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diff --git a/77619-0.txt b/77619-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f46ad99 --- /dev/null +++ b/77619-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,3256 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 77619 *** + + + + +Transcriber’s Note: Italic text is enclosed in _underscores_. Small +capital text has been changed to all capital. Additional notes will be +found near the end of this ebook. + + + + + CORDAGE AND CORDAGE HEMP AND FIBRES + + + + + [Illustration: ROPE DRIVE FOR A MILL SHAFT + _Frontispiece_] + + + + + _PITMAN’S COMMON COMMODITIES AND INDUSTRIES_ + + + CORDAGE AND CORDAGE HEMP AND FIBRES + + + BY + + T. WOODHOUSE + + HEAD OF WEAVING AND DESIGNING DEPARTMENT, DUNDEE TECHNICAL COLLEGE AND + SCHOOL OF ART; + + FORMERLY MANAGER, MESSRS. WALTON AND CO., LINEN MANUFACTURERS, + BLEACHERS AND FINISHERS, KNARESBOROUGH; + + AUTHOR OF “THE FINISHING OF JUTE AND LINEN FABRICS”; “HEALDS AND REEDS + FOR WEAVING, SETTS AND PORTERS”; JOINT AUTHOR OF “TEXTILE DESIGN: PURE + AND APPLIED”; “JUTE AND LINEN WEAVING MECHANISM”; “CALCULATIONS AND + STRUCTURE OF FABRICS”; “JUTE AND JUTE SPINNING,” ETC. + + + AND + + P. KILGOUR + + HEAD OF THE SPINNING DEPARTMENT, DUNDEE TECHNICAL COLLEGE AND SCHOOL OF + ART; + + FORMERLY MANAGER, BELFAST ROPE WORKS; JOINT AUTHOR “JUTE AND JUTE + SPINNING,” ETC. + + + London + Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, Ltd., 1 Amen Corner, E.C.4 + Bath, Melbourne and New York + + + Printed by Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, Ltd., London, Bath, Melbourne and + New York + + + + + PREFACE + + +The function of a small article in commercial undertakings is often +overshadowed by that of the larger and usually more valuable article, +and yet the use of the former is often an absolute necessity for the +safety of the latter. This relative value is emphasized in the use of +cordage, because the successful prosecution of many industries depends +in no mean way upon the utilization of this useful and common commodity. + +Some of the various types of cordage are well known to the general +public, but the methods employed in their manufacture, the machinery +used, and the sources of the fibres are not quite so well known. We +trust that these phases are discussed in as brief but as complete a way +as is possible in this little book, which we hope will take its own +place in the literature of our Common Commodities of Commerce. + +We take this opportunity of recording our warmest thanks to Messrs. +David Bridge & Co., Ltd., Castleton, Manchester, for loan of blocks; to +Messrs. The Edinburgh Roperie and Sail Cloth Co., Ltd., Leith, for +assistance and for several photographs; and to Messrs. Landauer & Co., +London, for some of the statistics regarding the fibres. + + T. WOODHOUSE. + P. KILGOUR. + +_September, 1919._ + + + + + CONTENTS + + + CHAP. PAGE + PREFACE v + I. INTRODUCTORY 1 + II. DEFINITION OF CORDAGE AND SOURCES OF FIBRES 5 + III. CLASSIFICATION OF FIBRES 16 + IV. THE CULTIVATION OF HEMP 19 + V. RETTING, BREAKING AND SCUTCHING 24 + VI. THE CULTIVATION OF PLANTS FOR HARD FIBRES 31 + VII. THE PREPARING AND SPINNING MACHINERY FOR HEMP AND OTHER + SOFT FIBRES 55 + VIII. THE PREPARING AND SPINNING MACHINERY FOR MANILA AND + OTHER HARD FIBRES 87 + IX. TWINES, CORDS AND LINES 93 + X. ROPES AND ROPE-MAKING; YARN NUMBERING 100 + XI. MARKETING 108 + + + + + ILLUSTRATIONS + + + FIG. PAGE + ROPE DRIVE FOR A MILL SHAFT _Frontispiece_ + 1. TWO-YEAR-OLD SISAL PLANT 6 + 2. AGAVE AMERICANA 8 + 3. TRANSVERSE SECTION OF A LEAF OF AGAVE AMERICANA 10 + 4. PHOTOMICROGRAPH OF A SECTION OF FIBRES OF AGAVE + AMERICANA 11 + 5. PHOTOMICROGRAPH OF FIBRES OF AGAVE GROWN IN MEXICO + SHOWING OXALATE OF POTASH CRYSTALS 12 + 6. GROUP OF HEMP PLANTS 13 + 7. CROSS-SECTION OF PLANT 13 + 8. LONGITUDINAL VIEW OF COTTON FIBRES 15 + 9. CROSS-SECTIONAL VIEW OF COTTON FIBRES 15 + 10. MANILA FIBRES: ORDER OF GRADING 35 + 11. BRIDGE’S “ACME” GRAVITY PATENT SISAL BREAKER 38 + 12. BRIDGE’S “CLIMAX” PATENT SISAL DECORTICATOR 40 + 13. WASHING TANKS 43 + 14. HOUSING FOR POWER PLANT 43 + 15. CUMMINS’S PATENT HORIZONTAL HYDRAULIC BALING PRESS 43 + 16. MAURITIUS FIBRE PLANT 47 + 17. BALES OF MANILA, NEW ZEALAND AND SISAL FIBRES 54 + 18. BREAKING MACHINE 60 + 19. HACKLING MACHINE 62 + 20. SPREAD BOARD 69 + 21. BREAKER AND FINISHER CARDS 74 + 22. DRAWING FRAMES 80 + 23. ROVING FRAME 81 + 24. DRY SPINNING FRAME 84 + 25. HACKLER AND SPREADER 87 + 26. INTERMEDIATE MACHINE 89 + 27. AUTOMATIC SPINNING MACHINE 91 + 28. DRYING BLEACHED YARNS 93 + 29. ROPE-MAKING (HOUSE MACHINES) 101 + 30. LAYING OF A FOUR-STRAND CABLE-LAID ROPE IN THE ROPE WALK 105 + 31. VIEWS OF LARGE AND MEDIUM-SIZED COILS OF ROPE 106 + + + + + CORDAGE AND CORDAGE HEMP AND FIBRES + + CHAPTER I + + INTRODUCTORY + + +Records of civilization are incapable of furnishing the era when the +equivalent of strands or cords were first used, singly or collectively, +for the purpose of holding two or more articles securely in position. +But, although it is impossible to fix a period, one might safely say +that the original material which served the purpose was some kind of +light twig or lanceolate leaf, and that its appearance when in use as a +binder strip differed little if at all from its appearance in the +natural process of growth. Even at the present day some of these runners +are still used, notably with others the rattan canes for binding bales +of manila fibre and other purposes. + +The wants of prehistoric man would be very few indeed, but, although he +was accustomed in many climates to make use of very scanty clothing or +covering, and, in many cases, was practically without any covering, it +is obvious that it would be necessary to provide himself with food--the +first essential condition to life. In his efforts to secure the +necessary food-stuffs, animate or inanimate, it is safe to conclude that +some type of ribbon-shaped vegetable material would be necessary or +desirable at an early stage, and probably at the same time or a little +later period sinews of different kinds would be brought into use. + +As years rolled on, further uses would undoubtedly be found for various +kinds of fibrous material, and more improved methods would be applied in +adapting the vegetable matter and the like to the purposes intended, as +well as more care exercised in the selection of the materials. Some of +the characteristics which are essential in practically all binders or +tying strips are length, strength, pliability and a tendency to resist +atmospheric influences and other natural agents. + +The gradual development of civilization, and the gradually increasing +demand for suitable substances to be used as binders and for various +other purposes would naturally lead to improvements in the utilization +of fibrous and other suitable plants, and ultimately to more or less +scientific methods of treating these plants with the object of removing +the objectionable constituents which are useless for cordage purposes, +and of retaining those parts which are considered to be most suitable +for the purpose in view. + +A complete description of the evolution of modern cord and cordage is +practically impossible, for the simple reason that there is no full +record of the efforts of many of the earlier pioneers in the various +stages, and it is quite possible that many early and praiseworthy +improvements have been forgotten or overshadowed, or perhaps absorbed, +by the more modern and more elaborate methods which are now +indispensable for the successful prosecution of this important branch of +the textile industry. + +The separation of fibrous material from various kinds of plants is by no +means of modern origin, for the great antiquity of yarns which have been +spun from vegetable and animal fibres is universally acknowledged. +Reference to the process of preparing flax for the purpose of spinning +appears in Exodus ix, verse 31, while the first Biblical reference to +thread--one of the technical names for a continuous length of prepared +fibrous material--is in Genesis xiv, verse 23: “That I will not take +from a thread even to a shoe-latchet.” Again, another early reference in +Chapter xxxviii refers to a scarlet thread, an indication or suggestion +that the art of dyeing was also known at this early period in the early +Biblical history. + +Herodotus records garments made from hemp by the Thracians, and to the +present day hemp is largely cultivated in the vicinity of the lands +occupied by the descendants of this ancient race. + +Moschion, whose writings appeared before the Christian era, states that +the “great ships of Syracuse which were built by command of Hiero II +were supplied with hemp and ropes from the Rhone districts. Hemp was +brought from Colchis to the ports of the Aegean Sea by the merchants who +were connected commercially with the north and east coasts of the Euxine +through their Milesian colonies.” + +Pliny also records the use of hemp for ships, and states that it was in +common use among the Romans in the first century for ropes and sails, as +well as for other purposes. + +The more or less uncertain knowledge of practically all the earlier +attempts at the solution of fibre extraction renders it impossible for +us to bridge the gap between the time when crude primitive methods were +practised and that which ushered in the more perfect methods described +by Pliny in the first century--methods which, in certain cases, have +varied little since this early period, and which are practised with a +high degree of success. We may, therefore, leave this interesting period +to the researches of students in history, and enter upon the description +and illustration of the various plants from which fibre is extracted, +and the actual processes which such fibre has to undergo before it is +ready for the market in one or other of the well-known types of cordage. + + + + + CHAPTER II + + DEFINITION OF CORDAGE AND SOURCES OF FIBRES + + +The definition of cordage usually takes the form of “a quantity of cords +or ropes as the rigging of a ship, etc.,” but in commerce the word has a +more elastic meaning, and, in general, may be said to include all kinds +of continuous strands or the like which are not intended to be woven +into cloth or to be knitted into hosiery. Differentiation occurs, +however, for one often finds the phrase “Ropes, Cords and Twines” as +referring to special types of cordage, while further subdivision occurs +when one includes the many types of finer material such as lines, sewing +thread, and the like. And when one considers that the various articles +which are included in the generic term cordage have a range from ropes +of 9 or 10 in. in diameter to fine threads of not more than perhaps +1/60th of an inch, and for which a very large number of different kinds +of fibres are used, some idea of the immense variety can possibly be +formed. + +From whatever source a vegetable cordage fibre is derived, it is +necessary to eliminate more or less of the substances which are closely +connected with it in the plant, in order that the comparatively pure +fibre may be spun into thread form with the maximum of strength and +production, and the minimum of difficulty and waste. In this respect it +is quite likely that an animal fibre such as wool would be more easily +separated than any other known fibre. Wool, however, is rarely used for +cordage purposes, although hair, which approximates to wool, is used for +certain types of cord. There are certainly many types of wool ropes used +for decorative purposes, but, in general, this most valuable substance +is, for obvious reasons, unsuitable for the usual kind of cordage, and +hence wool will not be discussed in this work. + +The fibres from the leaves of certain tropical plants may be separated +with a little more difficulty than that which is experienced in the +operation of shearing a sheep, but these fibres are hidden, and even +when found originally, great difficulty would be experienced before a +continuous thread could be made from them. It is quite probable that a +natural process of disintegration would disclose these vegetable fibres +to primitive man, and lead to their ultimate utilization for various +purposes. Or perhaps the gradual wear and tear of the leaves used, +either loosely or bound in some crude form, as floor-covering would +result in the discovery of the fibrous layers. It is the remarkable +advance in mechanical science which has made the production of a +continuous thread from such fibres a possibility for industrial +purposes. + +Long before continuous spinning was invented, however, it would be +desirable to extract the valuable fibrous material from its bed of +vegetable matter because the latter is, in general, quite unfit for the +purposes which the fibrous material has to perform. This remark applies +not only to the fibres which are extracted from leaves, but also to +those valuable fibres which are embedded in the bast layers of the stems +of certain plants. + +We might now with advantage illustrate by means of photographic +reproductions of plants, and photomicrographs of sections, the three +sources from which vegetable fibres are obtained to be utilized in the +manufacture--or spinning as it is technically called--of the world’s +supply of cordage. + + [Illustration: _By permission of Messrs David Bridge & Co., Ltd._ + FIG. 1 + TWO-YEAR-OLD SISAL PLANT] + +A typical example of a leaf plant from which one type of textile or +cordage fibre is extracted is illustrated in Fig. 1. This particular +example is designated as a “Two-year-old Sisal Plant.” It is 49 in. +high, and was grown in the Voi district, British East Africa. Sisal is +the commercial name of the fibre obtained from such plants, while the +botanical name of the plant is _Agave Rigida_, variety _Sisalana_; it is +sometimes, though erroneously, termed the Americana. + + [Illustration: FIG. 2 + AGAVE AMERICANA] + +A recently suggested nomenclature of the Agave and other plants, from +which sisal and similar fibres are extracted, is due to Professor Lyster +Dewey of the United States Department of Agriculture-- + +(1) Agave Fourcroydis of Yucatan; this plant yields 90 per cent. of the +sisal fibres exported from all countries. The leaves bear marginal +spines as illustrated in the _Agave Americana_ shown at A, Fig. 2: the +plant was formerly known as _Agave Rigida_, variety _Elongata_. + +(2) _Agave Sisalana_ grown for use by the natives of Central America and +South Mexico, but not much exported. + +(3) _Agave Cantala._ This is the “_Maguey_” plant of the Philippine +Islands, and is grown in limited quantities in Java and India. + + [Illustration: FIG. 3 + TRANSVERSE SECTION OF A LEAF OF AGAVE AMERICANA] + +When a thin slice or fine transverse section of one of the leaves of +such a plant is mounted, and its appearance magnified by +photomicrography, the structure of the leaf is shown to be similar to +that illustrated in Fig. 3. The upper and the lower outer surfaces or +cuticle A resemble greatly the whipped edges of blankets. These +surfaces, and all the pulp-like matter lettered B, must be removed, +either by manual or mechanical means, in order to separate or extract +the groups of fibre some of which are denoted by the letter C. A still +further enlargement of a few of these groups of fibrous material appears +in Fig. 4. + + [Illustration: FIG. 4 + PHOTOMICROGRAPH OF A SECTION OF FIBRES OF AGAVE AMERICANA] + +A photomicrograph of two fibres of a type of Agave grown in Mexico is +shown in Fig. 5; it is interesting because it depicts the formation of +crystals of Oxalate of Potash. The presence of such crystals makes the +fibre unsuitable for cordage purposes, but it may be used in the +manufacture of coarse brushes. + + [Illustration: FIG. 5 + PHOTOMICROGRAPH OF FIBRES OF AGAVE GROWN IN MEXICO, SHOWING OXALATE OF + POTASH CRYSTALS] + +The second source from which fibre is extracted is that from the stems +of plants such as flax, hemp, jute and the like. A photographical +reproduction of a group of hemp plants grown by the Authors appears in +Fig. 6. A female plant is illustrated on the right, while the remaining +two which are taller are male plants. + + [Illustration: FIG. 6 + GROUP OF HEMP PLANTS] + + [Illustration: FIG. 7 + CROSS-SECTION OF PLANT] + +A thin cross-section cut from the stem of such a plant exhibits the +characteristics in Fig. 7, in which A is the cuticle or outer bark, B is +the woody part, and C the pith. The fibrous layer is between the two +dark circles D, and a few groups of fibres in this layer are indicated +by the letter E. Here, again, a considerable amount of extraneous matter +must be separated from the bast layer, and when separated, the latter +appears in the form of long ribbons. The cuticle and bast layer were +originally stripped from the plants; the former were then placed in the +mouth so that the saliva could aid in the separation of the fibres from +the bark, and permit of a finer reduction of the fibrous layer to +produce finer threads. And although at the present time this method is +practised for thread making in many primitive communities, it need +hardly be said that much more efficient methods have long been practised +for commercial purposes, such methods being known by the technical terms +“retting,” “breaking,” and “scutching.” + + [Illustration: FIG. 8 + LONGITUDINAL VIEW OF COTTON FIBRES] + + [Illustration: FIG. 9 + CROSS-SECTIONAL VIEW OF COTTON FIBRES] + +The third source of vegetable fibres is the cotton plant _Gossypium_, +the white fluffy fibres being obtained from the pods or bolls. The +operation of cotton picking which is often referred to consists of +removing this white fluffy mass from the pods in which also the seeds +are located. Cotton fibre is unlike the two previous classes of fibre +because its method of growth is different. The other textile fibres are +composed of bundles of plant cells, whereas the fibres of cotton are +individual cells; they form as it were individual hairs on the seed, and +in drying flatten and also assume a twisted and crinkled condition as +exemplified in Fig. 8, which illustrates the longitudinal +characteristics of several fibres. Fig. 9 shows the sectional +enlargements of a few fibres. This structure of the cotton fibre is a +very valuable property, since it not only assists in the binding of the +fibres into a thread, but also gives a resiliency and spring to ropes +manufactured from it which is most useful in driving; this property +makes cotton almost indispensable for the construction of the smaller +sizes of ropes for driving purposes. + + + + + CHAPTER III + + CLASSIFICATION OF FIBRES + + +Cordage fibres which are used at the present time are naturally of +greater variety than those which were utilized for similar purposes in +the early periods of history, for records of those used in such early +periods appear to indicate only hemp and flax. As already stated, wool +would not be used to any great extent, but, after methods had been +evolved for spinning a continuous thread from fibres such as hemp and +flax, it is highly probable that the cotton fibre would also be used in +the making of cords and ropes. + +Authentic records point to the fact that the cultivation of flax plants +for fibre was practised in Egypt from 5,000 to 6,000 years ago, and +hence it is quite possible that hemp plants would be grown under similar +conditions and for suitable purposes; moreover, if the hemp fibre were +proved to be suitable for cordage purposes, it is not difficult to +believe that the cultivation of this important plant in suitable +districts would become as universal as that of flax. + +Another reason which suggests the early use of hemp as a cordage fibre +is the universality of its presence in most eastern countries as a +vegetable product. It is at present cultivated in most European +countries, and especially in Russia, Italy, Austria-Hungary, Serbia, +France and Germany. It is also found on the East and West coasts of +Africa, in many of the States of America--particularly in Kentucky--as +well as in India, China and Japan. + +If the climate is comparatively moist, with a period of mild temperature +and a suitable soil, the hemp plant can be successfully cultivated for +fibre; it is cultivated in India and in most of the tropical countries +for the production of a liquor which the natives consume in much the +same way as intoxicating liquors are consumed in temperate countries. + +True hemp is a plant which grows wild in Central Asia, but must be +cultivated in practically all other areas. It is an annual, and requires +a rich soil with a subsoil capable of retaining sufficient moisture to +promote the growth during periods of dry weather. If otherwise, the +growth of the plants would be checked during this dry period with a +consequent deficient yield of fibre. + +With the gradual development of trade, and the introduction of new kinds +of fibre to be used for cordage, an extended meaning has been applied to +the word hemp, but, unfortunately, the word has been applied rather +loosely to many types of fibre which are used for rope-making. Thus, one +frequently hears the following names in reference to different fibres-- + + Manila Hemp, + Sisal Hemp, + New Zealand Hemp, + Mauritius Hemp, + Bowstring Hemp, etc.; + +whereas the real hemp is usually designated as-- + + Russian Hemp, + Italian Hemp, + Indian Hemp, + Sunn Hemp, etc. + +To differentiate between these different fibres, and so provide a better +classification and conception of the terms, it should be clearly +understood that the proper hemp fibres, _e.g._, Russian, Italian and +Indian, are obtained from the plant _Cannabis Sativa_, and that the +fibres are located in the bast layers of the plant stems as exemplified +in Fig. 7. The fibres are extracted from these layers in the same way as +the fibres of flax and jute are extracted from similar layers, that is, +by a process technically termed “retting.” Such fibres are called soft +fibres in contradistinction to hard fibres to which class Manila, Sisal, +New Zealand, Mauritius and Bowstring fibres belong. The hard fibres are +located in the leaves or in the leaf stalks of plants; typical examples +of the general appearance of such plants and the internal +characteristics are illustrated in Figs. 1 to 5. + + + + + CHAPTER IV + + THE CULTIVATION OF HEMP + + +The botanical or scientific name for hemp is _Cannabis Sativa_, order, +_Moraceoe_, sub-order, _Cannaboidae_. The plant grows wild in Central +Asia, but is cultivated in many tropical and temperate regions of both +hemispheres. From a cordage point of view the fibre is, naturally, of +most importance, but, incidentally, it might be mentioned that the seed +is used as a food for birds, and oil is extracted from it; in addition, +in tropical countries, a resinous juice exudes from the stalks, leaves +and flowers which is made into a violent intoxicant. + +The plants in general attain a height of from 4 to 8 ft. or more, and in +exceptional cases, such as under good cultivation in suitable soil, +approach 20 ft. in height. The leaves are five to nine lobed with +serrate margin. The plants are dioecious and the flowers are +yellowish-green, small and inconspicuous; the male flowers are numerous +and produced in drooping panicles, each flower of five segments; the +female flowers are fewer in number, on spikes, single leaf, single +ovary, with greyish-green to brownish-grey seed, and rich in oil. The +matured stems are usually hollow, and the bark layer very fibrous +throughout the whole length of the stem. + +The plant readily adapts itself to great changes of climate, and, as +already stated, is found in all climates, from the tropical ones of +India and China to the frozen regions of Northern Russia. It is +adversely affected, however, in the earlier stages of its growth by +frost, and always requires a moderately strong sunny period during its +growth. It is cultivated in the temperate climates chiefly for its +valuable fibre, but a serviceable fibre may be obtained from the plants +which are grown in tropical countries. + +The most important fibre-producing areas are Russia, Italy and +Austria-Hungary, but it is produced in other countries, notably those +mentioned below, as well as in Turkey, China and the Southern and +Western areas of the United States of America. The Italian fibre is the +best of all for fine work, while the Russian fibre, which has a special +affinity for tar, is the most satisfactory for use in the manufacture of +heavy cordage for maritime purposes. + +The approximate annual production of hemp from fourteen different +countries appears below-- + + Russia 400,000 tons + Italy 80,000 „ + Hungary 50,000 „ + India 36,000 „ + Siberia 22,000 „ + Austria 18,000 „ + France 15,000 „ + Japan 8,000 „ + Serbia 8,000 „ + Caucasus 5,000 „ + Poland 4,000 „ + Bulgaria 2,000 „ + Germany 2,000 „ + Roumania 1,500 „ + +The successful cultivation of hemp requires a rich, deep and well-worked +soil with a large amount of humus. Alluvial soils are well adapted for +the purpose. The strong loam soils of Italy are typical of the best. In +all cases a good supply of moisture is necessary, otherwise the crop +would be short and stubby and ill adapted for the production of fibre. + +The land should be well prepared by deep ploughing, and followed by +rolling and harrowing to produce a level and uniform seed bed. The roots +of the plants will penetrate into the subsoil if the land is well +ploughed, but waterlogged land is unsuitable. A liberal supply of manure +is essential owing to the vigorous growth of the crop, and while +farmyard manures are the best, the stalks of a leguminous crop may be +ploughed in. Manure from animal slaughter-houses is very suitable, and +all refuse from the previous hemp crop should be returned to the land. +Since the hemp fibre contains a large amount of lime and phosphates, it +may sometimes prove advantageous to use dressings which contain these +substances. + +The seed should be selected with care, and should be tested for its +powers of germination. Stored seeds are liable to heat and lose their +vitality, and immature seeds are also unsatisfactory. Indian and Chinese +seeds are often mixed with home seed. In temperate climates sowing +should take place as early in spring as possible, but after the night +frosts have passed. The early spring rain and sun are very beneficial, +and the foliage which appears moderately early helps to conserve the +moisture in the soil as the heat of the sun gets more intense. + +The amount of seed to be sown depends upon the type of fibre desired; +thus, one bushel of seed per acre for coarse fibre to three bushels per +acre for fine fibre are the approximate quantities, and the seed may be +sown broadcast by hand, or by machines into drills about 6 or 7 in. +apart. In all cases the seed should be well covered to prevent ravages +by birds, hence, it is usual after sowing to harrow and roll the fields +again for the above purpose, as well as to prepare a level and uniform +bed for the germination of the seeds. + +Where the land is cultivated with the production of seed as its main +object, the seeds should be sown thinly and wide apart, say, in drills +or rows from 6 to 7 ft. apart, so that the plants will branch +extensively and thus provide facilities for a profusion of flowers. The +male plants are pulled after the bloom is shed, but the female plants +are allowed to mature under the best conditions so that a large crop may +result. Great care must be taken in harvesting and in storing the seed; +provision must be made to prevent the deterioration of seed through a +process of heating. The average yield of seed per acre is about thirty +bushels, but in exceptional cases as many as sixty bushels may be +obtained. + +Under satisfactory conditions the young plants should appear in from +seven to twelve days, after which it is necessary to thin them out and +to remove the weeds. While the plants must be wide enough apart to +facilitate good growth, there should not be too much space between them +when grown for fibre, or branching out will result. If a field has +become troublesome with weeds, no crop will eliminate them as quickly as +that of hemp. + +If desired both male and female plants may be harvested at the same +time, but it is often considered advisable to harvest them separately. +It is as well to make most of the mixed crop if the labour is available. +The male plants may be cut or pulled when the flowers attain maturity or +a little after, and when the leaves are changing colour from green to +brown. The female plants being shorter may be allowed to remain for +about four weeks when the seeds are beginning to ripen. + +The yield of fibre per acre of land cultivated is influenced by several +conditions, but on good lands under satisfactory conditions of +cultivation, an average of 6 to 7 cwt. may be relied upon, and in many +cases this quantity is easily exceeded. + +After the plants are harvested, a number of minor operations take place +in different districts before the plants are subjected to the important +process of “retting” or rotting. These preliminary operations are mostly +to reduce the weight of the plants and to discard undesirable matter +which happens to be easily detached, as well as to secure uniformity. +Thus, the tops and roots may be cut off, and the leaves stripped or +beaten off, while after the plants have been dried, they may be arranged +according to length and thickness. They are then tied up into bundles of +suitable bulk for the operation of retting. + + + + + CHAPTER V + + RETTING, BREAKING AND SCUTCHING + + +The retting operation is that process which converts the constituents of +the stems into that condition which will enable the bast layer, see Fig. +7, to be separated easily from the remaining parts of the stem. In all +fibrous plants of the type illustrated in Figs. 6 and 7, a retting +process is conducted in which the plants are either submerged in water, +called “water retting,” or spread on lands adjoining the cultivated +areas to undergo what is termed a weathering action, or “dew retting.” +Water retting is the more satisfactory and gives the better results, +and, in the hands of experienced operatives a more rapid production of +fibre of the better grades. + +The submersion of the plants, caused by placing stones, clods or the +like on to the bundles, may be in slowly-running rivers, in which case +the bundles are kept intact in crates moored to the bank, or a similar +submersion may be conducted in a series of tanks or ponds. In the latter +case a supply of water may be allowed to enter and leave the tank, and +the plants are kept there until the operation is complete. Stagnant +water acts quicker on the plants than does running water. + +The retting action is a process of fermentation, and the amount of +active bacteria can be regulated by the temperature and rate of movement +of the water. Flax retting in the river Lys, near Courtrai, is the +finest system known at present, and its value is due to the slow rate of +movement of soft water which is favourable to the production of the +retting bacteria; the adaptation of a similar system to this where the +water supply is suitable will give high-class results. + +Fermentation starts soon after the plants are submerged, and the rate of +fermentation depends upon the temperature of the air and water; its +progress is identified by the presence of air bells on the surface of +the water. As the operation proceeds, the bundles have a tendency to +rise to the surface, and hence extra weights are added to keep them +submerged. When the formation of air bells ceases, the operatives +carefully examine and test the stems to ascertain the progress of the +operation; they usually strip off part of the bast layer, see Fig. 7, +from the wood or core, and their judgment of the correct stage of +retting is determined by the ease with which this separation is +effected. Great skill is required here, or rather ripe experience, for +if the retting is not complete, a portion of the woody matter goes +forward with the fibre, while if the stems are over-retted, the fibre is +weak; in both cases, a faulty judgment causes trouble in the actual +manual or mechanical processes which follow. + +Other methods of retting are adopted in different countries, and even in +certain districts of those countries where the above system is in vogue. +It will be understood that the choice of any system will depend largely +upon local circumstances, and in all cases, other things being equal, +the method adopted will be that which will yield the largest quantity of +hemp fibre at the least cost. + +The characteristics of the fibres are typical of the countries in which +the plants were grown, and of the processes of retting. It will be +almost invariably found that the best fibre is the result of the most +elaborate and careful methods of cultivation and retting, together with +the equally careful and efficient subsequent processes of breaking and +scutching. + +It need hardly be said that the above elaborate and costly methods are +adopted only for the very finest grades of fibre; they would not be +attempted in the case of those plants which grow and ripen so rapidly in +some tropical countries, and in which a short, harsh fibre only is +obtained; for such plants the cheapest and simplest methods of +extraction are practised. + +Many praiseworthy attempts have been made, and others are still in +progress, with varying degrees of success, to extract the fibre quickly. +None has yet been able to supplant the above-described costly, lengthy +and laborious process, but with modern science, machinery and +experience, one might expect that some brilliant genius will ultimately +solve the problem. Many industrial problems have been solved by the +joint action of experience and applied science, and one might therefore +hope to see a great simplification of the present hazardous operation of +retting. + +The successful introduction of a machine or a system of machinery which +would pull, strip and clean hemp and allied plants and fibres on the +field of growth would not only open up new fields of cultivation, but +would increase the wealth of our country by millions of pounds; it would +do much to prevent the depopulation of the rural districts and so help +to preserve the hygienic conditions of our large towns. + +The retting operation completed, the stems are washed and spread on +grass land, if available, or stooked like grain and allowed to dry +thoroughly. It is acknowledged to be advantageous to allow the stems to +remain a few days on the grass, for after this exposure the fibre is +more easily and efficiently separated from the other constituents of the +bast layer. + +The ribbon-shaped layer may be about 3 ft. long in the shorter Russian +grades of hemp, but up to 15 ft. in length in the Italian grades. The +colour varies from grey and brown to a rich cream and almost white in +the finest grades. + +The ultimate fibres are large and somewhat irregular in shape; they vary +in length from 0·2 to 2 in., with an average length of about 1 in., +while the diameter is only about 1/1000 or 0·001 of an inch. + +BREAKING AND SCUTCHING.--Various methods are adopted to separate the +bast layer from the central or woody part of the retted and dried stems +of hemp, but in all cases the operation thus involved is termed +“breaking.” The central woody part has to be broken into a great number +of short lengths, and this is done in some districts by exceedingly +simple apparatus, and in other districts by modern breaking machines. +Perhaps the simplest apparatus which is used for this purpose consists +of a series of Δ-shaped wooden bars arranged horizontally in the form of +a grid, and into the cavities of this row of bars fits another group or +series of similar bars but inverted. The latter group is hinged at one +end and provided with a handle at the other. + +When the handle and the upper set of bars are raised, a few hemp stems +are laid across the fixed lower bars; the handle is then pressed +downwards, and this causes the stems to be squeezed and broken between +the two sets of bars. By repeated blows with the upper bars, and lateral +movements of the stems, it is evident that the woody core would be +broken, and this is done without damaging the fibrous layer. A treadle +may be attached to the handle end of the hinged grid and thus leave both +hands free to manipulate the stems and to remove that portion of the +broken wood which has not already dropped through the slots in the lower +grid but remains between the bars of the same. + +The mechanical means for this purpose consist of a number of fluted +rollers between which the stems pass and by the flutes of which the wood +is broken. Sometimes scrapers are used in the same machine to help to +remove the small particles of wood. What remains in the hand after the +simple manual process is completed, or what is delivered from the +machine by the delivery rollers, are the unbroken fibrous layers to +which still adhere several particles of woody matter or shive as it is +called. A further operation, termed “scutching,” is necessary to remove +this shive and so leave the lengths of fibre as clean as possible. + +SCUTCHING.--The operation of scutching may be considered in some +respects in the light of a scraping action in which the broken and +partially-clean, ribbon-like structures of fibres occupy a position +between a fixed and a movable board, and are subjected to the friction +between them. The simplest apparatus for this purpose consists of an +upright wooden board with a horizontal slot near its upper end and +through which the ends of the fibres are passed. The fibres hang +downwards, and while thus depending a flat wooden “scutching handle” or +flail--very similar in shape to a baking spit--is brought smartly with +its edge to traverse downwards against the fibres, and thus to remove +the objectionable shive but at the same time to prevent, as far as +possible, the destruction of the fibrous layer and the accumulation of +waste. The operative can expose as much of the fibrous layer as desired +to the action of the scutching handle in virtue of the slot, and after +one end of the “strick” is finished, the other end is treated similarly. + +While the above hand method is largely practised and is quite +satisfactory where comparatively small quantities have to be treated, or +for very fine and expensive material where delicate treatment is +essential, the modern method of scutching is done by power. The feeding +and manipulation of the stricks are, however, still under the direct +control of the operative. In these mechanical scutchers it is usual to +employ six to twelve handles--narrower but longer than the hand +flail--and these handles project from a common centre or shaft, somewhat +after the form of the sails of a windmill. As the shaft rotates, the +handles are brought successively to act against the fibres as in the +simpler process. + +Large quantities of Russian and other hemps are only partially cleaned, +and are termed “siretz” hemps, while in some districts where the most +valuable plants are grown, the bast layer is stripped from the stems, +and the material subjected in smaller quantities to the cleaning and +washing processes, thus producing a higher value fibre. + +In hand scutching an operative cleans on an average about 10 to 12 lb. +of Italian hemp per hour, but such quantities can be, obviously, only +approximate, for the quantities prepared will vary greatly, depending as +they do upon the efficiency of the apparatus at command, the degree to +which the fibrous layer has to be cleaned, the quality of the material +and the skill of the operator. The better grades of fibre usually and +almost invariably receive more treatment than the lower grades. + +The commercial value of hemp depends, as already stated, upon its +strength, colour, freedom from faults, and its spinning properties; +comparative values are scarcely possible unless in certain seasons, +because prices fluctuate greatly according to the demand for certain +grades of cordage as well as to the prices of other fibres which may be +used for similar goods. + +Italian hemp can be spun into thinner or finer yarns than any of the +other hemps, and it is therefore a competitor with certain grades of +flax. French, Chinese and Russian hemps are also valuable, and besides +being used alone, are sometimes mixed with the coarser varieties of +Italian hemp for certain kinds of cordage and lines. + +The following table shows the amount of fibre in tons for five years in +regard to Russian and Italian hemp imports to the United Kingdom. + + ──────────┬─────────┬─────────┬─────────┬─────────┬──────── + │ 1907. │ 1908. │ 1909. │ 1910. │ 1911. + ──────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┼──────── + Russian │ 17,299 │ 15,753 │ 13,816 │ 12,576 │ 14,981 + Italian │ 10,462 │ 8,133 │ 10,144 │ 10,298 │ 10,343 + ──────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┼──────── + │ 27,761 │ 23,886 │ 23,960 │ 22,874 │ 25,324 + ══════════╧═════════╧═════════╧═════════╧═════════╧════════ + + + + + CHAPTER VI + + THE CULTIVATION OF PLANTS FOR HARD FIBRES + + +The different types of hard fibres for cordage are mentioned in Chapter +III, page 17, and, although there are certain features which are more or +less common to all, there are differences which make it advisable, if +not necessary, to discuss each main type separately. + +One of the best-known hard fibres is the Manila or Abaca fibre (obtained +from the wild plantain, a variety of the banana plant) _Musa textilis_. +It is an excellent cordage fibre and is largely used both in this +country and in the United States of America. The plant, from which the +fibre is obtained, is in many respects indistinguishable from the banana +plant during the period of growth; the colour of the leaves of the +banana plant is, however, usually of a darker green shade than that of +the leaves of the _Musa textilis_, while the flowers and fruit of the +banana are much more abundant than are those of the Manila plant. On the +other hand, the fibre of the banana plant is very poor in quality, and +practically valueless for cordage purposes. + +The _Musa textilis_ is peculiarly indigenous to the Philippine Islands, +indeed most of the attempts to cultivate this plant in other areas have +been unsuccessful. Manila, Luzon and Cebu are three of the principle +fibre-producing areas, and, because of the suitability of the soil and +climate in these areas, the growth of the Manila industry has been +extensive, and large quantities of high-grade fibre are produced +annually in these three areas. + +Cleared forest land is very suitable for the propagation of young plants +which require a certain amount of shade to assist their growth in the +early stages. During the period of growth a large number of suckers or +young plants grow around the parent plant; these suckers are used in +general to start a new plantation, while in other cases the young plants +are raised from seed. In both cases, the young plants are set out so +that from 500 to 600 may occupy an acre, and the distance between the +plants is from 8 to 10 ft. If plants are propagated from seed it takes +about one year before the shoots can be set out in the plantation, and +they should be spaced in the same way as the suckers. + +The ground should be kept clear of weeds at least during the first year; +after this period, vigorous growth starts, if the usual moist season +prevails, and during the three or four years of growth the plant attains +a height of 8 ft. and upwards. Occasionally a plant grows to a height of +20 ft. After the lapse of three to four years, the fibre plant develops +a flower, and then the plant should be cut down to obtain the best type +of fibre. + +Hilly land, and particularly volcanic slopes with a moist loose soil, +are very well suited for the cultivation of these plants. Swamp lands, +while satisfactory for certain types of plants, are unsuitable for the +cultivation of Manila. + +The work of harvesting and the extraction of the fibre are usually done +on the contract system; a supervisor will take over the plantation upon +which he starts his men on the dual process. + +The fibre is produced in the sheathing leaf stalks which form a bundle 6 +in. to 1 ft. or even more in diameter with a central stem or flower +stalk about 3 in. in diameter. The flowers are near the upper part which +may reach a much greater height than the leaves. The pistillate flowers +are nearest the base and form fairly large fruits which are filled with +black seeds. + +The bundle of sheathing leaf stalks are cut off a few inches above the +ground and split up into widths of about 5 to 6 in., after which the +fibre can be extracted either by hand or by machine. When the hand +method is practised, the stalks are first well beaten with wooden +mallets, and then scraped with suitable instruments until the fibre is +freed from the surrounding vegetable matter. The separated fibre is +finally washed and dried, and made up into bales of 280 lbs. each. + +It is very important that the substances which surround the fibres +should be completely removed, and that the fibre should be thoroughly +dried after it has been well washed. These operations completed, the +dried fibre is conveyed to the premises of the owner of the plantation +to be selected and valued. The approximate cost of extracting the fibre +is half its market value, and this sum is often paid by the farmer to +the men who perform the work. + +The stripped and cleaned fibre is now graded by experts who are +appointed by the Government of the Islands, and the various qualities +are now much more uniform than they were formerly, see page 34. + +In general, a yield of 2 to 3 lb. of fibre per plant is obtained, but +this quantity may be doubled in some cases. With the average mentioned, +approximately 12 cwt. of fibre per acre would be produced, but a +considerably higher quantity could be obtained by more perfect +machinery, as the loss of fibre in the operation of stripping amounts, +in many cases, to 25 per cent. of the possible production. + +The following table shows one method of grading the fibre, and the +average price per ton during June, 1915. See also page 51. + + Extra Fine Prime £56 to £58 + Prime 52 „ 54 + Superior Current 50 „ 52 + Good Current 48 „ 50 + Midway 44 „ 46 + Current 41 „ 42 + Seconds 38 „ 39 + Brown 36 „ 38 + Fair 37 „ 38 + Medium 32 „ 33 + Coarse 28 „ 29 + Coarse Brown 27 „ 28 + +Another method of grading is by means of letters, and Fig. 10 is a +photographical reproduction of fifteen different samples representing +the general grading and marked A to M. There are also a few intermediate +grades which are of similar classes of fibre but discoloured--a fault +due to imperfect cleaning. + + [Illustration: FIG. 10 + MANILA FIBRES: ORDER OF GRADING] + +The imports of Manila to the United Kingdom for the years 1911 to 1915 +inclusive and the actual value appear in the following table, while the +average value of one grade, Fair Current, appears alongside. See also +page 34. + + ────────┬─────────┬───────────────┬──────────────────────────────── + Year. │ Tons. │ Total Value. │ Price per ton of Fair Current. + ────────┼─────────┼───────────────┼──────────────────────────────── + 1911 │ 75,449 │ £1,647,542 │ £19 -- -- + 1912 │ 83,313 │ £1,990,481 │ £21 10 -- + 1913 │ 64,579 │ £1,600,450 │ £34 -- -- + 1914 │ 54,206 │ £1,396,593 │ £27 15 -- + 1915 │ 57,783 │ £1,760,471 │ £28 10 -- + ────────┴─────────┴───────────────┴──────────────────────────────── + +SISAL.--This is a fibre which is almost of equal importance to Manila +for the production of cordage. The plants, which are produced +extensively in Mexico, Africa and the Bahama Islands, form a group +termed the Agaves. + +Those plants which are most extensively cultivated for fibre purposes +have recently been classified, see page 8. + +The particular Agave plant from which the Sisal fibre of commerce is +obtained is the _Agave Sisalana_, or Henequen, natural order, +_Armaryllidaceae_, the chief centres of production of which are Yucatan +and Campeachy; the cities of Merida and Progresso are the centres of +production of the fibre for the export markets. + +The plants grow very successfully on waste and arid lands, and require +very little attention after the preliminary operations of clearing the +land and of planting out the young Agaves either as bulbules or +“bulbils” produced from the creeping roots. + +The stems of the plants are stumpy, and large fleshy leaves are produced +which attain a height of 3 to 6 ft. The flowers are produced on a long +stalk or pole which often rises to 30 ft. or more. The flowers appear in +dense groups on lateral branches upon the axils of which develop +bulbils; these grow to maturity and then drop to the ground where many +of them take root and thus provide young shoots which may be replanted +for another crop. + +In the formation of new plantations for the production of fibrous +plants, it is only necessary to clean the ground and dig the soil round +where the young bulbils, suckers, or a mixture of both, are to be +planted. They are so arranged that there is a greater space between the +rows than there is between the plants in a row, say in the proportion of +8 to 6, and about 1,000 plants are spaced in an acre. + +If the plants are taken from nurseries where the bulbils have been +propagated for transplanting, it may be found advantageous to provide +light tramways for their conveyance, as well as for the conveyance of +the mature leaves in the opposite direction. The extra space between the +rows is for facilitating such work by rails and other means. In fact, a +plantation for the cultivation of Sisal plants and the production of the +fibre should be laid out on a definite plan with provision, not only for +successful cultivation, but for the subsequent operations of stripping, +washing, cleaning and baling the fibre, while a desirable, if not +absolutely necessary consideration, is the choice of ground in close +proximity to a satisfactory district for labour. + +A short time after the plants have been set it is advisable to clean and +weed the ground periodically for at least two years to give the plants a +favourable start; afterwards vigorous growth occurs, and no further +attention in this line is necessary. + +It will be evident that a more vigorous growth will obtain in warm +climates than in cold climates, but at the same time these warm climates +may be exceptionally suitable; indeed, it has already been proved that, +in some of the more recently-established centres of cultivation such as +Africa, a better fibre is being produced than in some of the older +established centres, and, moreover, the growing period is shorter. + +To make a fibre-production area a success, it is advisable to adopt a +systematic extension of the plantation each season, so that a continuous +supply of leaves will be obtained, and that the available labour supply +can be fully utilized either with operations in cultivation or fibre +extraction; in this way a regular supply of fibre could be placed on the +market for manufacturing purposes. + +After a plantation is completed, the first cutting of the leaves may +take place in from two to four years, depending upon the situation of +the plant and its state. It is not necessary to cut down the whole +plant; the larger leaves are cut when at maturity, and others as they +mature; successive cuttings may be at intervals of approximately six +months, after which the plant may be cut down and the spot allowed to +remain fallow for a year, when a new plant is introduced. + +The yield of fibre from the plants will vary considerably from time to +time, such variation being influenced by the district, the weather and +by the degree of perfection of the methods employed for extracting the +fibre from the leaves. + +The usefulness of the Agave fibres has been acknowledged for some time, +and their value has been enhanced by the production of superior fibres +in various centres of Africa as already stated; improved methods of +cultivation and the use of modern and efficient stripping and cleaning +machines may lead to the production of this type of fibre which will +compete successfully with many of our most valued fibres for cordage +use. + +As the leaves are cut down from the plants, they should be removed at +once to the stripping machine. The original name for such a machine was +“Raspadore,” and supposed to be an invention of a Franciscan friar. The +modern English word for the purpose is “Decorticator,” and, although the +term “leaf-crusher” or “scutcher” appears to be more in keeping with the +operation to be performed on Sisal leaves, than that of “decorticator,” +a more extensive meaning has been given to the latter term which is now +taken to indicate the mechanical operation for the separation of the +pith and surrounding vegetable structure from the fibrous layers in +practically every type of plant. + +Two distinct machines, one for crushing the leaves, and the other for +finishing the stripping, are made by Messrs. David Bridge & Co., Ltd., +Castleton, Manchester, and these provide an excellent system for +treating the leaves as they are delivered from the field of growth. + + [Illustration: _By permission of Messrs David Bridge & Co., Ltd._ + FIG. 11 + BRIDGE’S “ACME” GRAVITY PATENT SISAL BREAKER] + +The crushing machine, termed Bridge’s “Acme” Gravity Patent Sisal +Breaker, is illustrated in Fig. 11. The leaves of the plant are placed +on the travelling endless cloth between the wooden side guides on the +right-hand side of the illustration. They ultimately come into contact +with the first pair of corrugated rollers which are so set that there is +a minimum of ¼ in. between the surfaces of the opposing corrugations. +After the leaves have been crushed between these rollers and carried +forward by them, they pass between a second but smooth pair of rollers +the nearest distance between the surfaces of which is 3/16 in. On +emerging from these rollers, the leaves pass down the delivery table on +the left. The upper roller in each pair is acted upon and pressed +downwards by spiral or coil springs which not only yield slightly to the +varying thicknesses of the leaves, but which will allow the roller to +rise fully ⅞ of an inch in case any foreign substance should enter +between the rollers. + + [Illustration: _By permission of Messrs David Bridge & Co., Ltd._ + FIG. 12 + BRIDGE’S “CLIMAX” PATENT SISAL DECORTICATOR] + +The crushed ribbons from the foregoing machine are now taken to Bridge’s +“Climax” Patent Sisal Decorticator, illustrated in Fig. 12. As in the +crushing machine, the material is fed into the rollers by an endless +cloth; the ribbon-shaped lengths are exposed to the action of opposed +drums on the same principle as that embodied in the original raspadore, +the result being that the remains of the objectionable matter which +accompanied the fibrous layer from the crushing machine is scraped off +and a maximum amount of fibre delivered. The Decorticator is provided +with all the latest improvements for a maximum production, and both +machines, together with the washing tanks, Fig. 13, and the necessary +power plant for driving the whole system can be housed in or near a +simple structure somewhat as illustrated in Fig. 14. + + [Illustration: _By permission of Messrs David Bridge & Co., Ltd._ + FIG. 13 + WASHING TANKS] + + [Illustration: _By permission of Messrs David Bridge & Co., Ltd._ + FIG. 14 + HOUSING FOR POWER PLANT] + + [Illustration: _By permission of Messrs David Bridge & Co., Ltd._ + FIG. 15 + CUMMINS’S PATENT HORIZONTAL HYDRAULIC BALING PRESS] + +The fibre, having been extracted, washed and dried, is conveyed to the +rapid baling press, Fig. 15, which is an illustration of Cummins’s +Patent Horizontal Hydraulic Baling Press. Here the fibre is packed by +hydraulic pressure into a small space ready for exportation to those +countries where the fibre is to be manufactured. The above type of +baling press is now largely used, not only for Sisal fibres, but also +for China jute, cotton and other textiles, and it is capable of +compressing the fibre to a density of 60 lb. per cubic foot. + +After the third year’s growth, the annual production of fibre reaches +about one ton per acre. The production of fibre from the various +countries has been greatly increased during recent years, and that for +1914, which will be found in the table on page 52, may be taken as a +good indication of the quantities placed on the market. + +There has not yet been any considerable competition between Sisal and +Manila fibres for the manufacture of similar types of cordage, but with +improved methods of cultivation and of cleaning the Sisal product, a +greater competition may be expected. + +A large quantity of Manila fibre is used in this country for binder +twine, whereas Sisal is used for the same purpose in the American +centres. As a matter of fact, the U.S.A. markets of different kinds +absorb 90 per cent. of the total Sisal crop which amounted in 1914 to +220,000 tons. + +A new method of marketing the Sisal fibre from Yucatan has been +introduced through a Committee or Commission who will be responsible for +the grading and marketing of the fibre and will, with the sanction of +the Government, deal entirely with the financial arrangements. + +The Commission will receive all the graded fibre, and on receipt of this +a payment will be made to the farmer. The fibre will be placed on the +market at current rates, and every five years the accounts will be +balanced and the surplus, if any, will be divided _pro rata_ amongst the +producers. In the case of loss, the deficit will be met by the +Commission. + +Sisal fibres are graded as under-- + +_Special_: perfectly clean and absolutely white fibre, free from stains +or adherent pulp. + +_Superior Clean_: perfectly clean fibre of creamy or yellowish tint, +free from stain or pulp. + +_Current Clean_: well scraped, whitish or greenish colour, 5 per cent. +dust permitted. This is the standard grade for price. + +_Stained_: also well scraped but with dark or red streaks. No more than +25 per cent. dark and no adherent pulp. + +_Inferior Stained_: must be free from adherent pulp, but may contain as +much as 75 per cent. of dark fibres. + +NEW ZEALAND HEMP OR FLAX.--The botanical name of this plant is _Phormium +Tenax_, natural order, _Liliaceae_. The plant has long, +peculiarly-shaped leaves, the roots of which send out creeping rhizomes +on which the leaves 6 to 10 ft. in height, are produced in clumps. +Maturity is reached in about four years, and propagation is obtained by +the growth of the rhizomes, and also by the self-sown seeds which are +produced in large numbers from the flowering and fruiting stage. + +Large quantities of this useful fibre are used, and it can be produced +cheaply and in large quantities from otherwise unproductive lands, such +as the drained swamp lands in the neighbourhood of the Manawatu river in +New Zealand. In this district the plants grow in dense masses, and +although more than 20,000 acres are under cultivation, additions are +gradually taking place. Through this area are laid about fifty miles of +light railway tracks. The plantations require little attention beyond +that of careful drainage; over-drainage may cause as much damage as +under-drainage. Wellington is the principal shipping port, but shipments +are also made from Auckland and other ports when the value of the fibre +makes such a course profitable. + +_Phormium Tenax_ has also been cultivated on a comparatively large scale +in St. Helena, and the results, both financially and otherwise, are +satisfactory. The selected lands in this island are now well drained, +and tramways are laid for the rapid conveyance of the leaves after they +are cut down to the stripping mills. Sometimes aerial railways are used +when a river has to be negotiated. It will be quite well understood that +a cheap and rapid transport is a desideratum. + +Only well-matured leaves must be cut down, and these are conveyed to the +stripping mills; in the Manawatu district of New Zealand about fifty +such mills are in existence, and the introduction of improved machinery +for this stripping operation will certainly lead to the extension of the +cultivation of these plants and to the after processes. + +Much has been done to introduce an efficient machine for stripping the +leaves, and many premiums have been offered by the New Zealand +Government for a perfect machine. One now under trial gives promise of +good results. + +The greatest difficulty in connection with the stripping of _Phormium +Tenax_ leaves is due to the peculiar shape of the lower end of the leaf. +A very deep midrib extends for some distance and gets more pronounced as +the lower end of the leaf is reached. A large quantity of the fibre is +collected in this rib, the shape of which makes it difficult for +mechanical parts to treat successfully, and necessitates a larger amount +of labour than in the case of straight or flat leaves of the ordinary +type. + +In former methods of stripping and cleaning it was found necessary to +paddock and bleach the stripped fibre, but the claims of the new +invention, if sustained, will render these processes unnecessary. + +The production of the fibre may reach 13 cwt., and 2½ cwt. of tow per +acre during the life of the plants, while the stripper can produce from +20 to 25 cwt. of fibre per day. + +The colour of the fibre is light yellow to brownish, but it is rather +soft and dirty at the top end. It is graded as below-- + + 91 to 100 marks = Superfine, + 81 to 90 „ = Fine, + 71 to 80 „ = Good Fair, + 61 to 70 „ = Fair, + 51 to 60 „ = Common. + +OTHER FIBRES.--The chief hard fibres are augmented by the use of the +“Maguey” plant which is cultivated largely in the Philippine Islands in +districts bordering on the Manila centres, while Mauritius fibre is +produced largely in the Islands from an Agave, the _Furcroea Gigantea_, +order, _Amaryllidaceae_, known in Mauritius as “Aloes.” The plant, see +Fig. 16, is somewhat similar to the Sisal plant, while the fibre +obtained from it is of a soft nature, and is usually sent to this +country in an imperfectly-cleaned state. The dust which accompanies the +fibre emerges from it in the processes of manufacture, and is very +disagreeable to the operatives. Owing, however, to its good light +colour, and the softness and pliability of the goods made from it, the +fibre is often preferred to the other hard fibres for certain types of +work. + + [Illustration: _By permission of Messrs David Bridge & Co., Ltd._ + FIG. 16 + MAURITIUS FIBRE PLANT] + +COIR.--Coir fibre is obtained from the husks of cocoa nuts. The +extraction of the fibre from these nuts forms native industries in many +parts of India and Ceylon. The husks are soaked in water for a time, and +then beaten with sticks or mallets; the separated fibres are then dried +and spun by hand with the aid of very simple appliances. Afterwards, two +of these single yarns are combined or twisted together to make what is +known as two-ply or two-fold twist. The twist is then made up into short +lengths, rolled into small hanks and baled for export. Of later years, +much longer lengths have been made and done up into coils, while small +“dolls” or rolls are made up for sale in small quantities, particularly +for use on farms. + +Coir fibre has been very widely used for many purposes in the rope and +cordage trade, principally for the manufacture of mooring ropes, spring +ropes and lashing cords, while large quantities of the imported yarns +are used for matting and farming purposes. + +It is a very useful fibre when properly made up, and is of great +importance for purposes where it is necessary for the manufactured +article to be exposed to variation of climate and to wet, while the life +of the manufactured article is greatly extended if it is steeped in oil. + +SUNN HEMP (Bengal Hemp).--Sunn Hemp or _Crotalaria Juncea_, natural +order, _Leguminosae_, is used on a smaller scale and for certain goods +such as cheap grade ropes and box cord. The plants grow in several parts +of India, _e.g._, near Bengal, Allahabad and Benares in which the +cheaper grades are produced, and in some districts of Western Bengal +where a better class of fibre is obtained. All are of the same family, +the difference being due to the variation of the soil and the method of +retting. (This is really a bast fibre, but it is used almost solely +along with the hard fibres.) The fibre is harsh and very irregular in +the lower grades; in the better grades it can be used to mix with other +fibres for the production of tow yarns. + +The other hemps obtained from India, particularly from Madras, are not +so high grade as to warrant them being used alone to any great extent, +so it is usual to mix them with other low-grade hemps of higher tensile +strength, or these Indian hemps may be combined with scutching and +hackling tows. The scutching and hackling tows are sometimes used to +produce twines and cords suitable for box cords and for parcel tying +yarns. + +CHINA JUTE.--Although this is a bast fibre, its use is mostly confined +to purposes for which the hard fibres are applied, and hence its +introduction amongst them. It is a product of Hankow and Teintsin in +China, and is largely imported to Great Britain. When suitably treated +it forms a satisfactory fibre for the manufacture of box cords or +similar goods where great tensile strength is not essential. The fibre +is of a good light colour, and little or no waste is incurred in its +transformation into cordage. + +The following details of the production of fibres and relative costs are +given so that the normal values, as well as the normal quantities may be +judged, and also compared with the abnormal conditions which have +prevailed during the great world’s war. + +Italian and Naples hemp is imported to these islands in large quantities +as will be seen from the following particulars for ten seasons-- + + Season. Italian. Naples. + 1903-04 62,000 tons 28,000 tons + 1904-05 40,000 „ 23,000 „ + 1905-06 12,000 „ 27,000 „ + 1906-07 58,000 „ 30,000 „ + 1907-08 58,000 „ 31,000 „ + 1908-09 41,000 „ 20,000 „ + 1909-10 55,000 „ 24,000 „ + 1910-11 50,000 „ 27,000 „ + 1911-12 33,000 „ 30,000 „ + 1912-13 58,000 „ 31,000 „ + ─────── ─────── + 10)467,000 10)271,000 + 46,700 average 27,100 average + ═══════ ═══════ + + Average price P.C. Italian, £39 11s. 3d. per ton + „ „ P.E. Naples, £41 9s. per ton + „ „ F.S.P.R.H. Russian, £31 17s. per ton + +The prices since these dates have gradually increased, and the present +prices are approximately as under-- + + P.C., Italian £190 per ton + P.E., Naples £200 „ „ + F.S.P.R.H., Russian £170 „ „ + China Hemp £154 „ „ + +The following table illustrates the grading of Manila fibre for June, +1917, together with the number of bales for that month, and the +percentage quantity of each grade. In addition, the last two columns +give the prices; that for 1917 is the market price, while that for 1918 +is the controlled price. Fig. 10 might be studied along with this table. + + ─────────┬──────────────────┬─────────┬────────┬──────────┬────────── + Grade │ Grade. │ Bales. │ % of │ 1917. │ 1918. + Letter. │ │ │ Total. │ Market │ Market + │ │ │ │ Price │ Price + │ │ │ │ per ton. │ per ton. + ─────────┼──────────────────┼─────────┼────────┼──────────┼────────── + A │ Extra Prime │ 899 │ 0·7 │ │ + B │ Prime │ 2,182 │ 1·6 │ │ + C │ Superior Current │ 6,852 │ 5·0 │ £150 │ £155 + D │ Good Current │ 10,020 │ 7·3 │ £145 │ £150 + E │ Midway │ 17,358 │ 12·7 │ £135 │ £135 + S¹ │ Streaky 1 │ 1,865 │ 1·4 │ £130 │ £130 + S² │ Streaky 2 │ 3,937 │ 2·9 │ £120 │ £120 + S³ │ Streaky 3 │ 2,935 │ 2·1 │ £115 │ £115 + F │ Current │ 22,284 │ 16·3 │ £125 │ £130 + G │ Seconds │ 3,908 │ 2·8 │ £115 │ £115 + H │ Brown │ 1,886 │ 1·4 │ £105 │ £105 + I │ Good Fair │ 12,791 │ 9·3 │ │ £120 + J │ Fair │ 13,561 │ 9·8 │ £85 │ £100 + K │ Medium │ 4,226 │ 3·1 │ £80 │ £95 + L │ Coarse │ 12,780 │ 9·2 │ £78 │ £93 + M │ Coarse Brown │ 5,140 │ 3·7 │ £76 │ £80 + DL │ Coarse │ 7,153 │ 5·2 │ £75 │ £75 + DM │ Coarse Brown │ 4,306 │ 3·2 │ £73 │ £73 + OYT │ │ 3,159 │ 2·3 │ │ + │ ├─────────┼────────┤ │ + │ │ 137,242 │ 100·0 │ │ + ╵ ╘═════════╧════════╛ ╵ + +The standardizing of the grades has been rendered necessary by the large +amount of inferior fibre which was being produced, and by the irregular +baling of the fibre. The gradual improvement of the fibre as a whole may +be gleaned from the undermentioned particulars of the number of bales +which were graded into four of the lowest types. These numbers referred +to what were allocated in August and September, 1917, and it will be +seen that there was a much smaller percentage of these low marks in +September than in August. + + ────────┬────────────────┬─────────────────── + Grade. │ Bales: August. │ Bales: September. + ────────┼────────────────┼─────────────────── + L │ 10,548 │ 7,462 + M │ 4,553 │ 3,201 + DL │ 5,775 │ 2,960 + DM │ 2,290 │ 952 + ────────┼────────────────┼─────────────────── + │ 23,166 │ 14,575 + ╘════════════════╧═══════════════════ + +The shipments of Manila and other fibres for six years, 1910 to 1915 +inclusive, appear below-- + + ───────┬───────────────┬───────────────┬─────────────┬─────────── + Year. │ Manila bales. │ Mexican Sisal │ New Zealand │ Mauritius + │ │ bales. │ bales. │ bales. + ───────┼───────────────┼───────────────┼─────────────┼─────────── + 1910 │ 1,272,000 │ 582,142 │ 103,750 │ 9,990 + 1911 │ 1,332,297 │ 713,008 │ 96,850 │ 9,161 + 1912 │ 1,466,110 │ 859,000 │ 96,360 │ 8,697 + 1913 │ 964,000 │ 876,000 │ 140,445 │ 14,404 + 1914 │ 943,000 │ 982,000 │ 98,510 │ 8,947 + 1915 │ 1,160,440 │ 950,000 │ 116,100 │ 6,838 + ───────┴───────────────┴───────────────┴─────────────┴─────────── + +The three columns in the following table show the prices which ruled in +1915 and 1916 and the current prices for 1918. + + ──────────────────────────┬────────┬────────┬──────── + Type of Fibre. │ 1915. │ 1916. │ 1918. + ──────────────────────────┼────────┼────────┼──────── + │ £ │ £ │ £ + P.C. Italian Hemp │ 55 │ 90 │ 190 + F.S.P.R.H. Russian Hemp │ -- │ -- │ 170 + China Hemp │ -- │ -- │ 154 + Manila (Fair) │ 37 │ 54 │ 100 + New Zealand Hemp │ 32 │ 86 │ 99 + Mexican Sisal │ 28 │ 77 │ 97 + Java Sisal │ -- │ 95-100 │ 99 + Mauritius │ -- │ 70 │ 95 + Maguey │ 30 │ 70 │ 74 + ──────────────────────────┴────────┴────────┴──────── + +The controlled Government price (U.S.A.) for Sisal fibre for June (1918) +is as follows-- + + 19 cents per lb. for fibre + 23 „ „ „ for 500 feet of binder twine + +Since one sheaf of corn requires about one yard of twine, and since the +expected requirements for the Continent of America are 200,000 tons of +binder twine, it follows that this weight of yarn will provide the +binding material for 71,680,000,000 sheaves--almost an incredible +quantity. + + [Illustration: FIG. 17 + BALES OF MANILA, NEW ZEALAND AND SISAL FIBRES] + +Fig. 17 shows three distinct methods of baling-- + +(_a_) Manila Hemp with rattan canes. + +(_b_) New Zealand Hemp with ropes made from New Zealand fibre. + +(_c_) Sisal Hemp with wire. + + + + + CHAPTER VII + + THE PREPARING AND SPINNING MACHINERY FOR HEMP AND OTHER SOFT FIBRES + + +Since there is such a great variety of ropes, cords and twines, not only +in regard to diameters, but also in regard to the different fibres used +in the manufacture of these goods, it is not surprising to find that +there are many different kinds of machines involved in the various +operations; some of these machines are introduced for the special +purpose of reducing the fibres to practicable lengths, but these +machines are, of course, used only for the type of fibres which exceed +about 36 in. On the other hand, it is sometimes found desirable to cut +certain types of fibres which do not exceed the limits demanded by the +capacity of the machines, but this is done only as a selective operation +to obtain the best and strongest part of the fibre. + +While certain classes of soft fibres such as Russian, French, Chinese +and Indian hemps may be used without any previous hackling operation in +the spinning of certain sizes of cordage, it is found that Italian, +Serbian, Roumanian and Neapolitan hemps must be cut into suitable +lengths and hackled before they can be passed through the preparing +machines; in these latter machines the fibres are arranged into a +practicable condition before they are subjected to the actual spinning +operation. + +The production of yarn for use in the making of cotton driving ropes +involves the use of the whole system of cotton-spinning machinery, +while, on the other hand, hemp yarns, besides being prepared +mechanically, are still produced by a series of the simplest and oldest +methods of hand hackling and hand spinning. + +Fine ropes and twines may be, and often are, produced by an elaborate +system of machinery, and modified forms of such a system, in which a +smaller number of machines are employed, may be adopted for the spinning +of the heavier yarns. + +A complete plant for the manufacture of these yarns from soft fibres +would include the following-- + + Softening Machine, + Cutting or Breaking Machine, + Hackling Machines, + Spread Boards, + Drawing and Doubling Frames, + Roving and Gill Spinning Machines, + Automatic Spinning Machines, + Throstle Spinning Machines. + +The yarns employed may be as small as 60’s for the finer sizes and as +thick as 18’s for the heavy or common sizes; the significance of this +yarn numbering will be explained later. + +In order to have some definite purpose in view, let it be assumed that +it is necessary to make a high-class rope from Italian hemp; the fibre +to be used must, of course, be of a good quality of cordage hemp. When +the bale of hemp is opened, the fibre will be found to be in “heads” or +“stricks,” that is, collected into groups with a girth of from 8 to 12 +in., and to be from 7 to 12 ft. in length and sometimes even longer. + +The first operation is that known as “softening,” which makes the +fibres, as the name of the operation indicates, more supple, and hence +better adapted for undergoing the subsequent operations. Different makes +of machines are in use for softening the fibrous material, the chief +feature in each machine is that the heads or stricks of fibre are +squeezed between fluted rollers. + +In one type of machine the end of the strick is passed between the first +pair of blades of an Archimedean screw, then between the fluted rollers +of which there may be three, and its end brought round and joined to the +other end of the strick; in this way an endless band of fibres is +formed. The fluted rollers act as indicated, and at the same time the +Archimedean screw gradually conveys the endless band of fibres from one +end of the screw to the other end, each slight movement causing the +fibres to enter between the fluted rollers at a different place. This +type of machine, which is, however, rather dangerous for certain classes +of workers, is considered quite efficient and satisfactory by many +spinners, but the machine which is most extensively used is known as a +“reciprocating softener,” and is made by such firms as Messrs. Reynolds +and Messrs. Combe Barbour, both of Belfast, and by Messrs. Lawson of +Leeds. + +The action of the rollers of the reciprocating softener is rather +complicated, for, in addition to the usual method of rotating in one +direction for the sake of delivering the material, the rollers are moved +bodily forwards and backwards a short distance alternately. The +multiplicity of motions has for its aim that of subjecting every +particle of the strick as much as necessary to the softening action of +the flutes; the effect of these operations on the hemp is quite evident +when the stricks emerge from the delivery end, for the material is much +more pliant than when it entered, and is in such a condition that it may +be greatly refined in the subsequent operations. + +In this machine the forward motion of the rollers is obtained by a +special arrangement of gearing from the pulley shaft which extends +through the machine and carries a further belt pulley at the other end. +A belt from the latter pulley drives by means of another pulley an upper +shaft, while a further belt connection from a pulley on this upper shaft +conveys motion to a pulley running on a stud projecting from the main +frame. Compounded with the latter pulley is the speed change pinion, and +a train of gearing, consisting of four pairs of compound wheels, conveys +the desired motion to the fourteen pairs of fluted rollers which are +arranged in two concentric semicircles in the upper part of the machine. +The centre of these concentric semicircles is the central shaft of the +machine, and on this shaft is placed the pinion and wheel of the second +compound. Near the ends of this central shaft, and close to the outer +part of the two main frames, swings two substantially-constructed +brackets; each bracket has two horizontal arms from each of which a +short shaft projects to carry a wheel and pinion, while the extreme +lower end of the bracket is attached by means of a connecting rod to a +crank placed on the large wheel below, and driven from, the main pulley +shaft. + +As indicated, this mechanism is duplicated, one set on each side of the +machine. The object of the small pinions on the horizontal arms of the +swinging brackets is to drive the fourteen pairs of fluted rollers +through the medium of two large wheels, one on each side, each wheel +being provided with internal teeth. The object of the cranks and +connecting arms to the said brackets is to cause the fourteen pairs of +rollers to reciprocate. This reciprocation adds to the effective +softening of the stricks by rotating the material for a longer time in +the machine, and thus repeating the softening effect of the rollers on +different parts of the fibrous material. + +After the stricks have been efficiently softened in one or other of the +machines mentioned, they are conveyed to the cutting or breaking machine +which is adapted to sever the stricks into lengths suitable for +treatment in the hackling machine. + + [Illustration: _By permission of Messrs David Bridge & Co., Ltd._ + FIG. 18 + BREAKING MACHINE] + +These cutting or breaking machines are of two distinct types-- + +(_a_) Those in which the fibres of the stricks are torn asunder; and + +(_b_) Those in which the fibres are broken by the action of what are +known as “cutting wheels.” + +A good example of a machine which tears or breaks the stricks is that +illustrated in Fig. 18, and made by Messrs. David Bridge & Co., Ltd., +Castleton, Manchester. The machine is of substantial construction, but +experienced operatives are required to take charge of it. One end of the +softened strick is wrapped round the back fixed square bar to the left +of the illustration; then about two turns of the strick are wrapped +round the front square bar which rotates when the attendant presses down +the foot lever near the floor. Since the revolving bar has a tendency to +carry the strick round with it in virtue of the movement given to it by +the train of wheels from the motive part, it follows that ultimately the +stretch of fibres between the two square bars will be broken, and then +the operation is repeated with the remainder of the long strick. The +friction clutch, on the right of the three pulleys, and the main shaft +are revolving continuously while the belt on the middle pulley is in +motion, but the friction pulley itself moves only when the friction +clutch is expanded due to the downward movement of the foot lever which, +at the same time, releases the brake on the left pulley of the three. +When the foot is removed from the foot lever or treadle, the clutch fork +slides the clutch on the shaft and breaks the contact between the +friction clutch and friction wheel; simultaneously the brake grips its +pulley and thus arrests the wheels and the rotating square bar. + +The cutting or breaking type is designed on quite different lines from +the above machine, and a very popular and efficient machine of the +former type is known as the “Revolving Cutting Machine.” A series of +round pins (sometimes V-shaped teeth) project from the face or periphery +of a large central revolving wheel, and on each side of this wheel, and +at a suitable distance from it, is a pair of slowly-moving rollers which +are grooved on their circumferences to intersect with each other and so +grip or hold the material as it is being fed to the pins of the cutting +wheel. The operative cutter stands in front of the machine with a long +strick of hemp in his hands. He grips the strick at two convenient +places, and, having decided upon the point where the piece should be cut +or broken, he arranges for this point to pass into the machine midway +between the two pairs of feed or retaining wheels. The machine is made +in duplicate so that the same cutting, or breaking wheel may serve for +both, but each operative has, naturally, his own set of feed wheels. + +As already stated, the lengths of the pieces when broken or cut will +depend upon the type of hackling machine in which the severed lengths +are next to be treated, and also upon the particular class of rope into +which the fibres are to be spun. The usual length limits are 24 in. and +30 in., although conditions might arise in which it is desirable to go +beyond the extremes of these common lengths. + +The suitable lengths of cut material are now made up into convenient +sizes or bunches and conveyed to the machine hackling department. + +Certain classes of Russian, French, Chinese, Indian and Italian hemps +may be considered in common in all subsequent operations, and, in +general, will require most of the treatment which is given to the +specific case of Italian hemp under discussion. + + [Illustration: _By permission of the Edinburgh Roperie Co._ + FIG. 19 + HACKLING MACHINE] + +The hackling machines which are used in modern cordage or rope walks are +similar to that reproduced in Fig. 19. In this particular machine there +are sixteen different holders with pieces of hemp fibre depending from +each, the lowest visible part of the fibre being on the same level as +the uppermost part of the hackles or tools. The visible parts of the +latter extend to a point in line with the waist of the attendant. There +are four sections of tools in the full width, and each section is made +up of four sets, while each set contains twenty-four tools, the whole +arranged in a closed path so that while they rotate, the pins in the +tools may act upon the pieces of hemp as the latter move in a vertical +plane under the influence of what is termed the “head” of the machine. + +The number of tools vary according to the accommodation available in the +department devoted to this section of the work. The tools are fixed to a +series of bars which in turn are riveted to a set of leather sheets, the +whole being rotated as indicated by means of carriers which are arranged +on two shafts with suitable fixings. + +In the “head” the necessary mechanical parts are placed for moving the +holders, and therefore the pieces of hemp, collectively and +intermittently along what is known as the “channel.” The inclined rod, +immediately under the name plate of the machine, with its additional +parts convey this motion to each of the holders. In this manner, each +holder, with its complement of hemp, is moved in regular succession +opposite each of the sixteen sets of hackles or tools, and therefore +passes from one end of the machine to the other. This movement takes +place when the hemp is at or near its highest point. As each holder +reaches the end of the machine, it is removed from the channel, the bolt +of the holder unscrewed, the plate removed, and the piece of hemp turned +end for end. After this the plate is again placed in position, the nuts +screwed tight, and the holder entered into a similar channel on the +other side of the machine, but with the undressed end of hemp downwards. +A very similar movement is now imparted to the holders at this side of +the machine so that the same process of hackling as that performed +already may be imparted by an identical group of tools. The work is, of +course, continuous in this respect that the girl or boy is almost +constantly engaged with the attention of the holders as they reach the +end in regular short periods of ten to fifteen seconds. The hemp +ultimately reaches the end of the machine from which it started, but in +a different plane, and is withdrawn from the holder to be replaced by an +undressed piece. + +Until a comparatively short time ago all the above operations of feeding +were done by hand as explained, but most modern hackling machines have +now attached automatic mechanism for performing these functions. The +machine in Fig. 19 is provided with this automatic screwing and +unscrewing mechanism. One attendant introduces the pieces of hemp +between the plates of the holder when such plates have been separated by +the apparatus, but from this point all the operations, including the +removal of the holder, the turning of the piece of hemp, the unscrewing +and screwing of the nuts, and the insertion of the holder with the +unhackled ends downwards into the second channel, are performed by this +ingenious group of automatic machinery. The design of such machinery +differs with different machine makers, but very similar principles are +embodied in all. The ends of the hackling machine frame are in all cases +substantially made so that all parts may give the minimum amount of +trouble in actual work. + +The size of the pieces which are held by the holder and acted upon by +the tools during the operation of hackling will depend upon the class of +yarn to which the fibre has to be spun. As a general rule, the pieces +for rope and twine yarns are arranged so that there are two to four per +pound; in other words, the pieces are from ¼ lb. to ½ lb. each. It must +be remembered that the finer the quality of yarn desired, the more +hackling must take place, and hence it will be necessary to use a +hackling machine with finer tools, and also to employ more tools in a +row. + +As a general rule the best yield of fibre is obtained when the maximum +number of tools are used, but at the same time it is necessary that the +grading of the pins or hackles in such tools should be judiciously +chosen in order that the splitting or cutting should be gradual, and +thus exercise a less violent action on the fibre than would obtain with +an indifferent grading. + +In addition to the grading of the pins, advantage may also be taken of +what is known as the “grouping,” that is, the order in which the pins +are arranged on the tools. The grouping is of the greatest value in the +coarser-pitched tools, and although some hackling experts prefer to have +the pins in two rows on the finest tools, the Authors consider that when +all the pins in the finer tools are in one row, the work is done better +for the line, and the tow produced is of good quality, while such an +arrangement offers the best and most economical facilities for keeping +the tools in good condition. A good arrangement of grading and grouping +on ten tools may give a greater variation in the splitting or cutting +than would result from an indifferent arrangement of grading and +grouping on a larger number of tools. + +Three different arrangements of grading appear below-- + + Number of pins per inch width of tool + ─────────────────────────────────────────────────── + ¼ ½ ¾ 1 1½ 2 4 6 8 10 = 10 tools + ⅛ ¼ ⅓ ½ ⅔ 1 1½ 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 = 14 „ + ⅛ ⅙ ¼ ⅓ ½ ⅔ 1 1½ 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 = 16 „ + +All modern hackling machines should be arranged to give the best +possible yield of line, and also of tow, from the material which is in +process, since by this effort an increase in the relative value of the +finished article is obtained, and a highly-valued product secured at a +comparatively low cost of manufacture. + +As the pieces of hackled hemp are delivered from the hackling machine, +they are made up into suitably-sized bundles and conveyed to the line +store. + +A record of all the materials in the various stages of manufacture is +kept in the books of the respective departments, and such records can +quickly be referred to at any time by those who are responsible for the +production of the various classes of goods which are being made. + +As already indicated, certain classes of hemp may be so clean when +purchased, that they can be used for some types of cordage yarns without +any preliminary hackling, and goods made in this way may compete +favourably with those made by processes which include hackling. The +object aimed at in these cases is usually one of price and not exactly +of quality, for when the latter is the predominating condition, the +superior value is attached to the yarns made from hackled fibre. +Nevertheless, when it is simply a question of equivalent suitability for +specific purposes, and when approximate values are obtainable by the two +methods of manufacture, the conditions offer a choice which is of +extreme importance at those times when the available suitable fibre for +either method is scarce, or when either is very abundant. + +Although the above choice presents itself for the cases mentioned, it +will be understood that for the better grades of cordage one must employ +either a very high grade of cleaned hemp, or a grade of hemp which has +been hackled and cleaned by hand or by suitable kinds of machines. + +In very special cases, _e.g._, high-class threads and cord yarns, where +great strength and uniformity are desired, it has been found advisable +to prepare the fibre entirely by a system of “hand dressing.” The hand +method lends itself naturally to more careful selective treatment. It +should, however, be stated that it is not usual to adopt this method +except for the production of a comparatively small quantity of fine +yarns, that is, thin yarns. Sewing twines and cords should be level and +strong, but not necessarily fine, unless for the finest class of work +into which these threads are to be introduced, as, for example, in the +glove industry in which case the fibre used is often flax. These finer +grades of threads and twines, as well as the finer classes of cordage, +may require the whole range of operations to produce the finest and +cleanest product consistent with the work for which it is intended to be +used, although, as stated, the hand hackling may be employed for the +flax intended for use in the manufacture of fine thin yarns, whereas, it +is preferable to employ machine hackling for the equally valuable but +thicker yarns. From this stage, however, the operations for the +continuation of the processes of manufacture from the two distinct types +of dressed line are conducted mechanically. + +In perhaps the most extensive scheme of hackling there is a combination +of hand and machine work. The first operation is termed “Roughing,” and +consists of drawing the pieces of hemp or flax through a set of hackle +pins arranged or grouped in a wooden block, and termed a “Rougher’s +Tool.” This operation, when correctly performed, leaves the fibres +practically parallel, their ends approximately in line with each other, +and separates these long fibres from the shorter ones which are left +amongst the hackle pins, and which are removed regularly to be +ultimately used as “tow” in what is known as the “carding” process. +These long, partially-combed and split fibres are now taken to the +hackling machine to undergo a further treatment of combing and splitting +as already briefly described. Finally, when the pieces leave the +hackling machine they have to undergo for a second time a hand process +of hackling which is termed “Sorting and Selecting,” after which the +material is made up into a bundle. + +It is obvious that such an extensive scheme of hackling is not only slow +but also costly, and is attempted only for the most valuable raw +materials to be used for costly finished goods such as fishing lines, +fine cords, and for valuable threads which are used in the glove, +leather and cognate industries. + +It will thus be seen that there are in reality three distinct methods of +preparing the fibres into the product known as “line,” and the finished +product thus obtained then passes through a series of machines, termed a +“system,” in which the fibres are first arranged in such a way as to +form a continuous thin and broad ribbon termed a “sliver,” then into a +more or less circular and slightly-twisted form termed a “rove,” and +ultimately into a much finer circular and twisted form termed a “yarn” +or “single thread.” Rope and heavy cordage yarns are often made by a +simpler process than that just enumerated. The operations which these +yarns or single threads subsequently undergo will be discussed at the +proper place. In the meantime we purpose mentioning the different +machines, and then briefly to describe and illustrate these machines +which jointly form what we have called a “system.” + + ────────────────────┬────────────────────┬─────────────────────── + System I for Fine │ System II for │ System III for Common + Classes of Line │ Heavier Line │ Yarns from Tow. + Yarn. │ Yarns. │ + ────────────────────┼────────────────────┼─────────────────────── + Spread Board │ Spread Board │ Carding Machine + │ │ + Sett Frame │ Sett Frame │ Drawing Frames + │ │ + Drawing Frame │ Finishing Drawing │ Roving Frame + │ Frame │ + │ │ + Roving and Gill │ Automatic Spinning │ Dry Spinning or + Spinning │ │ Automatic Spinning + │ │ + Dry Spinning │ │ + ────────────────────┴────────────────────┴─────────────────────── + +The machine known as the “spread-board” is so called because the +function which it performs is the mechanical sequel to the manual +operation which was conducted somewhat as follows: A board about 9 ft. +long was covered with an even layer of the pieces of hackled flax or +hemp so arranged that each succeeding piece partially overlapped the one +immediately before it much in the same way, so far as overlapping is +concerned, as obtains with the scales of a fish or the parts of a fir +cone. One operative would place his hands on the material thus arranged, +while another operative would draw forward the material, reducing it in +girth but increasing it in length, by causing some of the fibres, and +all of them in turn, to slide a distance on their neighbouring fibres. +At the same time the drawn-out material would be kept as uniform as +possible in thickness, and the operation would be continued until the +thin drawn-out length was probably five to ten times the length of the +more bulky material which was originally laid as explained on the board. + +The modern technical term for this elongation or attenuation of groups +of fibres is “drafting,” and the dual operation described above is now +performed in the modern spread-board, the delivery end of one of which +is illustrated in Fig. 20. + + [Illustration: FIG. 20 + SPREAD BOARD] + +The use of the spread-board is rendered necessary because the pieces of +material from the hackling machine are made up of individual and +comparatively short lengths of fibre, and the essential object for the +satisfactory continuation of the processes of manufacture is to convert +these short lengths into a continuous length termed a “sliver.” + +The pieces of hemp or the like are first weighed in a balance near the +feed end of the machine, and are then arranged by hand on narrow endless +travelling belts, termed “spread leathers,” so that the thin end of one +piece of hemp is overlapped by the thick end of the next piece and so +on. These “spread leathers” form the moving bases of narrow channels, +the sides of which keep the pieces of hemp in their own channel. But +instead of only one row of moving fibres or pieces as in the primitive +process, there may be four or six of the above-mentioned channels. + +The neatly-arranged pieces in each channel are carried forward slowly +but continuously, each group by its own endless belt, until all the +groups reach the first pair of rollers called the back or retaining +rollers. After the pieces leave these rollers they are penetrated by a +large number of pins or hackles arranged on what are known as “gills” or +“fallers.” There may be four or six gills on each faller, and the +fallers rise in turn to cause the pins to enter the narrow sheets of +fibres, to join the faller which immediately preceded it, and to move +along with the majority of the fallers in a body towards the drawing +rollers. In the spread-board illustrated in Fig. 20 there are four +channels, and therefore four pressing rollers in contact with the +drawing roller which extends the full width of the machine; all the four +pressing rollers are distinctly shown near the upper part of the +illustration. + +It will be understood that the four narrow sheets of fibres will +ultimately reach the drawing and pressing rollers, and since the surface +speed of these rollers is much greater than that of the back or +retaining rollers, the fibres which are clear of the grip of the +retaining rollers will slide on those whose movements are restrained by +the rollers and gill pins, and since there is always a quantity thus +liberated, the draft is accomplished according to the relative speeds of +the two sets of rollers. The effective contact between the rollers for +drafting is obtained by means of levers two of which are shown near the +floor and to the right of the sliver can in Fig. 20. + +The gills or fallers are moved forward by spirals or screws and at +practically the same surface speed as the “spread leathers” and the +retaining rollers; as each faller reaches its full forward position, it +is caused to move downward and then backward in a lower plane, and +ultimately to rise again to enable the pins to enter into a fresh +portion of the sheet of fibres; after this cycle is completed, the same +functions are repeated while the machine remains in motion. + +The four slivers which leave the drawing and pressing rollers unite into +two pairs through the medium of doubling plates; one pair of slivers +thus united is guided to a conductor, and then passes between the +delivery rollers and into a sliver can shown in the foreground of Fig. +20, while the other pair, part only of which appears in the +illustration, follows a similar course into a neighbouring sliver can. + +The extent to which the fibres are drawn out in the spread-board, that +is, the draft of the material, varies from about ten to twenty. + +The gradual tendency to call into action mechanical parts to perform +work which was originally done by hand is further emphasized in the +latest attempt to feed the above-mentioned short pieces of hemp or the +like automatically from the hackling machine to the spread-board. This +ingenious device, the invention of Mr. Joshua Eves, of Belfast, carries +the hackled pieces from the holders of the hackling machine and lays +them on the “spread leather” in the channel, and, in addition, it is +provided with a regulating device to preserve as near as possible +uniformity in the thickness of the resulting sliver which, as usual, is +delivered into sliver cans as already described. + +Even with the greatest care, the most efficient type of machine and the +finest stage of hackled fibre, it is practically impossible to achieve +an absolutely uniform sliver. In order, therefore, to approach a +practicable ideal sliver, it is usual to resort to a process of +“doubling” and a further operation of drawing; indeed, the next machine +to which the slivers pass is termed a “drawing frame.” Before dealing +with this machine, however, it is desirable to discuss another distinct +method of forming the initial sliver from fibrous material. + +In general, the sliver prepared by the spread-board is intended for the +production of level and high quality yarns, but it is evident that, +during the operations of scutching and hackling, a certain quantity of +the shorter fibres will become detached from the main body of the +strick. These shorter fibres, termed tow, are not only weaker than the +line fibres but are also accompanied by impurities which must be removed +in the subsequent operations; they are graded according to quality, and +ultimately treated by a distinct method which, however, prepares them +into a sliver very similar to that which emerges from the delivery +rollers of the above-described spread-board. Then, as already mentioned, +the after processes for both types of sliver are practically identical. + +The conversion of this tow into a sliver takes place in what is known as +a “carding” machine. This is a particular construction of a general type +of machine which is used for the same purpose in most textile trades +where comparatively short fibres have to be converted into sliver form. + +The function which the card--a contraction for carding machine--performs +is to split up the fibres and to lay them parallel with their +neighbours; for this purpose the machine is provided with a series of +rollers which are covered or clothed with sharp pointed pins, the size, +direction and inclination of which depend upon the particular work which +each set has to perform. A set of cards comprises two or more machines +each of which differs slightly from the others, and invariably arranged +so that succeeding machines in a set are provided with finer clothing, +_i.e._, smaller and shorter pins and more closely set. The simplest set +is where two machines are involved, the first one termed a “Breaker +Card,” and the second one termed a “Finisher Card.” In both machines a +series of comparatively small rollers, say from 8 to 20 in. diameter, +and covered with pins, are arranged partially round and close to a large +central roller of 4 to 5 ft. diameter, also covered with pins and termed +a cylinder. The general appearance of the machines will be gathered from +the two rows in Fig. 21; the nearest machine on the left shows the +delivery side of a breaker card where the sliver is delivered into a +can; the nearest machine on the right illustrates both feed and delivery +sides of a finisher card. + + [Illustration: FIG. 21 + BREAKER AND FINISHER CARDS] + +The tow, which has been previously softened, is laid as evenly as +possible on a travelling endless sheet by means of which the fibrous +material is carried to the pins of the “feed roller” which rotates very +slowly and at the same surface speed as the feed sheet. Immediately the +material emerges from the feed rollers, or feed roller and “shell,” it +is acted upon by a series of hackle pins projecting from the periphery +of the cylinder, and moving at a surface speed of more than 2,000 ft. +per minute. The fibres are therefore combed and carried off the pins of +the feed roller by the pins of the cylinder to a series of rollers +arranged in pairs, each pair consisting of a “worker” and a “stripper.” +When the fibres on the pins of the cylinder reach the first pair of +worker and stripper, the bulk of the material is carded and ultimately +returned to the pins of the cylinder to be carried to the next pair of +rollers, and so on, until it has been sufficiently equalized and cleaned +for the particular yarn into which it is to be made. + +By this time the uneven fibres have been considerably reduced in +thickness, and have indeed been converted into a thin wide film or sheet +of fibrous material, and in this state it is removed from the pins of +the cylinder by the pins of a “doffing roller” or “doffer.” The thin, +broad film of fibres now enters between a pair of drawing rollers--seen +near the top of the machine on the left in Fig. 21--and into the upper +and wide part of an almost vertical tin conductor. The width of this +conductor decreases from the upper to the lower end, and ultimately its +width is contracted to about 3 in. where the contracted sheet, now much +thicker and about 3 in. wide, is in the well-known form of a sliver. The +sliver emerges from the mouth of the conductor, enters between the +delivery rollers and ultimately drops into a sliver can in a very +similar manner to that depicted in Fig. 20. + +About ten or twelve of these sliver cans from the breaker card are now +transferred across the space, termed a “pass,” to the feed of the +finisher card on the right of Fig. 21. These ten or twelve slivers are +fed into this machine and they undergo a further and similar treatment +with from four to six pairs of rollers, and finally the finished and +single sliver is delivered into a can near the side of the machine. In +both machines the material is drafted according to requirements.[1] + +We have thus arrived by two several ways at the production of a +continuous sliver. Both types of sliver pass next to what is known as a +“Drawing Frame,” or rather to a set of drawing frames, usually termed, +first drawing, second drawing, third drawing, and so on, if more than +three are employed. + +The machines used for the two kinds of slivers are practically identical +in principle and construction, the only difference being that provision +is made to suit the lengths of fibres of which the respective slivers +are formed; in technical phraseology the “reach” for the line sliver is +longer than the “reach” for the tow sliver and is, approximately, +proportional to the maximum length of fibres which compose the two types +of sliver. + +It will be understood that, in general, the ultimate aim is the +production of a thread of some kind, the sectional area of which is less +than that of the sliver which is produced either at the spread-board or +the finisher card. And it will be obvious that if we unite two or more +slivers at the feed side of the “Drawing Frame” we increase the +thickness or volume proportionately; hence, if the sliver which is +delivered from the drawing frame is required to be smaller in volume +than any of the single slivers which enter the machine, and this is +generally the case, although not universally so, the process of drawing +out the fibres, or drafting, must be continued. In the first drawing +frame uniformity is chiefly the object, and it may happen that in the +combined processes of doubling and drafting it may be convenient to +produce in this frame a sliver of greater volume than the individual +slivers at the feed. In such cases, most of the drafting would take +place in the succeeding drawing frames. + +The first drawing frame is often termed a “Sett Frame,” and sometimes a +“Doubling Frame.” The first-named of the three owes its designation to +the process of attenuation or drafting, the second to the number of +slivers which in the process are employed to form one sliver, and the +third to the particular case where two slivers only are united. Although +the exact meaning of doubling is the combination of two slivers, the +same word is used however many slivers are combined in one group. + +The drawing frame has a great resemblance to the spread-board, so far as +the principles of the operations are concerned; it differs from it in +the fact that whereas the latter is fed by short detached lengths, the +former is fed by continuous slivers. + +The length of sliver which is delivered from the spread-board is +measured; this is accomplished by the size of one of the drawing rollers +and the necessary subsequent mechanism; these jointly cause a bell to +ring, or to move a hand over the face of a clock. The length thus +indicated is called the “bell or clock length,” and whichever system is +adopted, the operative receives a certain weight of material which must +be fed into the machine between two consecutive ringings of the bell, or +during the time that the clock hand makes one complete revolution. + +The cans are weighed as they are filled and the net weight of the sliver +marked on. After a sufficient number of cans have been filled, say +eight, averaging 20 lb. each, or 160 lb. in all, and the length of +sliver in each can, say 250 yd., eight cans are placed at the feed side +of the drawing frame. The average weight of the combined slivers on +entering the drawing frame is, therefore-- + + 160 lb. × 16 oz. per lb. + ──────────────────────── = approximately 10 oz. per yd. + 250 yd. length + +If the draft is, say 12, the 160 lb. of material when delivered in the +form of a single sliver will be-- + + 250 yards × 12 draft = 3,000 yd. + +Then-- + + 160 lb. × 16 oz. per lb. + ──────────────────────── = 0·85 of an ounce per yd. + 3,000 yd. of sliver + +The operation of drawing is conducted as in the spread-board by means of +retaining or back rollers, gills, drawing and pressing rollers. It +should be again pointed out that the distance between the retaining +rollers and the drawing rollers--termed the “reach”--should be regulated +by the length of the fibres under treatment, and should be greater than +the longest individual fibres, otherwise such fibres, instead of sliding +on those already held, would obviously be broken because the surface +speed of the drawing rollers is much greater than that of the retaining +rollers; in the case under notice the ratio is 12 to 1. + +The best scheme yet devised for filling up this intervening space +between the two pairs of rollers, and of providing support for the +moving fibres is that of the above-mentioned gills. The use of gills in +the machine is of great importance, for on the correct adaptation of the +gills to the material in process depends the degree of efficiency of the +machine. + +As the gills move from the retaining rollers towards the drawing rollers +in virtue of the action of suitable spiral or other mechanism, each +group forms a compact sheet or field of hackle pins, and this field of +pins regulates and restrains the movements of the fibres to the +requisite extent as the latter move amongst them due to the pulling +action of the drawing rollers. + +In this way each individual sliver in its own set of pins is reduced in +size, and any local defect in a sliver is calculated to be overshadowed +or eliminated when the said sliver joins the remainder of the slivers at +the “doubling plates” which are situated between the drawing and the +delivery rollers. The result is, therefore, a single sliver of greater +uniformity than any of the constituent slivers, such sliver being +smaller, equal to, or greater than, any of the individual slivers from +which it has been made according to the ratio of the doublings and +draft. + +A series of drawing frames in system as illustrated in Fig. 22, will +provide the necessary doubling and drafting, and so reduce the sliver to +a suitable size for use in any of the following yarn-forming or spinning +machines-- + +(_a_) The Roving Frame which would be used to convert the sliver into a +somewhat circular form, and simultaneously to wind this twisted sliver +on to a large two-ended bobbin ready for the spinning frame (dry +spinning). + +(_b_) The Gill Spinning Frame which is a machine by means of which very +high-class yarns can be produced with a perfect system of drafting and +twisting in one operation. + +(_c_) The Automatic Spinning Frame in which the heaviest class of +cordage yarn is spun by the simplest and most direct method. + + [Illustration: FIG. 22 + DRAWING FRAMES] + +The roving frame is one of the most complicated groups of mechanism and +one of the most perfect machines which is used in the whole system. Its +function is of a multiple type, for the mechanism of the machine not +only necessitates the use of retaining rollers, gills and drawing +rollers to effect a draft, but after the reduced sliver has been passed +through the delivery rollers, it introduces a certain amount of twist to +the sliver--incidentally making it somewhat circular in section--and +finally winds the twisted sliver, termed “rove,” on to a large bobbin. + +The method of drafting has already been briefly described, hence, no +recapitulation is necessary. The essential amount of twist for each +individual sliver is imparted by its own spindle, an upright rod which +rotates rapidly, and upon which the large bobbin runs or rotates +loosely, while attached to the top of the spindle is a “flyer” +resembling an elongated inverted U, thus: ⋂. Most of these parts are +clearly seen in Fig. 23, which represents, of course, the delivery side +of the machine. At the other side of the machine, the feed side, there +is a sliver can with its sliver for each thread and bobbin, the bobbins +being arranged in two rows upon discs in corresponding holes in the long +shelf, termed the “lifting rail,” the “builder rail,” or simply the +“builder.” + + [Illustration: FIG. 23 + ROVING FRAME] + +The extreme ends of the two legs of the flyer are bent to form or carry +eyes, and into one of these eyes the twisted sliver is passed, while +between this eye and the delivery rollers the sliver is centralized by +passing it through a guide eye. The function of the eye in the flyer is +that of guiding or winding the rove on to the bobbin, and this is made +possible because the bobbin itself is made to rise and fall between the +legs of the flyer through a distance equal to the length of the +bobbin--hence the necessity for the long legs of the flyer or inverted +U. + +The spindles and bobbins are driven independently and positively by +wheel gearing, and it is obvious that the rove must be wound on to the +bobbin at the same rate as it is produced. Since the speed of the +drawing and delivery rollers is constant, the delivery of the sliver is +constant, and so is the production of rove, although the length of rove +delivered is infinitesimally less than that of the sliver in virtue of +the small contraction which takes place during the twisting. If the +diameter of the rove on the bobbin always remained the same size, which +is obviously impossible, the revolutions of the bobbin would be +constant. But every layer of rove which is wound on to the bobbin by the +joint action of the rotating spindle, the rotating bobbin, and the +vertical movement of the bobbin on the builder, adds for each vertical +movement, up or down, one more layer of rove to the partially-filled or +empty bobbin, and thus increases the diameter of the combined bobbin and +rove. Hence it is necessary to impart what may be termed an intermittent +and variable motion to the bobbin; this is done by an exceptionally +unique and intricate group of mechanical parts termed the “differential +motion.” The function of the differential motion is to alter the speed +of the bobbin after each complete layer of rove has been wound on to it, +because it will be clear that when the direction of the builder is +changed, the winding of the rove is performed on a diameter which is +greater than the last by approximately twice the diameter of the rove. +The discs upon which the bobbins rest are provided with two vertical +pins which enter two of the holes in the flange of the bobbin, seen +clearly in the empty bobbins near the frame, and by means of which the +bobbins are driven at the desired speed. Accurate adjustment of the +parts is necessary, and a lengthy description with numerous line +drawings are essential to a clear understanding of this ingenious +mechanism.[2] + +SPINNING.--The bobbins filled with rove yarn, as illustrated in Fig. 23, +are ready to be removed or “doffed,” as the operation is technically +called, preparatory to being taken to some type of spinning frame where +a further extension or “draft” of the yarn takes place, and +simultaneously the finished product of the desired thickness or “count” +is wound upon a much smaller two-ended bobbin. + +A large-used type of dry spinning frame is illustrated in Fig. 24, and +this type of machine is usually employed for spinning yarns the “counts” +or “sizes” of which are represented by the numerals 3 to 16. Yarns which +happen to be of lower or higher count than these limits are produced on +other similar or different type of machine. + +In Fig. 24 the large rove bobbins are seen distinctly on projecting +pins--termed a creel--at the top of the machine. Each rove from its +bobbin, which can rotate freely on its peg, is passed between retaining +rollers, and over what is known as a “breast-plate,” through the +contracted groove of a “tin conductor,” between a pair of drawing +rollers, through a slot in the “thread-plate,” through an eye in one of +the legs of the flyer, and ultimately on to the bobbin which rotates on +a spindle upon the upper end of which the flyer is fixed. In +“long-reach” machines it may be necessary to use additional rods or +binders which act as auxiliary breast-plates. + + [Illustration: _By permission of the Edinburgh Roperie Co._ + FIG. 24 + DRY SPINNING FRAME] + +All the spindles on one side of the frame are individually driven by +flat tapes or round bands from a driving tin cylinder situated near the +floor and inside the frame as shown in Fig. 24, and driven direct from +the main pulley. The flat tape or band passes partially round this +cylinder, and then partially around a “whorl” or bobbin-shaped pulley of +about 1½ to 3 in. diameter on the spindle; these whorls and tapes are +seen clearly on the first three spindles in the illustration, and in the +same line as the “temper weights.” The latter hang from cords attached +to the back of the “builder” which imparts the up and down motion to the +bobbins during the operation of spinning, and so enables the yarns to be +distributed over the full length of the bobbin. The cord which is +attached to the temper weight is caused to bear on the grooved flange of +the bobbin, and by moving the cord into successive grooves or notches in +front of the builder as the bobbin fills, a greater part of the groove +is acted upon by the cord and weight, and thus the drag is increased. + +Demi-sec spinning, as the name implies, refers to a process between dry +spinning and wet spinning. In the demi-sec frames a slight quantity of +water is added to the drawn-out and partially-twisted threads as the +latter pass from the drawing rollers to the flyers. The purpose of this +moisture is to smooth and lay the hairs of fibre which would otherwise +project from the main body of the yarn as in the case of dry-spun yarns. +It is usual to apply this method of spinning to thread yarns. + +The draft necessary for converting the rove to the desired size or count +of yarn is regulated by changing the value of the gearing, the wheels of +which are enclosed in the oval covering at the end of the view in Fig. +24; near this covering is also seen the heart-shaped cam, lever and rod +which are used for operating the builder. + +GILL SPINNING.--In the ordinary spinning frame the material supplied is +from rove bobbins, but in the gill spinning machine, the material is +supplied as a sliver from a sliver can, one for each spindle. The gill +spinner has a drawing head similar to that in a roving frame, and the +spindles and flyers are usually driven by bands. The machine used for +gill spinning might be compared with a roving frame with or without the +winding motion or differential gear. + + [1] For an exhaustive description of Carding see the Authors’ work on + _Jute and Jute Spinning: Part I_. + + [2] Readers who are sufficiently interested in this and several other + machines which are briefly described in this work, might consult the + following works of the Authors, which are at present appearing + serially, and which will be published in book form when completed: + “_Jute and Jute Spinning_”: _The Textile Manufacturer_; “_Flax and + Flax Spinning_”: _The Textile Recorder_. + + + + + CHAPTER VIII + + THE PREPARING AND SPINNING MACHINERY FOR MANILA AND OTHER HARD FIBRES + + +The method of producing yarns from the hard fibres involves the use of +quite different machines in the preparatory processes; this departure is +necessary on account of the nature of the material and the length of the +raw fibre. + +The bales of raw material, Manila, Sisal, New Zealand, or the like, but +all from one type in general, are arranged in a convenient position near +the feed of the first machine which is called a “Hackler and Spreader,” +and one type of which is illustrated in Fig. 25. The bales which are +grouped together for this first treatment are chosen from different +“marks” or grades of fibre in order to mix them to secure uniformity and +to produce yarns of a given quality at the desired price. + + [Illustration: FIG. 25 + HACKLER AND SPREADER] + +The heads of material are split up into suitable and uniform stricks, +and when various classes are to be mixed it is essential that +proportionate quantities should be drawn from the various bales in the +“batch” or blend, and fed proportionately and uniformly on to the feed +sheet of the machine. The feed sheet conveys the stricks slowly towards +and ultimately between a pair of retaining and feed rollers, and when +the material emerges from these rollers it is acted upon by a series of +large hackle pins fixed in a chain of fallers or bars. These pins move +at twice the speed of the feed and retaining rollers, and this relative +movement enables the pins to hackle and open out the stricks. The +partially-hackled stricks are now conveyed to a second chain of fallers +and hackles which move at a much greater speed than that of the first +hackles; it is here where most of the drawing takes place, and the +material as it leaves these hackles is in the form of a thin sheet of +fibres which enters a pair of drawing rollers. Finally, the material is +delivered on to the floor in the form of a sliver and at the opposite +end of the machine. + +The bundles of sliver are conveyed to another machine, termed the +intermediate machine, where further processes of equalization and +drawing take place. In this, and in any subsequent machine of the same +type, of which there may be three or four, the slivers are fed as +illustrated on the left of Fig. 26, while several lengths of slivers +appear in the foreground. After the drawing and hackling operations, the +sliver is delivered as illustrated. These processes prepare suitable +slivers for the remainder of the operations which are somewhat similar +to those which are used for the soft fibres, although the “reach” in the +machines for the hard fibres is very much longer than that necessary for +the soft fibres. In the final preparing machine, the sliver is delivered +into sliver cans which are then taken to the automatic spinning frame. + + [Illustration: FIG. 26 + INTERMEDIATE MACHINE] + +AUTOMATIC SPINNING MACHINES.--A row of automatic spinning machines is +illustrated in Fig. 27. The slivers from the last drawing frame are +placed at the feed, one sliver can with its length of sliver for each +machine. The sliver is passed through the first conductor, situated +about a yard above the sliver can, and then between a pair of feed +rollers seen to the right of the machine. From here the sliver is +deflected to the proper bell-mouth conductor and to the long stretch or +reach of gill pins shown clearly in the view. On emerging from the gill +pins, the sliver passes through a nipping die and thence to the enclosed +flyer from which it is wound on to the bobbin. + + [Illustration: FIG. 27 + AUTOMATIC SPINNING MACHINE] + +The drafting is accomplished by a series of rollers or pulleys which +draw the fibres through the gill pins and the nipping die, while the +twist is imparted as usual by the flyers which revolve at about 1,400 +revolutions per minute. The flyers are now enclosed in a safety cage of +about the same width as the name plate. + +The yarns thus spun are built upon large steel-ended bobbins which, when +filled, may be conveyed direct to the transferring or warping machines +where the yarns are prepared for further treatment, if and when any +further treatment is necessary, or to the rope machines. Thus, if the +yarns are to be made up into a tarred rope, it is necessary to prepare +them into a suitable form for the tarring operation. This usually takes +the form of a warp, and such warps are most satisfactorily made on a +warping mill or winding reel. It is usual to run twelve threads from +twelve bobbins and to make the warp a suitable size by continuing the +operation of warping in the same way as is done for warps which are to +be woven in a loom. + +The warp is then passed through a tarring machine in which the tar, +usually Russian or Swedish, is kept warm during the operation. After the +necessary amount of tar has been applied, it is usual to store the warps +of yarn for a lengthened period, say up to six months, to condition +them. The individual yarns from these warps are then rewound on to +twelve large bobbins in what is known as a 12-bobbin vertical +spindle-winding machine. + + + + + CHAPTER IX + + TWINES, CORDS AND LINES + + +There are many instances in which yarns made by the foregoing operations +are incorporated in twines, cords and ropes, while, on the other hand, +special types of machinery are utilized to manufacture certain grades of +such goods with an entirely different system of machinery. It is in +connection with the latter branch that this chapter will for the most +part treat, but, before dealing with these machines for specific +purposes, we might just say that there are huge quantities of yarn spun +by the methods already described, and the single yarn so spun is then +twisted so that the resulting compound may contain two single threads +twisted together, or any other greater number twisted either in one +operation, or two or more separate operations, to obtain the desired +type of cordage. In many cases the yarns have to be bleached before they +are twisted, and Fig. 28 illustrates the drying of bleached yarns. + + [Illustration: FIG. 28 + DRYING BLEACHED YARNS] + +The terms twine, cord and rope all indicate to the textile technologist +a multiple structure, that is, an article in which two or more single +threads are united by the process known as doubling, folding or +twisting. + +Thus, in the manufacture of twines, of which there is a great variety, +the process is a comparatively simple one. A number of bobbins are +arranged on pins in a creel somewhat similarly to those illustrated in +the spinning frame in Fig. 24. The requisite yarns, from 2, 3, 4 ... n +bobbins, for the type of twine in process are led from the bobbins +through an eye or guide or through a “register plate,” then between a +pair of drawing rollers, and thence to the flyer and spindle as in the +spinning operation. As the spindle and flyer rotate, the group of single +yarns are drawn through the guide or eye, or through the register plate +by the drawing rollers, and the necessary amount of twist applied before +the finished product is wound on to the bobbin. The amount of twist, or +the technical term “twist per inch,” is fixed by the speed of the +spindle and the delivery of the yarn by the drawing rollers. In other +words we have-- + + revs. per min. of spindle + ───────────────────────────────── = the number of turns per + delivery of twine in in. per min. in. or the twist per in. + +There is this difference between spinning and doubling or twisting; when +a thread breaks in spinning, the supply of yarn to the bobbin ceases, +and the production from that spindle stops until the broken thread is +repaired; on the other hand, when two or more threads are being twisted +together and wound on to a bobbin, it is evident that if one thread +breaks the supply is not stopped entirely, but the product is defective +because it is short of that yarn. In order to prevent the production of +faulty goods and to minimize waste, it is a common practice to introduce +delicate mechanical parts to such frames, the function of which parts is +to stop the delivery of yarn to any spindle in connection with which any +of the constituent threads are broken. A frame so fitted is said to have +an “Automatic Thread Stop Motion.” + +In many cases the twines made by the above process are taken to another +machine in which a number of bobbins are again arranged on pins, the +twines passed under rollers and immersed in polishing mixtures of starch +or size contained in troughs or boxes. A quantity of the size adheres to +the twines as they pass through it, and revolving brushes are used to +remove the excess of size and to clean the twines. These operations are +repeated a few times and ultimately the twines so starched, cleaned and +polished are led over drying cylinders in front of which are placed +rollers covered with suitable material, usually coir yarns. These +rollers rotate at a high speed, and sometimes wax is applied to the coir +yarn-covered rollers, so that the twines are dried, polished and +finished simultaneously before they leave the hot cylinders to be wound +on to a second set of empty bobbins. This machine is usually termed a +“bobbin to bobbin polishing machine,” and the bobbins upon which the +twine is finally wound are frictionally driven because the delivery of +twine is constant. In this way the requisite finish or polish is applied +to the surface of the twine, and this gives the twine the smart +appearance which makes it quite attractive. + +In the operation of twisting single yarns, that is, in the roving frame +and in the spinning frame, it is usual to impart what is known as a +“right twist.” Thus, if one looks down on a spinning or roving spindle +and the direction of rotation is clockwise, then the twist imparted is +right hand. On the other hand, if, when viewed from the same position, +the spindle rotates counter-clockwise, the definition is “reverse” or +left-hand twist. When two single threads of right-hand twist are +combined in twisting as in the formation of the above-mentioned twines, +it is usual for the doubling or twisting spindles to rotate +counter-clockwise. This is done for practical reasons which need not be +discussed here, but, although this is the usual way, there are cases in +the twisting of textile threads where two right-hand twists are combined +with the same direction of twist. Some such definition as the above will +help considerably to elucidate the structure of more complicated +multiple-twist cords. + +CORDS.--In the manufacture of cords, three or more twines are combined. +Thus, if three twines, each of reverse or left-hand twist and made from +two single yarns of right-hand twist, are combined together by a further +process of twisting, it is usual to apply a right-hand twist to these +three two-ply twines. When treated in this way, the finished article is +termed a cord which is “cable laid.” And, in general, in the twisting of +such cords, each successive twisting operation is in the opposite +direction to that which immediately preceded it. + +Whip-cords, fishing lines and window-blind cords are typical of this +structure which, in general, involves the use of complicated machinery +or else a long rope walk. The single yarns are first made into twines +and finished as already described; afterwards the necessary number of +twines to form the cable-laid cord are united. + +The operation is a costly one when compared with the simpler process of +twine making, but the cable-laid cord is a much more handsome product +than the twine, and is admirably adapted for purposes where a smart +compact and ornamental structure is desired or necessary. + +BOX CORD.--Box cord is a very simple form of cordage, the method of +manufacture being quite different from that of the foregoing laid cords. +In the box-cord process there are two distinct groups of twisting +operations conducted simultaneously. The single threads, of which there +may be from two to eight, receive the necessary additional twist by a +corresponding number of flyers which differ in shape, however, from the +ones in roving and ordinary spinning in that they are known as enclosed +flyers. While these individual threads are being twisted, the several +yarns converge towards, and pass direct to, the eye of another enclosed +flyer which completes the process by twisting the component threads in +the opposite direction to that imparted to the single threads by the two +to eight different flyers. It should be mentioned that the building of +the completed box-cord on the bobbin is accomplished by suitable +mechanism attached to the flyer. + +The machine is comparatively simple, and the attendants need little +experience beyond that of detecting broken threads and repairing them. +It need hardly be pointed out that the omission of a thread from the +requisite number in the group for the finished cord is a fault the +prevention of which constitutes one of the chief duties of the +attendant. The finished product is termed two-ply, three-ply, ... +eight-ply box-cord according to the number of single yarns which are +utilized. Practically all classes of fibre are used in the manufacture +of these goods, and this method of twisting is largely adopted for the +making up of comparatively light cords from fairly heavy sizes of yarn. +The product is used extensively for tying boxes and large packages and +thus serves the purpose of a light rope which is a more expensive +article. + +PLAITING OR BRAIDING.--Special classes of lines and cords are now made +on a machine of an ingenious design. One of the advantages of this +machine is the fact that great lengths of line can be made; indeed, +there is practically no limit to the length which may be made beyond +that of the difficulty of handling the huge size of the finished +product. + +The machine, which is complicated and costly in its upkeep, is used +extensively for the production of log lines, sash cords, and a large +variety of blind cords. The requisite number of threads for the cord are +wound on a suitable number of bobbins, and the latter are placed in +carriers in the machine. The yarns or twines are passed over or across +each other in such a way that they are locked in position and in the +well-known plaited form which is characteristic of this class of goods. +This scheme of interlocking is formed by an even number of groups of +threads, usually eight or more, and the movements of these groups, or +rather the bobbins which contain them, are practically identical with +the familiar “grand-chain” in circle dances practised by children and +also by grown-up persons. Alternate bobbins move sinuously round a +circle in one direction, while the remaining alternate bobbins move +similarly in the opposite direction. Each bobbin passes those in the +other group first on the left and then on the right of a circle whose +path is the centre of the two sinuous paths described by the two sets of +bobbins. + +The continuous movements of the two sets of bobbins in each machine form +the elegant cord which, when plaited, passes through a guide eye in the +centre of the circle but in a higher plane. From this eye the cord rises +to a pair of hauling-winch pulleys around which it passes a few times +forming the figure 8. Finally, the cord passes between a pair of +delivery rollers into a large box at the back of the machine. The +hauling-winch pulleys and the drawing rollers, which combined give the +necessary firmness, are driven positively and accurately so that their +surface speeds may coincide with the amount of cord which is formed at +the guide eye. + + + + + CHAPTER X + + ROPES AND ROPE MAKING; YARN NUMBERING + + +A considerable quantity of the smaller-sized ropes are now made on what +are termed “house machines.” These machines perform the same function as +those in the rope-walk but they occupy a much smaller space; they are +adapted to deal with a great range of sizes although, in general, it is +not necessary to use one machine for a large range of work; there is +such a variety of ropes in use that in a well-equipped rope works it is +possible to keep each machine almost constantly on ropes within a small +range of size. These remarks refer, as indicated, to ropes which come +within the limit of, say 2 to 3 in. in circumference. In the manufacture +of the larger sizes of ropes, it is usual to use two distinct machines, +one termed the “strander,” and the other the “closer,” and, although the +house-machine made ropes are often considered inferior to those made in +the rope-walk, many of the objections urged against the untarred ropes +made in the house-machine are more imaginary than real. + +Fig. 29 is illustrative of a number of machines of a type used for the +making of ropes in which twelve to forty-five threads may be combined in +one operation during the manufacture of a three-strand or a four-strand +rope. The bobbins are placed in creel flyers of which there may be three +or four according as the rope is to be a three-strand or a four-strand +one. The creel flyers are composed of two parts, one of which carries +the bobbins, and the other carries the hauling and twisting gear. All +the three or the four strands are made at the same time; when formed, +they leave their respective flyers and converge towards the top and the +die or central tube where they are formed into a rope by the proper +degree of twist according to the purpose for which the rope is to be +used. Finally, the finished rope is drawn forward by a series of hauling +pulleys which also conduct the rope to the winding-on reel or bobbin, +and by suitable mechanism the rope is wound into a temporary form of +coil. As the bobbins are filled with rope they are removed from the +machine and conveyed to special coiling machines where they are measured +when necessary as they are made up into coils suitable for the +particular purposes desired. A common length of coil is 120 fathoms. + + [Illustration: _By permission of the Edinburgh Roperie Co._ + FIG. 29 + ROPE-MAKING (HOUSE MACHINES)] + +Although the various house machines represent the latest developments in +the art of stranding and closing--the two essential operations of rope +making--a modern rope and cordage works is provided not only with the +various machines which have been illustrated and described, but also +with a well-equipped rope-walk so that the products may include a great +variety of cordage from the finest lines to the mammoth ropes for ships, +steamers, harbours and heavy hauling purposes generally. + +The combination of the house machines and the modern rope-walk makes +present arrangements very complete when compared with the old type of +rope-walk, but the apparatus employed in these old rope-walk machines +embodies all the principles of construction which are present in the new +machines for the same class of work. + +Rope-walks are, naturally, long, narrow buildings because the full +length of the rope is in one stretch. + +The work which is conducted in such places and the type of building is +admirably portrayed in the first three verses of Longfellow’s poem-- + + THE ROPE-WALK. + + In that building long and low, + With its windows all a row, + Like the port-holes of a hulk, + Human spiders spin and spin, + Backward down their threads so thin, + Dropping, each, a hempen bulk. + + At the end an open door; + Squares of sunshine on the floor + Light the long and dusky lane; + And the whirling of the wheel, + Dull and drowsy, makes me feel + All its spokes are in my brain. + + As the spinners to the end + Downward go and re-ascend, + Gleam the long threads in the sun; + While within this brain of mine + Cobwebs brighter and more fine + By the busy wheel are spun. + +At the top of the rope-walk is a stand or bank which contains the +bobbins of yarn, and this yarn may be dry or tarred according to +requirements. The bobbins are arranged on pins and the necessary number +of yarns for each strand are drawn from the bobbins and passed, in their +proper order for ensuring a uniform strand, through a number of holes in +a “register plate” immediately behind the machine. In a modern machine +any number of strands up to six can be formed at the same time, and +hence there will be six register plates for the yarns. For the +larger-sized ropes only one strand can be drawn out in one operation. + +A machine termed a “traveller,” is employed to draw out the strands, and +this machine is provided with a series of hooks as well as a central +spindle. The strands may be attached as required either to the hooks or +to the spindle. A rope-driving gear causes this traveller to move on +rails down the walk and for the distance required, and it will be +evident that as the traveller recedes from the bank it will draw the +groups of threads from the bobbins and through the register plates; at +the same time the several hooks are caused to rotate, and thus each +strand is twisted and hauled simultaneously. + +When the traveller has moved backwards or downwards for the necessary +distance to form the length of strand, the strands are removed from the +hooks and attached to suitable supports until a sufficient number has +been made for closing or laying-up. + +To form the strands into a rope, it is essential to use a fixed or +stationary machine along with the traveller and a top-cart. The +stationary machine is substantially built, and, _inter alia_, is +provided with a central spindle around which are grouped a set of +hooks--usually in sections of two circles. Two wheels on the central +spindle drive a number of pinions, one behind each hook, the ratio of +one wheel to half the pinions is 34 to 16, while the ratio of the other +wheel to the other half of the pinions is 54 to 11. Thus, the +revolutions may be-- + + 1 to 1 when the strand is on the central spindle, + 34 to 16 or approx. 2 to 1 when on large hooks, and + 54 to 11 „ „ 5 to 1 when on small hooks. + +When the necessary strands to form the rope are stretched between the +stationary machine and the traveller, an extra amount of twist is +imparted to each strand, an operation which is termed “hardening the +strand”; the amount of twist can be judged only by past experience, +although it is common to give instructions in the words “harden so many +fathoms”; at other times the strands are hardened until the threads form +a desired angle. In all cases the strands should be twisted equally so +that the same tensile stress is on each strand. After this twist has +been applied, all the strands are placed either on one of the hooks or +on the central spindle of the traveller. A top-shaped block is put into +position inside the three strands--this top is in full view in Fig. 30, +which, by the way, illustrates the laying of a 28-in. circumference +four-strand hawser with a central core--and the machines started for a +few revolutions. When the first make of the rope is formed, the top is +brought back to its proper place, a few pieces of rope, termed tails, +are placed round the newly-formed portion of the rope, and these may be +collected and held in position by a bar as shown; one of these tails was +removed when the photograph was taken in order to show the finished part +of the rope between the top-cart and the traveller. The traveller is now +braked to keep the rope taut while the rope-maker lays the strands, the +hooks of the stationary machine at the top of the walk as well as the +hooks on the traveller being rotated meanwhile at a speed which is +suitable for the make or lay of the rope. The hooks in the two machines +rotate relatively about 7 to 9 or 7 to 11. + + [Illustration: FIG. 30 + LAYING OF A FOUR-STRAND CABLE-LAID ROPE IN THE ROPE-WALK] + +When a hawser or cable-laid rope or a “trawl warp” is desired, the +formed ropes are again placed in position, and the whole routine +repeated, while if the warp is to consist of more than three strands, a +heart must be inserted, as exemplified in Fig. 30, upon which to lay or +build the strands. It will be understood that the view in Fig. 30 is the +interior of “a rope-walk,” and that the operative is looking towards the +top of the walk where the stationary machine is situated. + +After the laying is completed, the finished rope must be made into a +coil ready for transportation. The coiling machines are often in close +proximity to the house machine or the rope-walk, and for the coiling of +such ropes as that illustrated in Fig. 30, it is obvious that the +machine must be of substantial build. When such a large rope is complete +and ready for despatch, it resembles the 18-in. circumference mooring +rope in Fig. 31; this rope was 90 fathoms long and two tons weight, and +was coiled in about ten minutes by a machine specially designed for the +purpose. + + [Illustration: FIG. 31 + VIEWS OF LARGE AND MEDIUM-SIZED COILS OF ROPE] + +Rope driving has practically revolutionized the construction of modern +mills since ropes are used not only as a direct drive from the rope +pulley on the engine or motor shaft, but at many intermediate places, +and have replaced many installations of wheel-gearing. These +mill-driving ropes, which are invariably from 1½ to 2 in. in diameter, +are made extensively of cotton, hemp or manila. In exceptional cases +more than forty such ropes are used on the same pulley. The frontispiece +illustrates a rope drive in which seven ropes each of 1¾ in. diameter, +are utilized on the shaft of a motor for conveying the motion to a mill +shaft seen in the distance. Other ropes are seen in the next rope alley. +Somewhat similar ropes, but of a smaller diameter, are used for hauling +in the baling press illustrated in Fig. 15. + +There are several methods of numbering yarns, most of which involve a +direct relation between the weight and length. Thus, to quote six of the +most widely-practised methods in the textile industry we have + + Silk: count no. = the no. of hanks of 840 yards each in 1 lb. + Cotton: „ = „ hanks „ 840 „ „ „ 1 „ + Wool: „ = „ skeins „ 256 „ „ „ 1 „ + Worsted: „ = „ hanks „ 560 „ „ „ 1 „ + Linen: „ = „ leas „ 300 „ „ „ 1 „ + Jute: „ = the weight in lbs. of 14,400 yards + +Hemp is sometimes reckoned according to the linen system and sometimes +by the jute system. + +An entirely different method of counting or numbering obtains in regard +to ropes. The system of yarn numbering for ropes depends upon the number +of single yarns or threads required to make one strand of a 3-in. +3-strand rope. Thus, if 25 yarns are required to form such a strand, the +yarn is 25’s, while if 30 yarns were required for the same thickness of +strand, the yarn would be 30’s, and so on. The tube through which the +yarns are drawn is nearly half an inch bore. + +If the yarn number is multiplied by 5, the product represents the number +of yards of yarn in 1 lb. Thus, in the above 25’s yarn there are + + 25’s × 5 = 125 yd., or 375 ft. per lb. + +Ropes are usually designated by their circumferences in inches, and also +by the number of strands neglecting the heart if such is required. + + + + + CHAPTER XI + + MARKETING + + +It is essential in modern times that goods which are placed on the +market should be as attractive as it is possible to make them, and +cordage forms no exception to this rule. The acme of attraction may be +said to have been reached when a sale is effected more from appearance +than from any immediate want, and this is the ideal to be aimed at. No +detail which will make the goods attractive or memorable should be +omitted. Carelessly made-up goods are quickly noticed, and however high +may be the quality of the article, an indifferent make-up creates an +unfavourable impression which is difficult to remove. + +Little things, insignificant in themselves, often form the nucleus of +great undertakings. Mnemonic titles, trade names, distinctive labels and +the like are all adopted to safeguard the interests of the maker, to +guarantee his products, to spread his fame, and to keep his goods +constantly in the mind’s eye of the purchaser. + +Whilst no great effort is necessary to parcel up small articles in an +attractive form, it seems hardly possible to deal with bulky articles +with the same degree of success. Nevertheless, several of these heavy +and unhandy articles are elegantly made up as is emphasized by the coils +in Fig. 31. This is the usual way of making up ropes, and the size of +the coil depends partly upon the length of the rope, partly upon the use +to which it is to be put, and partly upon the thickness. If the ropes +are to be cut up into definite lengths, the coil will be a multiple of +that length; if otherwise, a common length of rope is 120 fathoms as +already stated. + +The smaller coils, and the better grades of larger coils, are often +enclosed in paper, while the larger ones are covered with wrappers of +suitable texture to ensure the arrival of the ropes in good condition at +their destination. The coils themselves are securely bound as +exemplified in Fig. 31 to prevent the displacement of the structure +during transit or handling, and, in addition, many of these large and +valuable ropes are entirely covered by a cheap rope binding. + +A large quantity of ropes, cords and twines are made into hanks or +“rands,” as they are termed, on a special machine. For short lengths +this method of making up is very compact, very neat and very convenient +for marketing. + +Binder twine is first made up into standard size balls which must fit +the boxes on the reaping and binding machines; afterwards they are +packed in bales ready for despatch. + +Other varieties of twine are made up in the same shape of balls as +above, but the sizes of the balls depend upon many circumstances. Large +quantities for the retail trade are made up into convenient sizes to +suit the twine boxes, and again many are made to a specified weight. + +It will thus be seen that a series of balling machines will be required +to deal with the making up of the twine in this form. These machines +make neat and attractive-looking balls, the weight of which may vary +from 2 oz. to 28 lb. each. + +The mechanism by means of which the yarn is built up into balls is at +once elegant and ingenious, and the made-up ball is quite satisfactory +if when commencing to use the twine, the end is withdrawn from the right +end of the ball. A ticket with the words “pull out this end” is often +attached as a guide. If the twine is drawn from the wrong end of a ball, +the continual difficulty experienced in withdrawing the twine will be +always remembered; on the other hand, if the twine is drawn out at the +proper end, the correct running of the twine will enable the attendant +to complete his parcel tying with the minimum of trouble and time, and +enable him to give attention to other work in hand. + +This inconvenience is obviated by a comparatively recent introduction in +winding which makes an elegant cylindrical structure termed a roll. This +popular and efficient mechanism is the Universal Winding Machine, the +various makes of which enable rolls of from 2 oz. to 72 lb. to be made +perfectly. The rolls are so attractive, compact, economical and easily +handled that one would not be surprised to see a much more extended +application of this useful form of package. + +For shops and similar places, the smaller balls and rolls are made up in +paper parcels of about 12 lb. each. The larger balls and rolls may be +made up separately or in convenient numbers. Sewing threads and yarns +may be made up in small balls, but a more common and neater arrangement +is to make them up on reels or in rolls. Neatness, facility for use, and +suitability for intended purposes are the main points to be cultivated +in order to secure and retain business. + + + + + INDEX + + + AGAVE Americana, 8 + ---- ----, section, 10 + ---- ----, ---- of fibres, 11 + ----, Photomicrograph of Mexican, 12 + ---- sisalana, 35 + ---- ----, cultivation of, 36, 37 + ---- ----, harvesting of, 38 + ---- ----, height of leaves of, 36 + ---- ----, weeding of, 36 + Automatic spinning frame, 79, 89, 91 + ---- thread stop motion, 94 + + BALING, 54 + ---- press, 43, 44, 107 + Balling machine, 109 + Bast layers, 24, 25, 29 + ---- ----, length of, 26 + Batch, 87 + Binder twine, 109 + Blend, 87 + Bobbin-to-bobbin polishing machine, 96 + Box cords, 50, 97, 98 + Braiding, 98 + Breaker cards, 74 + Breaking, 15, 24, 25, 27 + ---- machines, 60 + + CABLE-LAID, 97 + Card, 73, 74 + Carding machine, 73, 74 + China jute, 50 + Closer, 100 + Closing, 103 + Coiling machine, 101, 105, 106 + Coils of rope, 105, 106 + Coir, 47, 96 + Cords, 5, 50, 67, 93, 97 + Cotton driving ropes, 55 + ---- fibres, cross-sectional view of, 15 + ---- ----, longitudinal view of, 15 + Cutting machine, 60, 61 + + DECORTICATOR, 38, 40 + Demi-sec spinning, 85 + Differential motion, 82, 86 + Doffing, 83 + Doubling frame, 77 + Drafting, 69, 71, 72, 77, 80, 83, 85, 91 + Drawing frame, 73, 76, 77, 79 + Dry spinning frame, 83 + Drying bleached yarns, 93 + + FALLERS, 71, 87 + Fibre, grading of Manila, 33, 34 + ----, ---- of New Zealand, 47 + ----, harvesting of hemp, 22 + ----, Imports of hemp, 50 + ----, ---- of Manila, 35 + ----, price of different kinds of, 54 + ----, ---- of Manila, 34, 51 + ----, production of hemp, 20 + ----, yield of hemp, 22 + ----, ---- of Manila, 33 + ----, ---- of New Zealand, 47 + Fibres, biblical reference to, 3 + ----, characteristics of, 2 + ----, classification of, 16 + ----, hard and soft, 17, 18, 89 + ----, views of cotton, 15 + ----, separation and extraction of, 2, 5, 6, 26 + ----, shipments of, 52 + ----, sources of, 5, 13, 15 + Finisher cards, 74 + Fishing lines, 97 + Flax, 13, 16, 18, 24, 29, 45, 83 + + GILL spinning frame, 79, 85 + Gills, 71, 78, 91 + + HACKLE pins, 79, 87 + Hackler and spreader, 87, 88 + Hackling machine, 62 + ---- ----, automatic screwing apparatus for, 64 + ---- tools, 65 + ---- ----, grouping of pins in, 65 + Hand dressing, 66 + Hardening the strand, 104 + Hemp plants, 13 + ---- ----, cross section of, 13 + ---- ----, cultivation of, 21, 22 + ---- ----, grown in various countries, 16, 19, 20 + ---- ----, height of, 19 + ----, Siretz, 29 + ----, true, 17 + House machines, 100, 101 + + INTERMEDIATE machine, 89 + + JUTE, 13, 18, 44, 76, 83, 107 + ----, China, 50 + + LAYING-UP, 103, 105 + Line, 68 + Lines, 93 + ----, fishing, 97 + Log lines, 98 + + MAGUEY, 47 + Manila, 31, 44 + ---- and other fibres, 87 + ----, grading of, 51 + ----, machine for, 87 + ----, plants, height of, 32 + ----, price of, 51 + Marketing, 108 + Marks or grades, 87 + Mauritius fibre, 47 + + NEW Zealand fibre, yield of, 47 + ---- ---- hemp, 45 + ---- ---- ---- plants, harvesting of, 46 + ---- ---- ---- ----, height of, 45 + Numbering yarns, 107 + + PLAITING, 98 + Plants, cultivation of Manila, 31 + ----, height of Manila, 32 + + RANDS, 109 + Raspadore, 38 + Reach, 76, 78 + Retting, 18, 23, 24, 25 + Rope driving, 106 + ---- machine, 98 + ---- making, 17, 100 + ---- walk, 97, 100, 102, 103, 105 + Ropes, 5, 15, 100, 102, 104, 107 + Roughing, 67 + Rove, 68, 80, 82 + Roving frame, 79, 80 + + SCUTCHER, 38 + Scutching, 15, 24, 25, 27, 28, 29, 73 + Seeds, 15, 21, 22, 32 + Sett frame, 77 + Sewing twines, 67 + Shive, 28 + Sisal, 7, 35, 44 + ---- breaker, 38 + ----, grading of, 44, 45 + Sliver, 68, 69, 72, 73, 75, 77, 78, 79, 80, 82, 85, 89 + Softening, 56, 57 + Sorting and selecting, 68 + Sowing, 21 + Spread board, 69, 72, 77, 78 + Spindle winding machine, 92 + Spinning, 5, 55, 79, 83, 85 + Stationary machine for ropes, 104 + Strander, 100 + Strands, 5, 100, 103, 105 + Strick, 28, 56, 73 + Sunn hemp, 49 + Systems of machinery, 56, 68 + + TAR, 91 + Top cart, 103 + ---- -shaped block, 104 + Tow, 49, 73, 74 + Traveller, 103 + Twines, 5, 93 + Twist and twisting, 48, 82, 93, 94, 96, 97, 98 + + WARPING, 91 + Washing tanks, 40, 43 + Wet spinning, 85 + Whip cords, 97 + Winding-on reel, 101 + Winding machine, 110 + Window blind cords, 97 + Winding reel, 91 + Wool, 5, 16 + + YARN numbering, 107 + + + THE END + + + + + _Printed by Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, Ltd., Bath, England_ + V--(1465F) + + + + + Stephen Cotton & Co. LTD. + Brookfield Foundry + Belfast + +Flax and Hemp Textile Machine Makers, Iron and Brass Founders + +_SPECIALITIES_: + +¶ Patent Automatic Screwing and Changing Apparatuses for Hackling +Machines. Brush and Doffer Hackling Machines. Stripper Rod Hackling +Machines. Hand and Power Reels, with Straight and Cross Winding. Flax +and Hemp Cutters. Bundling Presses. Spinning Frames. Spindles and +Flyers. + + _PARTICULARS ON APPLICATION_ + + + + + PITMAN’S + + _Common Commodities and Industries Series_ + + Some Recent Additions. Each 2/6 net + + + THE BOOT AND SHOE INDUSTRY. By J. S. HARDING, _Head of the Boot + Department of the Leeds Central Technical School_. + + FURNITURE. By H. E. BINSTEAD, _Editor of_ “_The Furniture Record_.” + + COAL TAR. By A. R. WARNES, F.C.S., A.I.Mech.E., _Lecturer on Coal Tar + Distillation at Hull Technical College_. + + PETROLEUM. By A. LIDGETT, _Editor of the_ “_Petroleum Times_.” + + SALT. By A. F. CALVERT, F.C.S. + + KNITTED FABRICS. By JOHN CHAMBERLAIN, _Head of the Textile Dept., + Leicester Municipal Technical Schools_, and JAMES H. QUILTER, _late + Editor of the_ “_Hosiery Trade Journal_.” + + PAPER. Its History, Sources, and Production. By HARRY A. MADDOX, + _Silver Medallist Paper-making, 1909; City and Guilds Honours + Typography, 1908-9; Contributor to leading trade journals_. + + SOAP. Its Composition, Manufacture, and Properties. By WILLIAM H. + SIMMONS, B.Sc. (Lond.), F.C.S., _Lecturer on Soap Manufacture at the + Battersea Polytechnic_. + + GLASS AND GLASS MAKING. By P. MARSON, _Consultant upon Refractory + Materials, etc. Honours and Medallist in Glass Manufacture._ + + GUMS AND RESINS. Their Occurrence, Properties, and Uses. By ERNEST J. + PARRY, B.Sc., F.I.C., F.C.S. + + _Complete List on application_ + + SIR ISAAC PITMAN & SONS, LTD., 1 AMEN CORNER, LONDON, E.C.4 + + + + + COMMON COMMODITIES AND INDUSTRIES SERIES + +Each book in crown 8vo, cloth, with many illustrations, charts, etc., +2/6 net + + TEA. By A. IBBETSON + COFFEE. By B. B. KEABLE + SUGAR. By GEO. MARTINEAU, C.B. + OILS. By C. AINSWORTH MITCHELL, B.A., F.I.C. + WHEAT. By ANDREW MILLAR + RUBBER. By C. BEADLE and H. P. STEVENS, M.A., Ph.D., F.I.C. + IRON AND STEEL. By C. HOOD + COPPER. By H. K. PICARD + COAL. By FRANCIS H. WILSON, M.Inst., M.E. + TIMBER. By W. BULLOCK + COTTON. By R. J. PEAKE + SILK. By LUTHER HOOPER + WOOL. By J. A. HUNTER + LINEN. By ALFRED S. MOORE + TOBACCO. By A. E. TANNER + LEATHER. By K. J. ADCOCK + KNITTED FABRICS. By J. CHAMBERLAIN and J. H. QUILTER + CLAYS. By ALFRED B. SEARLE + PAPER. By HARRY A. MADDOX + SOAP. By WILLIAM A. SIMMONS, B.Sc. (Lond.), F.C.S. + THE MOTOR INDUSTRY. By HORACE WYATT, B.A. + GLASS AND GLASS MAKING. By PERCIVAL MARSON + GUMS AND RESINS. By E. J. PARRY, B.Sc., F.I.C., F.C.S. + THE BOOT AND SHOE INDUSTRY. By J. S. HARDING + GAS AND GAS MAKING. By W. H. Y. WEBBER + FURNITURE. By H. E. BINSTEAD + COAL TAR. By A. R. WARNES + PETROLEUM. By A. LIDGETT + SALT. By A. F. CALVERT + ZINC. By T. E. LONES, M.A., LL.D., B.Sc. + PHOTOGRAPHY. By WM. GAMBLE + ASBESTOS. By A. LEONARD SUMMERS + SILVER. By BENJAMIN WHITE + CARPETS. By REGINALD S. BRINTON + PAINTS AND VARNISHES. By A. S. JENNINGS + CORDAGE AND CORDAGE HEMP AND FIBRES. By T. WOODHOUSE and P. KILGOUR + ACIDS AND ALKALIS. By G. H. J. ADLAM + ELECTRICITY. By R. E. NEALE, B.Sc., Hons. + ALUMINIUM. By Captain G. MORTIMER + + ─────────────────────── + + _OTHERS IN PREPARATION_ + + + + + Transcriber’s notes + + +The illustrations have been moved to appropriate paragraph breaks. +References to their page numbers in the List of Illustrations and the +Index have been adjusted accordingly. + +The footnotes have been renumbered and moved to the end of the chapter +in which they occur. Index entries may refer to text in a footnote. + +Some index entries have been changed where it seems the original page +number was incorrect. + +The reference to Fig. 10 on page 51 originally read Fig. 12. + +The advertisements have been moved to the end of the book. + +Obvious typographical errors have been corrected. Inconsistent +hyphenation has not been changed. + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 77619 *** |