diff options
Diffstat (limited to '777-h')
| -rw-r--r-- | 777-h/777-h.htm | 6277 |
1 files changed, 6277 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/777-h/777-h.htm b/777-h/777-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..eb032bd --- /dev/null +++ b/777-h/777-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,6277 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="us-ascii"?> + +<!DOCTYPE html + PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd" > + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en"> + <head> + <title> + The Mastery of the Air, by William J. Claxton + </title> + <style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve"> + + body { margin:5%; background:#faebd0; text-align:justify} + P { text-indent: 1em; margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; } + hr { width: 50%; text-align: center;} + .foot { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 90%; } + blockquote {font-size: 97%; font-style: italic; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + .mynote {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; padding: .5em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%;} + .toc { margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: .75em;} + .toc2 { margin-left: 20%;} + div.fig { display:block; margin:0 auto; text-align:center; } + div.middle { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; } + .figleft {float: left; margin-left: 0%; margin-right: 1%;} + .figright {float: right; margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 1%;} + .pagenum {display:inline; font-size: 70%; font-style:normal; + margin: 0; padding: 0; position: absolute; right: 1%; + text-align: right;} + pre { font-style: italic; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 10%;} + +</style> + </head> + <body> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Mastery of the Air, by William J. Claxton + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Mastery of the Air + +Author: William J. Claxton + +Release Date: November 4, 2009 [EBook #777] +Last Updated: January 26, 2013 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MASTERY OF THE AIR *** + + + + +Produced by Dianne Bean, and David Widger + + + + + + +</pre> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <h1> + THE MASTERY OF THE AIR + </h1> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <h2> + By William J. Claxton + </h2> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <blockquote> + <p class="toc"> + <big><b>CONTENTS</b></big> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <a href="#link2H_PREF"> PREFACE </a><br /><br /> <a + href="#link2H_4_0002"> <b>THE MASTERY OF THE AIR</b> </a><br /><br /> <a + href="#link2H_PART1"> <b>PART I.</b> </a> <b>BALLOONS AND + AIR-SHIPS</b> <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0001"> CHAPTER I. </a> Man's + Duel with Nature <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0002"> CHAPTER II. </a> The + French Paper-maker who Invented the Balloon <br /><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0003"> CHAPTER III. </a> The First Man to + Ascend in a Balloon <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0004"> CHAPTER IV. </a> The + First Balloon Ascent in England <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0005"> + CHAPTER V. </a> The Father of British Aeronauts <br /><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0006"> CHAPTER VI. </a> The Parachute <br /><br /> + <a href="#link2HCH0007"> CHAPTER VII. </a> Some British + Inventors of Air-ships <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0008"> CHAPTER VIII. + </a> The First Attempts to Steer a Balloon <br /><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0009"> CHAPTER IX. </a> The Strange Career of + Count Zeppelin <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0010"> CHAPTER X. </a> A + Zeppelin Air-ship and its Construction <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0011"> + CHAPTER XI. </a> The Semi-rigid Air-ship <br /><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0012"> CHAPTER XII. </a> A Non-rigid Balloon + <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0013"> CHAPTER XIII. </a> The + Zeppelin and Gotha Raids <br /><br /> <a href="#link2H_PART2"> <b>PART II.</b> + </a> <b>AEROPLANES AND AIRMEN</b> <br /><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0014"> CHAPTER XIV. </a> Early Attempts in + Aviation <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0015"> CHAPTER XV. </a> A + Pioneer in Aviation <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0016"> CHAPTER XVI. + </a> The "Human Birds" <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0017"> + CHAPTER XVII. </a> The Aeroplane and the Bird <br /><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0018"> CHAPTER XVIII. </a> A Great British + Inventor of Aeroplanes <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0019"> CHAPTER XIX. + </a> The Wright Brothers and their Secret Experiments <br /><br /> + <a href="#link2HCH0020"> CHAPTER XX. </a> The + Internal-combustion Engine <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0021"> CHAPTER + XXI. </a> The Internal-combustion Engine(Cont.) <br /><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0022"> CHAPTER XXII. </a> The Aeroplane Engine + <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0023"> CHAPTER XXIII. </a> A + Famous British Inventor of Aviation Engines <br /><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0024"> CHAPTER XXIV. </a> The Wright Biplane + (Camber of Planes) <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0025"> CHAPTER XXV. </a> The + Wright Biplane (Cont.) <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0026"> CHAPTER XXVI. + </a> How the Wrights launched their Biplane <br /><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0027"> CHAPTER XXVII. </a> The First Man to + Fly in Europe <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0028"> CHAPTER XXVIII. </a> M. + Bleriot and the Monoplane <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0029"> CHAPTER + XXIX. </a> Henri Farman and the Voisin Biplane <br /><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0030"> CHAPTER XXX. </a> A Famous British + Inventor <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0031"> CHAPTER XXXI. </a> The + Romance of a Cowboy Aeronaut <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0032"> CHAPTER + XXXII. </a> Three Historic Flights <br /><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0033"> CHAPTER XXXIII. </a> Three Historic + Flights (Cont.) <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0034"> CHAPTER XXXIV. </a> The + Hydroplane and Air-boat <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0035"> CHAPTER + XXXV. </a> A Famous British Inventor of the Water-plane <br /><br /> + <a href="#link2HCH0036"> CHAPTER XXXVI. </a> Sea-planes for + Warfare <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0037"> CHAPTER XXXVII. </a> The + First Man to Fly in Britain <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0038"> CHAPTER + XXXVIII. </a> The Royal Flying Corps and Royal Naval Air + Service <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0039"> CHAPTER XXXIX. </a> Aeroplanes + in the Great War <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0040"> CHAPTER XL. </a> The + Atmosphere and the Barometer <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0041"> CHAPTER + XLI. </a> How an Airman Knows what Height he Reaches <br /><br /> + <a href="#link2HCH0042"> CHAPTER XLII. </a> How an Airman + finds his Way <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0043"> CHAPTER XLIII. </a> The + First Airman to Fly Upside Down <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0044"> + CHAPTER XLIV. </a> The First Englishman to Fly Upside Down + <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0045"> CHAPTER XLV. </a> Accidents + and their Cause <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0046"> CHAPTER XLVI. </a> Accidents + and their Cause (Cont.) <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0047"> CHAPTER + XLVII. </a> Accidents and their Cause (Cont.) <br /><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0048"> CHAPTER XLVIII. </a> Some + Technical Terms used by Aviators <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0049"> + CHAPTER XLIX. </a> The Future in the Air <br /><br /> + </p> + </blockquote> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="link2H_PREF" id="link2H_PREF"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <h2> + PREFACE + </h2> + <p> + This book makes no pretence of going minutely into the technical and + scientific sides of human flight: rather does it deal mainly with the real + achievements of pioneers who have helped to make aviation what it is + to-day. + </p> + <p> + My chief object has been to arouse among my readers an intelligent + interest in the art of flight, and, profiting by friendly criticism of + several of my former works, I imagine that this is best obtained by + setting forth the romance of triumph in the realms of an element which has + defied man for untold centuries, rather than to give a mass of scientific + principles which appeal to no one but the expert. + </p> + <p> + So rapid is the present development of aviation that it is difficult to + keep abreast with the times. What is new to-day becomes old to-morrow. The + Great War has given a tremendous impetus to the strife between the warring + nations for the mastery of the air, and one can but give a rough and + general impression of the achievements of naval and military airmen on the + various fronts. + </p> + <p> + Finally, I have tried to bring home the fact that the fascinating progress + of aviation should not be confined entirely to the airman and constructor + of air-craft; in short, this progress is not a record of events in which + the mass of the nation have little personal concern, but of a movement in + which each one of us may take an active and intelligent part. + </p> + <p> + I have to thank various aviation firms, airmen, and others who have kindly + come to my assistance, either with the help of valuable information or by + the loan of photographs. In particular, my thanks are due to the Royal + Flying Corps and Royal Naval Air Service for permission to reproduce + illustrations from their two publications on the work and training of + their respective corps; to the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain; to + Messrs. C. G. Spencer & Sons, Highbury; The Sopwith Aviation Company, + Ltd.; Messrs. A. V. Roe & Co., Ltd.; The Gnome Engine Company; The + Green Engine Company; Mr. A. G. Gross (Geographia, Ltd.); and M. Bleriot; + for an exposition of the internal-combustion engine I have drawn on Mr. + Horne's The Age of Machinery. + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="link2H_4_0002" id="link2H_4_0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <h1> + THE MASTERY OF THE AIR + </h1> + <p> + <a name="link2H_PART1" id="link2H_PART1"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + PART I. BALLOONS AND AIR-SHIPS + </h2> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0001" id="link2HCH0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER I. Man's Duel with Nature + </h2> + <p> + Of all man's great achievements none is, perhaps, more full of human + interest than are those concerned with flight. We regard ourselves as + remarkable beings, and our wonderful discoveries in science and invention + induce us to believe we are far and away the cleverest of all the living + creatures in the great scheme of Creation. And yet in the matter of flight + the birds beat us; what has taken us years of education, and vast efforts + of intelligence, foresight, and daring to accomplish, is known by the tiny + fledglings almost as soon as they come into the world. + </p> + <p> + It is easy to see why the story of aviation is of such romantic interest. + Man has been exercising his ingenuity, and deliberately pursuing a certain + train of thought, in an attempt to harness the forces of Nature and compel + them to act in what seems to be the exact converse of Nature's own + arrangements. + </p> + <p> + One of the mysteries of Nature is known as the FORCE OF GRAVITY. It is not + our purpose in this book to go deeply into a study of gravitation; we may + content ourselves with the statement, first proved by Sir Isaac Newton, + that there is an invisible force which the Earth exerts on all bodies, by + which it attracts or draws them towards itself. This property does not + belong to the Earth alone, but to all matter—all matter attracts all + other matter. In discussing the problems of aviation we are concerned + mainly with the mutual attraction of The Earth and the bodies on or near + its surface; this is usually called TERRESTRIAL gravity. + </p> + <p> + It has been found that every body attracts very other body with a force + directly proportionate to its mass. Thus we see that, if every particle in + a mass exerts its attractive influence, the more particles a body contains + the greater will be the attraction. If a mass of iron be dropped to the + ground from the roof of a building at the same time as a cork of similar + size, the iron and the cork would, but for the retarding effect of the + air, fall to the ground together, but the iron would strike the ground + with much greater force than the cork. Briefly stated, a body which + contains twice as much matter as another is attracted or drawn towards the + centre of the Earth with twice the force of that other; if the mass be + five times as great, then it will be attracted with five times the force, + and so on. + </p> + <p> + It is thus evident that the Earth must exert an overwhelming attractive + force on all bodies on or near its surface. Now, when man rises from the + ground in an aeroplane he is counter-acting this force by other forces. + </p> + <p> + A short time ago the writer saw a picture which illustrated in a very + striking manner man's struggle with Nature. Nature was represented as a + giant of immense stature and strength, standing on a globe with + outstretched arms, and in his hands were shackles of great size. Rising + gracefully from the earth, immediately in front of the giant, was an + airman seated in a modern flying-machine, and on his face was a + happy-go-lucky look as though he were delighting in the duel between him + and the giant. The artist had drawn the picture so skilfully that one + could imagine the huge, knotted fingers grasping the shackles were itching + to bring the airman within their clutch. The picture was entitled "MAN + TRIUMPHANT" + </p> + <p> + No doubt many of those who saw that picture were reminded of the great + sacrifices made by man in the past. In the wake of the aviator there are + many memorial stones of mournful significance. + </p> + <p> + It says much for the pluck and perseverance of aviators that they have + been willing to run the great risks which ever accompany their efforts. + Four years of the Great War have shown how splendidly airmen have risen to + the great demands made upon them. In dispatch after dispatch from the + front, tribute has been paid to the gallant and devoted work of the Royal + Flying Corps and the Royal Naval Air Service. In a long and bitter + struggle British airmen have gradually asserted their supremacy in the + air. In all parts of the globe, in Egypt, in Mesopotamia, in Palestine, in + Africa, the airman has been an indispensable adjunct of the fighting + forces. Truly it may be said that mastery of the air is the indispensable + factor of final victory. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0002" id="link2HCH0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER II. The French Paper-maker who Invented the Balloon + </h2> + <p> + In the year 1782 two young Frenchmen might have been seen one winter night + sitting over their cottage fire, performing the curious experiment of + filling paper bags with smoke, and letting them rise up towards the + ceiling. These young men were brothers, named Stephen and Joseph + Montgolfier, and their experiments resulted in the invention of the + balloon. + </p> + <p> + The brothers, like all inventors, seem to have had enquiring minds. They + were for ever asking the why and the wherefore of things. "Why does smoke + rise?" they asked. "Is there not some strange power in the atmosphere + which makes the smoke from chimneys and elsewhere rise in opposition to + the force of gravity? If so, cannot we discover this power, and apply it + to the service of mankind?" + </p> + <p> + We may imagine that such questions were in the minds of those two French + paper-makers, just as similar questions were in the mind of James Watt + when he was discovering the power of steam. But one of the most important + attributes of an inventor is an infinite capacity for taking pains, + together with great patience. + </p> + <p> + And so we find the two brothers employing their leisure in what to us + would, be a childish pastime, the making of paper balloons. The story + tells us that their room was filled with smoke, which issued from the + windows as though the house were on fire. A neighbour, thinking such was + the case, rushed in, but, on being assured that nothing serious was wrong, + stayed to watch the tiny balloons rise a little way from the thin tray + which contained the fire that made the smoke with which the bags were + filled. The experiments were not altogether successful, however, for the + bags rarely rose more than a foot or so from the tray. The neighbour + suggested that they should fasten the thin tray on to the bottom of the + bag, for it was thought that the bags would not ascend higher because the + smoke became cool; and if the smoke were imprisoned within the bag much + better results would be obtained. This was done, and, to the great joy of + the brothers and their visitor, the bag at once rose quickly to the + ceiling. + </p> + <p> + But though they could make the bags rise their great trouble was that they + did not know the cause of this ascent. They thought, however, that they + were on the eve of some great discovery, and, as events proved, they were + not far wrong. For a time they imagined that the fire they had used + generated some special gas, and if they could find out the nature of this + gas, and the means of making it in large quantities, they would be able to + add to their success. + </p> + <p> + Of course, in the light of modern knowledge, it seems strange that the + brothers did not know that the reason the bags rose, was not because of + any special gas being used, but owing to the expansion of air under the + influence of heat, whereby hot air tends to rise. Every schoolboy above + the age of twelve knows that hot air rises upwards in the atmosphere, and + that it continues to rise until its temperature has become the same as + that of the surrounding air. + </p> + <p> + The next experiment was to try their bags in the open air. Choosing a + calm, fine day, they made a fire similar to that used in their first + experiments, and succeeded in making the bag rise nearly 100 feet. Later + on, a much larger craft was built, which was equally successful. + </p> + <p> + And now we must leave the experiments of the Montgolfiers for a moment, + and turn to the discovery of hydrogen gas by Henry Cavendish, a well-known + London chemist. In 1766 Cavendish proved conclusively that hydrogen gas + was not more than one-seventh the weight of ordinary air. It at once + occurred to Dr. Black, of Glasgow, that if a thin bag could be filled with + this light gas it would rise in the air; but for various reasons his + experiments did not yield results of a practical nature for several years. + </p> + <p> + Some time afterwards, about a year before the Montgolfiers commenced their + experiments which we have already described, Tiberius Cavallo, an Italian + chemist, succeeded in making, with hydrogen gas, soap-bubbles which rose + in the air. Previous to this he had experimented with bladders and paper + bags; but the bladders he found too heavy, and the paper too porous. + </p> + <p> + It must not be thought that the Montgolfiers experimented solely with hot + air in the inflation of their balloons. At one time they used steam, and, + later on, the newly-discovered hydrogen gas; but with both these agents + they were unsuccessful. It can easily be seen why steam was of no use, + when we consider that paper was employed; hydrogen, too, owed its lack of + success to the same cause for the porosity of the paper allowed the gas to + escape quickly. + </p> + <p> + It is said that the name "balloon" was given to these paper craft because + they resembled in shape a large spherical vessel used in chemistry, which + was known by that name. To the brothers Montgolfier belongs the honour of + having given the name to this type of aircraft, which, in the two + succeeding centuries, became so popular. + </p> + <p> + After numerous experiments the public were invited to witness the + inflation of a particularly huge balloon, over 30 feet in diameter. This + was accomplished over a fire made of wool and straw. The ascent was + successful, and the balloon, after rising to a height of some 7000 feet, + fell to earth about two miles away. + </p> + <p> + It may be imagined that this experiment aroused enormous interest in + Paris, whence the news rapidly spread over all France and to Britain. A + Parisian scientific society invited Stephen Montgolfier to Paris in order + that the citizens of the metropolis should have their imaginations excited + by seeing the hero of these remarkable experiments. Montgolfier was not a + rich man, and to enable him to continue his experiments the society + granted him a considerable sum of money. He was then enabled to construct + a very fine balloon, elaborately decorated and painted, which ascended at + Versailles in the presence of the Court. + </p> + <p> + To add to the value of this experiment three animals were sent up in a + basket attached to the balloon. These were a sheep, a cock, and a duck. + All sorts of guesses were made as to what would be the fate of the "poor + creatures". Some people imagined that there was little or no air in those + higher regions and that the animals would choke; others said they would be + frozen to death. But when the balloon descended the cock was seen to be + strutting about in his usual dignified way, the sheep was chewing the cud, + and the duck was quacking for water and worms. + </p> + <p> + At this point we will leave the work of the brothers Montgolfier. They had + succeeded in firing the imagination of nearly every Frenchman, from King + Louis down to his humblest subject. Strange, was it not, though scores of + millions of people had seen smoke rise, and clouds float, for untold + centuries, yet no one, until the close of the eighteenth century, thought + of making a balloon? + </p> + <p> + The learned Franciscan friar, Roger Bacon, who lived in the thirteenth + century, seems to have thought of the possibility of producing a + contrivance that would float in air. His idea was that the earth's + atmosphere was a "true fluid", and that it had an upper surface as the + ocean has. He quite believed that on this upper surface—subject, in + his belief, to waves similar to those of the sea—an air-ship might + float if it once succeeded in rising to the required height. But the + difficulty was to reach the surface of this aerial sea. To do this he + proposed to make a large hollow globe of metal, wrought as thin as the + skill of man could make it, so that it might be as light as possible, and + this vast globe was to be filled with "liquid fire". Just what "liquid + fire" was, one cannot attempt to explain, and it is doubtful if Bacon + himself had any clear idea. But he doubtless thought of some gaseous + substance lighter than air, and so he would seem to have, at least, hit + upon the principle underlying the construction of the modern balloon. + Roger Bacon had ideas far in advance of his time, and his experiments made + such an impression of wonder on the popular mind that they were believed + to be wrought by black magic, and the worthy monk was classed among those + who were supposed to be in league with Satan. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0003" id="link2HCH0003"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER III. The First Man to Ascend in a Balloon + </h2> + <p> + The safe descent of the three animals, which has already been related, + showed the way for man to venture up in a balloon. In our time we marvel + at the daring of modern airmen, who ascend to giddy heights, and, as it + were, engage in mortal combat with the demons of the air. But, courageous + though these deeds are, they are not more so than those of the pioneers of + ballooning. + </p> + <p> + In the eighteenth century nothing was known definitely of the conditions + of the upper regions of the air, where, indeed, no human being had ever + been; and though the frail Montgolfier balloons had ascended and descended + with no outward happenings, yet none could tell what might be the risk to + life in committing oneself to an ascent. There was, too, very special + danger in making an ascent in a hot-air balloon. Underneath the huge + envelope was suspended a brazier, so that the fabric of the balloon was in + great danger of catching fire. + </p> + <p> + It was at first suggested that two French criminals under sentence of + death should be sent up, and, if they made a safe descent, then the way + would be open for other aeronauts to venture aloft. But everyone + interested in aeronautics in those days saw that the man who first + traversed the unexplored regions of the air would be held in high honour, + and it seemed hardly right that this honour should fall to criminals. At + any rate this was the view of M. Pilatre de Rozier, a French gentleman, + and he determined himself to make the pioneer ascent. + </p> + <p> + De Rozier had no false notion of the risks he was prepared to run, and he + superintended with the greatest care the construction of his balloon. It + was of enormous size, with a cage slung underneath the brazier for heating + the air. Befors making his free ascent De Rozier made a trial ascent with + the balloon held captive by a long rope. + </p> + <p> + At length, in November, 1783, accompanied by the Marquis d'Arlandes as a + passenger, he determined to venture. The experiment aroused immense + excitement all over France, and a large concourse of people were gathered + together on the outskirts of Paris to witness the risky feat. The balloon + made a perfect ascent, and quickly reached a height of about half a mile + above sea-level. A strong current of air in the upper regions caused the + balloon to take an opposite direction from that intended, and the + aeronauts drifted right over Paris. It would have gone hard with them if + they had been forced to descend in the city, but the craft was driven by + the wind to some distance beyond the suburbs and they alighted quite + safely about six miles from their starting-point, after having been up in + the air for about half an hour. + </p> + <p> + Their voyage, however, had by no means been free from anxiety. We are told + that the fabric of the balloon repeatedly caught fire, which it took the + aeronauts all their time to extinguish. At times, too, they came down + perilously near to the Seine, or to the housetops of Paris, but after the + most exciting half-hour of their lives they found themselves once more on + Mother Earth. + </p> + <p> + Here we must make a slight digression and speak of the invention of the + hydrogen, or gas, balloon. In a previous chapter we read of the discovery + of hydrogen gas by Henry Cavendish, and the subsequent experiments with + this gas by Dr. Black, of Glasgow. It was soon decided to try to inflate a + balloon with this "inflammable air"—as the newly-discovered gas was + called—and with this end in view a large public subscription was + raised in France to meet the heavy expenses entailed in the venture. The + work was entrusted to a French scientist, Professor Charles, and two + brothers named Robert. + </p> + <p> + It was quickly seen that paper, such as was used by the Montgolfiers, was + of little use in the construction of a gas balloon, for the gas escaped. + Accordingly the fabric was made of silk and varnished with a solution of + india-rubber and turpentine. The first hydrogen balloon was only about 13 + feet in diameter, for in those early days the method of preparing hydrogen + was very laborious and costly, and the constructors thought it advisable + not to spend too much money over the initial experiments, in case they + should be a failure. + </p> + <p> + In August, 1783—an eventful year in the history of aeronautics—the + first gas-inflated balloon was sent up, of course unaccompanied by a + passenger. It shot up high in the air much more rapidly than Montgolfier's + hot-air balloon had done, and was soon beyond the clouds. After a voyage + of nearly an hour's duration it descended in a field some 15 miles away. + We are told that some peasants at work near by fled in the greatest alarm + at this strange monster which settled in their midst. An old print shows + them cautiously approaching the balloon as it lay heaving on the ground, + stabbing it with pitchforks, and beating it with flails and sticks. The + story goes that one of the alarmed farmers poured a charge of shot into it + with his gun, no doubt thinking that he had effectually silenced the + panting demon contained therein. To prevent such unseemly occurrences in + the future the French Government found it necessary to warn the people by + proclamation that balloons were perfectly harmless objects, and that the + experiments would be repeated. + </p> + <p> + We now have two aerial craft competing for popular favour: the Montgolfier + hot-air balloon and the "Charlier" or gas-inflated balloon. About four + months after the first trial trip of the latter the inventors decided to + ascend in a specially-constructed hydrogen-inflated craft. This balloon, + which was 27 feet in diameter, contained nearly all the features of the + modern balloon. Thus there was a valve at the top by means of which the + gas could be let out as desired; a cord net covered the whole fabric, and + from the loop which it formed below the neck of the balloon a car was + suspended; and in the car there was a quantity of ballast which could be + cast overboard when necessary. + </p> + <p> + It may be imagined that this new method of aerial navigation had + thoroughly aroused the excitability of the French nation, so that + thousands of people were met together just outside Paris on the 17th + December to see Professor Charles and his mechanic, Robelt, ascend in + their new craft. The ascent was successful in every way; the intrepid + aeronauts, who carried a barometer, found that they had quickly reached an + altitude of over a mile. + </p> + <p> + After remaining aloft for nearly two hours they came down. Professor + Charles decided to ascend again, this time by himself, and with a much + lighter load the balloon rose about two miles above sea-level. The + temperature at this height became very low, and M. Charles was affected by + violent pain in his right ear and jaw. During the voyage he witnessed the + strange phenomenon of a double sunset; for, before the ascent, the sun had + set behind the hills overshadowing the valleys, and when he rose above the + hill-tops he saw the sun again, and presently saw it set again. There is + no doubt that the balloon would have risen several thousand feet higher, + but the professor thought it would burst, and he opened the valve, + eventually making a safe descent about 7 miles from his starting-place. + </p> + <p> + England lagged behind her French neighbour's in balloon aeronautics—much + as she has recently done in aviation—for a considerable time, and, + it was not till August of the following year (1784) that the first balloon + ascent was made in Great Britain, by Mr. J. M. Tytler. This took place at + Edinburgh in a fire balloon. Previous to this an Italian, named Lunardi, + had in November, 1783, dispatched from the Artillery Ground, in London, a + small balloon made of oil-silk, 10 feet in diameter and weighing 11 + pounds. This small craft was sent aloft at one o'clock, and came down, + about two and a half hours later, in Sussex, about 48 miles from its + starting-place. + </p> + <p> + In 1784 the largest balloon on record was sent up from Lyons. This immense + craft was more than 100 feet in diameter, and stood about 130 feet high. + It was inflated with hot air over a straw fire, and seven passengers were + carried, including Joseph Montgolfier and Pilatre de Rozier. + </p> + <p> + But to return to de Rozier, whom we left earlier in the chapter, after his + memorable ascent near Paris. This daring Frenchman decided to cross the + Channel, and to prevent the gas cooling, and the balloon falling into the + sea, he hit on the idea of suspending a small fire balloon under the neck + of another balloon inflated with hydrogen gas. In the light of our modern + knowledge of the highly-inflammable nature of hydrogen, we wonder how + anyone could have attempted such an adventure; but there had been little + experience of this newly-discovered gas in those days. We are not + surprised to read that, when high in the air, there was an awful explosion + and the brave aeronaut fell to the earth and was dashed to death. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0004" id="link2HCH0004"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IV. The First Balloon Ascent in England + </h2> + <p> + It has been said that the honour of making the first ascent in a balloon + from British soil must be awarded to Mr. Tytler. This took place in + Scotland. In this chapter we will relate the almost romantic story of the + first ascent made in England. + </p> + <p> + This was carried out successfully by Lunardi, the Italian of whom we have + previously spoken. This young foreigner, who was engaged as a private + secretary in London, had his interest keenly aroused by the accounts of + the experiments being carried out in balloons in France, and he decided to + attempt similar experiments in this country. + </p> + <p> + But great difficulties stood in his way. Like many other inventors and + would-be airmen, he suffered from lack of funds to build his craft, and + though people whom he approached for financial aid were sympathetic, many + of them were unwilling to subscribe to his venture. At length, however, by + indomitable perseverance, he collected enough money to defray the cost of + building his balloon, and it was arranged that he should ascend from the + Artillery Ground, London, in September, 1784. + </p> + <p> + His craft was a "Charlier"—that is, it was modelled after the + hydrogen-inflated balloon built by Professor Charles—and it + resembled in shape an enormous pear. A wide hoop encircled the neck of the + envelope, and from this hoop the car was suspended by stout cordage. + </p> + <p> + It is said that on the day announced for the ascent a crowd of nearly + 200,000 had assembled, and that the Prince of Wales was an interested + spectator. Farmers and labourers and, indeed, all classes of people from + the prince down to the humblest subject, were represented, and seldom had + London's citizens been more deeply excited. + </p> + <p> + Many of them, however, were incredulous, especially when an insufficiency + of gas caused a long delay before the balloon could be liberated. Fate + seemed to be thwarting the plucky Italian at every step. Even at the last + minute, when all arrangements had been perfected as far as was humanly + possible, and the crowd was agog with excitement, it appeared probable + that he would have to postpone the ascent. + </p> + <p> + It was originally intended that Lunardi should be accompanied by a + passenger; but as there was a shortage of gas the balloon's lifting power + was considerably lessened, and he had to take the trip with a dog and cat + for companions. A perfect ascent was made, and in a few moments the huge + balloon was sailing gracefully in a northerly direction over innumerable + housetops. + </p> + <p> + This trip was memorable in another way. It was probably the only aerial + cruise where a Royal Council was put off in order to witness the flight. + It is recorded that George the Third was in conference with the Cabinet, + and when news arrived in the Council Chamber that Lunardi was aloft, the + king remarked: "Gentlemen, we may resume our deliberations at pleasure, + but we may never see poor Lunardi again!" + </p> + <p> + The journey was uneventful; there was a moderate northerly breeze, and the + aeronaut attained a considerable altitude, so that he and his animals were + in danger of frost-bite. Indeed, one of the animals suffered so severely + from the effects of the cold that Lunardi skilfully descended low enough + to drop it safely to earth, and then, throwing out ballast, once more + ascended. He eventually came to earth near a Hertfordshire village about + 30 miles to the north of London. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0005" id="link2HCH0005"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER V. The Father of British Aeronauts + </h2> + <p> + No account of the early history of English aeronautics could possibly be + complete unless it included a description of the Nassau balloon, which was + inflated by coal-gas, from the suggestion of Mr. Charles Green, who was + one of Britain's most famous aeronauts. Because of his institution of the + modern method of using coal-gas in a balloon, Mr. Green is generally + spoken of as the Father of British Aeronautics. During the close of the + eighteenth and the opening years of the nineteenth century there had been + numerous ascents in Charlier balloons, both in Britain and on the + Continent. It had already been discovered that hydrogen gas was highly + dangerous and also expensive, and Mr. Green proposed to try the experiment + of inflating a balloon with ordinary coal-gas, which had now become fairly + common in most large towns, and was much less costly than hydrogen. + </p> + <p> + Critics of the new scheme assured the promoters that coal-gas would be of + little use for a balloon, averring that it had comparatively little + lifting power, and aeronauts could never expect to rise to any great + altitude in such a balloon. But Green firmly believed that his theory was + practical, and he put it to the test. The initial experiments quite + convinced him that he was right. Under his superintendence a fine balloon + about 80 feet high, built of silk, was made in South London, and the car + was constructed to hold from fifteen to twenty passengers. When the craft + was completed it was proposed to send it to Paris for exhibition purposes, + and the inventor, with two friends, Messrs. Holland and Mason, decided to + take it over the Channel by air. It is said that provisions were taken in + sufficient quantities to last a fortnight, and over a ton of ballast was + shipped. + </p> + <p> + The journey commenced in November, 1836, late in the afternoon, as the + aeronauts had planned to cross the sea by night. A fairly strong + north-west wind quickly bore them to the coast, and in less than an hour + they found themselves over the lights of Calais. On and on they went, now + and then entirely lost to Earth through being enveloped in dense fog; hour + after hour went by, until at length dawn revealed a densely-wooded tract + of country with which they were entirely unfamiliar. They decided to land, + and they were greatly surprised to find that they had reached Weilburg, in + Nassau, Germany. The whole journey of 500 miles had been made in eighteen + hours. + </p> + <p> + Probably no British aeronaut has made more daring and exciting ascents + than Mr. Green—unless it be a member of the famous Spencer family, + of whom we speak in another chapter. It is said that Mr. Green went aloft + over a thousand times, and in later years he was accompanied by various + passengers who were making ascents for scientific purposes. His skill was + so great that though he had numerous hairbreadth escapes he seldom + suffered much bodily harm. He lived to the ripe old age of eighty-five. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0006" id="link2HCH0006"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VI. The Parachute + </h2> + <p> + No doubt many of those who read this book have seen an aeronaut descend + from a balloon by the aid of a parachute. For many years this performance + has been one of the most attractive items on the programmes of fetes, + galas, and various other outdoor exhibitions. + </p> + <p> + The word "parachute" has been almost bodily taken from the French + language. It is derived from the French parer to parry, and chute a fall. + In appearance a parachute is very similar to an enormous umbrella. + </p> + <p> + M. Blanchard, one of the pioneers of ballooning, has the honour of first + using a parachute, although not in person. The first "aeronaut" to descend + by this apparatus was a dog. The astonished animal was placed in a basket + attached to a parachute, taken up in a balloon, and after reaching a + considerable altitude was released. Happily for the dog the parachute + acted quite admirably, and the animal had a graceful and gentle descent. + </p> + <p> + Shortly afterwards a well-known French aeronaut, M. Garnerin, had an + equally satisfactory descent, and soon the parachute was used by most of + the prominent aeronauts of the day. Mr. Cocking, a well-known balloonist, + held somewhat different views from those of other inventors as to the best + form of construction of parachutes. His idea was that a parachute should + be very large and rather heavy in order to be able to support a great + weight. His first descent from a great height was also his last. In 1837, + accompanied by Messrs. Spencer and Green, he went up with his parachute, + attached to the Nassau balloon. At a height of about a mile the parachute + was liberated, but it failed to act properly; the inventor was cast + headlong to earth, and dashed to death. + </p> + <p> + From time to time it has been thought that the parachute might be used for + life-saving on the modern dirigible air-ship, and even on the aeroplane, + and experiments have been carried out with that end in view. A most + thrilling descent from an air-ship by means of a parachute was that made + by Major Maitland, Commander of the British Airship Squadron, which forms + part of the Royal Flying Corps. The descent took place from the Delta + air-ship, which ascended from Farnborough Common. In the car with Major + Maitland were the pilot, Captain Waterlow, and a passenger. The parachute + was suspended from the rigging of the Delta, and when a height of about + 2000 feet had been reached it was dropped over to the side of the car. + With the dirigible travelling at about 20 miles an hour the major climbed + over the car and seated himself in the parachute. Then it became detached + from the Delta and shot downwards for about 200 feet at a terrific rate. + For a moment or two it was thought that the opening apparatus had failed + to work; but gradually the "umbrella" opened, and the gallant major had a + gentle descent for the rest of the distance. + </p> + <p> + This experiment was really made in order to prove the stability of an + air-ship after a comparatively great weight was suddenly removed from it. + Lord Edward Grosvenor, who is attached to the Royal Flying Corps, was one + of the eyewitnesses of the descent. In speaking of it he said: "We all + think highly of Major Maitland's performance, which has shown how the + difficulty of lightening an air-ship after a long flight can be + surmounted. During a voyage of several hours a dirigible naturally loses + gas, and without some means of relieving her of weight she might have to + descend in a hostile country. Major Maitland has proved the practicability + of members of an air-ship's crew dropping to the ground if the necessity + arises." + </p> + <p> + A descent in a parachute has also been made from an aeroplane by M. + Pegoud, the daring French airman, of whom we speak later. A certain + Frenchman, M. Bonnet, had constructed a parachute which was intended to be + used by the pilot of an aeroplane if on any occasion he got into + difficulties. It had been tried in many ways, but, unfortunately for the + inventor, he could get no pilot to trust himself to it. Tempting offers + were made to pilots of world-wide fame, but either the risk was thought to + be too great, or it was believed that no practical good would come of the + experiment. At last the inventor approached M. Pegoud, who undertook to + make the descent. This was accomplished from a great height with perfect + safety. It seems highly probable that in the near future the parachute + will form part of the equipment of every aeroplane and air-ship. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0007" id="link2HCH0007"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VII. Some British Inventors of Air-ships + </h2> + <p> + The first Englishman to invent an air-ship was Mr. Stanley Spencer, head + of the well-known firm of Spencer Brothers, whose works are at Highbury, + North London. + </p> + <p> + This firm has long held an honourable place in aeronautics, both in the + construction of air-craft and in aerial navigation. Spencer Brothers claim + to be the premier balloon manufacturers in the world, and, at the time of + writing, eighteen balloons and two dirigibles lie in the works ready for + use. In these works there may also be seen the frame of the famous + Santos-Dumont air-ship, referred to later in this book. + </p> + <p> + In general appearance the first Spencer air-ship was very similar to the + airship flown by Santos-Dumont; that is, there was the cigar-shaped + balloon, the small engine, and the screw propellor for driving the craft + forward. + </p> + <p> + But there was one very important distinction between the two air-ships. By + a most ingenious contrivance the envelope was made so that, in the event + of a large and serious escape of gas, the balloon would assume the form of + a giant umbrella, and fall to earth after the manner of a parachute. + </p> + <p> + All inventors profit, or should profit, by the experience of others, + whether such experience be gained by success or failure. It was found that + Santos-Dumont's air-ship lost a considerable amount of gas when driven + through the air, and on several occasions the whole craft was in great + danger of collapse. To keep the envelope inflated as tightly as possible + Mr. Spencer, by a clever contrivance, made it possible to force air into + the balloon to replace the escaped gas. + </p> + <p> + The first Spencer air-ship was built for experimental purposes. It was + able to lift only one person of light weight, and was thus a great + contrast to the modern dirigible which carries a crew of thirty or forty + people. Mr. Spencer made several exhibition flights in his little craft at + the Crystal Palace, and so successful were they that he determined to + construct a much larger craft. + </p> + <p> + The second Spencer air-ship, first launched in 1903, was nearly 100 feet + long. There was one very important distinction between this and other + air-ships built at that time: the propeller was placed in front of the + craft, instead of at the rear, as is the case in most air-ships. Thus the + craft was pulled through the air much after the manner of an aeroplane. + </p> + <p> + In the autumn of 1903 great enthusiasm was aroused in London by the + announcement that Mr. Spencer proposed to fly from the Crystal Palace + round the dome of St. Paul's Cathedral and back to his starting-place. + This was a much longer journey than that made by Santos-Dumont when he won + the Deutsch prize. + </p> + <p> + Tens of thousands of London's citizens turned out to witness the novel + sight of a giant air-ship hovering over the heart of their city, and it + was at once seen what enormous possibilities there were in the employment + of such craft in time of war. The writer remembers well moving among the + dense crowds and hearing everywhere such remarks as these: + </p> + <p> + "What would happen if a few bombs were thrown over the side of the + air-ship?" "Will there be air-fleets in future, manned by the soldiers or + sailors?" Indeed the uppermost thought in people's minds was not so much + the possibility of Mr. Spencer being able to complete his journey + successfully—nearly everyone recognized that air-ship construction + had now advanced so far that it was only a matter of time for an ideal + craft to be built—but that the coming of the air-ship was an affair + of grave international importance. + </p> + <p> + The great craft, glistening in the sunlight, sailed majestically from the + south, but when it reached the Cathedral it refused to turn round and face + the wind. Try how he might, Mr. Spencer could not make any progress. It + was a thrilling sight to witness this battle with the elements, right over + the heart of the largest city in the world. At times the air-ship seemed + to be standing quite still, head to wind. Unfortunately, half a gale had + sprung up, and the 24-horse-power engine was quite incapable of conquering + so stiff a breeze, and making its way home again. After several gallant + attempts to circle round the dome, Mr. Spencer gave up in despair, and let + the monster air-ship drift with the wind over the northern suburbs of the + city until a favourable landing-place near Barnet was reached, where he + descended. + </p> + <p> + The Spencer air-ships are of the non-rigid type. Spencer air-ship A + comprises a gas vessel for hydrogen 88 feet long and 24 feet in diameter, + with a capacity of 26,000 cubic feet. The framework is of polished ash + wood, made in sections so that it can easily be taken to pieces and + transported, and the length over all is 56 feet. Two propellers 7 feet 6 + inches diameter, made of satin-wood, are employed to drive the craft, + which is equipped with a Green engine of from 35 to 40 horse-power. + </p> + <p> + Spencer's air-ship B is a much larger vessel, being 150 feet long and 35 + feet in diameter, with a capacity for hydrogen of 100,000 cubic feet. The + framework is of steel and aluminium, made in sections, with cars for ten + persons, including aeronauts, mechanics, and passengers. It is driven with + two petrol aerial engines of from 50 to 60 horse-power. + </p> + <p> + About the time that Mr. Spencer was experimenting with his large air-ship, + Dr. Barton, of Beckenham, was forming plans for an even larger craft. This + he laid down in the spacious grounds of the Alexandra Park, to the north + of London. An enormous shed was erected on the northern slopes of the + park, but visitors to the Alexandra Palace, intent on a peep at the + monster air-ship under construction, were sorely disappointed, as the + utmost secrecy in the building of the craft was maintained. + </p> + <p> + The huge balloon was 43 feet in diameter and 176 feet long, with a gas + capacity of 235,000 cubic feet. To maintain the external form of the + envelope a smaller balloon, or compensator, was placed inside the larger + one. The framework was of bamboo, and the car was attached by about eighty + wire-cables. The wooden deck was about 123 feet in length. Two + 50-horse-power engines drove four propellers, two of which were at either + end. + </p> + <p> + The inventor employed a most ingenious contrivance to preserve the + horizontal balance of the air-ship. Fitted, one at each end of the + carriage, were two 50-gallon tanks. These tanks were connected with a long + pipe, in the centre of which was a hand-pump. When the bow of the air-ship + dipped, the man at the pump could transfer some of the water from the + fore-tank to the after-tank, and the ship would right itself. The water + could similarly be transferred from the after-tank to the fore-tank when + the stern of the craft pointed downwards. + </p> + <p> + There were many reports, in the early months of 1905, that the air-ship + was going to be brought out from the shed for its trial flights, and the + writer, in common with many other residents in the vicinity of the park, + made dozens of journeys to the shed in the expectation of seeing the + mighty dirigible sail away. But for months we were doomed to + disappointment; something always seemed to go wrong at the last minute, + and the flight had to be postponed. + </p> + <p> + At last, in 1905, the first ascent took place. It was unsuccessful. The + huge balloon, made of tussore silk, cruised about for some time, then + drifted away with the breeze, and came to grief in landing. + </p> + <p> + A clever inventor of air-ships, a young Welshman, Mr. E. T. Willows, + designed in 1910, an air-ship in which he flew from Cardiff to London in + the dark—a distance of 139 miles. In the same craft he crossed the + English Channel a little later. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Willows has a large shed in the London aerodrome at Hendon, and he is + at present working there on a new air-ship. For some time he has been the + only successful private builder of air-ships in Great Britain. The Navy + possess a small Willows air-ship. + </p> + <p> + Messrs. Vickers, the famous builders of battleships, are giving attention + to the construction of air-ships for the Navy, in their works at Walney + Island, Barrow-in-Furness. This firm has erected an enormous shed, 540 + feet long, 150 feet broad, and 98 feet high. In this shed two of the + largest air-ships can be built side by side. Close at hand is an extensive + factory for the production of hydrogen gas. + </p> + <p> + At each end of the roof are towers from which the difficult task of safely + removing an air-ship from the shed can be directed. + </p> + <p> + At the time of writing, the redoubtable DORA (Defence of the Realm Act) + forbids any but the vaguest references to what is going forward in the way + of additions to our air forces. But it may be stated that air-ships are + included in the great constructive programme now being carried out. It is + not long since the citizens of Glasgow were treated to the spectacle of a + full-sized British "Zep" circling round the city prior to her journey + south, and so to regions unspecified. And use, too, is being found by the + naval arm for that curious hybrid the "Blimp", which may be described as a + cross between an aeroplane and an air-ship. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0008" id="link2HCH0008"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VIII. The First Attempts to Steer a Balloon + </h2> + <p> + For nearly a century after the invention of the Montgolfier and Charlier + balloons there was not much progress made in the science of aeronautics. + True, inventors such as Charles Green suggested and carried out new + methods of inflating balloons, and scientific observations of great + importance were made by balloonists both in Britain and on the Continent. + But in the all-important work of steering the huge craft, progress was for + many years practically at a standstill. All that the balloonist could do + in controlling his balloon was to make it ascend or descend at will; he + could not guide its direction of flight. No doubt pioneers of aeronautics + early turned their attention to the problem of providing some apparatus, + or some method, of steering their craft. One inventor suggested the + hoisting of a huge sail at the side of the envelope; but when this was + done the balloon simply turned round with the sail to the front. It had no + effect on the direction of flight of the balloon. "Would not a rudder be + of use?" someone asked. This plan was also tried, but was equally + unsuccessful. + </p> + <p> + Perhaps some of us may wonder how it is that a rudder is not as + serviceable on a balloon as it is on the stern of a boat. Have you ever + found yourself in a boat on a calm day, drifting idly down stream, and + going just as fast as the stream goes? Work the rudder how you may, you + will not alter the boat's course. But supposing your boat moves faster + than the stream, or by some means or other is made to travel slower than + the current, then your rudder will act, and you may take what direction + you will. + </p> + <p> + It was soon seen that if some method could be adopted whereby the balloon + moved through the air faster or slower than the wind, then the aeronaut + would be able to steer it. Nowadays a balloon's pace can be accelerated by + means of a powerful motor-engine, but the invention of the petrol-engine + is very recent. Indeed, the cause of the long delay in the construction of + a steerable balloon was that a suitable engine could not be found. A + steam-engine, with a boiler of sufficient power to propel a balloon, is so + heavy that it would require a balloon of impossible size to lift it. + </p> + <p> + One of the first serious attempts to steer a balloon by means of engine + power was that made by M. Giffard in 1852. Giffard's balloon was about 100 + feet long and 40 feet in diameter, and resembled in shape an elongated + cigar. A 3-horse-power steam-engine, weighing nearly 500 pounds, was + provided to work a propeller, but the enormous weight was so great in + proportion to the lifting power of the balloon that for a time the + aeronaut could not leave the ground. After several experiments the + inventor succeeded in ascending, when he obtained a speed against the wind + of about 6 miles an hour. + </p> + <p> + A balloon of great historical interest was that invented by Dupuy du + Lonie, in the year 1872. Instead of using steam he employed a number of + men to propel the craft, and with this air-ship he hoped to communicate + with the besieged city of Paris. + </p> + <p> + His greatest speed against a moderate breeze was only about 5 miles an + hour, and the endurance of the men did not allow of even this speed being + kept up for long at a time. + </p> + <p> + Dupuy foreshadowed the construction of the modern dirigible air-ship by + inventing a system of suspension links which connected the car to the + envelope; and he also used an internal ballonet similar to those described + in Chapter X. + </p> + <p> + In the year 1883 Tissandier invented a steerable balloon which was fitted + with an electric motor of 1 1/2 horse-power. This motor drove a propeller, + and a speed of about 8 miles an hour was attained. It is interesting to + contrast the power obtained from this engine with that of recent Zeppelin + air-ships, each of which is fitted with three or four engines, capable of + producing over 800 horse-power. + </p> + <p> + The first instance on record of an air-ship being steered back to its + starting-point was that of La France. This air-craft was the invention of + two French army captains, Reynard and Krebs. By special and much-improved + electric motors a speed of about 14 miles an hour was attained. + </p> + <p> + Thus, step by step, progress was made; but notwithstanding the promising + results it was quite evident that the engines were far too heavy in + proportion to the power they supplied. At length, however, the + internal-combustion engine, such as is used in motor-cars, arrived, and it + became at last possible to solve the great problem of constructing a + really-serviceable, steerable balloon. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0009" id="link2HCH0009"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IX. The Strange Career of Count Zeppelin + </h2> + <p> + In Berlin, on March 8, 1917, there passed away a man whose name will be + remembered as long as the English language is spoken. For Count Zeppelin + belongs to that little band of men who giving birth to a work of genius + have also given their names to the christening of it; and so the + patronymic will pass down the ages. + </p> + <p> + In the most sinister sense of the expression Count Zeppelin may be said to + have left his mark deep down upon the British race. In course of time many + old scores are forgiven and forgotten, but the Zeppelin raids on England + will survive, if only as a curious failure. Their failure was both + material and moral. Anti-aircraft guns and our intrepid airmen brought one + after another of these destructive monsters blazing to the ground, and + their work of "frightfulness" was taken up by the aeroplane; while more + lamentable still was the failure of the Zeppelin as an instrument of + terror to the civil population. In the long list of German miscalculations + must be included that which pictured the victims of bombardment from the + air crying out in terror for peace at any price. + </p> + <p> + Before the war Count Zeppelin was regarded by the British public as rather + a picturesque personality. He appeared in the romantic guise of the + inventor struggling against difficulties and disasters which would soon + have overwhelmed a man of less resolute character. Even old age was + included in his handicap, for he was verging on seventy when still arming + against a sea of troubles. + </p> + <p> + The ebb and flow of his fortunes were followed with intense interest in + this country, and it is not too much to say that the many disasters which + overtook his air-ships in their experimental stages were regarded as + world-wide calamities. + </p> + <p> + When, finally, the Count stood on the brink of ruin and the Kaiser stepped + forward as his saviour, something like a cheer went up from the British + public at this theatrical episode. Little did the audience realize what + was to be the outcome of the association between these callous and + masterful minds. + </p> + <p> + And now for a brief sketch of Count Zeppelin's life-story. He was born in + 1838, in a monastery on an island in Lake Constance. His love of adventure + took him to America, and when he was about twenty-five years of age he + took part in the American Civil War. Here he made his first aerial ascent + in a balloon belonging to the Federal army, and in this way made that + acquaintance with aeronautics which became the ruling passion of his life. + </p> + <p> + After the war was over he returned to Germany, only to find another war + awaiting him—the Austro-Prussian campaign. Later on he took part in + the Franco-Prussian War, and in both campaigns he emerged unscathed. + </p> + <p> + But his heart was not in the profession of soldiering. He had the restless + mind of the inventor, and when he retired, a general, after twenty years' + military service, he was free to give his whole attention to his dreams of + aerial navigation. His greatest ambition was to make his country + pre-eminent in aerial greatness. + </p> + <p> + Friends to whom he revealed his inmost thoughts laughed at him behind his + back, and considered that he was "a little bit wrong in his head". + Certainly his ideas of a huge aerial fleet appeared most extravagant, for + it must be remembered that the motor-engine had not then arrived, and + there appeared no reasonable prospect of its invention. + </p> + <p> + Perseverance, however, was the dominant feature of Count Zeppelin's + character; he refused to be beaten. His difficulties were formidable. In + the first place, he had to master the whole science of aeronautics, which + implies some knowledge of mechanics, meteorology, and electricity. This in + itself was no small task for a man of over fifty years of age, for it was + not until Count Zeppelin had retired from the army that he began to study + these subjects at all deeply. + </p> + <p> + The next step was to construct a large shed for the housing of his + air-ship, and also for the purpose of carrying out numerous costly + experiments. The Count selected Friedrichshafen, on the shores of Lake + Constance, as his head-quarters. He decided to conduct his experiments + over the calm waters of the lake, in order to lessen the effects of a + fall. The original shed was constructed on pontoons, and it could be + turned round as desired, so that the air-ship could be brought out in the + lee of any wind from whatsoever quarter it came. + </p> + <p> + It is said that the Count's private fortune of about L25,000 was soon + expended in the cost of these works and the necessary experiments. To + continue his work he had to appeal for funds to all his friends, and also + to all patriotic Germans, from the Kaiser downwards. + </p> + <p> + At length, in 1908, there came a turning-point in his fortunes. The German + Government, which had watched the Count's progress with great interest, + offered to buy his invention outright if he succeeded in remaining aloft + in one of his dirigibles for twenty-four hours. The Count did not quite + succeed in his task, but he aroused the great interest of the whole German + nation, and a Zeppelin fund was established, under the patronage of the + Kaiser, in every town and city in the Fatherland. In about a month the + fund amounted to over L300,000. With this sum the veteran inventor was + able to extend his works, and produce air-ship after air-ship with + remarkable rapidity. + </p> + <p> + When, war broke out it is probable that Germany possessed at least + thirteen air-ships which had fulfilled very difficult tests. One had flown + 1800 miles in a single journey. Thus the East Coast of England, + representing a return journey of less than 600 miles was well within their + range of action. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0010" id="link2HCH0010"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER X. A Zeppelin Air-ship and its Construction + </h2> + <p> + After the Zeppelin fund had brought in a sum of money which probably + exceeded all expectations, a company was formed for the construction of + dirigibles in the Zeppelin works on Lake Constance, and in 1909 an + enormous air-ship was produced. + </p> + <p> + In shape a Zeppelin dirigible resembled a gigantic cigar, pointed at both + ends. If placed with one end on the ground in Trafalgar Square, London, + its other end would be nearly three times the height of the Nelson Column, + which, as you may know, is 166 feet. + </p> + <p> + From the diagram here given, which shows a sectional view of a typical + Zeppelin air-ship, we may obtain a clear idea of the main features of the + craft. From time to time, during the last dozen years or so, the inventor + has added certain details, but the main features as shown in the + illustration are common to all air-craft of this type. + </p> + <p> + Zeppelin L1 was 525 feet in length, with a diameter of 50 feet. Some idea + of the size may be obtained through the knowledge that she was longer than + a modern Dreadnought. The framework was made of specially light metal, + aluminium alloy, and wood. This framework, which was stayed with steel + wire, maintained the shape and rigidity of her gas-bags; hence vessels of + this type are known as RIGID air-ships. Externally the hull was covered + with a waterproof fabric. + </p> + <p> + Though, from outside, a rigid air-ship looks to be all in one piece, + within it is divided into numerous compartments. In Zeppelin L1 there were + eighteen separate compartments, each of which contained a balloon filled + with hydrogen gas. The object of providing the vessel with these small + balloons, or ballonets, all separate from one another, was to prevent the + gas collecting all at one end of the ship as the vessel travelled through + the air. Outside the ballonets there was a ring-shaped, double bottom, + containing non-inflammable gas, and the whole was enclosed in + rubber-coated fabric. + </p> + <p> + The crew and motors were carried in cars slung fore and aft. The ship was + propelled by three engines, each of 170 horse-power. One engine was placed + in the forward car, and the two others in the after car. To steer her to + right or left, she had six vertical planes somewhat resembling box-kites, + while eight horizontal planes enabled her to ascend or descend. + </p> + <p> + In Zeppelin L2, which was a later type of craft, there were four motors + capable of developing 820 horse-power. These drove four propellers, which + gave the craft a speed of about 45 miles an hour. + </p> + <p> + The cars were connected by a gangway built within the framework. On the + top of the gas-chambers was a platform of aluminium alloy, carrying a + 1-pounder gun, and used also as an observation station. It is thought that + L1 was also provided with four machine-guns in her cars. + </p> + <p> + Later types of Zeppelins were fitted with a "wireless" installation of + sufficient range to transmit and receive messages up to 350 miles. L1 + could rise to the height of a mile in favourable weather, and carry about + 7 tons over and above her own weight. + </p> + <p> + Even when on ground the unwieldy craft cause many anxious moments to the + officers and mechanics who handle them. Two of the line have broken loose + from their anchorage in a storm and have been totally destroyed. Great + difficulty is also experienced in getting them in and out of their sheds. + Here, indeed, is a contrast with the ease and rapidity with which an + aeroplane is removed from its hangar. + </p> + <p> + It was maintained by the inventor that, as the vessel is rigid, and + therefore no pressure is required in the gas-chamber to maintain its + shape, it will not be readily vulnerable to projectiles. But the Count did + not foresee that the very "frightfulness" of his engine of war would + engender counter-destructives. In a later chapter an account will be given + of the manner in which Zeppelin attacks upon these islands were gradually + beaten off by the combined efforts of anti-aircraft guns and aeroplanes. + To the latter, and the intrepid pilots and fighters, is due the chief + credit for the final overthrow of the Zeppelin as a weapon of offence. + Both the British and French airmen in various brilliant sallies succeeded + in gradually breaking up and destroying this Armada of the Air; and the + Zeppelin was forced back to the one line of work in which it has proved a + success, viz., scouting for the German fleet in the few timid sallies it + has made from home ports. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0011" id="link2HCH0011"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XI. The Semi-rigid Air-ship + </h2> + <p> + Modern air-ships are of three general types: RIGID, SEMI-RIGID, and + NON-RIGID. These differ from one another, as the names suggest, in the + important feature, the RIGIDITY, NON-RIGIDITY, and PARTIAL RIGIDITY of the + gas envelope. + </p> + <p> + Hitherto we have discussed the RIGID type of vessel with which the name of + Count Zeppelin is so closely associated. This vessel is, as we have seen, + not dependent for its form on the gas-bag, but is maintained in permanent + shape by means of an aluminium framework. A serious disadvantage to this + type of craft is that it lacks the portability necessary for military + purposes. It is true that the vessel can be taken to pieces, but not + quickly. The NON-RIGID type, on the other hand, can be quickly deflated, + and the parts of the car and engine can be readily transported to the + nearest balloon station when occasion requires. + </p> + <p> + In the SEMI-RIGID type of air-ship the vessel is dependent for its form + partly on its framework and partly on the form of the gas envelope. The + under side of the balloon consists of a flat rigid framework, to which the + planes are attached, and from which the car, the engine, and propeller are + suspended. + </p> + <p> + As the rigid type of dirigible is chiefly advocated in Germany, so the + semi-rigid craft is most popular in France. The famous Lebaudy air-ships + are good types of semi-rigid vessels. These were designed for the firm of + Lebaudy Freres by the well-known French engineer M. Henri Julliot. + </p> + <p> + In November, 1902, M. Julliot and M. Surcouf completed an air-ship for M. + Lebaudy which attained a speed of nearly 25 miles an hour. The craft, + which was named Lebaudy I, made many successful voyages, and in 1905 M. + Lebaudy offered a second vessel, Lebaudy II, to the French Minister of + War, who accepted it for the French nation, and afterwards decided to + order another dirigible, La Patrie, of the same type. Disaster, however, + followed these air-ships. Lebaudy I was torn from its anchorage during a + heavy gale in 1906, and was completely wrecked. La Patrie, after + travelling in 1907 from Paris to Verdun, in seven hours, was, a few days + later, caught in a gale, and the pilot was forced to descend. The wind, + however, was so strong that 200 soldiers were unable to hold down the + unwieldy craft, and it was torn from their hands. It sailed away in a + north-westerly direction over the Channel into England, and ultimately + disappeared into the North Sea, where it was subsequently discovered some + days after the accident. + </p> + <p> + Notwithstanding these disasters the French military authorities ordered + another craft of the same type, which was afterwards named the Republique. + This vessel made a magnificent flight of six and a half hours in 1908, and + it was considered to have quite exceptional features, which eclipsed the + previous efforts of Messrs. Julliot and Lebaudy. + </p> + <p> + Unfortunately, however, this vessel was wrecked in a very terrible manner. + While out cruising with a crew of four officers one of the propeller + blades was suddenly fractured, and, flying off with immense force, it + entered the balloon, which it ripped to pieces. The majestic craft + crumpled up and crashed to the ground, killing its crew in its fall. + </p> + <p> + In the illustration facing p. 17, of a Lebaudy air-ship, we have a good + type of the semi-rigid craft. In shape it somewhat resembles an enormous + porpoise, with a sharply-pointed nose. The whole vessel is not as + symmetrical as a Zeppelin dirigible, but its inventors claim that the + sharp prow facilitates the steady displacement of the air during flight. + The stern is rounded so as to provide sufficient support for the rear + planes. + </p> + <p> + Two propellers are employed, and are fixed outside the car, one on each + side, and almost in the centre of the vessel. This is a some what unusual + arrangement. Some inventors, such as Mr. Spencer, place the propellers at + the prow, so that the air-ship is DRAWN along; others prefer the propeller + at the stern, whereby the craft is PUSHED along; but M. Julliot chose the + central position, because there the disturbance of the air is smallest. + </p> + <p> + The body of the balloon is not quite round, for the lower part is + flattened and rests on a rigid frame from which the car is suspended. The + balloon is divided into three compartments, so that the heavier air does + not move to one part of the balloon when it is tilted. + </p> + <p> + In the picture there is shown the petrol storage-tank, which is suspended + immediately under the rear horizontal plane, where it is out of danger of + ignition from the hot engine placed in the car. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0012" id="link2HCH0012"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XII. A Non-rigid Balloon + </h2> + <p> + Hitherto we have described the rigid and semi-rigid types of air-ships. We + have seen that the former maintains its shape without assistance from the + gas which inflates its envelope and supplies the lifting power, while the + latter, as its name implies, is dependent for its form partly on the flat + rigid framework to which the car is attached, and partly on the gas + balloon. + </p> + <p> + We have now to turn our attention to that type of craft known as a + NON-RIGID BALLOON. This vessel relies for its form ENTIRELY upon the + pressure of the gas, which keeps the envelope distended with sufficient + tautness to enable it to be driven through the air at a considerable + speed. + </p> + <p> + It will at once be seen that the safety of a vessel of this type depends + on the maintenance of the gas pressure, and that it is liable to be + quickly put out of action if the envelope becomes torn. Such an occurrence + is quite possible in war. A well-directed shell which pierced the balloon + would undoubtedly be disastrous to air-ship and crew. For this reason the + non-rigid balloon does not appear to have much future value as a fighting + ship. But, as great speed can be obtained from it, it seems especially + suited for short overland voyages, either for sporting or commercial + purposes. One of its greatest advantages is that it can be easily + deflated, and can be packed away into a very small compass. + </p> + <p> + A good type of the non-rigid air-ship is that built by Major Von Parseval, + which is named after its inventor. The Parseval has been described as "a + marvel of modern aeronautical construction", and also as "one of the most + perfect expressions of modern aeronautics, not only on account of its + design, but owing to its striking efficiency." + </p> + <p> + The balloon has the elongated form, rounded or pointed at one end, or both + ends, which is common to most air-ships. The envelope is composed of a + rubber-texture fabric, and externally it is painted yellow, so that the + chemical properties of the sun's rays may not injure the rubber. There are + two smaller interior balloons, or COMPENSATORS, into which can be pumped + air by means of a mechanically-driven fan or ventilator, to make up for + contraction of the gas when descending or meeting a cooler atmosphere. The + compensators occupy about one-quarter of the whole volume. + </p> + <p> + To secure the necessary inclination of the balloon while in flight, air + can be transferred from one of the compensators, say at the fore end of + the ship, into the ballonet in the aft part. Suppose it is desired to + incline the bow of the craft upward, then the ventilating fan would + DEFLATE the fore ballonet and INFLATE the aft one, so that the latter, + becoming heavier, would lower the stern and raise the bow of the vessel. + </p> + <p> + Along each side of the envelope are seen strips to which the car + suspension-cords are attached. To prevent these cords being jerked + asunder, by the rolling or pitching of the vessel, horizontal fins, each + 172 square feet in area, are provided at each side of the rear end of the + balloon. In the past several serious accidents have been caused by the + violent pitching of the balloon when caught in a gale, and so severe have + been the stresses on the suspension cords that great damage has been done + to the envelope, and the aeronauts have been fortunate if they have been + able to make a safe descent. + </p> + <p> + The propeller and engine are carried by the car, which is slung well below + the balloon, and by an ingenious contrivance the car always remains in a + horizontal position, however much the balloon may be inclined. It is no + uncommon occurrence for the balloon to make a considerable angle with the + car beneath. + </p> + <p> + The propeller is quite a work of art. It has a diameter of about 14 feet, + and consists of a frame of hollow steel tubes covered with fabric. It is + so arranged that when out of action its blades fall lengthwise upon the + frame supporting it, but when it is set to work the blades at once open + out. The engine weighs 770 pounds, and has six cylinders, which develop + 100 horse-power at 1200 revolutions a minute. + </p> + <p> + The vessel may be steered either to the right or the left by means of a + large vertical helm, some 80 square feet in area, which is hinged at the + rear end to a fixed vertical plane of 200 square feet area. + </p> + <p> + An upward or downward inclination is, as we have seen, effected by the + ballonets, but in cases of emergency these compensators cannot be deflated + or inflated sufficiently rapidly, and a large movable weight is employed + for altering the balance of the vessel. + </p> + <p> + In this country the authorities have hitherto favoured the non-rigid + air-ship for military and naval use. The Astra-Torres belongs to this type + of vessel, which can be rapidly deflated and transported, and so, too, the + air-ship built by Mr. Willows. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0013" id="link2HCH0013"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XIII. The Zeppelin and Gotha Raids + </h2> + <p> + In the House of Commons recently Mr. Bonar Law announced that since the + commencement of the war 14,250 lives had been lost as the result of enemy + action by submarines and air-craft. A large percentage of these figures + represents women, children, and defenceless citizens. + </p> + <p> + One had become almost hardened to the German method of making war on the + civil population—that system of striving to act upon civilian + "nerves" by calculated brutality which is summed up in the word + "frightfulness". But the publication of these figures awoke some of the + old horror of German warfare. The sum total of lives lost brought home to + the people at home the fact that bombardment from air and sea, while it + had failed to shake their MORAL, had taken a large toll of human life. + </p> + <p> + At first the Zeppelin raids were not taken very seriously in this country. + People rushed out of their houses to see the unwonted spectacle of an + air-ship dealing death and destruction from the clouds. But soon the + novelty began to wear off, and as the raids became more frequent and the + casualty lists grew larger, people began to murmur against the policy of + taking these attacks "lying down". It was felt that "darkness and + composure" formed but a feeble and ignoble weapon of defence. The people + spoke with no uncertain voice, and it began to dawn upon the authorities + that the system of regarding London and the south-east coast as part of + "the front" was no excuse for not taking protective measures. + </p> + <p> + It was the raid into the Midlands on the night of 31st January, 1916, that + finally shelved the old policy of do nothing. Further justification, if + any were needed, for active measures was supplied by a still more + audacious raid upon the east coast of Scotland, upon which occasion + Zeppelins soared over England—at their will. Then the authorities + woke up, and an extensive scheme of anti-aircraft guns and squadrons of + aeroplanes was devised. About March of the year 1916 the Germans began to + break the monotony of the Zeppelin raids by using sea-planes as variants. + So there was plenty of work for our new defensive air force. Indeed, + people began to ask themselves why we should not hit back by making raids + into Germany. The subject was well aired in the public press, and + distinguished advocates came forward for and against the policy of + reprisals. At a considerably later date reprisals carried the day, and, as + we write, air raids by the British into Germany are of frequent + occurrence. + </p> + <p> + In March, 1916, the fruits of the new policy began to appear, and people + found them very refreshing. A fleet of Zeppelins found, on approaching the + mouth of the Thames, a very warm reception. Powerful searchlights, and + shells from new anti-aircraft guns, played all round them. At length a + shot got home. One of the Zeppelins, "winged" by a shell, began a wobbly + retreat which ended in the waters of the estuary. The navy finished the + business. The wrecked air-ship was quickly surrounded by a little fleet of + destroyers and patrol-boats, and the crew were brought ashore, prisoners. + That same night yet another Zeppelin was hit and damaged in another part + of the country. + </p> + <p> + Raids followed in such quick succession as to be almost of nightly + occurrence during the favouring moonless nights. Later, the conditions + were reversed, and the attacks by aeroplane were all made in bright + moonlight. But ever the defence became more strenuous. Then aeroplanes + began to play the role of "hornets", as Mr. Winston Churchill, speaking + rather too previously, designated them. + </p> + <p> + Lieutenant Brandon, R.F.C., succeeded in dropping several aerial bombs on + a Zeppelin during the raid on March 31, but it was not until six months + later that an airman succeeded in bringing down a Zeppelin on British + soil. The credit of repeating Lieutenant Warneford's great feat belongs to + Lieutenant W. R. Robinson, and the fight was witnessed by a large + gathering. It occurred in the very formidable air raid on the night of + September 2. Breathlessly the spectators watched the Zeppelin harried by + searchlight and shell-fire. Suddenly it disappeared behind a veil of smoke + which it had thrown out to baffle its pursuers. Then it appeared again, + and a loud shout went up from the watching thousands. It was silhouetted + against the night clouds in a faint line of fire. The hue deepened, the + glow spread all round, and the doomed airship began its crash to earth in + a smother of flame. The witnesses to this amazing spectacle naturally + supposed that a shell had struck the Zeppelin. Its tiny assailant that had + dealt the death-blow had been quite invisible during the fight. Only on + the following morning did the public learn of Lieutenant Robinson's feat. + It appeared that he had been in the air a couple of hours, engaged in + other conflicts with his monster foes. Besides the V.C. the plucky airman + won considerable money prizes from citizens for destroying the first + Zeppelin on British soil. + </p> + <p> + The Zeppelin raids continued at varying intervals for the remainder of the + year. As the power of the defence increased the air-ships were forced to + greater altitudes, with a corresponding decrease in the accuracy with + which they could aim bombs on specified objects. But, however futile the + raids, and however widely they missed their mark, there was no falling off + in the outrageous claims made in the German communiques. Bombs dropped in + fields, waste lands, and even the sea, masqueraded in the reports as + missiles which had sunk ships in harbour, destroyed docks, and started + fires in important military areas. So persistent were these exaggerations + that it became evident that the Zeppelin raids were intended quite as much + for moral effect at home as for material damage abroad. The heartening + effect of the raids upon the German populace is evidenced by the mental + attitude of men made prisoners on any of the fronts. Only with the utmost + difficulty were their captors able to persuade them that London and other + large towns were not in ruins; that shipbuilding was not at a standstill; + and that the British people was not ready at any moment to purchase + indemnity from the raids by concluding a German peace. When one method of + terrorism fails try another, was evidently the German motto. After the + Zeppelin the Gotha, and after that the submarine. + </p> + <p> + The next year—1917—brought in a very welcome change in the + situation. One Zeppelin after another met with its just deserts, the + British navy in particular scoring heavily against them. Nor must the + skill and enterprise of our French allies be forgotten. In March, 1917, + they shot down a Zeppelin at Compiegne, and seven months later dealt the + blow which finally rid these islands of the Zeppelin menace. + </p> + <p> + For nearly a year London, owing to its greatly increased defences, had + been free from attack. Then, on the night of October 19, Germany made a + colossal effort to make good their boast of laying London in ruins. A + fleet of eleven Zeppelins came over, five of which found the city. One, + drifting low and silently, was responsible for most of the casualties, + which totalled 34 killed and 56 injured. + </p> + <p> + The fleet got away from these shores without mishap. Then, at long last, + came retribution. Flying very high, they seem to have encountered an + aerial storm which drove them helplessly over French territory. Our allies + were swift to seize this golden opportunity. Their airmen and + anti-aircraft guns shot down no less than four of the Zeppelins in broad + daylight, one of which was captured whole. Of the remainder, one at least + drifted over the Mediterranean, and was not heard of again. That was the + last of the Zeppelin, so far as the civilian population was concerned. + But, for nearly a year, the work of killing citizens had been undertaken + by the big bomb-dropping Gotha aeroplanes. + </p> + <p> + The work of the Gotha belongs rightly to the second part of this book, + which deals with aeroplanes and airmen; but it would be convenient to + dispose here of the part played by the Gotha in the air raids upon this + country. + </p> + <p> + The reconnaissance took place on Tuesday, November 28, 1916, when in a + slight haze a German aeroplane suddenly appeared over London, dropped six + bombs, and flew off. The Gotha was intercepted off Dunkirk by the French, + and brought down. Pilot and observer-two naval lieutenants-were found to + have a large-scale map of London in their possession. The new era of raids + had commenced. + </p> + <p> + Very soon it became evident that the new squadron of Gothas were much more + destructive than the former fleets of unwieldy Zeppelins. These great + Gothas were each capable of dropping nearly a ton of bombs. And their + heavy armament and swift flight rendered them far less vulnerable than the + air-ship. + </p> + <p> + From March 1 to October 31, 1917, no less than twenty-two raids took + place, chiefly on London and towns on the south-east coast. The casualties + amounted to 484 killed and 410 wounded. The two worst raids occurred June + 13 on East London, and September 3 on the Sheerness and Chatham area. + </p> + <p> + A squadron of fifteen aeroplanes carried out the raid, on June 13, and + although they were only over the city for a period of fifteen minutes the + casualty list was exceedingly heavy—104 killed and 432 wounded. Many + children were among the killed and injured as the result of a bomb which + fell upon a Council school. The raid was carried out in daylight, and the + bombs began to drop before any warning could be given. Later, an effective + and comprehensive system of warnings was devised, and when people had + acquired the habit of taking shelter, instead of rushing out into the + street to see the aerial combats, the casualties began to diminish. + </p> + <p> + It is worthy of record that the possible danger to schools had been + anticipated, and for some weeks previously the children had taken part in + "Air Raid Drill". When the raid came, the children behaved in the most + exemplary fashion. They went through the manoeuvres as though it was + merely a rehearsal, and their bearing as well as the coolness of the + teachers obviated all danger from panic. In this raid the enemy first made + use of aerial torpedoes. + </p> + <p> + Large loss of life, due to a building being struck, was also the feature + of the moonlight raid on September 4. On this occasion enemy airmen found + a mark on the Royal Naval barracks at Sheerness. The barracks were fitted + with hammocks for sleeping, and no less than 108 bluejackets lost their + lives, the number of wounded amounting to 92. Although the raid lasted + nearly an hour and powerful searchlights were brought into play, neither + guns nor our airmen succeeded in causing any loss to the raiders. Bombs + were dropped at a number of other places, including Margate and Southend, + but without result. + </p> + <p> + No less than six raids took place on London before the end of the month, + but the greatest number of killed in any one of the raids was eleven, + while on September 28 the raiders were driven off before they could claim + any victims. The establishment of a close barrage of aerial guns did much + to discourage the raiders, and gradually London, from being the most + vulnerable spot in the British Isles, began to enjoy comparative immunity + from attack. + </p> + <p> + Paris, too, during the Great War has had to suffer bombardment from the + air, but not nearly to the same extent as London. The comparative immunity + of Paris from air raids is due partly to the prompt measures which were + taken to defend the capital. The French did not wait, as did the British, + until the populace was goaded to the last point of exasperation, but + quickly instituted the barrage system, in which we afterwards followed + their lead. Moreover, the French were much more prompt in adopting + retaliatory tactics. They hit back without having to wade through long + moral and philosophical disquisitions upon the ethics of "reprisals". On + the other hand, it must be remembered that Paris, from the aerial + standpoint, is a much more difficult objective than London. The enemy + airman has to cross the French lines, which, like his own, stretch for + miles in the rear. Practically he is in hostile country all the time, and + he has to get back across the same dangerous air zones. It is a far easier + task to dodge a few sea-planes over the wide seas en route to London. And + on reaching the coast the airman has to evade or fight scattered local + defences, instead of penetrating the close barriers which confront him all + the way to Paris. + </p> + <p> + Since the first Zeppelin attack on Paris on March 21, 1915, when two of + the air-ships reached the suburbs, killing 23 persons and injuring 30, + there have been many raids and attempted raids, but mostly by single + machines. The first air raid in force upon the French capital took place + on January 31, 1918, when a squadron of Gothas crossed the lines north of + Compiegne. Two hospitals were hit, and the casualties from the raid + amounted to 20 killed and 50 wounded. + </p> + <p> + After the Italian set-back in the winter of 1917, the Venetian plain lay + open to aerial bombardment by the Germans, who had given substantial + military aid to their Austrian allies. This was an opportunity not to be + lost by Germany, and Venice and other towns of the plain were subject to + systematic bombardment. + </p> + <p> + At the time of writing, Germany is beginning to suffer some of the + annoyances she is so ready to inflict upon others. The recently + constituted Air Ministry have just published figures relating to the air + raids into Germany from December 1, 1917, to February 19, 1918 inclusive. + During these eleven weeks no fewer than thirty-five raids have taken place + upon a variety of towns, railways, works, and barracks. In the list figure + such important towns as Mannheim (pop. 20,000) and Metz (pop. 100,000). + The average weight of bombs dropped at each raid works out about 1000 lbs. + This welcome official report is but one of many signs which point the way + to the growing supremacy of the Allies in the air. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_PART2" id="link2H_PART2"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + PART II. AEROPLANES AND AIRMEN + </h2> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0014" id="link2HCH0014"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XIV. Early Attempts in Aviation + </h2> + <p> + The desire to fly is no new growth in humanity. For countless years men + have longed to emulate the birds—"To soar upward and glide, free as + a bird, over smiling fields, leafy woods, and mirror-like lakes," as a + great pioneer of aviation said. Great scholars and thinkers of old, such + as Horace, Homer, Pindar, Tasso, and all the glorious line, dreamt of + flight, but it has been left for the present century to see those dreams + fulfilled. + </p> + <p> + Early writers of the fourth century saw the possibility of aerial + navigation, but those who tried to put their theories in practice were + beset by so many difficulties that they rarely succeeded in leaving the + ground. + </p> + <p> + Most of the early pioneers of aviation believed that if a man wanted to + fly he must provide himself with a pair of wings similar to those of a + large bird. The story goes that a certain abbot told King James IV of + Scotland that he would fly from Stirling Castle to Paris. He made for + himself powerful wings of eagles' feathers, which he fixed to his body and + launched himself into the air. As might be expected, he fell and broke his + legs. + </p> + <p> + But although the muscles of man are of insufficient strength to bear him + in the air, it has been found possible, by using a motor engine, to give + to man the power of flight which his natural weakness denied him. + </p> + <p> + Scientists estimate that to raise a man of about 12 stone in the air and + enable him to fly there would be required an immense pair of wings over 20 + feet in span. In comparison with the weight of a man a bird's weight is + remarkably small—the largest bird does not weigh much more than 20 + pounds—but its wing muscles are infinitely stronger in proportion + than the shoulder and arm muscles of a man. + </p> + <p> + As we shall see in a succeeding chapter, the "wing" theory was persevered + with for many years some two or three centuries ago, and later on it was + of much use in providing data for the gradual development of the modern + aeroplane. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0015" id="link2HCH0015"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XV. A Pioneer in Aviation + </h2> + <p> + Hitherto we have traced the gradual development of the balloon right from + the early days of aeronautics, when the brothers Montgolfier constructed + their hot-air balloon, down to the most modern dirigible. It is now our + purpose, in this and subsequent chapters, to follow the course of the + pioneers of aviation. + </p> + <p> + It must not be supposed that the invention of the steerable balloon was + greatly in advance of that of the heavier-than-air machine. Indeed, + developments in both the dirigible airship and the aeroplane have taken + place side by side. In some cases men like Santos Dumont have given + earnest attention to both forms of air-craft, and produced practical + results with both. Thus, after the famous Brazilian aeronaut had won the + Deutsch prize for a flight in an air-ship round the Eiffel tower, he + immediately set to work to construct an aeroplane which he subsequently + piloted at Bagatelle and was awarded the first "Deutsch prize" for + aviation. + </p> + <p> + It is generally agreed that the undoubted inventor of the aeroplane, + practically in the form in which it now appears, was an English engineer, + Sir George Cayley. Just over a hundred years ago this clever Englishman + worked out complete plans for an aeroplane, which in many vital respects + embodied the principal parts of the monoplane as it exists to-day. + </p> + <p> + There were wings which were inclined so that they formed a lifting plane; + moreover, the wings were curved, or "cambered", similar to the wing of a + bird, and, as we shall see in a later chapter, this curve is one of the + salient features of the plane of a modern heavier-than-air machine. Sir + George also advocated the screw propeller worked by some form of + "explosion" motor, which at that time had not arrived. Indeed, if there + had been a motor available it is quite possible that England would have + led the way in aviation. But, unfortunately, owing to the absence of a + powerful motor engine, Sir George's ideas could not be practically carried + out till nearly a century later, and then Englishmen were forestalled by + the Wright brothers, of America, as well as by several French inventors. + </p> + <p> + The distinguished French writer, Alphonse Berget, in his book, The + Conquest of the Air, pays a striking tribute to our English inventor, and + this, coming from a gentleman who is writing from a French point of view, + makes the praise of great value. In alluding to Sir George, M. Berget + says: "The inventor, the incontestable forerunner of aviation, was an + Englishman, Sir George Cayley, and it was in 1809 that he described his + project in detail in Nicholson's Journal.... His idea embodied + 'everything'—the wings forming an oblique sail, the empennage, the + spindle forms to diminish resistance, the screw-propeller, the 'explosion' + motor,... he even described a means of securing automatic stability. Is + not all that marvellous, and does it not constitute a complete + specification for everything in aviation? + </p> + <p> + "Thus it is necessary to inscribe the name of Sir George Cayley in letters + of gold, in the first page of the aeroplane's history. Besides, the + learned Englishman did not confine himself to 'drawing-paper': he built + the first apparatus (without a motor) which gave him results highly + promising. Then he built a second machine, this time with a motor, but + unfortunately during the trials it was smashed to pieces." + </p> + <p> + But were these ideas of any practical value? How is it that he did not + succeed in flying, if he had most of the component parts of an aeroplane + as we know it to-day? + </p> + <p> + The answer to the second question is that Sir George did not fly, simply + because there was no light petrol motor in existence; the crude motors in + use were far too heavy, in proportion to the power developed, for service + in a flying machine. It was recognized, not only by Sir George, but by + many other English engineers in the first half of the nineteenth century, + that as soon as a sufficiently powerful and light engine did appear, then + half the battle of the conquest of the air would be won. + </p> + <p> + But his prophetic voice was of the utmost assistance to such inventors as + Santos Dumont, the Wright brothers, M. Bleriot, and others now + world-famed. It is quite safe to assume that they gave serious attention + to the views held by Sir George, which were given to the world at large in + a number of highly-interesting lectures and magazine articles. "Ideas" are + the very foundation-stones of invention—if we may be allowed the + figure of speech—and Englishmen are proud, and rightly proud, to + number within their ranks the original inventor of the heavier-than-air + machine. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0016" id="link2HCH0016"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XVI. The "Human Birds" + </h2> + <p> + For many years after the publication of Sir George Cayley's articles and + lectures on aviation very little was done in the way of aerial + experiments. True, about midway through the nineteenth century two clever + engineers, Henson and Stringfellow, built a model aeroplane after the + design outlined by Sir George; but though their model was not of much + practical value, a little more valuable experience was accumulated which + would be of service when the time should come; in other words, when the + motor engine should arrive. This model can be seen at the Victoria and + Albert Museum, at South Kensington. + </p> + <p> + A few years later Stringfellow designed a tiny steam-engine, which he + fitted to an equally tiny monoplane, and it is said that by its aid he was + able to obtain a very short flight through the air. As some recognition of + his enterprise the Aeronautical Society, which was founded in 1866, + awarded him a prize of L100 for his engine. + </p> + <p> + The idea of producing a practical form of flying machine was never + abandoned entirely. Here and there experiments continued to be carried + out, and certain valuable conclusions were arrived at. Many advanced + thinkers and writers of half a century ago set forth their opinions on the + possibilities of human flight. Some of them, like Emerson, not only + believed that flight would come, but also stated why it had not arrived. + Thus Emerson, when writing on the subject of air navigation about fifty + years ago, remarked: "We think the population is not yet quite fit for + them, and therefore there will be none. Our friend suggests so many + inconveniences from piracy out of the high air to orchards and lone + houses, and also to high fliers, and the total inadequacy of the present + system of defence, that we have not the heart to break the sleep of the + great public by the repetition of these details. When children come into + the library we put the inkstand and the watch on the high shelf until they + be a little older." + </p> + <p> + About the year 1870 a young German engineer, named Otto Lilienthal, began + some experiments with a motorless glider, which in course of time were to + make him world-famed. For nearly twenty years Lilienthal carried on his + aerial research work in secrecy, and it was not until about the year 1890 + that his experimental work was sufficiently advanced for him to give + demonstrations in public. + </p> + <p> + The young German was a firm believer in what was known as the + "soaring-plane" theory of flight. From the picture here given we can get + some idea of his curious machine. It consisted of large wings, formed of + thin osiers, over which was stretched light fabric. At the back were two + horizontal rudders shaped somewhat like the long forked tail of a swallow, + and over these was a large steering rudder. The wings were arranged around + the glider's body. The whole apparatus weighed about 40 pounds. + </p> + <p> + Lilienthal's flights, or glides, were made from the top of a + specially-constructed large mound, and in some cases from the summit of a + low tower. The "birdman" would stand on the top of the mound, full to the + wind, and run quickly forward with outstretched wings. When he thought he + had gained sufficient momentum he jumped into the air, and the wings of + the glider bore him through the air to the base of the mound. + </p> + <p> + To preserve the balance of his machine—always a most difficult feat—he + swung his legs and hips to one side or the other, as occasion required, + and, after hundreds of glides had been made, he became so skilful in + maintaining the equilibrium of his machine that he was able to cover a + distance, downhill, of 300 yards. + </p> + <p> + Later on, Lilienthal abandoned the glider, or elementary form of + monoplane, and adopted a system of superposed planes, corresponding to the + modern biplane. The promising career of this clever German was brought to + an untimely end in 1896, when, in attempting to glide from a height of + about 80 yards, his apparatus made a sudden downward swoop, and he broke + his neck. + </p> + <p> + Now that Lillenthal's experiments had proved conclusively the efficiency + of wings, or planes, as carrying surfaces, other engineers followed in his + footsteps, and tried to improve on his good work. + </p> + <p> + The first "birdman" to use a glider in this country was Mr. Percy Pilcher + who carried out his experiments at Cardross in Scotland. His glides were + at first made with a form of apparatus very similar to that employed by + Lilienthal, and in time he came to use much larger machines. So + cumbersome, however, was his apparatus—it weighed nearly 4 stones—that + with such a great weight upon his shoulders he could not run forward + quickly enough to gain sufficient momentum to "carry off" from the + hillside. To assist him in launching the apparatus the machine was towed + by horses, and when sufficient impetus had been gained the tow-rope was + cast off. + </p> + <p> + Three years after Lilienthal's death Pilcher met with a similar accident. + While making a flight his glider was overturned, and the unfortunate + "birdman" was dashed to death. + </p> + <p> + In America there were at this time two or three "human birds", one of the + most famous being M. Octave Chanute. During the years 1895-7 Chanute made + many flights in various types of gliding machines, some of which had as + many as half a dozen planes arranged one above another. His best results, + however, were obtained by the two-plane machine, resembling to a + remarkable extent the modern biplane. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0017" id="link2HCH0017"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XVII. The Aeroplane and the Bird + </h2> + <p> + We have seen that the inventors of flying machines in the early days of + aviation modelled their various craft somewhat in the form of a bird, and + that many of them believed that if the conquest of the air was to be + achieved man must copy nature and provide himself with wings. + </p> + <p> + Let us closely examine a modern monoplane and discover in what way it + resembles the body of a bird in build. + </p> + <p> + First, there is the long and comparatively narrow body, or FUSELAGE, at + the end of which is the rudder, corresponding to the bird's tail. The + chassis, or under carriage, consisting of wheels, skids, &c., may well + be compared with the legs of a bird, and the planes are very similar in + construction to the bird's wings. But here the resemblance ends: the + aeroplane does not fly, nor will it ever fly, as a bird flies. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +If we carefully inspect the wing of a bird—say a large bird, such as +the crow—we shall find it curved or arched from front to back. This +curve, however, is somewhat irregular. At the front edge of the wing +it is sharpest, and there is a gradual dip or slope backwards and +downwards. There is a special reason for this peculiar structure, as we +shall see in a later chapter. + + Now it is quite evident that the inventors of aeroplanes have +modelled the planes of their craft on the bird's wing. Strictly +speaking, the word "plane" is a misnomer when applied to the supporting +structure of an aeroplane. Euclid defines a plane, or a plane surface, +as one in which, any two points being taken, the straight line between +them lies wholly in that surface. But the plane of a flying machine is +curved, or CAMBERED, and if one point were taken on the front of the +so-called plane, and another on the back, a straight line joining these +two points could not possibly lie wholly on the surface. +</pre> + <p> + All planes are not cambered to the same extent: some have a very small + curvature; in others the curve is greatly pronounced. Planes of the former + type are generally fitted to racing aeroplanes, because they offer less + resistance to the air than do deeply-cambered planes. Indeed, it is in the + degree of camber that the various types of flying machine show their chief + diversity, just as the work of certain shipmasters is known by the + particular lines of the bow and stern of the vessels which are built in + their yards. + </p> + <p> + Birds fly by a flapping movement of their wings, or by soaring. We are + quite familiar with both these actions: at one time the bird propels + itself by means of powerful muscles attached to its wings by means of + which the wings are flapped up and down; at another time the bird, with + wings nicely adjusted so as to take advantage of all the peculiarities of + the air currents, keeps them almost stationary, and soars or glides + through the air. + </p> + <p> + The method of soaring alone has long since been proved to be impracticable + as a means of carrying a machine through the air, unless, of course, one + describes the natural glide of an aeroplane from a great height down to + earth as soaring. But the flapping motion was not proved a failure until + numerous experiments by early aviators had been tried. + </p> + <p> + Probably the most successful attempt at propulsion by this method was that + of a French locksmith named Besnier. Over two hundred years ago he made + for himself a pair of light wooden paddles, with blades at either end, + somewhat similar in shape to the double paddle of a canoe. These he placed + over his shoulders, his feet being attached by ropes to the hindmost + paddles. Jumping off from some high place in the face of a stiff breeze, + he violently worked his arms and legs, so that the paddles beat the air + and gave him support. It is said that Besnier became so expert in the + management of his simple apparatus that he was able to raise himself from + the ground, and skim lightly over fields and rivers for a considerable + distance. + </p> + <p> + Now it has been shown that the enormous extent of wing required to support + a man of average weight would be much too large to be flapped by man's arm + muscles. But in this, as with everything else, we have succeeded in + harnessing the forces of nature into our service as tools and machinery. + </p> + <p> + And is not this, after all, one of the chief, distinctions between man and + the lower orders of creation? The latter fulfil most of their bodily + requirements by muscular effort. If a horse wants to get from one place to + another it walks; man can go on wheels. None of the lower animals makes a + single tool to assist it in the various means of sustaining life; but man + puts on his "thinking-cap", and invents useful machines and tools to + enable him to assist or dispense with muscular movement. + </p> + <p> + Thus we find that in aviation man has designed the propeller, which, by + its rapid revolutions derived from the motive power of the aerial engine, + cuts a spiral pathway through the air and drives the light craft rapidly + forward. The chief use of the planes is for support to the machine, and + the chief duty of the pilot is to balance and steer the craft by the + manipulation of the rudder, elevation and warping controls. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0018" id="link2HCH0018"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XVIII. A Great British Inventor of Aeroplanes + </h2> + <p> + Though, as we have seen, most of the early attempts at aerial navigation + were made by foreign engineers, yet we are proud to number among the ranks + of the early inventors of heavier-than-air machines Sir Hiram Maxim, who, + though an American by birth, has spent most of his life in Britain and may + therefore be called a British inventor. + </p> + <p> + Perhaps to most of us this inventor's name is known more in connection + with the famous "Maxim" gun, which he designed, and which was named after + him. But as early as 1894, when the construction of aeroplanes was in a + very backward state, Sir Hiram succeeded in making an interesting and + ingenious aeroplane, which he proposed to drive by a particularly light + steam-engine. + </p> + <p> + Sir Hiram's first machine, which was made in 1890, was designed to be + guided by a double set of rails, one set arranged below and the other + above its running wheels. The intention was to make the machine raise + itself just off the ground rails, but yet be prevented from soaring by the + set of guard rails above the wheels, which acted as a check on it. The + motive force was given by a very powerful steam-engine of over 300 + horse-power, and this drove two enormous propellers, some 17 feet in + length. The total weight of the machine was 8000 pounds, but even with + this enormous weight the engine was capable of raising the machine from + the ground. + </p> + <p> + For three or four years Sir Hiram made numerous experiments with his + aeroplane, but in 1894 it broke through the upper guard rail and turned + itself over among the surrounding trees, wrecking itself badly. + </p> + <p> + But though the Maxim aeroplane did not yield very practical results, it + proved that if a lighter but more powerful engine could be made, the chief + difficulty iii the way of aerial flight would be removed. This was soon + forthcoming in the invention of the petrol motor. In a lecture to the + Scottish Aeronautical Society, delivered in Glasgow in November, 1913, Sir + Hiram claimed to be the inventor of the first machine which actually rose + from the earth. Before the distinguished inventor spoke of his own work in + aviation he recalled experiments made by his father in 1856-7, when Sir + Hiram was sixteen years of age. The flying machine designed by the elder + Maxim consisted of a small platform, which it was proposed to lift + directly into the air by the action of two screw-propellers revolving in + reverse directions. For a motor the inventor intended to employ some kind + of explosive material, gunpowder preferred, but the lecturer distinctly + remembered that his father said that if an apparatus could be successfully + navigated through the air it would be of such inevitable value as a + military engine that no matter how much it might cost to run it would be + used by Governments. + </p> + <p> + Of his own claim as an inventor of air-craft it would be well to quote Sir + Hiram's actual words, as given by the Glasgow Herald, which contained a + full report of the lecture. + </p> + <p> + "Some forty years ago, when I commenced to think of the subject, my first + idea was to lift my machine by vertical propellers, and I actually + commenced drawings and made calculations for a machine on that plan, using + an oil motor, or something like a Brayton engine, for motive power. + However, I was completely unable to work out any system which would not be + too heavy to lift itself directly into the air, and it was only when I + commenced to study the aeroplane system that it became apparent to me that + it would be possible to make a machine light enough and powerful enough to + raise itself without the agency of a balloon. From the first I was + convinced that it would be quite out of the question to employ a balloon + in any form. At that time the light high-speed petrol motor had no + existence. The only power available being steam-engines, I made all my + calculations with a view of using steam as the motive power. While I was + studying the question of the possibility of making a flying machine that + would actually fly, I became convinced that there was but one system to + work on, and that was the aeroplane system. I made many calculations, and + found that an aeroplane machine driven by a steam-engine ought to lift + itself into the air." + </p> + <p> + Sir Hiram then went on to say that it was the work of making an automatic + gun which was the direct cause of his experiments with flying machines. To + continue the report: + </p> + <p> + "One day I was approached by three gentlemen who were interested in the + gun, and they asked me if it would be possible for me to build a flying + machine, how long it would take, and how much it would cost. My reply was + that it would take five years and would cost L50,000. The first three + years would be devoted to developing a light internal-combustion engine, + and the remaining two years to making a flying machine. + </p> + <p> + "Later on a considerable sum of money was placed at my disposal, and the + experiments commenced, but unfortunately the gun business called for my + attention abroad, and during the first two years of the experimental work + I was out of England eighteen months. + </p> + <p> + "Although I had thought much of the internal-combustion engine it seemed + to me that it would take too long to develop one and that it would be a + hopeless task in my absence from England; so I decided that in my first + experiments at least I would use a steam-engine. I therefore designed and + made a steam-engine and boiler of which Mr. Charles Parsons has since said + that, next to the Maxim gun, it developed more energy for its weight than + any other heat engine ever made. That was true at the time, but is very + wide of the mark now." + </p> + <p> + Speaking of motors, the veteran lecturer remarked: "Perhaps there was no + problem in the world on which mathematicians had differed so widely as on + the problem of flight. Twenty years ago experimenters said: 'Give us a + motor that will develop 1 horse-power with the weight of a barnyard fowl, + and we will very soon fly.' At the present moment they had motors which + would develop over 2 horse-power and did not weigh more than a 12-pound + barnyard fowl. These engines had been developed—I might say created—by + the builders of motor cars. Extreme lightness had been gradually obtained + by those making racing cars, and that had been intensified by aviators. In + many cases a speed of 80 or 100 miles per hour had been attained, and + machines had remained in the air for hours and had flown long distances. + In some cases nearly a ton had been carried for a short distance." + </p> + <p> + Such words as these, coming from the lips of a great inventor, give us a + deep insight into the working of the inventor's mind, and, incidentally, + show us some of the difficulties which beset all pioneers in their tasks. + The science of aviation is, indeed, greatly indebted to these early + inventors, not the least of whom is the gallant Sir Hiram Maxim. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0019" id="link2HCH0019"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XIX. The Wright Brothers and their Secret Experiments + </h2> + <p> + In the beginning of the twentieth century many of the leading European + newspapers contained brief reports of aerial experiments which were being + carried out at Dayton, in the State of Ohio, America. So wonderful were + the results of these experiments, and so mysterious were the movements of + the two brothers—Orville and Wilbur Wright—who conducted them, + that many Europeans would not believe the reports. + </p> + <p> + No inventors have gone about their work more carefully, methodically, and + secretly than did these two Americans, who, hidden from prying eyes, "far + from the madding crowd", obtained results which brought them undying fame + in the world of aviation. + </p> + <p> + For years they worked at their self-imposed task of constructing a flying + machine which would really soar among the clouds. They had read brief + accounts of the experiments carried out by Otto Lilienthal, and in many + ways the ground had been well paved for them. It was their great ambition + to become real "human birds"; "birds" that would not only glide along down + the hillside, but would fly free and unfettered, choosing their aerial + paths of travel and their places of destination. + </p> + <p> + Though there are few reliable accounts of their work in those remote + American haunts, during the first six years of the present century, the + main facts of their life-history are now well known, and we are able to + trace their experiments, step by step, from the time when they constructed + their first simple aeroplane down to the appearance of the marvellous + biplane which has made them world-famed. + </p> + <p> + For some time the Wrights experimented with a glider, with which they + accomplished even more wonderful results than those obtained by + Lilienthal. These two young American engineers—bicycle-makers by + trade—were never in a hurry. Step by step they made progress, first + with kites, then with small gliders, and ultimately with a large one. The + latter was launched into the air by men running forward with it until + sufficient momentum had been gained for the craft to go forward on its own + account. + </p> + <p> + The first aeroplane made by the two brothers was a very simple one, as was + the method adopted to balance the craft. There were two main planes made + of long spreads of canvas arranged one above another, and on the lower + plane the pilot lay. A little plane in front of the man was known as the + ELEVATOR, and it could be moved up and down by the pilot; when the + elevator was tilted up, the aeroplane ascended, when lowered, the machine + descended. + </p> + <p> + At the back was a rudder, also under control of the pilot. The pilot's + feet, in a modern aeroplane, rest upon a bar working on a central swivel, + and this moves the rudder. To turn to the left, the left foot is moved + forward; to turn to the right the right foot. + </p> + <p> + But it was in the balancing control of their machine that the Wrights + showed such great ingenuity. Running from the edges of the lower plane + were some wires which met at a point where the pilot could control them. + The edges of the plane were flexible; that is, they could be bent slightly + either up or down, and this movement of the flexible plane is known as + WING WARPING. + </p> + <p> + You know that when a cyclist is going round a curve his machine leans + inwards. Perhaps some of you have seen motor races, such as those held at + Brooklands; if so, you must have noticed that the track is banked very + steeply at the corners, and when the motorist is going round these corners + at, say, 80 miles an hour, his motor makes a considerable angle with the + level ground, and looks as if it must topple over. The aeroplane acts in a + similar manner, and, unless some means are taken to prevent it, it will + turn over. + </p> + <p> + Let us now see how the pilot worked the "Wright" glider. Suppose the + machine tilted down on one side, while in the air, the pilot would pull + down, or warp, the edges of the planes on that side of the machine which + was the lower. By an ingenious contrivance, when one side was warped down, + the other was warped up, with the effect that the machine would be brought + back into a horizontal position. (As we shall return to the subject of + wing warping in a later chapter, we need not discuss it further here.) + </p> + <p> + It must not be imagined that as soon as the Wrights had constructed a + glider fitted with this clever system of controlling mechanism they could + fly when and where they liked. They had to practise for two or three years + before they were satisfied with the results of their experiments: + neglecting no detail, profiting by their failures, and moving logically + from step to step. They never attempted an experiment rashly: there was + always a reason for what they did. In fact, their success was due to + systematic progress, achieved by wonderful perseverance. + </p> + <p> + But now, for a short time, we must leave the pioneer work of the Wright + brothers, and turn to the invention of the petrol engine as applied to the + motor car, an invention which was destined to have far-reaching results on + the science of aviation. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0020" id="link2HCH0020"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XX. The Internal-combustion Engine + </h2> + <p> + We have several times remarked upon the great handicap placed upon the + pioneers of aviation by the absence of a light but powerful motor engine. + The invention of the internal-combustion engine may be said to have + revolutionized the science of flying; had it appeared a century ago, there + is no reason to doubt that Sir George Cayley would have produced an + aeroplane giving as good results as the machines which have appeared + during the last five or six years. + </p> + <p> + The motor engine and the aeroplane are inseparably connected; one is as + necessary to the other as clay is to the potter's wheel, or coal to the + blast-furnace. This being the case, it is well that we trace briefly the + development of the engine during the last quarter of a century. + </p> + <p> + The original mechanical genius of the motoring industry was Gottlieb + Daimler, the founder of the immense Daimler Motor Works of Coventry. + Perhaps nothing in the world of industry has made more rapid strides + during the last twenty years than automobilism. In 1900 our road traction + was carried on by means of horses; now, especially in the large cities, it + is already more than half mechanical, and at the present rate of progress + it bids fair to be soon entirely horseless. + </p> + <p> + About the year 1885 Daimler was experimenting with models of a small motor + engine, and the following year he fitted one of his most successful models + to a light wagonette. The results were so satisfactory, that in 1888 he + took out a patent for an internal-combustion engine—as the motor + engine is technically called—and the principle on which this engine + was worked aroused great enthusiasm on the Continent. + </p> + <p> + Soon a young French engineer, named Levassor, began to experiment with + models of motor engines, and in 1889 he obtained, with others, the Daimler + rights to construct similar engines in France. From now on, French + engineers began to give serious attention to the new engine, and soon + great improvements were made in it. All this time Britain held aloof from + the motor-car; indeed, many Britons scoffed at the idea of + mechanically-propelled vehicles, saying that the time and money required + for their development would be wasted. + </p> + <p> + During the years 1888-1900 strange reports of smooth-moving, horseless + cars, frequently appearing in public in France, began to reach Britain, + and people wondered if the French had stolen a march on us, and if there + were anything in the new invention after all. Our engineers had just begun + to grasp the immense possibilities of Daimler's engine, but the Government + gave them no encouragement. + </p> + <p> + At length the Hon. Evelyn Ellis, one of the first British motorists, + introduced the "horseless carriage" into this country, and the following + account of his early trips, which appeared in the Windsor and Eton Express + of 27th July, 1895, may be interesting. + </p> + <p> + "If anyone cares to run over to Datchet, they will see the Hon. Evelyn + Ellis, of Rosenau, careering round the roads, up hill and down dale, and + without danger to life or limb, in his new motor carriage, which he + brought over a short time ago from Paris. + </p> + <p> + "In appearance it is not unlike a four-wheeled dog-cart, except that the + front part has a hood for use on long 'driving' tours, in the event of wet + weather; it will accommodate four persons, one of whom, on the seat + behind, would, of course, be the 'groom', a misnomer, perhaps, for + carriage attendant. Under the front seat are receptacles, one for tools + with which to repair damages, in the event of a breakdown on the road, and + the other for a store of oil, petroleum, or naphtha in cans, from which to + replenish the oil tank of the carriage on the journey, if it be a long + one. + </p> + <p> + "Can it be easily driven? We cannot say that such a vehicle would be + suitable for a lady, unless rubber-tyred wheels and other improvements are + made to the carriage, for a grim grip of the steering handle and a keen + eye are necessary for its safe guidance, more especially if the high road + be rough. It never requires to be fed, and as it is, moreover, + unsusceptible of fatigue, it is obviously the sort of vehicle that should + soon achieve a widespread popularity in this country. + </p> + <p> + "It is a splendid hill climber, and, in fact, such a hill as that of + Priest Hill (a pretty good test of its capabilities) shows that it climbs + at a faster pace than a pedestrian can walk. + </p> + <p> + "A trip from Rosenau to Old Windsor, to the entrance of Beaumont College, + up Priest Hill, descending the steep, rough, and treacherous hill on the + opposite side by Woodside Farm, past the workhouse, through old Windsor, + and back to Rosenau within an hour, amply demonstrated how perfectly under + control this carriage is, while the sensation of being whirled rapidly + along is decidedly pleasing." + </p> + <p> + Another pioneer of motorism was the Hon. C. S. Rolls, whose untimely death + at Bournemouth in 1910, while taking part in the Bournemouth aviation + meeting, was deeply deplored all over the country. Mr. Rolls made a tour + of the country in a motor-car in 1895, with the double object of + impressing people with the stupidity of the law with regard to locomotion, + and of illustrating the practical possibilities of the motor. You may know + that Mr. Rolls was the first man to fly across the Channel, and back again + to Dover, without once alighting. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0021" id="link2HCH0021"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXI. The Internal-combustion Engine(Cont.) + </h2> + <p> + I suppose many of my readers are quite familiar with the working of a + steam-engine. Probably you have owned models of steam-engines right from + your earliest youth, and there are few boys who do not know how the + railway engine works. + </p> + <p> + But though you may be quite familiar with the mechanism of this engine, it + does not follow that you know how the petrol engine works, for the two are + highly dissimilar. It is well, therefore, that we include a short + description of the internal-combustion engine such as is applied to + motor-cars, for then we shall be able to understand the principles of the + aeroplane engine. + </p> + <p> + At present petrol is the chief fuel used for the motor engine. Numerous + experiments have been tried with other fuels, such as benzine, but petrol + yields the best results. + </p> + <p> + Petrol is distilled from oil which comes from wells bored deep down in the + ground in Pennsylvania, in the south of Russia, in Burma, and elsewhere. + Also it is distilled in Scotland from oil shale, from which paraffin oil + and wax and similar substances are produced. When the oil is brought to + the surface it contains many impurities, and in its native form is + unsuitable for motor engines. The crude oil is composed of a number of + different kinds of oil; some being light and clear, others heavy and + thick. + </p> + <p> + To purify the oil it is placed in a large metal vessel or "still". Steam + is first passed over the oil in the still, and this changes the lightest + of the oils into vapours. These vapours are sent through a series of pipes + surrounded with cold water, where they are cooled and become liquid again. + Petrol is a mixture of these lighter products of the oil. + </p> + <p> + If petrol be placed in the air it readily turns into a vapour, and this + vapour is extremely inflammable. For this reason petrol is always kept in + sealed tins, and very large quantities are not allowed to be stored near + large towns. The greatest care has to be exercised in the use of this + "unsafe" spirit. For example, it is most dangerous to smoke when filling a + tank with petrol, or to use the spirit near a naked light. Many motor-cars + have been set on fire through the petrol leaking out of the tank in which + it is carried. + </p> + <p> + The tank which contains the petrol is placed under one of the seats of the + motor-car, or at the rear; if in use on a motor-cycle it is arranged along + the top bar of the frame, just in front of the driver. This tank is + connected to the "carburettor", a little vessel having a small nozzle + projecting upwards in its centre. The petrol trickles from the tank into + the carburettor, and is kept at a constant level by means of a float which + acts in a very similar way to the ballcock of a water cistern. + </p> + <p> + The carburettor is connected to the cylinder of the engine by another + pipe, and there is valve which is opened by the engine itself and is + closed by a spring. By an ingenious contrivance the valve is opened when + the piston moves out of the cylinder, and a vacuum is created behind it + and in the carburettor. This carries a fine spray of petrol to be sucked + up through the nozzle. Air is also sucked into the carburettor, and the + mixture of air and petrol spray produces an inflammable vapour which is + drawn straight into the cylinder of the engine. + </p> + <p> + As soon as the piston moves back, the inlet valve is automatically closed + and the vapour is compressed into the top of the cylinder. This is + exploded by an electric spark, which is passed between two points inside + the cylinder, and the force of the explosion drives the piston outwards + again. On its return the "exhaust" or burnt gases are driven out through + another valve, known as the "exhaust" valve. + </p> + <p> + Whether the engine has two, four, or six cylinders, the car is propelled + in a similar way for all the pistons assist in turning one shaft, called + the engine shaft, which runs along the centre of the car to the back axle. + </p> + <p> + The rapid explosions in the cylinder produce great heat, and the cylinders + are kept cool by circulating water round them. When the water has become + very hot it passes through a number of pipes, called the "radiator", + placed in front of the car; the cold air rushing between the coils cools + the water, so that it can be used over and over again. + </p> + <p> + No water is needed for the engine of a motor cycle. You will notice that + the cylinders are enclosed by wide rings of metal, and these rings are + quite sufficient to radiate the heat as quickly as it is generated. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0022" id="link2HCH0022"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXII. The Aeroplane Engine + </h2> + <p> + We have seen that a very important part of the internal-combustion engine, + as used on the motor-car, is the radiator, which prevents the engine from + becoming overheated and thus ceasing to work. The higher the speed at + which the engine runs the hotter does it become, and the greater the + necessity for an efficient cooling apparatus. + </p> + <p> + But the motor on an aeroplane has to do much harder work than the motor + used for driving the motor-car, while it maintains a much higher speed. + Thus there is an even greater tendency for it to become overheated; and + the great problem which inventors of aeroplane engines have had to face is + the construction of a light but powerful engine equipped with some + apparatus for keeping it cool. + </p> + <p> + Many different forms of aeroplane engines have been invented during the + last few years. Some inventors preferred the radiator system of cooling + the engine, but the tank containing the water, and the radiator itself, + added considerably to the weight of the motor, and this, of course, was a + serious drawback to its employment. + </p> + <p> + But in 1909 there appeared a most ingeniously-constructed engine which was + destined to take a very prominent part in the progress of aviation. This + was the famous "Gnome" engine, by means of which races almost innumerable + have been won, and amazing records established. + </p> + <p> + We have already referred to the engine shaft of the motor-car, which is + revolved by the pistons of the various fixed cylinders. In all aeroplane + engines which had appeared before the Gnome the same principle of + construction had been adopted; that is to say, the cylinders were fixed, + and the engine shaft revolved. + </p> + <p> + But in the Gnome engine the reverse order of things takes place; the shaft + is fixed, and the cylinders fly round it at a tremendous speed. Thus the + rapid whirl in the air keeps the engine cool, and cumbersome tanks and + unwieldy radiators can be dispensed with. This arrangement enabled the + engine to be made very light and yet be of greater horse-power than that + attained by previously-existing engines. + </p> + <p> + A further very important characteristic of the rotary-cylinder engine is + that no flywheel is used; in a stationary engine it has been found + necessary to have a fly-wheel in addition to the propeller. The + rotary-cylinder engine acts as its own fly-wheel, thus again saving + considerable weight. + </p> + <p> + The new engine astonished experts when they first examined it, and all + sorts of disasters to it were predicted. It was of such revolutionary + design that wiseacres shook their heads and said that any pilot who used + it would be constantly in trouble with it. But during the last few years + it has passed from one triumph to another, commencing with a long-distance + record established by Henri Farman at Rheims, in 1909. It has since been + used with success by aviators all the world over. That in the Aerial Derby + of 1913—which was flown over a course Of 94 miles around London—six + of the eleven machines which took part in the race were fitted with Gnome + engines, and victory was achieved by Mr. Gustav Hamel, who drove an + 80-horse-power Gnome, is conclusive evidence of the high value of this + engine in aviation. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0023" id="link2HCH0023"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXIII. A Famous British Inventor of Aviation Engines + </h2> + <p> + In the general design and beauty of workmanship involved in the + construction of aeroplanes, Britain is now quite the equal of her foreign + rivals; even in engines we are making extremely rapid progress, and the + well-known Green Engine Company, profiting by the result of nine years' + experience, are able to turn out aeroplane engines as reliable, efficient, + and as light in pounds weight per horse-power as any aero engine in + existence. + </p> + <p> + In the early days of aviation larger and better engines of British make + specially suited for aeroplanes were our most urgent need. + </p> + <p> + The story of the invention of the "Green" engine is a record of triumph + over great difficulties. + </p> + <p> + Early in 1909—the memorable year when M. Bleriot was firing the + enthusiasm of most engineers by his cross-Channel flight; when records + were being established at Rheims; and when M. Paulhan won the great prize + of L10,000 for the London to Manchester flight—Mr. Green conceived a + number of ingenious ideas for an aero engine. + </p> + <p> + One of Mr. Green's requirements was that the cylinders should be made of + cast-steel, and that they should come from a British foundry. The company + that took the work in hand, the Aster Company, had confidence in the + inventor's ideas. It is said that they had to waste 250 castings before + six perfect cylinders were produced. It is estimated that the first Green + engine cost L6000. These engines can be purchased for less than L500. + </p> + <p> + The closing months of 1909 saw the Green engine firmly established. In + October of that year Mr. Moore Brabazon won the first all-British + competition of L1000 offered by the Daily Mail for the first machine to + fly a circular mile course. His aeroplane was fitted with a 60-horse-power + Green aero engine. In the same year M. Michelin offered L1000 for a + long-distance flight in all-British aviation; this prize was also won by + Mr. Brabazon, who made a flight of 17 miles. + </p> + <p> + Some of Colonel Cody's achievements in aviation were made with the Green + engine. In 1910 he succeeded in winning both the duration and + cross-country Michelin competitions, and in 1911 he again accomplished + similar feats. In this year he also finished fourth in the + all-round-Britain race. This was a most meritorious performance when it is + remembered that his Cathedral weighed nearly a ton and a half, and that + the 60-horse-power Green was practically "untouched", to use an + engineering expression, during the whole of the 1010-mile flight. + </p> + <p> + The following year saw Cody winning another Michelin prize for a + cross-country competition. Here he made a flight of over 200 miles, and + his high opinion of the engine may be best described in the letter he + wrote to the company, saying: "If you kept the engine supplied from + without with petrol and oil, what was within would carry you through". + </p> + <p> + But the pinnacle of Mr. Green's fame as an inventor was reached in 1913, + when Mr. Harry Hawker made his memorable waterplane flight from Cowes to + Lough Shinny, an account of which appears in a later chapter. His machine + was fitted with a 100-horse-power Green, and with it he flew 1043 miles of + the 1540-miles course. + </p> + <p> + Though the complete course was not covered, neither Mr. Sopwith—who + built the machine and bore the expenses of the flight—nor Mr. Hawker + attached any blame to the engine. At a dinner of the Aero Club, given in + 1914, Mr. Sopwith was most enthusiastic in discussing the merits of the + "Green", and after Harry Hawker had recovered from the effects of his fall + in Lough Shinny he remarked in reference to the engine: "It is the best I + have ever met. I do not know any other that would have done anything like + the work." + </p> + <p> + At the same time that this race was being held the French had a + competition from Paris to Deauville, a distance of about 160 miles. When + compared with the time and distance covered by Mr. Hawker, the results + achieved by the French pilots, flying machines fitted with French engines, + were quite insignificant; thus proving how the British industry had caught + up, and even passed, its closest rivals. + </p> + <p> + In 1913 Mr. Grahame White, with one of the 100-horse-power "Greens" + succeeded in winning the duration Michelin with a flight of over 300 + miles, carrying a mechanic and pilot, 85 gallons of petrol, and 12 gallons + of lubricating oil. Compulsory landings were made every 63 miles, and the + engine was stopped. In spite of these trying conditions, the engine ran, + from start to finish, nearly nine hours without the slightest trouble. + </p> + <p> + Sufficient has been said to prove conclusively that the thought and labour + expended in the perfecting of the Green engine have not been fruitless. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0024" id="link2HCH0024"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXIV. The Wright Biplane (Camber of Planes) + </h2> + <p> + Now that the internal-combustion engine had arrived, the Wrights at once + commenced the construction of an aeroplane which could be driven by + mechanical power. Hitherto, as we have seen, they had made numerous tests + with motorless gliders; but though these tests gave them much valuable + information concerning the best methods of keeping their craft on an even + keel while in the air, they could never hope to make much progress in + practical flight until they adopted motor power which would propel the + machine through the air. + </p> + <p> + We may assume that the two brothers had closely studied the engines + patented by Daimler and Levassor, and, being of a mechanical turn of mind + themselves, they were able to build their own motor, with which they could + make experiments in power-driven flight. + </p> + <p> + Before we study the gradual progress of these experiments it would be well + to describe the Wright biplane. The illustration facing p. 96 shows a + typical biplane, and though there are certain modifications in most modern + machines, the principles upon which it was built apply to all aeroplanes. + </p> + <p> + The two main supporting planes, A, B, are made of canvas stretched tightly + across a light frame, and are slightly curved, or arched, from front to + back. This curve is technically known as the CAMBER, and upon the camber + depend the strength and speed of the machine. + </p> + <p> + If you turn back to Chapter XVII you will see that the plane is modelled + after the wing of a bird. It has been found that the lifting power of a + plane gradually dwindles from the front edge—or ENTERING EDGE, as it + is called—backwards. For this reason it is necessary to equip a + machine with a very long, narrow plane, rather than with a comparatively + broad but short plane. + </p> + <p> + Perhaps a little example will make this clear. Suppose we had two + machines, one of which was fitted with planes 144 feet long and 1 foot + wide, and the other with planes 12 feet square. In the former the entering + edge of the plane would be twelve times as great as in the latter, and the + lifting power would necessarily be much greater. Thus, though both + machines have planes of the same area, each plane having a surface of 144 + square feet, yet there is a great difference in the "lift" of the two. + </p> + <p> + But it is not to be concluded that the back portion of a plane is + altogether wasted. Numerous experiments have taught aeroplane constructors + that if the plane were slightly curved from front to back the rear portion + of the plane also exercised a "lift"; thus, instead of the air being + simply cut by the entering edge of the plane, it is driven against the + arched back of the plane, and helps to lift the machine into the air, and + support it when in flight. + </p> + <p> + There is also a secondary lifting impulse derived from this simple curve. + We have seen that the air which has been cut by the front edge of the + plane pushes up from below, and is arrested by the top of the arch, but + the downward dip of the rear portion of the plane is of service in + actually DRAWING THE AIR FROM ABOVE. The rapid air stream which has been + cut by the entering edge passes above the top of the curve, and "sucks + up", as it were, so that the whole wing is pulled upwards. Thus there are + two lifting impulses: one pushing up from below, the other sucking up from + above. + </p> + <p> + It naturally follows that when the camber is very pronounced the machine + will fly much slower, but will bear a greater weight than a machine + equipped with planes having little or no camber. On high-speed machines, + which are used chiefly for racing purposes, the planes have very little + camber. This was particularly noticeable in the monoplane piloted by Mr. + Hamel in the Aerial Derby of 1913: the wings of this machine seemed to be + quite flat, and it was chiefly because of this that the pilot was able to + maintain such marvellous speed. + </p> + <p> + The scientific study of the wing lift of planes has proceeded so far that + the actual "lift" can now be measured, providing the speed of the machine + is known, together with the superficial area of the planes. The designer + can calculate what weight each square foot of the planes will support in + the air. Thus some machines have a "lift" of 9 or 10 pounds to each square + foot of wing surface, while others are reduced to 3 or 4 pounds per square + foot. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0025" id="link2HCH0025"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXV. The Wright Biplane (Cont.) + </h2> + <p> + The under part of the frame of the Wright biplane, technically known as + the CHASSIS, resembled a pair of long "runner" skates, similar to those + used in the Fens for skating races. Upon those runners the machine moved + along the ground when starting to fly. In more modern machines the chassis + is equipped with two or more small rubber-tyred wheels on which the + machine runs along the ground before rising into the air, and on which it + alights when a descent is made. + </p> + <p> + You will notice that the pilot's seat is fixed on the lower plane, and + almost in the centre of it, while close by the engine is mounted. + Alongside the engine is a radiator which cools the water that has passed + round the cylinder of the engine in order to prevent them from becoming + overheated. + </p> + <p> + Above the lower plane is a similar plane arranged parallel to it, and the + two are connected by light upright posts of hickory wood known as STRUTS. + Such an aeroplane as this, which is equipped with two main planes, known + as a BIPLANE. Other types of air-craft are the MONOPLANE, possessing one + main plane, and the TRIPLANE, consisting of three planes. No practical + machine has been built with more than three main planes; indeed, the + triplane is now almost obsolete. + </p> + <p> + The Wrights fitted their machine with two long-bladed wooden screws, or + propellers, which by means of chains and sprocket-wheels, very like those + of a bicycle, were driven by the engine, whose speed was about 1200 + revolutions a minute. The first motor engine used by these clever pioneers + had four cylinders, and developed about 20 horsepower. Nowadays engines + are produced which develop more than five times that power. + </p> + <p> + In later machines one propeller is generally thought to be sufficient; in + fact many constructors believe that there is danger in a two-propeller + machine, for if one propeller got broken, the other propeller, working at + full speed, would probably overturn the machine before the pilot could cut + off his engine. + </p> + <p> + Beyond the propellers there are two little vertical planes which can be + moved to one side or the other by a control lever in front of the pilot's + seat. These planes or rudders steer the machine from side to side, + answering the same purpose as the rudder of a boat. + </p> + <p> + In front of the supporting planes there are two other horizontal planes, + arranged one above the other; these are much smaller than the main planes, + and are known as the ELEVATORS. Their function is to raise or lower the + machine by catching the air at different angles. + </p> + <p> + Comparison with a modern biplane, such as may be seen at an aerodrome on + any "exhibition" day, will disclose several marked differences in + construction between the modern type and the earlier Wright machine, + though the central idea is the same. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0026" id="link2HCH0026"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXVI. How the Wrights launched their Biplane + </h2> + <p> + Those of us who have seen an aeroplane rise from the ground know that it + runs quickly along for 50 or 60 yards, until sufficient momentum has been + gained for the craft to lift itself into the air. The Wrights, as stated, + fitted their machine with a pair of launching runners which projected from + the under side of the lower plane like two very long skates, and the + method of launching their craft was quite different from that followed + nowadays. + </p> + <p> + The launching apparatus consisted of a wooden tower at the starting end of + the launching ways—a wooden rail about 60 or 70 feet in length. To + the top of the tower a weight of about 1/2 ton was suspended. The + suspension rope was led downwards over pulleys, thence horizontally to the + front end and back to the inner end of the railway, where it was attached + to the aeroplane. A small trolley was fitted to the chassis of the machine + and this ran along the railway. + </p> + <p> + To launch the machine, which, of course, stood on the rail, the propellers + were set in motion, and the 1/2-ton weight at the top of the tower was + released. The falling weight towed the aeroplane rapidly forward along the + rail, with a velocity sufficient to cause it to glide smoothly into the + air at the other end of the launching ways. By an ingenious arrangement + the trolley was left behind on the railway. + </p> + <p> + It will at once occur to you that there were disadvantages in this system + of commencing a flight. One was that the launching apparatus was more or + less a fixture. At any rate it could not be carried about from place to + place very readily: Supposing the biplane could not return to its + starting-point, and the pilot was forced to descend, say, 10 or 12 miles + away: in such a case it would be necessary to tow the machine back to the + launching ways, an obviously inconvenient arrangement, especially in + unfavourable country. + </p> + <p> + For some time the "wheeled" chassis has been in universal use, but in a + few cases it has been thought desirable to adopt a combination of runners + and wheels. A moderately firm surface is necessary for the machine to run + along the ground; if the ground be soft or marly the wheels would sink in + the soil, and serious accidents have resulted from the sudden stoppage of + the forward motion due to this cause. + </p> + <p> + With their first power-driven machine the Wrights made a series of very + fine flights, at first in a straight line. In 1904 they effected their + first turn. By the following year they had made such rapid progress that + they were able to exceed a distance of 20 miles in one flight, and keep up + in the air for over half an hour at a time. Their manager now gave their + experiments great publicity, both in the American and European Press, and + in 1908 the brothers, feeling quite sure of their success, emerged from a + self-imposed obscurity, and astonished the world with some wonderful + flights, both in America and on the French flying ground at Issy. + </p> + <p> + A great loss to aviation occurred on 30th May, 1912, when Wilbur Wright + died from an attack of typhoid fever. His work is officially commemorated + in Britain by an annual Premium Lecture, given under the auspices of the + Aeronautical Society. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0027" id="link2HCH0027"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXVII. The First Man to Fly in Europe + </h2> + <p> + In November, 1906, nearly the whole civilized world was astonished to read + that a rich young Brazilian aeronaut, residing in France, had actually + succeeded in making a short flight, or, shall we say, an enormous "hop", + in a heavier-than-air machine. + </p> + <p> + This pioneer of aviation was M. Santos Dumont. For five or six years + before his experiments with the aeroplane he had made a great many flights + in balloons, and also in dirigible balloons. He was the son of well-to-do + parents—his father was a successful coffee planter—and he had + ample means to carry on his costly experiments. + </p> + <p> + Flying was Santos Dumont's great hobby. Even in boyhood, when far away in + Brazil, he had been keenly interested in the work of Spencer, Green, and + other famous aeronauts, and aeronautics became almost a passion with him. + </p> + <p> + Towards the end of the year 1898 he designed a rather novel form of + air-ship. The balloon was shaped like an enormous cigar, some 80 feet + long, and it was inflated with about 6000 cubic feet of hydrogen. The most + curious contrivance, however, was the motor. This was suspended from the + balloon, and was somewhat similar to the small motor used on a + motor-cycle. Santos Dumont sat beside this motor, which worked a + propeller, and this curious craft was guided several times by the inventor + round the Botanical Gardens in Paris. + </p> + <p> + About two years after these experiments the science of aeronautics + received very valuable aid from M. Deutsch, a member of the French Aero + Club. A prize of about L4000 was offered by this gentleman to the man who + should first fly from the Aero Club grounds at Longchamps, double round + the Eiffel Tower, and then sail back to the starting-place. The total + distance to be flown was rather more than 3 miles, and it was stipulated + that the journey—which could be made either in a dirigible air-ship + or a flying machine—should be completed within half an hour. + </p> + <p> + This munificent offer at once aroused great enthusiasm among aeronauts and + engineers throughout the whole of France, and, to a lesser degree, in + Britain. Santos Dumont at once set to work on another air-ship, which was + equipped with a much more powerful motor than he had previously used. In + July, 1901, his arrangements were completed, and he made his first attempt + to win the prize. + </p> + <p> + The voyage from Longchamps to the Eiffel Tower was made in very quick + time, for a favourable wind speeded the huge balloon on its way. The pilot + was also able to steer a course round the tower, but his troubles then + commenced. The wind was now in his face, and his engine-a small motor + engine of about 15 horse-power-was unable to produce sufficient power to + move the craft quickly against the wind. The plucky inventor kept fighting + against the-breeze, and at length succeeded in returning to his + starting-point; but he had exceeded the time limit by several minutes and + thus, was disqualified for the prize. + </p> + <p> + Another attempt was made by Santos Dumont about a month later. This time, + however, he was more unfortunate, and he had a marvellous escape from + death. As on the previous occasion he got into great difficulties when + sailing against the wind on the return journey, and his balloon became + torn, so that the gas escaped and the whole craft crashed down on the + house-tops. Eyewitnesses of the accident expected to find the gallant + young Brazilian crushed to death; but to their great relief he was seen to + be hanging to the car, which had been caught upon the buttress of a house. + Even now he was in grave peril, but after a long delay he was rescued by + means of a rope. + </p> + <p> + It might be thought that such an accident would have deterred the inventor + from making further attempts on the prize; but the aeronaut seemed to be + well endowed with the qualities of patience and perseverance and continued + to try again. Trial after trial was made, and numerous accidents took + place. On nearly every occasion it was comparatively easy to sail round + the Tower, but it was a much harder task to sail back again. + </p> + <p> + At length in October, 1901, he was thought to have completed the course in + the allotted time; but the Aero Club held that he had exceeded the time + limit by forty seconds. This decision aroused great indignation among + Parisians—especially among those who had watched the flight—many + of whom were convinced that the journey had been accomplished in the + half-hour. After much argument the committee which had charge of the race, + acting on the advice of M. Deutsch, who was very anxious that the prize + should be awarded to Santos Dumont, decided that the conditions of the + flight had been complied with, and that the prize had been legitimately + won. It is interesting to read that the famous aeronaut divided the money + among the poor. + </p> + <p> + But important though Santos Dumont's experiments were with the air-ship, + they were of even greater value when he turned his attention to the + aeroplane. + </p> + <p> + One of his first trials with a heavier-than-air machine was made with a + huge glider, which was fitted with floats. The curious craft was towed + along the River Seine by a fast motor boat named the Rapiere, and it + actually succeeded in rising into the air and flying behind the boat like + a gigantic kite. + </p> + <p> + 12th November, 1906, is a red-letter day in the history of aviation, for + it was then that Santos Dumont made his first little flight in an + aeroplane. This took place at Bagatelle, not far from Paris. + </p> + <p> + Two months before this the airman had succeeded in driving his little + machine, called the Bird of Prey, many yards into the air, and "11 yards + through the air", as the newspapers reported; but the craft was badly + smashed. It was not until November that the first really satisfactory + flight took place. + </p> + <p> + A description of this flight appeared in most of the European newspapers, + and I give a quotation from one of them: "The aeroplane rose gracefully + and gently to a height of about 15 feet above the earth, covering in this + most remarkable dash through the air a distance of about 700 feet in + twenty-one seconds. + </p> + <p> + "It thus progressed through the atmosphere at the rate of nearly 30 miles + an hour. Nothing like this has ever been accomplished before.... The + aeroplane has now reached the practical stage." + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +The dimensions of this aeroplane were: + + Length 32 feet + Greatest width 39 feet + Weight with one passenger 465 pounds + Speed 30 miles an hour +</pre> + <p> + A modern aeroplane with airman and passenger frequently weighs over 1 ton, + and reaches a speed of over 60 miles an hour. + </p> + <p> + It is interesting to note that Santos Dumont, in 1913—that is, only + seven years after his flight in an aeroplane at Bagatelle made him + world-famous—announced his intention of again taking an active part + in aviation. His purpose was to make use of aeroplanes merely for + pleasure, much as one might purchase a motor-car for the same object. + </p> + <p> + Could the intrepid Brazilian in his wildest dreams have foreseen the rapid + advance of the last eight years? In 1906 no one had flown in Europe; by + 1914 hundreds of machines were in being, in which the pilots were no + longer subject to the wind's caprices, but could fly almost where and when + they would. + </p> + <p> + Frenchmen have honoured, and rightly honoured, this gallant and + picturesque figure in the annals of aviation, for in 1913 a magnificent + monument was unveiled in France to commemorate his pioneer work. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0028" id="link2HCH0028"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXVIII. M. Bleriot and the Monoplane + </h2> + <p> + If the Wright brothers can lay claim to the title of "Fathers of the + Biplane", then it is certain that M. Bleriot, the gallant French airman, + can be styled the "Father of the Monoplane." + </p> + <p> + For five years—1906 to 1910—Louis Bleriot's name was on + everybody's lips in connection with his wonderful records in flying and + skilful feats of airmanship. Perhaps the flight which brought him greatest + renown was that accomplished in July, 1909, when he was the first man to + cross the English Channel by aeroplane. This attempt had been forestalled, + although unsuccessfully, by Hubert Latham, a daring aviator who is best + known in Lancashire by his flight in 1909 at Blackpool in a wind which + blew at the rate of nearly 40 miles an hour—a performance which + struck everyone with wonder in these early days of aviation. + </p> + <p> + Latham attempted, on an Antoinette monoplane, to carry off the prize of + L1000 offered by the proprietors of the Daily Mail. On the first occasion + he fell in mid-Channel, owing to the failure of his motor, and was rescued + by a torpedo-boat. His machine was so badly damaged during the salving + operations that another had to be sent from Paris, and with this he made a + second attempt, which was also unsuccessful. Meanwhile M. Bleriot had + arrived on the scene; and on 25th July he crossed the Channel from Calais + to Dover in thirty-seven minutes and was awarded the L1000 prize. + </p> + <p> + Bleriot's fame was now firmly established, and on his return to France he + received a magnificent welcome. The monoplane at once leaped into favour, + and the famous "bird man" had henceforth to confine his efforts to the + building of machines and the organization of flying events. He has since + established a large factory in France and inaugurated a flying school at + Pau. + </p> + <p> + All the time that the Wrights were experimenting with their glider and + biplane in America, and the Voisin brothers were constructing biplanes in + France, Bleriot had been giving earnest attention to the production of a + real "bird" machine, provided with one pair of FLAPPING wings. We know now + that such an aeroplane is not likely to be of practical use, but with + quiet persistence Bleriot kept to his task, and succeeded in evolving the + famous Antoinette monoplane, which more closely resembles a bird than does + any other form of air-craft. + </p> + <p> + In the illustration of the Bleriot monoplane here given you will notice + that there is one main plane, consisting of a pair of highly-cambered + wings; hence the name "MONOplane". At the rear of the machine there is a + much smaller plane, which is slightly cambered; this is the elevating + plane, and it can be tilted up or down in order to raise or lower the + machine. Remember that the elevating plane of a biplane is to the front of + the machine and in the monoplane at the rear. The small, upright plane G + is the rudder, and is used for steering the machine to the right or left. + The long narrow body or framework of the monoplane is known as the + FUSELAGE. + </p> + <p> + By a close study of the illustration, and the description which + accompanies it, you will understand how the machine is driven. The main + plane is twisted, or warped, when banking, much in the same way that the + Wright biplane is warped. + </p> + <p> + Far greater speed can be obtained from the monoplane than from the + biplane, chiefly because in the former machine there is much less + resistance to the air. Both height and speed records stand to the credit + of the monoplane. + </p> + <p> + The enormous difference in the speeds of monoplanes and biplanes can be + best seen at a race meeting at some aerodrome. Thus at Hendon, when a + speed handicap is in progress, the slow biplanes have a start of one or + two laps over the rapid little monoplanes in a six-lap contest, and it is + most amusing to see the latter dart under, or over, the more cumbersome + biplane. Recently however, much faster biplanes have been built, and they + bid fair to rival the swiftest monoplanes in speed. + </p> + <p> + There is, however, one serious drawback to the use of the monoplane: it is + far more dangerous to the pilot than is the biplane. Most of the fatal + accidents in aviation have been caused through mishaps to monoplanes or + their engines, and chiefly for this reason the biplane has to a large + extent supplanted the monoplane in warfare. The biplane, too, is better + adapted for observation work, which is, after all, the chief use of + air-craft. + </p> + <p> + In a later chapter some account will be given of the three types of + aeroplane which the war has evolved—the general-purposes machine, + the single-seater "fighter", and those big bomb-droppers, the British + Handley Page and the German Gotha. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0029" id="link2HCH0029"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXIX. Henri Farman and the Voisin Biplane + </h2> + <p> + The coming of the motor engine made events move rapidly in the world of + aviation. About the year 1906 people's attention was drawn to France, + where Santos Dumont was carrying out the wonderful experiments which we + have already described. Then came Henri Farman, who piloted the famous + biplane built by the Voisin brothers in 1907; an aeroplane destined to + bring world-wide renown to its clever constructors and its equally clever + and daring pilot. + </p> + <p> + There were notable points of distinction between the Voisin biplane and + that built by the Wrights. The latter, as we have seen, had two + propellers; the former only one. The launching skids of the Wright biplane + gave place to wheels on Farman's machine. One great advantage, however, + possessed by the early Wright biplane over its French rivals, was in its + greater general efficiency. The power of the engine was only about + one-half of the power required in certain of the French designs. This was + chiefly due to the use of the launching rail, for it needed much greater + motor power to make a machine rise from the ground by its own motor engine + than when it received a starting lift from a falling weight. Even in our + modern aeroplanes less engine power is required to drive the craft through + the air than to start from the ground. + </p> + <p> + Farman achieved great fame through his early flights, and, on 13th + January, 1908, at the flying ground at Issy, in France, he won the prize + of L2000, offered by MM. Deutsch and Archdeacon to the first aviator who + flew a circular kilometre. In July of the same year he won another + substantial prize given by a French engineer, M. Armengaud, to the first + pilot who remained aloft for a quarter of an hour. + </p> + <p> + Probably an even greater performance was the cross-country flight made by + Farman about three months later. In the flight he passed over hills, + valleys, rivers, villages, and woods on his journey from Chalons to + Rheims, which he accomplished in twenty minutes. + </p> + <p> + In the early models of the Voisin machine there were fitted between the + two main planes a number of vertical planes, as shown clearly in the + illustration facing p. 160. It was thought that these planes would + increase the stability of the machine, independent of the skill of the + operator, and in calm weather they were highly effective. Their great + drawback, however, was that when a strong side wind caught them the + machine was blown out of its course. + </p> + <p> + Subsequently Farman considerably modified the early-type Voisin biplane, + as shown by the illustration facing p. 160. The vertical planes were + dispensed with, and thus the idea of automatic stability was abandoned. + </p> + <p> + But an even greater distinction between the Farman biplane and that + designed by the Wrights was in the adoption of a system of small movable + planes, called AILERONS, fixed at extremities of the main planes, instead + of the warping controls which we have already described. The ailerons, + which are adapted to many of our modern aeroplanes, are really balancing + flaps, actuated by a control lever at the right side of the pilot's seat, + and the principle on which they are worked is very similar to that + employed in the warp system of lateral stability. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0030" id="link2HCH0030"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXX. A Famous British Inventor + </h2> + <p> + About the time that M. Bleriot was developing his monoplane, and Santos + Dumont was astonishing the world with his flying feats at Bagatelle, a + young army officer was at work far away in a secluded part of the Scottish + Highlands on the model of an aeroplane. This young man was Lieutenant J. + W. Dunne, and his name has since been on everyone's lips wherever aviation + is discussed. Much of Lieutenant Dunne's early experimental work was done + on the Duke of Atholl's estate, and the story goes that such great secrecy + was observed that "the tenants were enrolled as a sort of bodyguard to + prevent unauthorized persons from entering". For some time the War Office + helped the inventor with money, for the numerous tests and trials + necessary in almost every invention before satisfactory results are + achieved are very costly. + </p> + <p> + Probably the inventor did not make sufficiently rapid progress with his + novel craft, for he lost the financial help and goodwill of the Government + for a time; but he plodded on, and at length his plans were sufficiently + advanced for him to carry on his work openly. It must be borne in mind + that at the time Dunne first took up the study of aviation no one had + flown in Europe, and he could therefore receive but little help from the + results achieved by other pilots and constructors. + </p> + <p> + But in the autumn of 1913 Lieutenant Dunne's novel aeroplane was the talk + of both Europe and America. Innumerable trials had been made in the remote + flying ground at Eastchurch, Isle of Sheppey, and the machine became so + far advanced that it made a cross-Channel flight from Eastchurch to Paris. + It remained in France for some time, and Commander Felix, of the French + Army, made many excellent flights in it. Unfortunately, however, when + flying near Deauville, engine trouble compelled the officer to descend; + but in making a landing in a very small field, not much larger than a + tennis-court, several struts of the machine were damaged. It was at once + seen that the aeroplane could not possibly be flown until it had been + repaired and thoroughly overhauled. To do this would take several days, + especially as there were no facilities for repairing the craft near by, + and to prevent anyone from making a careful examination of the aeroplane, + and so discovering the secret features which had been so jealously + guarded, the machine was smashed up after the engine had been removed. + </p> + <p> + At that time this was the only Dunne aeroplane in existence, but of course + the plans were in the possession of the inventor, and it was an easy task + to make a second machine from the same model. Two more machines were put + in hand at Hendon, and a third at Eastchurch. + </p> + <p> + On 18th October, 1913, the Dunne aeroplane made its first public + appearance at Hendon, in the London aerodrome, piloted by Commander Felix. + The most striking distinction between this and other biplanes is that its + wings or planes, instead of reaching from side to side of the engine, + stretch back in the form of the letter V, with the point of the V to the + front. These wings extend so far to the rear that there is no need of a + tail to the machine, and the elevating plane in front can also be + dispensed with. + </p> + <p> + This curious and unique design in aeroplane construction was decided upon + by Lieutenant Dunne after a prolonged observation at close quarters of + different birds in flight, and the inventor claims for his aeroplane that + it is practically uncapsizable. Perhaps, however, this is too much to + claim for any heavier-than-air machine; but at all events the new design + certainly appears to give greater stability, and it is to be hoped that by + this and other devices the progress of aviation will not in the future be + so deeply tinged with tragedy. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0031" id="link2HCH0031"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXXI. The Romance of a Cowboy Aeronaut + </h2> + <p> + In the brief but glorious history of pioneer work in aviation, so far as + it applies to this country, there is scarcely a more romantic figure to be + found than Colonel Cody. It was the writer's pleasure to come into close + contact with Cody during the early years of his experimental work with + man-lifting box-kites at the Alexandra Park, London, and never will his + genial smile and twinkling eye be forgotten. + </p> + <p> + Cody always seemed ready to crack a joke with anyone, and possibly there + was no more optimistic man in the whole of Britain. To the boys and girls + of Wood Green he was a popular hero. He was usually clad in a "cowboy" + hat, red flannel shirt, and buckskin breeches, and his hair hung down to + his shoulders. On certain occasions he would give a "Wild West" exhibition + at the Alexandra Palace, and one of his most daring tricks with the gun + was to shoot a cigarette from a lady's lips. One could see that he was + entire master of the rifle, and a trick which always brought rounds of + applause was the hitting of a target while standing with his back to it, + simply by the aid of a mirror held at the butt of his rifle. + </p> + <p> + But it is of Cody as an aviator and aeroplane constructor that we wish to + speak. For some reason or other he was generally the object of ridicule, + both in the Press and among the public. Why this should have been so is + not quite clear; possibly his quaint attire had something to do with it, + and unfriendly critics frequently raised a laugh at his expense over the + enormous size of his machines. So large were they that the Cody biplane + was laughingly called the "Cody bus" or the "Cody Cathedral." + </p> + <p> + But in the end Cody fought down ridicule and won fame, for in competition + with some of the finest machines of the day, piloted by some of our most + expert airmen, he won the prize of L5000 offered by the Government in 1912 + in connection with the Army trials for aeroplanes. In these trials he + astonished everyone by obtaining a speed of over 70 miles an hour in his + biplane, which weighed 2600 pounds. + </p> + <p> + In the opening years of the present century Cody spent much time in + demonstrations with huge box-kites, and for a time this form of kite was + highly popular with boys of North London. In these kites he made over two + hundred flights, reaching, on some occasions, an altitude of over 2000 + feet. At all times of the day he could have been seen on the slopes of the + Palace Hill, hauling these strange-looking, bat-like objects backward and + forward in the wind. Reports of his experiments appeared in the Press, but + Cody was generally looked upon as a "crank". The War Office, however, saw + great possibilities in the kites for scouting purposes in time of war, and + they paid Cody L5000 for his invention. + </p> + <p> + It is a rather romantic story of how Cody came to take up experimental + work with kites, and it is repeated as it was given by a Mohawk chief to a + newspaper representative. + </p> + <p> + "On one occasion when Cody was in a Lancashire town with his Wild West + show, his son Leon went into the street with a parrot-shaped kite. Leon + was attired in a red shirt, cowboy trousers, and sombrero, and soon a + crowd of youngsters in clogs was clattering after him. + </p> + <p> + "'If a boy can interest a crowd with a little kite, why can't a man + interest a whole nation?' thought Cody—and so the idea of + man-lifting kites developed." + </p> + <p> + In 1903 Cody made a daring but unsuccessful attempt to cross the Channel + in a boat drawn by two kites. Had he succeeded he intended to cross the + Atlantic by similar means. + </p> + <p> + Later on, Cody turned his attention to the construction of aeroplanes, but + he was seriously handicapped by lack of funds. His machines were built + with the most primitive tools, and some of our modern constructors, + working in well-equipped "shops", where the machinery is run by electric + plant, would marvel at the work accomplished with such tools as those used + by Cody. + </p> + <p> + Most of Cody's flights were made on Laffan's Plain, and he took part in + the great "Round Britain" race in 1911. It was characteristic of the man + that in this race he kept on far in the wake of MM. Beaumont and Vedrines, + though he knew that he had not the slightest chance of winning the prize; + and, days after the successful pilot had arrived back at Brooklands, + Cody's "bus" came to earth in the aerodrome. "It's dogged as does it," he + remarked, "and I meant to do the course, even if I took a year over it." + </p> + <p> + Of Cody's sad death at Farnborough, when practising in the ill-fated + water-plane which he intended to pilot in the sea flight round Great + Britain in 1913, we speak in a later chapter. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0032" id="link2HCH0032"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXXII. Three Historic Flights + </h2> + <p> + When the complete history of aviation comes to be written, there will be + three epoch-making events which will doubtless be duly appreciated by the + historian, and which may well be described as landmarks in the history of + flight. These are the three great contests organized by the proprietors of + the Daily Mail, respectively known as the "London to Manchester" flight, + the "Round Britain flight in an aeroplane", and the "Water-plane flight + round Great Britain." + </p> + <p> + In any account of aviation which deals with the real achievements of + pioneers who have helped to make the science of flight what it is to-day, + it would be unfair not to mention the generosity of Lord Northcliffe and + his co-directors of the Daily Mail towards the development of aviation in + this country. Up to the time of writing, the sum of L24,750 has been paid + by the Daily Mail in the encouragement of flying, and prizes to the amount + of L15,000 are still on offer. In addition to these prizes this journal + has maintained pilots who may be described as "Missionaries of Aviation". + Perhaps the foremost of them is M. Salmet, who has made hundreds of + flights in various parts of the country, and has aroused the greatest + enthusiasm wherever he has flown. + </p> + <p> + The progress of aviation undoubtedly owes a great deal to the Press, for + the newspaper has succeeded in bringing home to most people the fact that + the possession of air-craft is a matter of national importance. It was of + little use for airmen to make thrilling flights up and down an aerodrome, + with the object of interesting the general public, if the newspapers did + not record such flights, and though in the very early days of aviation + some newspapers adopted an unfriendly attitude towards the possibilities + of practical aviation, nearly all the Press has since come to recognize + the aeroplane as a valuable means of national defence. Right from the + start the Daily Mail foresaw the importance of promoting the new science + of flight by the award of prizes, and its public-spirited enterprise has + done much to break up the prevailing apathy towards aviation among the + British nation. + </p> + <p> + If these three great events had been mere spectacles and nothing else—such + as, for instance, that great horse-race known as "The Derby"—this + chapter would never have been written. But they are most worthy of record + because all three have marked clearly-defined stepping-stones in the + progress of flight; they have proved conclusively that aviation is + practicable, and that its ultimate entry into the busy life of the world + is no more than a matter of perfecting details. + </p> + <p> + The first L10,000 prize was offered in November, 1906, for a flight by + aeroplane from London to Manchester in twenty-four hours, with not more + than two stoppages en route. In 1910 two competitors entered the lists for + the flight; one, an Englishman, Mr. Claude Grahame-White; the other, a + Frenchman, M. Paulhan. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Grahame-White made the first attempt, and he flew remarkably well too, + but he was forced to descend at Lichfield—about 113 miles on the + journey—owing to the high and gusty winds which prevailed in the + Trent valley. The plucky pilot intended to continue the flight early the + next morning, but during the night his biplane was blown over in a gale + while it stood in a field, and it was so badly damaged that the machine + had to be sent back to London to be repaired. + </p> + <p> + This took so long that his French rival, M. Paulhan, was able to complete + his plans and start from Hendon, on 27th April. So rapidly had Paulhan's + machine been transported from Dover, and "assembled" at Hendon, that Mr. + White, whose biplane was standing ready at Wormwood Scrubbs, was taken by + surprise when he heard that his rival had started on the journey and + "stolen a march on him", so to speak. Nothing daunted, however, the plucky + British aviator had his machine brought out, and he went in pursuit of + Paulhan late in the afternoon. When darkness set in Mr. White had reached + Roade, but the French pilot was several miles ahead. + </p> + <p> + Now came one of the most thrilling feats in the history of aviation. Mr. + White knew that his only chance of catching Paulhan was to make a flight + in the darkness, and though this was extremely hazardous he arose from a + small field in the early morning, some hours before daybreak arrived, and + flew to the north. His friends had planned ingenious devices to guide him + on his way: thus it was proposed to send fast motor-cars, bearing very + powerful lights, along the route, and huge flares were lighted on the + railway; but the airman kept to his course chiefly by the help of the + lights from the railway stations. + </p> + <p> + Over hill and valley, forest and meadow, sleeping town and slumbering + village, the airman flew, and when dawn arrived he had nearly overhauled + his rival, who, in complete ignorance of Mr. White's daring pursuit, had + not yet started. + </p> + <p> + But now came another piece of very bad luck for the British aviator. At + daybreak a strong wind arose, and Mr. White's machine was tossed about + like a mere play-ball, so that he was compelled to land. Paulhan, however, + who was a pilot with far more experience, was able to overcome the + treacherous air gusts, and he flew on to Manchester, arriving there in the + early morning. + </p> + <p> + Undoubtedly the better pilot won, and he had a truly magnificent reception + in Manchester and London, and on his return to France. But this historic + contest laid the foundation of Mr. Grahame-White's great reputation as an + aviator, and, as we all know, his fame has since become world-wide. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0033" id="link2HCH0033"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXXIII. Three Historic Flights (Cont.) + </h2> + <p> + About a month after Paulhan had won the "London to Manchester" race, the + world of aviation, and most of the general public too, were astonished to + read the announcement of another enormous prize. This time a much harder + task was set, for the conditions of the contest stated that a circuit of + Britain had to be made, covering a distance of about 1000 miles in one + week, with eleven compulsory stops at fixed controls. + </p> + <p> + This prize was offered on 22nd May, 1910, and in the following year + seventeen competitors entered the lists. It says much for the progress of + aviation at this time, when we read that, only a year before, it was + difficult to find but two pilots to compete in the much easier race + described in the last chapter. Much of this progress was undoubtedly due + to the immense enthusiasm aroused by the success of Paulhan in the "London + to Manchester" race. + </p> + <p> + We will not describe fully the second race, because, though it was of + immense importance at the time, it has long since become a mere episode. + Rarely has Britain been in such great excitement as during that week in + July, 1911. + </p> + <p> + Engine troubles, breakdowns, and other causes soon reduced the seventeen + competitors to two only: Lieutenant Conneau, of the French Navy-who flew + under the name of M. Beaumont—and M. Vedrines. Neck to neck they + flew—if we may be allowed this horse-racing expression—over + all sorts of country, which was quite unknown to them. + </p> + <p> + Victory ultimately rested with Lieutenant Conneau, who, on 26th July, + 1911, passed the winning-post at Brooklands after having completed the + course in the magnificent time of twenty-two hours, twenty-eight minutes, + averaging about 45 miles an hour for the whole journey. M. Vedrines, + though defeated, made a most plucky fight. Conneau's success was due + largely to his ability to keep to the course—on two or three + occasions Vedrines lost his way—and doubtless his naval training in + map-reading and observation gave him the advantage over his rival. + </p> + <p> + The third historic flight was made by Mr. Harry Hawker, in August, 1913. + This was an attempt to win a prize of L5000 offered by the proprietors of + the Daily Mail for a flight round the British coasts. The route was from + Cowes, in the Isle of Wight, along the southern and eastern coasts to + Aberdeen and Cromarty, thence through the Caledonian Canal to Oban, then + on to Dublin, thence to Falmouth, and along the south coast to Southampton + Water. + </p> + <p> + Two important conditions of the contest were that the flight was to be + made in an all-British aeroplane, fitted with a British engine. Hitherto + our aeroplane constructors and engine companies were behind their rivals + across the Channel in the building of air-craft and aerial engines, and + this country freely acknowledged the merits and enterprise of French + aviators. Though in the European War it was afterwards proved that the + British airman and constructor were the equals if not the superiors of any + in the world, at the date of this contest they were behind in many + respects. + </p> + <p> + As these conditions precluded the use of the famous Gnome engine, which + had won so many contests, and indeed the employment of any engine made + abroad, the competitors were reduced to two aviation firms; and as one or + these ultimately withdrew from the contest the Sopwith Aviation Company of + Kingston-on-Thames and Brooklands entered a machine. + </p> + <p> + Mr. T. Sopwith chose for his pilot a young Australian airman, Mr. Harry + Hawker. This skilful airman came with three other Australians to this + country to seek his fortune about three years before. He was passionately + devoted to mechanics, and, though he had had no opportunity of flying in + his native country, he had been intensely interested in the progress of + aviation in France and Britain, and the four friends set out on their long + journey to seek work in aeroplane factories. + </p> + <p> + All four succeeded, but by far the most successful was Harry Hawker. Early + in 1913 Mr. Sopwith was looking out for a pilot, and he engaged Hawker, + whom he had seen during some good flying at Brooklands. + </p> + <p> + In a month or two he was engaged in record breaking, and in June, 1913, he + tried to set up a new British height record. In his first attempt he rose + to 11,300 feet; but as the carburettor of the engine froze, and as the + pilot himself was in grave danger of frost-bite, he descended. About a + fortnight later he rose 12,300 feet above sea-level, and shortly + afterwards he performed an even more difficult test, by climbing with + three passengers to an altitude of 8500 feet. + </p> + <p> + With such achievements to his name it was not in the least surprising that + Mr. Sopwith's choice of a pilot for the water-plane race rested on Hawker. + His first attempt was made on 16th August, when he flew from Southampton + Water to Yarmouth—a distance of about 240 miles—in 240 + minutes. The writer, who was spending a holiday at Lowestoft, watched Mr. + Hawker go by, and his machine was plainly visible to an enormous crowd + which had lined the beach. + </p> + <p> + To everyone's regret the pilot was affected with a slight sunstroke when + he reached Yarmouth, and another Australian airman, Mr. Sidney Pickles, + was summoned to take his place. This was quite within the rules of the + contest, the object of which was to test the merits of a British machine + and engine rather than the endurance and skill of a particular pilot. + During the night a strong wind arose, and next morning, when Mr. Pickles + attempted to resume the flight, the sea was too rough for a start to be + made, and the water-plane was beached at Gorleston. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Hawker quickly recovered from his indisposition, and on Monday, 25th + August, he, with a mechanic as passenger, left Cowes about five o'clock in + the morning in his second attempt to make a circuit of Britain. The first + control was at Ramsgate, and here he had to descend in order to fulfil the + conditions of the contest. + </p> + <p> + Ramsgate was left at 9.8, and Yarmouth, the next control, was reached at + 10.38. So far the engine, built by Mr. Green, had worked perfectly. About + an hour was spent at Yarmouth, and then the machine was en route to + Scarborough. Haze compelled the pilot to keep close in to the coast, so + that he should not miss the way, and a choppy breeze some what retarded + the progress of the machine along the east coast. About 2.40 the pilot + brought his machine to earth, or rather to water, at Scarborough, where he + stayed for nearly two hours. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Hawker's intention was to reach Aberdeen, if possible, before + nightfall, but at Seaham he had to descend for water, as the engine was + becoming uncomfortably hot, and the radiator supply of water was rapidly + diminishing. This lost much valuable time, as over an hour was spent here, + and it had begun to grow dark before the journey was recommenced. About an + hour after resuming his journey he decided to plane down at the fishing + village of Beadwell, some 20 miles south of Berwick. + </p> + <p> + At 8.5 on Tuesday morning the pilot was on his way to Aberdeen, but he had + to descend and stay at Montrose for about half an hour, and Aberdeen was + reached about 11 a.m. His Scottish admirers, consisting of quite 40,000 + people at Aberdeen alone, gave him a most hearty welcome, and sped him on + his way about noon. Some two hours later Cromarty was reached. + </p> + <p> + Now commenced the most difficult part of the course. The Caledonian Canal + runs among lofty mountains, and the numerous air-eddies and swift + air-streams rushing through the mountain passes tossed the frail craft to + and fro, and at times threatened to wreck it altogether. On some occasions + the aeroplane was tossed up over 1000 feet at one blow; at other times it + was driven sideways almost on to the hills. From Cromarty to Oban the + journey was only about 96 miles, but it took nearly three hours to fly + between these places. This slow progress seriously jeopardized the pilot's + chances of completing the course in the allotted time, for it was his + intention to make the coast of Ireland by nightfall. But as it was late + when Oban was reached he decided to spend the night there. + </p> + <p> + Early the following morning he left for Dublin, 222 miles away. Soon a + float was found to be waterlogged and much valuable time was, spent in + bailing it dry. Then a descent had to be made at Kiells, in Argyllshire, + because a valve had gone wrong. Another landing was made at Larne, to take + aboard petrol. As soon as the petrol tanks were filled and the machine had + been overhauled the pilot got on his way for Dublin. + </p> + <p> + For over two hours he flew steadily down the Irish coast, and then + occurred one of those slight accidents, quite insignificant in themselves, + but terribly disastrous in their results. Mr. Hawker's boots were rubber + soled and his foot slipped off the rudder bar, so that the machine got out + of control and fell into the sea at Lough Shinny, about 15 miles north of + Dublin. At the time of the accident the pilot was about 50 feet above the + water, which in this part of the Lough is very shallow. The machine was + completely wrecked, and Mr. Hawker's mechanic was badly cut about the head + and neck, besides having his arm broken. Mr. Hawker himself escaped + injury. + </p> + <p> + All Britons deeply sympathized with his misfortune, and much enthusiasm, + was aroused when the proprietors of the Daily Mail presented the skilful + and courageous pilot with a cheque for L1000 as a consolation gift. + </p> + <p> + In a later chapter some account will be given of the tremendous + development of the aeroplane during four years of war. But it is fitting + that to the three historic flights detailed above there should be added + the sensational exploits of the Marchese Giulio Laureati in 1917. This + intrepid Italian airman made a non-stop journey from Turin to Naples and + back, a distance of 920 miles. A month later he flew from Turin to + Hounslow, a distance of 656 miles, in 7 hours 22 minutes. His machine was + presented to the British Air Board by the Italian Government. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0034" id="link2HCH0034"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXXIV. The Hydroplane and Air-boat + </h2> + <p> + One of the most recent developments in aviation is the hydroplane, or + water-plane as it is most commonly called. A hydroplane is an aeroplane + fitted with floats instead of wheels, so that it will rise from, or alight + upon, the surface of the water. Often water-planes have their floats + removed and wheels affixed to the chassis, so that they may be used over + land. + </p> + <p> + From this you may think that the construction of a water-plane is quite a + simple task; but such is not the case. The fitting of floats to an + aeroplane has called for great skill on the part of the constructor, and + many difficulties have had to be overcome. + </p> + <p> + Those of you who have seen an acroplane rise from the ground know that the + machine runs very quickly over the earth at a rapidly-increasing speed, + until sufficient momentum is obtained for the machine to lift itself into + the air. In the case of the water-plane the pilot has to glide or "taxi" + by means of a float or floats over the waves until the machine acquires + flying speed. + </p> + <p> + Now the land resistance to the rubber-tired wheels is very small when + compared with the water resistance to the floats, and the faster the craft + goes the greater is the resistance. The great problem which the + constructor has had to solve is to build a machine fitted with floats + which will leave the water easily, which will preserve the lateral balance + of the machine, and which will offer the minimum resistance in the air. + </p> + <p> + A short flat-bottomed float, such as that known as the Fabre, is good at + getting off from smooth water, but is frequently damaged when the sea is + rough. A long and narrow float is preferable for rough water, as it is + able to cut through the waves; but comparatively little "lift" is obtained + from it. + </p> + <p> + Some designers have provided their water-planes with two floats; others + advocate a single float. The former makes the machine more stable when at + rest on the water, but a great rawback is that the two-float machine is + affected by waves more than a machine fitted with a single float; for one + float may be on the crest of a wave and the other in the dip. This is not + the case with the single-float water-plane, but on the other hand this + type is less stable than the other when at rest. + </p> + <p> + Sometimes the floats become waterlogged, and so add considerably to the + weight of the machine. Thus in Mr. Hawker's flight round Britain, the + pilot and his passenger had to pump about ten gallons of water out of one + of the floats before the machine could rise properly. Floats are usually + made with watertight compartments, and are composed of several thin layers + of wood, riveted to a wooden framework. + </p> + <p> + There is another technical question to be considered in the fixing of the + floats, namely, the fore-and-aft balance of the machine in the air. The + propeller of a water-plane has to be set higher than that of a land + aeroplane, so that it may not come into contact with the waves. This tends + to tip the craft forwards, and thus make the nose of the float dig in the + water. To overcome this the float is set well forward of the centre of + gravity, and though this counteracts the thrust when the craft "taxies" + along the waves, it endangers its fore-and-aft stability when aloft. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0035" id="link2HCH0035"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXXV. A Famous British Inventor of the Water-plane + </h2> + <p> + Though Harry Hawker made such a brilliant and gallant attempt to win the + L5000 prize, we must not forget that great credit is due to Mr. Sopwith, + who designed the water-plane, and to Mr. Green, the inventor of the engine + which made such a flight possible, and enabled the pilot to achieve a feat + never before approached in any part of the world. + </p> + <p> + The life-story of Mr. "Tommy" Sopwith is almost a romance. As a lad he was + intensely interested in mechanics, and we can imagine him constructing all + manner of models, and enquiring the why and the wherefore of every + mechanical toy with which he came into contact. + </p> + <p> + At the early age of twenty-one he commenced a motor business, but about + this time engineers and mechanics all over the country were becoming + greatly interested in the practical possibilities of aviation. Mr. Sopwith + decided to learn to fly, and in 1910, after continued practice in a Howard + Wright biplane, he had become a proficient pilot. So rapid was his + progress that by the end of the year he had won the magnificent prize of + L4000 generously offered by Baron de Forest for the longest flight made by + an all-British machine from England to the Continent. In this flight he + covered 177 miles, from Eastchurch, Isle of Sheppey, to the Belgian + frontier, in three and a half hours. + </p> + <p> + If Mr. Sopwith had been in any doubt as to the wisdom of changing his + business this remarkable achievement alone must have assured him that his + future career lay in aviation. In 1911 he was graciously received by King + George V at Windsor Castle, after having flown from Brooklands and + alighted on the East Terrace of the famous castle. + </p> + <p> + In the same year he visited America, and astonished even that go-ahead + country with some skilful flying feats. To show the practical + possibilities of the aeroplane he overtook the liner Olympic, after she + had left New York harbour on her homeward voyage, and dropped aboard a + parcel addressed to a passenger. On his return to England he competed in + the first Aerial Derby, the course being a circuit of London, representing + a distance of 81 miles. In this race he made a magnificent flight in a + 70-horse-power Bleriot monoplane, and came in some fifteen minutes before + Mr. Hamel, the second pilot home. So popular was his victory that Mr. + Grahame-White and several other officials of the London Aerodrome carried + him shoulder high from his machine. + </p> + <p> + From this time we hear little of Mr. Sopwith as a pilot, for, like other + famous airmen, such as Louis Bleriot, Henri Farman, and Claude + Grahame-White, who jumped into fame by success in competition flying, he + has retired with his laurels, and now devotes his efforts to the + construction of machines. He bids fair to be equally successful as a + constructor of air-craft as he formerly was as a pilot of flying machines. + The Sopwith machines are noted for their careful design and excellent + workmanship. They are made by the Sopwith Aviation Company, Ltd., whose + works are at Kingston-on-Thames. Several water-planes have been built + there for the Admiralty, and land machines for the War Office. Late in + 1913 Mr. Hawker left Britain for Australia to give demonstrations in the + Sopwith machine to the Government of his native country. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +A fine list of records has for long stood to the credit of the Sopwith +biplane. Among these are: + + British Height Record (Pilot only) 11,450 feet + " " " (Pilot and 1 Passenger) 12,900 " + " " " (Pilot and 2 Passengers) 10,600 " + World's " " (Pilot and 3 Passengers) 8,400 " +</pre> + <p> + Many of the Sopwith machines used in the European War were built specially + to withstand rough climate and heavy winds, and thus they were able to + work in almost every kind of weather. It was this fact, coupled with the + indomitable spirit of adventure inherent in men of British race, that made + British airmen more than hold their own with both friend and foe in the + war. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0036" id="link2HCH0036"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXXVI. Sea-planes for Warfare + </h2> + <p> + "Even in the region of the air, into which with characteristic British + prudence we have moved with some tardiness, the Navy need not fear + comparison with the Navy of any other country. The British sea-plane, + although still in an empirical stage, like everything else in this sphere + of warlike operations, has reached a point of progress in advance of + anything attained elsewhere. + </p> + <p> + "Our hearts should go out to-night to those brilliant officers, Commander + Samson and his band of brilliant pioneers, to whose endeavours, to whose + enterprise, to whose devotion it is due that in an incredibly short space + of time our naval aeroplane service has been raised to that primacy from + which it must never be cast down. + </p> + <p> + "It is not only in naval hydroplanes that we must have superiority. The + enduring safety of this country will not be maintained by force of arms + unless over the whole sphere of aerial development we are able to make + ourselves the first nation. That will be a task of long duration. Many + difficulties have to be overcome. Other countries have started sooner. The + native genius of France, the indomitable perseverance of Germany, have + produced results which we at the present time cannot equal." + </p> + <p> + So said Mr. Winston Churchill at the Lord Mayor's Banquet held in London + in 1913, and I have quoted his speech because such a statement, made at + such a time, clearly shows the attitude of the British Government toward + this new arm of Imperial Defence. + </p> + <p> + In bygone days the ocean was the great highway which united the various + quarters of the Empire, and, what was even more important from the + standpoint of our country's defence, it was a formidable barrier between + Britain and her Continental neighbours, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Which serves it in the office of a wall + Or as a moat defensive to a house." +</pre> + <p> + But the ocean is no longer the only highway, for the age of aerial + navigation has arrived, and, as one writer says: "Every argument which + impelled us of old to fight for the dominion of the sea has apparently + been found valid in relation to the supremacy of the air." + </p> + <p> + From some points of view this race between nations for naval and aerial + supremacy may be unfortunate, but so long as the fighting instinct of man + continues in the human race, so long as rivalry exists between nations, so + long must we continue to strengthen our aerial position. + </p> + <p> + Britain is slow to start on any great venture where great change is + effected. Our practice is rather to wait and see what other nations are + doing; and there is something to be said for this method of procedure. + </p> + <p> + In the art of aviation, and in the construction of air-craft, our French, + German, and American rivals were very efficient pacemakers in the aerial + race for supremacy, and during the years 1909-12 we were in grave peril of + being left hopelessly behind. But in 1913 we realized the vital importance + to the State of capturing the first place in aviation, particularly that + of aerial supremacy at sea, for the Navy is our first line of defence. So + rapid has been our progress that we are quite the equal of our French and + German rivals in the production of aeroplanes, and in sea-planes we are + far ahead of them, both in design and construction, and the war has proved + that we are ahead in the art of flight. + </p> + <p> + The Naval Air Service before the war had been establishing a chain of air + stations round the coast. These stations are at Calshot, on Southampton + Water, the Isle of Grain, off Sheerness, Leven, on the Firth of Forth, + Cromarty, Yarmouth, Blythe, and Cleethorpes. + </p> + <p> + But what is even more important is the fact that the Government is + encouraging sea-plane constructors to go ahead as fast as they can in the + production of efficient machines. Messrs. Short Brothers, the Sopwith + Aviation Company, and Messrs. Roe are building high-class machines for sea + work which can beat anything turned out abroad. Our newest naval + water-planes are fitted with British-built wireless apparatus of great + range of action, and Messrs. Short Brothers are at the present time + constructing for the Admiralty, at their works in the Isle of Sheppey, a + fleet of fighting water-planes capable of engaging and destroying the + biggest dirigible air-ships. + </p> + <p> + In 1913 aeroplanes took a very prominent part in our naval manoeuvres, and + the cry of the battleship captains was: "Give us water-planes. Give us + them of great size and power, large enough to carry a gun and gun crew, + and capable of taking twelve-hour cruises at a speed much greater than + that of the fastest dirigible air-ship, and we shall be on the highroad to + aerial supremacy at sea." + </p> + <p> + The Admiralty, acting on this advice, at once began to co-operate with the + leading firms of aeroplane constructors, and at a great rate machines of + all sizes and designs have been turned out. There were light single-seater + water-planes able to maintain a speed of over a mile a minute; there were + also larger machines for long-distance flying which could carry two + passengers. The machines were so designed that their wings could be folded + back along their bodies, and their wires, struts, and so on packed into + the main parts of the craft, so that they were almost as compact as the + body of a bird at rest on its perch, and they took up comparatively little + space on board ship. + </p> + <p> + A brilliantly executed raid was carried out on Cuxhaven, an important + German naval base, by seven British water-planes, on Christmas Day, 1914. + The water-planes were escorted across the North Sea by a light cruiser and + destroyer force, together with submarines. They left the war-ships in the + vicinity of Heligoland and flew over Cuxhaven, discharging bombs on points + of military significance, and apparently doing considerable damage to the + docks and shipping. The British ships remained off the coast for three + hours in order to pick up the returning airmen, and during this time they + were attacked by dirigibles and submarines, without, however, suffering + damage. Six of the sea-planes returned safely to the ships, but one was + wrecked in Heligoland Bight. + </p> + <p> + But the present efficient sea-plane is a development of the war. In the + early days many of the raids of the "naval wing" were carried out in + land-going aeroplanes. Now the R.N.A.S., which came into being as a + separate service in July, 1914, possess two main types of flying machine, + the flying boat and the twin float, both types being able to rise from and + alight upon the sea, just as an aeroplane can leave and return to the + land. Many brilliant raids stand to the credit of the R.N.A.S. The docks + at Antwerp, submarine bases at Ostend, and all Germany's fortified posts + on the Belgian coast, have seldom been free from their attentions. And + when, under the stress of public outcry, the Government at last gave its + consent to a measure of "reprisals" it was the R.N.A.S. which opened the + campaign with a raid upon the German town of Mannheim. + </p> + <p> + As the war continued the duties of the naval pilot increased. He played a + great part in the ceaseless hunt for submarines. You must often have + noticed how easily fish can be seen from a bridge which are quite + invisible from the banks of the river. On this principle the submarine can + be "spotted" by air-craft, and not until the long silence upon naval + affairs is broken, at the end of the war, shall we know to what extent we + are indebted to naval airmen for that long list of submarines which, in + the words of the German reports, "failed to return" to their bases. + </p> + <p> + In addition to the "Blimps" of which mention has been made, the Royal + Naval Air Service are in charge of air-ships known as the Coast Patrol + type, which work farther out to sea, locating minefields and acting as + scouts for the great fleet of patrol vessels. The Service has gathered + laurels in all parts of the globe, its achievements ranging from an aerial + food service into beleaguered Kut to the discovery of the German cruiser + Konigsberg, cunningly camouflaged up an African creek. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0037" id="link2HCH0037"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXXVII. The First Man to Fly in Britain + </h2> + <p> + The honour of being the first man to fly in this country is claimed by Mr. + A. V. Roe, head of the well-known firm A. V. Roe & Co., of Manchester, + and constructor of the highly-efficient Avro machines. + </p> + <p> + As a youth Roe's great hobby was the construction of toy models of various + forms of machinery, and later on he achieved considerable success in the + production of aeroplane models. All manner of novelties were the outcome + of his fertile brain, and as it has been truly remarked, "his novelties + have the peculiarity, not granted to most pioneers, of being in one + respect or another ahead of his contemporaries." In addition, he studied + the flight of birds. + </p> + <p> + In the early days of aviation Mr. Roe was a firm believer in the triplane + form of machine, and his first experiments in flight were made with a + triplane equipped with an engine which developed only 9 horse-power. + </p> + <p> + Later on, he turned his attention to the biplane, and with this craft he + has been highly successful. The Avro biplane, produced in 1913, was one of + the very best machines which appeared in that eventful year. The Daily + Telegraph, when relating its performances, said: "The spectators at Hendon + were given a remarkable demonstration of the wonderful qualities of this + fine Avro biplane, whose splendid performances stamped it as one of the + finest aeroplanes ever designed, if not indeed the finest of all". + </p> + <p> + This craft is fitted with an 80-horse-power Gnome engine, and is probably + the fastest passenger-carrying biplane of its type in the world. Its total + weight, with engine, fuel for three hours, and a passenger, is 1550 + pounds, and it has a main-plane surface of 342 square feet. + </p> + <p> + Not only can the biplane maintain such great speed, but, what is of great + importance for observation purposes, it can fly at the slow rate of 30 + miles per hour. We have previously remarked that a machine is kept up in + the air by the speed it attains; if its normal flying speed be much + reduced the machine drops to earth unless the rate of flying is + accelerated by diving, or other means. + </p> + <p> + What Harry Hawker is to Mr. Sopwith so is F. P. Raynham to Mr. Roe. This + skilful pilot learned to fly at Brooklands, and during the last year or + two he has been continuously engaged in testing Avro machines, and passing + them through the Army reception trials. In the "Aerial Derby" of 1913 Mr. + Raynham piloted an 80-horse-power Avro biplane, and came in fourth. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0038" id="link2HCH0038"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXXVIII. The Royal Flying Corps and Royal Naval Air Service + </h2> + <p> + The year 1912 was marked by the institution of the Royal Flying Corps. The + new corps, which was so soon to make its mark in the greatest of all wars, + consisted of naval and military "wings". In those early days the + head-quarters of the corps were at Eastchurch, and there both naval and + military officers were trained in aviation. In an arm of such rapid—almost + miraculous—development as Service flying to go back a period of six + years is almost to take a plunge into ancient history. Designs, engines, + guns, fittings, signals of those days are now almost archaic. The British + engine of reliable make had not yet been evolved, and the aeroplane + generally was a conglomerate affair made up of parts assembled from + various parts of the Continent. The present-day sea-plane was yet to come, + and naval pilots shared the land-going aeroplanes of their military + brethren. In the days when Bleriot provided a world sensation by flying + across the Channel the new science was kept alive mainly by the private + enterprise of newspapers and aeroplane manufacturers. The official + attitude, as is so often the case in the history of inventions, was as + frigid as could be. The Government looked on with a cold and critical eye, + and could not be touched either in heart or in pocket. + </p> + <p> + But with the institution of the Royal Flying Corps the official heart + began to warm slightly, and certain tests were laid down for those + manufacturers who aspired to sell their machines to the new arm of the + Service. These tests, providing for fuel capacity up to 4.0 miles, speeds + up to 85 miles an hour, and heights up to 3500 feet, would now be regarded + as very elementary affairs. "Looping the loop" was still a dangerous trick + for the exhibiting airman and not an evolution; while the "nose-dive" was + an uncalculated entry into the next world. + </p> + <p> + The first important stage in the history of the new arm was reached in + July, 1914, when the wing system was abolished, and the Royal Naval Air + Service became a separate unit of the Imperial Forces. The first public + appearance of the sailor airmen was at a proposed review of the fleet by + the King at a test mobilization. The King was unable to attend, but the + naval pilots carried out their part of the programme very creditably + considering the polyglot nature of their sea-planes. A few weeks later and + the country was at war. + </p> + <p> + There can be no doubt that the Great War has had an enormous forcing + influence upon the science of aviation. In times of peace the old game of + private enterprise and official neglect would possibly have been carried + on in well-marked stages. But with the terrific incentive of victory + before them, all Governments fostered the growth of the new arm by all the + means in their power. It became a race between Allied and enemy countries + as to who first should attain the mastery of the air. The British nation, + as usual, started well behind in the race, and their handicap would have + been increased to a dangerous extent had Germany not been obsessed by the + possibilities of the air-ship as opposed to the aeroplane. Fortunately for + us the Zeppelin, as has been described in an earlier chapter, failed to + bring about the destruction anticipated by its inventor, and so we gained + breathing space for catching up the enemy in the building and equipment of + aeroplanes and the training of pilots and observers. + </p> + <p> + War has set up its usual screens, and the writer is only permitted a very + vague and impressionistic picture of the work of the R.F.C. and R.N.A.S. + Numerical details and localities must be rigorously suppressed. + Descriptions of the work of the Flying Service must be almost as bald as + those laconic reports sent in by naval and military airmen to + head-quarters. But there is such an accomplishment as reading between the + lines. + </p> + <p> + The flying men fall naturally into two classes—pilots and observers. + The latter, of course, act as aerial gunners. The pilots have to pass + through three, and observers two, successive courses of training in + aviation. Instruction is very detailed and thorough as befits a career + which, in addition to embracing the endless problems of flight, demands + knowledge of wireless telegraphy, photography, and machine gunnery. + </p> + <p> + Many of the officers are drafted into the Royal Flying Corps from other + branches of the Service, but there are also large numbers of civilians who + take up the career. In their case they are first trained as cadets, and, + after qualifying for commissions, start their training in aviation at one + of the many schools which have now sprung up in all parts of the country. + </p> + <p> + When the actual flying men are counted in thousands some idea may be + gained of the great organization required for the Corps—the schools + and flying grounds, the training and activities of the mechanics, the + workshops and repair shops, the storage of spare parts, the motor + transport, &c. As in other departments of the Service, women have come + forward and are doing excellent and most responsible work, especially in + the motor-transport section. + </p> + <p> + A very striking feature of the Corps is the extreme youth of the members, + many of the most daring fighters in the air being mere boys of twenty. + </p> + <p> + The Corps has the very pick of the youth and daring and enterprise of the + country. In the days of the old army there existed certain unwritten laws + of precedence as between various branches of the Service. If such customs + still prevail it is certain that the very newest arm would take pride of + place. The flying man has recaptured some of the glamour and romance which + encircled the knight-errant of old. He breathes the very atmosphere of + dangerous adventure. Life for him is a series of thrills, any one of which + would be sufficient to last the ordinary humdrum citizen for a lifetime. + Small wonder that the flying man has captured the interest and affection + of the people, and all eyes follow these trim, smart, desperadoes of the + air in their passage through our cities. + </p> + <p> + As regards the work of the flying man the danger curve seems to be + changing. On the one hand the training is much more severe and exacting + than formerly was the case, and so carries a greater element of danger. On + the other hand on the battle-front fighting information has in great + measure taken the place of the system of men going up "on their own". They + are perhaps not so liable to meet with a numerical superiority on the part + of enemy machines, which spelt for them almost certain destruction. + </p> + <p> + For a long time the policy of silence and secrecy which screened "the + front" from popular gaze kept us in ignorance of the achievements of our + airmen. But finally the voice of the people prevailed in their demand for + more enlightenment. Names of regiments began to be mentioned in connection + with particular successes. And in the same way the heroes of the R.F.C. + and R.N.A.S. were allowed to reap some of the laurels they deserved. + </p> + <p> + It began to be recognized that publication of the name of an airman who + had destroyed a Zeppelin, for instance, did not constitute any vital + information to the enemy. In a recent raid upon London the names of the + two airmen, Captain G. H. Hackwill, R.F.C., and Lieutenant C. C. Banks, + R.F.C., who destroyed a Gotha, were given out in the House of Commons and + saluted with cheers. In the old days the secretist party would have + regarded this publication as a policy which led the nation in the direct + line of "losing the war". + </p> + <p> + In the annals of the Flying Service, where dare-devilry is taken as a + matter of course and hairbreadth escapes from death are part of the daily + routine, it is difficult to select adventures for special mention; but the + following episodes will give a general idea of the work of the airman in + war. + </p> + <p> + The great feat of Sub-Lieutenant R. A. J. Warneford, R.N.A.S., who + single-handed attacked and destroyed a Zeppelin, has already been referred + to in Chapter XIII. Lieutenant Warneford was the second on the list of + airmen who won the coveted Cross, the first recipient being + Second-Lieutenant Barnard Rhodes-Moorhouse, for a daring and successful + bomb-dropping raid upon Courtrai in April, 1915. As has happened in so + many cases, the award to Lieutenant Rhodes-Moorhouse was a posthumous one, + the gallant airman having been mortally wounded during the raid, in spite + of which he managed by flying low to reach his destination and make his + report. + </p> + <p> + A writer of adventure stories for boys would be hard put to it to invent + any situation more thrilling than that in which Squadron-Commander Richard + Bell Davies, D.S.O., R.N., and Flight Sub-Lieutenant Gilbert Formby + Smylie, R.N., found themselves while carrying out an air attack upon + Ferrijik junction. Smylie's machine was subjected to such heavy fire that + it was disabled, and the airman was compelled to plane down after + releasing all his bombs but one, which failed to explode. The moment he + alighted he set fire to his machine. Presently Smylie saw his companion + about to descend quite close to the burning machine. There was infinite + danger from the bomb. It was a question of seconds merely before it must + explode. So Smylie rushed over to the machine, took hasty aim with his + revolver, and exploded the bomb, just before the Commander came within the + danger zone. Meanwhile the enemy had commenced to gather round the two + airmen, whereupon Squadron-Commander Davies coolly took up the Lieutenant + on his machine and flew away with him in safety back to their lines. + Davies, who had already won the D.S.O., was given the V.C., while his + companion in this amazing adventure was granted the Distinguished Service + Cross. + </p> + <p> + The unexpectedness, to use no stronger term, of life in the R.F.C. in + war-time is well exemplified by the adventure which befell Major Rees. The + pilot of a "fighter", he saw what he took to be a party of air machines + returning from a bombing expedition. Proceeding to join them in the + character of escort, Major Rees made the unpleasant discovery that he was + just about to join a little party of ten enemy machines. But so far from + being dismayed, the plucky airman actually gave battle to the whole ten. + One he quickly drove "down and out", as the soldiers say. Attacked by five + others, he damaged two of them and dispersed the remainder. Not content + with this, he gave chase to two more, and only broke off the engagement + when he had received a wound in the thigh. Then he flew home to make the + usual laconic report. + </p> + <p> + No record of heroism in the air could be complete without mention of + Captain Ball, who has already figured in these pages. When awarded the + V.C. Captain Ball was already the holder of the following honours: D.S.O., + M.C., Cross of a Chevalier of the Legion of Honour, and the Russian order + of St. George. This heroic boy of twenty was a giant among a company of + giants. Here follows the official account which accompanied his award:— + </p> + <p> + "Lieutenant (temporary Captain) ALBERT BALL, D.S.O., M.C., late Notts and + Derby Regiment, and R.F.C. + </p> + <p> + "For most conspicuous and consistent bravery from April 25 to May 6, 1917, + during which period Captain Ball took part in twenty-six combats in the + air and destroyed eleven hostile aeroplanes, drove down two out of + control, and forced several others to land. + </p> + <p> + "In these combats Captain Ball, flying alone, on one occasion fought six + hostile machines, twice he fought five, and once four. + </p> + <p> + "While leading two other British aeroplanes he attacked an enemy formation + of eight. On each of these occasions he brought down at least one enemy. + </p> + <p> + "Several times his aeroplane was badly damaged, once so severely that but + for the most delicate handling his machine would have collapsed, as nearly + all the control wires had been shot away. On returning with a damaged + machine, he had always to be restrained from immediately going out on + another. + </p> + <p> + "In all Captain Ball has destroyed forty-three German aeroplanes and one + balloon, and has always displayed most exceptional courage, determination, + and skill." + </p> + <p> + So great was Captain Ball's skill as a fighter in the air that for a time + he was sent back to England to train new pilots in the schools. But the + need for his services at the front was even greater, and it jumped with + his desires, for the whole tone of his letters breathes the joy he found + in the excitements of flying and fighting. He declares he is having a + "topping time", and exults in boyish fashion at a coming presentation to + Sir Douglas Haig. It is not too much to say that the whole empire mourned + when Captain Ball finally met his death in the air near La Bassee in May, + 1917. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0039" id="link2HCH0039"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXXIX. Aeroplanes in the Great War + </h2> + <p> + "Aeroplanes and airships would have given us an enormous advantage against + the Boers. The difficulty of laying ambushes and traps for isolated + columns—a practice at which the enemy were peculiarly adept—would + have been very much greater. Some at least of the regrettable reverses + which marked the early stages of the campaign could in all probability + have been avoided." + </p> + <p> + So wrote Lord Roberts, our veteran field-marshal, in describing the + progress of the Army during recent years. The great soldier was a man who + always looked ahead. After his great and strenuous career, instead of + taking the rest which he had so thoroughly earned, he spent laborious days + travelling up and down the country, warning the people of danger ahead; + exhorting them to learn to drill and to shoot; thus attempting to lay the + foundation of a great civic army. But his words, alas! fell upon deaf ears—with + results so tragic as hardly to bear dwelling upon. + </p> + <p> + But even "Bobs", seer and true prophet as he was, could hardly have + foreseen the swift and dramatic development of war in the air. He had not + long been laid to rest when aeroplanes began to be talked about, and, what + is more important, to be built, not in hundreds but in thousands. At the + time of writing, when we are well into the fourth year of the war, it + seems almost impossible for the mind to go back to the old standards, and + to take in the statement that the number of machines which accompanied the + original Expeditionary Force to France was eighty! Even if one were not + entirely ignorant of the number and disposition of the aerial fighting + forces over the world-wide battle-ground, the Defence of the Realm Act + would prevent us from making public the information. But when, more than a + year ago, America entered the war, and talked of building 10,000 + aeroplanes, no one gasped. For even in those days one thought of + aeroplanes not in hundreds but in tens of thousands. + </p> + <p> + Before proceeding to give a few details of the most recent work of the + Royal Flying Corps and Royal Naval Air Service, mention must be made of + the armament of the aeroplane. In the first place, it should be stated + that the war has gradually evolved three distinct types of flying machine: + (1) the "general-purposes" aeroplane; (2) the giant bomb dropper; (3) the + small single-seater "fighter". + </p> + <p> + As the description implies, the first machine fills a variety of roles, + and the duties of its pilots grow more manifold as the war progresses. + "Spotting" for the artillery far behind the enemy's lines; "searching" for + ammunition dumps, for new dispositions by the enemy of men, material, and + guns; attacking a convoy or bodies of troops on the march; sprinkling new + trenches with machine-gun fire, or having a go at an aerodrome—any + wild form of aerial adventure might be included in the diary of the pilot + of a "general-purposes" machine. + </p> + <p> + It was in order to clear the air for these activities that the "fighter" + came into being, and received its baptism of fire at the Battle of the + Somme. At first the idea of a machine for fighting only, was ridiculed. + Even the Germans, who, in a military sense, were awake and plotting when + other nations were dozing in the sunshine of peace, did not think ahead + and imagine the aerial duel between groups of aeroplanes armed with + machine-guns. But soon the mastery of the air became of paramount + importance, and so the fighter was evolved. Nobly, too, did the men of all + nations rise to these heroic and dangerous opportunities. The Germans were + the first to boast of the exploits of their fighting airmen, and to us in + Britain the names of Immelmann and Bolcke were known long before those of + any of our own fighters. The former claimed not far short of a hundred + victims before he was at last brought low in June, 1916. His letters to + his family were published soon after his death, and do not err on the side + of modesty. + </p> + <p> + On 11th August, 1915, he writes: "There is not much doing here. Ten + minutes after Bolcke and I go up, there is not an enemy airman to be seen. + The English seem to have lost all pleasure in flying. They come over very, + very seldom." + </p> + <p> + When allowance has been made for German brag, these statements throw some + light upon the standard of British flying at a comparatively early date in + the war. Certainly no German airman could have made any such complaint a + year later. In 1917 the German airmen were given all the fighting they + required and a bit over. + </p> + <p> + Certainly a very different picture is presented by the dismal letters + which Fritz sent home during the great Ypres offensive of August, 1917. In + these letters he bewails the fact that one after another of his batteries + is put out of action owing to the perfect "spotting" of the British + airmen, and arrives at the sad conclusion that Germany has lost her + superiority in the air. + </p> + <p> + An account has already been given of the skill and prowess of Captain + Ball. On his own count—and he was not the type of man to exaggerate + his prowess—he found he had destroyed fifty machines, although + actually he got the credit for forty-one. This slight discrepancy may be + explained by the scrupulous care which is taken to check the official + returns. The air fighter, though morally certain of the destruction of a + certain enemy aeroplane, has to bring independent witnesses to + substantiate his claim, and when out "on his own" this is no easy matter. + Without this check, though occasionally it acts harshly towards the pilot, + there might be a tendency to exaggerate enemy losses, owing to the + difficulty of distinguishing between an aeroplane put out of action and + one the pilot of which takes a sensational "nose dive" to get out of + danger. + </p> + <p> + One of the most striking illustrations of the growth of the aeroplane as a + fighting force is afforded by the great increase in the heights at which + they could scout, take photographs, and fight. In Sir John French's + dispatches mention is made of bomb-dropping from 3000 feet. In these days + the aerial battleground has been extended to anything up to 20,000 feet. + Indeed, so brisk has been the duel between gun and aeroplane, that + nowadays airmen have often to seek the other margin of safety, and can + defy the anti-aircraft guns only by flying so low as just to escape the + ground. The general armament of a "fighter" consists of a maxim firing + through the propeller, and a Lewis gun at the rear on a revolving + gun-ring. + </p> + <p> + It is pleasant to record that the Allies kept well ahead of the enemy in + their use of aerial photography. Before a great offensive some thousands + of photographs had to be taken of enemy dispositions by means of cameras + built into the aeroplanes. + </p> + <p> + Plates were found to stand the rough usage better than films, and not for + the first time in the history of mechanics the man beat the machine, a + skilful operator being found superior to the ingenious automatic + plate-fillers which had been devised. + </p> + <p> + The counter-measure to this ruthless exposure of plans was camouflage. As + if by magic-tents, huts, dumps, guns began, as it were, to sink into the + scenery. The magicians were men skilled in the use of brush and paint-pot, + and several leading figures in the world of art lent their services to the + military authorities as directors of this campaign of concealment. In this + connection it is interesting to note that both Admiralty and War Office + took measures to record the pictorial side of the Great War. Special + commissions were given to a notable band of artists working in their + different "lines". An abiding record of the great struggle will be + afforded by the black-and-white work of Muirhead Bone, James M'Bey, and + Charles Pears; the portraits, landscapes, and seascapes of Sir John + Lavery, Philip Connard, Norman Wilkinson, and Augustus John, who received + his commission from the Canadian Government. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0040" id="link2HCH0040"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XL. The Atmosphere and the Barometer + </h2> + <p> + For the discovery of how to find the atmospheric pressure we are indebted + to an Italian named Torricelli, a pupil of Galileo, who carried out + numerous experiments on the atmosphere toward the close of the sixteenth + century. + </p> + <p> + Torricelli argued that, as air is a fluid, if it had weight it could be + made to balance another fluid of known weight. In his experiments he found + that if a glass tube about 3 feet in length, open at one end only, and + filled with mercury, were placed vertically with the open end submerged in + a cup of mercury, some of the mercury in the tube descended into the cup, + leaving a column of mercury about 30 inches in height in the tube. From + this it was deduced that the pressure of air on the surface of the mercury + in the cup forced it up the tube to the height Of 30 inches, and this was + so because the weight of a column of air from the cup to the top of the + atmosphere was only equal to that of a column of mercury of the same base + and 30 inches high. + </p> + <p> + Torricelli's experiment can be easily repeated. Take a glass tube about 3 + feet long, closed at one end and open at the other; fill it as full as + possible with mercury. Then close the open end with the thumb, and invert + the tube in a basin of mercury so that the open end dips beneath the + surface. The mercury in the tube will be found to fall a short distance, + and if the height of the column from the surface of the mercury in the + basin be measured you will find it will be about 30 inches. As the tube is + closed at the top there is no downward pressure of air at that point, and + the space above the mercury in the tube is quite empty: it forms a VACUUM. + This vacuum is generally known as the TORRICELLIAN VACUUM, after the name + of its discoverer. + </p> + <p> + Suppose, now, a hole be bored through the top of the tube above the column + of mercury, the mercury will immediately fall in the tube until it stands + at the same level as the mercury in the basin, because the upward pressure + of air through the liquid in the basin would be counterbalanced by the + downward pressure of the air at the top, and the mercury would fall by its + own weight. + </p> + <p> + A few years later Professor Boyle proposed to use the instrument to + measure the height of mountains. He argued that, since the pressure of the + atmosphere balanced a column of mercury 30 inches high, it followed that + if one could find the weight of the mercury column one would also find the + weight of a column of air standing on a base of the same size, and + stretching away indefinitely into space. It was found that a column of + mercury in a tube having a sectional area of 1 square inch, and a height + of 30 inches, weighed 15 pounds; therefore the weight of the atmosphere, + or air pressure, at sea-level is about 15 pounds to the square inch. The + ordinary mercury barometer is essentially a Torricellian tube graduated so + that the varying heights of the mercury column can be used as a measure of + the varying atmospheric pressure due to change of weather or due to + alteration of altitude. If we take a mercury barometer up a hill we will + observe that the mercury falls. The weight of atmosphere being less as we + ascend, the column of mercury supported becomes smaller. + </p> + <p> + Although the atmosphere has been proved to be over 200 miles high, it has + by no means the same density throughout. Like all gases, air is subject to + the law that the density increases directly as the pressure, and thus the + densest and heaviest layers are those nearest the sea-level, because the + air near the earth's surface has to support the pressure of all the air + above it. As airmen rise into the highest portions of the atmosphere the + height of the column of air above them decreases, and it follows that, + having a shorter column of air to support, those portions are less dense + than those lower down. So rare does the atmosphere become, when great + altitudes are reached, that at a height of seven miles breathing is + well-nigh impossible, and at far lower altitudes than this airmen have to + be supported by inhalations of oxygen. + </p> + <p> + One of the greatest altitudes was reached by two famous balloonists, + Messrs. Coxwell and Glaisher. They were over seven miles in the air when + the latter fell unconscious, and the plucky aeronauts were only saved by + Mr. Coxwell pulling the valve line with his teeth, as all his limbs were + disabled. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0041" id="link2HCH0041"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XLI. How an Airman Knows what Height he Reaches + </h2> + <p> + One of the first questions the visitor to an aerodrome, when watching the + altitude tests, asks is: "How is it known that the airman has risen to a + height of so many feet?" Does he guess at the distance he is above the + earth? + </p> + <p> + If this were so, then it is very evident that there would be great + difficulty in awarding a prize to a number of competitors each trying to + ascend higher than his rivals. + </p> + <p> + No; the pilot does not guess at his flying height, but he finds it by a + height-recording instrument called the BAROGRAPH. + </p> + <p> + In the last chapter we saw how the ordinary mercurial barometer can be + used to ascertain fairly accurately the height of mountains. But the + airman does not take a mercurial barometer up with him. There is for his + use another form of barometer much more suited to his purpose, namely, the + barograph, which is really a development of the aneroid barometer. + </p> + <p> + The aneroid barometer (Gr. a, not; neros, moist) is so called because it + requires neither mercury, glycerine, water, nor any other liquid in its + construction. It consists essentially of a small, flat, metallic box made + of elastic metal, and from which the air has been partially exhausted. In + the interior there is an ingenious arrangement of springs and levers, + which respond to atmospheric pressure, and the depression or elevation of + the surface is registered by an index on the dial. As the pressure of the + atmosphere increases, the sides of the box are squeezed in by the weight + of the air, while with a decrease of pressure they are pressed out again + by the springs. By means of a suitable adjustment the pointer on the dial + responds to these movements. It is moved in one direction for increase of + air pressure, and in the opposite for decreased pressure. The positions of + the figures on the dial are originally obtained by numerous comparisons + with a standard mercurial barometer, and the scale is graduated to + correspond with the mercurial barometer. + </p> + <p> + From the illustration here given you will notice the pointer and scale of + the "A. G" aero-barograph, which is used by many of our leading airmen, + and which, as we have said, is a development of the aneroid barometer. The + need of a self-registering scale to a pilot who is competing in an + altitude test, or who is trying to establish a height record, is + self-evident. He need not interfere with the instrument in the slightest; + it records and tells its own story. There is in use a pocket barograph + which weighs only 1 pound, and registers up to 4000 feet. + </p> + <p> + It is claimed for the "A. G." barograph that it is the most precise + instrument of its kind. Its advantages are that it is quite portable—it + measures only 6 1/4 inches in length, 3 1/2 inches in width, and 2 1/2 + inches in depth, with a total weight of only 14 pounds—and that it + is exceptionally accurate and strong. Some idea of the labour involved in + its construction may be gathered from the fact that this small and + insignificant-looking instrument, fitted in its aluminium case, costs over + L8. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0042" id="link2HCH0042"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XLII. How an Airman finds his Way + </h2> + <p> + In the early days of aviation we frequently heard of an aviator losing his + way, and being compelled to descend some miles from his required + destination. There are on record various instances where airmen have lost + their way when flying over the sea, and have drifted so far from land that + they have been drowned. One of the most notable of such disasters was that + which occurred to Mr. Hamel in 1914, when he was trying to cross the + English Channel. It is presumed that this unfortunate pilot lost his + bearings in a fog, and that an accident to his machine, or a shortage of + petrol, caused him to fall in the sea. + </p> + <p> + There are several reasons why air pilots go out of their course, even + though they are supplied with most efficient compasses. One cause of + misdirection is the prevalence of a strong side wind. Suppose, for + example, an airman intended to fly from Harwich to Amsterdam. A glance at + the map will show that the latter place is almost due east of Harwich. We + will assume that when the pilot leaves Earth at Harwich the wind is + blowing to the east; that is, behind his back. + </p> + <p> + Now, however strong a wind may be, and in whatever direction it blows, it + always appears to be blowing full in a pilot's face. Of course this is due + to the fact that the rush of the machine through the air "makes a wind", + as we say. Much the same sort of thing is experienced on a bicycle; when + out cycling we very generally seem to have a "head" wind. + </p> + <p> + Suppose during his journey a very strong side wind sprang up over the + North Sea. The pilot would still keep steering his craft due east, and it + must be remembered that when well out at sea there would be no familiar + landmarks to guide him, so that he would have to rely solely on his + compass. It is highly probable that he would not feel the change of wind + at all, but it is even more probable that when land was ultimately reached + he would be dozens of miles from his required landing-place. + </p> + <p> + Quite recently Mr. Alexander Gross, the well-known maker of aviation + instruments, who is even more famous for his excellent aviation maps, + claims to have produced an anti-drift aero-compass, which has been + specially designed for use on aeroplanes. The chief advantages of this + compass are that the dial is absolutely steady; the needle is extremely + sensitive and shows accurately the most minute change of course; the + anti-drift arrangement checks the slightest deviation from the straight + course; and it is fitted with a revolving sighting arrangement which is of + great importance in the adjustment of the instrument. + </p> + <p> + Before the airman leaves Earth he sets his compass to the course to be + steered, and during the flight he has only to see that the two + boldly-marked north points—on the dial and on the outer ring—coincide + to know that he is keeping his course. The north points are luminous, so + that they are clearly visible at night. + </p> + <p> + It is quite possible that if some of our early aviators had carried such a + highly-efficient compass as this, their lives might have been saved, for + they would not have gone so far astray in their course. The anti-drift + compass has been adopted by various Governments, and it now forms part of + the equipment of the Austrian military aeroplane. + </p> + <p> + When undertaking cross-country flights over strange land an airman finds + his way by a specially-prepared map which is spread out before him in an + aluminium map case. From the illustration here given of an aviator's map, + you will see that it differs in many respects from the ordinary map. Most + British aviation maps are made and supplied by Mr Alexander Gross, of the + firm of "Geographia", London. + </p> + <p> + Many airmen seem to find their way instinctively, so to speak, and some + are much better in picking out landmarks, and recognizing the country + generally, than others. This is the case even with pedestrians, who have + the guidance of sign-posts, street names, and so on to assist them. + However accurately some people are directed, they appear to have the + greatest difficulty in finding their way, while others, more fortunate, + remember prominent features on the route, and pick out their course as + accurately as does a homing pigeon. + </p> + <p> + Large sheets of water form admirable "sign-posts" for an airman; thus at + Kempton Park, one of the turning-points in the course followed in the + "Aerial Derby", there are large reservoirs, which enable the airmen to + follow the course at this point with the greatest ease. Railway lines, + forests, rivers and canals, large towns, prominent structures, such as + gasholders, chimney-stalks, and so on, all assist an airman to find his + way. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0043" id="link2HCH0043"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XLIII. The First Airman to Fly Upside Down + </h2> + <p> + Visitors to Brooklands aerodrome on 25th September, 1913, saw one of the + greatest sensations in this or any other century, for on that date a + daring French aviator, M. Pegoud, performed the hazardous feat of flying + upside down. + </p> + <p> + Before we describe the marvellous somersaults which Pegoud made, two or + three thousand feet above the earth, it would be well to see what was the + practical use of it all. If this amazing airman had been performing some + circus trick in the air simply for the sake of attracting large crowds of + people to witness it, and therefore being the means of bringing great + monetary gain both to him and his patrons, then this chapter would never + have been written. Indeed, such a risk to one's life, if there had been + nothing to learn from it, would have been foolish. + </p> + <p> + No; Pegoud's thrilling performance must be looked at from an entirely + different standpoint to such feats of daring as the placing of one's head + in the jaws of a lion, the traversing of Niagara Falls by means of a + tight-rope stretched across them, and other similar senseless acts, which + are utterly useless to mankind. + </p> + <p> + Let us see what such a celebrated airman as Mr. Gustav Hamel said of the + pioneer of upside-down flying. + </p> + <p> + "His looping the loop, his upside-down flights, his general acrobatic + feats in the air are all of the utmost value to pilots throughout the + world. We shall have proof of this, I am sure, in the near future. Pegoud + has shown us what it is possible to do with a modern machine. In his first + attempt to fly upside down he courted death. Like all pioneers, he was + taking liberties with the unknown elements. No man before him had + attempted the feat. It is true that men have been upside down in the air; + but they were turned over by sudden gusts of wind, and in most cases were + killed. Pegoud is all the time rehearsing accidents and showing how easy + it is for a pilot to recover equilibrium providing he remains perfectly + calm and clear-headed. Any one of his extraordinary positions might be + brought about by adverse elements. It is quite conceivable that a sudden + gust of wind might turn the machine completely over. Hitherto any pilot in + such circumstances would give himself up for lost. Pegoud has taught us + what to do in such a case.... his flights have given us all a new + confidence. + </p> + <p> + "In a gale the machine might be upset at many different angles. Pegoud has + shown us that it is easily possible to recover from such predicaments. He + has dealt with nearly every kind of awkward position into which one might + be driven in a gale of wind, or in a flight over mountains where + air-currents prevail. + </p> + <p> + "He has thus gained evidence which will be of the utmost value to present + and future pilots, and prove a factor of signal importance in the + preservation of life in the air." + </p> + <p> + Such words as these, coming from a man of Mr. Hamel's reputation as an + aviator, clearly show us that M. Pegoud has a life-saving mission for + airmen throughout the world. + </p> + <p> + Let us stand, in imagination, with the enormous crowd of spectators who + invaded the Surrey aerodrome on 25th September, and the two following + days, in 1913. + </p> + <p> + What an enormous crowd it was! A line of motor-cars bordered the track for + half a mile, and many of the spectators were busy city men who had taken a + hasty lunch and rushed off down to Weybridge to see a little French airman + risk his life in the air. Thousands of foot passengers toiled along the + dusty road from the paddock to the hangars, and thousands more, who did + not care to pay the shilling entrance fee, stood closely packed on the + high ground outside the aerodrome. + </p> + <p> + Biplanes and monoplanes came driving through the air from Hendon, and + airmen of world-wide fame, such as Sopwith, Hamel, Verrier, and Hucks, had + gathered together as disciples of the great life-saving missionary. Stern + critics these! Men who would ruthlessly expose any "faked" performance if + need were! + </p> + <p> + And where is the little airman while all this crowd is gathering? Is he + very excited? He has never before been in England. We wonder if his + amazing coolness and admirable control over his nerves will desert him + among strange surroundings. + </p> + <p> + Probably Pegoud was the coolest man in all that vast crowd. He seemed to + want to hide himself from public gaze. Most of his time, was taken up in + signing post-cards for people who had been fortunate enough to discover + him in a little restaurant near which his shed was situated. + </p> + <p> + At last his Bleriot monoplane was wheeled out, and he was strapped, or + harnessed, into his seat. "Was the machine a 'freak' monoplane?" we + wondered. + </p> + <p> + We were soon assured that such was not the case. Indeed, as Pegoud himself + says: "I have used a standard type of monoplane on purpose. Almost every + aeroplane, if it is properly balanced, has just as good a chance as mine, + and I lay particular stress on the fact that there is nothing + extraordinary about my machine, so that no one can say my achievements are + in any way faked." + </p> + <p> + During the preliminary operations his patron, M. Bleriot, stood beside the + machine, and chatted affably with the aviator. At last the signal was + given for his ascent, and in a few moments Pegoud was climbing with the + nose of his machine tilted high in the air. For about a quarter of an hour + he flew round in ever-widening circles, rising very quietly and steadily + until he had reached an altitude of about 4000 feet. A deep silence seemed + to have settled on the vast crowd nearly a mile below, and the musical + droning of his engine could be plainly heard. + </p> + <p> + Then his movements began to be eccentric. First, he gave a wonderful + exhibition of banking at right angles. Then, after about ten minutes, he + shut off his engine, pitched downwards and gracefully righted himself + again. + </p> + <p> + At last the amazing feat began. His left wing was raised, his right wing + dipped, and the nose of the machine dived steeply, and turned right round + with the airman hanging head downwards, and the wheels of the monoplane + uppermost. In this way he travelled for about a hundred yards, and then + slowly righted the machine, until it assumed its normal position, with the + engine again running. Twice more the performance was repeated, so that he + travelled from one side of the aerodrome to the other—a distance of + about a mile and a half. + </p> + <p> + Next he descended from 4000 feet to about 1200 feet in four gigantic + loops, and, as one writer said: "He was doing exactly what the clown in + the pantomime does when he climbs to the top of a staircase and rolls + deliberately over and over until he reaches the ground. But this funny man + stopped before he reached the ground, and took his last flight as + gracefully as a Columbine with outspread skirts." + </p> + <p> + Time after time Pegoud made a series of S-shaped dives, somersaults, and + spiral descents, until, after an exhibition which thrilled quite 50,000 + people, he planed gently to Earth. + </p> + <p> + Hitherto Pegoud's somersaults have been made by turning over from front to + back, but the daring aviator, and others who followed him, afterwards + turned over from right to left or from left to right. Pegoud claimed to + have demonstrated that the aeroplane is uncapsizeable, and that if a + parachute be attached to the fuselage, which is the equivalent of a life + boat on board a ship, then every pilot should feel as safe in a + heavier-than-air machine as in a motor-car. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0044" id="link2HCH0044"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XLIV. The First Englishman to Fly Upside Down + </h2> + <p> + After M. Pegoud's exhibition of upside-down flying in this country it was + only to be expected that British aviators would emulate his daring feat. + Indeed, on the same day that the little Frenchman was turning somersaults + in the air at Brooklands Mr. Hamel was asking M. Bleriot for a machine + similar to that used by Pegoud, so that he might demonstrate to airmen the + stability of the aeroplane in almost all conceivable positions. + </p> + <p> + However, it was not the daring and skilful Hamel who had the honour of + first following in Pegoud's footsteps, but another celebrated pilot, Mr. + Hucks. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Hucks was an interested spectator at Brooklands when Pegoud flew there + in September, and he felt that, given similar conditions, there was no + reason why he should not repeat Pegoud's performance. He therefore talked + the matter over with M. Bleriot, and began practising for his great + ordeal. + </p> + <p> + His first feat was to hang upside-down in a chair supported by a beam in + one of the sheds, so that he would gradually become accustomed to the + novel position. For a time this was not at all easy. Have you ever tried + to stand on your hands with your feet upwards for any length of time? To + realize the difficulty of being head downwards, just do this, and get + someone to hold your legs. The blood will, of course, "rush to the head", + as we say, and the congestion of the blood-vessels in this part of the + body will make you feel extremely dizzy. Such an occurrence would be fatal + in an aeroplane nearly a mile high in the air at a time when one requires + an especially clear brain to manipulate the various controls. + </p> + <p> + But, strange to say, the airman gradually became used to the + "heels-over-head" position, and, feeling sure of himself, he determined to + start on his perilous undertaking. No one with the exception of M. Bleriot + and the mechanics were present at the Buc aerodrome, near Versailles, when + Mr. Hucks had his monoplane brought out with the intention of looping the + loop. + </p> + <p> + He quickly rose to a height of 1500 feet, and then, slowly dipping the + nose of his machine, turned right over. For fully half a minute he flew + underneath the monoplane, and then gradually brought it round to the + normal position. + </p> + <p> + In the afternoon he continued his experiments, but this time at a height + of nearly 3000 feet. At this altitude he was flying quite steadily, when + suddenly he assumed a perpendicular position, and made a dive of about 600 + feet. The horrified spectators thought that the gallant aviator had lost + control of his machine and was dashing straight to Earth, but quickly he + changed his direction and slowly planed upwards. Then almost as suddenly + he turned a complete somersault. Righting the aeroplane, he rose in a + succession of spiral flights to a height of between 3000 and 3500 feet, + and then looped the loop twice in quick succession. + </p> + <p> + On coming to earth M. Bleriot heartily congratulated the brave Englishman. + Mr. Hucks admitted a little nervousness before looping the loop; but, as + he remarked: "Once I started to go round my nervousness vanished, and then + I knew I was coming out on top. It is all a question of keeping control of + your nerves, and Pegoud deserved all the credit, for he was the first to + risk his life in flying head downwards." + </p> + <p> + Mr. Hucks intended to be the first Englishman to fly upside down in + England, but he was forestalled by one of our youngest airmen, Mr. George + Lee Temple. On account of his youth—Mr. Temple was only twenty-one + at the time when he first flew upside-down—he was known as the "baby + airman", but there was probably no more plucky airman in the world. + </p> + <p> + There were special difficulties which Mr. Temple had to overcome that did + not exist in the experiments of M. Pegoud or Mr. Hucks. To start with, his + machine—a 50-horse-power Bleriot monoplane—was said by the + makers to be unsuitable for the performance. Then he could get no + assistance from the big aeroplane firms, who sought to dissuade him from + his hazardous undertaking. Experienced aviators wisely shook their heads + and told the "baby airman" that he should have more practice before he + took such a risk. + </p> + <p> + But notwithstanding this lack of encouragement he practised hard for a few + days by hanging in an inverted position. Meanwhile his mechanics were + working night and day in strengthening the wings of the monoplane, and + fitting it with a slightly larger elevator. + </p> + <p> + On 24th November, 1913, he decided to "try his luck" at the London + aerodrome. He was harnessed into his seat, and, bidding his friends + farewell, with the words "wish me luck", he went aloft. For nearly half an + hour he climbed upward, and swooped over the aerodrome in wide circles, + while his friends far below were watching every action of his machine. + </p> + <p> + Suddenly an alarming incident occurred. When about a mile high in the air + the machine tipped downwards and rushed towards Earth at terrific speed. + Then the tail of the machine came up, and the "baby airman" was hanging + head downwards. + </p> + <p> + But at this point the group of airmen standing in the aerodrome were + filled with alarm, for it was quite evident to their experienced eyes that + the monoplane was not under proper control. Indeed, it was actually + side-slipping, and a terrible disaster appeared imminent. For hundreds of + feet the young pilot, still hanging head downwards, was crashing to Earth, + but when down to about 1200 feet from the ground the machine gradually + came round, and Mr. Temple descended safely to Earth. + </p> + <p> + The airman afterwards told his friends that for several seconds he could + not get the machine to answer the controls, and for a time he was falling + at a speed of 100 miles an hour. In ordinary circumstances he thought that + a dive of 500 feet after the upside-down stretch should get him the right + way up, but it really took him nearly 1500 feet. Fortunately, however, he + commenced the dive at a great altitude, and so the distance side-slipped + did not much matter. + </p> + <p> + It is sad to relate that Mr. Temple lost his life in January, 1914, while + flying at Hendon in a treacherous wind. The actual cause of the accident + was never clearly understood. He had not fully recovered from an attack of + influenza, and it was thought that he fainted and fell over the control + lever while descending near one of the pylons, when the machine "turned + turtle", and the pilot's neck was broken. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0045" id="link2HCH0045"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XLV. Accidents and their Cause + </h2> + <p> + "Another airman killed!" "There'll soon be none of those flying fellows + left!" "Far too risky a game!" "Ought to be stopped by law!" + </p> + <p> + How many times have we heard these, and similar remarks, when the + newspapers relate the account of some fatality in the air! People have + come to think that flying is a terribly risky occupation, and that if one + wishes to put an end to one's life one has only to go up in a flying + machine. For the last twenty years some of our great writers have + prophesied that the conquest of the air would be as costly in human life + as was that of the sea, but their prophecies have most certainly been + wrong, for in the wreck of one single vessel, such as that of the Titanic, + more lives were lost than in all the disasters to any form of aerial + craft. + </p> + <p> + Perhaps some of our grandfathers can remember the dread with which many + nervous people entered, or saw their friends enter, a train. Travellers by + the railway eighty or ninety years ago considered that they took their + lives in their hands, so to speak, when they went on a long journey, and a + great sigh of relief arose in the members of their families when the news + came that the journey was safely ended. In George Stephenson's days there + was considerable opposition to the institution of the railway, simply on + account of the number of accidents which it was anticipated would take + place. + </p> + <p> + Now we laugh at the fears of our great-grandparents; is it not probable + that our grandchildren will laugh in a similar manner at our timidity over + the aeroplane? + </p> + <p> + In the case of all recent new inventions in methods of locomotion there + has always been a feeling among certain people that the law ought to + prohibit such inventions from being put into practice. + </p> + <p> + There used to be bitter opposition to the motor-car, and at first every + mechanically-driven vehicle had to have a man walking in front with a red + flag. + </p> + <p> + There are risks in all means of transit; indeed, it may be said that the + world is a dangerous place to live in. It is true, too, that the demons of + the air have taken their toll of life from the young, ambitious, and + daring souls. Many of the fatal accidents have been due to defective work + in some part of the machinery, some to want of that complete knowledge and + control that only experience can give, some even to want of proper care on + the part of the pilot. If a pilot takes ordinary care in controlling his + machine, and if the mechanics who have built the machine have done their + work thoroughly, flying, nowadays, should be practically as safe as + motoring. + </p> + <p> + The French Aero Club find, from a mass or information which has been + compiled for them with great care, that for every 92,000 miles actually + flown by aeroplane during the year 1912, only one fatal accident had + occurred. This, too, in France, where some of the pilots have been + notoriously reckless, and where far more airmen have been killed than in + Britain. + </p> + <p> + When we examine carefully the statistics dealing with fatal accidents in + aeroplanes we find that the pioneers of flying, such as the famous Wright + Brothers, Bleriot, Farman, Grahame-White, and so on, were comparatively + free from accidents. No doubt, in some cases, defective machines or + treacherous wind gusts caused the craft to collapse in mid-air. But, as a + rule, the first men to fly were careful to see that every part of the + machine was in order before going up in it, so that they rarely came to + grief through the planes not being sufficiently tightened up, wires being + unduly strained, spars snapping, or bolts becoming loose. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Grahame-White admirably expresses this when he says: "It is a + melancholy reflection, when one is going through the lists of aeroplane + fatalities, to think how many might have been avoided. Really the crux of + the situation in this connection, as it appears to me, is this: the first + men who flew, having had all the drudgery and danger of pioneer work, were + extremely careful in all they did; and this fact accounts for the + comparatively large proportion of these very first airmen who have + survived. + </p> + <p> + "But the men who came next in the path of progress, having a machine + ready-made, so to speak, and having nothing to do but to get into it and + fly, did not, in many cases, exercise this saving grace of caution. And + that—at least in my view—is why a good many of what one may + call the second flight of pilots came to grief." + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0046" id="link2HCH0046"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XLVI. Accidents and their Cause (Cont.) + </h2> + <p> + One of the main causes of aeroplane accidents has been the breakage of + some part of the machine while in the air, due to defective work in its + construction. There is no doubt that air-craft are far more trustworthy + now than they were two or three years ago. Builders have learned from the + mistakes of their predecessors as well as profited by their own. After + every serious accident there is an official enquiry as to the probable + cause of the accident, and information of inestimable value has been + obtained from such enquiries. + </p> + <p> + The Royal Aero Club of Great Britain has a special "Accidents + Investigation Committee" whose duty it is to issue a full report on every + fatal accident which occurs to an aeroplane in this country. As a rule, + representatives of the committee visit the scene of the accident as soon + as possible after its occurrence. Eye-witnesses are called before them to + give evidence of the disaster; the remains of the craft are carefully + inspected in order to discover any flaw in its construction; evidence is + taken as to the nature and velocity of the wind on the day of the + accident, the approximate height at which the aviator was flying, and, in + fact, everything of value that might bear on the cause of the accident. + </p> + <p> + As a good example of an official report we may quote that issued by the + Accidents Investigation Committee of the Royal Aero Club on the fatal + accident which occurred to Colonel Cody and his passenger on 7th August, + 1913. + </p> + <p> + "The representatives of the Accidents Committee visited the scene of the + accident within a few hours of its occurrence, and made a careful + examination of the wrecked air-craft. Evidence was also taken from the + eye-witnesses of the accident. + </p> + <p> + "From the consideration of the evidence the Committee regards the + following facts as clearly established: + </p> + <p> + "1. The air-craft was built at Farnborough, by Mr. S. F. Cody, in July, + 1913. + </p> + <p> + "2. It was a new type, designed for the Daily Mail Hydroplane Race round + Great Britain, but at the time of the accident had a land chassis instead + of floats. + </p> + <p> + "3. The wind at the time of the accident was about 10 miles per hour. + </p> + <p> + "4. At about 200 feet from the ground the air-craft buckled up and fell to + the ground. A large piece of the lower left wing, composing the whole of + the front spar between the fuselage and the first upright, was picked up + at least 100 yards from the spot where the air-craft struck the ground. + </p> + <p> + "5. The fall of the air-craft was broken considerably by the trees, to + such an extent that the portion of the fuselage surrounding the seats was + practically undamaged. + </p> + <p> + "6. Neither the pilot nor passenger was strapped in. + </p> + <p> + "Opinion. The Committee is of opinion that the failure of the air-craft + was due to inherent structural weakness. + </p> + <p> + "Since that portion of the air-craft in which the pilot and passenger were + seated was undamaged, it is conceivable their lives might have been saved + had they been strapped in." + </p> + <p> + This occasion was not the only time when the Accidents Investigation + Committee recommended the advisability of the airman being strapped to his + seat. But many airmen absolutely refuse to wear a belt, just as many + cyclists cannot bear to have their feet made fast to the pedals of their + cycles by using toe-clips. + </p> + <p> + Mention of toe-clips brings us to other accidents which sometimes befall + airmen. As we have seen in a previous chapter, Mr. Hawker's accident in + Ireland was due to his foot slipping over the rudder bar of his machine. + It is thought that the disaster to Mr. Pickles' machine on "Aerial Derby" + day in 1913 was due to the same cause, and on one occasion Mr. Brock was + in great danger through his foot slipping on the rudder bar while he was + practising some evolutions at the London Aerodome. Machines are generally + flying at a very fast rate, and if the pilot loses control of the machine + when it is near the ground the chances are that the aeroplane crashes to + earth before he can right it. Both Mr. Hawker and Mr. Pickles were flying + low at the time of their accidents, and so their machines were smashed; + fortunately Mr. Brock was comparatively high up in the air, and though his + machine rocked about and banked in an ominous manner, yet he was able to + gain control just in the nick of time. + </p> + <p> + To prevent accidents of this kind the rudder bars could be fitted with + pedals to which the pilot's feet could be secured by toe-clips, as on + bicycle pedals. Indeed, some makers of air-craft have already provided + pedals with toe-clips for the rudder bar. Probably some safety device such + as this will soon be made compulsory on all machines. + </p> + <p> + We have already remarked that certain pilots do not pay sufficient heed to + the inspection of their machines before making a flight. The difference + between pilots in this respect is interesting to observe. On the great day + at Hendon, in 1913—the Aerial Derby day—there were over a + dozen pilots out with their craft. + </p> + <p> + From the enclosure one could watch the airmen and their mechanics as the + machines were run out from the hangars on to the flying ground. One pilot + walked beside his mechanics while they were running the machine to the + starting place, and watched his craft with almost fatherly interest. + Before climbing into his seat he would carefully inspect the spars, bolts, + wires, controls, and so on; then he would adjust his helmet and fasten + himself into his seat with a safety belt. + </p> + <p> + "Surely with all that preliminary work he is ready to start," remarked one + of the spectators standing by. But no! the engine must be run at varying + speeds, while the mechanics hold back the machine. This operation alone + took three or four minutes, and all that the pilot proposed to do was to + circle the aerodrome two or three times. An onlooker asked a mechanic if + there were anything wrong with that particular machine. "No!" was the + reply; "but our governor's very faddy, you know!" + </p> + <p> + And now for the other extreme! Three mechanics emerged from a hangar + pushing a rather ungainly-looking biplane, which bumped over the uneven + ground. The pilot was some distance behind, with cigarette in mouth, + joking with two or three friends. When the machine was run out into the + open ground he skipped quickly up to it, climbed into the seat, started + the engine, waved a smiling "good-bye", and was off. For all he knew, that + rather rough jolting of the craft while it was being removed from the + hangar might have broken some wire on which the safety of his machine, and + his life, depended. The excuse cannot be made that his mechanics had + performed this all-important work of inspection, for their attention was + centred on the daring "banking" evolutions of some audacious pilot in the + aerodrome. + </p> + <p> + Mr. C. G. Grey, the well-known writer on aviation matters, and the editor + of The Aeroplane, says, with regard to the need of inspection of + air-craft:— + </p> + <p> + "A pilot is simply asking for trouble if he does not go all over his + machine himself at least once a day, and, if possible, every time he is + starting for a flight. + </p> + <p> + "One seldom hears, in these days, of a broken wheel or axle on a railway + coach, yet at the chief stopping places on our railways a man goes round + each train as it comes in, tapping the tires with a hammer to detect + cracks, feeling the hubs to see if there is any sign of a hot box, and + looking into the grease containers to see if there is a proper supply of + lubricant. There ought to be a similar inspection of every aeroplane every + time it touches the ground. The jar of even the best of landings may + fracture a bolt holding a wire, so that when the machine goes up again the + wire may fly back and break the propeller, or get tangled in the control + wires, or a strut or socket may crack in landing, and many other things + may happen which careful inspection would disclose before any harm could + occur. Mechanics who inspected machines regularly would be able to go all + over them in a few minutes, and no time would be wasted. As it is, at any + aerodrome one sees a machine come down, the pilot and passenger (a fare or + a pupil) climb out, the mechanics hang round and smoke cigarettes, unless + they have to perform the arduous duties of filling up with petrol. In due + course another passenger and a pilot climb in, a mechanic swings the + propeller, and away they go quite happily. If anything casts loose they + come down—and it is truly wonderful how many things can come loose + or break in the air without anyone being killed. If some thing breaks in + landing, and does not actually fall out of place, it is simply a matter of + luck whether anyone happens to see it or not." + </p> + <p> + This advice, coming from a man with such wide experience of the theory and + practice of flying, should surely be heeded by all those who engage in + deadly combat with the demons of the air. In the early days of aviation, + pilots were unacquainted with the nature and method of approach of + treacherous wind gusts; often when they were flying along in a steady, + regular wind, one of these gusts would strike their craft on one side, and + either overturn it or cause it to over-bank, so that it crashed to earth + with a swift side-slip through the air. + </p> + <p> + Happily the experience of those days, though purchased at the cost of many + lives, has taught makers of air-craft to design their machines on more + trustworthy lines. Pilots, too, have made a scientific study of air + eddies, gusts, and so on, and the danger of flying in a strong or gusty + wind is comparatively small. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0047" id="link2HCH0047"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XLVII. Accidents and their Cause (Cont.) + </h2> + <p> + Many people still think that if the engine of an aeroplane should stop + while the machine was in mid-air, a terrible disaster would happen. All + petrol engines may be described as fickle in their behaviour, and so + complicated is their structure that the best of them are given to stopping + without any warning. Aeroplane engines are far superior in horse-power to + those fitted to motorcars, and consequently their structure is more + intricate. But if an airman's engine suddenly stopped there would be no + reason whatever why he should tumble down head first and break his neck. + Strange to say, too, the higher he was flying the safer he would be. + </p> + <p> + All machines have what is called a GLIDING ANGLE. When the designer plans + his machine he considers the distribution of the weight or the engine, + pilot and passengers, of the petrol, aeronautical instruments, and planes, + so that the aeroplane is built in such a manner that when the engine + stops, and the nose of the machine is turned downwards, the aeroplane of + its own accord takes up its gliding angle and glides to earth. + </p> + <p> + Gliding angles vary in different machines. If the angle is one in twelve, + this would mean that if the glide wave commenced at a height of 1 mile, + and continued in a straight line, the pilot would come to earth 12 miles + distant. We are all familiar with the gradients shown on railways. There + we see displayed on short sign-posts such notices as "1 in 50", with the + opposite arms of the post pointing upwards and downwards. This, of course, + means that the slope of the railway at that particular place is 1 foot in + a distance of 50 feet. + </p> + <p> + One in twelve may be described as the natural gradient which the machine + automatically makes when engine power is cut off. It will be evident why + it is safer for a pilot to fly, say, at four or five thousand feet high + than just over the tree-tops or the chimney-pots of towns. Suppose, for + example, the machine has a gliding angle of one in twelve, and that when + at an altitude of about a mile the engine should stop. We will assume that + at the time of the stoppage the pilot is over a forest where it is quite + impossible to land. Directly the engine stopped he would change the angle + of the elevating plane, so that the aeroplane would naturally fall into + its gliding angle. The craft would at once settle itself into a forward + and slightly downward glide; and the airman, from his point of vantage, + would be able to see the extent of the forest. We will assume that the + aeroplane is gliding in a northerly direction, and that the country is + almost as unfavourable for landing there as over the forest itself. In + fact, we will imagine an extreme case, where the airman is over country + quite unsuitable for landing except toward the south; that is, exactly + opposite to the direction in which he starts to glide. Fortunately, there + is no reason why he should not steer his machine right round in the air, + even though the only power is that derived from the force of gravity. His + descent would be in an immense slope, extending 10 or 12 miles from the + place where the engine stopped working. He would therefore be able to + choose a suitable landing-place and reach earth quite safely. + </p> + <p> + But supposing the airman to be flying about a hundred yards above the + forest-an occurrence not likely to happen with a skilled airman, who would + probably take an altitude of nearly a mile. Almost before he could have + time to alter his elevating plane, and certainly long before he could + reach open ground, he would be on the tree-tops. + </p> + <p> + It is thought that in the near future air-craft will be fitted with two or + more motors, so that when one fails the other will keep the machine on its + course. This has been found necessary in Zeppelin air-ships. In an early + Zeppelin model, which was provided with one engine only, the insufficient + power caused the pilot to descend on unfavourable ground, and his vessel + was wrecked. More recent types of Zeppelins are fitted with three or four + engines. Experiments have already been made with the dual-engine plant for + aeroplanes, notably by Messrs. Short Brothers, of Rochester, and the tests + have given every satisfaction. + </p> + <p> + There is little doubt that if the large passenger aeroplane is made + possible, and if parliamentary powers have to be obtained for the + formation of companies for passenger traffic by aeroplane, it will be made + compulsory to fit machines with two or more engines, driving three or four + distinct propellers. One of the engines would possibly be of inferior + power, and used only in cases of emergency. + </p> + <p> + Still another cause of accident, which in some cases has proved fatal, is + the taking of unnecessary risks when in the air. This has happened more in + America and in France than in Great Britain. An airman may have performed + a very difficult and daring feat at some flying exhibition and the papers + belauded his courage. A rival airman, not wishing to be outdone in skill + or courage, immediately tries either to repeat the performance or to + perform an even more difficult evolution. The result may very well end in + disaster, and + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + FAMOUS AIRMAN KILLED +</pre> + <p> + is seen on most of the newspaper bills. + </p> + <p> + The daring of some of our professional airmen is notorious. There is one + particular pilot, whose name is frequently before us, whom I have in mind + when writing this chapter. On several occasions I have seen him flying + over densely-packed crowds, at a height of about two hundred feet or so. + With out the slightest warning he would make a very sharp and almost + vertical dive. The spectators, thinking that something very serious had + happened, would scatter in all directions, only to see the pilot right his + machine and jokingly wave his hand to them. One trembles to think what + would have been the result if the machine had crashed to earth, as it + might very easily have done. It is interesting to relate that the risks + taken by this pilot, both with regard to the spectators and himself, + formed the subject of comment, and, for the future, flying over the + spectators' heads has been strictly forbidden. + </p> + <p> + From 1909 to 1913 about 130 airmen lost their lives in Germany, France, + America, and the British Isles, and of this number the British loss was + between thirty and forty. Strange to say, nearly all the German fatalities + have taken place in air-ships, which were for some years considered much + safer than the heavier-than-air machine. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0048" id="link2HCH0048"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XLVIII. Some Technical Terms used by Aviators + </h2> + <p> + Though this book cannot pretend to go deeply into the technical side of + aviation, there are certain terms and expressions in everyday use by + aviators that it is well to know and understand. + </p> + <p> + First, as to the machines themselves. You are now able to distinguish a + monoplane from a biplane, and you have been told the difference between a + TRACTOR biplane and a PROPELLER biplane. In the former type the screw is + in front of the pilot; in the latter it is to the rear of the pilot's + seat. + </p> + <p> + Reference has been previously made to the FUSELAGE, SKIDS, AILERONS, + WARPING CONTROLS, ELEVATING PLANES, and RUDDER of the various forms of + air-craft. We have also spoken of the GLIDING ANGLE of a machine. + Frequently a pilot makes his machine dive at a much steeper gradient than + is given by its natural gliding angle. When the fall is about one in six + the glide is known as a VOL PLANE; if the descent is made almost + vertically it is called a VOL PIQUE. + </p> + <p> + In some cases a PANCAKE descent is made. This is caused by such a decrease + of speed that the aeroplane, though still moving forward, begins to drop + downwards. When the pilot finds that this is taking place, he points the + nose of his machine at a much steeper angle, and so reaches his normal + flying speed, and is able to effect a safe landing. If he were too near + the earth he would not be able to make this sharp dive, and the + probability is that the aeroplane would come down flat, with the + possibility of a damaged chassis. It is considered faulty piloting to make + a pancake descent where there is ample landing space; in certain + restricted areas, however, it is quite necessary to land in this way. + </p> + <p> + A far more dangerous occurrence is the SIDE-SLIP. Watch a pilot + vol-planing to earth from a great height with his engine shut off. The + propeller rotates in an irregular manner, sometimes stopping altogether. + When this happens, the skilful pilot forces the nose of his machine down, + and so regains his normal flying speed; but if he allowed the propeller to + stop and at the same time his forward speed through the air to be + considerably diminished, his machine would probably slip sideways through + the air and crash to earth. In many cases side-slips have taken place at + aerodromes when the pilot has been rounding a pylon with the nose of his + machine pointing upwards. + </p> + <p> + When a machine flies round a corner very quickly the pilot tilts it to one + side. Such action as this is known as BANKING. This operation can be + witnessed at any aerodrome when speed handicaps are taking place. + </p> + <p> + Since upside-down flying came into vogue we have heard a great deal about + NOSE DIVING. This is a headlong dive towards earth with the nose of the + machine pointing vertically downwards. As a rule the pilot makes a sharp + nose dive before he loops the loop. + </p> + <p> + Sometimes an aeroplane enters a tract of air where there seems to be no + supporting power for the planes; in short, there appears to be, as it + were, a HOLE in the air. Scientifically there is no such thing as a hole + in the air, but airmen are more concerned with practice than with theory, + and they have, for their own purposes, designated this curious phenomenon + an AIR POCKET. In the early days of aviation, when machines were far less + stable and pilots more quickly lost control of their craft, the air pocket + was greatly dreaded, but nowadays little notice is taken of it. + </p> + <p> + A violent disturbance in the air is known as a REMOUS. This is somewhat + similar to an eddy in a stream, and it has the effect of making the + machine fly very unsteadily. Remous are probably caused by electrical + disturbances of the atmosphere, which cause the air streams to meet and + mingle, breaking up into filaments or banding rills of air. The wind—that + is, air in motion—far from being of approximate uniformity, is, + under most ordinary conditions, irregular almost beyond conception, and it + is with such great irregularities in the force of the air streams that + airmen have constantly to contend. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0049" id="link2HCH0049"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XLIX. The Future in the Air + </h2> + <p> + Three years before the outbreak of the Great War, the Master-General of + Ordnance, who was in charge of Aeronautics at the War Office, declared: + "We are not yet convinced that either aeroplanes or air-ships will be of + any utility in war". + </p> + <p> + After four years of war, with its ceaseless struggle between the Allies + and the Central Powers for supremacy in the air, such a statement makes us + rub our eyes as though we had been dreaming. + </p> + <p> + Seven years—and in its passage the air encircling the globe has + become one gigantic battle area, the British Isles have lost the age-long + security which the seas gave them, and to regain the old proud + unassailable position must build a gigantic aerial fleet—as greatly + superior to that of their neighbours as was, and is, the British Navy. + </p> + <p> + Seven years—and the monoplane is on the scrap-heap; the Zeppelin has + come as a giant destroyer—and gone, flying rather ridiculously + before the onslaughts of its tiny foes. In a recent article the editor of + The Aeroplane referred to the erstwhile terror of the air as follows: "The + best of air-ships is at the mercy of a second-rate aeroplane". Enough to + make Count Zeppelin turn in his grave! + </p> + <p> + To-day in aerial warfare the air-ship is relegated to the task of + observer. As the "Blimp", the kite-balloon, the coast patrol, it scouts + and takes copious notes; but it leaves the fighting to a tiny, + heavier-than-air machine armed with a Lewis gun, and destructive attacks + to those big bomb-droppers, the British Handley Page, the German Gotha, + the Italian Morane tri-plane. + </p> + <p> + The war in the air has been fought with varying fortunes. But, looking + back upon four years of war, we may say that, in spite of a slow start, we + have managed to catch up our adversaries, and of late we have certainly + dealt as hard knocks as we have received. A great spurt of aerial activity + marked the opening of the year 1918. From all quarters of the globe came + reports, moderate and almost bald in style, but between the lines of which + the average man could read word-pictures of the skill, prowess, and + ceaseless bravery of the men of the Royal Flying Corps and Royal Naval Air + Service. Recently there have appeared two official publications (1), + profusely illustrated with photographs, which give an excellent idea of + the work and training of members of the two corps. Forewords have been + contributed respectively by Lord Hugh Cecil and Sir Eric Geddes, First + Lord of the Admiralty. These publications lift a curtain upon not only the + activities of the two Corps, but the tremendous organization now demanded + by war in the air. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (1) The Work and Training of the Royal Flying Corps and The + Work and Training of the Royal Naval Air Service. +</pre> + <p> + All this to-day. To-morrow the Handley Page and Gotha may be occupying + their respective niches in the museum of aerial antiquities, and we may be + all agog over the aerial passenger service to the United States of + America. + </p> + <p> + For truly, in the science of aviation a day is a generation, and three + months an eon. When the coming of peace turns men's thoughts to the + development of aeroplanes for commerce and pleasure voyages, no one can + foretell what the future may bring forth. + </p> + <p> + At the time of writing, air attacks are still being directed upon London. + But the enemy find it more and more difficult to penetrate the barrage. + Sometimes a solitary machine gets through. Frequently the whole squadron + of raiding aeroplanes is turned back at the coast. + </p> + <p> + As for the military advantage the Germans have derived, after nearly four + years of attacks by air, it may be set down as practically nil. In raid + after raid they missed their so-called objectives and succeeded only in + killing noncombatants. Far different were the aim and scope of the British + air offensives into Germany and into country occupied by German troops. + Railway junctions, ammunition dumps, enemy billets, submarine bases, + aerodromes—these were the targets for our airmen, who scored hits by + the simple but dangerous plan of flying so low that misses were almost out + of the question. + </p> + <p> + "Make sure of your objective, even if you have to sit upon it." Thus is + summed up, in popular parlance, the policy of the Royal Flying Corps and + Royal Naval Air Service. And if justification were heeded of this strict + limitation of aim, it will be found in the substantial military losses + inflicted upon the enemy results which would never have been attained had + our airmen dissipated their energies on non-military objectives for the + purpose of inspiring terror in the civil population. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's The Mastery of the Air, by William J. Claxton + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MASTERY OF THE AIR *** + +***** This file should be named 777-h.htm or 777-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/7/7/777/ + +Produced by Dianne Bean, and David Widger + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +http://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +http://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at http://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit http://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. +To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + http://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + + +</pre> + </body> +</html> |