the Province of Barahona” (20, p. 181). + +The value of this wood shipped from the Dominican Republic during the +five fiscal years 1912-1916 was $157,706. + +_Nicaragua._--Nicaraguan lignum-vitae has been on the market for many +years but until recently there has been considerable objection to +its qualities on the part of certain users, particularly in France, +England, Holland, and Denmark, who claimed that it had too great a +tendency to check and split. On the other hand, it has been used +without discrimination in Japan, China, Germany, and to a greater or +less extent in the United States. The shipyards on the Pacific coast +use it exclusively. Makers of bowling balls and of sheaves insist that +it is unsuited for their purposes because of the tendency to split. The +writer is informed by dealers that the prejudice against this material +has been largely overcome through improved methods of handling and +manufacture. + +The largest log of which record is available was 36 inches in diameter, +9 feet long, and weighed 4,260 pounds (27, p. 35). Usually the logs +are 4 to 8 feet long and from 9 to 24 inches in diameter, with a good +percentage over 12 inches. They are straight, smooth, and cylindrical, +and free from defects except end checks which give a bad appearance but +generally do not extend deeply. The specific gravity, oven-dry, of a +specimen of Nicaraguan wood was found to be 1.32. + +The species supplying the Nicaraguan wood is not known. The bark is +thin, dull gray in color, irregularly flaky, but not smooth or shiny; +sometimes pitted and coarsely granular. (See plate.) + +The principal port of shipment is Corinto and, according to a consular +report, 55 tons, valued at $1,849, were exported in 1916 and 265 tons, +worth $8,839, in 1917. + +_Mexico._--The amount of lignum-vitae coming out of Mexico is at +present very small. The writer had occasion to inspect a carload of +logs from the northwestern part of the country. The sticks were of +various lengths up to 6 feet and ranged in diameter from 8 to 11 +inches. They were all more or less faulty, being crooked, gnarly, and +knotty. Many were double-hearted at one end due to cutting above the +fork of the trunk, an undesirable practice. The sapwood was very thick +and white, the heart small, oily, and of good color but often affected +by spots of dry rot or “doze” of varying size. The bark was very thin, +smoothish, granular, and varying in color from light to dark gray. The +writer was unable to determine the extent to which this shipment was +typical of the region. + +A specimen of lignum-vitae from the west-central coast of Mexico was +found to have a specific gravity, oven-dry, of 1.30. The wood was very +dense, highly resinous, and free from defects. The pores were minute. + + +_Future Sources of Supply_ + +_West Indies._--The West Indies will probably continue to supply the +bulk of the high-grade lignum-vitae for many years if prices remain at +a sufficiently high level to warrant the increased expense attending +the more and more difficult logging. Improvement of the transportation +facilities and logging methods in certain regions will permit the +getting out of material now too large and heavy to be handled in the +primitive native manner over rough trails. + +_Central America._--There is believed to be a large supply of +accessible lignum-vitae in Nicaragua but the former prejudice against +the material from this source has retarded its exploitation. It is +reported that the Government of Honduras is taking steps to introduce +its wood into the market. + +_Mexico._--Jordan (27, p. 805) says that lignum-vitae is very plentiful +on the west coast of Mexico from the state of Sonora to Oaxaca, but +grows to a greater size and degree of hardness in southern Sinaloa +and Nayarit. In the “Catalogo forestal” (9, pp. 16-17) both _Guaiacum +sanctum_ and _G. officinale_ are listed as of quite general occurrence +throughout Mexico. Thus the range of the former, known locally as “palo +santo,” is given as Vera Cruz, Chipas, Oaxaca, Guerrero, Michoacán, +Jalisco, Tepic, Sinaloa, Zacatecas, Mexico, Pueblo, Tiaxcala, and +Morelos. The range of the other called “guayacan,” is given as Yucatan, +Tabasco, Vera Cruz, Oaxaca, Guerrero, Michoacán, Colima, Jalisco, +Tepic, Sonora, Hidalgo, Pueblo, and Morelos. Although the specific +names given are presumably incorrect, the report is of interest in +indicating the distribution and possible future sources of lignum-vitae +in Mexico. + +_Northern South America._--There is a very considerable quantity of +true lignum-vitae in the coastal region of Colombia and Venezuela. Very +little of it is now on the market, partly because the trade fears the +substitution of “vera” for the genuine. In 1917, a shipment of a few +tons was received by a New York dealer from the Port of Colombia. The +logs were 5 or 6 feet long, 4 to 15 inches in diameter, straight and +well-shaped and with all of the sapwood trimmed off. It proved to be +excellent wood, approximately Cuban quality, according to report. + +It is likely that some of the Venezuelan lignum-vitae will enter the +market in the near future. A specimen of the wood which some timberland +owners are offering was examined by the writer. It was found to be +genuine and apparently of high quality. + +Curaçao figures in the commerce reports as a large exporter of various +woods, including lignum-vitae and vera, but little if any timber is of +local origin, although both _Guaiacum officinale_ and _G. sanctum_ are +native of the islands (19, p. 331). Vice-consul Gorsica says (18, p. +15): + +“Before the war considerable business in woods was done at Curaçao. +Woods from the Venezuelan ports, Maracaibo and Carupano, and from +Dominican ports were carried to this place for transshipment to the +United States and to Europe. Maracaibo relies almost entirely on +Curaçao for the exportation of woods, owing to a sand bank at the +entrance of the Gulf of Maracaibo, which makes it impossible for +vessels with a draft of over 12 feet to go into or out of the gulf. +Dealers in Maracaibo woods, as a rule, own light-draft sailing vessels +built to trade with Curaçao.... Restrictive rules, lack of shipping +space, the irregular calls of steamers, and the suspension of service +of different lines have very nearly killed the wood business.” + +Mr. H. M. Curran supplies the following information regarding true +lignum-vitae in Northern Venezuela: + +“The dry coastal hills of northern Venezuela have a certain amount +of lignum-vitae scattered through them. It has been little exploited +probably due to its rather local occurrence, small size and the fact +that the region is but little known to anything but small coasting +vessels. Only one or two trees per acre are found in the best stands. +It seldom reaches a height of over 30 feet, is often much less, and has +a broad bushy crown of very dark green foliage. The bole is usually +less than 8 or 10 feet in length, and the common diameter of the +mature tree is between 8 and 20 inches; rarely 24 inches. It is a very +ornamental tree when in blossom and is often completely covered with +a mass of violet-blue flowers. These are succeeded by great masses of +orange-yellow pods which are likewise very ornamental. The tree is much +used as a shade tree or ornamental shrub in town and about country +houses. It has peculiar close dark green mottled bark, and is of very +unsymmetrical form. Another variety or species is found with a rather +rough bark, though the wood and general appearance of the tree from +the forester’s point of view is practically the same. The wood is not +exploited to any extent and only now and then is seen on the market.” + + +_Value of lignum-vitae imports entered for consumption in the United +States_ + +(U. S. Commerce Reports) + + _Fiscal year_ _Value_ + 1900 $123,021 + 1901 146,834 + 1902 87,399 + 1903 127,262 + 1904 88,234 + 1905 103,830 + 1906 179,280 + 1907 175,296 + 1908 99,796 + 1909 90,576 + 1910 95,695 + 1911 143,682 + 1912 96,675 + 1913 101,547 + 1914 72,632 + 1915 132,411 + 1916 73,412 + 1917 222,731 + 1918 171,844 + 1919 308,512 + ---------- + Total value for 20 years $2,640,669 + + +_Uses of Lignum-vitae_ + +_Bushing blocks._--The most important use for lignum-vitae is in +bearings or bushings, particularly for lining the stern tubes of +propeller shafts of steamships. In this extremely important and trying +position it will last about three times as long as steel or bronze. +The great density and tenacity of the wood enable it to withstand the +enormous strains upon it, while the resin content serves as a natural +lubricant which minimizes the friction and wear of the parts. Although +other woods, including beech, and more recently yellow guayacan, have +been used, none has proved a satisfactory substitute for the genuine +lignum-vitae. + +In reference to this use of the wood, Galletley says (15, p. 384): “It +has one remarkable application, namely, its use for the particular +bush, or bearing, of the screw shaft of steamships, next to the screw +itself, where only a substance able to bear much friction could +possibly last for any length of time. Its highly resinous character +renders it self-lubricating in a position where no other lubricant is +practicable except water.” + +The stimulation of the shipbuilding industry due to the war occasioned +a very large increase in the demand for lignum-vitae. The Navy +Department at one time advertised for bids to supply 427,000 pounds of +logs of this wood, a large proportion of which were to be from 18 to 24 +inches in diameter at the small end. + +The Emergency Fleet Corporation was also a large purchaser. A specimen +inquiry from this source called for quotations on logs which would +cut approximately 10,000 board feet edge-grain. These were to be +“high-grade lignum-vitae hewed square or rectangular, to be well +seasoned, generally sound and straight, free from injurious shakes, +worm holes, excessive sap, large or unsound knots, and other injurious +defects. Ordinary season checks will not be considered a defect and +slight heart and ring-shakes are not considered a defect in pieces +13 inches in the shorter diameter and over.” Quotations were also +solicited on supplying as an alternate, 6,000 square feet of edge-grain +slabs of random lengths (minimum 12 inches) not less than 1⅛ nor +more than 1¼ inches in thickness. + +The stern tube, in which the propeller shaft revolves, extends from the +peak bulkhead in the after part of the hull to the stern post and, in a +large steamship, is from 3 to 7 feet long and from 12 to 22 or even 30 +inches in diameter. The forward end, and in some recent instances the +after end as well, is made water-tight by means of a stuffing box and +flange. + +The stern tube is composed of three parts, namely, (1) an outer steel +tube with (2) a brass or bronze bushing or sleeve with longitudinal +cleats or retaining strips which hold in place (3) the lining of +end-grain wooden bearing blocks. The number of retaining strips varies +in different forms of construction. There may be only one in which +case it is located at the upper part of the tube; or two, one at each +side; or three, one at each side and one at the top; or as many as +there are rows of blocks, in some instances 24. In the first methods +the lining between the retaining strip is of much the same structure as +a wooden-stave pipe, each stave in this case being a row of end-grain +blocks placed end to end, beveled along the side and machined on the +faces to fit the bore of the tube. (See drawing, p. 30.) + +The retaining strips serve not only to hold the blocks in place but +also provide grooves into which water enters. The water serves the +dual purpose of cooling and lubricating. Where the rows of blocks are +arranged in a solid layer it is considered a good practice to cut +V-shaped grooves at the joining lines to act as waterways. When ships +operate in muddy water, sand is likely to wash into these grooves and +cut the bearings. In some of the recent battleships, the _Texas_ for +example, sea water is excluded by making the after end of the tube +water-tight at the stern post. + +There are two principal methods of preparing the blocks for stern +bearings. In one the logs are cross-cut into short blocks or +“pancakes,” the thickness (in direction of the fiber) varying from 1 +to 2 inches according to the size of the stern tube. These “pancakes” +are then sawed into rectangular blocks from 2 to 4 inches wide, not +less than 4 inches long, the maximum lengths being determined by the +diameter of the heartwood portion of the log. As soon as the blocks +are sawed out they are dipped in shellac to prevent checking and +warping prior to use. + +[Illustration: Cross sections of stern tubes of different types + +At left a large stern tube with waterways between the strips of +lignum-vitae blocks. Below a strip of blocks in position showing +lengthwise cut to permit wedging into place. + +At right: above, section of tube of a steam trawler showing solid +lining with 3 retaining strips and waterways; below, section of a small +tube, with single retaining strip at top and grooves for waterways cut +between the blocks.] + +There is a large amount of waste in cutting out these blocks, being +about 33 per cent in logs 16 inches and over in diameter, about 50 per +cent in those between 12 and 16 inches, and reaching as high as 75 per +cent in the smaller sizes. On this account a minimum diameter of 12 +inches is usually specified. It is also claimed that logs of the larger +diameters yield better and particularly more resinous wood. The wood +close to the pith is avoided because of the danger of checking there, +while the sapwood is not used because it lacks the necessary resin. + +In the second method the logs are cut into cants or planks of the +required thickness and as wide as the diameter of the heart portion +of the log will allow. These cants are then placed edgewise on an +adjustable frame, rotating about a fixed center on the table of the +band saw. In this way the blocks are cut with the proper degree of +curvature to fit exactly into the sleeve. The blocks are then beveled +and cut in two lengthwise, with a slight taper to permit wedging into +place. (For more detailed description of this method of sawing blocks +see _Woodworker_, Apr. 20, 1920, p. 40.) + +After the blocks are fitted, wooden strips are temporarily placed in +the grooves, and the tube is fixed in a lathe and bored out to the +exact diameter required to fit the propeller shaft. To prevent the +blocks drying out and checking or getting loose the tube is kept filled +with wet sawdust and shavings until permanently installed in the ship. + +The life of a lignum-vitae bearing is said to be about ten years. If +the propeller shaft is out of alignment it may wear out the bearing +in two years or less. The greatest wear is sustained by blocks in the +lower part of the bearing since these support the most of the weight, +not only of the shaft but also of the propeller which may be as great +as nine tons. When to this dead load is added the impact of the waves +it is obvious that only the densest and most tenacious woods would be +able to withstand the enormous strains produced. Various woods have +these properties but none other than lignum-vitae combine with them the +natural lubricant indispensable to the prevention of heating and rapid +attrition. + +Small bushings are sometimes bored from solid wood instead of being +built up. The process of manufacture of the so-called “patent +feathering wheel bushings” which are used on certain side-wheel +steamers is as follows: The logs are cut into bolts 16 to 18 inches +long, slabbed to an octagonal form to remove the sapwood, and then +turned in a lathe to a diameter of 5-1/16 or 5-7/8 inches. These +cylinders are then cut into 7-inch and 8-inch blocks and the centers +bored to the required size. + +_Bearings for water turbines._--“In America the bearings that are by +virtue of their position permanently under water are usually made of +lignum-vitae. This form of construction is most satisfactory, because +the bearings cannot be lubricated and the lignum-vitae contains a +quantity of oil which together with the water supplies sufficient +lubrication. These bearing discs are made in two parts; the lower one, +or so-called step, consists usually of a cylindrical section cut from a +sound lignum-vitae log. The shaft bears immediately upon the perfectly +smooth end-grain of the disc, which withstands the wear and tear of +the revolving shaft for many years without lubrication. However, when +the water is muddy or contains sand it often wears the disc in a +relatively short time, but even then it lasts considerably longer than +steel under similar conditions. Steel or other metal could not be used +unless lubrication was properly applied to the bearing parts. + +“In addition to the step a collar is fitted around the shaft and on top +of the step. This serves the dual purpose of holding the shaft from +vibrating, and also prevents the wheel from slipping down in event the +step bearing wears too much due to excessive friction and the enormous +pressure. + +“The collar is cut lengthwise so as to facilitate removing it for +repairs. This method of constructing the step bearing is a simple and +practical device which supports the lower end of the vertical turbine +shaft. Its arrangement is efficient, accessible, interchangeable, +and as firm as any of the other bearings in common use. It is of the +greatest importance, however, that the bearing surfaces of the discs be +finished by expert workmen and installed with the greatest care.” (32.) + +_Bowling balls._--Lignum-vitae of prime grade is the only wood +which can be used satisfactorily in bowling balls. It was at one +time extensively employed for this purpose but now only about one +ball in ten is made of wood. Quebracho of Argentina, mancono of the +Philippines, and various other woods have been tried but with poor +success, owing to their tendency to check and split. + +For the 8-3/4 inch regulation ball, choice round logs from 9 to 12 +inches in diameter and with the pith in the exact center are required. +From such logs are cut 14-inch bolts and the ends immediately coated +with shellac. Such a block is placed in a lathe, a ball rough-turned +out of the middle portion, and dipped in hot shellac. The ball is then +passed to a skilled workman at another lathe for final turning to size. +It is next placed in a socket chuck and worked down with sand-paper +of increasing fineness, followed by polishing with a woolen cloth. +The thumb-and-finger holes are then bored, the ball set on pins and +shellacked by means of a wide camel’s-hair brush. In order to attain an +exact weight the ball is tested from time to time during the finishing +process and slight over-weight of the finished ball is overcome by +increasing the depth of the holes a trifle. + +The finishing of the balls requires a high degree of skill, and one man +can do about three in a day. If, for any reason, the work is stopped, +the wood is immediately coated with shellac to prevent checking. + +_“Cutting-up” wood._--This term is applied to logs of poorer grade +which are cut up into small pieces for miscellaneous uses, one of the +most important being caster wheels. Large quantities of culls, the +crooked, eccentric, and variously defective logs, are disposed of for +this purpose at a price of from $25 to $30 per ton. The advantage of +lignum-vitae for casters is that it does not split or splinter and is +less likely to mar the floor than metal is. + +_Mallets._--The largest market for mallet wood is in England. Small +round sticks with a rather thick sapwood are preferred for this +purpose. Much of this class of material is supplied by _Guaiacum +sanctum_. Lignum-vitae is considered superior to other woods for this +purpose because of its hardness and weight together with its freedom +from splitting and from brooming at the ends. + +_Pulleys, dead-eyes, etc._--Lignum-vitae finds a very important +application in the manufacture of pulleys where it is used for the +sheaves or wheels. Manufacturers prefer cylindrical logs of good +quality and 8 inches and up in diameter. The properties which make the +wood particularly applicable for this purpose are freedom from checking +and splitting and great resistance to wear. According to Galletley (15, +p. 384), “sheaves of pulley blocks made of it have been known to last +in constant use for seventy years.” Wooden sheaves are never used with +steel cables or wire rope. + +Another use in the shipbuilding industry is for dead-eyes and +bull’s-eyes. A dead-eye is a round flattish block, a few inches in +diameter, with a grooved rim to fit in the bight of a rope or encircled +by an iron band, and pierced with three holes to receive a lanyard. It +is used to extend the shrouds and stays. A bull’s-eye differs from the +preceding in having a single hole instead of three. In making these +articles the direction of the grain of the wood is not important, +though slabs are easier to shape. + +A minor use of lignum-vitae in shipbuilding is for the collars of +rope guides. The collars noted by the writer in the construction of +emergency tillers were about 2 inches thick with rounded corners about +a 2-inch opening and bolted in pairs in a frame. + +_Fuel._--Between 150 and 200 tons of lignum-vitae are used annually in +New York for firewood to burn in open grates. It makes a very hot and +lasting fire and is said to excel all other woods for this purpose. The +selling price per ton, delivered to residence, is about $25 per ton. +Only cull logs are used for this purpose. In some factories the sawdust +and refuse are used as fuel under the boilers. + +_Railroad cross-ties._--The only data available regarding the use of +lignum-vitae for cross-ties are contained in a report of the chief +engineer of the Panama Railroad on the use and life of hardwood ties +laid in the roadbed of the line from 1878 to 1895 (34, p. 85). During +this interval more than 100,000 ties were laid. They were procured from +the north coast of Colombia and were shipped to Colon from the port +of Barranquilla. “They were of a variety of wood commonly known as +lignum-vitae (_Guayacum recina_), and now spoken of as black guayacum +to distinguish it from yellow guayacum, a wood of the same family,[14] +but with less power of resistance to mechanical wear or decay.” + +[14] The yellow wood referred to is a species of _Tecoma_ or _Tabebuia_ +of an entirely different family--the Bignoniaceae or catalpa family. + +In 1891 this note was made: “The exceptional durability of these ties +(about 30 years, when of good quality) reduces the number of yearly +requirements to small proportions.” The report further states that in +1913 many of the early-laid ties were still in use in the roadbed and +that others had been removed only because they were too small for the +increased traffic. The condition of the ties removed is described as +follows: + +“The hardwood ties laid in the old track were, generally speaking, in +very good condition. There were little, if any, signs of decay, but in +many cases, especially with the smaller ties, they were badly worn at +the rail seat by the mechanical action of the base of the rail, no tie +plates being used on the ties. They were also ‘spike killed,’ caused by +replacing spikes and changing rail. It will be interesting to note that +many of the ties removed from the main track at that time, and later, +are now being relaid on the tracks connecting with the new terminal +docks at Cristobal. The timber in the ties is practically as good as +ever. As their smaller size is not objectionable in the yard tracks, it +is expected that they will still have a long life in other services. +Tie plates are not necessary with these ties, which results in some +saving. + +“The mechanical wear on the old hardwood ties in contradistinction +to the decay of the wood is demonstrated by the fact that while the +base of the rail and the driven spikes have cut into the hardwood and +weathered it, the material in the balance is as good as ever. The same +experience has, of course, long been encountered and commented upon +in the tie records of the United States. The difference between the +experience there and here, however, lies in the fact that the ties +referred to in the former records have probably not been used for a +period longer than 8 to 10 years, while local hardwood ties are from +20 to 25 years old, and have been used in a tropical climate where all +other wood decays in from 3 to 5 years. + +“The black guayacum cross-tie is probably a thing of the past. Such +material is now so valuable for other purposes in connection with +machinery and manufacturing arts, that it is not to be expected that +it can be procured at reasonable prices for cross-ties. The Panama +Railroad Company has procured only 4,000 or 5,000 guayacum cross-ties +in the past six years, and most of these have been of the inferior +variety known as yellow guayacum.” + +_Miscellaneous._--Among the miscellaneous uses for lignum-vitae may be +mentioned stencil and chisel blocks, watch-makers’ blocks, mortars and +pestles, brush backs, dowels, golf-club heads, wooden cogs, and block +guides for band saws. The sawdust or flour obtained in cutting up the +wood is in demand by the drug trade at a price varying from $20 to $40 +a ton. + +_Medicine._--“_Guaiacum_, owing to its reported medicinal virtues, was +one of the first plants of the New World to attract the attention of +Europeans.... One Gonsalvo Ferrand has the reputation of having carried +it to Europe about 1508; and three works describing its virtues were +published in Germany previous to 1520” (40, p. 60). + +The name lignum-vitae (wood of life) originated from the supposition +that the wood was possessed of extraordinary remedial power. “It was +used in Europe so early as 1508, and attained great celebrity as a +remedy for _lues venerea_; but the general professional verdict is +that it has no distinct influence in syphilis, nor yet in chronic +rheumatism and gout, scrofula, or cutaneous eruptions against which +it was formerly much used. It is usually exhibited in decoctions, and +in combination with other medicines, as in the compound decoction of +sarsaparilla” (10, p. 674). + +“The ancient treatment of syphilis by guaiacum, which gained for the +drug such immense reputation, consisted in the administration of vast +quantities of the decoction, the patient being shut up in a warm room +and kept in bed” (14, p. 103). On account of this use the wood is still +known in Germany as “Pockholz,” and “Franzosenholz”; also “Guaiacholz.” + +At first only the wood was employed medicinally, there being no known +use for the resin. It is now recognized that the medicinal properties +are confined to the resin or “concrete juice” which, because of +its greater convenience in handling and preparation, is almost the +only form of the drug now in the trade. It is a reputed diaphoretic +and alterative and is occasionally prescribed in cases of gout and +rheumatism. + + +_Resin of Guaiacum: Its Properties and Uses_ + +The following description of the resin, known as “guaiac” or “guaiaci +resin,” is taken from the latest edition of the American Pharmacopoeia +(35, p. 211): + +“In irregular fragments or in large, nearly homogeneous masses, +occasionally in more or less rounded or ovoid tears, enclosing +fragments of vegetable tissues; externally brown, becoming +greenish-gray-brown on exposure, the fractured surface having a glossy +luster, the thin pieces being translucent and varying in color from +reddish to yellowish-brown; odor balsamic; taste slightly acrid. + +“Guaiac melts between 80° and 90°C. It is readily soluble in alcohol, +ether, chloroform, creosote, and in the solutions of the alkalies or +in hydrated chloral T.S. It is sparingly soluble in carbon disulphide +or benzene and is not more than 15 per cent insoluble in alcohol; the +alcoholic solution, on the addition of an excess of chlorine water or +tincture of ferric chloride, becomes blue, changing quickly to green, +the color being best seen when the solutions are diluted with an equal +volume of water.... The powder is grayish, becoming green on exposure +to the air.” + +The resin completely infiltrates the heartwood and makes up about +one-fourth its weight. A specimen of the wood tested by Galletley (15, +p. 384) has a specific gravity of 1.332 and yielded 30 per cent resin +as follows: With naptha, 9.4 per cent; with ether, 18.37 per cent; with +alcohol, 2.22 per cent. The resin for the market is collected in the +form of natural exudations (“tears”), by heating sticks of the wood and +collecting the melted resin as it runs out, or by boiling the chips and +sawdust with a solution of common salt and skimming off the substances +which rise to the surface. (14, p. 103; 10, p. 674; 37, p. 694.) + +Owing to the difficulty of securing the native resin during the war, +New York dealers began its extraction from the sawdust and other waste +supplied by factories using lignum-vitae. About 300 pounds of resin can +be obtained from a ton of sawdust. The value of the resin varied from +about 50 cents a pound before the war to about $1.50 during that period. + +The sawdust is very fine, of the nature of wood flour, and is decidedly +yellow or orange-yellow in color. The writer boiled some of it in water +to which a small amount of table salt had been added. A sticky and +frothy scum formed on the surface and, after being removed and dried, +the substance crumbled to a fine grayish lusterless powder, turning +dull green on exposure to the air and light. The water in which the +sawdust was boiled was filtered and allowed to stand in the open for +two weeks. It was of a rather opaque orange-yellow color, remaining +unchanged with exposure, and had the characteristic scent of the heated +wood. The coloring principles of the resin is known as “guaiac yellow” +and, so far as known to the writer, it is not employed in dyes or +stains. + +In oven-drying some specimens of the wood at a temperature of 100° C., +a few blocks of fresh wood “bled” rather freely. The exuding resin was +a deep reddish-brown in mass, translucent and garnet-colored in thin +pieces; very brittle and crumbling readily between thumb and finger. +It was very sticky while hot and drew out in long threads when touched +with the finger. Left exposed to the air it gradually assumed a very +dark green color. The specific gravity of this resin was found to be +1.23. The resin extracted with alcohol assumed a waxy consistency upon +volatilization of the solvent but did not harden even after several +weeks’ exposure. + +The composition of guaiacum resin was obtained by Hadelich (1862) to be +as follows (see 14, p. 104): + + _Per cent_ + Guaiaconic acid (C₃₈H₄₀O₁₀) 70.3 + Guaiaretic acid (C₂₀H₂₆O₄) 10.5 + Guaiac beta-resin 9.8 + Gum 3.7 + Ash constituents 0.8 + Guaiacic acid, coloring matter (guaiac yellow) + and impurities 4.9 + +The decomposition products of dry distillation are: At 118°C., +Guaiacene (C₅H₈O); at 205-210°C., Guaiacol (C₆H₈.OCH.OH), and Kreosol +(C₆H₃.OH (CH₃)²). + +“After the removal by distillation of the liquids just described, +there sublime upon further application of heat pearly crystals of +pyro-guaiacin (C₃₈H₄₄O₆), an inodorous substance melting at 180°C. It +is colored green by ferric chloride and blue by warm sulphuric acid. +The similar reactions of the crude resin are probably due to this +substance (Hlasiwetz).” + +According to Lücker (29, p. 290), the formula for guaiac resin acid is +C₂₀H₂₄O₄ and for guaiaconic acid is C₂₀H₂₄O₅. (For additional data on +the chemical composition of the resin see Tschirch “Die Harze und die +Harzbehälter,” pp. 805-811). + +Guaiacum resin is used in the preparation of the tincture of guaiac +(tinctura guaiaca) and the ammoniated tincture of guaiac (tinctura +guaiaca ammoniata). + +“The tincture is of a deep-brown color, is decomposed by water, and +affords blue, green, and brown precipitates with the mineral acids. It +is colored blue by nitric acid, by chlorine, and by tincture of ferric +chloride, and usually by spirit of nitrous ether, and is similarly +changed when heated successively by diluted hydrocyanic acid and +solution of copper sulphate. Either in substance or tincture, guaiac +gives a blue color to gluten and substances containing it, to mucilage +of gum arabic, to milk, and to various freshly cut roots, as to the +potato, carrot, and horseradish. This is on account of the fact that +oxidizing enzymes or oxidases are present in all of these substances +and guaiac resin is one of the most delicate reagents for detecting +this class of enzymes.” (11, p. 539.) + +The tincture of guaiac has also been used in the detection of blood +stains. It produces a blue color when, in connection with hydrogen +peroxide or other ozonized substance, it is brought in contact with the +red coloring matter of the blood. It is also recognized as a valuable +aid in distinguishing nucleated red blood disks, such as characterize +birds, fishes, and reptiles, from the non-nucleated in man and other +mammals. Its use in this connection for demonstration purposes in jury +trials is recommended by Bertolet (4, pp. 127-130). + + +SUBSTITUTES FOR TRUE LIGNUM-VITAE + +_Woods of the Lignum-vitae Family_ + +_“Maracaibo lignum-vitae,” or vera._--The properties which especially +adapt lignum-vitae to its most exacting uses are extreme density, +durability and toughness, combined with self-lubrication. All of the +woods of the family possess these properties to a degree but, as +already shown, that of _Guaiacum_ alone, and apparently only certain +kinds of it, meet the full requirements of the trade. The wood of +_Porlieria_ is not upon the market because the trees are too small. +_Bulnesia_, however, is of comparatively good timber form and can be +had in considerable quantity. It is sometimes used as a substitute for +the genuine lignum-vitae, but its principal use is said to be for steps +and collars for water turbines. (See page 31.) + +This “Maracaibo lignum-vitae” or vera-wood is not considered suitable +for propeller shaft bushings and certain other purposes. The objections +that have been made to it are that it does not wear well and that the +grain is less interwoven than in the best of the genuine wood and +accordingly there is more liability to cup-shakes, radial cracks, and +similar defects. One New York dealer states that 75 per cent of the +vera logs he has seen showed bad ring-shakes. The lower resistance to +wear may be due, in part at least, to the large number of crystals +present in the wood of this genus since they would act in the nature of +a very fine, sharp and hard sand or grit. + +The writer has been unable to determine the extent to which these +objections are justifiable. The fact remains that the wood is less +used now than it was a few years ago and is in little demand at a +price from one-third to one-half that of the Cuban. The only figures +available on the amount of vera exported are for transshipments from +Curaçao during the fiscal years 1912, 1913, 1914, 1915, the values +being $4,822, $3,431, $4,361, and $1,941 respectively. These values +include an unknown amount of Haitian wood of the same name. + +“_Paraguay lignum-vitae._”--This is the wood of _Bulnesia Sarmienti_ +locally known as “palo santo” on account of its use for incense in +churches. As previously stated, this wood has a place on the market in +the manufacture of the “oil of guaiac wood” used by perfumers. It is +also used to a small extent in Argentina for chucks and bearings and +for various purposes such as small articles of furniture, utensils, and +ornaments (31, p. 122). + +In Paraguay it occurs scattered among the quebracho trees, and owners +of timberlands there are seeking a market for their wood under the name +of “Paraguay lignum-vitae.” Unless the wood should prove of much better +quality than the vera (described above), which is unlikely, the much +higher cost of transportation will probably prevent its exploitation. + + +_Woods of Other Families_ + +“_Philippine lignum-vitae._”--There is no wood on the market which is +recognized by the trade as a satisfactory substitute for lignum-vitae. +A few have been proposed and advertised. Among these may be mentioned +the “mancono,” sometimes called “Philippine lignum-vitae” (41, p. 19). +The botanical name of this tree is _Xanthostemon verdugianus_ Naves, +and it belongs to the Myrtaceae or eucalypt family. + +The heartwood of mancono is brownish, turning purple when exposed to +the air; the sapwood is very narrow and of a pale reddish color. The +wood is very heavy and hard, the specific gravity of the oven-dry +material being about 1.24. The grain is fine and twisted. The wood +checks badly upon exposure to the air, though most of the cracks +are said to be superficial (26, pp. 3-4). The writer is informed +that the experimental use of this wood for bowling balls proved its +unsuitability for that purpose. There are no records of it having been +tested for bushing blocks for steamships. + +“_Red lignum-vitae._”--The term “red lignum-vitae” is sometimes +used in the trade to designate quebracho when used for articles of +turnery. This is an extremely hard reddish wood, becoming claret-red +upon exposure, chiefly used as a source of tannin extract. There are +two species, _Schinopsis Lorentzii_ Engl. (= _Quebrachia Lorentzii_ +Griseb.) and _Schinopsis Balansae_ Engl. The principal sources of +supply at present are Argentina and Paraguay. + +The wood is used for some of the purposes for which true lignum-vitae +is employed, for example bowling balls and other turned articles, but +is unsuited for bearings. The wood has no resemblance to _Guaiacum_ +except in density, which is given by Mell and Brush (33, p. 6) as 1.2 +to 1.4. It lacks odor, is not oily, has a reddish color, is without +ripple marks, and some of the rays contain intercellular canals. + +“_Indian lignum-vitae._”--The true lignum-vitae does not grow naturally +in the Old World but _Guaiacum officinale_ is occasionally cultivated +in the tropical regions, as in Calcutta and Madras (15, p. 132). An +Indian wood sometimes known as “lignum-vitae of Pegu” (29, p. 35), +the “varnish tree” of Burma, is _Melanorrhoea usitata_ Wall. of the +Anacardiaceae or sumac family. The description of this wood as given +by Gamble (16, p. 217) suggests lignum-vitae in that it is highly +resinous, fine-textured, very hard and heavy, though the latter +statement is hardly consistent with the given weight per cubic foot, +namely, 54 pounds. Some authorities give the weight as 59 pounds. A +writer in _Hardwood Record_ (29, p. 35) says that this wood’s “extreme +closeness of grain and density of structure suggests a relationship +with the true lignum-vitae” but there is no evidence that it is +suitable for, or has ever been used as, a substitute for the latter. + +“_African lignum-vitae._”--A New York dealer informs the writer that he +has been offered 100 tons of “African lignum-vitae,” but the nature of +this wood and the species producing it were not known. According to one +writer (29, p. 35), “the ‘African lignum-vitae’ (_Combretum truncatum_) +is a large tree which is abundant in lower Guinea and the Mosambique +districts. The wood is very hard, heavy, close-grained, and with a +deep reddish-brown heartwood and light-colored sapwood.” This wood +belongs to the family Combretaceae, is not closely related to the true +lignum-vitae and, so far as known to the writer, has not been used in +bearings. + +“_Australian lignum-vitae._”--Boulger (5) describes six Australian +woods which are sometimes called “lignum-vitae,” namely, (1) _Acacia +falcata_ Willd. (Leguminosae), (2) _Myrtus semenoides_ F.v.M. +(Myrtaceae), (3) _Eucalyptus polyanthena_ Schau. (Myrtaceae), (4) +_Phyllanthus Ferdinandi_ Müll. Arg. (Euphorbiaceae), (5) _Vitex +lignum-vitae_ A. Cunn. (Verbenaceae), (6) _Dodonoea viscosa_ L. +(Sapindaceae). He says that the last mentioned, which is found +throughout the Tropics, is “suited for all the uses of the true +lignum-vitae.” In India, according to Gamble (16, p. 132), this species +is only a shrub, the wood of which is used for engraving, turning, +tool-handles, and walking sticks. + +Baker (2, pp. 49, 57, 232, 375) mentions four Australian woods as +possible substitutes for lignum-vitae, namely, _Elaeocarpus Bancroftii_ +F. M. & B. (Tiliaceae), _Geijera parviflora_ Lindl. (Rutaceae), +_Eucalyptus Thozetiana_ F. Muell. (Myrtaceae), and _Casuarina Cambagei_ +Baker (Casuarineae). Of the third he says (p. 232): “The timber of +this tree is probably harder than that of any Eucalyptus tree. It is +very heavy, close-grained and interlocked, has a chocolate color, +and much resembles in texture, color, and hardness, lignum-vitae, +_Guaiacum officinale_, Linn., of Central America. In fact it is more +deserving the title of Australian ‘lignum-vitae’ than other trees of +the continent passing under that name, and it is so named in the museum +specimens.” As to the wood of _Casuarina Cambagei_ (p. 375): “It is +very dark chocolate in color, hard, close-grained, without a figure, +... dresses to hard, firm, even surface, takes a good polish, and ... +is the most suitable of all Australian timbers for shaft bearings, +being the nearest substitute for lignum-vitae so extensively used +for this purpose.” There is no evidence that any Australian wood has +actually been used for such a substitute. + +_Other woods called lignum-vitae._--Boulger (5) also reports that +the name lignum-vitae is applied to the following additional woods: +_Metrosideros scandens_ B. & S. (Myrtaceae), a tall creeper in New +Zealand; _Ixora ferrea_ Benth. or _Siderodendron triflorum_ Vahl. +(Rubiaceae) of British Guiana, also known as “hackia,” “West Indian +ironwood” and “Martinique ironwood”;[15] also to an unknown species +shipped from Guayaquil and called “Guayaquil lignum-vitae,” though +“having nothing in common with the true lignum-vitae, to which it is +inferior.” Further this author (5, p. 289) states that “among the +ancients and in France the name (lignum-vitae) has been applied to +_Tetraclinis articulata_ Vahl.” + +[15] These names are applied to _Tabebuia_ sp. (Bignoniaceae) according +to Stone and Freeman (44, p. 31). + +“_Guayacan._”--The generic name _Guaiacum_ (also spelled _Guayacum_) +is derived from the vernacular name “guayacan.” The latter, or some +variant of it, is applied by Spanish-speaking people not only to all +the woods of the lignum-vitae family (Zygophyllaceae) but to many +others as well. It seems to be the equivalent of the English term +“ironwood” and is likely to be used to designate any hard and heavy +timber, particularly one which is not well known by some other name. + +In Argentina, the names “guayacan” or “guayakan,” and “guayacan negro” +are applied to _Caesalpinia melanocarpa_ Griseb. of the Leguminosae or +pea family. This tree reaches a height of 65 feet and a diameter of +20 inches (44, p. 354). The wood varies in color from chocolate-brown +to nearly black, is very hard, heavy,[16] durable, and more or less +cross-grained. It is in local demand for turnery but apparently is not +exported. + +[16] Castro (8, p. 47) gives the specific gravity of this wood as +ranging from 1.113 to 1.811. Another leguminous wood, “guaycuruzú,” +is reported by Castro to have a density of 1.655. Since the specific +gravity of dry wood substance is between 1.50 and 1.56, it seems +impossible for any wood to have so great a density as these larger +values, even allowing for infiltrated substances. + +“_Yellow guayacan._”--The fallaceous contention that because true +lignum-vitae is called “guayacan,” any wood called “guayacan” is true +lignum-vitae, has resulted in much confusion and in the substitution of +inferior material for the genuine. + +A most conspicuous instance of this is described in _Hardwood Record_ +(28, p. 22). It appears that in 1918 the Navy Department accepted the +bid of the officials of the Panama Railroad, Canal Zone, for over +300,000 pounds of lignum-vitae logs. A specimen of the wood supplied +was examined by the writer and found to be (as reported) a species +of _Tecoma_ (or _Tabebuia_) of the Bignoniaceae or catalpa family, +though locally known as “yellow guayacan” or “yellow guayacum.” (See +“Uses of lignum-vitae; Railroad cross-ties.”) It is also reported +that considerable of this wood was purchased by the Emergency Fleet +Corporation, and used for stern bearings but with what success the +writer is unable to determine. In order to prevent checking the logs +were stored under water, shipped in wet sawdust kept wet while cutting +and fitting into the tubes, a practice which might be followed with the +more refractory kinds of genuine material with success. The wood in +question seems to be lacking in the essential properties of the genuine +and it will be very surprising if it proves to be a satisfactory +substitute. + +“Yellow guayacan has never been used anywhere for bearings,” says +a writer in _Hardwood Record_ (28, p. 22), “and only the slightest +knowledge of the structure of the wood is required to convince anyone +that it is not suitable for any part of a vessel coming in contact with +water and subjected at the same time to great wear and tear, as in the +case of bushing blocks.” + +The Bureau of Construction and Repair of the Navy Department advises +the writer in a letter dated March 29, 1919, that it “made one +purchase of _Tabebuia_ with the expectation that this material would +be suitable for the same uses for which the genuine lignum-vitae is +required. Tests have proven that this material has sufficient strength +and hardness but is lacking in oil content which prohibits its use for +stern tube bearings which require wood of self-lubricating properties.” + +The writer found some of this material in the New York Navy Yard and +was informed that it has been used to a small extent for stern bearings +either alone or in connection with genuine lignum-vitae. In the latter +case the lower half of the tube would be lined with the genuine wood, +the upper, where wear is less, with the substitute. The workmen had no +difficulty whatever in recognizing this substitute and were outspoken +against its employment where the genuine could be had. + +The “yellow guayacan” grows also in Mexico and is sometimes called +“Mexican lignum-vitae.” The writer saw about 200 tons of it in New York +where it had been stored for several months owing to the inability of +the owners to dispose of it profitably. A wood of the same or, more +likely, a closely related species grows in Colombia and is called +“guayacan polvillo.” One in British Guiana is, as stated elsewhere in +this paper, called “hackia” or “lignum-vitae.” These woods are hard and +heavy and more or less cross-grained, sometimes decidedly so. They are +of a yellow color due to the deposits of a crystalline substance called +“lapachol.” They bear so little resemblance to the true lignum-vitae +that there is no occasion for confusing them with it. + +The writer was recently informed by a person familiar with the timbers +of Central America that at least 40 different kinds were locally +called “guayacan.” While this may be an exaggeration it serves to +emphasize the need for discrimination on the part of the buyers and +users of lignum-vitae if they would avoid being imposed upon, whether +intentionally or otherwise. + +“_Palo santo_” or “_páo santo_.”--The woods of the Zygophyllaceae +are often called “palo santo” in Spanish America. The equivalent +Portuguese term is “páo santo.” The wood of _Zollernia paraënsis_ +Huber (Leguminosae) of Brazil is known by this name and, presumably +on this account, it has been exported as a substitute for the wood of +_Guaiacum officinale_ which, according to Huber (24, pp. 179-181), it +resembles in its physical properties. He describes the tree as tall +with a cylindrical trunk and light gray and scaly bark. The heartwood, +which is relatively large and distinctly differentiated from the light +yellow sapwood, varies in color from light gray or greenish to almost +black. Sometimes it is spotted like “snakewood” (_Brosimum Aublettii_ +P. & E.) and is then called “muirapinima preta.” A specimen, said +to have been a part of the Huber collection, was examined by the +writer and found to be hard, heavy, and fine-textured, but perfectly +straight-grained, fissile, and non-resinous. + + +SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS + +(1) The true lignum-vitae of commerce belongs to the family +Zygophyllaceae, of which only three genera, namely, _Guaiacum_, +_Porlieria_, and _Bulnesia_, have representatives of tree size, and +these are confined to the tropical and sub-tropical regions of the +Western Hemisphere. _Porlieria_ is of no commercial importance. + +(2) The genus _Bulnesia_, with its several species, is confined to +South America. _Bulnesia arborea_ Engl., the only species of present +commercial importance, grows in Colombia and Venezuela, and supplies +the wood known as “vera” or “Maracaibo lignum-vitae.” It is sometimes +used as a substitute for the genuine but is considered inferior. + +(3) The true lignum-vitae is produced only by species of _Guaiacum_, +of which six have been described by botanists. The commercial range of +this genus includes the West Indies, Mexico, Central America, and the +coastal region of northern South America. It is not definitely known +which species supply the Mexican and Central American wood of commerce. + +(4) Lignum-vitae is one of the heaviest woods in the world. The weight +(oven-dry) per cubic foot of the heartwood is usually between 75 and +80 pounds. The wood has been an article of trade for more than four +centuries. It was formerly supposed to possess remarkable curative +powers but is now little employed in medicine. Its principal uses are +for bearings (especially for lining the stern tubes of steamships), +sheaves, caster-wheels, bowling balls, and miscellaneous articles of +turnery. During the war there was an unusual demand for this wood in +the shipbuilding industry. + +(5) The properties which make lignum-vitae valuable are great density +and hardness, extreme toughness, and resistance to wear. The large +resin content of the wood acts as a preservative and a natural +lubricant, thus making it especially adapted for service under water, +as in the case of propeller bushings and water-wheel work. + +No wood has been found which is a satisfactory substitute for the more +exacting uses to which true lignum-vitae is so eminently suited. + +(6) The woods of the Zygophyllaceae can be readily distinguished +from all others by the fineness of the “ripple marks” (about 250 per +inch), the density and grain of the wood, and the peculiar fragrant +resin content. The woods of _Guaiacum_ and _Bulnesia_ can be readily +separated by noting the arrangement of the pores as they appear under +a hand lens. The different kinds of true lignum-vitae logs can best be +separated by their size and by the appearance of the bark. + +(7) Dealers have no difficulty in getting an abundant supply of genuine +lignum-vitae logs. Although the more conveniently located timber has +in many places been cut out, increased prices have made it possible to +secure timber previously considered inaccessible. The supply appears +adequate to meet the demands for a great many years. + + +ACKNOWLEDGMENT + +The writer is indebted to various dealers and wood-users for valuable +assistance in the preparation of this paper. Particular acknowledgment +is made of the invaluable services rendered by Mr. C. D. Mell of New +York City. + + +LITERATURE CITED + +(1) Alamo, Francisco de P.: Publicacion ordenanda por el gobierno del +Estado Miranda (Venezuela) 1911. + +(2) Baker, Richard T.: The hardwoods of Australia and their economics. +Tech. Ed. Ser. No. 23, Tech. Museum, N.S.W., Sydney, 1919. + +(3) Beauverie, J.: Le bois industriels, Paris, 1910, pp. 280-287. + +(4) Bertolet, R. M.: On the guaiacum process for the detection of blood +as a valuable aid in distinguishing nucleated from non-nucleated blood +disks. Am. Jour. Med. Sciences, 67 (n.s.): 133: 127-130, Jan. 1874. + +(5) Boulger, G. S.: Wood. London, 1908. + +(6) Brush, W. D., L. S. Murphy, and C. D. Mell: Trees of Porto Rico. +Appendix I to “Forests of Porto Rico” by L. S. Murphy. Bul. No. 354, U. +S. Dept. Agr., Washington, D. C., 1916. + +(7) Candido de Souza Brito, Ezequiel: Zonas naturas de produccao +brasilera em suas relacoes botanicas e dendrologicas. Boletim, +Ministerio da Agric., Indus., e Commercio. Rio de Janeiro, 1912 (?). + +(8) Castro, Eduardo B.: Las maderas Argentinas; su importance +industrial. Rosario, 1918. + +(9) Catalogo forestal de la Republica Mexicana. Secretaria de Fomento, +Dept. de Bosques. Mexico, 1912. + +(10) Dispensatory of the United States. 18th edition. + +(11) Dispensatory of the United States of America. 20th edition. Phila. +& London, 1918. + +(12) Englemann, George: Botanical appendix. In “Memoir of a tour to +northern Mexico, connected with Col. Doniphan’s expedition, in 1846 and +1847,” by A. Wizlizenus. Senate. Misc. Doc. No. 26, 30th Congress, 1st +Sess., Washington, D. C., 1848, pp. 87-115. + +(13) Fée, A.: Notice sur les plantes dites sommeillantes, et en +particulier sur le _Porlieria hygrometrica_ R. et Pav. Bull. Soc. Bot. +de France, 5: 451-469, 1858. + +(14) Flückiger, Friederich A., and Daniel Hanbury: Pharmacographia in +Great Britain and British India. London, 1879. + +(15) Galletley, A.: Observations on the wood of certain resin-producing +trees. Trans. Edinburg Bot. Soc., 17: 381-388, 1888-9. + +(16) Gamble, J. S.: A manual of Indian timbers. London, 1902. + +(17) Gildemeister, E., and Fr. Hoffman: The volatile oils. Am. ed. +Milwaukee, 1900. + +(18) Gorsica, C. S.: Curaçao trade in woods. Commerce Reports, +Washington, D. C., No. 153, July 1, 1918. + +(19) Haman, Miles: Lignum-vitae in Curaçao. American Forestry, 23: 282: +331, June, 1917. + +(20) Harris, Garrard: The West Indies as an export field. Special Agts. +Ser. No. 141, Dept. of Commerce, Washington, D. C., 1917. + +(21) Harshberger, John W.: Phytogeographic survey of North America. +Vol. XIII of “Die Vegetation der Erde.” Leipzig and New York, 1911. + +(22) Hemsley, W. Botting: Biologia Centrali-Americana. Botany. Vol. I. +London, 1879. + +(23) Hill, Robert T.: Notes on the forest conditions of Porto Rico. +Bul. No. 25, U. S. Division of Forestry, Washington, D. C., 1899. + +(24) Huber, J.: Boletim do Museu Gœldi (Museu Parænse) de Historia +natural e Ethnographia, VI. Para, 1910. + +(25) Humboldt, Alexander de: Personal narrative of travels to the +equinoctial regions of the New Continent during the years 1799-1804. +Vol. III, London, 1822. + +(26) Hutchinson, W. I.: A Philippine substitute for lignum-vitae. Bul. +No. 9, Bur. Forestry, Manila, 1910. + +(27) Jordan, Francis C.: Commercial woods of Mazatlan district. +Commerce Reports, Washington, D. C., No. 126, May 29, 1918. + +(28) Largest order for lignum-vitae. Hardwood Record, Chicago, Nov. 10, +1918, p. 22. + +(29) Lignum-vitae. Hardwood Record, Chicago, Dec. 10, 1912, p. 35. + +(30) Lücker, Eduard: Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Chemie des +Guajadharzes. Dissertation, Jena, 1892. See Beihefte zum Bot. +Centralblatt, 3: 290-1, 1893. + +(31) Mauduit, Fernando, y Vicente Peluffo: Arboricultura Argentina. +Buenos Aires, 1905. + +(32) Mell, C. D.: Turbine bearings of lignum-vitae. Nautical Gazette, +Feb. 15, 1919. + +(33) Mell, C. D., and W. D. Brush: Quebracho wood and its substitutes. +Cir. 202, U. S. Forest Service, Washington, D. C., 1912. + +(34) Panama railroad cross-ties. The Canal Record, Oct. 22, 1913, p. 85. + +(35) Pharmacopoeia of the United States of America. Ninth dec. rev., +Philadelphia, 1916. + +(36) Record, Samuel J.: Storied or tier-like structure of certain +dicotyledonous woods. Bulletin Torrey Botanical Club 46: 253-273, July +1919. + +(37) Rogers, Allen: Industrial chemistry. New York, 1915. + +(38) Rothkugel, Max: Los bosques Patagonicos. Buenos Aires. 1916. + +(39) Sargent, Charles S.: Report on the forests of North America +(exclusive of Mexico). Vol. 9, Tenth Census. Misc. Doc. 42, part 9, +House of Rep., Washington, D. C., 1884. + +(40) Sargent, Charles S.: The silva of North America. Vol. I. Boston +and New York, 1894. + +(41) Schneider, E. E.: Commercial woods of the Philippines: Their +preparation and uses. Bul. No. 14, Bur. Forestry, Manila, 1916. + +(42) Schomburgk, Richard: Versuch einer Fauna und Flora von +Britisch-Guiana. Leipzig, 1848. + +(43) Sievers, W.: Die Cordillere von Mérida nebst Bemerkungen über das +karabische Gebirge. Geogr. Abhandlungen h. v. Prof. D. Albrecht Penkt +in Wien, 3: 1: 174, 1888. + +(44) Spegazzini, Carlos: Maderas. Exposición International de +Agricultura de 1910. Argentina. (Complete publication not available.) + +(45) Stone, Herbert, and W. G. Freeman: The timbers of British Guiana. +London, 1914. + +(46) Stone, Herbert: The timbers of commerce and their identification. +London, 1904. + +(47) Triana, J., et J. E. Planchon: Prodromus florae Novo-Granatensis +ou enumeration des plantes de la Nouvelle-Grenade. Ann. Sci. Nat., +Bot., 15: 352-382, 1872. + +(48) Vail, Anna Murray, and Per Axel Rydberg: Zygophyllaceae. North +American Flora, 25: 2, June 3, 1910. + +(49) Venturi, Santiago, y Miguel Lillo: Contrabución al conocimiento de +los arboles de la Argentina. Buenos Aires, 1910. + +(50) Wiesner, Julius: Die Rohstoffe des Pflanzenreiches. Band II. +Leipzig, 1903. + + +ADDITIONAL REFERENCES + +Beauverie, J.: Le Bois, Vol. II. Paris, 1905, pp. 950-953. + +Bentley and Trimen: Medicinal plants. Vol. I, No. 41. London, 1880. + +Burgerstein, A.: Anatomische Untersuchungen argentinischer Hölzer. Ann. +d.k.k. naturhistorischen Hofmuseums. Bd. 26, Wien, 1902. + +Eric, Allan: The guaiacum and cinnamon trees in Jamaica. Pharm. Journ. +Ser. 3, Vol. 23, pp. 47-48, 1893. + +Fawcett, Wm., and A. B. Rendle: Flora of Jamaica. Vol. IV, London. +1920, pp. 162-164. + +Holtzapffel, C.: A descriptive catalogue of woods. 1875. + +Howard, Alexander L.: A manual of the timbers of the world. London, +1920, pp. 119-122, 299. + +Krais, Paul: Die Hölzer, Stuttgart, 1910, pp. 711-712: 714. + +Laslett, Thomas: Timber and timber trees. London, 1894, pp. 283-284. + +Lignum-vitae: Champion of heavy woods. Raw Material (New York) 4: 7: +246-253, July, 1921. + +Loudon, J. C.: An encyclopædia of plants. London, 1829, pp. 352-3. + +Paetzold, E.: Beiträge zur pharmacognostischen und chemischen Kenntniss +des Harzes und Holzes von _Guayacum officinale_. Diss. Strassburg, 1901. + +Parodi, Domingo: Notas sobre algunas plantas usuales del Paraguay, de +Corrientes y de Misiones, Buenos Aires, 1886, p. 82. + +Piccioli, Lodovico: Technologia del legno. Torino, 1919, p. 286. + +Pearson, C. H.: Lignum-vitae of commerce. The Cuba Review (New York) +14: 9: 12-15, Aug. 1916. + +Pittier, H.: Esbozo de las formaciones vegetales de Venezuela con una +breve reseña de los productos naturales y agricolas. Caracas, 1920, pp. +27, 28. + +Praël, Edmund: Vergleichende Untersuchungen über Schutz-und Kern-Holz +der Laubbäume. Pringsheim’s Jahrbücher für wissenschaftliche Botanik, +19: 32-35, 1888. + +Record, Samuel J.: Lignum-vitae: The vital wood. Scientific American +Sup., No. 2270, July 5, 1919, pp. 4-5; 15. + +Record, Samuel J.: Lignum-vitae blocks for stern bearings on +steamships. Woodworker (Indianapolis), Apr. 20, 1920, p. 40. + +Record, Samuel J.: Lignum-vitae imports increase. Hardwood Record +(Chicago), 50: 9: 18-19, Feb. 25, 1921. + +Snow, Charles H.: The principal species of wood: Their characteristic +properties. New York, 1910, p. 113. + +Solereder, Hans: Systematic anatomy of the dicotyledons. Oxford, 1908, +pp. 167-9; 850. + +Tschirch, A.: Die Harze und die Harzbehälter. Leipzig, 1906, pp. +805-811. + +Williams, Wallace Dent: Physical properties of lignum-vitae and its +substitutes. Raw Material (New York) 4: 8: 290-292, Aug. 1921. + +Woodville, Wm.: Medical botany. Vol. III, London, 1832, p. 557. + +[Illustration: BULNESIA ARBOREA NEAR PORTO CABELLO, VENEZUELA] + +Photo by Pittier + +[Illustration: GUAIACUM OFFICINALE] + +[Illustration: GUAIACUM SANCTUM] + +[Illustration: YOUNG TREE] + +[Illustration: MATURE TREE] + +GUAIACUM SANCTUM VAR. OF HAITI + +Photos by Mell + +[Illustration: TYPICAL BARK OF CUBAN LIGNUM-VITAE (GUAIACUM OFFICINALE) +× 1/2] + +[Illustration: BARK OF NICARAGUAN LIGNUM-VITAE (GUAIACUM SP.) × 1/2] + +[Illustration: BARK OF HAITIAN VERA (GUAIACUM SANCTUM VAR.) × 1/2] + +[Illustration: LOGS OF GUAIACUM SP. FROM NICARAGUA] + +[Illustration: LOGS OF GUAIACUM SANCTUM FROM JAMAICA] + +[Illustration: LOGS OF GUAIACUM SANCTUM VAR. FROM HAITI] + +[Illustration: LOGS OF GUAIACUM OFFICINALE FROM CUBA] + +[Illustration: METHOD OF TRANSPORTING LIGNUM-VITAE LOGS IN HAITI + +(In the background is a large pile of logwood.)] + +[Illustration: A WOOD YARD IN HAITI SHOWING METHODS OF TRANSPORTING, +WEIGHING, AND STORING LIGNUM-VITAE LOGS] + +Photos by Mell + + + Printed by the Yale University Press + at the Earl Trumbull Williams Memorial + + + + + Transcriber note: + + + Inconsistent spelling has been standardised. + Punctuation errors have been corrected. + Italics are enclosed by underscores. + Smallcap text has been capitalised. +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 77763 *** |