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diff --git a/77619-h/77619-h.htm b/77619-h/77619-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..59bcc2b --- /dev/null +++ b/77619-h/77619-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,5193 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html> +<html lang="en"> +<head> +<meta charset="UTF-8"> +<title>Cordage and cordage hemp and fibres | Project Gutenberg</title> +<link rel="icon" href="images/cover.jpg" type="image/x-cover"> +<style> +body { margin-left:10%; margin-right:10%; position: relative;} +figure {margin: 1ex auto;} +figcaption {text-align: center;} +h1 {page-break-before: always; font-weight: normal; font-size: 1em; margin-bottom: 0; margin-top: 0} +p {text-align: justify; text-indent: 1.4em; margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0;} +h2 {text-align: center; font-weight: normal; font-size: 1em;} +table {border-spacing: 0} +th {font-weight: normal; padding: 0;} +td {padding: 0;} +.pagenum { position: absolute; right: -3.5em; font-size: small; text-indent: 0; text-align: right; border: 1px solid silver; margin-top: 0.3em; padding: 0 0.2em; color: silver;} +.l15 {font-size: 1.5em;} +.align_c { text-align: center; 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WOODHOUSE</p> +<p class='align_c fontp67 top_ex'> +HEAD OF WEAVING AND DESIGNING DEPARTMENT, DUNDEE TECHNICAL COLLEGE AND +SCHOOL OF ART;</p> +<p class='align_c fontp67 top_ex'> +FORMERLY MANAGER, MESSRS. WALTON AND CO., LINEN MANUFACTURERS, BLEACHERS +AND FINISHERS, KNARESBOROUGH;</p> +<p class='align_c fontp67 top_ex'> +AUTHOR OF “THE FINISHING OF JUTE AND LINEN FABRICS”; “HEALDS AND REEDS +FOR WEAVING, SETTS AND PORTERS”; JOINT AUTHOR OF “TEXTILE DESIGN: +PURE AND APPLIED”; “JUTE AND LINEN WEAVING MECHANISM”; +“CALCULATIONS AND STRUCTURE OF FABRICS”; “JUTE AND JUTE +SPINNING,” ETC.</p> +<p class='align_c fontp8 two_space'> +AND</p> +<p class='align_c l14'> +P. KILGOUR</p> +<p class='align_c fontp67 top_ex'> +HEAD OF THE SPINNING DEPARTMENT, DUNDEE TECHNICAL COLLEGE AND SCHOOL +OF ART;</p> +<p class='align_c fontp67 top_ex'> +FORMERLY MANAGER, BELFAST ROPE WORKS; JOINT AUTHOR “JUTE AND JUTE +SPINNING,” ETC.</p> +<p class="align_c two_space"> +<span class='small-caps'>London</span><br> +<span class='small-caps'>Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, Ltd., 1 Amen Corner, E.C.4</span><br> +<span class='small-caps'>Bath, Melbourne and New York</span> +</p> +</div> +<div class='section'> +<p class='align_c fontp8 two_space'> +<span class='small-caps'>Printed by Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, Ltd., London, Bath, Melbourne and New York</span></p> + </div> +<div class="chapter"><span id='page-v' class='pagenum'>v</span> +<h2 class='nobreak'> +<span class='l15'>PREFACE</span> +</h2></div> +<p class='noindent two_space'> +<span class='small-caps'>The</span> function of a small article in commercial undertakings +is often overshadowed by that of the larger +and usually more valuable article, and yet the use of +the former is often an absolute necessity for the safety +of the latter. This relative value is emphasized in the +use of cordage, because the successful prosecution of +many industries depends in no mean way upon the +utilization of this useful and common commodity.</p> +<p> +Some of the various types of cordage are well known +to the general public, but the methods employed in +their manufacture, the machinery used, and the sources +of the fibres are not quite so well known. We trust +that these phases are discussed in as brief but as complete +a way as is possible in this little book, which we +hope will take its own place in the literature of our +Common Commodities of Commerce. +</p> +<p> +We take this opportunity of recording our warmest +thanks to Messrs. David Bridge & Co., Ltd., Castleton, +Manchester, for loan of blocks; to Messrs. The Edinburgh +Roperie and Sail Cloth Co., Ltd., Leith, for +assistance and for several photographs; and to Messrs. +Landauer & Co., London, for some of the statistics +regarding the fibres. +</p> +<div class="align_r pad_r2 top_ex"><div class="block_align_l">T. WOODHOUSE.<br> +P. KILGOUR.<br> +</div></div><p class='fontp9'> +<i>September, 1919.</i></p> +<div class="chapter"><span id='page-vii' class='pagenum'>vii</span> +<h2 class='nobreak'> +<span class='l15'>CONTENTS</span> +</h2></div> +<table class='center fontp9 two_space margetb'> +<tr> +<th class="ar pt pr"><span class='fontp9'>CHAP.</span></th> +<th class="al"></th> +<th class="ar pt"><span class='fontp9'>PAGE</span></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ar pt pr vt"></td> +<td class="al pt pr pi vt">PREFACE</td> +<td class="ar vb"><a href='#page-v'>v</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ar pt pr vt">I.</td> +<td class="al pt pr pi vt">INTRODUCTORY</td> +<td class="ar vb"><a href='#page-1'>1</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ar pt pr vt">II.</td> +<td class="al pt pr pi vt">DEFINITION OF CORDAGE AND SOURCES OF FIBRES</td> +<td class="ar vb"><a href='#page-5'>5</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ar pt pr vt">III.</td> +<td class="al pt pr pi vt">CLASSIFICATION OF FIBRES</td> +<td class="ar vb"><a href='#page-16'>16</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ar pt pr vt">IV.</td> +<td class="al pt pr pi vt">THE CULTIVATION OF HEMP</td> +<td class="ar vb"><a href='#page-19'>19</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ar pt pr vt">V.</td> +<td class="al pt pr pi vt">RETTING, BREAKING AND SCUTCHING</td> +<td class="ar vb"><a href='#page-24'>24</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ar pt pr vt">VI.</td> +<td class="al pt pr pi vt">THE CULTIVATION OF PLANTS FOR HARD FIBRES</td> +<td class="ar vb"><a href='#page-31'>31</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ar pt pr vt">VII.</td> +<td class="al pt pr pi vt">THE PREPARING AND SPINNING MACHINERY FOR HEMP AND OTHER SOFT FIBRES</td> +<td class="ar vb"><a href='#page-55'>55</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ar pt pr vt">VIII.</td> +<td class="al pt pr pi vt">THE PREPARING AND SPINNING MACHINERY FOR MANILA AND OTHER HARD FIBRES</td> +<td class="ar vb"><a href='#page-87'>87</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ar pt pr vt">IX.</td> +<td class="al pt pr pi vt">TWINES, CORDS AND LINES</td> +<td class="ar vb"><a href='#page-93'>93</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ar pt pr vt">X.</td> +<td class="al pt pr pi vt">ROPES AND ROPE-MAKING; YARN NUMBERING</td> +<td class="ar vb"><a href='#page-100'>100</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ar pt pr vt">XI.</td> +<td class="al pt pr pi vt">MARKETING</td> +<td class="ar vb"><a href='#page-108'>108</a></td> +</tr> +</table> +<div class="chapter"><span id='page-ix' class='pagenum'>ix</span> +<h2 class='nobreak'> +<span class='l15'>ILLUSTRATIONS</span> +</h2></div> +<table class='center fontp9 two_space margetb'> +<tr> +<th class="ar pt pr"><span class='fontp9'>FIG.</span></th> +<th class="al"></th> +<th class="ar pt"><span class='fontp9'>PAGE</span></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ar pt pr vt"></td> +<td class="al pt pr pi vt">ROPE DRIVE FOR A MILL SHAFT <a href='#fig_0'><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td> +<td class="ar vb"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ar pt pr vt">1.</td> +<td class="al pt pr pi vt">TWO-YEAR-OLD SISAL PLANT</td> +<td class="ar vb"><a href='#fig_1'>6</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ar pt pr vt">2.</td> +<td class="al pt pr pi vt">AGAVE AMERICANA</td> +<td class="ar vb"><a href='#fig_2'>8</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ar pt pr vt">3.</td> +<td class="al pt pr pi vt">TRANSVERSE SECTION OF A LEAF OF AGAVE AMERICANA</td> +<td class="ar vb"><a href='#fig_3'>10</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ar pt pr vt">4.</td> +<td class="al pt pr pi vt">PHOTOMICROGRAPH OF A SECTION OF FIBRES OF AGAVE AMERICANA</td> +<td class="ar vb"><a href='#fig_4'>11</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ar pt pr vt">5.</td> +<td class="al pt pr pi vt">PHOTOMICROGRAPH OF FIBRES OF AGAVE GROWN IN MEXICO SHOWING OXALATE OF POTASH CRYSTALS</td> +<td class="ar vb"><a href='#fig_5'>12</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ar pt pr vt">6.</td> +<td class="al pt pr pi vt">GROUP OF HEMP PLANTS</td> +<td class="ar vb"><a href='#fig_6'>13</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ar pt pr vt">7.</td> +<td class="al pt pr pi vt">CROSS-SECTION OF PLANT</td> +<td class="ar vb"><a href='#fig_7'>13</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ar pt pr vt">8.</td> +<td class="al pt pr pi vt">LONGITUDINAL VIEW OF COTTON FIBRES</td> +<td class="ar vb"><a href='#fig_8'>15</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ar pt pr vt">9.</td> +<td class="al pt pr pi vt">CROSS-SECTIONAL VIEW OF COTTON FIBRES</td> +<td class="ar vb"><a href='#fig_9'>15</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ar pt pr vt">10.</td> +<td class="al pt pr pi vt">MANILA FIBRES: ORDER OF GRADING</td> +<td class="ar vb"><a href='#fig_10'>35</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ar pt pr vt">11.</td> +<td class="al pt pr pi vt">BRIDGE’S “ACME” GRAVITY PATENT SISAL BREAKER</td> +<td class="ar vb"><a href='#fig_11'>38</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ar pt pr vt">12.</td> +<td class="al pt pr pi vt">BRIDGE’S “CLIMAX” PATENT SISAL DECORTICATOR</td> +<td class="ar vb"><a href='#fig_12'>40</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ar pt pr vt">13.</td> +<td class="al pt pr pi vt">WASHING TANKS</td> +<td class="ar vb"><a href='#fig_13'>43</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ar pt pr vt">14.</td> +<td class="al pt pr pi vt">HOUSING FOR POWER PLANT</td> +<td class="ar vb"><a href='#fig_14'>43</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ar pt pr vt">15.</td> +<td class="al pt pr pi vt">CUMMINS’S PATENT HORIZONTAL HYDRAULIC BALING PRESS</td> +<td class="ar vb"><a href='#fig_15'>43</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ar pt pr vt">16.</td> +<td class="al pt pr pi vt">MAURITIUS FIBRE PLANT</td> +<td class="ar vb"><a href='#fig_16'>47</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ar pt pr vt">17.</td> +<td class="al pt pr pi vt">BALES OF MANILA, NEW ZEALAND AND SISAL FIBRES</td> +<td class="ar vb"><a href='#fig_17'>54</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ar pt pr vt">18.</td> +<td class="al pt pr pi vt">BREAKING MACHINE</td> +<td class="ar vb"><a href='#fig_18'>60</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ar pt pr vt">19.</td> +<td class="al pt pr pi vt">HACKLING MACHINE</td> +<td class="ar vb"><a href='#fig_19'>62</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ar pt pr vt">20.</td> +<td class="al pt pr pi vt">SPREAD BOARD</td> +<td class="ar vb"><a href='#fig_20'>69</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ar pt pr vt">21.</td> +<td class="al pt pr pi vt">BREAKER AND FINISHER CARDS</td> +<td class="ar vb"><a href='#fig_21'>74</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ar pt pr vt">22.</td> +<td class="al pt pr pi vt">DRAWING FRAMES</td> +<td class="ar vb"><a href='#fig_22'>80</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ar pt pr vt"><span id='page-x' class='pagenum'>x</span>23.</td> +<td class="al pt pr pi vt">ROVING FRAME</td> +<td class="ar vb"><a href='#fig_23'>81</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ar pt pr vt">24.</td> +<td class="al pt pr pi vt">DRY SPINNING FRAME</td> +<td class="ar vb"><a href='#fig_24'>84</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ar pt pr vt">25.</td> +<td class="al pt pr pi vt">HACKLER AND SPREADER</td> +<td class="ar vb"><a href='#fig_25'>87</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ar pt pr vt">26.</td> +<td class="al pt pr pi vt">INTERMEDIATE MACHINE</td> +<td class="ar vb"><a href='#fig_26'>89</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ar pt pr vt">27.</td> +<td class="al pt pr pi vt">AUTOMATIC SPINNING MACHINE</td> +<td class="ar vb"><a href='#fig_27'>91</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ar pt pr vt">28.</td> +<td class="al pt pr pi vt">DRYING BLEACHED YARNS</td> +<td class="ar vb"><a href='#fig_28'>93</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ar pt pr vt">29.</td> +<td class="al pt pr pi vt">ROPE-MAKING (HOUSE MACHINES)</td> +<td class="ar vb"><a href='#fig_29'>101</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ar pt pr vt">30.</td> +<td class="al pt pr pi vt">LAYING OF A FOUR-STRAND CABLE-LAID ROPE IN THE ROPE WALK</td> +<td class="ar vb"><a href='#fig_30'>105</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ar pt pr vt">31.</td> +<td class="al pt pr pi vt">VIEWS OF LARGE AND MEDIUM-SIZED COILS OF ROPE</td> +<td class="ar vb"><a href='#fig_31'>106</a></td> +</tr> +</table> +<div class="chapter"><span id='page-1' class='pagenum'>1</span> +<p class='l15 align_c'> +<span class='lspz'>CORDAGE AND CORDAGE HEMP AND FIBRES</span></p> +<h2 class='nobreak'> +CHAPTER I<br> +<span class='fontp9'>INTRODUCTORY</span> +</h2></div> +<p class='noindent two_space'> +<span class='small-caps'>Records</span> of civilization are incapable of furnishing the +era when the equivalent of strands or cords were first +used, singly or collectively, for the purpose of holding +two or more articles securely in position. But, although +it is impossible to fix a period, one might safely say +that the original material which served the purpose was +some kind of light twig or lanceolate leaf, and that its +appearance when in use as a binder strip differed little +if at all from its appearance in the natural process of +growth. Even at the present day some of these runners +are still used, notably with others the rattan canes for +binding bales of manila fibre and other purposes.</p> +<p> +The wants of prehistoric man would be very few +indeed, but, although he was accustomed in many +climates to make use of very scanty clothing or covering, +and, in many cases, was practically without any +covering, it is obvious that it would be necessary to +provide himself with food⁠—the first essential condition +to life. In his efforts to secure the necessary food-stuffs, +animate or inanimate, it is safe to conclude that +some type of ribbon-shaped vegetable material would +be necessary or desirable at an early stage, and probably +at the same time or a little later period sinews of +different kinds would be brought into use. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-2' class='pagenum'>2</span>As years rolled on, further uses would undoubtedly +be found for various kinds of fibrous material, and more +improved methods would be applied in adapting the +vegetable matter and the like to the purposes intended, +as well as more care exercised in the selection of the +materials. Some of the characteristics which are +essential in practically all binders or tying strips +are length, strength, pliability and a tendency +to resist atmospheric influences and other natural +agents. +</p> +<p> +The gradual development of civilization, and the +gradually increasing demand for suitable substances to +be used as binders and for various other purposes would +naturally lead to improvements in the utilization of +fibrous and other suitable plants, and ultimately to +more or less scientific methods of treating these plants +with the object of removing the objectionable constituents +which are useless for cordage purposes, and of +retaining those parts which are considered to be most +suitable for the purpose in view. +</p> +<p> +A complete description of the evolution of modern +cord and cordage is practically impossible, for the +simple reason that there is no full record of the efforts +of many of the earlier pioneers in the various stages, +and it is quite possible that many early and praiseworthy +improvements have been forgotten or overshadowed, +or perhaps absorbed, by the more modern +and more elaborate methods which are now indispensable +for the successful prosecution of this important branch +of the textile industry. +</p> +<p> +The separation of fibrous material from various kinds +of plants is by no means of modern origin, for the great +antiquity of yarns which have been spun from vegetable +and animal fibres is universally acknowledged. Reference +to the process of preparing flax for the purpose of +<span id='page-3' class='pagenum'>3</span>spinning appears in Exodus ix, verse 31, while the first +Biblical reference to thread⁠—one of the technical names +for a continuous length of prepared fibrous material⁠—is +in Genesis xiv, verse 23: “That I will not take +from a thread even to a shoe-latchet.” Again, another +early reference in Chapter xxxviii refers to a scarlet +thread, an indication or suggestion that the art of dyeing +was also known at this early period in the early +Biblical history. +</p> +<p> +Herodotus records garments made from hemp by the +Thracians, and to the present day hemp is largely cultivated +in the vicinity of the lands occupied by the +descendants of this ancient race. +</p> +<p> +Moschion, whose writings appeared before the Christian +era, states that the “great ships of Syracuse which +were built by command of Hiero II were supplied with +hemp and ropes from the Rhone districts. Hemp was +brought from Colchis to the ports of the Aegean Sea +by the merchants who were connected commercially +with the north and east coasts of the Euxine through +their Milesian colonies.” +</p> +<p> +Pliny also records the use of hemp for ships, and +states that it was in common use among the Romans +in the first century for ropes and sails, as well as for +other purposes. +</p> +<p> +The more or less uncertain knowledge of practically +all the earlier attempts at the solution of fibre extraction +renders it impossible for us to bridge the gap +between the time when crude primitive methods were +practised and that which ushered in the more perfect +methods described by Pliny in the first century⁠—methods +which, in certain cases, have varied little since +this early period, and which are practised with a high +degree of success. We may, therefore, leave this interesting +period to the researches of students in history, +<span id='page-4' class='pagenum'>4</span>and enter upon the description and illustration of the +various plants from which fibre is extracted, and the +actual processes which such fibre has to undergo before +it is ready for the market in one or other of the +well-known types of cordage. +</p> +<div class="chapter"><span id='page-5' class='pagenum'>5</span> +<h2 class='nobreak'> +CHAPTER II<br> +<span class='fontp9'>DEFINITION OF CORDAGE AND SOURCES OF FIBRES</span> +</h2></div> +<p class='noindent two_space'> +<span class='small-caps'>The</span> definition of cordage usually takes the form of “a +quantity of cords or ropes as the rigging of a ship, etc.,” +but in commerce the word has a more elastic meaning, +and, in general, may be said to include all kinds of +continuous strands or the like which are not intended +to be woven into cloth or to be knitted into hosiery. +Differentiation occurs, however, for one often finds the +phrase “Ropes, Cords and Twines” as referring to +special types of cordage, while further subdivision occurs +when one includes the many types of finer material +such as lines, sewing thread, and the like. And when +one considers that the various articles which are included +in the generic term cordage have a range from ropes +of 9 or 10 in. in diameter to fine threads of not more +than perhaps 1/60th of an inch, and for which a very +large number of different kinds of fibres are used, some +idea of the immense variety can possibly be formed.</p> +<p> +From whatever source a vegetable cordage fibre is +derived, it is necessary to eliminate more or less of the +substances which are closely connected with it in the +plant, in order that the comparatively pure fibre may +be spun into thread form with the maximum of strength +and production, and the minimum of difficulty and +waste. In this respect it is quite likely that an animal +fibre such as wool would be more easily separated than +any other known fibre. Wool, however, is rarely used +for cordage purposes, although hair, which approximates +to wool, is used for certain types of cord. There are +certainly many types of wool ropes used for decorative +purposes, but, in general, this most valuable substance +<span id='page-6' class='pagenum'>6</span>is, for obvious reasons, unsuitable for the usual kind +of cordage, and hence wool will not be discussed in this +work. +</p> +<p> +The fibres from the leaves of certain tropical plants +may be separated with a little more difficulty than that +which is experienced in the operation of shearing a +sheep, but these fibres are hidden, and even when found +originally, great difficulty would be experienced before +a continuous thread could be made from them. It is +quite probable that a natural process of disintegration +would disclose these vegetable fibres to primitive man, +and lead to their ultimate utilization for various purposes. +Or perhaps the gradual wear and tear of the +leaves used, either loosely or bound in some crude form, +as floor-covering would result in the discovery of the +fibrous layers. It is the remarkable advance in mechanical +science which has made the production of a continuous +thread from such fibres a possibility for industrial +purposes. +</p> +<p> +Long before continuous spinning was invented, however, +it would be desirable to extract the valuable fibrous +material from its bed of vegetable matter because the +latter is, in general, quite unfit for the purposes which +the fibrous material has to perform. This remark +applies not only to the fibres which are extracted from +leaves, but also to those valuable fibres which are +embedded in the bast layers of the stems of certain +plants. +</p> +<p> +We might now with advantage illustrate by means +of photographic reproductions of plants, and photomicrographs +of sections, the three sources from which +vegetable fibres are obtained to be utilized in the manufacture⁠—or +spinning as it is technically called⁠—of the +world’s supply of cordage. +</p> +<figure id='fig_1' class='max100' style='width: 25em;'> +<img src="images/i_p007.jpg" class="w100 v_align_b" alt=""> +<figcaption><span class='fontp9'><i>By permission of Messrs David Bridge & Co., Ltd.</i></span><br> +<span class='fontp9'><span class="small-caps">Fig. 1</span></span><br> +<span class='fontp9'>TWO-YEAR-OLD SISAL PLANT</span></figcaption> +</figure> +<p> +A typical example of a leaf plant from which one +<span id='page-7' class='pagenum'>7</span>type of textile or cordage fibre is extracted is illustrated +in <a href='#fig_1'>Fig. 1</a>. This particular example is designated as a +“Two-year-old Sisal Plant.” It is 49 in. high, and was +grown in the Voi district, British East Africa. Sisal is +the commercial name of the fibre obtained from such +plants, while the botanical name of the plant is <i>Agave +<span id='page-8' class='pagenum'>8</span>Rigida</i>, variety <i>Sisalana</i>; it is sometimes, though +erroneously, termed the Americana. +</p> +<figure id='fig_2' class='max100' style='width: 25em;'> +<img src="images/i_p008.jpg" class="w100 v_align_b" alt=""> +<figcaption><span class='fontp9'><span class="small-caps">Fig. 2</span></span><br> +<span class='fontp9'>AGAVE AMERICANA</span></figcaption> +</figure> +<p> +A recently suggested nomenclature of the Agave and +other plants, from which sisal and similar fibres are +extracted, is due to Professor Lyster Dewey of the +United States Department of Agriculture⁠— +</p> +<p> +(1) Agave Fourcroydis of Yucatan; this plant yields +<span id='page-9' class='pagenum'>9</span>90 per cent. of the sisal fibres exported from all countries. +The leaves bear marginal spines as illustrated in the +<i>Agave Americana</i> shown at A, <a href='#fig_2'>Fig. 2</a>: the plant was +formerly known as <i>Agave Rigida</i>, variety <i>Elongata</i>. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-10' class='pagenum'>10</span>(2) <i>Agave Sisalana</i> grown for use by the natives of +Central America and South Mexico, but not much +exported. +</p> +<p> +(3) <i>Agave Cantala.</i> This is the “<i>Maguey</i>” plant of +the Philippine Islands, and is grown in limited quantities +in Java and India. +</p> +<figure id='fig_3' class='max100' style='width: 25em;'> +<img src="images/i_p009.jpg" class="w100 v_align_b" alt=""> +<figcaption><span class='fontp9'><span class="small-caps">Fig. 3</span></span><br> +<span class='fontp9'>TRANSVERSE SECTION OF A LEAF OF AGAVE AMERICANA</span></figcaption> +</figure> +<p> +When a thin slice or fine transverse section of one of +the leaves of such a plant is mounted, and its appearance +magnified by photomicrography, the structure of +the leaf is shown to be similar to that illustrated in +<a href='#fig_3'>Fig. 3</a>. The upper and the lower outer surfaces or +cuticle A resemble greatly the whipped edges of blankets. +<span id='page-11' class='pagenum'>11</span>These surfaces, and all the pulp-like matter lettered B, +must be removed, either by manual or mechanical +means, in order to separate or extract the groups of +fibre some of which are denoted by the letter C. A still +further enlargement of a few of these groups of fibrous +material appears in <a href='#fig_4'>Fig. 4</a>. +</p> +<figure id='fig_4' class='max100' style='width: 25em;'> +<img src="images/i_p010.jpg" class="w100 v_align_b" alt=""> +<figcaption><span class='fontp9'><span class="small-caps">Fig. 4</span></span><br> +<span class='fontp9'>PHOTOMICROGRAPH OF A SECTION OF FIBRES OF AGAVE AMERICANA</span></figcaption> +</figure> +<p> +<span id='page-12' class='pagenum'>12</span>A photomicrograph of two fibres of a type of Agave +grown in Mexico is shown in <a href='#fig_5'>Fig. 5</a>; it is interesting +because it depicts the formation of crystals of Oxalate +of Potash. The presence of such crystals makes the +fibre unsuitable for cordage purposes, but it may be +used in the manufacture of coarse brushes. +</p> +<figure id='fig_5' class='max100' style='width: 25em;'> +<img src="images/i_p011.jpg" class="w100 v_align_b" alt=""> +<figcaption><span class='fontp9'><span class="small-caps">Fig. 5</span></span><br> +<span class='fontp9'>PHOTOMICROGRAPH OF FIBRES OF AGAVE GROWN IN MEXICO, SHOWING OXALATE OF POTASH CRYSTALS</span></figcaption> +</figure> +<p> +<span id='page-13' class='pagenum'>13</span>The second source from which fibre is extracted is +that from the stems of plants such as flax, hemp, jute +and the like. A photographical reproduction of a group +of hemp plants grown by the Authors appears in <a href='#fig_6'>Fig. 6</a>. +A female plant is illustrated on the right, while the +remaining two which are taller are male plants. +</p> +<figure id='fig_6' class='max100' style='width: 25em;'> +<img src="images/i_p012.jpg" class="w100 v_align_b" alt=""> +<figcaption><span class='fontp9'><span class="small-caps">Fig. 6</span></span><br> +<span class='fontp9'>GROUP OF HEMP PLANTS</span></figcaption> +</figure> +<figure id='fig_7' class='max100' style='width: 25em;'> +<img src="images/i_p013.jpg" class="w100 v_align_b" alt=""> +<figcaption><span class='fontp9'><span class="small-caps">Fig. 7</span></span><br> +<span class='fontp9'>CROSS-SECTION OF PLANT</span></figcaption> +</figure> +<p> +A thin cross-section cut from the stem of such a plant +<span id='page-14' class='pagenum'>14</span>exhibits the characteristics in <a href='#fig_7'>Fig. 7</a>, in which A is the +cuticle or outer bark, B is the woody part, and C the +pith. The fibrous layer is between the two dark circles +D, and a few groups of fibres in this layer are indicated +by the letter E. Here, again, a considerable amount of +extraneous matter must be separated from the bast +layer, and when separated, the latter appears in the +form of long ribbons. The cuticle and bast layer were +originally stripped from the plants; the former were +then placed in the mouth so that the saliva could aid +in the separation of the fibres from the bark, and permit +of a finer reduction of the fibrous layer to produce finer +threads. And although at the present time this method +is practised for thread making in many primitive communities, +it need hardly be said that much more efficient +methods have long been practised for commercial +<span id='page-15' class='pagenum'>15</span>purposes, such methods being known by the technical +terms “retting,” “breaking,” and “scutching.” +</p> +<figure id='fig_8' class='max100' style='width: 25em;'> +<img src="images/i_p014.jpg" class="w100 v_align_b" alt=""> +<figcaption><span class='fontp9'><span class="small-caps">Fig. 8</span></span><br> +<span class='fontp9'>LONGITUDINAL VIEW OF COTTON FIBRES</span></figcaption> +</figure> +<figure id='fig_9' class='max100' style='width: 25em;'> +<img src="images/i_p015.jpg" class="w100 v_align_b" alt=""> +<figcaption><span class='fontp9'><span class="small-caps">Fig. 9</span></span><br> +<span class='fontp9'>CROSS-SECTIONAL VIEW OF COTTON FIBRES</span></figcaption> +</figure> +<p> +The third source of vegetable fibres is the cotton plant +<i>Gossypium</i>, the white fluffy fibres being obtained from the +pods or bolls. The operation of cotton picking which is +often referred to consists of removing this white fluffy +mass from the pods in which also the seeds are located. +Cotton fibre is unlike the two previous classes of fibre +because its method of growth is different. The other +textile fibres are composed of bundles of plant cells, +whereas the fibres of cotton are individual cells; they +form as it were individual hairs on the seed, and in drying +flatten and also assume a twisted and crinkled condition +as exemplified in <a href='#fig_8'>Fig. 8</a>, which illustrates the +longitudinal characteristics of several fibres. <a href='#fig_9'>Fig. 9</a> +shows the sectional enlargements of a few fibres. This +structure of the cotton fibre is a very valuable property, +since it not only assists in the binding of the fibres into +a thread, but also gives a resiliency and spring to ropes +manufactured from it which is most useful in driving; +this property makes cotton almost indispensable for the +construction of the smaller sizes of ropes for driving +purposes. +</p> +<div class="chapter"><span id='page-16' class='pagenum'>16</span> +<h2 class='nobreak'> +CHAPTER III<br> +<span class='fontp9'>CLASSIFICATION OF FIBRES</span> +</h2></div> +<p class='noindent two_space'> +<span class='small-caps'>Cordage</span> fibres which are used at the present time are +naturally of greater variety than those which were +utilized for similar purposes in the early periods of +history, for records of those used in such early periods +appear to indicate only hemp and flax. As already +stated, wool would not be used to any great extent, +but, after methods had been evolved for spinning a +continuous thread from fibres such as hemp and flax, +it is highly probable that the cotton fibre would also +be used in the making of cords and ropes.</p> +<p> +Authentic records point to the fact that the cultivation +of flax plants for fibre was practised in Egypt from +5,000 to 6,000 years ago, and hence it is quite possible +that hemp plants would be grown under similar conditions +and for suitable purposes; moreover, if the hemp +fibre were proved to be suitable for cordage purposes, +it is not difficult to believe that the cultivation of this +important plant in suitable districts would become as +universal as that of flax. +</p> +<p> +Another reason which suggests the early use of hemp +as a cordage fibre is the universality of its presence in +most eastern countries as a vegetable product. It is at +present cultivated in most European countries, and +especially in Russia, Italy, Austria-Hungary, Serbia, +France and Germany. It is also found on the East +and West coasts of Africa, in many of the States of +America⁠—particularly in Kentucky⁠—as well as in +India, China and Japan. +</p> +<p> +If the climate is comparatively moist, with a period +<span id='page-17' class='pagenum'>17</span>of mild temperature and a suitable soil, the hemp plant +can be successfully cultivated for fibre; it is cultivated +in India and in most of the tropical countries for the +production of a liquor which the natives consume in +much the same way as intoxicating liquors are consumed +in temperate countries. +</p> +<p> +True hemp is a plant which grows wild in Central +Asia, but must be cultivated in practically all other +areas. It is an annual, and requires a rich soil with a +subsoil capable of retaining sufficient moisture to promote +the growth during periods of dry weather. If +otherwise, the growth of the plants would be checked +during this dry period with a consequent deficient yield +of fibre. +</p> +<p> +With the gradual development of trade, and the +introduction of new kinds of fibre to be used for cordage, +an extended meaning has been applied to the word +hemp, but, unfortunately, the word has been applied +rather loosely to many types of fibre which are used +for rope-making. Thus, one frequently hears the +following names in reference to different fibres⁠— +</p> +<ul class="indsl"> +<li class='hang_indent'>Manila Hemp,</li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Sisal Hemp,</li> +<li class='hang_indent'>New Zealand Hemp,</li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Mauritius Hemp,</li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Bowstring Hemp, etc.;</li> +</ul> +<p class='noindent'> +whereas the real hemp is usually designated as⁠—</p> +<ul class="indsl"> +<li class='hang_indent'>Russian Hemp,</li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Italian Hemp,</li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Indian Hemp,</li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Sunn Hemp, etc.</li> +</ul> +<p> +To differentiate between these different fibres, and so +provide a better classification and conception of the +terms, it should be clearly understood that the proper +hemp fibres, <i>e.g.</i>, Russian, Italian and Indian, are +<span id='page-18' class='pagenum'>18</span>obtained from the plant <i>Cannabis Sativa</i>, and that the +fibres are located in the bast layers of the plant stems +as exemplified in <a href='#fig_7'>Fig. 7</a>. The fibres are extracted from +these layers in the same way as the fibres of flax and +jute are extracted from similar layers, that is, by a +process technically termed “retting.” Such fibres are +called soft fibres in contradistinction to hard fibres to +which class Manila, Sisal, New Zealand, Mauritius and +Bowstring fibres belong. The hard fibres are located +in the leaves or in the leaf stalks of plants; typical +examples of the general appearance of such plants and +the internal characteristics are illustrated in Figs. <a href='#fig_1'>1</a> to <a href='#fig_5'>5</a>. +</p> +<div class="chapter"><span id='page-19' class='pagenum'>19</span> +<h2 class='nobreak'> +CHAPTER IV<br> +<span class='fontp9'>THE CULTIVATION OF HEMP</span> +</h2></div> +<p class='noindent two_space'> +<span class='small-caps'>The</span> botanical or scientific name for hemp is <i>Cannabis +Sativa</i>, order, <i>Moraceoe</i>, sub-order, <i>Cannaboidae</i>. The +plant grows wild in Central Asia, but is cultivated in +many tropical and temperate regions of both hemispheres. +From a cordage point of view the fibre is, +naturally, of most importance, but, incidentally, it +might be mentioned that the seed is used as a food for +birds, and oil is extracted from it; in addition, in +tropical countries, a resinous juice exudes from the +stalks, leaves and flowers which is made into a violent +intoxicant.</p> +<p> +The plants in general attain a height of from 4 to +8 ft. or more, and in exceptional cases, such as under +good cultivation in suitable soil, approach 20 ft. in +height. The leaves are five to nine lobed with serrate +margin. The plants are dioecious and the flowers are +yellowish-green, small and inconspicuous; the male +flowers are numerous and produced in drooping panicles, +each flower of five segments; the female flowers are +fewer in number, on spikes, single leaf, single ovary, +with greyish-green to brownish-grey seed, and rich in +oil. The matured stems are usually hollow, and the +bark layer very fibrous throughout the whole length of +the stem. +</p> +<p> +The plant readily adapts itself to great changes of +climate, and, as already stated, is found in all climates, +from the tropical ones of India and China to the frozen +regions of Northern Russia. It is adversely affected, +however, in the earlier stages of its growth by frost, +<span id='page-20' class='pagenum'>20</span>and always requires a moderately strong sunny period +during its growth. It is cultivated in the temperate +climates chiefly for its valuable fibre, but a serviceable +fibre may be obtained from the plants which are grown +in tropical countries. +</p> +<p> +The most important fibre-producing areas are Russia, +Italy and Austria-Hungary, but it is produced in other +countries, notably those mentioned below, as well as in +Turkey, China and the Southern and Western areas of +the United States of America. The Italian fibre is the +best of all for fine work, while the Russian fibre, which +has a special affinity for tar, is the most satisfactory +for use in the manufacture of heavy cordage for maritime +purposes. +</p> +<p> +The approximate annual production of hemp from +fourteen different countries appears below⁠— +</p> +<table class='center fontp9 margetb'> +<tr> +<td class="al pr">Russia</td> +<td class="ar pr">400,000</td> +<td class="ac">tons</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="al pr">Italy</td> +<td class="ar pr">80,000</td> +<td class="ac">„</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="al pr">Hungary</td> +<td class="ar pr">50,000</td> +<td class="ac">„</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="al pr">India</td> +<td class="ar pr">36,000</td> +<td class="ac">„</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="al pr">Siberia</td> +<td class="ar pr">22,000</td> +<td class="ac">„</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="al pr">Austria</td> +<td class="ar pr">18,000</td> +<td class="ac">„</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="al pr">France</td> +<td class="ar pr">15,000</td> +<td class="ac">„</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="al pr">Japan</td> +<td class="ar pr">8,000</td> +<td class="ac">„</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="al pr">Serbia</td> +<td class="ar pr">8,000</td> +<td class="ac">„</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="al pr">Caucasus</td> +<td class="ar pr">5,000</td> +<td class="ac">„</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="al pr">Poland</td> +<td class="ar pr">4,000</td> +<td class="ac">„</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="al pr">Bulgaria</td> +<td class="ar pr">2,000</td> +<td class="ac">„</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="al pr">Germany</td> +<td class="ar pr">2,000</td> +<td class="ac">„</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="al pr">Roumania</td> +<td class="ar pr">1,500</td> +<td class="ac">„</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p> +The successful cultivation of hemp requires a rich, +deep and well-worked soil with a large amount of humus. +Alluvial soils are well adapted for the purpose. The +strong loam soils of Italy are typical of the best. In all +cases a good supply of moisture is necessary, otherwise +the crop would be short and stubby and ill adapted for +the production of fibre. +</p> +<p> +The land should be well prepared by deep ploughing, +<span id='page-21' class='pagenum'>21</span>and followed by rolling and harrowing to produce a +level and uniform seed bed. The roots of the plants +will penetrate into the subsoil if the land is well +ploughed, but waterlogged land is unsuitable. A liberal +supply of manure is essential owing to the vigorous +growth of the crop, and while farmyard manures are +the best, the stalks of a leguminous crop may be ploughed +in. Manure from animal slaughter-houses is very suitable, +and all refuse from the previous hemp crop should +be returned to the land. Since the hemp fibre contains +a large amount of lime and phosphates, it may sometimes +prove advantageous to use dressings which contain +these substances. +</p> +<p> +The seed should be selected with care, and should be +tested for its powers of germination. Stored seeds are +liable to heat and lose their vitality, and immature +seeds are also unsatisfactory. Indian and Chinese seeds +are often mixed with home seed. In temperate climates +sowing should take place as early in spring as possible, +but after the night frosts have passed. The early spring +rain and sun are very beneficial, and the foliage which +appears moderately early helps to conserve the moisture +in the soil as the heat of the sun gets more intense. +</p> +<p> +The amount of seed to be sown depends upon the +type of fibre desired; thus, one bushel of seed per acre +for coarse fibre to three bushels per acre for fine fibre +are the approximate quantities, and the seed may be +sown broadcast by hand, or by machines into drills +about 6 or 7 in. apart. In all cases the seed should be +well covered to prevent ravages by birds, hence, it is +usual after sowing to harrow and roll the fields again +for the above purpose, as well as to prepare a level and +uniform bed for the germination of the seeds. +</p> +<p> +Where the land is cultivated with the production of +seed as its main object, the seeds should be sown thinly +<span id='page-22' class='pagenum'>22</span>and wide apart, say, in drills or rows from 6 to 7 ft. +apart, so that the plants will branch extensively and +thus provide facilities for a profusion of flowers. The +male plants are pulled after the bloom is shed, but the +female plants are allowed to mature under the best +conditions so that a large crop may result. Great care +must be taken in harvesting and in storing the seed; +provision must be made to prevent the deterioration +of seed through a process of heating. The average +yield of seed per acre is about thirty bushels, but in +exceptional cases as many as sixty bushels may be +obtained. +</p> +<p> +Under satisfactory conditions the young plants should +appear in from seven to twelve days, after which it is +necessary to thin them out and to remove the weeds. +While the plants must be wide enough apart to facilitate +good growth, there should not be too much space between +them when grown for fibre, or branching out will +result. If a field has become troublesome with weeds, +no crop will eliminate them as quickly as that of hemp. +</p> +<p> +If desired both male and female plants may be harvested +at the same time, but it is often considered +advisable to harvest them separately. It is as well to +make most of the mixed crop if the labour is available. +The male plants may be cut or pulled when the flowers +attain maturity or a little after, and when the leaves are +changing colour from green to brown. The female +plants being shorter may be allowed to remain for about +four weeks when the seeds are beginning to ripen. +</p> +<p> +The yield of fibre per acre of land cultivated is influenced +by several conditions, but on good lands under +satisfactory conditions of cultivation, an average of +6 to 7 cwt. may be relied upon, and in many cases +this quantity is easily exceeded. +</p> +<p> +After the plants are harvested, a number of minor +<span id='page-23' class='pagenum'>23</span>operations take place in different districts before the +plants are subjected to the important process of “retting” +or rotting. These preliminary operations are +mostly to reduce the weight of the plants and to discard +undesirable matter which happens to be easily detached, +as well as to secure uniformity. Thus, the tops and +roots may be cut off, and the leaves stripped or beaten +off, while after the plants have been dried, they may +be arranged according to length and thickness. They +are then tied up into bundles of suitable bulk for the +operation of retting. +</p> +<div class="chapter"><span id='page-24' class='pagenum'>24</span> +<h2 class='nobreak'> +CHAPTER V<br> +<span class='fontp9'>RETTING, BREAKING AND SCUTCHING</span> +</h2></div> +<p class='noindent two_space'> +<span class='small-caps'>The</span> retting operation is that process which converts +the constituents of the stems into that condition which +will enable the bast layer, see <a href='#fig_7'>Fig. 7</a>, to be separated +easily from the remaining parts of the stem. In all +fibrous plants of the type illustrated in Figs. <a href='#fig_6'>6</a> and <a href='#fig_7'>7</a>, +a retting process is conducted in which the plants are +either submerged in water, called “water retting,” or +spread on lands adjoining the cultivated areas to undergo +what is termed a weathering action, or “dew retting.” +Water retting is the more satisfactory and gives the +better results, and, in the hands of experienced operatives +a more rapid production of fibre of the better grades.</p> +<p> +The submersion of the plants, caused by placing +stones, clods or the like on to the bundles, may be in +slowly-running rivers, in which case the bundles are +kept intact in crates moored to the bank, or a similar +submersion may be conducted in a series of tanks or +ponds. In the latter case a supply of water may be +allowed to enter and leave the tank, and the plants are +kept there until the operation is complete. Stagnant +water acts quicker on the plants than does running +water. +</p> +<p> +The retting action is a process of fermentation, and +the amount of active bacteria can be regulated by the +temperature and rate of movement of the water. Flax +retting in the river Lys, near Courtrai, is the finest +system known at present, and its value is due to +the slow rate of movement of soft water which is +favourable to the production of the retting bacteria; +<span id='page-25' class='pagenum'>25</span>the adaptation of a similar system to this where the +water supply is suitable will give high-class results. +</p> +<p> +Fermentation starts soon after the plants are submerged, +and the rate of fermentation depends upon the +temperature of the air and water; its progress is identified +by the presence of air bells on the surface of the +water. As the operation proceeds, the bundles have a +tendency to rise to the surface, and hence extra weights +are added to keep them submerged. When the formation +of air bells ceases, the operatives carefully examine +and test the stems to ascertain the progress of the +operation; they usually strip off part of the bast layer, +see <a href='#fig_7'>Fig. 7</a>, from the wood or core, and their judgment +of the correct stage of retting is determined by the ease +with which this separation is effected. Great skill is +required here, or rather ripe experience, for if the retting +is not complete, a portion of the woody matter goes +forward with the fibre, while if the stems are over-retted, +the fibre is weak; in both cases, a faulty judgment +causes trouble in the actual manual or mechanical +processes which follow. +</p> +<p> +Other methods of retting are adopted in different +countries, and even in certain districts of those countries +where the above system is in vogue. It will be understood +that the choice of any system will depend largely +upon local circumstances, and in all cases, other things +being equal, the method adopted will be that which will +yield the largest quantity of hemp fibre at the least cost. +</p> +<p> +The characteristics of the fibres are typical of the +countries in which the plants were grown, and of the +processes of retting. It will be almost invariably found +that the best fibre is the result of the most elaborate +and careful methods of cultivation and retting, together +with the equally careful and efficient subsequent +processes of breaking and scutching. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-26' class='pagenum'>26</span>It need hardly be said that the above elaborate and +costly methods are adopted only for the very finest +grades of fibre; they would not be attempted in the +case of those plants which grow and ripen so rapidly +in some tropical countries, and in which a short, harsh +fibre only is obtained; for such plants the cheapest +and simplest methods of extraction are practised. +</p> +<p> +Many praiseworthy attempts have been made, and +others are still in progress, with varying degrees of +success, to extract the fibre quickly. None has yet +been able to supplant the above-described costly, +lengthy and laborious process, but with modern science, +machinery and experience, one might expect that some +brilliant genius will ultimately solve the problem. +Many industrial problems have been solved by the joint +action of experience and applied science, and one might +therefore hope to see a great simplification of the present +hazardous operation of retting. +</p> +<p> +The successful introduction of a machine or a system +of machinery which would pull, strip and clean hemp +and allied plants and fibres on the field of growth would +not only open up new fields of cultivation, but would +increase the wealth of our country by millions of pounds; +it would do much to prevent the depopulation of the +rural districts and so help to preserve the hygienic +conditions of our large towns. +</p> +<p> +The retting operation completed, the stems are +washed and spread on grass land, if available, or stooked +like grain and allowed to dry thoroughly. It is acknowledged +to be advantageous to allow the stems to remain +a few days on the grass, for after this exposure the fibre +is more easily and efficiently separated from the other +constituents of the bast layer. +</p> +<p> +The ribbon-shaped layer may be about 3 ft. long in +the shorter Russian grades of hemp, but up to 15 ft. +<span id='page-27' class='pagenum'>27</span>in length in the Italian grades. The colour varies from +grey and brown to a rich cream and almost white in the +finest grades. +</p> +<p> +The ultimate fibres are large and somewhat irregular +in shape; they vary in length from 0·2 to 2 in., with +an average length of about 1 in., while the diameter is +only about 1/1000 or 0·001 of an inch. +</p> +<p> +<span class="small-caps">Breaking and Scutching.</span>⁠—Various methods are +adopted to separate the bast layer from the central or +woody part of the retted and dried stems of hemp, but +in all cases the operation thus involved is termed +“breaking.” The central woody part has to be broken +into a great number of short lengths, and this is done +in some districts by exceedingly simple apparatus, and +in other districts by modern breaking machines. Perhaps +the simplest apparatus which is used for this +purpose consists of a series of Δ-shaped wooden bars +arranged horizontally in the form of a grid, and into the +cavities of this row of bars fits another group or series +of similar bars but inverted. The latter group is hinged +at one end and provided with a handle at the other. +</p> +<p> +When the handle and the upper set of bars are raised, +a few hemp stems are laid across the fixed lower bars; +the handle is then pressed downwards, and this causes +the stems to be squeezed and broken between the two +sets of bars. By repeated blows with the upper bars, +and lateral movements of the stems, it is evident that +the woody core would be broken, and this is done +without damaging the fibrous layer. A treadle may be +attached to the handle end of the hinged grid and thus +leave both hands free to manipulate the stems and to +remove that portion of the broken wood which has not +already dropped through the slots in the lower grid but +remains between the bars of the same. +</p> +<p> +The mechanical means for this purpose consist of a +<span id='page-28' class='pagenum'>28</span>number of fluted rollers between which the stems pass +and by the flutes of which the wood is broken. Sometimes +scrapers are used in the same machine to help +to remove the small particles of wood. What remains +in the hand after the simple manual process is completed, +or what is delivered from the machine by the +delivery rollers, are the unbroken fibrous layers to which +still adhere several particles of woody matter or shive +as it is called. A further operation, termed “scutching,” +is necessary to remove this shive and so leave the +lengths of fibre as clean as possible. +</p> +<p> +<span class="small-caps">Scutching.</span>⁠—The operation of scutching may be considered +in some respects in the light of a scraping action +in which the broken and partially-clean, ribbon-like +structures of fibres occupy a position between a fixed +and a movable board, and are subjected to the friction +between them. The simplest apparatus for this purpose +consists of an upright wooden board with a horizontal +slot near its upper end and through which the +ends of the fibres are passed. The fibres hang downwards, +and while thus depending a flat wooden “scutching +handle” or flail⁠—very similar in shape to a baking +spit⁠—is brought smartly with its edge to traverse downwards +against the fibres, and thus to remove the objectionable +shive but at the same time to prevent, as far +as possible, the destruction of the fibrous layer and the +accumulation of waste. The operative can expose as +much of the fibrous layer as desired to the action of the +scutching handle in virtue of the slot, and after one end +of the “strick” is finished, the other end is treated +similarly. +</p> +<p> +While the above hand method is largely practised and +is quite satisfactory where comparatively small quantities +have to be treated, or for very fine and expensive +material where delicate treatment is essential, the modern +<span id='page-29' class='pagenum'>29</span>method of scutching is done by power. The feeding +and manipulation of the stricks are, however, still under +the direct control of the operative. In these mechanical +scutchers it is usual to employ six to twelve handles⁠—narrower +but longer than the hand flail⁠—and these +handles project from a common centre or shaft, somewhat +after the form of the sails of a windmill. As the +shaft rotates, the handles are brought successively to +act against the fibres as in the simpler process. +</p> +<p> +Large quantities of Russian and other hemps are only +partially cleaned, and are termed “siretz” hemps, while +in some districts where the most valuable plants are +grown, the bast layer is stripped from the stems, and +the material subjected in smaller quantities to the +cleaning and washing processes, thus producing a higher +value fibre. +</p> +<p> +In hand scutching an operative cleans on an average +about 10 to 12 lb. of Italian hemp per hour, but such +quantities can be, obviously, only approximate, for the +quantities prepared will vary greatly, depending as they +do upon the efficiency of the apparatus at command, +the degree to which the fibrous layer has to be cleaned, +the quality of the material and the skill of the operator. +The better grades of fibre usually and almost invariably +receive more treatment than the lower grades. +</p> +<p> +The commercial value of hemp depends, as already +stated, upon its strength, colour, freedom from faults, +and its spinning properties; comparative values are +scarcely possible unless in certain seasons, because +prices fluctuate greatly according to the demand for +certain grades of cordage as well as to the prices of +other fibres which may be used for similar goods. +</p> +<p> +Italian hemp can be spun into thinner or finer yarns +than any of the other hemps, and it is therefore a +competitor with certain grades of flax. French, Chinese +<span id='page-30' class='pagenum'>30</span>and Russian hemps are also valuable, and besides being +used alone, are sometimes mixed with the coarser +varieties of Italian hemp for certain kinds of cordage +and lines. +</p> +<p> +The following table shows the amount of fibre in +tons for five years in regard to Russian and Italian +hemp imports to the United Kingdom. +</p> +<table class='center fontp9 margetb'> +<tr> +<th class="ac pt pr pb pl bt"></th> +<th class="ac pt pr pb pl bt bl">1907.</th> +<th class="ac pt pr pb pl bt bl">1908.</th> +<th class="ac pt pr pb pl bt bl">1909.</th> +<th class="ac pt pr pb pl bt bl">1910.</th> +<th class="ac pt pr pb pl bt bl">1911.</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<th class="al pt pr pl bt">Russian</th> +<td class="ar pt pr pl bt bl">17,299</td> +<td class="ar pt pr pl bt bl">15,753</td> +<td class="ar pt pr pl bt bl">13,816</td> +<td class="ar pt pr pl bt bl">12,576</td> +<td class="ar pt pr pl bt bl">14,981</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<th class="al pr pb pl">Italian</th> +<td class="ar pr pb pl bl">10,462</td> +<td class="ar pr pb pl bl">8,133</td> +<td class="ar pr pb pl bl">10,144</td> +<td class="ar pr pb pl bl">10,298</td> +<td class="ar pr pb pl bl">10,343</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<th class="al pt pr pb pl bt bd"></th> +<td class="ar pt pr pb pl bt bl bd">27,761</td> +<td class="ar pt pr pb pl bt bl bd">23,886</td> +<td class="ar pt pr pb pl bt bl bd">23,960</td> +<td class="ar pt pr pb pl bt bl bd">22,874</td> +<td class="ar pt pr pb pl bt bl bd">25,324</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div class="chapter"><span id='page-31' class='pagenum'>31</span> +<h2 class='nobreak'> +CHAPTER VI<br> +<span class='fontp9'>THE CULTIVATION OF PLANTS FOR HARD FIBRES</span> +</h2></div> +<p class='noindent two_space'> +<span class='small-caps'>The</span> different types of hard fibres for cordage are mentioned +in Chapter III, <a href='#page-17'>page 17</a>, and, although there are +certain features which are more or less common to all, +there are differences which make it advisable, if not +necessary, to discuss each main type separately.</p> +<p> +One of the best-known hard fibres is the Manila or +Abaca fibre (obtained from the wild plantain, a variety +of the banana plant) <i>Musa textilis</i>. It is an excellent +cordage fibre and is largely used both in this country +and in the United States of America. The plant, from +which the fibre is obtained, is in many respects indistinguishable +from the banana plant during the period of +growth; the colour of the leaves of the banana plant +is, however, usually of a darker green shade than that +of the leaves of the <i>Musa textilis</i>, while the flowers +and fruit of the banana are much more abundant than +are those of the Manila plant. On the other hand, the +fibre of the banana plant is very poor in quality, and +practically valueless for cordage purposes. +</p> +<p> +The <i>Musa textilis</i> is peculiarly indigenous to the +Philippine Islands, indeed most of the attempts to +cultivate this plant in other areas have been unsuccessful. +Manila, Luzon and Cebu are three of the principle fibre-producing +areas, and, because of the suitability of the +soil and climate in these areas, the growth of the Manila +industry has been extensive, and large quantities of +high-grade fibre are produced annually in these three +areas. +</p> +<p> +Cleared forest land is very suitable for the propagation +<span id='page-32' class='pagenum'>32</span>of young plants which require a certain amount of +shade to assist their growth in the early stages. During +the period of growth a large number of suckers or young +plants grow around the parent plant; these suckers +are used in general to start a new plantation, while in +other cases the young plants are raised from seed. In +both cases, the young plants are set out so that from +500 to 600 may occupy an acre, and the distance +between the plants is from 8 to 10 ft. If plants +are propagated from seed it takes about one year +before the shoots can be set out in the plantation, +and they should be spaced in the same way as the +suckers. +</p> +<p> +The ground should be kept clear of weeds at least +during the first year; after this period, vigorous growth +starts, if the usual moist season prevails, and during +the three or four years of growth the plant attains a +height of 8 ft. and upwards. Occasionally a plant +grows to a height of 20 ft. After the lapse of three to +four years, the fibre plant develops a flower, and then +the plant should be cut down to obtain the best type +of fibre. +</p> +<p> +Hilly land, and particularly volcanic slopes with a +moist loose soil, are very well suited for the cultivation +of these plants. Swamp lands, while satisfactory for +certain types of plants, are unsuitable for the cultivation +of Manila. +</p> +<p> +The work of harvesting and the extraction of the +fibre are usually done on the contract system; a supervisor +will take over the plantation upon which he starts +his men on the dual process. +</p> +<p> +The fibre is produced in the sheathing leaf stalks +which form a bundle 6 in. to 1 ft. or even more in diameter +with a central stem or flower stalk about 3 in. +in diameter. The flowers are near the upper part +<span id='page-33' class='pagenum'>33</span>which may reach a much greater height than the +leaves. The pistillate flowers are nearest the base +and form fairly large fruits which are filled with black +seeds. +</p> +<p> +The bundle of sheathing leaf stalks are cut off a few +inches above the ground and split up into widths of +about 5 to 6 in., after which the fibre can be extracted +either by hand or by machine. When the hand method +is practised, the stalks are first well beaten with wooden +mallets, and then scraped with suitable instruments +until the fibre is freed from the surrounding vegetable +matter. The separated fibre is finally washed and +dried, and made up into bales of 280 lbs. each. +</p> +<p> +It is very important that the substances which surround +the fibres should be completely removed, and +that the fibre should be thoroughly dried after it has +been well washed. These operations completed, the +dried fibre is conveyed to the premises of the owner of +the plantation to be selected and valued. The approximate +cost of extracting the fibre is half its market +value, and this sum is often paid by the farmer to the +men who perform the work. +</p> +<p> +The stripped and cleaned fibre is now graded by +experts who are appointed by the Government of the +Islands, and the various qualities are now much more +uniform than they were formerly, see <a href='#page-34'>page 34</a>. +</p> +<p> +In general, a yield of 2 to 3 lb. of fibre per plant is +obtained, but this quantity may be doubled in some +cases. With the average mentioned, approximately +12 cwt. of fibre per acre would be produced, but a considerably +higher quantity could be obtained by more +perfect machinery, as the loss of fibre in the operation +of stripping amounts, in many cases, to 25 per cent. +of the possible production. +</p> +<p> +The following table shows one method of grading the +<span id='page-34' class='pagenum'>34</span>fibre, and the average price per ton during June, 1915. +See also <a href='#page-51'>page 51</a>. +</p> +<table class='center fontp9 margetb'> +<tr> +<td class="al pr">Extra Fine Prime</td> +<td class="ar pl">£56</td> +<td class="ar pl">to</td> +<td class="ar pl">£58</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="al pr">Prime</td> +<td class="ar pl">52</td> +<td class="ar pl">„</td> +<td class="ar pl">54</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="al pr">Superior Current</td> +<td class="ar pl">50</td> +<td class="ar pl">„</td> +<td class="ar pl">52</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="al pr">Good Current</td> +<td class="ar pl">48</td> +<td class="ar pl">„</td> +<td class="ar pl">50</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="al pr">Midway</td> +<td class="ar pl">44</td> +<td class="ar pl">„</td> +<td class="ar pl">46</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="al pr">Current</td> +<td class="ar pl">41</td> +<td class="ar pl">„</td> +<td class="ar pl">42</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="al pr">Seconds</td> +<td class="ar pl">38</td> +<td class="ar pl">„</td> +<td class="ar pl">39</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="al pr">Brown</td> +<td class="ar pl">36</td> +<td class="ar pl">„</td> +<td class="ar pl">38</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="al pr">Fair</td> +<td class="ar pl">37</td> +<td class="ar pl">„</td> +<td class="ar pl">38</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="al pr">Medium</td> +<td class="ar pl">32</td> +<td class="ar pl">„</td> +<td class="ar pl">33</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="al pr">Coarse</td> +<td class="ar pl">28</td> +<td class="ar pl">„</td> +<td class="ar pl">29</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="al pr">Coarse Brown</td> +<td class="ar pl">27</td> +<td class="ar pl">„</td> +<td class="ar pl">28</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p> +Another method of grading is by means of letters, +and <a href='#fig_10'>Fig. 10</a> is a photographical reproduction of fifteen +different samples representing the general grading and +marked A to M. There are also a few intermediate +<span id='page-35' class='pagenum'>35</span>grades which are of similar classes of fibre but +discoloured⁠—a fault due to imperfect cleaning. +</p> +<figure id='fig_10' class='max100' style='width: 25em;'> +<img src="images/i_p034.jpg" class="w100 v_align_b" alt=""> +<figcaption><span class='fontp9'><span class="small-caps">Fig. 10</span></span><br> +<span class='fontp9'>MANILA FIBRES: ORDER OF GRADING</span></figcaption> +</figure> +<p> +The imports of Manila to the United Kingdom for +the years 1911 to 1915 inclusive and the actual value +appear in the following table, while the average value +of one grade, Fair Current, appears alongside. See +also <a href='#page-34'>page 34</a>. +</p> +<table class='center fontp9 margetb'> +<tr> +<th class="ac pt pr pb pl bt">Year.</th> +<th class="ac pt pr pb pl bt bl">Tons.</th> +<th class="ac pt pr pb pl bt bl">Total Value.</th> +<th class="ac pt pr pb pl bt bl">Price per ton of Fair Current.</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ac pt pr pl bt">1911</td> +<td class="ac pt pr pl bt bl">75,449</td> +<td class="ac pt pr pl bt bl">£1,647,542</td> +<td class="ac pt pr pl bt bl">£19 ⁠— ⁠—</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ac pt pr pl">1912</td> +<td class="ac pt pr pl bl">83,313</td> +<td class="ac pt pr pl bl">£1,990,481</td> +<td class="ac pt pr pl bl">£21 10 ⁠—</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ac pt pr pl">1913</td> +<td class="ac pt pr pl bl">64,579</td> +<td class="ac pt pr pl bl">£1,600,450</td> +<td class="ac pt pr pl bl">£34 ⁠— ⁠—</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ac pt pr pl">1914</td> +<td class="ac pt pr pl bl">54,206</td> +<td class="ac pt pr pl bl">£1,396,593</td> +<td class="ac pt pr pl bl">£27 15 ⁠—</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ac pr pb pl bb">1915</td> +<td class="ac pr pb pl bl bb">57,783</td> +<td class="ac pr pb pl bl bb">£1,760,471</td> +<td class="ac pr pb pl bl bb">£28 10 ⁠—</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p> +<span class="small-caps">Sisal.</span>⁠—This is a fibre which is almost of equal +importance to Manila for the production of cordage. +The plants, which are produced extensively in Mexico, +Africa and the Bahama Islands, form a group termed +the Agaves. +</p> +<p> +Those plants which are most extensively cultivated for +fibre purposes have recently been classified, see <a href='#page-8'>page 8</a>. +</p> +<p> +The particular Agave plant from which the Sisal +fibre of commerce is obtained is the <i>Agave Sisalana</i>, or +Henequen, natural order, <i>Armaryllidaceae</i>, the chief +centres of production of which are Yucatan and Campeachy; +the cities of Merida and Progresso are the +centres of production of the fibre for the export markets. +</p> +<p> +The plants grow very successfully on waste and arid +lands, and require very little attention after the preliminary +operations of clearing the land and of planting +out the young Agaves either as bulbules or “bulbils” +produced from the creeping roots. +</p> +<p> +The stems of the plants are stumpy, and large fleshy +<span id='page-36' class='pagenum'>36</span>leaves are produced which attain a height of 3 to 6 ft. +The flowers are produced on a long stalk or pole which +often rises to 30 ft. or more. The flowers appear in +dense groups on lateral branches upon the axils of which +develop bulbils; these grow to maturity and then drop +to the ground where many of them take root and thus +provide young shoots which may be replanted for +another crop. +</p> +<p> +In the formation of new plantations for the production +of fibrous plants, it is only necessary to clean the +ground and dig the soil round where the young bulbils, +suckers, or a mixture of both, are to be planted. They +are so arranged that there is a greater space between +the rows than there is between the plants in a row, +say in the proportion of 8 to 6, and about 1,000 plants +are spaced in an acre. +</p> +<p> +If the plants are taken from nurseries where the +bulbils have been propagated for transplanting, it may +be found advantageous to provide light tramways for +their conveyance, as well as for the conveyance of the +mature leaves in the opposite direction. The extra +space between the rows is for facilitating such work by +rails and other means. In fact, a plantation for the +cultivation of Sisal plants and the production of the +fibre should be laid out on a definite plan with provision, +not only for successful cultivation, but for the subsequent +operations of stripping, washing, cleaning and +baling the fibre, while a desirable, if not absolutely +necessary consideration, is the choice of ground in close +proximity to a satisfactory district for labour. +</p> +<p> +A short time after the plants have been set it is +advisable to clean and weed the ground periodically +for at least two years to give the plants a favourable +start; afterwards vigorous growth occurs, and no +further attention in this line is necessary. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-37' class='pagenum'>37</span>It will be evident that a more vigorous growth will +obtain in warm climates than in cold climates, but at +the same time these warm climates may be exceptionally +suitable; indeed, it has already been proved that, in +some of the more recently-established centres of cultivation +such as Africa, a better fibre is being produced +than in some of the older established centres, and, +moreover, the growing period is shorter. +</p> +<p> +To make a fibre-production area a success, it is +advisable to adopt a systematic extension of the plantation +each season, so that a continuous supply of +leaves will be obtained, and that the available labour +supply can be fully utilized either with operations in +cultivation or fibre extraction; in this way a regular +supply of fibre could be placed on the market for +manufacturing purposes. +</p> +<p> +After a plantation is completed, the first cutting of +the leaves may take place in from two to four years, +depending upon the situation of the plant and its state. +It is not necessary to cut down the whole plant; the +larger leaves are cut when at maturity, and others as +they mature; successive cuttings may be at intervals +of approximately six months, after which the plant +may be cut down and the spot allowed to remain fallow +for a year, when a new plant is introduced. +</p> +<p> +The yield of fibre from the plants will vary considerably +from time to time, such variation being influenced +by the district, the weather and by the degree of perfection +of the methods employed for extracting the +fibre from the leaves. +</p> +<p> +The usefulness of the Agave fibres has been acknowledged +for some time, and their value has been enhanced +by the production of superior fibres in various centres +of Africa as already stated; improved methods of +cultivation and the use of modern and efficient stripping +<span id='page-38' class='pagenum'>38</span>and cleaning machines may lead to the production of +this type of fibre which will compete successfully with +many of our most valued fibres for cordage use. +</p> +<p> +As the leaves are cut down from the plants, they +should be removed at once to the stripping machine. +The original name for such a machine was “Raspadore,” +and supposed to be an invention of a Franciscan friar. +The modern English word for the purpose is “Decorticator,” +and, although the term “leaf-crusher” or +“scutcher” appears to be more in keeping with the +operation to be performed on Sisal leaves, than that +of “decorticator,” a more extensive meaning has been +given to the latter term which is now taken to indicate +the mechanical operation for the separation of the +pith and surrounding vegetable structure from the +fibrous layers in practically every type of plant. +</p> +<p> +Two distinct machines, one for crushing the leaves, +and the other for finishing the stripping, are made by +Messrs. David Bridge & Co., Ltd., Castleton, Manchester, +and these provide an excellent system for treating the +leaves as they are delivered from the field of growth. +</p> +<figure id='fig_11' class='max100' style='width: 36em;'> +<img src="images/i_p039.jpg" class="w100 v_align_b" alt=""> +<figcaption><span class='fontp9'><i>By permission of Messrs David Bridge & Co., Ltd.</i></span><br> +<span class='fontp9'><span class="small-caps">Fig. 11</span></span><br> +<span class='fontp9'>BRIDGE’S “ACME” GRAVITY PATENT SISAL BREAKER</span></figcaption> +</figure> +<p> +The crushing machine, termed Bridge’s “Acme” +Gravity Patent Sisal Breaker, is illustrated in <a href='#fig_11'>Fig. 11</a>. +The leaves of the plant are placed on the travelling +endless cloth between the wooden side guides on the +right-hand side of the illustration. They ultimately +come into contact with the first pair of corrugated +rollers which are so set that there is a minimum of +¼ in. between the surfaces of the opposing corrugations. +After the leaves have been crushed between these +rollers and carried forward by them, they pass between +a second but smooth pair of rollers the nearest distance +between the surfaces of which is 3/16 in. On emerging +from these rollers, the leaves pass down the delivery +table on the left. The upper roller in each pair is +<span id='page-40' class='pagenum'>40</span>acted upon and pressed downwards by spiral or coil +springs which not only yield slightly to the varying +thicknesses of the leaves, but which will allow the roller +to rise fully ⅞ of an inch in case any foreign substance +should enter between the rollers. +</p> +<figure id='fig_12' class='max100' style='width: 31em;'> +<img src="images/i_p040.jpg" class="w100 v_align_b" alt=""> +<figcaption><span class='fontp9'><i>By permission of Messrs David Bridge & Co., Ltd.</i></span><br> +<span class='fontp9'><span class="small-caps">Fig. 12</span></span><br> +<span class='fontp9'>BRIDGE’S “CLIMAX” PATENT SISAL DECORTICATOR</span></figcaption> +</figure> +<p> +The crushed ribbons from the foregoing machine are +now taken to Bridge’s “Climax” Patent Sisal Decorticator, +illustrated in <a href='#fig_12'>Fig. 12</a>. As in the crushing machine, +the material is fed into the rollers by an endless cloth; +the ribbon-shaped lengths are exposed to the action of +opposed drums on the same principle as that embodied +in the original raspadore, the result being that the +remains of the objectionable matter which accompanied +the fibrous layer from the crushing machine is scraped +off and a maximum amount of fibre delivered. The +Decorticator is provided with all the latest improvements +for a maximum production, and both machines, +together with the washing tanks, <a href='#fig_13'>Fig. 13</a>, and the +<span id='page-43' class='pagenum'>43</span>necessary power plant for driving the whole system can +be housed in or near a simple structure somewhat as +illustrated in <a href='#fig_14'>Fig. 14</a>. +</p> +<figure id='fig_13' class='max100' style='width: 35em;'> +<img src="images/i_p041.jpg" class="w100 v_align_b" alt=""> +<figcaption><span class='fontp9'><i>By permission of Messrs David Bridge & Co., Ltd.</i></span><br> +<span class='fontp9'><span class="small-caps">Fig. 13</span></span><br> +<span class='fontp9'>WASHING TANKS</span></figcaption> +</figure> +<figure id='fig_14' class='max100' style='width: 35em;'> +<img src="images/i_p042.jpg" class="w100 v_align_b" alt=""> +<figcaption><span class='fontp9'><i>By permission of Messrs David Bridge & Co., Ltd.</i></span><br> +<span class='fontp9'><span class="small-caps">Fig. 14</span></span><br> +<span class='fontp9'>HOUSING FOR POWER PLANT</span></figcaption> +</figure> +<figure id='fig_15' class='max100' style='width: 25em;'> +<img src="images/i_p043.jpg" class="w100 v_align_b" alt=""> +<figcaption><span class='fontp9'><i>By permission of Messrs David Bridge & Co., Ltd.</i></span><br> +<span class='fontp9'><span class="small-caps">Fig. 15</span></span><br> +<span class='fontp9'>CUMMINS’S PATENT HORIZONTAL HYDRAULIC BALING PRESS</span></figcaption> +</figure> +<p> +The fibre, having been extracted, washed and dried, is +conveyed to the rapid baling press, <a href='#fig_15'>Fig. 15</a>, which is an +illustration of Cummins’s Patent Horizontal Hydraulic +<span id='page-44' class='pagenum'>44</span>Baling Press. Here the fibre is packed by hydraulic +pressure into a small space ready for exportation to +those countries where the fibre is to be manufactured. +The above type of baling press is now largely used, +not only for Sisal fibres, but also for China jute, cotton +and other textiles, and it is capable of compressing the +fibre to a density of 60 lb. per cubic foot. +</p> +<p> +After the third year’s growth, the annual production +of fibre reaches about one ton per acre. The production +of fibre from the various countries has been greatly +increased during recent years, and that for 1914, which +will be found in the table on <a href='#page-52'>page 52</a>, may be taken as a +good indication of the quantities placed on the market. +</p> +<p> +There has not yet been any considerable competition +between Sisal and Manila fibres for the manufacture of +similar types of cordage, but with improved methods +of cultivation and of cleaning the Sisal product, a +greater competition may be expected. +</p> +<p> +A large quantity of Manila fibre is used in this country +for binder twine, whereas Sisal is used for the same +purpose in the American centres. As a matter of fact, +the U.S.A. markets of different kinds absorb 90 per +cent. of the total Sisal crop which amounted in 1914 +to 220,000 tons. +</p> +<p> +A new method of marketing the Sisal fibre from +Yucatan has been introduced through a Committee or +Commission who will be responsible for the grading +and marketing of the fibre and will, with the sanction +of the Government, deal entirely with the financial +arrangements. +</p> +<p> +The Commission will receive all the graded fibre, +and on receipt of this a payment will be made to the +farmer. The fibre will be placed on the market at +current rates, and every five years the accounts will +be balanced and the surplus, if any, will be divided +<span id='page-45' class='pagenum'>45</span><i>pro rata</i> amongst the producers. In the case of loss, +the deficit will be met by the Commission. +</p> +<p> +Sisal fibres are graded as under⁠— +</p> +<p> +<i>Special</i>: perfectly clean and absolutely white fibre, +free from stains or adherent pulp. +</p> +<p> +<i>Superior Clean</i>: perfectly clean fibre of creamy or +yellowish tint, free from stain or pulp. +</p> +<p> +<i>Current Clean</i>: well scraped, whitish or greenish +colour, 5 per cent. dust permitted. This is the standard +grade for price. +</p> +<p> +<i>Stained</i>: also well scraped but with dark or red +streaks. No more than 25 per cent. dark and no +adherent pulp. +</p> +<p> +<i>Inferior Stained</i>: must be free from adherent pulp, +but may contain as much as 75 per cent. of dark fibres. +</p> +<p> +<span class="small-caps">New Zealand Hemp or Flax.</span>⁠—The botanical name +of this plant is <i>Phormium Tenax</i>, natural order, <i>Liliaceae</i>. +The plant has long, peculiarly-shaped leaves, the roots +of which send out creeping rhizomes on which the leaves +6 to 10 ft. in height, are produced in clumps. Maturity +is reached in about four years, and propagation is +obtained by the growth of the rhizomes, and also by +the self-sown seeds which are produced in large numbers +from the flowering and fruiting stage. +</p> +<p> +Large quantities of this useful fibre are used, and it +can be produced cheaply and in large quantities from +otherwise unproductive lands, such as the drained +swamp lands in the neighbourhood of the Manawatu +river in New Zealand. In this district the plants grow +in dense masses, and although more than 20,000 acres +are under cultivation, additions are gradually taking +place. Through this area are laid about fifty miles of +light railway tracks. The plantations require little +attention beyond that of careful drainage; over-drainage +may cause as much damage as under-drainage. +<span id='page-46' class='pagenum'>46</span>Wellington is the principal shipping port, but shipments +are also made from Auckland and other ports when +the value of the fibre makes such a course profitable. +</p> +<p> +<i>Phormium Tenax</i> has also been cultivated on a comparatively +large scale in St. Helena, and the results, +both financially and otherwise, are satisfactory. The +selected lands in this island are now well drained, and +tramways are laid for the rapid conveyance of the +leaves after they are cut down to the stripping mills. +Sometimes aerial railways are used when a river has to +be negotiated. It will be quite well understood that a +cheap and rapid transport is a desideratum. +</p> +<p> +Only well-matured leaves must be cut down, and +these are conveyed to the stripping mills; in the +Manawatu district of New Zealand about fifty such +mills are in existence, and the introduction of improved +machinery for this stripping operation will certainly +lead to the extension of the cultivation of these plants +and to the after processes. +</p> +<p> +Much has been done to introduce an efficient machine +for stripping the leaves, and many premiums have been +offered by the New Zealand Government for a perfect +machine. One now under trial gives promise of good +results. +</p> +<p> +The greatest difficulty in connection with the stripping +of <i>Phormium Tenax</i> leaves is due to the peculiar +shape of the lower end of the leaf. A very deep midrib +extends for some distance and gets more pronounced as +the lower end of the leaf is reached. A large quantity +of the fibre is collected in this rib, the shape of which +makes it difficult for mechanical parts to treat successfully, +and necessitates a larger amount of labour than +in the case of straight or flat leaves of the ordinary +type. +</p> +<p> +In former methods of stripping and cleaning it was +<span id='page-47' class='pagenum'>47</span>found necessary to paddock and bleach the stripped +fibre, but the claims of the new invention, if sustained, +will render these processes unnecessary. +</p> +<p> +The production of the fibre may reach 13 cwt., and +2½ cwt. of tow per acre during the life of the plants, +while the stripper can produce from 20 to 25 cwt. of +fibre per day. +</p> +<p> +The colour of the fibre is light yellow to brownish, +but it is rather soft and dirty at the top end. It is +graded as below⁠— +</p> +<table class='center fontp9 margetb'> +<tr> +<td class="al pr">91</td> +<td class="al pr">to</td> +<td class="al pr">100</td> +<td class="ac pr">marks</td> +<td class="al pr">=</td> +<td class="al">Superfine,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="al pr">81</td> +<td class="al pr">to</td> +<td class="al pr">90</td> +<td class="ac pr">„</td> +<td class="al pr">=</td> +<td class="al">Fine,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="al pr">71</td> +<td class="al pr">to</td> +<td class="al pr">80</td> +<td class="ac pr">„</td> +<td class="al pr">=</td> +<td class="al">Good Fair,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="al pr">61</td> +<td class="al pr">to</td> +<td class="al pr">70</td> +<td class="ac pr">„</td> +<td class="al pr">=</td> +<td class="al">Fair,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="al pr">51</td> +<td class="al pr">to</td> +<td class="al pr">60</td> +<td class="ac pr">„</td> +<td class="al pr">=</td> +<td class="al">Common.</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p> +<span class="small-caps">Other Fibres.</span>⁠—The chief hard fibres are augmented +by the use of the “Maguey” plant which is cultivated +largely in the Philippine Islands in districts bordering +on the Manila centres, while Mauritius fibre is produced +largely in the Islands from an Agave, the <i>Furcroea +Gigantea</i>, order, <i>Amaryllidaceae</i>, known in Mauritius as +“Aloes.” The plant, see <a href='#fig_16'>Fig. 16</a>, is somewhat similar +to the Sisal plant, while the fibre obtained from it is +of a soft nature, and is usually sent to this country in +an imperfectly-cleaned state. The dust which accompanies +the fibre emerges from it in the processes of +manufacture, and is very disagreeable to the operatives. +Owing, however, to its good light colour, and the softness +and pliability of the goods made from it, the fibre +is often preferred to the other hard fibres for certain +types of work. +</p> +<figure id='fig_16' class='max100' style='width: 25em;'> +<img src="images/i_p048.jpg" class="w100 v_align_b" alt=""> +<figcaption><span class='fontp9'><i>By permission of Messrs David Bridge & Co., Ltd.</i></span><br> +<span class='fontp9'><span class="small-caps">Fig. 16</span></span><br> +<span class='fontp9'>MAURITIUS FIBRE PLANT</span></figcaption> +</figure> +<p> +<span class="small-caps">Coir.</span>⁠—Coir fibre is obtained from the husks of cocoa +nuts. The extraction of the fibre from these nuts forms +native industries in many parts of India and Ceylon. +The husks are soaked in water for a time, and then +<span id='page-48' class='pagenum'>48</span>beaten with sticks or mallets; the separated fibres are +then dried and spun by hand with the aid of very +simple appliances. Afterwards, two of these single +yarns are combined or twisted together to make what +is known as two-ply or two-fold twist. The twist is +<span id='page-49' class='pagenum'>49</span>then made up into short lengths, rolled into small hanks +and baled for export. Of later years, much longer +lengths have been made and done up into coils, while +small “dolls” or rolls are made up for sale in small +quantities, particularly for use on farms. +</p> +<p> +Coir fibre has been very widely used for many purposes +in the rope and cordage trade, principally for the +manufacture of mooring ropes, spring ropes and lashing +cords, while large quantities of the imported yarns are +used for matting and farming purposes. +</p> +<p> +It is a very useful fibre when properly made up, and +is of great importance for purposes where it is necessary +for the manufactured article to be exposed to variation +of climate and to wet, while the life of the manufactured +article is greatly extended if it is steeped in oil. +</p> +<p> +<span class="small-caps">Sunn Hemp</span> (Bengal Hemp).⁠—Sunn Hemp or <i>Crotalaria +Juncea</i>, natural order, <i>Leguminosae</i>, is used on a +smaller scale and for certain goods such as cheap grade +ropes and box cord. The plants grow in several parts +of India, <i>e.g.</i>, near Bengal, Allahabad and Benares in +which the cheaper grades are produced, and in some +districts of Western Bengal where a better class of fibre +is obtained. All are of the same family, the difference +being due to the variation of the soil and the method +of retting. (This is really a bast fibre, but it is used +almost solely along with the hard fibres.) The fibre is +harsh and very irregular in the lower grades; in the +better grades it can be used to mix with other fibres +for the production of tow yarns. +</p> +<p> +The other hemps obtained from India, particularly +from Madras, are not so high grade as to warrant them +being used alone to any great extent, so it is usual to +mix them with other low-grade hemps of higher tensile +strength, or these Indian hemps may be combined with +scutching and hackling tows. The scutching and +<span id='page-50' class='pagenum'>50</span>hackling tows are sometimes used to produce twines +and cords suitable for box cords and for parcel tying +yarns. +</p> +<p> +<span class="small-caps">China Jute.</span>⁠—Although this is a bast fibre, its use +is mostly confined to purposes for which the hard fibres +are applied, and hence its introduction amongst them. +It is a product of Hankow and Teintsin in China, and +is largely imported to Great Britain. When suitably +treated it forms a satisfactory fibre for the manufacture +of box cords or similar goods where great tensile strength +is not essential. The fibre is of a good light colour, +and little or no waste is incurred in its transformation +into cordage. +</p> +<p> +The following details of the production of fibres and +relative costs are given so that the normal values, as +well as the normal quantities may be judged, and also +compared with the abnormal conditions which have +prevailed during the great world’s war. +</p> +<p> +Italian and Naples hemp is imported to these +islands in large quantities as will be seen from the +following particulars for ten seasons⁠— +</p> +<table class='fontp9 center margetb'> +<tr> +<th class="ac pb">Season.</th> +<th class="ar pb"></th> +<th colspan=2 class="ac pb">Italian.</th> +<th class="ar pb"></th> +<th colspan=2 class="ac pb">Naples.</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="al">1903-04</td> +<td class="ar pl"></td> +<td class="ar">62,000</td> +<td class="ac pl">tons</td> +<td class="ar"></td> +<td class="ar">28,000</td> +<td class="ac pl">tons</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="al">1904-05</td> +<td class="ar pl"></td> +<td class="ar">40,000</td> +<td class="ac pl">„</td> +<td class="ar"></td> +<td class="ar">23,000</td> +<td class="ac pl">„</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="al">1905-06</td> +<td class="ar pl"></td> +<td class="ar">12,000</td> +<td class="ac pl">„</td> +<td class="ar"></td> +<td class="ar">27,000</td> +<td class="ac pl">„</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="al">1906-07</td> +<td class="ar pl"></td> +<td class="ar">58,000</td> +<td class="ac pl">„</td> +<td class="ar"></td> +<td class="ar">30,000</td> +<td class="ac pl">„</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="al">1907-08</td> +<td class="ar pl"></td> +<td class="ar">58,000</td> +<td class="ac pl">„</td> +<td class="ar"></td> +<td class="ar">31,000</td> +<td class="ac pl">„</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="al">1908-09</td> +<td class="ar pl"></td> +<td class="ar">41,000</td> +<td class="ac pl">„</td> +<td class="ar"></td> +<td class="ar">20,000</td> +<td class="ac pl">„</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="al">1909-10</td> +<td class="ar pl"></td> +<td class="ar">55,000</td> +<td class="ac pl">„</td> +<td class="ar"></td> +<td class="ar">24,000</td> +<td class="ac pl">„</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="al">1910-11</td> +<td class="ar pl"></td> +<td class="ar">50,000</td> +<td class="ac pl">„</td> +<td class="ar"></td> +<td class="ar">27,000</td> +<td class="ac pl">„</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="al">1911-12</td> +<td class="ar pl"></td> +<td class="ar">33,000</td> +<td class="ac pl">„</td> +<td class="ar"></td> +<td class="ar">30,000</td> +<td class="ac pl">„</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="al">1912-13</td> +<td class="ar pl"></td> +<td class="ar">58,000</td> +<td class="ac pl">„</td> +<td class="ar"></td> +<td class="ar">31,000</td> +<td class="ac pl">„</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="al"></td> +<td class="ar pl">10)</td> +<td class="ar bt">467,000</td> +<td class="ac pl"></td> +<td class="ar">10)</td> +<td class="ar bt">271,000</td> +<td class="ac pl"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="al"></td> +<td class="ar pl"></td> +<td class="ar bd">46,700</td> +<td class="ac pl">average</td> +<td class="ar"></td> +<td class="ar bd">27,100</td> +<td class="ac pl">average</td> +</tr> +</table> +<table class='fontp9 center margetb'> +<tr> +<th class="ac pr">Average</th> +<th class="ac pr">price</th> +<td class="al">P.C. Italian, £39 11s. 3d. per ton</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<th class="ac pr">„</th> +<th class="ac pr">„</th> +<td class="al">P.E. Naples, £41 9s. per ton</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<th class="ac pr">„</th> +<th class="ac pr">„</th> +<td class="al">F.S.P.R.H. Russian, £31 17s. per ton</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p> +<span id='page-51' class='pagenum'>51</span>The prices since these dates have gradually increased, +and the present prices are approximately as under⁠— +</p> +<table class='fontp9 center margetb'> +<tr> +<td class="al pr">P.C., Italian</td> +<td class="ar pl pr">£190</td> +<td class="ac pr">per</td> +<td class="ac">ton</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="al pr">P.E., Naples</td> +<td class="ar pl pr">£200</td> +<td class="ac pr">„</td> +<td class="ac">„</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="al pr">F.S.P.R.H., Russian</td> +<td class="ar pl pr">£170</td> +<td class="ac pr">„</td> +<td class="ac">„</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="al pr">China Hemp</td> +<td class="ar pl pr">£154</td> +<td class="ac pr">„</td> +<td class="ac">„</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p> +The following table illustrates the grading of Manila +fibre for June, 1917, together with the number of bales +for that month, and the percentage quantity of each +grade. In addition, the last two columns give the +prices; that for 1917 is the market price, while that +for 1918 is the controlled price. <a href='#fig_10'>Fig. 10</a> might be +studied along with this table. +</p> +<table class='center fontp9 margetb'> +<tr> +<th class="ac pt pr pb pl bt">Grade Letter.</th> +<th class="ac pt pr pb pl bt bl">Grade.</th> +<th class="ac pt pr pb pl bt bl">Bales.</th> +<th class="ac pt pr pb pl bt bl">% of Total.</th> +<th class="ac pt pr pb pl bt bl">1917. Market Price per ton.</th> +<th class="ac pt pr pb pl bt bl">1918. Market Price per ton.</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ac pt pr pl bt">A</td> +<td class="al pt pr pi bt bl">Extra Prime</td> +<td class="ar pt pr pl bt bl">899</td> +<td class="ar pt pr pl bt bl">0·7</td> +<td class="ar pt pr pl bt bl"></td> +<td class="ar pt pr pl bt bl"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ac pr pl">B</td> +<td class="al pr pi bl">Prime</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">2,182</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">1·6</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl"></td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ac pr pl">C</td> +<td class="al pr pi bl">Superior Current</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">6,852</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">5·0</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">£150</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">£155</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ac pr pl">D</td> +<td class="al pr pi bl">Good Current</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">10,020</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">7·3</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">£145</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">£150</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ac pr pl">E</td> +<td class="al pr pi bl">Midway</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">17,358</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">12·7</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">£135</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">£135</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ac pr pl">S¹</td> +<td class="al pr pi bl">Streaky 1</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">1,865</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">1·4</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">£130</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">£130</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ac pr pl">S²</td> +<td class="al pr pi bl">Streaky 2</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">3,937</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">2·9</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">£120</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">£120</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ac pr pl">S³</td> +<td class="al pr pi bl">Streaky 3</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">2,935</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">2·1</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">£115</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">£115</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ac pr pl">F</td> +<td class="al pr pi bl">Current</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">22,284</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">16·3</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">£125</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">£130</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ac pr pl">G</td> +<td class="al pr pi bl">Seconds</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">3,908</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">2·8</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">£115</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">£115</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ac pr pl">H</td> +<td class="al pr pi bl">Brown</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">1,886</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">1·4</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">£105</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">£105</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ac pr pl">I</td> +<td class="al pr pi bl">Good Fair</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">12,791</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">9·3</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl"></td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">£120</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ac pr pl">J</td> +<td class="al pr pi bl">Fair</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">13,561</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">9·8</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">£85</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">£100</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ac pr pl">K</td> +<td class="al pr pi bl">Medium</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">4,226</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">3·1</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">£80</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">£95</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ac pr pl">L</td> +<td class="al pr pi bl">Coarse</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">12,780</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">9·2</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">£78</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">£93</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ac pr pl">M</td> +<td class="al pr pi bl">Coarse Brown</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">5,140</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">3·7</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">£76</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">£80</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ac pr pl">DL</td> +<td class="al pr pi bl">Coarse</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">7,153</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">5·2</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">£75</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">£75</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ac pr pl">DM</td> +<td class="al pr pi bl">Coarse Brown</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">4,306</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">3·2</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">£73</td> +<td class="ar pr pl bl">£73</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ac pr pb pl">OYT</td> +<td class="al pr pb pl bl"></td> +<td class="ar pr pb pl bl">3,159</td> +<td class="ar pr pb pl bl">2·3</td> +<td class="ar pr pb pl bl"></td> +<td class="ar pr pb pl bl"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ac pt pr pb pl"></td> +<td class="al pt pr pb pl bl"></td> +<td class="ar pt pr pb pl bt bl bd">137,242</td> +<td class="ar pt pr pb pl bt bl bd">100·0</td> +<td class="ar pt pr pb pl bl"></td> +<td class="ar pt pr pb pl bl"></td> +</tr> +</table> +<p> +<span id='page-52' class='pagenum'>52</span>The standardizing of the grades has been rendered +necessary by the large amount of inferior fibre which +was being produced, and by the irregular baling of the +fibre. The gradual improvement of the fibre as a whole +may be gleaned from the undermentioned particulars of +the number of bales which were graded into four of +the lowest types. These numbers referred to what +were allocated in August and September, 1917, +and it will be seen that there was a much smaller +percentage of these low marks in September than +in August. +</p> +<table class='center fontp9 margetb'> +<tr> +<th class="ac pt pr pb pl bt">Grade.</th> +<th class="ac pt pr pb pl bt bl">Bales: August.</th> +<th class="ac pt pr pb pl bt bl">Bales: September.</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<th class="ac pl pt pr bt">L</th> +<td class="ar pl pt pr bt bl">10,548</td> +<td class="ar pl pt pr bt bl">7,462</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<th class="ac pl pr">M</th> +<td class="ar pl pr bl">4,553</td> +<td class="ar pl pr bl">3,201</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<th class="ac pl pr">DL</th> +<td class="ar pl pr bl">5,775</td> +<td class="ar pl pr bl">2,960</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<th class="ac pl pr pb">DM</th> +<td class="ar pl pr pb bl">2,290</td> +<td class="ar pl pr pb bl">952</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<th class="ac pt pr pb pl bt"></th> +<td class="ar pt pr pb pl bt bl bd">23,166</td> +<td class="ar pt pr pb pl bt bl bd">14,575</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p> +The shipments of Manila and other fibres for six +years, 1910 to 1915 inclusive, appear below⁠— +</p> +<table class='center fontp9 margetb'> +<tr> +<th class="ac pt pr pb pl bt">Year.</th> +<th class="ac pt pr pb pl bt bl">Manila bales.</th> +<th class="ac pt pr pb pl bt bl">Mexican Sisal bales.</th> +<th class="ac pt pr pb pl bt bl">New Zealand bales.</th> +<th class="ac pt pr pb pl bt bl">Mauritius bales.</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<th class="ar pl pt pr bt">1910</th> +<td class="ar pl pt pr bt bl">1,272,000</td> +<td class="ar pl pt pr bt bl">582,142</td> +<td class="ar pl pt pr bt bl">103,750</td> +<td class="ar pl pt pr bt bl">9,990</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<th class="ar pl pr">1911</th> +<td class="ar pl pr bl">1,332,297</td> +<td class="ar pl pr bl">713,008</td> +<td class="ar pl pr bl">96,850</td> +<td class="ar pl pr bl">9,161</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<th class="ar pl pr">1912</th> +<td class="ar pl pr bl">1,466,110</td> +<td class="ar pl pr bl">859,000</td> +<td class="ar pl pr bl">96,360</td> +<td class="ar pl pr bl">8,697</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<th class="ar pl pr">1913</th> +<td class="ar pl pr bl">964,000</td> +<td class="ar pl pr bl">876,000</td> +<td class="ar pl pr bl">140,445</td> +<td class="ar pl pr bl">14,404</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<th class="ar pl pr">1914</th> +<td class="ar pl pr bl">943,000</td> +<td class="ar pl pr bl">982,000</td> +<td class="ar pl pr bl">98,510</td> +<td class="ar pl pr bl">8,947</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<th class="ar pl pr pb bb">1915</th> +<td class="ar pl pr pb bl bb">1,160,440</td> +<td class="ar pl pr pb bl bb">950,000</td> +<td class="ar pl pr pb bl bb">116,100</td> +<td class="ar pl pr pb bl bb">6,838</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p> +The three columns in the following table show the +<span id='page-54' class='pagenum'>54</span>prices which ruled in 1915 and 1916 and the current +prices for 1918. +</p> +<table class='center fontp9 margetb'> +<tr> +<th class="ac pt pr pb pl bt">Type of Fibre.</th> +<th class="ac pt pr pb pl bt bl">1915.</th> +<th class="ac pt pr pb pl bt bl">1916.</th> +<th class="ac pt pr pb pl bt bl">1918.</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<th class="ac pl pt pr bt"></th> +<th class="ac pl pt pr bt bl">£</th> +<th class="ac pl pt pr bt bl">£</th> +<th class="ac pl pt pr bt bl">£</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<th class="al pl pr">P.C. Italian Hemp</th> +<td class="ar pl pr bl">55</td> +<td class="ar pl pr bl">90</td> +<td class="ar pl pr bl">190</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<th class="al pl pr">F.S.P.R.H. Russian Hemp</th> +<td class="ar pl pr bl">⁠—</td> +<td class="ar pl pr bl">⁠—</td> +<td class="ar pl pr bl">170</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<th class="al pl pr">China Hemp</th> +<td class="ar pl pr bl">⁠—</td> +<td class="ar pl pr bl">⁠—</td> +<td class="ar pl pr bl">154</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<th class="al pl pr">Manila (Fair)</th> +<td class="ar pl pr bl">37</td> +<td class="ar pl pr bl">54</td> +<td class="ar pl pr bl">100</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<th class="al pl pr">New Zealand Hemp</th> +<td class="ar pl pr bl">32</td> +<td class="ar pl pr bl">86</td> +<td class="ar pl pr bl">99</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<th class="al pl pr">Mexican Sisal</th> +<td class="ar pl pr bl">28</td> +<td class="ar pl pr bl">77</td> +<td class="ar pl pr bl">97</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<th class="al pl pr">Java Sisal</th> +<td class="ar pl pr bl">⁠—</td> +<td class="ar pl pr bl">95-100</td> +<td class="ar pl pr bl">99</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<th class="al pl pr">Mauritius</th> +<td class="ar pl pr bl">⁠—</td> +<td class="ar pl pr bl">70</td> +<td class="ar pl pr bl">95</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<th class="al pl pr pb bb">Maguey</th> +<td class="ar pl pr pb bl bb">30</td> +<td class="ar pl pr pb bl bb">70</td> +<td class="ar pl pr pb bl bb">74</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p> +The controlled Government price (U.S.A.) for Sisal +fibre for June (1918) is as follows⁠— +</p> +<table class='center fontp9 margetb'> +<tr> +<td class="ar pr">19</td> +<td class="ac pr">cents</td> +<td class="ac pr">per</td> +<td class="ac pr">lb.</td> +<td class="al">for fibre</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ar pr">23</td> +<td class="ac pr">„</td> +<td class="ac pr">„</td> +<td class="ac pr">„</td> +<td class="al">for 500 feet of binder twine</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p> +Since one sheaf of corn requires about one yard of +twine, and since the expected requirements for the +Continent of America are 200,000 tons of binder twine, +it follows that this weight of yarn will provide the +binding material for 71,680,000,000 sheaves⁠—almost an +incredible quantity. +</p> +<figure id='fig_17' class='max100' style='width: 46em;'> +<img src="images/i_p053.jpg" class="w100 v_align_b" alt=""> +<figcaption><span class='fontp9'><span class="small-caps">Fig. 17</span></span><br> +<span class='fontp9'>BALES OF MANILA, NEW ZEALAND AND SISAL FIBRES</span></figcaption> +</figure> +<p> +<a href='#fig_17'>Fig. 17</a> shows three distinct methods of baling⁠— +</p> +<p> +(<i>a</i>) Manila Hemp with rattan canes. +</p> +<p> +(<i>b</i>) New Zealand Hemp with ropes made from New +Zealand fibre. +</p> +<p> +(<i>c</i>) Sisal Hemp with wire. +</p> +<div class="chapter"><span id='page-55' class='pagenum'>55</span> +<h2 class='nobreak'> +CHAPTER VII<br> +<span class='fontp9'>THE PREPARING AND SPINNING MACHINERY FOR HEMP AND OTHER SOFT FIBRES</span> +</h2></div> +<p class='noindent two_space'> +<span class='small-caps'>Since</span> there is such a great variety of ropes, cords and +twines, not only in regard to diameters, but also in regard +to the different fibres used in the manufacture of these +goods, it is not surprising to find that there are many +different kinds of machines involved in the various +operations; some of these machines are introduced +for the special purpose of reducing the fibres to practicable +lengths, but these machines are, of course, used +only for the type of fibres which exceed about 36 in. +On the other hand, it is sometimes found desirable to +cut certain types of fibres which do not exceed the limits +demanded by the capacity of the machines, but this is +done only as a selective operation to obtain the best +and strongest part of the fibre.</p> +<p> +While certain classes of soft fibres such as Russian, +French, Chinese and Indian hemps may be used without +any previous hackling operation in the spinning of certain +sizes of cordage, it is found that Italian, Serbian, +Roumanian and Neapolitan hemps must be cut into +suitable lengths and hackled before they can be passed +through the preparing machines; in these latter +machines the fibres are arranged into a practicable +condition before they are subjected to the actual +spinning operation. +</p> +<p> +The production of yarn for use in the making of +cotton driving ropes involves the use of the whole system +of cotton-spinning machinery, while, on the other hand, +hemp yarns, besides being prepared mechanically, are +<span id='page-56' class='pagenum'>56</span>still produced by a series of the simplest and oldest +methods of hand hackling and hand spinning. +</p> +<p> +Fine ropes and twines may be, and often are, produced +by an elaborate system of machinery, and modified +forms of such a system, in which a smaller number +of machines are employed, may be adopted for the +spinning of the heavier yarns. +</p> +<p> +A complete plant for the manufacture of these yarns +from soft fibres would include the following⁠— +</p> +<ul class="indsl"> +<li class='hang_indent'>Softening Machine,</li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Cutting or Breaking Machine,</li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Hackling Machines,</li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Spread Boards,</li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Drawing and Doubling Frames,</li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Roving and Gill Spinning Machines,</li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Automatic Spinning Machines,</li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Throstle Spinning Machines.</li> +</ul> +<p> +The yarns employed may be as small as 60’s for the +finer sizes and as thick as 18’s for the heavy or common +sizes; the significance of this yarn numbering will be +explained later. +</p> +<p> +In order to have some definite purpose in view, let +it be assumed that it is necessary to make a high-class +rope from Italian hemp; the fibre to be used must, of +course, be of a good quality of cordage hemp. When +the bale of hemp is opened, the fibre will be found to +be in “heads” or “stricks,” that is, collected into +groups with a girth of from 8 to 12 in., and to be from +7 to 12 ft. in length and sometimes even longer. +</p> +<p> +The first operation is that known as “softening,” +which makes the fibres, as the name of the operation +indicates, more supple, and hence better adapted for +undergoing the subsequent operations. Different +makes of machines are in use for softening the fibrous +material, the chief feature in each machine is that +<span id='page-57' class='pagenum'>57</span>the heads or stricks of fibre are squeezed between +fluted rollers. +</p> +<p> +In one type of machine the end of the strick is passed +between the first pair of blades of an Archimedean screw, +then between the fluted rollers of which there may be +three, and its end brought round and joined to the +other end of the strick; in this way an endless band of +fibres is formed. The fluted rollers act as indicated, +and at the same time the Archimedean screw gradually +conveys the endless band of fibres from one end of the +screw to the other end, each slight movement causing +the fibres to enter between the fluted rollers at a different +place. This type of machine, which is, however, rather +dangerous for certain classes of workers, is considered +quite efficient and satisfactory by many spinners, but +the machine which is most extensively used is known +as a “reciprocating softener,” and is made by such +firms as Messrs. Reynolds and Messrs. Combe Barbour, +both of Belfast, and by Messrs. Lawson of Leeds. +</p> +<p> +The action of the rollers of the reciprocating softener +is rather complicated, for, in addition to the usual +method of rotating in one direction for the sake of +delivering the material, the rollers are moved bodily +forwards and backwards a short distance alternately. +The multiplicity of motions has for its aim that of +subjecting every particle of the strick as much as +necessary to the softening action of the flutes; the +effect of these operations on the hemp is quite evident +when the stricks emerge from the delivery end, for the +material is much more pliant than when it entered, and +is in such a condition that it may be greatly refined +in the subsequent operations. +</p> +<p> +In this machine the forward motion of the rollers is +obtained by a special arrangement of gearing from the +pulley shaft which extends through the machine and +<span id='page-58' class='pagenum'>58</span>carries a further belt pulley at the other end. A belt +from the latter pulley drives by means of another pulley +an upper shaft, while a further belt connection from a +pulley on this upper shaft conveys motion to a pulley +running on a stud projecting from the main frame. +Compounded with the latter pulley is the speed change +pinion, and a train of gearing, consisting of four pairs of +compound wheels, conveys the desired motion to the +fourteen pairs of fluted rollers which are arranged in +two concentric semicircles in the upper part of the +machine. The centre of these concentric semicircles is +the central shaft of the machine, and on this shaft is +placed the pinion and wheel of the second compound. +Near the ends of this central shaft, and close to the +outer part of the two main frames, swings two substantially-constructed +brackets; each bracket has two +horizontal arms from each of which a short shaft projects +to carry a wheel and pinion, while the extreme +lower end of the bracket is attached by means of a +connecting rod to a crank placed on the large wheel +below, and driven from, the main pulley shaft. +</p> +<p> +As indicated, this mechanism is duplicated, one set +on each side of the machine. The object of the small +pinions on the horizontal arms of the swinging brackets +is to drive the fourteen pairs of fluted rollers through +the medium of two large wheels, one on each side, each +wheel being provided with internal teeth. The object +of the cranks and connecting arms to the said brackets +is to cause the fourteen pairs of rollers to reciprocate. +This reciprocation adds to the effective softening of the +stricks by rotating the material for a longer time in +the machine, and thus repeating the softening effect of +the rollers on different parts of the fibrous material. +</p> +<p> +After the stricks have been efficiently softened in one +or other of the machines mentioned, they are conveyed +<span id='page-60' class='pagenum'>60</span>to the cutting or breaking machine which is adapted to +sever the stricks into lengths suitable for treatment in +the hackling machine. +</p> +<figure id='fig_18' class='max100' style='width: 32em;'> +<img src="images/i_p059.jpg" class="w100 v_align_b" alt=""> +<figcaption><span class='fontp9'><i>By permission of Messrs David Bridge & Co., Ltd.</i></span><br> +<span class='fontp9'><span class="small-caps">Fig. 18</span></span><br> +<span class='fontp9'>BREAKING MACHINE</span></figcaption> +</figure> +<p> +These cutting or breaking machines are of two distinct +types⁠— +</p> +<p> +(<i>a</i>) Those in which the fibres of the stricks are torn +asunder; and +</p> +<p> +(<i>b</i>) Those in which the fibres are broken by the action +of what are known as “cutting wheels.” +</p> +<p> +A good example of a machine which tears or breaks +the stricks is that illustrated in <a href='#fig_18'>Fig. 18</a>, and made by +Messrs. David Bridge & Co., Ltd., Castleton, Manchester. +The machine is of substantial construction, but experienced +operatives are required to take charge of it. +One end of the softened strick is wrapped round the +back fixed square bar to the left of the illustration; +then about two turns of the strick are wrapped round +the front square bar which rotates when the attendant +presses down the foot lever near the floor. Since the +revolving bar has a tendency to carry the strick round +with it in virtue of the movement given to it by the +train of wheels from the motive part, it follows that +ultimately the stretch of fibres between the two square +bars will be broken, and then the operation is repeated +with the remainder of the long strick. The friction +clutch, on the right of the three pulleys, and the main +shaft are revolving continuously while the belt on the +middle pulley is in motion, but the friction pulley itself +moves only when the friction clutch is expanded due +to the downward movement of the foot lever which, +at the same time, releases the brake on the left pulley +of the three. When the foot is removed from the foot +lever or treadle, the clutch fork slides the clutch on the +shaft and breaks the contact between the friction clutch +and friction wheel; simultaneously the brake grips its +<span id='page-61' class='pagenum'>61</span>pulley and thus arrests the wheels and the rotating +square bar. +</p> +<p> +The cutting or breaking type is designed on quite +different lines from the above machine, and a very +popular and efficient machine of the former type is +known as the “Revolving Cutting Machine.” A series +of round pins (sometimes V-shaped teeth) project from +the face or periphery of a large central revolving wheel, +and on each side of this wheel, and at a suitable distance +from it, is a pair of slowly-moving rollers which are +grooved on their circumferences to intersect with each +other and so grip or hold the material as it is being fed +to the pins of the cutting wheel. The operative cutter +stands in front of the machine with a long strick of +hemp in his hands. He grips the strick at two convenient +places, and, having decided upon the point +where the piece should be cut or broken, he arranges +for this point to pass into the machine midway between +the two pairs of feed or retaining wheels. The machine +is made in duplicate so that the same cutting, or breaking +wheel may serve for both, but each operative has, +naturally, his own set of feed wheels. +</p> +<p> +As already stated, the lengths of the pieces when +broken or cut will depend upon the type of hackling +machine in which the severed lengths are next to be +treated, and also upon the particular class of rope into +which the fibres are to be spun. The usual length +limits are 24 in. and 30 in., although conditions might +arise in which it is desirable to go beyond the extremes +of these common lengths. +</p> +<p> +The suitable lengths of cut material are now made +up into convenient sizes or bunches and conveyed to +the machine hackling department. +</p> +<p> +Certain classes of Russian, French, Chinese, Indian +and Italian hemps may be considered in common in all +<span id='page-62' class='pagenum'>62</span>subsequent operations, and, in general, will require most +of the treatment which is given to the specific case of +Italian hemp under discussion. +</p> +<figure id='fig_19' class='max100' style='width: 25em;'> +<img src="images/i_p062.jpg" class="w100 v_align_b" alt=""> +<figcaption><span class='fontp9'><i>By permission of the Edinburgh Roperie Co.</i></span><br> +<span class='fontp9'><span class="small-caps">Fig. 19</span></span><br> +<span class='fontp9'>HACKLING MACHINE</span></figcaption> +</figure> +<p> +The hackling machines which are used in modern +cordage or rope walks are similar to that reproduced in +<a href='#fig_19'>Fig. 19</a>. In this particular machine there are sixteen +different holders with pieces of hemp fibre depending +from each, the lowest visible part of the fibre being on +the same level as the uppermost part of the hackles or +tools. The visible parts of the latter extend to a point +in line with the waist of the attendant. There are four +sections of tools in the full width, and each section is +made up of four sets, while each set contains twenty-four +tools, the whole arranged in a closed path so that +while they rotate, the pins in the tools may act upon +<span id='page-63' class='pagenum'>63</span>the pieces of hemp as the latter move in a vertical plane +under the influence of what is termed the “head” of +the machine. +</p> +<p> +The number of tools vary according to the accommodation +available in the department devoted to this +section of the work. The tools are fixed to a series +of bars which in turn are riveted to a set of leather +sheets, the whole being rotated as indicated by means +of carriers which are arranged on two shafts with +suitable fixings. +</p> +<p> +In the “head” the necessary mechanical parts are +placed for moving the holders, and therefore the pieces +of hemp, collectively and intermittently along what is +known as the “channel.” The inclined rod, immediately +under the name plate of the machine, with its +additional parts convey this motion to each of the +holders. In this manner, each holder, with its complement +of hemp, is moved in regular succession opposite +each of the sixteen sets of hackles or tools, and therefore +passes from one end of the machine to the other. +This movement takes place when the hemp is at or +near its highest point. As each holder reaches the end +of the machine, it is removed from the channel, the +bolt of the holder unscrewed, the plate removed, and +the piece of hemp turned end for end. After this the +plate is again placed in position, the nuts screwed tight, +and the holder entered into a similar channel on the +other side of the machine, but with the undressed end +of hemp downwards. A very similar movement is now +imparted to the holders at this side of the machine so +that the same process of hackling as that performed +already may be imparted by an identical group of tools. +The work is, of course, continuous in this respect that +the girl or boy is almost constantly engaged with the +attention of the holders as they reach the end in regular +<span id='page-64' class='pagenum'>64</span>short periods of ten to fifteen seconds. The hemp +ultimately reaches the end of the machine from which +it started, but in a different plane, and is withdrawn +from the holder to be replaced by an undressed piece. +</p> +<p> +Until a comparatively short time ago all the above +operations of feeding were done by hand as explained, +but most modern hackling machines have now attached +automatic mechanism for performing these functions. +The machine in <a href='#fig_19'>Fig. 19</a> is provided with this automatic +screwing and unscrewing mechanism. One attendant +introduces the pieces of hemp between the plates of the +holder when such plates have been separated by the +apparatus, but from this point all the operations, including +the removal of the holder, the turning of the piece of +hemp, the unscrewing and screwing of the nuts, and +the insertion of the holder with the unhackled ends +downwards into the second channel, are performed by +this ingenious group of automatic machinery. The +design of such machinery differs with different machine +makers, but very similar principles are embodied in all. +The ends of the hackling machine frame are in all cases +substantially made so that all parts may give the +minimum amount of trouble in actual work. +</p> +<p> +The size of the pieces which are held by the holder +and acted upon by the tools during the operation of +hackling will depend upon the class of yarn to which +the fibre has to be spun. As a general rule, the pieces +for rope and twine yarns are arranged so that there +are two to four per pound; in other words, the pieces +are from ¼ lb. to ½ lb. each. It must be remembered +that the finer the quality of yarn desired, the more +hackling must take place, and hence it will be necessary +to use a hackling machine with finer tools, and also to +employ more tools in a row. +</p> +<p> +As a general rule the best yield of fibre is obtained +<span id='page-65' class='pagenum'>65</span>when the maximum number of tools are used, but at +the same time it is necessary that the grading of the +pins or hackles in such tools should be judiciously +chosen in order that the splitting or cutting should be +gradual, and thus exercise a less violent action on the +fibre than would obtain with an indifferent grading. +</p> +<p> +In addition to the grading of the pins, advantage +may also be taken of what is known as the “grouping,” +that is, the order in which the pins are arranged on the +tools. The grouping is of the greatest value in the +coarser-pitched tools, and although some hackling experts +prefer to have the pins in two rows on the finest +tools, the Authors consider that when all the pins in +the finer tools are in one row, the work is done better +for the line, and the tow produced is of good quality, +while such an arrangement offers the best and most +economical facilities for keeping the tools in good +condition. A good arrangement of grading and grouping +on ten tools may give a greater variation in the +splitting or cutting than would result from an indifferent +arrangement of grading and grouping on a larger +number of tools. +</p> +<p> +Three different arrangements of grading appear +below⁠— +</p> +<table class='center fontp9 margetb'> +<tr> +<th colspan=17 class="ac pb bb">Number of pins per inch width of tool</th> +<th colspan=3 class="ac"></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ar pl"></td> +<td class="ar pl"></td> +<td class="ar pl">¼</td> +<td class="ar pl"></td> +<td class="ar pl">½</td> +<td class="ar pl"></td> +<td class="ar pl">¾</td> +<td class="ar pl">1</td> +<td class="ar pl">1½</td> +<td class="ar pl">2</td> +<td class="ar pl"></td> +<td class="ar pl">4</td> +<td class="ar pl"></td> +<td class="ar pl">6</td> +<td class="ar pl"></td> +<td class="ar pl">8</td> +<td class="al pl">10</td> +<th class="ar pl">=</th> +<td class="ar pl">10</td> +<td class="ac pl">tools</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ar pl">⅛</td> +<td class="ar pl"></td> +<td class="ar pl">¼</td> +<td class="ar pl">1/3</td> +<td class="ar pl">½</td> +<td class="ar pl">2/3</td> +<td class="ar pl"></td> +<td class="ar pl">1</td> +<td class="ar pl">1½</td> +<td class="ar pl">2</td> +<td class="ar pl">3</td> +<td class="ar pl">4</td> +<td class="ar pl">5</td> +<td class="ar pl">6</td> +<td class="ar pl"></td> +<td class="ar pl">8</td> +<td class="al pl">10</td> +<th class="ar pl">=</th> +<td class="ar pl">14</td> +<td class="ac pl">„</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ar pl">⅛</td> +<td class="ar pl">1/6</td> +<td class="ar pl">¼</td> +<td class="ar pl">1/3</td> +<td class="ar pl">½</td> +<td class="ar pl">2/3</td> +<td class="ar pl"></td> +<td class="ar pl">1</td> +<td class="ar pl">1½</td> +<td class="ar pl">2</td> +<td class="ar pl">3</td> +<td class="ar pl">4</td> +<td class="ar pl">5</td> +<td class="ar pl">6</td> +<td class="ar pl">7</td> +<td class="ar pl">8</td> +<td class="al pl">10</td> +<th class="ar pl">=</th> +<td class="ar pl">16</td> +<td class="ac pl">„</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p> +All modern hackling machines should be arranged +to give the best possible yield of line, and also of tow, +from the material which is in process, since by this +effort an increase in the relative value of the finished +article is obtained, and a highly-valued product secured +at a comparatively low cost of manufacture. +</p> +<p> +As the pieces of hackled hemp are delivered from the +<span id='page-66' class='pagenum'>66</span>hackling machine, they are made up into suitably-sized +bundles and conveyed to the line store. +</p> +<p> +A record of all the materials in the various stages of +manufacture is kept in the books of the respective +departments, and such records can quickly be referred +to at any time by those who are responsible for the +production of the various classes of goods which are +being made. +</p> +<p> +As already indicated, certain classes of hemp may be +so clean when purchased, that they can be used for +some types of cordage yarns without any preliminary +hackling, and goods made in this way may compete +favourably with those made by processes which include +hackling. The object aimed at in these cases is usually +one of price and not exactly of quality, for when the +latter is the predominating condition, the superior +value is attached to the yarns made from hackled +fibre. Nevertheless, when it is simply a question of +equivalent suitability for specific purposes, and when +approximate values are obtainable by the two methods +of manufacture, the conditions offer a choice which is +of extreme importance at those times when the available +suitable fibre for either method is scarce, or when +either is very abundant. +</p> +<p> +Although the above choice presents itself for the +cases mentioned, it will be understood that for the +better grades of cordage one must employ either a very +high grade of cleaned hemp, or a grade of hemp which +has been hackled and cleaned by hand or by suitable +kinds of machines. +</p> +<p> +In very special cases, <i>e.g.</i>, high-class threads and +cord yarns, where great strength and uniformity are +desired, it has been found advisable to prepare the fibre +entirely by a system of “hand dressing.” The hand +method lends itself naturally to more careful selective +<span id='page-67' class='pagenum'>67</span>treatment. It should, however, be stated that it is +not usual to adopt this method except for the production +of a comparatively small quantity of fine yarns, +that is, thin yarns. Sewing twines and cords should +be level and strong, but not necessarily fine, unless for +the finest class of work into which these threads are to +be introduced, as, for example, in the glove industry +in which case the fibre used is often flax. These finer +grades of threads and twines, as well as the finer classes +of cordage, may require the whole range of operations +to produce the finest and cleanest product consistent +with the work for which it is intended to be used, +although, as stated, the hand hackling may be employed +for the flax intended for use in the manufacture of fine +thin yarns, whereas, it is preferable to employ machine +hackling for the equally valuable but thicker yarns. +From this stage, however, the operations for the continuation +of the processes of manufacture from the two +distinct types of dressed line are conducted mechanically. +</p> +<p> +In perhaps the most extensive scheme of hackling +there is a combination of hand and machine work. +The first operation is termed “Roughing,” and consists +of drawing the pieces of hemp or flax through a set of +hackle pins arranged or grouped in a wooden block, +and termed a “Rougher’s Tool.” This operation, +when correctly performed, leaves the fibres practically +parallel, their ends approximately in line with each +other, and separates these long fibres from the shorter +ones which are left amongst the hackle pins, and +which are removed regularly to be ultimately used +as “tow” in what is known as the “carding” process. +These long, partially-combed and split fibres are now +taken to the hackling machine to undergo a further +treatment of combing and splitting as already briefly +described. Finally, when the pieces leave the hackling +<span id='page-68' class='pagenum'>68</span>machine they have to undergo for a second time a hand +process of hackling which is termed “Sorting and +Selecting,” after which the material is made up into a +bundle. +</p> +<p> +It is obvious that such an extensive scheme of hackling +is not only slow but also costly, and is attempted +only for the most valuable raw materials to be used for +costly finished goods such as fishing lines, fine cords, +and for valuable threads which are used in the glove, +leather and cognate industries. +</p> +<p> +It will thus be seen that there are in reality three +distinct methods of preparing the fibres into the product +known as “line,” and the finished product thus +obtained then passes through a series of machines, +termed a “system,” in which the fibres are first arranged +in such a way as to form a continuous thin and broad +ribbon termed a “sliver,” then into a more or less +circular and slightly-twisted form termed a “rove,” +and ultimately into a much finer circular and twisted +form termed a “yarn” or “single thread.” Rope and +heavy cordage yarns are often made by a simpler process +than that just enumerated. The operations which +these yarns or single threads subsequently undergo will +be discussed at the proper place. In the meantime we +purpose mentioning the different machines, and then +briefly to describe and illustrate these machines which +jointly form what we have called a “system.” +</p> +<table class='center fontp9 margetb'> +<tr> +<th class="ac pt pr pb pl bt">System I for Fine Classes of Line Yarn.</th> +<th class="ac pt pr pb pl bt bl">System II for Heavier Line Yarns.</th> +<th class="ac pt pr pb pl bt bl">System III for Common Yarns from Tow.</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="al pt pr pi bt vt">Spread Board</td> +<td class="al pt pr pi bt bl vt">Spread Board</td> +<td class="al pt pr pi bt bl vt">Carding Machine</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="al pt pr pi vt"></td> +<td class="al pt pr pi bl vt"></td> +<td class="al pt pr pi bl vt"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="al pt pr pi vt">Sett Frame</td> +<td class="al pt pr pi bl vt">Sett Frame</td> +<td class="al pt pr pi bl vt">Drawing Frames</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="al pt pr pi vt"></td> +<td class="al pt pr pi bl vt"></td> +<td class="al pt pr pi bl vt"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="al pt pr pi vt">Drawing Frame</td> +<td class="al pt pr pi bl vt">Finishing Drawing Frame</td> +<td class="al pt pr pi bl vt">Roving Frame</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="al pt pr pi vt"></td> +<td class="al pt pr pi bl vt"></td> +<td class="al pt pr pi bl vt"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="al pt pr pi vt">Roving and Gill Spinning</td> +<td class="al pt pr pi bl vt">Automatic Spinning</td> +<td class="al pt pr pi bl vt">Dry Spinning or Automatic Spinning</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="al pt pr pi vt"></td> +<td class="al pt pr pi bl vt"></td> +<td class="al pt pr pi bl vt"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="al pt pr pb pi bb vt">Dry Spinning</td> +<td class="al pt pr pb pi bl bb vt"></td> +<td class="al pt pr pb pi bl bb vt"></td> +</tr> +</table> +<p> +<span id='page-69' class='pagenum'>69</span>The machine known as the “spread-board” is so +called because the function which it performs is the +mechanical sequel to the manual operation which was +conducted somewhat as follows: A board about 9 ft. +long was covered with an even layer of the pieces of +hackled flax or hemp so arranged that each succeeding +piece partially overlapped the one immediately before +it much in the same way, so far as overlapping is concerned, +as obtains with the scales of a fish or the parts +of a fir cone. One operative would place his hands on +the material thus arranged, while another operative +would draw forward the material, reducing it in girth +but increasing it in length, by causing some of the +fibres, and all of them in turn, to slide a distance on +their neighbouring fibres. At the same time the drawn-out +material would be kept as uniform as possible in +thickness, and the operation would be continued until +the thin drawn-out length was probably five to ten +times the length of the more bulky material which was +originally laid as explained on the board. +</p> +<p> +The modern technical term for this elongation or +attenuation of groups of fibres is “drafting,” and the +dual operation described above is now performed in the +modern spread-board, the delivery end of one of which +is illustrated in <a href='#fig_20'>Fig. 20</a>. +</p> +<figure id='fig_20' class='max100' style='width: 25em;'> +<img src="images/i_p070.jpg" class="w100 v_align_b" alt=""> +<figcaption><span class='fontp9'><span class="small-caps">Fig. 20</span></span><br> +<span class='fontp9'>SPREAD BOARD</span></figcaption> +</figure> +<p> +The use of the spread-board is rendered necessary +because the pieces of material from the hackling machine +are made up of individual and comparatively short +lengths of fibre, and the essential object for the satisfactory +continuation of the processes of manufacture is +to convert these short lengths into a continuous length +termed a “sliver.” +</p> +<p> +The pieces of hemp or the like are first weighed in a +balance near the feed end of the machine, and are then +arranged by hand on narrow endless travelling belts, +<span id='page-70' class='pagenum'>70</span>termed “spread leathers,” so that the thin end of one +piece of hemp is overlapped by the thick end of the +next piece and so on. These “spread leathers” form +the moving bases of narrow channels, the sides of which +keep the pieces of hemp in their own channel. But +instead of only one row of moving fibres or pieces as in +the primitive process, there may be four or six of the +above-mentioned channels. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-71' class='pagenum'>71</span>The neatly-arranged pieces in each channel are carried +forward slowly but continuously, each group by its own +endless belt, until all the groups reach the first pair of +rollers called the back or retaining rollers. After the +pieces leave these rollers they are penetrated by a large +number of pins or hackles arranged on what are known +as “gills” or “fallers.” There may be four or six +gills on each faller, and the fallers rise in turn to cause +the pins to enter the narrow sheets of fibres, to join the +faller which immediately preceded it, and to move +along with the majority of the fallers in a body towards +the drawing rollers. In the spread-board illustrated in +<a href='#fig_20'>Fig. 20</a> there are four channels, and therefore four +pressing rollers in contact with the drawing roller which +extends the full width of the machine; all the four +pressing rollers are distinctly shown near the upper +part of the illustration. +</p> +<p> +It will be understood that the four narrow sheets of +fibres will ultimately reach the drawing and pressing +rollers, and since the surface speed of these rollers is +much greater than that of the back or retaining rollers, +the fibres which are clear of the grip of the retaining +rollers will slide on those whose movements are restrained +by the rollers and gill pins, and since there is always +a quantity thus liberated, the draft is accomplished +according to the relative speeds of the two sets of +rollers. The effective contact between the rollers for +drafting is obtained by means of levers two of which +are shown near the floor and to the right of the sliver +can in <a href='#fig_20'>Fig. 20</a>. +</p> +<p> +The gills or fallers are moved forward by spirals or +screws and at practically the same surface speed as the +“spread leathers” and the retaining rollers; as each +faller reaches its full forward position, it is caused to +move downward and then backward in a lower plane, +<span id='page-72' class='pagenum'>72</span>and ultimately to rise again to enable the pins to enter +into a fresh portion of the sheet of fibres; after this +cycle is completed, the same functions are repeated +while the machine remains in motion. +</p> +<p> +The four slivers which leave the drawing and pressing +rollers unite into two pairs through the medium of +doubling plates; one pair of slivers thus united is +guided to a conductor, and then passes between the +delivery rollers and into a sliver can shown in the foreground +of <a href='#fig_20'>Fig. 20</a>, while the other pair, part only of +which appears in the illustration, follows a similar +course into a neighbouring sliver can. +</p> +<p> +The extent to which the fibres are drawn out in the +spread-board, that is, the draft of the material, varies +from about ten to twenty. +</p> +<p> +The gradual tendency to call into action mechanical +parts to perform work which was originally done by +hand is further emphasized in the latest attempt to +feed the above-mentioned short pieces of hemp or the +like automatically from the hackling machine to the +spread-board. This ingenious device, the invention of +Mr. Joshua Eves, of Belfast, carries the hackled pieces +from the holders of the hackling machine and lays them +on the “spread leather” in the channel, and, in addition, +it is provided with a regulating device to preserve as +near as possible uniformity in the thickness of the +resulting sliver which, as usual, is delivered into sliver +cans as already described. +</p> +<p> +Even with the greatest care, the most efficient type +of machine and the finest stage of hackled fibre, it is +practically impossible to achieve an absolutely uniform +sliver. In order, therefore, to approach a practicable +ideal sliver, it is usual to resort to a process of “doubling” +and a further operation of drawing; indeed, the +next machine to which the slivers pass is termed a +<span id='page-73' class='pagenum'>73</span>“drawing frame.” Before dealing with this machine, +however, it is desirable to discuss another distinct +method of forming the initial sliver from fibrous material. +</p> +<p> +In general, the sliver prepared by the spread-board +is intended for the production of level and high quality +yarns, but it is evident that, during the operations of +scutching and hackling, a certain quantity of the shorter +fibres will become detached from the main body of the +strick. These shorter fibres, termed tow, are not only +weaker than the line fibres but are also accompanied +by impurities which must be removed in the subsequent +operations; they are graded according to quality, and +ultimately treated by a distinct method which, however, +prepares them into a sliver very similar to that which +emerges from the delivery rollers of the above-described +spread-board. Then, as already mentioned, the after +processes for both types of sliver are practically identical. +</p> +<p> +The conversion of this tow into a sliver takes place +in what is known as a “carding” machine. This is a +particular construction of a general type of machine +which is used for the same purpose in most textile +trades where comparatively short fibres have to be +converted into sliver form. +</p> +<p> +The function which the card⁠—a contraction for carding +machine⁠—performs is to split up the fibres and to +lay them parallel with their neighbours; for this purpose +the machine is provided with a series of rollers +which are covered or clothed with sharp pointed pins, +the size, direction and inclination of which depend upon +the particular work which each set has to perform. A +set of cards comprises two or more machines each of +which differs slightly from the others, and invariably +arranged so that succeeding machines in a set are provided +with finer clothing, <i>i.e.</i>, smaller and shorter pins +and more closely set. The simplest set is where two +<span id='page-74' class='pagenum'>74</span>machines are involved, the first one termed a “Breaker +Card,” and the second one termed a “Finisher Card.” +In both machines a series of comparatively small rollers, +say from 8 to 20 in. diameter, and covered with pins, +are arranged partially round and close to a large central +roller of 4 to 5 ft. diameter, also covered with pins and +termed a cylinder. The general appearance of the +machines will be gathered from the two rows in <a href='#fig_21'>Fig. 21</a>; +the nearest machine on the left shows the delivery +side of a breaker card where the sliver is delivered +into a can; the nearest machine on the right illustrates +both feed and delivery sides of a finisher card. +</p> +<figure id='fig_21' class='max100' style='width: 28em;'> +<img src="images/i_p074.jpg" class="w100 v_align_b" alt=""> +<figcaption><span class='fontp9'><span class="small-caps">Fig. 21</span></span><br> +<span class='fontp9'>BREAKER AND FINISHER CARDS</span></figcaption> +</figure> +<p> +The tow, which has been previously softened, is laid +as evenly as possible on a travelling endless sheet by +means of which the fibrous material is carried to the +pins of the “feed roller” which rotates very slowly +<span id='page-75' class='pagenum'>75</span>and at the same surface speed as the feed sheet. Immediately +the material emerges from the feed rollers, +or feed roller and “shell,” it is acted upon by a series +of hackle pins projecting from the periphery of the +cylinder, and moving at a surface speed of more than +2,000 ft. per minute. The fibres are therefore combed +and carried off the pins of the feed roller by the pins +of the cylinder to a series of rollers arranged in pairs, +each pair consisting of a “worker” and a “stripper.” +When the fibres on the pins of the cylinder reach the +first pair of worker and stripper, the bulk of the material +is carded and ultimately returned to the pins of the +cylinder to be carried to the next pair of rollers, and so +on, until it has been sufficiently equalized and cleaned +for the particular yarn into which it is to be made. +</p> +<p> +By this time the uneven fibres have been considerably +reduced in thickness, and have indeed been converted +into a thin wide film or sheet of fibrous material, and +in this state it is removed from the pins of the cylinder +by the pins of a “doffing roller” or “doffer.” The +thin, broad film of fibres now enters between a pair of +drawing rollers⁠—seen near the top of the machine on +the left in <a href='#fig_21'>Fig. 21</a>⁠—and into the upper and wide part +of an almost vertical tin conductor. The width of this +conductor decreases from the upper to the lower end, +and ultimately its width is contracted to about 3 in. +where the contracted sheet, now much thicker and about +3 in. wide, is in the well-known form of a sliver. The +sliver emerges from the mouth of the conductor, enters +between the delivery rollers and ultimately drops into +a sliver can in a very similar manner to that depicted +in <a href='#fig_20'>Fig. 20</a>. +</p> +<p> +About ten or twelve of these sliver cans from the +breaker card are now transferred across the space, +termed a “pass,” to the feed of the finisher card on the +<span id='page-76' class='pagenum'>76</span>right of <a href='#fig_21'>Fig. 21</a>. These ten or twelve slivers are fed +into this machine and they undergo a further and +similar treatment with from four to six pairs of rollers, +and finally the finished and single sliver is delivered +into a can near the side of the machine. In +both machines the material is drafted according to +requirements.<a href='#fn_1' id='fnb_1' class='fn_anchor'>[1]</a> +</p> +<p> +We have thus arrived by two several ways at the +production of a continuous sliver. Both types of sliver +pass next to what is known as a “Drawing Frame,” +or rather to a set of drawing frames, usually termed, +first drawing, second drawing, third drawing, and so on, +if more than three are employed. +</p> +<p> +The machines used for the two kinds of slivers are +practically identical in principle and construction, the +only difference being that provision is made to suit +the lengths of fibres of which the respective slivers are +formed; in technical phraseology the “reach” for the +line sliver is longer than the “reach” for the tow +sliver and is, approximately, proportional to the maximum +length of fibres which compose the two types of +sliver. +</p> +<p> +It will be understood that, in general, the ultimate +aim is the production of a thread of some kind, the +sectional area of which is less than that of the sliver +which is produced either at the spread-board or the +finisher card. And it will be obvious that if we unite +two or more slivers at the feed side of the “Drawing +Frame” we increase the thickness or volume proportionately; +hence, if the sliver which is delivered from +the drawing frame is required to be smaller in volume +than any of the single slivers which enter the machine, +and this is generally the case, although not universally +<span id='page-77' class='pagenum'>77</span>so, the process of drawing out the fibres, or drafting, +must be continued. In the first drawing frame uniformity +is chiefly the object, and it may happen that +in the combined processes of doubling and drafting it +may be convenient to produce in this frame a sliver +of greater volume than the individual slivers at the +feed. In such cases, most of the drafting would take +place in the succeeding drawing frames. +</p> +<p> +The first drawing frame is often termed a “Sett +Frame,” and sometimes a “Doubling Frame.” The +first-named of the three owes its designation to the +process of attenuation or drafting, the second to the +number of slivers which in the process are employed to +form one sliver, and the third to the particular case +where two slivers only are united. Although the exact +meaning of doubling is the combination of two slivers, +the same word is used however many slivers are combined +in one group. +</p> +<p> +The drawing frame has a great resemblance to the +spread-board, so far as the principles of the operations +are concerned; it differs from it in the fact that whereas +the latter is fed by short detached lengths, the former +is fed by continuous slivers. +</p> +<p> +The length of sliver which is delivered from the +spread-board is measured; this is accomplished by the +size of one of the drawing rollers and the necessary +subsequent mechanism; these jointly cause a bell to +ring, or to move a hand over the face of a clock. The +length thus indicated is called the “bell or clock length,” +and whichever system is adopted, the operative receives +a certain weight of material which must be fed into the +machine between two consecutive ringings of the bell, +or during the time that the clock hand makes one +complete revolution. +</p> +<p> +The cans are weighed as they are filled and the net +<span id='page-78' class='pagenum'>78</span>weight of the sliver marked on. After a sufficient +number of cans have been filled, say eight, averaging +20 lb. each, or 160 lb. in all, and the length of sliver +in each can, say 250 yd., eight cans are placed at the +feed side of the drawing frame. The average weight +of the combined slivers on entering the drawing frame +is, therefore⁠— +</p> +<table class='margetb'> +<tr> +<td class="ac">160 lb. × 16 oz. per lb.</td> +<td rowspan="2" class="pl">= approximately 10 oz. per yd.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ac bt">250 yd. length</td> +</tr> +</table><p class='noindent'> +If the draft is, say 12, the 160 lb. of material when +delivered in the form of a single sliver will be⁠—</p> +<p class='hang_plus one_space'> +250 yards × 12 draft = 3,000 yd.</p> +<p class='noindent'> +Then⁠—</p> +<table class='margetb'> +<tr> +<td class="ac">160 lb. × 16 oz. per lb.</td> +<td rowspan="2" class="pl">= 0·85 of an ounce per yd.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ac bt">3,000 yd. of sliver</td> +</tr> +</table><p> +The operation of drawing is conducted as in the +spread-board by means of retaining or back rollers, +gills, drawing and pressing rollers. It should be again +pointed out that the distance between the retaining +rollers and the drawing rollers⁠—termed the “reach”⁠—should +be regulated by the length of the fibres under +treatment, and should be greater than the longest +individual fibres, otherwise such fibres, instead of sliding +on those already held, would obviously be broken +because the surface speed of the drawing rollers is much +greater than that of the retaining rollers; in the case +under notice the ratio is 12 to 1. +</p> +<p> +The best scheme yet devised for filling up this intervening +space between the two pairs of rollers, and of +providing support for the moving fibres is that of the +above-mentioned gills. The use of gills in the machine +is of great importance, for on the correct adaptation of +the gills to the material in process depends the degree +of efficiency of the machine. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-79' class='pagenum'>79</span>As the gills move from the retaining rollers towards +the drawing rollers in virtue of the action of suitable +spiral or other mechanism, each group forms a compact +sheet or field of hackle pins, and this field of pins regulates +and restrains the movements of the fibres to the +requisite extent as the latter move amongst them due +to the pulling action of the drawing rollers. +</p> +<p> +In this way each individual sliver in its own set of +pins is reduced in size, and any local defect in a sliver +is calculated to be overshadowed or eliminated when +the said sliver joins the remainder of the slivers at the +“doubling plates” which are situated between the +drawing and the delivery rollers. The result is, therefore, +a single sliver of greater uniformity than any of +the constituent slivers, such sliver being smaller, equal +to, or greater than, any of the individual slivers from +which it has been made according to the ratio of the +doublings and draft. +</p> +<p> +A series of drawing frames in system as illustrated +in <a href='#fig_22'>Fig. 22</a>, will provide the necessary doubling and +drafting, and so reduce the sliver to a suitable size for +use in any of the following yarn-forming or spinning +machines⁠— +</p> +<p> +(<i>a</i>) The Roving Frame which would be used to convert +the sliver into a somewhat circular form, and +simultaneously to wind this twisted sliver on to a large +two-ended bobbin ready for the spinning frame (dry +spinning). +</p> +<p> +(<i>b</i>) The Gill Spinning Frame which is a machine by +means of which very high-class yarns can be produced +with a perfect system of drafting and twisting in one +operation. +</p> +<p> +(<i>c</i>) The Automatic Spinning Frame in which the +heaviest class of cordage yarn is spun by the simplest +and most direct method. +</p> +<figure id='fig_22' class='max100' style='width: 28em;'> +<img src="images/i_p080.jpg" class="w100 v_align_b" alt=""> +<figcaption><span id='page-80' class='pagenum'>80</span><span class='fontp9'><span class="small-caps">Fig. 22</span></span><br> +<span class='fontp9'>DRAWING FRAMES</span></figcaption> +</figure> +<p> +The roving frame is one of the most complicated +groups of mechanism and one of the most perfect +machines which is used in the whole system. Its +function is of a multiple type, for the mechanism of +the machine not only necessitates the use of retaining +rollers, gills and drawing rollers to effect a draft, but +after the reduced sliver has been passed through the +delivery rollers, it introduces a certain amount of twist +to the sliver⁠—incidentally making it somewhat circular +in section⁠—and finally winds the twisted sliver, termed +“rove,” on to a large bobbin. +</p> +<p> +The method of drafting has already been briefly +described, hence, no recapitulation is necessary. The +essential amount of twist for each individual sliver is +imparted by its own spindle, an upright rod which +<span id='page-81' class='pagenum'>81</span>rotates rapidly, and upon which the large bobbin runs +or rotates loosely, while attached to the top of the +spindle is a “flyer” resembling an elongated inverted +U, thus: <img src="images/invu.png" class="imw_10 va_middle" alt="⋂">. Most of these parts are clearly seen in +<a href='#fig_23'>Fig. 23</a>, which represents, of course, the delivery side +of the machine. At the other side of the machine, +the feed side, there is a sliver can with its sliver for +each thread and bobbin, the bobbins being arranged +in two rows upon discs in corresponding holes in the +long shelf, termed the “lifting rail,” the “builder rail,” +or simply the “builder.” +</p> +<figure id='fig_23' class='max100' style='width: 25em;'> +<img src="images/i_p081.jpg" class="w100 v_align_b" alt=""> +<figcaption><span class='fontp9'><span class="small-caps">Fig. 23</span></span><br> +<span class='fontp9'>ROVING FRAME</span></figcaption> +</figure> +<p> +The extreme ends of the two legs of the flyer are +bent to form or carry eyes, and into one of these eyes the +twisted sliver is passed, while between this eye and the +delivery rollers the sliver is centralized by passing it +<span id='page-82' class='pagenum'>82</span>through a guide eye. The function of the eye in the flyer +is that of guiding or winding the rove on to the bobbin, +and this is made possible because the bobbin itself is +made to rise and fall between the legs of the flyer through +a distance equal to the length of the bobbin⁠—hence the +necessity for the long legs of the flyer or inverted U. +</p> +<p> +The spindles and bobbins are driven independently +and positively by wheel gearing, and it is obvious that +the rove must be wound on to the bobbin at the same +rate as it is produced. Since the speed of the drawing +and delivery rollers is constant, the delivery of the +sliver is constant, and so is the production of rove, +although the length of rove delivered is infinitesimally +less than that of the sliver in virtue of the small contraction +which takes place during the twisting. If the +diameter of the rove on the bobbin always remained +the same size, which is obviously impossible, the revolutions +of the bobbin would be constant. But every +layer of rove which is wound on to the bobbin by the +joint action of the rotating spindle, the rotating bobbin, +and the vertical movement of the bobbin on the builder, +adds for each vertical movement, up or down, one more +layer of rove to the partially-filled or empty bobbin, +and thus increases the diameter of the combined bobbin +and rove. Hence it is necessary to impart what may +be termed an intermittent and variable motion to the +bobbin; this is done by an exceptionally unique and +intricate group of mechanical parts termed the “differential +motion.” The function of the differential +motion is to alter the speed of the bobbin after each +complete layer of rove has been wound on to it, because +it will be clear that when the direction of the builder +is changed, the winding of the rove is performed on a +diameter which is greater than the last by approximately +twice the diameter of the rove. The discs +<span id='page-83' class='pagenum'>83</span>upon which the bobbins rest are provided with two +vertical pins which enter two of the holes in the flange +of the bobbin, seen clearly in the empty bobbins near +the frame, and by means of which the bobbins are +driven at the desired speed. Accurate adjustment of +the parts is necessary, and a lengthy description with +numerous line drawings are essential to a clear understanding +of this ingenious mechanism.<a href='#fn_2' id='fnb_2' class='fn_anchor'>[2]</a> +</p> +<p> +<span class="small-caps">Spinning.</span>⁠—The bobbins filled with rove yarn, as +illustrated in <a href='#fig_23'>Fig. 23</a>, are ready to be removed or +“doffed,” as the operation is technically called, preparatory +to being taken to some type of spinning frame +where a further extension or “draft” of the yarn takes +place, and simultaneously the finished product of the +desired thickness or “count” is wound upon a much +smaller two-ended bobbin. +</p> +<p> +A large-used type of dry spinning frame is illustrated +in <a href='#fig_24'>Fig. 24</a>, and this type of machine is usually employed +for spinning yarns the “counts” or “sizes” of which +are represented by the numerals 3 to 16. Yarns which +happen to be of lower or higher count than these limits +are produced on other similar or different type of +machine. +</p> +<p> +In <a href='#fig_24'>Fig. 24</a> the large rove bobbins are seen distinctly +on projecting pins⁠—termed a creel⁠—at the top of the +machine. Each rove from its bobbin, which can rotate +freely on its peg, is passed between retaining rollers, +and over what is known as a “breast-plate,” through +the contracted groove of a “tin conductor,” between +a pair of drawing rollers, through a slot in the +<span id='page-84' class='pagenum'>84</span>“thread-plate,” through an eye in one of the legs of the +flyer, and ultimately on to the bobbin which rotates on a +spindle upon the upper end of which the flyer is fixed. +In “long-reach” machines it may be necessary to use +additional rods or binders which act as auxiliary +breast-plates. +</p> +<figure id='fig_24' class='max100' style='width: 25em;'> +<img src="images/i_p084.jpg" class="w100 v_align_b" alt=""> +<figcaption><span class='fontp9'><i>By permission of the Edinburgh Roperie Co.</i></span><br> +<span class='fontp9'><span class="small-caps">Fig. 24</span></span><br> +<span class='fontp9'>DRY SPINNING FRAME</span></figcaption> +</figure> +<p> +All the spindles on one side of the frame are individually +driven by flat tapes or round bands from a +driving tin cylinder situated near the floor and inside +the frame as shown in <a href='#fig_24'>Fig. 24</a>, and driven direct from +the main pulley. The flat tape or band passes partially +round this cylinder, and then partially around a “whorl” +<span id='page-85' class='pagenum'>85</span>or bobbin-shaped pulley of about 1½ to 3 in. diameter +on the spindle; these whorls and tapes are seen clearly +on the first three spindles in the illustration, and in the +same line as the “temper weights.” The latter hang +from cords attached to the back of the “builder” +which imparts the up and down motion to the bobbins +during the operation of spinning, and so enables the +yarns to be distributed over the full length of the bobbin. +The cord which is attached to the temper weight is +caused to bear on the grooved flange of the bobbin, +and by moving the cord into successive grooves or +notches in front of the builder as the bobbin fills, a +greater part of the groove is acted upon by the cord +and weight, and thus the drag is increased. +</p> +<p> +Demi-sec spinning, as the name implies, refers to a +process between dry spinning and wet spinning. In +the demi-sec frames a slight quantity of water is added +to the drawn-out and partially-twisted threads as the +latter pass from the drawing rollers to the flyers. The +purpose of this moisture is to smooth and lay the hairs +of fibre which would otherwise project from the main +body of the yarn as in the case of dry-spun yarns. It +is usual to apply this method of spinning to thread +yarns. +</p> +<p> +The draft necessary for converting the rove to the +desired size or count of yarn is regulated by changing +the value of the gearing, the wheels of which are enclosed +in the oval covering at the end of the view in +<a href='#fig_24'>Fig. 24</a>; near this covering is also seen the heart-shaped +cam, lever and rod which are used for operating the +builder. +</p> +<p> +<span class="small-caps">Gill Spinning.</span>⁠—In the ordinary spinning frame the +material supplied is from rove bobbins, but in the gill +spinning machine, the material is supplied as a sliver +from a sliver can, one for each spindle. The gill spinner +<span id='page-86' class='pagenum'>86</span>has a drawing head similar to that in a roving frame, +and the spindles and flyers are usually driven by bands. +The machine used for gill spinning might be compared +with a roving frame with or without the winding motion +or differential gear. +</p> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_1'> +<p> +<a href='#fnb_1'>[1]</a> For an exhaustive description of Carding see the Authors’ +work on <i>Jute and Jute Spinning: Part I</i>. +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_2'> +<p> +<a href='#fnb_2'>[2]</a> Readers who are sufficiently interested in this and several +other machines which are briefly described in this work, might +consult the following works of the Authors, which are at present +appearing serially, and which will be published in book form +when completed: “<i>Jute and Jute Spinning</i>”: <i>The Textile +Manufacturer</i>; “<i>Flax and Flax Spinning</i>”: <i>The Textile Recorder</i>. +</p> +</div> +<div class="chapter"><span id='page-87' class='pagenum'>87</span> +<h2 class='nobreak'> +CHAPTER VIII<br> +<span class='fontp9'>THE PREPARING AND SPINNING MACHINERY FOR MANILA AND OTHER HARD FIBRES</span> +</h2></div> +<p class='noindent two_space'> +<span class='small-caps'>The</span> method of producing yarns from the hard fibres +involves the use of quite different machines in the preparatory +processes; this departure is necessary on +account of the nature of the material and the length +of the raw fibre.</p> +<p> +The bales of raw material, Manila, Sisal, New Zealand, +or the like, but all from one type in general, are +arranged in a convenient position near the feed of the +first machine which is called a “Hackler and Spreader,” +and one type of which is illustrated in <a href='#fig_25'>Fig. 25</a>. The +bales which are grouped together for this first treatment +are chosen from different “marks” or grades of +fibre in order to mix them to secure uniformity and +to produce yarns of a given quality at the desired +price. +</p> +<figure id='fig_25' class='max100' style='width: 25em;'> +<img src="images/i_p088.jpg" class="w100 v_align_b" alt=""> +<figcaption><span class='fontp9'><span class="small-caps">Fig. 25</span></span><br> +<span class='fontp9'>HACKLER AND SPREADER</span></figcaption> +</figure> +<p> +The heads of material are split up into suitable and +uniform stricks, and when various classes are to be +mixed it is essential that proportionate quantities should +be drawn from the various bales in the “batch” or +blend, and fed proportionately and uniformly on to the +feed sheet of the machine. The feed sheet conveys the +stricks slowly towards and ultimately between a pair +of retaining and feed rollers, and when the material +emerges from these rollers it is acted upon by a series +of large hackle pins fixed in a chain of fallers or bars. +These pins move at twice the speed of the feed and +retaining rollers, and this relative movement enables +<span id='page-88' class='pagenum'>88</span>the pins to hackle and open out the stricks. The +partially-hackled stricks are now conveyed to a second +chain of fallers and hackles which move at a much +greater speed than that of the first hackles; it is here +where most of the drawing takes place, and the material +as it leaves these hackles is in the form of a thin sheet +of fibres which enters a pair of drawing rollers. Finally, +the material is delivered on to the floor in the form of +a sliver and at the opposite end of the machine. +</p> +<p> +The bundles of sliver are conveyed to another machine, +termed the intermediate machine, where further processes +of equalization and drawing take place. In this, +and in any subsequent machine of the same type, of +<span id='page-89' class='pagenum'>89</span>which there may be three or four, the slivers are fed +as illustrated on the left of <a href='#fig_26'>Fig. 26</a>, while several lengths +of slivers appear in the foreground. After the drawing +and hackling operations, the sliver is delivered as +illustrated. These processes prepare suitable slivers +for the remainder of the operations which are somewhat +similar to those which are used for the soft fibres, +although the “reach” in the machines for the hard +fibres is very much longer than that necessary for the +soft fibres. In the final preparing machine, the sliver +is delivered into sliver cans which are then taken to the +automatic spinning frame. +</p> +<figure id='fig_26' class='max100' style='width: 25em;'> +<img src="images/i_p089.jpg" class="w100 v_align_b" alt=""> +<figcaption><span class='fontp9'><span class="small-caps">Fig. 26</span></span><br> +<span class='fontp9'>INTERMEDIATE MACHINE</span></figcaption> +</figure> +<p> +<span class="small-caps">Automatic Spinning Machines.</span>⁠—A row of automatic +spinning machines is illustrated in <a href='#fig_27'>Fig. 27</a>. The slivers +<span id='page-91' class='pagenum'>91</span>from the last drawing frame are placed at the feed, +one sliver can with its length of sliver for each machine. +The sliver is passed through the first conductor, situated +about a yard above the sliver can, and then between a +pair of feed rollers seen to the right of the machine. +From here the sliver is deflected to the proper bell-mouth +conductor and to the long stretch or reach of +gill pins shown clearly in the view. On emerging from +the gill pins, the sliver passes through a nipping die +and thence to the enclosed flyer from which it is wound +on to the bobbin. +</p> +<figure id='fig_27' class='max100' style='width: 46em;'> +<img src="images/i_p090.jpg" class="w100 v_align_b" alt=""> +<figcaption><span class='fontp9'><span class="small-caps">Fig. 27</span></span><br> +<span class='fontp9'>AUTOMATIC SPINNING MACHINE</span></figcaption> +</figure> +<p> +The drafting is accomplished by a series of rollers or +pulleys which draw the fibres through the gill pins and +the nipping die, while the twist is imparted as usual +by the flyers which revolve at about 1,400 revolutions +per minute. The flyers are now enclosed in a safety +cage of about the same width as the name plate. +</p> +<p> +The yarns thus spun are built upon large steel-ended +bobbins which, when filled, may be conveyed direct to +the transferring or warping machines where the yarns +are prepared for further treatment, if and when any +further treatment is necessary, or to the rope machines. +Thus, if the yarns are to be made up into a tarred +rope, it is necessary to prepare them into a suitable +form for the tarring operation. This usually takes the +form of a warp, and such warps are most satisfactorily +made on a warping mill or winding reel. It is usual +to run twelve threads from twelve bobbins and to make +the warp a suitable size by continuing the operation of +warping in the same way as is done for warps which +are to be woven in a loom. +</p> +<p> +The warp is then passed through a tarring machine +in which the tar, usually Russian or Swedish, is kept +warm during the operation. After the necessary amount +of tar has been applied, it is usual to store the warps +<span id='page-92' class='pagenum'>92</span>of yarn for a lengthened period, say up to six months, +to condition them. The individual yarns from these +warps are then rewound on to twelve large bobbins in +what is known as a 12-bobbin vertical spindle-winding +machine. +</p> +<div class="chapter"><span id='page-93' class='pagenum'>93</span> +<h2 class='nobreak'> +CHAPTER IX<br> +<span class='fontp9'>TWINES, CORDS AND LINES</span> +</h2></div> +<p class='noindent two_space'> +<span class='small-caps'>There</span> are many instances in which yarns made by the +foregoing operations are incorporated in twines, cords +and ropes, while, on the other hand, special types of +machinery are utilized to manufacture certain grades +of such goods with an entirely different system of +machinery. It is in connection with the latter branch +that this chapter will for the most part treat, but, +before dealing with these machines for specific purposes, +we might just say that there are huge quantities of +yarn spun by the methods already described, and the +single yarn so spun is then twisted so that the resulting +compound may contain two single threads twisted +together, or any other greater number twisted either +in one operation, or two or more separate operations, +to obtain the desired type of cordage. In many cases +the yarns have to be bleached before they are twisted, +and <a href='#fig_28'>Fig. 28</a> illustrates the drying of bleached yarns.</p> +<figure id='fig_28' class='max100' style='width: 45em;'> +<img src="images/i_p095.jpg" class="w100 v_align_b" alt=""> +<figcaption><span class='fontp9'><span class="small-caps">Fig. 28</span></span><br> +<span class='fontp9'>DRYING BLEACHED YARNS</span></figcaption> +</figure> +<p> +The terms twine, cord and rope all indicate to the +textile technologist a multiple structure, that is, an +article in which two or more single threads are united +by the process known as doubling, folding or twisting. +</p> +<p> +Thus, in the manufacture of twines, of which there +is a great variety, the process is a comparatively simple +one. A number of bobbins are arranged on pins in a +creel somewhat similarly to those illustrated in the +spinning frame in <a href='#fig_24'>Fig. 24</a>. The requisite yarns, from +2, 3, 4 ... n bobbins, for the type of twine in process +are led from the bobbins through an eye or guide +or through a “register plate,” then between a pair of +<span id='page-94' class='pagenum'>94</span>drawing rollers, and thence to the flyer and spindle as +in the spinning operation. As the spindle and flyer +rotate, the group of single yarns are drawn through the +guide or eye, or through the register plate by the drawing +rollers, and the necessary amount of twist applied +before the finished product is wound on to the bobbin. +The amount of twist, or the technical term “twist +per inch,” is fixed by the speed of the spindle and the +delivery of the yarn by the drawing rollers. In other +words we have⁠— +</p> +<table class='margetb'> +<tr> +<td class="ac">revs. per min. of spindle</td><td rowspan="2" class="ac pl">=</td><td class="pl">the number of turns per</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ac bt">delivery of twine in in. per min.</td><td class="pj">in. or the twist per in.</td> +</tr> +</table><p> +There is this difference between spinning and doubling +or twisting; when a thread breaks in spinning, the +supply of yarn to the bobbin ceases, and the production +from that spindle stops until the broken thread is +repaired; on the other hand, when two or more threads +are being twisted together and wound on to a bobbin, +it is evident that if one thread breaks the supply is not +stopped entirely, but the product is defective because +it is short of that yarn. In order to prevent the production +of faulty goods and to minimize waste, it is a +common practice to introduce delicate mechanical parts +to such frames, the function of which parts is to stop +the delivery of yarn to any spindle in connection with +which any of the constituent threads are broken. A +frame so fitted is said to have an “Automatic Thread +Stop Motion.” +</p> +<p> +In many cases the twines made by the above process +are taken to another machine in which a number of +bobbins are again arranged on pins, the twines passed +under rollers and immersed in polishing mixtures of +starch or size contained in troughs or boxes. A quantity +of the size adheres to the twines as they pass through +it, and revolving brushes are used to remove the excess +<span id='page-96' class='pagenum'>96</span>of size and to clean the twines. These operations are +repeated a few times and ultimately the twines so +starched, cleaned and polished are led over drying +cylinders in front of which are placed rollers covered +with suitable material, usually coir yarns. These rollers +rotate at a high speed, and sometimes wax is applied +to the coir yarn-covered rollers, so that the twines are +dried, polished and finished simultaneously before they +leave the hot cylinders to be wound on to a second set +of empty bobbins. This machine is usually termed a +“bobbin to bobbin polishing machine,” and the bobbins +upon which the twine is finally wound are frictionally +driven because the delivery of twine is constant. In +this way the requisite finish or polish is applied to the +surface of the twine, and this gives the twine the smart +appearance which makes it quite attractive. +</p> +<p> +In the operation of twisting single yarns, that is, in +the roving frame and in the spinning frame, it is usual +to impart what is known as a “right twist.” Thus, +if one looks down on a spinning or roving spindle and +the direction of rotation is clockwise, then the twist +imparted is right hand. On the other hand, if, when +viewed from the same position, the spindle rotates +counter-clockwise, the definition is “reverse” or left-hand +twist. When two single threads of right-hand twist +are combined in twisting as in the formation of the +above-mentioned twines, it is usual for the doubling +or twisting spindles to rotate counter-clockwise. This +is done for practical reasons which need not be discussed +here, but, although this is the usual way, there are +cases in the twisting of textile threads where two right-hand +twists are combined with the same direction of +twist. Some such definition as the above will help +considerably to elucidate the structure of more +complicated multiple-twist cords. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-97' class='pagenum'>97</span><span class="small-caps">Cords.</span>⁠—In the manufacture of cords, three or more +twines are combined. Thus, if three twines, each of +reverse or left-hand twist and made from two single +yarns of right-hand twist, are combined together by a +further process of twisting, it is usual to apply a right-hand +twist to these three two-ply twines. When treated +in this way, the finished article is termed a cord which +is “cable laid.” And, in general, in the twisting of +such cords, each successive twisting operation is in the +opposite direction to that which immediately preceded +it. +</p> +<p> +Whip-cords, fishing lines and window-blind cords are +typical of this structure which, in general, involves the +use of complicated machinery or else a long rope walk. +The single yarns are first made into twines and finished +as already described; afterwards the necessary number +of twines to form the cable-laid cord are united. +</p> +<p> +The operation is a costly one when compared with +the simpler process of twine making, but the cable-laid +cord is a much more handsome product than the twine, +and is admirably adapted for purposes where a smart +compact and ornamental structure is desired or necessary. +</p> +<p> +<span class="small-caps">Box Cord.</span>⁠—Box cord is a very simple form of cordage, +the method of manufacture being quite different from +that of the foregoing laid cords. In the box-cord process +there are two distinct groups of twisting operations +conducted simultaneously. The single threads, of which +there may be from two to eight, receive the necessary +additional twist by a corresponding number of flyers +which differ in shape, however, from the ones in roving +and ordinary spinning in that they are known as enclosed +flyers. While these individual threads are being +twisted, the several yarns converge towards, and pass +direct to, the eye of another enclosed flyer which completes +the process by twisting the component threads +<span id='page-98' class='pagenum'>98</span>in the opposite direction to that imparted to the single +threads by the two to eight different flyers. It should +be mentioned that the building of the completed box-cord +on the bobbin is accomplished by suitable +mechanism attached to the flyer. +</p> +<p> +The machine is comparatively simple, and the attendants +need little experience beyond that of detecting +broken threads and repairing them. It need hardly +be pointed out that the omission of a thread from the +requisite number in the group for the finished cord is a +fault the prevention of which constitutes one of the +chief duties of the attendant. The finished product is +termed two-ply, three-ply, ... eight-ply box-cord +according to the number of single yarns which are +utilized. Practically all classes of fibre are used in the +manufacture of these goods, and this method of twisting +is largely adopted for the making up of comparatively +light cords from fairly heavy sizes of yarn. The product +is used extensively for tying boxes and large +packages and thus serves the purpose of a light rope +which is a more expensive article. +</p> +<p> +<span class="small-caps">Plaiting or Braiding.</span>⁠—Special classes of lines and +cords are now made on a machine of an ingenious design. +One of the advantages of this machine is the fact that +great lengths of line can be made; indeed, there is +practically no limit to the length which may be made +beyond that of the difficulty of handling the huge size +of the finished product. +</p> +<p> +The machine, which is complicated and costly in its +upkeep, is used extensively for the production of log +lines, sash cords, and a large variety of blind cords. +The requisite number of threads for the cord are wound +on a suitable number of bobbins, and the latter are +placed in carriers in the machine. The yarns or twines +are passed over or across each other in such a way +<span id='page-99' class='pagenum'>99</span>that they are locked in position and in the well-known +plaited form which is characteristic of this class of goods. +This scheme of interlocking is formed by an even number +of groups of threads, usually eight or more, and the +movements of these groups, or rather the bobbins which +contain them, are practically identical with the familiar +“grand-chain” in circle dances practised by children +and also by grown-up persons. Alternate bobbins move +sinuously round a circle in one direction, while the +remaining alternate bobbins move similarly in the +opposite direction. Each bobbin passes those in the +other group first on the left and then on the right of a +circle whose path is the centre of the two sinuous paths +described by the two sets of bobbins. +</p> +<p> +The continuous movements of the two sets of +bobbins in each machine form the elegant cord which, +when plaited, passes through a guide eye in the centre +of the circle but in a higher plane. From this eye the +cord rises to a pair of hauling-winch pulleys around +which it passes a few times forming the figure 8. +Finally, the cord passes between a pair of delivery +rollers into a large box at the back of the machine. +The hauling-winch pulleys and the drawing rollers, +which combined give the necessary firmness, are driven +positively and accurately so that their surface speeds +may coincide with the amount of cord which is formed +at the guide eye. +</p> +<div class="chapter"><span id='page-100' class='pagenum'>100</span> +<h2 class='nobreak'> +CHAPTER X<br> +<span class='fontp9'>ROPES AND ROPE MAKING; YARN NUMBERING</span> +</h2></div> +<p class='noindent two_space'> +<span class='small-caps'>A considerable</span> quantity of the smaller-sized ropes are +now made on what are termed “house machines.” +These machines perform the same function as those in +the rope-walk but they occupy a much smaller space; +they are adapted to deal with a great range of sizes +although, in general, it is not necessary to use one +machine for a large range of work; there is such a +variety of ropes in use that in a well-equipped rope +works it is possible to keep each machine almost constantly +on ropes within a small range of size. These +remarks refer, as indicated, to ropes which come within +the limit of, say 2 to 3 in. in circumference. In the +manufacture of the larger sizes of ropes, it is usual to +use two distinct machines, one termed the “strander,” +and the other the “closer,” and, although the house-machine +made ropes are often considered inferior to +those made in the rope-walk, many of the objections +urged against the untarred ropes made in the house-machine +are more imaginary than real.</p> +<p> +<a href='#fig_29'>Fig. 29</a> is illustrative of a number of machines of a +type used for the making of ropes in which twelve to +forty-five threads may be combined in one operation +during the manufacture of a three-strand or a four-strand +rope. The bobbins are placed in creel flyers of +which there may be three or four according as the rope +is to be a three-strand or a four-strand one. The creel +flyers are composed of two parts, one of which carries +the bobbins, and the other carries the hauling and +twisting gear. All the three or the four strands are +made at the same time; when formed, they leave their +<span id='page-101' class='pagenum'>101</span>respective flyers and converge towards the top and the +die or central tube where they are formed into a rope +by the proper degree of twist according to the purpose +for which the rope is to be used. Finally, the finished +rope is drawn forward by a series of hauling pulleys +which also conduct the rope to the winding-on reel or +bobbin, and by suitable mechanism the rope is wound +into a temporary form of coil. As the bobbins are +filled with rope they are removed from the machine +and conveyed to special coiling machines where they +are measured when necessary as they are made up into +coils suitable for the particular purposes desired. A +common length of coil is 120 fathoms. +</p> +<figure id='fig_29' class='max100' style='width: 25em;'> +<img src="images/i_p101.jpg" class="w100 v_align_b" alt=""> +<figcaption><span class='fontp9'><i>By permission of the Edinburgh Roperie Co.</i></span><br> +<span class='fontp9'><span class="small-caps">Fig. 29</span></span><br> +<span class='fontp9'>ROPE-MAKING (HOUSE MACHINES)</span></figcaption> +</figure> +<p> +Although the various house machines represent the +latest developments in the art of stranding and closing⁠—the +<span id='page-102' class='pagenum'>102</span>two essential operations of rope making⁠—a modern +rope and cordage works is provided not only with the +various machines which have been illustrated and described, +but also with a well-equipped rope-walk so that +the products may include a great variety of cordage +from the finest lines to the mammoth ropes for ships, +steamers, harbours and heavy hauling purposes generally. +</p> +<p> +The combination of the house machines and the +modern rope-walk makes present arrangements very +complete when compared with the old type of rope-walk, +but the apparatus employed in these old rope-walk +machines embodies all the principles of construction +which are present in the new machines for the same +class of work. +</p> +<p> +Rope-walks are, naturally, long, narrow buildings +because the full length of the rope is in one stretch. +</p> +<p> +The work which is conducted in such places and the +type of building is admirably portrayed in the first +three verses of Longfellow’s poem⁠— +</p> +<p class='align_c top_ex'> +THE ROPE-WALK.</p> +<div class='poetry_container fontp9'> +<div class='poetry'> +<div class='stanza'> +<p class='verse'>In that building long and low,</p> +<p class='verse'>With its windows all a row,</p> +<p class='ind_1'>Like the port-holes of a hulk,</p> +<p class='verse'>Human spiders spin and spin,</p> +<p class='verse'>Backward down their threads so thin,</p> +<p class='ind_1'>Dropping, each, a hempen bulk.</p> +</div> +<div class='stanza'> +<p class='verse'>At the end an open door;</p> +<p class='verse'>Squares of sunshine on the floor</p> +<p class='ind_1'>Light the long and dusky lane;</p> +<p class='verse'>And the whirling of the wheel,</p> +<p class='verse'>Dull and drowsy, makes me feel</p> +<p class='ind_1'>All its spokes are in my brain.</p> +</div> +<div class='stanza'> +<p class='verse'>As the spinners to the end</p> +<p class='verse'>Downward go and re-ascend,</p> +<p class='ind_1'>Gleam the long threads in the sun;</p> +<p class='verse'>While within this brain of mine</p> +<p class='verse'>Cobwebs brighter and more fine</p> +<p class='ind_1'>By the busy wheel are spun.</p> +</div> +</div></div> +<p> +<span id='page-103' class='pagenum'>103</span>At the top of the rope-walk is a stand or bank which +contains the bobbins of yarn, and this yarn may be +dry or tarred according to requirements. The bobbins +are arranged on pins and the necessary number of yarns +for each strand are drawn from the bobbins and passed, +in their proper order for ensuring a uniform strand, +through a number of holes in a “register plate” immediately +behind the machine. In a modern machine any +number of strands up to six can be formed at the same +time, and hence there will be six register plates for the +yarns. For the larger-sized ropes only one strand can +be drawn out in one operation. +</p> +<p> +A machine termed a “traveller,” is employed to +draw out the strands, and this machine is provided +with a series of hooks as well as a central spindle. +The strands may be attached as required either to +the hooks or to the spindle. A rope-driving gear causes +this traveller to move on rails down the walk and +for the distance required, and it will be evident that +as the traveller recedes from the bank it will draw +the groups of threads from the bobbins and through +the register plates; at the same time the several hooks +are caused to rotate, and thus each strand is twisted +and hauled simultaneously. +</p> +<p> +When the traveller has moved backwards or downwards +for the necessary distance to form the length of +strand, the strands are removed from the hooks and +attached to suitable supports until a sufficient number +has been made for closing or laying-up. +</p> +<p> +To form the strands into a rope, it is essential to use +a fixed or stationary machine along with the traveller and +a top-cart. The stationary machine is substantially built, +and, <i>inter alia</i>, is provided with a central spindle around +which are grouped a set of hooks⁠—usually in sections +of two circles. Two wheels on the central spindle +<span id='page-104' class='pagenum'>104</span>drive a number of pinions, one behind each hook, the +ratio of one wheel to half the pinions is 34 to 16, while +the ratio of the other wheel to the other half of the +pinions is 54 to 11. Thus, the revolutions may be⁠— +</p> +<table class='center margetb'> +<tr> +<td class="ar pl">1</td> +<td class="ar pl">to</td> +<td class="ar pl">1</td> +<td colspan=3 class="al pi">when the strand is on the central spindle,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ar pl vt">34</td> +<td class="ar pl vt">to</td> +<td class="ar pl vt">16</td> +<td class="ac pl vt">or</td> +<td class="ac pl vt">approx.</td> +<td class="al pi vb">2 to 1 when on large hooks, and</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="ar pl vt">54</td> +<td class="ar pl vt">to</td> +<td class="ar pl vt">11</td> +<td class="ac pl vt">„</td> +<td class="ac pl vt">„</td> +<td class="al pi vb">5 to 1 when on small hooks.</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p> +When the necessary strands to form the rope are +stretched between the stationary machine and the +traveller, an extra amount of twist is imparted to each +strand, an operation which is termed “hardening the +strand”; the amount of twist can be judged only by +past experience, although it is common to give instructions +in the words “harden so many fathoms”; at +other times the strands are hardened until the threads +form a desired angle. In all cases the strands should +be twisted equally so that the same tensile stress is on +each strand. After this twist has been applied, all the +strands are placed either on one of the hooks or on the +central spindle of the traveller. A top-shaped block is +put into position inside the three strands⁠—this top is +in full view in <a href='#fig_30'>Fig. 30</a>, which, by the way, illustrates +the laying of a 28-in. circumference four-strand hawser +with a central core⁠—and the machines started for a +few revolutions. When the first make of the rope is +formed, the top is brought back to its proper place, a +few pieces of rope, termed tails, are placed round the +newly-formed portion of the rope, and these may be +collected and held in position by a bar as shown; one +of these tails was removed when the photograph was +taken in order to show the finished part of the rope +between the top-cart and the traveller. The traveller +is now braked to keep the rope taut while the rope-maker +lays the strands, the hooks of the stationary +machine at the top of the walk as well as the hooks on +<span id='page-105' class='pagenum'>105</span>the traveller being rotated meanwhile at a speed which +is suitable for the make or lay of the rope. The hooks in +the two machines rotate relatively about 7 to 9 or 7 to 11. +</p> +<figure id='fig_30' class='max100' style='width: 25em;'> +<img src="images/i_p105.jpg" class="w100 v_align_b" alt=""> +<figcaption><span class='fontp9'><span class="small-caps">Fig. 30</span></span><br> +<span class='fontp9'>LAYING OF A FOUR-STRAND CABLE-LAID ROPE IN THE ROPE-WALK</span></figcaption> +</figure> +<p> +When a hawser or cable-laid rope or a “trawl warp” +is desired, the formed ropes are again placed in position, +and the whole routine repeated, while if the warp is to +consist of more than three strands, a heart must be +inserted, as exemplified in <a href='#fig_30'>Fig. 30</a>, upon which to lay +or build the strands. It will be understood that the +view in <a href='#fig_30'>Fig. 30</a> is the interior of “a rope-walk,” and that +the operative is looking towards the top of the walk +where the stationary machine is situated. +</p> +<p> +After the laying is completed, the finished rope must +be made into a coil ready for transportation. The +coiling machines are often in close proximity to the +<span id='page-106' class='pagenum'>106</span>house machine or the rope-walk, and for the coiling +of such ropes as that illustrated in <a href='#fig_30'>Fig. 30</a>, it is obvious +that the machine must be of substantial build. When +such a large rope is complete and ready for despatch, +it resembles the 18-in. circumference mooring rope in +<a href='#fig_31'>Fig. 31</a>; this rope was 90 fathoms long and two tons +weight, and was coiled in about ten minutes by a +machine specially designed for the purpose. +</p> +<figure id='fig_31' class='max100' style='width: 25em;'> +<img src="images/i_p106.jpg" class="w100 v_align_b" alt=""> +<figcaption><span class='fontp9'><span class="small-caps">Fig. 31</span></span><br> +<span class='fontp9'>VIEWS OF LARGE AND MEDIUM-SIZED COILS OF ROPE</span></figcaption> +</figure> +<p> +Rope driving has practically revolutionized the construction +of modern mills since ropes are used not only +as a direct drive from the rope pulley on the engine or +motor shaft, but at many intermediate places, and have +replaced many installations of wheel-gearing. These +mill-driving ropes, which are invariably from 1½ to 2 in. +in diameter, are made extensively of cotton, hemp or +<span id='page-107' class='pagenum'>107</span>manila. In exceptional cases more than forty such ropes +are used on the same pulley. The <a href='#fig_0'>frontispiece</a> illustrates +a rope drive in which seven ropes each of 1¾ in. diameter, +are utilized on the shaft of a motor for conveying the +motion to a mill shaft seen in the distance. Other +ropes are seen in the next rope alley. Somewhat +similar ropes, but of a smaller diameter, are used for +hauling in the baling press illustrated in <a href='#fig_15'>Fig. 15</a>. +</p> +<p> +There are several methods of numbering yarns, most +of which involve a direct relation between the weight and +length. Thus, to quote six of the most widely-practised +methods in the textile industry we have +</p> +<table class='center fontp9 margetb'> +<tr> +<th class="al">Silk:</th> +<th class="ac">count no.</th> +<th class="ac pl">=</th> +<th class="ac pl">the no. of</th> +<td class="al pl">hanks</td> +<th class="ac pl">of</th> +<td class="al pl">840</td> +<th class="ac pl">yards</th> +<th class="ac pl">each</th> +<th class="ac pl">in</th> +<td class="ac pl">1</td> +<th class="ac pl">lb.</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<th class="al">Cotton:</th> +<th class="ac">„</th> +<th class="ac pl">=</th> +<th class="ac pl">„</th> +<td class="al pl">hanks</td> +<th class="ac pl">„</th> +<td class="al pl">840</td> +<th class="ac pl">„</th> +<th class="ac pl">„</th> +<th class="ac pl">„</th> +<td class="ac pl">1</td> +<th class="ac pl">„</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<th class="al">Wool:</th> +<th class="ac">„</th> +<th class="ac pl">=</th> +<th class="ac pl">„</th> +<td class="al pl">skeins</td> +<th class="ac pl">„</th> +<td class="al pl">256</td> +<th class="ac pl">„</th> +<th class="ac pl">„</th> +<th class="ac pl">„</th> +<td class="ac pl">1</td> +<th class="ac pl">„</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<th class="al">Worsted:</th> +<th class="ac">„</th> +<th class="ac pl">=</th> +<th class="ac pl">„</th> +<td class="al pl">hanks</td> +<th class="ac pl">„</th> +<td class="al pl">560</td> +<th class="ac pl">„</th> +<th class="ac pl">„</th> +<th class="ac pl">„</th> +<td class="ac pl">1</td> +<th class="ac pl">„</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<th class="al">Linen:</th> +<th class="ac">„</th> +<th class="ac pl">=</th> +<th class="ac pl">„</th> +<td class="al pl">leas</td> +<th class="ac pl">„</th> +<td class="al pl">300</td> +<th class="ac pl">„</th> +<th class="ac pl">„</th> +<th class="ac pl">„</th> +<td class="ac pl">1</td> +<th class="ac pl">„</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<th class="al">Jute:</th> +<th class="ac">„</th> +<th class="ac pl">=</th> +<td colspan=9 class="al pl">the weight in lbs. of 14,400 yards</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p> +Hemp is sometimes reckoned according to the linen +system and sometimes by the jute system. +</p> +<p> +An entirely different method of counting or numbering +obtains in regard to ropes. The system of yarn +numbering for ropes depends upon the number of single +yarns or threads required to make one strand of a 3-in. +3-strand rope. Thus, if 25 yarns are required to +form such a strand, the yarn is 25’s, while if 30 yarns +were required for the same thickness of strand, the +yarn would be 30’s, and so on. The tube through +which the yarns are drawn is nearly half an inch bore. +</p> +<p> +If the yarn number is multiplied by 5, the product +represents the number of yards of yarn in 1 lb. Thus, +in the above 25’s yarn there are +</p> +<p class='hang_plus one_space'> +25’s × 5 = 125 yd., or 375 ft. per lb.</p> +<p> +Ropes are usually designated by their circumferences +in inches, and also by the number of strands neglecting +the heart if such is required. +</p> +<div class="chapter"><span id='page-108' class='pagenum'>108</span> +<h2 class='nobreak'> +CHAPTER XI<br> +<span class='fontp9'>MARKETING</span> +</h2></div> +<p class='noindent two_space'> +<span class='small-caps'>It</span> is essential in modern times that goods which are +placed on the market should be as attractive as it is +possible to make them, and cordage forms no exception +to this rule. The acme of attraction may be said to +have been reached when a sale is effected more from +appearance than from any immediate want, and this +is the ideal to be aimed at. No detail which will make +the goods attractive or memorable should be omitted. +Carelessly made-up goods are quickly noticed, and however +high may be the quality of the article, an indifferent +make-up creates an unfavourable impression which is +difficult to remove.</p> +<p> +Little things, insignificant in themselves, often form +the nucleus of great undertakings. Mnemonic titles, +trade names, distinctive labels and the like are all +adopted to safeguard the interests of the maker, to +guarantee his products, to spread his fame, and to keep +his goods constantly in the mind’s eye of the purchaser. +</p> +<p> +Whilst no great effort is necessary to parcel up small +articles in an attractive form, it seems hardly possible +to deal with bulky articles with the same degree of +success. Nevertheless, several of these heavy and unhandy +articles are elegantly made up as is emphasized +by the coils in <a href='#fig_31'>Fig. 31</a>. This is the usual way of making +up ropes, and the size of the coil depends partly upon +the length of the rope, partly upon the use to which +it is to be put, and partly upon the thickness. If the +ropes are to be cut up into definite lengths, the coil +<span id='page-109' class='pagenum'>109</span>will be a multiple of that length; if otherwise, a common +length of rope is 120 fathoms as already stated. +</p> +<p> +The smaller coils, and the better grades of larger +coils, are often enclosed in paper, while the larger ones +are covered with wrappers of suitable texture to ensure +the arrival of the ropes in good condition at their +destination. The coils themselves are securely bound +as exemplified in <a href='#fig_31'>Fig. 31</a> to prevent the displacement +of the structure during transit or handling, and, in +addition, many of these large and valuable ropes are +entirely covered by a cheap rope binding. +</p> +<p> +A large quantity of ropes, cords and twines are made +into hanks or “rands,” as they are termed, on a special +machine. For short lengths this method of making up +is very compact, very neat and very convenient for +marketing. +</p> +<p> +Binder twine is first made up into standard size balls +which must fit the boxes on the reaping and binding +machines; afterwards they are packed in bales ready +for despatch. +</p> +<p> +Other varieties of twine are made up in the same shape +of balls as above, but the sizes of the balls depend upon +many circumstances. Large quantities for the retail +trade are made up into convenient sizes to suit the +twine boxes, and again many are made to a specified +weight. +</p> +<p> +It will thus be seen that a series of balling machines +will be required to deal with the making up of the +twine in this form. These machines make neat and +attractive-looking balls, the weight of which may vary +from 2 oz. to 28 lb. each. +</p> +<p> +The mechanism by means of which the yarn is built +up into balls is at once elegant and ingenious, and the +made-up ball is quite satisfactory if when commencing +to use the twine, the end is withdrawn from the right +<span id='page-110' class='pagenum'>110</span>end of the ball. A ticket with the words “pull out this +end” is often attached as a guide. If the twine is drawn +from the wrong end of a ball, the continual difficulty +experienced in withdrawing the twine will be always remembered; +on the other hand, if the twine is drawn +out at the proper end, the correct running of the twine +will enable the attendant to complete his parcel tying +with the minimum of trouble and time, and enable him +to give attention to other work in hand. +</p> +<p> +This inconvenience is obviated by a comparatively +recent introduction in winding which makes an elegant +cylindrical structure termed a roll. This popular and +efficient mechanism is the Universal Winding Machine, +the various makes of which enable rolls of from 2 oz. +to 72 lb. to be made perfectly. The rolls are so attractive, +compact, economical and easily handled that one +would not be surprised to see a much more extended +application of this useful form of package. +</p> +<p> +For shops and similar places, the smaller balls and +rolls are made up in paper parcels of about 12 lb. each. +The larger balls and rolls may be made up separately +or in convenient numbers. Sewing threads and yarns +may be made up in small balls, but a more common and +neater arrangement is to make them up on reels or in +rolls. Neatness, facility for use, and suitability for +intended purposes are the main points to be cultivated +in order to secure and retain business. +</p> +<div class="chapter"><span id='page-111' class='pagenum'>111</span> +<h2 class='nobreak'> +<span class='l15'>INDEX</span> +</h2></div> +<ul class="nomark fontp9 two_space"> +<li class='hang_indent'><span class="small-caps">Agave</span> Americana, <a href='#page-8'>8</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>⁠⸺ ⁠⸺, section, <a href='#page-10'>10</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>⁠⸺ ⁠⸺, ⁠⸺ of fibres, <a href='#page-11'>11</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>⁠⸺, Photomicrograph of Mexican, <a href='#page-12'>12</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>⁠⸺ sisalana, <a href='#page-35'>35</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>⁠⸺ ⁠⸺, cultivation of, <a href='#page-36'>36</a>, <a href='#page-37'>37</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>⁠⸺ ⁠⸺, harvesting of, <a href='#page-38'>38</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>⁠⸺ ⁠⸺, height of leaves of, <a href='#page-36'>36</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>⁠⸺ ⁠⸺, weeding of, <a href='#page-36'>36</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Automatic spinning frame, <a href='#page-79'>79</a>, <a href='#page-89'>89</a>, <a href='#page-91'>91</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>⁠⸺ thread stop motion, <a href='#page-94'>94</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent top_space'><span class="small-caps">Baling</span>, <a href='#page-54'>54</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>⁠⸺ press, <a href='#page-43'>43</a>, <a href='#page-44'>44</a>, <a href='#page-107'>107</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Balling machine, <a href='#page-109'>109</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Bast layers, <a href='#page-24'>24</a>, <a href='#page-25'>25</a>, <a href='#page-29'>29</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>⁠⸺ ⁠⸺, length of, <a href='#page-26'>26</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Batch, <a href='#page-87'>87</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Binder twine, <a href='#page-109'>109</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Blend, <a href='#page-87'>87</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Bobbin-to-bobbin polishing machine, <a href='#page-96'>96</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Box cords, <a href='#page-50'>50</a>, <a href='#page-97'>97</a>, <a href='#page-98'>98</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Braiding, <a href='#page-98'>98</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Breaker cards, <a href='#page-74'>74</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Breaking, <a href='#page-15'>15</a>, <a href='#page-24'>24</a>, <a href='#page-25'>25</a>, <a href='#page-27'>27</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>⁠⸺ machines, <a href='#page-60'>60</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent top_space'><span class="small-caps">Cable-laid</span>, <a href='#page-97'>97</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Card, <a href='#page-73'>73</a>, <a href='#page-74'>74</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Carding machine, <a href='#page-73'>73</a>, <a href='#page-74'>74</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>China jute, <a href='#page-50'>50</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Closer, <a href='#page-100'>100</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Closing, <a href='#page-103'>103</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Coiling machine, <a href='#page-101'>101</a>, <a href='#page-105'>105</a>, <a href='#page-106'>106</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Coils of rope, <a href='#page-105'>105</a>, <a href='#page-106'>106</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Coir, <a href='#page-47'>47</a>, <a href='#page-96'>96</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Cords, <a href='#page-5'>5</a>, <a href='#page-50'>50</a>, <a href='#page-67'>67</a>, <a href='#page-93'>93</a>, <a href='#page-97'>97</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Cotton driving ropes, <a href='#page-55'>55</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>⁠⸺ fibres, cross-sectional view of, <a href='#page-15'>15</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>⁠⸺ ⁠⸺, longitudinal view of, <a href='#page-15'>15</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Cutting machine, <a href='#page-60'>60</a>, <a href='#page-61'>61</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent top_space'><span class="small-caps">Decorticator</span>, <a href='#page-38'>38</a>, <a href='#page-40'>40</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Demi-sec spinning, <a href='#page-85'>85</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Differential motion, <a href='#page-82'>82</a>, <a href='#page-86'>86</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Doffing, <a href='#page-83'>83</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Doubling frame, <a href='#page-77'>77</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Drafting, <a href='#page-69'>69</a>, <a href='#page-71'>71</a>, <a href='#page-72'>72</a>, <a href='#page-77'>77</a>, <a href='#page-80'>80</a>, <a href='#page-83'>83</a>, <a href='#page-85'>85</a>, <a href='#page-91'>91</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Drawing frame, <a href='#page-73'>73</a>, <a href='#page-76'>76</a>, <a href='#page-77'>77</a>, <a href='#page-79'>79</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Dry spinning frame, <a href='#page-83'>83</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Drying bleached yarns, <a href='#page-93'>93</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent top_space'><span class="small-caps">Fallers</span>, <a href='#page-71'>71</a>, <a href='#page-87'>87</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Fibre, grading of Manila, <a href='#page-33'>33</a>, <a href='#page-34'>34</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>⁠⸺, ⁠⸺ of New Zealand, <a href='#page-47'>47</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>⁠⸺, harvesting of hemp, <a href='#page-22'>22</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>⁠⸺, Imports of hemp, <a href='#page-50'>50</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>⁠⸺, ⁠⸺ of Manila, <a href='#page-35'>35</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>⁠⸺, price of different kinds of, <a href='#page-54'>54</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>⁠⸺, ⁠⸺ of Manila, <a href='#page-34'>34</a>, <a href='#page-51'>51</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>⁠⸺, production of hemp, <a href='#page-20'>20</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>⁠⸺, yield of hemp, <a href='#page-22'>22</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>⁠⸺, ⁠⸺ of Manila, <a href='#page-33'>33</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>⁠⸺, ⁠⸺ of New Zealand, <a href='#page-47'>47</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Fibres, biblical reference to, <a href='#page-3'>3</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>⁠⸺, characteristics of, <a href='#page-2'>2</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>⁠⸺, classification of, <a href='#page-16'>16</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>⁠⸺, hard and soft, <a href='#page-17'>17</a>, <a href='#page-18'>18</a>, <a href='#page-89'>89</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>⁠⸺, views of cotton, <a href='#page-15'>15</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>⁠⸺, separation and extraction of, <a href='#page-2'>2</a>, <a href='#page-5'>5</a>, <a href='#page-6'>6</a>, <a href='#page-26'>26</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>⁠⸺, shipments of, <a href='#page-52'>52</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>⁠⸺, sources of, <a href='#page-5'>5</a>, <a href='#page-13'>13</a>, <a href='#page-15'>15</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'><span id='page-112' class='pagenum'>112</span>Finisher cards, <a href='#page-74'>74</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Fishing lines, <a href='#page-97'>97</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Flax, <a href='#page-13'>13</a>, <a href='#page-16'>16</a>, <a href='#page-18'>18</a>, <a href='#page-24'>24</a>, <a href='#page-29'>29</a>, <a href='#page-45'>45</a>, <a href='#page-83'>83</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent top_space'><span class="small-caps">Gill</span> spinning frame, <a href='#page-79'>79</a>, <a href='#page-85'>85</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Gills, <a href='#page-71'>71</a>, <a href='#page-78'>78</a>, <a href='#page-91'>91</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent top_space'><span class="small-caps">Hackle</span> pins, <a href='#page-79'>79</a>, <a href='#page-87'>87</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Hackler and spreader, <a href='#page-87'>87</a>, <a href='#page-88'>88</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Hackling machine, <a href='#page-62'>62</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>⁠⸺ ⁠⸺, automatic screwing apparatus for, <a href='#page-64'>64</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>⁠⸺ tools, <a href='#page-65'>65</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>⁠⸺ ⁠⸺, grouping of pins in, <a href='#page-65'>65</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Hand dressing, <a href='#page-66'>66</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Hardening the strand, <a href='#page-104'>104</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Hemp plants, <a href='#page-13'>13</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>⁠⸺ ⁠⸺, cross section of, <a href='#page-13'>13</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>⁠⸺ ⁠⸺, cultivation of, <a href='#page-21'>21</a>, <a href='#page-22'>22</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>⁠⸺ ⁠⸺, grown in various countries, <a href='#page-16'>16</a>, <a href='#page-19'>19</a>, <a href='#page-20'>20</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>⁠⸺ ⁠⸺, height of, <a href='#page-19'>19</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>⁠⸺, Siretz, <a href='#page-29'>29</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>⁠⸺, true, <a href='#page-17'>17</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>House machines, <a href='#page-100'>100</a>, <a href='#page-101'>101</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent top_space'><span class="small-caps">Intermediate</span> machine, <a href='#page-89'>89</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent top_space'><span class="small-caps">Jute</span>, <a href='#page-13'>13</a>, <a href='#page-18'>18</a>, <a href='#page-44'>44</a>, <a href='#page-76'>76</a>, <a href='#page-83'>83</a>, <a href='#page-107'>107</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>⁠⸺, China, <a href='#page-50'>50</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent top_space'><span class="small-caps">Laying-up</span>, <a href='#page-103'>103</a>, <a href='#page-105'>105</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Line, <a href='#page-68'>68</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Lines, <a href='#page-93'>93</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>⁠⸺, fishing, <a href='#page-97'>97</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Log lines, <a href='#page-98'>98</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent top_space'><span class="small-caps">Maguey</span>, <a href='#page-47'>47</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Manila, <a href='#page-31'>31</a>, <a href='#page-44'>44</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>⁠⸺ and other fibres, <a href='#page-87'>87</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>⁠⸺, grading of, <a href='#page-51'>51</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>⁠⸺, machine for, <a href='#page-87'>87</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>⁠⸺, plants, height of, <a href='#page-32'>32</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>⁠⸺, price of, <a href='#page-51'>51</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Marketing, <a href='#page-108'>108</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Marks or grades, <a href='#page-87'>87</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Mauritius fibre, <a href='#page-47'>47</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent top_space'><span class="small-caps">New</span> Zealand fibre, yield of, <a href='#page-47'>47</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>⁠⸺ ⁠⸺ hemp, <a href='#page-45'>45</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>⁠⸺ ⁠⸺ ⁠⸺ plants, harvesting of, <a href='#page-46'>46</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>⁠⸺ ⁠⸺ ⁠⸺ ⁠⸺, height of, <a href='#page-45'>45</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Numbering yarns, <a href='#page-107'>107</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent top_space'><span class="small-caps">Plaiting</span>, <a href='#page-98'>98</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Plants, cultivation of Manila, <a href='#page-31'>31</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>⁠⸺, height of Manila, <a href='#page-32'>32</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent top_space'><span class="small-caps">Rands</span>, <a href='#page-109'>109</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Raspadore, <a href='#page-38'>38</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Reach, <a href='#page-76'>76</a>, <a href='#page-78'>78</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Retting, <a href='#page-18'>18</a>, <a href='#page-23'>23</a>, <a href='#page-24'>24</a>, <a href='#page-25'>25</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Rope driving, <a href='#page-106'>106</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>⁠⸺ machine, <a href='#page-98'>98</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>⁠⸺ making, <a href='#page-17'>17</a>, <a href='#page-100'>100</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>⁠⸺ walk, <a href='#page-97'>97</a>, <a href='#page-100'>100</a>, <a href='#page-102'>102</a>, <a href='#page-103'>103</a>, <a href='#page-105'>105</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Ropes, <a href='#page-5'>5</a>, <a href='#page-15'>15</a>, <a href='#page-100'>100</a>, <a href='#page-102'>102</a>, <a href='#page-104'>104</a>, <a href='#page-107'>107</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Roughing, <a href='#page-67'>67</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Rove, <a href='#page-68'>68</a>, <a href='#page-80'>80</a>, <a href='#page-82'>82</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Roving frame, <a href='#page-79'>79</a>, <a href='#page-80'>80</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent top_space'><span class="small-caps">Scutcher</span>, <a href='#page-38'>38</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Scutching, <a href='#page-15'>15</a>, <a href='#page-24'>24</a>, <a href='#page-25'>25</a>, <a href='#page-27'>27</a>, <a href='#page-28'>28</a>, <a href='#page-29'>29</a>, <a href='#page-73'>73</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Seeds, <a href='#page-15'>15</a>, <a href='#page-21'>21</a>, <a href='#page-22'>22</a>, <a href='#page-32'>32</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Sett frame, <a href='#page-77'>77</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Sewing twines, <a href='#page-67'>67</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Shive, <a href='#page-28'>28</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Sisal, <a href='#page-7'>7</a>, <a href='#page-35'>35</a>, <a href='#page-44'>44</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>⁠⸺ breaker, <a href='#page-38'>38</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>⁠⸺, grading of, <a href='#page-44'>44</a>, <a href='#page-45'>45</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Sliver, <a href='#page-68'>68</a>, <a href='#page-69'>69</a>, <a href='#page-72'>72</a>, <a href='#page-73'>73</a>, <a href='#page-75'>75</a>, <a href='#page-77'>77</a>, <a href='#page-78'>78</a>, <a href='#page-79'>79</a>, <a href='#page-80'>80</a>, <a href='#page-82'>82</a>, <a href='#page-85'>85</a>, <a href='#page-89'>89</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Softening, <a href='#page-56'>56</a>, <a href='#page-57'>57</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Sorting and selecting, <a href='#page-68'>68</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Sowing, <a href='#page-21'>21</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Spread board, <a href='#page-69'>69</a>, <a href='#page-72'>72</a>, <a href='#page-77'>77</a>, <a href='#page-78'>78</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'><span id='page-113' class='pagenum'>113</span>Spindle winding machine, <a href='#page-92'>92</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Spinning, <a href='#page-5'>5</a>, <a href='#page-55'>55</a>, <a href='#page-79'>79</a>, <a href='#page-83'>83</a>, <a href='#page-85'>85</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Stationary machine for ropes, <a href='#page-104'>104</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Strander, <a href='#page-100'>100</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Strands, <a href='#page-5'>5</a>, <a href='#page-100'>100</a>, <a href='#page-103'>103</a>, <a href='#page-105'>105</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Strick, <a href='#page-28'>28</a>, <a href='#page-56'>56</a>, <a href='#page-73'>73</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Sunn hemp, <a href='#page-49'>49</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Systems of machinery, <a href='#page-56'>56</a>, <a href='#page-68'>68</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent top_space'><span class="small-caps">Tar</span>, <a href='#page-91'>91</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Top cart, <a href='#page-103'>103</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>⁠⸺ -shaped block, <a href='#page-104'>104</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Tow, <a href='#page-49'>49</a>, <a href='#page-73'>73</a>, <a href='#page-74'>74</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Traveller, <a href='#page-103'>103</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Twines, <a href='#page-5'>5</a>, <a href='#page-93'>93</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Twist and twisting, <a href='#page-48'>48</a>, <a href='#page-82'>82</a>, <a href='#page-93'>93</a>, <a href='#page-94'>94</a>, <a href='#page-96'>96</a>, <a href='#page-97'>97</a>, <a href='#page-98'>98</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent top_space'><span class="small-caps">Warping</span>, <a href='#page-91'>91</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Washing tanks, <a href='#page-40'>40</a>, <a href='#page-43'>43</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Wet spinning, <a href='#page-85'>85</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Whip cords, <a href='#page-97'>97</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Winding-on reel, <a href='#page-101'>101</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Winding machine, <a href='#page-110'>110</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Window blind cords, <a href='#page-97'>97</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Winding reel, <a href='#page-91'>91</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent'>Wool, <a href='#page-5'>5</a>, <a href='#page-16'>16</a></li> +<li class='hang_indent top_space'><span class="small-caps">Yarn</span> numbering, <a href='#page-107'>107</a></li> +</ul> +<p class='align_c fontp8 two_space'> +THE END</p> +<p class="align_c fontp67 four_space"> +<span class='overline'><i>Printed by Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, Ltd., Bath, England</i></span><br> +<span class="small-caps">v⁠—(1465f)</span> +</p> +<div class='section'> +<div class='box'> +<p class="noindent"> +<span class='font2p5'>Stephen Cotton & Co.</span> <span class='fontp8'>LTD.</span><br> +<span class='l14'>Brookfield Foundry</span><br> +<span class='font2p5'>Belfast</span> +</p> +<p class='noindent l14'> +Flax and Hemp +Textile Machine +Makers, Iron and +Brass Founders</p> +<p class='noindent fontp8'> +<span class='underline fontp8'><i>SPECIALITIES</i></span>:</p> +<p class='fontp8'> +¶ Patent Automatic Screwing and Changing Apparatuses +for Hackling Machines. Brush and Doffer Hackling +Machines. Stripper Rod Hackling Machines. Hand +and Power Reels, with Straight and Cross Winding. +Flax and Hemp Cutters. Bundling Presses. Spinning +Frames. Spindles and Flyers.</p> +<p class='align_c fontp8 top_ex'> +<i>PARTICULARS ON APPLICATION</i></p> +</div> +<div class='box'> +<p class="align_c"> +<b>PITMAN’S</b> +</p> +<p class='align_c underline font2p'> +<b>Common Commodities and Industries Series</b></p> +<p class='align_c fontp9'> +<b>Some Recent Additions. Each <span class='l12'>2/6</span> net</b></p> +<ul class="nomark fontp9"> +<li class='hang_indent'><b>THE BOOT AND SHOE INDUSTRY.</b> By <span class="small-caps">J. S. Harding</span>, <i>Head of the Boot Department of the Leeds Central Technical School</i>.</li> +<li class='hang_indent'><b>FURNITURE.</b> By <span class="small-caps">H. E. Binstead</span>, <i>Editor of</i> “<i>The Furniture Record</i>.”</li> +<li class='hang_indent'><b>COAL TAR.</b> By <span class="small-caps">A. R. Warnes</span>, F.C.S., A.I.Mech.E., <i>Lecturer on Coal Tar Distillation at Hull Technical College</i>.</li> +<li class='hang_indent'><b>PETROLEUM.</b> By <span class="small-caps">A. Lidgett</span>, <i>Editor of the</i> “<i>Petroleum Times</i>.”</li> +<li class='hang_indent'><b>SALT.</b> By <span class="small-caps">A. F. Calvert</span>, F.C.S.</li> +<li class='hang_indent'><b>KNITTED FABRICS.</b> By <span class="small-caps">John Chamberlain</span>, <i>Head of the Textile Dept., Leicester Municipal Technical Schools</i>, and <span class="small-caps">James H. Quilter</span>, <i>late Editor of the</i> “<i>Hosiery Trade Journal</i>.”</li> +<li class='hang_indent'><b>PAPER. Its History, Sources, and Production.</b> By <span class="small-caps">Harry A. Maddox</span>, <i>Silver Medallist Paper-making, 1909; City and Guilds Honours Typography, 1908-9; Contributor to leading trade journals</i>.</li> +<li class='hang_indent'><b>SOAP. Its Composition, Manufacture, and Properties.</b> By <span class="small-caps">William H. Simmons</span>, B.Sc. (Lond.), F.C.S., <i>Lecturer on Soap Manufacture at the Battersea Polytechnic</i>.</li> +<li class='hang_indent'><b>GLASS AND GLASS MAKING.</b> By <span class="small-caps">P. Marson</span>, <i>Consultant upon Refractory Materials, etc. Honours and Medallist in Glass Manufacture.</i></li> +<li class='hang_indent'><b>GUMS AND RESINS. Their Occurrence, Properties, and Uses.</b> By <span class="small-caps">Ernest J. Parry</span>, B.Sc., F.I.C., F.C.S.</li> +</ul> +<p class='align_c fontp9'> +<i>Complete List on application</i></p> +<p class='align_c fontp9 overline one_space'> +<b>SIR ISAAC PITMAN & SONS, LTD., 1 AMEN CORNER, LONDON, E.C.4</b></p> +</div> +<div class='box'> +<p class="l175 align_c"> +COMMON COMMODITIES AND INDUSTRIES SERIES +</p> +<div class='boxa'> +<p class='noindent fontp9'> +<b>Each book in crown 8vo, cloth, with +many illustrations, charts, etc., <span class='l12'>2/6</span> net</b></p> +</div> +<ul class="nomark fontp9"> +<li class='hang_indent'><b>TEA.</b> By <span class="small-caps">A. Ibbetson</span></li> +<li class='hang_indent'><b>COFFEE.</b> By <span class="small-caps">B. B. Keable</span></li> +<li class='hang_indent'><b>SUGAR.</b> By <span class="small-caps">Geo. Martineau, C.B.</span></li> +<li class='hang_indent'><b>OILS.</b> By <span class="small-caps">C. Ainsworth Mitchell</span>, B.A., F.I.C.</li> +<li class='hang_indent'><b>WHEAT.</b> By <span class="small-caps">Andrew Millar</span></li> +<li class='hang_indent'><b>RUBBER.</b> By <span class="small-caps">C. Beadle</span> and <span class="small-caps">H. P. Stevens</span>, M.A., Ph.D., F.I.C.</li> +<li class='hang_indent'><b>IRON AND STEEL.</b> By <span class="small-caps">C. Hood</span></li> +<li class='hang_indent'><b>COPPER.</b> By <span class="small-caps">H. K. Picard</span></li> +<li class='hang_indent'><b>COAL.</b> By <span class="small-caps">Francis H. Wilson</span>, M.Inst., M.E.</li> +<li class='hang_indent'><b>TIMBER.</b> By <span class="small-caps">W. Bullock</span></li> +<li class='hang_indent'><b>COTTON.</b> By <span class="small-caps">R. J. Peake</span></li> +<li class='hang_indent'><b>SILK.</b> By <span class="small-caps">Luther Hooper</span></li> +<li class='hang_indent'><b>WOOL.</b> By <span class="small-caps">J. A. Hunter</span></li> +<li class='hang_indent'><b>LINEN.</b> By <span class="small-caps">Alfred S. Moore</span></li> +<li class='hang_indent'><b>TOBACCO.</b> By <span class="small-caps">A. E. Tanner</span></li> +<li class='hang_indent'><b>LEATHER.</b> By <span class="small-caps">K. J. Adcock</span></li> +<li class='hang_indent'><b>KNITTED FABRICS.</b> By <span class="small-caps">J. Chamberlain</span> and <span class="small-caps">J. H. Quilter</span></li> +<li class='hang_indent'><b>CLAYS.</b> By <span class="small-caps">Alfred B. Searle</span></li> +<li class='hang_indent'><b>PAPER.</b> By <span class="small-caps">Harry A. Maddox</span></li> +<li class='hang_indent'><b>SOAP.</b> By <span class="small-caps">William A. Simmons</span>, B.Sc. (Lond.), F.C.S.</li> +<li class='hang_indent'><b>THE MOTOR INDUSTRY.</b> By <span class="small-caps">Horace Wyatt</span>, B.A.</li> +<li class='hang_indent'><b>GLASS AND GLASS MAKING.</b> By <span class="small-caps">Percival Marson</span></li> +<li class='hang_indent'><b>GUMS AND RESINS.</b> By <span class="small-caps">E. J. Parry</span>, B.Sc., F.I.C., F.C.S.</li> +<li class='hang_indent'><b>THE BOOT AND SHOE INDUSTRY.</b> By <span class="small-caps">J. S. Harding</span></li> +<li class='hang_indent'><b>GAS AND GAS MAKING.</b> By <span class="small-caps">W. H. Y. Webber</span></li> +<li class='hang_indent'><b>FURNITURE.</b> By <span class="small-caps">H. E. Binstead</span></li> +<li class='hang_indent'><b>COAL TAR.</b> By <span class="small-caps">A. R. Warnes</span></li> +<li class='hang_indent'><b>PETROLEUM.</b> By <span class="small-caps">A. Lidgett</span></li> +<li class='hang_indent'><b>SALT.</b> By <span class="small-caps">A. F. Calvert</span></li> +<li class='hang_indent'><b>ZINC.</b> By <span class="small-caps">T. E. Lones</span>, M.A., LL.D., B.Sc.</li> +<li class='hang_indent'><b>PHOTOGRAPHY.</b> By <span class="small-caps">Wm. Gamble</span></li> +<li class='hang_indent'><b>ASBESTOS.</b> By <span class="small-caps">A. Leonard Summers</span></li> +<li class='hang_indent'><b>SILVER.</b> By <span class="small-caps">Benjamin White</span></li> +<li class='hang_indent'><b>CARPETS.</b> By <span class="small-caps">Reginald S. Brinton</span></li> +<li class='hang_indent'><b>PAINTS AND VARNISHES.</b> By <span class="small-caps">A. S. Jennings</span></li> +<li class='hang_indent'><b>CORDAGE AND CORDAGE HEMP AND FIBRES.</b> By <span class="small-caps">T. Woodhouse</span> and <span class="small-caps">P. Kilgour</span></li> +<li class='hang_indent'><b>ACIDS AND ALKALIS.</b> By <span class="small-caps">G. H. J. Adlam</span></li> +<li class='hang_indent'><b>ELECTRICITY.</b> By <span class="small-caps">R. E. Neale</span>, B.Sc., Hons.</li> +<li class='hang_indent'><b>ALUMINIUM.</b> By Captain <span class="small-caps">G. Mortimer</span></li> +</ul> +<hr class='hrw_33 margemtb'> +<p class='align_c'> +<i>OTHERS IN PREPARATION</i></p> +</div> +</div> +<div class='tnote'> +<p class="align_c space_after"> +Transcriber’s notes +</p> +<p> +The illustrations have been moved to appropriate paragraph breaks. References to their page numbers in the List of Illustrations and the Index have been adjusted accordingly. +</p> +<p> +The footnotes have been renumbered and moved to the end of the chapter in which they occur. Index entries may refer to text in a footnote. +</p> +<p> +Some index entries have been changed where it seems the original page number was incorrect. +</p> +<p> +The reference to Fig. 10 on <a href='#page-51'>page 51</a> originally read Fig. 12. +</p> +<p> +The advertisements have been moved to the end of the book. +</p> +<p> +Obvious typographical errors have been corrected. Inconsistent hyphenation has not been changed. +</p> +</div> + +<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 77619 ***</div> +</body> +</html> diff --git a/77619-h/images/cover.jpg b/77619-h/images/cover.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ebfe988 --- /dev/null +++ b/77619-h/images/cover.jpg diff --git a/77619-h/images/i_f005.jpg b/77619-h/images/i_f005.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..9c976d2 --- /dev/null +++ b/77619-h/images/i_f005.jpg diff --git a/77619-h/images/i_p007.jpg b/77619-h/images/i_p007.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..9a02c10 --- /dev/null +++ b/77619-h/images/i_p007.jpg diff --git a/77619-h/images/i_p008.jpg b/77619-h/images/i_p008.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..454707c --- /dev/null +++ b/77619-h/images/i_p008.jpg diff --git a/77619-h/images/i_p009.jpg b/77619-h/images/i_p009.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..59be0f8 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