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diff --git a/77506-0.txt b/77506-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..be9d833 --- /dev/null +++ b/77506-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,13089 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 77506 *** + + + + +[Illustration: _Frontispiece._ + +STEPPES OF THE CASPIAN.] + + + + + RUSSIA + ON + THE BLACK SEA + AND + SEA OF AZOF: + + BEING + A NARRATIVE OF TRAVELS IN THE CRIMEA + AND BORDERING PROVINCES; + + WITH + NOTICES OF THE NAVAL, MILITARY, AND COMMERCIAL + RESOURCES OF THOSE COUNTRIES. + + BY H. D. SEYMOUR, M.P. + + WITH MAP, &c. + + LONDON: + JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET. + 1855. + + _The right of Translation is reserved._ + + LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET, + AND CHARING CROSS. + + + + +PREFACE. + + +The following work is partly the result of my own personal observation, +and partly a compilation from some of the most approved authors who +have written on the Crimea and the resources of Russia. It was prepared +for the press during last winter, and the publication of it has been +retarded by the attention which, for the last few months, I have been +obliged to bestow on other matters. As the Crimea is still an object of +deep interest, and as I am not aware that the notices I have collected +have yet been presented to the public in a succinct form, I hope by the +following pages that I may help to satisfy public curiosity and add +something to the stock of information which we possess respecting the +Southern parts of European Russia. + +Having paid one visit to the Crimea in the year 1844, and two visits +to Southern Russia in 1844 and 1846, I have been able to correct and +verify the descriptive parts of the book by my own experience. The +careful work of M. Dubois de Montpereux[1] has been my principal guide +on geology, archæology, and ancient history, and from his magnificent +atlas I have borrowed a few illustrations. I have abstracted from the +‘Études sur la Russie’ of M. Haxthausen an account of the Russian navy +and army, adding matter acquired from other trustworthy sources. To +the above-named book and that by M. Tegoborski,[2] both standard works +on the internal economy of the Russian empire, I am much indebted; and +although I think their accomplished authors write under a strong bias, +yet their works are indispensable to those foreigners who wish to study +the resources and organization of the Russian empire. M. Tegoborski has +not been allowed to state his whole opinions upon some subjects, and the +Censor has obliged him to make material alterations, particularly where +he speaks of the condition of the peasantry. I have likewise alluded to +a discussion which took place last year in the ‘Revue des Deux Mondes,’ +in which this gentleman took a part. In the course of last summer a +very able article appeared in the French ‘Moniteur,’ on the subject of +Russian Finance, in which it was attempted to be proved that Russia +was very weak on this point, and could not hold out for any lengthened +period against the Western Powers. The subject was followed up by M. Léon +Faucher in the ‘Revue des Deux Mondes,’ in a damaging article on Russian +resources and finance. Soon afterwards an answer to this was sent from +Petersburg, written by M. Tegoborski, who is an employé in the Bureau des +Finances, and it appeared in the November number of the Revue, with a +rejoinder by M. Léon Faucher, written just before his lamented decease. +Notwithstanding the truth of M. Tegoborski’s observation, that Russia +cannot be judged by the same rules as other European nations in matters +of finance, owing to her totally different state of civilization, I think +he fails to prove the main object of his article, that Russia can stand +many more such campaigns as that of 1854. Russia must have little hope of +persuading us of her power by other means, when she is obliged to have +recourse to an article in a foreign periodical in the midst of a deadly +struggle. + +I have borrowed much from the work of M. and Madame Hommaire de Hell,[3] +and would refer any reader who wishes for vivid descriptions of Southern +Russia, full historical information, and accurate scientific knowledge, +to the original French work of this distinguished engineer and his +accomplished wife. M. H. de Hell spent five years in the country to +ascertain the difference of the levels between the Black Sea and the +Caspian, and his work is accompanied by an atlas of rare merit. + +I am indebted to many friends, and, among others, to Mr. Yeames, late +Consul-General at Odessa, Mr. Crawfurd, and Mr. Blackmore, late chaplain +at Cronstadt, for many valuable suggestions and corrections; and Mr. +Lander has been good enough to revise the chapters on the shores of the +Sea of Azof, with which no man is better acquainted. This accomplished +gentleman was born in New Russia, and for many years has conducted the +house of Yeames and Co. at Taganrok; and I may say with truth, that the +eighteenth chapter is rather his than mine. + +In Chapter V. I have especially to acknowledge several pages of valuable +matter relating to the Asiatic races of mankind, for which I am indebted +to a note by Dr. William Smith, inserted in his recent admirable edition +of the great work of Gibbon. My little book pretends to be scarcely more +than a compilation, and if I have anywhere else omitted to acknowledge +assistance, it has not been from the wish unfairly to appropriate the +labours of others. + +I have also to thank the Rev. Walter Sneyd for the sight of a translation +of a curious Italian MS. in his possession, describing the travels in the +Crimea of one Nicholo Barti of Lucca in the seventeenth century. + +My notice on the Russian Budget in Chapter VIII. is not so full as I +could wish it to have been, and perhaps I may have made too high an +estimate of the military expenditure. The other facts relating to it are +taken principally from M. Tegoborski’s writings. + +I have endeavoured, in the following pages, to be as accurate as +possible, but more leisure than I have enjoyed would have enabled me to +go over the ground still more carefully than I have done, and verify +my statements upon various subjects by information gathered from other +scattered sources. + +I am fully alive to the defects and incomplete character of the sketches +which I now venture to present to the public; and I ask, therefore, for +indulgence if I have not contributed as much as I might have done to the +instruction or amusement of my readers. + + + + +INTRODUCTION. + + +My original intention was to have compiled a summary of the history of +the Caucasus, where I spent nearly three years, and to which a short +account of the Crimea would only have served as an introduction. The +increasing interest attaching to the latter subject, however, made me pay +more attention to it; so that I now offer to the public some notices on +that country and the shores of the Sea of Azof, without being able to add +anything upon what I hoped to make the main subject of my inquiry. Some +chapters upon the Caucasus are already partly written, but I have not +had sufficient time to prepare them for insertion in the present volume, +although intimately connected with it. They relate to a country replete +with the deepest interest, and I hope that, ere long, some more competent +hand than mine may vindicate the character of those heroic mountaineers, +whom many are accustomed unjustly to stigmatize as barbarians. Though +unlettered, they possess equal claims to our admiration with our own +Saxon and Norman ancestors, or with the Swiss in the days of Tell, for +they possess that stubborn love of independence and that “spirit of +divinest liberty,” which is the root of all good. + +When peace shall be made, it will be most fortunate should we be able to +secure the freedom of the Eastern coast of the Black Sea by treaty, for +the independence of that country would form one of the best securities +against Russian aggression. At the Caucasus Russia may be said to end, +and a new class of nationalities to begin, and she can only desire to +possess that mountain range with the intention of extending her conquests +beyond it. + +The Caucasus, that is, the mountain range itself, and the countries that +lie at the foot of them, to the north and south, are the most convenient +entrance to the heart of the great table-land of Asia, which, when once +thoroughly subdued, might constitute an impregnable citadel whence Russia +would be enabled to extend her influence and dominion in every direction. +The Caucasus is the real citadel of Russian power in the South and +East, although as yet beleaguered by the nations from which it has been +partially wrested. Russia has surrounded it by an army of 170,000[4] men, +and carefully keeps its inhabitants from communication with civilized +Europe. We have never acknowledged the sovereignty of the Russians over +this territory, nor over the Christian provinces to the south of the +Caucasus. If her blockade were permanently removed from the eastern coast +of the Black Sea, and the brave inhabitants of the mountains allowed to +carry on a liberal commerce with Europe, their energies would be quickly +turned from war to peaceful arts. + +Those who designate the Circassians as mere warlike barbarians should +remember that we ourselves were but warlike semi-barbarians in the +early ages of our history, and that the manly character which made us +so formidable in the days of the Plantagenets enabled us ultimately, +with better directed energies, to raise our great commercial empire in +the eighteenth century. The Circassians and the other mountain tribes +resemble us in many particulars: they debate every great affair in a +national council; they venerate the ancient usages and ordinances which +form their constitution; and they have the same gradation of ranks and +aristocratic feelings which distinguish ourselves. + +Above all points of resemblance to us, they have clung to their +independence with Anglo-Saxon tenacity; and shall we, when peace shall +be made, allow their rude and gigantic enemy again to surround them with +her liberated forces, till she exterminate them by brute power, and no +memorial be left of unsuccessful virtue save that which history will +assuredly record in their favour? + +We acknowledged the independence of the Colonies of Spanish America while +they were still struggling with the mother country; we went still further +with Greece, for we gave them active assistance, having not only the +French, but the very Russians themselves for our allies. Surely, then, +there exist far more cogent reasons for assisting the Circassians, who +have never been conquered by the Russians. Up to the breaking out of the +present war the Russians had only an ever-disputed possession of the +actual ground occupied by their fortifications and protected by their +cannon, and they have been constantly resisted by the mountaineers, who +have ever refused to acknowledge the sovereignty of the Emperor. + +The coast of Circassia is now free, and all that is required is that it +should be kept so, without being again subjected to a barbarous blockade. +If a consul were placed there, and merchants encouraged to frequent it, +its gallant inhabitants would soon yield to the civilizing influences of +Europe, and engage themselves in developing its boundless resources. + +We may rest satisfied that the freedom of the Caucasus will form an +important element towards the diminution of Russian influence in the East. + +I agree with Mr. Gladstone in thinking we must look for future security +not only by reducing the power of Russia, but by raising that of Turkey +and the other independent peoples bordering on the Black Sea. Free +communication and free trade once firmly established there, the question +might be considered as in a great measure settled. It is true that you +cannot impose free trade upon Russia, who occupies half the coasts of the +Black Sea; but you may claim your right to traffic with the Circassians +on the east coast of that sea, and protect your commerce there by an +authorized agent. So great are the advantages of unrestricted trade—so +much does commerce strengthen and civilize, that the liberal tariff of +Turkey, and the opening of the Principalities (as stated in App. E), +have been, in an indirect manner, the cause of the present war; for, +with freedom of trade, the Christian subjects of the Porte, for some +years before the commencement of hostilities, had so much increased in +importance and wealth, that they excited the jealousy of Russia, and she +feared that if she did not claim in time a closer protectorate over them, +they might escape her altogether. I say this, assuming it to have always +been a cardinal point in the politics of Russia, in due time, to advance +her empire to Constantinople and Athens. + +Although I believe the whole Russian nation to be bent upon certain +measures of territorial aggrandizement, I have not failed to acknowledge +in my notices the general pacific character of the people. They are not +a martial nation; that is, they are not a nation which takes delight in +war for the sake of braving its dangers and revelling in its excitement; +but theirs is the patient, enduring, indomitable courage which will +face any dangers to compass certain ends. The Russian nation has been +misdirected by its rulers as to the true objects of national glory, and +by an exorbitant tariff and other measures has been kept from mixing with +other European nations, lest it should learn juster ideas of the points +in which true glory and prosperity consist, and become impatient of a +military organization, the object of which is to carry out indefinite +schemes of conquest. + +I have lived among the Russians, and I have learnt to respect them as a +strong, earnest, unprejudiced people, with a great principle of growth in +them, and who will work out the defects of their character, and become +some day an honour to civilization. They were the only nation in the +world, I believe, with whom we had never been at war.[5] None can more +deeply regret than I do that we have been obliged now to try their mettle. + +We must remember that we have a Court to deal with which combines the +deep calculation of Europe with the wiles of Asiatic intrigue, and that +we shall assuredly be over-reached, if we do not insist upon sufficient +guarantees. We must also remember that the conquest of Constantinople +is the settled determination of Russia, and has been the prime object of +ambition to that country ever since the ninth century, when the Russian +fleets first appeared before its walls; and that, if we are determined +(as I hope is the case) that they shall never possess it, we must take +care, whenever peace shall be made, that it be rendered perfectly secure, +and the approaches to it guarded with the greatest possible care. + +If we yield, as Mr. Gladstone and his friends wish us to do, to the first +offers of Russia, we shall fail in our paramount object, and become +the laughing-stock of the world. The lives of the brave will have been +wasted, and the successes we have gained will be of no avail; Russia, +at the first favourable opportunity, will renew the struggle, with the +advantages of railroads and all modern inventions. In dealing with so +subtle an enemy it will be wise not to hesitate, but push on, and, +treating Russia as she wished to treat Turkey, require from her effectual +guarantees that she will not again disturb by her ambition the peace of +Europe. + +The supineness and indecision of the European Powers for the last thirty +years have enabled Russia to take up an insolent position towards +Europe; and the fears of our own imaginations have contributed to swell +the prestige of the Colossus of the North, and to render his intrigues +successful. Our statesmen are now fully convinced of the gravity of our +position, and the extent of Russian intrigue both in Asia and in Germany. +I had myself personal experience of it last year in the latter country. +In returning from India in March, 1854, I spent a day at the little +German state of ———— —— ——, to visit a German friend well versed in the +secret politics of his country. He told me how ashamed he was of his +countrymen, who were false to their true interests, and cowered beneath +the power of Russia. In the morning, when he came to breakfast with me +in my hotel, an officer took him aside to speak to him. When my friend +returned to me, he said, “You would not believe yesterday the degree of +influence which Russia exercises in Germany; you have here a proof of it. +That officer who took me aside commands the —— troops, and he called me +aside to show me a diamond ring and an autograph letter from the Emperor +of Russia, flattering him, and conferring upon him an order. That man is +henceforward the devoted servant of Russia.” My friend, who is himself a +distinguished littérateur, assured me that there were nearly two thousand +literary persons in Germany who openly received their quarterly pensions +at the Russian embassies to uphold Russian interests. He even authorized +me to authenticate these statements by the use of his name, which +nevertheless I refrain from doing. + +As so much is now said by some parties respecting the supposed fairness +and moderation of Russia, I will relate two anecdotes of what happened +under my own cognizance in the East. When the Russians seized, about the +year 1840, the island of Ashtoráda, near Asterabad, at the south-east +corner of the Caspian Sea, which they have since fortified and +garrisoned, and when they explored with steamers the Gourgan and Atrak, +rivers flowing exclusively through the Persian territory, but leading +in the direction of the best road to India, there was one Turcoman Chief +resolutely hostile to them, whom they could neither frighten nor seduce. +One night, therefore, troops were disembarked, his house was surrounded, +and he and all his sons were carried off and conveyed into the interior +of Russia, whence, at the prayer of a very influential personage, his +place of exile was changed to Tiflis, where I knew him. + +The second is a more daring violation of the territory of the same +power, with whom, be it remembered, we have a treaty of alliance, and +at the court of which we have long had a minister constantly residing. +A certain member of the Georgian royal family, Suleiman Khan,[6] +lived in the Persian provinces ceded to Russia in 1828, and having an +inveterate enmity to that power, he refused to remain there when they +became Russian, and fled into a remote part of Persia. After many years +he thought he might venture to come and live at Tabreez, the capital +of Azerbiján, and near his own country. He had sounded the Russian +consulate, and found them apparently favourable, and when he arrived he +was invited to dinner by the Russian Consul-General. Everything passed +off very agreeably until after dinner, when, as he was sitting on a sofa +with the Consul, drinking his coffee, the latter begged to be excused for +an instant, and left the room. Immediately upon his quitting, a file of +Russians appeared at the door, with their pieces levelled at the Khan, +and the Consul, from behind them, told him he was extremely sorry that +he was obliged to treat a guest in so uncourteous a manner, but that +he must execute his orders, that Suleiman Khan must consider himself +a prisoner, and prepare instantly to be conveyed into the interior of +Russia. + +This fact was told me by the English Consul at Tabreez, when I arrived +at that city some short time after this event had occurred, and I +dined with the Russian Consul in question, now holding a high post in +Russian diplomacy, in the very room where it happened. Of course, when +proceedings of this sort were overlooked by our Government, there is no +wonder that Russia grew emboldened, and believed that no European power +dared to interfere with her. + +We have begun at last, after thousands of lives and millions of treasure +have been expended in attacking the only strong position of Russia in the +Black Sea, to attack some of the long line of vulnerable points which she +presents. Our successes at Kertch, Berdiansk, Mariopol, Taganrok, and +Soujuk Caleh have been as easy as they have been important, and we have +now only to continue the same course of action. + +I can state, on the authority of persons intimately acquainted with those +countries, in answer to what Mr. Cobden said in the House of Commons, +that the blow we struck in the Sea of Azof has been the severest which +we have dealt to Russian power—that all the stores we destroyed at +Kertch belonged to the Government, and not to private individuals, and +that the same was the case with every bag of flour and oats destroyed at +Berdiansk, Mariopol, and Taganrok. The Russian Government, as is well +known, has always supplied Sevastopol and their other fortresses on the +coast of the Black Sea with stores and ammunition from the interior of +the country by means of the Sea of Azof, as is explained in my work. +It is known that they had just completed large purchases of stores for +Sevastopol which we intercepted in our late expedition, so that the +merchants had received their money, and the loss wholly fell on the +Government.[7] If our fleet had penetrated to Rostof, we should probably +have destroyed a still larger amount of stores, and at the latter place +the shot and shells which are brought down there from the foundry at +Lugan, and from Siberia, for transmission to the Russian fortresses in +the Black Sea. Perhaps this may be reserved for another expedition; for +close to Rostof are Novo Tcherkask, the capital of the Don Cossacks, and +Naketchiván, an Armenian town, and the head-quarters of many Armenian +houses deeply engaged in supplying the commissariat of the Russian army. +From the eastern coast of the Sea of Azof may also be obtained large +herds of fine horses for our cavalry, and fat beasts for the subsistence +of our army. + +The taking of Anapa will allow the Circassians to overspread the country +as far as the Bosphorus, and even to cross it and assist us in the +Crimea, a part of which they formerly occupied, and from which some of +their noblest families make it their boast to have come. + +From Soujuk Caleb it is now friendly country to Ekaterinodár on the +Kuban, the capital of the Black Sea Cossacks; and if judicious persons +be sent to treat with the Circassians, a long line of easy and important +victories will be opened to us. But in the East, still more than in +the West, everything depends upon a judicious selection of agents; and +it is especially necessary, among free mountaineers, to gain their +confidence by kind, considerate conduct, and to persuade them that you +have no projects for your own aggrandizement, but wish, by confirming +their independence and adding to their strength, to render them a strong +bulwark against Russian aggression. + + + + +LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. + + + VIEW OF STEPPES _Frontispiece._ + + PLAN OF SEVASTOPOL _To face p._ 62 + + PLAN OF THE HERACLEOTIC CHERSONESE ” 148 + + PLAN OF KERTCH (PANTICAPÆUM) ” 256 + + GREEK ANTIQUITIES IN GOLD AND ELECTRUM FOUND AT KERTCH ” 282 + + MAP OF THE CRIMEA AND SEA OF AZOF _At the end._ + +NOTE.—In the Map, Cape Kazantip is represented as fortified by the +Russians. This is an error; the fortifications were meant to have been +marked near Arabat. + + + + +CONTENTS. + + + CHAPTER I. + + THE CRIMEA. + + General description of the Crimea—Mountains—Rivers—Ancient + name—Boundaries—The Steppes to the north connected + with it—The roads—Bereslaf—Kherson; its foundation + and importance—Gloubóky—Perversion of names by the + Russians—Nicolaief, head-quarters of Black Sea fleet, + described—Odessa—Definition of New Russia—Limits of ancient + Scythia—The dominions of the Khans of the Crimea—The Zaporogue + Cossacks Page 1 + + CHAPTER II. + + THE STEPPES OF RUSSIA. + + Extent and boundaries of the Steppes—The Tchorno-ziemé—Soil + and aspect—Their productions—Appearance of the Steppes in + spring, summer, and winter—Snow-storms, called “Metel” and + “Boura”—“Balkas,” or ravines—Roads, their state in spring—Tumuli + or “Kourgans”—False tumuli—The mirage—Tchernomore Steppes—From + Don to Moloshna—Moloshna to Dniepr—German colonies—Inhabitants of + Steppes—Game—Soroke or Marmot—Biroke—Suslic—The Steppes occupy + two-thirds of the Crimea 13 + + CHAPTER III. + + FROM PERECOP TO SYMPHERÓPOL. + + The isthmus of Perecop—Its defences—History—Its capture by + Marshal Munich in 1736—The Crimea and Kilboroún conquered + by him—His cruelty and atrocities—The Armenian Bazar—The + salt lakes—General view of the sea-coast on each side of + the isthmus—The Black Sea and Gulf of Karkiníte—Anchorage + of Akméshed—Cape Karamroún—The Lagoon of the Dniepr + and Boug defended by Kilboroún and Otchákow—The river + Boug—Gloubóky—Kherson—The Shiváshe, or Putrid Sea—The + Tonka, or Strelka, or Arabate—The road from Perecop to + Sympherópol—Sympherópol 26 + + CHAPTER IV. + + BAKTCHÉSERAI AND TCHOUFOUT KALEH. + + Description of Baktchéserai—The palace of the Khans—Pouschkin’s + fountain—The great council-room—The hareem—The cemetery—The tomb + of Dilara Bikéh—The gorge of Tchoufout Kaleh—Acheláma—Tchoufout + Kaleh—The Karaim Jews, or those who reject the Talmud—Their very + ancient origin—Probable descendants of Sadducees—Their high + character—Tomb of the beautiful Nenekedjàn—The crypt town of + Kirkor 37 + + CHAPTER V. + + WHO ARE THE TATARS? + + Origin of the Tatars—Original common stock of the Mongol, + Toungous, Turk, and Ugrian groups of nations—Short account + of each of these—The Tatars belong to the Turk race—Their + royal race, the Gerays, descendants of Zingis Khan, through + Tóktamish—Discord in the kingdom of Kiptchak for one + hundred years—Kingdom of Crimea founded by Mahomet II.—Held + tributary to Constantinople till conquest by the Russians—The + conditions—Popular notion that the Gerays are next heirs to the + throne of Constantinople—Selim Geray—Constitution of Crimea—Power + of the Khans with the Grand Sultan—The Sultans, or royal + family, of the Gerays—The wives of the Khans—Character of the + Tatars—Their manner of living—Their fidelity 48 + + CHAPTER VI. + + SEVASTOPOL. + + Road to Sevastopol from Baktchéserai—Conquest and foundation + of Sevastopol in 1783-84—Description of town and fortress—“The + Dvoretz”—Engineer buildings—Fort Alexander and Fort + Constantine—South Bay—The Hulks—Bay of Vessels, now the + Docks—Description of the barracks—Hospitals, Slobodes—Colonel + Upton and anecdotes of Russian workmen—Sevastopol + in 1834—Reservoir of Sevastopol—Sievarna fort—The + citadel—Observations of Sir Howard Douglas on the siege—Military + stores—Arsenals of Russia—Manufactories of fire-arms—Cannon + foundries—Stores come to Sevastopol by the Don and the + Azof—The road by the Arabate and Perecop—Fortifying of Cape + Kazantip—Undefended state of Kertch up to May last—Public + gardens—Haxthausen on the object of Sevastopol and the Black Sea + Fleet—Chopin on the Anglo-French alliance—Conclusion 61 + + CHAPTER VII. + + THE RUSSIAN NAVY. + + Its origin under Peter the Great—Early victories of the + Varangians, or Normans, and Cossacks—Row-boats more useful in the + Baltic than large vessels—The navy under Catherine II.—English + instructors—Difficulty in manning the fleet—No mercantile + navy—Organization of the Russian fleet—No marines—Oak for + navy—Food of sailors—Russian vessels on foreign stations—Only one + Russian foreign merchant—Greek influence diminished in 1844—“The + Twelve Apostles”—“The Teredo Navalis”—The Affair of Sinope—The + Paixhans shell system—General observations 83 + + CHAPTER VIII. + + ON THE RUSSIAN ARMY. + + Large proportion of Russian population in the army—Military + organization—Peaceable natural disposition of Russian + people—Strong feelings when roused—Obedience to + orders—Anecdotes—Commercial disposition of the Russian + people—Their wish to mix with European nations—Education checked + by the Government—Military system of Peter the Great—His great + objects—Faults of our Government with respect to Russian + policy—The army, whence recruited—Great Russians—Poles—Little + Russians—Finns, Jews, &c.—Name “Ruski” or Russian—Its origin—The + conscription—Soldiers’ marriages—The Cantonists—Emperor’s + efforts to improve condition of common soldier generally + unsuccessful—Corporal punishment—Labour—“Indefinite + leave”—Division of empire for conscription—Amount of + population per cent. taken from 1840-1855—Expense of the + Russian soldier—Democratic system of army—The cross of St. + George—Classification of Russian army—Into 1st, Corps d’Armée, or + complete armies—2nd, Local Regular Troops—3rd, Irregulars—Don, + Black Sea, and Ural Cossacks—Value and number of Cossack + troops—Various Asiatic irregulars—General observations 96 + + CHAPTER IX. + + INKERMAN, MANGOUP, AND THE HILLY COUNTRY OF THE CRIMEA. + + The Bay of Sevastopol to Inkerman—Aktiar—Inkerman + Castle—Its history—Crypts—Fuller’s earth, or natural + soap—Tchorgouna—Tchouli, residence of Pallas—Crypts at + Karakoba—Mount Aithodor—Mangoup—Description and history—Gothic + architecture—Position of Mangoup—Interesting character of + surrounding country—The Tchatyr-Dagh and the Yailas 137 + + CHAPTER X. + + THE HERACLEOTIC CHERSONESE. + + The Heracleotic Chersonese—Origin of name—Defended by a + wall—Kherson—Its history and remains—House of Lamachus—The + predecessors of Vladimir and their relations with + Constantinople—Account of the siege by Vladimir, taken out of + Nestor—Vladimir’s Baptism—Springs of water—Kherson destroyed by + Lithuanians—The bays between Sevastopol and Cape Chersonese—Cape + Partheniké—The Tauric Diana—The monastery of St. George—Bustards + on the Chersonese 148 + + CHAPTER XI. + + ON THE ANCIENT INHABITANTS OF THE CRIMEA. + + The Cimmerii—The Tauri—Connexion of Greece with the Black + Sea—Digression on the Crypts of the Crimea—B.C. 600: the + Scythians—The Greek colonies, B.C. 650—Milesian emigration—Dorian + emigration—Trade of these early times—Mithridates, reigned + B.C. 120-63—A.D. 62: The Alans—A.D. 100-200: The Goths—A.D. + 376: The Huns—Second attack of the Huns—Justinian reigned, + A.D. 527-565—A.D. 679: The Khazars—A.D. 900-1000: The + Petchenegues—About 1204: The Comans—1226: The Tatars—The + Genoese—1473: Kaffa taken by the Turks—The Black Sea then shut up + to European nations—Mixture of races in present inhabitants of + Crimea 166 + + CHAPTER XII. + + BALACLAVA AND VALLEY OF BAIDAR. + + Balaclava—Karl Ritter’s views of the importance of + the Black Sea in very early times—Homer’s account of + Balaclava—The Cembalo of the Genoese—Tatar occupation of + it—Arnaouts—Tchorgouna—Mackenzie’s Farm—Valley of Baidar—Manners + of the Tatars—Woronzof road 182 + + CHAPTER XIII. + + THE SOUTHERN COAST, AS FAR AS ALOUCHTA. + + Pass of Phoros—First view of the Southern Coast—The + climate—Valley of Laspi—Mount Aia, or Cape Saritch—Modern + Laspi—Phoros to Kíkineis—Land slips—Liméne—Singular + appearance of Tatars—Aloupka—Prince Woronzof’s + palace—Gardens—Luxuriant vegetation—Craters—Account + of Prince Woronzof—Miskhor—Koureis, seat of Princess + Galitzin—Madame de Krudener and Comtesse Lamothe—Gaspra—Mount + A’ithodor—Imperial Oriánda—Ouchansóu—Yalta—The + mountain pass to Baktchéserai—Marsánda—Cyclopean + remains—Magaratch—Nikita—Botanical gardens—St. + Daniel—Oursouf—Ancient castle of Justinian—Cyclopean + remains—Mount Aioudágh, the ancient Kriumetôpon Prom—Village of + Partheníte—Great and Little Lambat—The Chaos—Numberless ancient + remains—The pass of Mount Castéle—The descent to Alouchta 197 + + CHAPTER XIV. + + THE EASTERN COAST AND SOUDAK. + + Alouchta—The Eastern and Western Coasts—Oulou Ouzéne, + the property of Mrs. Lang—Mdlle. Jacquemart—The Bay of + Soudak—Ruins of the triple fortress—The Kiz Koullé, or Girl’s + Tower—Ancient Soldaya—Its history—Remains—Vandalism of the + Russians—Ruined barracks—The Crimean Wine Company—The wines of + the Crimea—Prices of land in the Crimea—Road to Theodosia—Tatar + hospitality—Koktebel 220 + + CHAPTER XV. + + FROM ALOUCHTA TO SIMPHERÓPOL, KARASOUBAZAR, + ESKI KRIM, AND THEODOSIA. + + Valley of Alouchta—Obelisk—Valley of the Angar—Tavshan + Bazar—Fortified Gorge—Yenisála, a Greek Colony—Aian and the + source of the Salghír—Ascent of the Tchatyr-Dagh—Yaila—Snow + reservoirs—From Tchafki to Simpherópol—Excursion up valley + of Little Salghír to caves of Kisilkoba—Caverns—Simpherópol + to Karasóubazar—The Shireen family—Eski Krim—Theodosia, or + Kaffa—B.C. 700, Theodosia founded by Milesians—A.D. 250, + totally destroyed by the Huns—Desert for 1000 years—A.D. 1280, + Kaffa founded by Genoese on site of Theodosia—Short history of + it—A.D. 1475, taken by Turks—Its decline—Revival in seventeenth + century—1781, taken by Russians—Description of ruins—Their + destruction by the Russians—Position of Kaffa in commercial point + of view—Arabat—The wall of Asander—The approach to Kertch 236 + + CHAPTER XVI. + + KERTCH. + + Approach to Kertch—The Cimmerian Bosphorus—Russian conquest of + Kertch in 1771—Its rise since 1833—Its chance of becoming the + emporium of trade for the Sea of Azof—Russian authorities—Ancient + church—Kertch, the ancient Panticapæum—Acropolis—Arm-chair of + Mithridates—Allée of Tumuli on Theodosian road—The Tumulus a + sign of Milesian occupation—Contents of Tumuli on Theodosian + road—Etruscan vases at Kertch—Burial-places of the poor—Tomb + of the Pigmies—The Catacombs—The Tombs of the Kings—The + Golden Mountain—The rich discoveries at Kouloba—Description + of the contents of the Tomb—Pillaged by the people—Probably + that of Leucon I., or Paerisádes I.—The Museum—Myrmékium—Mud + volcanoes—Naphtha springs—Cape Akboroun—Nymphæum—Herring + fishery—Opouk, the ancient Kimmericum 255 + + CHAPTER XVII. + + THE SEA OF AZOF. + + The Sea of Azof—Its extent and boundaries—Its depth + continually diminishes—Its sweet water—Its rivers—Currents—The + Straits of Kertch—The Russian defences of it—The eastern + shores—Temróuk—Okhtor—Cape Obriv—The fishing-huts—Bay and new + town of Yeisk—Cape Tchimborsk—Mouths of Don—Bars of the Don—Old + town of Azof—Rostof—Its commercial importance—Shallowness + of water in Gulf of the Don—The Azof frozen in winter—Ruins + of ancient Tana—Taganrok founded by Peter the Great—Its + history—Its importance—Mariopol—Cape Bielo-Serái—Berdiansk—Its + foundation—Port is filling up—Lake Moloshenska—Peninsula of + Berútchi—Straits of Yénitchi 299 + + CHAPTER XVIII. + + ON THE COMMERCE OF THE SEA OF AZOF. + + Rostof, key to commercial system—A district of the Government + of Ekaterinoslaf—Its gradual rise since 1835—Articles of + export—Wheat—Linseed—Rye—Military stores sent by the Azof + to Sevastopol, &c.—Iron foundries of Lugan—Tallow—Breeds of + cattle—System of advances—Agencies of foreign merchants, chiefly + at Pavlosk—Advantages of Free Trade—Passage of goods by the Don + and the Volga—Dubofka and Katchálin—Hardships of the military + system—Intelligence of Russian merchants—True policy of Russia 312 + + APPENDIX. + + (A.) List of the Russian Naval Force in the Black Sea, Jan. 1853 337 + + (B.) Suvórof’s Discourse under the Trigger 340 + + (C.) The Timber Trade of Northern and Southern Russia 346 + + (D.) Commerce of Ports of Crimea 350 + + (E.) On the advantage of establishing a Free Port on the Danube + at the St. George’s Mouth of the river 354 + + + + +SOME ACCOUNT OF THE CRIMEA, AND THE SHORES OF THE SEA OF AZOF. + + + + +CHAPTER I. + +THE CRIMEA. + + General description of the Crimea—Mountains—Rivers—Ancient + name—Boundaries—The Steppes to the north connected + with it—The roads—Bereslaf—Kherson; its foundation + and importance—Gloubóky—Perversion of names by the + Russians—Nicolaief, head-quarters of Black Sea fleet, + described—Odessa—Definition of New Russia—Limits of ancient + Scythia—The dominions of the Khans of the Crimea—The Zaporogue + Cossacks. + + +The peninsula of the Crimea is a southern portion of the Steppes of +Russia, raised by volcanic action out of nearly the centre of the Black +Sea. It is about 200 miles across in a direct line from Cape Karamroún +on the western side above Eupatoria to Cape Fanar, the furthest point +eastward on the Straits of Kertch, and 125 miles from Perecop to Cape +Kíkineis on the southern coast. It contains a population of about 200,000 +inhabitants, and covers an area of 10,050 English square miles. + +The Tauric range of mountains runs east and west along the southern coast +from Balaclava to Theodosia, and generally within a few hundred yards +of the shore, which, being protected by them from the northern winds, +enjoys a delicious climate, like that of southern Italy. But this mild +temperature is confined to the narrow strip of land along the coast which +is shut in by the mountains, and to the north of them the weather shows +severe alternations of heat and cold, and the snow in some seasons +covers the ground for a considerable time in winter. The mountains +themselves occupy a large space, and rise to a height of from 1000 to +5000 feet. They are generally flat-topped or dome-shaped, and hold within +their range high elevated plains called Yailas. Their summits reveal +granite and other primitive rocks, and on their northern sides lie, like +a mantle, the Steppes, which constitute all the northern portion, and +nearly two-thirds of the area, of the whole peninsula. + +These steppes gradually incline downwards towards the north, and +hence received from the later Greeks the name of “ta climata,” or the +inclines.[8] The following are the principal rivers:—Eastward, the +Salghír, the Bulganak, the three Andols, the Tchoroksou, the Soubashi, +and the Karagos, which flow into the Shiváshe or great lagoon on the +east, improperly called the Putrid Sea; and on the westward, the western +Bulganak, the Alma, the Katcha, and the Belbek, which discharge their +waters into the long open bay at the head of which stands Eupatoria. + +The peninsula of the Crimea was known to the Greeks under the name of the +Taurica Chersonesus, and in the middle ages was called Gothia. It is now +called either the Tauride (a version of its first appellation), or more +commonly Crimea, from the famous city of Eski Krim, near Theodosia, which +was built by the Tatars in the thirteenth century, and is now a ruin. + +The Crimea is joined to the main land by the narrow isthmus of Perecop, +on each side of which there is a very shallow sea. To the north of it the +dreary plains of Russia extend interminably, on the west to Bessarabia +and the Ukraine, and on the east to Tatary and Siberia. There has in all +times been a connexion between the Steppes to the north of Perecop and +the peninsula of the Crimea itself, and they have both generally been in +the possession of the same people. A portion of the Steppes, bounded by +Bereslaf, Alexandropol, and Mariopol, are now included in the Russian +government of the Tauride. As the character of the Steppes is very +peculiar, and they form, as I have said, about two-thirds even of the +whole peninsula of the Crimea, I have thrown together in the next chapter +some general observations upon them. + +I will now say a few words about the road between Perecop and Odessa, and +the principal towns through which it passes. The whole distance is 352 +miles,[9] and there are post-horses along the road, which runs entirely +through the Steppes. Road, however, properly speaking, there is none; for +even outside the gates of Odessa the traveller follows the track of those +that have preceded him, and in dry weather bowls rapidly along, but is +arrested by the slightest fall of rain. I left Odessa, in the year 1843, +in the commencement of August, in a light britska drawn by three horses, +and in consequence of a slight shower of rain in the morning I was +stopped half-way in the rich loam of the Steppes, and was obliged to pass +the night there, and send on to the next station for three fresh horses +to pull my carriage through the heavy ground. + +The road from Perecop to Bereslaf, on the banks of the Dniepr, runs 52½ +miles across a perfectly flat country, where the soil is not fertile. +The latter town is situated on the right bank of the Dniepr, which is +precipitous and very much higher than the left bank, which is shelving, +and this peculiarity is found in all the rivers of the south of Russia. + +Bereslaf owes its importance to its situation at a point where the +Dniepr is crossed by a wooden bridge. In the Greek period it was called +Miletopol, and in later times it belonged to the Zaporogue Cossacks till +their conquest by the Russians.[10] + +From Bereslaf to Kherson is 47 miles, and the road runs along the bank +of the Dniepr. The town of Kherson is the capital of the government +of the same name, which is bounded by the governments of the Tauride, +Ekaterinoslaf, Kief, and Podolia, touching also at some points on +Moldavia, Bessarabia, and the Black Sea. The north and north-west +parts of the government of Kherson are very fertile, and produce +great quantities of wheat; although the soil becomes dry and sandy on +approaching the Black Sea. Before its conquest by the Russians this was +the country of the Nogai Tatars, who were also called Precopian Tatars, +but none of their tribes now remain to the westward of the Dniepr. The +population of the government of Kherson now amounts to between 300,000 +and 400,000, and is composed of Russians, Armenians, Jews, Germans, and +Bulgarians. The town of Kherson is situated on the north bank of the +Dniepr,[11] which here spreads out into a wide kind of lagoon, 11 miles +in breadth. This is filled with low islands, which are often covered +with water, and render the passage difficult and dangerous. The town +was founded in the desert in 1778, by Catherine II., and was the first +commercial port which the Russians established on the Black Sea. This +was four years after the Treaty of Kainardji, by which the Black Sea was +opened for the first time to any European nation, after having been shut +up for 300 years, since the conquest of Constantinople.[12] + +Kherson is situated at about 50 miles from the sea, and the water is too +shallow to allow large vessels to approach it. These load and discharge +their cargoes at Gloubóky, which is many miles below Kherson and the +mouths of the Dniepr. Kherson continued to increase till the foundation +of Odessa, eighteen years afterwards, in 1796. It was both the commercial +and naval centre of the Russians when they first reached the Black Sea +in their conquests; but, as the commercial affairs were transplanted to +Odessa, so their naval arsenal, with the admiralty and the dockyards, +were removed to Nicolaief a few years earlier.[13] The name of Kherson +was given to the new town because it was erroneously supposed to stand +on the site of the ancient Greek colony of that name, the ruins of which +are to be seen close to Sevastopol, and similar mistakes are common in +the case of many other Russian towns founded about the same time. Thus +Sevastopol itself bears the name of the old Greek city on the shores of +Abkhazia; the ruins of the real Eupatoria are at a long distance from the +place which now bears its name; and nothing but a Tatar village of the +name of Hadjibey ever stood on those steppes where Odessa is supposed to +renew the memory of the ancient Odessus. + +Nicolaief is the only town of the slightest importance on the dreary +road from Kherson to Odessa, and is 40 miles from the former, and 77 +miles from the latter place.[14] It stands in the open Steppe, at the +confluence of the Boug and the Ingoul, on the left bank of the former +river, and 22 miles from its mouth. The Boug is here a noble stream, a +mile and a half broad,[15] and so deep that the largest men-of-war can +ascend and descend after taking out their guns. Its right bank is deep +and precipitous, and the left bank low and shelving, a peculiarity, as +I have before remarked, of all the rivers of Southern Russia. This was +likewise found to be the case at the Alma. This town was founded in 1791, +and intended to replace Kherson as the head-quarters of the Russian fleet +in the Black Sea. It is simply a naval arsenal, and contains a population +of 10,000 or 12,000 persons, entirely occupied in the government +establishments. There are here immense storehouses and dockyards, in +which all the Russian fleet in the Black Sea is built.[16] The timber for +ship-building comes chiefly down the Dniepr to Kherson, and from thence +to Nicolaief. All the vessels constructed here are transported empty down +the river to Gloubóky or Otchákow, and proceed from thence to the Black +Sea on wooden frames called camels, because of a sandbank near Kilboroún, +and they take in their cannon and tackle at Sevastopol. The town is +quite undefended except by a wall, which has been built not for military +but police purposes, to prevent peculation and smuggling, by allowing +no ingress or egress without permission. There is no good water[17] at +Nicolaief, as that of the rivers is often brackish, as is also that which +is obtained from wells, but an excellent spring has been found at some +distance from the town, the water of which has now been introduced and +fills a large reservoir, which holds a sufficient quantity for a much +larger population than now inhabits Nicolaief.[18] + +From Nicolaief to Odessa the country is very desert and uncultivated; +for the old Tatar population has disappeared, and new settlers have +not arrived in sufficient numbers to occupy their place. It is only at +the last stage from Odessa that the country bears at all the aspect of +civilization. + +Odessa, situated on a barren Steppe, is the second commercial port in the +Russian empire. It was the last town founded by the Empress Catherine +II. in 1796, a few months before her death; and although its situation +is not the best that could have been chosen, still its position as a +débouché for the Polish provinces, and its privileges as a free port, +have made it rapidly increase up to the present time. Odessa is the +residence of the Governor-General of New Russia, and the real capital of +all Southern Russia—that is to say, the largest money centre, and the +town to which all look up as the richest and most refined in the empire +after Petersburg and Moscow. New Russia comprehends the governments of +Kherson, Ekaterinoslaf, and the Tauride, or the vast territory which has +been conquered from nomade nations within the last century, and is as +yet thinly peopled with fixed inhabitants. All these countries have the +same interests, and require special attention, and for these reasons the +governors of them do not correspond with the ministers at Petersburg, as +is the case with the other governments of the Russian empire, but are +referred to the Governor-General of New Russia,[19] who resides among +them at Odessa, and can naturally pay a more immediate attention to their +wants than distant ministers. + +New Russia, as the name denotes, has been recently acquired. This +country, with Bessarabia, nearly agrees with the limits of ancient +Scythia in the time of Herodotus, who describes it as extending from +the Ister (Danube) to the Tanais (Don), and as being watered by eight +rivers, of which the Tanais was the last. Scythia, then, appears to have +been bounded by the Danube on the south-west. To the north the whole +of the Boug ran through Scythia; and beyond the Don, to the east, the +Scythian population ended, and the Sauromatæ occupied the Steppes between +the Caspian and Black Sea. The latter people are supposed by some to be +the same as the Sarmatæ, or Sarmatians, the ancestors of the Poles. The +southern part of Scythia, between Kherson and Perecop, was inhabited by +a fixed population, called the Agricultural Scythians; and the Royal +Scythians were to the east, near the Don; and the Nomade Scythians along +the whole country to the north. From the third to the sixth century, when +the barbarians pressed forwards to occupy the defenceless provinces of +the Roman empire, these plains were the high road of nations, and were +occupied by a succession of nomade peoples during the whole period of the +Byzantine empire, until they fell into the hands of the Tatars and the +Ukraine Cossacks, called Zaporogues, from whom the Russians conquered +them in the latter half of the last century. Several Nogai Tatar tribes +regularly divided the whole of the southern portion of it, from the +Dniestr to the Don, and all were under the dominion of the Khan of the +Crimea, and constituted the largest portion of his territory. At the end +of the seventeenth century these Tatars were known in Europe by the name +of the Precopian Tatars, or the Tatars of Perecop.[20] + +The nearest regular nations to these on the north were the Poles and the +Russians, of which the Poles were three centuries ago the more important +and powerful people; but both were then much smaller nations and occupied +far less territory than they now do. Between them and the Tatars there +was an immense tract of waste land called the Ukraine, which in Russian +means the march, or border land. Upon this a fugitive population of all +sorts settled themselves, and took as their head-quarters the rapids of +the Dniepr, where that river for about 70 miles falls over a succession +of vast granite blocks, which impede the navigation of the river, and +have caused the formation of numerous islands, difficult of access. +From this cause the mixed population who took refuge there were called +Zaporogues, or the people who lived at the falls, from two Russian words, +“za,” at, “porohi,” the falls; and they were also called Cossacks, or +Kazaks, as the word is pronounced in Russian and Tatar. This is an +appellation of uncertain origin, and known over a vast extent of country +on the confines of Europe and Asia. The Zaporogues were called Kazak, and +so were the people who lived on the Don, and these two communities were +of decided Russian origin. This name was also well known among Asiatic +nations, for the Tcherkess in early times were called Kazaks, and Wood +found it in use as far as the banks of the Oxus. It is not considered as +a complimentary term, and the Cossacks of the Don call themselves the +Donskoi, or the people of the Don, and consider the other as a reproach. + +The Zaporogue Cossacks then inhabited the march between the Tatars and +the Poles and Russians, and thus resembled the border people of England +and Scotland. In the reign of Sigismund I., King of Poland, the last of +the race of Jagellon, who died in 1572, the Cossacks were first taken +into pay and armed against the Tatars, and a Polish officer was appointed +their governor; and in the reign of Stephen Batory, which began three +years after the death of Sigismund, they were regularly brought under +military discipline. Much that is fabulous has been related of this +people, and they have been described as a nation who admitted no women to +live among them, as the Amazons near the Sea of Azof banished all men; +and imagination had embellished their history as early as the seventeenth +century.[21] “They were, however,” says Chevalier, who wrote a history of +the Cossack war, which was published at Paris in 1663, “only a military +body, and not a nation, as some have imagined. We cannot compare them +better than to the Franc archers established in France by Charles VII. +They made periodical naval expeditions against the Turks, and have even +advanced within two leagues of Constantinople. Their rendezvous was +the islands of the Dniepr, and when winter approached they returned to +their homes. They generally mustered 5000 or 6000 men: their boats were +sixty feet long, with ten or twelve oars on each side, but this must be +understood only of their war-boats.” + +In short, they were pirates after the manner of our forefathers, the +Jutes, Angles, Saxons, and Danes. + +The father of John Sobieski commanded the Cossacks, and gives the +following account of them:— + +“They are chiefly of Russian origin, though many criminal refugees +from Poland, Germany, and other countries are to be found among them. +They profess the religion of the Greek Church; and have their fixed +residence in their naturally fortified places, watered by the Dniepr. +Their business is war, and when they are shut up, as it were, in their +nest,[22] they consider it illegal to neglect athletic sports for any +other pursuits. They live sparingly by hunting and fishing, and they +support their wives and families by plunder. They are governed by a +prefect, whose sceptre is a reed, and who is chosen in a tumultuous +manner. He has absolute power of life and death, and has four counsellors +to assist him. The Poles have given them the town of Trychtymirow in +Kiovia. Long habit has fitted them for maritime warfare. They use boats, +in the side of which they can occasionally fasten flat bundles of reeds +to buoy them up and resist the violence of the waves and winds. With +these boats they sail with great rapidity, and very often take the laden +Turkish vessels. Not many of them use lances (framlis), but they are all +furnished with arquebuses (sclopetis); and in this kind of warfare the +kings of Poland can match the infantry of all the monarchs of the world. +They fortify their camp with waggons ranged in several rows; this they +call ‘tabor,’ and make them their last refuge from an overbearing enemy. +The Poles were obliged to furnish them with arms, provisions, and forage +for their horses.” + +Such were the men whom Batory enlisted in the Polish service. In the +year 1556 he divided them into six regiments, and appointed superior +and subordinate officers over them. They were then only infantry, says +Chevalier, but Batory joined to them 2000 horse, and in a short time +they consisted chiefly of cavalry. Their chief was called the hetman, +or ataman; and the king presented him with a flag, a horse-tail, a +staff, and a mirror, as ensigns of authority.[23] The Cossacks played an +important part in all the wars that desolated these countries till they +were subdued, in the last century, by Catherine II., and transplanted to +the banks of the Kuban to keep in check the Circassians. They then lost +the name of Zaporogues, and took that of Tchernomorski[24] Cossacks, +or Cossacks of the Black Sea, under which they are now fighting in the +Russian armies before Sevastopol. + +The authority of the khans of Crimea[25] extended beyond Odessa to the +Dniestr,[26] which was in former times the limits of Moldavia, whose +prince paid them tribute. To the north the Tatars were separated from +the kingdom of Poland by the country of the Ukraine; and the Zaporogue +Cossacks were organized by the Polish monarchs as a kind of military +colonists to check their depredations. The Tatar sway was also extended +along all the Steppes as far as the Don Cossacks, and then again beyond +them to Circassia, and the power of the khans of Crimea long survived +that of their brethren in Great Tatary. But when once the Russian people +had begun to shake off their shameful servitude to the Tatars, which it +is doubtful whether any other European nation placed in their position +could have avoided, each generation saw them increase in power, till they +had conquered Zaporogues, Poles, Don Cossacks, and Tatars, and turned +these nations into obedient subjects and instruments for the further +extension of their enormous empire. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + +THE STEPPES OF RUSSIA. + + Extent and boundaries of the Steppes—The Tchorno-ziemé—Soil + and aspect—Their productions—Appearance of the Steppes + in spring, summer, and winter—Snow-storms, called + “Metel” and “Boura”—“Balkas,” or ravines—Roads, their + state in spring—Tumuli or “Kourgans”—False tumuli—The + mirage—Tchernomore Steppes—From Don to Moloshna—Moloshna to + Dniepr—German colonies—Inhabitants of Steppes—Game—Soroke or + Marmot—Biroke—Suslic—The Steppes occupy two-thirds of Crimea. + + +The vast plains which extend over one-fifth of the whole Russian empire +in Europe,[27] or more than twice the size of France, are known both +to natives and foreigners by the name of the “Steppes,” and present +a monotonous level from the confines of Moldavia to the high plateau +of Central Asia.[28] An imaginary line drawn through Krementchouk and +the northern part of Tambof forms their limit to the north, and to the +south they are bounded by the Black Sea and the Azof; they also extend +over all the northern parts of the Crimean peninsula. After passing the +Sea of Azof they expand to the south and occupy the space between the +Azof and Caspian as far south as the Terek and the Kuban, which are the +boundaries of Circassia, and very distinctly mark their limits in that +direction. On the north they reach the Oural Mountains, and then crossing +the river of that name they join the deserts of Tatary, and increase +in breadth to the north and south as they approach the great Asiatic +table-land. They are totally devoid of trees or shrubs, have a soil of +varying fertility, and a very scanty population. + +In the north of Russia the ground is naturally covered with trees and +shrubs, and produces immense forests, but where the Steppes begin, the +forests end. Much has been written on the causes of the treeless aspect +of the Steppes, and on the possibility of covering them with forests by +planting. Some consider that they were in ancient times covered with +wood, which has been destroyed by the nomade peoples who in all ages have +inhabited them. The authority of Strabo is used, who mentions the country +between Perecop and the Dniepr under the name of Hylæa,[29] because of +its dense forests, although there is not now a shrub to be seen there; +and Haxthausen says he observed in the government of Saratof, which +belongs to the region of the Steppes, that the rivers Irguiss, Jároslaw, +and Aktóuba were still bordered by splendid forests of oaks, beech, +poplars, and willows, although pines were never to be met with.[30] +Murchison, however, with reason I venture to think, utterly disbelieves +in the former existence of forests that have been destroyed, and thinks +that the total absence of trees in Southern Russia results from general +conditions of climate, and from the want of dew, which is the cause +commonly assigned for it by the inhabitants of the country itself. + +But if there be no trees or shrubs, the southern provinces of Russia +enjoy a herbaceous vegetation of extreme richness, which occupies the +soil with a vigour of growth which is rarely met with in Europe, and +grasses, which in other places scarcely attain the height of a foot, +are met with in the Steppes reaching upwards of six feet. The reason +of this prolific vegetation is that the Steppes are mostly within the +region of the celebrated tchorno-ziemé, or black earth, which is a +deposit of amazing fertility, peculiar to the southern part of Russia. +“The tchorno-zèm,” says Murchison,[31] “has its northernmost limit +defined by a waving line, which passing from near Kief and Tchérnigof, +a little to the south of Líchvia, appears in 54° of north latitude in +that tract, then advances in its course eastward to 57°, and occupies the +left bank of the Volga west of Tcheboksar, between Nijny Novgorod and +Kazan. In approaching the Ural chain we saw no black earth to the north +of Kazan, but it was plentiful on the Kama and around Ufa. Again, on the +Asiatic or Siberian side of the Ural Mountains, we travelled through one +large mass of it near Kamensk, south of the Issetz river, in latitude +56° north, and through another between Miask and Troitsk. In the great +Siberian plains we heard that it spreads over considerable spaces in +the eastern, central, and southern parts of that region. Although we +met with it occasionally in the low gorges of the Ural chain, and in +the Bashkír country on both flanks of the southern Ural (in plateaux +more than 1000 feet above the level of the sea), and also in the Steppes +of the Kirguiss; we did not see it in the plains near Orenburg, nor +to the south of that city. There is none to the south of Tzáritzin on +the Volga, in the Steppes of the Kalmucks between that place and the +mouth of the Don; and it is only in very limited patches along the Sea +of Azof, or, in other words, on the southern face of that elevation +between the Dniepr and the Don which constitutes what is commonly +called the granitic Steppe. It occurs, however, in great thickness on +the plateaux on the northern side of that axis, where it surmounts +the carboniferous limestone with many seams of coal, so that it might +at first sight be supposed to be produced by the decomposition of the +subjacent carbonaceous strata. It lies, however, upon rocks of all ages, +and occupies the centre of a trough, large as an European empire, having +the detritus of the crystalline and older rocks for its northern, and +the low granite Steppes and Caspian deposits for its southern limits.” +It occupies an area of about 180 millions of acres in European Russia, +and varies from a few feet to fifteen and twenty feet in thickness. “In +travelling over these black tracts in a dry summer we were often,” says +Murchison, “during a whole day, more or less surrounded by a cloud of +black dust, arising from the dried up tchorno-zèm, which is of so subtile +a nature as to rise up through the sod in rich grass countries under the +stamp of the horses’ feet, and forms so dense a cloud that the traveller +is often begrimed like a working collier.” + +It is not the humus arising from decayed forests or vegetables during +the present period of the world’s history, as no trace of trees, roots, +or vegetable fibre is found in it in any part of the empire. In the +northern parts of Russia, where the forests have been lately cleared, +no vestige of it exists, while it abounds south of a certain line, or +exactly in those extensive and steppe-like undulations which have been +devoid of trees throughout all known time. Its extreme fertility is +attributed to the unusually large quantity of nitrogen which it contains; +and its origin is referred to the period when the Russian continent was +still submerged, and the tchorno-ziemé (which Russian economists justly +consider as one of the most precious treasures of the empire) was the +mud at the bottom of a great internal sea. This union of the black +earth with a temperate climate in the Steppes between the Dniestr and +the Don already enables the inhabitants of those countries to send, as +from Mariopol, the finest wheat to the European markets, and justifies +economists in looking forward to this region as one destined to a +brilliant future. On the shores of the Black Sea and the Sea of Azof and +eastward of the Don the Steppes become less fertile, until, wearing a +more and more barren aspect, they gradually get blended with the sandy +deserts of Tatary. On the eastern shore of the Sea of Azof, in the +countries of the Don and Tchernomorsky Cossacks,[32] there is, however, +some splendid land, and large quantities of corn and linseed are sent +thence, northwards to Taganrok for exportation, and southwards to supply +the army of the Caucasus. The Steppes are in parts covered with a rich +herbage, on which feed large herds of horses, cattle, sheep, and camels. +The upper layer of the soil of the Steppes presents a great variety +in its composition, from lands impregnated with saline substances, +and moving sands, to the mixtures most favourable to vegetation. As +this upper layer rests upon a subsoil which does not easily permit +infiltration, it is upon its thickness that depends its fertility; for, +where it is not deep enough to retain humidity, the land becomes easily +saturated by rain, and dried by evaporation. This circumstance is a +great check to cultivation, because long droughts are common in these +countries. All the Steppes are not in this disadvantageous position, +although such is their predominant character in several governments to +the south and east of the empire. This want of rain, and absence of +natural means for retaining moisture, such as hills or trees, is one +of the greatest calamities of the country; but the vegetation of that +part of the Steppes which is only used for pasturage has a particular +character which modifies the influence of the droughts. Nature here shows +a wonderful variety of resources. + +The vegetation of the spring lasts about three months, and if this period +passes without abundant rains, the grass does not reach its natural +height. It dries in a moment, when the stalk has all its richness, and +thus forming a natural kind of hay, it offers to the cattle during nine +months a very substantial food, and these pastures are in consequence +particularly favourable to sheep. When, on the contrary, the rains of +spring are very abundant, the vegetation becomes rank, and the grass +sometimes reaches four times its natural height. In such seasons the +“stipa capillata” springs up, the prickly fruit of which proves injurious +to sheep by penetrating their flesh, and often causing their death. The +pasture at the same time is less wholesome and nourishing: in short, by a +singular contrast in this country, which is generally condemned for its +droughts, the proprietors of the Steppes often prefer a dry season to one +too rainy. The vegetation of the pasturing Steppes also presents another +peculiarity, that the grass is not spread in an even manner over it, but +in isolated spots, which form a kind of oases. The even turf is only +found in very low valleys. + +The Steppes are divided by one writer into “eternal Steppes” and +“accidental Steppes:” the first are those where the layer of soil is so +thin that they never can be cultivated, and trees will never be able to +grow; while the others are highly favourable to agriculture, and some +remains of ancient forests are found in the low valleys. In the Steppes +near Taganrok, as long as they are uncultivated, there is a kind of +natural rotation of crops. To the herbage, which sometimes is as high as +a man’s waist, succeeds the next year a coarse weed called “bourian,” +which rises to the height of three or four feet, and is cut to use as +fuel. Though it burns very quickly, it serves for Russian stoves, which, +heated for a quarter of an hour, will keep an apartment warm during the +whole day. To the bourian succeeds a thin kind of grass, and then about +the third year the pasture is again excellent. A considerable portion of +the Steppes is cultivated, and, without any artificial means, produces +some of the finest wheat known. A rest of one or two years suffices to +restore to the ground its original fertility, and the enormous tracts +of uncultivated land make it never necessary to overtax its powers. In +other parts the cultivation of the Steppes differs from that of all +other countries. Certain kinds of grain are sown for several years in +succession, and then the ground is left fallow, and becomes covered with +grass. The first year weeds spring up in abundance, and then in the +second and third years the pasturage becomes excellent. When the soil +seems sufficiently recovered, it is again ploughed. This agricultural +cycle occupies from ten to fifteen years, according to the fertility of +the soil.[33] + +M. Haxthausen divides the Steppes into five classes: + +1. The tertiary calcareous formation predominates in Bessarabia, Kaddia, +and a small part of the government of Kherson. + +2. The chalk forms the base of the soil in the north, and embraces the +Steppes of the governments of Kharkof, Woroneje, Tambof, a part of the +country of the Cossacks of the Don, and the government of Saratof. + +3. The granitic base, which is a spur from the Carpathians, extends along +the Black Sea and the Sea of Azof to the Caucasus. + +4. The Steppes of alluvial deposit extend to the south-east along the +Kuban and Terek, which run east and west at the foot of the northern +slopes of the Caucasus. + +5. The Steppes of saline base extend to the east as far as the river +Jaik, which runs into the Caspian Sea on the north, and on which is +situated Orenbourg. + +The Steppes of the three first formations have a situation much higher +above the level of the sea than the alluvial and saline steppes, which +Pallas thinks evidently formed the bottom of the waters when the Caspian +was united to the Black Sea. They are everywhere covered by a rich layer +of humus, more or less thick. The alluvial Steppes are of extraordinary +fertility wherever the soil is not covered with marshes. + +The granitic Steppes are mostly covered with a thick short grass, while +the chalky and calcareous Steppes produce herbage which reaches six or +seven feet in height, and a profusion of beautiful varieties of wild +flowers. The banks of the rivers are covered with reeds, which reach in +the alluvial Steppes an enormous height. The cynarocephalus, a kind of +reed, in German “kletten,” which is used as fuel, is found from thirty to +forty feet in height. That portion of the country of the Steppes which +is likely to be of great future importance is the one situated above the +Black Sea and the Sea of Azof, between the Carpathian Mountains and the +Don. + +For a short period, in April and May, the Steppes present a beautiful +appearance. The brilliant green of the rising crops of corn, and the +fresh grass, intermingled with flowers of the most lively colours, are +pleasing to the eye, and give a charm to the monotony of the scenery. +A hot scorching sun, however, soon withers the grass, which assumes a +brownish hue, and clouds of dust increase the dreariness and parched +appearance of the Steppes. During the winter the ground is covered with +snow, which at times lies several feet deep. Unimpeded by mountains, +forests, or rising ground, the winds from the north-east, passing over +many hundred miles of frozen ground, blow with resistless violence, and +often uninterruptedly for several weeks. When the frost is severe, and +the snow in a dry powdery state, the wind drifts it about and obscures +the air. These snow-storms are called by the inhabitants “metel” or +“boura,” and have often proved fatal to the half-frozen, blinded, and +bewildered traveller, who, having lost his way, is wandering over the +dreary icy Steppes in search of a place of refuge. Detached houses and +whole villages are sometimes buried by the drifting snow, through which +the inmates are obliged to cut their way. At times the traveller looks in +vain for the solitary post-house at which he is always anxious to arrive, +and learns only that he has reached his temporary resting-place by a +slight rise in the snow, and by his sledge being overturned into a hole, +through which he creeps down into the snug cottage, which is sometimes +thus buried for several weeks. When the wind blows with violence, and the +snow is drifted about in eddies, the storm has a singularly bewildering +and stunning effect. The inhabitants themselves lose their way, and the +herds of horses, cattle, and sheep, that happen to be surprised by it, +become seized with a panic, and, rushing headlong before the gale, defy +every obstacle that presents itself to their wild career. They are then +inevitably lost, and, overcome by fatigue, they either perish in the +snow, or meet their death by falling down the precipitous sides of some +ravine. These ravines are called “Balkas,” and occur frequently in the +Steppes that lie between the Dniestr and the Don. To the north of the +Crimea they are most frequent, and in some parts follow each other in +quick succession, and always in the direction from north to south. + +The roads in Southern Russia are mere tracks, and those on which post +communications are established have earth thrown up at their sides, and +at intervals conical mounds of earth or stone to indicate the way. The +bridges across the ravines are generally in such a dilapidated condition, +that but few of them can be trusted. + +The melting of the snow in the months of March and April changes the +ravines into torrents, the waters of which, rushing with incredible +violence, form an insurmountable obstacle to travellers. The ground, +saturated with the melted snow, becomes so soft that light-laden waggons +sink in it to the axletrees, and during this season it is not uncommon +to meet the wrecks of many of them that could not be dragged through the +mud, and have been abandoned. Post-carts,[34] that convey but one or two +persons besides the driver, of the lightest and smallest description, +dragged by five horses, proceed only at a foot’s pace. + +One of the few characteristic features of the Steppes is the number of +tumuli or artificial mounds that are scattered over their surface, and +in some localities, especially towards the Azof, they are found lying +together in great numbers.[35] These tumuli, or “kourgans” as they are +called by the natives, are often found to contain valuable relics of +early ages. There are other artificial mounds, similar to tumuli, in +certain directions, at intervals of from one to three versts, extending +over long lines of country, which are supposed to have served as +watch-posts and beacons to the roving hordes who used to inhabit these +plains. On each mound a watch-tower was probably erected, and a beacon +prepared, which, when lighted at proper seasons, would serve either to +guide them home from a predatory excursion, or give them timely notice +of the approach of an enemy. During the summer months the well-known +phenomenon called the “mirage” is often seen, and its effects are as +beautiful and deceitful as those described in Africa. That part of the +Steppes, called the Tchernomore, between the Kuban and the Don, with +the exception of the districts in the immediate vicinity of the sea, is +almost exclusively devoted to the rearing of horses, horned cattle, and +sheep. From the Don westwards to the river Moloshna, the land is mostly +used for tillage. From the Moloshna, again westwards to the Dniepr, the +Steppes, principally inhabited by the Tatar Nogai tribes, are but little +cultivated, and might afford pasturage to a far larger quantity of cattle +and horses than now graze upon them. + +The German colonies of the Moloshna, and others of less importance in +the vicinity of Mariopol, may be well compared to oases in the desert. +Their neat cottages, with well-built barns and out-houses, surrounded by +trees and gardens, and by highly cultivated fields, bear the signs of +wealth and comfort, and of the care bestowed upon them by an industrious +and intelligent population. The German colonies form a striking contrast +to the dreary country in which they are situated, and to the miserable +Russian villages, and the still more wretched Tatar aouls, around +them. Their situation is always well chosen on some sloping ground, +on the border of one of the few rivulets that water the country. The +population of the Steppes is of a mixed character, and is composed of +Little Russians, Tatars, Greeks, Cossacks, German colonists, Kalmucks, +and Armenians. Although living in the immediate vicinity of each other, +they neither intermarry nor associate much with one another. They differ +in religion and character and features and manners, and retain the +distinctive stamp of their origin. + +Game abounds on the Steppes. The large and small bustard are seen in +flocks in the districts to the north of Crimea. The “streppet,” of a +larger size and lighter hue than the grouse, the only English bird +to which it can be compared, partridges, quails, hares, snipe, and +woodcocks, are to be met with in great numbers, and are remarkable for +their fine flavour. Wolves are scarce, and are never seen in packs as in +Central and Northern Russia. + +“Innumerable inhabitants of a smaller race people these immense plains. +Among these is the suroke, or marmot of the Alps, which is seen in all +parts of the Steppes, sitting erect near its burrow, and on the slightest +alarm whistling very loud, and observing all around. It makes such +extensive subterraneous chambers, that the ground is perforated in all +directions, and the land destroyed, wherever the animal is found. The +peasants universally give them the name of ‘Wastie.’ + +“The biroke is a grey animal, something like a wolf, very ferocious, and +daring enough to attack a man. The Cossack peasants, armed with their +lances, sally forth and chase it over their plains. + +“The most numerous of all the animals of the Steppes are the suslics,[36] +which absolutely swarm in all the Steppes. They make a whistling noise +like the suroke, but are much smaller, not being larger than a small +weasel. They construct their habitations under ground with incredible +quickness, excavating first of all a small cylindrical hole or well +perpendicularly to the depth of three feet; thence, like a correct miner, +shooting out levels, although rather in an ascending direction, to +prevent being incommoded by water. At the extremity of his little gallery +the suslic forms a very spacious chamber, to which, as to a granary, he +brings every morning and evening all he can collect of favourite herbage, +of corn, if it can be found, and roots, and other food. Nothing is more +amusing than to observe the habits of this little animal. If any one +approaches, it is seen sitting at the entrance of its little dwelling, +erect upon its hind-feet, like the suroke, carefully watching all that is +going on around it. Nothing annoys it so much as water; and if some be +poured into its hole, it comes out and is easily caught.”[37] + +Such is a brief account of the Steppes which occupy a considerable +portion of the Russian empire, and as they likewise form nearly +two-thirds of the whole Crimea, and approach within a short distance of +Sevastopol in the direction of Inkerman, this description in the main +features will also apply to that peninsula. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + +FROM PERECOP TO SYMPHERÓPOL. + + The isthmus of Perecop—Its defences—History—Its capture by + Marshal Munich in 1736—The Crimea and Kilboroún conquered + by him—His cruelty and atrocities—The Armenian Bazar—The + salt lakes—General view of the sea-coast on each side of + the isthmus—The Black Sea and Gulf of Karkiníte—Anchorage + of Akméshed—Cape Karamroún—The Lagoon of the Dniepr + and Boug defended by Kilboroún and Otchákow—The river + Boug—Gloubóky—Kherson—The Shiváshe, or Putrid Sea—The + Tonka, or Strelka, or Arabate—The road from Perecop to + Sympherópol—Sympherópol. + + +The isthmus of Perecop is about five miles broad, and stretches from the +Bay of Karkiníte on the side of the Black Sea to the large lake called +the Shiváshe, which is connected with the Sea of Azof by the strait of +Yénitchi. + +The isthmus is defended by an irregular fortress erected on the south +side of a deep ditch, and protected by a high wall built of freestone, +stretching right across the isthmus, which rises slightly in the middle. +The fosse and the wall are said to have been formed in ancient times +by the inhabitants of the peninsula to defend themselves against the +incursions of the nomades of the Steppes. The taphros or ditch of the +more ancient geographers, and the “new wall” of Ptolemy, lie about a +mile and a half south of Perecop. According to Pliny,[38] the Crimea was +originally an island; and natural appearances which meet the eye seem +to make this statement probable. It is related by one historian that in +the tenth century the wall was razed to the ground, and a thick wood +planted from sea to sea, through which ran two roads, one leading to +the Cimmerian Bosphorus on the east, and the other to the ancient town +of Kherson, near the south-west corner of the peninsula. The fosse was +cleared out, and a stone wall, defended by towers, built by the Tatar +khans of Crimea, about the end of the fifteenth century. The Russian name +“Perecop” properly signifies a ditch or fosse cut across the road to +prevent any further passage, and has been substituted for the Tatar name +“Orkapou,” which denotes the gate of the isthmus.[39] + +The fortress, together with the whole line of fortification, was first +taken in 1736, when Marshal Munich appeared before the lines with 54,000 +men and 8000 waggons for munitions and baggage. The ditch was then 72 +feet wide and 42 feet deep, and behind it rose a galionade 70 feet high. +Six towers, built in stone, flanked the line, and served as bastions to +the fortress of Orkapou, which rose behind them. A thousand Janissaries +and 100,000 Tatars here opposed an obstinate but vain resistance to +Munich, who after two days took the lines by assault, and, forty-eight +hours afterwards, the town of Orkapou. Immediately afterwards General +Leontief was sent with 10,000 infantry and 300 Cossacks to take the +fortress of Kilboroún (Kinborn), which, situated on the mainland, rises +at the extremity of the promontory of the same name, and commands the +entrance of the lagoon into which the Dniepr and the Boug discharge +their waters.[40] Munich immediately pursued his march to Koslof (now +Eupatoria), the second commercial town in Crimea, situated on the western +coast of the peninsula, and, having taken it, its riches became a prey to +the soldiers. + +Exactly one month after their arrival at Perecop the Russian army +appeared before the gates of Baktchéserai, which they utterly destroyed. +Two thousand houses and the vast palace of the khans were burnt, and +the rich library which had been collected by Selim Geray Khan, and that +of the Jesuits, were reduced to ashes. The same fate awaited Akméshed +(Sympherópol), where the palaces of the Kalga Sultan, and of the +principal Mirzas to the number of 1800, were mercilessly given to the +flames. Munich had intended also to seize Kaffa (Theodosia), the most +important fortress of Crimea, when an illness obliged him to return to +Perecop, where he received the news of the taking of Kilboroún. The town +of Azof had been taken a short time before. The march of Munich across +the beautiful plains of Crimea was marked by the burning of towns and +ravages of all sorts, and the cruelties of which he was guilty have +placed his name beside those of Louvois and Catinat, the devastators of +the Palatinate. Before he left Crimea he razed the lines of Perecop and +blew up the fortifications of the town.[41] + +At the present time there is a bridge across the fosse, and a stone +gateway, which presents rather an interesting appearance as seen from the +north. On either side are a few straggling houses, inhabited by Tatars, +Jews, and Russians, most of whom derive their support from the salt-lakes +in the vicinity. The principal part of the town is at a distance of +about two miles further south, and goes by the name of the Armenian +Bazar, from the country of its most numerous population. It contains +a custom-house, and comptoirs for the brandy distilleries, and salt +magazines, within it, a number of shops, and about 900 inhabitants. Here +is a mosque with two minarets, and a Russian and an Armenian church. The +quantity of salt exported by this route to Russia is immense. According +to Vsevolovski more than 20,000 waggons are annually employed in the +trade. They are drawn by oxen, and generally form large caravans, the +sight of which affords an agreeable relief to the eye of the traveller +when wearied by the continuous monotony of the Steppe. The salt is +produced by evaporation on the surface of the lakes, some of which have +a circumference of upwards of 20 versts, and are in general shallow, and +have formerly had a communication with the sea. The soil is also strongly +impregnated with saline properties, which it necessarily communicates to +the vegetation; the Tatar cattle are, however, fond of it, and the sheep +fatten equally with those fed on the produce of common earth. + +Now, standing on the isthmus of Perecop, let us look first to the +right, and follow the indentures of the coasts and the channel of the +shallow sea that leads to it from Odessa; and then turn to the left, +where equally shallow lagoons are interposed between the isthmus and the +little strait of Yénitchi. The want of water on each side of the isthmus +forms its strength, as it makes it equally difficult of approach for +a land or a naval force. On the left side no vessels can approach it +within a long distance, but on the side of the Black Sea there is deep +water and good anchoring ground at a distance of about 20 miles. The +gulf which runs up from the Black Sea to Perecop is called the Gulf of +Karkiníte. It separates Crimea from the mainland, is open to the west and +south-west, and 42 miles in width at its entrance. Its length, from Cape +Karamroún, the most westerly point of Crimea, to the isthmus of Djaril +Agátch, at the head of which there is 30 feet of water, is 60 miles. Up +to this point, which is two-thirds of its total length to Perecop, it +is navigable, and beyond it and the opposite promontory of Saribouláte, +40 miles from Cape Karamroún, vessels cannot pass. The depth round the +promontory of Saribouláte is three fathoms, and beyond it only a few +feet. The south coast of the Gulf of Karkiníte is formed of elevated +plains, which are distinguished at a great distance, and its shore is +bold and steep. The port of Akméshed in this gulf, at 12 miles from Cape +Karamroún, is a great resort for navigators who run between Odessa and +the Crimea. This anchorage is distinguished by a white tower erected on +a cape to starboard on entering, and again by several buildings situated +in the interior of the port, which is three-quarters of a mile in length, +and its entrance between the capes is two-thirds of a mile broad.[42] +This anchorage offers four, three, and two fathoms, sandy bottom, and +good holding-ground. A quarantine establishment is situated here; and to +the east of this anchorage, along the beach which lines the south of the +port, there is a picturesque village. On entering the port you can at +once make the village, and the anchorage is at an equal distance from the +two shores, at two and a half cables’ length from the beach, in five or +six fathoms depth, and sandy bottom, exposed to the north and north-west. +The creek described above is quite safe, and to the west of the village +vessels are secure. + +Cape Karamroún, the westernmost point of the Crimea, lies 12 miles +south-west of Akméshed, and all along this interval the coast is safe, +bold, and bordered by steep white rocks. At 3½ miles before arriving at +Cape Karamroún is Cape Eskíforos, and in the interval the fertile little +valley of Karadja. It is remarkable on account of its beach, its trees, +and a little village, immediately opposite to which there is an anchorage +in five and a half fathoms, sandy and muddy bottom. Here there is a +lighthouse, 117½ feet above the level of the sea. The light is fixed, +and can be seen at sea at a distance of 17 miles. A strong current runs +here with the wind; and the sea at Eskíforos changes from a bright blue +to a dirty and dark green colour, which increases in depth as Odessa is +approached.[43] + +A long low spit of land runs along the northern side of the Gulf of +Karkiníte, and terminates in a point, on which is placed the fortress of +Kilboroún at the entrance of another gulf running parallel with that of +Karkiníte. The promontory on which the fortress is placed is very low, +almost on a level with the sea, and subject to inundations. The fortress +of Otchákow commands the entrance of the lagoon of the Dniepr on the +opposite side, and the distance between it and Kilboroún is only about +2¼ miles. This passage is very important, as into this gulf flow the +great rivers of the Boug and Dniepr, and on the latter is situated the +important town of Kherson, and on the former the great naval arsenal of +Nicolaief, and the safety of both depends upon the passage of Kilboroún. +The country between the Gulf of the Dniepr and the Gulf of Karkiníte was +called Hylæa by the ancients, because of the woods by which it was then +covered; these have entirely disappeared, and the whole country is now a +bare and almost uninhabited Steppe. + +The two great rivers of the Boug and the Dniepr, falling into the Gulf of +the Dniepr, by their united currents flowing to the west, make a channel, +the maximum depth of which is seventy-three feet.[44] At sixteen miles +to the east of Otchákow, and nine miles north-west of Cape Stanislas, +the Boug discharges its water into the lagoon, which it shares with the +Dniepr. This river, as far as Nicolaief, is from twenty to sixty feet +in depth, and its width varies from one to three miles. The city of +Nicolaief, which is the Russian arsenal for the Black Sea, is twenty +miles from the mouth of the Boug, and at the junction of that river with +the Ingoul.[45] The delta of the Dniepr is composed of a number of small +islands, covered with reeds and mostly uninhabited, and it runs into its +lagoon by nine mouths, three of which are much more important than the +others. The course now followed by coasters who wish to approach the +mouths of the Dniepr is to keep close in to the shore, along the north +side of the bay, passing the town of Gloubóky,[46] which may be called +the port of Kherson. Gloubóky is four miles from the Kizim mouth of the +Dniepr, which was not navigable thirty years ago, but is now the one +which is principally used. It is at Gloubóky that vessels of a large +draught of water load and discharge their cargoes, and there is here a +depth of nineteen feet at a good cable’s length from the shore. This port +has greatly increased of late years, and is now the place where most +of the linseed grown in the countries watered by the Dniepr is shipped +for exportation. The entrance to it is marked out by buoys, and in the +channel there is from twenty-five to thirty-seven feet of water. + +The city of Kherson is situated on the right bank of the Dniepr, which is +there half a mile broad and fifty feet deep. Looking westward from the +promontory of Kilboroún, we find Odessa lying at a distance of thirty +miles, and a channel for ships the whole way to it, of from twenty to +sixty feet in depth. A long sandbank, called in the Russian maps the +sandbank of Odessa, stretches out in the direction of that town from +Kilboroún for twenty-four miles. Following the line of the shore of +the mainland, we find Cape Berezane jutting out eight miles from Cape +Otchákow, and between them is the island of Berezane, with steep bold +reddish cliffs. At twenty-two miles further on is Cape Dembrowski, very +near the town of Odessa, with some rocks near it, which render it unsafe. +The greatest depth of the bay of Odessa is eight fathoms. + +Having thus traced the line of the coast to the west of Perecop, and +shown what important places lie there, and how far it may be navigated +by vessels of very considerable size, a point of great importance in the +present state of the war, let us return to Perecop, and see whether it is +equally approachable on the eastern side, on which it is bounded by the +Shiváshe, or, as it is called, the Putrid Sea. This is simply a shallow +fresh-water lake, into which are discharged the principal rivers of the +eastern side of Crimea, the Salghír, the Karasou, the Bulganak, the two +Yandols, and the Sóubachi. The Shiváshe discharges these accumulated +waters, at its northern extremity, into the Sea of Azof, by the canal of +Yénitchi. There seems no good reason for calling it the Putrid Sea, as +there is neither an unpleasant smell issuing from it, nor are its banks +unhealthy. The Shiváshe is separated from the Sea of Azof by a narrow +tongue of land, fifty-two miles long and about half a mile wide, covered +with reeds and coarse grass, on which a few flocks of sheep are seen to +graze. There are three post stations upon it, and it is used as the high +road for persons coming from the towns on the north shores of the Sea of +Azof to Kertch and the eastern parts of the Crimea. + +This curious tongue of land is called by the Tatars the Arabate, and by +the Russians Strelka (or Arrow), or the Tonka. Where the Strelka detaches +itself from the mainland, in the direction of Kertch, are the remains of +an old ruined fort of an octagon shape, and surrounded by a deep moat, +which is called the fortress of Arabat. There is about twenty-four feet +water near the shore of the Strelka, on the side of the Sea of Azof, and +here its beach is high and precipitous, while it slopes off on the side +of the Shiváshe.[47] + +From Perecop the first stage is Terekli Tchousoun, and near it a road +strikes off to the right leading to Kozlof or Eupatoria, a place of +considerable trade, and containing 5000 inhabitants, principally Tatars +and Jews. The latter are of the sect of the Karaites, and number 700 +souls. Many of them are rich, and carry on an extensive commerce with +Odessa, Constantinople, and other parts of the Levant. + +The first view the traveller obtains of Crimea but ill accords with the +ideas which are generally formed of its romantic beauty, the country +being simply a Steppe, without either tree, streamlet, or hill to +diversify the prospect. After passing the next stage, where there is +a large well for watering the flocks of the Tatars, a gentle rise is +perceptible in the surface of the ground, and the soil loses its saline +and sandy character, and assumes the appearance of a fine mould, with +here and there considerable quantities of marl. On reaching the summit +of the elevation, which here stretches across the peninsula, there is +a delightful view of the Tchatirdagh and the range of mountains on the +southern coast. + +Hence there is a gradual descent over the undulating surface into the +plains to the north of Sympherópol, and after passing through a beautiful +Tatar village, with a mosque and minaret, situated on the left bank of +the Salghír, and beautifully adorned with poplars and fruit-trees, the +traveller arrives at the capital of the Crimea, since its occupation by +the Russians. + +At Sympherópol the Steppes have disappeared, the climate is milder, and +the scene changes. The mountains now are near, gardens appear on every +side, and the slopes around are clothed with trees. Sympherópol has +quite the aspect of a Russian town. The streets are enormously wide; the +greater number of the houses are no better than white-washed cottages, +and those of the rich part of the population are built in a bad kind of +bastard Italian style. + +Here reside the principal Russian authorities of the Crimea, and +the town has a population of 8000 souls—5000 Tatars, 1700 Russians, +900 gipsies, and 400 strangers.[48] Before the time of the Russians, +Sympherópol, under the name of Akméshed, which means, in Turkish, the +White Mosque, was the residence of the Kalga Sultan, or Viceroy of the +Khan of the Tatars, who himself resided at Baktchéserai. This personage +filled the second place in the Khanate, and, when the Khan died, he held +the reins of government until the arrival of the new Khan, who was named +by the Sultan of Constantinople. He had a court like the Khan himself, +and had his Vizir, his Defterdar, his Divan Effendi, and also the female +dignitaries of Anabei and Ouloukháni, which were conferred on his nearest +female relations, and to which were attached important privileges. The +Kalga also held a court of justice, to which there was an appeal from all +the courts of the Kadis, or judges, in Crimea;[49] he was vested with all +powers, except those of life and death, and from him there was no appeal +except to the Great Divan of the Khan himself. His authority extended as +far as the limits of the town of Kaffa, and, in the absence of the Khan, +he led the armies of Little Tartary to battle.[50] + +The most delightful sites in the environs of Sympherópol are the banks +of the river Salghír, and here, opposite to the old Tartar capital, was +the palace of the Kalga. The ruins show that it was a vast irregular mass +of buildings, and we can judge of its style by the still existing palace +at Baktchéserai. It had, doubtless, numberless halls and corridors, +ornamented with rich woodwork, and fountains, and looking-glasses, and +its gardens were celebrated for their beauty, and for the pieces of water +within their precincts, on which were several boats for the amusement of +the Kalga. No trace now remains of its former glories. A brewery and a +brandy manufactory now use the pure stream that once fed the fountains, +and a public garden, for smoking and drinking, desecrates the spot which +was once set apart for the use of the hareem.[51] There are no mosques +of any beauty, but there is a large Greek church, built, in 1832, in the +Grecian style of architecture, with a portico in front. There is also +here a large market-place and an important market, which supplies the +southern coast of Crimea, by way of Alouchta, and to this town there is +an excellent road, leading through a pretty valley, with villa residences +of Russian nobles by the side of it, some of which are situated in richly +wooded parks, and form an agreeable contrast to the vast Steppes that lie +on the north of Sympherópol. In the environs are to be seen the ruins of +very ancient times, for Sympherópol was a capital before the time of the +Tatars, and Kermentchíck is the name of the fortress cut in the rocks, +which was the residence of Skilouros, the king of the Tauro-Scythians, +and the enemy of the great Mithridates, when he reigned at Kertch. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + +BAKTCHÉSERAI AND TCHOUFOUT KALEH. + + Description of Baktchéserai—The palace of the Khans—Pouschkin’s + fountain—The great council-room—The hareem—The + cemetery—The tomb of Dilara Bikéh—The gorge of Tchoufout + Kaleh—Acheláma—Tchoufout Kaleh—The Karaim Jews, or those + who reject the Talmud—Their very ancient origin—Probable + descendants of Sadducees—Their high character—Tomb of the + beautiful Nenekedjàn—The crypt town of Kirkor. + + +A good road leads from Sympherópol to the town of Baktchéserai, which +is half-way from the former place to Sevastopol. Baktchéserai was the +capital of the Tatars during their occupation of Crimea, and like +Karasóubazar retains much of its Eastern character, owing to the ukase +of Catherine II., which is still in force, and by which the Tatars are +allowed to retain exclusive possession of these two cities. + +The distance from Sympherópol to Baktchéserai is 30 versts,[52] and the +road runs along a waste Steppe, with the exception of a mile and a half +of the distance, during which it passes through the pretty valley of the +upper Alma. The town is situated in a deep gorge in the chalk formation, +and the traveller does not see it till he has arrived at the end of his +journey, and suddenly looks down upon it snugly ensconced at his feet +between two walls of rock. There he sees the irregular Tatar habitations, +interspersed with delicate minarets and tall poplar-trees stretching in +two long lines on each side of the muddy stream of the Djourouk Sou. +A steep road leads down to it, which passes the modest triumphal arch +erected in honour of the visit of the Empress Catherine II. to the +capital of her new conquest in the last century, and which bears the +simple inscription, “1787.” The town has completely retained its Oriental +character, and in passing down the long street, nearly three-quarters of +a mile in length, the little open shops of the tailors, the shoemakers, +the bakers, the locksmiths, and the kalpac-makers, are seen, with their +proprietors sitting cross-legged, in Eastern fashion, and working and +selling at the same time. + +Baktchéserai is celebrated for the number of its fountains and the purity +of its water, which one writer pretends is the lightest in all Tatary and +Turkey.[53] There are no less than 119 fountains for a population of 9547 +inhabitants. At the end of the long street, just across the little river, +is the great sight of Baktchéserai, the ancient palace of the khans, +which all travellers stop to visit. + +Now that Turkey is becoming so much Europeanized, this palace, as a +specimen of the old architecture of the Turk race, goes on increasing in +interest. The great men at Constantinople are sacrificing the ancient +peculiarities of their palaces to modern conveniences, but this venerable +monument is kept up by the sovereigns of Russia precisely in its ancient +condition. I was much struck with it when the brightly painted gateway +first opened upon me. This divides in two a long line of buildings, of +only one story in height, with all the windows filled up with carved +woodwork, and ornamented with rude arabesques painted in bright colours. + +Right and left on entering are ranges of apartments, which all open on a +long gallery, whence there is a good view of the interior court and the +groups of fantastic buildings raised irregularly around it. + +At the entrance of the second court on the left is the gate called +the Iron Gate, leading to the principal apartments, on which is an +inscription declaring it to have been built by Mengli Geray Khan, who +conquered the Crimea in 1480, and was acknowledged as its sovereign by +the Turks. + +A staircase leads into the richly-ornamented hall, in which there are two +fountains, one of which is called Selsibíl, or the fountain of Mary, on +which the Russian poet Pouschkin has written some beautiful verses.[54] + +Beyond this hall is that of the divan, the great council-room, placed +in the midst of a terraced garden. This is one of those magic buildings +in which the climate of the East can really be enjoyed. Its floor is of +marble, and its fretted ceiling tastefully gilt, while the centre is +occupied by a marble basin, into which the water is perpetually trickling +from a fountain with fifteen jets. The only light that is admitted is +toned down through painted glass, and the softest divans invite repose +from the heats of summer. The terraces of the garden outside are planted +with roses; and the clearest streams of water fall in small cascades from +one marble basin to another. + +From the first hall is a doorway leading to the principal apartments of +the khan himself, where is the hall of audience and a long suite of rooms +leading down to the banks of the river, whence the great man, behind a +lattice, could, unperceived, see what was passing in the town. Behind +the Pavilion of the Waters, carefully hidden by high trees, is a little +secluded court, where the sacred precincts of the hareem terminated with +a high tower or kiosk, whence the ladies used to witness the fêtes and +martial games that were celebrated in the great court, and whence there +is a most charming view of the town and all the surrounding country. + +While the right side of the palace was devoted to all that could +contribute to the sensual enjoyment of life, on the left rose the mosque +and the cemetery; the former built in a good style, and completed by +two tall minarets of fine workmanship. The khan ascended to his tribune +by a staircase shaded by a poplar-tree, and here strangers are taken +to witness the Mussulman service and the dance of the dervishes. The +cemetery adjoins it, in which two large domes contain the monuments of +nearly all the khans since 1654.[55] + +The gardens, and the reservoirs that feed the fountains of the palace, +extend behind it, and above these, on one of the sides of the narrow +valley, is seen a part of the town, and an immense cemetery, which is +approached from the court of the palace by an allée of monuments. One +graceful dome, placed just without the precincts of the palace-garden, +immediately attracts attention. Below, an octagonal building, with +interlacing arches and slender pilasters, supports it, and rich +arabesques decorate every part, in the midst of which the cross is seen +most conspicuous. This is the tomb of a beautiful Georgian, called +Dilara Bikéh, who was the wife of Krim Geray, and greatly beloved by her +husband, who was one of the best khans that ever governed Crimea.[56] + +The Georgians are all Christians of the Greek Church, and Dilara Bikéh +steadily refused to change her religion, and reposes here on sufferance, +at the edge of the Mussulman cemetery, as she was not admitted into the +burial-ground of the house of Geray. + +Many a pilgrimage is made to this tomb, as to that of Marie Potocka, +another beautiful Christian who gained the heart of a Mussulman prince. +She was a Pole, of an illustrious family, and inspired one of the last +khans of Crimea with so violent a passion, that he carried her off and +married her. Neither the splendour of her position, nor the tenderness +of her husband, could, however, reconcile her to being the wife of an +infidel, and she died prematurely, worn out by remorse. + +The pleasure of a visit to Baktchéserai depends upon the frame of mind of +the traveller. It is true there is something grotesque, irregular, and +barbarous, about the whole: that the workmanship of the palace is rough, +the joints ill fitted, and the colouring what some would call gaudy; but +there is at the same time originality in the design, vivid fancy in the +colouring, and a sense of the picturesque in the grouping together of the +parts. As an accomplished French lady has remarked, in her interesting +Travels in the Crimea, “It is no easy task to describe the charms of a +mysterious and splendid abode, in which the voluptuous khans forgot all +the cares of life; it is not to be done, as in the case of one of our +palaces, by analysing the style, arrangement, and details of the rich +architecture, and reading the artist’s thoughts in the regularity, grace, +and noble simplicity of the edifice,—one must be something of a poet to +appreciate a Turkish palace; its charms must be sought not in what one +sees, but in what one feels. The positive cast of minds are disabled +from seeing beauty in anything but rich materials, well-defined forms, +and highly-finished workmanship, and Baktchéserai must be to them only a +group of shabby houses, adorned with paltry ornaments, fit only for the +habitations of miserable Tatars.”[57] + +The entrance into the gorge of Baktchéserai from the side of the Tauric +chain of mountains on the south is much grander than the approach from +the steppe. The rocks open like an immense portal gate into the narrow +valley, and on every side ruins are scattered, even to the summits of +the mountains. This gorge, like the others in the neighbourhood, was +originally closed by a wall, a fort, and a crypt town, which faced the +interior of the mountains, and therefore evidently belonged to the +inhabitants of the hills, who defended themselves against the nomades of +the steppes.[58] + +These remains of the most ancient times of the Tauro-Scythians are +mingled with ruins of recent date. The garden and palace of Acheláma, +built by the Khan Krim Geray, occupied all the valley, and in the midst +was a lake, where the ladies of the hareem used to bathe, and a kiosk, +where the khan used to repose himself. The word “Acheláma” means “a +graft” in Turkish, and the name was given because of the many kinds of +fruit-trees which were grafted in these gardens, of which no vestige now +remains. + +To the left of this ruined garden, perched on an isolated rock, with +houses overlooking the precipice, is the little town of Tchoufout Kaleh, +which has been inhabited for centuries by a colony of Jews. A road cut +in the rock, and joining the one which leads to the southern coast, is +the only communication to this singular little establishment, which is +surrounded by a strong wall, entered by gates, which are carefully closed +every evening. + +These Keraim Jews are all merchants, who have their shops in +Baktchéserai, and bear the highest character for honesty. They reject +the superstitious fables of the Talmud, and their separation from its +followers dates, according to some learned men, several centuries before +the birth of Christ, although the Rabbinists pretend that they did not +form a separate sect until the eighth century.[59] Peyssonel relates +that they claim an origin from Bokhara, and says that they followed +the Mongols and Tatars from Asia in the thirteenth century, and as +these latter gradually left Tchoufout Kaleh for Baktchéserai, the Jews +established themselves in their place. They always enjoyed special +privileges, and were exempt from some contributions that were imposed +on the Greeks and Armenians; as, for instance, the obligation to find a +certain quantity of labour for fortifications, mosques, fountains, and +other public buildings. + +The Jews pretend that their privileges were granted them for services +rendered in ancient times to the Khans of the Tatars; but Peyssonel +attributes the real origin of them to the services of a Jewish doctor, +who, having been fortunate enough to cure an Ouloukháneh, or one of the +great female dignitaries, as his reward obtained for his countrymen the +exemptions noticed above. The capitation-tax of the Jews was henceforward +attached to the dignity of Ouloukháneh, and the Jews, in gratitude, +always supplied the palace of the Princess with wood, coal, coffee, and +other necessaries. Their houses are very clean, and they dress like the +Tatars, and use a dialect of the Tatar language, to which they give the +name of Djagaltai.[60] + +Mr. Henderson, who visited them in company with Mr. Glen, the well-known +Oriental scholar and missionary in Persia, questioned them closely as to +the tradition of their Eastern origin, and even corresponded with them +upon the subject, and from their accounts it appears that they have no +written documents to prove at what time they occupied this fort, or +whence they came before arriving in the Crimea. They also stated that +they had no tradition of any bond of union ever having existed between +their ancestors and the Jews of Bokhara, in which country there are no +Karaim. The only traditionary account current among them is that their +ancestors came from Damascus and settled here about five hundred years +ago, under the protection of the Khans of Crimea. + +Their language also, as exhibited in their ancient books, approximates +more to the Osmanli than to the Oriental Turkish, and it appears from the +Travels of Rabbi Petachia, that there were Karaites in the Crimea about +the year 1180, which was considerably prior to the arrival of the Tatars. + +With respect to the sect in general, it claims a very high antiquity, and +seems originally to have been the same with that of the Sadducees, one +of the three principal sects which divided the Jewish nation about two +hundred years before the birth of our Lord. One of the distinguishing +tenets of the Sadducees was their strict adherence to the letter of the +law, to the entire exclusion of traditional interpretation; and some +authors of note have conjectured that the errors which that sect taught +in the time of our Lord formed no part of their primitive creed, and that +it was the adoption of them by Sadok which made the sect divide into +Sadducees and those afterwards called Karaim, whom Prideaux[61] takes to +be the Scribes so frequently mentioned in the New Testament. + +According to Mordecai, one of their own writers, they are sprung from +Judah Ben Tabbai, and were originally denominated, after him, the Society +of J. B. T., but afterwards changed their name to that of Karaim,[62] or +Karaites. If the accounts that obtain among themselves may be credited, +the first place where a Karaim synagogue was established, after the +destruction of Jerusalem, was Grand Cairo, in which city they have always +kept up a separate community, and where, according to the most recent +accounts, they still exist. They are also found in most of the countries +between India and Poland. + +The principal point of difference between them and the Rabbinical or +Pharisaical Jews consists in their rejection of the oral law, and +their rigid appeal to the text of Scripture, as the exclusive and only +infallible source and test of religious truth. They therefore glory +in the name of Karaites, or Scripturists, although, as is the case +with the epithets by which most sects and systems of opinion have been +characterized, it was at first given them by their enemies. They, +however, consult the Talmud and other Jewish writings, and the answer of +the principal Rabbi in Tchoufout Kaleh to Mr. Henderson was singularly +marked by good sense and moderation: “We do not admit,” said he, “that +the Talmud has any binding authority over our consciences, and there are +many things in it which we cannot approve, but shall we on this account +reject what is good in it, and not avail ourselves of such statements as +are consonant with the text of Scripture?” + +In the middle of the town, near the ancient gate, is a mausoleum, +with an elegant portico, in which are said to repose the remains of +Nenekedjàn Khánum, daughter of the famous Tóktamish Khan, the successor +of Tamerlane.[63] She fell in love with a handsome Genoese nobleman +according to some, or a Tatar Mirza according to others. As her father +would not consent to the marriage, she fled with her lover to the +impregnable walls of Tchoufout Kaleh. He was treacherously inveigled out +of his place of safety, and Nenekedjàn, knowing the fate that would +await him, threw herself down the precipice. Her father, repentant when +too late, built this beautiful tomb to her memory, which is covered with +Arab inscriptions from the Koran. + +Tchoufout Kaleh[64] means, in Turkish, “the fortress of the Jews,” and +this name is not found applied to it till two hundred years ago. The +ancient name was Kirkor, which was the capital of the Khans, before they +removed to Baktchéserai.[65] From the earliest times this spot must have +been a residence of men, for there is a crypt town built at the entrance +of the gorge, in the strata of the chalk, with the isolated hill of +Tchoufout Kaleh behind it, which served as a place of refuge, fortified +by nature. All the other crypt towns in Crimea, as those at Inkerman, +Mangoup, Katchikaléw, and Tepekerman, are built in similar localities, +and date from the time of the Tauro-Scythians, many centuries before +Christ.[66] + +This subterranean town is cut under the fortress, in the sides of the +little valley. There are in one place alone as many as fifty of these +grottoes, and a path with steps is cut in the rocks leading from them up +to the fortress. On the opposite side one of them is converted into the +Monastery of the Assumption, and inhabited by the monks, and a visit to +it enables the traveller to judge how the old crypt towns looked before +they were deserted. Many white crosses mark the tombs of rich Greeks, +whose bodies have been brought from various parts, to be buried in this +sacred ground. + +All the higher part of the valley, beyond a magnificent group of oaks, +has been used for ages as a burying-ground by the Jews, and is called +the Valley of Jehoshaphat. The tombs, great numbers of which are cut in +the white chalk, are ranged under fine trees, and along the sides of the +paths. The effect of it is very striking, as the extent is enormous, and +the whole place is carefully kept up. Some of the monuments go as far +back as the middle of the thirteenth century, and the most ancient are +also the simplest, and resemble long stone coffins.[67] + + + + +CHAPTER V. + +WHO ARE THE TATARS? + + Origin of the Tatars—Original common stock of the Mongol, + Toungous, Turk, and Ugrian groups of nations—Short account + of each of these—The Tatars belong to the Turk race—Their + royal race, the Gerays, descendants of Zingis Khan, through + Tóktamish—Discord in the kingdom of Kiptchak for one + hundred years—Kingdom of Crimea founded by Mahomet II.—Held + tributary to Constantinople till conquest by the Russians—The + conditions—Popular notion that the Gerays are next heirs to + the throne of Constantinople—Selim Geray—Constitution of + Crimea—Power of the Khans with the Grand Sultan—The Sultans, or + royal family, of the Gerays—The wives of the Khans—Character of + the Tatars—Their manner of living—Their fidelity. + + +After the account given in the last chapter of the capital of the Tatars, +it will be perhaps interesting to inquire a little into the history of +this people, who have established themselves for so many hundred years +in the Crimea, who still form the bulk of its population, and, although +their former warlike spirit seems quite to have disappeared, are now +rendering our army important assistance by bringing it provisions. + +To gain a clear idea of their antecedents, we must for a few moments +travel back into very early times. + +There seems to have been in a prehistoric period of time some common +stock from which four great groups of nations have descended, the Mongol, +the Tungousian, the Turk, and the Ugrian, called also the Finn, or Tchud. +The Mongols occupied a comparatively small territory till the time of +their national hero Zingis Khan, when they first occur in history. Even +in his armies and those of his successors, most of his soldiers were +Turks, while the captains were Mongolians. + +They are now confined principally to the country northward of the Great +Wall of China, and westward of the Mandshu country. + +The Tungusians extend on the east from the Yenisei to the Sea of Okhotsk, +and on the north from the coast of the Icy Sea, between the Yenisei and +the Lena, to the Yellow Sea on the south-east. Of this race, the only +division which has exercised an influence on the history of the world is +that of the Mandshus, the present rulers of China. + +The Turks, the most widely extended of the four races, and one of the +most considerable of the families of the world, occupy as a continuous +population the vast extent of country from the neighbourhood of Lake +Baikal, in Siberia, near the northern frontier of China, to the eastern +boundaries of the Greek and Slavonic countries in Europe, and along the +northern coast of Africa to the vicinity of the Pillars of Hercules. One +isolated tribe, that of the Yakuts, dwell in the remote east, upon the +river Lena, and the coasts of the Icy Sea. + +The Ugrians left the great eastern plateau of Asia, and settled in the +north-west of Asia and the north of Europe, at a period long antecedent +to all historical documents. They extend as a continuous population from +the Yenisei on the east to Norway on the west. The eastern branches of +this race are the Voguls and the Ostiacks, between the Ural Mountains +and the Yenisei, inhabiting the country formerly called Ugrien, Jugrien, +or Jugoria, and the most important of the western portions of them are +the Finns and the Lappes. The Magyars of Hungary are also members of the +Ugrian race, and, in the ninth century of the Christian era, descended +from the southern part of the Uralian Mountains, and settled on the +plains of the Lower Danube. They called themselves Magyars, but the +Russians gave them the name of Ugri, and this is the name which has been +corrupted into Ungri and Hungary. The Magyars are the only people of +the Ugrian race who have exercised any influence upon the history of the +world. + +From the third of these races (viz., the Turkish) are sprung the +Tatars[68] of Crimea, who are a remnant of the great nation which overran +a large part of Asia and Europe in the thirteenth century; and the +princes of the House of Geray, who ruled the Crimea down to the time of +the Russian conquest, and several branches of which still exist in Russia +and Circassia, are the lineal descendants of the great conqueror, Zingis +or Gengis Khan. This mighty potentate, who, at the age of thirteen, was +left as the chief of a small tribe dependent on the kingdom of the Niu +Tchè Tatars in the northern portion of China, and whose name was then +Temouchin, commenced his career by defeating the rebellious nobles of +his tribe, and boiling the principal malcontents in seventy cauldrons +filled with hot water. By his large views, and his skilful use of the +superstitious tendencies of his people, he induced the chiefs of the +neighbouring tribes to obey him, and a holy hermit saluted him as the +master of the world, by the name of Zingis Khan.[69] He conquered China, +upset the flourishing kingdom of the Seljuk Turks in Khaurism, and then +his generals advanced by Derbend and the shores of the Caspian, and +defeated the Russian princes at the battle of the Kalka, near Mariopol, +on the Sea of Azof (1224). They pursued the flying Russians to the +Dniepr, and then returned to Zingis Khan in Great Bukharía. + +Ten years after the death of Zingis Khan in 1227, Batou Khan, his nephew, +conquered the whole of Russia (1237), and the country remained subject to +the Tatars for about 150 years, till at the celebrated battle of Koulikof +on the Don (1380) the Russians made the first step towards throwing off +their subjection, and the black standard of Dmitri Donskoi waved over the +slaughtered hosts of the Khan Mamai.[70] + +The empire of Zingis Khan had been divided at his death, and Tamerlane +now ruled over the two Bukharías. Russia depended on the kingdom of +Kiptchak, which, soon after the battle of Koulikof, fell to the lot of +Tóktamish, a general of Tamerlane,[71] who gained it by defeating Mamai, +at another famous battle in the vicinity of Mariopol. The celebrated +kingdom of Kiptchak comprehended the Steppes which extend between the +Caspian and Black Seas, between the Caucasus and the Don in one part, and +between the Volga and the Emba in another. + +Tóktamish was conquered afterwards by the Ouzbeg Idekou (1395), another +general of the great Tamerlane, against whom the khan of Kiptchak had +revolted, and from Tóktamish descend the Gerays of Crimea, and from +Idekou the khans of the Nogai Tatars. Nearly a hundred years of civil +war followed in Kiptchak after the victory of Idekou, and at the end +of it we find Mengli Geray seated on the throne of Crimea (1478), +which he consented to hold tributary to Mahomet II., the conqueror of +Constantinople. The kingdom of Crimea was therefore the remnant of the +kingdom of Kiptchak, as this latter was only a small portion of the vast +empire of Zingis Khan. At the time of the interference of Mahomet II. +there was terrible disorder in the affairs of Little Tatary, and the +state was on the verge of ruin. Three khans reigned at once, and Mengli +Geray, who had the best right to the throne, was dispossessed and obliged +to retire to Mangoup, which at that time was in the possession of the +Goths and the Genoese. Mahomet fearing lest the latter people, who were +masters of the greater portion of the Crimea, and the Muscovites, who +had already seized several provinces of the empire of Kiptchak, should +unite to divide the rest of it, wished to assist the Tatar princes, and +to put an end to the dissensions which must have brought about the total +destruction of the monarchy. He, therefore, drove the Genoese from the +Crimea, took from them the cities of Mangoup and Caffa, and brought +prisoner to Constantinople the dethroned khan, Mengli Geray, whom he +afterwards restored on the following conditions: + +1st. The khan swore for himself and his descendants submission and +inviolable fidelity to the Porte; and he consented that the khans should +be placed on the throne and removed by the Grand Sultan at his pleasure, +and that they should make peace and war for the interests of the Ottoman +empire. + +On the other hand, the Sultan conceded—1st. That only a prince of the +race of Zingis Khan should be placed on the throne of Little Tatary. + +2nd. That he would never, under any circumstances, put to death any +prince of the house of Geray. + +3rd. That the Gerays should never be obliged to deliver up refugees who +took shelter in any of their dominions. + +4th. That the khutbah or prayer of the khan should be read in the mosques +after that offered up for the Grand Sultan. + +5th. That, if the khan made a particular request to the Porte, it should +not be refused. + +6th. That the khan should carry five tails on his standard when he went +to battle, which was one less than the Grand Sultan himself, and two more +than the highest rank of pashas. + +Lastly. That in time of war the Porte should allow 120 purses, or about +12,000_l._, for each campaign, towards the expenses of the khan’s guard; +and 80 purses, or nearly 10,000_l._, for the Kapikouli Mirzas, or the +immediate vassals of the khan, who were not of noble birth. + +There was a fixed opinion in Peyssonel’s time, and it exists down to the +present hour, that the family of Geray are the next heirs to the throne +of Constantinople, should the family of the Sultan become extinct; but +Peyssonel questioned upon this point the khan himself, and his ministers, +and the learned men, and they all agreed in saying that no such right +existed, and that the opinion took its rise in a vulgar error. + +It is probable that it originated in the following manner:—Hadji Selim +Geray Khan reigned at the end of the seventeenth century, and was a great +prince—great as a king, a general, a soldier, and a man. This prince, +having beaten in a single campaign the Germans, the Poles, and the +Muscovites, saved the standard of the faith when it was on the point of +being taken, and supported the falling fortunes of the Ottoman empire. + +Upon this the Janissaries wished to raise him to the throne, but he +thanked them, and declared himself incapable of violating the engagements +to the Porte, which his ancestors had contracted for him, and that he +should consider himself unworthy of them if he mounted the throne of +Turkey by treachery. Having appeased the seditious Janissaries, he asked +but one favour, and that was to be allowed to visit Mecca. He was the +first Tatar prince to whom this favour was accorded, for their birth was +considered so illustrious, that the Sultans were afraid of their rousing +the people of Arabia, and declaring themselves the successors of the +Khalifs. + +Selim Geray[72] was so much respected in Turkey, that the Sultan called +him his father, and, in gratitude, declared that the throne of Tatary +should be filled by princes of his branch of the Geray family alone. The +khans of Crimea used to feel the irksomeness of their dependence on the +Porte, which kept its ascendant by the favour of the nobles, who were +very powerful in Crimea, and by the religious feeling of the people, +who recognised the Grand Sultan as the successor of the Khalifs and the +depositary of the keys of Mecca. + +The power of the khans of Crimea was by no means unlimited, and rather +resembled a constitutional monarchy than a despotism. They drew no +revenue from the land nor from their subjects, and could not alter the +privileges of the nobles; and, by the fundamental constitution of the +monarchy, no noble could be punished without the participation of the +beys, or heads of the great houses assembled in council. Bengly Geray, +after having punished the nobles who were concerned in the revolt of +Shireen Bey, and contributed to the expulsion of Seadet Geray, wished to +diminish the power of the nobles, and formed a plan for removing the Beys +from their great hereditary offices, and making his vizir chief of all +the nobility. The nobles of the Crimea and of the Nogais all opposed this +proposition, and the khan seeing his danger, abandoned his intentions. + +The influence of the khan with the Porte was very great, particularly in +time of war. When Devlet Geray was at Adrianople, and had taken leave +of the Grand Sultan, and was preparing to mount his horse, he suddenly +stopped, with one foot in the stirrup and the other on the stone that +helped him to mount, and the Sultan in surprise asked him what delayed +his departure. He received for answer, that the khan would not mount his +horse till the head of Baltagi Mehemet Pasha, the grand vizir, with whom +he was greatly displeased on account of the treaty he had made on the +Pruth, was brought to him. The minister, as well as the reis effendi, +were executed, and their heads sent to the khan. + +The khan was sometimes sent for to Constantinople to consult with on +affairs of state, and he was then received like a king. The vizir and all +the grandees went out to receive him, he sat down and took his coffee +with the Sultan, and, like him, wore the aigrette, and received the +homage of the Janissaries. + +His forces were very considerable, and he could easily raise an army of +200,000 men. This he could do, although his revenues were very small, and +did not exceed 160,000_l._ a year, because as the nobles marched with +their vassals, and each soldier carried with him provisions for three +months, the support of his army cost him very little. + +His style in writing to foreign powers, except the Sultan, was—Geray, +by the grace of God, Emperor of the Tatars, the Circassians, and the +Daghestan. + +All the princes of the reigning house had the title of Sultan, and were +not shut up, but enjoyed complete liberty. Some held great charges in the +kingdom, and others lived in Roumelia on lands granted to them by the +Porte. There were generally some in Circassia, which was the country to +which they often fled when they had any cause for discontent, and where, +by raising the warlike population of the mountains, and marching against +the khan, or making excursions on the Russian territory, they sometimes +caused the khan much annoyance. They all received pensions from the +Porte, and were greatly respected by the whole nation of the Tatars. + +The family was divided into two branches, of which the one are the +descendants of the good prince Hadji Selim, and the other are a distant +branch, called Tchoban Gerays, or the Shepherd Gerays. It used to be +the custom of the khan, and of all the princes of the house of Tatary, +always to choose as their wives Circassian slaves, and on this account +the mothers of the khans were little respected, even by the prince +himself, and after the death of their husbands they lived in the hareems +of their sons, and were not admitted to their table, and even remained +standing till they received permission to sit down. + +The Tatars in the days when they were a formidable people are described +by a French officer who served in Poland against them, as of middle +stature, strong, with thick limbs, short neck, broad face, their eyes +small, but very black, and opening wide, their complexion tawny, hardened +to all sort of labour and pains from their very infancy. They were +dressed in sheepskins, and carried with them on their journey a steel to +strike fire, and a mariner’s compass and a sun-dial to guide them through +the desert plains where there is no beaten way or path. “They ride very +short,” says the officer, “like all the Eastern nations, and their +horses, which they call bac-mates, were long, lean, and ugly, with the +hair of their neck thick, and great tails, which hang down to the ground; +but they are swift and indefatigable in travelling, being able to carry +their riders whole days’ journeys without drawing bit; and they will feed +at all times, and when in winter the earth is covered with snow, which +is the time when the Tatars make their incursions, they live either upon +what is under the snow, or upon the branches or sprouts of trees, pine +tops, straw, or anything they can find.” + +The Tatars hardly ever used bread, but made a pottage of millet, and +ordinarily ate horse-flesh, boiled when they were at leisure, but just +heated under their saddles and eaten raw when on a march, and the only +sauce they had was the froth of the flesh from this primitive way of +cooking it. They always had extra horses with them for food. + +They had the highest character for integrity, and very few nations were +to be found less vicious. Besides their continence, they were extremely +sincere and faithful, and had no thieves or false witnesses amongst them; +they did little injustice or violence, and lived in union and great +tranquillity. The marvellous fidelity of the captive Tatars in Poland was +celebrated. They never failed to return when they were released on their +parole, and the Polish gentlemen rather trusted the young Tatars in their +service with the keys of their money and jewels than any others of their +household.[73] + +The Tatars can hardly now be said to form a nation. After the conquest +of Crimea by the Russians, all those who did not wish to stay under the +Russian sceptre were allowed to emigrate, and many availed themselves of +the permission and retired into Turkey, so that there are now scarcely +any remaining in the country west of the Dniepr, and their number has +much diminished in the Crimea. + +The influx of fashionable people to the southern coast of the Crimea, and +the wealth they have brought there, has corrupted the lower orders of the +Tatars, and made the nobles shrink in haughty seclusion to the mountains. +There the poorer classes, unlike the Tatars of the southern coast and the +plains, retain their rough and primitive independence, and the rich can +peaceably pass their lives without being shocked by the sight of their +masters. + +I will conclude this chapter by borrowing the account given by Madame +Hommaire de Hell of her visit to the Princess Adel Bey, a celebrated +Tatar beauty, who still lives near Baktchéserai. She rode for several +hours from the latter place through a lovely country, intersected with +streams, valleys, and numerous orchards, to Karolez, the village of the +princess, lost in the mountains, in the valley of the same name. It is +situated near Mangoup, whence there is a glorious view of the mountainous +parts of the Crimea and Sevastopol, and Balaclava, and the sea shining +beyond them; and the abundance of its waters, and the mountains that +encompass the valley with a line of battlemented walls, make it a +favourite spot with the lovers of natural beauty. + +Here Madame de Hell and her husband were received at the guest-house of +the princess by a double line of richly-dressed servants, drawn up in the +vestibule to receive them, and they were conducted into a saloon arranged +in the fashion of the East, with gaily painted walls and red silk divans. + +Thus far an ungrudging hospitality received every distinguished guest +alike, but Madame de Hell was allowed an interview with the princess in +her own apartments, a favour which has been permitted to very few ladies. + +From her account it appears that Eastern beauty still deserves its +reputation, and that the ancient manners and dress are still to be found +unaltered in the mountains of the Crimea. Admitted into a fairy apartment +looking out on a terraced garden, “a curtain was suddenly raised at the +end of the room, and a woman of striking beauty entered,” says Madame +de Hell, “dressed in a rich costume. She advanced to me with an air of +remarkable dignity, took both my hands, kissed me on the two cheeks, and +sat down beside me, making many demonstrations of friendship. She wore +a great deal of rouge; her eyelids were painted black, and met over the +nose, giving her countenance a certain sternness, which nevertheless +did not destroy its pleasing effect. A furred velvet vest fitted tight +to her still elegant figure, and altogether her appearance surpassed +what I had conceived of her beauty. After some time, when I offered +to go, she checked me with a very graceful gesture, and said eagerly, +‘Pastoi, pastoi,’ which is Russian for ‘Stay, stay,’ and clapped her +hands several times. A young girl entered at the signal, and by her +mistress’s order threw open a folding-door, and immediately I was struck +dumb with surprise and admiration by a most brilliant apparition. +Imagine, reader, the most exquisite sultanas of whom poetry and painting +have ever tried to convey an idea, and still your conception will fall +far short of the enchanting models I had then before me. There were +three of them, all equally beautiful and graceful. Two were clad in +tunics of crimson brocade, adorned in front with broad gold lace; the +tunics were open, and disclosed beneath them cashmere robes, with very +tight sleeves terminating in gold fringes. The youngest wore a tunic of +azure blue brocade, with silver ornaments: this was the only difference +between her dress and that of her sisters. All three had magnificent +black hair escaping in countless tresses from a fez of silver filagree, +set like a diadem over their ivory foreheads; they wore gold embroidered +slippers, and wide trousers drawn close at the ancle. I had never beheld +skins so dazzlingly fair, eyelashes so long, or so delicate a bloom of +youth. The calm repose that sat on the countenances of these lovely +creatures had never been disturbed by any profane glance. No look but +their mother’s had ever told them they were beautiful; and this thought +gave them an inexpressible charm in my eyes. It is not in our Europe +where women, exposed to the gaze of crowds, so soon addict themselves +to coquetry, that the imagination could conceive such a type of beauty. +The features of our young girls are too soon altered by the vivacity of +their impressions to allow the eye of the artist to discover in them +that divine charm of purity and ignorance with which I was so struck in +beholding my Tatar princesses. After embracing me they retired to the +end of the room, where they remained standing in those graceful Oriental +attitudes which no woman in Europe could imitate. A dozen attendants, +muffled in white muslin, were gathered round the door, gazing with +respectful curiosity. Their profiles, shown in relief on a dark ground, +added to the picturesque character of the scene. This delightful vision +lasted an hour. When the princess saw that I was decided on going away, +she signified to me by signs that I should go and see the garden; but +though grateful to her for this further mark of attention, I preferred +immediately rejoining my husband, being impatient to relate to him all +the details of this interview, with which I was completely dazzled.”[74] + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + +SEVASTOPOL. + + Road to Sevastopol from Baktchéserai—Conquest and + foundation of Sevastopol in 1783-84—Description of town and + fortress—“The Dvoretz”—Engineer buildings—Fort Alexander + and Fort Constantine—South Bay—The Hulks—Bay of Vessels, + now the Docks—Description of the barracks—Hospitals, + Slobodes—Colonel Upton and anecdotes of Russian + workmen—Sevastopol in 1834—Reservoir of Sevastopol—Sievarna + fort—The citadel—Observations of Sir Howard Douglas on the + siege—Military stores—Arsenals of Russia—Manufactories of + fire-arms—Cannon foundries—Stores come to Sevastopol by the Don + and the Azof—The road by the Arabate and Perecop—Fortifying of + Cape Kazantip—Undefended state of Kertch up to May last—Public + gardens—Haxthausen on the object of Sevastopol and the Black + Sea Fleet—Chopin on the Anglo-French alliance—Conclusion. + + +The high road from Baktchéserai to Sevastopol is carried entirely along +the terrace which separates the chalk from the tertiary ridges of the +Steppe. It passes along its whole length over a white clay soil, and in +summer is very dry and dusty, except in the valleys of the Katcha and +the Belbek. Here the eye is refreshed by the verdure of vineyards and +orchards, especially on the banks of the Belbek, where there are several +country houses belonging to the superior officers in Sevastopol, and the +little Tatar village of Douvankoi offers some charming points of view. +From Douvankoi[75] the road follows the valley of the Belbek till it +crosses the stream near the village of the same name, and then, after +skirting for a moment the sea, it turns again inland, and passing close +to Fort Constantine, arrives at Sievarna,[76] the citadel of Sevastopol, +on the north of the Great Bay, which must be crossed to enter the town. + +From so important a place as Sevastopol it is a great inconvenience to be +obliged to cross the water to reach the high road leading to the interior +of the Crimea and Petersburg, but the country is so extremely cut up +with ravines to the east of the town, towards Inkerman, that no direct +communication by this the shortest route has yet been attempted. + +Sevastopol has succeeded the ancient Greek colony of Kherson, with this +difference, that as the latter was a great commercial mart, so the former +is entirely devoted to warlike purposes, and no considerations of a +commercial or manufacturing nature ever entered into the mind of those +who founded it. It is in consequence entirely military, and contains +nothing but men-of-war, arsenals, barracks, and batteries. + +When the conquest of the Crimea had been assured to Russia by the treaty +of Constantinople, of the 10th of June, 1783, the Russians found nothing +around the magnificent bay of Sevastopol except the little village of +Aktiar, placed at the extremity of the bay near Inkerman, under the +cliffs of white clay that border its steep shores. During all the time of +the Tatar possession of Crimea, this basin, which might have been made an +incomparable port, had been neglected. The Tatars called the Great Bay +Kadi Liman, and the more inland portion of it, including the careening +bay, Avlita.[77] + +[Illustration: POSITIONS OF THE ALLIED ARMIES BEFORE SEVASTOPOL.] + +No sooner were the Russians in possession of it, than within a year they +had made preparations for turning to account its natural advantages. +Already in the spring of 1784 they began to build houses for the invalids +of the fleet, placed near a beautiful spring of water at the extremity +of the Bay of Artillery. The fleet at that time consisted of fourteen +ships of war in the port, one of which had just brought a cargo of +colonists.[78] They were still uncertain where they should place the +town, but even then were inclined to its present position, and the +fanciful name of Sevastopol[79] was fixed upon, as they could not give +it that of Kherson,[80] which had already been misapplied. The old name +of Aktiar had a long struggle with the new name in public use, and I +find that in the Russian post map, of so late a date as 1825, Aktiar is +engraved and Sevastopol wholly omitted. Ten years later, in 1794, when +Pallas again visited this place, a great plan had been laid down, which +has been followed out in all its important details down to the present +day. Five batteries, those of Alexander and Constantine, which commanded +the entrance to the Great Bay, a third on the northern coast, and two +others opposite, on the point between South Bay and Artillery Bay, had +been built. The admiralty and its church, the arsenal, the Greek church +on the hill, the ports, and the quarantine already existed. + +Since that time it has made gigantic progress, as may be seen by the +descriptions of the various travellers mentioned in the notes.[81] The +town is built in the shape of an amphitheatre, on the rise of a large +hill, flattened on its summit, between the Artillery Bay, which is the +merchant port, on the right of the town to a person looking at it from +the sea, and the South Bay, which is the port of war on the left. + +Several wide unpaved streets, bordered by good houses, ascend the hill +from the water, up a steep incline. They open on a large empty square, +separating them from the fortifications, which consist of several +batteries placed on the point of the promontory. Here is hoisted the flag +of the admiralty, which is the residence of the commandant of Sevastopol. + +The quay is a fine construction, paved with stone, and ornamented with +pillars of granite, which have been brought there down the Dniepr from +the interior of Russia. + +The street which runs the nearest to the South Bay is the principal one +of the town, and between it and the bay are the Russian church and the +admiralty, with its tower for a gateway, and the arsenal. A prolongation +of the principal street between the batteries and the Admiralty leads to +the great Stairs which serve as the landing-place to cross the bay, and +here is passed on one side a house which has now a mean appearance in +Sevastopol, but which is still honoured with the name of Dvoretz, or the +Palace, because in 1787 it was the residence prepared for the reception +of Catherine II., who lodged here during her stay in the town, which +she had just founded. In the highest part of the town, the Greek church +is seen in a commanding position, in the wall of which is an old Greek +bas-relief, of no great value, according to Dubois, although much praised +by Clarke. + +Farther on, at the height of 240 feet above the level of the sea, is the +telegraph, which naturally commands the whole town, and fourteen stations +establish a communication in two hours with Nicolaief, the head-quarters +of the fleet of the Black Sea. + +Since the siege of the town commenced we have destroyed some of these +stations, and the telegraph is now carried by a different route through +the country in the possession of the Russians to Perecop.[82] A courier +with despatches would not take much more than a week to reach Petersburg +from Sevastopol in fine weather, as I remember that one arrived at Prince +Woronzof’s palace of Aloupka, on the southern coast of Crimea, by post, +in eight days from Petersburg, and I think the distance from Petersburg +to Tiflis has also been accomplished in the same time. + +The merchant vessels which come to take in stores at Sevastopol all enter +Artillery Bay, along the furthest part of which are ranged the principal +shops of the town. + +The rocks which border the western side of this bay were blown up and +allowed to fall into the sea in 1834, in order to form a platform large +enough to receive some important buildings required for the engineers. + +On the flanks of the same rock, but looking to the entrance of the +Great Bay and the Quarantine Bay, are ranged, one above the other, the +formidable bastions of Fort Alexander, intended to cross their fire with +those of Fort Constantine opposite, in order to destroy any vessels which +should attempt to enter the bay. These two forts are armed with 320 +cannon. The passage or entrance of the bay, narrowed by two reefs, is +shown at night by two lighthouses near Inkerman, at the end of the Great +Bay; and for ships to enter safely, these lights must be kept exactly on +the same line, one above the other. Behind Fort Alexander, on the top of +the hill to the right on entering, are the barracks of the land-forces; +and this is one of the points in which Sevastopol does not shine. They +are passed in going to the quarantine, which is at the extremity of the +bay of the same name, and are placed on the spot on which stood the +principal part of the ancient city of Kherson, to which the Tatars still +give the name of Tchortchoun. + +The library and reading-rooms for the officers of the navy, which +I visited with one of the Messrs. Upton, who I think had been the +architect of them, were well furnished with valuable works and scientific +instruments. These stand, or stood, near the church, in the highest part +of the town, and command, from their fine spacious apartments, a splendid +view of the grand harbour and the open sea. + +While the fleet is armed, it remains in the Great Bay, and when it is +laid up it is placed in the South Bay, which is a branch of the Great +Bay, about a mile and three quarters long, and 400 yards wide. The Tatars +call the South Bay Kartaly Kotche, or the Bay of the Vulture, and its +direction is from north to south. This interior port is so well defended +by the steep hills which close it in, that the water is never more +disturbed than in a pond, and it is so deep that the largest vessels can +almost lie close to its western shore. + +There, in the furthest part of the bay, used to lie the old men-of-war, +used as hulks, in which the greater number of the convicts, who worked +by thousands in the dockyards, were shut up at night.[83] The continual +passage of these bands of bad characters through the town used to be +the great annoyance of the inhabitants of Sevastopol, who, like our +own colonists, could not see without dread this great accumulation +of criminals among them. Some, of course, occasionally escaped, and +immediately recommenced their lawless practices in all parts of the +Crimea. + +As a ramification of the South Bay, at its entrance there opens to the +south-east a little basin, which is a kind of inner port, the total +length of which is about half a mile. It is called the Bay of Vessels, +because a part of the laid-up vessels used to be placed here, and +remained in perfect security in all weathers. When the question was +raised about building the docks, no better position could be found than +the extremity of this little bay, in which a basin has been formed 400 +feet broad, 300 feet long, and 24 feet deep, to receive the vessels which +require to be repaired. For this purpose five docks or reservoirs, made +independent one of the other by locks, have been made. The one at the +furthest extremity is destined for first rates; the two reservoirs which +flank it on the right and left are for second rates; and the two last at +the entrance of the basin are for frigates: the three principal locks are +58 feet wide. To feed these basins, they have fetched the water of the +Tchornaia Retchka[84] (Bouiouk Ouzéne) from Tchorgouna to the locks, and +have conducted it by a canal, overcoming difficulties which would have +seemed insurmountable to many governments. Although the Tchorgouna, in a +direct line, is only eight miles distant from the entrance of the docks, +it has been necessary, in order to avoid obstacles, to make a détour, +which has lengthened the canal by four miles, and it is therefore about +twelve miles long. + +It passes Inkerman, and thence is carried along the Great Bay. The +deep ravines and the Careening Bay have here rendered necessary very +important works, including two tunnels, one of 800 feet in length, and +three aqueducts, embracing between them thirty-eight arches, 1000 feet in +length. + +The point where the stream has been diverted is 62 feet above the level +of the Great Bay. The level of the docks is 30 feet above the bay; and +the fall of the canal in the twelve miles is 32 feet, or about one in +2000. + +Mr. John Upton, the English engineer, who was employed in the +construction of the works, estimated the expenses at about two millions +and a half of roubles assignat (100,000_l._[85]); and calculated that the +work would be completed in five years if 1000 workmen were constantly +employed. But as is always the case, the estimates of the time and +expense were much too low, and the works, begun on the 17th June, 1832, +are not finished now, and the first ship was admitted into them in 1853. + +Those who have visited these works will not be astonished at this delay +in completing them. Basins of a great size cut in the living rock, and +cased with English cement, with gigantic locks, and such a length of +aqueducts, tunnels, and other labours, both principal and accessory, are +a justification of the engineer, who received the full approbation of +the Emperor. The docks had only been completed a short time before the +present war began. + +To protect the port and basins, there has been erected at Cape Paul +(Pavleski Missok), which commands the eastern entrance, a work called +Fort Nicholas, which has three ranges of bastions, one above the other, +and is mounted with 260 cannons, the fire of which crosses that of the +batteries of the admiralty. + +This fort, which commands the entrance to the South Bay, had just been +completed at the time of my visit. I walked through the casemates with +Mr. Upton, the architect, who had witnessed their construction, and who +told me that he thought the masonry had been executed in an unworkmanlike +manner, and that he did not believe the fort would stand the shock of its +own fire. Such is also the opinion of the French engineer, M. Hommaire de +Hell, with regard to the casemated batteries at Sevastopol; he says that +in the first trial of Fort Constantine the walls cracked. The latter, +however, seems to have withstood the attack by our ships in December last +very successfully. + +On the flanks of the hills which enclose the South Bay, on the eastern +side, are the barracks of the sailors, the hospitals of the fleet, and +the barracks of the artillery, and there extend also a part of the +slobodes, or faubourgs, inhabited by the married sailors, which are +composed of uniform lines of cottages built on a given plan. + +I was shown over Sevastopol by Colonel Upton[86] and his sons, who +received me very kindly, and showed me everything I wished to see. They +had found things in a very barbarous state when they arrived—had had +great difficulty to break in their Russian workmen to European habits +of industry and carefulness, and they found that the Russian system, +by which, like our own in India, so much writing is required, greatly +impeded the prompt execution of work, and justified the observation +of the French traveller Jacquemont about the latter country, that a +government of stationery is in most things a stationary government. + +The absence of common mechanical contrivances was so great among the +Russians, that almost up to the period of my visit wheelbarrows were +unknown, and the troops and serfs employed in the great public works used +to pick up the earth with their hands and carry it in bags upon their +shoulders, so that, particularly in wet weather, vast numbers were always +laid up in the hospital with sore backs, and the works progressed very +slowly. + +The serfs were said to do so little work, that Colonel Upton, as well +as all other Englishmen that I have known employed by the Russian +Government, were of opinion that it would be far more economical to pay +free labourers than to feed and keep the serfs for their gratuitous +services. The Russian workmen quickly catch an imperfect way of doing +what they are told, but like children, want constant watching, and never +can be taught the value of accuracy. They execute their tasks because +they are ordered to do so, and never reason on the object to which their +work is to be applied. + +As an instance of this, Colonel Upton said, while he was building the +dock-gates at Sevastopol, when the stone-work was prepared for the wood, +he found to his astonishment that the parts did not fit, although he +was certain that his calculations were right, and the work apparently +correctly executed. At length he thought of measuring his gauge, and then +he found that his Russian workmen, having done their work wrong, cut his +gauge to make it appear right, and never thought that there were other +parts of the work which must fit in with theirs, and consequently make +their error appear. + +Sevastopol has naturally a very fluctuating population, almost entirely +composed of sailors, soldiers, employés, and convicts. It was estimated +at 15,000 souls in 1834, although Mr. Tegoborski, writing in 1852, +declines to make any estimate of it, from the want of any reliable +data. The non-official inhabitants are composed of a mixture of Russian +tradesmen, Polish Jews, who are barely tolerated by the police, and +Germans of the colony of Kronenthal, who are established here as bakers, +brewers, and artisans of different kinds. + +Sevastopol in 1834, although so strongly fortified on the side of +the sea, had not the smallest defence on the land side against a +coup-de-main. The town in all its circumference was completely open, +and there was not even a gate or the smallest rampart. All the streets +debouched on an immense open place in the upper part of the town, or +rather one might say into the Steppe itself, whence roads and paths led +in every direction to Balaclava, Tchorgouna, and the monastery of St. +George. To one standing in the open place and looking down on the town, +there is to the left the newly-established reservoir for the fountains +of Sevastopol, from springs which have been already mentioned. This +reservoir is placed against the wall of the public garden, called the +Boulevart, which has been made on the heights which terminate the South +Bay. The view from hence down upon the bay, filled with men-of-war, +is very extraordinary, as the ships seem to have arrived there by +enchantment, and nobody would conceive that this long lake could have any +communication with the sea. Opposite the garden, a little to the right, +is the vineyard of Bardac. + +At a later period, after the discussions occasioned by the capture of +the Vixen in 1837, when war was supposed imminent between Russia and +England, the Cabinet of St. Petersburg grew frightened at the possibility +of the English in case of war making a descent upon some point of the +Heracleotic Chersonese, and defences were then ordered to be constructed +on the land side of Sevastopol. + +The ground on the north side of Sevastopol is much higher than on the +south side, and consequently the citadel of the place, an octagonal +fortress, called the Sievarna, or Northern, Fort, which is erected +there, commands the whole town, bay, and docks. It has been greatly +strengthened of late years, as the most important position for the +defence or attack of the town. For itself it can only be attacked on the +land side, as its height above the water would render ineffective the +fire of ships, and its precipitous shores both on the side of the Great +Bay and the sea would make a landing very difficult for troops. This is +the fortress which Sir Howard Douglas calls “the key of Sevastopol,” +until we secure which we can never hope to take the place. “But this +taken,” says Sir Howard Douglas, “the Telegraph and Wasp batteries on the +northern heights, Fort Constantine and the forts below, being commanded +and attacked in reverse, must soon fall; while the town, docks, arsenal, +and barracks on the south side of the harbour would be at the mercy of +the allies, who, by the fire of their batteries, might entirely destroy +them all. On the contrary, by attacking the place from the south, the +enemy holding the northern heights, although the works on the crest of +the southern heights should be breached and taken, the town, the body +of the place, with its docks and arsenals, will not be tenable by the +besiegers till the great work on the northern side, and all its defensive +dependencies, shall have been captured. These, no doubt, will have been +greatly strengthened before the allies are in a condition to direct their +attacks against them.”[87] + +The fortifications then which render Sevastopol so very strong are the +important works on the northern side, for there is no use in taking the +town, even if it could be done, as the strongest part of the fortress +would yet remain. At the same time, if an army were brought sufficiently +large to invest it completely, the place must fall, because the supplies +of food, ammunition, and especially of water, would quickly fail. In +water the place is very deficient, as there are no springs in the town, +and only two sources out of the town by which it is supplied. One of +these is the river which supplies the docks, through the tunnel which +has been described, as reaching from near Inkerman to the town. This +tunnel was recently (January 26) stated to be now used, not only as a +passage for the water, but as a safe road by which the Russians introduce +supplies into the town, and this is highly probable, as there is a +foot-path on each side of the conduit. The old town of Kherson, as will +be stated afterwards, was taken by the Russians in the tenth century by +cutting off the water-pipes which supplied the town, and perhaps this +may be the way in which the modern representative of old Kherson will +ultimately fall. + +We have found to our cost how inexhaustible are the stores of Sevastopol, +and yet it is said that a still greater amount is laid up in the chain +of fortresses that have been erected during the last twenty years on the +German, and particularly on the Prussian, frontier. + +As the nations of Europe are fully occupied in their own affairs, and as +Russia is peculiarly inaccessible by nature, she never could fear an +invasion, and her armaments must therefore be looked upon as threatening +her neighbours. Besides, as will afterwards be seen, her army for the +internal service of the country is totally distinct from the immense mass +of men called the Grand Army, kept hovering for many years past on the +frontiers of Germany, in a mobilized state, and ready to pour down its +legions upon any point at a moment’s notice. + +Let us shortly inquire where these great military stores are laid up, and +in what establishments they are prepared. Arsenals in Russia are divided +into permanent and temporary: the first are at Petersburg, Bransk, Toola, +and Kief; and the second at Petersburg, Tyraspol, and, since the Polish +war, at Modlin. The arsenals of Petersburg, Toola, and Kief, are vast and +elegant edifices, each of which can contain 100,000 small arms, and where +carriages and other material for the artillery are made. The others are +only dépôts. Up to the commencement of the seventeenth century there were +no manufactories of iron or foundries in Russia, and the Government was +obliged to buy all arms abroad. A Dutchman, named Andrew Vinius, was the +first to establish foundries, which were worked by water-power. The first +establishment of this kind was founded in the year 1632, on the little +river of Toulitza, at fifteen versts from Toola. Since that time several +others have been formed in the governments of Toola, Kalouga, and Moscow. + +In 1764, a Hamburger raised the first manufactories of steel at Olonetz. +The first hydraulic manufactory for muskets was built in 1648, at Moscow, +on the Taouza; in 1653, another was established in the village of +Tchentsof, on the Skniga; and in 1700, Nikita Demidoff Antonief carried +the arts of founding and making fire-arms to the Neva in Siberia. + +The principal manufactories of fire-arms are now at Toola, Votka, +Sesterbeck, and Zlatoust. The manufactory of Toola,[88] founded in +1712, by Peter the Great, has been much increased; and its flourishing +period dates from 1817, when an Englishman, John Jones, undertook its +management. Some years ago it furnished each year 50,000 muskets, and +25,000 sabres, besides carbines, pistols, bayonets, and pikes. Seven +thousand men, and nearly 10,000 women, are employed in it; besides 3500 +peasants, belonging to the establishment. It costs 124,000 roubles a +year, or about 20,000_l._; and it consumes yearly 70,000 pounds of +Siberian iron, and 10,000 of steel. The manufactory of Votka is situated +on the little river Isch, in the district of Sarapoul, in the government +of Viatka; and some years ago it employed 3000 workmen, and produced +annually about 14,000 muskets. + +The manufactory of Sesterbeck is near Petersburg, and is modelled on that +of Toola. It produced some years ago yearly 12,000 muskets, and the same +number of sabres. Zlatoust, in Siberia, furnishes most of the sabres for +the cavalry and pioneers, to the annual number of about 50,000. + +There are five cannon foundries in Russia, at Petersburg, Moscow, Riga, +Kief, and Kazan. A Scotchman, Gascoigne, sixty years ago introduced as +much improvement in the founding of cannon as Jones in the manufacture +of fire-arms. There are two powder manufactories, one at Ochta, near +Petersburg, and the other at Tchotersk, near Gloukhow.[89] + +The military stores and provisions for Sevastopol come from the interior +of Great Russia and Siberia, down the Volga and Don to Rostof, on the +Sea of Azof, whence in peace they were shipped, and passed through the +straits of Kertch, the whole way by sea to Sevastopol and the other +fortresses on the Black Sea. Since the war began, they have come, as +usual, down the Don and across the Sea of Azof; but instead of passing +through the straits of Kertch they have been landed near Cape Kazantip, +on the coast of Crimea, within the Sea of Azof, and thence were carried +across Crimea, about 100 miles to Sevastopol, during the whole time of +the siege, till the Sea of Azof froze in November last. Cape Kazantip was +fortified by the Russians last summer, and wharves erected near it for +the landing of the goods, and a regular transport service arranged across +the peninsula of Crimea. + +This is probably the new road to which allusion has been lately made +in ‘The Times.’ The facts I have stated were communicated to me by +Mr. Lander, an English merchant at Taganrok, and Mr. Carruthers, late +Consul at that place. These gentlemen passed over the strip of land by +the side of the Putrid Sea, called the Arabate, to Kertch, in May last, +and saw the military stores at Rostof, and the wharves just erected on +the Crimean coast, and the fortifications of Kazantip. The late English +Consul at Kertch, Mr. Cattley, is now interpreter to Lord Raglan; and he +also passed by this route last summer, and therefore neither Lord Raglan +nor the Ministry ought to have been ignorant of these facts. + +Thus continual supplies were poured into Sevastopol up to last November, +the period of the freezing of the Sea of Azof; and since that time the +stores for Sevastopol have probably been carried across the ice to some +point on the northern shore of the Azof, and thence by land over the +Isthmus of Perecop. Had the latter place been occupied, it would have +been easy to have taken possession of the Strait of Yénitchi, and to have +commanded the tongue of Arabate. Indeed, as I have mentioned in another +place, there is deep water (24 feet) along the Arabate, on the side of +the Azof, and a few gun-boats in the Sea of Azof would have rendered the +Arabate impassable to the Russians. The straits of Kertch were undefended +up to May last; and had possession of them been taken by our Government, +and a very small force of gun-boats been placed in the Sea of Azof, the +supplies might have been stopped, and the Russians in Sevastopol reduced +by this measure alone to great difficulties. + +Not only the military stores but also the rye-flour, for the troops at +Sevastopol, is furnished from Rostof. M. Hagemeister, in the Russian +official report on the commerce of the Black Sea, says: “All the +rye-flour which annually arrives at Rostof from Voronetz, by the Don, is +purchased by the government for the use of the army and navy; and thus +the navy at Sevastopol and Nicolaief draw considerable quantities of rye +from New Russia.” These provisions were lying ready for shipment with the +military stores at Rostof in last May, and yet we made not the slightest +efforts to intercept these supplies, which have been regularly poured +into Sevastopol since that time, and without which the siege could not +have been carried on. Merchants in England have informed me that the very +lead which has formed the bullets that have killed our brave soldiers +has been imported into Russia since the beginning of the siege, in +consequence of there being no blockade in the Black Sea and the Azof; and +large reinforcements which have been sent from the Caucasus to Sevastopol +would also have been cut off. + +Such is a short account of Sevastopol, which is alone remarkable for its +admirable natural situation, and its immense fortifications towards the +sea. Although so much labour has been expended upon it, the place is so +vast that the works of man look pigmy. The impression on the beholder is, +how much has nature done for this place, compared with which the efforts +of man appear as mere specks. + +The group of safe and commodious harbours which it presents, stretching +out like the fingers of the human hand from the wrist, which may be +supposed to represent the entrance to Sevastopol, between Forts Alexander +and Constantine, contain so vast an area that all the navies of the world +might ride securely in them. They are the only really good harbours in +the Black Sea, with the exception of the adjoining ones between them and +Balaclava, which, however, are greatly inferior both in size and security +to those of Sevastopol. + +The latter, since the Russians have possessed them, have been closed +against commercial vessels,[90] and every effort has for many years been +made to accumulate here a vast amount of warlike stores, and to keep up +an enormous fleet, although Russia has no mercantile marine to protect, +and, as the event has proved, dares not risk a battle with any of the +great naval powers. + +The object, therefore, of the fleet, to carry an invading force to the +shores of the Bosphorus, and, under the guise of religion, to carry out +schemes of ambition, has always been obvious, and, indeed, not denied by +the friends of Russia. + +M. Haxthausen, the able author of an admirable work on Russia, to +complete which every facility was given him by the Russian Government, +and who, having familiar access to the leading statesmen of Russia, +probably echoes the opinions which he has constantly heard put forth at +Petersburg, has the following remarkable passage upon the real objects +of the fleet and arsenals of Sevastopol: “The object of the fleet,” he +says, “is to secure the dominion of Russia in the Black Sea, and this is +still further assured by the construction at Sevastopol—at the present +moment[91]—of a fortified port of war, which, according to the accounts +of competent persons, will not have its equal in the world. When Europe +shall have a moment of feebleness—and we may fairly expect this to come +to pass after what we have seen to happen in 1848, and when she shall +think the time arrived for conquests—then the establishment of Sevastopol +will allow this power to take the offensive against Constantinople with +equal energy and safety, by making use of the fleet, either to disembark +her troops behind the lines of mountains and rivers which perpendicularly +on the western shore of the Black Sea cut at a right angle the line of +approach on Constantinople, or to strengthen the base of operations of a +grand army, by supporting it wherever there are ports along the Euxine. +It is impossible that the Turkish fleet, either present or future, could +stop this result, for whatever may be done to improve it, its best +sailors are always Greeks. Up to the battle of Navarino the case was very +different, for till that event some confidence might still be placed by +the Porte in the Greek sailors.” + +Then M. Haxthausen, a Russian in feeling, though a German by birth, +gets quite nettled at what he calls the low, feeble policy of England +and France, in preventing the extension of Russia. He continues: “Let +us remark now, the strange change which has taken place in the affairs +of the East. Formerly Christian Europe exhausted herself in efforts to +drive back the crescent to the deserts whence it came. The noblest blood +of Christendom had been shed before the crescent was allowed to surmount +the cross at Jerusalem. But now it is only the Christians who prevent the +fall of the crescent, or at least the re-appearance of the cross on the +domes of Constantinople. In the same manner as the _social licence_ of +Switzerland is sheltered, not behind impregnable mountain defiles, but +simply behind the rivality of the great powers, so the anti-Christian +empire established on the borders of the Sea of Marmora depends not +on the force of the Mussulman, enervated by vices which belong to +the country—not on its number, which in Turkey in Europe has always +been inferior to that of the Rayahs—not on the fortified rocks of the +Hellespont, which the military science of the Christians would soon have +overturned, but solely on the fact that the Christians of the West find +it convenient to preserve Turkey as a barrier between themselves and the +East.” + +“When, in the time of the Crusades, they were fighting for Jerusalem, +the policy of the Byzantine empire led the Greeks to aid the Saracens +against the Roman Catholic armies. This was a policy as _mesquine_, as +feeble, as _tracassière_ as that observed for the last eighty years with +regard to the Turks by those Christian nations who are the inheritors of +the Byzantine policy in the West, namely, the French and the English. +This _mesquine_ policy of to-day, are we to consider it as one of the +quiverings which announce the imminent dissolution of the Romano-German +states, as it formerly preceded that of the last Roman empire?”[92] + +Thus this honest, patriotic German, who hates Switzerland, as is natural +with an admirer of the Czar, is actually provoked with us for preventing +Russian extension not only over Turkey, but over a part of his own +country, namely, Austria, or the Romano-German states, as he calls that +empire, whose fall he thinks imminent. A Frenchman, who knew Russia as +well as M. Haxthausen, and whom a long residence in the country had not +deprived either of his common sense or his patriotism, writing long +before the present crisis, thus judiciously speaks of Russian aggression, +and the true policy of the Western Powers:— + +“There are only two independent powers which draw other states into +their sphere of action,” says M. Chopin, writing in 1838, “and those +are Russia and England. It is plain that of these two rival forces +the first has every chance in its favour: numerical preponderance, +military organization, unity of will without any possible control in +the execution, firm alliances; all these are on the side of the North. +Russia finds in the simplicity of her government a great compensation for +the vices of her interior administration; a profound secrecy covers her +faults; she knows how to act at an opportune time, but she knows likewise +how to wait. When Europe has leisure to occupy herself seriously with +the present danger, Russia seems only to be pursuing plans of interior +improvement, but this repose is but a preparation for other conquests, +and thanks to the little agreement that generally reigns between rival +Cabinets, some new question of difference continually arises in which the +activity of a rival diplomacy is expended, and then Russia marches some +steps in advance—but they are giant steps which crush empires, and the +effect of which is like an actual seizure. Each of her successes adds to +her resources in diminishing to an equal extent the resources of rival +powers. + +“Nevertheless, despite this constant aggressive march, the position of +Russia becomes more difficult than formerly, as the end and aim of all +her efforts, the possession of the Dardanelles, becomes more clearly +defined, and it is a spectacle full of political instruction to watch all +the springs she puts in action to bring about the great _dénouement_. +Sometimes she covers Turkey with her protection. According to her, it +is France and England who meditate the ruin of the Ottoman empire, but +thanks to the treaty of Unkiar Skelessi, Turkey, if she remains faithful +to the stipulations which Muscovite forethought has imposed upon her, +will have nothing to fear from foreign aggression. In the mean time +Russia habituates the fatalism of the Turks to the sight of her flag and +her uniforms, and the zeal of her alliance even goes so far, that she +distributes her decorations among the Ottoman soldiers. There is always +the same system of dissolving corruption on one hand, and intimidation on +the other. + +“It is always the history of Poland, of Georgia, of Finland, of the +Baltic provinces, of the Crimea, of Moldavia, of Wallachia, of Greece, +of Persia,—_and Russia, from the midst of all these conquered states, +dismembered already, or on the eve of being so, Russia dares to declare +to Europe that she has only views of order, and justice, and moderation_. +Europe does not believe this, but is dependent, egoist, and divided; and +she has repeated for years past, in the official discourses of princes, +that the general peace is not threatened, while this precious peace is +only the result of culpable connivance. + +“Russia turns to her profit all these elements of feebleness and +division; she skilfully and resolutely pursues her work, and, organised +for conquest, she will never stop until her principle of activity, +which is the condition of her existence, shall, from want of other +objects, re-act on herself,—that is, until Europe and Asia become really +Russian (Russe de fait). Mons. de Talleyrand, who had deeply studied +the resources and spirit of Russian policy in the great phases of the +hostility and alliance of that state with Imperial France, reduced the +problem of the struggle against Muscovite influence to its simplest +expression, when he concluded the treaty of the quadruple alliance, the +vital principle of which was the Anglo-French alliance. The peril was +then great for Russia, and she hastened, at the first cry of alarm from +her diplomatists, to rouse the national susceptibilities of each country, +and even to range party against party in the bosom of the two rival +states. + +“Dynastic interests, constitutional opposition, radical and legitimist +principles,—she employed all these levers; she exhausted all these +combinations of calculations and politics, to arrive at the result she +proposed to herself, namely, the separation of France and England. She +succeeded, and they avowed that they dared not interfere in European +politics from fear of Russia. These two richest and most powerful +kingdoms of the globe, whose united population amounts to sixty millions +of souls, these two crowns, which can dispose, the one of the military +forces which have conquered Europe, and the other of a navy without +a rival in the world, accepted an affront, and the responsibility of +showing a humility more dangerous than war itself. + +“In good sooth, can we attribute as a crime to Russia her skill in +profiting by the chances offered her by the faults of rival cabinets? +With her, is not ambition confounded with the supreme law of her own +preservation? Without the empire of the Mediterranean, which renders her +mistress of the treasures of Asia and the principal markets of Europe, +she must renounce entertaining an army of 800,000 men, and once disarmed, +once the prestige of her omnipotence destroyed, her forced alliances will +escape her, and in a few years she will have retrograded two centuries. +But if Russia obeys a necessity in accomplishing her aggressive march, +do not England and France, who possess the means of curbing the Russian +power, commit a more palpable crime in knowingly running onwards to their +discredit, and ultimately to their ruin?”[93] + +The spirit of the English people and the intelligence of the French +Emperor have brought about that very alliance which the acute and +far-seeing French writer wished without expecting, and which it is to +be hoped will have the effect of putting a stop to Russian conquests, +and rendering useless the enormous aggressive preparations which she has +been making for the last twenty years at Sevastopol and other fortresses, +in order to increase her own territory at the expense of that of her +neighbours. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + +THE RUSSIAN NAVY. + + Its origin under Peter the Great—Early victories of the + Varangians, or Normans, and Cossacks—Row-boats more useful + in the Baltic than large vessels—The navy under Catherine + II.—English instructors—Difficulty in manning the fleet—No + mercantile navy—Organization of the Russian fleet—No + marines—Oak for navy—Food of sailors—Russian vessels on + foreign stations—Only one Russian foreign merchant—Greek + influence diminished in 1844—“The Twelve Apostles”—“The Teredo + Navalis”—The affair of Sinope—The Paixhans shell system—General + observations. + + +The[94] Russian navy, like the army, was the creation of Peter the Great, +who, when he came to the throne, found his empire without any port except +Archangel, and when he died, after a reign of sixteen years, left a fleet +of sixteen sail of the line in the Baltic, and his name feared as a naval +hero on the Black Sea and the Caspian. In the ideas of that great man +the army was intended to be merely supplementary to the navy, and Russia +was to be a great commercial and maritime power instead of a military +one. “It is thus,” he says in his will, “that Russia, which I found a +brook and left a river, must, under my successors, grow to a mighty sea, +destined to fertilize worn-out Europe, and advance its waves over all +obstacles, if my successors are only capable of guiding the stream.”[95] + +The origin of all the numerous naval armaments of Russia in the present +day was the little boat built by Peter’s own hands, when he returned from +his European travels. + +In 1836, after a lapse of 113 years, the anniversary of the launching +of the little boat, was for the first time celebrated with great pomp +at Cronstadt. Twenty-six ships of the line, twenty-one frigates, ten +brigs, and seven gun-boats, were anchored in the roads of Cronstadt, and +saluted with 2000 cannon the tiny “grandpapa,” as the little boat was +called, which, placed on a steamer, was carried through the lines. From +the earliest times there has been a slight halo of maritime glory around +the Russian name. The half fabulous Varangians, Northmen, or Normans, +who conquered Russia as they did France and England, and from whom the +Russian nobility still boast their descent, were victorious by sea as +well as by land, and the glories of Ruric and Vladimir belong to the +Russian nation as much as the victories of Alfred and the Plantagenets +belong to us. The Varangians found out the road by water along the rivers +of Russia from the Baltic to the Black Sea,—that very road which Peter +the Great improved by employing his Swedish and Cossack prisoners to cut +the canal of Ladoga. + +In 886 (shortly after the foundation of the German empire) the Varangians +appeared on the Black Sea with 200 boats, each containing from forty +to sixty men, and advanced to the attack of Constantinople, which was +only saved by a miracle. At the end of the sixteenth century the Russian +fleets were still feared on the Baltic, and even under the empire of the +Tatars, Novgorod had possessed a flourishing maritime commerce, although +in a great measure it was conducted by strangers. But after the fall of +Novgorod, when the Baltic provinces fell into the power of the Swedes, +the Poles, and the Germans, the maritime importance of Russia began +to decline. The single outlet that was left her, Archangel, was only +frequented by foreign merchant vessels, chiefly Dutch. Then, the Russians +of that time, like those of the present day, occupied themselves entirely +with internal commerce, and the spirit of the Varangians disappeared, or +only lingered among the Cossacks of the Dniepr and the Don. + +Peter the Great, in his maritime views, had for a paramount object the +conquest of the débouchés in the south, leading to the Mediterranean and +the southern oceans, which were then exclusively in the hands of the +Turks and Tatars. + +His first dockyards for a fleet of war were placed near Woroneje, in the +country of the Don, and then also for the first time the Russian flag was +seen to triumph in the Black Sea over the Turks, their national enemies. +At a later period, in the war which Peter the Great had to sustain +against Sweden, he employed a fleet consisting chiefly of row-boats, +which had been constructed on the lakes of the North, and he found this +fleet far more advantageous in the Baltic than vessels of the line or +frigates. Even up to the present time flotillas of row-boats have always +rendered greater services than large vessels to Russia in the shallow +waters of the Baltic. The first result of any importance was the victory +which Peter gained in the middle of the Séches, or low reedy islands +of the Baltic, over the Swedish Admiral Ehrenskiold, from whom he took +a frigate and ten row-boats, but at that time his land army was nearly +annihilated on the Pruth, and the conquest of Azof and the possession +of the Black Sea was in consequence postponed till the end of the last +century. “The condemnation of Admiral Cruys,” I here quote the words of +Haxthausen, “under Peter the Great for having lost several vessels in +an attack which he had risked too rashly against the enemy, was of bad +augury for the Russian fleet, although he was afterwards pardoned and +restored to all his dignities. In England, Byng was executed, because +near Minorca he had avoided battle with the French fleet, which was +superior to his own. It is a rule in England always to attack, if the +English fleet equals that of the enemy, and this rule has undoubtedly +been the base of the maritime power of that country. In 1743 the Russian +Admiral Golovine excused himself to Lascy, who had given him the order to +commence the attack, by saying that the maritime laws of Peter the Great +forbid the Russian fleet ever to engage in battle with the enemy unless +they had three Russian vessels to two Swedes.” + +The Russian fleet has always been rather for show than use, owing to the +want of boldness which the Russians have in later times shown in maritime +enterprises, although, under Catherine II., Greig, Elphinstone, and +Spiridoff acquired some glory in the Mediterranean. + +At the end of the last century the Russian fleet consisted of sixteen +ships of the line and twenty-three frigates, which was about its force +under Peter the Great. During the war which, after the French Revolution, +devastated Europe, the Russian fleet played only a secondary part. + +When Russia was allied with England, the navy of the latter power +commanded the sea, while Russia was to employ her forces on the +continent. When Russia was against England her vessels were little worth. +The English, at a later period, undertook to keep the Russian fleet, and +in this uneasy state of relations with England she lost the excellent +instructors of her navy, which she had before employed in great numbers. +The English officers on board her fleet refused to serve against their +own country, and since that epoch they have been less favourably viewed +in Russia. + +The great difficulty of the Russians is to man their fleet, because they +have no mercantile navy, and scarcely any Great Russians live on the +sea-coast. Archangel furnishes a very few men, and after them the best +sailors are the Finns of the Baltic, the Cossacks, and the Greeks of the +Black Sea. The crews of the fleet are much more numerous than the whole +of the sailors in the mercantile marine, and for this reason they are +obliged to recruit among landsmen, and to put in practice the maxim of +Peter the Great, that every man is fit for everything. + +A Russian is never allowed to say that he cannot do a thing, and whatever +the order given him may be, he is expected to set about executing it as +well as he can. The only answer permitted is “Schloushaiou,” “I hear, +and will obey.” But although he attempts to do everything in a certain +kind of way, his work is generally very imperfect, and the inaccuracy +of Russian workmen is proverbial among the English superintendants +employed in that country. They realise the English saying of “a Jack of +all trades, and master of none;” or as Custine puts the point, “Le Russe +n’est maître de rien, excepté l’art de feindre;” and this last is an +observation which our Ministers would do well to reflect upon now that +they are asked to open negociations. + +Some notion of the paucity of sailors in Russia may be formed from the +fact that the law which obliges every captain of a merchantman to be +of Russian origin is constantly eluded. The shipowners try to gain the +advantages of sailing under the Russian flag, and at the same time to +avoid the disadvantages of having a Russian captain, and therefore the +individual who is put forward in port as the legal captain of the vessel, +as soon as she puts out to sea descends to the humble office of the cook. + +The Russian fleet is manned from the common conscription with very +little “ethnologic” distinction, excepting that in the North the Finns +are preferred for that service, and in the South the Jew conscripts are +generally sent to the navy, not on account of their aptitude for it, but +because as soldiers they are considered worthless. + +The Imperial fleet consists of three divisions, two of which are in the +North, and one in the Black Sea. It is manned by forty-five battalions, +called “equipages:”[96] each equipage is composed of eighty petty +officers, twenty-five musicians, and 1000 seamen, and is officered by +one commander, of the rank of a colonel, two superior officers, twelve +lieutenants, and twelve midshipmen. + +An equipage will man one three-decker, and one or more small vessels, or +a two-decker and a frigate, or two frigates and one or two brigs. A ship +of 120 guns is manned by 812 seamen and 65 petty officers. A ship of 84 +guns is manned by 625 seamen and 50 petty officers. A frigate of 60 guns +by 375 seamen, and 30 petty officers. A frigate of 44 guns by 320 seamen +and 20 petty officers. A corvette by 158 seamen and 12 petty officers. +The forty-six equipages are disposed in the following manner:—From No. 1 +to No. 27, inclusive, are in the Baltic. From No. 28 to 44, inclusive, +are in the Black Sea. No. 45, in the Caspian. No. 46, at Kamstchatka. +There are no marines in the Russian navy, and the seamen are disciplined +like soldiers. The term of service in the navy is, I believe, similar to +that in the army, namely, from ten to twenty-five years, according to the +provinces of the empire from which the sailors are drawn. + +The oak of which the Black Sea fleet is built comes mostly from Minsk +and the neighbouring governments, and is of quick growth, on low land, +in a country which was an immense lake in ancient times.[97] Herodotus +says that both the Dniestr and the Boug took their origin in enormous +lakes. The great portion of the timber of Kherson used to come down the +river Pripet, which is the remains of an enormous marsh or lake, and +is navigable for 350 miles to its junction with the Dniepr. The masts +that come down the Dniepr are good, and drawn from the same forests that +supply Riga, but the wood for ship-building is bad, and the Russian +Government hopes to supply Nicolaief with the oak of Kazan, which is +used in the dockyards of the Baltic, and which might be brought down to +the south by the Volga and the Don to Rostof. Mr. Upton told me that +a cannon-ball, which would lodge in one side of an English ship, would +go right through both sides of a Russian one. For certain parts of all +the ships they are obliged to import oak from England. The Crimean oak +is very good, but not obtainable in large quantities. A frigate or two +have been built of it, but none are now afloat. The only ship of the line +built of it was the Raphael, which was taken by Captain Slade and the +Turks in the war of 1828. The Bulgarian oak is also of a good quality. +The timber at Nicolaief is used green, as soon as brought down the +Dniepr, so that ships become quickly infected with dry-rot, are unsound +in ten years, and quite unfit for service in fifteen. + +The sailors are fed upon rye or black bread, which they prefer to wheaten +bread. They have meat twice a week, and drink “quass,” a fermented drink, +made from the rye flour, and the Russian “vodka,” or brandy, which is +likewise made from rye. The sailors are all disciplined and dressed as +soldiers, wear helmets, and for their common dress the same long drab +greatcoats as the army. They are, in fact, more properly sea-soldiers +than sailors. When the Grand Duke Constantine inspected the Black Sea +fleet, its Admiral was obliged to ask permission for the sailors to take +off their proper uniform, as it was found impossible for them to mount +the rigging in it. + +When a Russian vessel is on a foreign station, which has seldom been +the case, except with small vessels having only picked crews, the dress +is changed, both of officers and men, and they then, for the time, wear +shirts and trousers, like the sailors of maritime nations; and they +also then receive extra allowances, to enable them to live like the +people of the country where they happen to be. The Russians have a great +“amour-propre;” and I have often watched them on a foreign station, when +they have been moored with French and English vessels at Constantinople +and Athens, constantly exercising their men, until at last they succeeded +in managing their vessels with great quickness. + +The immense majority of their ships, however, are confined to the Baltic +and Black Seas, in which they are obliged to lay up during more than half +the year. The Black Sea fleet is seldom out for more than one month’s +cruise in summer, and sometimes for even a shorter period. Besides the +short time they are out, the cruizing in such limited areas with a large +fleet of vessels must be a very uninteresting operation, and there is +nothing in it to call out a spirit of enterprise or adventure. The +sailors are nearly all landsmen, and such they always remain. There is no +mercantile marine, notwithstanding the great inducements held out by the +government; and although the commerce of Russia is considerable, there +is not a single merchantman manned and sent out by Russians Proper, by +which I mean the Slavonic population, which forms the real strength of +the Russian nation. The Finns are enterprising shipowners, but they are +a totally different race, and a conquered people. I believe I am correct +in saying that there is only one real-born Russian merchant who has an +establishment in a foreign country. This gentleman, of considerable +wealth, set up a house at Liverpool a few years ago, more from patriotic +motives than in the regular way of business, and received great +encouragement from his government, who wished to induce others to follow +his example, but without success. Under all these disadvantages, some of +which are inseparable from the despotic nature of the government, for +commerce like genius requires for its development complete liberty, it is +impossible that the Russian fleets can ever become formidable by their +quality, although the large number of their vessels may prove a source of +disquietude to a second-rate power. + +In the beginning, the Russian navy was formed entirely by foreigners, and +principally by Englishmen, while the sailors and officers in the Black +Sea were generally Greeks. There were, in particular, five Englishmen, +who had been originally brought up in the English navy, who rose to +be admirals in the Russian service, and were of great use to their +navy,—Admirals Crown, Hamilton, Elphinstone, Dugdale, and Greig. Admiral +Lazaref, a Russian, who commanded when I visited Sevastopol, had been +brought up in the English navy, and fought as a midshipman at Trafalgar. + +At the period of my visit, in 1844, a great change was taking place in +the Russian navy, which had its origin in a more general cause. Just +about that time there was a strong national movement throughout the +Empire, which was encouraged by the Court. The nation had been under the +tutelage of foreigners for a century and a half, and now showed a wish +to act for itself. Russian replaced French as the fashionable language +at court, and representations were constantly made to the Emperor to +place Russians instead of foreigners in places which the latter had till +then exclusively occupied. There was a strong feeling against the German +officers in the army, and the laws were strictly enforced, forbidding +foreigners to hold land or possess manufactories, unless they made +themselves Russian subjects, a step they were very much pressed to take +by officials as the best way of being favourably viewed by the Emperor. + +At Sevastopol there was an outcry against the English engineers of the +steam-vessels, and the Emperor consented to appoint a Russian on trial, +who took a steamer out to sea, and damaged her machinery so much after a +few hours, that she was towed into port again by another steamer sent out +to fetch her. The Emperor then said that he would continue to employ the +English until his own people were really able to undertake their duties. + +The great change in Sevastopol about 1844 was the getting rid of the +Greek influence, which had till then been paramount. Both men and +officers were replaced, as far as possible, by Russians, and the same +change was effected as regarded the civil departments of the naval +administration. + +I visited several of the large line-of-battle ships in the harbour +of Sevastopol, with one of the Uptons, and as they were all built by +English shipwrights, to a non-nautical eye they looked very much like +the men-of-war in our own country. I visited in particular the Twelve +Apostles, the largest ship there, which I have lately heard to be now +quite useless for warlike purposes. No Russian ship in the Black Sea +lasts more than ten years, not only on account of the bad wood of which +it is built, but also because of the worm (_teredo navalis_) which +infests Sevastopol and the southern coast of the Crimea, and commits +great ravages among the ships. The project of filling the new dock with +fresh water, by introducing into it at great expense the Tchornaya +Retchka from Inkerman, was adopted with the view of getting rid of this +worm, but it was found when too late that it was in the very waters of +the Tchornaya that the worm was generated.[98] + +The Vixen, the English vessel which we so timorously gave up in 1837, +lay in the harbour at the period of my visit, and the Russians were very +proud of having taken an English ship, while the English there told me +they never could see her without a feeling of shame. She had served as +a model to the Russians, and I saw several vessels that had been built +after her. + +The whole fleet in Sevastopol consisted, in 1853, of 18 first-rates, 7 +frigates, 30 steamers, and 36 smaller vessels. There were besides 28 +gun-boats, built for service in the Danube, and 30 transports measuring +10,000 tons.[99] + +The only achievement of the Black Sea navy has been the destruction of +the Turkish fleet in Sinope, which was characterised by their usual +negligence on the part of the Turks, and by that cruelty in war which +has always stained the Russian name. The Turkish ships were armed with +small ordnance, of which the largest scarcely reached the calibre of +24-pounders, and they placed themselves in the roadstead under the +protection of land batteries, which were in a wretched state of defence, +unprovided with guns that would throw shells, and armed only with cannon +of very small calibre. + +The Russians, on the contrary, had availed themselves of the latest +discoveries and improvements in naval gunnery. Many 68 and 42-pounder +shot were picked up at Sinope, and they used with fearful effect the most +terrible instruments of modern warfare, the Paixhans guns. + +This attack of the Russians at Sinope has been designated as iniquitous +by both the French and English military authorities: in the first place, +because the attack ought not to have been made under the political +circumstances then existing, and next, because from their superiority +in number and calibre of guns, instead of burning the Turkish vessels, +and exterminating the crews, they might have taken the whole squadron +prisoners, and brought away the surviving men as prisoners of war, while +the ships would have served to increase their own effective force. They +preferred, however, to use the new terrible incendiary shell, and to +massacre without mercy the brave but negligent Turks. + +This affair forms an important epoch in the history of the new system of +naval warfare, as that in which the Paixhans shell system was first used +in war. These shells contain incendiary bodies, which, when ignited by +the bursting of the shell, are scattered about in every direction, burn +with far greater intensity than ‘la roche à feu,’ develope more heat, and +give out dense smoke during the combustion, which must interrupt for a +considerable time the working of the guns. The chances of setting fire to +an antagonist’s ship in action are prodigiously increased, and if one +party uses these dreadful engines, the other must adopt the same means +of warfare, by which one or both combatants will surely be burnt. “Both +France and England,” says Sir Howard Douglas, “are provided with these +appalling weapons of mutual destruction, and are prepared, if unhappily +there be occasion, to use them _à l’outrance_ against each other’s ships, +in a barbarous and ignoble strife, in which it seems the only question +is which shall be first burnt. What would Nelson have said to this +incendiary warfare?”[100] + +The Russians, with that energy and promptitude which has been the secret +of all their successes, have availed themselves of every improvement +in naval gunnery, although their fleet is with them a matter of only +secondary importance. It is impossible to read the history of Russia +and her opponents, that is to say her neighbours, for the last 150 +years, since the peace of Carlowitz, without observing the quickness in +seizing opportunities, the absence of prejudice, the anxious desire for +improvement, and the alacrity in repairing errors when they have been +committed, which are the true methods by which an individual or a nation +can best attain the object of its desires, be they good or bad. + +However, notwithstanding the great care bestowed upon it, there is no +doubt that the Russian fleet is extremely inefficient, and would be +hardly a match for any of the second-rate powers of Europe. It was not +to be expected that it should come out to fight the united navies of the +two first maritime powers of the world, and there was little cause for +the boast of the late Ministers, that we performed a great achievement in +forcing it to act on the defensive. Still, on the other hand, there seems +to be good sense in the remarks of Haxthausen, that the Russians have +been too timorous on the sea, and that the Russian navy will never equal +the high character of their army until they have suffered defeats, and +fought their way to confidence. The natural “pluck” of the people would +probably in the end be as successful on the sea as on the land. + +The Romans hated the sea as much as the Russians, and in reading of +Peter’s little boat, and the Vixen serving for a model, the mind +naturally recurs to the Carthaginian galley stranded on the coast, which +served as a model for the first Roman vessels, yet, after no very long +period, the Carthaginian state, betrayed by lust of conquest, was broken +up, and the Romans swept the seas. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + +ON THE RUSSIAN ARMY.[101] + + Large proportion of Russian population in the army—Military + organization—Peaceable natural disposition of Russian + people—Strong feelings when roused—Obedience to + orders—Anecdotes—Commercial disposition of the Russian + people—Their wish to mix with European nations—Education + checked by the government—Military system of Peter the + Great—His great objects—Faults of our government with + respect to Russian policy—The army, whence recruited—Great + Russians—Poles—Little Russians—Finns, Jews, &c.—Name + “Ruski” or Russian—Its origin—The conscription—Soldiers’ + marriages—The cantonists—Emperor’s efforts to improve + condition of common soldier generally unsuccessful—Corporal + punishment—Labour—“Indefinite leave”—Division of empire + for conscription—Amount of population per cent. taken from + 1840-1855—Expense of the Russian soldier—Democratic system + of army—The cross of St. George—Classification of Russian + army—Into 1st, Corps d’Armée, or complete armies—2nd, Local + Regular Troops—3rd, Irregulars—Don, Black Sea, and Ural + Cossacks—Value and number of Cossack troops—Various Asiatic + irregulars—General observations. + + +Having given a sketch of the Russian navy, perhaps another short +digression may be permitted in order to give my readers a concise +account of the organization and disposition of the army in Russia, which +occupies so large a portion of the population, and consumes so much of +the revenues of that country. Taking the army, with all the reserves, at +a million,[102] and the male population of Russia at thirty millions, +and the able-bodied males at fifteen millions, it follows that every +fifteenth man is a soldier, either in active service, or liable to be +called out, which is certainly the case at the present moment. + +In our own country about one man in fifty is a regular soldier, and in +other European countries the proportion is greater, but nowhere so large +as in Russia. + +We, in this industrious and commercial country, can hardly conceive +what it is to have a military organization such as prevails in Russia, +where nothing but a uniform is respected, and where the highest civil +officers have military titles given them as the only means of indicating +their rank. Indeed there are none but military titles in Russia with +which to reward all kinds of merit. Professor Pallas relates that the +Grand Mufti, or Chief Priest of the Tatars, was made a general after the +conquest of the Crimea—the Professor himself was made a major-general; +an old Armenian school-master I used to know at Tiflis, although a very +unwarlike character, was a field officer; and all members of the civil +service have military rank, and are called by the common people according +to their military titles. + +The most singular thing is, that the people among whom this military +organization of the whole nation prevails, is, without exception, the +most pacific people on the face of the earth, and upon this point I +believe no difference of opinion exists among all observers. Having +lived for several years in a position which enabled me to mix much with +the officers and men of the Russian army, such is my strong conviction +of the Russian character. M. Haxthausen mentions, as a point admitting +of no doubt, “the absence of all warlike tendency among the Russian +people, and their excessive fear of the profession of a soldier.”[103] +The Russian people have no pleasure in wearing arms, like the Turk or +the Pole: even in their quarrels among themselves, which are rare, they +hardly ever fight, and the duel, which now often takes place among +Russian officers, is contrary to the national manners, and a custom +imported from the West. The people take no pleasure in the fighting +of beasts or birds, as in bull-fights, or ram-fights, or cock-fights, +which are common amusements among some Eastern as well as most European +nations; and when the Russian is drunk, which often happens, he is never +quarrelsome, but on the contrary caressing and given to tears. But, +on being roused, he exhibits a degree of patient endurance which is +astonishing, and a steady enthusiasm which shows great power of feeling, +and which is very deeply seated in the national character. He meets death +and the severest punishment without fear, and strange anecdotes are told +of the impossibility, as it seems to him, of disobeying the letter of the +orders he has received. I have lately read a story somewhere which well +illustrates this trait of character:— + +A soldier on duty at the palace of the Emperor at Petersburg, which was +burnt a few years ago, was stationed and had been forgotten in one suite +of apartments that was in flames: a Greek priest was the last person to +rush through the burning rooms, at the imminent risk of his life, to save +a crucifix in a chapel, and returning he was hailed by the sentry, who +must in a few instants more have been suffocated. “What do you want?” +cried the priest, “save yourself or you will be lost.” “I can’t leave,” +replied the sentry, “because I am unrelieved, but I called to you to give +me your blessing before I die.” The priest blessed him, and the soldier +died at his post. + +The late Emperor himself on one occasion attempted to pass a sentinel in +one of the corridors of the palace at Petersburg, who had orders to let +no person pass, but the man resisted him, and when the Emperor tried to +disarm him, wrestled with him, and flung him back against the wall. + +The patience also of the Russian peasants is astonishing, in submitting +without a murmur to the most cruel treatment when they happen to belong +to a bad master, until at last they rise in a body, and, armed with +their hatchets, massacre their oppressor. When such instances occur, the +affair is quickly hushed up. The patient sufferings of the dissenters, of +whom it is said that there are in Russia no less than two hundred sects, +prove their deep feeling on religious matters. I have seen thousands +marched, with their wives and children, from their native country, into +the Caucasus, where they were colonized on bleak plains in the month of +October, and the greater number perished of cold and starvation. + +If the military organization of Russia could be once broken up, the +people would turn to their natural pursuits, which are decidedly +commercial and agricultural. And again, if free trade were allowed in the +empire, and the commercial spirit could satisfy its natural cravings, +the increased riches, luxuries, and civilization of the country would +show such obvious advantages, that the military system could not hold its +ground. English merchants in Russia have assured me, that although there +are now few Russian merchants engaged in foreign commerce, no people show +such natural aptitude for commercial concerns. The high tariff which +is in force, and the absolute prohibition there is against educating +their children in Europe, as no young persons between the ages of twelve +and twenty-five are allowed under any pretext to be absent from their +country, alone repress for political purposes their natural tendencies. + +The Russian people wish for European civilization, and to mix with the +other European nations, but they are not allowed to do so by their +Government; and to check their desire for civilization and their liberal +tendencies, I have been informed by a German professor, who had minutely +studied their educational system, which is under the absolute control +of the Government throughout the whole empire, that within the last +fifteen years the course of study has been checked and thrown back in +all the universities and schools of the empire. It is a well-known fact +to all who have lived in Russia, that the Government grew more and more +jealous of education up to the breaking out of the present war. Foreign +tutors and governesses, who are absolutely essential for all parents who +wish to give their children a good education in Russia, were as far as +possible prevented from entering the empire, and two years ago the Poles +were prohibited from studying at the university of Odessa. It must be +remembered that this town is the commercial débouché and the capital of +all the southern provinces of Poland, the nobility of which generally +go there to spend the fashionable season, and that it contains the only +superior educational institutions within their reach. + +It is well known that the Russian army which had served in Europe +during the wars of Napoleon, returned with very liberal tendencies, +and preferred the manner of life of the nations they had left to their +own. They were consequently divided, separated, sent into dangerous +situations, and thus gradually disposed of. + +The military system which Peter the Great[104] so strongly recommended to +his successors, was devised, and has been continued down to the present +time, in order that a great framework of empire might be made, which +should be filled up gradually by successive generations. He thought +he could lay down a plan by which a stupendous sovereignty might be +constructed, which should overshadow the whole earth. + +It is but fair to say, however, that the Tzar is, to a certain degree, +the incarnation of the national will, and that the whole nation, from +the highest to the lowest, have a vague, but deep-seated notion, that +some future glories are in store for the Slavonic name, and they will +always approve their Tzar, when they think that he is following out the +destiny of the nation. That they do not grow wiser, however, but continue +to attach too much importance to military glory, and the absorbing and +conquering of all surrounding nations, is the fault of the Government +and not of the people. The Tzars have kept them back from mixing with +civilized nations and from commercial pursuits, in order that they might +not learn more just notions of the qualities in which consists the true +glory of nations, and might remain a great encamped people, content with +a military despotism, and ready to be the instruments of restless schemes +of ambition. + +The possession of India, of the Mediterranean, and of the Sound, were +three principal objects of Peter the Great’s ambition. The Sound has been +prospectively guaranteed to Russia by the treaty which Lord Palmerston +concluded three years ago, in which the reversion of the Danish throne is +secured to the Czar. Our present expedition to Sevastopol is to prevent +her first step in the Mediterranean by the possession of Constantinople +and the Dardanelles. With respect to India, Russia has quietly worked +her way as far as the Sea of Aral, by advancing villages of Cossacks and +digging wells every ten miles. The English Government have for many years +past been remiss in noticing these aggressive measures, and even now it +is to be feared that our agents in Persia, whence we act upon Central +Asia, are not men fitted to oppose the experienced and able agents of +Russia, or to give us that reasonable probability of success in our +Eastern campaign which proper measures might command. + +There was something vague about the schemes of Peter and Catherine in +the last century; and their successors, if we had been firm during the +last twenty years in resisting the first symptoms of encroachment, would +have given up many projects as impracticable. In necessary firmness our +Government has throughout been deficient, and the consequence is, that we +are involved in the present war, and have a gloomy and uncertain future +before us. + +The army, the great instrument of Russian aggression, draws the main body +of its recruits from the thirty-four millions of Great Russians who form +a compact body round Moscow. This population is of pure Slave blood, and +forms the heart and core of the Russian empire. They give the tone to all +the other populations, are superior to them in energy and grandeur of +character, as well as numbers, and stand with relation to Russia much as +the inhabitants of Britain do to the other nations of the British empire. + +The Great Russians have a natural aptitude for the infantry, which is +almost entirely composed of them, and they form also the bulk of the +corps of officers and non-commissioned officers. + +The Poles are found in every part of the army, and particularly in the +cavalry. They are born soldiers, and like no trade so well as war. After +the Polish revolution, vast numbers of the Polish gentry were sent +as common soldiers to the Caucasus; and at one fell swoop the whole +University of Wilna, the capital of the Polish country of Lithuania, +professors as well as students, were condemned to the same hard fate. +It has often happened to me when I have been staying with officers in +the Caucasus, to be called aside by the servant, who has whispered to +me in French, “Sir, I am a Pole, an European, a gentleman born, but I +was degraded and sent here for fighting for my country.” And the poor +fellow was always very glad to have a little sly chat, and a talk on the +forbidden subject of European politics. The Russian officers are very +kind to these unfortunate men, for they are a thoroughly good-natured +race, and are glad to get men of intelligence as servants, instead of +common drunken boors. + +The Little Russians (Malo Ruski), as the inhabitants of the Ukraine +are called, are reckoned peculiarly fit for the cavalry, which is not +the case with the Slave race in general. The Great Russians never ride +on horseback, but always travel very fast in carriages, of which they +are remarkably skilful drivers. Even the Cossacks originally were +not horsemen. The Little Russians are small, strong men, remarkably +well conducted, but of very obstinate temper. The Great Russians are +accustomed to be beaten, and indeed are so used to it at home, that it is +difficult to keep them well behaved in the army without the free use of +the stick. They bear no ill-will after castigation, and cheerfully amend +their faults; but the Little Russian becomes dogged if corrected, resents +his punishment, and is often totally ruined by its frequency. The reason +for this is obviously that he enjoyed his freedom later than the others; +and he still retains some sparks of independence, for serfdom was only +introduced into the Ukraine by Paul at the close of the last century, +while the serfs in Great Russia were “ascripti glebæ” by Boris Godounof +about the year 1600. Little Russians may be known by their names, which +generally end in “enko,” and one or two other well-known terminations. + +The Finlanders are on a totally different footing to the common Russian +soldiers: they are enrolled in six battalions of riflemen, and are all +volunteers, and receive high pay. They are much better educated than +the Russians, and resemble in their ideas and habits the nations of +Western Europe, to whom, in reality, they belong. The Jews have been +subject to the conscription in Russia since 1827, and in Poland since +the revolution in 1831. It is found almost impossible to make soldiers +of them, and they generally find the means to escape. The story is told +of the late Emperor, that on one occasion, when he was reviewing some +troops, he found out all the Jews by snapping his fingers in each man’s +face. If they stood immoveable they were Russians, and if they flinched +they were invariably Jews. On the other hand, the Jews make capital +military workmen, who in Russia are always attached to the fleet and +the army, and they also make very fair sailors, and are often employed +as constables in towns, on the principle, as it is said, of setting a +thief to catch a thief. There is a Georgian and a Circassian militia, but +these are never removed from their own country, and I do not know, at the +present moment, whether they continue to exist. + +The principal nations which compose the Russian army have been enumerated +above, but there are besides various remnants of ancient nations, such +as the Tatars, Mordvins, Tcheremisses, Tschouvashes, Lettes, and others, +who all furnish a small number of men. There are indeed no less than +eighty-five of these tribes or nations in the empire, of which forty +furnish contingents to the regular troops.[105] + +The soldiers and officers are generally very religious, and a priest and +a moveable tent for divine service always accompanies each battalion, and +often each company, when on detached duty. + +The number of musicians in the army is great, and the soldiers all +sing in parts, and have songs composed on every event which they think +redounds to their honour. In one of their favourite songs the chorus is, +“But the weapon of the Russian soldier is the bayonet;” and this notion +is in accordance with the advice of Souvárof, a real genius, to the +Russian soldier, given in his celebrated Catechism, which will be found +in the Appendix—“The bayonet is a hero, the musket a fool: stab; toss the +Turk off your bayonet, and stab again.” + +There is often a buffoon attached to each company, who amuses his +comrades by his jests and antics, and is generally a great favourite. On +one occasion in the Caucasus, when the troops were driven back by the +Circassians, the buffoon was wounded and left behind. A favourite jest of +his had been to crow like a cock, and as he lay on the ground he thought +of the only way to save himself, and crowed. This had such an effect on +his comrades that they rallied, charged again, and saved him. + +The Russians are extremely proud of the name “Ruski,” or Russian, and +feel the same patriotic pride in it as we do in the term “British.” +Perhaps it may not be out of place here to give the origin of this name, +out of the Chronicles of old Nestor,[106] who wrote about 200 years after +its first application. He says, “We know that the Russian language and +the Slavonic language are the same, and this name of ‘Russian’ was given +us by the Varangians (the Normans), and that before that time we were +known under the name of Slaves, and the Polanians (Poles), who were also +among the Slaves, had no other language. The name of Polanians was given +them from the fields they cultivated, and because they inhabited the +plain, but they were of Slave origin, and had no other language but the +Slavon.”[107] + +The greatest part of the army is raised in Russia by conscription, a +system which was introduced among the other nations of the continent of +Europe by the French at the time of the Revolution, but which has existed +in Russia since the time of Peter the Great. + +The conscription is conducted in the following manner. A certain number +per cent. of all persons who are not noble is demanded, and the number +taken each second year, in time of peace, is generally about five in +a thousand, or one-half per cent. Families which have only one male +member, orphans, and fathers of a family of more than three children, +are exempted, and the state leaves the choice of the conscripts to the +lords, who generally take this opportunity of getting rid of troublesome +characters. Formerly there were dreadful scenes when the conscripts +were taken, and they frequently ran away, and were hunted through the +woods like wild beasts; but of late years the condition of the soldier +has been improved, and the dread of the service is not so great as in +former times. The separation of the conscript from his family is still +a heart-rending spectacle, for he may be marched to any part of the +enormous empire, and his chance of seeing them again is but small. + +Formerly one-half of the recruits died from neglect within a short time +of their joining, and, although ameliorations have been introduced, +it is still asserted that one-third fall victims.[108] How much the +service is still disliked may be judged of by the fact that in so poor a +country as Russia a substitute in time of peace cannot be obtained under +100_l._,[109] and he is never a Russian, but generally a Finn or a Pole. + +Formerly the conscripts were always chained like malefactors, and +one-half of their heads was at once shaven, that they might be +recognised. This is not now the case, but the beard, the great glory of +the Russian peasant, is still shorn off. + +It must not be forgotten that the army in Russia answers the purpose +of a penitentiary system, that all malefactors under the age of thirty +are condemned to it as a regular sentence, and that it is viewed by the +people very much as transportation is with us. + +As soon as the conscript joins the army his lord loses all power over +him; all his children born after he enters the service belong to the +state, and the males are trained in Government establishments, to become +soldiers. If a wife does not follow her husband, and has no news of him +for either three or five years, she may marry again. + +The state encourages marriage among the soldiers, because their children +enable it to fill the ranks of the army, and the wives and children of +the soldiers of Georgia, Siberia, and the military colonies, follow the +troops, and receive certain allowances from the Government. In other +corps the families are often left behind, but in every case the rule +is rigidly adhered to, that the children of every soldier’s wife, no +matter how long he has been absent, unless she has married again, are the +property of the Emperor. There are no less than 360,000 of these widows +in the country. The children are brought up in special establishments, +entirely at the expense of the Government. + +In 1842 there were 36,000 of them who were formed into a little army, +divided into twenty-five battalions of infantry, twenty squadrons of +cavalry, and five batteries with wooden cannon. When they grow up +they fill the subordinate situations in the army, such as sergeants, +musicians, assistant-surgeons, and a very useful body of men called the +topographers. The separation from home, however, greatly injures their +moral character, and the Cantonists, as they are called, very often turn +out ill. + +The late Emperor made great efforts to improve the condition of the +common soldier in Russia, although it is very doubtful whether he +succeeded in doing so. One great boon, however, granted by him, which has +really bettered the condition of the soldier, is the diminution of his +time of active service, or the introduction of the system of “indefinite +leave,” which will be presently explained. + +There are rules against the too frequent infliction of punishment, +and the most stringent regulations to secure to the soldier his fair +rations; but every officer still inflicts what punishment he pleases, and +nothing is more common than for every officer and even every foreigner +to send their servant with a little note to the police-master of the +town, requesting him to administer so many lashes. The officers also, in +drilling the men, frequently strike them in the face with their fist, and +over the body with a stick. Women, also, are constantly whipped on their +bare bodies at the police stations in certain parts of the empire, and +as custom is stronger than law, it has hitherto been found impossible to +prevent these hateful abuses. + +The soldier lives well as long as he is in cantonments, which is the +case with a large portion of the Russian army, for then he lives upon +the peasants, and is a great charge upon them. He lives badly when he is +in barracks, because he seldom gets the food to which he is entitled. He +ought to have nearly as much food as the English soldier, according to +M. Haxthausen, but I think there are few people who will say that in the +great majority of instances he ever gets it. He lives in a kind of mess, +and his rations are paid once or twice a month to those who manage the +mess, which is called the “artel,” of which there is one or more to each +company, and the managers are non-commissioned officers and privates, +chosen among themselves. This artel is a fund to which all contribute +something out of their savings, to improve their food; and when their +time of service is over, they have a right to a certain portion of the +balance which remains. A proportion of all they earn by their labour +goes to the artel, and the Government recognises its existence, and by +a recent law its funds are divided into two distinct parts,—one for the +mess, and the other to pay back a certain sum to each man on his retiring +from active service, so that it thus answers the purpose of a kind of +savings-bank. + +In the Caucasus, Prince Woronzof very much improved the condition of the +Russian soldier; and no less than twenty-four field officers were brought +to courts-martial, principally about the soldier’s food, during his first +year of office; but I fear that in the interior of Russia things remain +in much the same state as formerly. + +The Russian soldier has been called by high Russian military authorities +the most miserable being in existence; and certainly a decided difference +is apparent between the sallow, dejected soldier, and the bluff, hearty, +well-fed, off-hand Russian peasant. + +Soldiers are always employed as labourers by independent persons, and +soldiers’ labour is to be had in the market of all towns. The merchants +at Odessa always pay soldiers, even as porters, about 25 per cent. below +other labourers, because they are not so strong. In Odessa, the common +pay of a labourer is forty copecks silver, or about eighteen pence a-day, +and a soldier is highly paid at a shilling. In harvest-time a good +labourer near Odessa gets as much as seven shillings a-day. + +The time of service is still twenty-two years for the Guards; twenty-five +years for the other troops; and twenty years for conscripts of the +military colonies. + +Between 1833 and 1840 was introduced the system mentioned before, by +which every man has the right to what is called “indefinite leave,” after +ten or fifteen years’ service, according to the part of the empire from +which he happens to come. During the rest of his time of service he is +always liable to be called upon, in the case of war, to form part of one +of the two armies of reserve, or to assist at some of the grand reviews +that periodically take place. In the latter case a great injury is +inflicted upon him; for he is sometimes marched two thousand miles for a +mere parade, and of course, if he is a tradesman engaged in business, his +interests suffer very severely. + +The system of indefinite leave is said to answer admirably. The poor +soldiers may perhaps see their homes again after ten years, though they +never could hope to survive twenty-five years’ service; and since this +measure has been adopted, the health of the army, which is in this case +equivalent to its happiness, has much improved. + +The empire is now divided into two parts, east and west, for purposes of +the conscription, and regularly each division can only be called upon for +recruits once in two years, although this rule, as all rules in Russia, +has often been disregarded. The following is the amount per cent. which +has been levied in ten years, from 1840 to 1850:— + + 1840. Both divisions 5 per 1000 + + Then till 1848, eight years, the regular quota of each + division of 5 per 1000 every other year, or 2½ per + 1000 per annum on both divisions 20 per 1000 + + 1849. On account of the movements of troops in } 12 per 1000 on + 1848-49, and the expeditions in Hungary, Wallachia, } both divisions + and Transylvania } was levied. + ----------- + Total 37 per 1000 + +Thus a total of 37 per 1000, or upwards of 3½ per cent. of the +able-bodied male population, were taken for the military service in ten +years. Taking the male population of Russia, subject to conscription, at +twenty millions, this would make 700,000 able-bodied men who were drafted +into the army in the ten years from 1840 to 1850; but the army in 1840 +already consisted of at least 700,000 men, which, added to the number of +the recruits, would give 1,400,000 men devoted to the military service +during that period, and, as the army in 1850 was certainly not above +800,000, there would remain 600,000 men to be accounted for. + +It is not too much to suppose that in 1850-51 and 52, the ordinary number +of 2½ per 1000 (7½ per 1000 for the three years), was levied. In 1853, +in the Turkish campaign, the losses were probably as great as in the +Hungarian, and the army had to be augmented. In 1854 we know that great +efforts have been made, and therefore, in these two years, it is fair to +suppose that 12 per 1000 were levied each year. This would make, in the +five years since 1850, a levy of 31½ per 1000, or upwards of 3 per cent. +on twenty millions, about 700,000 men. But the levy in the last year +(1854) has certainly been more than 12 per 1000, for, besides the regular +recruits, waggons, with men to attend upon them, have been pressed, and +the waggoners have been required by the Government to be of a certain +standard and able-bodied, and when they are at a distance from home they +have been obliged to serve as soldiers. Including these peasants, and +supposing the conscription in 1854 to have required a number above the +12 per 1000 which has been allowed for it, we may perhaps add another +200,000 men as the result of the great efforts that have been made to get +conscripts up to the 1st of January, 1855. + +Then in the last fifteen years there will be a total of— + + Men. + Regular army, 1840 700,000 + Ten years conscripts, 1840-50 700,000 + Five years conscripts, 1850-54 600,000 + Additional for extra conscription in 1854 200,000 + ------- + A grand total of 2,200,000 + +—men who have passed through the Russian service since 1840, and who are +represented now, by the very highest calculation, that of M. Tegoborski, +by from 800,000 to 900,000 men, which he says was the number upon which +the military budget was calculated in the year 1854. Consequently +1,350,000 men have disappeared through the agency of the Russian army +since 1840. + +This enormous sacrifice of men to the military system is very severely +felt, and must have gone far to neutralize any increase of the +population of late years. Haxthausen says, “These oukases for levying +the conscriptions always spread mourning and consternation. The nobility +suffers great losses. The Scheremeteff, the Demidoff, and the Orloffs, +are often obliged to furnish several hundred recruits. Families lose +their best workmen, and their fathers and their brothers; for the number +of bad characters, who possess the physical qualities necessary to enter +the service, is not enough to realize the number of troops demanded by +the Emperor.” + +Now as to the expense of the Russian soldier to the state. It will be +seen from the following passage that M. Tegoborski, the mouthpiece of +the Russian Government on statistical subjects, estimates it at a very +low figure. He says, “the military budget of Russia for 1854, for an +effective of from 800,000 to 900,000 men, was estimated at 84,200,000 +silver roubles, and that of the navy at 14,400,000 silver roubles, or +nearly 16,000,000_l._ altogether, which would give an average of 100 +roubles or 16_l._ per head per annum, for the maintenance of the troops. +Admitting that the effective of the army was carried to 1,250,000 men +in the year 1855, which would suppose an augmentation of 450,000 men, +or 50 per cent., and adding to the military budget of 84,200,000 silver +roubles, in a round sum 50,000,000 silver roubles, or 8,000,000_l._, the +whole military budget of Russia for the year 1855 would then only amount +to about 24,000,000_l._” + +In calculating the means of Russia to pay this sum, we do not know +the exact amount of the Russian revenue beyond the year 1853, when, +according to M. Tegoborski, it amounted to 37,384,660_l._ But the +Russian revenue in the year 1839, which is the only other year he gives, +is stated to have been upwards of one-third less, so that in the last +fifteen years there is stated to have been the enormous increase of 36 +per cent. without the levying of any new taxes. As the accounts of the +Russian revenue are not published, we cannot place implicit reliance +on a mere statement of results by an interested party. But we all know +that estimates are generally much below the real expense, and it is +probable that the military budget, considering the enormous expenses of +the transport of stores and materials, and the movement of troops, and +the losses which have been sustained, must be nearly the double of M. +Tegoborski’s calculation, or, let us say at least 40,000,000_l._ instead +of 24,000,000_l._ On the other hand, considering the great injury to +the peasants from the increased number of recruits and their own forced +services for transport, and an acknowledged diminution of 20 per cent. +in the exports and imports, which will be much greater next year if an +efficient blockade be kept up, shall we be wrong in considering the +Russian realized revenue of 1854 as very much below that of 1853? + +M. Tegoborski calculates the diminution of the revenue in 1854 at about +2,000,000_l._ from the falling off of the customs duties alone. It +is probable, therefore, that the revenue of the country, during the +past year, will not have even sufficed by several millions to pay the +expenses of the army and navy alone, while, besides these expenses, there +is the interest of the debt and the expenditure of the civil government +to be met, which is reckoned at about 8,000,000_l._ Thus it may be fairly +supposed that Russia will want at least 48,000,000_l._ to cover the +expenses of the year 1854, which is eleven millions more than the total +amount of her revenue during the last year of peace, 1853. Her credit in +Europe[110] is indeed pretty good, but it is notorious that she depends +upon foreign capital for the cultivation of her soil. The precious metals +have almost disappeared from the empire: paper alone is seen there; and +if we press her hard during the next six months she must be reduced to +very great straits. + +Although the Russian soldier has a hard life of it as a private, yet if +he rises to be a non-commissioned officer, he then, after twelve years’ +service, becomes ennobled, and receives his commission, or retires with a +pension. Thus a considerable number of the officers of the Russian army +have risen from the ranks, and all who obtain commissions are obliged +to serve as non-commissioned officers for a certain period. Formerly the +length of time was six months, but it has lately been extended to two +years, so that I suppose the system is found to answer. + +None are exempted from this condition except those who have gone through +the military schools, in which they are allowed to pass their probation +as non-commissioned officers, and then enter the army as officers. An +officer in his probationary state is called a “younker,” and he wears the +drab greatcoat, and regularly performs the duties of a sergeant. His only +privilege is to have his dress of finer materials than that of the common +men,—if he chooses to pay for it. Off duty he lives among his equals, and +is often seen in his soldier’s coat at the table of generals. Thus the +system of promotion in the army, and indeed the whole feelings of the +Russian people, are far less aristocratic than among ourselves. + +The common soldiers in Russia are also frequently decorated with the +medal which is by far the most prized, even by the highest ranks of +officers, namely, the Soldier’s Cross of St. George. This is the one +given only for distinguished bravery, and it is very much sought after. +A certain number of these crosses are distributed after every remarkable +achievement. It is given not only after great battles, but whenever any +man has performed a signal act of valour. + +The cross is simply of lead, while other crosses are of more precious +material, and it is alike for soldiers and officers. The Grand Cross +of St. George is given for having taken the capital of an enemy, or +having fought a battle which has decided the fate of an empire. The +late Emperor himself wore only the Soldier’s Cross of St. George, which +he gained under fire in the Turkish war. There were only two Grand +Crosses in existence a few years ago, one of which was worn by our own +Duke of Wellington, and the other by Marshal Paskiévitch, who received +his for the taking of Arzeroom, which was considered as the capital of +Armenia.[111] + +The order of St. George is universally regarded in Russia with the same +pride and respect as the orders of “the Iron Cross,” that of “Maria +Theresa,” and that “of Merit” are in other European countries. + +Since the last few years also there exists in Russia an imitation +of the distinction accorded to Latour d’Auvergne, that of being “le +premier grenadier de France.” Archippus Ossipof, in 1840, blew up the +fort Michailof, and himself in it, to prevent its being taken by the +Circassians; and his name is still kept on the lists as the first +grenadier of the first company of the infantry regiment of Tenginsk. When +his name is called, the second soldier always answers, “Dead for the +honour of the Russian arms in the fort Michailof.” + +There also exist in Russia orders and medals of honour conferred upon +regiments, which recall the epoch of their creation, the names of their +founders, and their famous actions. These formerly existed in the French +and all the German armies, but are now only found in the Austrian and +English armies, and a few Prussian regiments. In Russia the regiments +have continued to exist since Peter the Great, and keep up by outward +signs the remembrance of their services. The Preobrajenski guards, +the few companies which Peter undertook to drill ostensibly for his +amusement, and which became the nucleus of the whole Russian army, still +wear the original helmets of his time; and it is a glory among the men +to have those that are the most pierced by bullets and battered by +sabre-cuts. + +The regiment of Tchérnigof obtained the privilege of alone wearing +red-stockings (probably gaiters to the knee, which were then worn all +over Europe), because at the battle of Pultava they marched in blood up +to their knees. + +The regiment of Novogínsk is allowed to carry the standard of St. George +since the battle of the Trebbia and the passage of the Alps under +Suvórof, in 1799; and this regiment possesses silver trumpets, given to +it in consequence of the passage of the Gulf of Bothnia upon the ice, +under Bagration in 1807. The Russians have also copied the system of +giving their generals titles commemorative of the victories they have +gained in foreign countries. Thus in ancient Rome there was Scipio +Africanus; in modern France there are a host of titles of the time of the +Empire, of which Soult, Duke of Dalmatia, and Ney, Prince of the Moskowa, +are examples; and in our own country, the title of Lord Mahon perpetuates +the victories of Lord Peterborough, and the Duke of Wellington was made +Marquis of Douro, and Lord Kean Baron of Ghuzni. The Russians keep more +strictly to the Roman style in their titles of honour, and thus we find a +Suvórof Italínski, a Diébitch Sabalkánski, and a Paskiévitch Erivánski. + +The dress of the Russian soldier consists of a dark-green coatee, which +he very seldom wears, except on parade; a drab greatcoat, which is his +constant dress; two pairs of trousers, one for summer and one for winter; +a cravat; three shirts; three pairs of boots, and a cap. The whole of +these articles cost the Government about 2_l._, with 1_l._ 3_s._ 6_d._ +each year for renewal, and they remain the property of the soldier. + +It will be observed that no stockings are mentioned, as no soldiers +wear them; and many officers cannot afford such luxuries, and only wear +bandages wrapped round the legs, something like the piferari in Italy. + +All articles of clothing are made up by workmen in each battalion, and +these amount to fifty men, who are constantly employed, and consequently +by this system the effective force of the army is considerably reduced. + +Many classifications may be made of the Russian army, as into,—1st, +regular and irregular troops; 2nd, grand army, always ready for offensive +operations, and troops employed on local services; 3rd, the active +army and the reserve, although all the reserves are on active service +at the present moment; 4th, according to the system of numbering from +each regiment upwards; or, 5th, according to its division into—first, +corps or regular armies, each composed of a certain proportion of +infantry, cavalry, and artillery;—second, battalions not formed into +regiments;—and, third, irregular cavalry and militia. + +This is the classification which I will now follow—1st, then, as to the +regular corps, there is:— + +1. The corps of Guards, consisting of 38,000 infantry, with 60 squadrons +of regular and 17½ of irregular cavalry, one division of mounted +engineers, and 116 pieces of artillery. The station of this corps is at +Petersburg in time of peace; but it has recently been moved into Poland. + +2. The corps of Grenadiers, likewise consisting of 38,000 infantry, but +only 32 squadrons of cavalry, and 88 pieces of artillery. Their station +is at Novgorod, ninety miles from Petersburg, where they still remain. + +3-8. Six corps of infantry, as they are called, although they are +complete armies like the two that have been named. They form the bulk +of the Russian army, and have each 50,000 infantry, 32 squadrons of +cavalry, and 112 pieces of artillery; making a total for the six corps of +300,000 infantry; 192 squadrons of lancers and huzzars, and 672 pieces of +artillery. + +The following are the stations of these six corps, which are echelloned +in a semicircle round the frontiers of the Russian Empire, beginning with +the Baltic Provinces, then passing through Poland and Bessarabia, and +along the shores of the Black Sea and the Azof, and upwards to Moscow, +where the 6th corps is stationed. + +The first four corps form the Grand Army under Prince Paskiévitch, +whose head-quarters are at Warsaw, and who is also Viceroy of Poland. +The regular station of the first corps of infantry is in the Baltic +Provinces, where it generally remains more stationary than the next +three corps. It has now recently been moved to Grodno and Bialostok, in +Lithuania, and has been ordered to advance into the kingdom of Poland. It +is commanded by General Sievers, a German, of Livonia. + +The next three corps, the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th, are regularly stationed in +the kingdom of Poland, and revolve in a certain circle of cantonments, +being never allowed, for obvious reasons, to remain more than three years +in the same place. + +The 2nd corps has now been removed to replace the third corps on the +Dniestr and the Pruth, and is commanded by General Paniútin, a Russian. + +The 3rd corps has its usual head-quarters at Kremenetz in Wolhynia, and +has now been moved to the Crimea. The arrival of one of its divisions, +the eighth in the general system of the army, at Baktchéserai, was +announced in our papers about the 20th of January, when it was addressed +by Prince Gortchakoff. This corps is commanded by General Riad, who has +served in the Caucasus. + +The 4th corps has been moved to the Crimea, and was commanded by General +Dannenberg, who was deprived of it in consequence of losing the battle +of Inkerman, on November 5th, 1854, and he has been succeeded by General +Osten Sacken, who before that time had all the recruiting of New Russia +under his care. Both these generals are Germans. + +The regular station of the 5th corps is in New Russia, and its +head-quarters are at Odessa. One division is usually kept in the Crimea, +one on the Dniepr and Dniestr, and one in Bessarabia. Its cavalry station +is on the Boug, at Nemírgorod and other places. Its artillery station is +at Tyraspol on the Dniestr, which is one of the great arsenals of Russia. +It was borrowed to reinforce the army of Caucasus in 1843, and returned +in 1846. One division of it was again sent there in 1854, and it has been +commanded since about 1840 by General Luders, a German. He replaced +General Mouravióf, a man of considerable ability, who was then disgraced, +but has been recently restored to favour, and is now governor-general of +the Caucasus. Since this war began, many able men, obnoxious on account +of their liberal opinions, or from other causes, have been restored +to favour and employed, no doubt because there is felt in the present +crisis a great scarcity of men fitted to fill high appointments. We, on +the contrary, have an “_embarras de richesses_” of good men, but our +government, unlike that of Russia, unfortunately appears to have allowed +private considerations and official routine to stand too much in the way +of their appointment. The whole of the 5th corps has now been moved into +the Crimea. + +The 6th corps is regularly stationed at Moscow in time of peace, but it +has now been moved to the south. Of its three divisions, Nos. 16 and 17 +are in the Crimea, and No. 18 in the Caucasus. It is nominally commanded +by Prince Gortchakoff the Third (tretiey), as he is called in Russia, but +the real active commander is General Tchlodaieff, an officer of great +ability. Such have been the locations and “dislocations” of the six corps +of infantry. + +9thly and 10thly, in the general list of corps, come the two reserve +corps of cavalry. The first of these consists of 80 squadrons and 48 +pieces of artillery. Its regular station is at Nemírgorod, on the Boug, +and it has been moved to the seat of war. The second corps of cavalry +of reserve consists of 82 squadrons, and a division of light cavalry of +reserve of 24 squadrons, or altogether, 108 squadrons, and 72 pieces of +artillery.[112] This is the corps of the dragoons, or soldiers intended +to act either as infantry or cavalry, according to the ideas of those who +first invented the Dragoon. This notion of having the same soldier fit +for both services was given up in Europe after the wars of Napoleon, but +revived by the Emperor of Russia, with whom it is a favourite notion. It +is, however, generally disapproved of by Russian officers, who do not +consider that the men gain in efficiency by having to perform double +duties. The station of the second cavalry reserve corps is at Kharkof. + +11thly, The corps of the Caucasus, which a few years ago consisted +altogether of a very mixed army of 170,000 men, so scattered over the +country, that 20,000 men could with difficulty be got together. + +Besides these eleven regular corps, which are most of them complete +armies, there are also in Russia a large body of regular infantry for the +internal service of the country, which is supplied with the necessary +complement of cavalry and artillery by the Cossacks. This force of +infantry amounts altogether to 200,000 men, and is divided into separate +battalions, called “battalions of the line,” and not into regiments. + +These troops are used as garrisons for fortresses and towns; they are +placed in some turbulent countries on the frontiers of the empire, and +are employed in various ways in the civil and military administration. +Fifty of them are “the garrison battalions,” and together form what is +called “the guard of the interior,” separated into ten districts, and +the capital of each government in European Russia has generally one and +sometimes two of these battalions. They count among their ranks many +veterans, and are generally cantoned in open towns, as their health is +then better and the expense of their maintenance less. In Siberia two +battalions and a half form the interior guard of the country. + +Besides the garrison battalions there are 84 battalions of the line, +disposed in various groups:—47 are placed in the Caucasus, and have +already been counted; 12 are Finnish, and form the 22nd division of +infantry, whose station is in Finland; 10 belong to Orenbourg, and +compose the 23rd division of infantry; 15 are Siberian battalions, who +have also some artillery (12 pieces), and are stationed in Siberia. + +There are besides these the corps of veterans and invalids, and the corps +of military workmen, as follows:— + +(1.) 552 companies of veterans of infantry, of about 40 men each, who do +duty in district towns, the imperial palaces, and other places, = 22,080 +men. + +(2.) 138 companies of invalids, of about 100 men each, occupied with the +same duties, = 13,800 men. + +(3.) 115 companies of veterans and artillery workmen, of 150 to 200 men +each, for the service of the artillery of the fortresses, the workshops +of the artillery, and the manufactories of guns, powder, &c. = say 20,000 +men. + +(4.) 105 companies of veterans, workmen, and soldiers belonging to the +corps of engineers, likewise of 150 to 200 men each, and = say 20,000 men. + +There is besides a corps of police, amounting to 3000 men, scattered over +all the towns of the empire. The Cossacks also partly perform the duties +of the police in the towns, and in the country there is no police at all. + +Thus the corps of veterans and invalids equal altogether— + + Men. + Infantry veterans 22,080 + Ditto 13,800 + Veteran workmen of artillery, &c. 40,000 + ------ + Total 75,880 + +Add to these— + + Fifty-two battalions and a half of the interior guard 52,500 + Eighty-four battalions of the line 84,000 + ------- + Total of local regular troops 212,380 + +Haxthausen, adding in the regular troops of the corps of the Caucasus, +makes the local regular troops = 299,800 men, and adding further the +reserves of the battalions of the line, upwards of 15,000 men, makes a +grand total for the local regular troops of 315,000 men. + +The total of the “troupes mobiles,” or aggressive army, being 699,000 +men, it follows that in the present military organization of Russia, in +ordinary times of peace, she can furnish upwards of a million of regular +troops. + +The irregular troops of the Russian army are also very numerous, and +mostly consist of light cavalry. By far the most important of these are +the Cossacks, who are mostly of Russian extraction. + +There are, however, besides the Cossacks, irregular troops taken from +every tribe or nation which Russia has conquered, and this system is +followed, not so much because of the value of their services, as to teach +them to expend their military energies in her service, and by accustoming +them to good pay and the luxuries of civilized life, to wean their +affections from their own people. + +There is a regular line of Cossacks all the way from the banks of the +Danube along the north of the Caspian, and all through Tatary and +Mongolia, to the extreme verge of eastern Asia at Kamstchatka. + +Along a part of this line, from the Caspian to Kamstchatka, there is +also a chain of tribes, the rightful possessors of the country, allied +together, beginning with the Kirgúiz, and ending with the pacific +population of Kamstchatka. The Cossacks prevent the Kirgúiz from +levying a tribute on the Russian merchants and colonists, and force the +Kamstchatkans to pay their tribute to the Russian government. + +The following is an enumeration from M. Haxthausen’s work of the force +which the Cossacks, according to their constitution and ordinances, are +bound to furnish, if a levy of the whole of them were made. In case of +urgency, they would be able to bring into the field at least one-fourth +more of practised warriors, especially if the State assisted them in +their equipment. + +At the same time, it must not be forgotten that the Cossacks are +occupied in the labours of agriculture, and the abstraction of so large +a proportion of them as took place of late years in time of peace has +been a material injury to their interests.[113] If so large a number were +taken as M. Haxthausen supposes, the tillage of the fields could hardly +be effected. + +1. The Cossacks of the Don can put on foot 58 regiments of cavalry, of +which two belong to the Guard, and 14 batteries of horse artillery. Each +regiment is composed of 6 sotni[114] or centuries; total = 348 sotni and +112 guns. + +2. The Cossacks of the western side of the Sea of Azof. These are the +best sailors of the south of Russia. They possess 30 gun-boats, and +in time of peace are exclusively occupied in blockading the coasts of +Circassia. They belong properly to the navy. + +3. The Cossacks of the Danube. They can put on foot 2 regiments of +cavalry. Each regiment is composed of 6 sotni, and numbers 870 men. + +4. The Cossacks of the Black Sea, or the Tchernomorski Cossacks, who are +the ancient Zaporogues of the Dniepr. These can furnish 12 regiments of +cavalry, 1 division (2 sotni) of Cossacks of the Guard, 9 battalions of +riflemen, 3 batteries of horse artillery, and 1 of foot artillery. + +Each regiment has about 6 sotni, and therefore their total would be 9 +battalions, 74 sotni of cavalry, and 32 guns. + +5. The Cossacks of the Line, or of the Caucasus: 18 regiments of cavalry, +and 3 batteries of horse artillery. + +According to the ordinance of 1845, they were to be raised to 20 +regiments of cavalry, and of 884 men each; and, in addition, they were +to furnish an escort for the Emperor at Petersburg, and one division (I +suppose 2 sotni) for the active Polish army. + +Counting upon the old state of things before 1845, the total was 108 +sotni and 24 guns. + +6. The Cossacks of the Ural Mountains: 12 regiments of cavalry, of 5 +sotni each, making altogether 60 sotni. + +7. The Cossacks of Orenbourg: 10 regiments of cavalry, of 6 sotni each, +and 3 batteries of horse artillery; total 60 sotni and 24 guns. + +8. The Cossacks of the Line of Siberia, who must not be confounded with +the Cossacks of the towns in that country: 9 regiments of cavalry, and 3 +batteries of horse artillery; total 54 (?) sotni and 24 guns. + +9. The Cossacks of the frontiers of China: 8 sotni. + +10. The Cossacks of Astrakhan: 3 regiments of cavalry, and 1 battery of +horse artillery; 18 sotni and 8 guns. + +11. The town Cossacks of Siberia: 8 regiments of infantry (? battalions). + +The number of the Cossack infantry is very uncertain, because the force +of the Siberian battalions is unknown. + +The most important question for Europe to inquire is, as to how many of +these Cossacks are available during a European war like the present? On +this point the following calculation must of course be only approximative. + +1. If Russia continues the war of the Caucasus on its present footing.—In +this case the Cossacks of the Don, 9 or 10 regiments of which are +ordinarily employed in the Caucasus, would only offer of— + + Disposable troops 38,000 cavalry 100 pieces of artillery. + Cossacks of Danube 1,700 ” ” + Cossacks of Ural 5,000 ” ” + Cossacks of Orenbourg 5,000 ” 10 ” + ------ --- + Total 49,700 ” 110 ” + +2. If Russia restricted herself to a purely defensive war in the +Caucasus, and abandoned her more advanced posts, without leaving +her frontiers undefended, there might be added 2000 men of the Don, +2000 Tchernomorski or Black Sea Cossacks, 4000 Cossacks of the Line; +altogether 10,000 additional men. + +The total force available would then be 60,000 cavalry and 110 guns. In +each of these cases 20,000 to 30,000 cavalry of the new formation might +be drawn from Siberia, and directed successively to the theatre of war. + +There are, besides, a number of irregular troops not of Russian origin, +but organized after the manner of the Cossacks; and although their +military importance is not great, I will enumerate them. + +Many of the tribes that will be mentioned have long served under the +Russian banner, as anciently the Gauls served in the armies of Cæsar. +Their motive has been not attachment to the Russians, but fear of them. +Long habit and traditions of submission have much modified their state of +feeling, and has at last made these people pretty faithful servants of +the Russian government; as, for example, the Bashkírs, who used formerly +to have constant sanguinary collisions with the Cossacks of the Ural +Mountains. _There are other tribes who now serve the Russians, because +they are forced to do so, and who would willingly fight against them, if +they had not a conviction of their own inferiority._ + +Other tribes would suffer the supremacy of Russia pretty patiently, +if that power was not so severe in making them respect the rights of +property, and if she did not prevent their indulging their old habits of +levying blackmail on their neighbours, and the merchants and travellers +who pass through their territory. + +It is therefore evidently not from any great benefits to be derived from +their military organization, but in order to watch them, that they are +brought into close relations with the Cossack troops charged with the +defence of the Russian authority in the countries inhabited by them. + +The following is a concise account of these nations:— + + (A.) The Tatars of Crimea. These feeble remains of the ancient + sovereigns of Southern Russia belong to that horde whose Khans + had formerly more than once penetrated as far as the Oka, and + never at the head of less than 150,000 cavalry. They now furnish + to the Imperial Guard a squadron of fine irregular troops. + + (B.) The warlike tribes of the Caucasus and Trans-Caucasia. + They furnish to the Russian government auxiliary troops for + the wars in those countries. These troops are very useful, + although dependence cannot be always placed on them; but for + wars beyond their own country, any number might be obtained by + voluntary enlistment. They furnish to the Russian army— + + 1. A squadron of the guard forming the personal escort of + the Emperor, and constituting, with a squadron of the + Cossacks of the Line, “the Tcherkess Guards.” + + 2. A regiment of 6 squadrons serving in the army of Poland. + + 3. An infantry regiment of Georgian militia to reinforce + the military cordon established against the Lesghins, + beyond the Alezan, a river of Kakhetia, in Georgia. + Total of these:—2 battalions and 7 squadrons. + + (C.) The Bashkírs and Metschériacks. They inhabit in part as + nomades Perm and Orenbourg, and belong to the army of the + Cossacks of Orenbourg. In 1813 many of these served in Germany. + + (D.) The Buriates and the Toungouses:—5 regiments of cavalry. + + They form part of the Cossack force on the Chinese frontier. + +Russia might march forward a large portion of these irregular troops, +but they are yet so little civilized that the Russian government does +not like to bring them to the West, because their want of discipline +and obedience in fighting would make them rather an impediment than an +advantage on the field of battle. They are, however, of some importance, +as they might be used to replace the best corps of Cossacks in the East +and in the Caucasus, while the latter were moved away to the West. + +The native cavalry of the Caucasus alone, on account of their great +courage and address, would offer a precious auxiliary force to the +Russian army in wars on her western frontier, if they could be brought to +fight under her banner.[115] + +The regiments of irregular cavalry among the Russians are principally +intended to serve for a war of skirmishers. Their chief business is +to provide for the security of the Russian army, and its means of +communication, by protecting the baggage and the convoys of prisoners. +They are also very useful in carrying orders, and forming relays for +correspondence; and, lastly, are of the greatest importance in annoying +the enemy with constant skirmishes. + +They show great skill and a liking for these various duties, which are +not only in perfect harmony with their military habits, but which give +them frequent opportunities of plunder. It is said that during the years +1812-1814 they established themselves, privately, a chain of Cossack +posts, from the Seine to the Don, to pass along their booty; and without +some such plan it is difficult to understand how during those campaigns +they could have sent so many precious objects home from the West to offer +to the image of “the Mother Mary,” or “the beautiful Minka,” of the Don, +as they called their favourite image of the Virgin. + +In most armies the duties of providing for the safety of the army are +regulated in a very precise order, with vigorous dispositions relative +to the organization and employment of patrols, guards of the camp, and +piquets. The Cossacks know none of these arrangements. They surround +on all sides the corps of troops which they are told to protect, and +by the delicacy of their senses, and their instinctive quickness, it +is possible for the Russian regular troops to give themselves up to a +more complete security than any Western armies provided with the most +intelligent officers and sergeants. Suvórof called the Cossacks “the eye +of the army;” and he might have said that they were also its ears and its +antennæ. + +The irregular troops are of the more utility in the Russian army, because +the regular corps do not show much aptitude for the minor duties of +the military service. There is therefore in the Russian army the most +rigorous division of labour that was ever seen in any army; to the +regular troops are allotted the labours of war, and to the irregular +troops those of general surveillance. The Cossack has no equal for +surprises and skirmishes. No cavalry in Europe could make such marches +as they constantly perform, without ruining their horses. In Europe +they often carried with them a pack-horse; but even without this they +performed incredible feats, and fifty miles is with them an ordinary +day’s journey. Of the 3500 men of regular troops who were sent on the +expedition to Khiva in 1840, only 1000 returned. Of 1200 Cossacks who +made part of that same expedition only 60 perished; and of 2000 or 3000 +Kirgúiz who accompanied it the loss was still less. If on the one hand +this was the result of their familiarity with the steppes and the climate +of these countries, on the other hand it was partly owing to their +fitness for making forced marches. + +The Cossack, who is generally a strong man, appears to be too heavy +for his horse, but this is not really the case. The Cossack horse is a +wonderful animal to endure fatigue. He has a good head, a ewe neck, a +large arm, short legs, broad chest, and a sound hoof. His back often +seems too long; but it is said[116] that he is often found with two +ribs more than ordinary horses. In winter he seeks his pasture in the +snows of the steppes, and thus learns to be very hardy; and he can do +an immense deal of work when he is fed on oaten bread or barley, wheat, +straw, or good or bad hay, all of which he will eat. He is very active in +climbing mountains, and swimming rivers. At Marshal Munich’s assault on +the lines of Perecop the Cossacks arrived at the top of the rampart as +soon as the first men of the infantry. The Cossack horse is accustomed +to eat at all hours of the day; and his master continually feeds him +whenever he has an opportunity. If he stops but for a moment, even under +the fire of cannon in time of war, the Cossack always feeds his horse +with something; and the horse never refuses any food, either on account +of its bad quality or the time at which it is given. “He alone” (I use +the words of Haxthausen) “who has had the pain to see his fine and +faithful horse refuse his oats after the fatigue of a battle; he who has +counted with anguish the minutes in time of war which have been allowed +him to feed his horse, and which have passed without the horse being able +to eat; he who has seen his beautiful steed, accustomed to delicate food, +become day by day more thin and feeble from bad nourishment and forced +marches, such a soldier can alone understand how precious in the Cossack +horse are his strong stomach and power of endurance.”[117] + +The Cossacks now have trumpets, and under the cover of cannon spread +themselves out like a swarm, dashing upon the enemy when any one of their +number, and not their officer only, sees a favourable opportunity and +gives the signal. They dislike to face fire-arms, because, M. Haxthausen +says, they only come out to fight for plunder, but sometimes they will +do a daring exploit in hope of a cross, as they are very vain, and +love decorations even more than the Russians. Their superstition is +remarkable; they believe in all sorts of auguries; which, although also +the case with the Russian soldier, in him is neutralized by military +discipline. The Cossacks, fighting singly, have no esprit-de-corps to +counteract their natural feelings, and the crossing of a hare with them +may lose an engagement. The meeting of a priest is also considered very +unlucky. + +To sum up: it may be said that at present, with regard at least to the +Cossacks of the Don, the horse is better than his master. They were +of great use in the wars of Napoleon, when they were still a frontier +people, continually exercised in war at home, and possessed of a +democratic constitution, which allowed only merit to raise its head. + +Since that time the advance of the Russian frontiers to the South +has given the Cossacks internal peace and security, and their old +constitution has been either taken away or made a dead letter. Thus, with +the loss of their liberty, they have become indifferent soldiers and idle +agriculturists. + +Russian military men have not, I believe, a high opinion of the Don +Cossacks, and although they still acknowledge their utility in guarding +regular troops, and relieving them from many laborious duties, are +well aware how much they have lost of their ancient martial spirit. I +believe the opinion of our own military authorities is, that they are not +very formidable in the field, and before Sevastopol have shown little +inclination to run any great risks. + +Had they stood at all firmly at the affair of Balaclava, not a man of +our unfortunate light cavalry could have been saved. When our men were +returning from that fearful ride of death, they saw swarms of Cossacks, +several thousand in number, descend from the hills to intercept their +return. They thought all was over with them, as they quickened their pace +to charge; but the Cossacks shrank from the encounter, opened to the +right and left, and let them pass in safety.[118] + + +RECAPITULATION OF EFFECTIVE COSSACKS. + + +-------------------------+----------------------------------------+ + | | ENUMERATION OF THEIR FORCE. | + | +--------+--------+-----------+----------+ + | Names of the | | | | | + | Cossack Corps. |Regiment| | | | + | | of | Sotni |Battalions.|Batteries.| + | |Cavalry.|Cavalry.| | | + +-------------------------+--------+--------+-----------+----------+ + | 1. Army of the Don | 58 | 348 | | 14 | + | 2. ” Azof | | | | | + | 3. ” Danube | 2 | 12 | | | + | 4. ” Black Sea| 12 | 74 | 9 | 4 | + | 5. ” Caucasus | 18 | 108 | | 3 | + | 6. ” Oural | 12 | 60 | | | + | 7. ” Orenburg | 10 | 60 | | 3 | + | 8. ” Siberia | 9 | 54 | | 3 | + | 9. ” frontiers| | 8 | | | + | of China| | | | | + |10. ” Astrakhan| 3 | 18 | | 1 | + |11. ” Siberia | | | 24 | | + | +--------+--------+-----------+----------+ + | Total | 124 | 742 | 33 | 28 | + +-------------------------+--------+--------+-----------+----------+ + + +---+-----------------------------------------------------------------+ + | | ENUMERATION OF THEIR FORCE. | + | +-------------------------+----------------+----------------------+ + | | Pieces. | Approximative | | + | +--------+---------+------+ Force, | | + | |Cavalry.|Infantry.|Total.| without | OBSERVATIONS. | + | | | | | Artillery. | | + +---+--------+---------+------+----------------+----------------------+ + | 1.| 112 | | 112 | 42,000 cavalry | | + | 2.| | | | |{The Army of Azof is | + | | | | | |{ entirely employed to| + | | | | | |{ man the gun-boats on| + | | | | | |{ the Sea of Azof. | + | 3.| | | | 1,700 cavalry | | + | 4.| 24 | 8 | 32 |{ 9,000 infantry| | + | | | | |{ 9,000 cavalry | | + | 5.| 24 | | 24 | 16,000 cavalry | | + | 6.| | | | 7,500 cavalry | | + | 7.| 24 | | 24 | 7,500 cavalry | | + | 8.| 24 | | 24 | 6,500 cavalry | | + | 9.| | | | 1,000 cavalry | | + |10.| 8 | | 8 | 2,000 cavalry | | + |11.| | | | 24,000 infantry| | + | +--------+---------+------+----------------+----------------------+ + | | 216 | 8 | 224 |126,200 men | 93,200 cavalry. | + | | | | | | 33,000 infantry. | + +---+--------+---------+------+----------------+----------------------+ + + Taken from M. Haxthausen, vol. iii. + +I have now given a short account of the forces, regular and irregular, +composing the whole Russian army, which is, perhaps, the most stupendous +military engine which the world has ever yet seen. + +While the nations of Europe have been disarming, Russia has been +augmenting her forces, and spending a very large proportion of her +revenue in storing up weapons of destruction. Peaceful avocations have +been discouraged by her, and men of peace looked upon with contempt. +She knows no titles but military ones; and rewards no virtues except +those calculated to support her despotism. She has resisted the natural +influence of Europe upon her people, and kept them in poverty-stricken +isolation; by her stupendous military force she prevents the further +disarming of the nations of Europe. In proportion as they approach the +Russian frontier, they are obliged to keep up larger armies, and waste +more of their revenues on fortresses and military preparations. The +threatening aspect of the Russian army towards its neighbours will be +more distinctly seen if we look at it according to its division into the +active, mobilized army, always assembled in Poland, with its reserves +behind it to the eastward, and the local troops, which have been already +mentioned. + +Every regiment is divided into a certain number of battalions for active +service, ready immediately to enter the field, and others which form +the reserve or dépôt, whose duty it is to instruct recruits, and, like +the Prussian landwehr, to form skeleton battalions for veterans, and +those absent on “indefinite leave.” The artillery is arranged in the +same manner. The active troops, distributed in corps, are completely +organized, with staff, engineers, train-equipage, and parks of artillery; +and even all the necessary horses are kept ready, in time of peace, for +entering instantly upon a campaign. To use the words of M. Haxthausen, +writing before the present war, “there is no army in the world, with the +exception of the Austrian army in Italy, that up to 1848 was always so +completely ready for war as the great, active army of Russia in Poland.” + +The composition of this army is given in the following table, taken from +M. Haxthausen, and its effective force is stated by him as follows (see +p. 134):— + +After a deduction of 50 soldiers for the train, the musicians, and +the superior officers, every battalion of infantry counts about 1000 +combatants, _i. e._, soldiers and non-commissioned officers; and the +battalions of riflemen, 653 men.[119] + +The number of officers is 22 for each battalion; and the musicians, +besides the band, which is very numerous in many regiments, are generally +about 25. As there are 8 battalions of riflemen, the Grand Army counts— + + 360 battalions of 1050 men each = 378,000 men. + 8 battalions of 700 men each = 5,600 ” + ------- + Total of infantry combatants 383,600 men. + Absent on “indefinite leave” 51,500 ” + ------- + Nominal total 332,100 infantry. + +A further deduction must be made for deaths, discharges, deserters, +reducing the battalions to about 700 men, which is believed to be their +real numbers, from which no further deduction need be made. This will +leave 260,000 infantry combatants really under arms. + +A squadron of cavalry contains, on an average, 190 combatants in time of +war, and therefore— + + Men. + 460 squadrons of regular cavalry, at 190 men each = 87,400 + 10 per squadron on leave = 4,600 + ------ + Leaves 82,800 + +of regular cavalry, always ready to march. + +The above deduction will be more than sufficient, if there be allowed +a loss of 27 or 28 men in each squadron before it can arrive at the +frontier. The lowest force, then, of regular cavalry immediately +disposable for the army of operation is about 70,000 men. No deduction +need be made from the artillery, which, on the contrary, must be +increased by the artillery of the Cossacks. The reserves are divided +into two levies, of which the details are given in the note.[120] They +amount—the first levy, to 98,000 men and 192 guns; and the second levy to +115,000 men and 280 guns. + + +RECAPITULATION of the DIVISIONS of TROOPS composing the GRAND ARMY, +according to data of the Year 1852. + + +----------------------------+------------------------------------------- + | | Infantry. + | +----------+---------+----------+----------- + | |Divisions.|Brigades.|Regiments.|Battalions. + | +----------+---------+----------+----------- + |Corps of the Guard | 3 | 6 | 12 | 37 + |Corps of Grenadiers | 3 | 6 | 12 | 37 + |6 Corps of Infantry | 18 | 36 | 72 | 294 + |1st Corps Cavalry in reserve| | | | + |2nd Corps Cavalry in reserve| | | | + |With a division of Light | | | | + | Cavalry of reserve | | | | + | +----------+---------+----------+----------- + | TOTAL TEN CORPS | 24 | 48 | 96 | 368 + +----------------------------+----------+---------+----------+----------- + + ----------------------------------------------------- + Cavalry. + ----------+---------+----------+--------------------- + Divisions.|Brigades.|Regiments.| Squads. + | | +---------+----------- + | | |Regulars.|Irregulars. + ----------+---------+----------+---------+----------- + 3 | 6 | 12 | 60 | 17½ + 1 | 2 | 4 | 32 | + 6 | 12 | 24 | 192 | ? + 3 | 6 | 12 | 80 | + 2 | 4 | 8 | 80 | + 1 | 2 | 4 | 24 | + ----------+---------+----------+---------+----------- + 16 | 32 | 64 | 468 | 17½ + ----------+---------+----------+---------+----------- + + ------------------------------------------------------------------------ + Artillery. + ----------+---------+----------+----------+----------+-----+-----+------ + Divisions.|Brigades.|Batteries.| Horse | Foot |Heavy|Light|Total. + | | |Artillery.|Artillery.|Guns.|Guns.| + ----------+---------+----------+----------+----------+-----+-----+------ + 1 | 5 | 15½ | 44 | 72 | 56 | 60 | 116 + 1 | 4 | 14 | 16 | 72 | 48 | 40 | 88 + 6 | 24 | 84 | 96 | 576 | 192 | 480 | 672 + 1 | | 6 | 48 | | 16 | 32 | 48 + 1 | | 6 | 48 | | 16 | 32 | 48 + 1 | | 3 | 24 | | | 24 | 24 + ----------+---------+----------+----------+----------+-----+-----+------ + 11 | 33 | 128½ | 276 | 720 | 328 | 668 | 996 + ----------+---------+----------+----------+----------+-----+-----+------ + + -------------------------------+ + Engineers. | + ----------------------+--------+ + Battalions of Sappers.|Mounted.| + ----------------------+--------+ + 1 | 2 | + 1 | | + 6 | | + | | + | 2 | + | | + ----------------------+--------+ + 8 | 4 | + ----------------------+--------+ + + Taken from M. Haxthausen, vol. iii. p. 288. + + There is attached to each corps a “brigade du train,” who are + non-combatants. The Engineers attached have their proper place + in the Brigades of Engineers. + + The regiments of Cossacks and their batteries were even in time + of peace incorporated in the Grand Army; but their number used + to vary. + +Such were the numbers of the Russian active army in Poland in 1848; and +it was further increased in 1850. At that time (the end of 1850) the +active army of operation, according to the official account, consisted as +follows:— + + Men. Guns. + Disposable army 486,000 996 + First levy of reserve 98,000 192 + Second levy 115,000 280 + ------- ---- + Total 699,000 1468 + +To which must be added the engineers, the train, and the irregular corps. + +Of course, as has been observed, the whole disposition of the army has +been altered since the present war began. The Moscow corps has been +moved to the Caucasus; the Polish corps have been moved south, and the +Grenadiers have taken their place; and the reserves have, I believe, been +all called out, and probably consumed in replacing those who have fallen +in the last two years. + +So that when we look at the Russian forces now assembled in the Caucasus, +the Crimea, and the German and Baltic frontiers, we see the whole of the +Russian army, including its reserves, which cannot be easily augmented. +Each man that falls now becomes of great importance to the Emperor; for +the conscription is becoming more and more difficult, and bearing with +increased severity upon all the interests of the empire. The age at which +conscripts are taken is now raised to thirty-seven;[121] and the sons of +aged or widowed parents, who have hitherto been exempted, are to serve, +and be formed into separate corps. I believe that in the manufacturing +establishments in Russia as many as 25 per cent. of the workmen have +lately been carried off for the conscription. + +The difficulties of Russia are increasing every day; and it is hardly +possible for her to carry on the war for another six months, if with our +change of Ministry we likewise have a change of system, and if at home +and in the Crimea our superior officials, both military and civil, have +anything like that intelligence, activity, intrepidity, and single-minded +love of their country displayed by the common soldiers and regimental +officers of our army, who have hitherto been the only bulwarks to save us +from national disgrace. + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + +INKERMAN, MANGOUP, AND THE HILLY COUNTRY OF THE CRIMEA. + + The Bay of Sevastopol to Inkerman—Aktiar—Inkerman + Castle—Its history—Crypts—Fuller’s earth, or natural + soap—Tchorgouna—Tchouli, residence of Pallas—Crypts at + Karakoba—Mount Aithodor—Mangoup—Description and history—Gothic + architecture—Position of Mangoup—Interesting character of + surrounding country—The Tchatyr Dagh and the Yailas. + + +From Sevastopol to Inkerman the road by land is either very long or +very fatiguing.[122] In order to avoid the numberless ravines which cut +up the Chersonese, a circuitous route must be taken, and it is hardly +possible to attempt to cross in a straight line. Scarcely has the +descent been made to the bottom of one ravine by a very steep declivity, +than an equally precipitous ascent must be made at the other side; and +neither the one nor the other of these routes has anything picturesque +or interesting, except some poor ruins scattered here and there among +the rocks. Nothing was desert here in the time of ancient Kherson. +A laborious population, sacrificing pleasure in the noble object of +possessing a little corner of ground, then occupied the sides of all the +ravines, and living half in the grottoes, and half in miserable huts of +stone and earth, devoted themselves to the cultivation of a precious +and tolerably fertile soil, by raising terraces of earth, on which they +planted vines and fruit-trees. Neither the north wind nor the piercing +frost could penetrate these well-protected and sheltered spots; but +during the heats of summer they must have been hardly supportable, unless +some covered shelter was made on one side or the other under the rock. +Although the land journey from Sevastopol to Inkerman be so difficult +in times of peace, nothing used to be more interesting than the sea +voyage, which might be performed by hiring a little boat at Sevastopol, +and leisurely sailing or rowing down the Great Bay. It is not that the +country is very attractive in itself by shady groves and country houses: +on the contrary, these are rare on the shores of this bay, which are +rather severe in aspect, from the abrupt forms and nakedness of the +rocks. It is the bay itself, piercing nearly five miles into the land, +which invests the scene with all its magnificence. + +As to the geology of the coasts of the bay, beginning at the entrance +from the sea, the low shores are formed by beds of the recent tertiary +volcanic formation, very much thrown out of their place. These beds +gradually rise higher up the sides as far as the Careening Bay, and there +appear under them brilliant beds of white clay, with layers of small +stones and cinders, and land and lake mollusques. This formation is of +considerable extent, and presents high cliffs of so dazzling a white +colour, that they have generally been taken for chalk. + +Under the clay, and near the extremity of the bay, appears in its turn, +in thick even layers, the nummulite limestone, rich in fossils, raised +on the back of a new formation, that of the chalk, which has a great +development, and of which the high walls, principally composed of green +sandstone or chlorited chalk, encase the bottom of the bay, opening a +large entrance at its farthest extremity for the Bouiouk Oozoun river, or +the Tchornaya Retchka of the Russians, which is lost in a marsh before +it mixes with the salt waves of the bay. Close to the Careening Bay are +the first crypts cut in the rocks, and the principal ones, the entrance +to which is very little raised above the level of the bay, are large, +of a regular square shape, and cut in the front of the rock. On the +northern shore, opposite the crypts, in a little valley, are the ruins +of the village of Aktiar, which replaced Kherson, giving its name to the +bay. This served as the first establishment of the Russians after the +conquest of the Crimea. Here is the summer habitation and the garden of +the admiral-commandant of Sevastopol, and here are the storehouses and +bakehouses of the fleet, a large hospital, now abandoned, and an ancient +hermitage cut in the rock, painted with frescoes. + +The extremity of the bay in ancient times was richly cultivated, but +the sea has now been driven back by the unwholesome marshes of the +Tchornaya Retchka, and high reeds stop the course of all vessels by their +inextricable labyrinths. With the exception of a powder-magazine and a +few sheds, these ravines are naked and uninhabited, and the villages +which crowned the summits of the cliffs and extended on the plateau of +the northern part of the Chersonese, where the second division of the +British army is now encamped and the famous two-gun battery was erected, +have disappeared. + +The ruins of the villages cover a space of two miles, and end with the +great rock in which is cut the first of the crypt churches of Inkerman. +These were all defended by walls from the Steppe, one of which is still +seen, four feet in thickness. The direct road from Kherson to Inkerman +passed by these villages, and a very steep road led from the plateau to +the bottom of the ravine, where there is the church. The greater part +of these remains of antiquity have disappeared before the labours of +the engineers, who have blown up the rocks with the crypts in them to +obtain the soft but beautiful building-stone for the construction of the +magnificent aqueduct which carries the water of the Tchornaya Retchka to +the docks of Sevastopol. + +The aqueduct is carried on 10 arches, and measures 200 feet in length; +the piles on which it is built are 18 feet deep, as this is the only +depth at which a firm foundation could be found. After it leaves the +aqueduct the water is carried by a tunnel 800 feet in length. The canal +is 4 feet deep and 9 feet broad, and the gallery through which it is +carried is 6 feet high to the top of the vault, and 12 feet wide. + +From this place the road continues to Inkerman,[123] which is the modern +name of the promontory rising at the end of the Bay of Sevastopol on +its northern shore, and looking down upon the marshes of the Tchornaya +Retchka. The rock is pierced all over with the subterranean dwellings +of the ancient Tauri, and on the top are the ruins of the castle built +by Diophantes, the general of Mithridates, who was sent to help the +Khersonians against the Tauro-Scythians, a little before the birth of +Christ. This castle was called Eupatorion, a name which, like many +others, has been misapplied by the Russians, and given to the town of +Koslof. + +From the castle, Diophantes made a communication with the other side, by +filling up the valley with earth, and leaving a passage for the river by +a bridge with three arches, of which one remained in 1834, and the bank +itself is perfectly preserved. This was the bridge that was broken down +by Liprandi after the battle of Inkerman, when he retired to the northern +side of the Tchornaya Retchka, and by this act acknowledged that he had +been defeated. In the rocks near are seen the enormous quarries for the +building-stone, which in all times has been celebrated. Near here, and +cut in the solid rock of the promontory of Inkerman, is a regularly +constructed Greek church, with all its parts complete, and on the top +of the rock in which it is cut is the fortress of Diophantes, which in +the middle ages was called Theodori, and was the residence of some Greek +princes dependent on Constantinople. One of them, called Alexis, took +Balaclava from the Genoese, and was again driven out of it in A.D. 1434. + +In 1475 this little Greek principality suffered the same fate as the +Gothic duchy of Mangoup; and the castle was taken by the Turks, who +placed a garrison here, and allowed the fortress to go to ruin. In the +time of Bronovius (A.D. 1578) Greek inscriptions and heraldic bearings +were to be seen over the gates and public buildings, but they have now +entirely disappeared. + +The crypts made by the ancient Tauri are on the south side of the rock, +which was generally the situation they chose; and from the interior of +the fortress there is a path leading down to numberless rows of them, in +six or seven tiers, one above another. The simplest of these crypts have +only one room, a part of which was raised one foot high, and two feet +broad for a bed; and the holes may still be seen in front of the kind of +niche in which it was placed, to which a curtain was probably attached. + +The more complicated crypts have many rooms, and all of these, except the +principal chamber, have beds. The doors were of wood; the ceilings rise +to a point; and in the centre of the floor there was a hole one foot and +a half deep, and two feet across, which was the fireplace and the oven, +such as is found in the crypts of Georgia, and is still used in that +country to the present day. + +The crypts were innumerable, but are now rapidly diminishing. In some +places, from natural causes, the rock has given way, and carried down +whole stages of crypts, with the passages and staircases of communication +between the various stories; and Lieutenant Kruse, who had a contract for +stone for the public buildings of Sevastopol, blew up vast numbers. + +As the valley of Inkerman is now extremely unhealthy, it may be asked +how it could ever have been so thickly populated as the remains would +indicate; but its unhealthiness is caused by the stagnant marshes of the +Tchornaya Retchka, which in ancient times were flourishing gardens, from +which all superfluous water was drained off.[124] + +The same layers of green sandstone, which form one of the sides of the +gorge of Inkerman, then take a more eastern direction; and here, facing +the south, the strata are so full of subterranean dwellings that they +might almost be called beds of crypts. + +Immediately below the second group of crypts further on, in the direction +of Tchorgouna and Mangoup, is a layer of fuller’s earth, two feet in +thickness, and of a grey colour, accompanied below by talk. This is used +as fossil soap, and is exported to Constantinople, where it is known +in the baths under the name of Keffe Kil, or clay of Caffa.[125] There +is a similar deposit at Sabli, and on one of the banks of the Alma the +greenish talkous fuller’s earth is mixed with silicious pebbles and +broken ammonites, while on the other bank may be extracted from wells +the best fuller’s earth in the Crimea. This same bed, again, appears at +the foot of Mount Akhaia, near Karasóubazar, on the western side of the +peninsula. Below these beds are totally different deposits. At Inkerman +is a white or grey clay, more or less schistous, almost entirely without +fossils, and several hundred feet thick. Its rounded forms start from +the foot of the wall of green sandstone, cover a part of the valley +of Balaclava, and advance as far as Tchorgouna. Tchorgouna lies in a +gorge formed nearly of the same pudding-stones and marbles as those at +Balaclava. + +The Tchornaya Retchka, coming from the valley of Baidar, here unites +its two principal branches, which escape from wild chasms in the +Jurassic rocks. Before forcing itself between the two last rocks of +marble, which almost stop it, and just as it reaches the chalk valley +of Balaclava, where it is diverted for the docks of Sevastopol, it +receives the rivulet of Tchouli, which has quite a different course, +and which takes its name from the village of Tchouli, the residence of +the famous traveller Pallas. This little river may be followed up in a +north-eastward direction to Mangoup, and presents the curious phenomenon +of running exactly between the Jurassic and cretaceous formations. The +stream divides these two formations, the former of which gives its +picturesque beauty to the southern coast of the Crimea, while the latter +is synonymous with the dull level of the Steppe; so that on its right is +seen the Jura, with its characteristic rounded calcareous domes, well +wooded, and cut into valleys, and on the other side the chalk presents +its high crests and jutting buttresses, covered with a meagre vegetation, +and surmounted by an enormous naked wall of green sandstone, prolonged +without interruption to Mount Aithodor, which only wants a sea below it +to become the most picturesque of promontories. Here there is a group +of crypts like those at Inkerman, called Karakoba (the Black Grotto), +and the high promontory which rises above Aithodor is called Elli Boroun +(the Cape of Tempests). This high advanced rock, crowned with a few +marine or littoral pines, forms a side of one of the great chasms that +have been opened in the chalk; and it can hardly have been by the agency +of any river, as none of the larger streams of the Tauric chain have +condescended to take advantage of its opening to pass through it, so that +there is only a very small current of water which runs into the Belbek. +In the midst of this chasm stands an immense rock, perpendicular on all +sides, and rising like the isolated pier of some gigantic bridge, and +this bears on its summit the celebrated fortress of Mangoup. + +No position in the Crimea could be stronger, and none has been more +celebrated. Mangoup commanded one of the gates of the Steppe, and as +a wall was built across the valley of Inkerman, so it seems that this +entrance was also closed in by two walls, separated by an interval of +fifty feet, and of which there are well-preserved traces in the valley +that leads from Koráles to Aithodor. + +The rock of Mangoup rises to upwards of a thousand feet, and every +accessible place in its vicinity is fortified with walls and towers. One +valley, called the Tabana Déréh (Tatar for the Valley of the Tannery), +is fortified by a wall and four towers, and contains several stages of +crypts and a fine spring of water. It was inhabited up to 1800 by some +Karaim Jews, who were tanners, and when they quitted, no living being was +left in the deserted town of Mangoup.[126] + +On mounting the plateau from the valley, there are the remains of a +Byzantine Greek church, with frescoes, and surrounded by tombs like those +at Laspi on the southern coast. To the left of the church is a mosque +and a Turkish cemetery, and beyond it is another valley, closed like +the other by a wall, with a door in the middle. The view from hence is +magnificent, and extends over Sevastopol to the sea. In the acropolis +of Mangoup there are the remains of a fine palace, of two stories high, +resting on a terrace, with a handsome flight of steps. On the first +floor of this palace there are placed, in symmetrical order, and richly +decorated, four windows: three bead ornaments surrounded the two in the +middle, which terminated in a flat arch: those at the end were richly +charged with ornaments, and of larger dimensions. The workmanship of the +arabesques, and of the roses, the fillets, and the wreaths, are in the +Eastern style, very like that of Armenia. There is some resemblance to +the style of Turkey, but, besides being less regular and symmetrical, +it cannot be supposed that the Turkish conquerors, who took Mangoup in +1475, and then abandoned it to a few soldiers, would ever have erected +such edifices. Bronovius proves the contrary; he says, “Eighteen years +after it was taken by the Turks, as the Christian Greeks relate, Mangoup +was almost utterly destroyed by a horrible and sudden fire. Nothing of +importance was saved except the Acropolis, in which there was a fine +gateway, ornamented with marble, with Greek inscriptions, and a high +palace in stone. It was in this house that the khans, in their barbarian +fury, have several times shut up the Muscovite ambassadors, and made them +suffer a severe captivity.” The door and the palace, which have been +described, evidently date before the fire, and consequently before its +capture by the Turks. It is a memento of the Gothic Dukes of Mangoup; +and the Armenian style that predominates may be explained by the fact +that, in the middle of the fourteenth century, a number of Armenians had +quitted their country, in terror at the great earthquake of Anni, and had +filled the Crimea with their colonies. As perhaps a solitary memorial +of the architecture of the Goths in the Crimea, this palace possesses +considerable interest. + +If the reader will now look at the map, he will see that at Mangoup we +are about one-third of the distance from Sevastopol to Baktchéserai, and +on the confines of the two formations that cause Steppes to the north and +a romantic scenery to the south. A tributary of the Belbek leads down +a wild valley from Mangoup to Koráles, which I have already noticed as +the residence of the beautiful Tatar princess, Adel Bey; and a little +to the west of Koráles is Tcherkess Kerman, or the fortress of the +Tcherkess, and Tcherkess Tus, the plain of the Tcherkess, and the river +Kabarda, which mark the spot where a colony of that noble and chivalrous +people, whom we call the Circassians, dwelt for several centuries, and +beyond this plain the high road is seen running to Sevastopol along +the open Steppe. There is, therefore, little to interest the traveller +to the north; but let him go east, south, and west of Mangoup, and he +may make endless excursions in a most lovely country. He may wander up +the valleys of the Belbek, the Katcha, and the Alma, and cross the +mountainous country which divides their channels; and whether he be +geologist, archæologist, or only an admirer of the beauties of nature, +he will find his tastes amply gratified, and every simple want supplied +among the primitive and hospitable Tatars. + +The geologist may admire and unravel the intricate system where endless +strata have been forced up and bent, especially in the Heracleotic +Chersonese, into the most fantastic forms, while jets of igneous rocks +may be traced, giving the key to the wild confusion that reigns around. + +The archæologist will find in every hill top, and in every rock and +valley, traces of the many nations that have inhabited the Crimea, +from the rude crypts of the savage Tauri, to the graceful fragments of +the Grecian column; and the traveller, who wanders simply to enjoy his +physical existence, will ever find health and strength in a delicious +climate, and the purest enjoyment of the senses in its exquisite rural +beauty. Endless flocks and herds browze along the valleys, while near the +fresh high plains, raised up in the bosom of the mountains by stupendous +volcanic agency, Tatar villages are snugly situated in sheltered spots, +surrounded by orchards, which supply even Petersburg with fruit, and +where the vine has flourished from the earliest ages. Added to all these +charms, the sea is always near, and its glorious expanse is seen from +every mountain-top, and that coast can at all times be readily visited, +which tempted the beauty-loving Greeks to found here some of their +earliest and most flourishing colonies. + +The Ai Petri, Mount Babougan (4500 feet), and the Tchatyr Dagh (5125 +feet), the highest mountains in the Crimea, are seen from all parts, and +from the summit of the latter there is a very beautiful view. All around +it, in the country within the influence of the Tauric chain of mountains, +is a succession of verdant hills and valleys, which seem, as Dubois +says, to be a great island, surrounded by two oceans, that of the sea on +the south, and of the Steppes on the north, so flat and uniform do the +latter appear to be. Tchatyr Dagh means tent-mountain in Tatar, and this +name has been given to it because of its form, the last 700 feet of which +rise like a large oblong tent, which in ancient times procured it the +name of Mount Trapezus. There are, all along the Tauric chain, elevated +plains, called in Tatar, Yailas, such as are also found in the range of +the Caucasus, covered in both countries with excellent herbage, on which, +in summer, large flocks of sheep and goats are pastured.[127] + + + + +CHAPTER X. + +THE HERACLEOTIC CHERSONESE. + + The Heracleotic Chersonese—Origin of name—Defended by a + wall—Kherson—Its history and remains—House of Lamachus—The + predecessors of Vladimir and their relations with + Constantinople—Account of the siege by Vladimir, taken + out of Nestor—Vladimir’s Baptism—Springs of water—Kherson + destroyed by Lithuanians—The bays between Sevastopol and Cape + Chersonese—Cape Partheniké—The Tauric Diana—The monastery of + St. George—Bustards on the Chersonese. + + +After taking a general view of the hill country of Crimea, there still +remains one little corner in the south-west to be described, which will +henceforth have a conspicuous place in the history of the world, and, +as we hope under Providence, will be famous as the spot where Russian +tyranny was checked, and France and England cemented a permanent alliance +based upon a common civilization, and fraught with the blessings of +freedom and peace to the whole world. + +The submarine volcanoes which raised up the whole Tauric chain of the +southern coast of Crimea, here raged with the greatest fury, and have +torn up the land into a succession of deep and sheltered bays from +Balaclava to Sevastopol, which, fourteen[128] in number, offer convenient +shelter either to commercial or warlike navies. + +The ancient name of the peninsula was the Heracleotic Chersonese, +which is derived from two Greek words—Heracleotic, signifying of or +belonging to the Heracleans, and Chersonese, a peninsula. It was called +Heracleotic, because the famous city of Kherson, which was built here, +was originally a colony from Heraclea, a town on the opposite coast of +the Black Sea in Bithynia, where the coal-mines have been lately opened +to supply our fleets, and the city of Kherson, or Khersonesus as it +was sometimes called, received that name because it was situated on a +peninsula. + +[Illustration: PLAN OF RUINS OCCUPYING THE SITE OF THE CAMP OF THE +ALLIES AT SEVASTOPOL. 1855. + +_Published by John Murray Albemarle Sᵗ. 1855._ + +_Ford & West. Lithʳˢ._] + +This little peninsula, high and rocky, and on three sides surrounded by +water, is cut off from the rest of the Crimea by a low valley, running +between Inkerman and Balaclava, above which, upon a line of heights, is +now placed the French and British camp. A wall, which divided it off from +the rest of the Crimea, may still be traced running from the Tchornaya +Retchka, a little above Inkerman, to Balaclava, for a distance of five +miles,[129] at the foot of the hills running parallel with the valley, +on which the main part of our army, and, since the affair of Balaclava, +a French division under General Bosquet, have been encamped. The whole +of this enclosure was in ancient times occupied with the gardens and +villas of the inhabitants of Kherson, and the space within the wall is +covered with ruins, among which the boundary marks of the fields and +gardens, and the plans of many houses, may still be distinctly traced. +The colony of Kherson was founded in the seventh century before Christ, +by the Heracleans and the Delians, and quickly attained great commercial +importance. + +The Khersonians, who were Dorians, were great rivals of the Bosphorians +at Panticápœa or Kertch, who were a colony of Miletus, and consequently +Ionians, and the two cities were continually at war, until both were +united under the sway of Mithridates the Great, king of Pontus, who, +when driven out of his own kingdom by Pompey, succeeded in obtaining the +kingdom of the Bosphorus in the last century before the Christian era. + +Kherson, like all the adjacent countries, afterwards fell under the sway +of the Romans, and continued an important place during the greatness and +decline of the empire, down to the epoch when the dispersed Slavonic +tribes were united into one nation, called Russians, by Norman princes, +in the ninth century. From that time Kherson, situated about half-way +between Kief and Constantinople, was constantly a subject of dispute +between the Russians and the Greeks. + +There are many remains of the ancient town, the site of which is on the +promontory between the Quarantine and Streletska bays, where a French +battery is now erected. + +The wall which defended it was on the land side, running at the head +of Quarantine Bay, passing across the plateau of the isthmus, and then +descending by zigzags to the Bay of Soses, now called Streletska Bay. +The wall was nearly two miles in length, and built of limestone, five or +six feet thick. There were three towers, of which the largest was placed +on the top of the isthmus, and defended the principal gate, a massive +edifice, vaulted, with a guard-house belonging to it. Part of this was +still standing up to the time of the occupation of this site by the +French. An inscription was found in the ruins, which declared the tower +to have been restored about the year 491 A.D. The traces of the ancient +roads and gardens that covered the little territory of the colony, and +the plan of the town, are distinctly traceable. The principal street +through it was about twenty feet wide, and on the left in descending was +the great market-place, which is easily recognised by the heaps of earth +in the shape of a great tumulus, of which further mention will afterwards +be made. + +The remains of a large palace stand on one side of the small street +leading to the market-place, which is doubtless one of those which Nestor +mentions as being near the Church of the Virgin. + +Lieutenant Kruse was commissioned by the Russian Government to excavate +whatever seemed of interest in the ruins, and he began by the churches, +three of which he uncovered. One of these, the nearest to the +market-place, is most probably the ancient cathedral of Kherson, built +by the piety of Vladimir, in memory of his taking the city, and of his +own conversion to Christianity; and this is probably the church which has +unfortunately been injured[130] by the French, and of which such frequent +mention has been made of late in the Russian proclamations. When it was +discovered, the remains of a semicircular apse were visible; and columns +of a fine white crystalline marble, striped with blue, showed in the +nave of the edifice the position of the transepts and the dome. Great +Byzantine crosses ornamented the capitals of the columns and many parts +of the interior. The whole exterior wall remained to about the height of +three or four feet, and within its precincts Lieutenant Kruse collected +all the columns and other remains that were found, the greater part of +which were drawn out of what he called “a great cistern” underneath the +dome, which was probably an ancient crypt. + +The second church that was discovered was larger than the cathedral, +built in the form of a Greek cross, and fifty-three feet each way. The +semicircular seats for the clergy were found entire in the apse, and a +coarse mosaic still existed as the pavement. + +This edifice was remarkable, because it was evidently a beautiful Greek +temple metamorphosed into a Christian church, and bases and capitals of +Ionic columns, and other parts of Greek architecture, were built into its +walls. Perhaps this had been the Parthenon of Kherson, dedicated to the +famous Virgin divinity of the ancient Tauri. Lieutenant Kruse excavated +a third church, and then discontinued his labours. The positions of +a mass of streets can be traced, tortuous and narrow, like those of +Eastern towns to this day, and as the whole Chersonese was built over, +we may suppose that there existed here 5000 houses and 40,000 or 50,000 +inhabitants. + +The high level plain was bordered with houses, from which steps were cut +in the rock down to the water’s edge, and half way between the two bays, +where the rock naturally sloped down, was a landing-place and a market; +and there remains a perfect well and the traces of an aqueduct. There +were only two springs of water in the Chersonese, both near Balaclava. +From one near Khouter Oukhákof the water was conveyed in pipes, some of +which have been lately found, and it was this conduit which Vladimir +cut when he took the town of Kherson. The water of the other spring has +been carried to Sevastopol, which for a long time was only supplied by +some wells and small sources of water at the extremity of the South bay. +This principal spring, which used to be private property, was taken for +public use by the Russian Government, and supplies only thirty-six pints +a minute. Immense reservoirs were constructed in ancient times near the +Quarantine Bay to catch rain-water, but they are now filled up, and three +modern wells have been dug. + +The place of one single monument of the ancient Greek times is clearly +marked among the remains of this ancient city, and that is the house of +Lamachus. + +At all times I have said there was a great rivalry between the +Bosphorians and the Khersonians, and the latter were probably, for the +first time, subjected to the former during the reign of Praisades I. +Kherson underwent a second time the same fate when hardly pressed by +the Tauro-Scythians, under their king, Skilouros, and the city was then +obliged to place itself under the protection of the great Mithridates, +to whom and his successors, kings of Bosphorus, it remained subject, +until it recovered its independence under the Romans.[131] After this +time there was again constant hostility and war between the two cities, +and when one of the kings of the Bosphorus undertook an expedition into +Asia Minor,[132] the Khersonians took the opportunity of conquering his +capital, Panticápœa (Kertch). Again, in the fourth century, the grandson +of this king was defeated by the Khersonians at Kaffa, or Theodosia, +which then became the boundary of the two States. In a second war soon +afterwards, Pharnáces, the Stephanóphorus of Kherson, killed this king in +single combat, and carried the boundaries of his city close to the walls +of Panticápœa. + +Of course these victories of the Khersonians increased the hatred of the +Bosphorians against them, and in the year 334 or 336 A.D., Assander, +the last king of the Bosphorus, thought he had found an effectual way +of meddling in their affairs. He asked in marriage for one of his sons +the daughter of Lamachus, the Stephanóphorus, or chief magistrate of +Kherson, the most powerful man in the town, famous for his riches in +gold, silver, slaves, serving-women, horses, and lands. He also possessed +a house with four courts, occupying all one quarter of the town, lying +near the exterior port of the Bay of Soses (now Streletzka Bay), where +he had a private door pierced in the walls of the town, which is the +only one which now remains entire. Four magnificent gateways guarded +the approaches to his house, and each herd of oxen and cows, horses and +mares, sheep and asses, returning from pasture, had its own particular +entrance and stables. + +The eldest of the sons of Assander married Glycia, the daughter of +Lamachus, under the express condition that he should never return to +Panticápœa, to visit his father, not even at the hour of his death. +After two years Lamachus died, and Glycia the following year wished, +according to the general custom, on the anniversary of her father’s +death, to give a grand feast to all the people of Kherson, and her +riches were sufficient to provide them all with wine, bread, oil, meat, +poultry, and fish, and she promised to renew this festival each year. The +son of Assander, deeply vexed at such prodigality, pretended to praise +her filial affection, but secretly determined to revenge himself by +seizing this occasion to hatch a plot against the town. He wrote to his +father to send him from time to time a dozen young Bosphorians, strong +and active, to be introduced into the town under pretext of a visit. +Disembarking at the port of Symbols (Balaclava), where they left their +vessel, they came on foot to Kherson, spent some days there, and then, +pretending to return, passed out at the great gate in the evening, and +crossed the Chersonese; but when night came on, they retraced their steps +by circuitous paths, till they reached the Great Harbour (Sevastopol), +where a boat was in readiness to bring them round to the foot of the Bay +of Soses (Streletzka Bay) on the other side. Here a friend expected them, +and opened for them the little door into the house of Lamachus. Concealed +in the vast palace, they waited for the next anniversary, in order to +seize the town and massacre the people, overcome by wine and good cheer. + +A lucky accident caused the treachery to be discovered. On the eve of +the feast, one of the servants of Glycia having disobeyed her mistress, +was shut up in a distant chamber, which happened to be just above that +in which the Bosphorians were concealed. The loss of her spindle, which +rolled into a hole near the wall, induced the girl to lift up a square of +the floor in search of it. She then saw the Bosphorians assembled, and +hastened to inform her mistress, who forgave her fault, and told her to +keep the secret until she should be prepared to deal with the traitors. +She then in strict confidence conferred with three delegates from the +town, and having made them swear that in recompense for her patriotism, +they would, contrary to established custom, bury her inside the town, +she communicated to them the astounding news, and gave them directions +how to act. She made them celebrate the festival gaily as if nothing was +to happen, and only bid each man prepare some faggots and torches. Then, +having drugged her husband’s wine and escaped from the house with her +maids, carrying her trinkets and gold, she ordered the faggots to be +piled round the house and fired, and thus made all the traitors perish in +the flames. + +The citizens of Kherson wished to rebuild the house of Glycia at the +public expense, but this she strongly opposed, and, on the contrary, +caused them to heap up every kind of filth and refuse on the place +stained by treachery, which was called ever afterwards “the Den of +Lamachus.” + +This monument, more indestructible than brass or marble, is still there, +and, without knowing the story of Glycia, the stranger is astonished to +find the rubbish of all the town piled on the top of the plain, which +borders Streletzka Bay, in one of the finest situations of Kherson. On +passing through the little door which is near the landing-place outside +the walls, the remains of a mole are still to be seen below the level of +the water. + +The Khersonians raised two statues of brass on the public place in honour +of Glycia, in one of which she was represented modestly and carefully +attired, receiving the three deputies of the town, and in the other she +was clothed in warrior garments, in the act of avenging the betrayed +citizens. At the time when Constantine Porphyrogenitus wrote the account +from which this has been extracted, every citizen considered it his duty +to keep clean and bright the inscription which the gratitude of the city +had caused to be engraven upon her monument. + +Kherson was little distinguished during the time of the Byzantine Empire, +except as occasionally taking part in the frequent revolutions at +Constantinople. As it stood near the route through the plains of Southern +Russia by which the barbarians invaded the empire, it was exposed to +constant wars, and kept up a close intimacy with the Greek emperors, who +frequently sent it succours, and sometimes received from it valuable +assistance. At length, in the tenth century, it underwent a famous siege +by Vladimir, Grand Duke of Russia, which, as it marks the important +period of the conversion of the Russian nation to Christianity, I will +shortly narrate out of the Russian Chronicles, premising a few words +on the early Norman rulers of Russia, to explain the relations of that +people with the Greeks at the period to which I allude. + +Rurik[133] the Norman was called over from Scandinavia by the Slave +nations to govern them about the year 862 A.D., as at that time their +chiefs were fighting among themselves, and the people said, in the +words of the old Chronicler, “Let us seek a foreign prince who shall +govern us, and speak justly to us.” An embassy, therefore, was sent to +the Russ Varangians or Normans across the Baltic in Scandinavia, and in +consequence Rurik arrived and reigned till 879 A.D. + +Already during his reign some Normans had led a force down the Dniepr +against Constantinople, which is always called in the early chronicles +Tzaragrad, or the city of the Tzar,[134] the title given to the Greek +emperor. Oleg, the successor of Rurik, made another expedition against +Constantinople in 907, which he successfully attacked according to Nestor +by placing his vessels on wheels and sailing across the narrow strip of +land that intervenes between the upper part of the Golden Horn and the +Black Sea. The city was ransomed, and the fleet returned with silken +sails for the Russian and cotton ones for the Slaves, and in 912 a treaty +was concluded “to fix the limits of Russia and Greece.” + +Under the next prince, Igor, the Russians made two more attacks against +Constantinople, in the first of which they were defeated by the Greek +fire. The second was successful, and gave rise to a treaty in which +Kherson is mentioned in a way that shows that this city had always +been allied with the Greek emperors, and continually harassed by the +Russians. It is said, “as to the country of Kherson, the Russian princes +are not in future to have any troops in it, or in any of the towns that +are dependent on it, still less to make war with this country and to +endeavour to conquer it. But if the Russian prince requires aid, we the +Tzar (the Greek Emperor) promise to furnish it, to replace under his +authority those of the surrounding countries which have thrown it off. +And if the Russians meet at the mouth the Dniepr Khersonian fishermen, +they shall not injure them, and they shall not have the right to winter +at the mouth of the Dniepr, nor at Bielo Bejie (Berislaf), but at the +approach of autumn they shall return into their own country, into Russia. +If the Black Bulgarians attack the country of Kherson, we recommend the +Russian prince to drive them back, and not to allow them to disturb the +peace.”[135] + +Olga, the widow of Igor, reigned after him till 955. She visited +Constantinople as a guest, and became a Christian. Indeed many of the +Russians were christened before this epoch, and the Bible had been +translated into Slavonic nearly a hundred years before. The Emperor +Constantine, or Romanus II., wished to marry Olga, then more than sixty +years old, but she refused him. + +Sviatoslaw her son (955-963) twice conquered Bulgaria, and advancing with +a victorious army to the walls of Constantinople, was as usual bought +off, and a new treaty was made, in which Kherson is again mentioned. + +Vladimir began to reign in 980, and though in the beginning a determined +idolator, in later times he sent ambassadors to various countries to see +which was the best religion. They visited the Mahometan Bulgarians, Roman +Catholic Germans, the Jews and the Greeks, and struck with the splendour +of their service, they reported in favour of the Greeks. + +Upon this nothing took place till, in the words of Nestor, “It happened +that in the course of the next year (988 A.D.) Vladimir with his army +invaded Kherson. The inhabitants shut themselves up in the walls of the +town, and Vladimir established his camp on each side, near the harbour, +just within shot of the said town. The besieged defended themselves +valiantly, yet, as Vladimir always pressed on the siege, they began to +lose courage, and he said to them, ‘If you do not surrender, I swear that +I will remain here three years.’ + +“To this threat the besieged paid no attention, and Vladimir made his +soldiers take up their arms, and ordered the assault, but while they were +engaged in it, the Khersonians, having made a way into the ditches, took +out the earth which the besieged had thrown into them to fill them up, +and brought it into the town, and the more the Russians threw into the +ditches, the more the besieged took out of them. But while Vladimir was +besieging Kherson, and constraining its inhabitants, a certain Athanasius +shot into the enemy’s camp an arrow bearing this advice, ‘Thou canst stop +or turn aside the source of the springs which are behind thee, towards +the east: it is thence that the waters of the town are brought to us.’ +At this news Vladimir lifted his eyes to heaven and cried out, ‘If this +be true, I promise to receive baptism.’ And forthwith he gave the order +to stop the pipes and turn off the water. Soon the besieged, worn +out, and dying of thirst, surrendered, and Vladimir, with his people, +made his entry into the town. Vladimir then asked the Emperors Basil +and Constantine for their sister Anne in marriage, and she was granted +him on condition of his baptism, and was received into the port by the +Khersonians, who conducted her to the palace. + +“The baptism of Vladimir[136] took place in the church of the Holy Mother +of God at Kherson, situated in the midst of the town on the market-place. +It is here near the church, by the side of the altar, that is to be seen +to this day the palace of Vladimir and that of the princess. Immediately +after the baptism, the bishop conducted the princess for another +ceremony, that of marriage. Vladimir ordered to be built a church in +Kherson, on the hill made with the earth which the inhabitants had piled +up in the centre of the town during the siege, which church may still be +seen in our days.”[137] + +Nothing can be more simple than this church, the remains of which have +been uncovered by Lieutenant Kruse, and which is a model of the antique +Byzantine style. Vladimir received from the Greeks, as the dowry of the +princess, the city of Kherson. + +When he returned to Kief he determined, in true autocratic style, that +all his people should follow his own example. So he cast the favourite +idol Peroun, the God of Thunder, into the Dniepr, and then proclaimed +that whoever did not appear on its banks should be treated as a rebel, +and when all the people were assembled, men, women, and children were +sent into the water to be baptized all together. + +There has been a question about two gates of Corinthian brass, which +were said to have been carried from Kherson to Kiew by Vladimir, and +to have been removed thence by Boleslas II., king of Poland, who placed +them at the entrance of the cathedral of Grodno, while other authors +pretend that they now exist in the cathedral of St. Sophia at Great +Novgorod.[138] Nestor makes no mention of the doors, but only says that +Vladimir brought back from Kherson the Tzarina Anastasia, the priests of +Kherson, the relics of St. Clement, and his disciple Phira, and vases +and instruments for burning incense, and that he did all this for the +welfare of his soul. He also says that the prince carried away with him +two images of brass, and four horses in metal, which in his time stood +behind the church of the Holy Mother of God in Kiew, and were thought by +the ignorant to be made of marble. It is possible that later writers may +have confounded the “images” with the “gates of brass.” + +Kherson was finally destroyed, after 2000 years’ existence, by Olgerd, +the nephew of Gedimine the Lithuanian, the founder of Vilna, the ancestor +of the Jagellons, and the conqueror of Kief and all Southern Russia.[139] + +After its pillage by the Lithuanians, Kherson was almost deserted, +and when the Turks, in 1475, took possession of the Crimea, they only +found in it empty houses and deserted churches, from which they removed +the finest marbles for their buildings at Constantinople. Bronovius +visited the city at the end of the sixteenth century, and says that the +Turks called it Sari Kerman, or the Yellow Castle, on account of the +yellow colour of the ground, and it had then been uninhabited for many +centuries. The ruins, however, of what he calls this “proud, delicate, +and illustrious city,” were then wonderful. The wall and its towers, +built of enormous blocks of hewn stone, were perfect, and a beautiful +aqueduct still brought the purest water. The palace of the kings, itself +as large as a city, with magnificent entrance gates, continued to exist. +The churches were despoiled, because of their valuable marbles, and +the largest Greek monastery alone remained entire.[140] After three +more centuries, what the Turks and the Tatars had spared was taken by +the Russians, when they built Sevastopol. Sailors were sent to collect +materials, and no ancient remains respected. The walls and fine gateways +which still existed were pulled down to build the Quarantine, and when +the Emperor Alexander issued orders to stop this Vandalism, the ruin +of every thing precious had been already consummated. The last remains +of works of art, which Lieutenant Kruse had collected with persevering +industry, disappeared after a detachment of soldiers had been lodged in +the ruins for a few years at the time of the plague. + +Between Sevastopol and Cape Chersonese, at the extremity of the +peninsula, there are no less than six large bays, which succeed each +other in the following order: the Quarantine Bay and Streletzka Bay, +which have been already mentioned; Krougly Bay, or the Round Bay; +Cosatcha Bay, Bay of Cossacks, and Dvoiny Bay, or Double Bay, where the +Heracleans first settled themselves before they moved to the Kherson, +which has been described. One branch of Dvoiny Bay is also called +Kamiesch, or the Reedy Bay, and it is here that the French ships are +anchored and the stores for their army disembarked. The Chersonese is +terminated to the west by Cape Chersonese, called also Cape Fanar, on +account of the lighthouse, and the whole of the promontory on which it +stands is covered with the ruins of the first Kherson.[141] Crossing +then in a south-east direction for several miles, over a plain covered +with ruins, we arrive at another cape, called in ancient times Cape +Partheniké, or that of the Virgin, and now Cape Violente or St. George, +from the monastery of the same name which is near it, on a spot +interesting for several reasons. + +The cape derived its ancient name from the cruel Virgin divinity of the +Tauri, so famous in early history, to whom all strangers were sacrificed +who suffered shipwreck on this inhospitable coast. When the Greeks +arrived from Heraclea they brought in the worship of Hercules and Diana, +and, as they always respected the religion of the countries they visited, +and found a great resemblance between their own Diana and the Virgin of +the Tauri, they probably merged the two into one under the name of the +Tauric Diana, discontinuing the ancient barbarous custom of offering +human victims. At a later period, Iphigenia was confounded with the +other two divinities, as Herodotus expressly says that in his time she +was worshipped as a goddess.[142] The Tauric goddess had her parthenon +in Kherson, and her chapel on Cape Partheniké. The road is still visible +by which the worshippers passed from Kherson to the promontory, crossing +a ridge of rocks, on which the traces of the ancient chariot-wheels are +distinctly visible. + +The cape is remarkable as being the exact limit between the most ancient +and the most modern geological formations in the Crimea. Here, on the top +of the precipice, an immense rock of Jurassic limestone juts out from the +coast, on a level with the steppe, and bordered by sheer precipices on +every side, except where it is connected with the mainland. In the centre +are the foundations of an isolated edifice, almost square, constructed +of hewn stone, like the Donjons of the houses on the Chersonese. It was +placed at the angle of the two walls, which, advancing one to the west, +and the other to the south, on the edge of the precipice, formed of the +rest of the platform a kind of court, of which the entrance-gate looked +towards the Chersonese and the road. This could only have been a temple, +for here are neither the wells nor buildings which always characterize a +dwelling-house. This was also the fittest situation for the worship of +the Tauric Virgin, for at this point only could the sea be reached on +this side of the Chersonese, and close to it is a gorge in the form of an +amphitheatre, where doubtless, in the earliest times, crowds assembled to +witness the precipitation of the unhappy victims into the sea. + +Near it, ensconced in a ledge of the precipice, is the famous monastery +of St. George.[143] From the plateau above, which has all the aridity +and monotony of the Steppes,[144] its ancient walls are not visible, +and it is not till the traveller approaches the edge of the cliffs, and +looks over, that he sees, instead of a frightful wave-beaten precipice, +a most charming little village, nestled in the rocks at about fifty +feet below him. There are a church, and houses, and terraces, cut one +below the other, and ancient poplars, and gardens irrigated by a fine +rivulet of water. The spot looks like a little oasis suspended, as if by +enchantment, at several hundred feet above the sea, in the midst of an +amphitheatre of black basaltic rocks, which rise majestically around, +and form a striking contrast to the rich verdure in which the monastery +is hidden. A door and staircase, cut in the rock, form the only entrance +to this great Hermitage, which was no doubt first created by the ancient +Troglodytes, or dwellers under ground, whose remains are so numerous +in the Crimea, as all the rocks near the monastery, which are composed +of chalk, are pierced by ancient grottoes, which are now only used as +cellars and poultry-yards, although they were inhabited by the monks +so lately as the time of Pallas, in 1794. The monastery consists of +many large buildings, several of which are devoted to the reception of +strangers. The church has unfortunately been rebuilt, and the ancient +chapel that stood here has been totally destroyed. A rivulet runs in +front of the houses, and trickles into a stone basin, shaded by poplars, +while below it are terraced gardens and small vineyards. + +This little nook generally enjoys a most unbroken quiet, but on the 23rd +of April, St. George’s-day—when crowds arrive, and the plateau above is +covered with huts and tents—the Greeks, from all parts of Crimea, flock +to the place, and the women especially frequent the fête, and embellish +the scene by their picturesque dresses and traditional beauty. As in most +religious festivals, the world always claims its part, and a kind of fair +is held here in the early part of the day, at which much business is +done. But all at once the scene changes—the hour of divine service has +arrived, the crowd flocks to the church, and, as soon as the benediction +has been given, there is a rush to the basin containing the water, which +is supposed at this season to be a remedy against all kinds of diseases. + +On a terrace, close to the monastery, there are traces of several Greek +temples. A dreary and barren road leads past the village of Karany, +through a valley, to Balaklava, at which town terminates the Chersonese. +The Chersonese in winter serves as a refuge to a great quantity of +bustards, that are driven from the plains by the snow. Thousands may be +seen at once, and the hunters conceal themselves in little cabins and +shoot them as they pass, for the birds, tired and thin at this season +of the year, fly very low, and may be almost caught by the hand. There +are two kinds, a large and a small; the latter are better eating, and +both are very cheap, and a favourite article of food in Sevastopol.[145] +When the snow covers the Chersonese, and the cold reaches sometimes 16° +Fahrenheit, the bustards fly to the southern coast, to Laspi, where it is +always warm. + + + + +CHAPTER XI. + +ON THE ANCIENT INHABITANTS OF THE CRIMEA. + + The Cimmerii—The Tauri—Connexion of Greece with the + Black Sea—Digression on the Crypts of the Crimea—B.C. + 600: The Scythians—The Greek colonies, B.C. 650—Milesian + emigration—Dorian emigration—Trade of these early + times—Mithridates, reigned B.C. 120-63—A.D. 62: The Alans—A.D. + 100-200: The Goths—A.D. 376: The Huns—Second attack of the + Huns—Justinian, reigned A.D. 527-565—A.D. 679: The Khazars—A.D. + 900-1000: The Petchenegues—About 1204: The Comans—1226: The + Tatars—The Genoese—1473: Kaffa taken by the Turks—The Black Sea + then shut up to European nations—Mixture of races in present + inhabitants of Crimea. + + +Having had occasion to mention various nations who have occupied the +Crimea, it will perhaps be useful to bring together in one succinct view +the numerous revolutions which the peninsula has undergone, and the order +in which the various races of its inhabitants succeeded one another from +the earliest times. + +First of all come the Cimmerians, who belong partly to history and +partly to fable. The story in the ‘Odyssey’ describes them as dwelling +beyond the ocean stream, plunged in darkness, and unblest by the rays +of Helios (the sun). According to Herodotus, they originally occupied +the Steppes of Southern Russia, or the country between the Borysthenes +and the Tanais, and being expelled from their country by the Scythians, +skirted the shores of the Euxine, and devastated, for a number of years, +the highly civilized countries of Asia Minor. The poets of that age +lament the destruction of every exquisite production of Greek genius by +this barbarian people, who were nomadic “milkers of mares,” like the +Scythians, and wandered in tents over their grassy Steppes. They had +already disappeared in the time of Herodotus, at which time the tombs of +their kings were shown near the Dniestr. They left their name in the +Cimmerian Bosphorus, while the darkness in which they were supposed to +have lived has perpetuated their memory down to our own times— + + “In black Cimmerian darkness ever dwell.” + +There was another people mentioned as early as the time of Homer, who, +being mountaineers, were able to preserve their nationality for a very +long period of time. These were the Tauri, who appear to have been a +people of a most savage and unamiable character. + +It has been already said that they sacrificed to a cruel goddess all +shipwrecked mariners, and they sometimes not only made offerings but +feasts of human victims. These habits have procured them an immortal +infamy in the writings of the Greeks and Romans, and, through the story +of Iphigenia, have made the Crimea associated with one of the most famous +legends of the Greek mythology. Her history and that of her fate-urged +family, connected with great events, abounding in scenes of concentrated +action, laid in mysterious and wild countries—contained much matter +calculated to rouse the passions, and have made it a favourite subject +for poets both in ancient and modern times. + +The works of almost every great poet of antiquity contain allusions to +the tragic history of the Atridæ, and the fate of Iphigenia has occupied +in modern times the pen of Racine and Göthe. It was also a popular +subject with ancient painters, and Timanthes, having represented her just +about to be sacrificed, after exhausting all his art in depicting the +grief of the other bystanders, drew a veil over the face of her father as +the best means of representing his inexpressible anguish. + +The story of Iphigenia is not an isolated instance of the attention which +the most ancient Greeks seem in numerous cases to have directed to the +East, and the expeditions of Phrixus and Helle, of the Argonauts, the +long wanderings of Ulysses on the coasts of Colchis, the Crimea, and the +Cimmerian Bosphorus, and the Achæans, who were said, in returning from +Troy, to have settled on the Circassian coast,—all have the same tendency. + +In the time of Herodotus the Tauri occupied the hill-country of the +Crimea, and were in all probability the people who formed the numberless +dwellings and towns cut in the solid rock, which are found in many parts +of the country. The chalk or green-sandstone formation, easily wrought, +homogeneous, with few fissures, and horizontal beds, was peculiarly +adapted for this purpose; and wherever it crops out of the soil, there +are sure to be found these subterranean dwellings. + +These crypts are the most curious remains of antiquity in the Crimea, +and abound chiefly in the south-western parts, forming perhaps the only +relics of its most ancient inhabitants. Not that the use of crypts was +confined solely to the most ancient times, for many Christian churches +are found in them, and they must therefore have been inhabited at least +down to the fourth or fifth centuries of the Christian era, when the +inhabitants of the Crimea were converted to Christianity. Although there +are few countries of the world in which they exist in such great numbers +as in a portion of the Crimea, still this habit of living in subterranean +dwellings was very common among ancient nations, and instances of it are +familiar to all. The crypts are the only relics of those ages in the +infancy of the world, when, according to mythic legends, men dwelt in +caverns and were nourished on acorns. + +A large portion of the populations of Asia, when they became fixed, began +by burrowing out holes for themselves in the rocks. Caverns were then +used as their temples and their sepulchres. + +The rock temples scattered over various parts of India are some of them +imperishable monuments of times on which history is silent. + +Persia has its crypt tombs and cities, that have called forth the +admiration of all travellers. Egypt, Nubia, and Abyssinia began by +crypts, and the rock temples, palaces, and immense necropoleis (which +were at first towns for the living) attest the art and industry of one of +the most remarkable of ancient nations. The traditions of Greece point +back to a time when caverns were common dwellings. In Sicily the rocks +are pierced with crypt towns of very ingenious workmanship. In Magna +Græcia and Etruria crypt tombs are common, and the labyrinth of Crete was +the theatre of some of the earliest Greek myths. In Asia Minor, and even +in Thrace, the same sort of works may be found. + +Notices of them are also frequent in the Bible. The Kaphtorians or +Phœnicians came from the southern coasts of the Red Sea, and disembarked +at its northern extremity under Edom, who gave his name to the country, +so that it is no wonder that we find the Idumæans or Edomites dwelling +in caves down to a late period. The antique towns in the valley of the +Jordan and the Dead Sea are crypt towns, like those of the Crimea, but +executed by a people in a higher state of civilization. The Edomites or +Phœnicians played a great part, before the arrival of the Hebrews in +Egypt, and their commerce embraced the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. +They extended their mercantile relations as far as Sidon and Tyre, and +carried at the same time to the foot of Mount Lebanon their custom of +excavation. The northern valley of the Jordan, the Ard el Hule, is +pierced with crypt towns, of which the most remarkable are Hatsor and +Bostra. Their inhabitants were proud of their dwellings in the rocks, +which they regarded as impregnable, which made the prophet Jeremiah +exclaim, ch. xlix. v. 16, “Thy terribleness hath deceived thee, and the +pride of thine heart, O thou that dwellest in the clefts of the rock, +that boldest the heights of the hill, though thou shouldest make thy nest +as high as the hill, I will bring thee down, saith the Lord.” Every +reader is familiar with the caves of Makeda, Adullam, and Engeddi, in +the patriarchal history, and Jerusalem itself was surrounded with crypt +tombs. In the country of Tubal, the modern Georgia, the ancestors of that +ancient and chivalrous people dwelt in subterranean dwellings, such as +are now to be seen at Ouphlitsikhé and Armasi. In Armenia, which enjoys +the high privilege of having been the first Christian nation, and of +having suffered more than any other for its faith, the art of the crypt +has always been in great favour, and innumerable specimens are to be seen +at Hrachegapert, and at the monasteries of Airivauk, Kieghart, and other +places.[146] + +On the banks of the Upper Kour, in Imeritia, a country adjoining on +Georgia, there are many places, such as Vardsic and others, where these +dwellings are to be found, and the termination “kvabi,” or cavern, in the +names of places always indicates their existence. + +In Mingrelia, the ancient Colchis, there are an infinity of grottoes on +the banks of the Upper Phasis (modern Krivila), and one whole district, +Semokvákana (the high dwellings), takes its name from them. + +Lastly, in the centre of the Caucasus, in the valley of the Kouir, and +near Kislavodsk and other places, are to be found the dwellings of the +Troglodytes of Strabo. + +Thus it appears how largely the crypt enters into the early history of +mankind, and how much of human labour has been expended upon a species of +dwelling which is so widely spread over the Crimea.[147] + +Even among the modern Tatars in that country their habitations are seldom +wholly detached from the rocks. They generally choose some shady sloping +place for their villages, and supporting two sides of their houses by +walls of brick or mud, with a little verandah in front, they let the +other parts rest either in a niche cut in the earth, or against the +side of a precipice. In Georgia it is often dangerous riding from the +subterranean villages formed in the sloping sides of hills, the flat +roofs of which look just like the common earth, and a person unused to +the country might easily sink into the midst of an astonished family, +did not the wreath of smoke generally prove a warning of the treacherous +nature of the soil. + +Returning from this digression to the history of the Tauri, I will only +further remark that, from a similarity of manners, and other causes, they +are considered to belong to the Tchud or Finnish race of nations, and +thus to be related to the Lesghins and Tchetchens of the Caucasus, and +the famous Finnish pirates who infested the shores of the Baltic down to +the tenth and eleventh centuries. + +The resemblance of the Virgin goddess of the Greeks and the cruel +divinity of the Tauri, perhaps may arise from the fact of the Greek +nation itself being composed of the two elements of an Indo-Germanic +graft upon a primitive Finnish stock. When the Indo-Germanic wave of +population rolled towards the West it drove the earlier races before it, +or forced them aside into the mountains as the only secure resting-place. +Thus the mountain chain of the Crimea played on a small scale the part +of the Caucasus, and served as a refuge for the remnant of the Finns +against the Indo-Germanic races who surrounded them, of which the most +ancient known to us were the Kimmerians. The word Tauri probably means +mountaineers.[148] + +In B.C. 600 the Scythians, who were also a nation of Finnish origin, +invaded the Crimea, and mixing with the Tauri formed the nation of the +Tauro-Scythians, whose principal seat was in the valleys to the north of +the Tauric chain. + +A short time before the Scythian invasion, about B.C. 650, the Greeks, +who, as I have said, had been before connected with these countries, +began to plant colonies about which we have definite historical +information. The Milesians first established themselves on the peninsula +of Kertch, an open country of easy cultivation. Their agricultural +prosperity was quickly known in Greece, and new and important emigrations +took place. Theodosia, Nymphæum, Panticapæum, and Myrmékium quickly +raised their heads on the shores of the little peninsula, and served as +ports for the rich establishments of the colonists.[149] + +Stimulated by the success of the Milesians, the Heracleans endeavoured +on their side to found some colonies in the Crimea. They turned to +the western part of the peninsula, and disembarked not far from the +celebrated Cape Partheniké, and, having beaten and driven back into the +mountains the savage Tauri, they fixed themselves in the Heracleotic +Chersonese. Thus was founded the celebrated republic of Kherson, which, +conquered for a moment by a Grand Duke of Russia in the tenth century, as +has been related, became the point of departure of that great religious +revolution which completely changed the character and destinies of the +Russian Empire. + +While the Heracleans were consolidating their power by their manufactures +and commerce, the Milesian establishments on the Bosphorus were rising +with extraordinary rapidity, and spread to the Asiatic side, where the +towns of Phanagoria, Hermonássa, and Cépos were founded. At first, +independent one of the other, all these different Milesian colonies +were influenced by an inevitable chain of events, and, 480 B.C., their +political union gave rise to the kingdom of the Bosphorus. As has been +said, agriculture was the essential basis of the public wealth of the +Milesians, and the attention of the new government was directed specially +to this branch of employment. + +As soon as Leucon ascended the throne he released the Athenians from +the thirtieth, which they had hitherto paid as an export duty on grain. +By this liberal measure the exportation of it increased enormously, and +the Cimmerian or Panticapæan peninsula became the granary of Greece, and +merchants flocked for grain to Theodosia and Panticapæum, where they also +bought woollen cloths, furs, and the salted fish which still forms one +of the staples of Southern Russia. The imports are little spoken of in +history, but it is evident from the late excavations at Kertch that they +must have consisted of articles of luxury. + +The Bosphorians, then, no doubt received in return for their productions +all the manufactured articles which luxury and riches had introduced into +usage at Athens, and it is probably to the artists of Greece that are due +the magnificent works of art which are admired in the Museums of Kertch +and Petersburg, which prove that the agricultural colonists of the Crimea +were not behind their kinsmen of the brilliant metropolis of Athens in +their love for the arts and the refinements of civilised life. Materials +for building must also have formed an important part of the imports. +There is no trace of white marble in the Crimea, nor on the northern +shores of the Black Sea, although immense quantities of it are found in +the excavations at Kertch, and there is every reason to believe that the +enormous pieces of sculpture which were employed there in the public and +private buildings were brought ready worked from the quarries of Greece. +Notwithstanding the dangerous neighbourhood of the Sarmatians, the +kingdom of the Bosphorus enjoyed perfect tranquillity for more than three +hundred years, and, thanks to a policy as firm as it was intelligent, it +increased in riches and prosperity up to the moment when the conquest of +Greece by the Romans upset all the commercial relations of the East. + +At this epoch the Bosphorians attacked by the Scythians, and too feeble +to resist them, threw themselves into the arms of Mithridates, who made +their state a province of Pontus, and gave it as an appanage to his son +Macharés. + +After the defeat and death of her implacable enemy, Rome preserved to +the traitor Pharnáces the crown of the Bosphorus; but the sovereignty +of the new prince was only nominal, and the successors of the son of +Mithridates, without power, and despoiled of their possessions on the +Asiatic side of the Bosphorus, depended on the caprice of the Roman +emperors. + +In the sixty-second year of our era the Alans ravaged the country, and +attacked the Tauri even in their mountains. They devastated the country, +and utterly destroyed Theodosia, which offered them some resistance. +They continued masters of the country, without changing their vagabond +life, till they were conquered by the Goths in the middle of the second +century.[150] The Goths, although they have undeservedly gained a bad +reputation in Europe, were the only people who brought the germs of +peace and civilization to this much-disputed peninsula; and they kept +possession of it longer than any other people, for the remnant of them, +and its name of Gothia, remained to it more than a thousand years—till +nearly the end of the sixteenth century. They mixed intimately with the +vanquished people, founded many colonies in the vast plains situated +to the north of the mountains, and quickly gave themselves up to their +taste for a sedentary and agricultural life. Then there began for the +Crimea a new period of tranquillity, which might also have been one of +agricultural prosperity; but, unfortunately, Greece, conquered by the +Romans, was at this period rapidly falling, and Rome, become the capital +of the world, was supplied with grain by Egypt, Sicily, and Africa. The +Crimea, notwithstanding its efforts, could not rise from the obscurity to +which it was condemned by the great political events which signalized the +first century of the Christian era. In the midst of the first invasions +of the barbarians, the little republic of Kherson, protected by its +remote and inaccessible situation, preserved its independence. In the +reign of the Emperor Diocletian, the Khersonites, who possessed nearly +all the high country, had centered in themselves the commerce which +existed between the Crimea and some parts of the shores of the Black Sea, +and their republic was the most powerful state in the Crimea, until a war +broke out between them and the Sarmatians, who had seized the kingdom +of the Bosphorus, in which they were defeated. The struggle between +the rival nations at the Bosphorus lasted nearly a century, until the +Sarmatians were driven out, and the Bosphorians again enjoyed some years +of liberty and internal prosperity. + +This peace, however, was of short duration, and like a calm before +a terrible tempest. After a few years, the Huns poured down from +the interior of Asia, and at first occupied the Asiatic side of the +Bosphorus; then, crossing the Sea of Azof, they annihilated for ever the +ancient kingdom of the Milesians, A.D. 375. The numerous colonies of the +Goths, united with the Alans, were overcome, and all their agricultural +establishments were reduced to ruins. Protected by their western +position, the Khersonians alone escaped. + +Fortunately for the Goths of the Crimea, the Huns only passed through +the country, for they were attracted to the banks of the Dniestr and the +Danube by the great events which were there taking place, after the death +of Ermanrich the Ostrogoth, which had just removed the only obstacle +to their progress. The Goths of the Crimea, who had yielded to the +torrent and retired to the mountains, again spread themselves over the +country. After the death of Attila the Huns again appeared, and this time +Kherson was threatened, and implored the assistance of the Greek emperor. +Justinian hastened to accede to their demand, and, being also friendly to +the Goths, built long walls to protect their country against the nomades +of the Steppes, and two fortresses, Aloushton and Gorzubita (Alouchta +and Oursouf), on the southern coast of the Crimea. He built no towns or +fortresses to the north of the mountains, because the Goths did not like +to be shut up within walls, but to live freely in the open country. + +They had at this time the reputation of being excellent warriors, +laborious husbandmen, and the most hospitable of mankind towards +strangers. They then occupied both sides of the Cimmerian Bosphorus, +and, becoming converts to Christianity, they sent four deputies to +Constantinople to ask the emperor to send them a bishop in the place of +their autistes, who had died.[151] + +Near the end of the seventh century, A.D. 679, the Crimea was invaded by +the Khazars, whose hordes at first accompanied the Huns, and afterwards +established themselves in Lithuania (Bersilia), and constituted a +kingdom independent even of Attila. The apparition of these new +conquerors, already masters of a vast territory, made such a sensation at +Constantinople, that the sovereigns of the East sought their alliance, +and the court of Byzantium even asked in marriage the daughter of the +Khakan, as the chief of the nation was called, for the son of the Emperor +Leo. + +The forebodings of the imperial government about the Khazars were quickly +realized, and in the short space of 150 years, this people, who had given +their name to the peninsula of the Crimea, founded a vast monarchy, the +limits of which reached in Europe to the Danube, and in Asia to the foot +of the Caucasus, while even the Caspian was known in the middle ages as +the Sea of the Khazars. + +After the Khazars, whose fall was in part hastened by the attacks of +the Russians, and who then disappeared completely from history, the +Petchenegues, or Patzinates, their conquerors, who are constantly +mentioned in the annals of Constantinople and the early Russian history, +succeeded to their dominions, with the exception of Kherson, which was +incorporated in the empire of Constantinople. Under the rule of this +people, who also came from Asia, the commerce and manufactures of the +Crimea revived,—its relations with Constantinople increased, and its +ports furnished to the merchants of the Greeks, purple, fine stuffs, +embroidered cloths, ermines, and leopard skins, furs of all kinds, pepper +and fine spices, which the Petchenegues bought on the south of the Kuban, +and in the Trans-Caucasian countries, which extend as far as the Cyrus +and the Araxes. Thus recommenced for this unhappy country, which had +been so often devastated, the new era of a prosperity, which it had not +enjoyed for several centuries. The empire of the Petchenegues lasted +for about 150 years, and then they had to deplore similar calamities to +those which they had inflicted on the Khazars. Attacked by the Comans, +whom the extension of the Mongol power in Asia had expelled from their +territory, they were vanquished in the struggle which ensued, and forced +to retire into Asia. The Comans, a warlike people, took possession of +the Crimea, and made Soldaya (Soudak) their capital. They had, however, +hardly consolidated their power, when they were obliged to yield to other +conquerors, and seek a refuge in more western countries. + +With the expulsion of the Comans ceased all those temporary invasions, +which for ten centuries desolated the Crimea. To all these different +hordes, of whom the greater number have left no trace but their name, +there succeeded two remarkable nations. One of these, the conqueror of +Asia, was just founding the most gigantic empire of the middle ages; and +the other, issuing from a merchant city of Italy, was destined to make +Khazaria the centre and the point of junction of the commercial relations +between Europe and Asia. In 1226 took place the memorable invasion of +the Mongol Tatars, a notice of which has been already given, and from +that moment the establishment of peace and security was sufficient to +develope the great natural resources which this celebrated country +possessed. Soldaya, taken from the Comans by the Tatars, and given back +to the Christians, quickly became the most important port on the Black +Sea, and a principal station in the commercial route between Europe and +Asia. Soldaya, however, had but a short duration, and another people, as +intelligent, and active as the Greeks, and endowed with a still bolder +mercantile instinct, was, at this epoch, destined to enjoy a greater +commercial grandeur than any since the time when the Milesians founded +their first colonies on the Cimmerian Bosphorus. Already masters of the +important factories at Constantinople, the Genoese had long been able +to appreciate the position of the Black Sea, and the immense resources +which it placed at the disposition of enterprising men, who might there +centralize the relations of Europe with Russia, Persia and the Indies. + +The rivality which then existed between them and the Venetians +accelerated the execution of their projects, and in 1280, after having +acquired, partly by stratagem and partly by force, the territory +of ancient Theodosia, they laid the foundation of the celebrated +Kaffa, which secured to the republic the empire of the Black Sea and +the exclusive command of its commerce. With the Genoese, the Crimea +saw revived one of the most brilliant epochs of its history. Kaffa, +by its size, its population, and its opulence, became the rival of +Constantinople, and soon its consuls of Cerco (Kertch), Soldaya +(Soudak), and Cembalo (Balaclava), rendered themselves masters of all +the southern coast of the Crimea. At a later period, they gained, beyond +the peninsula, other conquests, not less important. The galleys of the +republic penetrated into the Sea of Azof, and Tana, situated at the +mouth of the Don, was taken from the Tatars; a fortress was erected at +the mouth of the Dniestr, in Modern Bessarabia, and numerous factories +rose in Colchis and the shore of the Caucasus, while the imperial town +of Trebizonde itself was obliged to allow the establishment there of one +of the largest factories of the republic in the Black Sea. The Genoese +colonies thus became a general entrepôt for the rich productions of +Russia, Asia Minor, Persia, and the Indies, and during more than two +centuries monopolising to their profit all mercantile exchanges between +Europe and Asia, they presented a wonderful spectacle of prosperity and +riches. The term of all this glory at last arrived. In 1453 the standard +of Mahomet was displayed on the dome of St. Sophia, and the relations +of the Crimea with the Mediterranean were broken. The destruction of +the Genoese establishments became inevitable, and the republic itself, +despairing of preserving, decided upon abandoning them to the bank of St. +George on the 15th November, 1453. This cession, by politically detaching +the colonies from the metropolis, naturally led to fatal results. A +general discouragement took place in the colonies, each man thought only +of himself, and the consular government, formerly so remarkable for its +integrity and virtue, instead of making friends of the Tatars to defend +them from the Porte, completely alienated them by their want of good +faith, and by selling their assistance for gold to the various parties +who at that time were desolating the Crimea. So many faults were followed +by a fatal catastrophe. On the 6th of June, 1473, Kaffa was obliged to +surrender at discretion to the Turks, and some months later, all the +points occupied by the Genoese fell successively into the power of the +Ottomans. After the disaster of the Genoese colonies, the great lines +of communication with the Trans-Caucasian countries, the shores of the +Caspian Sea, and those down the Volga, the Don, and the Kuban, deprived +of their support, were broken up, and all commercial relations with +Central Asia were momentarily suspended. The Venetians, who had obtained +from the Turks the right of navigating the Black Sea, on the condition +of paying 10,000 ducats a-year, endeavoured without success to take the +place of their rivals. They were in their turn expelled, the passage +of the Bosphorus was interdicted to the nations of the West, and the +Ottomans, with the Greeks of the Archipelago, subjects of the Porte, +had alone the right of navigating the Black Sea and the Sea of Azof. +The commerce of the East then found for itself new débouchés by way of +Smyrna, and the discovery of Vasco de Gama produced a complete revolution +in the trade. + +A slight sketch of the Crimea when it formed the seat of government +of the khans of Little Tatary has already been given, and during all +that period the Black Sea was unfrequented by the European nations. The +English, however, always had the nominal right of navigating it; there +are some vestiges of our having had a footing there in the days of +Queen Elizabeth or James I., and when we ceased to frequent it is not +ascertained. In the treaty made in 1675 between England and Turkey by Sir +John Finch, there is an express article giving a general permission of +ingress and egress into the Black Sea, “to enable English merchants and +all under their banner to go by the way of the Tanais into Moscovia, and +also to and from Persia, and to traffic by land and by sea through all +their confines.” There is even a provision for the protection of English +vessels should they be forced by stress of weather into Kaffa.[152] + +This permission, however, remained a dead letter until the beginning of +the present century, when our right to navigate the Black Sea having been +claimed afresh and allowed, an active trade sprung up, which has been +yearly increasing in importance. + +It might naturally be expected, after so many different nations had +occupied the Crimea, that its population would be of a very mixed +character, and such indeed is the case. It is not, however, in the +plains, which are inhabited chiefly by Nogai Tatars of late date, nor in +any of the towns, that the remnants of the ancient inhabitants of the +country are to be sought. The mountains are in every country the refuge +of the oppressed, and it is in the mountains of the Crimea, among the +so-called Tatars, who are, however, a very different race from those of +the plains, that a people is to be found of very mixed origin. + + + + +CHAPTER XII. + +BALACLAVA AND VALLEY OF BAIDAR. + + Balaclava—Karl Ritter’s views of the importance of + the Black Sea in very early times—Homer’s account of + Balaclava—The Cembalo of the Genoese—Tatar occupation + of it—Arnaouts—Tchorgouna—Mackenzie’s Farm—Valley of + Baidar—Manners of the Tatars—Woronzof road. + + +Balaclava is now a busy scene; the little bay is crowded with transports; +thousands of our countrymen disembark here to exercise their perilous +profession, and as many re-embark, poor wounded soldiers, shattered in +constitution, or with the loss of limbs, but henceforth immortal heroes, +whose deeds will be the theme of the historian and the poet, whose future +welfare will be a subject of anxious solicitude to their country, and who +henceforth, however humble their rank, in whatever country they visit, +will be marked men; marked for honour, and distinction, and respect, from +all who admire chivalrous boldness, and that still rarer quality, calm +unimpassioned endurance. Sevastopol is the grandest theatre of events +that has yet been seen. The audience, so to speak, is the largest, and, +for the first time, really comprehends the whole world. Even the wars +of Napoleon were a subject of little interest in China, or Australia, +or California; but each swaying to and fro of the mighty combatants at +Sevastopol interests literally the whole globe, and that interest is +doubled by the speed with which the news is carried, and the increased +knowledge which all nations now possess of each other. + +When I visited Balaclava before the present war, nothing could be more +quiet than this little port, and a few Greeks sauntering about, or +exercising their peddling occupations in the village bazar, were the only +persons to be met with. Yet even then, like most out-of-the-way places +in the world, there were some representatives of the British nation to +be found, and I was asked to go and visit a crew of shipwrecked English +sailors in the lazaretto, who had been saved with difficulty on the rocks +at the entrance of the harbour. The ship had struck; the poor fellows +were thrown on a ledge of the cliffs, where they remained for nearly a +day and a night before they could be rescued; yet when they were brought +in at last, exhausted, and at death’s door, nothing could induce them +to touch the hot brandy that was brought them, lest they should break +their pledge as teetotalers. It was impossible not to admire in them that +British firmness of purpose, which was the same quality which showed +itself in the defence of Inkerman, however mistaken in this application +of it. + +Balaclava is the only bay on the southern coast resembling those about +Sevastopol, where the land rises suddenly on each side, and the water +is so deep that the largest ships may anchor close to the shore. On +approaching it from the East, the geological formation is seen at once +to change in its vicinity; the summits of the rocks are still, like the +rest of the Tauric chain, calcareous; but they have been changed by +violent action into red, blue, and grey marbles, below which reappears +the coarse red pudding-stone of the Tchatyr-Dagh mountain, while a great +rent, which opens on the sea, and was called the Valley of the Devil +(Shaitan Déréh), shows a black or yellowish schist. I will here quote the +words in which Dubois describes his arrival on this singular spot: “Each +step,” he says, “in approaching Balaclava is an enigma to me, such an +inconceivable disorder reigns among these masses of pudding-stone with +enormous pebbles, which alternate with layers of marble and sandstone; +and the marble finishes this strange series, which seems like a world +turned topsy-turvy. When arrived at the top of the sterile mountain that +overhangs Balaclava, I cry out with astonishment, What are these white +antique towers perched on the top of rocks descending so rapidly to +the water? What is this brilliant lake shut in by the steep mountains? +And that red promontory reflected in the waves of the sea? Can this +be Balaclava? Nothing but ruins are visible, where then is the town? +Contemplating with admiration this romantic scene, I descended the +mountain, looking continually for the town, of which I saw no vestige. My +guide at last directed me suddenly to the left, and like magic, I found +myself in Balaclava, which, placed on the narrow strip of land between +the mountain with the ruins and the tranquil bay, is not seen till it is +entered.”[153] + +Like many other places in the Crimea, Balaclava has a very ancient +history. Our first notice of it is in the dim twilight of archaic times. +We have the high authority of Karl Ritter for supposing that it is +the port of the Læstrigons mentioned in the Odyssey; and the extreme +accuracy of Homer’s description of it, as will be presently more fully +shown, seems to make Ritter’s supposition extremely probable. But before +entering into the particular identification of Balaclava, I will shortly +state what Ritter’s views are as to the part which the shores of the +Black Sea played in very early times.[154] He has undertaken to prove, +from the most ancient monuments which are offered to us by ancient +geography, archæology, mythology, architecture, and religious systems, +that colonies of Indian priests, having departed with the ancient worship +of Buddha from the centre of Asia, came directly or indirectly, before +the historic times of Greece, to establish themselves on the banks of +the Phasis, around the Euxine Sea, in Thrace, on the Ister, and in many +countries of Western Europe, and even in Greece; that these colonies +exercised a remarkable religious influence, and that these facts are +proved, not only from the relations of the Asiatics, but principally +from the study of the most ancient fragments of the historians of +Greece and Asia Minor. We in Europe, receiving our lights from Greece, +are habituated to adopt all the illusions of the national pride of the +Greeks; and, according to them, Greece was the focus of all light, whence +science, and civilization, and religion had their origin. But in looking +back to their myths, in reading Homer, and the history of the Argonauts, +and of Phrixus and Helle, and others, it would seem that the Greeks were +always civilized by those whom they called barbarians. The king and +the people who received the Argonauts, the Tyrians, the Trojans, were +all superior in civilization to the armies of adventurers, who, like +the Normans of the middle ages, came to plunder them, in violating the +laws of hospitality. All the ancient poets and historians seem to have +chosen the Black Sea for the theatre of the exploits of their heroes. +All their relations look towards it as the point whence civilization and +wealth proceeded. Up to our days the wanderings of Ulysses, in the 10th, +11th, and 12th Books of the Odyssey, were supposed to be on the shores +of Italy and Sicily. There were sought the Læstrigons, the Cyclops, and +Scylla and Charybdis; but this is certainly wrong, and the poet wished +to make Ulysses wander on that inhospitable shore, which appeared to him +at the extremity of the world. The moment that Ulysses reaches the coast +of the Læstrigons, we must recognize ourselves as on the shores of the +Black Sea. Their country can be no other than the barbarous Crimea, and +he evidently called the Tauri the Læstrigons, from the Greek “lêstês,” +meaning pirate or brigand. + +After leaving them, Ulysses was driven on a low coast, the island of +Æa, where the enchantress Circe reigned, the sister of Æetes. This was +evidently Colchis or Mingrelia, which may be easily recognised by the +broad river (the modern Rion) which received the fleet of Ulysses, the +vast forests which covered its banks, and the palace hidden in the trees, +which exactly represents the Nikolakévi of our days. The wine there is as +tempting as ever, the honey as fresh, and the women still pass their time +in embroidery as in the time of Homer. From the beauty of the country and +its inhabitants it is still the land of enchantment. + +That there may be no mistake about the position of Æa, here the poet +places the palace of Aurora in which take place the songs and dances of +the Hours, and where the sun renews its birth. After leaving Colchis +Circe sends Ulysses to consult the oracle of the infernal gods, and when +the hero has crossed the empire of Neptune, which he thinks the end of +the world, he finds a coast of easy access, shaded with high poplars and +sterile willows, where are the habitations of the Cimmerians covered with +thick clouds and black obscurity. + +The Cimmerians, we know from later authors, lived at Kertch and in the +island of Taman, at the extremity of the Black Sea, which to Ulysses +appeared the end of the kingdom of Neptune. There he is described as +finding one of the entrances to the infernal regions, and there to this +moment exist the springs of black and burning naphtha, which roll their +stinking waters like the Cocytus and the Acheron; and there also are the +mud volcanoes, belching forth a mixture of fire and water, which have +altered the form of all the country round. + +Then Ulysses returns to Circe, and starts for Ithaca, and leaves the +Black Sea by passing through Scylla and Charybdis, which closed the +entrance with their rocks surrounded by whirlpools. These are the +islands of the “blue Symplegades,” familiar to all who have passed from +Constantinople to the Crimea, standing at the entrance of the Bosphorus; +and Homer cannot mean the straits of Messina, because he says that the +only ship which had passed these straits was the Argo, when it went to +Colchis on the expedition for the golden fleece. + +Thus it seems almost beyond a doubt that the shores of the Black Sea were +the mysterious regions where some of the scenes of Homer were laid, and +in parts of which in the very earliest times, as in Colchis, were settled +highly civilized communities. Let us now observe Homer’s description of +Balaclava, as Pope has translated it:— + + “Within a long recess a bay there lies + Edged round with cliffs, high pointing to the skies. + The jutting shores, that swell on either side, + Contract its mouth, and break the rushing tide. + Our eager sailors seize the fair retreat, + And bound within the port their crowded fleet; + For here retired the sinking billows sleep, + And smiling calmness silvered o’er the deep. + I only in the bay refused to moor, + And fixed without my hawsers to the shore: + From thence we climbed a point, whose airy brow + Commands the prospect of the plains below; + No tracks of beasts, or signs of men, we found, + But smoky volumes rolling from the ground.” + + _Od._, b. 10, v. 101. + +It is impossible to give a truer or clearer picture of Balaclava than +that which was thus drawn by old Homer nearly three thousand years ago. +The two high rocks which advance into the bosom of the waves, and seem +approaching to embrace one another, are there, and only leave a narrow +passage turned towards the south, which barely allows two vessels to +cross one another. Its width is eight hundred feet and its greatest depth +one hundred fathoms, and the water of the bay looks very black. When the +narrow passage is passed, the port enlarges to a width of twelve hundred +feet, and its depth goes on diminishing from ninety to six fathoms, its +entire length being nearly a mile. + +This bay is a phenomenon in geology, deeply encased as it is at its +entrance in rocks of calcareous marble and pudding-stone, and finishing +in a black schist, which opens on a basin of chalk. + +Wherever Ulysses landed, whether on the right hand or the left, terrible +rocks border the shore; and after scaling them, he could only see, as we +do now, an unfruitful rocky soil, with no plants but a few juniper trees, +and no trace of the labour, either of men or oxen. The smoke could alone +show him the town of the Læstrigons hidden in the rocks. + +Homer then continues:— + + “Two with our herald thither we command + With speed to learn what men possessed the land. + They went, and kept the wheels’ smooth beaten road, + Which to the city drew the mountain wood. + When, lo! they met beside a crystal spring + The daughter of Antiphates the king; + She to Artacia’s silver streams came down + (Artacia’s streams alone supply the town): + The damsel they approach, and ask what race + The people were? Who monarch of the place? + With joy the maid the unwary strangers heard, + And showed them where the royal dome appeared. + They went, but as they entering saw the queen, + Of size enormous, and terrific mien, + Not yielding to some bulky mountain’s height, + A sudden horror struck their aching sight. + Swift at her call her husband scoured away, + To wreak his hunger on the destined prey. + One for his food the raging glutton slew, + But two rushed out, and to the navy flew. + Balked of his prey, the yelling monster flies + And fills the city with his hideous cries: + A ghastly band of giants hear the roar, + And pouring down the mountains crowd the shore. + Fragments they rend from off the craggy brow + And dash the ruins on the ships below! + The crackling vessels burst; hoarse groans arise, + And mingled horrors echo to the skies: + The men like fish they stuck upon the flood, + And crammed their filthy throats with human blood!” + +The herald and the two companions whom Ulysses sent, whether they went +to the right or the left, must have come out on the chalky valley of +Balaclava, where the people, as is done to this day, export the spoils +of the forests on the neighbouring mountains, while the environs of +Balaclava are quite naked. By following this road they arrived at the +extremity of the port, where is still the only spring of water, or, as +it was then called, the fountain of the nymph Artacia, which was free +to all the citizens. The younger daughter of Antiphates, the King of +the Læstrigons, showed them the lofty gates of a palace which touched +heaven, which stood no doubt where now are the ruins of the fortress of +Balaclava. This was the palace of her father, which had been built by +Lamus, an ancient King of the Læstrigons. + +The savage Antiphates, faithful to the character which the ancients +always attributed to the Tauri, seized one of the ambassadors to devour +him, while the other two fled away. Meanwhile the alarm had been given in +the town; the people had seen the fleet of Ulysses enter, and they rushed +to it from all parts. + +Balaclava was called the port of Symbols by the Greeks, and this name +was corrupted into Cembalo by the Genoese, and the place was taken by +them from the Greek dukes of the Crimea in 1365, and they then built the +fortress which now exists, and by their enterprise greatly increased the +commerce of the port. In 1433, the Greeks, who had remained at Cembalo, +having conspired, drove out the Genoese, and replaced the town and castle +in the hands of a noble Greek, called Alexis, the lord of Theodori +(Inkerman). He was driven out in the following year by Charles Somellin, +who was sent from Genoa with a fleet of twenty vessels, further augmented +in passing through the Greek islands, so that he arrived with 6000 men. + +In 1475 Balaclava experienced the fate of Soudak, and was taken by the +Turks, who gave it up uninjured to the Tatars, by whom it was held for +several centuries, till they were driven out by its present inhabitants, +the Arnaout Greeks, in 1780. + +When Catherine II. took the Crimea, the Tatars were still a powerful +people, with a strong nationality. The object of Catherine was to +break this up, and to prepare the country for the future habitation +of the great Slave people. She, therefore, encouraged as many of the +inhabitants of the Crimea, as she could influence, to emigrate, and +appealing to the religious sentiments of the Greeks, and their hereditary +hatred of the Turks, she called in Greek soldiers to assist her in +expelling the Tatars that were refractory. + +A regiment of Albanians was raised, chiefly from the Greeks who had +been in the Russian service in the Archipelago, and they were first +called Arnaouts at Balaclava. The Tatars having emigrated, or been +dispersed, this town, together with the surrounding country, extending +to the banks of the Bouiouk Ouzéne, including the villages of Kadikói, +Karáni, Kámara, and Alsou (after removing the rest of the Tatar families +to other places), was given to the Albanians as a settlement.[155] A +few years before the breaking out of the present war they numbered 600 +fighting men, and each colonist was liable to be called out for four +months of active service, and had the other eight at his disposal for the +cultivation of his lands. Each soldier had twenty-eight roubles yearly +pay (about 4_l._ 10_s._), and found his own equipment. + +The town of Balaclava has probably received its modern name from the +strong Greek castle of Pallakium,[156] which stood here, although some +suppose it to have been taken from “Bella clava,” or “the beautiful +port,” a derivation which every traveller would willingly concede as +probable. It is mentioned by one Italian traveller of the seventeenth +century under the name of Baluchlacca, and at that time it was inhabited +by Turks, Greeks, and Armenians. “Its unrivalled beauty and security,” he +says, “tempted him to stay there several days, and at that time its fine +Genoese fortifications were entire.”[157] This old fortress, like all the +strong places of the Genoese and Greeks in the peninsula, is erected on +inaccessible rocks, close to the mouth of the harbour, on the adjoining +eastern hill, and is fortified with high walls and towers. + +When Clarke visited this magnificent fortress, the arms of Genoa were +still upon the walls. “The mountain on the north-east side,” he says, +“is covered with its mouldering towers, and the rock itself has been +excavated, so as to exhibit stately magazines and chambers, the sides of +which were lined with coloured stucco. It is surprising,” he continues, +“that the inhabitants of Balaclava do not use these caves, for they are +very habitable, and the stucco is still in the highest preservation. We +entered one, which was a spacious oblong chamber, lined throughout with +stucco, and somewhat resembling the famous _piscina mirabile_, near the +supposed villa of Lucullus at Baiæ. We could form no conjecture for what +purpose this place was intended, except as a granary or storeroom; it +bore no marks of any aqueous deposit on its sides, and was at the same +time dry, and in perfect preservation; it could not, therefore, have +served as a reservoir for water.”[158] Might not some use be made of +these dry caves for the stores of our army, if they be not situated at +too high an elevation? + +The port of Balaclava is frequented by fish of passage, especially by +mackerel, by the _mugil cephalus_, in great numbers, and also by the red +mullet, a most delicate fish, whether eaten in a fresh or pickled state, +which is also caught in the lakes of the interior. The mackerels become +as tender and savoury as herrings, after being kept twelve months in +brine.[159] The fishermen, when our army arrived at Balaclava, came with +their nets to Lord Raglan, and offered, if they were allowed protection, +to supply our army with fish, as the season was just commencing, but, +from some mistake, their offer was neglected. + +By the shortest road, Tchorgouna is about four miles from Balaclava, and +occupies a romantic situation, in a gradually contracting valley, through +which the Tchornaya Retchka discharges itself into the bay of Sevastopol. +Here is, or was, a lofty octagonal tower, which dated probably from the +time of the Genoese, and placed half way between Balaclava and Mangoup, +was intended to keep open the communication between them, when Mangoup +was an important fortress. At four miles from Tchorgouna, in a north-east +direction, is the “_Muilnaya gora_,” or Soap-hill of the Russians, which +is literally burrowed with pits for extracting the fuller’s-earth, which +is found under chalky marl, at a depth of about forty feet. The soap-hill +is a gentle elevation, in a broad tract of level country, about six +miles wide, at the foot of the steep mountain called Mackenzie’s Farm. +It received this name, because Admiral Mackenzie, who was commander of +the fleet at Sevastopol, towards the end of the last century, established +a farm on the summit of this mountain, for the erection of which a +considerable portion of the woods was granted to him, but subsequently +repurchased by the Crown for the use of the navy. The Tatar name for the +mountain is Kok-agatch, from the numerous white beech trees which once +covered it. The oak, Christ’s thorn, and cornel-tree also grew here, and +of the latter the long pipes were made, in such request among the Turks. +In spring the ground is covered with large-flowered primroses, bearing +white, and yellow, and pale violet blossoms. Veronicas, euphorbias, +hyacinths, broad pionies, asphodels, and yellow irises, also deck the +ground in spring, and the clematis, wild vine, and wild rose may be found +among the shrubs in the neighbourhood of Inkerman.[160] + +On leaving Balaclava for the southern coast, the traveller regains the +high road, before it enters the celebrated valley of Baidar, which was +much praised by the first travellers who wrote after the occupation of +the Crimea by the Russians, even before its real beauties were fully +known. + +The valley is rather more than ten miles in length and six in breadth; +so beautifully cultivated, that the eye roams over meadows, woods, and +rich corn-fields, enclosed and intersected by green hedges and garden +plantations. The villages are neat, and the inhabitants healthy. It is +protected on every side from the winds that blow with great fury on the +northern slopes of the mountains, and is irrigated by clear streams, +that fall imperceptibly through the fields. The mode of enclosure, and +the manner of cultivation, are like those of our own country, and there +is much to remind the traveller of the vales of Kent and Surrey. The +mountains, as well as the plain, were formerly thick set with oak, wild +pear, crab, and cornelian cherry trees, which shaded the road, and kept +off the scorching rays of the sun, but all these have now disappeared. + +The domestic habits of the Tatars are very simple, and resemble those of +other Oriental nations, except that they have been to a certain degree +modified by contact with the Russians. When a stranger, says Clarke, +arrives at a Tatar house, they conduct him to the apartment destined +for the men, and present him with a bason, water, and a clean napkin, +to wash his hands. They then place before him whatever their dwelling +affords, of curd, cream, honey in the comb, poached eggs, roasted fowls, +and fruit. After the meal is over, the bason and water are brought in +as before, because all the Tatars, like the Turks and other Oriental +nations, eat with their fingers, and use no forks. Then, if in the house +of a rich Tatar, a long pipe is presented, of cherry-wood, which grows +in the mountains, and with amber or ivory. After this, carpets and +cushions are laid for the guests, that they may repose. All the houses +of the Tatars, even the cottages of the poor, are extremely clean, being +often white-washed. The floor is generally of earth, but smooth, firm, +dry, and covered with mats and carpets. The meanest Tatar possesses a +humble dwelling, one for himself and his guest, and the other for his +women. They do not allow their most intimate friends to enter the place +allotted for the female part of the family. With so much cleanliness, it +is surprising to find the itch prevalent. It is also difficult to escape +venomous insects and vermin. The tarantula, the scorpion, cockroach, +lice, bugs, fleas, flies, and ants, are more or less to be met with +everywhere, but, with proper precautions, the traveller need not be much +incommoded by them. + +A favourite beverage of sour milk, mixed with water, the yaourt of the +Turks, is found in request with the Tatars, as among the Laplanders. +They all shave their heads, both young and old, and wear in their houses +a sort of scull-cap, over which, in winter, is placed a kind of helmet +of wool, and in summer a turban. Their legs in winter are swathed in +cloth bandages, like those worn throughout Russia, and their feet are +covered by a kind of sandal. In summer both legs and feet are naked. +Their shirts, like those of Turkey, are wide and loose at the sleeves, +hanging down below the ends of their fingers. If they have occasion to +use their hands, either to eat or work, they cast back the sleeve of the +shirt upon the shoulder, and leave the arm bare. The jacket or waistcoat +is generally of silk or cotton, and the trousers being made very large, +full, and loose, though bound tight below the knee, fall over in thick +folds on the calf of the leg. + +They have no chairs in their houses, and a little short stool, about +three inches high, is used for supporting a tray during their meals. +This stool is often ornamented, either by carved work or inlaid +mother-of-pearl. During the summer months the chief delight of the men +consists in the open air, sleeping at night either beneath the shed +before the door, or under the shade of the fine spreading trees which +they cultivate near their houses. In the principal part of a Tatar +dwelling there is a particular part which bears the name of Sopha. This +is a platform raised twelve inches from the floor, occupying the entire +side of the apartment, not for the purpose of a seat, but as a place for +their household chests, the _dii domestici_, and heaps of carpets, mats, +cushions, and clothes. The same custom may be observed in the tents of +the Kalmucks. + +In some things the Tatars display a taste for finery. Their pillows +are covered with coloured linen, and the napkins for their frequent +ablutions, which hang upon their walls, are embroidered and fringed. + +If one of their guests falls asleep, although but for a few minutes, +and by accident, during the day, they bring him water to wash himself +as soon as they perceive he is awake. In their diet they make great use +of honey, and their mode of keeping and taking bees accords with the +normal simplicity of their lives. From the trunks of young trees, about +six inches in diameter, they form cylinders, by scooping out almost all +except the bark, and then closing their extremities with plaster or mud, +they place them horizontally, piled one upon another, in the gardens for +hives. They often open these cylinders to give their guests fresh honey, +and the bees are detached merely by being held over a piece of burning +paper, without any aid of sulphur. The honey of the Crimea is of a very +superior quality; the bees, as in Greece, feeding on blossoms of the wild +thyme of the mountains, and such flowers as the garden spontaneously +affords. Every Tatar cottage has its garden, in the cultivation of which +the owner finds his principal amusement. Vegetation is so rapid, that, +in two years, vines not only shoot up so as to form a shade before the +doors, but are actually laden with fruit. They delight to have their +houses as it were buried in foliage. These, consisting only of one story, +with low flat roofs, beneath trees which spread numerous branches quite +over them, constitute villages, which, at a distance, are only known by +the tufted grove in which they lie concealed. When the traveller arrives, +not a building is to be seen; it is only after passing between the trees, +and beneath their branches, that he begins to perceive the cottages +overshadowed by an exuberant vegetation of the walnut, the mulberry, the +vine, the fig, the olive, the pomegranate, the peach, the apricot, the +plum, the cherry, and the tall black poplar; all of which, intermingling +their clustering produce, form the most beautiful and fragrant canopies +that can be imagined.[161] + +Through this beautiful valley, now devastated by contending armies, the +high road, called the Woronzof road, leads past the villages of Miskomia +and Arnoutka, to reach the southern coast, and crosses the mountain +barrier, which shuts out the valley from the sea by the pass of Phoros, +which, till the road was made, was only accessible by stone stairs cut in +the rock, perilous alike to man and beast. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII. + +THE SOUTHERN COAST, AS FAR AS ALOUCHTA. + + Pass of Phoros—First view of the Southern Coast—The + climate—Valley of Laspi—Mount Aia, or Cape Saritch—Modern + Laspi—Phoros to Kíkineis—Land slips—Liméne—Singular + appearance of Tatars—Aloupka—Prince Woronzof’s + palace—Gardens—Luxuriant vegetation Craters—Account + of Prince Woronzof—Miskhor—Koureis, seat of Princess + Galitzin—Madame de Krudener and Comtesse La Mothe—Gaspra—Mount + A’ithodor—Imperial Oriánda—Ouchansóu—Yalta—The + mountain pass to Baktchéserai—Marsánda—Cyclopean + remains—Magaratch—Nikita—Botanical gardens—St. + Daniel—Oursouf—Ancient castle of Justinian—Cyclopean + remains—Mount Aioudágh, the ancient Kriumetôpon Prom—Village of + Partheníte—Great and Little Lambat—The Chaos—Numberless ancient + remains—The pass of Mount Castéle—The descent to Alouchta. + + +From the top of the pass of Phoros, over which a good macadamised road +has been made, the traveller enjoys his first glimpse of the celebrated +southern coast of the Crimea. + +The sea lies at his feet at the distance of a mile, and the high +precipitous mountains, which rise in an amphitheatre on his left hand, +recede a short distance from the coast, and leave a narrow margin of +fertile country, with a climate like that of Greece or Italy. The +glittering haze of the blue sea, the balmy air, the lofty mountains, +with clear outline drawn against a cloudless sky, and softened by the +delicate tints of a southern atmosphere, are natural phenomena of which +no description can give an idea, but which once seen enrich the mind +with a new stock of images. To a traveller who like myself had just left +the shores of Greece, this beautiful region seemed like a continuation +of the same scenery. I felt pleasure at the view stretched out before +me, but not that astonishment which many travellers from the north +have expressed. The country from here to Alouchta is, however, quite an +exceptional region, and although I think the coast of Italy about Amalfi, +the south of Sicily, Corfu, or the bay of Corinth, offer spots still +more striking and beautiful, there is nevertheless a great charm in the +wildness and richness of the Crimean coast. + +We cannot be astonished at the Russians themselves being much struck with +it, for after a weary journey over the flat steppes from Petersburg or +Moscow, the total change which it presents to the gloomy and monotonous +aspect of their own country must make it seem to them like a land of +enchantment. The temperament of the Russians also, like that of all the +Slavonic race, is highly poetical, and it is no wonder that they should +be strongly affected by their first glimpse of a southern land—that they +flock to the only spot in their empire (except the Caucasus) where they +can feel the genial warmth and admire the beauties of the Mediterranean +region, or that they covet a larger share of those countries where such +charms can always be enjoyed. + +The climate of the southern coast is completely different from that of +every other part of the Crimea. To the north of the mountains, even as +far as Balaclava and the valley of Baidar, there is always a severe +winter, and the ground, as we too well know, is covered with snow. But +when once the pass of Phoros is crossed, the climate entirely changes. No +snow ever falls on the sea region, but a perpetual spring reigns there. +Thus our poor soldiers, during this lamentable winter, have been within +a few miles of a genial climate, where they would have wanted no warm +clothing and no huts. The call of duty, the necessity of guarding the +trenches and watching Sevastopol, has kept them at a tantalizing distance +from it. It may indeed be a matter of doubt, whether, if our army had +left Sevastopol in November, and then entered into winter quarters on the +southern coast, we should not have been as far advanced towards taking +the place as we now are. Its capture depends upon beating the army in +the field; and if the bivouac on the Chersonese could have been avoided, +we should now have a complete army of veterans, instead of the skeleton +regiments which survive. Unfortunately also the mountains jut out to +the sea between Balaclava and the southern coast, thus preventing any +communication with it, except through the Valley of Baidar. Were this not +the case, perhaps some warm spot might have been occupied, where at least +the sick and convalescent might have regained their health and strength. + +From Phoros there runs an excellent macadamised road all the way along +the coast for forty miles to Alouchta, which was made by Mr. Hunt, an +English gentleman, who came over to superintend the building of the +palace of Prince Woronzof, at Aloupka. On descending from the pass of +Phoros, the road leads to the left, but before we follow it we will visit +one beautiful site to the right, the furthest on the southern coast +before the mountains reach the sea. This secluded nook, being out of the +high road, is seldom visited, although it was a favourite spot in early +Greek times.[162] + +The sheltered little valley of Laspi has been created by an igneous +agency, which has detached Mount Ilia from the principal Tauric chain, +to which it is united by a ridge of schist and sandstone, about six +hundred feet broad. On the top of this ridge arise at intervals about +a dozen enormous aiguilles, forty or fifty feet high, which look as +if, like Stonehenge, they belonged to some gigantic work of man. Here, +however, a close inspection shows them to be natural, as the strata of +the neighbouring mountains are vertical, and these are débris of rocks +of similar formation, that were raised up in this way at the time of the +convulsion which tore away Mount Ilia.[163] All the way from Phoros to +Laspi, the ground, although a labyrinth of trees and verdure, is covered +by vast blocks of porphyry, and in some places there are jets of it +rising to the height of a thousand feet. + +The ancient village of Laspi was on the side of the valley, high up on +the connecting ridge, touching the aiguilles, and its inhabitants thus +enjoyed a magnificent view over the valley and the sea, and far away +along the coast on the other side of the bay, which is terminated by +the promontory of Mount Aia. Just below the village are the ruins of a +church of the early Christian times, surrounded by a cemetery in which +are tombs in the shape of long sarcophagi, with a square tower at the +head, entered by a small door, which is finished above in a triangle. +Over this a cross is sculptured, and some attribute, as a pastoral staff, +or a Tatar hatchet with two edges, a pick-axe, a spur, a plough, or a +table,[164] emblematic of the occupation of those who sleep below. These +tombs belonged to the Greeks, who inhabited many places in this part of +the Crimea;[165] but there are no inscriptions remaining here, except one +of the late date of 1772. Around the church of the cemetery are the ruins +of houses and esplanades, with allées of fruit-trees now become wild, +among which one observer counted not less than five thousand plum-trees. + +The village of Laspi, true to the ancient Greek traditions, according to +which they placed their temples on elevated sites, whence the majesty +of the gods might be recognised from all parts, had on the summit of +Mount Ilia a church which might be recognised from the vast plains of +the sea around it, dedicated to St. Elias, and still a favourite place +of pilgrimage. From the top of the ridge it is easily approached by a +winding path across the mossy turf, on each side of which are the ruins +of houses. The church, now a ruin, occupied the highest point of the +mountain, and near it is a sacred cavern, vaulted with the stone of +Inkerman, of which the church itself was built. A sculptured cross marks +this as a Christian construction, and a warm damp air that escapes from +it is the cause of the superstition attributing to it miraculous powers +for the recovery of health. A sheer precipice is in front, and the view +from it splendid.[166] + +From ancient Laspi the road descends through a fine wooded valley to +modern Laspi, an estate belonging to General Potier,[167] and one of the +most beautiful along the southern coast. It is placed in the centre of +the amphitheatre of mountains, which terminate on each side respectively +in Mount Ilia and Mount Aia; the view all around is delicious, and the +sea advances to the port of Laspi, which is commodious and safe for the +exportation of the timber of the surrounding forests. The valley in +ancient times was thickly peopled, and the ruins of seven villages have +already been discovered. In the month of February there was no frost, +the yellow crocuses were in full flower, and, with the exception of +two rainy days, the weather was constantly beautiful. Mr. Rouvier, the +father-in-law of General Potier, introduced the vine here, and brought +his plants from Malaga.[168] On the summit of Mount Aia there are the +remains of an ancient fortress, and beyond the mountain, between it +and Balaclava, is another little valley, filled with ruins, but now +uninhabited. + +Returning to the high road at Phoros we travel to Kíkineis, over twenty +versts of a road comparatively uninteresting, since it is bounded on +the side of the mountains by a regular precipice of Jurassic limestone, +from five hundred to eight hundred feet high, which, having as an +understratum a crumbling schist, is continually falling down in huge +masses, which sometimes bury whole villages.[169] Pallas observes that +the Tatar mountaineers of the three villages of Kíkineis, Liméne, and +Simëis, have a strange physiognomy, different from that of all the +other inhabitants of Crim Tatary. Faces of uncommon length, as well as +arched noses exceedingly long, and a high head compressed with a view +to render them unusually flat, all contribute to produce diversified +caricatures, so that the greater part of these persons have distorted +countenances, and the least deformed resemble the figures of Satyrs. +There was an ancient habit of the Genoese that may perhaps account for +their peculiarities. They had adopted from their predecessors, the Moors, +the custom of compressing the heads of the new-born infants about the +temples, so that perhaps these villagers, with their singular faces, +are the remaining descendants of the ancient Genoese who inhabited the +Crimea, and, notwithstanding the lapse of time, have preserved their +extraordinary visages. It is farther remarkable that the hair and beards +of these mountaineers are almost uniformly light reddish or even flaxen; +a circumstance seldom occurring in the Crimea. It is certain all the +inhabitants who at present occupy the villages situated on the southern +coast, though regarded as Tatars, are nevertheless the offspring of other +nations, who have either landed here or have been driven thither from the +interior, and who were strangers to the later race, but especially to +that of the Mongols; hence the original natives of Crim Tatary consider +them as aliens, and point them out by the contemptible name of Tat.[170] + +From Kíkineis to Aloupka is twelve versts, or about eight miles, and +between them lie Liméne and Simëis, with very ancient olive-groves +and splendid fig-trees, and country houses occupying each favourable +spot.[171] Liméne was one of the most important fortresses along the +coast, placed on a high, steep rock, only approachable by one path, +and defended by a strong wall, the construction of which the Tatars +attributed to the Genoese. + +Liméne is about three English miles from Kíkineis, and here the traces +of a violent volcanic action are apparent. The whole space, from the top +of the mountains to the sea below, is covered with stupendous blocks of +stone thrown pell-mell one upon another, some even half-buried in the +sea, whence only their tops are visible beaten by the waves; one of the +largest of these erratic blocks is called Pánea, and upon it are the +ruins of an ancient castle. The agents of all these convulsions are to +be seen in two jets of porphyry, which, piercing through the schists +underlying the limestone, have struck against the stupendous walls of +the limestone itself, which forms the flat table-land or yaila of the +mountains above. In one place the yaila is broken, and through the +limestone there appears forced up the schists and the porphyry mixed +together in a paste, which proves that they were in a liquified state +when the jets arose.[172] + +Passing on now a few miles further through the same kind of scenery +we come to Aloupka, the seat of Prince Woronzof, where he has built a +magnificent palace on a spot where the rocks approach very near to the +sea, and are tossed about with great violence. The promontory of Aithídor +is seen to the East jutting out into the sea, and giving a curve to the +coast, which adds greatly to its beauty; while immediately behind the +palace rises Mount Ai Petri, or Mount St. Peter, to a height of nearly +four thousand feet.[173] + +The strata of schist, from the promontory to the mountain, may be seen +rising in a great arch up to about thirteen hundred feet above the level +of the sea, heaved up by the volcanic rocks which are seen beneath, and +bearing on its stupendous span the limestone aiguilles which form the +mountain. + +The palace of Aloupka is built after the design of Mr. Blore, the English +architect, in the Moorish style, and was at first intended to be a small +villa, which afterwards grew to be a vast palace. The whole exterior is +faced with a green granite, which is extremely difficult to cut, but +takes a beautiful polish. In consequence of the immense labour required +to work it, the green sandstone from Nikita and Oursouf, which is soft +and of the same colour, has been used for the less important parts of +the buildings. The palace stands at the height of about one hundred and +fifty-five feet above the level of the sea, and the gardens descend to +the shore. Behind it the mountains rise at once precipitously, so that +there is no room for the stables, which were intended to have been built +on the other side of the public road running close behind the palace. The +gardens and the park extend to the east of it, where the view is more +open, in the direction of Miskhor, and here cascades, and fountains, +and lawns, and shady thickets succeed one another. The vegetation is +most luxuriant, and the trees grow to an enormous size. M. de Castelnau +measured three walnut trees, which were respectively sixteen, eighteen, +and twenty-one feet in circumference, and an olive tree, at four feet +from the ground, measured eleven feet round, and several vines from +two to three feet.[174] There are also two remarkable cypresses, said +to have been planted by Prince Potemkin, when the Empress Catherine +visited the Crimea in 1787. In the midst of all this vegetation vast +masses of granite rock are seen lying about, in some places piled into +grottoes, or bordering the edges of a beautiful little lake, fed by the +purest streams, and inhabited by a number of trout. Behind the garden +the visitor is led to a very different scene, which is the solution of +the whole enigma of the appearance of the surrounding country. Here is a +large hollow basin, filled with masses of granite of every conceivable +shape, both angular and rounded, forming the crater of a volcano, while +around rise the perpendicular walls of schist, through which the fiery +agent forced its way. There is a second crater like this near the village +of Aloupka, and both have a depression on the south side, next the sea. +The explanation of these phenomena appears to be, that the granite formed +a solid bed, which, by a violent commotion from underneath it, was broken +and forced up to the point of eruption, and some of the blocks rolling +down over the ground as far as the sea-shore, are scattered over the +garden, and give to it so picturesque an appearance. + +Such is the character of this singular spot, which has been chosen by the +venerable Prince Woronzof as his favourite residence, and in which he +hoped to spend the declining years of his life. No man in Russia holds so +high a position in public estimation as Prince Woronzof, who is valued +equally by the Emperor and the people. He was born at Petersburg, but +educated in England, where his father was for a long time ambassador, +and afterwards lived till his death as a private individual. His son, +the present Prince Michael Woronzof, remained here till he was sixteen +years old, when he entered the military service, and from an early age +has held high appointments in the service of his country. When Russia +was pressed for money, at the commencement of the revolutionary wars, +father and son placed a considerable portion of their immense fortunes at +the disposal of the late Emperor Alexander, and materially assisted in +relieving his financial difficulties. At the age of twenty the son was +“_chef d’état-major_” to General Tiziánof when Georgia was taken, and +the Russian army narrowly escaped annihilation before Erivan, by cutting +their way during the night through the Persian force which surrounded +them. He greatly distinguished himself in the wars of Napoleon, and +commanded a division of 12,000 men at the battle of Borodino, in which he +was severely wounded, and had the whole of his division cut to pieces, +so that I have heard that the next morning a serjeant-major was left in +command of the survivors, all the officers having been either killed or +wounded.[175] He commanded the Russian cavalry at the battle of Leipsic, +and offered so obstinate a resistance to Napoleon himself at the battle +of Craon, in the campaign of 1814, as to elicit from the emperor the +flattering observation, “Voilà le bois dont on fait des maréchaux.” He +subsequently commanded the Russian army of occupation in France after +the peace of 1815, and when, on leaving, many of his officers, seduced +by the temptations of that delightful country, had contracted debts, and +left the country without paying, he, in order to save the honour of the +Russian name, ordered all the bills to be brought to him, paid them out +of his own pocket, and burnt the whole of them. For the last twenty-five +years he has been Governor-general of New Russia, and governor of +Bessarabia, and in 1844 was made Lieutenant[176] of the Emperor in the +Caucasian provinces, commander-in-chief of the army of the Caucasus,[177] +and admiral of the Caspian Sea, so that he held the supreme command over +all the country from Poland to Persia. + +Since his assumption of the reins of government in the Caucasus, the +whole aspect of the country has changed. Towns have been built, roads +made, peculation checked, honourable feelings stimulated in the officers, +and the condition of the private soldiers greatly improved. The natives +have been raised to a level with the Russians, and all have been alike +treated with respect and urbanity. He displayed administrative abilities +of the highest order, and possessed the rare quality of securing the +affection and raising the tone of all around him. The soldiers admired +him for his calm intrepidity, and loved him for his never-failing +generosity and kindness, and the officers feared him for his inflexible +justice. Those who hated the Russian name made an exception in his +favour, and the chivalrous Georgians would have died to serve him; in +short, I never yet have met an individual in whom the fundamental virtues +of courage, prudence, generosity, and magnanimity were enhanced by such +acute sagacity, such delicate refinement of sentiment, such simplicity of +manners, and a modesty which when it survives the trial of power is the +surest sign of a superior mind. + +A German poet once observed to me that although the general average of +them was low, the most perfect women he had ever seen for charms both +physical and mental were Russian women, and in the same way, although the +character of the men is often chequered by various failings, we sometimes +find among them wise men like Prince Woronzof, whom it is no sin to +covet for our own country. Prince Woronzof, although a true Russian +patriot, has always been a great admirer of England, the country of his +education, and he is understood to have been much opposed to the present +war between Russia and England, believing that the two countries might +long have pursued their glorious careers without clashing. Intemperate +pride in the ruling power on one side, and lamentable incompetence on +the other, have brought about a struggle which skill and firmness would +probably have averted; and the French and English have lately visited as +enemies the halls of Aloupka, where in years gone by so many of their +countrymen have found the heartiest welcome. + +At two or three miles from Aloupka is Miskhor, the seat of the late +General Leon Narishkin, a celebrated beau, who followed the prevailing +fashion of having a villa on the southern coast, and a vineyard of six +hundred acres, which produces a wine something like hock. Adjoining it is +the estate of the Princess Galitzin, called Koureis, one of the earliest +formed upon the coast. Princess Galitzin was one of a celebrated trio +of ladies who, under the reign of the impressionable Emperor Alexander, +first exercised a great influence at the Court, and then, turning from +the world to heaven, endeavoured to form a religious society for the +immediate conversion of the whole world to Christ, which they thought +had been too long delayed. The poor surrounded their doors in crowds at +Petersburg, for they were very charitable of alms for the body as well as +the soul, and their influence rose so rapidly, that the ministers grew +frightened lest the Emperor himself should join them. He was therefore +induced to sign the order for their banishment to the Crimea, a sentence +which they accepted with joy as a mission from heaven to evangelize the +Tatars. + +The other two ladies were the celebrated Madame de Krudener and a +mysterious personage who went under the name of the Countess Guacher. + +After their arrival in the Crimea, the police soon put an end to all +their efforts at conversion, and Madame de Krudener died within a year, +worn out by her strong religious feelings, which were not permitted +to exercise themselves. The Princess Galitzin renounced the russet +conventual dress which she had adopted, and the mystic principles of +Madame de Krudener, to return to the free Voltairian ideas in which she +had been brought up. Endowed with a masculine intellect, a prodigious +memory, wonderful powers of conversation, once the admiration and fear +of Paris and Petersburg, and possessing an immense fortune, she made +herself the centre of a little court of _beaux esprits_ at Koureis, and +lived there till her death in 1839. Her daughter married the Baron de +Berckheim, and is a permanent resident on the coast. The third of the +trio, the Countess Guacher, gave up her dress as a nun and her religious +enthusiasm very soon after her arrival, and lived at a romantic cottage +on the wild sea-shore, perfectly secluded, and only seen occasionally in +her gallops along the beach. Both she and Princess Galitzin adopted a +kind of male attire suited to their independent mode of life. When she +died, after a few years, it was discovered that she was the Countess de +la Mothe, who was publicly whipped and branded on the Place de la Grève +as an accomplice in the scandalous affair of the diamond necklace of +Marie Antoinette.[178] + +At each moment from this spot the coast widens, and leaves a greater +space between the overhanging mountains and the sea. Around the little +village of Gaspra the ground undulates prettily, and every spot is +cultivated, and covered with rich woods, orchards, vineyards, and +gardens, in the midst of which peep out villas and country houses. It +resembles a view in the neighbourhood of Naples. On the top of a hill +not far from the road and near some old ruined fortresses is an ancient +monument we should little expect to find in Crim Tatary, namely, rocks +piled up exactly like the Celtic remains of Brittany and Cornwall.[179] + +Beyond Gaspra the road winds inwards in order to pass the high limestone +strata of the promontory of Aithodor. A wild path of two miles leads +from the road to the summit of the promontory, in the midst of oriental +juniper-trees and ruins at every step. On the top are five columns of +white marble, and the remains of an ancient monastery, which probably +occupies the site of some ancient Greek temple, placed like that at +Sunium. Beyond it is Mourgoudoú or Oriánda de Witt, the palace of Count +de Witt, built on a terrace nine hundred feet above the sea, and forming +a fantastic assemblage of buildings in a mixed oriental Gothic and Greek +style. Around it is a kind of natural park, in which splendid trees +grow on the broken ground interspersed with enormous masses of rock at +the foot of the precipice of Mount Megábi, and here the arbutus and +juniper-tree grow to an enormous size. + +The width of the plain is here nearly four miles, and Mount Megábi rises +in the midst of it, and close to the sea-shore is the spot chosen by +the Emperor Alexander to build a retreat, which he called Oriánda. In +the midst of the picturesque chaos peculiar to the coast, he formed an +English garden, and planted a vineyard and olive-grounds near the modest +dwelling-house. The late emperor, however, erected here a splendid +palace, having the disposition of an old Greek house, and richly +ornamented with wall-painting. The celebrated Schinkel was the architect, +and a beautiful work has been published upon it at Berlin. Its low +situation on the sea-shore, with high cliffs and tall trees overshadowing +it, render it gloomy, but suited to the health and taste of the Empress +Dowager of Russia, who has spent here several winters. In the grounds +are shown two celebrated fig-trees seventy feet high. Here the Emperor +Alexander intended to retire, surrounded by his friends, to whom he meant +to allot estates near his own. His sudden death put an end to these +projects, and Marshal Diébitch, who afterwards commanded in the Turkish +and Polish wars, was the only one who had already received a property of +about one hundred acres adjoining the emperor’s garden. Just where the +two estates meet is a precipitous hill, with many traces of a settlement +of the ancient Tauri, whose acropolis occupied its summit. At a mile from +Oriánda is the little Greek village of Livadia, which now belongs to +Count Leon Potócki, and near it is the castle of Outchansoú, in a gloomy +gorge of the mountains, which was used by the Turks as a prison, for +which it was well suited. + +About three miles further on is the port of Yalta, which is quite a new +town, in an admirable position, whence in time of peace steamers ply +regularly to and from Odessa. Its proximity to the finest scenery of +the coast, a good port, and a charming situation, make Yalta the great +rendezvous of the tourists, who flock in great numbers to the Crimea +during the summer season. The quay then presents an animated scene, and +small craft from all parts lie at anchor in the little bay. Nothing then +can be more pleasing than the effect of the white town placed at the +extremity of the bay, surrounded by rich scenery, with the high crests +of the hills behind, also covered with verdure. The elegant buildings, +the handsome hotels, and the general appearance of the population, all +announce it as a town favoured by the rich and pleasure-seeking. In fact +Yalta depends entirely upon tourists, who fill the hotels for several +months, and rich people who live in its neighbourhood. There is here +a custom-house and a garrison. The valley of Yalta is very beautiful, +and there is nothing on the whole coast more grand than to look down +upon it in descending the hill from Magaratch, stretched out in a noble +amphitheatre at the foot of the precipices of the Tauric chain. + +Mount Megábi is then in front, with the village and vineyards of Aoutka +at its foot; and Oriánda and Cape Aithodor may be seen behind it. On the +right looking down upon Yalta, a great promontory of the Tauric chain, +called Mount Yoprákl, about four thousand feet high, divides the valley +into two parts, and at its foot is the little village of Derekoi, hidden +by the trees. The right branch of the valley is called Ai Vassili; and +a village whence it takes its name is situated at the foot of Mount +Lapata.[180] To judge by the steep rough aspect of this mountain one +would not imagine that down its sides is one of the principal roads +leading from Baktchéserai to the coast. The road as far as Ai Vassili +follows the course of a rivulet, and the surrounding country has the +appearance of a natural English park, with magnificent trees and +cascades. At Ai Vassili the gardens are filled with date plum trees, ash, +turpentine trees, figs, and walnuts. Around the village and above it are +seen the sandstone and the schists, and the oak and the elm cover the +ground, but at the height of one thousand feet the limestone is reached, +and the Tauric pine takes the place of other trees, and grows to a great +size. It lasts over the first layers of the limestone for about seven +hundred feet, and is succeeded by the beech and wich elm. + +Above these is the naked summit of the mountain, and then on passing a +narrow gorge in the rocks, the traveller emerges on one of the mountain +plains, called Yailas. As far as the crest of the mountain, the sunny +landscape of the valley of Yalta in all its beauty is spread out, with +a glorious expanse of sea beyond it shining through a warm and clear +atmosphere. Upon the Yaila everything becomes changed in a moment, and +to the warm rays of the sun succeed a cold damp air and the thick icy +fog of a northern region. To mark the road across it, lest travellers +should lose their way, heaps of stones are placed at distances of twenty +yards, as far as the woods on the northern slope which extend nearly to +Baktchéserai. + +But to return to Yalta. The road on leaving the town ascends a hill, and +on the left are some Cyclopean remains, the stones of which have been +partly removed to build the new pier at Yalta. At the top of the hill is +the church of Marsánda, which has been rebuilt by Prince Woronzof, in the +Doric style, on the ruins of an ancient chapel famous for its spring of +water, which bubbled forth beneath the altar. The spring still follows +its ancient course undisturbed, and escapes from the church by an arch in +the wall, and here the weary traveller may refresh himself with a cool +draught, and rest under the fine trees which surround the church, among +which is one of the largest and most venerable oaks on the whole southern +coast. Near it is the village of Magaratch, which the crown has divided +among a number of wealthy colonists, who have planted vineyards and built +houses, and form an agreeable little society of their own. + +About three miles further on is Nikita, where are the Imperial botanical +gardens, a vast establishment for experiments on acclimatation and +practical studies on the plants and trees which might be profitably +introduced into the Crimea.[181] Here on the public road may be observed +distinctly the three formations of which the Tauric chain is composed, +and which have been raised up by volcanic action. First the schists from +the sea to the road, then the sandstone, and above that all the strata of +the jurassic limestone.[182] + +After passing Cape Nikita and the mountain of St. Daniel, which belongs +to Prince Woronzof, we enter the valley of Ourzouf, the Gorzubita of +ancient times, where the emperor Justinian built a castle, the walls +and towers of which still crown an immense rock on one side of the +valley. The part built by Justinian is easily distinguished from a +second system of defence round it, which appears to be Genoese, on +the walls of which Pallas saw embrasures for cannon which have since +disappeared. The country here is still extremely rich, and the view from +the ruins magnificent. Enormous walnut trees, fig-trees, and poplars, +form labyrinths of verdure, and here is situated the retreat which the +Duke de Richelieu, the second founder of Odessa, created for himself +among the wild Tatar population, when as yet there was no road along the +coast. This was the first of the modern Russian attempts at colonisation +on the coast, and the Duke bought this estate in 1817, with rights upon +the village of Ourzouf for 120_l._ Up to 1825, this and Kutchuk Lambat +and Nikita were the only European establishments in this now fashionable +locality. + +A mole and a tower are still visible defending the little bay of Ourzouf. +The eastern side of it is formed by the mountain of Aioudágh which juts +out into the sea to the height of about 1800 feet, presenting a precipice +on the side of Ourzouf, and only to be ascended from the village of +Partheníte, on the opposite side. On the summit are the remains of an +ancient castle, the walls of which are composed of enormous blocks of +stone without cement. The fortifications are in a large semicircle, the +diameter wall of which is about seven hundred feet in length, and the +thickness of the walls about five feet. Where the wall can be approached +from the land thirteen towers defend it, but on the side of the precipice +there are none. + +In looking at the style of this construction, it is impossible to +recognise in it a work of the Byzantine Greeks, or the Genoese, who +always used lime and mortar, as may be seen in the ruins of Alouchta, +Ourzouf, Soudak, Theodosia, and Balaclava. These ruins are built like +those at little Castéle, Demir Kapou, and other of the most ancient +remains in the Crimea. They resemble the Cyclopean walls of Kimmericum +(Opouk), and the Tumuli of the Gold Mountain near Kertch, and Dubois +attributes them to the Tauri, and the Tauro-Scythians.[183] + +This little fortress has not been inhabited since 1475, that is to say, +since the destruction of the Genoese power in the Crimea, but there is no +reason to think that it was ever inhabited by the Genoese or the Greeks. +There is no trace of temple or other edifice within it, and the only +remains of such are to be found immediately on arriving at the top of +the mountain, where, nestled among some large trees, rise the ruins of +a monastery dedicated to St. Constantine and St. Helen. It immediately +overlooked the village of Partheníte; and Dubois, who imagines that it +occupied the site of the ancient temple of the Tauric Diana, thinks that +this would be a most interesting place to commence some excavations. He +believes that, while the temple at Cape St. George in the Chersonese was +also dedicated to the goddess, this one of Aioudágh was the particular +temple where Iphigenia exercised her cruel mission; that it was here that +Orestes and Pylades appeared to her; hence the bodies of the victims were +precipitated from the top of the rock into the sea below; hence she gazed +over the wide horizon, and watched for the vessels of her victims.[184] + +There has been much discussion as to the cape which was really the +Kriumetôpon, or “ram face,” promontory at which Iphigenia arrived.[185] +Some have placed it at Ai Petri near Aloupka, others at Mount Ilia near +Laspi, others at Aithodor; but Clarke, Heber, Mouravief Apostol, Koeppen, +and Dubois, consider it to apply to the Aioudágh.[186] Its position +is very distinctly indicated by Strabo where he says, “far along the +Tauric coast there detaches itself into the sea a promontory, which +looks towards Paphlagonia and the city of Amastris, and this is called +Kriumetôpon. Opposite to it corresponds Cape Carambis in Paphlagonia, +and they divide the Euxine Sea into two parts.” “At Kriumetôpon,” says +Scymnus,[187] “arrived Iphigenia, when she disappeared from Aulis. The +Tauri abound here, and their numerous tribes lead a wandering life in +the mountains. Barbarians by their cruelties and murders, they adore +a divinity which resembles them in its impious crimes.” An additional +reason for believing this to have been the place alluded to by the +ancients is the fact that the Tatar village at the foot of the promontory +is still called Partheníte, or the village of the Virgin. Partheníte is +situated in a beautiful valley, and a sandy beach enables the inhabitants +still, as in the Homeric times, to draw their barks up on the land. Two +little streams irrigate the orchards and fields, in which are cultivated +flax and the best flavoured tobacco along the whole coast. Here is a +celebrated walnut-tree of enormous size, surrounded by benches, under +the shade of which the Prince de Ligne wrote the letter to the Empress +Catherine, describing to her his astonishment at the extraordinary beauty +of the southern coast. + +Pursuing our road we come to the two Lambats, Bouiouk and Kutchuk (great +and little). The word Lambat is the old Greek name of the place, and +means the town of the Lamps (Lampadôn). The Little Lambat is now a +village on the shore of the bay, defended from the East by the promontory +Plaka, and there is in it a good anchorage. Between the two Lambats the +ground is covered with ruins of every age, from the most early at the +Great Lambat to the most recent on the sea-shore. It is called Halmites +by Arrian, and this name may have its origin in the Greek word to leap, +as rough ground on which one is obliged to leap, and it may also have +some connexion with the river Alma, which rises on the other side of +the Tauric chain exactly opposite the plateau on which Great Lambat is +situated.[188] + +After passing Cape Plaka, between Great Lambat and the sea-shore is one +of the most extraordinary spectacles that can be witnessed.[189] There +suddenly appears a place which is called, by the moderns the Chaos, and +by the Tatars Sunenkáia. It is a vast assemblage of enormous masses of +rock, as large as houses, and as high as towers, composed of fetid black +limestone, thrown together in confusion and sometimes leaning against one +another, somewhat in the same way as at the Trossachs in Scotland. In one +place they look like aiguilles or pyramids, in another place like the +enormous ruins of some Cyclopean edifice, while further on they have the +wild and broken appearance of the moraine of a glacier.[190] The shumac, +the walnut, the wild vine, and many different kinds of thorns grow in the +deep crevices, and push their roots down to the water that filters below. +Numbers of these blocks also have fallen into the sea, and form a chain +on which the waves vent their fury. The Chaos lasts for about half a mile +along the sea-shore, and is terminated by the black porphyry of Cape +Plaka. This great amphitheatre of confusion goes on widening for a mile +and a half inland, up to Great Lambat, and on crossing the high road, +and going up towards the mountains, a new Chaos is met with, composed +of blocks of ophitic granite instead of the limestone. From the highest +point of the mountain all through the Chaos down to the sea-shore the +ground is covered with ancient ruins, and the place was evidently chosen +by the barbarous population of ancient times, as one secure from attack +on account of the difficult nature of the country. + +Above the second Chaos may be observed the solution of the whole scene. +There is the enormous mouth of a crater, whence these vast fragments, +broken in the bosom of the earth, have been vomited forth. The limestone, +situated upon the ophitone, was rolled down to the sea-shore, while the +ophitone itself appears only at the mouth of the crater, or near it, in +a disturbed state. The schist and the grey limestone, whose beds were +broken by the eruption of the ophitone, have been turned into red marble +at the points of contact with it, which shows it to have been erupted +in a heated state. The best situation for observing these interesting +phenomena, is Mount Aithodor, or the hill of St. Theodore,[191] so +called from the ruins of a Greek church on the summit. Hence may be +contemplated, as a whole, the mighty agency by which the Tauric chain, +which towers above us, has been raised up, and the igneous domes of +Kastele, Ouraga, and Aithodor itself are perceived as the immense levers +which have raised up Mount Babougan, and the plains surrounding it, for +several thousand feet. + +At a place called Karabagh, near Bouiouk Lambat, is the country-house of +M. Peter de Koeppen, whose valuable works on the statistics and geography +of Russia are well known. + +Further on, Mount Kastele completely bars all passage along the coast, +and the road is carried through a defile between it and the main +chain, which the Tatars call Demir Kapou, or the gate of iron, and, +according to their usual system, the Tauri had here established one of +their fortresses, in the narrowest part of the gorge, to defend their +settlements at Lambat. + +Three walls formed the enceinte; two, about two hundred paces long, +run from the perpendicular flanks of Mount Kastele, and meet a third +nearly at right angles on the opposite side of the valley.[192] They +are composed of great blocks of granite piled one on the other without +cement, and sometimes as much as six feet in thickness and in height, and +the interior forms a narrow enclosure, in which are the remains of some +rude edifices. Everything here shows the infancy of art, and recalls the +Cyclopean constructions of Greece, or even the Gaulish camps of France +and Switzerland. + +On the eastern side of the Kastele, the only remains of the Greeks or +Genoese, are the foundations of a little edifice outside the fort in the +midst of some trees looking towards Alouchta. The Tauri are probably the +builders of a second fortress much more considerable than the first, +and occupying a part of the summit of the mountain. A wall, constructed +without cement, here runs from north to south from one precipice to +another, and encloses numerous traces[193] of habitations, and fragments +of pottery. The traveller, after passing the gorge, soon finds himself at +the top of the descent leading to Alouchta, with the town placed on the +opposite side of the valley, which here widens out again considerably, +presenting its usual features of wildness and Asiatic luxuriance. Here +ends the really fine scenery of the southern coast, which extends over a +distance of about forty miles from Phoros to Alouchta. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV. + +THE EASTERN COAST AND SOUDAK. + + Alouchta—The Eastern and Western Coast—Oulou Ouzéne, + the property of Mrs. Lang—Mdlle. Jacquemart—The Bay of + Soudak—Ruins of the triple fortress—The Kiz Koullé, or Girl’s + Tower—Ancient Soldaya—Its history—Remains—Vandalism of the + Russians—Ruined barracks—The Crimean Wine Company—The wines of + the Crimea—Prices of land in the Crimea—Road to Theodosia—Tatar + hospitality—Koktebel. + + +Alouchta[194] is beautifully placed on the sloping side of a gentle +elevation, near the sea-shore, and the cultivation of the vine has made +here rapid progress. Its situation, in a wide and fertile valley, at +nearly the centre of the southern coast, must always have rendered it +an important place, although the only mention of it in ancient times is +with reference to the castle built here by Justinian, the remains of +which are to be seen on a little hill near the sea-shore. The ancient +town of Alouchta was built in front of the fort on the right bank of +the river Oulou Ouzéne, but the place is now deserted and covered +with the wild vine and tamarisk. Some remains may still be discovered +of houses and of several Greek churches placed on the most elevated +positions. The churches are nearly as large as those of Kherson; and in +the principal one a semicircular apse shows that either a bishop or at +least a priest of high rank presided over the clergy attached to it. +Alouchta is the limit between the eastern and western coast, which are +great rivals for public favour. There can, however, be no doubt that in +remarkable scenery and romantic beauty the western coast has greatly the +advantage. The igneous jets of ophitic granite do not come further east +than Alouchta; and while the granite domes of Kastele, Aioudágh, and +Liméne form promontories and bays, and sublime variations of scenery, the +eastern coast is a monotonous repetition of narrow ravines, covered with +meagre vegetation, of the wich elm (the commonest tree in the Crimea), +the turpentine-tree, and the oriental juniper, some specimens of which +measure as much as a foot and a half in diameter. + +A ride of eight miles along a sterile and desert shore of the eastern +coast brings the traveller to the valley of another river, called +Oulou Ouzéne, the property of Mrs. Lang, who has planted vineyards and +orchards, and converted it into one of the most agreeable residences +along the coast. Some miles further on is the bay of Soudak, and the +residence of an eccentric French lady, Mdlle. Jacquemart, who, having +originally gone to Russia as a governess, and then, by her brilliant +conversation and wit having gained a great reputation in the highest +circles, both in Petersburg and Vienna, suddenly renounced the world, +and retired to solitude on the shores of the Crimea. Marshal Marmont, in +his works, tells a romantic tale about a rejected and despairing lover, +who in a paroxysm of fury attempted her life; but according to Mdlle. +Jacquemart’s own account the story differs wonderfully from the unpoetic +truth, which was, that a Greek, whom she had never seen before, brutally +attacked and nearly murdered her, as she was returning home one evening +to her solitary dwelling.[195] + +The view of the bay of Soudak, on approaching it from the west, is very +striking. Its shores present a charming rural prospect; and the valley +which leads down to the water is entirely occupied with orchards and +vineyards. Near the extremity of the bay, on the right, the rocks jut out +boldly, and the fortifications of the old Genoese town crown the heights. +Soudak, as will presently be more fully explained, was in ancient times +a very important place, and its beautiful position attracted here the +population of a town even in time of the ancient Greeks. The Russians, +since they have possessed it, have done much injury to the ancient +remains; but even the ruins of the fortress and citadel, which alone +have been spared, possess great interest. The traveller threading his +way among the vineyards may approach the pyramidal rock, on which is +built the three stages of the vast and carefully-constructed fortress, +which once protected the surrounding city of Soldaya,[196] as Soudak was +anciently called. The rock is inaccessible on the side of the sea, but +may easily be approached from the interior of the valley, where it opens +on a broad terrace, defended by an immense rampart, flanked by ten towers. + +The entrance-gate is defended by an exterior work; and in front of it, +where a German colony has lately been planted, there formerly stood the +Genoese part of the town of Soldaya. Between the colony and the gate is a +beautiful fountain, of ancient workmanship, the water of which formerly +supplied the fortress; and above it is placed a bas-relief, which has +been brought from the ruins, of St. George killing the Dragon, and the +scutcheon of the Doge Adorno. Over the gate is an inscription, declaring +it to have been built in the year 1385, when the noble and puissant lord, +James Gorsevi, was the consul and castellan of Soldaya. + +On entering the gate the traveller stands within the lower fortress, and +finds the ground covered with ruins. Here are the immense brick cisterns +which contained enough water to supply the garrison for several years; +and the aqueducts of earthen tubes, which conducted the rain-water from +the rocks above are still visible. Near them are the remains of some +Genoese houses in the Gothic style, with dates and scutcheons; the only +ones which escaped destruction when the Russians occupied the place. + +Here are also the most uninteresting remains of the huge Russian +barracks, to construct which, the beautiful architectural erections of +the Genoese were destroyed. These barracks were built by Prince Potemkin +after the conquest of the Crimea, when he entertained an idea, which +was afterwards abandoned, of making Soldaya the Russian capital of the +peninsula. + +Beyond the ruins of the barracks, in the north-east corner of the +platform, where the rock overhangs the sea with a sheer precipice, is a +curious edifice, which bears traces of many styles of architecture. It +must have been originally built as a mosque, because it does not look +east and west, like a Christian church, but north and south, with the +altar, formerly the _maharab_ of the mosque, turned in the direction of +Mecca.[197] It was probably raised by the Tatars, when, in a moment of +fanaticism, they drove the Greek Christians from Soudak in the beginning +of the fourteenth century, as the arrangement of the parts and the style +of the ornaments are of an earlier date than the Turkish occupation. In +1323, on the demand of Pope John XXII., Soldaya was restored to the Greek +Christians; and it was from them that the Genoese captured it in 1365, +when the Greek churches were turned into Catholic ones. In 1575 Soudak +was taken by the Ottomans, and all the churches were again turned into +mosques; and thus they remained till, on the conquest of the Crimea by +the Russians, the mosques were once more devoted to the Greek form of +Christianity. Thus this church has undergone no less than five changes of +religious destination, having first been built as a Tatar-Mongol mosque, +then converted into a Greek Christian church, then changed to a Latin +Catholic church, then once more a mosque, and being at the present day, +for the second time, a Greek church.[198] + +A steep path leads from near the church to the middle fortress, called +Katara Koullé, built in a ledge of the precipitous rock, with the sea +chafing round its base. The principal tower is constructed in the noble +style of the fifteenth century. + +A narrow path along the edge of the precipice leads to the third and +highest fortress, called the Kiz Koullé (The Girl’s Tower), which is +the real acropolis on the summit of the rock, and consists of a simple +square tower, placed like the eyrie of an eagle, commanding a view of +the expanse of the sea, the whole of the fortifications, the recesses of +the valley, and the circuit of the ancient town of Soudak, in which the +smallest details may be observed. + +The eye also follows the windings of the coast as far as Kastele and +Aiondagh, and wanders over the terraces of the Tauric chain that rise +one above another, while turning round and looking inland, the traveller +sees the Swiss colony which has replaced the Scythians, Greeks, Komans, +Genoese, and Turks, and occupies the entrance of the beautiful gulf of +verdure which stretches inland in the midst of the dark grey rocks. + +As early as the eighth century, Soldaya, or Sougdai, the origin of which +goes back to the remotest times, was the seat of a bishop, and although +then depending on the empire of the East, had its own sovereign princes. +Four hundred years later the Komans, an Asiatic people, driven from its +seats in Asia towards the West by the hordes of Zingis Khan, arrived +in the Crimea, and were the precursors of the terrible invasion of the +Mongols, which occurred soon afterwards. The arrival of the Komans in +their flight was fatal to the Greek establishments in the Crimea, and the +princes of Soldaya were exterminated, and the conquerors seized on their +capital. + +The Tatars soon followed, and the Komans, after thirty years’ possession, +were obliged to abandon the Crimea, and seek an asylum in the more +western countries of Thrace. + +Under the Tatar domination the Greeks re-entered Soldaya, which again +became a Christian city, and the most important port in the peninsula. +Although it was certainly tributary to the Tatars, it had a bishop, and +governed itself. + +In the beginning of the fourteenth century, when the Tatars of Kiptchak +adopted the Mahometan religion, Musselman fanaticism predominated for a +moment in the Crimea, and the Christians, driven from Soldaya, saw all +their churches converted into mosques. But it is a remarkable fact, that +the remonstrance of the Pope John XXII. was sufficient in 1323 to procure +from Usbek Khan the restitution of the city to the Christians, and the +restoration of their ancient privileges. + +Thirty years had hardly elapsed when a new revolution, arising from +intestine discord, annihilated in Soldaya the Greek power. On the 18th +June, 1365, the Genoese, already masters of Kaffa for nearly a century, +incorporated in their dominions the ancient capital of the Komans. It was +then that these bold merchants, to secure the possession of the fertile +country of Soudak and to defend it from the Tatars, constructed on the +most inaccessible part of the rock commanding the entrance to the town +the formidable fortress with three stages, that has been mentioned, +crowned by the gigantic Maiden Tower (Kiz Koullé), whence sentinels were +ever on the alert to watch over the port, the sea, and the neighbouring +country. + +The Genoese remained undisturbed possessors of their castle for more +than a century; but after the taking of Constantinople by Mahomet II., +and the immediate destruction of Kaffa, the capital of their colonies +in the Crimea, the last hour arrived for unfortunate Soldaya. In 1475 +the Turks besieged the place,—the resistance was long and obstinate, and +famine alone achieved the triumph of the besiegers over the valour and +heroism of the garrison. With the Genoese possession terminated the +glory and prosperity of Soldaya, which had lasted for so many centuries. +The population of the town was expelled and dispersed; the port, once +so animated, became desert, and grass grew in the streets, formerly +trodden by the elegant Greeks of Byzantium, the victorious Komans, and +the proud citizens of Genoa. To all these various populations, so rich or +so powerful, succeeded a feeble Turkish garrison, which witnessed during +three centuries with indifference the degradation and solitude of one of +the most ancient and famous cities on the shores of the Black Sea. + +In 1781 the imperial eagle of the Czar floated on the towers of +Soldaya, and then began, for the monuments of the Genoese colony, that +destruction which everywhere characterizes the conquests of Russia. +All the public and private buildings, which Pallas in his first voyage +had so much admired for their beautiful architecture, disappeared, and +their precious remains were used by the Muscovite Vandals to build huge +barracks, which were utterly useless, and which now form themselves the +most uninteresting of ruins. At this day Soldaya, utterly effaced from +the list of towns and fortresses, does not possess even a guard to watch +over its walls and magnificent towers with their proud inscriptions. Each +year new mutilations take place, and soon there will remain none of the +tablets of marble, with elegant arabesques, which adorn each tower and +gateway, retracing their origin and history. Certainly the absence of +all Russian authorities is the only thing that can preserve the Genoese +castle from utter destruction. + +Unfortunately the government seems now to wish for its preservation, +and no doubt the remains of Soldaya will be threatened with entire +destruction the moment an employé, having nothing to live upon but his +wretched pay, becomes officially invested with the right of protecting +them from the ravages of time and men. + +The best view of the valley of Soudak and the surrounding country is +from the monastery of St. George, placed on a high mountain, a projection +from which runs into the sea, and forms the eastern side of the bay. +There are few eminences in the Crimea that offer so vast and varied a +landscape. Every detail of the valley is visible; and the vast fortress +is below, a pyramid of ruins, without a living soul near them, except a +stray traveller, or the children from the neighbouring German colony, who +make it their play-ground. The coast is visible far beyond Alouchta; and +in the interior of the country the dark and barren mountains are thrown +pell-mell; while among them penetrates, in pleasing contrast, the bright +green valley of Soudak. Here the dark foliage of the fruit-trees and the +tall poplars is mixed with the pale green of the vineyards; and white +houses are dotted about, each in their own domain. Although there is a +considerable population, there is no town at modern Soudak; and the only +spots where a few houses are placed together is near the church, where a +Greek has built a hotel. + +Near here, also, are the vast establishments of the wine company of the +Crimea, and the house of their manager, M. Larguier, a French gentleman. +As the wine company have chosen Soudak as their head-quarters, and the +wine of this neighbourhood has always been famous, this will, perhaps, +be a proper place to say a few words upon the cultivation of the vine in +the Crimea.[199] The Crimean wine company has been established to make +known the different kinds of Crimean wines in the markets of the world, +and to facilitate the sale of them. The production of wine has received +an immense development in the Crimea since the beginning of the present +century, and especially since Prince Woronzof has been governor-general +of New Russia; but a great difficulty has always been found in disposing +of the produce. + +In all times, the Crimea has exported wine into Southern Russia. +Bronevski,[200] in the middle of the sixteenth century, says that Soudak +had large vineyards which gave the best wine in the Crimea. De la +Motraye, in 1711, speaks of a wine of Soudak, which did not differ from +Burgundy in colour, and was not inferior to it in taste. He also mentions +a wine of Katche (Katchik) which sparkled in the glass like Burgundy +or Champagne, and was sold at a farthing a bottle. At a later period, +Peyssonel, in 1762, speaks of the wines of the Crimea, and praises their +excellence and abundance. They were white, light, and wholesome; and the +wine of Soudak was the only one that was strong. The best qualities then +came from Soudak and the banks of the Belbek, the Alma, and the Katcha. +The price was about a penny a quart for the best wine of Soudak, and the +Cossacks of the Ukraine and the Zaporogues bought a large quantity every +year. + +The wines of the Crimea could not, however, compete with those of France +or Greece, and they were consumed only among the people; while the rich +classes, accustomed to the wines of Sauterne, Bordeaux, Hungary, and the +Rhine, despised the productions of Soudak or the Katcha, where the vine, +cultivated after the Greek or Tatar method, at the best, produced only +a feeble aqueous beverage, without body, and impossible to keep. The +wines of the Crimea, therefore, had no reputation; the mode of making +them was defective; and it was necessary that there should be a complete +revolution in the whole system of culture and manufacture before the +vines of this country could enter into competition with those of foreign +ones. + +A number of proprietors in the Crimea resolutely undertook this task, +and, with Prince Woronzof at their head, spared neither money nor +encouragement of every kind. They procured from Spain and France, and +the Rhine, plants from the most celebrated vineyards; and Prince +Woronzof collected 200 sorts, in small quantities, at Aloupka, for +experiments. They also brought over good vine-dressers, and consulted +the best works on the subject. The most suitable lands on the coast +were carefully prepared and covered with fine plantations. Experienced +persons were brought over to teach the art of treating the wines; vast +cellars were built and fitted up with immense vases; in short, neither +trouble nor expense were spared to perfect the qualities of the wine. +The enterprise, however, still failed, because the rich continued to +drink Bordeaux and Burgundy, and the common consumers the cheap wine +of Soudak and the Katcha; so that the bad old kinds of Crimean wines +still found a market, and the good remained unsold in the cellars of the +proprietors. As a remedy, the Crimean wine company was established, with +a considerable capital, managed by M. Larguier, to buy the choice wines +of the proprietors, and to place itself in relation with the principal +towns of Russia; to make known by their travellers the best sorts of +Crimean wines; and to have dépôts in the towns; and try, by every means, +to remove the prejudices against them. This was the more necessary, as +the common wine-merchants, by adulteration, continually depreciated them +in the public estimation. The greater part of the weak wines of Soudak +and the Katcha, which they bought cheap at the time of the vintage, and +carried immediately to their cellars at Moscow, and elsewhere, were +mixed with all kinds of substances, and lost their reputation as soon as +tasted: the pure wine was nowhere procurable. + +The head-quarters of the company were fixed at Soudak, and cellars and an +office were established at Simpherópol. The commencement was difficult, +as relations had to be established; and only inferior sorts could at +first be bought with any chance of obtaining a profit. As the proprietors +had been at great expense, they asked an enormous price for the good +wines; and, besides this, their quality could never be depended upon, on +account of the newness of the vineyards, and the consequently uncertain +and variable flavour of the grapes. + +The ancient culture of the vine by the Greeks and Tatars, who looked only +to quantity, was carried on entirely on the flat grounds in the bottom of +valleys, which were easy to irrigate. The valley of Soudak, which runs +in nearly two miles from the sea to Taraktache, was adapted for this +cultivation; and no doubt the vine was planted here in the early Greek +times, when Athenæon flourished where Soudak was afterwards founded. At +Alouchta, also, there was then much wine made, as is evident from the +immense quantity of amphoræ found there. + +The other vineyards of the Crimea were on the Katcha, the Belbek, and the +Alma; where the clayey or limestone soil was favourable, and the valleys +easy to irrigate. The climate however was inferior to Soudak, and so were +the wines, with the exception of some parts of the valley of the Belbek +near the sea. The vine is buried each winter in these valleys; and its +culture must be very ancient, as wine-presses are found cut in the living +rock in the grottoes of Katchi Kalene. + +Such were the ancient vineyards of the Crimea. + +The new vineyards extend all along the southern coast from a place +near Kertch to Laspi. One of the first plantations was that of Laspi. +M. Rouvier entered into an engagement with the government to introduce +merino sheep, and plant with vines a certain extent of ground which +should be given him; and, bringing his plants from Malaga, his wine +retains some qualities of the original. In 1826, Prince Woronzof began +the first vineyard of Ai Daniel. The Princess Galitzin began at the same +time; and the example once set, vineyards quickly sprung up all along the +coast; and already, in 1834, 2,000,000 of vines had been planted. + +The climate of the coast is very like that of Provence. The winters are +mild, the spring early, the summer hot and stormy, and the autumns long. +In winter the thermometer seldom falls below 6° or 7° Réaumur. The soil +is generally a black decomposed schist, mixed with limestone, and forms +into a grey clay, more or less stony, very compact, and in dry weather +impossible to work, so that it can only be broken up in winter, when +softened by the rain. The vines are planted in terraces, and in winter +have plenty of water from springs, which disappear in the dry time of +the year. The grapes are retarded by this cause, and by the great heats +of the coast, so that their development is checked till the rains of +September, and then, being gathered very late, the fine quality of the +wine is injured. Alouchta is the only place that never suffers from +drought. + +From wherever the plants come, they all, after a certain time, have +a tendency to the strong qualities of the Spanish wines. In a new +plantation, when the first grapes appear, they give a wine like that of +the country from which they have been transplanted; but scarcely two more +years pass before there is a change; and from year to year the difference +becomes greater, till at the end of ten years there is no longer Burgundy +or Bordeaux, but a particular sort of wine, far less delicate and strong. + +The vineyards of Prince Woronzof at the Ai Daniel, and those of the +Baron of Berckheim at the same place, where the plants have been kept +totally distinct, give the results that have been mentioned. In the other +vineyards the plants are much mixed, and Gros Bourgogne, and Pincan +Fleuri, Rissling, Bordeaux, and Kakour, are all mixed together. The +last plant, of uncertain origin, is said to give a very good flavour, +and a bouquet which would make it sought even in Europe, as it differs +greatly from all known wines. Here is planted also a certain quantity +of Aleatico, and some ancient Crimean plants from the Katcha. The grape +which loses the most of its primitive qualities by the change of climate +is the Rissling from the banks of the Rhine. It has been particularly +grown in the valley of Alouchta, where a schistous soil, mixed with +calcareous particles and the detritus of sandstone, lighter, and less +exposed to drought than the rest of the coast, would seem to recall the +qualities of its primitive soil. At Miskhor also, Mr. Leon Narishkin +planted, in 1834, a vineyard of Rissling, which produced a good wine, of +a fine taste, but without the exquisite qualities of Rhine wine. + +Everything then proves that the wines of the coast of the Crimea are +still in a state of transition, and cannot have a fixed reputation for +some time to come. Then alone can the wines of the Crimea be spoken of +as a class, and their place will probably be between the fine wines of +the north and the strong wines of Spain. The Crimea has so many different +climates, and soils, and situations, that if the stony lands of the +coast will not give the qualities desired, they may be found elsewhere. +Long experience has shown that the soil and climate of the Heracleotic +Chersonese is as favourable to the cultivation of the vine as that of +the coast of the Crimea, for already in ancient times this peninsula +had vineyards and cellars and amphoræ. This fact is, besides, proved +by an inscription found in 1794 in the ruins of Kherson, stating that +the people had voted a crown of ivy to Agazikletos, “who had made the +cultivation of the vine to flourish in the country;”[201] so that this +cultivation was a branch of the industry and commerce of the Khersonians. + +Mr. Bardac, captain of the port of Sevastopol in 1803, again introduced +the vine on the soil of the Chersonese, where the flocks of sheep and +goats of the Tatars had extirpated it. He planted with vines from Smyrna +some land near Sevastopol, on the ravine running into South Bay, and +the successful results encouraged other proprietors. In 1834 a wine was +made at least equal to any other in the Crimea, and this may perhaps +be accounted for by the nature of the soil, which is a detritus of +limestone, mixed with cinders and volcanic remains, the whole reposing on +the rock as a subsoil. + +I will now give some account of the prices of land in the Crimea. At the +beginning of the present century the coast-lands were worth nothing, and +persons were able to buy large tracts for a trifling sum, which they +afterwards sold for fifty times their value. The Duc de Richelieu bought +in 1817, for 140_l._, the estate of Oursouf, and laid out upon it about +800_l._ In 1834 the Prince Woronzof, who had become the proprietor, +retained 200 acres, and resold the house and the remaining 80 acres for +4000_l._ The estate of Khanime, containing 160 acres, was bought by M. +Poniatowski for 240_l._, and was valued in 1834 at upwards of 3000_l._ +The lands fit for the vine in the valley of Alouchta, which were first +sold at 15_s._ and 1_l._ an acre, now cost 30_l._ or 40_l._, and this +is about the average price along the coast. The valuation of the new +vineyards that have been planted can be only approximative, as no +proprietors of them are inclined to sell. The valuation of a vineyard is +made according to the number of plants it contains, and not according +to the extent of the ground it covers. The number of plants varies +considerably according to the nature of the soil, and there are generally +12,000 plants an acre in the heavy land, and 17,000 in the light land. + +There were vineyards sold in 1842 at 600_l._ an acre, and afterwards at +as much as 1000_l._ an acre, while on the gravelly soil they were not +worth more than 80_l._ an acre. + +In 1834 the Crimea possessed in new and ancient plantations 7,100,000 +plants, distributed as follows:— + + Vines. + South-east Coast of the Crimea 1,600,000 + Soudak, &c. 2,000,000 + Valley of the Katcha 2,000,000 + ” Alma 500,000 + ” Belbek 500,000 + German colonies. 500,000 + +Since that time the number of vineyards has enormously increased, but I +have not been able to procure any details upon the subject. + +The road from Soldaya to Theodosia is very mountainous, and the country +thinly peopled. The great calcareous chain of mountains here recede +from the sea, and are barely covered with a meagre vegetation, and only +a few Tatar villages occupy the low valleys. Completely abandoned by +the aristocracy, with impracticable roads, and none of the luxurious +habitations which fashion has raised about Yalta, the shore between +Alouchta and Theodosia is rarely visited by tourists, and only +occasionally explored by some scientific traveller. + +Although the coasts of Soudak are abandoned by the Russian nobles, +although there are there no Italian villas, or Gothic mansions built in +porphyry, there is instead a hearty welcome to the traveller and real +Oriental hospitality. Far from the centres of civilization which the +Russians have raised in the Crimea in the last twenty years, the Tatars +of these regions have preserved intact the traditions of the past, +and all the remarkable traits of their primitive character. In every +village the traveller, especially if he be not a Russian, is received +with the most affectionate care. Everywhere the best house, the most +beautiful cushions and carpets, are placed at his disposal, and he is +installed in a good apartment with coffee and a tchibouk, in a way which +can be appreciated only by those who know the inconveniences as well +as pleasures of travelling in the East. At Toklouk, Kouz, and Otouz, +the Tatar dwellings, with their flat roofs, are raised against the +hills which border the valley, and by this arrangement the inhabitants +communicate generally by the terraces of their houses. Nothing can be +more picturesque than the appearance of these terraces of an evening: at +that moment the whole population, men, women, and children, are on the +alert, and desert their dark chambers, where they seek a refuge against +the sun during the heat of the day, to install themselves on the roofs of +the houses. + +The most agreeable animation succeeds the silence of the day, loud +conversations are heard on all sides, and a very picturesque effect +is produced by the various groups, who, still employed in household +occupations, thus enjoy the coolness of the evening. + +At Koktebel, a little village situated on the borders of the sea, +about twenty miles from Soudak, near the sombre Cape Karadagh, are the +really mountainous parts of the Crimea. Beyond it the country possesses +no features of picturesque beauty; vast plains gradually succeed to +the hills, and at a distance the Steppes, which form all the northern +part of the peninsula, extend to the east of Theodosia as far as the +Cimmerian Bosphorus. On all the line from Soudak to Theodosia there is +no ancient monument or ruin; and the nature of the coast, sometimes +abrupt, sometimes open and undefended, appears little favourable for +the foundations of a town, or the establishment of either a military or +commercial port. + + + + +CHAPTER XV. + +FROM ALOUCHTA TO SIMPHERÓPOL, KARASOUBAZAR, ESKI KRIM, AND THEODOSIA. + + Valley of Alouchta—Obelisk—Valley of the Angar—Tavshan + Bazar—Fortified Gorge—Yenisála, a Greek Colony—Aian and the + source of the Salghír—Ascent of the Tchatyr-Dagh—Yaila—Snow + reservoirs—From Tchafki to Simpherópol—Excursion up valley + of Little Salghír to caves of Kisilkoba—Caverns—Simpherópol + to Karasóubazar—The Shireen family—Eski Krim—Theodosia, or + Kaffa—B.C. 700, Theodosia founded by Milesians—A.D. 250, + totally destroyed by the Huns—Desert for 1000 years—A.D. 1280, + Kaffa founded by Genoese on site of Theodosia—Short history of + it—A.D. 1475, taken by Turks—Its decline—Revival in seventeenth + century—1781, taken by Russians—Description of ruins—Their + destruction by the Russians—Position of Kaffa in commercial + point of view—Arabat—The wall of Asander—The approach to Kertch. + + +The macadamised road does not extend along the coast further than +Alouchta, and here turns off northwards to Simpherópol, a distance of +about forty miles. It mounts for the first twelve miles through the rich +valley of Alouchta, till an obelisk marks the highest point, whence it +descends through the cheerful little valley of the Angar, which runs into +the Salghír. Here the Tchatyr-Dagh, the highest mountain in the Crimea, +rises immediately on the left, and the valley is an enormous rent in the +red pudding stone of which the mountain itself is composed. + +A little further on, a shady spot, called Tavshan Bazar (the Hare +market), serves as a resting-place for carriages coming from Simpherópol, +before they encounter the hilly part of the journey to the coast, and +from Tavshan Bazar to Simpherópol the road is good and even. + +Two limestone mountains[202] here rise above the road on the right, and +vast blocks which have rolled down from them nearly fill up the valley of +the Angar, and advantage has been taken of the narrow passage, called +Demirkapou, or the gates of iron, to erect one of the walls so common in +the Crimea, by which the southern coast was protected against invasions +from the north. + +A little beyond Tavshan Bazar,[203] to the right, is the village of +Yenisála, occupying the bottom of the valley. This was a Greek village, +abandoned in 1778, of which there only remain now the ruins of a chapel +and some tombs. The inhabitants were induced to remove at the great +emigration which took place five years before the Russian conquest of +the Crimea, and were transferred to the shores of the Sea of Azof, near +Mariopol, where they founded a new Yenisála. They never, however, forgot +their old abodes, and the present possessor of the village, M. Grot, +has seen old men arrive to visit the scenes of their youth, and find +out among the tangled bushes their ancient home, which they came once +to revisit before their strength failed them. A little beyond Yenisála +the Angar falls into the Salghír, and the high road follows the banks +of the latter river all the way to Simpherópol. There are no remains of +antiquity, except an old Tatar palace, called Eski Serai; but the country +around is rich and wooded, with fine poplars and aspens, and Tatar +villages are dotted thickly over it, with tiled houses and white minarets +rising among the trees. + +It is worth while, however, to stop on the high road at Tchafki and +make an excursion to the source of the Salghír and the summit of the +Tchatyr-Dagh. From Tchafki the ride is short to the little Tatar village +of Aian,[204] which is close to the sources of the Salghír, to visit +which the traveller must descend from the limestone terrace, on which +the village is situated, into the neighbouring narrow valley, which is +a rent in the red marble rocks, terminating, at a few hundred yards +distance, in a great chasm in the flank of the mountain. There, under an +enormous rock, surmounted by other broken fragments, is a large mouth, +which vomits forth the Salghír in the midst of mossy blocks of stone. +The wave, scarcely escaped from its cavern, falls in a cascade over +a mass of marble, and the noise of the waterfall is mingled with the +roaring of the waters in the gulf from which it issues in the very bowels +of the mountain. From a grotto above it the water may be seen boiling +and foaming in the dark abyss. These subterranean gulfs penetrate into +the heart of the mountain, where they communicate with other gulfs and +abysses, which reach the whole way through the mountain from near its +summit, and, preserving the snow during the whole year like glaciers, +continually feed the river. + +To mount the Tchatyr-Dagh,[205] on its eastern side, the first part of +the ascent is in the direction of Tchafki, over the schists, which to a +considerable height compose the western side of the valley of the Angar. +Then follows the red marble, and a very steep ascent, which leads to the +table-land or Yaila of the mountain, four or five miles in length and two +miles broad, and upwards of 4000 feet above the level of the sea. It is +very even and covered with fine pasture, on which feed numerous flocks of +sheep; but strange to say the strata of black limestone which compose it +are not horizontal, as might have been expected from its even surface, +but vertical, at right angles to the surface of the earth, and planed +off by some agency which nobody has been able to determine. The heads of +the beds may be seen running east and west, and the harder strata rise +slightly above the others, and have scarcely any vegetation upon them. +There are frequent slight depressions in the soil, from 40 to 100 feet +in diameter, and about 10 feet deep; but sometimes they sink into the +unfathomable abysses which have been mentioned as forming reservoirs of +snow to supply the rivers which issue from the Tauric chain. From this +lower table rises another, 700 or 800 feet high, which forms the summit +of the mountain, offering the magnificent view I have already described +in a former chapter. + +Nothing of interest occurs on the road from Tchafki to Simpherópol; +from which latter place there is an agreeable excursion up the valley +of the Little Salghír, which runs on the east, parallel to the great +river of the same name.[206] After passing the village of Mamak, at +a short distance from Simpherópol, a vast wall of porphyry, fifteen +miles long, closes the valley to the east, and extends from Djamatai to +Yenisála, which has been mentioned as being close to the high road to +Alouchta. This wall is the eastern side of the great circular crater, +in the midst of which Mount Tchatyr-Dagh has been raised up, and along +it there are rents, which form narrow valleys to the east, in many of +which villages are situated. At Terenair is some black schistous earth, +somewhat resembling coal in appearance; but although it would no more +burn than so much granite, the possessor of it, Mr. Kortchan, always +uses his utmost endeavours to obtain a certificate of its carbonaceous +virtues from geological travellers, that he may enter into contracts to +supply it as coal to the fleet at Sevastopol. Higher up is the valley +of the Kisilkoba, with a village of the same name at its entrance, and +a rivulet running through it, shaded by high trees. After passing the +village, and following, for a short distance, a narrow path by the +side of the stream, we come to a very steep ascent among the rocks, +where numberless fragments of pottery mark the spot as once having been +inhabited. Ascending the sombre and narrow glen, we then arrive at an +even terrace, some acres square, covered with fine trees, and surrounded +by high rocks, in which grottoes have been excavated. It is impossible to +conceive a spot more fitted for a hermitage, where the world is only seen +at a distance through the entrance of the little valley. At the back of +the terrace the stream bursts forth from subterranean canals, like those +under the Tchatyr-Dagh, and at the time of the melting of the snows a +great body of water issues forth. + +The course of the stream appears to have been several times changed, for +above its present place of exit, there are two other stages of the empty +canals, which form a series of majestic grottoes. The least elevated, but +the most beautiful, rise above the cascade, with a fine entrance about +twenty feet high, and within them the ground is found to be sandy, and +the cavern descends into the interior of the mountain. At half its depth +there is a passage of rising ground, which leads into other canals, of +such extent, that a French gentleman, having taken provisions and lights, +walked for a whole day with the guide, Mambet, without reaching the +extremity.[207] In the lower grotto, at sixty paces from the entrance, +there is a basin of limpid water, and between the strata of the limestone +the Tatars of Karasóubazar collect a red and yellow clay for the +manufacture of pipe bowls. The upper grottoes are two hundred feet above +the terrace, and the access to them is difficult. Their entrance is low, +but the passage rapidly increases in height and breadth in a north-east +direction. It then turns towards the north-west, and three more caverns +are passed, covered with white stalactites, which, by the light of the +flambeaux, make a beautiful contrast with the red rocks around. The +length of these caverns, as far as they are generally followed, is seven +hundred feet, and supposing that the dislocation of the strata, which +formed them, dates from the raising up of the Jurassic island of the +Crimea, fossil bones might perhaps be found here of great importance. + +At a mile and a half[208] from Kisilkoba is another gorge, Koutchouk +Yankoi, which much resembles the one I have described, and here ends +the valley of the Salghír, between the foot of the Tchatyr-Dagh and the +heights of the Samarkaia.[209] + +We will now return to Simpherópol, and follow the post-road thence +to Theodosia. From Simpherópol to Karasóubazar the road is very +uninteresting, and runs over a chalky undulating ground with little +cultivation and few trees. Half way is the post station of Konia, near +which are two large tumuli. + +Karasóubazar,[210] or the market of the black water, is one of the two +towns reserved by Catherine II. at the conquest of the Crimea, for the +exclusive occupation of the Tatars, and it therefore retains a strictly +Oriental character, which has quite disappeared from the towns inhabited +by the Russians. + +The only public edifices of any importance here are the khans or +caravanserais, where merchants rest on their journeys, and of these +there are between twenty and thirty, not equalling in architectural +beauty those of Georgia and Persia. The largest, called the Tachekhan, +was built in 1656 by Sefir Ghazi Atcheiou, minister of Mehmet Geray, +and is an immense square edifice, presenting outside only four blank +walls, but in the inside there is a large court occupied with rooms for +travellers and a number of shops. One of the last constructed khans +is that of the Armenians, which contrasts favourably with the others +in point of luxury and comfort. It is built like one of the covered +arcades or the “_passages_” of Paris, on a much greater scale, with +wider arcades, lighted by large apertures in its lofty roof. The shops +are ranged on each side, and there is a large passage or street between +them always filled with busy groups. There are also twenty-two mosques in +Karasóubazar, but none of them remarkable for beauty. + +The Greek church deserves a visit for its originality; it is built in +the shape of a cross with a dome which lights the centre. Karasóubazar +was in former times celebrated for its cutlery, and about 1755 it +exported to the Caucasus and Mingrelia as many as 400,000 small knives or +daggers, such as are commonly worn in the girdle in eastern countries. +The cemeteries round the town are of enormous extent, and from that of +the Greeks there is an admirable view of the town, with its red-tiled +houses, winding streets, and shady gardens. + +Between Karasóubazar and Kertch are situated the vast domains of the +Shireen family, which was the second in rank in the Crimea after that of +the Gerays, and so powerful that they were almost their rivals. Their +importance dated from the time when a certain Dangey Bey of this family, +in a general revolt, saved the last scion of the Geray family, who was +afterwards raised to the dignity of khan, and showed his gratitude to the +Shireens by conferring upon them many privileges. They alone could marry +the princesses of the Geray family, and near Karasóubazar is a mountain, +called by the Russians Shireenskaia Gora, or the Hill of the Shireens, +where they used to hold meetings of their dependents, when, as was often +the case, they disapproved of the conduct of the khans, and wished to +influence their government. According to one tradition, the ancestor of +this family was the companion in arms of Zingis Khan, and conquered the +Crimea for him, so that they might be even said to have some claims to +the throne itself.[211] + +The only point of interest between Karasóubazar and Theodosia are the +ruins of Eski Krim, which was the most ancient capital of the Tatars +after their conquest of the Crimea. The date of its foundation is +unknown, but already in 1266 it was the appanage of Oran Timour. Under +the Mongols it was one of the greatest towns in Asia, and a well-mounted +horseman required half a day to ride round it. It is now almost deserted, +and scarce any traces remain of the great city where the rich caravans +of olden times used to come laden with all the precious products of +Asia. The traces of the pavements of the streets may be observed in the +fields that now occupy its site. The ruins of five mosques and large +vaulted baths remain; and one Greek church and one mosque are still +used for religious purposes. The Armenians are the only inhabitants who +have remained here, and they still retain their church and a convent, +dedicated to St. George, on the neighbouring hill of Karasou, which is +the object of numerous pilgrimages. The best view of the town is from the +hill of Aghermiche, which embraces the whole valley, once occupied by +buildings, and on one side may be traced the remains of the ancient wall, +flanked with towers, which surrounded the city, and included an enormous +cemetery, in which tombs may still be seen of every variety of form. + +Near Eski Krim is the post-station of Krinitski, and beyond it begins the +flat uncultivated peninsula of Kertch.[212] There is now no sign of a +tree or a shrub, although traces exist in some parts of ancient forests, +and there is so great a want of water that the Tatars are obliged to dig +ponds in the soil to water their flocks. + +At fifteen miles from Krinitski is the once famous town of Theodosia or +Kaffa, situated on the shores of the finest bay on the northern coasts of +the Black Sea after those of Sevastopol. + +Twice have the commercial advantages of this situation been recognised, +and twice has a proud city arisen on the gentle slopes of this bay. +The Milesians, at the time of their first expedition into the Black +Sea, founded here a flourishing colony, which prospered long in an +independent state, and was then incorporated into the kingdom of the +Bosphorus. After an existence of 900 years, from the seventh century +before Christ to the third of our æra, there then intervened a period of +ten centuries, during which the plough passed over the site of Theodosia, +and it is barely mentioned by contemporary historians. Thus it remained +a ruin during the millennium, from the third to the thirteenth century, +when so many nations in succession made the Crimea their temporary +dwelling-place. Then, in the thirteenth century, soon after the Tatars +had made their first inroad, there landed on the shores of the Crimea +navigators, not less intelligent and enterprising than the Milesians, and +soon, on the site of the ancient Greek city of Theodosia, arose Kaffa, +the annals of which form undoubtedly one of the brightest pages in the +political and commercial history of the Black Sea.[213] + +In the middle of the thirteenth century, after the conquest of the +Crimea by the Mongols, at the moment when three powerful republics were +disputing the empire of the seas, the Genoese, landing in the bay of +Theodosia, on the deserted spot, which was then called Kaffa, obtained +from Prince Oran Timour a small territory on the shore. In 1280 the +colony was founded, and its rise was so rapid, that nine years afterwards +it was enabled, without neglecting its own defence, to send three +galleys to the relief of Tripoli besieged by the Saracens. The Genoese +obtained from the Tatars the monopoly of wheat and salt, and established +themselves at Kertch (Cerco), Taman (Materca), and Tana at the mouths +of the Don. The foundation of Kaffa increased the hatred between the +Genoese and the Venetians, and in 1295 the former massacred the latter +at Constantinople, and the next year, in 1296, the Venetians took their +revenge, defeated the Genoese in a great battle on the Bosphorus, near +Constantinople, and, having surprised Kaffa with a fleet of twenty +galleys, utterly destroyed the town. Such was the energy and vitality +of the Italian republics at that time, however, that the next year the +Genoese again took possession of their territory,—Kaffa arose quickly +from its ruins, and in 1318 Pope John XXII. erected it into a bishopric. +It was then governed by a consul, and the Podesta, the supreme ruler of +all the Genoese establishments in the Black Sea, resided at Galata. + +In 1343 a war having broken out with the Tatars, Djanibek Khan, the King +of Kiptchak, besieged Kaffa, and a crusade was preached in its favour by +Clement VI. The Genoese were victorious, but the dangers to which they +had been exposed made them feel the necessity of a formidable system +of fortification. The southern ramparts and palisades of the town were +replaced by high and thick walls, flanked with towers, and surrounded +by a deep ditch, lined with masonry. These magnificent works, of which +even the traveller at the present day may admire the admirable execution, +were commenced in 1353, by Godefrey de Zoaglio, and finished in 1386 +by Benedict Grimaldi. The most remarkable tower of the enceinte, the +southern one, which commands the whole town, was consecrated to the +memory of Pope Clement VI., with an inscription relating to the crusade +preached by him at the moment the Tatars were besieging the colony. The +Genoese probably drew the materials for their fortifications from the +ancient Greek city of Kimmericum, now Opouk. In 1365 they conquered +the Greek colonies of Cembalo (Balaclava), and Soldaya (Soudak), which +were tributary to the khan of the Tatars, and in 1380 obtained from him +a grant of Gothia, or all the sea-coast between Balaclava and Soudak, +which was inhabited by the Christians.[214] After that time Kaffa went +on increasing in prosperity, and had commercial relations with the most +distant countries of Asia, and soon, according to its historians, it +equalled in size and population the capital of the Greek empire, and +surpassed it in trade and wealth. + +The Genoese colony thus arrived, in the middle of the fifteenth century, +at the zenith of its glory and power, when the capture of Constantinople +by Mahomet II. isolated it from the mother city, and prepared the way +for its entire destruction. On the 1st of June, 1475, four hundred and +eighty-two sail of galleys, commanded by the grand Admiral Achmet Pasha, +appeared before Kaffa, and some hours afterwards the Genoese town saw its +walls bombarded by the formidable artillery of the Ottomans. The siege +lasted only a short time, and a large portion of the enceinte, raised at +a time when artillery was unknown, gave way; breaches were multiplied, +and on the 6th of June, 1475, the besieged surrendered at discretion, +after having in vain attempted to obtain a capitulation. Achmet Pasha +entered Kaffa irritated by resistance and hostile to the Christian +name. After taking possession of the consular palace, he disarmed the +population, levied a large sum of money on the town, and seized half +the property of the inhabitants, as well as all slaves of both sexes. +The Latin Catholics were then embarked on board the Turkish fleet and +carried to Constantinople, where the Sultan established them by force in +the faubourgs of his new capital, after taking fifteen hundred of their +male children, to incorporate in his guards. Thus in the space of a few +days, after a glorious existence of two hundred years, was ruined this +celebrated city, which European genius had raised in this remote country, +and which had developed a most important traffic with Eastern Europe and +Asia. + +Kaffa, the ruin of which was followed immediately by that of Soldaya +and Cembalo, was directly united to the Ottoman Empire, and was not, +like the rest of the Crimea, left as a fief in the hands of the Tatars. +During one hundred and fifty years it had no other importance than that +which it derived from being the seat of a Turkish garrison, and a strong +military position on the borders of a Mussulman state, which the Sultans +were always anxious to conquer. In the middle of the seventeenth century +the ancient Genoese city again became considerable on account of the +great commercial and manufacturing movement which took place at that time +among the Tatars, and which caused it to become once more an important +commercial port of the Black Sea. + +In 1663 Chardin found in the bay of Kaffa more than 400 ships. The town +was then called by the Turks Kutchuk Stamboul (little Constantinople) +and had 4000 houses, and more than 80,000 inhabitants. The prosperity +of Kaffa, however, did not last long. Since the time of Peter the +Great, Russia has been continually advancing towards the Black Sea, +and already in the time of that monarch, she had pushed her victorious +armies to the Danube. In this progressive march towards the south, the +Crimea especially excited the ambition of the Tzars, and in the reign of +Catherine II., was incorporated into the Russian Empire. + +Under the Muscovite dominion Kaffa sunk again. It lost even officially +the name under which it had pursued so glorious a career in modern times, +to resume at the caprice of the Emperor Alexander its ancient Greek +name, and it now does not possess more than 4500 inhabitants. At Kaffa, +as at Soldaya, the erection of useless barracks was the signal for the +destruction of the ancient Genoese monuments. The revêtements of the +ditches were first carried away, and then, owing to the indifference of +the government, the walls themselves disappeared. The magnificent towers +which defended them were successively thrown down, and at this day there +only exist three remnants of the remarkable bastion, christened in honour +of Pope Clement VI. + +The Genoese fortifications once destroyed, the vandalism of the +administrative authorities next attacked the civil monuments. When the +Russians took possession of the place, two imposing buildings ornamented +the principal square of Kaffa; the great Turkish baths, an admirable +monument of Oriental architecture, and the ancient episcopal church +of the Genoese, an edifice built in the fourteenth century, and then +converted into a mosque after the Turkish conquest. Under the reign of +Catherine II., it was decided to restore the mosque to the Christian +faith, and it was given to the established Greek church of Russia. +Unfortunately, instead of preserving it intact, they entertained the +fatal idea of decorating it with a miserable portico in the quasi Doric +style, such as is seen from one end of Russia to the other. The elegant +domes, which surrounded in a graceful manner the principal part of the +building, were then demolished, and the bases of the new columns were +hardly laid, when money failed, and the government refused to make +further advances. The beautiful mosque, from which the lead had been +torn off, doubtless to be sold for the profit of the employés, was thus +abandoned to the injuries of the weather and the public, and soon became +a perfect ruin. + +In 1833 the civil governor, M. Kasnatcháief, in a most barbarous and +ignorant manner, completed the work of destruction, by attacking the +great baths which had hitherto remained intact. He asked permission from +Prince Woronzof to enlarge the great square, because it was too small for +a parade ground, and the instant he obtained it (knowing that he would +be stopped when his intentions were found out), he set about destroying +the mosque and the baths.[215] In the space of a fortnight, by the aid +of the pick-axe and powder, both these admirable monuments, with which +the Genoese and Turkish occupations had enriched the town, completely +disappeared. In 1840 the great square was filled with their precious +materials, which the local administration were selling at the price of +common stone. + +Of all the splendid edifices of the Genoese colony, only two churches +have escaped the Russian vandalism; having been granted to the Catholics +and the Armenians, and preserved by them. For a long time, these two +foreign communities struggled against the indifference of the government, +and endeavoured to obtain assistance to repair their churches; and having +been unsuccessful, they in a spirited manner restored them at their own +expense. + +If from the interior of the town we cast our eyes to the environs, +the same spectacle of destruction saddens the view. All the beautiful +gardens, and the rich orchards, which surrounded the town in the time of +the Tatars, have disappeared. One single winter was sufficient for two +Russian regiments to annihilate every trace of the brilliant cultivation +which formerly covered the hills. + +From[216] the fort of the tower of Clement VI. there is a fine view of +the town and the bay. In the midst of the panorama rises the ancient +Genoese citadel, now dismantled, with its walls threatening to fall down. +Before the citadel, a building, remarkable by its two massive groups of +building, but without any exterior ornament, is the principal Armenian +church, which the emigrants of that nation constructed when they arrived +here under the protection of the Genoese, after the terrible earthquake +of 1319, which destroyed Anni,[217] and so terrified one portion of the +Armenian nation, that they took refuge with the Tatars of Kiptchak, in +the environs of Astrakhan. Hence they sent colonies into the Crimea and +established themselves, with the consent of the Genoese, at Kaffa, Eski +Krim, and in the environs of Soudak. + +Before the Russian conquest, in 1713, Peyssonel relates that the +Armenians had twenty-four churches at Kaffa, and Levasseur de Beauplan, a +century earlier, counted thirty-two. + +The church in question is now converted into a warehouse, but its +interior has preserved the distribution of the religious edifices of +Armenia—a grand oratory as an entrance, then a nave, a dome, and a choir +with lateral sacristies. The other Armenian church, which has been +already mentioned, deserves a careful study as a good and well preserved +specimen of Armenian architecture, and is an exact copy of those still +to be seen in Armenia. The portico is the most ornamental part of the +edifice, and the mouldings and roses are as varied as in Gothic and +Byzantine styles. There are two images of St. George, the saint in which +the Georgians and the Armenians have so much confidence, and the walls +of the church are covered both inside and outside with funeral crosses, +as in Armenia.[218] In every detail it is interesting to observe how +faithfully the Armenians, in their distant colonizations, preserved the +artistic traditions of their country.[219] + +Hommaire de Hell is not the only traveller who deplores the vandalism +of the Russians. Dubois says, “that he dare not express his feelings at +seeing the noble works of the Genoese so uselessly ruined.” + +The “mild and amiable” Pallas was a Russian subject, and dared not +express his indignation at the atrocities he saw perpetrated. When he +first visited Theodosia, the great mosque was complete, with its noble +cupola 54 feet in diameter, surrounded on three sides by eleven smaller +domes. “There were also,” as Pallas says, “two minarets 96 feet high, +furnished with serpentine staircases leading to the top; _though both +structures have been since destroyed_.”[220] + +Clarke, it appears, was an eye-witness of this last barbarous proceeding, +and describes the painful feelings it occasioned to all the civilized +persons who beheld it. “The melancholy devastation,” he says,[221] “while +it draws tears down the cheeks of the Tatars, and extorts many a sigh +from the Anatolian Turks who resort to Kaffa for commercial purposes, +cannot fail to excite the indignation of every enlightened people. +At Kaffa, during the time we remained, the soldiers were allowed to +overthrow the beautiful mosques, or to convert them into magazines, to +pull down the minarets, to tear up the public fountains, and to destroy +all the public aqueducts, for the sake of a small quantity of lead, which +they were thereby enabled to obtain. + +“Such is the true nature of Russian protection; such the sort of alliance +which Russians endeavour to form with every nation weak enough to submit +to their power, or to become their dupe. While these works of destruction +were going on, the officers were amusing themselves in beholding the +mischief. Tall and stately minarets, whose lofty spires added such grace +and dignity to the town, were daily levelled with the ground, which, +besides their connection with the religious establishments for whose +maintenance the Russian empire had been pledged, were of no other value +to their destroyers than to supply a few soldiers with bullets, or their +officers with a dram. I was in a Turkish coffeehouse, at Kaffa, when +the principal minaret, one of the ancient and characteristic monuments +of the country, to which the Russians had been some days employed in +fixing ropes and blocks, came down with such violence that its fall +shook every house in the place. The Turks, seated on divans, were all +smoking, and when such is the case, an earthquake will scarcely rouse +them; nevertheless, at this flagrant act of impiety and dishonour, +they rose, breathing out deep and bitter curses against the enemies +of their Prophet. Even the Greeks who were present testified their +anger by similar imprecations. One of them, turning to me, said, with +a countenance of contempt and indignation, Εκυθαι! Scythians! which I +afterwards found to be a common term of reproach; for though the Greeks +profess the same religion as the Russians, they detest the latter as +cordially as the Turks or Tatars. The most lamentable part of the injury +thus sustained has been in the destruction of the conduits and public +fountains which conveyed, together with the purest water from distant +mountains, a source of health and comfort to the people. They first carry +off the leaden pipes to make bullets; they then take down all the marble +slabs and large stones for building materials, which they employ in the +construction of barracks; lastly, they blow up the channels which convey +water, because they say the water-porters cannot earn a livelihood where +there are public fountains.” + +In spite of all the depredations of the authorities, and the stupid +ignorance of the governor, Kaffa has never been completely metamorphosed +into a Russian town. Its principal monuments have been demolished, its +walls razed to the ground, its later population expelled, but the general +appearance of the town, the private dwellings, the streets paved with +large flags, all announce a different people. It is to be hoped the town +may long preserve this picturesque aspect, which resembles that of many +little ports on the shores of the Mediterranean.[222] + +There is a museum at Theodosia, which is an ancient Turkish mosque, with +two lions at its entrance, which were brought from Phanagoria. Whatever +ancient Greek monuments are here have been brought from Kertch, when +Theodosia was the capital of this part of the Crimea; and among them is +a griffin of fine workmanship. But there are no inscriptions or important +monuments of the ancient Theodosia, which, indeed, Clarke and others +suppose to have been at some distance from the site of Kaffa.[223] There +are, however, many Genoese inscriptions in the museum, and among them an +important one found on the tower of Pope Clement VI.[224] + +The peninsula of Kertch was formerly closed by three ramparts, which +were raised for political reasons to defend it from dangerous enemies. +The most ancient is that of Asander. It starts from the extremity of the +Tauric chain, and finishes at the sea of Azof, near the commencement +of the tongue of Arabat. The Scythian slaves of Sindic origin raised +it to defend themselves against their masters when they returned from +Asia. Asander, King of the Bosphorus from 49 B.C. to 14 B.C., renewed it +and fortified it with towers as a defence against the invasions of the +Scythians, and it has ever since borne his name. It may still be traced +with the places for the towers. The rampart of the Golden Mountain, at a +few miles from Kertch, was the primitive frontier of the kingdom of the +Bosphorus and the colony of Panticapæum. The success of the Leuconides +in the 4th century before Christ had carried it beyond the peninsula +of Kertch, by uniting Nymphæum and Theodosia to the kingdom. Asander +fixed it at the rampart of the Scythian Slaves, and this was for several +centuries its limit. In the mean time the Chersonians replaced the +Scythians as the predominant people in the Crimea, and they had taken +Panticapæum during the absence of Sauromates V., who had gone to pillage +Asia Minor in the third century after Christ, notwithstanding the army +which the Emperor Constance opposed to him. In order to re-enter his +capital, Sauromates was obliged to give up his prisoners and booty. +His grandson, Sauromates VI., who reigned A.D. 302 to 310, wished to +avenge himself on the Chersonians; he was however beaten by them near +the rampart of Asander, and obliged to swear never to pass it in arms. +Violating his oath, he again appeared in the field, and consented to +terminate the war by a single combat with Pharnáces, the chief of the +Chersonians. He was killed, and his army, undergoing the yoke of the +conquerors, was obliged to retire half-way from Theodosia to Kertch, +where the Chersonians permitted the limits of the kingdom to be fixed. +Then was erected the rampart of Akkos, or Cybernicus, which commences at +the salt lake of Itar Altchiek and finishes at the Sea of Azof. It is +very well preserved; the ditch turned towards the Crimea is still very +deep, and the mounds along the rampart would lead to the belief that it +had been supported by towers. These three ramparts are almost the only +ancient monuments between Theodosia and Kertch; and the road is most +uninteresting and monotonous, passing through a thinly-peopled steppe, +covered with deserted Tatar villages and vast cemeteries. + +The first station from Theodosia is Porpatche, at 22 versts distance. +The second is Arghin, at 27 versts; and between these two is passed the +rampart of Asander. At Arghin travellers turn off who wish to visit +or to pass along the Arabat. The third station is Suftanofka, at 28 +versts distance, and in this stage the rampart of Akkos is passed. At +this station there are springs and a well, and here for the first time +the horizon is seen crowned by the tumuli and coral-rag peaks which +characterize the environs of Kertch. Those who go to Simpherópol from +Kertch, and have their own horses with them, may avoid the détour by +Theodosia, and continue their road straight across the Isthmus to +Krinitski. The road then lies through Ormeil and Karagos, celebrated for +its ancient mosque in the primitive style of Tatar architecture. This is +one of the four most ancient mosques in the Crimea, in the architecture +of which are to be observed only straight lines or semicircles.[225] + + + + +CHAPTER XVI. + +KERTCH. + + Approach to Kertch—The Cimmerian Bosphorus—Russian + Conquest of Kertch in 1771—Its rise since 1833—Its + chance of becoming the emporium of trade for the Sea of + Azof—Russian authorities—Ancient church—Kertch, the ancient + Panticapæum—Acropolis—Arm-chair of Mithridates—Allée of + Tumuli on Theodosian road—The Tumulus a sign of Milesian + occupation—Contents of Tumuli on Theodosian road—Etruscan Vases + at Kertch—Burial-places of the Poor—Tomb of the Pigmies—The + Catacombs—The Tombs of the Kings—The Golden Mountain—The + rich discoveries at Kouloba—Description of the contents of + the Tomb—Pillaged by the people—Probably that of Leucon I., + or Paerisádes I.—The Museum—Myrmékium—Mud Volcanoes—Naphtha + Springs—Cape Akboroun—Nymphæum—Herring fishery—Opouk, the + ancient Kimmericum. + + +After[226] a long journey across an uninterrupted flat steppe, slight +undulations appear above the horizon on approaching the Cimmerian +Bosphorus, and shortly after this appearance the traveller finds himself +in a principal necropolis of the ancient Milesian city. Immense cones +of earth rise on each side of the road, and ridges of coral rag lying +among these sepulchral monuments, give a grand aspect to this singular +field of death. On arriving at the extremity of the plateau, the view +extends over the whole Bosphorus. On an evening in summer the last rays +of the setting sun tint the cliffs on the Asiatic side, and light up the +triangular sails of a few fishing boats lazily floating down the current. +The outline of the tumuli of Phanagoria becomes distinctly traced on the +blue sky, and, as the sheet of water of the straits gradually assumes the +sombre colouring of evening, the shadow of Cape Akboroun stretches over +the water. These fine effects of light and shade are visible but for a +few moments; the sun descends with tropical quickness below the horizon, +and the uniform tones of the dark twilight envelop the Bosphorus, its +shores, and the solitary barks upon its waters. + +Descending from the plateau, the traveller enters the town of Kertch, +which is completely Russianized, of new construction, occupying the +site of the ancient Greek colony of Panticapæum, once the queen city +of the Bosphorus. The straits on which it stands, called the Cimmerian +Bosphorus, leading from the Black Sea to the Sea of Azof,[227] and +separating Europe from Asia, are about eight miles wide, and in parts +so shallow, that they do not admit vessels drawing more than twelve +feet of water, although in the time of Peter the Great, at the taking +of Azof, corvettes of forty guns could pass through them. Kertch is a +corruption of the name Gherséti, which the Turks gave to the fortress +erected here by the Genoese, which was called by the geographers of the +fourteenth and fifteenth centuries Bospro, Vospro, and Pandico. The +Russians took possession of Kertch in 1771, and then 500 or 600 huts +surrounded the Turkish fortress, which was circular. This the Russians at +first strengthened, but afterwards abandoned, because it was completely +commanded from behind. + +Yenicáleh, at a few miles distance, was then fortified for the defence +of the straits, and Kertch dwindled away, until, in 1821, the Emperor +Alexander, appreciating its commercial importance, declared it a port +of the empire, and raised it to the rank of a town, with an independent +municipality.[228] Since that time Kertch has slowly increased, although +it has scarcely now as many inhabitants as it had during the occupation +of the Turks; for Peyssonel allowed it, in 1787, from 3000 to 4000 souls. +It is now the chief town of a little government, comprising Yenicáleh +and about 13,000 acres of land, which form the eastern point of the +peninsula; and the whole number of inhabitants in Kertch and Yenicáleh +together is only 2800 souls, living in 680 houses. + +[Illustration: PLAN OF PANTICAPÆUM NOW KERTCH, ANCIENT CAPITAL OF THE +KINGDOM OF THE BOSPHORUS. + +_Published by John Murray Albemarle Sᵗ. 1855._ + +_Ford & West. Lithʳˢ._] + +On the proposition of Prince Woronzof in 1833, the suggestion which +Pallas[229] had made forty years before was acted upon, and Kertch was +declared the place of general quarantine for the Sea of Azof, and since +that time no vessel has been allowed to pass the straits without a clean +bill of health obtained here. The object of the Russian government in +this measure was to do away with all quarantine establishments in the +Azof, which has been effected, and to throw into the hands of natives +the carrying trade between the ports of the Azof and Kertch, which has +not been found so easy of accomplishment. Kertch has not become, as was +expected, the emporium for all the valuable commerce between the Black +Sea and eastern Russia; this still remains in the ports of the Azof; and +Rostof, notwithstanding the difficulty of reaching it with large vessels, +still goes on increasing in importance far more rapidly than Kertch. +Of all the ships that frequent the Azof, by far the greater number are +content to pass a long quarantine at Kertch, and to ascend the sea to +load, although, if Kertch were the emporium, and merchants had large +stores there, ships might arrive at the straits, load at once, and be +off with their cargoes without any quarantine at all.[230] In accounting +for the fact that advantage has not been taken of the great privileges +accorded to Kertch, something is doubtless due to the difficulty of +changing any established course of trade; and merchants who have laid out +capital in establishments at Taganrok and Rostof have, of course, been +unwilling to remove to a new town. There are, however, real advantages +for commerce at the towns of the Azof, which Kertch does not possess. +The trade of that sea is almost entirely confined to exports, and the +merchants at the ports on its shores are nearer to the country which +supplies them, and to their agents who are scattered over it, and with +whom they want to maintain a constant communication, than they would be +at Kertch. At present there is no steam communication in the Azof, and +the means of transit across it must be very much improved before it will +be possible to transfer to its southern extremity the point of rendezvous +between the internal and external commerce. And, again, if Kertch should +become the emporium of trade, a larger capital would be required for +carrying on business there, because stocks would be longer on the road, +and more of them would have to be kept in store. The necessity for a +larger capital is a great objection to the change, because capital is +very scarce in Russia, as in all new or ill-governed countries, so that +even that which is required for the tillage of the ground is supplied by +foreigners, as will afterwards be explained. It is besides doubtful, if +an emporium were established on the Black Sea, whether Kertch is the most +eligible place for it. The merchants generally are in favour of Theodosia +rather than Kertch, because the anchorage at the former place is better, +and the bay of Theodosia does not freeze in winter, like the Bosphorus. +A glance at the map will also show, that a railway might be made, or a +canal cut across the peninsula of Kertch, which at Theodosia is only +forty miles broad, to some point between Arabat and Cape Kazantip, where +the Russians landed their stores last autumn for Sevastopol, and then +the difficulties of the navigation of the Bosphorus would be avoided, +the distance shortened, and the communications would be easier with the +western parts of new Russia. + +Kertch, like all Greek colonies, is charmingly situated. A hill, called +the Arm-chair of Mithridates, on the top of which the rock is scooped +out in a peculiar way, rises at a short distance from the shore, and +gently slopes down to the sea. Around this hill was originally built the +old Greek town, and on its sides were once clustered a variety of Greek +temples, crowned on the top by the acropolis, which in Greek cities was +nothing more than the walls surrounding the sacred spot in which was +placed the tutelary deity, upon the safe custody of which the security of +the town was supposed to depend. The Turkish fortress below the hill has +now been cleared away to make room for a handsome open square surrounded +by arcades, from which streets are building in all directions. + +I was kindly lodged during my stay here by Mr. Cattley, the English +vice-consul, a son of one of the great Russian merchants of St. +Petersburg, whom I had met at Sevastopol, and who is now the interpreter +to Lord Raglan in the Crimea. + +The civil Governor was Prince Herkheolídze, of Georgian extraction; and +the military Governor, whose command extends all down the eastern coast +of the Black Sea, and includes all the fortresses erected against the +Circassians as far as Redout-kalè, was General Budberg, who had been the +aide-de-camp of Marshal Diébitch in the first Turkish and Polish wars, +and who was lately commissioner to the Emperor in the Principalities. + +General Budberg was exceedingly polite, but would not allow me a passage +to Redout-kalè, down the eastern coast of the Black Sea, in one of the +Government vessels, which then occasionally plied there, although as soon +as Prince Woronzof came to the Caucasus he made them start at stated +times, and receive passengers at fixed charges, to the great convenience +of travellers and merchants. During the ten days I staid in Kertch I +spent the time very agreeably in visiting the numberless ancient remains +in the neighbourhood, and profiting by the kind hospitality of the +society there. + +As I was going to visit a country so little known as the Caucasus, having +obtained leave to take the road along the line of the Kuban, and across +the mountains to Tiflis, I was anxious to obtain every information +in my power, and met with many officers at Kertch who had served in +various parts of the mountains, and were very obliging in satisfying my +curiosity. General Budberg told me of the anthracite which is found in +large quantities on the banks of the Don, and which was found to be, he +said, better than coal for the steamers. He had just been superintending +the experiments which two new English engineers had been making with it, +and they found that a ship could be provided with it for one-third time +longer than with coal, although it required a different arrangement of +some parts of the machinery of the vessels. + +I met here several educated Russians, of what I may call the middle +classes, and was pleased to find in the unguarded moments of familiar +conversation a tone of sound good sense in all their remarks, which +I believe fairly represents the general state of feeling through the +country. + +Giving generally the fruit of my observations among many classes of +Russians for several years, I believe they think their government a wise +and good one on the whole, although they are not slow to criticise it +in its details. They believe that an iron hand is necessary to keep the +empire together, and that a great destiny is in store for it, and as long +as progress is made, and the Slavonic name upheld, it has always seemed +to me, and I think my opinion has been borne out by recent events, that +they would be willing to rally round their Government, and make every +sacrifice required by it. + +Great efforts have been made of late years by the Government to rouse a +national feeling in the people, and for this reason almost insurmountable +obstacles are placed in the way of Russians either leaving Russia, or +having their children educated abroad. As a general rule, to which very +few exceptions are allowed, no Russian can be absent from his country +between the age of twelve years old and twenty-five, or the whole time +during which the character is supposed to be forming; and after the age +of twenty-five a medical certificate is necessary in order to obtain +permission to travel, and a tax of one hundred silver roubles, or about +16_l._, is levied during each year of absence as the price of a passport. +No Russian can be absent more than five years from his country without +ceasing to be a Russian subject, and forfeiting all his property. These +rules were a good deal the subject of conversation while I was at Kertch, +and they seemed generally approved of, on the grounds that young Russians +came back with such very absurd notions after having been to foreign +countries, and that, without understanding what was good in them, they +aped everything that was bad. It was also observed that the revolution +of 1824 originated entirely with the army that had served in Western +Europe, which brought home notions of freedom that were impracticable in +their native country. A constitution it was said was now impossible in +Russia, and so little was the meaning of the term known by the people +when they called out for it at the revolution of 1824, that they thought +“Constitutia”[231] meant the wife of the Grand Duke Constantine, who +resigned his rights to the throne in favour of the late Emperor Nicholas. + +The church of Kertch, which formerly stood in the fortress, is a curious +specimen of Byzantine architecture, and the date of its erection engraven +on one of its columns, viz. the year of the world 6225 (757 A.D.), proves +it to be the oldest Byzantine temple now remaining in the Crimea. + +The plan of the church is that of a cross with very short transepts, and +a cupola rising in the middle, which lights the centre by eight narrow +windows. The cupola is supported by four short marble columns of the +Corinthian order, and some idea may be formed of the small dimensions of +the church, as the distance between these columns is only twelve feet. + +The appearance of the whole is mean and gloomy, and resembles the +churches which may be seen in various parts of Greece. Under the +Justinians and their successors, in the sixth and seventh centuries of +the Christian era, architecture had degenerated, and leaving more and +more the beautiful models of Greece, had changed into a new style suited +to the wants of the Christian ritual, and therefore continually less +like the old Greek edifices. This new style, which took its origin at +Constantinople, was called the Byzantine style, and all the countries +which bordered on the Black Sea adopted it. The cupola was necessary +for the church service, as its light being shed on the table of the +love feast, or the altar, was considered emblematic of the divine light +descending from heaven. + +Such was the origin of the Byzantine style, and it was natural that the +Crimea, which was so near Constantinople, should be greatly influenced +by it, and that the traces of it should be everywhere found throughout +the peninsula. There are the remains of such churches at Phanagoria +and Taman, and the churches of Kherson, Aithodor, and Aioudágh, in the +Crimea, are built in the same style. There were several in Kertch, the +remains of which may still be seen. + +The marble that was commonly used at this period was white with large +grains, striped with blue bands. Dubois supposes that there was a quarry +of it near Constantinople, and that it was a great manufactory for +church columns and ornaments, which were exported all round the Black +Sea, because it is in all the principal ports that traces of churches +are found, adorned with this marble. It is not found in buildings +erected before the foundation of Constantinople, and the two kinds, +then most usual, were the marble of Paros, of which fragments are found +belonging to all ages, and a streaked marble of blue, or grey, or white, +called “cipolino” by the Italians, the use of which is confined almost +exclusively to the Bosphorus.[232] + +The ancient name of Kertch was Panticapæum,[233] and it was one of the +many Milesian colonies founded in the Black Sea, in the seventh century +before Christ. After about half a century of independent existence, it +became the centre of a kingdom the political limits of which varied +considerably. In its palmiest days the territory extended as far north as +the Tanais, while to the west it was bounded on the inland side by the +mountains of Theodosia. This fertile and narrow region was the granary +of Greece, especially of Athens, which drew annually from it a supply +of 400,000 medimni of corn.[234] Although there are no fine buildings, +or even fragments left standing, as at Athens and Rome, to attest the +ancient magnificence of Panticapæum, heaps of brick and pottery and the +foundations of buildings encumber the soil for a considerable distance +round the Hill of Mithridates, and show how great was the extent of the +ancient city. + +The acropolis occupied the summit of the Hill of Mithridates, in shape an +irregular polygon, and the ditches and some parts of the walls, the last +in the coarse limestone of Kertch, may still be traced. The fortified +town touched the acropolis in the form of a long square, of which the +acropolis occupied the south-east angle. The wall in its circuit enclosed +only the summit and the northern slope of the Hill of Mithridates. The +southern side seems never to have been fortified, although there are +numerous traces of the foundations of buildings. + +It is probable that, in very early times, the bay advanced much further +into the land. Not to speak of the groups of tumuli which seem to mark +the ancient limits of the water, the alluvial nature of the soil, its +low level, which is almost that of the sea, and the absence of all +buildings on this space, make it probable that this ground was formerly +covered by the water. This was the case with all the other bays of the +Bosphorus, and particularly of one to the south of Mount Mithridates, +which formed in ancient times a second port, but is now covered with +a salt-lake, separated from the sea by a bar of sand, which the waves +sometimes overleap in stormy weather. + +Thus in ancient times the hill of Panticapæum was bounded on three sides +by the sea. The principal faubourg extended from the mole, the remains of +which are still visible, along the sea-shore to the foot of the mountain, +and as far as the southern port. In the midst of the immense heaps of +ruins which cover the surrounding country, may be traced the principal +streets which ended at the gates of the town, and among them one of the +most distinct is that leading from the port to the acropolis, entering it +at what seems to have been its only gate. This is probably the gate that +is seen on the coins of the king, T. J. Reskóuporis, because it is not +placed in the middle of the wall of the polygon, and the same peculiarity +may be observed on the coins. The street after entering the acropolis, +ascended the hill by a zigzag, until it reached the peak at the top +called the Arm-chair of Mithridates. The base of the peak is hidden +under a mass of ruins, and the whole rock has been carefully hewn. This +is especially the case on the western side, where a niche is excavated, +eight feet wide with steps leading up to it, and evidently intended for +a statue, and this is the work which has given rise to the name of the +“Arm-chair” of Mithridates. This “Arm-chair” is evidently only part of an +ancient edifice in which it was included, the form of which may be traced +by the foundations of the walls. + +This edifice had probably a religious destination, as in the excavations +which M. Scassi made at the foot of the rock, he discovered a fine torso +of a colossal statue of Cybele in white marble, which forms one of the +chief ornaments of the museum. There are also friezes and cornices which +came from the same spot. The head of Cybele is found on the coins of some +of the kings,[235] although not on those of the town of Panticapæum, and +Cybele is the same divinity as Astarte, or the Eastern Venus. + +The interior of the acropolis, which was 200 yards square, allowed plenty +of room for the erection of two sanctuaries, one to Cybele and the other +to Ceres, and still left space for the lodgings of the priests, and the +garrison, and for a palace for Mithridates the Great, who came here to +die. The acropolis of Athens had not more available room than that of +Panticapæum. The plateau of the Hill enclosed in the walls of the town +was also ornamented with palaces and perhaps temples, for several peaks +of rock have been sculptured like the Arm-chair of Mithridates, and the +inscriptions and medals of Panticapæum show that there was the worship of +several other divinities besides Cybele and Ceres. + +There are no signs of aqueducts in the acropolis, but the lower town +was probably supplied with water from two springs at the bottom of the +valley, which now furnish the two principal fountains of Kertch. One is +within the old fortifications, and has been repaired by the Turks with +the fragments of ancient marbles, on one of which is an inscription, +showing it to have belonged to a monument which Sauromates III. raised to +his father Mithridates Eupator (A.D. 162). + +The principal gate of the town was turned towards the interior of the +peninsula in the centre of the western wall. It led to Nymphæum and +Theodosia, and the place is easily recognized by the interruption of the +deep ditch which ran along it. At 240 yards from the gate the road which +led to Theodosia reached an allée of tumuli ranged several rows deep on +each side in an irregular manner, and continuing for two-thirds of a +mile. This long series of tombs seems to date in great measure from the +foundation of the town by the Milesians. At a later period the dwellings +of the dead became more extended, and occupied the range of hills in +continuation of Mount Mithridates for six or seven miles in length, and +here are found the tombs of the kings. Tumuli are also found on the +other side of the low plain to the north, where they form three grand +groups, the best known of which is near the modern quarantine. The gate +to the north of the Theodosian gate led to the Greek city of Dia, near +Kamishboroun, and the road crossed the hill through a gentle dip. Along +it were the tombs of the poorer inhabitants, who buried their urns and +cinders around a coral-rag peak, 245 feet above the level of the bay. + +Such is a short sketch of the Milesian Panticapæum. Afterwards, as the +bay became filled up, and the low ground between the mountain and the +sea increased, the population descended and left the old site of the +town, until in the fourth century, soon after Kertch became converted +to Christianity, its Kings disappeared, and barbarous hordes destroyed +all the cities of the Bosphorus. The population then became very much +reduced, and the Panticapæum of the Eastern empire was a decayed and +unimportant town. + +As soon as there was space enough on the sea-shore, the inhabitants +fortified themselves there; and the Milesian acropolis, on the summit +of the mountain, with its temples and palaces, has ever since served +as a cemetery. This was proved by the excavations which were made for +building a mortuary chapel for Mr. Stempkovsky, who wished to be buried +on the highest point. To the depth of eight or ten feet were found +broken Etruscan pottery, fragments of marble, and building stones with +inscriptions. In the midst of this new soil were a number of tombs, +irregularly placed one on the other, containing stone coffins made of +thin layers of Kertch limestone, filled simply with bones, which proved +them to be Christian. + +The Greeks never allowed the dead to be placed near the temples of the +Gods, as their contact was considered pollution. Even close to the +Arm-chair of Mithridates was found a sarcophagus, like those of Inkerman +and Tepekerman, 7½ feet long and 1½ feet broad, and the eastern end, that +of the head, cut in the shape of a semicircle. The tomb was covered with +a great slab, and approached by five steps cut in the southern side of +the rock. The Arm-chair itself was perhaps the apse of a little Christian +chapel. + +The enormous quantity of tumuli round Kertch form one of the +distinguishing features of the place—many of them have been opened, and +unfortunately without sufficient care. The tumulus on the shores of the +Bosphorus is essentially Milesian. This is also remarkable on the Asiatic +side, where the towns of the Sindes have no monuments of this kind, while +Phanogoria, Kepos, and Kimmericum, which are known Milesian colonies, +are surrounded by them. The same is the case on the European shore +where Panticapæum, Myrmékium, Porthmium, Nymphæum, Milesian towns, are +distinguishable from a distance by the multitude of their tumuli, while +the other Kimmericum, now Opouk, and Kherson, colonies of Heraclea, and +consequently Dorian, have none. The same is the case with the towns of +the Tauri; except the residence of Skilouros near Simpherópol, which has +a few tumuli near its walls. + +It would be curious to inquire what is the reason of the tumulus being +peculiar to the Ionic race. Does it arise from their differing with the +Dorians in their religious ideas respecting the dead? and are the same +facts observable in Greece and other Greek colonies? Must we go back for +an explanation to the origin of the Greek nation, of the Ionians from the +Pelasgians, and of the Dorians from the Hellenes? + +The group of tumuli near the Theodosian gate[236] are the most ancient, +as is proved both by the nature of the objects found in them, and by +their worn appearance. Mr. Blaremberg was the first to excavate them in +1824; and he has left in the museum of Kertch a list of the articles +which he found in four, which had not been previously opened. + +The head was generally surrounded by leaves of beaten gold, of which +it was the custom to make a crown; and the following is a list of the +articles found in one tomb, which he calls, without any good reason, that +of the wife of King Eúmeles. + +1. A bust of Isis in terra cotta. + +2. Two doves in terra cotta. + +3. A fragment of a Serapis in plaster. + +4. A fragment of a large necklace in carbonated silver, finished by two +heads of lions. + +5. Ornaments in a vitreous paste imitating glass. + +6. Fragments in oxided iron. + +7. Two medals in bronze of King Eúmeles (died B.C. 304), having on one +side a head of Apollo, and on the reverse a Priapus before a branch of +myrtle. + +8. A pair of golden bracelets, beautifully worked. + +9. Two golden ear-rings, with small cupids, ornamented with precious +stones. + +10. Two golden rings, with convex green stones. + +11. A golden ring, with an engraved stone of Minerva, very fine. + +12. A golden pin, with a stone, on which is a butterfly. + +13. A silver pin, with an engraved stone, with a head. + +14. Four chalcedony ear-drops, and some leaves in beaten gold. + +The tumuli near the quarantine are clearly less ancient than those on +the road to Theodosia. They are less worn by time, of more colossal +dimensions, and their interior construction, and the objects contained in +them, show a more advanced state of civilisation. These tumuli were also +crossed by a public road, which branched off on the right to Myrmékium, +and on the left to Porthmium. The greater number contain vaults built of +masonry, instead of excavations in the limestone, and their floor is on +the same level as the ground outside. The arch of the ceiling is formed +by each row of stones projecting more than the one below, until they +almost touch at the top; and there are several tombs in the same tumulus. +On cutting through one, on the new road to Yenicáleh, three tombs were +found. The two first were those of men, as was proved by two swords and +a lance which were found in them, and in the third was a skeleton of a +woman, crowned with leaves of golden laurel. + +There were also the following golden ornaments, which evidently belonged +to a lady of high rank. Ear-rings two inches long; a necklace in filigree +an inch broad, with ornaments below like the points of lances; two +fibulæ, four inches long, worked with beads; a large bulla, like the +fastening of a belt, with a head of Mercury upon it. Besides these, +there were many plates of gold, which had fallen from the dress, now +disappeared, on which were embossed vine-leaves and bunches of grapes; +pearls of gold, with little tubes, separated by small enameled flowers, +composed necklaces of various patterns. There were two rings, one very +massive, with a stone having a head upon it, and the other with a stone +cut into the shape of a lion couchant; and there was another representing +two owls. By the side of the body was a gold coin of Philip of Macedon, +a metal mirror, a clay vase two feet high, and a shallow covered vessel +a foot and a half in diameter. At the same time another discovery was +made by chance; by the side of the third tomb a fourth was found, in +which were two large Etruscan urns, and one amphora about the head of the +dead, who was crowned with a crown of golden laurel; with it were two +necklaces, a pair of precious ear-rings, and a coin, all of gold. + +It is interesting to find, on the shores of the Cimmerian Bosphorus, the +same vases which in Italy are called Etruscan, from the place in which +they were first found. They were soon known, however, not to be peculiar +to Etruria, and Magna Græcia was discovered to be a still more prolific +mine of them. Further researches established the fact, that wherever +Greece had carried her civilisation and her colonies, these vases were +found, and that there was not a spot within those limits, even as far as +the banks of the Kuban and the Sea of Azof, which did not possess this +kind of pottery, manufactured on the spot. + +The number of these vases found at Kertch is small, but many were broken +when the tombs were first opened, and fragments of them are scattered +in great quantities all over the ruins of the town. The late Empress +possessed two at Petersburg. General Potier and Prince Volkhonsky each +had one, and a fourth was sold by Count de Betencourt for 160_l._ The +Chevalier Gamba, in his Atlas, gives a drawing of one found at Kertch. +There is a fine series in the museum there, and many private persons in +the Crimea and Odessa possess others. + +The following is a short account of the form and destination of these +vases:—[237] + +In the East manners and customs have always remained in a singular degree +unchanged, and this remark applies to all the objects of exterior life, +and even to the vases. Each form had its particular destination, and, +when manners do not change, forms likewise remain the same. + +The Greeks partook with the East of this stability and uniformity in +their vases. This may be observed from one end of Greece to the other, +and both the fine and coarse vases of Italy are precisely on the same +model as those of the Greek islands and Panticapæum. + +They may be divided into two categories—profane and sacred. First, those +for domestic use, or ornaments and offerings, as the _kados_, cups, +bowls, viols, and lacrymatories; and secondly, the sacred or funeral +vases, which formed a distinct kind. The latter are always of the shape +of an urn with two handles, more or less large. The forms of all the +vases are Greek, and, with few exceptions, they are ornamented with +designs upon them. + +Of the profane vases, or those for common use, the _kados_ was that one +used for drawing water; and for this all the people of the East, and the +Greeks, had a peculiar form, varying in different countries according as +the pitcher was carried on the head or the shoulder. Rebecca carried it +on her shoulder when she met the servant of Abraham near the fountain of +Charan.[238] + +The Greeks gave to this vase the name of _kados_; and with them it had +three handles, of which the one in the middle served to hold it while +water was poured out into smaller vessels, and the other two were to +balance it upon the head. The _kados_ of the Tatars of the Crimea has two +handles, because they carry it on the head, like the Greeks. The Georgian +_kados_ is very broad below, and has only one handle, being carried on +the shoulder. The Armenians use tinned copper vessels ornamented with +designs. + +The funeral vases, wide below, with narrow necks, nine to fifteen +inches high, are found in the tombs, always with two handles, and two +compositions painted on them, one on each side, differing both in +execution and the style of the subject. On comparing them with those +found in Italy, they will be seen to be precisely similar, even to the +singular difference in the two compositions which ornament them. The one +is always some scene in private or public life; and the design is elegant +and the execution very careful. The other is a coarse sketch, hastily +done in a rough way, and an eternal repetition of the same personages, +with some variations in the pose, the number of figures, and the emblems +which accompany them. + +The personages in the long cloaks are the initiated during some scene +of the mysteries of Ceres Thesmophora, as may be seen by comparing them +with the relief on the altar of that goddess, found in the acropolis of +Panticapæum, where the whole scene is precisely the same. These vases +placed in the tombs must, therefore, be regarded as a kind of certificate +of baptism, to prove that the dead had been initiated into such or such +a grade of the mysteries. As the principal object of these mysteries +was to teach, that there was an Almighty Divinity, punishing vice and +recompensing virtue, the presence of these vases would be a proof of +their faith in this doctrine, by which they hoped to reap eternal +happiness after death. Some of the scenes relate to the mysteries of +Bacchus, as well as Ceres, and the two have an intimate relation with +each other, as they both come from the mysteries of Isis and Osiris. +The essential elements in the mysteries of Ceres are the ample cloak, +or _pallium_, without sleeves, descending to the feet, and was the same +as was used in the mysteries of Eleusis. The initiated, on the vases, +have the head bare, and with some the hair is bound by a narrow white +fillet, which seems worn only by those of superior rank. This fillet has +a little ornament in front, which may be the leaf _persea_, or the little +serpent _knouphis_, the good demon so often seen on the images of Isis +and Osiris. The crown of laurel and myrtle belongs only to an important +personage, perhaps an hierophant. There is also a white stick held in the +right hand, and sometimes the _strigillum_, or scraper. There is also an +altar in the form of a truncated pyramid, and a large branch, and sacred +cakes, _placenta_, oval, round, triangular, or square, placed in baskets, +which were not to be seen by profane eyes. They were generally marked by +one of four mystic signs: 1st, — or ꖌ; 2nd, +, or ⁜, or + +; 3rd, Ϲ, +or Ͽ 4th, ☉ —. These scenes were so completely considered, merely as a +general emblem, that on some vases the figures can hardly be made out; +and the whole care of the artist was devoted to the scenes of life on the +other side of the vase. The subjects chosen go far to prove that they +were manufactured at Panticapæum, for the _griffin_, which was the emblem +of Panticapæum, constantly appears, and various details of Scythian +costume. On one there is a warrior with the Scythian cap; in front the +crest of his horse; behind him the griffin. On another is a Scythian +on horseback, in his costume, covered with little plates of gold, +fighting the griffin. On a third the griffin follows in a procession by +torchlight, and carries on its back a personage with a sacred emblem. On +another is the history of the Amazons, evidently a Panticapæan subject; +for the Sauromatæ, governed by women, were in daily contact with the +Bosphorians; and the Amazons on the vase wear a complete Caucasian +dress, the _bachelik_, or covering for the head, worn still universally +in the Caucasus, of precisely the same form; the narrow trousers, the +Tcherkess coat, the little morocco shoes, without soles,—in short, the +whole Scythian costume is represented on this vase in the dress of the +Amazons, but elegant and coquette, as it would be, if adopted by women. +In the Hamilton vases of Naples[239] there is likewise one scene of three +Amazons fighting three griffins, which may, perhaps, have come from the +Bosphorus. + +Three classes of tombs must still be mentioned—those of the poor, the +catacombs, and the tombs of the kings. On going out of the gate leading +to Dia, along the mountain of Mithridates, there is an eminence, which a +gentleman began to excavate. His labours, however, seemed to end in the +solid rock, below a mass of amphoræ, which contained the cinders of the +poor population. At last he remarked a sepulchral slab, and, lifting +it up, found the entrance to a funeral cavern. This was built with an +Egyptian roof,[240] and had been despoiled of everything precious, but +was still most interesting, from a suite of small pictures drawn on the +wall below the commencement of the roof, about a foot high, representing +the war of the cranes and the pigmies. In one place there is seen a +pigmy, armed with lance and shield, struggling against a crane; in +another place he is overthrown by his desperate adversary; in another he +is attacking him by the tail, and the crane is turning round to punish +him; in another he is running away, or defending himself with his hands +and feet against the terrible pecks of his enemy; while another pigmy is +wrestling with a crane, and succeeds in vanquishing it by pressing its +neck. The roof was ornamented with garlands and arabesques to suit the +pictures, and at the end of the cavern are two peacocks drinking from +the same vase,[241] and a winged genius, with a basket of flowers in his +hand, is over the entrance door. Unfortunately, soon after this tomb was +discovered, it was completely defaced by visitors. + +The catacombs are among the tumuli on the road to Theodosia, and are deep +excavations 15 or 20 feet deep, 7 or 8 feet long, and 2½ feet broad, and, +on descending and entering by an arched door, large subterranean chambers +are found, cut in the white calcareous clay, with niches all around for +the bodies. Some remains of coffins are to be found, and the whole is +probably a Christian work. + +The last group of tumuli to be mentioned are those of the kings, at what +was called the Golden Mountain. After following the old road to Theodosia +for two miles, Mount Mithridates is seen to offer a passage across it by +a narrow valley. The mountain rises again directly, and continues in a +north-west direction to the Sea of Azof. This continuation is called the +Golden Mountain. An enormous tumulus, which rises above the road, where +it passes between the hills, seems to announce a more powerful race than +that which raised the tombs of the plain. On the crest of the mountain, +at 323 feet above the level of the sea, rises the tumulus, in the form +of a cone, 100 feet high and 150 feet in diameter, different from those +of the neighbourhood, because it is walled from top to bottom like a +Cyclopean monument. It is cased on its exterior, like the Pyramids, +with large blocks of Kertch stone, cubes of three or four feet, placed +without cement or mortar. This monument, almost unique of its kind from +its size, was a tomb, and from all times had been the object of a number +of mysterious legends. The Tatar, Turk, and more ancient traditions, +spoke of immense treasures hidden in this tomb, which was known by the +name of Altun Obo, or the Golden Mountain. It was even added that, on +each feast of St. John, a virgin was seen on the summit of the tumulus, +waiting for him whom she had chosen to share with her the treasures of +the Cyclopean monument. It may be observed that there is the same style +of legend from the north to the south of Europe, and this of the Golden +Mountain is similar to that, which the Tatars relate of the Kisiltach +rock, the Lithuanians of the golden table buried in the swamps of Vokroi, +and the Rughians of the stone of the Virgin at Stubenkammer.[242] The +tradition existed that there was an entrance to the tomb, which the +Tatars had often tried to find, without success. It was not until 1832 +that Mr. Kareiche carefully sought for it, and employed thirty-five men +for fifteen days in attacking the tumulus from the south-west. At last +he had the good fortune to find the entrance to a gallery, by which he +penetrated without obstacle to the centre of the tumulus. The gallery +was constructed of layers of worked stone, without cement, and was 60 +feet long, 10 feet high—taking in the Egyptian roof, and three or four +feet broad. Arrived at the end, M. Kareiche found himself on the edge of +a precipice which opened before him. He saw with astonishment that the +centre of the tomb was formed of a circular tower 25 feet high and 20 +feet in diameter. The floor of this construction was 10 feet below the +floor of the gallery, and the vaulted roof was composed of four rows of +advancing stones. + +At length M. Kareiche perceived that he could descend into the tomb by +stones placed at distances in the side, and was hastening to reap the +treasures promised in the legend, when to his stupefaction he perceived +that the tomb was empty. On the ground was a large square stone, on which +a sarcophagus might have been deposited, and half way up the wall was a +large empty niche. He searched in vain to penetrate further, supposing +that the tower was only a well to arrive at other hidden caverns: nothing +indicated any passage, or any loose stone, and it is still an enigma what +was the object of this expensive and magnificent monument, the rival +of the pyramids. The tower is not in the centre of the tumulus, and it +is possible that there may be other interior chambers. The distance +between the interior tower and the exterior Cyclopean wall is filled with +fragments of stone from the fine quarries in the neighbourhood.[243] + +The modern Greek legend made this the tomb of Mithridates, although it is +well known that he was buried at Sinope, and Souvorof, deceived by this +account, is said to have made a pilgrimage to this tumulus as the tomb of +the great king, and to have knelt and shed tears here. + +This tumulus is placed exactly at the spot where the two branches of the +long rampart meet, which extends from the Black Sea to the Sea of Azof. +It is visible, extending from the foot of the tumulus to the gorge of +Katerles, which opens in a second range of hills parallel to the Golden +Mountain and Mount Mithridates, and the peaks above it are covered with +ruins. To the south the rampart is quite effaced, where the road to +Theodosia crosses it, but beyond it its zigzags are seen as far as the +White Cape, where it of course terminates. + +This rampart was probably the ancient boundary of the territory of +Panticapæum, and the primitive kingdom of the Bosphorus, before the +conquest of Nymphæum and Theodosia, which were added to the kingdom, the +first in B.C. 410, and the second about B.C. 390. + +Within the rampart, at 150 paces to the east, near Kertch, there is +another monument of the same kind as the other, but unfinished. It +consists of a circular esplanade, 500 paces round and 166 in diameter, +with an exterior covering of Cyclopean masonry, built of worked stones, +3 feet long and high. There are five layers of these; but it seems to +have been the intention of the builders to raise a monument like the one +before mentioned. Perhaps a revolution, or the death of the prince who +was building his own monument, like the kings of Egypt, caused the works +to be abandoned. Several ranges of enormous stones between this and the +first monument indicate ancient walls of houses, and adjoining these are +traces of ancient gardens, while on the slope of the mountain, in the +midst of the ruins near the Khouter Scassi, there is a fine well in good +preservation, cased with wrought stone and full of water. This seems +extraordinary in the midst of a country now so dry, desert, and devoid of +wood; but proves that in the time of Panticapæum the general aspect of +the land was very different, since country houses and trees existed where +there are now only wild rocks. + +The view from the summit of the hill, and still more so from the top of +the tumulus, is magnificent, and extends as far as the rock of Opouk, the +ancient Kimmericum, which is 24 miles distant. To the north it extends +over several pretty country houses, situated at the foot of the mountain. +That of M. de Scassi is a real Italian _villa_, surrounded by gardens and +orchards, where the proprietor has planted 30,000 plants of vines and +more than 2000 fruit-trees, which he imported from France. There is in +the park the ash and the elm, and the red pine of the Caucasus. There are +several small tumuli around; but a detailed description must now be given +of the great discovery of all, which was made by accident. + +There is a spur of the Golden Mountain running south, called by the +Tatars _Kouloba_,[244] or the hill of cinders, beyond the ancient +rampart, and four miles from Kertch. Near it is a tumulus 165 feet in +diameter, and some soldiers, carrying away stones from it, discovered an +interior construction. They soon arrived at a vestibule, 6 feet square, +turned to the north, covered by an Egyptian roof of three rows of stones, +which they were obliged to remove in order to penetrate further, because +this roof was supported by beams reduced to dust. At the end of the +vestibule was a door, 8 feet 10 inches high and 5 feet 9 inches wide, +closed half way up by large wrought stones, and above by those of the +common size. Large pieces of wood formed the covering, but the beams +were reduced to dust, and the stones which closed the entrance supported +the upper part, which threatened soon to fall. This difficulty was soon +removed, and two _savans_, Mr. Dubrux and Dr. Lang, were commissioned by +the governor to enter alone and take an inventory of the contents. An +immense crowd besieged the approaches, which were guarded by soldiers, +while the commissioners entered the funeral dwelling of one who had +evidently been an important personage. + +[Illustration: INTERIOR OF ROYAL TOMB OF KOULOBA, NEAR KERTCH. + +From Dubois’ Atlas. 1 archine = 28 inches. + + A. Vestibule. + B. Tomb of king. + C. Bones of the King. + D. Bones of the Queen. + 1. Heap of sharp flints. + 2. Arms and whip of king. + 3. Five statuettes in electrum. + 4. Attendant of the king. + 5. Bones of a horse, with greaves and helmet. + 6. Hundreds of arrow-heads. + 7. Two large lances. + 8. Queen’s golden vase. + 9. _Crater_ in silver. + 10. Second crater. + 11. Amphoræ, containing wine of Thasos. + 12. Bronze vase. + 13. Silver-gilt plate. + 14. Bronze saucepans, with mutton bones.] + +The tomb was almost square, measuring 15 feet from east to west, and 14 +feet from north to south, and the entrance-door was not in the centre +of the wall. The walls were built of hewn stones, each 3 feet long and +2 feet high. Five rows of stones raised it to 7 feet 8 inches, and +then began the spring of the Egyptian arch, formed by seven rows of +advancing stones, the front row advancing 5 inches and the upper rows +6 or 8 inches, so that at the top there only remained a space 2 feet +square, filled by a single stone: the tomb was thus 16 feet high. At 10 +feet 10 inches above the pavement began the wooden ceiling, which had +fallen, when the beams which supported it gave way. The floor had a stone +pavement, and the principal place was occupied by a sarcophagus formed +of a case of yew wood, 8 feet 9 inches long and 10 inches high, and was +joined by thick beams, on which the outward planks were fitted. The side +facing the interior of the tomb was open, and the interior was divided +into two parts by a plank. In one of the compartments, larger than the +other and nearest to the wall, was extended the body of a man of great +stature. The thigh bone was 17½ inches long, and the skull extremely +thick. On his brow were the remains of a _mitra_, or Persian cap, of +which the top is more narrow than the base. Two plates of gold ornamented +the top and the bottom: the one below was 1½ inches broad, ornamented +with festoons and griffins, the emblem of Panticapæum, and was of less +careful workmanship than the upper plate, ornamented with figures, +leaves, and arabesques. Around the neck was a grand necklace in massive +gold, of beautiful workmanship, in the form of an open ring, and twisted +like a cord, with the extremities passing one over the other. At each +end was a Scythian on horseback, and the extremities were for a distance +of 2 inches enameled with blue and green. Similar ones have frequently +been found of copper, and rarely of any other metal, in the tombs of the +north, and, among others, in those of the ancient Lithuanians. + +The arms were extended on each side of the body, and on the right arm, +above the elbow, was a circle or bracelet in gold, an inch broad, and +adorned with reliefs. Below the elbows were two other bracelets in +electrum,[245] 1½ inches broad. A third pair of open bracelets in fine +gold encircled the wrists, and finished in Persian winged sphinxes, the +claws of which held the thick thread of gold which served to close the +bracelet when it was passed on the wrist. The workmanship was very fine, +and their thickness about half an inch. At the feet of the king were a +multitude of little sharp flints piled up. In Scythian mourning it was a +custom to tear the face and the rest of the body with such instruments, +and they were then placed in the tombs as a mark of grief; some bodies +found in a tumulus near Simpherópol were covered with them. In the +narrower compartment of the sarcophagus were placed the gods and arms of +the king—first there was his iron sword, the handle of which, covered +with leaves of gold, was adorned with figures of hares and foxes embossed +on the gold. Beside the sword lay the Tcherkess or Cossack whip (called +_nogaik_), adorned with a leaf of gold, and above it was the shield in +fine gold. The thickness of the latter was about that of a five-franc +piece, and its shape showed that it was principally a protection for the +shoulder, and fitted to the arm. It was 8½ inches long and 7½ broad, and +its weight was 1½ lbs. of fine gold. The _umbo_ or centre of the shield +was surrounded by a simple circular fillet, and one with the egg pattern, +leaving an interval of 3½ lines, on which were chiselled dolphins and +other fishes. The rest of the shield was divided into twelve compartments +by a fillet, and was covered with masques imitating the head of Medusa, +alternating with faces with pointed beards, and flies and heads of +seahorses. + +The bow and its wooden case[246] were reduced to dust, and there only +remained the plate, in _electrum_, which ornamented the quiver. It was +adorned with embossed work, representing a wild goat seized by a tiger, +and a deer attacked in front by the griffin of Panticapæum, and behind +by the lion of Phanagoria. The deer was the emblem of the town of Diana, +which was Kherson. A seahorse filled the wider part of the plate, and a +masque the other extremity. Above the tail of the tiger was written the +Greek word ΠΟΡΝΑΧΟ, engraven on the metal. Some suppose this to mean +Pharnáces the son of Mithridates, whose tomb this may be, but Dubois +considers it the name of the artist, which, under the more recent form, +ΦΑΡΝΑΚΟϹ, frequently recurs in the inscriptions of Sindika, now Anapa. + +Among these arms was found one boot in bronze, and the fellow was on the +right of the king, opposite the head. In the same compartment, and near +the head of the king, were found, in the exterior angle, five statuettes +in _electrum_. One figure represented two Scythians embracing one +another, and tightly holding a horn, probably filled with hydromel. The +horn is like those which all the statues, or _babas_, so often found in +one part of Southern Russia, hold with both hands. Another figure holds +a purse in its right hand, and a strange instrument in the left, and is +like a Celtic Mercury. There was likewise the Scythian Hercules among +these divinities. Their costume recalled the Slavonic and Tatar dress, +and particularly the tunic of sheepskin, which the Tatars call _toun_ or +_teretoun_, the Russians _touloup_, and the Poles _kozuch_, which was +the Scythian garment found in the most ancient monuments. The fleece is +turned inwards, or the garment is only edged with fur, and it is found of +all lengths, from the short Tatar tunic, and the Slavonic _katskaveika_, +to the long sheepskin gown of the Russian peasant. These different kinds +are all visible in the different dresses of the figures of this tomb, +where may be recognized the real Lithuanian _sermedje_ and the Tcherkess +_tchok_. + +[Illustration: 1. Ornament found in the Tomb of Kouloba. + +2. Electrum Vase for perfumes, found near the Queen’s remains. See page +282. + +3. Embossed Work running round the Vase.] + +Thus was arranged the sarcophagus of the king, and around it, on the +pavement, were the objects which completed the furniture of the tomb, in +which nothing had been forgotten which could contribute to the material +wants of life. At his feet a kind hand had placed three large cauldrons +of molten bronze. Two were oval or oblong, and one was spherical, and all +reposed on a cylindrical foot, of which the base spread out into three +hooks to fix it on the soil. These three vases had been often on the +fire and used for cooking; there was a thick coat of suet still on them, +and the interior was filled with mutton bones.[247] + +There was another oblong vase, near the door, filled in the same +manner. After the kitchen of the king came his provision of wine, and +his drinking-cups. The wine was contained in four clay amphoræ, placed +upright against the wall on the right. On the handle of one was inscribed +ΘΑΣΙ, and below ΑΡΕΤΩΝ, and in the midst was a fish. These then were +filled with wine of Thasos, which, to judge by the quantity of amphoræ +found in the tombs, bearing this name, was the favourite kind of wine. +Two large _crateres_ were naturally placed near the amphoræ, because the +Scythians always drank wine mixed with water. The first, the nearest +to the door, was of silver, nearly eighteen inches in diameter, and +contained four drinking cups in silver, two of which were of beautiful +workmanship, particularly the one which terminates below in the head of +a ram. The second _crater_ in bronze contained also four silver drinking +cups, the largest of which is ornamented with chiseled work gilt, on +which may be recognised the birds and fish of the Black Sea and the +Cimmerian Bosphorus. On the right is a duck plunging and seizing a fish; +under it swims a _labra_ and a sturgeon, and further on a cormorant with +extended wings is seizing while flying a small fish. On another is a +combat of a wild boar about to yield under the claws of a lion. + +On the right is a _toura_[248] of the Caucasus, brought to the ground by +two griffins of Panticapæum. On the left the deer of Kherson suffers the +same fate, being torn by a lion, while a female leopard, with open mouth, +is about to seize it by the throat. In the part which the wild-boar, the +deer, and the toura play in the midst of griffins and lions, there is a +manifest design. The lion of Phanagoria and the griffin of Panticapæum +are not always represented as victorious without intention, while the +deer of Kherson, the toura of the Caucasus, and the wild-boar of the +Kuban, are always vanquished by them. + +Beyond the drinking-cups were the arsenal of the king, composed of two +lances and several bundles of arrows, laid along the wall. The last had +triangular points in bronze, with three barbs, to prevent their being +drawn out of the flesh, and are similar to those found in Scythian +monuments in Southern Russia. Between the arrows and the sarcophagus +there appeared a second skeleton, laid on the pavement, and much covered +with earth, but adorned so richly that it was impossible not to recognise +the wife of the king, who thus accompanied him to his last resting-place. +She was laid in the same direction as the king, and wore on her forehead +a mitre like him, with a plate in electrum terminating it, which showed +a skilful workman. Four women, in Greek costume, sit in the midst of +garlands of _lotuses_, the stalks of which form seats and backs. Four +masques of lions formed on each side the means by which the plate was +attached to the mitre. On the bottom the mitre was bordered by a diadem +of gold, adorned all round with small enameled rosettes. The queen bore +on her neck, like the king, a grand necklace with the ends moveable, and, +instead of horsemen, the extremities were formed of couchant lions. She +had on besides another necklace of gold filigree, to which were suspended +small chains, supporting little bottles of fine gold. Five medallions +of exquisite workmanship, and different sizes, descended on her bosom, +and they were fastened together by small chains and bottles. These were +enameled blue and green, like other objects that have been mentioned. +The two largest of these medallions represented Greek Minervas, but +evidently worked at Panticapæum, because of the chiseled griffins on the +wings of her helmet. The attributes of Minerva, besides the owl and the +winged Pegasus, are the serpents of Medusa, which ought to ornament her +shield, a winged sphinx like that on the bracelets of the king, and a row +of deer’s heads on the viser of the helmet. The arabesque which surrounds +the helmet is also enameled. + +At the foot of the skeleton was discovered a magnificent vase in +_electrum_, resembling in form and size those in the second _crater_, +which stands on a foot. It probably contained perfumes, particularly as +some of the little bottles usually called lacrymatories were found, as +in the other tombs. The exquisite chiselings upon it are of the greatest +interest for art and history. (See Plate.) Four groups of figures succeed +each other as episodes in the same history, in which the personage +playing the principal part reappears three times. In the first group, +beginning from left to right, he is seated, the two hands and the head +leaning on the lance, listening attentively to the report of a warrior. +The king is known by the royal band round his head, perhaps the very one +which is placed in the tomb. His costume is completely Scythian: he has +the narrow trousers, the boots, and the _tchok_ which has been described. +The warrior who makes the report is also a Scythian, kneeling before +him, dressed as on the Etruscan vases, and armed with lance and buckler. +Neither the one nor the other has the warlike quiver; their hair is long, +and spread over their shoulders; but the bearer of the despatch has no +diadem; he wears only the _bachelik_ of the Caucasus, or the Phrygian +bonnet, or rather the Lithuanian bonnet, which has for many centuries +remained the same. The next figure turns its back to the messenger, and, +kneeling on one knee, is much occupied in bending a bow, which may be +that of the king, for this warrior has his own by his side. They are +preparing for war. This war then takes place; and next are depicted the +fruits of it, for the king has been badly wounded. He is recognised in +the half sitting, half kneeling, figure, from whom the Scythian _magus_ +is extracting a tooth from the left side of the jaw. On examining the +skull of the king, deposited in the museum, it may be seen that the lower +jaw presents the marks of a wound, with a fracture which has carried away +several teeth; for the two large teeth are wanting, and a third, shorter +than the others, has been attacked by a disease which has made the jaw +swell. + +A fourth episode represents the king wounded in the leg; a warrior is +fomenting it with bandages. In this place the trousers and a part of the +_tchok_ are covered with something that looks like embroidery. These +are the little golden and electrum scales sewn on the garments. Strabo +says that the Aorses, on the banks of the Tanais, wear gold on their +garments.[249] These little scales are embossed, pierced with holes at +the sides to sew them on, and represent an infinity of subjects. This +tomb furnishes some very rich examples of them. + +On attentively examining the interior when it was first opened, it was +perceived that at the foot of the walls were heaped up an infinity +of these little plates. The walls showed signs of having had pegs of +wood fixed in them, to which were suspended the rich wardrobe of these +great personages. The clothes had fallen, and nothing was found but +a mass of dust, mixed with these little plates, which were carefully +collected. The greater number were in the form of triangles or roses, of +different sizes, without any relief; on others were fine heads of women +or divinities, and figures of griffins, lions, hares, foxes, and other +animals. One of them, with the figure of a woman upon it, proves that if +the men of that period wore the Caucasian dress, the same was the case +with the women, whose long veil or _tchadra_ seems just the same as that +which the Caucasian women still wear. The robe is flowing. One of the +women bears in her hand a goblet, and in the other a key. Another little +plate represents two Scythian archers, back to back, ready to shoot their +arrows. Two others represent Scythian hunters on horseback, pursuing a +hare. In the left hand they hold the reins, and in the right the javelin. + +By the side of the body of the queen were found two golden bracelets with +bas-reliefs in two ranges, that is to say, six figures on each bracelet, +the breadth of which is three and half inches. Around the head were +disposed six knives, with handles of ivory, the blades of which were +like surgical instruments. A seventh knife had a handle of gold, and +reliefs upon it. A bronze mirror, with a handle of gold, ornamented with +a griffin pursuing a deer, in relief, was also one of the objects which +surrounded the queen. + +According to the Scythian customs, the queen must have been strangled +before being placed in the tomb of her husband; and the same cruel laws +required the presence of the king’s servant. He was found accordingly +stretched across the tomb, along the southern wall, and round him were +many plates of gold. His helmet and greaves, in silver, very much +oxidised, were laid with the bones of a horse in an excavation two feet +square, which occupied the south-east corner of the tomb. Among the +things which were taken out of the cavern were several highly-worked +pieces of wood, which belonged to musical instruments, the only thing +wanting to complete the whole establishment. Several of the pieces showed +designs executed with an engraver’s point, of exquisite workmanship. +There was a chariot, a woman holding a helmet in her hand, a slave with a +large bowl giving drink to a horse, some women seated, and other designs. + +If all the objects which adorned the inside of the tomb bear the stamp +of Scythian ideas and the customs and usages of that nation, the same +cannot be said of the ornaments and pictures of the sarcophagus of yew +wood, which presents in perfect preservation paintings on wood, which +have resisted upwards of twenty centuries. These paintings covered the +pannels of the sarcophagus. The principal subject is entirely Greek, +and proves that if they buried a king surrounded by Scythian luxury, +Greek artists were employed at his interment. Two Victories, mounted +on chariots, turned one against the other, filled the extremity of the +picture, of which seven Greek figures, in different positions, occupied +the centre, three women and four men. A goose and a swan are mixed with +these figures, all represented as very agitated, running, gesticulating, +with expressions of joy, which is justified by the approach of the two +triumphal cars. The chariots are drawn by four white horses, two of which +are spotted. On the frieze, which surrounded the pannel above, the artist +has represented warriors drawing the bow. + +When the tomb was opened, the savans deputed for the purpose were busy +in making a plan and putting down the position of each object which +they found. This occupied the whole day, while two soldiers guarded the +entrance. These gentlemen in the evening thought their work was finished, +but for greater precaution the sentinels kept at their post, with orders +to let no one pass. The crowd which visited the tomb during the night +from curiosity was so great, that the sentinels could not keep it back. +The people penetrated into the tomb, examined everything, and then were +discovered the little plates of gold which covered the pavement. + +While they were thus occupied in examining and disputing about the +smallest spoils, some persons perceived that the tomb resounded as if +there was something hollow underneath. Raising the stones of the hollow +square in the corner, they discovered a second tomb below much richer +than the first, and from this the masses of gold were drawn which for +several years afterwards were in circulation at Kertch. There was not a +Greek woman there who did not retain some relic of this great discovery, +especially in the form of ear-rings. It was said that no less than 120 +lbs. weight of gold jewellery were extracted from these tombs, of which +the Government obtained about 15 lbs., and the rest was dispersed. In +this pillage the people acted in the most barbarous manner: they tore +the objects from one another, and chopped up the most precious with the +hatchet. Such was the fate of the golden shield of the lower tomb, part +of which the Government bought back piece by piece for the weight of the +gold. On one of the pieces recovered there is a Greek woman, like a Fury, +with her long hair blown by a tempest, bearing in her hands a lance and +torch: wolves, of which one carries a _labrus_ in its mouth, surround her +and complete the picture of this terrible divinity. The tomb is probably +anterior in date to the reign of Mithridates, both from the style of the +ornaments and various minor circumstances. The letter 𐅃 (P) is often +repeated on the reliefs, and is written with one side shorter than the +other, a form which quite disappears before the time of Mithridates +the Great. It is so written on the great vase in electrum, which is of +extraordinary enigmatical shape, representing a deer lying down, while on +its sides are chiselled a griffin, a ram, like the one of Jupiter Ammon, +a lion, and a dog turning its head, all of which appear on the most +ancient medals of Panticapæum. Again the two medallions of Minerva, with +her attributes, of exquisite workmanship, must have been made at a time +when the kings of the Bosphorus were proud of their alliance with Athens, +and of being citizens of that city, as were Leucon, Paerisádes I., and +Eúmeles. At a later period the connexion ceased between the Bosphorus and +Athens. There is, besides, no sign of the influence of Rome in any part +of the tomb. Its construction is very ancient, and the idea of propping +the ceiling with posts is not found in any more recent tombs. + +The Scythian costume also was much in vogue under the Leuconides, as +most of the figures on the vases wear it. We might indeed expect at that +period to find the Scythian manners and costumes by the side of the Greek +worship. The Scythians who had invaded Central Asia, destroyed by the +stratagem of Cyaxares in 605 B.C., returned in small number, hoping to +re-enter upon the territory which they had abandoned on the shores of the +Bosphorus; but they were opposed by the children of their wives and their +slaves, during the long absence of their husbands. Repulsed on every +side, they renounced the idea of crossing the Cimmerian Bosphorus; and +making the circuit of the Sea of Azof, they thought to force the rebels +in their retreat in the peninsula of Kertch. They passed the Isthmus +of Perecop and the Crimea; but their slaves were beforehand with them, +and raised a rampart of earth from the Sea of Azof to the Tauric chain. +The Scythians in despair are said to have then had recourse to their +whips, when from old recollections the slaves ran away, and the Scythians +re-entered on the possession of their domains, which their Sindic slaves +cultivated for them. The Sindes of the peninsula of Kertch were then the +ancient inhabitants of the peninsula and of the island of Taman, a race +mixed with Mæotes and the remains of the Kimmerian population, while the +aristocrats of the country were the Scythians, who levied tributes upon +them. + +It was among this Sinde people, governed by Scythians, that the Milesians +came to found the colonies of Panticapæum, Nymphæum, Theodosia, +Phanagoria, Kepos, and others, sixty years after the return of the +Scythians. These colonies depended at first directly on the metropolis, +paying a tribute for their establishment on foreign soil. Their commerce +and industry enriched them and increased their population, and they +then took up an independent position, and thus Panticapæum was governed +by its proper _archianactides_, who remained at the head of the +municipality from 480 to 438 B.C. But by the side of those magistrates +there existed in the Bosphorus of Europe, as well as in that of Asia, +an indigenous Scythian or Mætic power, whose ambition it was to conquer +the Greek towns. In 437 B.C. a certain Spartocus seized on Panticapæum, +and replaced the _archianactides_. Not to offend the Greeks, whom a +royal title would have frightened, he called himself _archon_ of the +Bosphorus (_i. e._ Panticapæum and Phanagoria), while he took the title +of _king_ of the countries which surrounded the colonies, and which +were his patrimony. The colonies preserved their municipal forms (which +resembled the Swiss municipalities and the imperial towns in Germany) +during 402 years, until Asander took the title of king of the Bosphorus +in 36 B.C. Under the first Archon and his successor Seleucus, the rampart +of the Golden Mountain was the limit of the territory of Panticapæum and +Nymphæum; and the latter colony was in the power of Athens. The treachery +of a certain Gelo, the maternal grandfather of Demosthenes, opened the +gates of Nymphæum to Spartocus II., B.C. 410, and the Athenians were +dispossessed.[250] + +Satyrus I. (B.C. 407), son of Spartocus II., was nevertheless a great +friend of Athens. He increased the kingdom on the Asiatic side, and, +having been killed at the siege of Theodosia, Strabo says that the +tumulus of Koukóuoba was raised in his honour. + +Leucon I., son of Satyrus (reigned 393-353 B.C.), was made a citizen of +Athens, and took Theodosia, to which he left its municipal administration. + +Paerisádes I. (349 B.C.) son of Leucon, increased the power of the +Bosphorus, by his successful wars in the Crimea and in Asia; and one part +of the Tauric chain and the valleys of the Caucasus obeyed him. There is +a medal of Kherson, with his effigy on one side and a Diana on the other, +that makes it probable that he also took Kherson, although there is no +mention of this fact in history.[251] + +Diodorus relates the tragic history of three sons of Paerisádes—Satyrus, +Eúmeles, and Prýtanas—who all died a violent death. Satyrus, the eldest, +trying to appease the revolt of Eúmeles in Asia, was wounded in the +arm, and died the next night. The body, it is said, was brought to +Panticapæum, and buried with magnificence in the tomb of his ancestors. +Thus we have mention of a family burial-place. + +Dubois thinks that the king found in the tomb was either Leucon or +Paerisádes I., on account of the allegories on the reliefs. Unfortunately +the contents of the lower tomb were never investigated, so that the only +thing that can be considered certain is that they belonged to the dynasty +of the Leuconides, from the emblems, the allegorical scenes, the form of +the letters, and the architecture. + +The value and abundance of the remains of antiquity found at Kertch +naturally required a Museum, which has been built by the government on +the Hill of Mithridates. It is an exact copy of the Temple of Theseus at +Athens, with a flight of steps leading up to it, and has a good effect +overlooking the sea. Situated, as is Kertch, on the confines of Scythia, +the Caucasus, the Sauromatæ, and other nations little known, it would +require a very experienced antiquarian to arrange the contents of the +museum; but, unfortunately, none such are to be found there, and its +precious contents are thrown pell-mell, and daily plundered. When Dubois +visited the Museum in 1832, there were three very curious skulls in it, +with remarkably high foreheads, found in a very ancient tumulus near +Yenicáleh, which probably belonged to the ancient Kimmerians. The only +perfect skull had disappeared a few months afterwards, having been sold +by the conservator for 100 francs to a stranger, who fortunately destined +it for the museum of Munich, where it will be preserved. + +The quarantine is about three miles distant from Kertch, and within its +boundary are the ruins of Myrmékium, the highest part of which is on a +little promontory overlooking the sea. Here, to hoist a flagstaff, some +sailors made a hole in the rock, and were surprised to find the mast +suddenly run down a considerable distance. On examining the ground they +found that there was a tomb underneath, which had, however, been opened, +and nothing remained in it but a very fine sarcophagus, ornamented with +bas-reliefs, which had been dragged towards the entrance, and then left +mutilated. + +Yenicáleh is at the point of the peninsula, about seven miles from Kertch +to the north-east, and its castle was built by the Turks to command +the passage of the Bosphorus: it is inhabited by a few Greeks, who are +occupied in the fishery for turbot. Two ranges of hills, with coral-rag +peaks, cross the peninsula of Kertch, and terminate at the Bosphorus—the +one at Yenicáleh, and the other a little higher up; on one is built the +castle of Yenicáleh, and on the other the lighthouse. Between them was +formerly a bay, which is now a salt lake, closed by a bar of sand. + +Higher up the valley, ranged in an amphitheatre, are many different kinds +of springs, and the celebrated mud volcanoes. The springs and the mud +volcanoes have their principal seat in the formations of the foliated +clay and the white chalk; and starting from the west, near the Khouter +Khronevi, the series begins by a sulphurous spring rising at the foot +of a limestone peak, and the sulphur is seen floating on the water. +There are other springs in the neighbourhood, which seem to take their +origin in the midst of a black, bituminous, brilliant mud, which when +stirred sends forth a strong smell of hydrogenetted sulphur. The cattle +are very fond of this water. To the east are pure springs, which supply +the aqueduct of Yenicáleh; and near the lighthouse are the springs of +naphtha and the mud volcanoes. These have continually been in activity +for a very long period of time. The principal crater, which seems the +patriarch of all this volcanic formation, is a tumulus completely +isolated, of 500 feet in diameter and 35 feet in height. Its summit +presents a depression of 6 feet, filled by a pond of mud and water, 70 +feet long and 35 feet wide. The mud is grey and thick, and gives out a +strong smell of sulphur and bitumen. Here and there on the thick mud are +liquid spots, whence bubbles of hydrogen gas rise, of a foot in diameter, +and sometimes they burst into fire, and the volcano is in a blaze. When +this violent commotion happens, the mud flows on all sides over the +borders; but in ordinary times it escapes in a little steam. Naphtha +springs, of 14° temperature, rise at 150 paces from the crater, in the +midst of a fine black mud, from a stream of water which passes near the +tumulus. They have a very strange appearance, and seem like the chimneys +of the infernal regions, as the crust of the soil is pierced with black +holes surmounted by little cones, from whence the mud and gas bubble up +together. The whole soil around trembles when walked upon, and one fears +to sink into the bowels of the earth. + +To complete our view of the peninsula of Kertch, I will now follow the +coast line to the south of Kertch by Nymphæum and Kimmericum to Theodosia. + +At Cape Akboroun, or the white cape, there are two groups of tumuli. One +group has seven of enormous size. The other extends along a ridge which +joins the southern spur of the Golden Mountain. Near the last there is +a high cliff, with a depression beyond it, which has the appearance of +an immense theatre overlooking the sea. This was the site of the old +quarantine, and was originally covered with vineyards, whence it received +its old Greek name of Ambeláki, from _ampelos_, a vine. There is here +a rich mine of phosphated iron, where the fossils published by M. de +Verneuil are found in great quantities. From the colour of the soil, this +cape is called Kamish Boroun, the blue cape, in opposition to Ak Boroun, +the white cape. + +Between the iron mine and a country house of the same name as the cape +are the ruins of Dia, which occupied the extreme southern point of the +entrance of the _ancient_ gulf of Nymphæum, now the Lake of Tchourbach, +for the flow of the current of the Bosphorus has closed the entrance of +the gulf, and no less than four lakes bordered with sand occupy its site. +Their formation is recent, and up to 1830 merchant vessels of Kertch used +to come and winter in the northernmost lake. Since then a bar of sand +has closed the port; for, owing to the zigzag shape of the Bosphorus, +it may be seen that the long bar of sand, called that of the South, in +increasing, has driven the current to the European coast, and against the +southern point of the bay of Nymphæum, which presented itself like a spur +to catch the sand. + +The ancient town of Nymphæum occupied exactly this southern point; but to +visit it, it is necessary to go round the gulf, at the end of which is +the village of Tchourbach, and the country-house of M. Gourief. There is +salt on the lake, but its naphthous nature prevents its being used for +salting purposes; and in the whole peninsula there is only the salt of +Tchokrak which is perfectly pure. + +Following a little rivulet which runs into the lake of Tchourbach, the +rocks increase in height, and an ancient road leads to the summit of one +of them, on which are the ruins of a large square castle, surrounded by +a wall almost buried under the turf. There was a deep ditch outside, and +there are no tumuli round it, but many tombs cut in the rock. It is about +eight miles from Kertch, and may be the Tyrictaca of Ptolemy. Nymphæum +is four miles from Tchourbach, and the road, which appears to be the +ancient Greek road, leads to it amidst coral-rag peaks and a profusion of +tumuli. + +On the angle between the ancient gulf and the Bosphorus was situated the +town, built on a kind of platform. The rampart is easily traced, and the +faubourgs were around the metropolis. There are large masses of ruins +everywhere, and the soil is several feet deep in broken pottery, much +of which is Etruscan. At about one-third of a mile from the town the +tumuli begin, and encircle it in great numbers; but nothing valuable has +been found here, as at Panticapæum. The excellent port, of which Strabo +speaks, is of course filled up, but three roads leading down to it from +the town may still be seen. A small colony of Russians is established +at the foot of the Acropolis, on the side of the Bosphorus; and here +are wells of excellent water, which date from the time of Nymphæum. The +colony is employed in the herring fishery, as masses of these fish come +close to the shore: at a single haul 50,000 have sometimes been caught. +In 1833 the government brought here from Holland a master-salter to +teach the art of salting and curing them. According to his account the +herrings of the Black Sea are not inferior to those of Holland; but those +of Kamish Boroun are fatter and more delicate than those of the Danube. +The fishery lasts from 15th October to the 15th of March, and as many as +two millions of herrings are yearly caught here.[252] Very possibly the +Greeks also carried on this commerce, for their mother country drew from +the Bosphorus their largest supplies of salt-fish. + +Nymphæum was founded at the same time as Panticapæum, and fell into the +power of the Athenians in the time of Pericles. It was betrayed into the +hands of the Bosphorians in B.C. 410. In the time of Mithridates it was +still a strong place, where he lodged the greater part of his army which +he destined for his grand expedition by the Danube and the Alps against +the Romans. Nymphæum afterwards rapidly decayed, and in the time of Pliny +existed only as a name. + +Takil-boroun, the promontory at the entrance of the Black Sea, where +there is the lighthouse, was probably the site of Akra, another Greek +town, mentioned by Strabo. + +At thirty miles from Kertch, on the coast of the Black Sea, is Opouk, a +Tatar village at the extremity of the fine roadstead which is defended by +Cape Elkenkáleh from the north and east winds. Here a volcanic effort has +raised the horizontal tertiary limestone of the peninsula of Kertch, and +lifted the fragments to different heights, without very much disturbing +their horizontal position. The largest is the hill of Opouk, about +two-thirds of a mile long. The surface is raised about fifty feet above a +chaotic mass of rocks below, which descend like steps to the sea, forming +on one side Cape Elkenkáleh, which closes the western entrance to the bay +of Opouk, and on the other side a similar cape which marks the entrance +of another ancient gulf, now closed by a bar of sand. Here in very +ancient times a numerous population was established, taking advantage +of the strong and advantageous position, where the rocks advanced like +a magnificent mole between two fine ports. Although the eastern one is +filled up, the western one still affords a safe and convenient anchorage +for vessels of war, which are here completely sheltered from northern and +westerly winds. At a short distance from the shore are two rocky islands, +called Karavi, and by these the place is identified as the ancient +_Kimmericum_.[253] Like all the towns of the peninsula of Kertch, it was +almost desert in the time of Strabo, and at a later period was called +Kibernicus. The south-east extremity of the rock was the acropolis, cut +off from the plain by a wall 200 feet long and 9 feet thick. The corner +of this wall touched on a construction of extreme solidity. The walls of +it, about 50 feet square and 12 feet thick, and a ditch cut in the living +rock, separated it from the exterior town. There are ruins and grottoes +all around, and there is a block cut into the form of a pedestal, on +which stood the statue of a divinity. There is likewise a well cut in the +rock, and a great deal of pottery. A great gate communicated from the +acropolis to the town. The most populous part was that to the south-east, +and numberless remains of houses may here be traced. There were also +exterior fortifications, and a polygonal wall defended the whole of the +peninsula between the bay and the gulf, embracing a space of about four +square miles. Thus there were two castles and two ports, and probably +villas and gardens, within the circuit of the wall. An excellent fountain +of water, which never fails, is the only thing which interrupts the +solitude that reigns in this vast assemblage of ruins. There is not +a single tumulus to be seen, probably because, as has been observed, +Kimmericum was not a Milesian city. The Genoese are supposed to have +carried away the remains of Kimmericum, in order to build Caffa.[254] +Opouk is twenty miles from the post station of Arghin. + + + + +CHAPTER XVII. + +THE SEA OF AZOF. + + The Sea of Azof—Its extent and boundaries—Its depth + continually diminishes—Its sweet water—Its rivers—Currents—The + Straits of Kertch—The Russian defences of it—The eastern + shores—Temróuk-Okhtor—Cape Obriv—The fishing huts—Bay and new + town of Yeisk—Cape Tchimborsk—Mouths of Don—Bars of the Don—Old + town of Azof—Rostof—Its commercial importance—Shallowness + of water in Gulf of the Don—The Azof frozen in winter—Ruins + of ancient Tana—Taganrok founded by Peter the Great—Its + history—Its importance—Mariopol—Cape Bielo-Serái—Berdiansk—Its + foundation—Port is filling up—Lake Moloshenska—Peninsula of + Berútchi—Straits of Yénitchi. + + +The Sea of Azof[255] is situated from latitude 45° to 47° and in +longitude 32° to 36°. From the straits of Kertch to the point of +Bielo-Serái at the entrance of the gulf of the Don, is 90 miles, and from +Bielo-Serái, to the mouths of the Don, is 76 miles, so that the total +length of the Sea of Azof is 166 miles. Its breadth from the extremity +of the Tonka, on the west, to the lagoon of Beislitz on the east, is 142 +miles. + +The north coast of this sea is from 84 to 132 feet in height, and is +generally flat, although in some parts it is bordered by low hills and +reddish cliffs. Extensive strips of land, bordered by sand banks, have +formed around all the promontories, and, subjected as they are to the +influence of the currents of the Don, have a tendency to move towards the +west. The east coast of the Sea of Azof is inhabited by the Tchernomorski +Cossacks, and, beginning at Temróuk, it is very low, often sandy, and +cut up by lagoons and rushy marshes. There are also on the coast many +sand banks, particularly in the gulf of the Don, which, like those of the +opposite shore, incline towards the west. The Tonka,[256] a low narrow +long peninsula (called also the “Streolka” or arrow, or the Arabate), +forms the west coast of this sea, which by it is separated from the +_Shiváshe_ or mud sea, an immense lagoon, into which all the rivers +of the western side of the Crimea flow. The Sea of Azof is bounded on +the south by the Crimea and the peninsula of Taman, on the east by the +country of the Tchernomorski Cossacks, and the Don Cossacks, on the north +by the country of the Don Cossacks and governments of Ekaterinoslaf and +the Tauride, and on the west by the Tonka. Its greatest depth at present +is 46 feet between the straits of Kertch and the point of Bielo-Serái, +where the passage is narrow, on account of two vast sand banks. A little +further on the depth diminishes to 26 feet and there are but 8 or 10 +feet water in the greater part of the roadstead of Taganrok. It extends +however southwards beyond the Greek bank, where there is about 18 or 20 +feet of water, and where most vessels finish taking in their cargoes. + +It has been remarked that from the year 1706 to the year 1808, the depth +of this sea has diminished 3 feet; and from this latter date to the year +1833, it has again diminished 3 feet, so that it has lost 6 feet of depth +in 127 years. This diminution in depth is caused by the accumulation of +sand and mud from the Don, and in some measure likewise by the large +quantities of ballast that are yearly thrown into the sea, by vessels +loading in the roadstead of Taganrok. The sand banks have increased in +extent, and new ones have been formed; which render the navigation of +this sea daily more difficult and perilous. The bottom is everywhere mud +and shells, and the water is of a dull yellow colour. The Don sweetens +this sea, and the water of it is used for the provisioning of ships as +far as 20 miles to the west of Taganrok. Besides the Don, several small +rivers run into it on the north and east coasts, beyond the lagoon of +Temróuk. + +The current is not so rapid in the Sea of Azof as it is in the straits +of Kertch. In the sea it rarely runs beyond one knot an hour, even with +a violent north-east wind, and with a south wind it runs in an opposite +direction. From the Don to the point of Bielo-Serái, it runs west, and +then divides into two; the largest portion of the water runs direct for +the straits of Kertch, and the other portion round the north coast, +until it meets the waters of the Shiváshe, and, uniting with them, flows +down the steep shore of the Tonka, and along the coast of the Crimea to +Kertch. During the winter the ice renders this sea unnavigable, and it +is available to shipping only from the middle of April to the latter end +of October. When a vessel approaches the straits of Kertch, with a view +of passing them from the Black Sea, she steers at about equal distances +between Cape Panaghia on her right, and Cape Takli Coolári on her left. +The latter cape is crowned with a lighthouse. The distance between the +two capes is about 8 miles, and the depth of the water 55 feet. The +course of the vessel is then nearly due north for about 8 miles, till she +reaches Cape Karaboroun, which is remarkable for several hillocks and +buildings which precede it. Here there is a sandy beach at a quarter of +a mile distance, and 20 feet of water. About a mile and a half further +on is Cape Kamishboroun, where there is a good anchorage, and a small +lake near it, which has 12 feet water and communicates with the sea by a +channel 5 or 6 feet deep. + +The course of the ship is now nearly due east, and the narrowest part +of the whole straits is approached. In them the water is 26 feet deep, +the passage is very confined, and ships are obliged to pass near the +western shore. This spot has therefore been chosen for the defence of +the straits, and a battery, called the battery of Paul, has been placed +there. It is a little to the northward of this narrow passage that +thirty-three ships have been sunk to defend it, in the same mode that +has been adopted at Sevastopol. The ships were only sunk in May 1854, +two months after our declaration of war with Russia; and while our +enormous fleet was inactive in the Black Sea, this passage was free and +undefended, except by a few hundred invalids, who formed the garrison of +Kertch. Cape Akboroun ends the passage, and immediately afterwards there +opens on the left the snug little bay of Kertch, around which, as has +been related, were situated the Greek colonies of Nymphæum, Panticapæum, +and Myrmékium. When a vessel has passed Cape Akboroun, if she wish to +continue her course to the Sea of Azof, without stopping at Kertch, she +steers nearly due east, and having passed in 14 feet water the little +town of Yenicáleh, about six miles from Kertch and further on the Cape +Poritálo, on which there is a lighthouse, the water deepens to 30 feet, +and the muddy expanse of the Sea of Azof opens before her. It is to be +observed that the very shallow part of the straits does not occur till +after Kertch, which is by far the most important place on the straits, +and which is undefended by any fortifications. + +The shores on both sides of the straits are very thinly inhabited: on the +Asiatic side by the Tchernomorski Cossacks, the descendants of the famous +Zaporogues, who were transplanted here by Catherine II., and on the +European side by remnants of the broken nation of the Tatars, and a mixed +population of Russians, Greeks, and Levantines, who only occupy the towns. + +I will now make a periplus of the Sea of Azof, pointing out the most +important places in the desolate countries that for the most part +surround it. Beginning to the east, we first come to Temróuk, occupied +by the Tchernomorski Cossacks, which is only a small village, situated +on the border of a lagoon, celebrated for the immense quantities of fish +caught in it. Vessels coming for their cargoes of fish anchor to the +north at the mouth of the lagoon, in 17 feet water, with a sandy bottom. +At 53 miles further up the coast is Okhtor, situated on the banks of a +wide and shallow bay. In its vicinity there are salt lakes and fisheries. +The bay terminates in Cape Kamishavát,[257] which is 36½ miles from +Bielo-Serái,[258] on the opposite coast, and 56 miles from Kertch. At 12 +miles further north is Cape Obriv,[259] where there are two extensive +sandbanks jutting out like horns, on the northernmost of which, that of +Dolgoi,[260] there is a beacon. At 9½ miles hence is seen the lighthouse +on Bielo-Serái point, and the church of Mariopol almost due north. + +Fishing-huts are to be found on nearly all the sandy points of the Sea +of Azof. These buildings are raised on posts in order to preserve them +from being carried away by the inundations, and seen from a distance they +have an extraordinary appearance as if floating on the water. Beyond +Cape Obriv, the coast runs 19 miles to the east as far as the mouth of +the bay of Yeisk, which is 13 miles in length from east to west, and 6½ +from north to south. This bay would be one of the very best anchorages +in the sea had it a few feet greater depth; but as it is, the lead marks +only 5 feet, and its entrance is five miles wide and from 13 to 7 feet +deep. This is a populous locality, and the old town of Yeisk is situated +to the south-east, near the river Yé. A new town was founded here in +1848 by Prince Woronzof, at Yeisk, on the western sandy point of the +bay; but it will probably not answer the expectations formed of it, as +the sea is so shallow that vessels cannot approach it, and the produce +of the surrounding countries is too small to induce commercial men to +settle there, notwithstanding the privileges accorded to it. One of these +privileges is, that merchants settled here do not pay the personal tax +levied on them, which is very heavy. Merchants in Russia are divided +into three guilds, and the tax on a merchant of the first guild is about +150_l._ a-year, and every partner and clerk who has a power of attorney +to act for the firm must pay the tax. By being the possessor of a house +at Yeisk, exemption is obtained from it. From the mouth of this bay the +coast runs 6¼ miles to the north, and forms Cape Sazanitskoi, near which +are several fisheries. At 17 miles further east is Cape Tchimborsk, +whence it is about 18 miles to Kagalnik, situated on the southernmost +branch of the Don, called Staroi[261] Don, and at the commencement of +its delta. The whole country between Yeisk and the Don, and likewise all +around Rostof, is cultivated with wheat. The land is similar to that on +the opposite coast, and very fertile. It bears a crop of wheat once every +three years, and lies fallow for the intermediate time. The inhabitants +are Don Cossacks and Russian proprietors, who have bought lands and +brought down peasants from the interior of Russia. There are no Calmucks +or Nogais here. + +The Don has several mouths between Kagalnik and Siniávka, the +northernmost point of its delta, which measures 12 miles across in its +widest part. The delta is uncultivated, and covered with rushes and high +reeds, and the whole forms an immense lake in the month of June, when +the waters rise. The climate of all this country is very dry, like that +of the steppes in general, and the want of water often occasions severe +injury to the crops. It is not unhealthy, although dysentery prevails +in the hot weather at Rostof, which is to be attributed to imprudence +in eating the melons, cucumbers, and other fruits, which grow there in +wonderful abundance and perfection. Proceeding from south to north, the +first mouth, called _the_ mouth of the Don, used to be the principal +one, and upon it, at 6 miles inland, is the town of Azof, which is now +only a large village, with the remains of an old fort. The second mouth +is the Kalántcha; the third the Perevóloki; the fourth the Kasterna; and +the fifth the Donetse,[262] near Siniávka. At present the only branches +available for navigation are the Kalántcha and the Perevóloki. + +The town of Rostof is placed on the north bank of the Don, 22½ miles from +the sea before the commencement of the delta. Vessels of low draught can +alone proceed to it, because of the bars at the entrance of the river. +The town of Rostof is one of the most important on the shores of the Sea +of Azof, and a great centre for commercial dealings with eastern Russia. +A full account of it will be given in the next chapter. + +In May and June the water of the Don rises to a great height, and the +whole country is flooded. It then suddenly falls, although it is liable +at all times to rise again when the wind blows up the river. This +increases the difficulty of navigation, and a vessel of 100 tons can only +take in a part of her cargo at the mouth of the river. She is obliged +to take in the rest of it gradually, dropping down the gulf of the Don, +followed by lighters. In this way she sometimes proceeds for 40 miles +before she is completely loaded, and then she must again unload a part +of her cargo at Yenicáleh if she draws more than 12 or 13 feet of water, +in order to pass the straits. Shipments through the Azof are, therefore, +very expensive. The bed which the waters of the Kalántcha have formed has +6 and 8 feet in depth at 2½ miles from the shore, and 9 at the mouth of +the river. There are three successive bars at the entrance of the Don, +but when these are passed, on nearing Rostof, the river becomes deep, +and continues navigable for many hundred miles. + +Taganrok is by sea about 8½ miles from the Perevóloki mouth of the Don, +and the water may be said to average 8 feet. The depth of the water is, +however, extremely variable in all the upper part of the gulf of the Don, +and the common question asked by merchants at Taganrok and Rostof every +morning is as to what is the depth of the water. South and east winds +increase the depth, and north and west winds diminish it to 2 or 3 feet, +so that with a strong north-east wind, the small bay to the eastward of +Taganrok is sometimes quite dry. The water also varies much, according +to the season of the year. When the snows have melted in Russia, and the +Don becomes unfrozen, the whole country is one great lake, and this lasts +for a couple of months, during which time the water is very deep, and +vessels of any tonnage can come up to Rostof. Messrs. Yeames, at their +wool washeries there, which are constructed on low ground, choose this +season to bring the coals[263] necessary for their establishment. The +lighters, when they get to a certain point, pitch the coals overboard +into the water, and when the river goes down they find them ready for +use. Their houses, being of wood, are uninjured by remaining under water, +and the stoves are rebuilt every year. The sheep are sheared in May, the +wool comes in in June, and is washed in July and September. The water +of the gulf of the Don is yearly becoming more shallow, one reason of +which is, the quantity of ballast yearly thrown into it. As the trade is +almost entirely an export trade, and ships come up to Rostof empty, the +masters are in the habit of throwing their ballast overboard when they +receive their cargoes. This is strictly forbidden by the government; +and every vessel is measured at Kertch, and again at Taganrok, to see +that there has been no alteration in the lading. A fee, however, to the +harbour-master gets rid of all difficulties; and the constant practice +is to throw the ballast overboard, and it forms nuclei round which the +alluvium of the Don continually accumulates. + +Both the Don and the Volga are frozen up in winter, and this is the case +with the greater part of the Sea of Azof, which is then used as a means +of communication between the opposite shores, considerably further down +than Cape Obriv. The ice is very irregular, and, while in some places +there are smooth plains many miles long, in others it is what is called +“hummocky,” or raised in ridges as high as a house. The year before last +year there was a regular mountain-chain of ice for many miles in length, +between Cape Obriv and Yeisk; and an English vessel which was lost there, +whose position was accurately known, was searched for in vain for many +weeks, and at last only discovered by one of her masts that was seen +sticking out of the ridge of ice. + +Russians never skate, and communication is carried on by horses and +carts, as on the land. At Medvidovka, on the Donetse mouth, some ancient +ruins have been discovered on the estate of an enterprising gentleman +who has excavated them; and they are supposed to be those of the ancient +city of Tana, which was formerly considered to have stood near Azof. A +commission of antiquaries has been appointed at Petersburg to investigate +the matter, but their report, I believe, has not yet been received. + +The town of Taganrok is prettily situated on high ground, on the cape of +the same name, and contains 27,000 inhabitants, of whom one-third are +Greeks. It stands in the government of Ekaterinoslaf, and is about 300 +miles distant from the town of that name, and 50 miles from Rostof. It +forms, however, with a small territory round it, a separate government +of its own, and pays in taxes of all kinds a total sum of about +360,000_l._ Peter the Great laid the first foundations of it in 1706, +after the capture of Azof, on the spot where there was at that time a +lighthouse. The town was demolished in 1711, according to an article in +the disastrous treaty of the Pruth. It was only rebuilt in 1769, at the +commencement of the war between Russia and the Turks. The port was then +deepened, and the place fortified. The fortress is constructed on the end +of the tongue of land on which the town is built. The Emperor Alexander +died here in 1824, and his bedroom is kept exactly as he left it, and is +lighted with tapers, and shown to the public. + +“The port of Taganrok,” says Vsevolovski, “is an absolute necessity for +the Russians, independent of all commercial considerations, because +this is the only means of procuring the masts,[264] iron, and all +stores which come down the Don and Volga from Russia and Siberia for +Kherson, Nicolaief, Odessa, and Sevastopol. A coal of good quality is +also exported from here, which comes from the sources of the Kryneka and +Severny Donetse, at a distance of about 80 miles.”[265] + +The greatest depth of the basin of Taganrok is 10, 11, and 18 feet; but +all measurements are very uncertain, and sometimes there is no water at +all in the bay, and vessels stick in the mud for a length of time. At all +the ports of the Sea of Azof the water is too shallow to admit loaded +vessels to approach near the shore, and cargoes are, therefore, taken +in with the aid of lighters in the manner that has been described. At +the extremity of Cape Taganrok exist the remains of a port, 570 yards in +length and 220 in breadth, constructed by Peter the Great: it offers at +present but 2 feet water. Near this port, towards the north, a great quay +has been constructed since 1847, ending in a mole resting on piles, which +now forms the east side of Peter the Great’s port. The water which runs +from the rivulet of Sambek, four miles beyond, into the bay of Taganrok, +gives at its extremity a depth of 7 feet, and sometimes more, during high +water. + +Mariopol is eighty miles from Taganrok, on the right bank of the river +Kalmiousse, and at two miles from the shore is an anchoring ground, in 15 +feet water, with a muddy bottom. The mouth of the Kalmiousse forms a port +for the lighters, which load and discharge the vessels in the roads. The +port might be made a few feet deeper, if measures were taken for dredging +the bar which obstructs the mouth of the river, where the water has only +a depth of 3 or 4 feet. Mariopol is exclusively a Greek town, and was +founded for the Greeks of the Crimea, who were induced to emigrate by +the Russians in 1778, five years before its conquest. It is difficult +to conceive how the Russian Government could ever have induced them to +leave their beautiful seats for this dreary and comfortless town, or why +since that period they have not made an effort to return to their old +haunts, which they have never ceased to regret. Commercial considerations +probably keep them at Mariopol, as the town has a good deal of business, +and the wheat exported hence is the finest Russian wheat that comes to +the English market, and bears the highest price. + +Beyond Mariopol the coast for nearly 10 miles is bold, until it reaches +Cape Bielo-Serái,[266] which forms one side of the entrance to the +Gulf of the Don; there is the whole way about 14 feet water at one +mile distance from the shore. At Cape Bielo-Serái there are a number +of fishing huts, and previous to arriving at the point, there is a +lighthouse 81 feet above the level of the sea, and 72 feet above the +level of the ground. Its light is fixed, and seen at 14¾ miles distance. +At 23 miles south-west of Cape Bielo-Serái, the river Berda empties +itself into the sea, but its mouth is barred by a strip of sand two +miles long, called the tongue of Berdiansk, at the extremity of which, +jutting out into the sea, is a lighthouse 85 feet above the level of +the sea, with a light which is seen from minute to minute, and which is +visible at a distance of 15 miles. + +The town of Berdiansk is situated near the right bank of the Berda, at +seven miles from the lighthouse, and at the foot of the bold table-land +which backs it. It was founded about 1840 by Prince Woronzof, and has +gone on increasing in population and commercial prosperity. I can find +no account of its population, but its exports were upwards of a million, +and its imports about 7000_l._, in the year 1853.[267] This is the port +where there is the best anchorage in the Sea of Azof, and there are 12 +or 14 feet of water at a quarter of a mile from the landing place. The +Bay of Obitochnia close by, with a river of the same name, is still more +favourable for shipping, but no town has been founded on its shores. The +land, however, gains ground every day in the roadstead of Berdiansk, +which fills up, on account of the sea winds depositing great quantities +of sand. A jetty, which was constructed some five or six years ago, is +now completely useless, from being surrounded with sand, and a second, +that has been constructed 220 yards in length, will evidently be soon +in the same predicament. The commercial community of Berdiansk proposes +to construct a barrier of 700 or 800 yards to protect it, and at the +same time shelter coasting crafts of low draught. This will be useless, +unless they previously concert means for dredging it, as the sands will +accumulate all round it, and form a lagoon. At four miles to the south of +Berdiansk, a large point running to the north forms a port which is the +resort of coasters for wintering, where there is shelter from all winds, +and 7 or 8 feet of water. Shallows extend to the west and north, and +these are increasing, so that in time this port will become a salt lake, +like many others that are found in the vicinity. Berdiansk is the port +of shipment for the produce of the flourishing German colonies of the +Moloshna, which are not distant from it. + +At 33 miles from the mouth of the Berda, there is a lagoon, called Lake +Moloshenska, into which the waters of the river Moloshnia Vodi have their +issue. Cape Fedotov, on which several houses and windmills stand, is near +it to the south. Here commences the Isthmus of the Peninsula of Berútchi, +which, intercepted by a small table-land, detached from the mainland, +runs to the S.S.W. for 12 miles, with a breadth of several yards. The +peninsula of Berútchi, called also the tongue of Yedotov, turning to +the west towards the Tonka, is 11 miles in length. At three quarters of +a mile from the shore of this isthmus and peninsula, there are 18 feet +of water, but much less towards the extremity of the peninsula opposite +the Tonka. Between Berútchi and Vizariónov is a strong current running +to the east, formed by the waters of the Shiváshe, which flow into the +sea of Azof by the narrow strait of Yénitchi. This strait is 129 yards +wide, and 18 feet deep, but at the entrance there is only 4 feet water. +On its northern shore is the village of Yénitchi, which is eight miles +from Point Berútchi, the last bold table-land which borders the sea of +Azof. There is a very good roadstead between Berútchi and the Tonka, +exposed only to the S.S.E. wind. The depth between the two shores at one +and two miles is in 18 and 21 feet, muddy bottom. Behind the peninsula of +Berútchi, and commencing just opposite the straits of Yénitchi, there is +a vast gulf 20 miles long, but of its depth there are no accounts. At the +bottom of the gulf there is a great lagoon, and on its western shore the +Lake of Atsuanai.[268] + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII. + +ON THE COMMERCE OF THE SEA OF AZOF. + + Rostof, key to commercial system of Eastern Russia—A + district of the Government of Ekaterinoslaf—Its gradual rise + since 1835—Articles of export—Wheat—Linseed—Rye—Military + stores sent hence to Sevastopol, + &c.—Salt-fish—Caviare—Tallow—Wool—Iron—Iron foundries of + Lugan—The system of advances on produce—Made through agents at + Pavlosk—Exports paid for, not by imports, but by cash—Political + reasons for high tariff—Attempt to make Kertch the emporium for + the Sea of Azof—Failure of it—Lighters of the Azof—Passage of + exports from the great producing countries of the North—By the + Don and the Volga—Dubofka and Katchálin—Loss to Russia from + high tariff—Commercial and peaceable disposition of Russian + people—Advantages of free trade to them. + + +Rostof is the key to all the trade of the Sea of Azof and the +south-eastern parts of the Russian empire.[269] It is a town of about +12,000 inhabitants, composed of Russians, Cossacks, Armenians, Greeks, +and a few foreigners. The merchants generally have only their offices +here, and live at Taganrok, which is 50 miles distant. They go to +Rostof once or twice a week, and send there the orders for their +purchases. Rostof is the capital of a district (Uezd) in the government +of Ekaterinoslaf, and is the station of one of the two brigades of the +reserve division of the army of the Caucasus. In the course of last year +these troops were marched away to the Caucasus, and the town was left +undefended, as it appeared in no danger of being attacked. Rostof has +grown up from a small fishing village to its present importance, solely +on account of its admirable geographical position with respect to trade, +and so gradual has been its rise, that it would be difficult to say at +what period it was first founded. It is since the year 1835 that its +trade has undergone a marked yearly increase. Rostof enjoys no special +privileges, and its flourishing state is entirely due to its convenient +site, and to the large amount of foreign capital of which it is the +centre, which has drawn to it the produce of the interior of the empire, +and made it one of the most important commercial towns. + +As Odessa is the outlet for the produce of the southern Polish provinces, +and from this circumstance derives its importance, so Rostof is one of +the principal débouchés for the agricultural produce of Great Russia, and +consequently likely to become a place still more flourishing than it is +at present. Great Russia, as the governments around Moscow are called, is +the most thickly peopled and most productive part of the Russian empire, +containing an industrious and active population, and the principal seats +of agriculture and manufactures. It formerly sent its produce almost +entirely to the Baltic for exportation, but of late years there has been +a tendency in growers to avail themselves of the great arteries of the +Don and the Volga, and shipments from the Azof and the other ports of +southern Russia have consequently much increased. + +Rostof from its situation may also compete with the North of Russia +for a portion of the Asiatic trade, for it has a nearly complete water +communication with the Caspian, and has likewise constant dealings with +the northern parts of the Caucasus. Its great importance, however, arises +from the fact that it stands at the point of communication between the +widely extended river system of Great Russia and the Southern Seas. + +The ports of the Azof are Taganrok, which is so intimately connected +with Rostof, Mariopol, Berdiansk, and the nominal port of Yeisk. +There is no import trade of any importance carried on in any of them, +because of the high duties of the Russian tariff. The total amount of +the imports at all the ports of the Sea of Azof was only 300,000_l._ +for the year 1853, while the exports exceeded 3,350,000_l._[270] The +imports consisted wholly of articles of luxury chiefly the produce +of the Levant, such as fruits, oil, and wines, and the largest item +was Greek wines, of which there was a demand for no less than 600,000 +gallons. There can be no doubt that the imports are checked by the high +tariff, for the exports have more than trebled in the last four years +from 1850 to 1854, having increased from 1,100,000_l._ to 3,350,000_l._, +while the imports in the same time have only increased 40,000_l._ It is +true that the same population which finds it more convenient to export +their produce by the Azof, may have the same reason for receiving their +imports by Petersburg, and such to a certain extent is the case, for +while the whole exports[271] from all Russia amounted in the year 1852 +to nearly 18,000,000_l._, the imports in the same year were upwards of +16,000,000_l._, so that the sum which had to be paid in cash was about +1,800,000_l._, and on looking to the tables of the imports and exports of +bullion, it appears that in the year 1852 there was imported in gold and +silver 1,988,000_l._[272] + +The principal articles of exportation from the Azof are wheat,[273] +linseed, rye, wool, tallow, iron, and military stores. The stock of +wheat, under ordinary circumstances, is comparatively small, as the +vessels which carry it abroad reach the shipping port about the time when +the chief supplies from the interior, either by water or by land, arrive. +The wheat shipped from Rostof may be classed as follows:—First, the wheat +from the country of the Line, that is, the districts occupied by the Line +and Tchernomorski Cossacks, which are situated to the northward of the +Terek and Kuban rivers, between the territory of the Don Cossacks and +Circassia, and the Black and Caspian seas. Secondly, the wheat that is +grown on the lands watered by the Don, which is superior to the former in +quality and condition. Thirdly, the Volga wheat, which is with justice +preferred to the Don and Line wheats, and is chiefly grown by the wealthy +German colonies situated on both banks of the Volga and its tributary +rivers northwards of Saratof. The bulk of the wheat shipped from the port +of Taganrok consists of hard wheat which is principally consumed in the +Mediterranean, where it is used for the manufacture of maccaroni, but a +small quantity is imported into this country. + +Hard wheat requires a virgin soil, and this accounts for its being +in Europe almost entirely grown in the south of Russia.[274] It is +remarkable for its bright yellow colour, heavy weight and hard grain. Of +late years the proprietors, whose estates are situated in the vicinity +of Taganrok, have directed their attention to the growth of soft wheat, +and their crops have yielded a wheat whose quality has been found quite +equal to that of Mariopol and Berdiansk. It is worthy of notice that in +some districts, if the same wheat be sown for three or four consecutive +years, it gradually loses its original character, and finally turns into +hard wheat. The wheat, whilst in this state of transition, bearing at the +same time the character both of hard and soft wheat, is called by the +Russians, “Pererodka” (from the verb _perachadit_, to go over). The wheat +shipped from Mariopol and Berdiansk is grown in the immediate vicinity +of those towns by the German and Greek colonists, and likewise by the +Russians. It is of a reddish colour, weighing on an average from 60 to +63 lbs. per bushel English, and commands a higher price than either the +hard wheat of Taganrok, or the soft Polish that is shipped from Odessa. +Most of it was formerly shipped to the Mediterranean, but of late years +the English millers have learnt to appreciate the peculiar qualities it +possesses, which principally consist in the strength of the flour it +produces, and since 1851 and 1852 large quantities have been imported +into this country. + +The linseed, which is shipped from Rostof, is grown throughout those +districts that are watered by the Don and the Volga, as far as the +point where, making a bend in their course, these two rivers approach +for a short space, within 45 miles of each other. The linseed plant is +cultivated by proprietors, as well as by the peasantry. The plant is of +a coarse kind, and the fibre is thrown away as useless;[275] but many +good authorities consider, as the demand for flax is so great in Europe, +that the stalk of the plant might be turned to account at least for the +coarser kinds of linen. + +Rye is grown over the whole country principally for home consumption +in the shape either of flour or brandy. Russian brandy, “Vodka,” is +extremely strong, measuring about 30°, which is nearly equal to common +spirits of wine.[276] A small quantity of rye has been lately exported to +Holland, for the manufacture of Schiedam. The Government are the chief +purchasers for the rye brought to Rostof for exportation. They contract +for it in the shape of flour, which comes down the river packed in mat +bags, of which 500,000 or 600,000 Tchetwerts[277] are yearly received, +and shipped from Rostof to the Crimea, and the coasts of Circassia. It is +ground by windmills, and watermills high up in Great Russia. + +Besides the rye flour, munitions of war, such as anchors, chains, cables, +shells, shot, cannon, and ironware of every description, are shipped +hence for Sevastopol and other places. The ammunition stores of metallic +composition come firstly from Lugan, at the confluence of that tributary +of the Don called the Donetse,[278] and the river Lugan about 100 miles +from Rostof. Here are iron-works, and a cannon foundry belonging to the +crown, which in the time of Dr. Clarke were all under the direction of an +Englishman named Gascoigne, formerly superintendent of the Carron works +in Scotland, whose improvements he betrayed to the Russian Government. +“From thence,” says Dr. Clarke, “the Emperor’s artillery passes by +water to the Black Sea. Mr. Gascoigne found excellent coal at Lugan, in +consequence of which discovery, as well as its convenient situation for +water carriage, the foundry was there established.” Probably some of +the finer articles required for military use come from Toola, which is +the Birmingham of Russia, and famous for its guns and pistols, and many +articles are now supplied from some parts of Siberia. + +The exports of wool from the Sea of Azof have not kept pace with the +large increase which has taken place in other articles of export. The +amount exported in 1853 was 5,196,708 lbs., being a decrease of nearly +2 millions of lbs. on the quantity exported in 1852, and an increase +on that of the preceding years, the average exports of which seem to +have been about 4 millions of lbs. The decrease may be ascribed to the +great competition offered in the western markets by the shipments made +from Australia, and by the increasing home consumption in Russia. In +the trade carried on by caravans through Siberia, between Russia and +China,[279] cloth is the chief article of barter, and the prices of +the wool in the grease are less influenced by those which the exporter, +guided by the state of the London market, is able to pay, than by the +greater or lesser demand for Russian cloths at home and in China. There +is little or none of the wool shipped in its original greasy state. It +is either brook-washed previous to the sheep being clipped, which is +accomplished by driving them through a stream, or hand-washed in warm +and then rinsed in cold water. This latter operation, which cleanses the +wool much more effectually than the former, is generally managed by the +foreign merchants themselves, who for that object have large wash-houses +established at Rostof and Kherson. The Merino fleeces require particular +care, for previous to their being washed they have to be assorted +according to the fineness of the hair. This process requires some skill +and considerable experience, as a parcel of wool seldom consists of less +than five or six assortments. + +The common Russian sheep, which is raised as well by the rich landed +proprietor as by the poorest serf, requires little care. Its wool is of +a long staple, coarse and wiry, and at all times finds a ready demand in +the English market, where it is particularly well suited for purposes +where a long stapled wool is the chief requisite. The best wool of this +kind is produced in the Cossack territories, and goes in the trade under +the denomination of Donskoy. The Tatar broad-tailed sheep is generally +of a brown greyish colour, and is found in all the steppes inhabited +by the Nogais Tatars, Kalmuks, Khirgiz, and other eastern tribes. It +produces a wool of considerably less value than Donskoy, which is used +by the natives in the manufacture of coarse cloths and carpets. The +Merino sheep was introduced into the south of Russia about forty years +ago. The climate is not altogether favourable for the growth of fine +wool, and the losses incurred during and after long and severe winters +are great. The quality of the wool is generally good, and there are +flocks which produce an article equal in texture and fineness to the +best Silesian wool. The Merino sheep are spread all over the country, +but are principally to be found in New Russia, and in the government of +Saratof and others adjoining it. They require considerable care, and as +the rearing of them is attended with great expenses they are only to +be found on the lands of the German colonists and of wealthy Russian +proprietors. The Merino sheep of South Russia is a descendant of the +Saxon breed originally introduced into this country, which it still +closely resembles. The Valachian sheep, otherwise called Zigay, has been +successfully crossed with the Merinos, and the breed thus produced, which +has retained much of the character of the Spanish sheep, generally goes +under the name of Metis or Schlonsky. + +The quantity of fine wool produced in Russia has not, I believe, +increased of late years. Some five or six years ago, in the governments +of Ekaterinoslaf and Kharkof, it was estimated that upwards of one-third +of the Merino sheep reared in those governments had perished through +disease and want of fodder. On the whole the proprietor of Merino sheep +is exposed to greater risks and losses than those incurred in any other +branch of husbandry. Cases often occur, when, in the course of a few +days, the toil of many years is irrecoverably lost. A late spring, with +frosty nights in April, is sometimes the cause of the greatest mischief; +the fodder collected during the autumn proving insufficient for the +maintenance of the sheep, and the frost killing the lambs the moment +they are dropped by their mother. Most of the flocks are under the care +of a German shepherd, and on many estates no expense has been spared in +introducing in the management of the sheep every possible amelioration. +Amongst the finest flocks in the south of Russia is that belonging to +Don Baguer, the Spanish Consul-General at Odessa, and his brother, an +establishment which dates from about the year 1839, and numbering lately +15,000 head of Merino sheep. In 1844 he shipped a cargo of rams to the +Sultan, some of which were of the value of 40_l._, which presents a great +contrast to the common price of sheep in Southern Russia, which is from +4_s._ to 6_s._ a-head. In well-managed flocks a regular register is kept +of the rams and ewes and of the quality of their offsprings. Every sheep +is branded with a number in the ear, and it is the art of the shepherd to +take care that the breed is so mixed as to keep one uniform average in +the wool and raise the standard. The lambing time is in April, shortly +after the sheep quit the sheepfolds, in which they are sheltered during +the winter. + +The exports of tallow from the Sea of Azof in the year 1853 amounted +to 35,926 cwt. In the south-east part of Russia the principal melting +establishments are at Bachmut, Slavansk, and the neighbouring towns. In +the early part of the spring the melters proceed to the various cattle +fairs held in the governments of Ekaterinoslaf, Kharkof, the Tauride, and +the lands of the Cossacks, to effect their purchases. After they have +collected the quantity of cattle which their means allow them, their +next care is to select and rent tracts of land on either side of the Sea +of Azof for them to feed upon. Considerable experience is required in +the selection of the pasturage grounds, for the profit which the melter +derives, after his cattle have been converted into tallow, depends less +on the price paid for them and the price he receives for the tallow, +than on the fat state of the cattle and the amount of tallow which they +consequently yield. Thus, in years of drought, when the cattle can but +barely subsist on a scanty vegetation, and hundreds perish through want +of water, the tallow-dealer incurs losses against which it is impossible +to guard. In the beginning of September the herds of cattle quit their +summer pasturages, and are slowly driven towards the melting stations, +where the process of slaughtering and melting generally commences about +the 10th of October. + +The animal, after being killed and stripped of its hide, and after the +head and the legs (at the knees) have been cut off and the inside taken +out, is then divided into four parts, which are thrown into the cauldron. +With the exception of two strips of flesh taken from off each side of +the spine, the whole of the meat is converted into tallow. The bones +are crushed, and a small quantity of fine tallow is collected from the +marrow contained within them. Old sheep, especially of the Merino breed, +whose wool deteriorates after they have reached their fourth or fifth +year, are likewise converted into tallow, which may be valued at about +1_l._ less per ton than that produced from cattle. The average price of +tallow on the spot is 25_l._ to 28_l._ per ton. There is a large home +consumption for hides, and of late years very few have been shipped +abroad, although the export duty has been considerably reduced. Oxen +being found more valuable when used for draught, cows are principally +used in the manufacture of tallow. Some twenty years ago there was hardly +any tallow shipped from the Azof; all that was produced in the districts +surrounding it being sent to the fairs which are held at Belgorod, where +it was bought up by the Petersburg dealers, who sent it over land to the +North. + +The cattle in the South of Russia are of the same breed which is found +in Bulgaria and the Danubian Principalities, of a uniform white-greyish +colour, long horned and with large bones. The German colonists have +imported cattle from their own country, and their cows are found, +especially for dairy purposes, much superior to those of Russia. A +Russian cow costs about 9 or 10 R. = about 1_l._ 10_s._; a German +cow from 20 to 25 R. = from 3_l._ to 4_l._ In the South of Russia no +cheese or butter is made beyond what is required for the wants of the +inhabitants, but a considerable quantity of salt-butter is brought down +the Volga and the Don from Siberia, and is shipped to Turkey and the +Greek Archipelago. + +Formerly wheat was the only article of importance shipped at Rostof for +a foreign market. Linseed, wool, and tallow were first introduced as +articles of export by the house of Messrs. William Yeames and Co., the +only English merchants on the shores of the Sea of Azof. + +The exports of Russia consist almost wholly of articles of raw produce, +which are raised by the assistance of foreign capital. Of the whole +exports of the empire, which of late years have reached a total of +nearly 18 millions sterling, about 7 millions are yearly sent from this +country as an advance upon goods that are to be delivered afterwards. +Thus upwards of one-third of the price of the whole exports is paid +from three to nine months before the merchant receives his goods.[280] +This system is necessary because there is a great dearth of capital in +Russia; and if money were not advanced to her beforehand by foreigners, +she would not be able to pay the expense of raising and forwarding so +large a quantity of agricultural produce as she at present exports. From +the difficulty of communication in Russia, and the great distances that +have to be traversed, the expense of carriage frequently forms a more +considerable item in the price of the article at the port of shipment +than the original cost paid to the producer. Thus a quarter of wheat +which costs at Rostof in store 22_s._, its average price in ordinary +years, has been bought of the grower of the wheat for about 10_s._ The +expense of carriage has amounted to about 8_s._, so that about 4_s._ per +quarter remains to the exporter as interest on his money, remuneration +for his labour, and other incidental charges. + +Russia is a poor country; she has not had time and opportunity to lay up, +as we have done, a vast amount of money, always seeking for employment in +all parts of the world. With a rich soil and an industrious population, +she has numberless opportunities of laying out money so as to bring in +large profits, as is proved by the current rate of interest, which is +about 12 per cent.[281] + +Most of the purchases of Russian produce are made on contract during the +autumn and winter months, when two-thirds, three-fourths, and sometimes +even more, of the total amount is paid for in advance in hard cash. The +foreign merchant established on the shores of the Sea of Azof reimburses +himself for the produce he has shipped abroad by emitting bills at +three months’ date; and as the import trade, as has been shown, is +comparatively insignificant, and hitherto no banks have been established, +he is obliged to send his bills for negotiation either to St. Petersburg +or to Odessa. From thence the proceeds are remitted to him by post either +in gold or silver. The commission and brokerage on the negotiation of the +bills, and the insurance and postage on the transmission of the money, +amount to about 1 per cent. Most of the bills drawn at Taganrok are +negotiated at St. Petersburg, because the exchange there is generally +more favourable than at Odessa. It frequently occurs that a whole month +elapses from the time the bill is advised until the money which it has +realised is received. The heavy stamp-duties now charged on bills are +a serious if not an insurmountable obstacle to any improvement in the +transaction of money operations. + +Merchants now deal directly with the producers, through the agency of +confidential clerks settled in various parts in the interior of the +country. Pavlosk, on the Don, about 400 miles from Rostof, is the +principal station for these agents. The great house of Ralli[282] has, +besides their establishment at Pavlosk, a complete network of agencies +over all the country situated to the east of Moscow, where such of the +linseed and wheat as is shipped at St. Petersburg is chiefly produced. + +I have now given a list of the principal articles of export from the +Sea of Azof, and endeavoured to explain the manner in which so large +an amount of agricultural produce is raised in so poor a country. The +imports, as I have said, are kept out not because the population are +unwilling to receive them, but solely by the high duties of the Russian +tariff. These were reduced in 1850, but not low enough to create any +sensible benefit. M. Tegoborski, in his answer to M. Léon Faucher, at +once admits this fact, and says that the finances of the state would +undoubtedly profit by a different policy. The reason for not relaxing the +tariff is probably political. The manufacturers, whose trade has been +created by protection, would undoubtedly cry out at any change, but the +more powerful body of the consumers would be favourable to it, so that +the Government would have little to fear from the hostility of the public +feeling. It would have, however, a decidedly liberal political tendency. +It would be impossible to admit foreign goods in large quantities and at +the same time prevent a greater intercourse with foreigners, who would +be chiefly the inhabitants of Western Europe. These would bring with +them their own ideas, the results of unfettered reason, for which the +natives of Russia, of all people in the world the most unprejudiced, feel +a natural yearning. The Russian Government is too wise not to see that +it would be impossible for it to keep up its present system under such +altered circumstances; and therefore, although it admits the beneficial +effects of larger foreign importations so far as an increase of wealth +is concerned, yet, considering as indispensable the maintenance of its +present military system, it is obliged consistently to refuse free trade. + +The Don and the Volga are both frozen every year from about the beginning +of December to the middle of March. When the navigation is no longer +possible, very little produce arrives at Rostof, and the average quantity +brought down by the sledges is insignificant, owing to the general +unsteadiness of the weather. As the shallowness of the water makes the +navigation of the Sea of Azof very difficult (by the Greeks and Romans it +was called a marsh, and not a sea),[283] it has naturally been felt that +the emporium of goods for exportation should be at some place to which +large ships can have access, after the difficulties of its navigation +in coming from the interior of Russia have been passed. This led to the +establishment of the quarantine at Kertch, as has been explained in a +former chapter. It was thought that goods would be brought at leisure +down the Azof by lighters, and that stores would be erected there, as +they have been at Odessa, for the raw staple articles of exportation. For +reasons that have been detailed, this expectation was not realized; and +while in the year 1852 no less than 1606[284] vessels with an average +tonnage of about 250 tons passed the Straits of Kertch, and entered the +Azof to take in their cargoes at some of its ports, a very small number +stopped to be loaded at Kertch. As ships are obliged to stand out so +far from the shore at the ports of the Azof, receiving their cargoes by +degrees, and cannot be fully laden till they have passed the Straits +of Kertch below Yenicáleh, there is a great employment of lighters in +the Azof, which are manned chiefly by Cossacks of the Don and Little +Russians. They are an inferior description of craft, and the rates they +charge vary extremely according to the season.[285] + +In years when an unusually large amount of trade has been carried on, +great inconvenience has been felt from the inadequate means of conveyance +by water. The delays also in the arrival of the lighters, which sometimes +take six weeks to come down the Azof, cause a great waste of time and +capital. A plan has often been set on foot for having steam-tugs on the +Azof, which would cause a great saving in time and expense, and might +easily be effected, because the anthracite mines are very near Rostof. +The failure of this and other beneficial projects must be attributed to +the extreme scarcity of capital, and the languor attending all efforts +at improvement under the restrictive regulations necessary in a despotic +monarchy. + +Such are a few remarks on the passage of goods down the Sea of Azof +from the great producing countries of the north. The way in which they +reach Rostof from the interior is by the noble river of the Don, which +rolls its full tide of waters through the governments of Toola, Tambof, +Orel, Woroneje, and the vast and fertile territory of the Don Cossacks. +Toola is only about 150 miles to the south of Moscow, and there is +therefore water communication with all the seas of the world within a +short distance of the capital of Great Russia.[286] But this is not the +only river that feeds the commerce of Rostof. At about 125 miles from +the mouth of the Don, by two happy bends in their course, the Volga and +the Don approach within 45 miles of each other, and thus goods can be +transported from the former to the latter river, and another vast circle +of fertile regions can be drained of their produce for the southern +market. As the Don runs through some of the most productive governments +of Great Russia, so the Volga[287] sweeps in a larger circle to the +north and east, and rising in the ancient government of Tver, becomes +navigable at about an equal distance from Moscow as the Don, describes +a quarter of a circle round the town, and then, bending northwards into +the government of Jaroslav, passes through Kostroma and Nijni Novgorod. +At this celebrated place of Oriental traffic it effects its junction with +the Oka, another artery of Great Russia, and then rolling its increased +volume directly eastward to Kazan, the Tatar capital, it there changes +its course to the south till it nearly meets the Don. The two rivers run +for a short distance parallel to one another, till, suddenly diverging +at right angles, the one falls into the Azof and the other into the +Caspian Sea. At the point where the rivers nearly meet, Dubofka on the +Volga is about 45 miles from Katchálin on the Don, and vast quantities of +merchandise are yearly carried across by bullock-carts from one river to +the other. The importance of their junction of course fixed the attention +of Peter the Great, and it was one of his projects which he did not live +to execute. The canal he ordered has never been dug; and thus one link +is wanting in this magnificent system of river communication. If it were +made, a great saving to merchants in time and money would be effected, +and commerce proportionately increased.[289] + +From this short review of the countries which naturally depend upon +Rostof as their port, and from the great lines of water communications +which meet under its walls, it would appear that its commerce, although +it has greatly increased, is not a twentieth part of what it ought to +be, and that it is capable of an indefinite extension. The 40,000,000 of +Slavonians round Moscow, which form the real heart and strength of the +Russian Empire, send through it now a continually increasing portion of +the produce of their labour, and would, if they could, receive through +it innumerable articles which can be more advantageously produced in +more civilised countries than their own. If free trade were allowed, +this natural interchange would go on rapidly increasing to the benefit +of both parties. At present the exports are great, but the Russian does +not get nearly his full share of profit, owing to the necessity he is +under of receiving to a considerable extent money instead of goods in +payment. With this hard cash which he receives, for which Europe would +gladly substitute manufactured goods, he is obliged to buy these latter +articles made by his own countrymen of bad quality and high price. +Thus a considerable amount of Russian labour and capital, which are +so scarce in proportion to the opportunities for employing them, are +consumed less profitably than they might be, in manufacturing these +commodities, instead of developing the dormant resources of a most +fertile soil.[290] Still in the face of all these checks to a natural +system of exchange, agricultural production has greatly increased of +late years, and the beneficial effects of the change in our navigation +laws, and the abolition of the duties on corn, have been very distinctly +felt. English capital flows willingly to Russia, and, while there is the +greatest difficulty in getting a few hundred thousand pounds for India, +millions find their way to Russia, so that I was informed by the late +General Duplat, who was for many years our Consul-General at Warsaw, +that two years ago he had officially conveyed the offer of capitalists +in London to the Russian Government to lay out 12,000,000_l._ for the +construction of railways in Russia upon very moderate terms. The whole of +the exports of Russia are raw produce, consisting of articles of first +necessity in Europe, of which she can never send us too much. Her people +are essentially agricultural and commercial, and not a martial race, +as is generally supposed. It is a mistaken notion to suppose that the +Russians are a military or warlike nation. To the eyes of Europe their +military despotic government, with its grasping tendency to increase its +territories by conquest, has given them a character which they do not +deserve. The serfs and the lower classes are forced by the conscription +into the ranks of the army, which experience has taught them to consider +as the hardest fate they can meet with. Of the higher classes of society +few devote themselves from taste to the military profession, but in order +to maintain their station in the nobility, and to preserve its privileges +to themselves and their heirs, they are obliged to serve the state for a +certain number of years, until they obtain at least a subordinate rank, +such as that of lieutenant. Thus among the officers possessed of landed +property or independent fortunes, it is not surprising that there are +many who view with disgust any event, such as war, which obliges them to +remain in the army longer than they otherwise would have done. Kept in +the ranks against their inclination, it is natural that on the field of +battle when facing the enemy they are not moved by the same martial and +stirring spirit which animates the officers of other armies. + +It is not intended by these remarks to impeach the bravery of the Russian +officers and soldiers, which would be absurd in the face of their former +conduct in the French wars, and recently of their gallant defence of +Sevastopol, but to account for their want of success when made to face in +the open field the soldiers of two free nations. + +The Russian merchant conducts his commercial operations with +intelligence, and amongst them are some, who, without being able either +to read or write, transact with singular ability and success an amount of +business which, in more civilised countries, would require an experienced +manager, assisted by a staff of experienced clerks.[291] There is, +likewise, no lack of enterprise in him; but the restrictive laws of the +country, the obstacles placed in the way of intercourse with foreign +lands, and the prohibitory duties charged on imports, prevent this spirit +of enterprise from developing itself to its full extent. In no country do +I believe would the effects of free trade be so rapidly felt, and tend +more to ameliorate the physical and moral condition of the people. + +All customs, all prohibitions, are drawbacks on the free or natural +system of trade between nations; and it might even be contended that +manufactures would be far more likely to spring up in Russia under such +a system, than under the protective system now in force. If free trade +were established, at first, undoubtedly, the Russians would buy foreign +manufactures, but the price of all articles of consumption except the +common necessaries of life would be immensely reduced, and an improved +style of living would be possible among all classes. The agriculturists +would get more for their produce, and be able to let us have it on +cheaper terms; manufactures in our countries and agriculture in theirs +would be much stimulated; roads would be made, the desert tracts +cultivated; the population would be raised both morally and physically, +and wealth gradually accumulated; until at first the coarser and then +the finer manufactures were attempted in the natural progress of events, +and with undoubted success. The Russian people, patient, laborious, +admirable workmen, have nothing to fear from foreign competition. I have +said elsewhere, that English masters find them inaccurate; but this I +believe to proceed from no natural incapacity for accuracy, but from +their not understanding the use of their work, from their want of general +education, and the little inducement and encouragement that exist for +improving their condition in their degraded social position. + + * * * * * + +It appears, then, from what I have said in this chapter, that the +commerce of the Sea of Azof is rapidly increasing in importance; that the +countries surrounding it are rich and, as yet, undeveloped; and that, +from the fine system of river communication which reaches the sea at +Rostof, it is constantly drawing towards it for shipment a larger portion +of the productions of Great Russia. There cannot be a doubt that, when +peace is restored, a great impetus will be given to its trade; that it +will benefit by the increased movement that will probably take place +on all the shores of the Black Sea; and, should the Russian Government +wisely change its military policy, and allow its stout-hearted and +enterprising subjects to pursue their natural industrious bent, capital +and population will flock to the south, and Rostof and Kertch will rival +the Tana and Panticapæum of ancient days. No restrictions will then be +placed on those who wish to come and learn in Europe; no passports will +be refused to enterprising young Russians who wish, in France or England, +to gain that knowledge of the arts and sciences which is impossible in +their own country; and no vulgar and ignorant censors will be placed at +the gates of the empire to keep out books as the most dangerous enemies +of the existing system, because the most valuable of them treat of truth +and liberty. Russia will allow the fraternisation of her people with us, +and admit the imports of more civilised countries as the surest way to +increase her own commerce, and by these means she, as well as Turkey, +will be really admitted into the European federation. Can it be said +that she has been one of us as yet, when she has isolated her people, +and kept gigantic armies hovering in what we may call with Ritter her +territory of European Asia, to menace poor down-stricken, corrupted +Germany on one, and the Asiatic nations on the other side? If she will +really, once for all, fix the limits of her empire, and give up her +menacing attitude and aggressive tendencies, she will not require a +million of bayonets in time of peace; and we ought not to believe that +she has changed her policy unless she consents to reduce her armies. +This we know that on former occasions she has positively refused to +do; let her be obliged to diminish them when peace shall be made, as +the best guarantee for its future maintenance. If the peace party in +England really wish for peace, they ought to urge this point, which will +be far more useful than motions for the reduction of our own forces. +For how can we safely reduce, with the enormous standing armies on the +Continent, and how can the continental Powers reduce their forces, with +a million of men always hovering over them, and ready to fall upon them +without notice? Russia has said by her ambassadors that her position is +exceptional, and for that reason she cannot reduce like other powers. +Why is her position exceptional? This she has not condescended to tell +us. Her people is the most peaceable in the world, and the troops cannot +be wanted to coerce them. Indeed, it is notorious that there are hardly +any troops in Great Russia, the most thickly peopled and important part +of the empire. There is only one infantry corps stationed at Moscow out +of ten corps which compose the whole army. Where are the rest of her +forces stationed? There where she expects to make conquests. They are +distributed fan-shape round the European edge of the Russian empire, from +the Baltic to the Black Sea, that they may overawe Germany, and advance +to support one another in any move upon Turkey; while 170,000 men are +kept in the Caucasus to root out the principles of liberty and extend +Asiatic conquests.[292] Can any man believe that 400,000 men are kept in +Poland merely to coerce the shattered, prostrate form of that unfortunate +kingdom? Is there not a sufficient guarantee for Russian possession of +it in the share which Austria and Prussia accepted of the spoil? When +Austria and Prussia offered to reduce their armies, and Russia refused to +reduce hers, was it because she wanted so large a force for self-defence? +This was evidently impossible; and the army in Poland was required, not +to prevent a rising of the Poles, but to support a Russian influence in +Germany which has been most detrimental to the best interests of that +country. If we wish, then, for permanent peace, the Russian army ought +surely to be reduced, and who would benefit more by this measure than the +inhabitants of Russia themselves? See how they hate the army; look at the +miseries which the conscription entails upon them; observe how large a +portion of the resources of the empire is wasted to support it, and think +if those millions of capital created yearly by human labour were laid out +in permanent improvements instead of being unproductively consumed, how +great would be the increase to Russia in wealth and intelligence! There +is, I believe, no good result from war which may not better be brought +about by peace; but, as we are engaged in this tremendous contest, let us +hope, when peace shall at length be made, and perhaps the last great knot +in human affairs resolved which prevents the even progress of the world +to its destined termination, that as many nations will be freed as are +able to enjoy a rational liberty, and that peace may be secured on such a +basis, with such guarantees for its continuance, that future difficulties +may be resolved by some form of national arbitration. + + + + +APPENDIX. + + +(A.) + +LIST OF THE RUSSIAN NAVAL FORCE IN THE BLACK SEA IN JANUARY, 1853. + + -------------------+------+----------+----------+------------------------ + Names of Ships. |No. of|When Laid | When | Observations. + |Guns. | Down. |Launched. | + -------------------+------+----------+----------+------------------------ + [293]Silistria | 84 |Dec. 1833|Nov. 1835|} Unmanned, not being + Sultan Mahmoud | 84 |Feb. 1835|Oct. 1836|} fit for service. + [293]Tri Svetiteli | 120 |Dec. 1835|Aug. 1838|{ Docked for repairs + Tri Hezarhef | 84 |Nov. 1836| ” ” |{ in 1852. + Gabriel | 84 |Aug. 1838|Nov. 1839|} + Selafael | 84 | ” ” |July 1840|} + [293]Uriel | 84 | ” ” |Oct. ” |} + Twelve Apostles | 120 |Oct. ” |June 1841|} + Varna | 84 | ” ” |July 1842|} + [293]Yagudil | 84 |Sept. 1839|Sept. 1843|} All ships of the + [293]Rostislaf | 84 |May 1843|Nov. ” |} line are built + Sviatolaf | 84 | ” ” | ” 1845|} at Nicolaief. + Hvabri | 84 |June 1841|July 1847|} + Tchesnie | 84 |July 1842|Oct. 1849|} + Paris | 120 | ” 1847| ” ” |} + Grand Duke | | | |} + Constantine | 120 |May 1850|Sept. 1852|} + Empress Maria | 84 |Oct. 1849|On the |} + | | | stocks |} + Bosphorus | 120 |Sept. 1852|Ditto. |{ Screw steamer; engines + | | | |{ ordered in England. + —— | 120 | | |} To be laid down during + —— | 120 | | |} the year. + +FRIGATES. + + Flora | 44 |Nov. 1837|Sept. 1839| Built in Nicolaief. + Messembria | 60 |Oct. 1838|Oct. 1840| Ditto. + | | | |{ Built in Sevastopol; + [293]Sizopoli | 54 | ” ” |March 1841|{ docked in 1852 for + | | | |{ thorough repair. + Medea | 60 |July 1840|Sept. 1843| Built in Nicolaief. + Kagul | 44 |Oct. ” | ” ” | Ditto. + Kovarna | 52 |March 1841| ” 1845| Built in Sevastopol. + [293]Kulefehi | 60 | ” 1844| ” 1847| Built in Nicolaief. + +CORVETTES. + + Raylades | 20 |Oct 1838|June 1840| Built in Nicolaief. + Andromache | 18 |June 1840|July 1841| Ditto. + Calypso | 18 | ” 1841|Sept. 1845| Ditto. + Orestes | 18 |Dec. 1845|Oct. 1846| Ditto. + Ariadne | 20 |Jan. 1847|Aug. 1853| Sevastopol. + +BRIGS. + + Mercury | 18 |Jan. 1819|May 1820| + Argonaut | 12 |Feb. 1837|Sept. 1837| Sevastopol. + Temistocles | 16 |Oct. 1838|Nov. 1839| Nicolaief. + Perseus | 18 |June 1839|June 1840| Ditto. + Endymion | 12 |Sept. 1839|Nov. ” | Ditto. + Nearchus | 12 | ” ” | ” ” | Ditto. + Euroas | 16 |June 1840|July 1842| Ditto. + Ptolemy | 18 |July 1842|Sept. 1845| Ditto. + Theseus | 18 | ” ” | ” ” | Ditto. + Achilles | 16 |From the Baltic. | + Orpheus | 16 |Dec. 1842|Sept. 1845| Sevastopol. + Jason | 12 |Jan. 1847|Oct. 1850| Ditto. + +SCHOONERS. + + Gonetz | 16 |Sept. 1834|March 1835| In Nicolaief. + Latoshka | 16 |Feb. 1837|June 1838| Ditto. + Smelaya | 16 |Oct. 1838|May 1839| Sevastopol. + Drotig | 16 |Nov. 1837|June 1839| Nicolaief. + Zabiaka | 16 |Oct. 1838|Aug. ” | Ditto. + Urcilaya | 8 |March 1844|Sept. 1845| Ditto. + Skulchwaya | 8 | ” ” | ” ” |} Built in Nicolaief. + Opil | 16 |Oct. 1849| ” 1852|} + Soudjuk Kalé | 10 |Formerly Vixen, taken in 1837. + +CUTTERS. + + Struya | 12 |Sept. 1834|July 1835| Built in Nicolaief. + Lutch | 12 | ” ” | ” ” | Ditto. + Legki | 12 | ” ” |Sept. ” | Ditto. + Nerok | 10 |Oct. 1838|July 1839| Sevastopol. + Skori | 12 |March 1844|Sept. 1845| Nicolaief. + Pospeshnoy | 10 | ” ” | ” ” | Ditto. + Provornoy | 10 | ” ” | ” ” | Ditto. + +YACHTS. + + Strela | 10 |Sept. 1834|April 1835| Built in Nicolaief. + Oriánda | 10 |July 1836|May 1837| Ditto. + +BOMBARD. + + Peroun | — |June 1839|July 1842| Built in Nicolaief. + +STEAMERS. + + ----------------+------+------------------------------------------------- + Names of |Horse | Observations. + Steamers. |Power.| + ----------------+------+------------------------------------------------- + Wladimir | 400 | From England in 1848. + | | + Bessarabia | 260 | } + Gromonosetz | 260 | } + Crimea | 260 |} Line steamers } From England in 1843. + Odessa | 260 |} between Odessa and } + Chersonesus | 260 |} Constantinople. } + | | + Elbrus | 250 |{ Line steamers { From England in 1848. + Yenikale | 180 |{ between Odessa, { + Taman | 180 |{ Crimea, and { Ditto in 1849. + | |{ Soukhoum Kalé. { + | | + Bayetz | 136 |} Employed on } + Mogutchi | 136 |} the coast of } From England in 1839. + Molodela | 136 |} Circassia and } + Cholchis | 120 |} for the forts } Ditto in 1837. + | |} on the coast. + | | + Grozni | 120 | Built in Nicolaief, 1842. + Sevenain Zvezon | 120 | Ditto, in 1834. + | | + Peter the Great | 100 | From England in 1834. + | | + Andi | 100 | } From England in 1845. + Dargo | 100 | } Packet boats. + | | + Danube | 100 | } From England in 1851. + Pruth | 100 | } River boats. + | | + Berdeansk | 90 | } From England in 1845. + Taganrog | 90 | } Packet boats. + | | + Inkerman | 90 | From England in 1838. + | | + Molni | 80 | } Built in { 1840. + Meteor | 60 | } Nicolaief. { 1838. + Ordinaretr | 60 | } Tug boats. { 1847. + Skromni | 40 | } { 1842. + | | + Argonaut | 40 | From England in 1851. + | | + Vogin (Warrior) | 250 | } Now building in the + Vitiaz (Hero) | 250 | } Thames; screw steamers. + ----------------+------+------------------------------------------------- + +GUN-BOATS. + + Twenty-eight gun-boats built between 1841 and 1852 for service in the + Danube. + +TRANSPORTS. + + Thirty vessels, measuring 10,627 tons, built from 1837 to 1852. + +The Empress Maria, 84 guns, was launched on the 21st of May, but will not +be rigged for some months. + +The Bosphorus, 120 guns, has not been advanced since the day her keel was +laid down, nor are the slips made for the two other three-deckers that +are to be commenced this year. + +There is no timber grown near Nicolaief; it comes down the Dniepr, and is +employed in its green state. + + +(B.) + +FIELD MARSHAL COUNT ALEXANDER VASSILIAVITCH SUVÓROF’S DISCOURSE UNDER THE +TRIGGER.[294] + +BEING + +A SERIES OF INSTRUCTIONS DRAWN BY HIMSELF, FOR THE USE OF THE ARMY UNDER +HIS COMMAND, AFTER THE TURKISH WAR; AND SINCE TRANSMITTED BY ORDER OF +THE RUSSIAN GOVERNMENT TO EVERY REGIMENT IN THE SERVICE. IT IS COMMONLY +CALLED SUVÓROF’S CATECHISM. + +(_The General is supposed to be inspecting the Line and addressing the +Troops._) + +Heels close! Knees straight! A soldier must stand like a dart! I see the +fourth—the fifth I don’t see. A soldier’s step is an archine[295]—in +wheeling, an archine and a half. Keep your distance well! + +Soldiers, join elbows in front! First rank three steps from the second—in +marching, two! + +Give the drum room! + +Keep your ball three days: it may happen for a whole campaign when +lead[296] cannot be had! + +Fire seldom—but fire sure! + +Push hard with the bayonet! The ball will lose its way—the bayonet never! +The ball is a fool—the bayonet a hero! Stab once: and off with the Turk +from the bayonet! Even when he’s dead you may get a scratch from his +sabre. + +If the sabre is near your neck, dodge back one step, and push on again. +Stab the second! Stab the third! A hero will stab half-a-dozen. + +Be sure your ball’s in your gun! If three attack you, stab the first, +fire on the second, and bayonet the third! This seldom happens. + +In the attack there is no time to load again. When you fire, take +aim at their guts; and fire about twenty balls. Buy lead from your +economy[297]—it costs little! We fire sure—we lose not one ball in +thirty; in the light artillery and heavy artillery not one in ten. + +If you see the match upon a gun, run up to it instantly—the ball will fly +over your head—the guns are yours—the people are yours! Down with ’em +upon the spot! pursue ’em, stab ’em! To the remainder give quarter—it’s a +sin to kill without reason; they are men like you. Die for the honour of +the Virgin Mary—for your mother[298]—for all the royal family! The Church +prays for those that die; and those who survive have honour and reward. +Offend not the peaceable inhabitant! he gives us meat and drink—the +soldier is not a robber. Booty is a holy thing! If you take a camp, it is +all yours! If you take a fortress, it is all yours! At Ismael, besides +other things, the soldiers shared gold and silver by handsful, and so in +other places; but, without order, never go to booty! + + * * * * * + +A battle on the field has three modes of attack. + +1st. _On the Wing_ + +Which is weakest. If a wing is covered by wood, it is nothing; a soldier +will get through. Through a morass, it is more difficult. Through a river +you cannot run. All kind of intrenchment you may jump over. + +2nd. _The Attack in the Centre_ + +Is not profitable—except for cavalry, to cut them in pieces—or else +they’ll crush you. + +3rd. _The Attack behind_ + +Is very good, only for a small corps to get round. Heavy battle in the +field, against regular troops. In squares, against Turks, and not in +columns. It may happen against Turks, that a square of 500 men will be +compelled to force its way through a troop of 6000 or 7000, with the +help of small squares on the flank. In such a case, it will extend in a +column. But till now we had no need of it. There are the God-forgetting, +windy, light-headed Frenchmen—if it should ever happen to us to march +against them, we must beat them in columns. + +_The Battle, upon Intrenchments in the Field._ + +The ditch is not deep—the rampart is not high—Down in the ditch! Jump +over the wall! Work with your bayonet! Stab! Drive! Take them prisoners! +Be sure to cut off the cavalry, if any are at hand! At Prague the +infantry cut off the cavalry; and there were three-fold, and more, +intrenchments, and a whole fortress; therefore, we attacked in columns. + +_The Storm._[299] + +Break down the fence! Throw wattles over the holes! Run as fast as you +can! Jump over the palisades! Cast your faggots (into the ditch)! Leap +into the ditch! Lay on your ladders! Scour the columns! Fire at their +heads! Fly over the walls! Stab them on the ramparts! Draw out your +line! Put a guard on the powder-cellars! Open one of the gates! The +cavalry will enter on the enemy! Turn his guns against him! Fire down +the streets! Fire briskly! There’s no time to run after them! When the +order is given, enter the town! Kill every enemy in the streets! Let the +cavalry hack them! Enter no houses! Storm them in the open places where +they are gathering! Take possession of the open places! Put a capital +guard! Instantly put picquets to the gates, to the powder-cellars, and to +the magazines! When the enemy has surrendered, give him quarter! When the +inner wall is occupied, go to plunder! + + * * * * * + +There are three military talents. + +1st. _The Coup d’Œil._ + +How to place a camp. How to march. Where to attack, to chase, and to beat +the enemy. + +2nd. _Swiftness._ + +The field-artillery must march half or a whole verst in front, on the +rising ground, that it may not impede the march of the columns. When the +column arrives, it will find its place again. Down hill, and on even +ground, let it go in a trot. Soldiers march in files, or four abreast, +on account of narrow roads, streets, narrow bridges, and narrow passes, +through marshy and swampy places; and only when ready for attack draw up +in platoons, to shorten the rear. When you march four abreast, leave a +space between the companies. Never slacken your pace! Walk on! Play! Sing +your songs! Beat the drum! When you have broken off ten versts[300] the +first company cast off their load, and lie down. After them the second +company; and so forth, one after the other. But the first never wait for +the rest! A line in columns will, on the march, always draw out. At four +abreast, it will draw out one and a half more than its length. At two +abreast, it will draw out double. A line one verst in length will draw +out two. Two versts will draw out four; so the first companies would +have to wait for the others half-an-hour, to no purpose. After the first +ten versts, an hour’s rest. The first division that arrived (upon the +coming of the second) takes up its baggage, and moves forward ten or +fifteen paces; and if it passes through defiles on the march, fifteen +or twenty paces. And in this manner division after division, that the +hindmost may get rest. The second ten versts, another hour’s rest, or +more. If the third distance is less than ten versts, halve it, and rest +three-quarters, half, or a quarter of an hour, that the children[301] may +soon get to their kettles. So much for infantry. + +The cavalry marches before. They alight from their horses and rest a +short time, and march more than ten versts in one stage, that the horses +may rest in the camp. The kettle-waggons and the tent-waggons go on +before. When the brothers[301] arrive the kettle is ready. The master of +the mess instantly serves out the kettle. For breakfast four hours’ rest, +and six or eight hours at night, according as the road proves. When you +draw near the enemy, the kettle-waggons remain with the tent-waggons, and +wood must be prepared beforehand. + +By this manner of marching soldiers suffer no fatigue. The enemy does not +expect us; he reckons us at least a hundred versts distance, and when we +come from far, two hundred, or three hundred, or more. We fall all at +once upon him, like snow on the head. His head turns. Attack instantly +with whatever arrives,[302]—with what God sends. The cavalry instantly +fall to work, hack and slash! Stab and drive! Cut them off! Don’t give +them a moment’s rest! + +3rd. _Energy._ + +One leg strengthens the other! One hand fortifies the other! By firing +many men are killed! The enemy has also hands, but he knows not the +Russian bayonet (alluding to the Turks)! Draw out the line immediately; +and instantly attack with cold arms (the bayonet). If there is not time +to draw out in line, attack, from the defile, the infantry with the +bayonet; and the cavalry will be at hand. If there be a defile for a +verst, and cartridges over your head, the guns will be yours! Commonly +the cavalry makes the first attack, and the infantry follows. In general, +cavalry must attack like infantry, except in swampy ground; and there +they must lead their horses by the bridle. Cossacks will go through +anything. When the battle is gained, the cavalry pursue and hack the +enemy, and the infantry are not to remain behind. In two files there is +strength: in three files, strength and a half.[303] The first tears, the +second throws down, and the third perfects the work. + +_Rules for Diet._ + +Have a dread of the hospital! German physic stinks from afar, is good +for nothing, and rather hurtful. A Russian soldier is not used to it. +Messmates know where to find roots, herbs, and pismires. A soldier +is inestimable. Take care of your health! Scour the stomach when it +is foul! Hunger is the best medicine! He who neglects his men—if an +officer, arrest; if a sub-officer, lashes;[304] and to the private, +lashes, if he neglects himself. If loose bowels want food, at sunset a +little gruel and bread. For costive bowels, some purging plant in warm +water, or the liquorice-root. Remember, gentlemen, the field physic of +Doctor Bellypotski.[305] In hot fevers eat nothing, even for twelve +days,[306] and drink your soldier’s quas[307]—that’s a soldier’s physic. +In intermitting fevers neither eat nor drink. It’s only a punishment for +neglect if death ensues. In hospitals, the first day the bed seems soft; +the second comes French soup; and the third the brother is laid in his +coffin, and they draw him away! One dies, and ten companions around +him inhale his expiring breath. In camp, the sick and feeble are kept +in huts, and not in villages: there the air is purer. Even without an +hospital you must not stint your money for medicine, if it can be bought; +nor even for other necessaries. But all this is frivolous: we know how +to preserve ourselves. Where one dies in a hundred with others, we lose +not one in five hundred in the course of a month. For the healthy, +drink, air, and food; for the sick, air, drink, and food. Brothers, the +enemy trembles for you! But there is another enemy, greater than the +hospital,—the damned “_I don’t know_.”[308] _From the half-confessing, +the guessing, lying, deceitful, the palavering, equivocation, +squeamishness, and nonsense of_ “_Don’t know_,” many disasters originate. +Stammering, hackering,[309] and so forth; it’s shameful to relate! A +soldier should be sound, brave, firm, decisive, true, honourable! Pray +to God! from Him come victory and miracles! God conducts us! God is our +general! For the “_I don’t know_” an officer is put in the guard; a +staff-officer is served with an arrest at home. Instruction is _light_! +Not instruction is _darkness_! The work fears its master.[310] If a +peasant knows not how to plough, the corn will not grow! One wise man is +worth three fools! and even three are little, give six! and even six are +little, give ten![311] One clever fellow will beat them all, overthrow +them, and take them prisoners! + +In the last campaign the enemy lost 75,000 well counted men—perhaps not +much less than 100,000. He fought desperately and artfully, and we lost +not a full thousand.[312] There, brethren, you behold the effect of +military instruction. + +Gentlemen, officers, what a triumph! + + * * * * * + +N.B. This translation has been rendered perfectly literal, so that effect +is often sacrificed to a strict attention to the real signification of +the words, instead of introducing parallel phrases. + + +(C.) + +ON THE TIMBER TRADE OF NORTHERN AND SOUTHERN RUSSIA.[313] + +Most people will acknowledge it to be a matter of some difficulty to +turn the habitual course of trade into any new channel. For a century +the forests of Lithuania exported by the Duna from Riga timber, and more +especially masts; supplying thereby all the dockyards of Europe. The +value of this branch of commerce amounted to about 2,000,000 roubles per +annum. Each piece of timber passed through the hands of two sorters, who +are an incorporated body, and are responsible, by their oath, for the +quality of the article. These qualities varying in different countries, +the merchants are in the habit of sending their orders to the principal +sorters, naming the quantity and the quality which they require. These +men then despatch a cutter to the spot, to select and appropriate the +timber according to the orders which they receive; and the timber so +selected is inspected afresh at Riga previous to shipment. This sorting +or surveying is a joint-stock affair, the profits upon which go to a +general fund, and are divided at the end of the year. There are two +modes of bargaining with the wood-growers: either by purchasing of them +a certain number of trees, chosen by a competent judge, or by taking an +entire wood on lease, with the right of felling such trees as may from +time to time suit the lessee; in which latter case the price is regulated +according to the quantity of timber removed, charging so much for masts +and so much for planks. The time for felling the trees is in the months +of October and November; and although it would be better to postpone it +until the sap shall have left the trees, yet, at a further period of +the season, the snow would render the woods almost inaccessible: and it +is necessary to avail one’s self of the drawing or sledging, just in +time to bring away the timber already cut. Nevertheless, the felling +sometimes continues until the month of January, or even February. Despite +the care of the surveyor, 10 per cent. may reasonably be deducted from +the original cost of timber on account of the occasional felling +of trees that are objectionable; which are left on the land. It is +commonly understood that masts of this description shall be left to the +land-owner, and that no more shall be paid for than are taken away. The +timber intended for Riga is all lopped and trimmed on the spot; and upon +the breaking up of the ice in the Dniepr or in the Beresina (near to +which rivers the greater part of the woods are situated) the timber is +launched, in order afterwards that it may be sent down the Duna to Riga. +It is only from the nearest forests that timber can be delivered at Riga +in the same year in which it is felled; for with reference to the more +distant, a second land-carriage betwixt the Dniepr and the Duna becomes +indispensable. It often happens that, the time to complete the squaring +of the timber during the first winter being insufficient, advantage is +taken of the delay caused by the frost, in the breaking up of the ice of +the Duna, to complete it. By this means the timber arrives at Riga in the +fine season, and is fit for immediate shipment. + +The thinning of the forests of Lithuania has compelled the fellers to +move gradually farther and farther southward. Even now but few maiden +forests are to be found near the river in the government of Minsk; and +the supplies of timber are now chiefly furnished by the government of +Tchérnigof and of Kief. The timber trade must, therefore, necessarily be +driven into the hands of the Southern Russians. In lieu of transporting +the timber, as before, against the current of the Dniepr, and of a long +journey over land, it is now abandoned to the stream, and thus floats +rapidly down to Kherson, where it arrives between May 15 and July 1. + +The masts and bulks are commonly fastened together in rafts of 100 +pieces each, and are managed by four or five men. Planks and staves are +conveyed by means of large barks, manned with fifteen or sixteen men. The +expense of water-carriage is about 25 roubles each for large masts. The +vessels that are without decks cost as much as 1200 roubles; those that +are decked are worth double this sum; but owing to their inability to +reascend the river, are usually sold at Kherson for a few hundred roubles +each. The merchants of Odessa have not as yet directed much of their +attention to the timber trade; either because grain chiefly occupies +their attention, or because of the want of proper experience on the part +of the speculators; the first purchases of masts at Kherson, for the +arsenals at Toulon and at Carthagena, proved disastrous in their results. +Nevertheless, as Odessa possesses some very rich houses, with whom it is +become almost a point of duty to open fresh outlets to the commerce of +the country, and since bad harvests have obliged other houses to direct +their capital to articles till then almost unknown, the timber trade at +Kherson has progressed very rapidly. In 1833 the value of the timber and +wood exported from that place amounted to 1,000,000 roubles, or nearly +180,000_l._ In 1834 many ships loaded with masts and staves for France +and Spain. The great saving effected in the charges of transportation to +ports of shipment, as well as on freights, will render it impossible for +the trade of Riga, henceforward, to compete with that of the Black Sea, +in supplying the south of Europe, where the consumption (of staves more +particularly) is very great. _Kherson is able to obtain timber from the +very same forests which supply Riga, at from 20 to 30 per cent. cheaper_, +owing to the loss of interest on the capital employed, six months being +the intermediate time of its arrival at Kherson, whilst the passage to +Riga occupies at least twenty months. Besides, on landing the timber +from the Dniepr, it remains a long time exposed to the air before being +again launched in the Duna, which cannot fail to injure it. A sorter, or +surveyor, from Riga, is already established at Kherson, for the purpose +of placing the timber trade on the same footing as in the former city. +He is accompanied by twelve Lithuanian labourers, practised in the +trimming of masts, which are prepared on the spot where they are felled. +A skilful workman will not be able to trim a large mast in less than a +week. Excepting pine planks, which are sawn in the town, all other sorts +of timber are sent to Kherson ready trimmed. The largest masts shipped +hence are not more than about 20 palms in diameter, and about 85 feet in +length. Those of larger dimensions, being purchased chiefly for Holland, +are sent of course to Riga, but there is no doubt of the possibility of +conveying them to Kherson with as much facility as to the former place. +Even the smaller masts, which are all very cheap, are very superior in +quality to, and much more durable than, those of Moldavia, Tuscany, +and the Adriatic. The Oak, on the contrary, like that of Moldavia, is +too soft for ship-building; nevertheless for staves it is certainly +superior to that of the Romagna. These staves are cut from six to eight +feet in length, and six inches broad, by two and a half to three inches +thick. They are sold in lots of sixty, called shocks, the cost of one of +which shocks, at Kherson, of six feet, was, in 1834, about 37 roubles. +They can, however, be had of all dimensions, by apprising the seller +beforehand in the months of August and September. + +In addition to the timber destined for ship-building, wood of almost +every shape is brought from the greatest part of Southern Russia +for building, and for other purposes. This trade is in the hands of +speculators from Kherson, and is carried on at places where the timber +is felled; it is only the timber intended for foreign shipment, and +certain sorts, that would find but a very limited sale at home, that +are ordered beforehand. Igren and Kakhóvka, the one above, the other +below, the cataracts of the Dniepr, are important places for the trade +in wood. At these places, the carmen of the environs, who fetch fish +and salt from the ports of the Sea of Azof, load the wood that has +come down the Dniepr; in this manner it comes to the same price as +that which is brought down the Volga and the Don in small quantities. +But it is probable that, in time, the oak of Kasan, which now supplies +the shipyards of the North, will be obtainable by this last-mentioned +route. The forests, with which the mountains of the Crimea are covered, +furnish to the shipyard of Sevastopol excellent building timber and +much firewood; Odessa, in particular, which procures it from the north +of Bessarabia, likewise consumes a great deal of it; still, as a great +part of this latter province is entirely stripped of wood, it is under +the necessity of supplying itself from Moldavia, especially from the +district of Kiatra, which is very woody, and which exports wood also +to Constantinople. Bessarabia derives from thence only firewood; but +building-timber, masts, planks, and staves, are sent down the Seret +(a river which separates Moldavia from Wallachia), and find a vent at +Galatz, whence they are sent off in great rafts to Constantinople; +and, before the Sultan prohibited it, these articles were sent from +thence into Egypt. In 1832 the value of these exports amounted to more +than 500,000 francs. The masts of Moldavia are of a very inferior +quality compared with those of Russia; but many vessels buy them at +Constantinople, because they are so very cheap. Neither is the oak for +ship-building so hard as that of Bulgaria, which, on this account, is +generally preferred. In general, a great quantity of timber is imported +from Bulgaria into Ismail and into Reni, as, for the last five years, +that article has not been burthened with any duty, and it forms one of +the most important branches of commerce at both places. Roumelia likewise +exports a considerable quantity of timber, especially staves, from the +port of Bourgas. + + +(D.) + +COMMERCE OF PORTS OF CRIMEA, 1852.[314] + + +I. PORT OF EUPATORIA. + +There was imported into this port in 1852— + + Goods 132,902 S. R. + Coin 2,240 S. R. + ------- + Total 135,142 S. R. + +Exports— + + Russian produce 266,719 S. R., + +and no coin. + +31 foreign vessels entered the port of Eupatoria. + +The coasting trade presented the following numbers:—Arrivals, 189—of +which, 1 from Petersburg. Departures, 188—of which, 5 for Petersburg. + + +II. AKMÉSHED.—III. SEVASTOPOL.—IV. BALACLAVA.—V. YALTA. + +These four ports have only a coasting trade. + + -----------+------------------------- + | Number of Coasters. + +-----------+------------- + | Arrivals. | Departures. + +-----------+------------- + Akméshed | 5 | 5 + Sevastopol | 452 | 466 + Balaclava | 7 | 10 + Yalta | 66 | 62 + -----------+-----------+------------- + +Besides, steamers anchored 49 times in the port of Yalta. + +The coasters brought and discharged in these four ports, besides +provisions for the state, goods of the following value:— + + -----------+-----------+----------- + | Brought. | Took away. + +-----------+----------- + | S. R. | S. R. + Akméshed | | 3,883 + Sevastopol | 1,051,451 | 107,793 + Balaclava | | 749 + Yalta | 137,408 | 130,315 + -----------+-----------+----------- + + +VI. THEODOSIA. + +The imports into the port of Theodosia in 1852 were— + + Goods 137,822 S. R. + Coin 10,841 S. R. + ------------- + Total 144,663 S. R. + +Exports— + + Goods 57,237 S. R. + + +----------------+-----------+-------------+ + | | Arrivals. | Departures. | + | +-----------+-------------+ + |Foreign vessels | 97 | 14 | + |Coasters | 144 | 229 | + +----------------+-----------+-------------+ + +The coasters brought goods, 150,823 S. R.; and loaded to a value of +96,862 S. R. + + +VII. KERTCH. + + 1852: Foreign Imports Goods 40,395 S. R. + Coin 2,900 S. R. + ------ + Total 43,275 S. R. + Exports 41,386 S. R. + +and no coin. + +113 foreign vessels arrived, and 73 left: of these 113 arrivals, 52, +after passing quarantine at Kertch, entered the Sea of Azof. The coasting +trade had 1111 arrivals, and 1094 departures. + +The coasters brought, in 1852—goods, 834,671 S. R., besides stores to the +account of the state. They loaded goods 359,418 S. R.; of salt from the +Lakes of Kertch, 1,464,140 poods were sent from the Lakes of Kertch to +the ports of the Sea of Azof; 91,435 poods to the Black Sea; and 74,775 +poods to Petersburg:—total, 1,630,360 poods; which makes 911,445 poods +more than in 1851, and 576,020 poods more than in 1850. This is the +largest exportation of salt that has ever been made; for even in 1837 the +exports only reached 1,431,975 poods. + +The reduction of the excise, and the permission to pay for it in the +ports of the Sea of Azof, are the causes of this increase in the export +of salt to the interior of the empire. + + +_Résumé._ + +It results, from the accounts given above, that the commerce of the +Crimea was more important in 1852 than in 1851. The reason was the good +harvest of 1852. The export of its production was on a larger scale, and +consequently the import was larger; more cottons and mixed Turkish silks +were imported into Theodosia; more fruits and tobacco to Eupatoria; more +coal to Kertch. The export of wheat and other grains was also larger; +also of walnut-wood from Theodosia, and more linseed and wool, and tallow +and butter, from Eupatoria. The increase in commercial affairs, of +course, occasioned activity in the shipping. + + * * * * * + +The coasting trade, always more important in the Crimean ports than +foreign commerce, has continued slowly to improve, as may be seen from +the following tables for 1851 and 1852. + + +I. FOREIGN COMMERCE. + + +------------+---------------------------------------+ + | | Value of Goods. | + | +-------------------+-------------------+ + | | Importations. | Exportations. | + | +---------+---------+---------+---------+ + | | 1851. | 1852. | 1851. | 1852. | + | +---------+---------+---------+---------+ + |Eupatoria | 119,289 | 132,902 | 126,070 | 266,719 | + |Balaclava | 648 | | | | + |Theodosia | 94,832 | 133,822 | 44,933 | 57,237 | + |Kertch | 35,353 | 40,395 | 21,677 | 41,386 | + | +---------+---------+---------+---------+ + | Total | 250,122 | 307,119 | 192,689 | 365,342 | + +------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+ + +Less coin was imported in 1852 than in 1851; it was 15,981 S. R. More was +exported. + + +------------+---------------------------------------+ + | | Navigation. | + | +-------------------+-------------------+ + | | Arrivals. | Departures. | + | +---------+---------+---------+---------+ + | | 1851. | 1852. | 1851. | 1852. | + | +---------+---------+---------+---------+ + |Eupatoria | 22 | 30 | 14 | 31 | + |Balaclava | 3 | | | | + |Theodosia | 56 | 97 | 10 | 14 | + |Kertch | 108 | 113 | 64 | 73 | + | +---------+---------+---------+---------+ + | Total | 189 | 240 | 88 | 108 | + +------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+ + + +II. COASTING TRADE. + + +------------+-----------------------------------------------+ + | | Value of Merchandise. | + | +-----------------------+-----------------------+ + | | Importations. | Exportations. | + | +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | | 1851. | 1852. | 1851. | 1852. | + | +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + |Akméshed | | | 380 | 3,883 | + |Eupatoria | 243,097 | 116,878 | 199,799 | 262,410 | + |Sevastopol | 757,920 | 1,051,451 | 143,522 | 107,793 | + |Balaclava | 4,162 | | 2,190 | 749 | + |Yalta | 177,290 | 137,408 | 85,153 | 130,315 | + |Theodosia | 94,832 | 150,823 | 44,933 | 96,862 | + |Kertch | 877,285 | 834,671 | 266,378 | 359,419 | + | +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | Total | 2,154,586 | 2,291,231 | 742,355 | 961,431 | + +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + + +------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ + | | Departures. | Arrivals. | + | +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | | 1851. | 1852. | 1851. | 1852. | + | +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + |Akméshed | 2 | 5 | 1 | 5 | + |Eupatoria | 195 | 188 | 187 | 189 | + |Sevastopol | 463 | 466 | 483 | 452 | + |Balaclava | 15 | 10 | 12 | 7 | + |Yalta | 84 | 62 | 96 | 66 | + |Theodosia | 247 | 229 | 201 | 144 | + |Kertch | 1,038 | 1,094 | 1,053 | 1,111 | + | +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | Total | 2,044 | 2,054 | 2,033 | 1,974 | + +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + + +(E.) + +ADVANTAGES LIKELY TO ACCRUE TO THE TRADE OF THE DANUBE FROM THE +ESTABLISHMENT OF A FREE PORT AT THE ST. GEORGE’S MOUTH OF THE RIVER. + +The subject of the opening of the Danube is so intimately connected +with the countries about which I have written, that I think it will be +interesting to the public to read the following memorandum which has just +been sent home by Mr. Cunningham, the English Consul at Galatz, and a +merchant at that port. + + +MEMORANDUM. + +As the navigation of the Danube forms one of the Four Points to be +settled between the Allies and Russia, there can be little doubt that +the present war will not terminate without the navigation of that river +being placed on a clear, secure, and lasting footing, and such as to +encourage the investment of capital in mercantile enterprises in the +vicinity of this river. Further, that those nations interested in the +trade and navigation of the river will adopt proper means not only to +remove all material impediments to the navigation in the first instance, +but also that they will provide a permanent fund, by a tax on vessels +frequenting the river or otherwise, to keep the channels in the best +state for the security and despatch of shipping; and will further make +such arrangements as shall appear most conducive to the extension of the +trade of the countries situate along its banks. + +No one measure would conduce more to the facility of the trade and +navigation of the river, to the prosperity of the countries on the Lower +Danube, and to the extension of their agriculture, than the formation of +a free port at the mouth of the river Danube. + +In order to understand the advantages which a free port at the mouth of +the Danube would confer on the trade of the river, it is necessary to +state how it is carried on at present, and the difficulties it has to +contend with, particularly in the export trade in grain. + +All the grain of Wallachia is exported from Ibraila. + +All the grain of Moldavia is exported from Galatz. + +All the grain of Bulgaria which goes out by the Danube is exported from +Matchin. + + NOTE.—In spring, when the water in the Danube is high, some + small sea-going vessels go up to Silistria to load Bulgarian + wheat, and to Giurgevo to load Wallachian wheat. + +All the grain of Bessarabia which goes out by the Danube is shipped from +Reni and Ismail. + +The grain, the produce of one of these provinces, cannot be brought to +any other province, not even for shipment, but the vessel must go to the +port where the grain is in order to receive it. + +This state of things causes much trouble, inconvenience, and expense to +the merchant, as the merchant residing in one of the towns mentioned +(generally in Galatz) may be shipping grain from all these ports at one +time, without being able to ascertain the quality or condition of the +grain he is shipping at any port excepting at the place where he resides. +It is also inconvenient and expensive to shipmasters, who must first call +at Galatz for orders, and may afterwards be sent to any of the ports +mentioned. + +Galatz and Ibraila are called free ports by their respective governments, +but most improperly so: first, grain and tallow cannot be brought from +Wallachia into Galatz, nor from Moldavia into Ibraila; the importation of +these two articles into Moldavia or Wallachia from any quarter whatever, +even for exportation, is prohibited. It follows therefore that the grain +of Turkey cannot be warehoused in Galatz or Ibraila for exportation. As +grain forms nine-tenths of the export trade of the Danube, it follows +that the name of Free Port is altogether illusory. + +Excepting the above two articles, and salt, all other articles may be +brought into Galatz and Ibraila, and exported without payment of duty, +provided the following forms be observed. On introducing the article it +must be declared for exportation, and it must not be sold. If sold, the +buyer must pay duty on exporting the article. But it must be observed +that all articles the production of Moldavia and Wallachia are brought +into Galatz and Ibraila respectively by land without payment of duty, and +the duty is only paid on being exported by water from the so-called free +port. + +It is scarcely necessary to add that as in Turkey and Russia there is no +pretension to a free port, the duty on all articles sent into either of +these countries would have to be paid on entering, and again on being +exported. The introduction of grain into Russia is prohibited. + +It must be evident that it would be very advantageous to the export trade +of the Danube, which is at present almost entirely confined to grain, +to have some one point where the grain from all the different shipping +ports could be brought forward in river craft, and there loaded on +board of sea-going vessels. This can only be effected by having a free +port established. But this free port would be equally advantageous for +imports, which, being brought to one place, could be more conveniently +sent forward to their various ports of destination along the Danube. + +As steam power for river navigation has such an evident advantage over +sailing vessels, it is quite behind the age to take sailing vessels +100 miles up a river for cargo, when the cargo can be brought down +more easily and economically to the mouth of the river by steam; it is +therefore apparent that, in seeking to establish _a free port on the +Danube for the first time_, it ought to be placed as near as possible to +the sea. For this reason the free port should be placed either at the +Sulina mouth or at the St. George’s mouth. As, however, Sulina consists +only of a narrow strip of land between the river and a marsh, and as that +strip is subject to be overflowed, Sulina is not suited for the site of +a town. At the St. George’s mouth, on the right bank of the river, the +land is high and well suited for the erection of a town, therefore the +free port should in preference be placed there. It is probable that, on +application being made, the Turkish Government would grant the rights +of a free port to the whole of the island Ruselm formed by the Danube, +the branch called Donnawitza, the lake Ramsim, and the sea. Even on the +left bank, on the island of St. George, the ground is much higher than +at Sulina. At the outset the St. George’s mouth presents a difficulty +in comparison to that of Sulina, namely, whereas the Sulina mouth has +only a single bar of about 150 yards broad, the St. George’s mouth has +banks extending out fully a mile; _but, as the entrance into the St. +George’s has never been carefully surveyed_, it is not known whether a +channel may not extend all the way out, which only requires to be marked +out by buoys; but in every case there can be no doubt that a channel +could be opened up and kept open, at an expense which would fall very +light on the number of vessels likely to enter it, in comparison to the +heavy lighterage which they have hitherto had to pay at Sulina. The St. +George’s branch is much finer than the Sulina; it discharges at least +ten times more water than the Sulina does, and this should render it +easy to make a deeper channel than at Sulina; it is much broader, and +therefore would afford more accommodation for shipping. It may be asked +why, when the St. George presents so many advantages over the Sulina, no +attempt has been made to render these advantages available? but when it +is considered that Russia only held the left bank of this branch, while +Turkey held the right bank, whereas Russia held both sides of the Sulina +branch, it is evident that it was for the advantage of Russia to keep the +St. George closed, and thus have the whole trade of the Danube under her +control. + +To show precisely the disadvantage of having to ascend the river with +sailing vessels to receive cargo, it may be stated that sailing vessels +seldom arrive from Sulina at Galatz in less than fourteen days, and not +unfrequently they take a month to come up. Again, in going down, what +between putting part of their cargo into lighters in order to go over +the shoals in the river, and what by grounding and getting the vessel +off again, three weeks or a month are frequently consumed between Galatz +and Sulina. But the best proof is in the rates of freight, as a vessel, +obtaining 12_s._ per quarter from Galatz to England, would take cargo +from the mouth of the Danube to England for 8_s._ per quarter. + +No doubt a vessel might save much time by being towed up the river by a +steamer; but there would always be danger of the vessel grounding, and +part of the cargo would always have to be put into lighters. The steamer +could bring down four times more grain in proper barges than the vessel +could carry, and in less time. + +The uncertain political position of the Danube, and the difficulties and +delays caused by quarantines, have hitherto prevented steam navigation +from taking any considerable extension in that river; in fact, there have +not yet been any steamers exclusively for the trade of the Principalities +and Bulgaria. The steam navigation on the Lower Danube at the +commencement of the present war with Russia was as follows:—The Imperial +Royal Danube Steam Navigation Company of Vienna despatch a steamer weekly +from Vienna to Galatz, and _vice versâ_. A steamer went weekly both up +and down between Galatz and Turno Severin, on the Wallachian side of +the river; and a steamer weekly between Galatz and Skella Cladova, on +the Turkish side of the river. Besides these steamers, this Company had +occasionally tugsteamers between this place and Calafat; and within the +last four years it has had a number of iron barges, called _shlepfs_, +on the Lower Danube, to be towed by steamers, for the conveyance of +grain and other merchandise. The Austrian Lloyd’s Steam Company of +Trieste had steamers performing six voyages monthly between Galatz and +Constantinople: this Company also kept a steamer plying between Galatz +and Ibraila. The Russians had a steamer performing two voyages monthly +between Galatz and Odessa. + +When, however, the trade and navigation of the Danube shall have been +placed on a satisfactory and permanent footing, there can be little doubt +that the companies having steamers on the Danube will increase their +number, so as to meet the requirements of trade; or, should such not be +the case, other companies will be established, as capital cannot be long +wanting for an investment which offers at once security and good returns. + +Until the war between Russia and Turkey in 1828, grain and tallow +from the Principalities could only be sent to Constantinople. Certain +Turkish commissioners came yearly to the provinces and purchased grain, +fixing their own price for it, and that price was so low as not to be +remunerative to the cultivator. Consequently, very little grain was then +grown in the Principalities, and it was harvested and brought to market +in a most careless manner, having a great deal of earth and dirt mixed +with it, and the quality was very bad. + +By the Treaty of Adrianople, the Russians gave free trade to the +Principalities and the cultivation of grain was extended. So soon as the +exportation of grain from the Principalities began to take a certain +extension, the Russian Government perceived the double error it had +committed, and endeavoured to correct it: this double error was, first, +the trade of the Principalities was increased, and the attention of +Europe was thereby called to them; secondly, the grain exported from +the Principalities came into competition and lowered the price of the +grain of the Russian ports on the Black Sea. For this end the Russians +prevented the establishment of a general entrepôt on the Danube; they +imposed vexatious quarantine regulations on shipping and merchandise; and +they prevented the removing of banks and shoals and other impediments to +the navigation of the river. + +Notwithstanding all these discouragements and impediments, the +exportation of Moldavia and Wallachia by Galatz and Ibraila down the +Danube in the year 1852 had reached the following quantities:— + + +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | | Galatz. | Ibraila. | Total. | + | +-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | | Quarters. | Quarters. | Quarters. | + |Wheat | 187,555 | 343,584 | 531,139 | + |Indian Corn | 329,279 | 725,259 | 1,054,538 | + |Rye | 96,900 | 1,296 | 98,196 | + |Barley | 468 | 80,278 | 80,746 | + |Millet | — | 5,180 | 5,180 | + | +-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | Total | 614,202 | 1,155,597 | 1,769,799 | + +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + +The exportation of grain from Turkey, and consequently from Bulgaria, +was prohibited until the year 1839, when the exportation was allowed by +the treaty of commerce made between Turkey and England in that year. The +exportation of grain from Bulgaria by the Danube has made very little +progress hitherto, and not more than 200,000 quarters of grain of all +sorts have been exported by the Danube in any one year. + +There are many reasons no doubt for this want of progress; among which +are, the improper interference of the Turkish Government, which has +already forbidden the exportation of grain four different times, under +pretext that there was a scarcity of grain in Turkey; the interference +of pashas and other Turks in authority, who are always endeavouring +to have a monopoly of the grain trade of their districts; also the +insufficient protection of the cultivators. But another reason, and which +had great influence, was the want of a proper place for shipping on board +of sea-going vessels, as there is no place on the Turkish side of the +Danube with suitable warehouses, and Turkish grain was not allowed to be +warehoused in Wallachia or Moldavia. + +Little doubt can be entertained, that inquiry will be made into the +causes which prevent the extension of agriculture in Turkey for the +purpose of removing them, and that, in consequence, the exportation of +grain from Bulgaria will increase rapidly. + +Grain of Bessarabia is exported from Reni and Ismail on the Danube, +but by far the larger portion of the produce of that province goes to +Odessa for shipment, being attracted to that place by the lower rate of +freights which prevails there than on the Danube. Were the freights from +the Danube reduced to the same rates as those from Odessa, there can be +little doubt that nearly the whole of the grain produced in Bessarabia +would be brought to the Danube for shipment. The quantity of grain +exported from Ismail is larger than what is exported from Reni; in the +year 1852 the quantity exported from these two ports may have amounted, +to 400,000 quarters. It is proper to observe, that although Ismail is +situate on the Kilia branch of the Danube, yet the vessels at present +frequenting that port enter and go out by the Sulina branch, and would +consequently go by the St. George’s were it rendered more commodious. + +From what has been stated it results that the quantity of grain exported +from the Danube in 1852 was:— + + Imperial Quarters. + From Galatz 614,202 + ” Ibraila 1,155,597 + ” Bulgaria (about) 200,000 + ” Bessarabia 400,000 + --------- + 2,369,799 + ========= + +But the production of Moldavia and Wallachia goes on increasing at +the rate of about five per cent. yearly, and should this free port be +obtained, a further impetus will be given to the exportation by the +reduction of freights. For the same reason it may be expected that the +exportation of Bessarabia by the Danube will be greatly increased, as +produce, in place of being carried to Odessa, will be brought to the +Danube for shipment. Then as regards Bulgaria, taking into account +internal impediments to cultivation, which may be expected to be removed, +and facilities to exportation and lower freights, it cannot be doubted +that the production and exportation of grain from Bulgaria will increase +very rapidly. For these reasons it may safely be reckoned, that ten years +after the establishment of peace, and a convenient free port near the +mouth of the Danube, the following quantities of grain will be exported +from the Danube:— + + Imperial Quarters. + From Wallachia 2,000,000 + ” Moldavia 1,000,000 + ” Bulgaria 1,500,000 + ” Bessarabia 1,000,000 + --------- + 5,500,000 + ========= + +Regarding the present manner of bringing forward grain for shipment on +board of sea-going vessels, it is to be observed that all the grain +shipped from Galatz comes forward to that place by land. Of that +shipped from Ibraila, not over one-fifth comes forward by land; the +rest is brought down the Danube by river craft, called _kerlatze_, from +Calafat, Islas, Giurgevo, Calarrach, &c. Latterly, the Vienna Danube +Steam Navigation Company has occasionally brought down grain from Upper +Wallachia in shlepfs or iron barges. Of the grain shipped from Bulgaria, +a portion is shipped from Silistria by small vessels, which go up to that +place in spring when the water is high; the remainder is brought down, by +kerlatze, from Widdin, Sistove, Rustchuk, &c., to Matchin, for shipment. +At Matchin some warehouses have lately been built. The grain shipped from +Bessarabia is all brought forward to Reni and Ismail by land. + +The rate of freight, by kerlatze, from Calafat to Ibraila, in the course +of the last four years, has ranged from P. 60-P. 120 of the G. S. per +1000 okes, equal per quarter to 2_s._ 2_d._ to 4_s._ 3_d._; but P. 80 per +1000 okes may be taken as the usual freight, or per quarter 2_s._ 10_d._, +for conveyance the distance of 300 miles English. The freight charged by +the Austrian Danube Steam Company for conveying grain in iron barges, +towed by steamers from Calafat to Ibraila, varies according to the season +and demand, but may be taken on an average at 30 kreutzers per 100 funti, +4_s._ per imperial quarter. The kerlatze, or river craft, perform a +voyage from Ibraila up to Calafat, empty and back with a cargo of grain, +in about two months. A steamer towing shlepfs can perform the same voyage +in ten days. + +The freight from Galatz to England may be taken as 50 per cent. higher +than the freight from Odessa to England; thus, when freight from Odessa +is 7_s._ per quarter, the freight from Galatz is 10_s._ 6_d._: these +are low freights. But were there a port at the St. George’s mouth, the +freight from thence to England could never be more than from Odessa, +but would probably be 10 per cent. less. Thus allowing 1_s._ or 1_s._ +6_d._ per quarter for freight from Galatz to St. George, there would be +a saving, when freights were low, of at least 2_s._, and when freights +were high 5_s._ to 6_s._ per quarter, in favour of bringing grain to the +ships, in place of sending the ships to the grain. + +There would also be a great saving on the Insurance, and in the time of +sending the merchandise to market. + + CHARLES CUNNINGHAM. + +_Galatz, April 4, 1855._ + + LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET, + AND CHARING CROSS. + + + + +[Illustration: THE CRIMEA, WITH THE NORTHERN SHORES OF THE BLACK SEA AND +SEA OF AZOV. + +_Published by John Murray Albemarle Sᵗ. February 1855._ + +_Ford & West. Lithʳˢ._] + + + + +FOOTNOTES + + +[1] Voyage autour du Caucase, par Frédéric Dubois de Montpereux. 6 vols. +with an Atlas. Paris, 1839. + +[2] Études sur les Forces Productives de Russie, par M. L. de Tegoborski, +Conseiller Privé et Membre du Conseil de l’Empire de Russie. 3 vols. +Paris, 1852-54. + +[3] Les Steppes de la Mer Caspienne, le Caucase, la Crimée, et la Russie +Méridionale. 3 vols., with an Atlas. Paris, 1845. + +[4] This was the strength of the army in 1846, when I left it. + +[5] I do not reckon as a war the short period of misunderstanding with +them in the reign of the Emperor Paul. + +[6] He was a Mussulman, but all the rest of his family are Christians. + +[7] As this is a point of some importance, I think it right to state that +my authority for this statement is Mr. Carruthers, late Consul, and Mr. +Lander, late a merchant, at Taganrok. + +[8] This name appears for the first time in Theophanes, page 316. He +says, “Justinian remembering the plot against him of the Chersonites, +the Bosphorians, and the inhabitants of the other Klimata.” Some authors +supposed it to refer to the southern coast, but Dubois applies it to the +northern slopes of the Tauric chain (the same country which was called +Doru by the earlier writers), principally from the following passage in +Constantine Porphyrogenitus:—“One part of the nation of the Patzinakes +is found next to the Chersonites, of whom they are the carriers. They +always treat them well, as it would be easy for them to ravage and +destroy Cherson and the Klimata.” He adds, “From Cherson to the Bosphorus +are the castles of the Klimata.” Dubois, Voyage autour du Caucase, chez +les Tcherkess Abkhazes, en Calchide, en Georgie, en Arménie, en Crimée: +ouvrage qui a remporté le prix de la Société de Géographie de Paris, +1838: vol. v. p. 5. + +[9] That is, passing through Bereslaf; for, by going straight from +Perecop to Kherson by Adeski, it is only 332 miles, but this road is not +always practicable, on account of the difficulty of crossing the Dniepr. + +[10] Its old Russian name was Belaio Veja, and it was called Kiz Kerman, +or the Girl’s Castle, by the Tatars (Vsevolovski, Dict. Hist. Géog. de la +Russie). + +[11] The following is the account Herodotus gives of this river:—“The +fourth is the river Borysthenes, which is the largest of these after the +Ister, and, in my opinion, the most productive, not only of the Scythian +rivers, but of all others, except the Egyptian Nile; for to this it is +impossible to compare any other river, but of the rest the Borysthenes is +the most productive. It affords the most excellent and valuable pasture +for cattle, and fish of the highest excellence and in great quantities; +it is most sweet to drink; it flows pure in the midst of turbid rivers; +the sown land near it is of the best quality; and the herbage, where +the land is not sown, is very tall; at its mouth abundance of salt is +crystallized spontaneously; and it produces large whales, without any +spiral bones, which they call Antacæi, fit for salting, and many other +things that deserve admiration. The Borysthenes continues flowing near +the sea, and the Hypanis mingles with it, discharging itself into the +same morass.” Lib. 4. + +[12] About 1801 the English, French, Dutch, and Prussians obtained +permission for their mercantile navy to pass the Bosphorus. + +[13] 1791. + +[14] 877 miles from Moscow, and 1362 miles from St. Petersburg.—Lyell. + +[15] Castelnau. + +[16] Strange to say, stores are always scanty here, perhaps because many +kinds deteriorate by keeping. Even timber is wanting for ship-building, +and is used green, and never seasoned. A part of the ‘Twelve Apostles’ +was rotten when she was launched. + +[17] This fact is noticed by Herodotus. + +[18] Lyell’s Travels. + +[19] There used to be many governor-generals in Russia, and there is +still one for the Ukraine, which comprehends the governments of Kharkow, +Tchérnigof, and Pultava. + +[20] See Hist. of the Precopian Tatars, London, 1693; also Peyssonel, +Commerce de la Mer Noire, in which there is a Dissertation on the Tatars, +from information gained among them by the author, who was French consul +at Baktchéserai, the capital of the khan in 1773. The Tatars first +appeared in Crimea in 1226. + +[21] Fletcher’s Hist. of Poland, p. 69 and 70. + +[22] Tanquam nidulo aliquo affixi. + +[23] See Fletcher’s History of Poland, p. 68, from which this account is +taken. The original authorities are Chevalier’s work on the Cossack war, +published 1663, and the Relazione di Polonia in the Harleian Collection. + +[24] From “Tchorny,” black, and “Moré,” the sea, in Russian. + +[25] From about A.D. 1560-1783. + +[26] The country between the Dniestr and the Pruth, called Bessarabia, +used to be an integral portion of Moldavia, and is still inhabited by +Moldavians. It was torn from Turkey and given up to Russia in 1812, by +the treaty of Bucharest, which was concluded by Sir Stratford Canning, +then a very young man, who rose into notice from his services on this +occasion. + +[27] See ‘Études sur les Forces productives de la Russie,’ par M. de +Tegoborski, Membre du Conseil de l’Empire de Russie. Paris, 1852. Vol. i. +p. 33. + +[28] “Step” is a Russian word. The following is the account of the +Steppes taken from Von Hammer’s History of the Ottoman Empire:—“These +Steppes are called by Oriental geographers ‘the fields of Hëihat:’ they +extend from east to west from the banks of the Aksou (river Bug) and the +Ouron (river Dniepr) to those of the Ten (river Don) and the Tel (river +Wolga); northward as far as Astrakhan, and southward as far as the banks +of the Kuban (river Hypanis): situated between the Caspian and Black +Seas, they cover a superficies of 1000 parasangs (one parasang is about +four miles). These immense Steppes, which Timour, in marching against +Tóktamish, traversed in 180 days, are covered in winter with snow as high +as the grass in summer, and are inhabited by the Nogais and Kalmouks.” +Vol. ii. p. 109. + +[29] Hylè means “wood” in Greek. + +[30] Tegoborski, vol. i. pp. 34-36. + +[31] Geology of Russia in Europe, by Sir Roderick Murchison, vol. i. p. +559. + +[32] Well known in the English markets under the name of “the country of +the Line.” The production has much decreased of late years, owing to so +many of the Cossacks being employed for warlike purposes. + +[33] This account is taken from a paper by M. Teetzmann, steward of the +estates of the Duke of Anhalt-Köthen, near Bereslaf. See Tegoborski, vol. +i. p. 38. + +M. Teetzmann says, that on his domain, in the 10 years from 1832 to 1841, +rye and wheat produced on the average 6 times, barley 7 times, and millet +23 times the amount sown. In this time there were some years when the rye +gave 16 times, wheat and barley 15 times, and millet 64 times the amount +sown; but there was also one year when the crops entirely failed, and +others when they did not give more than the amount sown. This was in a +country which M. T. ranks among the “Eternal Steppes.” + +[34] The post-carts are found at every post station throughout European +Russia, from Archangel to the banks of Erasas, on the borders of Persia, +and are called “pavosk,” or “telega,” or “pereclodnoi;” they are very +low, have a seat for the driver in front, and will, with difficulty, +hold two persons inside: they have no springs and no seat, and the +traveller sits on his luggage. In this way, couriers and officers perform +journeys of 1000 and 2000 miles without stopping, except to change at +each station. I have myself performed a journey of 1200 miles from Tiflis +to Odessa in this manner, and have frequently known Russians to have +travelled 12,000 to 13,000 miles within the year. + +[35] “It would be tedious to notice on every occasion the extraordinary +number of tumuli which appear during the whole route (_i. e._ from +Kasankaia to Tcherkask): I wish the reader only to keep in mind the +curious fact of their being everywhere in view.”—Clarke’s Travels, part +i. p. 254. + +[36] Mus citillus of Buffon. + +[37] See Clarke’s Travels, part i. ch. 12. Recently rewards have been +offered for the destruction of the suslics on account of the great injury +they do to the crops and fields. They make the steppe very dangerous for +riding. + +[38] Nat. Hist., cap. 26. + +[39] This name is said to be derived either from Horus and Kapou (and it +would then mean the gate of Horus or the frontier), or from the Tatar +word “Or,” or “Ore,” meaning fire. Von Hammer. + +[40] In the name of Beresin is preserved the ancient name of the isle +Boristhenis, which, like the island of Leuké, at the mouth of the +Ister, was devoted to the races in honour of Achilles; and the “Kil” in +Kilboroún probably comes from Achilles, the sovereign of Pontus, although +the Tatars explain the word as meaning a promontory as fine as a “hair,” +since “Kil” means hair in their language.—Page 362. + +[41] Von Hammer, Hist. de l’Empire Ottomane, vol. xiv. p. 360-364. + +[42] The whole account of the coasts and soundings is taken from the +‘Pilot of the Black Sea and the Azof,’ by M. Taitbout de Marigny. +Constantinople, 1850. + +[43] P. 60. + +[44] P. 51. + +[45] P. 53, 54. + +[46] Gloubok means “deep” in Russian. + +[47] For a further account, see Chap. VI. + +[48] This was in about the year 1838. See H. de Hell. + +[49] Crimea was divided into 48 kadilics. + +[50] Peyssonel, de la Commerce de la Mer Noire, vol. i. p. 252. + +[51] Dubois, vol. v. p. 390. + +[52] One verst, equal to about three-quarters of an English mile; 108 +Russian versts = 1 degree; 69 English miles = 1 degree. + +[53] De la Motraye, 3 vols. fol. illustrated by Hogarth: vol. ii. p. 42. +The temperature of the water is 10° Réaumur, 54° Fahrenheit. See R. P. +Koeppen, uber 130, Tauriens Quellen, p. 13. See Dubois, vol. vi. p. 325. + +[54] The following is the translation of the Tatar inscription on this +fountain:—“Glory to God most High! the face of Baktchéserai is made glad +by the beneficent care of glorious Prince Geray Khan. With a prodigal +hand he has satisfied the thirst of his country, and he will spread other +blessings if God lends him his assistance. + +“By care and trouble he has opened this excellent spring of water. If +there exist such another fountain, let it come! We have seen the towns of +Cham (Damascus) and Bagdad, but nowhere have we seen such a fountain. The +author of this inscription is called Cheiki. If any man, fainting from +thirst, reads these words across the water which escapes trickling from +the slender pipe, what do they tell him? Come: drink this limpid water +that flows from the purest of springs; it gives health!” + +The last three words, when reduced into figures, give the date 1176 (A.D. +1762).—Dubois, vol. vi. p. 328. + +[55] See Dubois, vol. vi. p. 331. + +[56] He was poisoned in A.D. 1769. + +[57] Hommaire de Hell, Travels in the Steppes of the Caspian, p. 360, +English edition. + +[58] Dubois (Voyage du), vol. vi. p. 337. + +[59] The population of Tchoufout Kaleh in 1830 was composed of 492 +men and 617 women, altogether 1109 Jewish inhabitants. P. de Koeffen, +Baktchéserai zur Zeit der Cholera, 1830.—See Dubois, vol. vi. p. 340. +Hommaire de Hell says, in 1842, they were gradually leaving, to settle in +Baktchéserai: p. 364. + +[60] Henderson, p. 314. + +[61] Also Hothinger, Albringrus, Triglandius, and others. See Henderson. + +[62] The name Karaim comes from the Hebrew word “Kara,” Scripture. They +are also frequently called “Bene Mukra,” sons of the text, and “Baala +Mikra,” masters or possessors of the text. Henderson’s ‘Biblical Res. in +Russia,’ p. 316. + +[63] She died A.D. 1437-38—year of the Hedgra, 841. + +[64] The name “Tchoufout” applied to the Jews, is said by Pallas to be +derived from “Cifutti,” which was a term of reproach applied to them at +Genoa. There are many Genoese words in the Tatar language. + +[65] Kirkor is first mentioned by Abulfeda (1341), under the name of +Kerkri, and he says it was then inhabited by the As. Kerkor was probably +the capital of the Khans of Crimea from about 1400 to 1480 A.D.—Dubois’ +Voyage, &c., vol. vi. p. 343. + +In 1396 “the Khan of Kirkel” is found fighting on the banks of the Don, +against Vitort, Grand Duke of Lithuania. Pallas and Clarke think the +Genoese possessed this place, as well as Mangoup and Eski Crim, but +Dubois doubts this fact. + +[66] The question as to who built the crypts is fully discussed in +Dubois, vol. vi. + +[67] Dubois, vol. vi. p. 347. + +[68] Whenever the Russians say Tatars and Kalmucks, the ethnologists I +have chiefly followed say Turks and Mongols. + +“Ethnologically viewed, the ‘Tatars’ or ‘Tartars’ were a tribe nearly +allied to the Mongols in race, who dwelt near the lake Bougir, to the +eastward of Mongoliei. They were among the first of the Mongol conquests, +and they took afterwards so conspicuous a place in the army of Zingis +Khan that their name became synonymous with that of the Mongols. Their +proper name was Tatars. It was said to have been changed into Tartars in +consequence of an expression of St. Louis, who, when the devastations of +Zingis Khan were heard of with horror in Western Europe, is reported to +have exclaimed, ‘Let this heavenly consolation, O Virgin Mother, sustain +us if they come, that either we will drive the Tartars, as we call them, +back to their Tartarean (infernal) seats, whence they have sprung, or +they shall raise us all to heaven.’”—_Dr. Smith’s Note, Gibbon_, vol. +iii., p. 294. + +[69] Or the Great Khan. + +[70] Karamsin, vol. v. p. 83. + +[71] Tóktamish was descended from Touschi, son of Zingis Khan, the Mongol +hero. Tamerlane was a Turk, but claimed to be descended by the females +from Zingis Khan. He was born 1335; d. 1405. + +[72] After being four times khan, he died in 1704.—_Von Hammer’s +Genealogical Tables._ + +[73] Discourse on the Precopian Tatars. London, 1693, _passim_. + +[74] Travels in the Steppes of the Caspian: see p. 369, English edition. + +[75] Douvankoi means the Valley of Prayer (see ‘Pallas’s Travels’). + +[76] This is the name of the fort and suburb on the north side of the bay +of Sevastopol. “Sievarna” means northern in Russian. + +[77] ‘Pallas’s Voyage,’ ii. 46, in Dubois. + +[78] ‘Pallas’s Voyage:’ see Dubois, vol. vi. p. 26. + +[79] Sevastopol, or Sebastopolis, is composed of two Greek words, +“Sebastos” meaning Augustus, and “polis” a city; and it was the name of a +Greek city of the Lower Empire on the eastern coast of the Black Sea in +Abkhazia. + +[80] The ancient Greek city of Kherson was close to Sevastopol, but in +the time of the Empress Catherine it was supposed to have stood near the +mouth of the Dniepr, and the new city she founded there was therefore +called by that name. + +[81] Clarke, in 1800, ii., page 98; Reuilly in 1803; Castelnau in 1817; +Montandon in 1833. + +[82] The wooden telegraph thus carries messages from Sevastopol to +Odessa, whence there is the electric telegraph to Petersburg. + +[83] In 1834 there were 1500 working with the chain, without counting the +other prisoners. + +[84] “Black rivulet” in English. Large reservoirs were formed at a +distance in the mountains to supply the canal, but they gave way. The +river was insufficient, and a steam engine was lately erected to pump sea +water into the docks. + +[85] This is taking the paper rouble at the same value as the franc, but +it is really rather more. + +[86] It is but justice to Col. Upton, who is now no more, to observe, +notwithstanding the reports lately circulated about certain faults in the +early part of his life, that he enjoyed a good reputation among his own +countrymen in Russia, and was considered a honest and faithful servant of +his employer, while he has left monuments of his talents of which we may +be proud. + +[87] Naval Gunnery, 4th ed., p. 619. + +[88] Toola, besides the Government, has many private establishments, and +is considered as the Birmingham of Russia. + +[89] For all these details see Tanski, Tableau du Système Militaire de la +Russie. Paris, 1833, p. 295-7. + +[90] For many years all the harbours of the Crimea were shut to commerce +on the plea of there being no quarantines. + +[91] He writes in 1852. + +[92] Haxthausen, Études sur la Russie, vol. iii. p. 477-479. + +[93] ‘Histoire de la Russie,’ tom. ii. p. 624, par Mons. Chopin, Paris, +1838. This gentleman was for many years an employé in Russia. + +[94] The first part of this chapter is based upon Haxthausen, vol. iii. + +[95] Will of Peter the Great, transmitted by the Chevalier d’Eon, French +Ambassador at Petersburg, to his court in 1757, and soon after made +public. See ‘Geschichte Peters des Grossen,’ by Peters, published at +Leipsic. + +[96] _Equipage_ is the French for “crew.” + +[97] See Appendix C., on the Timber Trade. + +[98] Hommaire de Hell, vol. ii. p. 383, French edition. + +[99] See App. (A). + +[100] See Sir H. Douglas’s ‘Naval Gunnery,’ from which I have borrowed +all this account of the Paixhans system, p. 289-291. + +[101] This chapter is based upon the account of the Russian army by M. +Haxthausen, and a great portion of it is borrowed from him. He had access +to Russian official records. + +[102] M. Tegoborski, the mouthpiece of the Government of St. Petersburg, +states that the estimate of the regular army alone in 1854 was from +800,000 to 900,000 men, and that it may be raised to 1,250,000 men in +1855. ‘Revue des Deux Mondes,’ Nov. 15, 1854, p. 802. + +[103] Haxthausen, vol. iii. p. 335. + +[104] See his will, which has been often published. + +[105] Haxthausen, vol. iii. p. 331. + +[106] Nestor was a monk of Kieff, and ceased to write about A.D. 1016. + +[107] Chroniques de Nestor, French translation, c. 3, p. 54. + +[108] Haxthausen, vol. iii. p. 348. + +[109] Haxthausen, vol. iii. p. 340. + +[110] “The bankers of Berlin in 1853 refused the 5 per cent. Russian loan +at 83, with a bonus of 17 per 100 on the nominal capital. For the last +twenty years Russia has been borrowing, to cover the deficit left in her +budget by her enormous military preparations.”—Léon Faucher, ‘Revue des +Deux Mondes,’ Nov. 15, 1854, p. 809. + +The position of Russia is well described by M. Léon Faucher:—“How can +the riches of a country be spoken of, which is still on so many sides +a desert to clear and people? There are scarcely 11 inhabitants to the +square kilomètre (⅔rds of a mile). The average of life is only 20 years +(less than half that of the inhabitants of London, which is 43), and +this presents very precarious resources for recruiting immense armies. +The middle classes in Russia are scarcely born; the nobles are in debt; +the peasants are reduced to a state of serfdom, or live in a kind of +communism which is the actual practice of the most immoral and barbarous +theories; manufacturing industry is an artificial creation by high +protective tariffs; agriculture, with the exception of the kingdom of +Poland, is in a rude and patriarchal state. The forests, the steppes, and +the marshes occupy ⅚ths of the empire; and can it be supposed that a soil +thus badly prepared can furnish the means of successfully resisting the +powers of the West, who have in abundance what Russia has a dearth of, or +will soon have a dearth of, namely, men and money.”—Id. p. 318. These are +home truths, and we have only to thank our late rulers that Russia is not +already so far reduced as to be obliged to accept any terms that we chose +to impose upon her. + +[111] I believe Count Radetski has also received this decoration since +his Italian campaigns. + +[112] Perhaps the light division of cavalry of reserve and its light +artillery (24 light pieces) should be considered quite independent of +this second corps.—Haxthausen, vol. iii. p. 287. + +[113] I have already mentioned the diminution in the quantity of linseed +and wheat brought into the English market from “the Line country,” in +consequence of the demands upon the Cossacks for men. + +[114] “Sotni” comes from the Russian word sto—a hundred; “sot nic” means +a captain. + +[115] If M. Haxthausen estimates so highly these Caucasian auxiliaries, +if they could be brought to aid the Russians, why have we not long ago +arrayed them against their natural enemies? + +[116] See Haxthausen, vol. iii. p. 458. + +[117] Haxth. vol. iii. p. 460. + +[118] Napoleon’s opinion of the Cossacks was not high. In the celebrated +29th bulletin of the Grand Army, he says of these gentry, “Even the +Cossacks became formidable—that contemptible cavalry that, under ordinary +circumstances, could not have penetrated a company of Voltigeurs.” I +quote from memory. + +[119] Haxth. vol. iii. p. 301. + +[120] _First Levy._—9 battalions of grenadiers, 3 battalions of +carbineers, 86 battalions of infantry of the line, 36 battalions of +chasseurs of the line, and 134 battalions of infantry; 52 squadrons, and +24 batteries of infantry; representing a total of 98,000 men, and 192 +cannons. + +_Second Levy._—12 battalions of the guard, 12 battalions of the +grenadiers and the carbineers; 72 battalions of infantry of the line, +and the chasseurs; _in toto_, 96 battalions of infantry, 62 squadrons, +24 batteries of infantry, 11 batteries of cavalry, and 2½ battalions of +sappers: presenting in round numbers 115,000 men and 280 cannons.—See +Haxthausen, vol. iii. ch. on the Russian army. + +[121] See ‘Kreutz Zeitung,’ Feb. 1, 1855, a Prussian newspaper, generally +considered to have good information on Russian subjects. This paper also +states, that, exclusive of the corps of the Caucasus and two divisions of +the fifth and sixth corps detached in Asia, the Russian active forces now +amount to 607 battalions, 562 squadrons, and 1712 field-pieces, which on +paper represents 637,000 infantry, 95,000 cavalry, and 42,000 artillery; +and that no more than 10 per cent. is to be deducted for non-effectives. +This would give a total of nearly 700,000 men. + +[122] For this Chapter see Dubois, vol. vi. + +[123] This name is derived from _In_ and _kerman_, a castle. + +[124] Dubois, vol. vi. p. 264. + +[125] Dubois, vol. vi. p. 266. Some say Keffe Kil means “froth earth.” +Clarke says that it is from this earth that the famous meerschaum (froth +of the sea) pipes are made. + +[126] The date of the earliest tomb of the Karaim Jews at Mangoup is the +year of the world 5034 (A.D. 1274). P. de Koeppen Sbornik, p. 29. + +[127] Dubois, vol. v. p. 19. + +[128] Hommaire de Hell. + +[129] As measured by Clarke. See Travels. + +[130] A French guard is now placed to protect it. + +[131] After A.D. 30. + +[132] Sauromates V., A.D. 282. + +[133] Rurik is a common name of Scandinavian heroes. + +[134] The title of Tzar, says Karamsin, was used in Russia as early as +the reign of Ysiaslaf II. and Dmétri Donskoi (1363-1389). This word is +not an abridgment of the Latin Cæsar, as some learned men have supposed. +It is an ancient Eastern name, which became known to the Russians +through the Slavonic translation of the Bible, and was given by them +first to the Emperor of the East and then to the khans of the Tatars. It +signifies in Persian “a throne,” “the supreme authority,” and is observed +in the names of the kings of Assyria and Babylonia, as in Phala_ssar_, +Nabona_ssar_. John III. (1462-1472), was the first grand prince who +took the title of Tzar in writing to foreign powers, and in his public +acts he gave to his empire the name of “White Russia,” that is to say, +great or ancient, according to the acceptation of this word in Oriental +languages.—_Karamsin_, vi. 438. + +In one of the chronicles of Novgorod it is said that Vladimir assumed +the title of Tzar, 978. “Sic unus (Vladimir) serum Russiæ politus, auxit +se titulo Tzaris et magni ducis atque autocratoris Russorum, sedemque +ducatus Novogordiensis Kioviam transtulit.”—M.S. quoted in the notes to +French translation of Nestor. + +[135] Nestor. + +[136] Clarke says that he obtained some copper coins of Vladimir in the +Chersonese with a V upon them, probably marking the era of his baptism. + +[137] Nestor, French translation, viii. 133. + +[138] Dubois, vol. vi. p. 147. M. F. Adelung, die Korsüncher Thüren in +der Cathedral Kirche zur heilg. Sophia in Novgorod. Berlin, 1823. + +[139] Karamsin, Histoire de Russie, vol. v. p. 16. + +[140] Bronovius, Desc. Tartariæ, pp. 258-261. + +[141] A plan of these is given by Clarke in a vignette. + +[142] B. iv. + +[143] St. George is the principal patron saint of Russia, and the ancient +arms of Moskow, when it was an independent principality, were this saint +mounted on a white horse on a red field. When Moscow became the capital +of the Grand Princes of Russia they adopted these arms. The vanquished +dragon was added in 1380, after the victory of Koulikof, gained by Dmétri +Donskoi over the Tatars. Ivan IV. in adopting in 1580 the double-headed +eagle of the Greeks did not on that account renounce the horseman and the +dragon, and the Russian eagle is charged in the heart with the scutcheon +of Koulikof. + +The ancient sovereigns of Russia, after embracing Christianity, took +for their arms three circles in a triangle. In one of the circles was +an inscription about the Trinity, in another the name of the prince to +whom the letter was addressed, and in the third the titles of the Grand +Prince.—Notes to French translation of Nestor, p. 71; Strahlemberg, +Description de l’Empire Russe, vol. i. p. 240. Amst. 1757. + +[144] Dubois, vol. vi. p. 194. + +[145] Dubois, vol. vi. p. 201. + +[146] See St. Simon, Mémoires de l’Arménie. + +[147] For all this account of the crypts see Dubois, vol. vi. p. 314-319. + +[148] Toira in Assyrian means a mountain, a chain of mountains; _Tyrou_ +in Chaldean; _Tourou_ in Syrian. With the Turk races _Tau_ means a +mountain, a round or high building, a rampart; and _or_ a façade. In +Greek _oros_ means a mountain. See Dubois, vol. vi. p. 12. + +[149] The remainder of this chapter is abstracted from Hommaire de Hell, +vol. ii. ch. 19. + +[150] See Dubois, vol. vi. p. 222. + +[151] The history of the Goths in the Crimea, an obscure but interesting +subject, has been investigated in a recent German work, which I have not +seen. + +[152] Clarke’s Travels, vol. i. App. 3. + +[153] Dubois, vol. vi. p. 110. A great part of the following account of +Balaclava is translated from this author. + +[154] K. Ritter, die Vorhalle Europäischer Völkergeschichten vor +Herodotus, um den Kaucasus und an den Gestaden des Pontus. Berlin, 1820, +p. 8. A very curious and interesting work, although considered too +speculative by some scholars. + +[155] Pallas, vol. ii. p. 131. + +[156] Ibid., vol. ii. p. 130; see also Strabo. + +[157] MS. Travels of Nicholas Barti, of Lucca, into Tatary, Circassia, +and Mingrelia, from 1632-1639. + +[158] Clarke’s Travels, vol. i. p. 507. + +[159] Pallas, vol. ii. p. 132-3. + +[160] Pallas, vol. ii. p. 89-99. + +[161] This account of the valley of Baidar and the Tatars and their +dwellings is borrowed from Clarke, vol. ii. p. 514-520. The manners of +the Tatars are the same as those of other nations of Western Asia; and +this account has been inserted, because, although written a long time +ago, it is still believed to give a faithful picture of them. + +[162] Dubois, vol. vi. p. 92. + +[163] Dubois, vol. vi. p. 93. + +[164] P. de Koeppen, Krimskii Sbornik, p. 23, quoted in Dubois. + +[165] As, for instance, Mangoup, Biassala, Katchikalene, Mangouche, and +Lec. + +[166] Cape Saritch is the name of the sailors for Mount Aia. + +[167] General Potier was one of, I think, eight engineer officers lent by +Napoleon after the peace of Tilsit, to form the Russian engineers on the +French model, and to establish an École Polytechnique. + +[168] Dubois, vol. vi. p. 97. + +[169] The village of Kutchuk Koi, four versts from Kíkineis, was buried +in February, 1786. The following is the account of this catastrophe +from Professor Pallas’s work, written shortly after the event:—“On the +10th of February, 1786, the surface of the earth about the deep glens +before mentioned, and in another still further to the eastward, began +to burst, and to exhibit rocks or clefts; so that, on the same day, +the brook which had hitherto turned two small mills, constructed by +the native Tatars, entirely disappeared. Two days afterwards, the soil +having become entirely disengaged, and the frightened inhabitants of the +adjacent village having removed their cattle, carried off their effects, +and abandoned their habitations, the whole tract between the hollows +above described, from the lofty bank of rocks by the sea-shore, fell in +about midnight with a dreadful noise; and this sinking continued till +the 28th of February, so as to occasion a terrific abyss from ten to +twenty fathoms deep, in which only a large parallel ridge of hard rock +and two smaller crests remained projecting at the bottom. The ground +thus fallen extends about a mile and a half in length, and six hundred +yards in breadth. In proportion as one part of the steep declivity was +detached from the rock, the whole mass pressed downwards, and the strand +was removed further into the sea to a distance of from one hundred to two +hundred yards.”—Pallas’s Travels, vol. ii. p. 142. + +[170] Pallas’s Travels, vol. ii. p. 150. It is a pity Professor Pallas +has given no specimen of the language of these people. By the original +inhabitants of the Crimea, I suppose he means the Tatar population, who +arrived in the Crimea with Batou Khan. + +[171] Dubois, vol. vi. p. 85. + +[172] Dubois, vol. vi. p. 82. + +[173] It was measured trigonometrically by Mr. Chatillon, and found to be +3798 pieds de roi.—Dubois, vol. vi. p. 77. + +[174] Castelnau, Hist. de la Nouvelle Russie, quoted by Dubois, vol. vi. +p. 81. + +[175] The Russian loss at Borodino in killed and wounded was—generals, +30; officers, 1,600; men, 42,000.—_MS. Memoir._ + +The French loss was—generals, 40; officers, 1,800; men, 52,000, as shown +by the papers of Marshal Berthier, subsequently taken at Wilna. + +[176] “Namesnik” in Russian—a very high office, seldom conferred. The +holder of it corresponds directly with the Emperor, and not through the +Ministry. + +[177] The army of the Caucasus in 1847 was about 170,000 men. + +[178] The history of these three ladies is admirably told by the graceful +and vigorous pen of Madame de Hell, in the chapter entitled ‘Trois femmes +célèbres.’ It is worth reading in the original French, as all the charm +of the writing is lost in the published English translation. + +[179] Dubois, vol. vi. p. 73. + +[180] Dubois, vol. vi. p. 59. + +[181] The E. India Company have a similar establishment on the Neilgherry +Mountains in the South of India. + +[182] Dubois, vol. vi. p. 55. + +[183] Dubois, vol. vi. p. 24. + +[184] Dubois, vol. vi. p. 26. + +[185] The early writers on the coast of the Crimea are Herodotus, +B.C. 469; Scymnus of Chio, B.C. 100; Strabo, A.D. 29; Arrian, A.D. +110; Ptolemy, _A.D._ 211; Procopius, A.D. 550. The anonymous Periplus +translates into prose the verses of Scymnus. + +[186] Dubois, vol. vi. p. 9. + +[187] Scymnus of Chio, B.C. 100. See Hudson, Geo. Min. + +[188] Dubois, vol. vi. p. 7. + +[189] Dubois, vol. v. p. 450. + +[190] Dubois, vol. v. p. 451. + +[191] Ai for “agio,” holy, in Greek; and “thodor,” corruption of +“Theodoro.” Thus, “Ai Petri” for St. Peter. + +[192] Dubois, vol. v. p. 455. + +[193] Dubois, vol. v. p. 446. + +[194] Dubois, vol. v. p. 429. + +[195] See H. de Hell, vol. ii. p. 484. + +[196] Dubois, vol. v. p. 350-360. + +[197] Maharab is a kind of pulpit, generally in stone-work, on which the +“imam” or “mollah” stands in every mosque, and it is always turned in the +direction of Mecca: thus in Africa it would look towards the east, in +India towards the west, and in the Crimea nearly due south. + +[198] See Dubois, vol. v. p. 355-358. + +[199] The following account of the vines of the Crimea and the prices of +land is translated from Dubois, vol. v. p. 330-350. + +[200] Bronovius, Desc. Tartariæ. + +[201] ‘Recueil de quelques antiquités trouvées sur les bords de la Mer +Noire, par L. D. Waxel,’ No. 4, Clarke, Voyage, p. 117. It is now in the +Museum of Nikolaief. + +[202] Mount Simeonkaia and Mount Kisilkaia. + +[203] Dubois, vol. v. p. 413. + +[204] Aian is a contraction for Agio Joannes, or St. John. Dubois, vol. +v. p. 417. + +[205] Dubois, vol. v. p. 418. + +[206] Dubois, vol. v. p. 407. + +[207] Dubois, vol. v. p. 411. + +[208] Ibid., vol. v. p. 412. + +[209] Dubois, vol. v. p. 412. + +[210] Id. p. 375. + +[211] Pallas, vol. ii. p. 271, 387; Peyssonel, Commerce de la Mer Noire, +vol. ii. p. 269; Dubois, vol. i. p. 271. + +[212] Dubois, vol. v. p. 280. + +[213] From this point the greater part of the rest of this chapter is +translated from H. de Hell’s work. Vol. ii. ch. 18. + +[214] Dubois, vol. v. p. 284. + +[215] See Dubois, vol. v. p. 293. + +[216] Dubois, vol. v. p. 287. + +[217] A celebrated Armenian city in the Pashalic of Kars. + +[218] Dubois, vol. v. p. 296. + +[219] One ancient Armenian church exists at Zvainiets, near the Dneistr, +in Podolia; the interior walls are hewn stone, covered with carving of +very fine execution. This little church dates from the end of the 15th +century. At Jaslovitz in Gallicia, the seat of the famous Polish family +of Konietzpolski, is the residence of the Armenian bishop of that place. +The indignities heaped upon them afterwards obliged the Armenians to +quit that town, and they retired to Leopol or Lemberg, whose riches and +importance date from that time. Dubois, vol. v. p. 297, note. + +[220] He gives a picture of it in his work. + +[221] Clarke’s Travels, vol. i. p. 446. + +[222] The Russians took this town in 1771, and restored it at the peace +of Kainardji, in 1774. Chahin Geray, the reigning Khan, then transferred +here the seat of government, till he was forced to yield up his country +to Catherine in 1784; he then passed into Russia, and at last was +strangled at Rhodes in 1787. He lived like an European, had a European +cook, ate all kinds of meat, and his servants wore a livery. He drove +in his carriage instead of riding, and hid his beard under a black silk +cravat—a daring thing for a Mussulman at that epoch. He had a corps of +200 Cossacks, dressed in a red and black uniform, under the command +of an English officer.—See ‘Essai Hist. sur la Mer Noire,’ by a very +intelligent French merchant of Kherson. Paris, 1805. + +[223] See Clarke, vol. i. p. 451, note, for authorities in support of +this opinion. + +[224] Dubois, vol. v. p. 218. + +[225] Dubois, vol. v. p. 242. + +[226] Hommaire de Hell, Vol. ii. p. 505. + +[227] Dubois, vol. v. p. 104. + +[228] Id. p. 108. + +[229] Pallas. Voyages dans les Gouvernements Méridionaux, vol. ii. p. 298. + +[230] The quarantine here is probably only a political measure to keep +away foreigners. + +[231] The last “t” is pronounced like a “tz,” and the word as if written +“Constitutzia.” + +[232] Dubois, Voyage, vol. v. p. 113-117. + +[233] The remainder of this chapter is abstracted from Dubois’ detailed +account, vol. v. p. 113-239. + +[234] Smith’s Geog. Dict., Art. ‘Bosphorus.’ + +[235] Reskóuporis I., Mithridates III. and his wife Ghepaipyris, and T. +J. Reskóuporis. + +[236] Dubois, vol. v. p. 137. + +[237] Dubois, vol. v. p. 151-184. + +[238] See Genesis, chap. 24. + +[239] See Sir W. Hamilton’s collection of Etruscan Vases, Naples, about +1766. + +[240] A roof in which the stores go on projecting in layers till they +nearly meet at the top. + +[241] The peacock is supposed to have been brought from India by the +companions of Alexander the Great, and in the wild state is not known +west of India. + +[242] I found, curious to say, a somewhat similar tradition prevailing +near Chingleput, in Southern India. There the entrance was said to be +guarded by two gigantic wasps. + +[243] Dubois, vol. v. p. 89. + +[244] Dubois, vol. v. p. 194-288. + +[245] Electrum is a mixture of gold and silver. + +[246] For bows and arrows together, called oistiodoche. + +[247] Boiled mutton is a common dish in Persia. An immense cauldron of it +is made about midday in the villages in some parts of Persia, and persons +sending may buy a portion. I have sometimes bought some in travelling, +but found it indigestible on account of the fat sheep’s tails boiled up +with it. + +[248] The _toura_ is an animal in the Caucasus like a wild bull, with +enormous horns, and a very thick skull, as it throws itself down +precipices on its head. It is the favourite game of the Mingrelian and +Ossete princes. + +[249] Strabo, lib. xi. p. 486. + +[250] Dubois, vol. v. p. 223. + +[251] This medal is among those published by Sestini.—Musée Chaudoir, +tab. i., figs. 5 and 6. Consult Dubois, vol. v. p. 225. + +[252] Hagemeister, Com., see p. 147. + +[253] See Scymnus of Chio, B.C. 100. + +[254] Meleti and Sanson, geographers of the 17th century, say that Caffa +was built of material from Tousla, which is now the name of a village +near Opouk, and, according to Chardin, means salt-works. Krimskii +Sbornik, p. 106; Carte du Voyage de Chardin, en 1672; Dubois, vol. v. p. +263. + +[255] Nearly the whole of this chapter is taken from the Pilot of the +Black Sea and the Sea of Azof, by the late M. Taitbout de Marigny, who +for many years employed his time in exploring these seas in his yacht. +A 3rd edition of his little work was printed in English with Maps, at +Constantinople, 1850. + +[256] Tonka means “narrow.” + +[257] _Kamish_ means “a reed” in Russian. + +[258] _Bielo_ means “white” in Russian, and _serái_ “a palace” in Tatar. + +[259] _Obriv_ means “a cliff” in Russian. + +[260] _Dolgoi_ means “long” in Russian. + +[261] _Staroi_ means old in Russia. + +[262] It is sometimes called “Mertvoi Donetse.” Mertvoi means “dead” in +Russian. + +[263] All the coals used are Russian coals, which come down the river. + +[264] No masts are, however, shipped from Taganrok. + +[265] Dictionnaire Géograph. Historique de l’Empire Russe. 1823. Art. +Taganrok. + +[266] Cape Bielo-Serái is called Cape Bilestav by the Greeks and Italians. + +[267] See Blue Book, p. 73. The exact numbers are, 1853, Imports, S. R. +48,110; Exports, S. R. 6,243,774. + +[268] See Appendix, on the country between Yénitchi and Perecop. + +[269] Rostof is not mentioned as one of the principal towns of Russia +in the Russian Government Tables of Population, &c., translated and +published this year by the Board of Trade (Statistical Tables relating to +Foreign Countries, Part I., 1855); I believe, however, that I am correct +in the importance which I attribute to it. + +[270] See Blue Book, Stat. Tables of Foreign Countries, 1855, Part I., p. +70-72. + +[271] Blue Book, p. 29. + +[272] Id. id. + +[273] + + _Wheat._—Quarters 72 = Tchetwerts 100 of ten poods weight each. + _Linseed._—Quarters 83 = Tchetwerts 100 ditto + 1 pood = 40 lbs. Russian = 36 lbs. English. + +[274] There is a small portion grown in the Danubian Principalities and +in Italy, but of an inferior quality. + +[275] This is also the case with Indian linseed. + +[276] That is when manufactured, but not when it is sold to the public, +after having passed through the excise. The excise is farmed in Russia +according to governments, and is let by auction for short terms of years. +Mr. Tegoborski states, that last autumn (1854) the farms were relet, and +that there was no diminution in the biddings, on account of the war. It +has been for some time in contemplation to do away with the farming of +the excise, and to introduce a system somewhat similar to our own. + +[277] This word has the same meaning in Russian, as “quarter” in English, +_Tchetwert_ being derived from _Tchetíri_, four. + +[278] Dr. Clarke makes also the following observations on the name +of this river, which, being of considerable size, runs through the +Government of Kharkof, and meets the Don at some distance above +Tcherkask, and from which the Greeks, he thinks, took the name of Tanais, +which they applied to the Don. He says, “I must request the reader to +suppose himself entering the mouth of the Don, and proceeding up the +river to the distance of about 99 miles, above its embouchures, and +rather more than 46 above the town of Tcherkask. He would here find the +Danaetz falling into the Don, by two mouths, separated from each other +by a distance of 10 or 12 miles. But the people here have, from time +immemorial, entertained a notion that it leaves the Don again before it +reaches the sea, and, taking a north-westerly direction, falls into the +Palus Mæotis, to the north of all the other mouths of the Don, of which +it is, in fact, one. This northernmost mouth of the Don, on account of +the river whose waters its channel is supposed peculiarly to contain, +is called Danaetz, and to express either its sluggish current, or its +exit into the sea, _Dead Danaetz_. The Greeks, steering from the Crimea +towards the mouth of the Don, and, as their custom was, keeping close to +the shore, entered first this northernmost mouth of the river. It bore +then, as it does now, the name of _Danaetz_, _Idanaetz_, or _Tanaetz_, +whence the word _Tanais_ would be easily derived.”—Clarke, i. 257. It +must be remarked, however, that a gentleman from Taganrok informs me that +the word is distinctly pronounced _Donetz_, as the Germans write it. + +[279] The importation of Russian woollens into China must be very large +to supply the extensive demand which exists for them in the north and +centre of China. The thick heavy kinds, which the Chinese call “hala,” +after the Russian name for wrappers or outside coverings, which are often +made from cloths of this description, are chiefly in request, and are +much used for cloaks and travelling dresses: those of red and green hues +are much esteemed, on account of the superior depth and brightness of the +Russian colours. These cloths are from 20 to 30 yards long, and from 62 +to 64 inches broad. Belgian and Saxon cloths are also received through +Russia. Small parcels of Russian woollens are brought to Canton, where +they enter into competition with English goods, to the disadvantage of +the latter. Russian blue cloth may be bought at 2½ dollars per yard, and +in the interior it is a dollar cheaper: other kinds, except scarlet, are +cheaper. The Chinese could not sell at these prices, unless they obtained +them at rates even lower than the cost of production; and there is little +doubt that the Russians part with them at a loss, but are eventually +remunerated by the high profits they are able to realise on teas. +Kiachta and Mae-mae-Chin are the well known towns on the Russian and +Chinese borders respectively, where the trade between the two countries +is carried on. It is purely a barter trade; no money is allowed by the +Chinese to pass. The measure of value is bricks of tea, averaging about +3 lbs. in weight; and the chief staple of exchange on the side of the +Russians is cloth. Tea is the principal article given by the Chinese, of +which it is calculated that 18,000,000 lbs., of the value of 5,300,000 +dollars, are taken by the Russians. The Russians have of late begun to +ship teas from the eastern part of China, and taking in the tea sent +through Europe, they receive about 2,000,000 lbs. by water; so that their +total consumption may be put at about 20 millions of lbs., and is rapidly +increasing. It is a disputed point whether the Russian caravan tea is the +same kind as that we drink, or whether its undoubtedly superior quality +arises from the land journey. Mr. Parkes thinks that the tea is the same, +but Mr. Hill was told at Kiachta that it came from different provinces. +(Hill’s ‘Siberia,’ vol. i. 1854.) Kiachta is 4000 miles from Moscow, and +1000 from Pekin. The cost of transport of tea from Kiachta to Moscow is +computed at 40_l._ a ton, or 4¼_d._ per lb.; Chinese transport is 3¼_d._ +per lb.; total cost of transport per lb., 7½_d._; cost of water transport +from China to Russia, 2½_d._ Price of best tea in Russia, 2_l._ 2_s._ per +lb., which appears enormous to us in England.—(See Parkes’ Rep., Journal +of R. Geog. Soc., vol. xxiv. p. 306.) The Russian estimate of the value +of the cloth exported to China is about 400,000_l._, and total exports to +China, 850,177_l._—See Blue Book, p. 57. + +[280] The time of year for advancing the money varies considerably, +according to the nature of the goods, the place of production, and the +class of people from whom they are bought. For the goods, consisting +principally of linseed and wheat, purchased on the Volga, the Don, and +its tributaries, most of the money is advanced as early as September on +produce to arrive the next year in June. On tallow to be delivered in +April the advances are generally made in the winter, and on that to be +delivered in October the advances are made in April and May. For such +of the fine wools as are purchased on the estates of the producers, the +advances are made about January or February, and sometimes the greatest +portion of them is purchased for ready money at the fairs. + +[281] The rate of interest in South Russia varies from 8 to 14 per cent. +At Galatz and Ibrail money may be safely laid out at from 15 to 18 per +cent. + +[282] The Greek consul-general in London, M. Ralli, is the head and +founder of this house of Ralli Brothers, who have branch establishments +in all the great towns in Europe and Asia as far as the eastern limits of +the Persian empire. They have recently opened a branch house in Calcutta, +where other Greeks have now established themselves. + +[283] “Limné Mœoticé” in Greek, “Palus Mæotis” in Latin. + +[284] The total tonnage was 393,096 tons.—Blue Book, p. 27. + +[285] + + Assign. Robles. + Per Tchetwert, for wheat 1 0c. to 1 50c., or 10_d._ to 15_d._ + Rostof to Taganrok 0 50c. to 1 50c., or 5_d._ to 15_d._ + Taganrok to Kertch 1 0c. to 5 0c., or 10_d._ to 4_s._ 2_d._ + From Katchálin to Rostof 1, or 10_d._ + +[286] I am not certain of the exact place at which the Don becomes +navigable. + +[287] The Volga was called Rhao by the ancients; the Tatars called it +_Idél_, _Adel_, or _Edel_, which signified _abundance_, _generosity_, +_riches_. The name of Volga, or Wolga, has the same origin as Boulgar +or Bulgarian, and this name was given to the river because the early +seats of the Bulgarians were situated on its banks before they moved to +their present country on the south bank of the Danube. It rises in the +district of Ostachof, in the government of Tver. Its course to the mouth +of the Kama is from west to east, and thence it runs to the south into +the Caspian Sea. It passes through the governments of Tver, Jaroslav, +Kostroma, Nijni Novgorod, Kazan, Simbirsk, Saratof, and Astrakhan, and +throws itself into the sea by 70 mouths, forming a multitude of islands. +Its course is about 2500 miles (4000 versts) long. It passes several +important towns, such as Tver, Ouglitch, Romanof, Jaroslav, Kostroma, +Balakhna, Nijni Novgorod, Kousmodemiansk, Tcheboksar, Kazan, Simbirsk, +Syzran, Saratof, Tsaritzine, and Astrakhan. It waters fertile regions, +and is ornamented on its lower course with fine forests. Its principal +navigation begins at Tver. The Volga has the advantage of having no +cataracts, or any dangerous passage; but its depth gradually diminishes +from time to time, so as to give reason to fear that it may become +unnavigable even for vessels of a moderate size. At the beginning of the +eighteenth century the salt vessels of Siberia could carry from 130,000 +to 150,000 poods[288] of salt; now they cannot carry more than 90,000 +poods. Fish is most abundant in it; the principal kinds are the beluga, +sturgeon, biella ryba, sterlet, &c.—Vsevolovski, _Dict. Géog. Hist. de +l’Empire Russe_, art. ‘Volga.’ + +[288] One pood = about 40 lbs. English. + +[289] The project of uniting the Volga and the Don, so as to complete +the communication between the Baltic, Black, and Caspian Seas, is +very ancient. Seleucus Nicanor, then Selim II., and afterwards Peter +the Great, undertook the execution of it, and, if it has not yet been +effected, the delay must be attributed to other circumstances than to the +difficulty of the enterprise. If the Tlavlia, which falls into the Don, +and the Kamitchiaka, which falls into the Volga, were rendered navigable, +the distance necessary to unite these two mighty streams would only be +3 miles. The difficulty which Peter the Great encountered was, that the +level of the Don was higher than that of the Volga by a distance which +the academician Lovitz found to be 300 feet. The celebrated Pallas then +suggested a junction below the Tlavlia, where the Don, making an angle, +approaches the Volga within 50 versts (about 35 miles), and the ground +is a bed of sandstone easy to work. They might also be joined by a +canal from the Karpovka, on the left bank of the Don, and the Sarpa, a +tributary of the Volga; and this would be easy, because of deep ravines +and valleys near a convenient point of junction. + +Peter the Great, however, united the Voroneje, which falls into the Don, +with the Niaza, by a canal; and as the last river flows into the Racovna, +the Racovna into the Oka, and the Oka into the Volga, it is possible to +navigate from Moscow into the Oka, and thence into the Don.—Vsevolovski, +_Dict. Hist. de l’Empire Russe_, art. ‘Don.’ + +[290] In spite of the protection afforded by all but prohibitory duties, +and the great expense incurred by the nation to support a fictitious +system, the manufacturers of Russia are always in a depressed state, and +do not gain by this state of things, although their countrymen lose. + +[291] This is confirmed by Tegoborski. “The thing,” he says, “which +struck me the most during my short stay at Nijni Novgorod in 1852 was +the simplicity, and I might almost say the apparent carelessness, with +which commercial affairs were ordinarily carried on without the agency +of brokers (courtiers). Considering that there were sales to the amount +of 10,000,000_l._ in the short space of three or four weeks, I was +surprised to see the Exchange almost always deserted. Many important +affairs were concluded without any formality, on the simple word of +the parties, in the cafés and restaurants. This method of conducting +business is generally in use in Russia, and constitutes a characteristic +trait of our commerce. Few persons are aware that at Moscow there is +much more business done at the restaurant of the Troitsk (troitski +troetir) than at the Exchange. Sometimes, no doubt, a merchant becomes +embarrassed and unable to fulfil his engagements, but it is rare that +any man of tolerable credit frees himself in regular bad faith from a +bargain concluded without the formalities which would render it legally +binding.”—_Études_, vol. iii., p. 287. + +[292] This was the number of the corps of the Caucasus when I left the +country in 1846, and it was afterwards, I believe, increased. + +[293] Sunk on the 24th of September, 1854, at the entrance of the port of +Sevastopol. + +[294] Published in the Appendices to Dr. Clarke’s Travels.—A discourse +under the trigger is the harangue made by a general to his troops when +the line is drawn out and the soldiers rest their pieces. + +[295] The Russian archine is 28 inches. + +[296] The Russian soldiers buy their own lead. + +[297] The treasury of the mess. + +[298] The name given by the Russians to the empress. + +[299] It is impossible in this translation, consistently with fidelity, +to preserve the brevity and energy of the original Russian. + +[300] This is a Russian mode of expression. To proceed ten versts, they +say, To break off ten. + +[301] Children and brothers: appellations given by Suvórof to his troops. + +[302] Whatever arrives. Suvórof began the attack as soon as the colours +arrived, even if he had but half a regiment advanced. + +[303] Strength and a half. A common mode of expression in Russia. Suvórof +aimed at the style and language of the common soldiers, which rendered +his composition often obscure. + +[304] Lashes: the literal translation is sticks. + +[305] Professor Pallas supposed this to have been a manual of medicine, +published for the use of the army. + +[306] Here he endeavours to counteract a Russian prejudice, that is +favourable to immoderate eating during fevers. + +[307] A sour beverage, made of fermented flour and water. + +[308] Suvórof had so great an aversion to any person saying “I +don’t know,” in answer to his questions, that he became almost mad +with passion. His officers and soldiers were so well aware of this +singularity, that they would hazard any answer instantly, accurate or +not, rather than venture to incur his displeasure by professing ignorance. + +[309] The words here are some of them not to be translated, and seem to +be the coinage of his own fancy. The Russians themselves cannot affix an +explication to them. + +[310] A Russian proverb. + +[311] Here Suvórof is a little in his favourite character of the buffoon. +He generally closed his harangues by endeavouring to excite laughter +among his troops; and this mode of forming a climax is a peculiar +characteristic of the conversation of the Russian boors. In this +manner:—“And not only of the boors, but of the gentry; and not only of +the gentry, but the nobles; and not only of the nobles, but the emperors.” + +[312] A slight exaggeration of Suvórof’s. + +[313] From Hagemeister’s Report on the Commerce of New Russia. London, +1836, p. 120. + +[314] Trade and Navigation of the Crimea for 1852, from the ‘Journal de +St. Pétersbourg.’ + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 77506 *** |