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| author | www-data <www-data@mail.pglaf.org> | 2025-12-19 14:08:28 -0800 |
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| committer | www-data <www-data@mail.pglaf.org> | 2025-12-19 14:08:28 -0800 |
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+} + +.noindent { + text-indent: 0; +} + +.nw { + white-space: nowrap; +} + +.pagenum { + position: absolute; + right: 4%; + font-size: smaller; + text-align: right; + font-style: normal; +} + +.poetry-container { + text-align: center; + font-size: 90%; +} + +.poetry { + display: inline-block; + text-align: left; +} + +.poetry .stanza { + margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em; +} + +.poetry .verse { + padding-left: 3em; +} + +.poetry .indent0 { + text-indent: -3em; +} + +.right { + text-align: right; +} + +.smaller { + font-size: 80%; +} + +.smcap { + font-variant: small-caps; + font-style: normal; +} + +.allsmcap { + font-variant: small-caps; + font-style: normal; + text-transform: lowercase; +} + +.titlepage { + text-align: center; + margin-top: 3em; + text-indent: 0; +} + +.transnote { + background-color: #E6E6FA; + color: black; + text-align: center; + font-size: smaller; + padding: 0.5em; + margin-bottom: .5em; +} + +.x-ebookmaker .transnote { + display: none; +} + +.x-ebookmaker img { + max-width: 100%; + width: auto; + height: auto; +} + +.x-ebookmaker .poetry { + display: block; + margin-left: 1.5em; +} + +.x-ebookmaker blockquote { + margin: auto 5%; +} + + +/* Illustration classes */ +.illowp100 {width: 100%;} +.illowp93 {width: 93%;} +.x-ebookmaker .illowp93 {width: 100%;} +.illowp58 {width: 58%;} +.x-ebookmaker .illowp58 {width: 100%;} +.illowp46 {width: 46%;} +.x-ebookmaker .illowp46 {width: 100%;} + </style> + </head> +<body> +<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 77506 ***</div> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus1" style="max-width: 43.75em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/illus1.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption> + <p class="caption-r"><i>Frontispiece.</i></p> + <p>STEPPES OF THE CASPIAN.</p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_i">[i]</span></p> + +<p class="titlepage larger">RUSSIA<br> +<span class="smaller">ON</span><br> +<span class="larger">THE BLACK SEA</span><br> +<span class="smaller">AND</span><br> +SEA OF AZOF:</p> + +<p class="titlepage"><span class="smaller">BEING</span><br> +A NARRATIVE OF TRAVELS IN THE CRIMEA<br> +AND BORDERING PROVINCES;</p> + +<p class="titlepage"><span class="smaller">WITH</span><br> +NOTICES OF THE NAVAL, MILITARY, AND COMMERCIAL<br> +RESOURCES OF THOSE COUNTRIES.</p> + +<p class="titlepage"><span class="smcap">By H. D. SEYMOUR, M.P.</span></p> + +<p class="titlepage">WITH MAP, &c.</p> + +<p class="titlepage">LONDON:<br> +JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.<br> +1855.</p> + +<p class="titlepage smaller"><i>The right of Translation is reserved.</i></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_ii">[ii]</span></p> + +<p class="titlepage smaller">LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET,<br> +AND CHARING CROSS.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_iii">[iii]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="PREFACE">PREFACE.</h2> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 17.1875em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/line1.jpg" alt=""> +</figure> + +</div> + +<p>The following work is partly the result of my own +personal observation, and partly a compilation from +some of the most approved authors who have written +on the Crimea and the resources of Russia. It was +prepared for the press during last winter, and the publication +of it has been retarded by the attention which, +for the last few months, I have been obliged to bestow +on other matters. As the Crimea is still an object of +deep interest, and as I am not aware that the notices +I have collected have yet been presented to the public in +a succinct form, I hope by the following pages that I +may help to satisfy public curiosity and add something +to the stock of information which we possess respecting +the Southern parts of European Russia.</p> + +<p>Having paid one visit to the Crimea in the year 1844, +and two visits to Southern Russia in 1844 and 1846, I +have been able to correct and verify the descriptive parts +of the book by my own experience. The careful work +of M. Dubois de Montpereux⁠<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> has been my principal +guide on geology, archæology, and ancient history, and +from his magnificent atlas I have borrowed a few illustrations. +I have abstracted from the ‘Études sur la +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_iv">[iv]</span>Russie’ of M. Haxthausen an account of the Russian +navy and army, adding matter acquired from other +trustworthy sources. To the above-named book and +that by M. Tegoborski,⁠<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> both standard works on the +internal economy of the Russian empire, I am much +indebted; and although I think their accomplished +authors write under a strong bias, yet their works are +indispensable to those foreigners who wish to study the +resources and organization of the Russian empire. +M. Tegoborski has not been allowed to state his whole +opinions upon some subjects, and the Censor has obliged +him to make material alterations, particularly where he +speaks of the condition of the peasantry. I have likewise +alluded to a discussion which took place last year in the +‘Revue des Deux Mondes,’ in which this gentleman +took a part. In the course of last summer a very able +article appeared in the French ‘Moniteur,’ on the +subject of Russian Finance, in which it was attempted +to be proved that Russia was very weak on this point, +and could not hold out for any lengthened period against +the Western Powers. The subject was followed up by +M. Léon Faucher in the ‘Revue des Deux Mondes,’ in +a damaging article on Russian resources and finance. +Soon afterwards an answer to this was sent from Petersburg, +written by M. Tegoborski, who is an employé in +the Bureau des Finances, and it appeared in the November +number of the Revue, with a rejoinder by M. Léon Faucher, +written just before his lamented decease. Notwithstanding +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_v">[v]</span>the truth of M. Tegoborski’s observation, that +Russia cannot be judged by the same rules as other +European nations in matters of finance, owing to her +totally different state of civilization, I think he fails to +prove the main object of his article, that Russia can stand +many more such campaigns as that of 1854. Russia +must have little hope of persuading us of her power by +other means, when she is obliged to have recourse to an +article in a foreign periodical in the midst of a deadly +struggle.</p> + +<p>I have borrowed much from the work of M. and +Madame Hommaire de Hell,⁠<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> and would refer any reader +who wishes for vivid descriptions of Southern Russia, full +historical information, and accurate scientific knowledge, +to the original French work of this distinguished engineer +and his accomplished wife. M. H. de Hell spent five +years in the country to ascertain the difference of the +levels between the Black Sea and the Caspian, and his +work is accompanied by an atlas of rare merit.</p> + +<p>I am indebted to many friends, and, among others, to +Mr. Yeames, late Consul-General at Odessa, Mr. Crawfurd, +and Mr. Blackmore, late chaplain at Cronstadt, for +many valuable suggestions and corrections; and Mr. +Lander has been good enough to revise the chapters +on the shores of the Sea of Azof, with which no man +is better acquainted. This accomplished gentleman was +born in New Russia, and for many years has conducted +the house of Yeames and Co. at Taganrok; and I may +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_vi">[vi]</span>say with truth, that the eighteenth chapter is rather his +than mine.</p> + +<p>In Chapter V. I have especially to acknowledge several +pages of valuable matter relating to the Asiatic races of +mankind, for which I am indebted to a note by Dr. William +Smith, inserted in his recent admirable edition of the +great work of Gibbon. My little book pretends to be +scarcely more than a compilation, and if I have anywhere +else omitted to acknowledge assistance, it has not been +from the wish unfairly to appropriate the labours of others.</p> + +<p>I have also to thank the Rev. Walter Sneyd for the +sight of a translation of a curious Italian MS. in his +possession, describing the travels in the Crimea of one +Nicholo Barti of Lucca in the seventeenth century.</p> + +<p>My notice on the Russian Budget in Chapter VIII. is +not so full as I could wish it to have been, and perhaps +I may have made too high an estimate of the military +expenditure. The other facts relating to it are taken +principally from M. Tegoborski’s writings.</p> + +<p>I have endeavoured, in the following pages, to be as +accurate as possible, but more leisure than I have enjoyed +would have enabled me to go over the ground still more +carefully than I have done, and verify my statements +upon various subjects by information gathered from other +scattered sources.</p> + +<p>I am fully alive to the defects and incomplete character +of the sketches which I now venture to present to the +public; and I ask, therefore, for indulgence if I have not +contributed as much as I might have done to the instruction +or amusement of my readers.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">[vii]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="INTRODUCTION">INTRODUCTION.</h2> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 17.1875em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/line1.jpg" alt=""> +</figure> + +</div> + +<p>My original intention was to have compiled a summary +of the history of the Caucasus, where I spent nearly +three years, and to which a short account of the +Crimea would only have served as an introduction. The +increasing interest attaching to the latter subject, however, +made me pay more attention to it; so that I now +offer to the public some notices on that country and the +shores of the Sea of Azof, without being able to add +anything upon what I hoped to make the main subject +of my inquiry. Some chapters upon the Caucasus are +already partly written, but I have not had sufficient time +to prepare them for insertion in the present volume, +although intimately connected with it. They relate to +a country replete with the deepest interest, and I hope +that, ere long, some more competent hand than mine +may vindicate the character of those heroic mountaineers, +whom many are accustomed unjustly to stigmatize as +barbarians. Though unlettered, they possess equal claims +to our admiration with our own Saxon and Norman ancestors, +or with the Swiss in the days of Tell, for they +possess that stubborn love of independence and that +“spirit of divinest liberty,” which is the root of all good.</p> + +<p>When peace shall be made, it will be most fortunate +should we be able to secure the freedom of the Eastern +coast of the Black Sea by treaty, for the independence +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_viii">[viii]</span>of that country would form one of the best securities +against Russian aggression. At the Caucasus Russia may +be said to end, and a new class of nationalities to begin, +and she can only desire to possess that mountain range +with the intention of extending her conquests beyond it.</p> + +<p>The Caucasus, that is, the mountain range itself, and +the countries that lie at the foot of them, to the north +and south, are the most convenient entrance to the heart +of the great table-land of Asia, which, when once +thoroughly subdued, might constitute an impregnable +citadel whence Russia would be enabled to extend her +influence and dominion in every direction. The Caucasus +is the real citadel of Russian power in the South and East, +although as yet beleaguered by the nations from which it +has been partially wrested. Russia has surrounded it by +an army of 170,000⁠<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> men, and carefully keeps its inhabitants +from communication with civilized Europe. We +have never acknowledged the sovereignty of the Russians +over this territory, nor over the Christian provinces to +the south of the Caucasus. If her blockade were permanently +removed from the eastern coast of the Black Sea, +and the brave inhabitants of the mountains allowed to +carry on a liberal commerce with Europe, their energies +would be quickly turned from war to peaceful arts.</p> + +<p>Those who designate the Circassians as mere warlike +barbarians should remember that we ourselves were but +warlike semi-barbarians in the early ages of our history, +and that the manly character which made us so formidable +in the days of the Plantagenets enabled us ultimately, +with better directed energies, to raise our great +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_ix">[ix]</span>commercial empire in the eighteenth century. The +Circassians and the other mountain tribes resemble us +in many particulars: they debate every great affair in a +national council; they venerate the ancient usages and +ordinances which form their constitution; and they have +the same gradation of ranks and aristocratic feelings which +distinguish ourselves.</p> + +<p>Above all points of resemblance to us, they have clung +to their independence with Anglo-Saxon tenacity; and +shall we, when peace shall be made, allow their rude and +gigantic enemy again to surround them with her liberated +forces, till she exterminate them by brute power, and no +memorial be left of unsuccessful virtue save that which +history will assuredly record in their favour?</p> + +<p>We acknowledged the independence of the Colonies +of Spanish America while they were still struggling +with the mother country; we went still further with +Greece, for we gave them active assistance, having not +only the French, but the very Russians themselves +for our allies. Surely, then, there exist far more +cogent reasons for assisting the Circassians, who have +never been conquered by the Russians. Up to the +breaking out of the present war the Russians had only +an ever-disputed possession of the actual ground occupied +by their fortifications and protected by their cannon, +and they have been constantly resisted by the mountaineers, +who have ever refused to acknowledge the +sovereignty of the Emperor.</p> + +<p>The coast of Circassia is now free, and all that is +required is that it should be kept so, without being +again subjected to a barbarous blockade. If a consul +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_x">[x]</span>were placed there, and merchants encouraged to frequent +it, its gallant inhabitants would soon yield to the civilizing +influences of Europe, and engage themselves in +developing its boundless resources.</p> + +<p>We may rest satisfied that the freedom of the Caucasus +will form an important element towards the +diminution of Russian influence in the East.</p> + +<p>I agree with Mr. Gladstone in thinking we must +look for future security not only by reducing the power +of Russia, but by raising that of Turkey and the other +independent peoples bordering on the Black Sea. Free +communication and free trade once firmly established +there, the question might be considered as in a great +measure settled. It is true that you cannot impose free +trade upon Russia, who occupies half the coasts of the Black +Sea; but you may claim your right to traffic with the +Circassians on the east coast of that sea, and protect your +commerce there by an authorized agent. So great are +the advantages of unrestricted trade—so much does commerce +strengthen and civilize, that the liberal tariff of +Turkey, and the opening of the Principalities (as stated in +App. E), have been, in an indirect manner, the cause of +the present war; for, with freedom of trade, the Christian +subjects of the Porte, for some years before the commencement +of hostilities, had so much increased in importance +and wealth, that they excited the jealousy of +Russia, and she feared that if she did not claim in time +a closer protectorate over them, they might escape her +altogether. I say this, assuming it to have always been +a cardinal point in the politics of Russia, in due time, +to advance her empire to Constantinople and Athens.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xi">[xi]</span></p> + +<p>Although I believe the whole Russian nation to be +bent upon certain measures of territorial aggrandizement, +I have not failed to acknowledge in my notices the +general pacific character of the people. They are not a +martial nation; that is, they are not a nation which +takes delight in war for the sake of braving its dangers +and revelling in its excitement; but theirs is the patient, +enduring, indomitable courage which will face +any dangers to compass certain ends. The Russian +nation has been misdirected by its rulers as to the true +objects of national glory, and by an exorbitant tariff and +other measures has been kept from mixing with other +European nations, lest it should learn juster ideas of the +points in which true glory and prosperity consist, and +become impatient of a military organization, the object +of which is to carry out indefinite schemes of conquest.</p> + +<p>I have lived among the Russians, and I have learnt to +respect them as a strong, earnest, unprejudiced people, +with a great principle of growth in them, and who will +work out the defects of their character, and become some +day an honour to civilization. They were the only +nation in the world, I believe, with whom we had never +been at war.⁠<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> None can more deeply regret than I do +that we have been obliged now to try their mettle.</p> + +<p>We must remember that we have a Court to deal with +which combines the deep calculation of Europe with the +wiles of Asiatic intrigue, and that we shall assuredly be +over-reached, if we do not insist upon sufficient guarantees. +We must also remember that the conquest of +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xii">[xii]</span>Constantinople is the settled determination of Russia, +and has been the prime object of ambition to that country +ever since the ninth century, when the Russian fleets +first appeared before its walls; and that, if we are determined +(as I hope is the case) that they shall never +possess it, we must take care, whenever peace shall be +made, that it be rendered perfectly secure, and the +approaches to it guarded with the greatest possible +care.</p> + +<p>If we yield, as Mr. Gladstone and his friends wish us +to do, to the first offers of Russia, we shall fail in our +paramount object, and become the laughing-stock of the +world. The lives of the brave will have been wasted, +and the successes we have gained will be of no avail; +Russia, at the first favourable opportunity, will renew +the struggle, with the advantages of railroads and all +modern inventions. In dealing with so subtle an enemy +it will be wise not to hesitate, but push on, and, treating +Russia as she wished to treat Turkey, require from her +effectual guarantees that she will not again disturb by +her ambition the peace of Europe.</p> + +<p>The supineness and indecision of the European +Powers for the last thirty years have enabled Russia +to take up an insolent position towards Europe; and +the fears of our own imaginations have contributed to +swell the prestige of the Colossus of the North, and to +render his intrigues successful. Our statesmen are now +fully convinced of the gravity of our position, and the +extent of Russian intrigue both in Asia and in Germany. +I had myself personal experience of it last year in the latter +country. In returning from India in March, 1854, I +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiii">[xiii]</span>spent a day at the little German state of ———— —— +——, to visit a German friend well versed in the secret +politics of his country. He told me how ashamed he +was of his countrymen, who were false to their true +interests, and cowered beneath the power of Russia. +In the morning, when he came to breakfast with me +in my hotel, an officer took him aside to speak to +him. When my friend returned to me, he said, “You +would not believe yesterday the degree of influence +which Russia exercises in Germany; you have here a +proof of it. That officer who took me aside commands +the —— troops, and he called me aside to show me a +diamond ring and an autograph letter from the Emperor +of Russia, flattering him, and conferring upon +him an order. That man is henceforward the devoted +servant of Russia.” My friend, who is himself a +distinguished littérateur, assured me that there were +nearly two thousand literary persons in Germany who +openly received their quarterly pensions at the Russian +embassies to uphold Russian interests. He even authorized +me to authenticate these statements by the use +of his name, which nevertheless I refrain from doing.</p> + +<p>As so much is now said by some parties respecting +the supposed fairness and moderation of Russia, I will +relate two anecdotes of what happened under my own +cognizance in the East. When the Russians seized, +about the year 1840, the island of Ashtoráda, near +Asterabad, at the south-east corner of the Caspian Sea, +which they have since fortified and garrisoned, and when +they explored with steamers the Gourgan and Atrak, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiv">[xiv]</span>rivers flowing exclusively through the Persian territory, +but leading in the direction of the best road to India, +there was one Turcoman Chief resolutely hostile to them, +whom they could neither frighten nor seduce. One +night, therefore, troops were disembarked, his house was +surrounded, and he and all his sons were carried off and +conveyed into the interior of Russia, whence, at the prayer +of a very influential personage, his place of exile was +changed to Tiflis, where I knew him.</p> + +<p>The second is a more daring violation of the territory +of the same power, with whom, be it remembered, we +have a treaty of alliance, and at the court of which +we have long had a minister constantly residing. A +certain member of the Georgian royal family, Suleiman +Khan,⁠<a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> lived in the Persian provinces ceded to Russia +in 1828, and having an inveterate enmity to that power, +he refused to remain there when they became Russian, +and fled into a remote part of Persia. After many years +he thought he might venture to come and live at Tabreez, +the capital of Azerbiján, and near his own country. He +had sounded the Russian consulate, and found them +apparently favourable, and when he arrived he was invited +to dinner by the Russian Consul-General. Everything +passed off very agreeably until after dinner, when, as he was +sitting on a sofa with the Consul, drinking his coffee, the +latter begged to be excused for an instant, and left the +room. Immediately upon his quitting, a file of Russians +appeared at the door, with their pieces levelled at the +Khan, and the Consul, from behind them, told him he +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xv">[xv]</span>was extremely sorry that he was obliged to treat a guest +in so uncourteous a manner, but that he must execute +his orders, that Suleiman Khan must consider himself +a prisoner, and prepare instantly to be conveyed into +the interior of Russia.</p> + +<p>This fact was told me by the English Consul at Tabreez, +when I arrived at that city some short time after this +event had occurred, and I dined with the Russian Consul +in question, now holding a high post in Russian diplomacy, +in the very room where it happened. Of course, +when proceedings of this sort were overlooked by +our Government, there is no wonder that Russia grew +emboldened, and believed that no European power dared +to interfere with her.</p> + +<p>We have begun at last, after thousands of lives and +millions of treasure have been expended in attacking the +only strong position of Russia in the Black Sea, to +attack some of the long line of vulnerable points which +she presents. Our successes at Kertch, Berdiansk, Mariopol, +Taganrok, and Soujuk Caleh have been as easy as +they have been important, and we have now only to +continue the same course of action.</p> + +<p>I can state, on the authority of persons intimately +acquainted with those countries, in answer to what Mr. +Cobden said in the House of Commons, that the blow +we struck in the Sea of Azof has been the severest which +we have dealt to Russian power—that all the stores we +destroyed at Kertch belonged to the Government, and +not to private individuals, and that the same was the +case with every bag of flour and oats destroyed at Berdiansk, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xvi">[xvi]</span>Mariopol, and Taganrok. The Russian Government, +as is well known, has always supplied Sevastopol +and their other fortresses on the coast of the Black Sea +with stores and ammunition from the interior of the +country by means of the Sea of Azof, as is explained in +my work. It is known that they had just completed large +purchases of stores for Sevastopol which we intercepted in +our late expedition, so that the merchants had received +their money, and the loss wholly fell on the Government.⁠<a id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> +If our fleet had penetrated to Rostof, we should probably +have destroyed a still larger amount of stores, and at the +latter place the shot and shells which are brought down +there from the foundry at Lugan, and from Siberia, for +transmission to the Russian fortresses in the Black Sea. +Perhaps this may be reserved for another expedition; +for close to Rostof are Novo Tcherkask, the capital +of the Don Cossacks, and Naketchiván, an Armenian +town, and the head-quarters of many Armenian houses +deeply engaged in supplying the commissariat of the +Russian army. From the eastern coast of the Sea of +Azof may also be obtained large herds of fine horses for +our cavalry, and fat beasts for the subsistence of our +army.</p> + +<p>The taking of Anapa will allow the Circassians to +overspread the country as far as the Bosphorus, and even +to cross it and assist us in the Crimea, a part of which +they formerly occupied, and from which some of their +noblest families make it their boast to have come.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xvii">[xvii]</span></p> + +<p>From Soujuk Caleb it is now friendly country to +Ekaterinodár on the Kuban, the capital of the Black Sea +Cossacks; and if judicious persons be sent to treat with +the Circassians, a long line of easy and important victories +will be opened to us. But in the East, still more than +in the West, everything depends upon a judicious selection +of agents; and it is especially necessary, among +free mountaineers, to gain their confidence by kind, +considerate conduct, and to persuade them that you +have no projects for your own aggrandizement, but wish, +by confirming their independence and adding to their +strength, to render them a strong bulwark against +Russian aggression.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xviii">[xviii]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS">LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</h2> + +</div> + +<table class="contents"> + <tr> + <td><span class="smcap">View of Steppes</span></td> + <td class="tdpg" colspan="2"><a href="#illus1"><i>Frontispiece.</i></a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><span class="smcap">Plan of Sevastopol</span></td> + <td class="nw"><i>To face p.</i></td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus2">62</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><span class="smcap">Plan of the Heracleotic Chersonese</span></td> + <td><span class="ditto">”</span></td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus3">148</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><span class="smcap">Plan of Kertch</span> (<span class="smcap">Panticapæum</span>)</td> + <td><span class="ditto">”</span></td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus4">256</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><span class="smcap">Greek Antiquities in Gold and Electrum found at Kertch</span></td> + <td><span class="ditto">”</span></td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus5">282</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><span class="smcap">Map of the Crimea and Sea of Azof</span></td> + <td class="tdpg" colspan="2"><a href="#illus6"><i>At the end.</i></a></td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—In the Map, Cape Kazantip is represented as fortified by the +Russians. This is an error; the fortifications were meant to have been +marked near Arabat.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xix">[xix]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS.</h2> + +</div> + +<table class="contents"> + <tr> + <td colspan="2" class="tdc">CHAPTER I.<br>THE CRIMEA.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>General description of the Crimea—Mountains—Rivers—Ancient name—Boundaries—The + Steppes to the north connected with it—The roads—Bereslaf—Kherson; + its foundation and importance—Gloubóky—Perversion + of names by the Russians—Nicolaief, head-quarters of Black Sea + fleet, described—Odessa—Definition of New Russia—Limits of ancient + Scythia—The dominions of the Khans of the Crimea—The Zaporogue + Cossacks</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">Page 1</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2" class="tdc">CHAPTER II.<br>THE STEPPES OF RUSSIA.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Extent and boundaries of the Steppes—The Tchorno-ziemé—Soil and + aspect—Their productions—Appearance of the Steppes in spring, summer, + and winter—Snow-storms, called “Metel” and “Boura”—“Balkas,” + or ravines—Roads, their state in spring—Tumuli or “Kourgans”—False + tumuli—The mirage—Tchernomore Steppes—From Don to Moloshna—Moloshna + to Dniepr—German colonies—Inhabitants of Steppes—Game—Soroke + or Marmot—Biroke—Suslic—The Steppes occupy + two-thirds of the Crimea</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">13</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2" class="tdc">CHAPTER III.<br>FROM PERECOP TO SYMPHERÓPOL.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>The isthmus of Perecop—Its defences—History—Its capture by Marshal + Munich in 1736—The Crimea and Kilboroún conquered by him—His + cruelty and atrocities—The Armenian Bazar—The salt lakes—General + view of the sea-coast on each side of the isthmus—The Black Sea and Gulf + of Karkiníte—Anchorage of Akméshed—Cape Karamroún—The Lagoon + of the Dniepr and Boug defended by Kilboroún and Otchákow—The + river Boug—Gloubóky—Kherson—The Shiváshe, or Putrid Sea—The + Tonka, or Strelka, or Arabate—The road from Perecop to Sympherópol—Sympherópol</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">26</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xx">[xx]</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2" class="tdc">CHAPTER IV.<br>BAKTCHÉSERAI AND TCHOUFOUT KALEH.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Description of Baktchéserai—The palace of the Khans—Pouschkin’s fountain—The + great council-room—The hareem—The cemetery—The + tomb of Dilara Bikéh—The gorge of Tchoufout Kaleh—Acheláma—Tchoufout + Kaleh—The Karaim Jews, or those who reject the Talmud—Their + very ancient origin—Probable descendants of Sadducees—Their + high character—Tomb of the beautiful Nenekedjàn—The crypt town of + Kirkor</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">37</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2" class="tdc">CHAPTER V.<br>WHO ARE THE TATARS?</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Origin of the Tatars—Original common stock of the Mongol, Toungous, + Turk, and Ugrian groups of nations—Short account of each of these—The + Tatars belong to the Turk race—Their royal race, the Gerays, descendants + of Zingis Khan, through Tóktamish—Discord in the kingdom + of Kiptchak for one hundred years—Kingdom of Crimea founded by + Mahomet II.—Held tributary to Constantinople till conquest by the + Russians—The conditions—Popular notion that the Gerays are next + heirs to the throne of Constantinople—Selim Geray—Constitution of + Crimea—Power of the Khans with the Grand Sultan—The Sultans, or + royal family, of the Gerays—The wives of the Khans—Character of the + Tatars—Their manner of living—Their fidelity</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">48</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2" class="tdc">CHAPTER VI.<br>SEVASTOPOL.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Road to Sevastopol from Baktchéserai—Conquest and foundation of Sevastopol + in 1783-84—Description of town and fortress—“The Dvoretz”—Engineer + buildings—Fort Alexander and Fort Constantine—South Bay—The + Hulks—Bay of Vessels, now the Docks—Description of the barracks—Hospitals, + Slobodes—Colonel Upton and anecdotes of Russian + workmen—Sevastopol in 1834—Reservoir of Sevastopol—Sievarna + fort—The citadel—Observations of Sir Howard Douglas on the siege—Military + stores—Arsenals of Russia—Manufactories of fire-arms—Cannon + foundries—Stores come to Sevastopol by the Don and the Azof—The + road by the Arabate and Perecop—Fortifying of Cape Kazantip—Undefended + state of Kertch up to May last—Public gardens—Haxthausen + on the object of Sevastopol and the Black Sea Fleet—Chopin on + the Anglo-French alliance—Conclusion</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">61</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xxi">[xxi]</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2" class="tdc">CHAPTER VII.<br>THE RUSSIAN NAVY.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Its origin under Peter the Great—Early victories of the Varangians, or + Normans, and Cossacks—Row-boats more useful in the Baltic than large + vessels—The navy under Catherine II.—English instructors—Difficulty + in manning the fleet—No mercantile navy—Organization of the + Russian fleet—No marines—Oak for navy—Food of sailors—Russian + vessels on foreign stations—Only one Russian foreign merchant—Greek + influence diminished in 1844—“The Twelve Apostles”—“The Teredo + Navalis”—The Affair of Sinope—The Paixhans shell system—General + observations</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">83</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2" class="tdc">CHAPTER VIII.<br>ON THE RUSSIAN ARMY.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Large proportion of Russian population in the army—Military organization—Peaceable + natural disposition of Russian people—Strong feelings when + roused—Obedience to orders—Anecdotes—Commercial disposition of + the Russian people—Their wish to mix with European nations—Education + checked by the Government—Military system of Peter the Great—His + great objects—Faults of our Government with respect to Russian + policy—The army, whence recruited—Great Russians—Poles—Little + Russians—Finns, Jews, &c.—Name “Ruski” or Russian—Its origin—The + conscription—Soldiers’ marriages—The Cantonists—Emperor’s + efforts to improve condition of common soldier generally unsuccessful—Corporal + punishment—Labour—“Indefinite leave”—Division of + empire for conscription—Amount of population per cent. taken from + 1840-1855—Expense of the Russian soldier—Democratic system of + army—The cross of St. George—Classification of Russian army—Into + 1st, Corps d’Armée, or complete armies—2nd, Local Regular Troops—3rd, + Irregulars—Don, Black Sea, and Ural Cossacks—Value and number + of Cossack troops—Various Asiatic irregulars—General observations</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">96</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2" class="tdc">CHAPTER IX.<br>INKERMAN, MANGOUP, AND THE HILLY COUNTRY OF THE CRIMEA.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>The Bay of Sevastopol to Inkerman—Aktiar—Inkerman Castle—Its + history—Crypts—Fuller’s earth, or natural soap—Tchorgouna—Tchouli, + residence of Pallas—Crypts at Karakoba—Mount Aithodor—Mangoup—Description + and history—Gothic architecture—Position of + Mangoup—Interesting character of surrounding country—The Tchatyr-Dagh + and the Yailas</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">137</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xxii">[xxii]</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2" class="tdc">CHAPTER X.<br>THE HERACLEOTIC CHERSONESE.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>The Heracleotic Chersonese—Origin of name—Defended by a wall—Kherson—Its + history and remains—House of Lamachus—The predecessors of + Vladimir and their relations with Constantinople—Account of the siege by + Vladimir, taken out of Nestor—Vladimir’s Baptism—Springs of water—Kherson + destroyed by Lithuanians—The bays between Sevastopol and + Cape Chersonese—Cape Partheniké—The Tauric Diana—The monastery + of St. George—Bustards on the Chersonese</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">148</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2" class="tdc">CHAPTER XI.<br>ON THE ANCIENT INHABITANTS OF THE CRIMEA.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>The Cimmerii—The Tauri—Connexion of Greece with the Black Sea—Digression + on the Crypts of the Crimea—<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 600: the Scythians—The + Greek colonies, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 650—Milesian emigration—Dorian emigration—Trade + of these early times—Mithridates, reigned <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 120-63—<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 62: + The Alans—<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 100-200: The Goths—<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 376: The Huns—Second + attack of the Huns—Justinian reigned, <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 527-565—<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 679: The + Khazars—<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 900-1000: The Petchenegues—About 1204: The Comans—1226: + The Tatars—The Genoese—1473: Kaffa taken by the Turks—The + Black Sea then shut up to European nations—Mixture of races in + present inhabitants of Crimea</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">166</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2" class="tdc">CHAPTER XII.<br>BALACLAVA AND VALLEY OF BAIDAR.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Balaclava—Karl Ritter’s views of the importance of the Black Sea in very + early times—Homer’s account of Balaclava—The Cembalo of the Genoese—Tatar + occupation of it—Arnaouts—Tchorgouna—Mackenzie’s Farm—Valley + of Baidar—Manners of the Tatars—Woronzof road</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">182</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2" class="tdc">CHAPTER XIII.<br>THE SOUTHERN COAST, AS FAR AS ALOUCHTA.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Pass of Phoros—First view of the Southern Coast—The climate—Valley + of Laspi—Mount Aia, or Cape Saritch—Modern Laspi—Phoros to + Kíkineis—Land slips—Liméne—Singular appearance of Tatars—Aloupka—Prince + Woronzof’s palace—Gardens—Luxuriant vegetation—Craters—Account + of Prince Woronzof—Miskhor—Koureis, seat of + Princess Galitzin—Madame de Krudener and Comtesse Lamothe—Gaspra—Mount + A’ithodor—Imperial Oriánda—Ouchansóu—Yalta—The + mountain pass to Baktchéserai—Marsánda—Cyclopean remains—Magaratch—Nikita—Botanical + gardens—St. Daniel—Oursouf—Ancient + castle of Justinian—Cyclopean remains—Mount Aioudágh, the ancient + Kriumetôpon Prom—Village of Partheníte—Great and Little Lambat—The + Chaos—Numberless ancient remains—The pass of Mount Castéle—The + descent to Alouchta</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">197</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xxiii">[xxiii]</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2" class="tdc">CHAPTER XIV.<br>THE EASTERN COAST AND SOUDAK.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Alouchta—The Eastern and Western Coasts—Oulou Ouzéne, the property of + Mrs. Lang—Mdlle. Jacquemart—The Bay of Soudak—Ruins of the triple + fortress—The Kiz Koullé, or Girl’s Tower—Ancient Soldaya—Its history—Remains—Vandalism + of the Russians—Ruined barracks—The Crimean + Wine Company—The wines of the Crimea—Prices of land in the Crimea—Road + to Theodosia—Tatar hospitality—Koktebel</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">220</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2" class="tdc">CHAPTER XV.<br>FROM ALOUCHTA TO SIMPHERÓPOL, KARASOUBAZAR, ESKI KRIM, AND THEODOSIA.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Valley of Alouchta—Obelisk—Valley of the Angar—Tavshan Bazar—Fortified + Gorge—Yenisála, a Greek Colony—Aian and the source of the + Salghír—Ascent of the Tchatyr-Dagh—Yaila—Snow reservoirs—From + Tchafki to Simpherópol—Excursion up valley of Little Salghír to caves of + Kisilkoba—Caverns—Simpherópol to Karasóubazar—The Shireen family—Eski + Krim—Theodosia, or Kaffa—<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 700, Theodosia founded by Milesians—<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> + 250, totally destroyed by the Huns—Desert for 1000 years—<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> + 1280, Kaffa founded by Genoese on site of Theodosia—Short history + of it—<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 1475, taken by Turks—Its decline—Revival in seventeenth + century—1781, taken by Russians—Description of ruins—Their destruction + by the Russians—Position of Kaffa in commercial point of view—Arabat—The + wall of Asander—The approach to Kertch</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XV">236</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2" class="tdc">CHAPTER XVI.<br>KERTCH.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Approach to Kertch—The Cimmerian Bosphorus—Russian conquest of + Kertch in 1771—Its rise since 1833—Its chance of becoming the emporium + of trade for the Sea of Azof—Russian authorities—Ancient church—Kertch, + the ancient Panticapæum—Acropolis—Arm-chair of Mithridates—Allée + of Tumuli on Theodosian road—The Tumulus a sign of Milesian + occupation—Contents of Tumuli on Theodosian road—Etruscan vases at + Kertch—Burial-places of the poor—Tomb of the Pigmies—The Catacombs—The + Tombs of the Kings—The Golden Mountain—The rich + discoveries at Kouloba—Description of the contents of the Tomb—Pillaged + by the people—Probably that of Leucon I., or Paerisádes I.—The + Museum—Myrmékium—Mud volcanoes—Naphtha springs—Cape Akboroun—Nymphæum—Herring + fishery—Opouk, the ancient Kimmericum</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVI">255</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xxiv">[xxiv]</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2" class="tdc">CHAPTER XVII.<br>THE SEA OF AZOF.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>The Sea of Azof—Its extent and boundaries—Its depth continually + diminishes—Its sweet water—Its rivers—Currents—The Straits of + Kertch—The Russian defences of it—The eastern shores—Temróuk—Okhtor—Cape + Obriv—The fishing-huts—Bay and new town of Yeisk—Cape + Tchimborsk—Mouths of Don—Bars of the Don—Old town + of Azof—Rostof—Its commercial importance—Shallowness of water in + Gulf of the Don—The Azof frozen in winter—Ruins of ancient Tana—Taganrok + founded by Peter the Great—Its history—Its importance—Mariopol—Cape + Bielo-Serái—Berdiansk—Its foundation—Port is + filling up—Lake Moloshenska—Peninsula of Berútchi—Straits of + Yénitchi</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVII">299</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2" class="tdc">CHAPTER XVIII.<br>ON THE COMMERCE OF THE SEA OF AZOF.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Rostof, key to commercial system—A district of the Government of Ekaterinoslaf—Its + gradual rise since 1835—Articles of export—Wheat—Linseed—Rye—Military + stores sent by the Azof to Sevastopol, &c.—Iron + foundries of Lugan—Tallow—Breeds of cattle—System of advances—Agencies + of foreign merchants, chiefly at Pavlosk—Advantages of + Free Trade—Passage of goods by the Don and the Volga—Dubofka and + Katchálin—Hardships of the military system—Intelligence of Russian + merchants—True policy of Russia</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVIII">312</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2" class="tdc">APPENDIX.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>(A.) List of the Russian Naval Force in the Black Sea, Jan. 1853</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#APPENDIX_A">337</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>(B.) Suvórof’s Discourse under the Trigger</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#APPENDIX_B">340</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>(C.) The Timber Trade of Northern and Southern Russia</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#APPENDIX_C">346</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>(D.) Commerce of Ports of Crimea</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#APPENDIX_D">350</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>(E.) On the advantage of establishing a Free Port on the Danube + at the St. George’s Mouth of the river</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#APPENDIX_E">354</a></td> + </tr> +</table> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">[1]</span></p> + +<h1><span class="smaller">SOME ACCOUNT<br> +<span class="smaller">OF</span></span><br> +THE CRIMEA, AND THE SHORES OF<br> +THE SEA OF AZOF.</h1> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 17.1875em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/line1.jpg" alt=""> +</figure> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.<br> +<span class="smaller">THE CRIMEA.</span></h2> + +<p>General description of the Crimea—Mountains—Rivers—Ancient name—Boundaries—The +Steppes to the north connected with it—The roads—Bereslaf—Kherson; +its foundation and importance—Gloubóky—Perversion +of names by the Russians—Nicolaief, head-quarters of Black Sea +fleet, described—Odessa—Definition of New Russia—Limits of ancient +Scythia—The dominions of the Khans of the Crimea—The Zaporogue +Cossacks.</p> + +</div> + +<p>The peninsula of the Crimea is a southern portion of the +Steppes of Russia, raised by volcanic action out of nearly +the centre of the Black Sea. It is about 200 miles across +in a direct line from Cape Karamroún on the western side +above Eupatoria to Cape Fanar, the furthest point eastward +on the Straits of Kertch, and 125 miles from Perecop +to Cape Kíkineis on the southern coast. It contains +a population of about 200,000 inhabitants, and covers an +area of 10,050 English square miles.</p> + +<p>The Tauric range of mountains runs east and west along +the southern coast from Balaclava to Theodosia, and generally +within a few hundred yards of the shore, which, being +protected by them from the northern winds, enjoys a delicious +climate, like that of southern Italy. But this mild +temperature is confined to the narrow strip of land along +the coast which is shut in by the mountains, and to the +north of them the weather shows severe alternations of +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">[2]</span>heat and cold, and the snow in some seasons covers the +ground for a considerable time in winter. The mountains +themselves occupy a large space, and rise to a height +of from 1000 to 5000 feet. They are generally flat-topped +or dome-shaped, and hold within their range high +elevated plains called Yailas. Their summits reveal +granite and other primitive rocks, and on their northern +sides lie, like a mantle, the Steppes, which constitute all +the northern portion, and nearly two-thirds of the area, +of the whole peninsula.</p> + +<p>These steppes gradually incline downwards towards +the north, and hence received from the later Greeks the +name of “ta climata,” or the inclines.⁠<a id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> The following are +the principal rivers:—Eastward, the Salghír, the Bulganak, +the three Andols, the Tchoroksou, the Soubashi, and +the Karagos, which flow into the Shiváshe or great lagoon +on the east, improperly called the Putrid Sea; and on the +westward, the western Bulganak, the Alma, the Katcha, +and the Belbek, which discharge their waters into the long +open bay at the head of which stands Eupatoria.</p> + +<p>The peninsula of the Crimea was known to the Greeks +under the name of the Taurica Chersonesus, and in the +middle ages was called Gothia. It is now called either +the Tauride (a version of its first appellation), or more +commonly Crimea, from the famous city of Eski Krim, +near Theodosia, which was built by the Tatars in the +thirteenth century, and is now a ruin.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">[3]</span></p> + +<p>The Crimea is joined to the main land by the narrow +isthmus of Perecop, on each side of which there is a very +shallow sea. To the north of it the dreary plains of +Russia extend interminably, on the west to Bessarabia +and the Ukraine, and on the east to Tatary and Siberia. +There has in all times been a connexion between the +Steppes to the north of Perecop and the peninsula of the +Crimea itself, and they have both generally been in the +possession of the same people. A portion of the Steppes, +bounded by Bereslaf, Alexandropol, and Mariopol, are +now included in the Russian government of the Tauride. +As the character of the Steppes is very peculiar, and they +form, as I have said, about two-thirds even of the whole +peninsula of the Crimea, I have thrown together in the +next chapter some general observations upon them.</p> + +<p>I will now say a few words about the road between +Perecop and Odessa, and the principal towns through +which it passes. The whole distance is 352 miles,⁠<a id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> and +there are post-horses along the road, which runs entirely +through the Steppes. Road, however, properly speaking, +there is none; for even outside the gates of Odessa the +traveller follows the track of those that have preceded +him, and in dry weather bowls rapidly along, but is +arrested by the slightest fall of rain. I left Odessa, in +the year 1843, in the commencement of August, in a +light britska drawn by three horses, and in consequence +of a slight shower of rain in the morning I was stopped +half-way in the rich loam of the Steppes, and was obliged +to pass the night there, and send on to the next station +for three fresh horses to pull my carriage through the +heavy ground.</p> + +<p>The road from Perecop to Bereslaf, on the banks of +the Dniepr, runs 52½ miles across a perfectly flat country, +where the soil is not fertile. The latter town is situated +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">[4]</span>on the right bank of the Dniepr, which is precipitous and +very much higher than the left bank, which is shelving, +and this peculiarity is found in all the rivers of the south +of Russia.</p> + +<p>Bereslaf owes its importance to its situation at a point +where the Dniepr is crossed by a wooden bridge. In +the Greek period it was called Miletopol, and in later +times it belonged to the Zaporogue Cossacks till their +conquest by the Russians.⁠<a id="FNanchor_10" href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a></p> + +<p>From Bereslaf to Kherson is 47 miles, and the road +runs along the bank of the Dniepr. The town of Kherson +is the capital of the government of the same name, +which is bounded by the governments of the Tauride, +Ekaterinoslaf, Kief, and Podolia, touching also at some +points on Moldavia, Bessarabia, and the Black Sea. The +north and north-west parts of the government of Kherson +are very fertile, and produce great quantities of wheat; +although the soil becomes dry and sandy on approaching +the Black Sea. Before its conquest by the Russians +this was the country of the Nogai Tatars, who were +also called Precopian Tatars, but none of their tribes +now remain to the westward of the Dniepr. The +population of the government of Kherson now amounts +to between 300,000 and 400,000, and is composed of +Russians, Armenians, Jews, Germans, and Bulgarians. +The town of Kherson is situated on the north bank of +the Dniepr,⁠<a id="FNanchor_11" href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> which here spreads out into a wide kind of +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">[5]</span>lagoon, 11 miles in breadth. This is filled with low +islands, which are often covered with water, and render +the passage difficult and dangerous. The town was +founded in the desert in 1778, by Catherine II., and was +the first commercial port which the Russians established +on the Black Sea. This was four years after the Treaty +of Kainardji, by which the Black Sea was opened for the +first time to any European nation, after having been shut +up for 300 years, since the conquest of Constantinople.⁠<a id="FNanchor_12" href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></p> + +<p>Kherson is situated at about 50 miles from the sea, +and the water is too shallow to allow large vessels to +approach it. These load and discharge their cargoes at +Gloubóky, which is many miles below Kherson and the +mouths of the Dniepr. Kherson continued to increase +till the foundation of Odessa, eighteen years afterwards, +in 1796. It was both the commercial and naval centre of +the Russians when they first reached the Black Sea in their +conquests; but, as the commercial affairs were transplanted +to Odessa, so their naval arsenal, with the admiralty and +the dockyards, were removed to Nicolaief a few years +earlier.⁠<a id="FNanchor_13" href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> The name of Kherson was given to the new town +because it was erroneously supposed to stand on the site +of the ancient Greek colony of that name, the ruins of +which are to be seen close to Sevastopol, and similar +mistakes are common in the case of many other Russian +towns founded about the same time. Thus +Sevastopol itself bears the name of the old Greek city +on the shores of Abkhazia; the ruins of the real Eupatoria +are at a long distance from the place which now +bears its name; and nothing but a Tatar village of the +name of Hadjibey ever stood on those steppes where +Odessa is supposed to renew the memory of the ancient +Odessus.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">[6]</span></p> + +<p>Nicolaief is the only town of the slightest importance +on the dreary road from Kherson to Odessa, and is 40 +miles from the former, and 77 miles from the latter +place.⁠<a id="FNanchor_14" href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> It stands in the open Steppe, at the confluence +of the Boug and the Ingoul, on the left bank of the +former river, and 22 miles from its mouth. The Boug is +here a noble stream, a mile and a half broad,⁠<a id="FNanchor_15" href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> and so deep +that the largest men-of-war can ascend and descend after +taking out their guns. Its right bank is deep and precipitous, +and the left bank low and shelving, a peculiarity, +as I have before remarked, of all the rivers of +Southern Russia. This was likewise found to be the case +at the Alma. This town was founded in 1791, and intended +to replace Kherson as the head-quarters of the +Russian fleet in the Black Sea. It is simply a naval +arsenal, and contains a population of 10,000 or 12,000 +persons, entirely occupied in the government establishments. +There are here immense storehouses and dockyards, +in which all the Russian fleet in the Black Sea is +built.⁠<a id="FNanchor_16" href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> The timber for ship-building comes chiefly down +the Dniepr to Kherson, and from thence to Nicolaief. +All the vessels constructed here are transported empty +down the river to Gloubóky or Otchákow, and proceed from +thence to the Black Sea on wooden frames called camels, +because of a sandbank near Kilboroún, and they take +in their cannon and tackle at Sevastopol. The town +is quite undefended except by a wall, which has been +built not for military but police purposes, to prevent +peculation and smuggling, by allowing no ingress or +egress without permission. There is no good water⁠<a id="FNanchor_17" href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> at +Nicolaief, as that of the rivers is often brackish, as is +also that which is obtained from wells, but an excellent +spring has been found at some distance from +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">[7]</span>the town, the water of which has now been introduced +and fills a large reservoir, which holds a sufficient quantity +for a much larger population than now inhabits +Nicolaief.⁠<a id="FNanchor_18" href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a></p> + +<p>From Nicolaief to Odessa the country is very desert +and uncultivated; for the old Tatar population has disappeared, +and new settlers have not arrived in sufficient +numbers to occupy their place. It is only at the last +stage from Odessa that the country bears at all the aspect +of civilization.</p> + +<p>Odessa, situated on a barren Steppe, is the second commercial +port in the Russian empire. It was the last town +founded by the Empress Catherine II. in 1796, a few +months before her death; and although its situation +is not the best that could have been chosen, still its +position as a débouché for the Polish provinces, and +its privileges as a free port, have made it rapidly increase +up to the present time. Odessa is the residence +of the Governor-General of New Russia, and the real +capital of all Southern Russia—that is to say, the +largest money centre, and the town to which all look +up as the richest and most refined in the empire after +Petersburg and Moscow. New Russia comprehends +the governments of Kherson, Ekaterinoslaf, and the +Tauride, or the vast territory which has been conquered +from nomade nations within the last century, +and is as yet thinly peopled with fixed inhabitants. +All these countries have the same interests, +and require special attention, and for these reasons the +governors of them do not correspond with the ministers +at Petersburg, as is the case with the other governments +of the Russian empire, but are referred to the Governor-General +of New Russia,⁠<a id="FNanchor_19" href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> who resides among them at +Odessa, and can naturally pay a more immediate attention +to their wants than distant ministers.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">[8]</span></p> + +<p>New Russia, as the name denotes, has been recently +acquired. This country, with Bessarabia, nearly agrees +with the limits of ancient Scythia in the time of Herodotus, +who describes it as extending from the Ister +(Danube) to the Tanais (Don), and as being watered +by eight rivers, of which the Tanais was the last. +Scythia, then, appears to have been bounded by the +Danube on the south-west. To the north the whole +of the Boug ran through Scythia; and beyond the Don, +to the east, the Scythian population ended, and the +Sauromatæ occupied the Steppes between the Caspian +and Black Sea. The latter people are supposed by +some to be the same as the Sarmatæ, or Sarmatians, +the ancestors of the Poles. The southern part of Scythia, +between Kherson and Perecop, was inhabited by a fixed +population, called the Agricultural Scythians; and the +Royal Scythians were to the east, near the Don; and the +Nomade Scythians along the whole country to the north. +From the third to the sixth century, when the barbarians +pressed forwards to occupy the defenceless provinces of +the Roman empire, these plains were the high road of +nations, and were occupied by a succession of nomade +peoples during the whole period of the Byzantine empire, +until they fell into the hands of the Tatars and +the Ukraine Cossacks, called Zaporogues, from whom +the Russians conquered them in the latter half of the +last century. Several Nogai Tatar tribes regularly +divided the whole of the southern portion of it, from +the Dniestr to the Don, and all were under the dominion +of the Khan of the Crimea, and constituted the largest +portion of his territory. At the end of the seventeenth +century these Tatars were known in Europe by the name +of the Precopian Tatars, or the Tatars of Perecop.⁠<a id="FNanchor_20" href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">[9]</span></p> + +<p>The nearest regular nations to these on the north were +the Poles and the Russians, of which the Poles were three +centuries ago the more important and powerful people; but +both were then much smaller nations and occupied far +less territory than they now do. Between them and the +Tatars there was an immense tract of waste land called +the Ukraine, which in Russian means the march, or +border land. Upon this a fugitive population of all sorts +settled themselves, and took as their head-quarters the +rapids of the Dniepr, where that river for about 70 miles +falls over a succession of vast granite blocks, which impede +the navigation of the river, and have caused the +formation of numerous islands, difficult of access. From +this cause the mixed population who took refuge there +were called Zaporogues, or the people who lived at the +falls, from two Russian words, “za,” at, “porohi,” the +falls; and they were also called Cossacks, or Kazaks, as +the word is pronounced in Russian and Tatar. This +is an appellation of uncertain origin, and known over a +vast extent of country on the confines of Europe and +Asia. The Zaporogues were called Kazak, and so were +the people who lived on the Don, and these two communities +were of decided Russian origin. This name was +also well known among Asiatic nations, for the Tcherkess +in early times were called Kazaks, and Wood found it +in use as far as the banks of the Oxus. It is not considered +as a complimentary term, and the Cossacks of the +Don call themselves the Donskoi, or the people of the +Don, and consider the other as a reproach.</p> + +<p>The Zaporogue Cossacks then inhabited the march +between the Tatars and the Poles and Russians, and thus +resembled the border people of England and Scotland. +In the reign of Sigismund I., King of Poland, the last +of the race of Jagellon, who died in 1572, the Cossacks +were first taken into pay and armed against the Tatars, +and a Polish officer was appointed their governor; and +in the reign of Stephen Batory, which began three years +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[10]</span>after the death of Sigismund, they were regularly +brought under military discipline. Much that is fabulous +has been related of this people, and they have +been described as a nation who admitted no women +to live among them, as the Amazons near the Sea of +Azof banished all men; and imagination had embellished +their history as early as the seventeenth century.⁠<a id="FNanchor_21" href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> +“They were, however,” says Chevalier, who wrote a +history of the Cossack war, which was published at Paris +in 1663, “only a military body, and not a nation, +as some have imagined. We cannot compare them +better than to the Franc archers established in France +by Charles VII. They made periodical naval expeditions +against the Turks, and have even advanced within +two leagues of Constantinople. Their rendezvous was +the islands of the Dniepr, and when winter approached +they returned to their homes. They generally mustered +5000 or 6000 men: their boats were sixty feet long, +with ten or twelve oars on each side, but this must be +understood only of their war-boats.”</p> + +<p>In short, they were pirates after the manner of our +forefathers, the Jutes, Angles, Saxons, and Danes.</p> + +<p>The father of John Sobieski commanded the Cossacks, +and gives the following account of them:—</p> + +<p>“They are chiefly of Russian origin, though many +criminal refugees from Poland, Germany, and other +countries are to be found among them. They profess +the religion of the Greek Church; and have their fixed +residence in their naturally fortified places, watered by +the Dniepr. Their business is war, and when they are +shut up, as it were, in their nest,⁠<a id="FNanchor_22" href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> they consider it illegal +to neglect athletic sports for any other pursuits. They +live sparingly by hunting and fishing, and they support +their wives and families by plunder. They are governed +by a prefect, whose sceptre is a reed, and who is chosen +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[11]</span>in a tumultuous manner. He has absolute power of life +and death, and has four counsellors to assist him. The +Poles have given them the town of Trychtymirow in +Kiovia. Long habit has fitted them for maritime warfare. +They use boats, in the side of which they can +occasionally fasten flat bundles of reeds to buoy them +up and resist the violence of the waves and winds. With +these boats they sail with great rapidity, and very often +take the laden Turkish vessels. Not many of them use +lances (framlis), but they are all furnished with arquebuses +(sclopetis); and in this kind of warfare the kings +of Poland can match the infantry of all the monarchs of +the world. They fortify their camp with waggons +ranged in several rows; this they call ‘tabor,’ and make +them their last refuge from an overbearing enemy. The +Poles were obliged to furnish them with arms, provisions, +and forage for their horses.”</p> + +<p>Such were the men whom Batory enlisted in the Polish +service. In the year 1556 he divided them into six +regiments, and appointed superior and subordinate officers +over them. They were then only infantry, says Chevalier, +but Batory joined to them 2000 horse, and in a +short time they consisted chiefly of cavalry. Their chief +was called the hetman, or ataman; and the king presented +him with a flag, a horse-tail, a staff, and a mirror, +as ensigns of authority.⁠<a id="FNanchor_23" href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> The Cossacks played an important +part in all the wars that desolated these countries till +they were subdued, in the last century, by Catherine II., +and transplanted to the banks of the Kuban to keep +in check the Circassians. They then lost the name of +Zaporogues, and took that of Tchernomorski⁠<a id="FNanchor_24" href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> Cossacks, +or Cossacks of the Black Sea, under which they are now +fighting in the Russian armies before Sevastopol.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">[12]</span></p> + +<p>The authority of the khans of Crimea⁠<a id="FNanchor_25" href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> extended beyond +Odessa to the Dniestr,⁠<a id="FNanchor_26" href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> which was in former times +the limits of Moldavia, whose prince paid them tribute. +To the north the Tatars were separated from the kingdom +of Poland by the country of the Ukraine; and +the Zaporogue Cossacks were organized by the Polish +monarchs as a kind of military colonists to check their +depredations. The Tatar sway was also extended along +all the Steppes as far as the Don Cossacks, and then +again beyond them to Circassia, and the power of the +khans of Crimea long survived that of their brethren in +Great Tatary. But when once the Russian people +had begun to shake off their shameful servitude to the +Tatars, which it is doubtful whether any other European +nation placed in their position could have avoided, each +generation saw them increase in power, till they had +conquered Zaporogues, Poles, Don Cossacks, and Tatars, +and turned these nations into obedient subjects and instruments +for the further extension of their enormous +empire.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">[13]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.<br> +<span class="smaller">THE STEPPES OF RUSSIA.</span></h2> + +<p>Extent and boundaries of the Steppes—The Tchorno-ziemé—Soil and +aspect—Their productions—Appearance of the Steppes in spring, summer, +and winter—Snow-storms, called “Metel” and “Boura”—“Balkas,” +or ravines—Roads, their state in spring—Tumuli or “Kourgans”—False +tumuli—The mirage—Tchernomore Steppes—From Don to Moloshna—Moloshna +to Dniepr—German colonies—Inhabitants of Steppes—Game—Soroke +or Marmot—Biroke—Suslic—The Steppes occupy +two-thirds of Crimea.</p> + +</div> + +<p>The vast plains which extend over one-fifth of the whole +Russian empire in Europe,⁠<a id="FNanchor_27" href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> or more than twice the size +of France, are known both to natives and foreigners by +the name of the “Steppes,” and present a monotonous +level from the confines of Moldavia to the high plateau +of Central Asia.⁠<a id="FNanchor_28" href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> An imaginary line drawn through +Krementchouk and the northern part of Tambof forms +their limit to the north, and to the south they are +bounded by the Black Sea and the Azof; they also extend +over all the northern parts of the Crimean peninsula. +After passing the Sea of Azof they expand to the south +and occupy the space between the Azof and Caspian as +far south as the Terek and the Kuban, which are the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">[14]</span>boundaries of Circassia, and very distinctly mark their +limits in that direction. On the north they reach the +Oural Mountains, and then crossing the river of that +name they join the deserts of Tatary, and increase in +breadth to the north and south as they approach the +great Asiatic table-land. They are totally devoid of trees +or shrubs, have a soil of varying fertility, and a very +scanty population.</p> + +<p>In the north of Russia the ground is naturally covered +with trees and shrubs, and produces immense forests, but +where the Steppes begin, the forests end. Much has +been written on the causes of the treeless aspect of the +Steppes, and on the possibility of covering them with +forests by planting. Some consider that they were in +ancient times covered with wood, which has been destroyed +by the nomade peoples who in all ages have +inhabited them. The authority of Strabo is used, who +mentions the country between Perecop and the Dniepr +under the name of Hylæa,⁠<a id="FNanchor_29" href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> because of its dense forests, +although there is not now a shrub to be seen there; and +Haxthausen says he observed in the government of +Saratof, which belongs to the region of the Steppes, +that the rivers Irguiss, Jároslaw, and Aktóuba were still +bordered by splendid forests of oaks, beech, poplars, and +willows, although pines were never to be met with.⁠<a id="FNanchor_30" href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> +Murchison, however, with reason I venture to think, +utterly disbelieves in the former existence of forests that +have been destroyed, and thinks that the total absence +of trees in Southern Russia results from general conditions +of climate, and from the want of dew, which is +the cause commonly assigned for it by the inhabitants +of the country itself.</p> + +<p>But if there be no trees or shrubs, the southern provinces +of Russia enjoy a herbaceous vegetation of extreme +richness, which occupies the soil with a vigour of +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">[15]</span>growth which is rarely met with in Europe, and grasses, +which in other places scarcely attain the height of a foot, +are met with in the Steppes reaching upwards of six +feet. The reason of this prolific vegetation is that the +Steppes are mostly within the region of the celebrated +tchorno-ziemé, or black earth, which is a deposit of +amazing fertility, peculiar to the southern part of +Russia. “The tchorno-zèm,” says Murchison,⁠<a id="FNanchor_31" href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> “has +its northernmost limit defined by a waving line, which +passing from near Kief and Tchérnigof, a little to the +south of Líchvia, appears in 54° of north latitude in that +tract, then advances in its course eastward to 57°, and +occupies the left bank of the Volga west of Tcheboksar, +between Nijny Novgorod and Kazan. In approaching +the Ural chain we saw no black earth to the north of +Kazan, but it was plentiful on the Kama and around +Ufa. Again, on the Asiatic or Siberian side of the Ural +Mountains, we travelled through one large mass of it +near Kamensk, south of the Issetz river, in latitude +56° north, and through another between Miask and +Troitsk. In the great Siberian plains we heard that it +spreads over considerable spaces in the eastern, central, +and southern parts of that region. Although we met +with it occasionally in the low gorges of the Ural +chain, and in the Bashkír country on both flanks of the +southern Ural (in plateaux more than 1000 feet above +the level of the sea), and also in the Steppes of the +Kirguiss; we did not see it in the plains near Orenburg, +nor to the south of that city. There is none to the +south of Tzáritzin on the Volga, in the Steppes of the +Kalmucks between that place and the mouth of the Don; +and it is only in very limited patches along the Sea of +Azof, or, in other words, on the southern face of that +elevation between the Dniepr and the Don which constitutes +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">[16]</span>what is commonly called the granitic Steppe. It +occurs, however, in great thickness on the plateaux on +the northern side of that axis, where it surmounts the +carboniferous limestone with many seams of coal, so that +it might at first sight be supposed to be produced by the +decomposition of the subjacent carbonaceous strata. It +lies, however, upon rocks of all ages, and occupies the +centre of a trough, large as an European empire, having +the detritus of the crystalline and older rocks for its +northern, and the low granite Steppes and Caspian +deposits for its southern limits.” It occupies an area +of about 180 millions of acres in European Russia, +and varies from a few feet to fifteen and twenty feet +in thickness. “In travelling over these black tracts in +a dry summer we were often,” says Murchison, “during +a whole day, more or less surrounded by a cloud of black +dust, arising from the dried up tchorno-zèm, which is of +so subtile a nature as to rise up through the sod in rich +grass countries under the stamp of the horses’ feet, and +forms so dense a cloud that the traveller is often begrimed +like a working collier.”</p> + +<p>It is not the humus arising from decayed forests or +vegetables during the present period of the world’s +history, as no trace of trees, roots, or vegetable fibre is +found in it in any part of the empire. In the northern +parts of Russia, where the forests have been lately +cleared, no vestige of it exists, while it abounds south of +a certain line, or exactly in those extensive and steppe-like +undulations which have been devoid of trees +throughout all known time. Its extreme fertility is +attributed to the unusually large quantity of nitrogen +which it contains; and its origin is referred to the period +when the Russian continent was still submerged, and +the tchorno-ziemé (which Russian economists justly consider +as one of the most precious treasures of the empire) +was the mud at the bottom of a great internal sea. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">[17]</span>This union of the black earth with a temperate climate +in the Steppes between the Dniestr and the Don already +enables the inhabitants of those countries to send, as +from Mariopol, the finest wheat to the European markets, +and justifies economists in looking forward to this region +as one destined to a brilliant future. On the shores of +the Black Sea and the Sea of Azof and eastward of the +Don the Steppes become less fertile, until, wearing a more +and more barren aspect, they gradually get blended with +the sandy deserts of Tatary. On the eastern shore of the +Sea of Azof, in the countries of the Don and Tchernomorsky +Cossacks,⁠<a id="FNanchor_32" href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> there is, however, some splendid land, +and large quantities of corn and linseed are sent thence, +northwards to Taganrok for exportation, and southwards +to supply the army of the Caucasus. The Steppes +are in parts covered with a rich herbage, on which +feed large herds of horses, cattle, sheep, and camels. +The upper layer of the soil of the Steppes presents a +great variety in its composition, from lands impregnated +with saline substances, and moving sands, to the mixtures +most favourable to vegetation. As this upper layer +rests upon a subsoil which does not easily permit infiltration, +it is upon its thickness that depends its fertility; +for, where it is not deep enough to retain humidity, the +land becomes easily saturated by rain, and dried by evaporation. +This circumstance is a great check to cultivation, +because long droughts are common in these countries. +All the Steppes are not in this disadvantageous +position, although such is their predominant character +in several governments to the south and east of the +empire. This want of rain, and absence of natural means +for retaining moisture, such as hills or trees, is one of +the greatest calamities of the country; but the vegetation +of that part of the Steppes which is only used for +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[18]</span>pasturage has a particular character which modifies the +influence of the droughts. Nature here shows a wonderful +variety of resources.</p> + +<p>The vegetation of the spring lasts about three months, +and if this period passes without abundant rains, the grass +does not reach its natural height. It dries in a moment, +when the stalk has all its richness, and thus forming a +natural kind of hay, it offers to the cattle during nine +months a very substantial food, and these pastures are +in consequence particularly favourable to sheep. When, +on the contrary, the rains of spring are very abundant, the +vegetation becomes rank, and the grass sometimes reaches +four times its natural height. In such seasons the “stipa +capillata” springs up, the prickly fruit of which proves +injurious to sheep by penetrating their flesh, and often +causing their death. The pasture at the same time is +less wholesome and nourishing: in short, by a singular +contrast in this country, which is generally condemned +for its droughts, the proprietors of the Steppes often +prefer a dry season to one too rainy. The vegetation +of the pasturing Steppes also presents another peculiarity, +that the grass is not spread in an even manner +over it, but in isolated spots, which form a kind of oases. +The even turf is only found in very low valleys.</p> + +<p>The Steppes are divided by one writer into “eternal +Steppes” and “accidental Steppes:” the first are those +where the layer of soil is so thin that they never can be +cultivated, and trees will never be able to grow; while +the others are highly favourable to agriculture, and some +remains of ancient forests are found in the low valleys. +In the Steppes near Taganrok, as long as they are uncultivated, +there is a kind of natural rotation of crops. +To the herbage, which sometimes is as high as a +man’s waist, succeeds the next year a coarse weed called +“bourian,” which rises to the height of three or four +feet, and is cut to use as fuel. Though it burns very +quickly, it serves for Russian stoves, which, heated for a +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">[19]</span>quarter of an hour, will keep an apartment warm during +the whole day. To the bourian succeeds a thin kind +of grass, and then about the third year the pasture is +again excellent. A considerable portion of the Steppes +is cultivated, and, without any artificial means, produces +some of the finest wheat known. A rest of one or +two years suffices to restore to the ground its original +fertility, and the enormous tracts of uncultivated land +make it never necessary to overtax its powers. In other +parts the cultivation of the Steppes differs from that of +all other countries. Certain kinds of grain are sown for +several years in succession, and then the ground is left +fallow, and becomes covered with grass. The first year +weeds spring up in abundance, and then in the second +and third years the pasturage becomes excellent. When +the soil seems sufficiently recovered, it is again ploughed. +This agricultural cycle occupies from ten to fifteen years, +according to the fertility of the soil.⁠<a id="FNanchor_33" href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a></p> + +<p>M. Haxthausen divides the Steppes into five classes:</p> + +<p>1. The tertiary calcareous formation predominates in +Bessarabia, Kaddia, and a small part of the government +of Kherson.</p> + +<p>2. The chalk forms the base of the soil in the +north, and embraces the Steppes of the governments of +Kharkof, Woroneje, Tambof, a part of the country +of the Cossacks of the Don, and the government of +Saratof.</p> + +<p>3. The granitic base, which is a spur from the Carpathians, +extends along the Black Sea and the Sea of Azof +to the Caucasus.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[20]</span></p> + +<p>4. The Steppes of alluvial deposit extend to the south-east +along the Kuban and Terek, which run east and +west at the foot of the northern slopes of the Caucasus.</p> + +<p>5. The Steppes of saline base extend to the east as far +as the river Jaik, which runs into the Caspian Sea on the +north, and on which is situated Orenbourg.</p> + +<p>The Steppes of the three first formations have a situation +much higher above the level of the sea than the +alluvial and saline steppes, which Pallas thinks evidently +formed the bottom of the waters when the Caspian was +united to the Black Sea. They are everywhere covered +by a rich layer of humus, more or less thick. The +alluvial Steppes are of extraordinary fertility wherever +the soil is not covered with marshes.</p> + +<p>The granitic Steppes are mostly covered with a thick +short grass, while the chalky and calcareous Steppes produce +herbage which reaches six or seven feet in height, +and a profusion of beautiful varieties of wild flowers. +The banks of the rivers are covered with reeds, which +reach in the alluvial Steppes an enormous height. The +cynarocephalus, a kind of reed, in German “kletten,” +which is used as fuel, is found from thirty to forty feet +in height. That portion of the country of the Steppes +which is likely to be of great future importance is the +one situated above the Black Sea and the Sea of Azof, +between the Carpathian Mountains and the Don.</p> + +<p>For a short period, in April and May, the Steppes +present a beautiful appearance. The brilliant green of +the rising crops of corn, and the fresh grass, intermingled +with flowers of the most lively colours, are +pleasing to the eye, and give a charm to the monotony +of the scenery. A hot scorching sun, however, soon +withers the grass, which assumes a brownish hue, and +clouds of dust increase the dreariness and parched appearance +of the Steppes. During the winter the ground +is covered with snow, which at times lies several feet +deep. Unimpeded by mountains, forests, or rising +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[21]</span>ground, the winds from the north-east, passing over +many hundred miles of frozen ground, blow with resistless +violence, and often uninterruptedly for several weeks. +When the frost is severe, and the snow in a dry powdery +state, the wind drifts it about and obscures the air. +These snow-storms are called by the inhabitants “metel” +or “boura,” and have often proved fatal to the half-frozen, +blinded, and bewildered traveller, who, having +lost his way, is wandering over the dreary icy Steppes +in search of a place of refuge. Detached houses and +whole villages are sometimes buried by the drifting +snow, through which the inmates are obliged to cut +their way. At times the traveller looks in vain for the +solitary post-house at which he is always anxious to +arrive, and learns only that he has reached his temporary +resting-place by a slight rise in the snow, and by his +sledge being overturned into a hole, through which he +creeps down into the snug cottage, which is sometimes +thus buried for several weeks. When the wind blows +with violence, and the snow is drifted about in eddies, +the storm has a singularly bewildering and stunning +effect. The inhabitants themselves lose their way, and +the herds of horses, cattle, and sheep, that happen to be +surprised by it, become seized with a panic, and, rushing +headlong before the gale, defy every obstacle that presents +itself to their wild career. They are then inevitably +lost, and, overcome by fatigue, they either perish in the +snow, or meet their death by falling down the precipitous +sides of some ravine. These ravines are called “Balkas,” +and occur frequently in the Steppes that lie between the +Dniestr and the Don. To the north of the Crimea +they are most frequent, and in some parts follow each +other in quick succession, and always in the direction +from north to south.</p> + +<p>The roads in Southern Russia are mere tracks, and those +on which post communications are established have earth +thrown up at their sides, and at intervals conical mounds +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">[22]</span>of earth or stone to indicate the way. The bridges +across the ravines are generally in such a dilapidated +condition, that but few of them can be trusted.</p> + +<p>The melting of the snow in the months of March and +April changes the ravines into torrents, the waters of +which, rushing with incredible violence, form an insurmountable +obstacle to travellers. The ground, saturated +with the melted snow, becomes so soft that light-laden +waggons sink in it to the axletrees, and during this +season it is not uncommon to meet the wrecks of many +of them that could not be dragged through the mud, +and have been abandoned. Post-carts,⁠<a id="FNanchor_34" href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> that convey but +one or two persons besides the driver, of the lightest +and smallest description, dragged by five horses, proceed +only at a foot’s pace.</p> + +<p>One of the few characteristic features of the Steppes is +the number of tumuli or artificial mounds that are +scattered over their surface, and in some localities, +especially towards the Azof, they are found lying together +in great numbers.⁠<a id="FNanchor_35" href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> These tumuli, or “kourgans” +as they are called by the natives, are often found to +contain valuable relics of early ages. There are other +artificial mounds, similar to tumuli, in certain directions, +at intervals of from one to three versts, extending +over long lines of country, which are supposed +to have served as watch-posts and beacons to the roving +hordes who used to inhabit these plains. On each +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[23]</span>mound a watch-tower was probably erected, and a +beacon prepared, which, when lighted at proper seasons, +would serve either to guide them home from a predatory +excursion, or give them timely notice of the approach of +an enemy. During the summer months the well-known +phenomenon called the “mirage” is often seen, and its +effects are as beautiful and deceitful as those described +in Africa. That part of the Steppes, called the Tchernomore, +between the Kuban and the Don, with the +exception of the districts in the immediate vicinity of +the sea, is almost exclusively devoted to the rearing of +horses, horned cattle, and sheep. From the Don westwards +to the river Moloshna, the land is mostly used +for tillage. From the Moloshna, again westwards to +the Dniepr, the Steppes, principally inhabited by the +Tatar Nogai tribes, are but little cultivated, and might +afford pasturage to a far larger quantity of cattle and +horses than now graze upon them.</p> + +<p>The German colonies of the Moloshna, and others +of less importance in the vicinity of Mariopol, may +be well compared to oases in the desert. Their neat +cottages, with well-built barns and out-houses, surrounded +by trees and gardens, and by highly cultivated +fields, bear the signs of wealth and comfort, and +of the care bestowed upon them by an industrious and +intelligent population. The German colonies form a +striking contrast to the dreary country in which they +are situated, and to the miserable Russian villages, and +the still more wretched Tatar aouls, around them. Their +situation is always well chosen on some sloping ground, +on the border of one of the few rivulets that water the +country. The population of the Steppes is of a mixed +character, and is composed of Little Russians, Tatars, +Greeks, Cossacks, German colonists, Kalmucks, and +Armenians. Although living in the immediate vicinity +of each other, they neither intermarry nor associate much +with one another. They differ in religion and character +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">[24]</span>and features and manners, and retain the distinctive +stamp of their origin.</p> + +<p>Game abounds on the Steppes. The large and small +bustard are seen in flocks in the districts to the north +of Crimea. The “streppet,” of a larger size and lighter +hue than the grouse, the only English bird to which it +can be compared, partridges, quails, hares, snipe, and +woodcocks, are to be met with in great numbers, and are +remarkable for their fine flavour. Wolves are scarce, +and are never seen in packs as in Central and Northern +Russia.</p> + +<p>“Innumerable inhabitants of a smaller race people these +immense plains. Among these is the suroke, or marmot +of the Alps, which is seen in all parts of the Steppes, +sitting erect near its burrow, and on the slightest alarm +whistling very loud, and observing all around. It makes +such extensive subterraneous chambers, that the ground +is perforated in all directions, and the land destroyed, +wherever the animal is found. The peasants universally +give them the name of ‘Wastie.’</p> + +<p>“The biroke is a grey animal, something like a wolf, +very ferocious, and daring enough to attack a man. The +Cossack peasants, armed with their lances, sally forth and +chase it over their plains.</p> + +<p>“The most numerous of all the animals of the Steppes +are the suslics,⁠<a id="FNanchor_36" href="#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> which absolutely swarm in all the +Steppes. They make a whistling noise like the suroke, +but are much smaller, not being larger than a small +weasel. They construct their habitations under ground +with incredible quickness, excavating first of all a small +cylindrical hole or well perpendicularly to the depth +of three feet; thence, like a correct miner, shooting out +levels, although rather in an ascending direction, to prevent +being incommoded by water. At the extremity of +his little gallery the suslic forms a very spacious chamber, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">[25]</span>to which, as to a granary, he brings every morning +and evening all he can collect of favourite herbage, of +corn, if it can be found, and roots, and other food. Nothing +is more amusing than to observe the habits of this +little animal. If any one approaches, it is seen sitting at +the entrance of its little dwelling, erect upon its hind-feet, +like the suroke, carefully watching all that is going +on around it. Nothing annoys it so much as water; and +if some be poured into its hole, it comes out and is easily +caught.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_37" href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a></p> + +<p>Such is a brief account of the Steppes which occupy a +considerable portion of the Russian empire, and as they +likewise form nearly two-thirds of the whole Crimea, and +approach within a short distance of Sevastopol in the +direction of Inkerman, this description in the main features +will also apply to that peninsula.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">[26]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.<br> +<span class="smaller">FROM PERECOP TO SYMPHERÓPOL.</span></h2> + +<p>The isthmus of Perecop—Its defences—History—Its capture by Marshal +Munich in 1736—The Crimea and Kilboroún conquered by him—His +cruelty and atrocities—The Armenian Bazar—The salt lakes—General +view of the sea-coast on each side of the isthmus—The Black Sea and Gulf +of Karkiníte—Anchorage of Akméshed—Cape Karamroún—The Lagoon +of the Dniepr and Boug defended by Kilboroún and Otchákow—The +river Boug—Gloubóky—Kherson—The Shiváshe, or Putrid Sea—The +Tonka, or Strelka, or Arabate—The road from Perecop to Sympherópol—Sympherópol.</p> + +</div> + +<p>The isthmus of Perecop is about five miles broad, and +stretches from the Bay of Karkiníte on the side of the +Black Sea to the large lake called the Shiváshe, which is +connected with the Sea of Azof by the strait of Yénitchi.</p> + +<p>The isthmus is defended by an irregular fortress erected +on the south side of a deep ditch, and protected by a +high wall built of freestone, stretching right across the +isthmus, which rises slightly in the middle. The fosse +and the wall are said to have been formed in ancient +times by the inhabitants of the peninsula to defend themselves +against the incursions of the nomades of the +Steppes. The taphros or ditch of the more ancient geographers, +and the “new wall” of Ptolemy, lie about a +mile and a half south of Perecop. According to Pliny,⁠<a id="FNanchor_38" href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> +the Crimea was originally an island; and natural appearances +which meet the eye seem to make this statement +probable. It is related by one historian that in the tenth +century the wall was razed to the ground, and a thick wood +planted from sea to sea, through which ran two roads, +one leading to the Cimmerian Bosphorus on the east, and +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[27]</span>the other to the ancient town of Kherson, near the south-west +corner of the peninsula. The fosse was cleared out, +and a stone wall, defended by towers, built by the Tatar +khans of Crimea, about the end of the fifteenth century. +The Russian name “Perecop” properly signifies a ditch or +fosse cut across the road to prevent any further passage, +and has been substituted for the Tatar name “Orkapou,” +which denotes the gate of the isthmus.⁠<a id="FNanchor_39" href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a></p> + +<p>The fortress, together with the whole line of fortification, +was first taken in 1736, when Marshal Munich +appeared before the lines with 54,000 men and 8000 +waggons for munitions and baggage. The ditch was +then 72 feet wide and 42 feet deep, and behind it rose a +galionade 70 feet high. Six towers, built in stone, flanked +the line, and served as bastions to the fortress of Orkapou, +which rose behind them. A thousand Janissaries and +100,000 Tatars here opposed an obstinate but vain +resistance to Munich, who after two days took the +lines by assault, and, forty-eight hours afterwards, the +town of Orkapou. Immediately afterwards General +Leontief was sent with 10,000 infantry and 300 Cossacks +to take the fortress of Kilboroún (Kinborn), +which, situated on the mainland, rises at the extremity +of the promontory of the same name, and commands +the entrance of the lagoon into which the Dniepr and +the Boug discharge their waters.⁠<a id="FNanchor_40" href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> Munich immediately +pursued his march to Koslof (now Eupatoria), the +second commercial town in Crimea, situated on the +western coast of the peninsula, and, having taken it, +its riches became a prey to the soldiers.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[28]</span></p> + +<p>Exactly one month after their arrival at Perecop the +Russian army appeared before the gates of Baktchéserai, +which they utterly destroyed. Two thousand +houses and the vast palace of the khans were burnt, +and the rich library which had been collected by Selim +Geray Khan, and that of the Jesuits, were reduced to +ashes. The same fate awaited Akméshed (Sympherópol), +where the palaces of the Kalga Sultan, and of the principal +Mirzas to the number of 1800, were mercilessly +given to the flames. Munich had intended also to seize +Kaffa (Theodosia), the most important fortress of Crimea, +when an illness obliged him to return to Perecop, where +he received the news of the taking of Kilboroún. The +town of Azof had been taken a short time before. The +march of Munich across the beautiful plains of Crimea +was marked by the burning of towns and ravages of all +sorts, and the cruelties of which he was guilty have +placed his name beside those of Louvois and Catinat, the +devastators of the Palatinate. Before he left Crimea he +razed the lines of Perecop and blew up the fortifications +of the town.⁠<a id="FNanchor_41" href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a></p> + +<p>At the present time there is a bridge across the fosse, +and a stone gateway, which presents rather an interesting +appearance as seen from the north. On either side +are a few straggling houses, inhabited by Tatars, Jews, +and Russians, most of whom derive their support from +the salt-lakes in the vicinity. The principal part of the +town is at a distance of about two miles further south, +and goes by the name of the Armenian Bazar, from the +country of its most numerous population. It contains a +custom-house, and comptoirs for the brandy distilleries, +and salt magazines, within it, a number of shops, and +about 900 inhabitants. Here is a mosque with two +minarets, and a Russian and an Armenian church. The +quantity of salt exported by this route to Russia is immense. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[29]</span>According to Vsevolovski more than 20,000 +waggons are annually employed in the trade. They are +drawn by oxen, and generally form large caravans, the +sight of which affords an agreeable relief to the eye of +the traveller when wearied by the continuous monotony +of the Steppe. The salt is produced by evaporation on +the surface of the lakes, some of which have a circumference +of upwards of 20 versts, and are in general shallow, +and have formerly had a communication with the sea. +The soil is also strongly impregnated with saline properties, +which it necessarily communicates to the vegetation; +the Tatar cattle are, however, fond of it, and the +sheep fatten equally with those fed on the produce of +common earth.</p> + +<p>Now, standing on the isthmus of Perecop, let us look +first to the right, and follow the indentures of the coasts +and the channel of the shallow sea that leads to it from +Odessa; and then turn to the left, where equally shallow +lagoons are interposed between the isthmus and the little +strait of Yénitchi. The want of water on each side of +the isthmus forms its strength, as it makes it equally +difficult of approach for a land or a naval force. On the +left side no vessels can approach it within a long distance, +but on the side of the Black Sea there is deep water and +good anchoring ground at a distance of about 20 miles. +The gulf which runs up from the Black Sea to Perecop +is called the Gulf of Karkiníte. It separates Crimea from +the mainland, is open to the west and south-west, and +42 miles in width at its entrance. Its length, from Cape +Karamroún, the most westerly point of Crimea, to the +isthmus of Djaril Agátch, at the head of which there is +30 feet of water, is 60 miles. Up to this point, which is +two-thirds of its total length to Perecop, it is navigable, +and beyond it and the opposite promontory of Saribouláte, +40 miles from Cape Karamroún, vessels cannot +pass. The depth round the promontory of Saribouláte +is three fathoms, and beyond it only a few feet. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[30]</span>The south coast of the Gulf of Karkiníte is formed of +elevated plains, which are distinguished at a great distance, +and its shore is bold and steep. The port of +Akméshed in this gulf, at 12 miles from Cape Karamroún, +is a great resort for navigators who run between Odessa +and the Crimea. This anchorage is distinguished by a +white tower erected on a cape to starboard on entering, +and again by several buildings situated in the interior of +the port, which is three-quarters of a mile in length, and +its entrance between the capes is two-thirds of a mile +broad.⁠<a id="FNanchor_42" href="#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> This anchorage offers four, three, and two +fathoms, sandy bottom, and good holding-ground. A +quarantine establishment is situated here; and to the +east of this anchorage, along the beach which lines +the south of the port, there is a picturesque village. +On entering the port you can at once make the village, +and the anchorage is at an equal distance from the two +shores, at two and a half cables’ length from the beach, +in five or six fathoms depth, and sandy bottom, exposed +to the north and north-west. The creek described above +is quite safe, and to the west of the village vessels are +secure.</p> + +<p>Cape Karamroún, the westernmost point of the Crimea, +lies 12 miles south-west of Akméshed, and all along this +interval the coast is safe, bold, and bordered by steep white +rocks. At 3½ miles before arriving at Cape Karamroún is +Cape Eskíforos, and in the interval the fertile little valley +of Karadja. It is remarkable on account of its beach, its +trees, and a little village, immediately opposite to which +there is an anchorage in five and a half fathoms, sandy +and muddy bottom. Here there is a lighthouse, 117½ +feet above the level of the sea. The light is fixed, and +can be seen at sea at a distance of 17 miles. A strong +current runs here with the wind; and the sea at +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[31]</span>Eskíforos changes from a bright blue to a dirty and dark +green colour, which increases in depth as Odessa is +approached.⁠<a id="FNanchor_43" href="#Footnote_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a></p> + +<p>A long low spit of land runs along the northern side +of the Gulf of Karkiníte, and terminates in a point, on +which is placed the fortress of Kilboroún at the entrance +of another gulf running parallel with that of Karkiníte. +The promontory on which the fortress is placed is very +low, almost on a level with the sea, and subject to inundations. +The fortress of Otchákow commands the entrance +of the lagoon of the Dniepr on the opposite side, and the +distance between it and Kilboroún is only about 2¼ miles. +This passage is very important, as into this gulf flow the +great rivers of the Boug and Dniepr, and on the latter +is situated the important town of Kherson, and on the +former the great naval arsenal of Nicolaief, and the +safety of both depends upon the passage of Kilboroún. +The country between the Gulf of the Dniepr and the +Gulf of Karkiníte was called Hylæa by the ancients, +because of the woods by which it was then covered; +these have entirely disappeared, and the whole country +is now a bare and almost uninhabited Steppe.</p> + +<p>The two great rivers of the Boug and the Dniepr, +falling into the Gulf of the Dniepr, by their united +currents flowing to the west, make a channel, the +maximum depth of which is seventy-three feet.⁠<a id="FNanchor_44" href="#Footnote_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> At +sixteen miles to the east of Otchákow, and nine miles +north-west of Cape Stanislas, the Boug discharges its +water into the lagoon, which it shares with the Dniepr. +This river, as far as Nicolaief, is from twenty to sixty +feet in depth, and its width varies from one to three +miles. The city of Nicolaief, which is the Russian +arsenal for the Black Sea, is twenty miles from the +mouth of the Boug, and at the junction of that river +with the Ingoul.⁠<a id="FNanchor_45" href="#Footnote_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> The delta of the Dniepr is composed +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[32]</span>of a number of small islands, covered with reeds and +mostly uninhabited, and it runs into its lagoon by nine +mouths, three of which are much more important than the +others. The course now followed by coasters who wish to +approach the mouths of the Dniepr is to keep close in +to the shore, along the north side of the bay, passing +the town of Gloubóky,⁠<a id="FNanchor_46" href="#Footnote_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> which may be called the port +of Kherson. Gloubóky is four miles from the Kizim +mouth of the Dniepr, which was not navigable thirty +years ago, but is now the one which is principally used. +It is at Gloubóky that vessels of a large draught of +water load and discharge their cargoes, and there is here +a depth of nineteen feet at a good cable’s length from the +shore. This port has greatly increased of late years, and +is now the place where most of the linseed grown in the +countries watered by the Dniepr is shipped for exportation. +The entrance to it is marked out by buoys, and +in the channel there is from twenty-five to thirty-seven +feet of water.</p> + +<p>The city of Kherson is situated on the right bank of +the Dniepr, which is there half a mile broad and fifty +feet deep. Looking westward from the promontory of +Kilboroún, we find Odessa lying at a distance of thirty +miles, and a channel for ships the whole way to it, of +from twenty to sixty feet in depth. A long sandbank, +called in the Russian maps the sandbank of Odessa, +stretches out in the direction of that town from Kilboroún +for twenty-four miles. Following the line of +the shore of the mainland, we find Cape Berezane +jutting out eight miles from Cape Otchákow, and between +them is the island of Berezane, with steep bold +reddish cliffs. At twenty-two miles further on is Cape +Dembrowski, very near the town of Odessa, with some +rocks near it, which render it unsafe. The greatest depth +of the bay of Odessa is eight fathoms.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">[33]</span></p> + +<p>Having thus traced the line of the coast to the west +of Perecop, and shown what important places lie there, +and how far it may be navigated by vessels of very +considerable size, a point of great importance in the +present state of the war, let us return to Perecop, and +see whether it is equally approachable on the eastern +side, on which it is bounded by the Shiváshe, or, as it is +called, the Putrid Sea. This is simply a shallow fresh-water +lake, into which are discharged the principal +rivers of the eastern side of Crimea, the Salghír, the +Karasou, the Bulganak, the two Yandols, and the +Sóubachi. The Shiváshe discharges these accumulated +waters, at its northern extremity, into the Sea of Azof, +by the canal of Yénitchi. There seems no good reason +for calling it the Putrid Sea, as there is neither an +unpleasant smell issuing from it, nor are its banks unhealthy. +The Shiváshe is separated from the Sea of Azof +by a narrow tongue of land, fifty-two miles long and +about half a mile wide, covered with reeds and coarse +grass, on which a few flocks of sheep are seen to graze. +There are three post stations upon it, and it is used +as the high road for persons coming from the towns on +the north shores of the Sea of Azof to Kertch and the +eastern parts of the Crimea.</p> + +<p>This curious tongue of land is called by the Tatars +the Arabate, and by the Russians Strelka (or Arrow), or +the Tonka. Where the Strelka detaches itself from the +mainland, in the direction of Kertch, are the remains of +an old ruined fort of an octagon shape, and surrounded +by a deep moat, which is called the fortress of Arabat. +There is about twenty-four feet water near the shore of +the Strelka, on the side of the Sea of Azof, and here its +beach is high and precipitous, while it slopes off on the +side of the Shiváshe.⁠<a id="FNanchor_47" href="#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a></p> + +<p>From Perecop the first stage is Terekli Tchousoun, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[34]</span>and near it a road strikes off to the right leading +to Kozlof or Eupatoria, a place of considerable trade, +and containing 5000 inhabitants, principally Tatars and +Jews. The latter are of the sect of the Karaites, and +number 700 souls. Many of them are rich, and carry +on an extensive commerce with Odessa, Constantinople, +and other parts of the Levant.</p> + +<p>The first view the traveller obtains of Crimea but +ill accords with the ideas which are generally formed +of its romantic beauty, the country being simply a +Steppe, without either tree, streamlet, or hill to diversify +the prospect. After passing the next stage, where there +is a large well for watering the flocks of the Tatars, a +gentle rise is perceptible in the surface of the ground, +and the soil loses its saline and sandy character, and +assumes the appearance of a fine mould, with here and +there considerable quantities of marl. On reaching the +summit of the elevation, which here stretches across +the peninsula, there is a delightful view of the Tchatirdagh +and the range of mountains on the southern coast.</p> + +<p>Hence there is a gradual descent over the undulating +surface into the plains to the north of Sympherópol, +and after passing through a beautiful Tatar village, with +a mosque and minaret, situated on the left bank of the +Salghír, and beautifully adorned with poplars and fruit-trees, +the traveller arrives at the capital of the Crimea, +since its occupation by the Russians.</p> + +<p>At Sympherópol the Steppes have disappeared, the +climate is milder, and the scene changes. The mountains +now are near, gardens appear on every side, and +the slopes around are clothed with trees. Sympherópol +has quite the aspect of a Russian town. The streets +are enormously wide; the greater number of the houses +are no better than white-washed cottages, and those of +the rich part of the population are built in a bad kind +of bastard Italian style.</p> + +<p>Here reside the principal Russian authorities of the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[35]</span>Crimea, and the town has a population of 8000 souls—5000 +Tatars, 1700 Russians, 900 gipsies, and 400 +strangers.⁠<a id="FNanchor_48" href="#Footnote_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> Before the time of the Russians, Sympherópol, +under the name of Akméshed, which means, in +Turkish, the White Mosque, was the residence of the +Kalga Sultan, or Viceroy of the Khan of the Tatars, +who himself resided at Baktchéserai. This personage +filled the second place in the Khanate, and, when the +Khan died, he held the reins of government until the +arrival of the new Khan, who was named by the Sultan +of Constantinople. He had a court like the Khan +himself, and had his Vizir, his Defterdar, his Divan +Effendi, and also the female dignitaries of Anabei and +Ouloukháni, which were conferred on his nearest female +relations, and to which were attached important privileges. +The Kalga also held a court of justice, to which +there was an appeal from all the courts of the Kadis, or +judges, in Crimea;⁠<a id="FNanchor_49" href="#Footnote_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> he was vested with all powers, except +those of life and death, and from him there was no +appeal except to the Great Divan of the Khan himself. +His authority extended as far as the limits of the town +of Kaffa, and, in the absence of the Khan, he led the +armies of Little Tartary to battle.⁠<a id="FNanchor_50" href="#Footnote_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a></p> + +<p>The most delightful sites in the environs of Sympherópol +are the banks of the river Salghír, and here, +opposite to the old Tartar capital, was the palace of +the Kalga. The ruins show that it was a vast irregular +mass of buildings, and we can judge of its +style by the still existing palace at Baktchéserai. It +had, doubtless, numberless halls and corridors, ornamented +with rich woodwork, and fountains, and looking-glasses, +and its gardens were celebrated for their beauty, +and for the pieces of water within their precincts, on +which were several boats for the amusement of the +Kalga. No trace now remains of its former glories. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">[36]</span>A brewery and a brandy manufactory now use the pure +stream that once fed the fountains, and a public garden, +for smoking and drinking, desecrates the spot which +was once set apart for the use of the hareem.⁠<a id="FNanchor_51" href="#Footnote_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> There are +no mosques of any beauty, but there is a large Greek +church, built, in 1832, in the Grecian style of architecture, +with a portico in front. There is also here a large +market-place and an important market, which supplies +the southern coast of Crimea, by way of Alouchta, +and to this town there is an excellent road, leading +through a pretty valley, with villa residences of Russian +nobles by the side of it, some of which are situated in +richly wooded parks, and form an agreeable contrast to +the vast Steppes that lie on the north of Sympherópol. +In the environs are to be seen the ruins of very +ancient times, for Sympherópol was a capital before the +time of the Tatars, and Kermentchíck is the name of +the fortress cut in the rocks, which was the residence +of Skilouros, the king of the Tauro-Scythians, and the +enemy of the great Mithridates, when he reigned at +Kertch.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">[37]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.<br> +<span class="smaller">BAKTCHÉSERAI AND TCHOUFOUT KALEH.</span></h2> + +<p>Description of Baktchéserai—The palace of the Khans—Pouschkin’s fountain—The +great council-room—The hareem—The cemetery—The +tomb of Dilara Bikéh—The gorge of Tchoufout Kaleh—Acheláma—Tchoufout +Kaleh—The Karaim Jews, or those who reject the Talmud—Their +very ancient origin—Probable descendants of Sadducees—Their +high character—Tomb of the beautiful Nenekedjàn—The crypt town of +Kirkor.</p> + +</div> + +<p>A good road leads from Sympherópol to the town of +Baktchéserai, which is half-way from the former place to +Sevastopol. Baktchéserai was the capital of the Tatars +during their occupation of Crimea, and like Karasóubazar +retains much of its Eastern character, owing to the +ukase of Catherine II., which is still in force, and by +which the Tatars are allowed to retain exclusive possession +of these two cities.</p> + +<p>The distance from Sympherópol to Baktchéserai is 30 +versts,⁠<a id="FNanchor_52" href="#Footnote_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> and the road runs along a waste Steppe, with +the exception of a mile and a half of the distance, during +which it passes through the pretty valley of the upper +Alma. The town is situated in a deep gorge in the +chalk formation, and the traveller does not see it till he +has arrived at the end of his journey, and suddenly looks +down upon it snugly ensconced at his feet between two +walls of rock. There he sees the irregular Tatar habitations, +interspersed with delicate minarets and tall poplar-trees +stretching in two long lines on each side of the +muddy stream of the Djourouk Sou. A steep road leads +down to it, which passes the modest triumphal arch +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">[38]</span>erected in honour of the visit of the Empress Catherine +II. to the capital of her new conquest in the last +century, and which bears the simple inscription, “1787.” +The town has completely retained its Oriental character, +and in passing down the long street, nearly three-quarters +of a mile in length, the little open shops of the tailors, +the shoemakers, the bakers, the locksmiths, and the +kalpac-makers, are seen, with their proprietors sitting +cross-legged, in Eastern fashion, and working and selling +at the same time.</p> + +<p>Baktchéserai is celebrated for the number of its fountains +and the purity of its water, which one writer pretends +is the lightest in all Tatary and Turkey.⁠<a id="FNanchor_53" href="#Footnote_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> There +are no less than 119 fountains for a population of 9547 +inhabitants. At the end of the long street, just across +the little river, is the great sight of Baktchéserai, the +ancient palace of the khans, which all travellers stop +to visit.</p> + +<p>Now that Turkey is becoming so much Europeanized, +this palace, as a specimen of the old architecture of the +Turk race, goes on increasing in interest. The great +men at Constantinople are sacrificing the ancient peculiarities +of their palaces to modern conveniences, but this +venerable monument is kept up by the sovereigns of +Russia precisely in its ancient condition. I was much +struck with it when the brightly painted gateway first +opened upon me. This divides in two a long line of +buildings, of only one story in height, with all the windows +filled up with carved woodwork, and ornamented +with rude arabesques painted in bright colours.</p> + +<p>Right and left on entering are ranges of apartments, +which all open on a long gallery, whence there is a good +view of the interior court and the groups of fantastic +buildings raised irregularly around it.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[39]</span></p> + +<p>At the entrance of the second court on the left is the +gate called the Iron Gate, leading to the principal apartments, +on which is an inscription declaring it to have +been built by Mengli Geray Khan, who conquered the +Crimea in 1480, and was acknowledged as its sovereign +by the Turks.</p> + +<p>A staircase leads into the richly-ornamented hall, in +which there are two fountains, one of which is called +Selsibíl, or the fountain of Mary, on which the Russian +poet Pouschkin has written some beautiful verses.⁠<a id="FNanchor_54" href="#Footnote_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a></p> + +<p>Beyond this hall is that of the divan, the great council-room, +placed in the midst of a terraced garden. This +is one of those magic buildings in which the climate of +the East can really be enjoyed. Its floor is of marble, +and its fretted ceiling tastefully gilt, while the centre is +occupied by a marble basin, into which the water is perpetually +trickling from a fountain with fifteen jets. The +only light that is admitted is toned down through painted +glass, and the softest divans invite repose from the heats +of summer. The terraces of the garden outside are +planted with roses; and the clearest streams of water +fall in small cascades from one marble basin to another.</p> + +<p>From the first hall is a doorway leading to the principal +apartments of the khan himself, where is the hall +of audience and a long suite of rooms leading down to the +banks of the river, whence the great man, behind a lattice, +could, unperceived, see what was passing in the town. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[40]</span>Behind the Pavilion of the Waters, carefully hidden by +high trees, is a little secluded court, where the sacred +precincts of the hareem terminated with a high tower or +kiosk, whence the ladies used to witness the fêtes and +martial games that were celebrated in the great court, +and whence there is a most charming view of the town +and all the surrounding country.</p> + +<p>While the right side of the palace was devoted to all +that could contribute to the sensual enjoyment of life, on +the left rose the mosque and the cemetery; the former +built in a good style, and completed by two tall minarets +of fine workmanship. The khan ascended to his tribune +by a staircase shaded by a poplar-tree, and here strangers +are taken to witness the Mussulman service and the +dance of the dervishes. The cemetery adjoins it, in +which two large domes contain the monuments of nearly +all the khans since 1654.⁠<a id="FNanchor_55" href="#Footnote_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a></p> + +<p>The gardens, and the reservoirs that feed the fountains +of the palace, extend behind it, and above these, on one of +the sides of the narrow valley, is seen a part of the town, +and an immense cemetery, which is approached from the +court of the palace by an allée of monuments. One +graceful dome, placed just without the precincts of the +palace-garden, immediately attracts attention. Below, +an octagonal building, with interlacing arches and slender +pilasters, supports it, and rich arabesques decorate every +part, in the midst of which the cross is seen most conspicuous. +This is the tomb of a beautiful Georgian, +called Dilara Bikéh, who was the wife of Krim Geray, +and greatly beloved by her husband, who was one of the +best khans that ever governed Crimea.⁠<a id="FNanchor_56" href="#Footnote_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a></p> + +<p>The Georgians are all Christians of the Greek Church, +and Dilara Bikéh steadily refused to change her religion, +and reposes here on sufferance, at the edge of the Mussulman +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">[41]</span>cemetery, as she was not admitted into the burial-ground +of the house of Geray.</p> + +<p>Many a pilgrimage is made to this tomb, as to that of +Marie Potocka, another beautiful Christian who gained +the heart of a Mussulman prince. She was a Pole, of an +illustrious family, and inspired one of the last khans of +Crimea with so violent a passion, that he carried her off +and married her. Neither the splendour of her position, +nor the tenderness of her husband, could, however, +reconcile her to being the wife of an infidel, and she died +prematurely, worn out by remorse.</p> + +<p>The pleasure of a visit to Baktchéserai depends upon +the frame of mind of the traveller. It is true there is +something grotesque, irregular, and barbarous, about the +whole: that the workmanship of the palace is rough, the +joints ill fitted, and the colouring what some would call +gaudy; but there is at the same time originality in the +design, vivid fancy in the colouring, and a sense of the +picturesque in the grouping together of the parts. As +an accomplished French lady has remarked, in her interesting +Travels in the Crimea, “It is no easy task to +describe the charms of a mysterious and splendid abode, +in which the voluptuous khans forgot all the cares of life; +it is not to be done, as in the case of one of our palaces, +by analysing the style, arrangement, and details of the +rich architecture, and reading the artist’s thoughts in the +regularity, grace, and noble simplicity of the edifice,—one +must be something of a poet to appreciate a Turkish +palace; its charms must be sought not in what one sees, +but in what one feels. The positive cast of minds are +disabled from seeing beauty in anything but rich materials, +well-defined forms, and highly-finished workmanship, +and Baktchéserai must be to them only a group of +shabby houses, adorned with paltry ornaments, fit only +for the habitations of miserable Tatars.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_57" href="#Footnote_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">[42]</span></p> + +<p>The entrance into the gorge of Baktchéserai from +the side of the Tauric chain of mountains on the south +is much grander than the approach from the steppe. +The rocks open like an immense portal gate into the +narrow valley, and on every side ruins are scattered, even +to the summits of the mountains. This gorge, like the +others in the neighbourhood, was originally closed by a +wall, a fort, and a crypt town, which faced the interior of +the mountains, and therefore evidently belonged to the +inhabitants of the hills, who defended themselves against +the nomades of the steppes.⁠<a id="FNanchor_58" href="#Footnote_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a></p> + +<p>These remains of the most ancient times of the Tauro-Scythians +are mingled with ruins of recent date. The +garden and palace of Acheláma, built by the Khan Krim +Geray, occupied all the valley, and in the midst was a +lake, where the ladies of the hareem used to bathe, and a +kiosk, where the khan used to repose himself. The +word “Acheláma” means “a graft” in Turkish, and the +name was given because of the many kinds of fruit-trees +which were grafted in these gardens, of which no vestige +now remains.</p> + +<p>To the left of this ruined garden, perched on an isolated +rock, with houses overlooking the precipice, is the +little town of Tchoufout Kaleh, which has been inhabited +for centuries by a colony of Jews. A road cut in the +rock, and joining the one which leads to the southern +coast, is the only communication to this singular little +establishment, which is surrounded by a strong wall, +entered by gates, which are carefully closed every +evening.</p> + +<p>These Keraim Jews are all merchants, who have their +shops in Baktchéserai, and bear the highest character for +honesty. They reject the superstitious fables of the +Talmud, and their separation from its followers dates, +according to some learned men, several centuries before +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[43]</span>the birth of Christ, although the Rabbinists pretend that +they did not form a separate sect until the eighth century.⁠<a id="FNanchor_59" href="#Footnote_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a> +Peyssonel relates that they claim an origin from +Bokhara, and says that they followed the Mongols and +Tatars from Asia in the thirteenth century, and as +these latter gradually left Tchoufout Kaleh for Baktchéserai, +the Jews established themselves in their place. +They always enjoyed special privileges, and were exempt +from some contributions that were imposed on the Greeks +and Armenians; as, for instance, the obligation to find a +certain quantity of labour for fortifications, mosques, fountains, +and other public buildings.</p> + +<p>The Jews pretend that their privileges were granted +them for services rendered in ancient times to the Khans +of the Tatars; but Peyssonel attributes the real origin +of them to the services of a Jewish doctor, who, +having been fortunate enough to cure an Ouloukháneh, +or one of the great female dignitaries, as his reward +obtained for his countrymen the exemptions noticed +above. The capitation-tax of the Jews was henceforward +attached to the dignity of Ouloukháneh, and the +Jews, in gratitude, always supplied the palace of the +Princess with wood, coal, coffee, and other necessaries. +Their houses are very clean, and they dress like the +Tatars, and use a dialect of the Tatar language, to +which they give the name of Djagaltai.⁠<a id="FNanchor_60" href="#Footnote_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a></p> + +<p>Mr. Henderson, who visited them in company with +Mr. Glen, the well-known Oriental scholar and missionary +in Persia, questioned them closely as to the +tradition of their Eastern origin, and even corresponded +with them upon the subject, and from their accounts it +appears that they have no written documents to prove +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">[44]</span>at what time they occupied this fort, or whence they +came before arriving in the Crimea. They also stated +that they had no tradition of any bond of union ever +having existed between their ancestors and the Jews +of Bokhara, in which country there are no Karaim. +The only traditionary account current among them is +that their ancestors came from Damascus and settled here +about five hundred years ago, under the protection of +the Khans of Crimea.</p> + +<p>Their language also, as exhibited in their ancient +books, approximates more to the Osmanli than to the +Oriental Turkish, and it appears from the Travels of +Rabbi Petachia, that there were Karaites in the Crimea +about the year 1180, which was considerably prior to the +arrival of the Tatars.</p> + +<p>With respect to the sect in general, it claims a very +high antiquity, and seems originally to have been the +same with that of the Sadducees, one of the three principal +sects which divided the Jewish nation about two +hundred years before the birth of our Lord. One of the +distinguishing tenets of the Sadducees was their strict +adherence to the letter of the law, to the entire exclusion +of traditional interpretation; and some authors of note +have conjectured that the errors which that sect taught +in the time of our Lord formed no part of their primitive +creed, and that it was the adoption of them by Sadok +which made the sect divide into Sadducees and those +afterwards called Karaim, whom Prideaux⁠<a id="FNanchor_61" href="#Footnote_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> takes to be the +Scribes so frequently mentioned in the New Testament.</p> + +<p>According to Mordecai, one of their own writers, they +are sprung from Judah Ben Tabbai, and were originally +denominated, after him, the Society of J. B. T., but +afterwards changed their name to that of Karaim,⁠<a id="FNanchor_62" href="#Footnote_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a> or +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[45]</span>Karaites. If the accounts that obtain among themselves +may be credited, the first place where a Karaim +synagogue was established, after the destruction of Jerusalem, +was Grand Cairo, in which city they have always +kept up a separate community, and where, according to +the most recent accounts, they still exist. They are +also found in most of the countries between India and +Poland.</p> + +<p>The principal point of difference between them and +the Rabbinical or Pharisaical Jews consists in their +rejection of the oral law, and their rigid appeal to the +text of Scripture, as the exclusive and only infallible +source and test of religious truth. They therefore +glory in the name of Karaites, or Scripturists, although, +as is the case with the epithets by which most sects +and systems of opinion have been characterized, it was +at first given them by their enemies. They, however, +consult the Talmud and other Jewish writings, and the +answer of the principal Rabbi in Tchoufout Kaleh to +Mr. Henderson was singularly marked by good sense and +moderation: “We do not admit,” said he, “that the +Talmud has any binding authority over our consciences, +and there are many things in it which we cannot approve, +but shall we on this account reject what is good +in it, and not avail ourselves of such statements as are +consonant with the text of Scripture?”</p> + +<p>In the middle of the town, near the ancient gate, is a +mausoleum, with an elegant portico, in which are said to +repose the remains of Nenekedjàn Khánum, daughter of +the famous Tóktamish Khan, the successor of Tamerlane.⁠<a id="FNanchor_63" href="#Footnote_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a> +She fell in love with a handsome Genoese nobleman +according to some, or a Tatar Mirza according to +others. As her father would not consent to the marriage, +she fled with her lover to the impregnable walls of +Tchoufout Kaleh. He was treacherously inveigled out +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">[46]</span>of his place of safety, and Nenekedjàn, knowing the +fate that would await him, threw herself down the +precipice. Her father, repentant when too late, built this +beautiful tomb to her memory, which is covered with Arab +inscriptions from the Koran.</p> + +<p>Tchoufout Kaleh⁠<a id="FNanchor_64" href="#Footnote_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a> means, in Turkish, “the fortress +of the Jews,” and this name is not found applied to it +till two hundred years ago. The ancient name was +Kirkor, which was the capital of the Khans, before they +removed to Baktchéserai.⁠<a id="FNanchor_65" href="#Footnote_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a> From the earliest times this +spot must have been a residence of men, for there is +a crypt town built at the entrance of the gorge, in the +strata of the chalk, with the isolated hill of Tchoufout +Kaleh behind it, which served as a place of refuge, +fortified by nature. All the other crypt towns in +Crimea, as those at Inkerman, Mangoup, Katchikaléw, +and Tepekerman, are built in similar localities, and date +from the time of the Tauro-Scythians, many centuries +before Christ.⁠<a id="FNanchor_66" href="#Footnote_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a></p> + +<p>This subterranean town is cut under the fortress, in +the sides of the little valley. There are in one place alone +as many as fifty of these grottoes, and a path with steps +is cut in the rocks leading from them up to the fortress. +On the opposite side one of them is converted into the +Monastery of the Assumption, and inhabited by the +monks, and a visit to it enables the traveller to judge +how the old crypt towns looked before they were deserted. +Many white crosses mark the tombs of rich +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[47]</span>Greeks, whose bodies have been brought from various +parts, to be buried in this sacred ground.</p> + +<p>All the higher part of the valley, beyond a magnificent +group of oaks, has been used for ages as a burying-ground +by the Jews, and is called the Valley of Jehoshaphat. +The tombs, great numbers of which are cut +in the white chalk, are ranged under fine trees, and +along the sides of the paths. The effect of it is very +striking, as the extent is enormous, and the whole +place is carefully kept up. Some of the monuments go +as far back as the middle of the thirteenth century, and +the most ancient are also the simplest, and resemble long +stone coffins.⁠<a id="FNanchor_67" href="#Footnote_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a></p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[48]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.<br> +<span class="smaller">WHO ARE THE TATARS?</span></h2> + +<p>Origin of the Tatars—Original common stock of the Mongol, Toungous, +Turk, and Ugrian groups of nations—Short account of each of these—The +Tatars belong to the Turk race—Their royal race, the Gerays, descendants +of Zingis Khan, through Tóktamish—Discord in the kingdom +of Kiptchak for one hundred years—Kingdom of Crimea founded by +Mahomet II.—Held tributary to Constantinople till conquest by the +Russians—The conditions—Popular notion that the Gerays are next +heirs to the throne of Constantinople—Selim Geray—Constitution of +Crimea—Power of the Khans with the Grand Sultan—The Sultans, or +royal family, of the Gerays—The wives of the Khans—Character of the +Tatars—Their manner of living—Their fidelity.</p> + +</div> + +<p>After the account given in the last chapter of the +capital of the Tatars, it will be perhaps interesting to +inquire a little into the history of this people, who +have established themselves for so many hundred years +in the Crimea, who still form the bulk of its population, +and, although their former warlike spirit seems quite +to have disappeared, are now rendering our army important +assistance by bringing it provisions.</p> + +<p>To gain a clear idea of their antecedents, we must for +a few moments travel back into very early times.</p> + +<p>There seems to have been in a prehistoric period of +time some common stock from which four great groups +of nations have descended, the Mongol, the Tungousian, +the Turk, and the Ugrian, called also the Finn, or Tchud. +The Mongols occupied a comparatively small territory +till the time of their national hero Zingis Khan, when +they first occur in history. Even in his armies and +those of his successors, most of his soldiers were Turks, +while the captains were Mongolians.</p> + +<p>They are now confined principally to the country +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">[49]</span>northward of the Great Wall of China, and westward of +the Mandshu country.</p> + +<p>The Tungusians extend on the east from the Yenisei +to the Sea of Okhotsk, and on the north from the coast +of the Icy Sea, between the Yenisei and the Lena, to +the Yellow Sea on the south-east. Of this race, the +only division which has exercised an influence on the +history of the world is that of the Mandshus, the present +rulers of China.</p> + +<p>The Turks, the most widely extended of the four +races, and one of the most considerable of the families +of the world, occupy as a continuous population the +vast extent of country from the neighbourhood of Lake +Baikal, in Siberia, near the northern frontier of China, +to the eastern boundaries of the Greek and Slavonic +countries in Europe, and along the northern coast of +Africa to the vicinity of the Pillars of Hercules. One +isolated tribe, that of the Yakuts, dwell in the remote +east, upon the river Lena, and the coasts of the Icy +Sea.</p> + +<p>The Ugrians left the great eastern plateau of Asia, +and settled in the north-west of Asia and the north of +Europe, at a period long antecedent to all historical +documents. They extend as a continuous population +from the Yenisei on the east to Norway on the west. +The eastern branches of this race are the Voguls and the +Ostiacks, between the Ural Mountains and the Yenisei, +inhabiting the country formerly called Ugrien, Jugrien, +or Jugoria, and the most important of the western +portions of them are the Finns and the Lappes. The +Magyars of Hungary are also members of the Ugrian +race, and, in the ninth century of the Christian era, descended +from the southern part of the Uralian Mountains, +and settled on the plains of the Lower Danube. They +called themselves Magyars, but the Russians gave them +the name of Ugri, and this is the name which has been +corrupted into Ungri and Hungary. The Magyars are +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">[50]</span>the only people of the Ugrian race who have exercised +any influence upon the history of the world.</p> + +<p>From the third of these races (viz., the Turkish) are +sprung the Tatars⁠<a id="FNanchor_68" href="#Footnote_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a> of Crimea, who are a remnant of the +great nation which overran a large part of Asia and +Europe in the thirteenth century; and the princes of the +House of Geray, who ruled the Crimea down to the time +of the Russian conquest, and several branches of which +still exist in Russia and Circassia, are the lineal descendants +of the great conqueror, Zingis or Gengis +Khan. This mighty potentate, who, at the age of +thirteen, was left as the chief of a small tribe dependent +on the kingdom of the Niu Tchè Tatars in the +northern portion of China, and whose name was then +Temouchin, commenced his career by defeating the +rebellious nobles of his tribe, and boiling the principal +malcontents in seventy cauldrons filled with hot water. +By his large views, and his skilful use of the superstitious +tendencies of his people, he induced the chiefs of +the neighbouring tribes to obey him, and a holy hermit +saluted him as the master of the world, by the name of +Zingis Khan.⁠<a id="FNanchor_69" href="#Footnote_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a> He conquered China, upset the flourishing +kingdom of the Seljuk Turks in Khaurism, and +then his generals advanced by Derbend and the shores +of the Caspian, and defeated the Russian princes at +the battle of the Kalka, near Mariopol, on the Sea +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">[51]</span>of Azof (1224). They pursued the flying Russians to +the Dniepr, and then returned to Zingis Khan in Great +Bukharía.</p> + +<p>Ten years after the death of Zingis Khan in 1227, +Batou Khan, his nephew, conquered the whole of Russia +(1237), and the country remained subject to the Tatars +for about 150 years, till at the celebrated battle of +Koulikof on the Don (1380) the Russians made the first +step towards throwing off their subjection, and the black +standard of Dmitri Donskoi waved over the slaughtered +hosts of the Khan Mamai.⁠<a id="FNanchor_70" href="#Footnote_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a></p> + +<p>The empire of Zingis Khan had been divided at his +death, and Tamerlane now ruled over the two Bukharías. +Russia depended on the kingdom of Kiptchak, which, +soon after the battle of Koulikof, fell to the lot of +Tóktamish, a general of Tamerlane,⁠<a id="FNanchor_71" href="#Footnote_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a> who gained it by +defeating Mamai, at another famous battle in the vicinity +of Mariopol. The celebrated kingdom of Kiptchak comprehended +the Steppes which extend between the Caspian +and Black Seas, between the Caucasus and the Don in +one part, and between the Volga and the Emba in +another.</p> + +<p>Tóktamish was conquered afterwards by the Ouzbeg +Idekou (1395), another general of the great Tamerlane, +against whom the khan of Kiptchak had revolted, and +from Tóktamish descend the Gerays of Crimea, and from +Idekou the khans of the Nogai Tatars. Nearly a +hundred years of civil war followed in Kiptchak after the +victory of Idekou, and at the end of it we find Mengli +Geray seated on the throne of Crimea (1478), which he +consented to hold tributary to Mahomet II., the conqueror +of Constantinople. The kingdom of Crimea was therefore +the remnant of the kingdom of Kiptchak, as this latter +was only a small portion of the vast empire of Zingis +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">[52]</span>Khan. At the time of the interference of Mahomet II. +there was terrible disorder in the affairs of Little Tatary, +and the state was on the verge of ruin. Three khans +reigned at once, and Mengli Geray, who had the best +right to the throne, was dispossessed and obliged to +retire to Mangoup, which at that time was in the +possession of the Goths and the Genoese. Mahomet +fearing lest the latter people, who were masters of the +greater portion of the Crimea, and the Muscovites, who +had already seized several provinces of the empire of +Kiptchak, should unite to divide the rest of it, wished to +assist the Tatar princes, and to put an end to the dissensions +which must have brought about the total +destruction of the monarchy. He, therefore, drove the +Genoese from the Crimea, took from them the cities of +Mangoup and Caffa, and brought prisoner to Constantinople +the dethroned khan, Mengli Geray, whom he +afterwards restored on the following conditions:</p> + +<p>1st. The khan swore for himself and his descendants +submission and inviolable fidelity to the Porte; and he +consented that the khans should be placed on the throne +and removed by the Grand Sultan at his pleasure, and +that they should make peace and war for the interests of +the Ottoman empire.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, the Sultan conceded—1st. That +only a prince of the race of Zingis Khan should be placed +on the throne of Little Tatary.</p> + +<p>2nd. That he would never, under any circumstances, +put to death any prince of the house of Geray.</p> + +<p>3rd. That the Gerays should never be obliged to deliver +up refugees who took shelter in any of their dominions.</p> + +<p>4th. That the khutbah or prayer of the khan should +be read in the mosques after that offered up for the Grand +Sultan.</p> + +<p>5th. That, if the khan made a particular request to the +Porte, it should not be refused.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">[53]</span></p> + +<p>6th. That the khan should carry five tails on his +standard when he went to battle, which was one less +than the Grand Sultan himself, and two more than the +highest rank of pashas.</p> + +<p>Lastly. That in time of war the Porte should allow +120 purses, or about 12,000<i>l.</i>, for each campaign, towards +the expenses of the khan’s guard; and 80 purses, or +nearly 10,000<i>l.</i>, for the Kapikouli Mirzas, or the immediate +vassals of the khan, who were not of noble birth.</p> + +<p>There was a fixed opinion in Peyssonel’s time, and it +exists down to the present hour, that the family of Geray +are the next heirs to the throne of Constantinople, should +the family of the Sultan become extinct; but Peyssonel +questioned upon this point the khan himself, and his +ministers, and the learned men, and they all agreed in +saying that no such right existed, and that the opinion +took its rise in a vulgar error.</p> + +<p>It is probable that it originated in the following manner:—Hadji +Selim Geray Khan reigned at the end of the +seventeenth century, and was a great prince—great as a +king, a general, a soldier, and a man. This prince, having +beaten in a single campaign the Germans, the Poles, and +the Muscovites, saved the standard of the faith when it +was on the point of being taken, and supported the falling +fortunes of the Ottoman empire.</p> + +<p>Upon this the Janissaries wished to raise him to the +throne, but he thanked them, and declared himself incapable +of violating the engagements to the Porte, which +his ancestors had contracted for him, and that he should +consider himself unworthy of them if he mounted the +throne of Turkey by treachery. Having appeased the +seditious Janissaries, he asked but one favour, and +that was to be allowed to visit Mecca. He was the first +Tatar prince to whom this favour was accorded, for their +birth was considered so illustrious, that the Sultans were +afraid of their rousing the people of Arabia, and declaring +themselves the successors of the Khalifs.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">[54]</span></p> + +<p>Selim Geray⁠<a id="FNanchor_72" href="#Footnote_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a> was so much respected in Turkey, that +the Sultan called him his father, and, in gratitude, declared +that the throne of Tatary should be filled by +princes of his branch of the Geray family alone. The +khans of Crimea used to feel the irksomeness of their +dependence on the Porte, which kept its ascendant by +the favour of the nobles, who were very powerful in +Crimea, and by the religious feeling of the people, who +recognised the Grand Sultan as the successor of the +Khalifs and the depositary of the keys of Mecca.</p> + +<p>The power of the khans of Crimea was by no means +unlimited, and rather resembled a constitutional monarchy +than a despotism. They drew no revenue from the land +nor from their subjects, and could not alter the privileges +of the nobles; and, by the fundamental constitution of +the monarchy, no noble could be punished without the +participation of the beys, or heads of the great houses assembled +in council. Bengly Geray, after having punished +the nobles who were concerned in the revolt of Shireen +Bey, and contributed to the expulsion of Seadet Geray, +wished to diminish the power of the nobles, and formed +a plan for removing the Beys from their great hereditary +offices, and making his vizir chief of all the nobility. +The nobles of the Crimea and of the Nogais all opposed +this proposition, and the khan seeing his danger, abandoned +his intentions.</p> + +<p>The influence of the khan with the Porte was very +great, particularly in time of war. When Devlet Geray +was at Adrianople, and had taken leave of the Grand +Sultan, and was preparing to mount his horse, he suddenly +stopped, with one foot in the stirrup and the +other on the stone that helped him to mount, and the +Sultan in surprise asked him what delayed his departure. +He received for answer, that the khan would not mount +his horse till the head of Baltagi Mehemet Pasha, the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">[55]</span>grand vizir, with whom he was greatly displeased on +account of the treaty he had made on the Pruth, was +brought to him. The minister, as well as the reis effendi, +were executed, and their heads sent to the khan.</p> + +<p>The khan was sometimes sent for to Constantinople to +consult with on affairs of state, and he was then received +like a king. The vizir and all the grandees went out to +receive him, he sat down and took his coffee with the +Sultan, and, like him, wore the aigrette, and received the +homage of the Janissaries.</p> + +<p>His forces were very considerable, and he could easily +raise an army of 200,000 men. This he could do, +although his revenues were very small, and did not exceed +160,000<i>l.</i> a year, because as the nobles marched with their +vassals, and each soldier carried with him provisions for +three months, the support of his army cost him very +little.</p> + +<p>His style in writing to foreign powers, except the +Sultan, was—Geray, by the grace of God, Emperor of +the Tatars, the Circassians, and the Daghestan.</p> + +<p>All the princes of the reigning house had the title of +Sultan, and were not shut up, but enjoyed complete +liberty. Some held great charges in the kingdom, and +others lived in Roumelia on lands granted to them by +the Porte. There were generally some in Circassia, +which was the country to which they often fled when +they had any cause for discontent, and where, by raising +the warlike population of the mountains, and marching +against the khan, or making excursions on the Russian +territory, they sometimes caused the khan much annoyance. +They all received pensions from the Porte, and +were greatly respected by the whole nation of the Tatars.</p> + +<p>The family was divided into two branches, of which +the one are the descendants of the good prince Hadji +Selim, and the other are a distant branch, called Tchoban +Gerays, or the Shepherd Gerays. It used to be the +custom of the khan, and of all the princes of the house +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">[56]</span>of Tatary, always to choose as their wives Circassian +slaves, and on this account the mothers of the khans +were little respected, even by the prince himself, and +after the death of their husbands they lived in the +hareems of their sons, and were not admitted to their table, +and even remained standing till they received permission +to sit down.</p> + +<p>The Tatars in the days when they were a formidable +people are described by a French officer who served in +Poland against them, as of middle stature, strong, with +thick limbs, short neck, broad face, their eyes small, but +very black, and opening wide, their complexion tawny, +hardened to all sort of labour and pains from their very +infancy. They were dressed in sheepskins, and carried +with them on their journey a steel to strike fire, and a +mariner’s compass and a sun-dial to guide them through +the desert plains where there is no beaten way or path. +“They ride very short,” says the officer, “like all the +Eastern nations, and their horses, which they call bac-mates, +were long, lean, and ugly, with the hair of their +neck thick, and great tails, which hang down to the +ground; but they are swift and indefatigable in travelling, +being able to carry their riders whole days’ journeys +without drawing bit; and they will feed at all +times, and when in winter the earth is covered with +snow, which is the time when the Tatars make their +incursions, they live either upon what is under the snow, +or upon the branches or sprouts of trees, pine tops, straw, +or anything they can find.”</p> + +<p>The Tatars hardly ever used bread, but made a pottage +of millet, and ordinarily ate horse-flesh, boiled when they +were at leisure, but just heated under their saddles and +eaten raw when on a march, and the only sauce they had +was the froth of the flesh from this primitive way of +cooking it. They always had extra horses with them +for food.</p> + +<p>They had the highest character for integrity, and very +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">[57]</span>few nations were to be found less vicious. Besides their +continence, they were extremely sincere and faithful, and +had no thieves or false witnesses amongst them; they +did little injustice or violence, and lived in union and +great tranquillity. The marvellous fidelity of the captive +Tatars in Poland was celebrated. They never failed to +return when they were released on their parole, and the +Polish gentlemen rather trusted the young Tatars in their +service with the keys of their money and jewels than any +others of their household.⁠<a id="FNanchor_73" href="#Footnote_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a></p> + +<p>The Tatars can hardly now be said to form a nation. +After the conquest of Crimea by the Russians, all those +who did not wish to stay under the Russian sceptre were +allowed to emigrate, and many availed themselves of the +permission and retired into Turkey, so that there are +now scarcely any remaining in the country west of the +Dniepr, and their number has much diminished in the +Crimea.</p> + +<p>The influx of fashionable people to the southern coast +of the Crimea, and the wealth they have brought there, +has corrupted the lower orders of the Tatars, and made the +nobles shrink in haughty seclusion to the mountains. +There the poorer classes, unlike the Tatars of the southern +coast and the plains, retain their rough and primitive +independence, and the rich can peaceably pass their lives +without being shocked by the sight of their masters.</p> + +<p>I will conclude this chapter by borrowing the account +given by Madame Hommaire de Hell of her visit to the +Princess Adel Bey, a celebrated Tatar beauty, who still +lives near Baktchéserai. She rode for several hours from +the latter place through a lovely country, intersected with +streams, valleys, and numerous orchards, to Karolez, +the village of the princess, lost in the mountains, in the +valley of the same name. It is situated near Mangoup, +whence there is a glorious view of the mountainous +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">[58]</span>parts of the Crimea and Sevastopol, and Balaclava, and +the sea shining beyond them; and the abundance of its +waters, and the mountains that encompass the valley +with a line of battlemented walls, make it a favourite +spot with the lovers of natural beauty.</p> + +<p>Here Madame de Hell and her husband were received +at the guest-house of the princess by a double line of +richly-dressed servants, drawn up in the vestibule to +receive them, and they were conducted into a saloon +arranged in the fashion of the East, with gaily painted +walls and red silk divans.</p> + +<p>Thus far an ungrudging hospitality received every distinguished +guest alike, but Madame de Hell was allowed +an interview with the princess in her own apartments, +a favour which has been permitted to very few ladies.</p> + +<p>From her account it appears that Eastern beauty still +deserves its reputation, and that the ancient manners and +dress are still to be found unaltered in the mountains of +the Crimea. Admitted into a fairy apartment looking out +on a terraced garden, “a curtain was suddenly raised at +the end of the room, and a woman of striking beauty +entered,” says Madame de Hell, “dressed in a rich costume. +She advanced to me with an air of remarkable +dignity, took both my hands, kissed me on the two +cheeks, and sat down beside me, making many demonstrations +of friendship. She wore a great deal of +rouge; her eyelids were painted black, and met over the +nose, giving her countenance a certain sternness, which +nevertheless did not destroy its pleasing effect. A furred +velvet vest fitted tight to her still elegant figure, and +altogether her appearance surpassed what I had conceived +of her beauty. After some time, when I offered to go, +she checked me with a very graceful gesture, and said +eagerly, ‘Pastoi, pastoi,’ which is Russian for ‘Stay, stay,’ +and clapped her hands several times. A young girl +entered at the signal, and by her mistress’s order threw +open a folding-door, and immediately I was struck dumb +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">[59]</span>with surprise and admiration by a most brilliant apparition. +Imagine, reader, the most exquisite sultanas of +whom poetry and painting have ever tried to convey an +idea, and still your conception will fall far short of the +enchanting models I had then before me. There were +three of them, all equally beautiful and graceful. Two +were clad in tunics of crimson brocade, adorned in front +with broad gold lace; the tunics were open, and disclosed +beneath them cashmere robes, with very tight sleeves +terminating in gold fringes. The youngest wore a tunic +of azure blue brocade, with silver ornaments: this was +the only difference between her dress and that of her +sisters. All three had magnificent black hair escaping +in countless tresses from a fez of silver filagree, set like a +diadem over their ivory foreheads; they wore gold embroidered +slippers, and wide trousers drawn close at the +ancle. I had never beheld skins so dazzlingly fair, eyelashes +so long, or so delicate a bloom of youth. The +calm repose that sat on the countenances of these lovely +creatures had never been disturbed by any profane glance. +No look but their mother’s had ever told them they were +beautiful; and this thought gave them an inexpressible +charm in my eyes. It is not in our Europe where women, +exposed to the gaze of crowds, so soon addict themselves +to coquetry, that the imagination could conceive such a +type of beauty. The features of our young girls are too +soon altered by the vivacity of their impressions to allow +the eye of the artist to discover in them that divine charm +of purity and ignorance with which I was so struck in +beholding my Tatar princesses. After embracing me +they retired to the end of the room, where they remained +standing in those graceful Oriental attitudes which no +woman in Europe could imitate. A dozen attendants, +muffled in white muslin, were gathered round the door, +gazing with respectful curiosity. Their profiles, shown +in relief on a dark ground, added to the picturesque character +of the scene. This delightful vision lasted an +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">[60]</span>hour. When the princess saw that I was decided on +going away, she signified to me by signs that I should +go and see the garden; but though grateful to her for +this further mark of attention, I preferred immediately +rejoining my husband, being impatient to relate to him +all the details of this interview, with which I was completely +dazzled.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_74" href="#Footnote_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a></p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">[61]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI.<br> +<span class="smaller">SEVASTOPOL.</span></h2> + +<p>Road to Sevastopol from Baktchéserai—Conquest and foundation of Sevastopol +in 1783-84—Description of town and fortress—“The Dvoretz”—Engineer +buildings—Fort Alexander and Fort Constantine—South Bay—The +Hulks—Bay of Vessels, now the Docks—Description of the barracks—Hospitals, +Slobodes—Colonel Upton and anecdotes of Russian +workmen—Sevastopol in 1834—Reservoir of Sevastopol—Sievarna +fort—The citadel—Observations of Sir Howard Douglas on the siege—Military +stores—Arsenals of Russia—Manufactories of fire-arms—Cannon +foundries—Stores come to Sevastopol by the Don and the Azof—The +road by the Arabate and Perecop—Fortifying of Cape Kazantip—Undefended +state of Kertch up to May last—Public gardens—Haxthausen +on the object of Sevastopol and the Black Sea Fleet—Chopin on +the Anglo-French alliance—Conclusion.</p> + +</div> + +<p>The high road from Baktchéserai to Sevastopol is carried +entirely along the terrace which separates the chalk from +the tertiary ridges of the Steppe. It passes along its +whole length over a white clay soil, and in summer is +very dry and dusty, except in the valleys of the Katcha +and the Belbek. Here the eye is refreshed by the verdure +of vineyards and orchards, especially on the banks of the +Belbek, where there are several country houses belonging +to the superior officers in Sevastopol, and the little Tatar +village of Douvankoi offers some charming points of +view. From Douvankoi⁠<a id="FNanchor_75" href="#Footnote_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> the road follows the valley of +the Belbek till it crosses the stream near the village of +the same name, and then, after skirting for a moment +the sea, it turns again inland, and passing close to Fort +Constantine, arrives at Sievarna,⁠<a id="FNanchor_76" href="#Footnote_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a> the citadel of Sevastopol, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[62]</span>on the north of the Great Bay, which must be +crossed to enter the town.</p> + +<p>From so important a place as Sevastopol it is a great +inconvenience to be obliged to cross the water to reach +the high road leading to the interior of the Crimea and +Petersburg, but the country is so extremely cut up with +ravines to the east of the town, towards Inkerman, that +no direct communication by this the shortest route has +yet been attempted.</p> + +<p>Sevastopol has succeeded the ancient Greek colony of +Kherson, with this difference, that as the latter was a +great commercial mart, so the former is entirely devoted +to warlike purposes, and no considerations of a commercial +or manufacturing nature ever entered into the +mind of those who founded it. It is in consequence +entirely military, and contains nothing but men-of-war, +arsenals, barracks, and batteries.</p> + +<p>When the conquest of the Crimea had been assured to +Russia by the treaty of Constantinople, of the 10th of +June, 1783, the Russians found nothing around the magnificent +bay of Sevastopol except the little village of +Aktiar, placed at the extremity of the bay near Inkerman, +under the cliffs of white clay that border its steep +shores. During all the time of the Tatar possession of +Crimea, this basin, which might have been made an incomparable +port, had been neglected. The Tatars called +the Great Bay Kadi Liman, and the more inland portion +of it, including the careening bay, Avlita.⁠<a id="FNanchor_77" href="#Footnote_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a></p> + +<div class="transnote" id="illus2"> +Transcriber’s Note: The image is clickable for a larger version. +</div> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 25.0em;"> + <a href="images/illus2-full.jpg"><img class="w100" src="images/illus2.jpg" alt=""></a> + <figcaption> + <p>POSITIONS OF THE ALLIED ARMIES BEFORE SEVASTOPOL.</p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>No sooner were the Russians in possession of it, than +within a year they had made preparations for turning to +account its natural advantages. Already in the spring +of 1784 they began to build houses for the invalids of +the fleet, placed near a beautiful spring of water at the +extremity of the Bay of Artillery. The fleet at that +time consisted of fourteen ships of war in the port, one +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">[63]</span>of which had just brought a cargo of colonists.⁠<a id="FNanchor_78" href="#Footnote_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a> They +were still uncertain where they should place the town, +but even then were inclined to its present position, and +the fanciful name of Sevastopol⁠<a id="FNanchor_79" href="#Footnote_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a> was fixed upon, as they +could not give it that of Kherson,⁠<a id="FNanchor_80" href="#Footnote_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a> which had already +been misapplied. The old name of Aktiar had a long +struggle with the new name in public use, and I find that +in the Russian post map, of so late a date as 1825, Aktiar +is engraved and Sevastopol wholly omitted. Ten years +later, in 1794, when Pallas again visited this place, a +great plan had been laid down, which has been followed +out in all its important details down to the present day. +Five batteries, those of Alexander and Constantine, which +commanded the entrance to the Great Bay, a third on +the northern coast, and two others opposite, on the point +between South Bay and Artillery Bay, had been built. +The admiralty and its church, the arsenal, the Greek +church on the hill, the ports, and the quarantine already +existed.</p> + +<p>Since that time it has made gigantic progress, as may +be seen by the descriptions of the various travellers mentioned +in the notes.⁠<a id="FNanchor_81" href="#Footnote_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a> The town is built in the shape of +an amphitheatre, on the rise of a large hill, flattened on +its summit, between the Artillery Bay, which is the merchant +port, on the right of the town to a person looking +at it from the sea, and the South Bay, which is the port +of war on the left.</p> + +<p>Several wide unpaved streets, bordered by good houses, +ascend the hill from the water, up a steep incline. They +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">[64]</span>open on a large empty square, separating them from +the fortifications, which consist of several batteries placed +on the point of the promontory. Here is hoisted the +flag of the admiralty, which is the residence of the commandant +of Sevastopol.</p> + +<p>The quay is a fine construction, paved with stone, and +ornamented with pillars of granite, which have been +brought there down the Dniepr from the interior of +Russia.</p> + +<p>The street which runs the nearest to the South Bay is +the principal one of the town, and between it and the +bay are the Russian church and the admiralty, with its +tower for a gateway, and the arsenal. A prolongation +of the principal street between the batteries and the +Admiralty leads to the great Stairs which serve as the +landing-place to cross the bay, and here is passed on +one side a house which has now a mean appearance in +Sevastopol, but which is still honoured with the name +of Dvoretz, or the Palace, because in 1787 it was the +residence prepared for the reception of Catherine II., +who lodged here during her stay in the town, which she +had just founded. In the highest part of the town, the +Greek church is seen in a commanding position, in the +wall of which is an old Greek bas-relief, of no great value, +according to Dubois, although much praised by Clarke.</p> + +<p>Farther on, at the height of 240 feet above the level +of the sea, is the telegraph, which naturally commands +the whole town, and fourteen stations establish a communication +in two hours with Nicolaief, the head-quarters +of the fleet of the Black Sea.</p> + +<p>Since the siege of the town commenced we have destroyed +some of these stations, and the telegraph is now +carried by a different route through the country in the +possession of the Russians to Perecop.⁠<a id="FNanchor_82" href="#Footnote_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a> A courier with +despatches would not take much more than a week to +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">[65]</span>reach Petersburg from Sevastopol in fine weather, as I +remember that one arrived at Prince Woronzof’s palace +of Aloupka, on the southern coast of Crimea, by post, in +eight days from Petersburg, and I think the distance +from Petersburg to Tiflis has also been accomplished in +the same time.</p> + +<p>The merchant vessels which come to take in stores at +Sevastopol all enter Artillery Bay, along the furthest +part of which are ranged the principal shops of the +town.</p> + +<p>The rocks which border the western side of this bay +were blown up and allowed to fall into the sea in 1834, +in order to form a platform large enough to receive +some important buildings required for the engineers.</p> + +<p>On the flanks of the same rock, but looking to the +entrance of the Great Bay and the Quarantine Bay, are +ranged, one above the other, the formidable bastions of +Fort Alexander, intended to cross their fire with those +of Fort Constantine opposite, in order to destroy any +vessels which should attempt to enter the bay. These +two forts are armed with 320 cannon. The passage or +entrance of the bay, narrowed by two reefs, is shown at +night by two lighthouses near Inkerman, at the end of +the Great Bay; and for ships to enter safely, these lights +must be kept exactly on the same line, one above the +other. Behind Fort Alexander, on the top of the hill +to the right on entering, are the barracks of the land-forces; +and this is one of the points in which Sevastopol +does not shine. They are passed in going to the quarantine, +which is at the extremity of the bay of the +same name, and are placed on the spot on which stood +the principal part of the ancient city of Kherson, to +which the Tatars still give the name of Tchortchoun.</p> + +<p>The library and reading-rooms for the officers of the +navy, which I visited with one of the Messrs. Upton, +who I think had been the architect of them, were well +furnished with valuable works and scientific instruments. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">[66]</span>These stand, or stood, near the church, in the highest +part of the town, and command, from their fine spacious +apartments, a splendid view of the grand harbour and +the open sea.</p> + +<p>While the fleet is armed, it remains in the Great Bay, +and when it is laid up it is placed in the South Bay, +which is a branch of the Great Bay, about a mile and +three quarters long, and 400 yards wide. The Tatars +call the South Bay Kartaly Kotche, or the Bay of the +Vulture, and its direction is from north to south. This +interior port is so well defended by the steep hills which +close it in, that the water is never more disturbed than +in a pond, and it is so deep that the largest vessels +can almost lie close to its western shore.</p> + +<p>There, in the furthest part of the bay, used to lie the +old men-of-war, used as hulks, in which the greater +number of the convicts, who worked by thousands in the +dockyards, were shut up at night.⁠<a id="FNanchor_83" href="#Footnote_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a> The continual +passage of these bands of bad characters through the +town used to be the great annoyance of the inhabitants +of Sevastopol, who, like our own colonists, could not see +without dread this great accumulation of criminals among +them. Some, of course, occasionally escaped, and immediately +recommenced their lawless practices in all parts +of the Crimea.</p> + +<p>As a ramification of the South Bay, at its entrance +there opens to the south-east a little basin, which is a +kind of inner port, the total length of which is about half +a mile. It is called the Bay of Vessels, because a part of +the laid-up vessels used to be placed here, and remained +in perfect security in all weathers. When the question +was raised about building the docks, no better position +could be found than the extremity of this little bay, in +which a basin has been formed 400 feet broad, 300 feet +long, and 24 feet deep, to receive the vessels which +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">[67]</span>require to be repaired. For this purpose five docks or +reservoirs, made independent one of the other by locks, +have been made. The one at the furthest extremity is +destined for first rates; the two reservoirs which flank +it on the right and left are for second rates; and the +two last at the entrance of the basin are for frigates: +the three principal locks are 58 feet wide. To feed these +basins, they have fetched the water of the Tchornaia +Retchka⁠<a id="FNanchor_84" href="#Footnote_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a> (Bouiouk Ouzéne) from Tchorgouna to the +locks, and have conducted it by a canal, overcoming difficulties +which would have seemed insurmountable to +many governments. Although the Tchorgouna, in a +direct line, is only eight miles distant from the entrance +of the docks, it has been necessary, in order to avoid +obstacles, to make a détour, which has lengthened the +canal by four miles, and it is therefore about twelve miles +long.</p> + +<p>It passes Inkerman, and thence is carried along the +Great Bay. The deep ravines and the Careening Bay +have here rendered necessary very important works, including +two tunnels, one of 800 feet in length, and +three aqueducts, embracing between them thirty-eight +arches, 1000 feet in length.</p> + +<p>The point where the stream has been diverted is +62 feet above the level of the Great Bay. The level of +the docks is 30 feet above the bay; and the fall of the +canal in the twelve miles is 32 feet, or about one in 2000.</p> + +<p>Mr. John Upton, the English engineer, who was employed +in the construction of the works, estimated the +expenses at about two millions and a half of roubles +assignat (100,000<i>l.</i>⁠<a id="FNanchor_85" href="#Footnote_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a>); and calculated that the work +would be completed in five years if 1000 workmen were +constantly employed. But as is always the case, the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">[68]</span>estimates of the time and expense were much too low, +and the works, begun on the 17th June, 1832, are not +finished now, and the first ship was admitted into them +in 1853.</p> + +<p>Those who have visited these works will not be astonished +at this delay in completing them. Basins of a +great size cut in the living rock, and cased with English +cement, with gigantic locks, and such a length of aqueducts, +tunnels, and other labours, both principal and accessory, +are a justification of the engineer, who received the +full approbation of the Emperor. The docks had only +been completed a short time before the present war began.</p> + +<p>To protect the port and basins, there has been erected +at Cape Paul (Pavleski Missok), which commands the +eastern entrance, a work called Fort Nicholas, which has +three ranges of bastions, one above the other, and is +mounted with 260 cannons, the fire of which crosses that +of the batteries of the admiralty.</p> + +<p>This fort, which commands the entrance to the South +Bay, had just been completed at the time of my visit. +I walked through the casemates with Mr. Upton, the +architect, who had witnessed their construction, and who +told me that he thought the masonry had been executed +in an unworkmanlike manner, and that he did not believe +the fort would stand the shock of its own fire. Such is +also the opinion of the French engineer, M. Hommaire +de Hell, with regard to the casemated batteries at Sevastopol; +he says that in the first trial of Fort Constantine +the walls cracked. The latter, however, seems to have +withstood the attack by our ships in December last very +successfully.</p> + +<p>On the flanks of the hills which enclose the South Bay, +on the eastern side, are the barracks of the sailors, the +hospitals of the fleet, and the barracks of the artillery, +and there extend also a part of the slobodes, or faubourgs, +inhabited by the married sailors, which are composed of +uniform lines of cottages built on a given plan.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">[69]</span></p> + +<p>I was shown over Sevastopol by Colonel Upton⁠<a id="FNanchor_86" href="#Footnote_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a> and +his sons, who received me very kindly, and showed me +everything I wished to see. They had found things in +a very barbarous state when they arrived—had had great +difficulty to break in their Russian workmen to European +habits of industry and carefulness, and they found that +the Russian system, by which, like our own in India, +so much writing is required, greatly impeded the prompt +execution of work, and justified the observation of the +French traveller Jacquemont about the latter country, +that a government of stationery is in most things a +stationary government.</p> + +<p>The absence of common mechanical contrivances was +so great among the Russians, that almost up to the +period of my visit wheelbarrows were unknown, and the +troops and serfs employed in the great public works used +to pick up the earth with their hands and carry it in +bags upon their shoulders, so that, particularly in wet +weather, vast numbers were always laid up in the hospital +with sore backs, and the works progressed very slowly.</p> + +<p>The serfs were said to do so little work, that Colonel +Upton, as well as all other Englishmen that I have known +employed by the Russian Government, were of opinion +that it would be far more economical to pay free labourers +than to feed and keep the serfs for their gratuitous +services. The Russian workmen quickly catch an imperfect +way of doing what they are told, but like +children, want constant watching, and never can be +taught the value of accuracy. They execute their tasks +because they are ordered to do so, and never reason on +the object to which their work is to be applied.</p> + +<p>As an instance of this, Colonel Upton said, while he +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">[70]</span>was building the dock-gates at Sevastopol, when the +stone-work was prepared for the wood, he found to his +astonishment that the parts did not fit, although he was +certain that his calculations were right, and the work +apparently correctly executed. At length he thought of +measuring his gauge, and then he found that his Russian +workmen, having done their work wrong, cut his gauge +to make it appear right, and never thought that there +were other parts of the work which must fit in with +theirs, and consequently make their error appear.</p> + +<p>Sevastopol has naturally a very fluctuating population, +almost entirely composed of sailors, soldiers, employés, +and convicts. It was estimated at 15,000 souls in 1834, +although Mr. Tegoborski, writing in 1852, declines to +make any estimate of it, from the want of any reliable +data. The non-official inhabitants are composed of a +mixture of Russian tradesmen, Polish Jews, who are +barely tolerated by the police, and Germans of the colony +of Kronenthal, who are established here as bakers, +brewers, and artisans of different kinds.</p> + +<p>Sevastopol in 1834, although so strongly fortified on +the side of the sea, had not the smallest defence on the +land side against a coup-de-main. The town in all +its circumference was completely open, and there was +not even a gate or the smallest rampart. All the +streets debouched on an immense open place in the +upper part of the town, or rather one might say into +the Steppe itself, whence roads and paths led in every +direction to Balaclava, Tchorgouna, and the monastery of +St. George. To one standing in the open place and +looking down on the town, there is to the left the newly-established +reservoir for the fountains of Sevastopol, from +springs which have been already mentioned. This reservoir +is placed against the wall of the public garden, called +the Boulevart, which has been made on the heights which +terminate the South Bay. The view from hence down +upon the bay, filled with men-of-war, is very extraordinary, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">[71]</span>as the ships seem to have arrived there by enchantment, +and nobody would conceive that this long +lake could have any communication with the sea. +Opposite the garden, a little to the right, is the vineyard +of Bardac.</p> + +<p>At a later period, after the discussions occasioned by +the capture of the Vixen in 1837, when war was supposed +imminent between Russia and England, the Cabinet of +St. Petersburg grew frightened at the possibility of +the English in case of war making a descent upon +some point of the Heracleotic Chersonese, and defences +were then ordered to be constructed on the land side of +Sevastopol.</p> + +<p>The ground on the north side of Sevastopol is much +higher than on the south side, and consequently the +citadel of the place, an octagonal fortress, called the +Sievarna, or Northern, Fort, which is erected there, commands +the whole town, bay, and docks. It has been +greatly strengthened of late years, as the most important +position for the defence or attack of the town. For itself +it can only be attacked on the land side, as its height +above the water would render ineffective the fire of ships, +and its precipitous shores both on the side of the Great +Bay and the sea would make a landing very difficult for +troops. This is the fortress which Sir Howard Douglas +calls “the key of Sevastopol,” until we secure which we +can never hope to take the place. “But this taken,” says +Sir Howard Douglas, “the Telegraph and Wasp batteries +on the northern heights, Fort Constantine and the forts +below, being commanded and attacked in reverse, must +soon fall; while the town, docks, arsenal, and barracks +on the south side of the harbour would be at the mercy +of the allies, who, by the fire of their batteries, might +entirely destroy them all. On the contrary, by attacking +the place from the south, the enemy holding the northern +heights, although the works on the crest of the southern +heights should be breached and taken, the town, the body +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">[72]</span>of the place, with its docks and arsenals, will not be +tenable by the besiegers till the great work on the northern +side, and all its defensive dependencies, shall have +been captured. These, no doubt, will have been greatly +strengthened before the allies are in a condition to direct +their attacks against them.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_87" href="#Footnote_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a></p> + +<p>The fortifications then which render Sevastopol so very +strong are the important works on the northern side, for +there is no use in taking the town, even if it could be done, +as the strongest part of the fortress would yet remain. At +the same time, if an army were brought sufficiently large +to invest it completely, the place must fall, because the +supplies of food, ammunition, and especially of water, +would quickly fail. In water the place is very deficient, +as there are no springs in the town, and only two sources +out of the town by which it is supplied. One of these is +the river which supplies the docks, through the tunnel +which has been described, as reaching from near Inkerman +to the town. This tunnel was recently (January 26) +stated to be now used, not only as a passage for the water, +but as a safe road by which the Russians introduce supplies +into the town, and this is highly probable, as there +is a foot-path on each side of the conduit. The old +town of Kherson, as will be stated afterwards, was taken +by the Russians in the tenth century by cutting off the +water-pipes which supplied the town, and perhaps this +may be the way in which the modern representative of +old Kherson will ultimately fall.</p> + +<p>We have found to our cost how inexhaustible are the +stores of Sevastopol, and yet it is said that a still greater +amount is laid up in the chain of fortresses that have +been erected during the last twenty years on the German, +and particularly on the Prussian, frontier.</p> + +<p>As the nations of Europe are fully occupied in their +own affairs, and as Russia is peculiarly inaccessible by +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">[73]</span>nature, she never could fear an invasion, and her armaments +must therefore be looked upon as threatening her +neighbours. Besides, as will afterwards be seen, her +army for the internal service of the country is totally +distinct from the immense mass of men called the +Grand Army, kept hovering for many years past on the +frontiers of Germany, in a mobilized state, and ready +to pour down its legions upon any point at a moment’s +notice.</p> + +<p>Let us shortly inquire where these great military +stores are laid up, and in what establishments they +are prepared. Arsenals in Russia are divided into +permanent and temporary: the first are at Petersburg, +Bransk, Toola, and Kief; and the second at Petersburg, +Tyraspol, and, since the Polish war, at Modlin. +The arsenals of Petersburg, Toola, and Kief, are vast +and elegant edifices, each of which can contain 100,000 +small arms, and where carriages and other material for +the artillery are made. The others are only dépôts. +Up to the commencement of the seventeenth century +there were no manufactories of iron or foundries in +Russia, and the Government was obliged to buy all +arms abroad. A Dutchman, named Andrew Vinius, +was the first to establish foundries, which were worked +by water-power. The first establishment of this kind +was founded in the year 1632, on the little river of +Toulitza, at fifteen versts from Toola. Since that time +several others have been formed in the governments of +Toola, Kalouga, and Moscow.</p> + +<p>In 1764, a Hamburger raised the first manufactories +of steel at Olonetz. The first hydraulic manufactory for +muskets was built in 1648, at Moscow, on the Taouza; +in 1653, another was established in the village of +Tchentsof, on the Skniga; and in 1700, Nikita Demidoff +Antonief carried the arts of founding and making fire-arms +to the Neva in Siberia.</p> + +<p>The principal manufactories of fire-arms are now at +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">[74]</span>Toola, Votka, Sesterbeck, and Zlatoust. The manufactory +of Toola,⁠<a id="FNanchor_88" href="#Footnote_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a> founded in 1712, by Peter the Great, +has been much increased; and its flourishing period +dates from 1817, when an Englishman, John Jones, +undertook its management. Some years ago it furnished +each year 50,000 muskets, and 25,000 sabres, besides +carbines, pistols, bayonets, and pikes. Seven thousand +men, and nearly 10,000 women, are employed in it; +besides 3500 peasants, belonging to the establishment. +It costs 124,000 roubles a year, or about 20,000<i>l.</i>; +and it consumes yearly 70,000 pounds of Siberian iron, +and 10,000 of steel. The manufactory of Votka is +situated on the little river Isch, in the district of Sarapoul, +in the government of Viatka; and some years ago +it employed 3000 workmen, and produced annually +about 14,000 muskets.</p> + +<p>The manufactory of Sesterbeck is near Petersburg, +and is modelled on that of Toola. It produced some +years ago yearly 12,000 muskets, and the same number +of sabres. Zlatoust, in Siberia, furnishes most of the +sabres for the cavalry and pioneers, to the annual number +of about 50,000.</p> + +<p>There are five cannon foundries in Russia, at Petersburg, +Moscow, Riga, Kief, and Kazan. A Scotchman, +Gascoigne, sixty years ago introduced as much improvement +in the founding of cannon as Jones in the manufacture +of fire-arms. There are two powder manufactories, +one at Ochta, near Petersburg, and the other at Tchotersk, +near Gloukhow.⁠<a id="FNanchor_89" href="#Footnote_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a></p> + +<p>The military stores and provisions for Sevastopol +come from the interior of Great Russia and Siberia, +down the Volga and Don to Rostof, on the Sea of +Azof, whence in peace they were shipped, and passed +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">[75]</span>through the straits of Kertch, the whole way by sea to +Sevastopol and the other fortresses on the Black Sea. +Since the war began, they have come, as usual, down +the Don and across the Sea of Azof; but instead of +passing through the straits of Kertch they have been +landed near Cape Kazantip, on the coast of Crimea, +within the Sea of Azof, and thence were carried across +Crimea, about 100 miles to Sevastopol, during the whole +time of the siege, till the Sea of Azof froze in November +last. Cape Kazantip was fortified by the Russians last +summer, and wharves erected near it for the landing of +the goods, and a regular transport service arranged across +the peninsula of Crimea.</p> + +<p>This is probably the new road to which allusion has +been lately made in ‘The Times.’ The facts I have +stated were communicated to me by Mr. Lander, an +English merchant at Taganrok, and Mr. Carruthers, late +Consul at that place. These gentlemen passed over the strip +of land by the side of the Putrid Sea, called the Arabate, +to Kertch, in May last, and saw the military stores at +Rostof, and the wharves just erected on the Crimean +coast, and the fortifications of Kazantip. The late +English Consul at Kertch, Mr. Cattley, is now interpreter +to Lord Raglan; and he also passed by this route +last summer, and therefore neither Lord Raglan nor the +Ministry ought to have been ignorant of these facts.</p> + +<p>Thus continual supplies were poured into Sevastopol +up to last November, the period of the freezing of the +Sea of Azof; and since that time the stores for Sevastopol +have probably been carried across the ice to some +point on the northern shore of the Azof, and thence by +land over the Isthmus of Perecop. Had the latter place +been occupied, it would have been easy to have taken +possession of the Strait of Yénitchi, and to have commanded +the tongue of Arabate. Indeed, as I have mentioned +in another place, there is deep water (24 feet) along +the Arabate, on the side of the Azof, and a few gun-boats +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">[76]</span>in the Sea of Azof would have rendered the Arabate +impassable to the Russians. The straits of Kertch +were undefended up to May last; and had possession of +them been taken by our Government, and a very small +force of gun-boats been placed in the Sea of Azof, the +supplies might have been stopped, and the Russians in +Sevastopol reduced by this measure alone to great +difficulties.</p> + +<p>Not only the military stores but also the rye-flour, +for the troops at Sevastopol, is furnished from Rostof. +M. Hagemeister, in the Russian official report on the +commerce of the Black Sea, says: “All the rye-flour +which annually arrives at Rostof from Voronetz, by the +Don, is purchased by the government for the use of the +army and navy; and thus the navy at Sevastopol and +Nicolaief draw considerable quantities of rye from New +Russia.” These provisions were lying ready for shipment +with the military stores at Rostof in last May, and +yet we made not the slightest efforts to intercept these +supplies, which have been regularly poured into Sevastopol +since that time, and without which the siege could +not have been carried on. Merchants in England have +informed me that the very lead which has formed the bullets +that have killed our brave soldiers has been imported +into Russia since the beginning of the siege, in consequence +of there being no blockade in the Black Sea +and the Azof; and large reinforcements which have +been sent from the Caucasus to Sevastopol would also +have been cut off.</p> + +<p>Such is a short account of Sevastopol, which is alone +remarkable for its admirable natural situation, and its +immense fortifications towards the sea. Although so +much labour has been expended upon it, the place is so +vast that the works of man look pigmy. The impression +on the beholder is, how much has nature done for +this place, compared with which the efforts of man appear +as mere specks.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">[77]</span></p> + +<p>The group of safe and commodious harbours which it +presents, stretching out like the fingers of the human +hand from the wrist, which may be supposed to represent +the entrance to Sevastopol, between Forts Alexander +and Constantine, contain so vast an area that all +the navies of the world might ride securely in them. +They are the only really good harbours in the Black +Sea, with the exception of the adjoining ones between +them and Balaclava, which, however, are greatly inferior +both in size and security to those of Sevastopol.</p> + +<p>The latter, since the Russians have possessed them, +have been closed against commercial vessels,⁠<a id="FNanchor_90" href="#Footnote_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a> and every +effort has for many years been made to accumulate here +a vast amount of warlike stores, and to keep up an enormous +fleet, although Russia has no mercantile marine to +protect, and, as the event has proved, dares not risk a +battle with any of the great naval powers.</p> + +<p>The object, therefore, of the fleet, to carry an invading +force to the shores of the Bosphorus, and, under the guise +of religion, to carry out schemes of ambition, has always +been obvious, and, indeed, not denied by the friends of +Russia.</p> + +<p>M. Haxthausen, the able author of an admirable work +on Russia, to complete which every facility was given +him by the Russian Government, and who, having +familiar access to the leading statesmen of Russia, probably +echoes the opinions which he has constantly heard +put forth at Petersburg, has the following remarkable +passage upon the real objects of the fleet and arsenals of +Sevastopol: “The object of the fleet,” he says, “is to +secure the dominion of Russia in the Black Sea, and +this is still further assured by the construction at Sevastopol—at +the present moment⁠<a id="FNanchor_91" href="#Footnote_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a>—of a fortified port of war, +which, according to the accounts of competent persons, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">[78]</span>will not have its equal in the world. When Europe +shall have a moment of feebleness—and we may fairly +expect this to come to pass after what we have seen to +happen in 1848, and when she shall think the time arrived +for conquests—then the establishment of Sevastopol +will allow this power to take the offensive against Constantinople +with equal energy and safety, by making +use of the fleet, either to disembark her troops behind +the lines of mountains and rivers which perpendicularly +on the western shore of the Black Sea cut at a right +angle the line of approach on Constantinople, or to +strengthen the base of operations of a grand army, by +supporting it wherever there are ports along the Euxine. +It is impossible that the Turkish fleet, either present or +future, could stop this result, for whatever may be done +to improve it, its best sailors are always Greeks. Up to +the battle of Navarino the case was very different, for +till that event some confidence might still be placed by +the Porte in the Greek sailors.”</p> + +<p>Then M. Haxthausen, a Russian in feeling, though a +German by birth, gets quite nettled at what he calls the +low, feeble policy of England and France, in preventing +the extension of Russia. He continues: “Let us remark +now, the strange change which has taken place in +the affairs of the East. Formerly Christian Europe exhausted +herself in efforts to drive back the crescent to +the deserts whence it came. The noblest blood of Christendom +had been shed before the crescent was allowed to +surmount the cross at Jerusalem. But now it is only +the Christians who prevent the fall of the crescent, or at +least the re-appearance of the cross on the domes of +Constantinople. In the same manner as the <i>social +licence</i> of Switzerland is sheltered, not behind impregnable +mountain defiles, but simply behind the rivality of +the great powers, so the anti-Christian empire established +on the borders of the Sea of Marmora depends not on +the force of the Mussulman, enervated by vices which +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">[79]</span>belong to the country—not on its number, which +in Turkey in Europe has always been inferior to that +of the Rayahs—not on the fortified rocks of the Hellespont, +which the military science of the Christians +would soon have overturned, but solely on the fact that +the Christians of the West find it convenient to preserve +Turkey as a barrier between themselves and the +East.”</p> + +<p>“When, in the time of the Crusades, they were fighting +for Jerusalem, the policy of the Byzantine empire led +the Greeks to aid the Saracens against the Roman +Catholic armies. This was a policy as <i>mesquine</i>, as +feeble, as <i>tracassière</i> as that observed for the last eighty +years with regard to the Turks by those Christian +nations who are the inheritors of the Byzantine policy +in the West, namely, the French and the English. +This <i>mesquine</i> policy of to-day, are we to consider it +as one of the quiverings which announce the imminent +dissolution of the Romano-German states, as it formerly +preceded that of the last Roman empire?”⁠<a id="FNanchor_92" href="#Footnote_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a></p> + +<p>Thus this honest, patriotic German, who hates Switzerland, +as is natural with an admirer of the Czar, is actually +provoked with us for preventing Russian extension not +only over Turkey, but over a part of his own country, +namely, Austria, or the Romano-German states, as he +calls that empire, whose fall he thinks imminent. A +Frenchman, who knew Russia as well as M. Haxthausen, +and whom a long residence in the country had not +deprived either of his common sense or his patriotism, +writing long before the present crisis, thus judiciously +speaks of Russian aggression, and the true policy of the +Western Powers:—</p> + +<p>“There are only two independent powers which draw +other states into their sphere of action,” says M. Chopin, +writing in 1838, “and those are Russia and England. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">[80]</span>It is plain that of these two rival forces the first has +every chance in its favour: numerical preponderance, +military organization, unity of will without any possible +control in the execution, firm alliances; all these are +on the side of the North. Russia finds in the simplicity +of her government a great compensation for +the vices of her interior administration; a profound +secrecy covers her faults; she knows how to act at an +opportune time, but she knows likewise how to wait. +When Europe has leisure to occupy herself seriously +with the present danger, Russia seems only to be pursuing +plans of interior improvement, but this repose is +but a preparation for other conquests, and thanks to the +little agreement that generally reigns between rival +Cabinets, some new question of difference continually +arises in which the activity of a rival diplomacy is expended, +and then Russia marches some steps in advance—but +they are giant steps which crush empires, and the +effect of which is like an actual seizure. Each of her +successes adds to her resources in diminishing to an +equal extent the resources of rival powers.</p> + +<p>“Nevertheless, despite this constant aggressive march, +the position of Russia becomes more difficult than formerly, +as the end and aim of all her efforts, the possession +of the Dardanelles, becomes more clearly defined, and it +is a spectacle full of political instruction to watch all the +springs she puts in action to bring about the great <i>dénouement</i>. +Sometimes she covers Turkey with her protection. +According to her, it is France and England who +meditate the ruin of the Ottoman empire, but thanks to +the treaty of Unkiar Skelessi, Turkey, if she remains +faithful to the stipulations which Muscovite forethought +has imposed upon her, will have nothing to fear from +foreign aggression. In the mean time Russia habituates +the fatalism of the Turks to the sight of her flag and her +uniforms, and the zeal of her alliance even goes so far, +that she distributes her decorations among the Ottoman +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">[81]</span>soldiers. There is always the same system of dissolving +corruption on one hand, and intimidation on +the other.</p> + +<p>“It is always the history of Poland, of Georgia, of Finland, +of the Baltic provinces, of the Crimea, of Moldavia, +of Wallachia, of Greece, of Persia,—<i>and Russia, from the +midst of all these conquered states, dismembered already, +or on the eve of being so, Russia dares to declare to +Europe that she has only views of order, and justice, +and moderation</i>. Europe does not believe this, but is +dependent, egoist, and divided; and she has repeated +for years past, in the official discourses of princes, that +the general peace is not threatened, while this precious +peace is only the result of culpable connivance.</p> + +<p>“Russia turns to her profit all these elements of feebleness +and division; she skilfully and resolutely pursues +her work, and, organised for conquest, she will never stop +until her principle of activity, which is the condition of +her existence, shall, from want of other objects, re-act on +herself,—that is, until Europe and Asia become really +Russian (Russe de fait). Mons. de Talleyrand, who had +deeply studied the resources and spirit of Russian policy +in the great phases of the hostility and alliance of that +state with Imperial France, reduced the problem of the +struggle against Muscovite influence to its simplest expression, +when he concluded the treaty of the quadruple +alliance, the vital principle of which was the Anglo-French +alliance. The peril was then great for Russia, +and she hastened, at the first cry of alarm from her diplomatists, +to rouse the national susceptibilities of each +country, and even to range party against party in the +bosom of the two rival states.</p> + +<p>“Dynastic interests, constitutional opposition, radical +and legitimist principles,—she employed all these levers; +she exhausted all these combinations of calculations and +politics, to arrive at the result she proposed to herself, +namely, the separation of France and England. She succeeded, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">[82]</span>and they avowed that they dared not interfere in +European politics from fear of Russia. These two richest +and most powerful kingdoms of the globe, whose united +population amounts to sixty millions of souls, these two +crowns, which can dispose, the one of the military forces +which have conquered Europe, and the other of a navy +without a rival in the world, accepted an affront, and the +responsibility of showing a humility more dangerous +than war itself.</p> + +<p>“In good sooth, can we attribute as a crime to Russia +her skill in profiting by the chances offered her by the +faults of rival cabinets? With her, is not ambition +confounded with the supreme law of her own preservation? +Without the empire of the Mediterranean, which +renders her mistress of the treasures of Asia and the +principal markets of Europe, she must renounce entertaining +an army of 800,000 men, and once disarmed, +once the prestige of her omnipotence destroyed, her +forced alliances will escape her, and in a few years she +will have retrograded two centuries. But if Russia obeys +a necessity in accomplishing her aggressive march, do not +England and France, who possess the means of curbing +the Russian power, commit a more palpable crime in +knowingly running onwards to their discredit, and ultimately +to their ruin?”⁠<a id="FNanchor_93" href="#Footnote_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a></p> + +<p>The spirit of the English people and the intelligence +of the French Emperor have brought about that very +alliance which the acute and far-seeing French writer +wished without expecting, and which it is to be hoped +will have the effect of putting a stop to Russian conquests, +and rendering useless the enormous aggressive preparations +which she has been making for the last twenty +years at Sevastopol and other fortresses, in order to +increase her own territory at the expense of that of her +neighbours.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">[83]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII.<br> +<span class="smaller">THE RUSSIAN NAVY.</span></h2> + +<p>Its origin under Peter the Great—Early victories of the Varangians, or +Normans, and Cossacks—Row-boats more useful in the Baltic than large +vessels—The navy under Catherine II.—English instructors—Difficulty +in manning the fleet—No mercantile navy—Organization of the +Russian fleet—No marines—Oak for navy—Food of sailors—Russian +vessels on foreign stations—Only one Russian foreign merchant—Greek +influence diminished in 1844—“The Twelve Apostles”—“The Teredo +Navalis”—The affair of Sinope—The Paixhans shell system—General +observations.</p> + +</div> + +<p>The⁠<a id="FNanchor_94" href="#Footnote_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a> Russian navy, like the army, was the creation of +Peter the Great, who, when he came to the throne, found +his empire without any port except Archangel, and when +he died, after a reign of sixteen years, left a fleet of sixteen +sail of the line in the Baltic, and his name feared +as a naval hero on the Black Sea and the Caspian. In +the ideas of that great man the army was intended to be +merely supplementary to the navy, and Russia was to be +a great commercial and maritime power instead of a military +one. “It is thus,” he says in his will, “that Russia, +which I found a brook and left a river, must, under my successors, +grow to a mighty sea, destined to fertilize worn-out +Europe, and advance its waves over all obstacles, if +my successors are only capable of guiding the stream.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_95" href="#Footnote_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a></p> + +<p>The origin of all the numerous naval armaments of +Russia in the present day was the little boat built by +Peter’s own hands, when he returned from his European +travels.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">[84]</span></p> + +<p>In 1836, after a lapse of 113 years, the anniversary of +the launching of the little boat, was for the first time +celebrated with great pomp at Cronstadt. Twenty-six +ships of the line, twenty-one frigates, ten brigs, and +seven gun-boats, were anchored in the roads of Cronstadt, +and saluted with 2000 cannon the tiny “grandpapa,” +as the little boat was called, which, placed on a steamer, +was carried through the lines. From the earliest times +there has been a slight halo of maritime glory around the +Russian name. The half fabulous Varangians, Northmen, +or Normans, who conquered Russia as they did +France and England, and from whom the Russian nobility +still boast their descent, were victorious by sea as well as +by land, and the glories of Ruric and Vladimir belong to +the Russian nation as much as the victories of Alfred and +the Plantagenets belong to us. The Varangians found +out the road by water along the rivers of Russia from the +Baltic to the Black Sea,—that very road which Peter the +Great improved by employing his Swedish and Cossack +prisoners to cut the canal of Ladoga.</p> + +<p>In 886 (shortly after the foundation of the German +empire) the Varangians appeared on the Black Sea with +200 boats, each containing from forty to sixty men, and +advanced to the attack of Constantinople, which was only +saved by a miracle. At the end of the sixteenth century +the Russian fleets were still feared on the Baltic, and even +under the empire of the Tatars, Novgorod had possessed +a flourishing maritime commerce, although in a great +measure it was conducted by strangers. But after the +fall of Novgorod, when the Baltic provinces fell into the +power of the Swedes, the Poles, and the Germans, the +maritime importance of Russia began to decline. The +single outlet that was left her, Archangel, was only +frequented by foreign merchant vessels, chiefly Dutch. +Then, the Russians of that time, like those of the present +day, occupied themselves entirely with internal +commerce, and the spirit of the Varangians disappeared, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">[85]</span>or only lingered among the Cossacks of the Dniepr and +the Don.</p> + +<p>Peter the Great, in his maritime views, had for a paramount +object the conquest of the débouchés in the south, +leading to the Mediterranean and the southern oceans, +which were then exclusively in the hands of the Turks +and Tatars.</p> + +<p>His first dockyards for a fleet of war were placed near +Woroneje, in the country of the Don, and then also for +the first time the Russian flag was seen to triumph in the +Black Sea over the Turks, their national enemies. At a +later period, in the war which Peter the Great had to sustain +against Sweden, he employed a fleet consisting chiefly +of row-boats, which had been constructed on the lakes of +the North, and he found this fleet far more advantageous +in the Baltic than vessels of the line or frigates. Even +up to the present time flotillas of row-boats have always +rendered greater services than large vessels to Russia in +the shallow waters of the Baltic. The first result of any +importance was the victory which Peter gained in the +middle of the Séches, or low reedy islands of the Baltic, +over the Swedish Admiral Ehrenskiold, from whom he +took a frigate and ten row-boats, but at that time his +land army was nearly annihilated on the Pruth, and the +conquest of Azof and the possession of the Black Sea was +in consequence postponed till the end of the last century. +“The condemnation of Admiral Cruys,” I here quote the +words of Haxthausen, “under Peter the Great for having +lost several vessels in an attack which he had risked too +rashly against the enemy, was of bad augury for the +Russian fleet, although he was afterwards pardoned and +restored to all his dignities. In England, Byng was +executed, because near Minorca he had avoided battle +with the French fleet, which was superior to his own. +It is a rule in England always to attack, if the English +fleet equals that of the enemy, and this rule has undoubtedly +been the base of the maritime power of that country. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">[86]</span>In 1743 the Russian Admiral Golovine excused himself +to Lascy, who had given him the order to commence the +attack, by saying that the maritime laws of Peter the +Great forbid the Russian fleet ever to engage in battle +with the enemy unless they had three Russian vessels to +two Swedes.”</p> + +<p>The Russian fleet has always been rather for show +than use, owing to the want of boldness which the +Russians have in later times shown in maritime enterprises, +although, under Catherine II., Greig, Elphinstone, +and Spiridoff acquired some glory in the Mediterranean.</p> + +<p>At the end of the last century the Russian fleet consisted +of sixteen ships of the line and twenty-three +frigates, which was about its force under Peter the +Great. During the war which, after the French Revolution, +devastated Europe, the Russian fleet played only +a secondary part.</p> + +<p>When Russia was allied with England, the navy of the +latter power commanded the sea, while Russia was to +employ her forces on the continent. When Russia was +against England her vessels were little worth. The +English, at a later period, undertook to keep the Russian +fleet, and in this uneasy state of relations with +England she lost the excellent instructors of her navy, +which she had before employed in great numbers. The +English officers on board her fleet refused to serve +against their own country, and since that epoch they +have been less favourably viewed in Russia.</p> + +<p>The great difficulty of the Russians is to man their +fleet, because they have no mercantile navy, and +scarcely any Great Russians live on the sea-coast. +Archangel furnishes a very few men, and after them +the best sailors are the Finns of the Baltic, the Cossacks, +and the Greeks of the Black Sea. The crews of +the fleet are much more numerous than the whole of +the sailors in the mercantile marine, and for this reason +they are obliged to recruit among landsmen, and to put +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">[87]</span>in practice the maxim of Peter the Great, that every man +is fit for everything.</p> + +<p>A Russian is never allowed to say that he cannot do a +thing, and whatever the order given him may be, he is expected +to set about executing it as well as he can. The +only answer permitted is “Schloushaiou,” “I hear, and will +obey.” But although he attempts to do everything in a +certain kind of way, his work is generally very imperfect, +and the inaccuracy of Russian workmen is proverbial +among the English superintendants employed in that +country. They realise the English saying of “a Jack of +all trades, and master of none;” or as Custine puts the +point, “Le Russe n’est maître de rien, excepté l’art de +feindre;” and this last is an observation which our +Ministers would do well to reflect upon now that they are +asked to open negociations.</p> + +<p>Some notion of the paucity of sailors in Russia may be +formed from the fact that the law which obliges every +captain of a merchantman to be of Russian origin is constantly +eluded. The shipowners try to gain the advantages +of sailing under the Russian flag, and at the same time +to avoid the disadvantages of having a Russian captain, +and therefore the individual who is put forward in port +as the legal captain of the vessel, as soon as she puts out +to sea descends to the humble office of the cook.</p> + +<p>The Russian fleet is manned from the common conscription +with very little “ethnologic” distinction, excepting +that in the North the Finns are preferred for +that service, and in the South the Jew conscripts are +generally sent to the navy, not on account of their aptitude +for it, but because as soldiers they are considered +worthless.</p> + +<p>The Imperial fleet consists of three divisions, two of +which are in the North, and one in the Black Sea. It is +manned by forty-five battalions, called “equipages:”⁠<a id="FNanchor_96" href="#Footnote_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a> each +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">[88]</span>equipage is composed of eighty petty officers, twenty-five +musicians, and 1000 seamen, and is officered by one +commander, of the rank of a colonel, two superior officers, +twelve lieutenants, and twelve midshipmen.</p> + +<p>An equipage will man one three-decker, and one or +more small vessels, or a two-decker and a frigate, or two +frigates and one or two brigs. A ship of 120 guns is +manned by 812 seamen and 65 petty officers. A ship of +84 guns is manned by 625 seamen and 50 petty officers. +A frigate of 60 guns by 375 seamen, and 30 petty +officers. A frigate of 44 guns by 320 seamen and 20 +petty officers. A corvette by 158 seamen and 12 petty +officers. The forty-six equipages are disposed in the +following manner:—From No. 1 to No. 27, inclusive, are +in the Baltic. From No. 28 to 44, inclusive, are in the +Black Sea. No. 45, in the Caspian. No. 46, at Kamstchatka. +There are no marines in the Russian navy, and +the seamen are disciplined like soldiers. The term of +service in the navy is, I believe, similar to that in the army, +namely, from ten to twenty-five years, according to the +provinces of the empire from which the sailors are drawn.</p> + +<p>The oak of which the Black Sea fleet is built comes +mostly from Minsk and the neighbouring governments, +and is of quick growth, on low land, in a country which +was an immense lake in ancient times.⁠<a id="FNanchor_97" href="#Footnote_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a> Herodotus says +that both the Dniestr and the Boug took their origin in +enormous lakes. The great portion of the timber of +Kherson used to come down the river Pripet, which is the +remains of an enormous marsh or lake, and is navigable +for 350 miles to its junction with the Dniepr. The masts +that come down the Dniepr are good, and drawn from +the same forests that supply Riga, but the wood for ship-building +is bad, and the Russian Government hopes to +supply Nicolaief with the oak of Kazan, which is used in +the dockyards of the Baltic, and which might be brought +down to the south by the Volga and the Don to Rostof. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">[89]</span>Mr. Upton told me that a cannon-ball, which would +lodge in one side of an English ship, would go right +through both sides of a Russian one. For certain parts +of all the ships they are obliged to import oak from +England. The Crimean oak is very good, but not obtainable +in large quantities. A frigate or two have been +built of it, but none are now afloat. The only ship of +the line built of it was the Raphael, which was taken by +Captain Slade and the Turks in the war of 1828. The +Bulgarian oak is also of a good quality. The timber at +Nicolaief is used green, as soon as brought down the +Dniepr, so that ships become quickly infected with dry-rot, +are unsound in ten years, and quite unfit for service +in fifteen.</p> + +<p>The sailors are fed upon rye or black bread, which +they prefer to wheaten bread. They have meat twice +a week, and drink “quass,” a fermented drink, made from +the rye flour, and the Russian “vodka,” or brandy, +which is likewise made from rye. The sailors are all +disciplined and dressed as soldiers, wear helmets, and for +their common dress the same long drab greatcoats as the +army. They are, in fact, more properly sea-soldiers than +sailors. When the Grand Duke Constantine inspected +the Black Sea fleet, its Admiral was obliged to ask permission +for the sailors to take off their proper uniform, +as it was found impossible for them to mount the rigging +in it.</p> + +<p>When a Russian vessel is on a foreign station, which +has seldom been the case, except with small vessels having +only picked crews, the dress is changed, both of +officers and men, and they then, for the time, wear shirts +and trousers, like the sailors of maritime nations; and +they also then receive extra allowances, to enable them +to live like the people of the country where they happen +to be. The Russians have a great “amour-propre;” +and I have often watched them on a foreign station, +when they have been moored with French and English +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">[90]</span>vessels at Constantinople and Athens, constantly exercising +their men, until at last they succeeded in managing +their vessels with great quickness.</p> + +<p>The immense majority of their ships, however, are +confined to the Baltic and Black Seas, in which they are +obliged to lay up during more than half the year. The +Black Sea fleet is seldom out for more than one month’s +cruise in summer, and sometimes for even a shorter +period. Besides the short time they are out, the cruizing +in such limited areas with a large fleet of vessels +must be a very uninteresting operation, and there is nothing +in it to call out a spirit of enterprise or adventure. +The sailors are nearly all landsmen, and such they always +remain. There is no mercantile marine, notwithstanding +the great inducements held out by the government; and +although the commerce of Russia is considerable, there +is not a single merchantman manned and sent out by +Russians Proper, by which I mean the Slavonic population, +which forms the real strength of the Russian nation. +The Finns are enterprising shipowners, but they are a +totally different race, and a conquered people. I believe +I am correct in saying that there is only one real-born +Russian merchant who has an establishment in a foreign +country. This gentleman, of considerable wealth, set up +a house at Liverpool a few years ago, more from patriotic +motives than in the regular way of business, and received +great encouragement from his government, who +wished to induce others to follow his example, but without +success. Under all these disadvantages, some of +which are inseparable from the despotic nature of the +government, for commerce like genius requires for its +development complete liberty, it is impossible that the +Russian fleets can ever become formidable by their quality, +although the large number of their vessels may prove a +source of disquietude to a second-rate power.</p> + +<p>In the beginning, the Russian navy was formed +entirely by foreigners, and principally by Englishmen, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">[91]</span>while the sailors and officers in the Black Sea were generally +Greeks. There were, in particular, five Englishmen, +who had been originally brought up in the English +navy, who rose to be admirals in the Russian service, +and were of great use to their navy,—Admirals Crown, +Hamilton, Elphinstone, Dugdale, and Greig. Admiral +Lazaref, a Russian, who commanded when I visited +Sevastopol, had been brought up in the English navy, +and fought as a midshipman at Trafalgar.</p> + +<p>At the period of my visit, in 1844, a great change was +taking place in the Russian navy, which had its origin in +a more general cause. Just about that time there was a +strong national movement throughout the Empire, which +was encouraged by the Court. The nation had been under +the tutelage of foreigners for a century and a half, and +now showed a wish to act for itself. Russian replaced +French as the fashionable language at court, and representations +were constantly made to the Emperor to place +Russians instead of foreigners in places which the latter +had till then exclusively occupied. There was a strong +feeling against the German officers in the army, and the +laws were strictly enforced, forbidding foreigners to hold +land or possess manufactories, unless they made themselves +Russian subjects, a step they were very much +pressed to take by officials as the best way of being +favourably viewed by the Emperor.</p> + +<p>At Sevastopol there was an outcry against the English +engineers of the steam-vessels, and the Emperor consented +to appoint a Russian on trial, who took a steamer +out to sea, and damaged her machinery so much after a +few hours, that she was towed into port again by another +steamer sent out to fetch her. The Emperor then said +that he would continue to employ the English until his +own people were really able to undertake their duties.</p> + +<p>The great change in Sevastopol about 1844 was the +getting rid of the Greek influence, which had till then +been paramount. Both men and officers were replaced, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">[92]</span>as far as possible, by Russians, and the same change +was effected as regarded the civil departments of the +naval administration.</p> + +<p>I visited several of the large line-of-battle ships in the +harbour of Sevastopol, with one of the Uptons, and as they +were all built by English shipwrights, to a non-nautical +eye they looked very much like the men-of-war in our +own country. I visited in particular the Twelve Apostles, +the largest ship there, which I have lately heard to be +now quite useless for warlike purposes. No Russian ship +in the Black Sea lasts more than ten years, not only on +account of the bad wood of which it is built, but also +because of the worm (<i>teredo navalis</i>) which infests Sevastopol +and the southern coast of the Crimea, and commits +great ravages among the ships. The project of filling +the new dock with fresh water, by introducing into it +at great expense the Tchornaya Retchka from Inkerman, +was adopted with the view of getting rid of this worm, +but it was found when too late that it was in the very +waters of the Tchornaya that the worm was generated.⁠<a id="FNanchor_98" href="#Footnote_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a></p> + +<p>The Vixen, the English vessel which we so timorously +gave up in 1837, lay in the harbour at the period of my +visit, and the Russians were very proud of having taken +an English ship, while the English there told me they +never could see her without a feeling of shame. She +had served as a model to the Russians, and I saw several +vessels that had been built after her.</p> + +<p>The whole fleet in Sevastopol consisted, in 1853, of +18 first-rates, 7 frigates, 30 steamers, and 36 smaller +vessels. There were besides 28 gun-boats, built for service +in the Danube, and 30 transports measuring 10,000 +tons.⁠<a id="FNanchor_99" href="#Footnote_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a></p> + +<p>The only achievement of the Black Sea navy has +been the destruction of the Turkish fleet in Sinope, which +was characterised by their usual negligence on the part +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">[93]</span>of the Turks, and by that cruelty in war which has +always stained the Russian name. The Turkish ships +were armed with small ordnance, of which the largest +scarcely reached the calibre of 24-pounders, and they +placed themselves in the roadstead under the protection +of land batteries, which were in a wretched state of defence, +unprovided with guns that would throw shells, +and armed only with cannon of very small calibre.</p> + +<p>The Russians, on the contrary, had availed themselves +of the latest discoveries and improvements in naval +gunnery. Many 68 and 42-pounder shot were picked +up at Sinope, and they used with fearful effect the most +terrible instruments of modern warfare, the Paixhans guns.</p> + +<p>This attack of the Russians at Sinope has been designated +as iniquitous by both the French and English +military authorities: in the first place, because the attack +ought not to have been made under the political circumstances +then existing, and next, because from their +superiority in number and calibre of guns, instead of +burning the Turkish vessels, and exterminating the crews, +they might have taken the whole squadron prisoners, +and brought away the surviving men as prisoners of war, +while the ships would have served to increase their own +effective force. They preferred, however, to use the new +terrible incendiary shell, and to massacre without mercy +the brave but negligent Turks.</p> + +<p>This affair forms an important epoch in the history +of the new system of naval warfare, as that in which the +Paixhans shell system was first used in war. These shells +contain incendiary bodies, which, when ignited by the +bursting of the shell, are scattered about in every direction, +burn with far greater intensity than ‘la roche à feu,’ +develope more heat, and give out dense smoke during the +combustion, which must interrupt for a considerable time +the working of the guns. The chances of setting fire to +an antagonist’s ship in action are prodigiously increased, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">[94]</span>and if one party uses these dreadful engines, the other +must adopt the same means of warfare, by which one or +both combatants will surely be burnt. “Both France and +England,” says Sir Howard Douglas, “are provided with +these appalling weapons of mutual destruction, and are +prepared, if unhappily there be occasion, to use them <i>à +l’outrance</i> against each other’s ships, in a barbarous and +ignoble strife, in which it seems the only question is +which shall be first burnt. What would Nelson have +said to this incendiary warfare?”⁠<a id="FNanchor_100" href="#Footnote_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a></p> + +<p>The Russians, with that energy and promptitude which +has been the secret of all their successes, have availed +themselves of every improvement in naval gunnery, +although their fleet is with them a matter of only +secondary importance. It is impossible to read the +history of Russia and her opponents, that is to say her +neighbours, for the last 150 years, since the peace of +Carlowitz, without observing the quickness in seizing +opportunities, the absence of prejudice, the anxious desire +for improvement, and the alacrity in repairing errors +when they have been committed, which are the true +methods by which an individual or a nation can best +attain the object of its desires, be they good or bad.</p> + +<p>However, notwithstanding the great care bestowed +upon it, there is no doubt that the Russian fleet is +extremely inefficient, and would be hardly a match for +any of the second-rate powers of Europe. It was not +to be expected that it should come out to fight the +united navies of the two first maritime powers of the +world, and there was little cause for the boast of the late +Ministers, that we performed a great achievement in +forcing it to act on the defensive. Still, on the other +hand, there seems to be good sense in the remarks of +Haxthausen, that the Russians have been too timorous on +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">[95]</span>the sea, and that the Russian navy will never equal the +high character of their army until they have suffered +defeats, and fought their way to confidence. The natural +“pluck” of the people would probably in the end be as +successful on the sea as on the land.</p> + +<p>The Romans hated the sea as much as the Russians, +and in reading of Peter’s little boat, and the Vixen +serving for a model, the mind naturally recurs to the +Carthaginian galley stranded on the coast, which served +as a model for the first Roman vessels, yet, after no very +long period, the Carthaginian state, betrayed by lust of +conquest, was broken up, and the Romans swept the +seas.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">[96]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII.<br> +<span class="smaller">ON THE RUSSIAN ARMY.⁠<a id="FNanchor_101" href="#Footnote_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a></span></h2> + +<p>Large proportion of Russian population in the army—Military organization—Peaceable +natural disposition of Russian people—Strong feelings when +roused—Obedience to orders—Anecdotes—Commercial disposition of +the Russian people—Their wish to mix with European nations—Education +checked by the government—Military system of Peter the Great—His +great objects—Faults of our government with respect to Russian +policy—The army, whence recruited—Great Russians—Poles—Little +Russians—Finns, Jews, &c.—Name “Ruski” or Russian—Its +origin—The conscription—Soldiers’ marriages—The cantonists—Emperor’s +efforts to improve condition of common soldier generally unsuccessful—Corporal +punishment—Labour—“Indefinite leave”—Division +of empire for conscription—Amount of population per cent. taken from +1840-1855—Expense of the Russian soldier—Democratic system of +army—The cross of St. George—Classification of Russian army—Into +1st, Corps d’Armée, or complete armies—2nd, Local Regular Troops—3rd, +Irregulars—Don, Black Sea, and Ural Cossacks—Value and number +of Cossack troops—Various Asiatic irregulars—General observations.</p> + +</div> + +<p>Having given a sketch of the Russian navy, perhaps +another short digression may be permitted in order to give +my readers a concise account of the organization and disposition +of the army in Russia, which occupies so large +a portion of the population, and consumes so much of +the revenues of that country. Taking the army, with +all the reserves, at a million,⁠<a id="FNanchor_102" href="#Footnote_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a> and the male population +of Russia at thirty millions, and the able-bodied males +at fifteen millions, it follows that every fifteenth man +is a soldier, either in active service, or liable to be called +out, which is certainly the case at the present moment.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">[97]</span></p> + +<p>In our own country about one man in fifty is a regular +soldier, and in other European countries the proportion +is greater, but nowhere so large as in Russia.</p> + +<p>We, in this industrious and commercial country, can +hardly conceive what it is to have a military organization +such as prevails in Russia, where nothing but +a uniform is respected, and where the highest civil +officers have military titles given them as the only +means of indicating their rank. Indeed there are none +but military titles in Russia with which to reward all +kinds of merit. Professor Pallas relates that the Grand +Mufti, or Chief Priest of the Tatars, was made a general +after the conquest of the Crimea—the Professor himself +was made a major-general; an old Armenian school-master +I used to know at Tiflis, although a very unwarlike +character, was a field officer; and all members of +the civil service have military rank, and are called by +the common people according to their military titles.</p> + +<p>The most singular thing is, that the people among +whom this military organization of the whole nation +prevails, is, without exception, the most pacific people +on the face of the earth, and upon this point I believe +no difference of opinion exists among all observers. +Having lived for several years in a position which +enabled me to mix much with the officers and men of +the Russian army, such is my strong conviction of +the Russian character. M. Haxthausen mentions, as a +point admitting of no doubt, “the absence of all warlike +tendency among the Russian people, and their excessive +fear of the profession of a soldier.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_103" href="#Footnote_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a> The Russian +people have no pleasure in wearing arms, like the Turk +or the Pole: even in their quarrels among themselves, +which are rare, they hardly ever fight, and the duel, +which now often takes place among Russian officers, is +contrary to the national manners, and a custom imported +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">[98]</span>from the West. The people take no pleasure in the +fighting of beasts or birds, as in bull-fights, or ram-fights, +or cock-fights, which are common amusements +among some Eastern as well as most European nations; +and when the Russian is drunk, which often happens, +he is never quarrelsome, but on the contrary caressing +and given to tears. But, on being roused, he exhibits +a degree of patient endurance which is astonishing, and +a steady enthusiasm which shows great power of feeling, +and which is very deeply seated in the national character. +He meets death and the severest punishment without +fear, and strange anecdotes are told of the impossibility, +as it seems to him, of disobeying the letter of the orders +he has received. I have lately read a story somewhere +which well illustrates this trait of character:—</p> + +<p>A soldier on duty at the palace of the Emperor at +Petersburg, which was burnt a few years ago, was +stationed and had been forgotten in one suite of apartments +that was in flames: a Greek priest was the last +person to rush through the burning rooms, at the imminent +risk of his life, to save a crucifix in a chapel, and +returning he was hailed by the sentry, who must in a +few instants more have been suffocated. “What do you +want?” cried the priest, “save yourself or you will be +lost.” “I can’t leave,” replied the sentry, “because +I am unrelieved, but I called to you to give me your +blessing before I die.” The priest blessed him, and +the soldier died at his post.</p> + +<p>The late Emperor himself on one occasion attempted +to pass a sentinel in one of the corridors of the palace +at Petersburg, who had orders to let no person pass, but +the man resisted him, and when the Emperor tried to +disarm him, wrestled with him, and flung him back +against the wall.</p> + +<p>The patience also of the Russian peasants is astonishing, +in submitting without a murmur to the most cruel +treatment when they happen to belong to a bad master, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">[99]</span>until at last they rise in a body, and, armed with their +hatchets, massacre their oppressor. When such instances +occur, the affair is quickly hushed up. The patient +sufferings of the dissenters, of whom it is said that there +are in Russia no less than two hundred sects, prove their +deep feeling on religious matters. I have seen thousands +marched, with their wives and children, from their native +country, into the Caucasus, where they were colonized on +bleak plains in the month of October, and the greater +number perished of cold and starvation.</p> + +<p>If the military organization of Russia could be once +broken up, the people would turn to their natural pursuits, +which are decidedly commercial and agricultural. +And again, if free trade were allowed in the empire, and +the commercial spirit could satisfy its natural cravings, +the increased riches, luxuries, and civilization of the +country would show such obvious advantages, that the +military system could not hold its ground. English merchants +in Russia have assured me, that although there are +now few Russian merchants engaged in foreign commerce, +no people show such natural aptitude for commercial +concerns. The high tariff which is in force, and the +absolute prohibition there is against educating their +children in Europe, as no young persons between the +ages of twelve and twenty-five are allowed under any +pretext to be absent from their country, alone repress +for political purposes their natural tendencies.</p> + +<p>The Russian people wish for European civilization, +and to mix with the other European nations, but they +are not allowed to do so by their Government; and to +check their desire for civilization and their liberal tendencies, +I have been informed by a German professor, who +had minutely studied their educational system, which is +under the absolute control of the Government throughout +the whole empire, that within the last fifteen years the +course of study has been checked and thrown back in all +the universities and schools of the empire. It is a well-known +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">[100]</span>fact to all who have lived in Russia, that the Government +grew more and more jealous of education up to the +breaking out of the present war. Foreign tutors and +governesses, who are absolutely essential for all parents +who wish to give their children a good education in +Russia, were as far as possible prevented from entering +the empire, and two years ago the Poles were prohibited +from studying at the university of Odessa. It must +be remembered that this town is the commercial +débouché and the capital of all the southern provinces +of Poland, the nobility of which generally go there to +spend the fashionable season, and that it contains the only +superior educational institutions within their reach.</p> + +<p>It is well known that the Russian army which had +served in Europe during the wars of Napoleon, returned +with very liberal tendencies, and preferred the manner +of life of the nations they had left to their own. They +were consequently divided, separated, sent into dangerous +situations, and thus gradually disposed of.</p> + +<p>The military system which Peter the Great⁠<a id="FNanchor_104" href="#Footnote_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a> so +strongly recommended to his successors, was devised, +and has been continued down to the present time, in +order that a great framework of empire might be made, +which should be filled up gradually by successive +generations. He thought he could lay down a plan by +which a stupendous sovereignty might be constructed, +which should overshadow the whole earth.</p> + +<p>It is but fair to say, however, that the Tzar is, to a +certain degree, the incarnation of the national will, and +that the whole nation, from the highest to the lowest, +have a vague, but deep-seated notion, that some future +glories are in store for the Slavonic name, and they will +always approve their Tzar, when they think that he is +following out the destiny of the nation. That they do +not grow wiser, however, but continue to attach too +much importance to military glory, and the absorbing and +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">[101]</span>conquering of all surrounding nations, is the fault of the +Government and not of the people. The Tzars have kept +them back from mixing with civilized nations and from +commercial pursuits, in order that they might not learn +more just notions of the qualities in which consists the +true glory of nations, and might remain a great encamped +people, content with a military despotism, and +ready to be the instruments of restless schemes of ambition.</p> + +<p>The possession of India, of the Mediterranean, and of +the Sound, were three principal objects of Peter the Great’s +ambition. The Sound has been prospectively guaranteed +to Russia by the treaty which Lord Palmerston concluded +three years ago, in which the reversion of the +Danish throne is secured to the Czar. Our present +expedition to Sevastopol is to prevent her first step in +the Mediterranean by the possession of Constantinople +and the Dardanelles. With respect to India, Russia has +quietly worked her way as far as the Sea of Aral, by +advancing villages of Cossacks and digging wells every +ten miles. The English Government have for many +years past been remiss in noticing these aggressive measures, +and even now it is to be feared that our agents in +Persia, whence we act upon Central Asia, are not men +fitted to oppose the experienced and able agents of +Russia, or to give us that reasonable probability of +success in our Eastern campaign which proper measures +might command.</p> + +<p>There was something vague about the schemes of Peter +and Catherine in the last century; and their successors, if +we had been firm during the last twenty years in resisting +the first symptoms of encroachment, would have +given up many projects as impracticable. In necessary +firmness our Government has throughout been deficient, +and the consequence is, that we are involved in the +present war, and have a gloomy and uncertain future +before us.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">[102]</span></p> + +<p>The army, the great instrument of Russian aggression, +draws the main body of its recruits from the thirty-four +millions of Great Russians who form a compact body +round Moscow. This population is of pure Slave blood, +and forms the heart and core of the Russian empire. +They give the tone to all the other populations, are superior +to them in energy and grandeur of character, as well +as numbers, and stand with relation to Russia much as +the inhabitants of Britain do to the other nations of the +British empire.</p> + +<p>The Great Russians have a natural aptitude for the +infantry, which is almost entirely composed of them, and +they form also the bulk of the corps of officers and non-commissioned +officers.</p> + +<p>The Poles are found in every part of the army, and +particularly in the cavalry. They are born soldiers, and +like no trade so well as war. After the Polish revolution, +vast numbers of the Polish gentry were sent as common +soldiers to the Caucasus; and at one fell swoop the whole +University of Wilna, the capital of the Polish country of +Lithuania, professors as well as students, were condemned +to the same hard fate. It has often happened to me +when I have been staying with officers in the Caucasus, +to be called aside by the servant, who has whispered to +me in French, “Sir, I am a Pole, an European, a gentleman +born, but I was degraded and sent here for fighting +for my country.” And the poor fellow was always very +glad to have a little sly chat, and a talk on the forbidden +subject of European politics. The Russian officers are +very kind to these unfortunate men, for they are a +thoroughly good-natured race, and are glad to get men +of intelligence as servants, instead of common drunken +boors.</p> + +<p>The Little Russians (Malo Ruski), as the inhabitants +of the Ukraine are called, are reckoned peculiarly fit for +the cavalry, which is not the case with the Slave race +in general. The Great Russians never ride on horseback, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">[103]</span>but always travel very fast in carriages, of which they are +remarkably skilful drivers. Even the Cossacks originally +were not horsemen. The Little Russians are small, +strong men, remarkably well conducted, but of very +obstinate temper. The Great Russians are accustomed +to be beaten, and indeed are so used to it at home, that +it is difficult to keep them well behaved in the army +without the free use of the stick. They bear no ill-will +after castigation, and cheerfully amend their faults; but +the Little Russian becomes dogged if corrected, resents his +punishment, and is often totally ruined by its frequency. +The reason for this is obviously that he enjoyed his +freedom later than the others; and he still retains some +sparks of independence, for serfdom was only introduced +into the Ukraine by Paul at the close of the last century, +while the serfs in Great Russia were “ascripti glebæ” +by Boris Godounof about the year 1600. Little Russians +may be known by their names, which generally +end in “enko,” and one or two other well-known terminations.</p> + +<p>The Finlanders are on a totally different footing to the +common Russian soldiers: they are enrolled in six battalions +of riflemen, and are all volunteers, and receive +high pay. They are much better educated than the +Russians, and resemble in their ideas and habits the +nations of Western Europe, to whom, in reality, they +belong. The Jews have been subject to the conscription +in Russia since 1827, and in Poland since the revolution +in 1831. It is found almost impossible to make soldiers +of them, and they generally find the means to escape. +The story is told of the late Emperor, that on one +occasion, when he was reviewing some troops, he found +out all the Jews by snapping his fingers in each man’s +face. If they stood immoveable they were Russians, +and if they flinched they were invariably Jews. On +the other hand, the Jews make capital military workmen, +who in Russia are always attached to the fleet +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">[104]</span>and the army, and they also make very fair sailors, and +are often employed as constables in towns, on the principle, +as it is said, of setting a thief to catch a thief. There +is a Georgian and a Circassian militia, but these are never +removed from their own country, and I do not know, at +the present moment, whether they continue to exist.</p> + +<p>The principal nations which compose the Russian army +have been enumerated above, but there are besides various +remnants of ancient nations, such as the Tatars, Mordvins, +Tcheremisses, Tschouvashes, Lettes, and others, +who all furnish a small number of men. There are +indeed no less than eighty-five of these tribes or nations +in the empire, of which forty furnish contingents to the +regular troops.⁠<a id="FNanchor_105" href="#Footnote_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a></p> + +<p>The soldiers and officers are generally very religious, +and a priest and a moveable tent for divine service always +accompanies each battalion, and often each company, when +on detached duty.</p> + +<p>The number of musicians in the army is great, and the +soldiers all sing in parts, and have songs composed on +every event which they think redounds to their honour. +In one of their favourite songs the chorus is, “But the +weapon of the Russian soldier is the bayonet;” and this +notion is in accordance with the advice of Souvárof, a +real genius, to the Russian soldier, given in his celebrated +Catechism, which will be found in the Appendix—“The +bayonet is a hero, the musket a fool: stab; toss the +Turk off your bayonet, and stab again.”</p> + +<p>There is often a buffoon attached to each company, +who amuses his comrades by his jests and antics, +and is generally a great favourite. On one occasion in +the Caucasus, when the troops were driven back by the +Circassians, the buffoon was wounded and left behind. +A favourite jest of his had been to crow like a cock, and +as he lay on the ground he thought of the only way to +save himself, and crowed. This had such an effect on +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">[105]</span>his comrades that they rallied, charged again, and saved +him.</p> + +<p>The Russians are extremely proud of the name “Ruski,” +or Russian, and feel the same patriotic pride in it as we +do in the term “British.” Perhaps it may not be out of +place here to give the origin of this name, out of the +Chronicles of old Nestor,⁠<a id="FNanchor_106" href="#Footnote_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a> who wrote about 200 years +after its first application. He says, “We know that the +Russian language and the Slavonic language are the +same, and this name of ‘Russian’ was given us by the +Varangians (the Normans), and that before that time we +were known under the name of Slaves, and the Polanians +(Poles), who were also among the Slaves, had no other +language. The name of Polanians was given them from +the fields they cultivated, and because they inhabited the +plain, but they were of Slave origin, and had no other +language but the Slavon.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_107" href="#Footnote_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a></p> + +<p>The greatest part of the army is raised in Russia by +conscription, a system which was introduced among the +other nations of the continent of Europe by the French +at the time of the Revolution, but which has existed in +Russia since the time of Peter the Great.</p> + +<p>The conscription is conducted in the following manner. +A certain number per cent. of all persons who are +not noble is demanded, and the number taken each second +year, in time of peace, is generally about five in a +thousand, or one-half per cent. Families which have +only one male member, orphans, and fathers of a family +of more than three children, are exempted, and the +state leaves the choice of the conscripts to the lords, +who generally take this opportunity of getting rid of +troublesome characters. Formerly there were dreadful +scenes when the conscripts were taken, and they frequently +ran away, and were hunted through the woods +like wild beasts; but of late years the condition of the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">[106]</span>soldier has been improved, and the dread of the service +is not so great as in former times. The separation of +the conscript from his family is still a heart-rending +spectacle, for he may be marched to any part of the +enormous empire, and his chance of seeing them again is +but small.</p> + +<p>Formerly one-half of the recruits died from neglect +within a short time of their joining, and, although ameliorations +have been introduced, it is still asserted that +one-third fall victims.⁠<a id="FNanchor_108" href="#Footnote_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a> How much the service is still +disliked may be judged of by the fact that in so poor a +country as Russia a substitute in time of peace cannot be +obtained under 100<i>l.</i>,⁠<a id="FNanchor_109" href="#Footnote_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a> and he is never a Russian, but +generally a Finn or a Pole.</p> + +<p>Formerly the conscripts were always chained like malefactors, +and one-half of their heads was at once shaven, +that they might be recognised. This is not now the +case, but the beard, the great glory of the Russian peasant, +is still shorn off.</p> + +<p>It must not be forgotten that the army in Russia +answers the purpose of a penitentiary system, that all +malefactors under the age of thirty are condemned to it +as a regular sentence, and that it is viewed by the people +very much as transportation is with us.</p> + +<p>As soon as the conscript joins the army his lord loses +all power over him; all his children born after he +enters the service belong to the state, and the males +are trained in Government establishments, to become +soldiers. If a wife does not follow her husband, and has +no news of him for either three or five years, she may +marry again.</p> + +<p>The state encourages marriage among the soldiers, +because their children enable it to fill the ranks of the +army, and the wives and children of the soldiers of +Georgia, Siberia, and the military colonies, follow the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">[107]</span>troops, and receive certain allowances from the Government. +In other corps the families are often left behind, +but in every case the rule is rigidly adhered to, +that the children of every soldier’s wife, no matter how +long he has been absent, unless she has married again, +are the property of the Emperor. There are no less than +360,000 of these widows in the country. The children are +brought up in special establishments, entirely at the expense +of the Government.</p> + +<p>In 1842 there were 36,000 of them who were formed +into a little army, divided into twenty-five battalions of +infantry, twenty squadrons of cavalry, and five batteries +with wooden cannon. When they grow up they fill the +subordinate situations in the army, such as sergeants, +musicians, assistant-surgeons, and a very useful body of +men called the topographers. The separation from home, +however, greatly injures their moral character, and the +Cantonists, as they are called, very often turn out ill.</p> + +<p>The late Emperor made great efforts to improve the +condition of the common soldier in Russia, although it +is very doubtful whether he succeeded in doing so. One +great boon, however, granted by him, which has really +bettered the condition of the soldier, is the diminution +of his time of active service, or the introduction of the +system of “indefinite leave,” which will be presently +explained.</p> + +<p>There are rules against the too frequent infliction of +punishment, and the most stringent regulations to secure +to the soldier his fair rations; but every officer still inflicts +what punishment he pleases, and nothing is more +common than for every officer and even every foreigner +to send their servant with a little note to the police-master +of the town, requesting him to administer so +many lashes. The officers also, in drilling the men, frequently +strike them in the face with their fist, and over +the body with a stick. Women, also, are constantly +whipped on their bare bodies at the police stations in +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">[108]</span>certain parts of the empire, and as custom is stronger +than law, it has hitherto been found impossible to prevent +these hateful abuses.</p> + +<p>The soldier lives well as long as he is in cantonments, +which is the case with a large portion of the Russian +army, for then he lives upon the peasants, and is a great +charge upon them. He lives badly when he is in barracks, +because he seldom gets the food to which he is +entitled. He ought to have nearly as much food as the +English soldier, according to M. Haxthausen, but I +think there are few people who will say that in the great +majority of instances he ever gets it. He lives in a kind +of mess, and his rations are paid once or twice a month +to those who manage the mess, which is called the +“artel,” of which there is one or more to each company, +and the managers are non-commissioned officers and +privates, chosen among themselves. This artel is a fund +to which all contribute something out of their savings, +to improve their food; and when their time of service is +over, they have a right to a certain portion of the balance +which remains. A proportion of all they earn by +their labour goes to the artel, and the Government recognises +its existence, and by a recent law its funds are +divided into two distinct parts,—one for the mess, and the +other to pay back a certain sum to each man on his +retiring from active service, so that it thus answers the +purpose of a kind of savings-bank.</p> + +<p>In the Caucasus, Prince Woronzof very much improved +the condition of the Russian soldier; and no less +than twenty-four field officers were brought to courts-martial, +principally about the soldier’s food, during his +first year of office; but I fear that in the interior of +Russia things remain in much the same state as formerly.</p> + +<p>The Russian soldier has been called by high Russian +military authorities the most miserable being in existence; +and certainly a decided difference is apparent between +the sallow, dejected soldier, and the bluff, hearty, well-fed, +off-hand Russian peasant.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">[109]</span></p> + +<p>Soldiers are always employed as labourers by independent +persons, and soldiers’ labour is to be had in the +market of all towns. The merchants at Odessa always +pay soldiers, even as porters, about 25 per cent. below +other labourers, because they are not so strong. In +Odessa, the common pay of a labourer is forty copecks +silver, or about eighteen pence a-day, and a soldier is +highly paid at a shilling. In harvest-time a good labourer +near Odessa gets as much as seven shillings a-day.</p> + +<p>The time of service is still twenty-two years for the +Guards; twenty-five years for the other troops; and +twenty years for conscripts of the military colonies.</p> + +<p>Between 1833 and 1840 was introduced the system +mentioned before, by which every man has the right to +what is called “indefinite leave,” after ten or fifteen years’ +service, according to the part of the empire from which he +happens to come. During the rest of his time of service +he is always liable to be called upon, in the case of war, to +form part of one of the two armies of reserve, or to assist +at some of the grand reviews that periodically take place. +In the latter case a great injury is inflicted upon him; +for he is sometimes marched two thousand miles for a +mere parade, and of course, if he is a tradesman engaged +in business, his interests suffer very severely.</p> + +<p>The system of indefinite leave is said to answer admirably. +The poor soldiers may perhaps see their homes +again after ten years, though they never could hope to +survive twenty-five years’ service; and since this measure +has been adopted, the health of the army, which is in +this case equivalent to its happiness, has much improved.</p> + +<p>The empire is now divided into two parts, east and +west, for purposes of the conscription, and regularly each +division can only be called upon for recruits once in +two years, although this rule, as all rules in Russia, +has often been disregarded. The following is the amount +per cent. which has been levied in ten years, from 1840 +to 1850:—</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">[110]</span></p> + +<table> + <tr> + <td><p class="hanging">1840. Both divisions</p></td> + <td class="tdr vb">5 per 1000</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><p class="hanging">Then till 1848, eight years, the regular + quota of each division of 5 per 1000 every other year, or 2½ per + 1000 per annum on both divisions</p></td> + <td class="tdr vb">20 per 1000</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><p class="hanging">1849. On account of the movements of + troops in 1848-49, and the expeditions in Hungary, Wallachia, + and Transylvania</p></td> + <td class="tdr vb">12 per 1000<br><span class="nw">on both divisions</span> + was levied</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">Total</td> + <td class="tdr total vb">37 per 1000</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>Thus a total of 37 per 1000, or upwards of 3½ per cent. +of the able-bodied male population, were taken for the +military service in ten years. Taking the male population +of Russia, subject to conscription, at twenty millions, +this would make 700,000 able-bodied men who +were drafted into the army in the ten years from 1840 +to 1850; but the army in 1840 already consisted of at +least 700,000 men, which, added to the number of the +recruits, would give 1,400,000 men devoted to the +military service during that period, and, as the army +in 1850 was certainly not above 800,000, there would +remain 600,000 men to be accounted for.</p> + +<p>It is not too much to suppose that in 1850-51 and 52, +the ordinary number of 2½ per 1000 (7½ per 1000 for +the three years), was levied. In 1853, in the Turkish +campaign, the losses were probably as great as in the +Hungarian, and the army had to be augmented. In +1854 we know that great efforts have been made, +and therefore, in these two years, it is fair to suppose +that 12 per 1000 were levied each year. This would +make, in the five years since 1850, a levy of 31½ per 1000, +or upwards of 3 per cent. on twenty millions, about +700,000 men. But the levy in the last year (1854) has +certainly been more than 12 per 1000, for, besides the +regular recruits, waggons, with men to attend upon them, +have been pressed, and the waggoners have been required +by the Government to be of a certain standard and able-bodied, +and when they are at a distance from home they +have been obliged to serve as soldiers. Including these +peasants, and supposing the conscription in 1854 to have +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">[111]</span>required a number above the 12 per 1000 which has +been allowed for it, we may perhaps add another 200,000 +men as the result of the great efforts that have been +made to get conscripts up to the 1st of January, 1855.</p> + +<p>Then in the last fifteen years there will be a total of—</p> + +<table> + <tr> + <th></th> + <th>Men.</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Regular army, 1840</td> + <td class="tdr">700,000</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Ten years conscripts, 1840-50</td> + <td class="tdr">700,000</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Five years conscripts, 1850-54</td> + <td class="tdr">600,000</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Additional for extra conscription in 1854</td> + <td class="tdr">200,000</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">A grand total of</td> + <td class="tdr total">2,200,000</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="noindent">—men who have passed through the Russian service since +1840, and who are represented now, by the very highest +calculation, that of M. Tegoborski, by from 800,000 +to 900,000 men, which he says was the number upon +which the military budget was calculated in the year +1854. Consequently 1,350,000 men have disappeared +through the agency of the Russian army since 1840.</p> + +<p>This enormous sacrifice of men to the military system +is very severely felt, and must have gone far to neutralize +any increase of the population of late years. Haxthausen +says, “These oukases for levying the conscriptions always +spread mourning and consternation. The nobility suffers +great losses. The Scheremeteff, the Demidoff, and the +Orloffs, are often obliged to furnish several hundred +recruits. Families lose their best workmen, and their +fathers and their brothers; for the number of bad characters, +who possess the physical qualities necessary to +enter the service, is not enough to realize the number +of troops demanded by the Emperor.”</p> + +<p>Now as to the expense of the Russian soldier to the +state. It will be seen from the following passage that +M. Tegoborski, the mouthpiece of the Russian Government +on statistical subjects, estimates it at a very low +figure. He says, “the military budget of Russia for +1854, for an effective of from 800,000 to 900,000 men, was +estimated at 84,200,000 silver roubles, and that of the +navy at 14,400,000 silver roubles, or nearly 16,000,000<i>l.</i> +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">[112]</span>altogether, which would give an average of 100 roubles +or 16<i>l.</i> per head per annum, for the maintenance of the +troops. Admitting that the effective of the army was +carried to 1,250,000 men in the year 1855, which would +suppose an augmentation of 450,000 men, or 50 per cent., +and adding to the military budget of 84,200,000 silver +roubles, in a round sum 50,000,000 silver roubles, or +8,000,000<i>l.</i>, the whole military budget of Russia for the +year 1855 would then only amount to about 24,000,000<i>l.</i>”</p> + +<p>In calculating the means of Russia to pay this sum, +we do not know the exact amount of the Russian revenue +beyond the year 1853, when, according to M. Tegoborski, +it amounted to 37,384,660<i>l.</i> But the Russian revenue +in the year 1839, which is the only other year he gives, +is stated to have been upwards of one-third less, so that +in the last fifteen years there is stated to have been the +enormous increase of 36 per cent. without the levying of +any new taxes. As the accounts of the Russian revenue +are not published, we cannot place implicit reliance on a +mere statement of results by an interested party. But +we all know that estimates are generally much below the +real expense, and it is probable that the military budget, +considering the enormous expenses of the transport of +stores and materials, and the movement of troops, and +the losses which have been sustained, must be nearly +the double of M. Tegoborski’s calculation, or, let us say +at least 40,000,000<i>l.</i> instead of 24,000,000<i>l.</i> On the +other hand, considering the great injury to the peasants +from the increased number of recruits and their own +forced services for transport, and an acknowledged diminution +of 20 per cent. in the exports and imports, which +will be much greater next year if an efficient blockade be +kept up, shall we be wrong in considering the Russian +realized revenue of 1854 as very much below that of 1853?</p> + +<p>M. Tegoborski calculates the diminution of the revenue +in 1854 at about 2,000,000<i>l.</i> from the falling off of the +customs duties alone. It is probable, therefore, that the +revenue of the country, during the past year, will not have +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">[113]</span>even sufficed by several millions to pay the expenses of the +army and navy alone, while, besides these expenses, there +is the interest of the debt and the expenditure of the +civil government to be met, which is reckoned at +about 8,000,000<i>l.</i> Thus it may be fairly supposed +that Russia will want at least 48,000,000<i>l.</i> to cover the +expenses of the year 1854, which is eleven millions more +than the total amount of her revenue during the last +year of peace, 1853. Her credit in Europe⁠<a id="FNanchor_110" href="#Footnote_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a> is indeed +pretty good, but it is notorious that she depends +upon foreign capital for the cultivation of her soil. The +precious metals have almost disappeared from the empire: +paper alone is seen there; and if we press her hard +during the next six months she must be reduced to very +great straits.</p> + +<p>Although the Russian soldier has a hard life of it as a +private, yet if he rises to be a non-commissioned officer, +he then, after twelve years’ service, becomes ennobled, and +receives his commission, or retires with a pension. Thus +a considerable number of the officers of the Russian +army have risen from the ranks, and all who obtain +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">[114]</span>commissions are obliged to serve as non-commissioned +officers for a certain period. Formerly the length of time +was six months, but it has lately been extended to +two years, so that I suppose the system is found to +answer.</p> + +<p>None are exempted from this condition except those +who have gone through the military schools, in which +they are allowed to pass their probation as non-commissioned +officers, and then enter the army as officers. +An officer in his probationary state is called a “younker,” +and he wears the drab greatcoat, and regularly performs +the duties of a sergeant. His only privilege is to have his +dress of finer materials than that of the common men,—if +he chooses to pay for it. Off duty he lives among his +equals, and is often seen in his soldier’s coat at the table +of generals. Thus the system of promotion in the army, +and indeed the whole feelings of the Russian people, are +far less aristocratic than among ourselves.</p> + +<p>The common soldiers in Russia are also frequently +decorated with the medal which is by far the most prized, +even by the highest ranks of officers, namely, the Soldier’s +Cross of St. George. This is the one given only for +distinguished bravery, and it is very much sought after. +A certain number of these crosses are distributed after +every remarkable achievement. It is given not only +after great battles, but whenever any man has performed +a signal act of valour.</p> + +<p>The cross is simply of lead, while other crosses are of +more precious material, and it is alike for soldiers and +officers. The Grand Cross of St. George is given for +having taken the capital of an enemy, or having +fought a battle which has decided the fate of an empire. +The late Emperor himself wore only the Soldier’s Cross +of St. George, which he gained under fire in the Turkish +war. There were only two Grand Crosses in existence a +few years ago, one of which was worn by our own Duke +of Wellington, and the other by Marshal Paskiévitch, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">[115]</span>who received his for the taking of Arzeroom, which was +considered as the capital of Armenia.⁠<a id="FNanchor_111" href="#Footnote_111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a></p> + +<p>The order of St. George is universally regarded in +Russia with the same pride and respect as the orders of +“the Iron Cross,” that of “Maria Theresa,” and that +“of Merit” are in other European countries.</p> + +<p>Since the last few years also there exists in Russia an +imitation of the distinction accorded to Latour d’Auvergne, +that of being “le premier grenadier de France.” Archippus +Ossipof, in 1840, blew up the fort Michailof, +and himself in it, to prevent its being taken by the Circassians; +and his name is still kept on the lists as the +first grenadier of the first company of the infantry regiment +of Tenginsk. When his name is called, the second +soldier always answers, “Dead for the honour of the +Russian arms in the fort Michailof.”</p> + +<p>There also exist in Russia orders and medals of honour +conferred upon regiments, which recall the epoch of their +creation, the names of their founders, and their famous +actions. These formerly existed in the French and all +the German armies, but are now only found in the +Austrian and English armies, and a few Prussian regiments. +In Russia the regiments have continued to exist +since Peter the Great, and keep up by outward signs the +remembrance of their services. The Preobrajenski guards, +the few companies which Peter undertook to drill ostensibly +for his amusement, and which became the nucleus +of the whole Russian army, still wear the original +helmets of his time; and it is a glory among the men to +have those that are the most pierced by bullets and +battered by sabre-cuts.</p> + +<p>The regiment of Tchérnigof obtained the privilege of +alone wearing red-stockings (probably gaiters to the knee, +which were then worn all over Europe), because at the +battle of Pultava they marched in blood up to their knees.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">[116]</span></p> + +<p>The regiment of Novogínsk is allowed to carry the +standard of St. George since the battle of the Trebbia +and the passage of the Alps under Suvórof, in 1799; +and this regiment possesses silver trumpets, given to it in +consequence of the passage of the Gulf of Bothnia upon +the ice, under Bagration in 1807. The Russians have +also copied the system of giving their generals titles +commemorative of the victories they have gained in +foreign countries. Thus in ancient Rome there was +Scipio Africanus; in modern France there are a host of +titles of the time of the Empire, of which Soult, Duke of +Dalmatia, and Ney, Prince of the Moskowa, are examples; +and in our own country, the title of Lord Mahon +perpetuates the victories of Lord Peterborough, and the +Duke of Wellington was made Marquis of Douro, and +Lord Kean Baron of Ghuzni. The Russians keep more +strictly to the Roman style in their titles of honour, and +thus we find a Suvórof Italínski, a Diébitch Sabalkánski, +and a Paskiévitch Erivánski.</p> + +<p>The dress of the Russian soldier consists of a dark-green +coatee, which he very seldom wears, except on +parade; a drab greatcoat, which is his constant dress; +two pairs of trousers, one for summer and one for winter; +a cravat; three shirts; three pairs of boots, and a cap. +The whole of these articles cost the Government about +2<i>l.</i>, with 1<i>l.</i> 3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> each year for renewal, and they remain +the property of the soldier.</p> + +<p>It will be observed that no stockings are mentioned, +as no soldiers wear them; and many officers cannot +afford such luxuries, and only wear bandages wrapped +round the legs, something like the piferari in Italy.</p> + +<p>All articles of clothing are made up by workmen in +each battalion, and these amount to fifty men, who are +constantly employed, and consequently by this system +the effective force of the army is considerably reduced.</p> + +<p>Many classifications may be made of the Russian +army, as into,—1st, regular and irregular troops; 2nd, +grand army, always ready for offensive operations, and +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">[117]</span>troops employed on local services; 3rd, the active army +and the reserve, although all the reserves are on active +service at the present moment; 4th, according to the +system of numbering from each regiment upwards; or, +5th, according to its division into—first, corps or regular +armies, each composed of a certain proportion of infantry, +cavalry, and artillery;—second, battalions not +formed into regiments;—and, third, irregular cavalry +and militia.</p> + +<p>This is the classification which I will now follow—1st, +then, as to the regular corps, there is:—</p> + +<p>1. The corps of Guards, consisting of 38,000 infantry, +with 60 squadrons of regular and 17½ of irregular cavalry, +one division of mounted engineers, and 116 pieces of +artillery. The station of this corps is at Petersburg in +time of peace; but it has recently been moved into +Poland.</p> + +<p>2. The corps of Grenadiers, likewise consisting of +38,000 infantry, but only 32 squadrons of cavalry, and +88 pieces of artillery. Their station is at Novgorod, +ninety miles from Petersburg, where they still remain.</p> + +<p>3-8. Six corps of infantry, as they are called, although +they are complete armies like the two that have been +named. They form the bulk of the Russian army, and +have each 50,000 infantry, 32 squadrons of cavalry, and +112 pieces of artillery; making a total for the six corps +of 300,000 infantry; 192 squadrons of lancers and huzzars, +and 672 pieces of artillery.</p> + +<p>The following are the stations of these six corps, which +are echelloned in a semicircle round the frontiers of the +Russian Empire, beginning with the Baltic Provinces, +then passing through Poland and Bessarabia, and along +the shores of the Black Sea and the Azof, and upwards +to Moscow, where the 6th corps is stationed.</p> + +<p>The first four corps form the Grand Army under +Prince Paskiévitch, whose head-quarters are at Warsaw, +and who is also Viceroy of Poland. The regular +station of the first corps of infantry is in the Baltic Provinces, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">[118]</span>where it generally remains more stationary than +the next three corps. It has now recently been moved +to Grodno and Bialostok, in Lithuania, and has been ordered +to advance into the kingdom of Poland. It is +commanded by General Sievers, a German, of Livonia.</p> + +<p>The next three corps, the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th, are regularly +stationed in the kingdom of Poland, and revolve +in a certain circle of cantonments, being never allowed, +for obvious reasons, to remain more than three years in +the same place.</p> + +<p>The 2nd corps has now been removed to replace +the third corps on the Dniestr and the Pruth, and is +commanded by General Paniútin, a Russian.</p> + +<p>The 3rd corps has its usual head-quarters at Kremenetz +in Wolhynia, and has now been moved to the +Crimea. The arrival of one of its divisions, the eighth +in the general system of the army, at Baktchéserai, was +announced in our papers about the 20th of January, +when it was addressed by Prince Gortchakoff. This +corps is commanded by General Riad, who has served in +the Caucasus.</p> + +<p>The 4th corps has been moved to the Crimea, and was +commanded by General Dannenberg, who was deprived +of it in consequence of losing the battle of Inkerman, +on November 5th, 1854, and he has been succeeded by +General Osten Sacken, who before that time had all the +recruiting of New Russia under his care. Both these +generals are Germans.</p> + +<p>The regular station of the 5th corps is in New Russia, +and its head-quarters are at Odessa. One division is +usually kept in the Crimea, one on the Dniepr and Dniestr, +and one in Bessarabia. Its cavalry station is on the Boug, +at Nemírgorod and other places. Its artillery station is +at Tyraspol on the Dniestr, which is one of the great +arsenals of Russia. It was borrowed to reinforce the +army of Caucasus in 1843, and returned in 1846. One +division of it was again sent there in 1854, and it has +been commanded since about 1840 by General Luders, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">[119]</span>a German. He replaced General Mouravióf, a man of +considerable ability, who was then disgraced, but has +been recently restored to favour, and is now governor-general +of the Caucasus. Since this war began, many +able men, obnoxious on account of their liberal opinions, +or from other causes, have been restored to favour and +employed, no doubt because there is felt in the present +crisis a great scarcity of men fitted to fill high appointments. +We, on the contrary, have an “<i>embarras de +richesses</i>” of good men, but our government, unlike that +of Russia, unfortunately appears to have allowed private +considerations and official routine to stand too much in +the way of their appointment. The whole of the 5th +corps has now been moved into the Crimea.</p> + +<p>The 6th corps is regularly stationed at Moscow in +time of peace, but it has now been moved to the south. +Of its three divisions, Nos. 16 and 17 are in the Crimea, +and No. 18 in the Caucasus. It is nominally commanded +by Prince Gortchakoff the Third (tretiey), as he is called +in Russia, but the real active commander is General +Tchlodaieff, an officer of great ability. Such have been +the locations and “dislocations” of the six corps of +infantry.</p> + +<p>9thly and 10thly, in the general list of corps, come +the two reserve corps of cavalry. The first of these +consists of 80 squadrons and 48 pieces of artillery. Its +regular station is at Nemírgorod, on the Boug, and +it has been moved to the seat of war. The second +corps of cavalry of reserve consists of 82 squadrons, and +a division of light cavalry of reserve of 24 squadrons, +or altogether, 108 squadrons, and 72 pieces of artillery.⁠<a id="FNanchor_112" href="#Footnote_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a> +This is the corps of the dragoons, or soldiers intended to +act either as infantry or cavalry, according to the ideas +of those who first invented the Dragoon. This notion +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">[120]</span>of having the same soldier fit for both services was given +up in Europe after the wars of Napoleon, but revived +by the Emperor of Russia, with whom it is a favourite +notion. It is, however, generally disapproved of by +Russian officers, who do not consider that the men gain +in efficiency by having to perform double duties. The +station of the second cavalry reserve corps is at +Kharkof.</p> + +<p>11thly, The corps of the Caucasus, which a few years +ago consisted altogether of a very mixed army of 170,000 +men, so scattered over the country, that 20,000 men +could with difficulty be got together.</p> + +<p>Besides these eleven regular corps, which are most of +them complete armies, there are also in Russia a large +body of regular infantry for the internal service of the +country, which is supplied with the necessary complement +of cavalry and artillery by the Cossacks. This +force of infantry amounts altogether to 200,000 men, +and is divided into separate battalions, called “battalions +of the line,” and not into regiments.</p> + +<p>These troops are used as garrisons for fortresses and +towns; they are placed in some turbulent countries on the +frontiers of the empire, and are employed in various ways +in the civil and military administration. Fifty of them +are “the garrison battalions,” and together form what is +called “the guard of the interior,” separated into ten +districts, and the capital of each government in European +Russia has generally one and sometimes two of these +battalions. They count among their ranks many veterans, +and are generally cantoned in open towns, as their +health is then better and the expense of their maintenance +less. In Siberia two battalions and a half form the +interior guard of the country.</p> + +<p>Besides the garrison battalions there are 84 battalions +of the line, disposed in various groups:—47 are placed +in the Caucasus, and have already been counted; 12 are +Finnish, and form the 22nd division of infantry, whose +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">[121]</span>station is in Finland; 10 belong to Orenbourg, and +compose the 23rd division of infantry; 15 are Siberian +battalions, who have also some artillery (12 pieces), and +are stationed in Siberia.</p> + +<p>There are besides these the corps of veterans and +invalids, and the corps of military workmen, as follows:—</p> + +<p>(1.) 552 companies of veterans of infantry, of about +40 men each, who do duty in district towns, the imperial +palaces, and other places, = 22,080 men.</p> + +<p>(2.) 138 companies of invalids, of about 100 men +each, occupied with the same duties, = 13,800 men.</p> + +<p>(3.) 115 companies of veterans and artillery workmen, +of 150 to 200 men each, for the service of the artillery of +the fortresses, the workshops of the artillery, and the +manufactories of guns, powder, &c. = say 20,000 men.</p> + +<p>(4.) 105 companies of veterans, workmen, and soldiers +belonging to the corps of engineers, likewise of 150 to +200 men each, and = say 20,000 men.</p> + +<p>There is besides a corps of police, amounting to 3000 +men, scattered over all the towns of the empire. The +Cossacks also partly perform the duties of the police +in the towns, and in the country there is no police +at all.</p> + +<p>Thus the corps of veterans and invalids equal altogether—</p> + +<table> + <tr> + <th></th> + <th>Men.</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Infantry veterans</td> + <td class="tdr">22,080</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Ditto</td> + <td class="tdr">13,800</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Veteran workmen of artillery, &c.</td> + <td class="tdr">40,000</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">Total</td> + <td class="tdr total">75,880</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2"><p class="noindent">Add to these—</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Fifty-two battalions and a half of the interior guard</td> + <td class="tdr">52,500</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Eighty-four battalions of the line</td> + <td class="tdr">84,000</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">Total of local regular troops</td> + <td class="tdr total">212,380</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>Haxthausen, adding in the regular troops of the corps +of the Caucasus, makes the local regular troops = 299,800 +men, and adding further the reserves of the battalions of +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">[122]</span>the line, upwards of 15,000 men, makes a grand total for +the local regular troops of 315,000 men.</p> + +<p>The total of the “troupes mobiles,” or aggressive army, +being 699,000 men, it follows that in the present military +organization of Russia, in ordinary times of peace, she +can furnish upwards of a million of regular troops.</p> + +<p>The irregular troops of the Russian army are also very +numerous, and mostly consist of light cavalry. By far +the most important of these are the Cossacks, who are +mostly of Russian extraction.</p> + +<p>There are, however, besides the Cossacks, irregular +troops taken from every tribe or nation which Russia has +conquered, and this system is followed, not so much +because of the value of their services, as to teach them to +expend their military energies in her service, and by +accustoming them to good pay and the luxuries of civilized +life, to wean their affections from their own people.</p> + +<p>There is a regular line of Cossacks all the way from the +banks of the Danube along the north of the Caspian, and +all through Tatary and Mongolia, to the extreme verge +of eastern Asia at Kamstchatka.</p> + +<p>Along a part of this line, from the Caspian to Kamstchatka, +there is also a chain of tribes, the rightful possessors +of the country, allied together, beginning with +the Kirgúiz, and ending with the pacific population of +Kamstchatka. The Cossacks prevent the Kirgúiz from +levying a tribute on the Russian merchants and colonists, +and force the Kamstchatkans to pay their tribute to the +Russian government.</p> + +<p>The following is an enumeration from M. Haxthausen’s +work of the force which the Cossacks, according to their +constitution and ordinances, are bound to furnish, if a levy +of the whole of them were made. In case of urgency, +they would be able to bring into the field at least one-fourth +more of practised warriors, especially if the State +assisted them in their equipment.</p> + +<p>At the same time, it must not be forgotten that the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">[123]</span>Cossacks are occupied in the labours of agriculture, and +the abstraction of so large a proportion of them as took +place of late years in time of peace has been a material +injury to their interests.⁠<a id="FNanchor_113" href="#Footnote_113" class="fnanchor">[113]</a> If so large a number were +taken as M. Haxthausen supposes, the tillage of the fields +could hardly be effected.</p> + +<p>1. The Cossacks of the Don can put on foot 58 regiments +of cavalry, of which two belong to the Guard, and +14 batteries of horse artillery. Each regiment is composed +of 6 sotni⁠<a id="FNanchor_114" href="#Footnote_114" class="fnanchor">[114]</a> or centuries; total = 348 sotni and +112 guns.</p> + +<p>2. The Cossacks of the western side of the Sea of +Azof. These are the best sailors of the south of Russia. +They possess 30 gun-boats, and in time of peace are +exclusively occupied in blockading the coasts of Circassia. +They belong properly to the navy.</p> + +<p>3. The Cossacks of the Danube. They can put on +foot 2 regiments of cavalry. Each regiment is composed +of 6 sotni, and numbers 870 men.</p> + +<p>4. The Cossacks of the Black Sea, or the Tchernomorski +Cossacks, who are the ancient Zaporogues of the +Dniepr. These can furnish 12 regiments of cavalry, +1 division (2 sotni) of Cossacks of the Guard, 9 battalions +of riflemen, 3 batteries of horse artillery, and 1 of foot +artillery.</p> + +<p>Each regiment has about 6 sotni, and therefore their +total would be 9 battalions, 74 sotni of cavalry, and +32 guns.</p> + +<p>5. The Cossacks of the Line, or of the Caucasus: 18 +regiments of cavalry, and 3 batteries of horse artillery.</p> + +<p>According to the ordinance of 1845, they were to be +raised to 20 regiments of cavalry, and of 884 men each; +and, in addition, they were to furnish an escort for the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">[124]</span>Emperor at Petersburg, and one division (I suppose 2 +sotni) for the active Polish army.</p> + +<p>Counting upon the old state of things before 1845, the +total was 108 sotni and 24 guns.</p> + +<p>6. The Cossacks of the Ural Mountains: 12 regiments +of cavalry, of 5 sotni each, making altogether 60 sotni.</p> + +<p>7. The Cossacks of Orenbourg: 10 regiments of cavalry, +of 6 sotni each, and 3 batteries of horse artillery; +total 60 sotni and 24 guns.</p> + +<p>8. The Cossacks of the Line of Siberia, who must not +be confounded with the Cossacks of the towns in that +country: 9 regiments of cavalry, and 3 batteries of horse +artillery; total 54 (?) sotni and 24 guns.</p> + +<p>9. The Cossacks of the frontiers of China: 8 sotni.</p> + +<p>10. The Cossacks of Astrakhan: 3 regiments of cavalry, +and 1 battery of horse artillery; 18 sotni and 8 +guns.</p> + +<p>11. The town Cossacks of Siberia: 8 regiments of +infantry (? battalions).</p> + +<p>The number of the Cossack infantry is very uncertain, +because the force of the Siberian battalions is unknown.</p> + +<p>The most important question for Europe to inquire is, +as to how many of these Cossacks are available during +a European war like the present? On this point the +following calculation must of course be only approximative.</p> + +<p>1. If Russia continues the war of the Caucasus on its +present footing.—In this case the Cossacks of the Don, +9 or 10 regiments of which are ordinarily employed in +the Caucasus, would only offer of—</p> + +<table> + <tr> + <td>Disposable troops</td> + <td class="tdr">38,000</td> + <td>cavalry</td> + <td class="tdr">100</td> + <td>pieces of artillery.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Cossacks of Danube</td> + <td class="tdr">1,700</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Cossacks of Ural</td> + <td class="tdr">5,000</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Cossacks of Orenbourg</td> + <td class="tdr">5,000</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdr">10</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">Total</td> + <td class="tdr total">49,700</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdr total">110</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>2. If Russia restricted herself to a purely defensive +war in the Caucasus, and abandoned her more advanced +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">[125]</span>posts, without leaving her frontiers undefended, there +might be added 2000 men of the Don, 2000 Tchernomorski +or Black Sea Cossacks, 4000 Cossacks of the Line; +altogether 10,000 additional men.</p> + +<p>The total force available would then be 60,000 cavalry +and 110 guns. In each of these cases 20,000 to 30,000 +cavalry of the new formation might be drawn from Siberia, +and directed successively to the theatre of war.</p> + +<p>There are, besides, a number of irregular troops not of +Russian origin, but organized after the manner of the +Cossacks; and although their military importance is not +great, I will enumerate them.</p> + +<p>Many of the tribes that will be mentioned have long +served under the Russian banner, as anciently the Gauls +served in the armies of Cæsar. Their motive has been +not attachment to the Russians, but fear of them. Long +habit and traditions of submission have much modified +their state of feeling, and has at last made these people +pretty faithful servants of the Russian government; as, +for example, the Bashkírs, who used formerly to have +constant sanguinary collisions with the Cossacks of the +Ural Mountains. <i>There are other tribes who now serve the +Russians, because they are forced to do so, and who would +willingly fight against them, if they had not a conviction of +their own inferiority.</i></p> + +<p>Other tribes would suffer the supremacy of Russia +pretty patiently, if that power was not so severe in making +them respect the rights of property, and if she did not +prevent their indulging their old habits of levying blackmail +on their neighbours, and the merchants and travellers +who pass through their territory.</p> + +<p>It is therefore evidently not from any great benefits to +be derived from their military organization, but in order +to watch them, that they are brought into close relations +with the Cossack troops charged with the defence of the +Russian authority in the countries inhabited by them.</p> + +<p>The following is a concise account of these nations:—</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">[126]</span></p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>(A.) The Tatars of Crimea. These feeble remains of +the ancient sovereigns of Southern Russia belong to that +horde whose Khans had formerly more than once penetrated +as far as the Oka, and never at the head of less +than 150,000 cavalry. They now furnish to the Imperial +Guard a squadron of fine irregular troops.</p> + +<p>(B.) The warlike tribes of the Caucasus and Trans-Caucasia. +They furnish to the Russian government +auxiliary troops for the wars in those countries. These +troops are very useful, although dependence cannot be +always placed on them; but for wars beyond their own +country, any number might be obtained by voluntary +enlistment. They furnish to the Russian army—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>1. A squadron of the guard forming the personal +escort of the Emperor, and constituting, with a squadron +of the Cossacks of the Line, “the Tcherkess Guards.”</p> + +<p>2. A regiment of 6 squadrons serving in the army +of Poland.</p> + +<p>3. An infantry regiment of Georgian militia to reinforce +the military cordon established against the Lesghins, +beyond the Alezan, a river of Kakhetia, in +Georgia. Total of these:—2 battalions and 7 squadrons.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>(C.) The Bashkírs and Metschériacks. They inhabit +in part as nomades Perm and Orenbourg, and belong to +the army of the Cossacks of Orenbourg. In 1813 many +of these served in Germany.</p> + +<p>(D.) The Buriates and the Toungouses:—5 regiments +of cavalry.</p> + +<p>They form part of the Cossack force on the Chinese +frontier.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>Russia might march forward a large portion of these +irregular troops, but they are yet so little civilized that +the Russian government does not like to bring them to +the West, because their want of discipline and obedience +in fighting would make them rather an impediment than +an advantage on the field of battle. They are, however, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">[127]</span>of some importance, as they might be used to replace the +best corps of Cossacks in the East and in the Caucasus, +while the latter were moved away to the West.</p> + +<p>The native cavalry of the Caucasus alone, on account +of their great courage and address, would offer a precious +auxiliary force to the Russian army in wars on her +western frontier, if they could be brought to fight under +her banner.⁠<a id="FNanchor_115" href="#Footnote_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a></p> + +<p>The regiments of irregular cavalry among the Russians +are principally intended to serve for a war of skirmishers. +Their chief business is to provide for the security of the +Russian army, and its means of communication, by protecting +the baggage and the convoys of prisoners. They +are also very useful in carrying orders, and forming relays +for correspondence; and, lastly, are of the greatest importance +in annoying the enemy with constant skirmishes.</p> + +<p>They show great skill and a liking for these various +duties, which are not only in perfect harmony with their +military habits, but which give them frequent opportunities +of plunder. It is said that during the years +1812-1814 they established themselves, privately, a +chain of Cossack posts, from the Seine to the Don, to +pass along their booty; and without some such plan it +is difficult to understand how during those campaigns +they could have sent so many precious objects home from +the West to offer to the image of “the Mother Mary,” or +“the beautiful Minka,” of the Don, as they called their +favourite image of the Virgin.</p> + +<p>In most armies the duties of providing for the safety +of the army are regulated in a very precise order, with +vigorous dispositions relative to the organization and +employment of patrols, guards of the camp, and piquets. +The Cossacks know none of these arrangements. They +surround on all sides the corps of troops which they are +told to protect, and by the delicacy of their senses, and +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">[128]</span>their instinctive quickness, it is possible for the Russian +regular troops to give themselves up to a more complete +security than any Western armies provided with the most +intelligent officers and sergeants. Suvórof called the +Cossacks “the eye of the army;” and he might have +said that they were also its ears and its antennæ.</p> + +<p>The irregular troops are of the more utility in the +Russian army, because the regular corps do not show +much aptitude for the minor duties of the military service. +There is therefore in the Russian army the most +rigorous division of labour that was ever seen in any +army; to the regular troops are allotted the labours +of war, and to the irregular troops those of general surveillance. +The Cossack has no equal for surprises and +skirmishes. No cavalry in Europe could make such +marches as they constantly perform, without ruining +their horses. In Europe they often carried with them a +pack-horse; but even without this they performed incredible +feats, and fifty miles is with them an ordinary +day’s journey. Of the 3500 men of regular troops who +were sent on the expedition to Khiva in 1840, only 1000 +returned. Of 1200 Cossacks who made part of that same +expedition only 60 perished; and of 2000 or 3000 +Kirgúiz who accompanied it the loss was still less. If +on the one hand this was the result of their familiarity +with the steppes and the climate of these countries, on +the other hand it was partly owing to their fitness for +making forced marches.</p> + +<p>The Cossack, who is generally a strong man, appears +to be too heavy for his horse, but this is not really the +case. The Cossack horse is a wonderful animal to endure +fatigue. He has a good head, a ewe neck, a large arm, +short legs, broad chest, and a sound hoof. His back often +seems too long; but it is said⁠<a id="FNanchor_116" href="#Footnote_116" class="fnanchor">[116]</a> that he is often found +with two ribs more than ordinary horses. In winter he +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">[129]</span>seeks his pasture in the snows of the steppes, and thus +learns to be very hardy; and he can do an immense deal +of work when he is fed on oaten bread or barley, wheat, +straw, or good or bad hay, all of which he will eat. He +is very active in climbing mountains, and swimming rivers. +At Marshal Munich’s assault on the lines of Perecop the +Cossacks arrived at the top of the rampart as soon as +the first men of the infantry. The Cossack horse is accustomed +to eat at all hours of the day; and his master continually +feeds him whenever he has an opportunity. If he +stops but for a moment, even under the fire of cannon in +time of war, the Cossack always feeds his horse with something; +and the horse never refuses any food, either on +account of its bad quality or the time at which it is given. +“He alone” (I use the words of Haxthausen) “who +has had the pain to see his fine and faithful horse refuse +his oats after the fatigue of a battle; he who has counted +with anguish the minutes in time of war which have been +allowed him to feed his horse, and which have passed without +the horse being able to eat; he who has seen his beautiful +steed, accustomed to delicate food, become day by day more +thin and feeble from bad nourishment and forced marches, +such a soldier can alone understand how precious in the Cossack +horse are his strong stomach and power of endurance.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_117" href="#Footnote_117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a></p> + +<p>The Cossacks now have trumpets, and under the cover +of cannon spread themselves out like a swarm, dashing +upon the enemy when any one of their number, and not +their officer only, sees a favourable opportunity and gives +the signal. They dislike to face fire-arms, because, M. +Haxthausen says, they only come out to fight for plunder, +but sometimes they will do a daring exploit in hope of a +cross, as they are very vain, and love decorations even +more than the Russians. Their superstition is remarkable; +they believe in all sorts of auguries; which, although +also the case with the Russian soldier, in him is neutralized +by military discipline. The Cossacks, fighting +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">[130]</span>singly, have no esprit-de-corps to counteract their natural +feelings, and the crossing of a hare with them may +lose an engagement. The meeting of a priest is also +considered very unlucky.</p> + +<p>To sum up: it may be said that at present, with +regard at least to the Cossacks of the Don, the horse is +better than his master. They were of great use in the +wars of Napoleon, when they were still a frontier people, +continually exercised in war at home, and possessed of a +democratic constitution, which allowed only merit to raise +its head.</p> + +<p>Since that time the advance of the Russian frontiers to +the South has given the Cossacks internal peace and +security, and their old constitution has been either taken +away or made a dead letter. Thus, with the loss of their +liberty, they have become indifferent soldiers and idle +agriculturists.</p> + +<p>Russian military men have not, I believe, a high opinion +of the Don Cossacks, and although they still acknowledge +their utility in guarding regular troops, and relieving them +from many laborious duties, are well aware how much +they have lost of their ancient martial spirit. I believe the +opinion of our own military authorities is, that they are +not very formidable in the field, and before Sevastopol +have shown little inclination to run any great risks.</p> + +<p>Had they stood at all firmly at the affair of Balaclava, +not a man of our unfortunate light cavalry could have +been saved. When our men were returning from that +fearful ride of death, they saw swarms of Cossacks, several +thousand in number, descend from the hills to intercept +their return. They thought all was over with them, +as they quickened their pace to charge; but the Cossacks +shrank from the encounter, opened to the right and left, +and let them pass in safety.⁠<a id="FNanchor_118" href="#Footnote_118" class="fnanchor">[118]</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">[131]</span></p> + +<div style="overflow: scroll;"> + +<h3><span class="smcap">Recapitulation of Effective Cossacks.</span></h3> + +<table class="borders"> + <tr> + <th rowspan="3">Names of the Cossack Corps.</th> + <th colspan="9">ENUMERATION OF THEIR FORCE.</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <th rowspan="2">Regiment of Cavalry.</th> + <th rowspan="2">Sotni Cavalry.</th> + <th rowspan="2">Battalions.</th> + <th rowspan="2">Batteries.</th> + <th colspan="3">Pieces.</th> + <th rowspan="2">Approximative Force, without Artillery.</th> + <th rowspan="2">OBSERVATIONS.</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <th>Cavalry.</th> + <th>Infantry.</th> + <th>Total.</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> 1. Army of the Don</td> + <td class="tdr">58</td> + <td class="tdr">348</td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr">14</td> + <td class="tdr">112</td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr">112</td> + <td class="nw"> 42,000 cavalry</td> + <td></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> 2. <span class="ditto">”</span> Azof</td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td></td> + <td>The Army of Azof is entirely employed to man the gun-boats + on the Sea of Azof.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> 3. <span class="ditto">”</span> Danube</td> + <td class="tdr">2</td> + <td class="tdr">12</td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="nw"> 1,700 cavalry</td> + <td></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> 4. <span class="ditto">”</span> Black Sea</td> + <td class="tdr">12</td> + <td class="tdr">74</td> + <td class="tdr">9</td> + <td class="tdr">4</td> + <td class="tdr">24</td> + <td class="tdr">8</td> + <td class="tdr">32</td> + <td><span class="nw">{ 9,000 infantry</span><br>{ 9,000 cavalry</td> + <td></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> 5. <span class="ditto">”</span> Caucasus</td> + <td class="tdr">18</td> + <td class="tdr">108</td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr">3</td> + <td class="tdr">24</td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr">24</td> + <td class="nw"> 16,000 cavalry</td> + <td></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> 6. <span class="ditto">”</span> Oural</td> + <td class="tdr">12</td> + <td class="tdr">60</td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="nw"> 7,500 cavalry</td> + <td></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> 7. <span class="ditto">”</span> Orenburg</td> + <td class="tdr">10</td> + <td class="tdr">60</td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr">3</td> + <td class="tdr">24</td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr">24</td> + <td class="nw"> 7,500 cavalry</td> + <td></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> 8. <span class="ditto">”</span> Siberia</td> + <td class="tdr">9</td> + <td class="tdr">54</td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr">3</td> + <td class="tdr">24</td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr">24</td> + <td class="nw"> 6,500 cavalry</td> + <td></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="nw"> 9. <span class="ditto">”</span> frontiers of China</td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr">8</td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="nw"> 1,000 cavalry</td> + <td></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>10. <span class="ditto">”</span> Astrakhan</td> + <td class="tdr">3</td> + <td class="tdr">18</td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr">1</td> + <td class="tdr">8</td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr">8</td> + <td class="nw"> 2,000 cavalry</td> + <td></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>11. <span class="ditto">”</span> Siberia</td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr">24</td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="nw"> 24,000 infantry</td> + <td></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">Total</td> + <td class="tdr total">124</td> + <td class="tdr total">742</td> + <td class="tdr total">33</td> + <td class="tdr total">28</td> + <td class="tdr total">216</td> + <td class="tdr total">8</td> + <td class="tdr total">224</td> + <td class="total">126,200 men</td> + <td class="total">93,200 cavalry.<br><span class="nw">33,000 infantry.</span></td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="right smaller">Taken from M. Haxthausen, vol. iii.</p> + +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">[132]</span></p> + +<p>I have now given a short account of the forces, regular +and irregular, composing the whole Russian army, +which is, perhaps, the most stupendous military engine +which the world has ever yet seen.</p> + +<p>While the nations of Europe have been disarming, +Russia has been augmenting her forces, and spending a +very large proportion of her revenue in storing up +weapons of destruction. Peaceful avocations have been +discouraged by her, and men of peace looked upon with +contempt. She knows no titles but military ones; and +rewards no virtues except those calculated to support her +despotism. She has resisted the natural influence of +Europe upon her people, and kept them in poverty-stricken +isolation; by her stupendous military force she +prevents the further disarming of the nations of Europe. +In proportion as they approach the Russian frontier, they +are obliged to keep up larger armies, and waste more +of their revenues on fortresses and military preparations. +The threatening aspect of the Russian army towards +its neighbours will be more distinctly seen if we look at +it according to its division into the active, mobilized +army, always assembled in Poland, with its reserves +behind it to the eastward, and the local troops, which +have been already mentioned.</p> + +<p>Every regiment is divided into a certain number of +battalions for active service, ready immediately to enter +the field, and others which form the reserve or dépôt, +whose duty it is to instruct recruits, and, like the Prussian +landwehr, to form skeleton battalions for veterans, and +those absent on “indefinite leave.” The artillery is +arranged in the same manner. The active troops, distributed +in corps, are completely organized, with staff, engineers, +train-equipage, and parks of artillery; and even all +the necessary horses are kept ready, in time of peace, +for entering instantly upon a campaign. To use the +words of M. Haxthausen, writing before the present war, +“there is no army in the world, with the exception of the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">[133]</span>Austrian army in Italy, that up to 1848 was always so +completely ready for war as the great, active army of +Russia in Poland.”</p> + +<p>The composition of this army is given in the following +table, taken from M. Haxthausen, and its effective force is +stated by him as follows (see <a href="#Page_134">p. 134</a>):—</p> + +<p>After a deduction of 50 soldiers for the train, the +musicians, and the superior officers, every battalion of +infantry counts about 1000 combatants, <i>i. e.</i>, soldiers and +non-commissioned officers; and the battalions of riflemen, +653 men.⁠<a id="FNanchor_119" href="#Footnote_119" class="fnanchor">[119]</a></p> + +<p>The number of officers is 22 for each battalion; and +the musicians, besides the band, which is very numerous +in many regiments, are generally about 25. As there are +8 battalions of riflemen, the Grand Army counts—</p> + +<table> + <tr> + <td>360 battalions of 1050 men each</td> + <td class="tdr">=</td> + <td class="tdr">378,000</td> + <td>men.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>8 battalions of 700 men each</td> + <td class="tdr">=</td> + <td class="tdr">5,600</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Total of infantry combatants</td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr total">383,600</td> + <td>men.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Absent on “indefinite leave”</td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr">51,500</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">Nominal total</td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr total">332,100</td> + <td>infantry.</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>A further deduction must be made for deaths, discharges, +deserters, reducing the battalions to about 700 +men, which is believed to be their real numbers, from +which no further deduction need be made. This will +leave 260,000 infantry combatants really under arms.</p> + +<p>A squadron of cavalry contains, on an average, 190 +combatants in time of war, and therefore—</p> + +<table> + <tr> + <th></th> + <th></th> + <th>Men.</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>460 squadrons of regular cavalry, at 190 men each</td> + <td class="tdr">=</td> + <td class="tdr">87,400</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>10 per squadron on leave</td> + <td class="tdr">=</td> + <td class="tdr">4,600</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">Leaves</td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr total">82,800</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="noindent">of regular cavalry, always ready to march.</p> + +<p>The above deduction will be more than sufficient, if there +be allowed a loss of 27 or 28 men in each squadron before +it can arrive at the frontier. The lowest force, then, of +regular cavalry immediately disposable for the army of +operation is about 70,000 men. No deduction need be made +from the artillery, which, on the contrary, must be increased +by the artillery of the Cossacks. The reserves +are divided into two levies, of which the details are given +in the note.⁠<a id="FNanchor_120" href="#Footnote_120" class="fnanchor">[120]</a> They amount—the first levy, to 98,000 +men and 192 guns; and the second levy to 115,000 men +and 280 guns.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">[134]</span></p> + +<h3><span class="smcap">Recapitulation</span> of the +<span class="smcap">Divisions</span> of <span class="smcap">Troops</span> +composing the <span class="smcap">Grand Army</span>, according to data +of the Year 1852.</h3> + +<div style="overflow: scroll;"> + +<table class="borders"> + <tr> + <th rowspan="3"></th> + <th colspan="4">Infantry.</th> + <th colspan="5">Cavalry.</th> + <th colspan="8">Artillery.</th> + <th colspan="2">Engineers.</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <th rowspan="2">Divisions.</th> + <th rowspan="2">Brigades.</th> + <th rowspan="2">Regiments.</th> + <th rowspan="2">Battalions.</th> + <th rowspan="2">Divisions.</th> + <th rowspan="2">Brigades.</th> + <th rowspan="2">Regiments.</th> + <th colspan="2">Squads.</th> + <th rowspan="2">Divisions.</th> + <th rowspan="2">Brigades.</th> + <th rowspan="2">Batteries.</th> + <th rowspan="2">Horse Artillery.</th> + <th rowspan="2">Foot Artillery.</th> + <th rowspan="2">Heavy Guns.</th> + <th rowspan="2">Light Guns.</th> + <th rowspan="2">Total.</th> + <th rowspan="2">Battalions of Sappers.</th> + <th rowspan="2">Mounted.</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <th>Regulars.</th> + <th>Irregulars.</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Corps of the Guard</td> + <td class="tdr">3</td> + <td class="tdr">6</td> + <td class="tdr">12</td> + <td class="tdr">37</td> + <td class="tdr">3</td> + <td class="tdr">6</td> + <td class="tdr">12</td> + <td class="tdr">60</td> + <td class="tdr">17½</td> + <td class="tdr">1</td> + <td class="tdr">5</td> + <td class="tdr">15½</td> + <td class="tdr">44</td> + <td class="tdr">72</td> + <td class="tdr">56</td> + <td class="tdr">60</td> + <td class="tdr">116</td> + <td class="tdr">1</td> + <td class="tdr">2</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Corps of Grenadiers</td> + <td class="tdr">3</td> + <td class="tdr">6</td> + <td class="tdr">12</td> + <td class="tdr">37</td> + <td class="tdr">1</td> + <td class="tdr">2</td> + <td class="tdr">4</td> + <td class="tdr">32</td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr">1</td> + <td class="tdr">4</td> + <td class="tdr">14 </td> + <td class="tdr">16</td> + <td class="tdr">72</td> + <td class="tdr">48</td> + <td class="tdr">40</td> + <td class="tdr">88</td> + <td class="tdr">1</td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>6 Corps of Infantry</td> + <td class="tdr">18</td> + <td class="tdr">36</td> + <td class="tdr">72</td> + <td class="tdr">294</td> + <td class="tdr">6</td> + <td class="tdr">12</td> + <td class="tdr">24</td> + <td class="tdr">192</td> + <td class="tdr">?</td> + <td class="tdr">6</td> + <td class="tdr">24</td> + <td class="tdr">84 </td> + <td class="tdr">96</td> + <td class="tdr">576</td> + <td class="tdr">192</td> + <td class="tdr">480</td> + <td class="tdr">672</td> + <td class="tdr">6</td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>1st Corps Cavalry in reserve</td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr">3</td> + <td class="tdr">6</td> + <td class="tdr">12</td> + <td class="tdr">80</td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr">1</td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr">6 </td> + <td class="tdr">48</td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr">16</td> + <td class="tdr">32</td> + <td class="tdr">48</td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>2nd Corps Cavalry in reserve</td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr">2</td> + <td class="tdr">4</td> + <td class="tdr">8</td> + <td class="tdr">80</td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr">1</td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr">6 </td> + <td class="tdr">48</td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr">16</td> + <td class="tdr">32</td> + <td class="tdr">48</td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr">2</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="nw">With a division of Light Cavalry of reserve</td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr">1</td> + <td class="tdr">2</td> + <td class="tdr">4</td> + <td class="tdr">24</td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr">1</td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr">3 </td> + <td class="tdr">24</td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr">24</td> + <td class="tdr">24</td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr"><span class="smcap">Total Ten Corps</span></td> + <td class="tdr total">24</td> + <td class="tdr total">48</td> + <td class="tdr total">96</td> + <td class="tdr total">368</td> + <td class="tdr total">16</td> + <td class="tdr total">32</td> + <td class="tdr total">64</td> + <td class="tdr total">468</td> + <td class="tdr total">17½</td> + <td class="tdr total">11</td> + <td class="tdr total">33</td> + <td class="tdr total">128½</td> + <td class="tdr total">276</td> + <td class="tdr total">720</td> + <td class="tdr total">328</td> + <td class="tdr total">668</td> + <td class="tdr total">996</td> + <td class="tdr total">8</td> + <td class="tdr total">4</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="right smaller">Taken from M. Haxthausen, vol. iii. p. 288.</p> + +<p class="smaller">There is attached to each corps a “brigade du train,” who are non-combatants. The Engineers attached have their proper place in the +Brigades of Engineers.</p> + +<p class="smaller">The regiments of Cossacks and their batteries were even in time of peace incorporated in the Grand Army; but their number used to vary.</p> + +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">[135]</span></p> + +<p>Such were the numbers of the Russian active army in +Poland in 1848; and it was further increased in 1850. +At that time (the end of 1850) the active army of operation, +according to the official account, consisted as follows:—</p> + +<table> + <tr> + <th></th> + <th>Men.</th> + <th>Guns.</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Disposable army</td> + <td class="tdr">486,000</td> + <td class="tdr">996</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>First levy of reserve</td> + <td class="tdr">98,000</td> + <td class="tdr">192</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Second levy</td> + <td class="tdr">115,000</td> + <td class="tdr">280</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">Total</td> + <td class="tdr total">699,000</td> + <td class="tdr total">1468</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="noindent">To which must be added the engineers, the train, and +the irregular corps.</p> + +<p>Of course, as has been observed, the whole disposition +of the army has been altered since the present war began. +The Moscow corps has been moved to the Caucasus; the +Polish corps have been moved south, and the Grenadiers +have taken their place; and the reserves have, I believe, +been all called out, and probably consumed in replacing +those who have fallen in the last two years.</p> + +<p>So that when we look at the Russian forces now assembled +in the Caucasus, the Crimea, and the German and +Baltic frontiers, we see the whole of the Russian army, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">[136]</span>including its reserves, which cannot be easily augmented. +Each man that falls now becomes of great importance to +the Emperor; for the conscription is becoming more and +more difficult, and bearing with increased severity upon +all the interests of the empire. The age at which conscripts +are taken is now raised to thirty-seven;⁠<a id="FNanchor_121" href="#Footnote_121" class="fnanchor">[121]</a> and the +sons of aged or widowed parents, who have hitherto been +exempted, are to serve, and be formed into separate corps. +I believe that in the manufacturing establishments in +Russia as many as 25 per cent. of the workmen have +lately been carried off for the conscription.</p> + +<p>The difficulties of Russia are increasing every day; and +it is hardly possible for her to carry on the war for +another six months, if with our change of Ministry we +likewise have a change of system, and if at home and in +the Crimea our superior officials, both military and civil, +have anything like that intelligence, activity, intrepidity, +and single-minded love of their country displayed by the +common soldiers and regimental officers of our army, +who have hitherto been the only bulwarks to save us +from national disgrace.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">[137]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX.<br> +<span class="smaller">INKERMAN, MANGOUP, AND THE HILLY COUNTRY OF THE CRIMEA.</span></h2> + +<p>The Bay of Sevastopol to Inkerman—Aktiar—Inkerman Castle—Its +history—Crypts—Fuller’s earth, or natural soap—Tchorgouna—Tchouli, +residence of Pallas—Crypts at Karakoba—Mount Aithodor—Mangoup—Description +and history—Gothic architecture—Position of +Mangoup—Interesting character of surrounding country—The Tchatyr +Dagh and the Yailas.</p> + +</div> + +<p>From Sevastopol to Inkerman the road by land is either +very long or very fatiguing.⁠<a id="FNanchor_122" href="#Footnote_122" class="fnanchor">[122]</a> In order to avoid the +numberless ravines which cut up the Chersonese, a circuitous +route must be taken, and it is hardly possible +to attempt to cross in a straight line. Scarcely has the +descent been made to the bottom of one ravine by a +very steep declivity, than an equally precipitous ascent +must be made at the other side; and neither the one nor +the other of these routes has anything picturesque or +interesting, except some poor ruins scattered here and +there among the rocks. Nothing was desert here in +the time of ancient Kherson. A laborious population, +sacrificing pleasure in the noble object of possessing a little +corner of ground, then occupied the sides of all the ravines, +and living half in the grottoes, and half in miserable +huts of stone and earth, devoted themselves to the +cultivation of a precious and tolerably fertile soil, by +raising terraces of earth, on which they planted vines +and fruit-trees. Neither the north wind nor the piercing +frost could penetrate these well-protected and sheltered +spots; but during the heats of summer they must have +been hardly supportable, unless some covered shelter was +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">[138]</span>made on one side or the other under the rock. Although +the land journey from Sevastopol to Inkerman be so +difficult in times of peace, nothing used to be more interesting +than the sea voyage, which might be performed +by hiring a little boat at Sevastopol, and leisurely sailing +or rowing down the Great Bay. It is not that the +country is very attractive in itself by shady groves and +country houses: on the contrary, these are rare on the +shores of this bay, which are rather severe in aspect, from +the abrupt forms and nakedness of the rocks. It is the +bay itself, piercing nearly five miles into the land, which +invests the scene with all its magnificence.</p> + +<p>As to the geology of the coasts of the bay, beginning at +the entrance from the sea, the low shores are formed by +beds of the recent tertiary volcanic formation, very much +thrown out of their place. These beds gradually rise +higher up the sides as far as the Careening Bay, and +there appear under them brilliant beds of white clay, +with layers of small stones and cinders, and land and lake +mollusques. This formation is of considerable extent, and +presents high cliffs of so dazzling a white colour, that they +have generally been taken for chalk.</p> + +<p>Under the clay, and near the extremity of the bay, +appears in its turn, in thick even layers, the nummulite +limestone, rich in fossils, raised on the back of a new +formation, that of the chalk, which has a great development, +and of which the high walls, principally composed +of green sandstone or chlorited chalk, encase the bottom +of the bay, opening a large entrance at its farthest extremity +for the Bouiouk Oozoun river, or the Tchornaya +Retchka of the Russians, which is lost in a marsh before +it mixes with the salt waves of the bay. Close to the +Careening Bay are the first crypts cut in the rocks, and +the principal ones, the entrance to which is very little +raised above the level of the bay, are large, of a regular +square shape, and cut in the front of the rock. On the +northern shore, opposite the crypts, in a little valley, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">[139]</span>are the ruins of the village of Aktiar, which replaced +Kherson, giving its name to the bay. This served as +the first establishment of the Russians after the conquest +of the Crimea. Here is the summer habitation +and the garden of the admiral-commandant of Sevastopol, +and here are the storehouses and bakehouses of the fleet, +a large hospital, now abandoned, and an ancient hermitage +cut in the rock, painted with frescoes.</p> + +<p>The extremity of the bay in ancient times was richly +cultivated, but the sea has now been driven back by the +unwholesome marshes of the Tchornaya Retchka, and +high reeds stop the course of all vessels by their inextricable +labyrinths. With the exception of a powder-magazine +and a few sheds, these ravines are naked and +uninhabited, and the villages which crowned the summits +of the cliffs and extended on the plateau of the +northern part of the Chersonese, where the second division +of the British army is now encamped and the +famous two-gun battery was erected, have disappeared.</p> + +<p>The ruins of the villages cover a space of two miles, +and end with the great rock in which is cut the first +of the crypt churches of Inkerman. These were all +defended by walls from the Steppe, one of which is still +seen, four feet in thickness. The direct road from Kherson +to Inkerman passed by these villages, and a very +steep road led from the plateau to the bottom of the +ravine, where there is the church. The greater part of +these remains of antiquity have disappeared before the +labours of the engineers, who have blown up the rocks +with the crypts in them to obtain the soft but beautiful +building-stone for the construction of the magnificent +aqueduct which carries the water of the Tchornaya +Retchka to the docks of Sevastopol.</p> + +<p>The aqueduct is carried on 10 arches, and measures +200 feet in length; the piles on which it is built are 18 +feet deep, as this is the only depth at which a firm +foundation could be found. After it leaves the aqueduct +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">[140]</span>the water is carried by a tunnel 800 feet in length. +The canal is 4 feet deep and 9 feet broad, and the gallery +through which it is carried is 6 feet high to the top of the +vault, and 12 feet wide.</p> + +<p>From this place the road continues to Inkerman,⁠<a id="FNanchor_123" href="#Footnote_123" class="fnanchor">[123]</a> which +is the modern name of the promontory rising at the end +of the Bay of Sevastopol on its northern shore, and +looking down upon the marshes of the Tchornaya Retchka. +The rock is pierced all over with the subterranean +dwellings of the ancient Tauri, and on the top are the +ruins of the castle built by Diophantes, the general of +Mithridates, who was sent to help the Khersonians +against the Tauro-Scythians, a little before the birth of +Christ. This castle was called Eupatorion, a name +which, like many others, has been misapplied by the +Russians, and given to the town of Koslof.</p> + +<p>From the castle, Diophantes made a communication +with the other side, by filling up the valley with earth, +and leaving a passage for the river by a bridge with three +arches, of which one remained in 1834, and the bank +itself is perfectly preserved. This was the bridge that was +broken down by Liprandi after the battle of Inkerman, +when he retired to the northern side of the Tchornaya +Retchka, and by this act acknowledged that he had been defeated. +In the rocks near are seen the enormous quarries +for the building-stone, which in all times has been celebrated. +Near here, and cut in the solid rock of the promontory +of Inkerman, is a regularly constructed Greek +church, with all its parts complete, and on the top of +the rock in which it is cut is the fortress of Diophantes, +which in the middle ages was called Theodori, +and was the residence of some Greek princes dependent +on Constantinople. One of them, called Alexis, took +Balaclava from the Genoese, and was again driven out of +it in <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 1434.</p> + +<p>In 1475 this little Greek principality suffered the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">[141]</span>same fate as the Gothic duchy of Mangoup; and the +castle was taken by the Turks, who placed a garrison +here, and allowed the fortress to go to ruin. In the time +of Bronovius (<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 1578) Greek inscriptions and heraldic +bearings were to be seen over the gates and public buildings, +but they have now entirely disappeared.</p> + +<p>The crypts made by the ancient Tauri are on the south +side of the rock, which was generally the situation they +chose; and from the interior of the fortress there is a +path leading down to numberless rows of them, in six or +seven tiers, one above another. The simplest of these +crypts have only one room, a part of which was raised +one foot high, and two feet broad for a bed; and the holes +may still be seen in front of the kind of niche in which +it was placed, to which a curtain was probably attached.</p> + +<p>The more complicated crypts have many rooms, and all of +these, except the principal chamber, have beds. The doors +were of wood; the ceilings rise to a point; and in the +centre of the floor there was a hole one foot and a half +deep, and two feet across, which was the fireplace and +the oven, such as is found in the crypts of Georgia, and +is still used in that country to the present day.</p> + +<p>The crypts were innumerable, but are now rapidly +diminishing. In some places, from natural causes, the +rock has given way, and carried down whole stages of +crypts, with the passages and staircases of communication +between the various stories; and Lieutenant Kruse, +who had a contract for stone for the public buildings of +Sevastopol, blew up vast numbers.</p> + +<p>As the valley of Inkerman is now extremely unhealthy, +it may be asked how it could ever have been so thickly +populated as the remains would indicate; but its unhealthiness +is caused by the stagnant marshes of the +Tchornaya Retchka, which in ancient times were +flourishing gardens, from which all superfluous water was +drained off.⁠<a id="FNanchor_124" href="#Footnote_124" class="fnanchor">[124]</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">[142]</span></p> + +<p>The same layers of green sandstone, which form one of +the sides of the gorge of Inkerman, then take a more +eastern direction; and here, facing the south, the strata +are so full of subterranean dwellings that they might +almost be called beds of crypts.</p> + +<p>Immediately below the second group of crypts further +on, in the direction of Tchorgouna and Mangoup, is a +layer of fuller’s earth, two feet in thickness, and of a grey +colour, accompanied below by talk. This is used as +fossil soap, and is exported to Constantinople, where it +is known in the baths under the name of Keffe Kil, or +clay of Caffa.⁠<a id="FNanchor_125" href="#Footnote_125" class="fnanchor">[125]</a> There is a similar deposit at Sabli, +and on one of the banks of the Alma the greenish +talkous fuller’s earth is mixed with silicious pebbles and +broken ammonites, while on the other bank may be extracted +from wells the best fuller’s earth in the Crimea. +This same bed, again, appears at the foot of Mount +Akhaia, near Karasóubazar, on the western side of the +peninsula. Below these beds are totally different deposits. +At Inkerman is a white or grey clay, more or +less schistous, almost entirely without fossils, and +several hundred feet thick. Its rounded forms start +from the foot of the wall of green sandstone, cover a +part of the valley of Balaclava, and advance as far as +Tchorgouna. Tchorgouna lies in a gorge formed nearly +of the same pudding-stones and marbles as those at +Balaclava.</p> + +<p>The Tchornaya Retchka, coming from the valley of +Baidar, here unites its two principal branches, which +escape from wild chasms in the Jurassic rocks. Before +forcing itself between the two last rocks of marble, which +almost stop it, and just as it reaches the chalk valley of +Balaclava, where it is diverted for the docks of Sevastopol, +it receives the rivulet of Tchouli, which has +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">[143]</span>quite a different course, and which takes its name +from the village of Tchouli, the residence of the famous +traveller Pallas. This little river may be followed up in +a north-eastward direction to Mangoup, and presents the +curious phenomenon of running exactly between the +Jurassic and cretaceous formations. The stream divides +these two formations, the former of which gives its picturesque +beauty to the southern coast of the Crimea, while +the latter is synonymous with the dull level of the +Steppe; so that on its right is seen the Jura, with its +characteristic rounded calcareous domes, well wooded, +and cut into valleys, and on the other side the chalk +presents its high crests and jutting buttresses, covered +with a meagre vegetation, and surmounted by an enormous +naked wall of green sandstone, prolonged without +interruption to Mount Aithodor, which only wants a +sea below it to become the most picturesque of promontories. +Here there is a group of crypts like those at +Inkerman, called Karakoba (the Black Grotto), and the +high promontory which rises above Aithodor is called Elli +Boroun (the Cape of Tempests). This high advanced rock, +crowned with a few marine or littoral pines, forms a side +of one of the great chasms that have been opened in the +chalk; and it can hardly have been by the agency of any +river, as none of the larger streams of the Tauric chain +have condescended to take advantage of its opening to +pass through it, so that there is only a very small current +of water which runs into the Belbek. In the midst of +this chasm stands an immense rock, perpendicular on all +sides, and rising like the isolated pier of some gigantic +bridge, and this bears on its summit the celebrated +fortress of Mangoup.</p> + +<p>No position in the Crimea could be stronger, and none +has been more celebrated. Mangoup commanded one of +the gates of the Steppe, and as a wall was built across the +valley of Inkerman, so it seems that this entrance was +also closed in by two walls, separated by an interval of +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">[144]</span>fifty feet, and of which there are well-preserved traces in +the valley that leads from Koráles to Aithodor.</p> + +<p>The rock of Mangoup rises to upwards of a thousand +feet, and every accessible place in its vicinity is fortified +with walls and towers. One valley, called the Tabana +Déréh (Tatar for the Valley of the Tannery), is fortified +by a wall and four towers, and contains several stages of +crypts and a fine spring of water. It was inhabited up +to 1800 by some Karaim Jews, who were tanners, and +when they quitted, no living being was left in the deserted +town of Mangoup.⁠<a id="FNanchor_126" href="#Footnote_126" class="fnanchor">[126]</a></p> + +<p>On mounting the plateau from the valley, there are +the remains of a Byzantine Greek church, with frescoes, +and surrounded by tombs like those at Laspi on +the southern coast. To the left of the church is a +mosque and a Turkish cemetery, and beyond it is another +valley, closed like the other by a wall, with a door in the +middle. The view from hence is magnificent, and extends +over Sevastopol to the sea. In the acropolis of Mangoup +there are the remains of a fine palace, of two stories high, +resting on a terrace, with a handsome flight of steps. On +the first floor of this palace there are placed, in symmetrical +order, and richly decorated, four windows: three bead +ornaments surrounded the two in the middle, which +terminated in a flat arch: those at the end were richly +charged with ornaments, and of larger dimensions. The +workmanship of the arabesques, and of the roses, the +fillets, and the wreaths, are in the Eastern style, very +like that of Armenia. There is some resemblance to +the style of Turkey, but, besides being less regular and +symmetrical, it cannot be supposed that the Turkish +conquerors, who took Mangoup in 1475, and then abandoned +it to a few soldiers, would ever have erected +such edifices. Bronovius proves the contrary; he says, +“Eighteen years after it was taken by the Turks, as +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">[145]</span>the Christian Greeks relate, Mangoup was almost utterly +destroyed by a horrible and sudden fire. Nothing of +importance was saved except the Acropolis, in which +there was a fine gateway, ornamented with marble, with +Greek inscriptions, and a high palace in stone. It was +in this house that the khans, in their barbarian fury, +have several times shut up the Muscovite ambassadors, +and made them suffer a severe captivity.” The door and +the palace, which have been described, evidently date +before the fire, and consequently before its capture by +the Turks. It is a memento of the Gothic Dukes of +Mangoup; and the Armenian style that predominates +may be explained by the fact that, in the middle of the +fourteenth century, a number of Armenians had quitted +their country, in terror at the great earthquake of Anni, +and had filled the Crimea with their colonies. As +perhaps a solitary memorial of the architecture of the +Goths in the Crimea, this palace possesses considerable +interest.</p> + +<p>If the reader will now look at the map, he will see +that at Mangoup we are about one-third of the distance +from Sevastopol to Baktchéserai, and on the confines of +the two formations that cause Steppes to the north and a +romantic scenery to the south. A tributary of the Belbek +leads down a wild valley from Mangoup to Koráles, which +I have already noticed as the residence of the beautiful +Tatar princess, Adel Bey; and a little to the west of Koráles +is Tcherkess Kerman, or the fortress of the Tcherkess, +and Tcherkess Tus, the plain of the Tcherkess, and the +river Kabarda, which mark the spot where a colony +of that noble and chivalrous people, whom we call the +Circassians, dwelt for several centuries, and beyond this +plain the high road is seen running to Sevastopol along +the open Steppe. There is, therefore, little to interest +the traveller to the north; but let him go east, south, +and west of Mangoup, and he may make endless excursions +in a most lovely country. He may wander up the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">[146]</span>valleys of the Belbek, the Katcha, and the Alma, and +cross the mountainous country which divides their +channels; and whether he be geologist, archæologist, or +only an admirer of the beauties of nature, he will find +his tastes amply gratified, and every simple want supplied +among the primitive and hospitable Tatars.</p> + +<p>The geologist may admire and unravel the intricate +system where endless strata have been forced up and +bent, especially in the Heracleotic Chersonese, into the +most fantastic forms, while jets of igneous rocks may be +traced, giving the key to the wild confusion that reigns +around.</p> + +<p>The archæologist will find in every hill top, and in +every rock and valley, traces of the many nations that +have inhabited the Crimea, from the rude crypts of the +savage Tauri, to the graceful fragments of the Grecian +column; and the traveller, who wanders simply to +enjoy his physical existence, will ever find health and +strength in a delicious climate, and the purest enjoyment +of the senses in its exquisite rural beauty. Endless +flocks and herds browze along the valleys, while near +the fresh high plains, raised up in the bosom of the +mountains by stupendous volcanic agency, Tatar villages +are snugly situated in sheltered spots, surrounded by +orchards, which supply even Petersburg with fruit, and +where the vine has flourished from the earliest ages. +Added to all these charms, the sea is always near, and +its glorious expanse is seen from every mountain-top, +and that coast can at all times be readily visited, which +tempted the beauty-loving Greeks to found here some +of their earliest and most flourishing colonies.</p> + +<p>The Ai Petri, Mount Babougan (4500 feet), and +the Tchatyr Dagh (5125 feet), the highest mountains +in the Crimea, are seen from all parts, and from the +summit of the latter there is a very beautiful view. All +around it, in the country within the influence of the +Tauric chain of mountains, is a succession of verdant +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">[147]</span>hills and valleys, which seem, as Dubois says, to be a +great island, surrounded by two oceans, that of the sea +on the south, and of the Steppes on the north, so flat +and uniform do the latter appear to be. Tchatyr Dagh +means tent-mountain in Tatar, and this name has been +given to it because of its form, the last 700 feet of which +rise like a large oblong tent, which in ancient times procured +it the name of Mount Trapezus. There are, all +along the Tauric chain, elevated plains, called in Tatar, +Yailas, such as are also found in the range of the Caucasus, +covered in both countries with excellent herbage, +on which, in summer, large flocks of sheep and goats are +pastured.⁠<a id="FNanchor_127" href="#Footnote_127" class="fnanchor">[127]</a></p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">[148]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X.<br> +<span class="smaller">THE HERACLEOTIC CHERSONESE.</span></h2> + +<p>The Heracleotic Chersonese—Origin of name—Defended by a wall—Kherson—Its +history and remains—House of Lamachus—The predecessors of +Vladimir and their relations with Constantinople—Account of the siege +by Vladimir, taken out of Nestor—Vladimir’s Baptism—Springs of water—Kherson +destroyed by Lithuanians—The bays between Sevastopol and +Cape Chersonese—Cape Partheniké—The Tauric Diana—The monastery +of St. George—Bustards on the Chersonese.</p> + +</div> + +<p>After taking a general view of the hill country of Crimea, +there still remains one little corner in the south-west to +be described, which will henceforth have a conspicuous +place in the history of the world, and, as we hope under +Providence, will be famous as the spot where Russian +tyranny was checked, and France and England cemented a +permanent alliance based upon a common civilization, and +fraught with the blessings of freedom and peace to the +whole world.</p> + +<p>The submarine volcanoes which raised up the whole +Tauric chain of the southern coast of Crimea, here raged +with the greatest fury, and have torn up the land into a +succession of deep and sheltered bays from Balaclava to +Sevastopol, which, fourteen⁠<a id="FNanchor_128" href="#Footnote_128" class="fnanchor">[128]</a> in number, offer convenient +shelter either to commercial or warlike navies.</p> + +<p>The ancient name of the peninsula was the Heracleotic +Chersonese, which is derived from two Greek words—Heracleotic, +signifying of or belonging to the Heracleans, +and Chersonese, a peninsula. It was called Heracleotic, +because the famous city of Kherson, which was built +here, was originally a colony from Heraclea, a town on +the opposite coast of the Black Sea in Bithynia, where +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">[149]</span>the coal-mines have been lately opened to supply our +fleets, and the city of Kherson, or Khersonesus as it was +sometimes called, received that name because it was +situated on a peninsula.</p> + +<div class="transnote" id="illus3"> +Transcriber’s Note: The image is clickable for a larger version. +</div> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp93" style="max-width: 15.625em;"> + <a href="images/illus3-full.jpg"><img class="w100" src="images/illus3.jpg" alt=""></a> + <figcaption> + <p>PLAN OF RUINS OCCUPYING THE SITE OF THE + CAMP OF THE ALLIES AT SEVASTOPOL. 1855.</p> + <p><i>Published by John Murray Albemarle Sᵗ. 1855.</i> + <i>Ford & West. Lithʳˢ.</i></p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>This little peninsula, high and rocky, and on three +sides surrounded by water, is cut off from the rest of the +Crimea by a low valley, running between Inkerman and +Balaclava, above which, upon a line of heights, is now +placed the French and British camp. A wall, which +divided it off from the rest of the Crimea, may +still be traced running from the Tchornaya Retchka, +a little above Inkerman, to Balaclava, for a distance of +five miles,⁠<a id="FNanchor_129" href="#Footnote_129" class="fnanchor">[129]</a> at the foot of the hills running parallel with +the valley, on which the main part of our army, and, +since the affair of Balaclava, a French division under +General Bosquet, have been encamped. The whole of +this enclosure was in ancient times occupied with the +gardens and villas of the inhabitants of Kherson, and +the space within the wall is covered with ruins, among +which the boundary marks of the fields and gardens, and +the plans of many houses, may still be distinctly traced. +The colony of Kherson was founded in the seventh century +before Christ, by the Heracleans and the Delians, +and quickly attained great commercial importance.</p> + +<p>The Khersonians, who were Dorians, were great rivals +of the Bosphorians at Panticápœa or Kertch, who were +a colony of Miletus, and consequently Ionians, and the +two cities were continually at war, until both were united +under the sway of Mithridates the Great, king of Pontus, +who, when driven out of his own kingdom by Pompey, +succeeded in obtaining the kingdom of the Bosphorus +in the last century before the Christian era.</p> + +<p>Kherson, like all the adjacent countries, afterwards +fell under the sway of the Romans, and continued an +important place during the greatness and decline of the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">[150]</span>empire, down to the epoch when the dispersed Slavonic +tribes were united into one nation, called Russians, by +Norman princes, in the ninth century. From that time +Kherson, situated about half-way between Kief and Constantinople, +was constantly a subject of dispute between +the Russians and the Greeks.</p> + +<p>There are many remains of the ancient town, the site +of which is on the promontory between the Quarantine +and Streletska bays, where a French battery is now +erected.</p> + +<p>The wall which defended it was on the land side, running +at the head of Quarantine Bay, passing across +the plateau of the isthmus, and then descending by +zigzags to the Bay of Soses, now called Streletska Bay. +The wall was nearly two miles in length, and built +of limestone, five or six feet thick. There were three +towers, of which the largest was placed on the top of +the isthmus, and defended the principal gate, a massive +edifice, vaulted, with a guard-house belonging to it. Part +of this was still standing up to the time of the occupation +of this site by the French. An inscription was found in +the ruins, which declared the tower to have been restored +about the year 491 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> The traces of the ancient roads +and gardens that covered the little territory of the colony, +and the plan of the town, are distinctly traceable. The +principal street through it was about twenty feet wide, +and on the left in descending was the great market-place, +which is easily recognised by the heaps of earth in the +shape of a great tumulus, of which further mention will +afterwards be made.</p> + +<p>The remains of a large palace stand on one side of the +small street leading to the market-place, which is doubtless +one of those which Nestor mentions as being near +the Church of the Virgin.</p> + +<p>Lieutenant Kruse was commissioned by the Russian +Government to excavate whatever seemed of interest in +the ruins, and he began by the churches, three of which +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">[151]</span>he uncovered. One of these, the nearest to the market-place, +is most probably the ancient cathedral of Kherson, +built by the piety of Vladimir, in memory of his taking +the city, and of his own conversion to Christianity; and +this is probably the church which has unfortunately +been injured⁠<a id="FNanchor_130" href="#Footnote_130" class="fnanchor">[130]</a> by the French, and of which such frequent +mention has been made of late in the Russian proclamations. +When it was discovered, the remains of a +semicircular apse were visible; and columns of a fine +white crystalline marble, striped with blue, showed in +the nave of the edifice the position of the transepts and +the dome. Great Byzantine crosses ornamented the +capitals of the columns and many parts of the interior. +The whole exterior wall remained to about the height of +three or four feet, and within its precincts Lieutenant +Kruse collected all the columns and other remains that +were found, the greater part of which were drawn out of +what he called “a great cistern” underneath the dome, +which was probably an ancient crypt.</p> + +<p>The second church that was discovered was larger than +the cathedral, built in the form of a Greek cross, and +fifty-three feet each way. The semicircular seats for the +clergy were found entire in the apse, and a coarse mosaic +still existed as the pavement.</p> + +<p>This edifice was remarkable, because it was evidently +a beautiful Greek temple metamorphosed into a Christian +church, and bases and capitals of Ionic columns, +and other parts of Greek architecture, were built into its +walls. Perhaps this had been the Parthenon of Kherson, +dedicated to the famous Virgin divinity of the ancient +Tauri. Lieutenant Kruse excavated a third church, and +then discontinued his labours. The positions of a mass +of streets can be traced, tortuous and narrow, like those +of Eastern towns to this day, and as the whole Chersonese +was built over, we may suppose that there existed here +5000 houses and 40,000 or 50,000 inhabitants.</p> + +<p>The high level plain was bordered with houses, from +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">[152]</span>which steps were cut in the rock down to the water’s +edge, and half way between the two bays, where the +rock naturally sloped down, was a landing-place and a +market; and there remains a perfect well and the traces of +an aqueduct. There were only two springs of water in +the Chersonese, both near Balaclava. From one near +Khouter Oukhákof the water was conveyed in pipes, some +of which have been lately found, and it was this conduit +which Vladimir cut when he took the town of Kherson. +The water of the other spring has been carried to Sevastopol, +which for a long time was only supplied by some +wells and small sources of water at the extremity of the +South bay. This principal spring, which used to be +private property, was taken for public use by the Russian +Government, and supplies only thirty-six pints a minute. +Immense reservoirs were constructed in ancient times near +the Quarantine Bay to catch rain-water, but they are now +filled up, and three modern wells have been dug.</p> + +<p>The place of one single monument of the ancient +Greek times is clearly marked among the remains of this +ancient city, and that is the house of Lamachus.</p> + +<p>At all times I have said there was a great rivalry +between the Bosphorians and the Khersonians, and the +latter were probably, for the first time, subjected to the +former during the reign of Praisades I. Kherson underwent +a second time the same fate when hardly pressed +by the Tauro-Scythians, under their king, Skilouros, and +the city was then obliged to place itself under the protection +of the great Mithridates, to whom and his +successors, kings of Bosphorus, it remained subject, until +it recovered its independence under the Romans.⁠<a id="FNanchor_131" href="#Footnote_131" class="fnanchor">[131]</a> After +this time there was again constant hostility and war between +the two cities, and when one of the kings of the +Bosphorus undertook an expedition into Asia Minor,⁠<a id="FNanchor_132" href="#Footnote_132" class="fnanchor">[132]</a> the +Khersonians took the opportunity of conquering his capital, +Panticápœa (Kertch). Again, in the fourth century, the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">[153]</span>grandson of this king was defeated by the Khersonians +at Kaffa, or Theodosia, which then became the boundary +of the two States. In a second war soon afterwards, +Pharnáces, the Stephanóphorus of Kherson, killed this +king in single combat, and carried the boundaries of his +city close to the walls of Panticápœa.</p> + +<p>Of course these victories of the Khersonians increased +the hatred of the Bosphorians against them, and in the year +334 or 336 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>, Assander, the last king of the Bosphorus, +thought he had found an effectual way of meddling in +their affairs. He asked in marriage for one of his sons +the daughter of Lamachus, the Stephanóphorus, or chief +magistrate of Kherson, the most powerful man in the +town, famous for his riches in gold, silver, slaves, +serving-women, horses, and lands. He also possessed a +house with four courts, occupying all one quarter of the +town, lying near the exterior port of the Bay of Soses +(now Streletzka Bay), where he had a private door +pierced in the walls of the town, which is the only one +which now remains entire. Four magnificent gateways +guarded the approaches to his house, and each herd of +oxen and cows, horses and mares, sheep and asses, returning +from pasture, had its own particular entrance and +stables.</p> + +<p>The eldest of the sons of Assander married Glycia, the +daughter of Lamachus, under the express condition that he +should never return to Panticápœa, to visit his father, not +even at the hour of his death. After two years Lamachus +died, and Glycia the following year wished, according to the +general custom, on the anniversary of her father’s death, +to give a grand feast to all the people of Kherson, and +her riches were sufficient to provide them all with wine, +bread, oil, meat, poultry, and fish, and she promised to +renew this festival each year. The son of Assander, +deeply vexed at such prodigality, pretended to praise her +filial affection, but secretly determined to revenge himself +by seizing this occasion to hatch a plot against the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">[154]</span>town. He wrote to his father to send him from time +to time a dozen young Bosphorians, strong and active, +to be introduced into the town under pretext of a visit. +Disembarking at the port of Symbols (Balaclava), where +they left their vessel, they came on foot to Kherson, +spent some days there, and then, pretending to return, +passed out at the great gate in the evening, and crossed +the Chersonese; but when night came on, they retraced +their steps by circuitous paths, till they reached the +Great Harbour (Sevastopol), where a boat was in readiness +to bring them round to the foot of the Bay of Soses +(Streletzka Bay) on the other side. Here a friend expected +them, and opened for them the little door into +the house of Lamachus. Concealed in the vast palace, +they waited for the next anniversary, in order to seize +the town and massacre the people, overcome by wine and +good cheer.</p> + +<p>A lucky accident caused the treachery to be discovered. +On the eve of the feast, one of the servants of Glycia +having disobeyed her mistress, was shut up in a distant +chamber, which happened to be just above that in +which the Bosphorians were concealed. The loss of her +spindle, which rolled into a hole near the wall, induced +the girl to lift up a square of the floor in search of it. +She then saw the Bosphorians assembled, and hastened +to inform her mistress, who forgave her fault, and +told her to keep the secret until she should be prepared +to deal with the traitors. She then in strict confidence +conferred with three delegates from the town, +and having made them swear that in recompense for her +patriotism, they would, contrary to established custom, +bury her inside the town, she communicated to them the +astounding news, and gave them directions how to act. +She made them celebrate the festival gaily as if nothing +was to happen, and only bid each man prepare some +faggots and torches. Then, having drugged her husband’s +wine and escaped from the house with her maids, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">[155]</span>carrying her trinkets and gold, she ordered the faggots +to be piled round the house and fired, and thus made all +the traitors perish in the flames.</p> + +<p>The citizens of Kherson wished to rebuild the house +of Glycia at the public expense, but this she strongly +opposed, and, on the contrary, caused them to heap up +every kind of filth and refuse on the place stained by +treachery, which was called ever afterwards “the Den of +Lamachus.”</p> + +<p>This monument, more indestructible than brass or +marble, is still there, and, without knowing the story of +Glycia, the stranger is astonished to find the rubbish of +all the town piled on the top of the plain, which borders +Streletzka Bay, in one of the finest situations of Kherson. +On passing through the little door which is near the +landing-place outside the walls, the remains of a mole +are still to be seen below the level of the water.</p> + +<p>The Khersonians raised two statues of brass on the +public place in honour of Glycia, in one of which she +was represented modestly and carefully attired, receiving +the three deputies of the town, and in the other she was +clothed in warrior garments, in the act of avenging the +betrayed citizens. At the time when Constantine Porphyrogenitus +wrote the account from which this has +been extracted, every citizen considered it his duty to +keep clean and bright the inscription which the gratitude +of the city had caused to be engraven upon her +monument.</p> + +<p>Kherson was little distinguished during the time of +the Byzantine Empire, except as occasionally taking part +in the frequent revolutions at Constantinople. As it +stood near the route through the plains of Southern +Russia by which the barbarians invaded the empire, it +was exposed to constant wars, and kept up a close intimacy +with the Greek emperors, who frequently sent it +succours, and sometimes received from it valuable assistance. +At length, in the tenth century, it underwent a +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">[156]</span>famous siege by Vladimir, Grand Duke of Russia, which, +as it marks the important period of the conversion of the +Russian nation to Christianity, I will shortly narrate +out of the Russian Chronicles, premising a few words +on the early Norman rulers of Russia, to explain the +relations of that people with the Greeks at the period +to which I allude.</p> + +<p>Rurik⁠<a id="FNanchor_133" href="#Footnote_133" class="fnanchor">[133]</a> the Norman was called over from Scandinavia +by the Slave nations to govern them about the year +862 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>, as at that time their chiefs were fighting +among themselves, and the people said, in the words +of the old Chronicler, “Let us seek a foreign prince +who shall govern us, and speak justly to us.” An embassy, +therefore, was sent to the Russ Varangians or +Normans across the Baltic in Scandinavia, and in consequence +Rurik arrived and reigned till 879 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span></p> + +<p>Already during his reign some Normans had led a +force down the Dniepr against Constantinople, which is +always called in the early chronicles Tzaragrad, or the +city of the Tzar,⁠<a id="FNanchor_134" href="#Footnote_134" class="fnanchor">[134]</a> the title given to the Greek emperor. +Oleg, the successor of Rurik, made another expedition +against Constantinople in 907, which he successfully +attacked according to Nestor by placing his vessels on +wheels and sailing across the narrow strip of land that +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">[157]</span>intervenes between the upper part of the Golden Horn +and the Black Sea. The city was ransomed, and the +fleet returned with silken sails for the Russian and cotton +ones for the Slaves, and in 912 a treaty was concluded +“to fix the limits of Russia and Greece.”</p> + +<p>Under the next prince, Igor, the Russians made two +more attacks against Constantinople, in the first of which +they were defeated by the Greek fire. The second was +successful, and gave rise to a treaty in which Kherson +is mentioned in a way that shows that this city had +always been allied with the Greek emperors, and continually +harassed by the Russians. It is said, “as to +the country of Kherson, the Russian princes are not in +future to have any troops in it, or in any of the towns +that are dependent on it, still less to make war with +this country and to endeavour to conquer it. But if +the Russian prince requires aid, we the Tzar (the Greek +Emperor) promise to furnish it, to replace under his +authority those of the surrounding countries which have +thrown it off. And if the Russians meet at the mouth +the Dniepr Khersonian fishermen, they shall not injure +them, and they shall not have the right to winter at the +mouth of the Dniepr, nor at Bielo Bejie (Berislaf), but +at the approach of autumn they shall return into their +own country, into Russia. If the Black Bulgarians +attack the country of Kherson, we recommend the +Russian prince to drive them back, and not to allow them +to disturb the peace.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_135" href="#Footnote_135" class="fnanchor">[135]</a></p> + +<p>Olga, the widow of Igor, reigned after him till 955. +She visited Constantinople as a guest, and became a +Christian. Indeed many of the Russians were christened +before this epoch, and the Bible had been translated into +Slavonic nearly a hundred years before. The Emperor +Constantine, or Romanus II., wished to marry Olga, +then more than sixty years old, but she refused him.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">[158]</span></p> + +<p>Sviatoslaw her son (955-963) twice conquered Bulgaria, +and advancing with a victorious army to the walls +of Constantinople, was as usual bought off, and a new +treaty was made, in which Kherson is again mentioned.</p> + +<p>Vladimir began to reign in 980, and though in the +beginning a determined idolator, in later times he sent +ambassadors to various countries to see which was the +best religion. They visited the Mahometan Bulgarians, +Roman Catholic Germans, the Jews and the Greeks, and +struck with the splendour of their service, they reported +in favour of the Greeks.</p> + +<p>Upon this nothing took place till, in the words of +Nestor, “It happened that in the course of the next year +(988 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>) Vladimir with his army invaded Kherson. +The inhabitants shut themselves up in the walls of the +town, and Vladimir established his camp on each side, +near the harbour, just within shot of the said town. +The besieged defended themselves valiantly, yet, as +Vladimir always pressed on the siege, they began to lose +courage, and he said to them, ‘If you do not surrender, +I swear that I will remain here three years.’</p> + +<p>“To this threat the besieged paid no attention, and +Vladimir made his soldiers take up their arms, and +ordered the assault, but while they were engaged in it, +the Khersonians, having made a way into the ditches, +took out the earth which the besieged had thrown into +them to fill them up, and brought it into the town, and +the more the Russians threw into the ditches, the more +the besieged took out of them. But while Vladimir was +besieging Kherson, and constraining its inhabitants, a +certain Athanasius shot into the enemy’s camp an arrow +bearing this advice, ‘Thou canst stop or turn aside the +source of the springs which are behind thee, towards the +east: it is thence that the waters of the town are brought +to us.’ At this news Vladimir lifted his eyes to heaven +and cried out, ‘If this be true, I promise to receive +baptism.’ And forthwith he gave the order to stop the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">[159]</span>pipes and turn off the water. Soon the besieged, worn +out, and dying of thirst, surrendered, and Vladimir, with +his people, made his entry into the town. Vladimir +then asked the Emperors Basil and Constantine for their +sister Anne in marriage, and she was granted him on +condition of his baptism, and was received into the port +by the Khersonians, who conducted her to the palace.</p> + +<p>“The baptism of Vladimir⁠<a id="FNanchor_136" href="#Footnote_136" class="fnanchor">[136]</a> took place in the church +of the Holy Mother of God at Kherson, situated in +the midst of the town on the market-place. It is +here near the church, by the side of the altar, that +is to be seen to this day the palace of Vladimir and +that of the princess. Immediately after the baptism, +the bishop conducted the princess for another ceremony, +that of marriage. Vladimir ordered to be built a church +in Kherson, on the hill made with the earth which the +inhabitants had piled up in the centre of the town +during the siege, which church may still be seen in our +days.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_137" href="#Footnote_137" class="fnanchor">[137]</a></p> + +<p>Nothing can be more simple than this church, the +remains of which have been uncovered by Lieutenant +Kruse, and which is a model of the antique Byzantine +style. Vladimir received from the Greeks, as the dowry +of the princess, the city of Kherson.</p> + +<p>When he returned to Kief he determined, in true autocratic +style, that all his people should follow his own +example. So he cast the favourite idol Peroun, the God +of Thunder, into the Dniepr, and then proclaimed that +whoever did not appear on its banks should be treated as +a rebel, and when all the people were assembled, men, +women, and children were sent into the water to be +baptized all together.</p> + +<p>There has been a question about two gates of Corinthian +brass, which were said to have been carried from +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">[160]</span>Kherson to Kiew by Vladimir, and to have been removed +thence by Boleslas II., king of Poland, who +placed them at the entrance of the cathedral of Grodno, +while other authors pretend that they now exist in +the cathedral of St. Sophia at Great Novgorod.⁠<a id="FNanchor_138" href="#Footnote_138" class="fnanchor">[138]</a> +Nestor makes no mention of the doors, but only says +that Vladimir brought back from Kherson the Tzarina +Anastasia, the priests of Kherson, the relics of St. Clement, +and his disciple Phira, and vases and instruments +for burning incense, and that he did all this for the +welfare of his soul. He also says that the prince carried +away with him two images of brass, and four horses in +metal, which in his time stood behind the church of the +Holy Mother of God in Kiew, and were thought by the +ignorant to be made of marble. It is possible that later +writers may have confounded the “images” with the +“gates of brass.”</p> + +<p>Kherson was finally destroyed, after 2000 years’ +existence, by Olgerd, the nephew of Gedimine the +Lithuanian, the founder of Vilna, the ancestor of the +Jagellons, and the conqueror of Kief and all Southern +Russia.⁠<a id="FNanchor_139" href="#Footnote_139" class="fnanchor">[139]</a></p> + +<p>After its pillage by the Lithuanians, Kherson was +almost deserted, and when the Turks, in 1475, took possession +of the Crimea, they only found in it empty houses +and deserted churches, from which they removed the +finest marbles for their buildings at Constantinople. +Bronovius visited the city at the end of the sixteenth +century, and says that the Turks called it Sari Kerman, +or the Yellow Castle, on account of the yellow colour of +the ground, and it had then been uninhabited for many +centuries. The ruins, however, of what he calls this +“proud, delicate, and illustrious city,” were then wonderful. +The wall and its towers, built of enormous +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">[161]</span>blocks of hewn stone, were perfect, and a beautiful +aqueduct still brought the purest water. The palace of +the kings, itself as large as a city, with magnificent +entrance gates, continued to exist. The churches were despoiled, +because of their valuable marbles, and the largest +Greek monastery alone remained entire.⁠<a id="FNanchor_140" href="#Footnote_140" class="fnanchor">[140]</a> After three +more centuries, what the Turks and the Tatars had spared +was taken by the Russians, when they built Sevastopol. +Sailors were sent to collect materials, and no ancient +remains respected. The walls and fine gateways which +still existed were pulled down to build the Quarantine, +and when the Emperor Alexander issued orders to stop +this Vandalism, the ruin of every thing precious had +been already consummated. The last remains of works +of art, which Lieutenant Kruse had collected with persevering +industry, disappeared after a detachment of +soldiers had been lodged in the ruins for a few years +at the time of the plague.</p> + +<p>Between Sevastopol and Cape Chersonese, at the extremity +of the peninsula, there are no less than six large +bays, which succeed each other in the following order: +the Quarantine Bay and Streletzka Bay, which have +been already mentioned; Krougly Bay, or the Round +Bay; Cosatcha Bay, Bay of Cossacks, and Dvoiny Bay, +or Double Bay, where the Heracleans first settled themselves +before they moved to the Kherson, which has +been described. One branch of Dvoiny Bay is also +called Kamiesch, or the Reedy Bay, and it is here that +the French ships are anchored and the stores for their +army disembarked. The Chersonese is terminated to +the west by Cape Chersonese, called also Cape Fanar, +on account of the lighthouse, and the whole of the promontory +on which it stands is covered with the ruins +of the first Kherson.⁠<a id="FNanchor_141" href="#Footnote_141" class="fnanchor">[141]</a> Crossing then in a south-east +direction for several miles, over a plain covered +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">[162]</span>with ruins, we arrive at another cape, called in ancient +times Cape Partheniké, or that of the Virgin, and now +Cape Violente or St. George, from the monastery of the +same name which is near it, on a spot interesting for +several reasons.</p> + +<p>The cape derived its ancient name from the cruel +Virgin divinity of the Tauri, so famous in early history, +to whom all strangers were sacrificed who suffered shipwreck +on this inhospitable coast. When the Greeks +arrived from Heraclea they brought in the worship of +Hercules and Diana, and, as they always respected the +religion of the countries they visited, and found a great +resemblance between their own Diana and the Virgin of +the Tauri, they probably merged the two into one under +the name of the Tauric Diana, discontinuing the ancient +barbarous custom of offering human victims. At a later +period, Iphigenia was confounded with the other two +divinities, as Herodotus expressly says that in his time +she was worshipped as a goddess.⁠<a id="FNanchor_142" href="#Footnote_142" class="fnanchor">[142]</a> The Tauric goddess +had her parthenon in Kherson, and her chapel on +Cape Partheniké. The road is still visible by which +the worshippers passed from Kherson to the promontory, +crossing a ridge of rocks, on which the traces of the +ancient chariot-wheels are distinctly visible.</p> + +<p>The cape is remarkable as being the exact limit between +the most ancient and the most modern geological +formations in the Crimea. Here, on the top of the precipice, +an immense rock of Jurassic limestone juts out +from the coast, on a level with the steppe, and bordered +by sheer precipices on every side, except where it is connected +with the mainland. In the centre are the foundations +of an isolated edifice, almost square, constructed of +hewn stone, like the Donjons of the houses on the Chersonese. +It was placed at the angle of the two walls, +which, advancing one to the west, and the other to the +south, on the edge of the precipice, formed of the rest of +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">[163]</span>the platform a kind of court, of which the entrance-gate +looked towards the Chersonese and the road. This could +only have been a temple, for here are neither the wells +nor buildings which always characterize a dwelling-house. +This was also the fittest situation for the worship of +the Tauric Virgin, for at this point only could the sea +be reached on this side of the Chersonese, and close to +it is a gorge in the form of an amphitheatre, where +doubtless, in the earliest times, crowds assembled to +witness the precipitation of the unhappy victims into +the sea.</p> + +<p>Near it, ensconced in a ledge of the precipice, is the +famous monastery of St. George.⁠<a id="FNanchor_143" href="#Footnote_143" class="fnanchor">[143]</a> From the plateau +above, which has all the aridity and monotony of the +Steppes,⁠<a id="FNanchor_144" href="#Footnote_144" class="fnanchor">[144]</a> its ancient walls are not visible, and it is +not till the traveller approaches the edge of the cliffs, +and looks over, that he sees, instead of a frightful +wave-beaten precipice, a most charming little village, +nestled in the rocks at about fifty feet below him. There +are a church, and houses, and terraces, cut one below the +other, and ancient poplars, and gardens irrigated by a +fine rivulet of water. The spot looks like a little oasis +suspended, as if by enchantment, at several hundred feet +above the sea, in the midst of an amphitheatre of black +basaltic rocks, which rise majestically around, and form +a striking contrast to the rich verdure in which the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">[164]</span>monastery is hidden. A door and staircase, cut in +the rock, form the only entrance to this great Hermitage, +which was no doubt first created by the ancient Troglodytes, +or dwellers under ground, whose remains are so +numerous in the Crimea, as all the rocks near the +monastery, which are composed of chalk, are pierced +by ancient grottoes, which are now only used as cellars +and poultry-yards, although they were inhabited by the +monks so lately as the time of Pallas, in 1794. The +monastery consists of many large buildings, several of +which are devoted to the reception of strangers. The +church has unfortunately been rebuilt, and the ancient +chapel that stood here has been totally destroyed. A +rivulet runs in front of the houses, and trickles into a +stone basin, shaded by poplars, while below it are terraced +gardens and small vineyards.</p> + +<p>This little nook generally enjoys a most unbroken +quiet, but on the 23rd of April, St. George’s-day—when +crowds arrive, and the plateau above is covered with huts +and tents—the Greeks, from all parts of Crimea, flock +to the place, and the women especially frequent the fête, +and embellish the scene by their picturesque dresses and +traditional beauty. As in most religious festivals, the +world always claims its part, and a kind of fair is held +here in the early part of the day, at which much +business is done. But all at once the scene changes—the +hour of divine service has arrived, the crowd flocks +to the church, and, as soon as the benediction has been +given, there is a rush to the basin containing the water, +which is supposed at this season to be a remedy against +all kinds of diseases.</p> + +<p>On a terrace, close to the monastery, there are traces +of several Greek temples. A dreary and barren road +leads past the village of Karany, through a valley, to +Balaklava, at which town terminates the Chersonese. +The Chersonese in winter serves as a refuge to a +great quantity of bustards, that are driven from the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">[165]</span>plains by the snow. Thousands may be seen at once, +and the hunters conceal themselves in little cabins and +shoot them as they pass, for the birds, tired and thin +at this season of the year, fly very low, and may be +almost caught by the hand. There are two kinds, a +large and a small; the latter are better eating, and +both are very cheap, and a favourite article of food in +Sevastopol.⁠<a id="FNanchor_145" href="#Footnote_145" class="fnanchor">[145]</a> When the snow covers the Chersonese, +and the cold reaches sometimes 16° Fahrenheit, the +bustards fly to the southern coast, to Laspi, where it is +always warm.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">[166]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI.<br> +<span class="smaller">ON THE ANCIENT INHABITANTS OF THE CRIMEA.</span></h2> + +<p>The Cimmerii—The Tauri—Connexion of Greece with the Black Sea—Digression +on the Crypts of the Crimea—<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 600: The Scythians—The +Greek colonies, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 650—Milesian emigration—Dorian emigration—Trade +of these early times—Mithridates, reigned <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 120-63—<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 62: +The Alans—<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 100-200: The Goths—<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 376: The Huns—Second +attack of the Huns—Justinian, reigned <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 527-565—<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 679: The +Khazars—<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 900-1000: The Petchenegues—About 1204: The Comans—1226: +The Tatars—The Genoese—1473: Kaffa taken by the Turks—The +Black Sea then shut up to European nations—Mixture of races in +present inhabitants of Crimea.</p> + +</div> + +<p>Having had occasion to mention various nations who +have occupied the Crimea, it will perhaps be useful to +bring together in one succinct view the numerous revolutions +which the peninsula has undergone, and the order +in which the various races of its inhabitants succeeded +one another from the earliest times.</p> + +<p>First of all come the Cimmerians, who belong partly +to history and partly to fable. The story in the ‘Odyssey’ +describes them as dwelling beyond the ocean stream, +plunged in darkness, and unblest by the rays of Helios +(the sun). According to Herodotus, they originally occupied +the Steppes of Southern Russia, or the country between +the Borysthenes and the Tanais, and being expelled +from their country by the Scythians, skirted the shores +of the Euxine, and devastated, for a number of years, the +highly civilized countries of Asia Minor. The poets of +that age lament the destruction of every exquisite production +of Greek genius by this barbarian people, who +were nomadic “milkers of mares,” like the Scythians, +and wandered in tents over their grassy Steppes. They +had already disappeared in the time of Herodotus, at +which time the tombs of their kings were shown near +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">[167]</span>the Dniestr. They left their name in the Cimmerian +Bosphorus, while the darkness in which they were supposed +to have lived has perpetuated their memory down +to our own times—</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">“In black Cimmerian darkness ever dwell.”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>There was another people mentioned as early as the +time of Homer, who, being mountaineers, were able to +preserve their nationality for a very long period of time. +These were the Tauri, who appear to have been a people +of a most savage and unamiable character.</p> + +<p>It has been already said that they sacrificed to a cruel +goddess all shipwrecked mariners, and they sometimes +not only made offerings but feasts of human victims. +These habits have procured them an immortal infamy in +the writings of the Greeks and Romans, and, through +the story of Iphigenia, have made the Crimea associated +with one of the most famous legends of the Greek mythology. +Her history and that of her fate-urged family, +connected with great events, abounding in scenes of concentrated +action, laid in mysterious and wild countries—contained +much matter calculated to rouse the passions, +and have made it a favourite subject for poets both in +ancient and modern times.</p> + +<p>The works of almost every great poet of antiquity contain +allusions to the tragic history of the Atridæ, and the +fate of Iphigenia has occupied in modern times the pen +of Racine and Göthe. It was also a popular subject +with ancient painters, and Timanthes, having represented +her just about to be sacrificed, after exhausting all his +art in depicting the grief of the other bystanders, drew a +veil over the face of her father as the best means of +representing his inexpressible anguish.</p> + +<p>The story of Iphigenia is not an isolated instance of +the attention which the most ancient Greeks seem in +numerous cases to have directed to the East, and the +expeditions of Phrixus and Helle, of the Argonauts, the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">[168]</span>long wanderings of Ulysses on the coasts of Colchis, the +Crimea, and the Cimmerian Bosphorus, and the Achæans, +who were said, in returning from Troy, to have settled +on the Circassian coast,—all have the same tendency.</p> + +<p>In the time of Herodotus the Tauri occupied the hill-country +of the Crimea, and were in all probability the +people who formed the numberless dwellings and towns +cut in the solid rock, which are found in many parts of +the country. The chalk or green-sandstone formation, +easily wrought, homogeneous, with few fissures, and +horizontal beds, was peculiarly adapted for this purpose; +and wherever it crops out of the soil, there are sure to be +found these subterranean dwellings.</p> + +<p>These crypts are the most curious remains of antiquity +in the Crimea, and abound chiefly in the south-western +parts, forming perhaps the only relics of its most ancient +inhabitants. Not that the use of crypts was confined +solely to the most ancient times, for many Christian +churches are found in them, and they must therefore +have been inhabited at least down to the fourth or fifth +centuries of the Christian era, when the inhabitants of the +Crimea were converted to Christianity. Although there +are few countries of the world in which they exist in such +great numbers as in a portion of the Crimea, still this +habit of living in subterranean dwellings was very common +among ancient nations, and instances of it are familiar +to all. The crypts are the only relics of those ages +in the infancy of the world, when, according to mythic +legends, men dwelt in caverns and were nourished on +acorns.</p> + +<p>A large portion of the populations of Asia, when they +became fixed, began by burrowing out holes for themselves +in the rocks. Caverns were then used as their +temples and their sepulchres.</p> + +<p>The rock temples scattered over various parts of India +are some of them imperishable monuments of times on +which history is silent.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">[169]</span></p> + +<p>Persia has its crypt tombs and cities, that have called +forth the admiration of all travellers. Egypt, Nubia, +and Abyssinia began by crypts, and the rock temples, +palaces, and immense necropoleis (which were at first +towns for the living) attest the art and industry of one +of the most remarkable of ancient nations. The traditions +of Greece point back to a time when caverns were +common dwellings. In Sicily the rocks are pierced with +crypt towns of very ingenious workmanship. In Magna +Græcia and Etruria crypt tombs are common, and the +labyrinth of Crete was the theatre of some of the earliest +Greek myths. In Asia Minor, and even in Thrace, the +same sort of works may be found.</p> + +<p>Notices of them are also frequent in the Bible. The +Kaphtorians or Phœnicians came from the southern +coasts of the Red Sea, and disembarked at its northern +extremity under Edom, who gave his name to the country, +so that it is no wonder that we find the Idumæans +or Edomites dwelling in caves down to a late period. +The antique towns in the valley of the Jordan and the +Dead Sea are crypt towns, like those of the Crimea, but +executed by a people in a higher state of civilization. +The Edomites or Phœnicians played a great part, before +the arrival of the Hebrews in Egypt, and their commerce +embraced the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. They +extended their mercantile relations as far as Sidon and +Tyre, and carried at the same time to the foot of Mount +Lebanon their custom of excavation. The northern +valley of the Jordan, the Ard el Hule, is pierced with +crypt towns, of which the most remarkable are Hatsor +and Bostra. Their inhabitants were proud of their +dwellings in the rocks, which they regarded as impregnable, +which made the prophet Jeremiah exclaim, ch. xlix. +v. 16, “Thy terribleness hath deceived thee, and the +pride of thine heart, O thou that dwellest in the clefts of +the rock, that boldest the heights of the hill, though +thou shouldest make thy nest as high as the hill, I will +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">[170]</span>bring thee down, saith the Lord.” Every reader is +familiar with the caves of Makeda, Adullam, and Engeddi, +in the patriarchal history, and Jerusalem itself was surrounded +with crypt tombs. In the country of Tubal, the +modern Georgia, the ancestors of that ancient and chivalrous +people dwelt in subterranean dwellings, such as +are now to be seen at Ouphlitsikhé and Armasi. In +Armenia, which enjoys the high privilege of having been +the first Christian nation, and of having suffered more +than any other for its faith, the art of the crypt has +always been in great favour, and innumerable specimens +are to be seen at Hrachegapert, and at the monasteries +of Airivauk, Kieghart, and other places.⁠<a id="FNanchor_146" href="#Footnote_146" class="fnanchor">[146]</a></p> + +<p>On the banks of the Upper Kour, in Imeritia, a country +adjoining on Georgia, there are many places, such as +Vardsic and others, where these dwellings are to be found, +and the termination “kvabi,” or cavern, in the names of +places always indicates their existence.</p> + +<p>In Mingrelia, the ancient Colchis, there are an infinity +of grottoes on the banks of the Upper Phasis (modern +Krivila), and one whole district, Semokvákana (the high +dwellings), takes its name from them.</p> + +<p>Lastly, in the centre of the Caucasus, in the valley of +the Kouir, and near Kislavodsk and other places, are to +be found the dwellings of the Troglodytes of Strabo.</p> + +<p>Thus it appears how largely the crypt enters into the +early history of mankind, and how much of human +labour has been expended upon a species of dwelling +which is so widely spread over the Crimea.⁠<a id="FNanchor_147" href="#Footnote_147" class="fnanchor">[147]</a></p> + +<p>Even among the modern Tatars in that country their +habitations are seldom wholly detached from the rocks. +They generally choose some shady sloping place for their +villages, and supporting two sides of their houses by +walls of brick or mud, with a little verandah in front, +they let the other parts rest either in a niche cut in the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">[171]</span>earth, or against the side of a precipice. In Georgia it +is often dangerous riding from the subterranean villages +formed in the sloping sides of hills, the flat roofs of +which look just like the common earth, and a person +unused to the country might easily sink into the midst of +an astonished family, did not the wreath of smoke generally +prove a warning of the treacherous nature of the soil.</p> + +<p>Returning from this digression to the history of the +Tauri, I will only further remark that, from a similarity +of manners, and other causes, they are considered to +belong to the Tchud or Finnish race of nations, and thus +to be related to the Lesghins and Tchetchens of the +Caucasus, and the famous Finnish pirates who infested +the shores of the Baltic down to the tenth and eleventh +centuries.</p> + +<p>The resemblance of the Virgin goddess of the Greeks +and the cruel divinity of the Tauri, perhaps may arise +from the fact of the Greek nation itself being composed +of the two elements of an Indo-Germanic graft upon a +primitive Finnish stock. When the Indo-Germanic +wave of population rolled towards the West it drove +the earlier races before it, or forced them aside into the +mountains as the only secure resting-place. Thus the +mountain chain of the Crimea played on a small scale +the part of the Caucasus, and served as a refuge for the +remnant of the Finns against the Indo-Germanic races +who surrounded them, of which the most ancient known +to us were the Kimmerians. The word Tauri probably +means mountaineers.⁠<a id="FNanchor_148" href="#Footnote_148" class="fnanchor">[148]</a></p> + +<p>In <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 600 the Scythians, who were also a nation of +Finnish origin, invaded the Crimea, and mixing with the +Tauri formed the nation of the Tauro-Scythians, whose +principal seat was in the valleys to the north of the +Tauric chain.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">[172]</span></p> + +<p>A short time before the Scythian invasion, about +<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 650, the Greeks, who, as I have said, had been before +connected with these countries, began to plant colonies +about which we have definite historical information. +The Milesians first established themselves on the peninsula +of Kertch, an open country of easy cultivation. +Their agricultural prosperity was quickly known in +Greece, and new and important emigrations took place. +Theodosia, Nymphæum, Panticapæum, and Myrmékium +quickly raised their heads on the shores of the little +peninsula, and served as ports for the rich establishments +of the colonists.⁠<a id="FNanchor_149" href="#Footnote_149" class="fnanchor">[149]</a></p> + +<p>Stimulated by the success of the Milesians, the Heracleans +endeavoured on their side to found some colonies +in the Crimea. They turned to the western part of the +peninsula, and disembarked not far from the celebrated +Cape Partheniké, and, having beaten and driven back +into the mountains the savage Tauri, they fixed themselves +in the Heracleotic Chersonese. Thus was founded +the celebrated republic of Kherson, which, conquered for +a moment by a Grand Duke of Russia in the tenth century, +as has been related, became the point of departure +of that great religious revolution which completely +changed the character and destinies of the Russian +Empire.</p> + +<p>While the Heracleans were consolidating their power +by their manufactures and commerce, the Milesian establishments +on the Bosphorus were rising with extraordinary +rapidity, and spread to the Asiatic side, where +the towns of Phanagoria, Hermonássa, and Cépos were +founded. At first, independent one of the other, all +these different Milesian colonies were influenced by an +inevitable chain of events, and, 480 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, their political +union gave rise to the kingdom of the Bosphorus. As +has been said, agriculture was the essential basis of the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">[173]</span>public wealth of the Milesians, and the attention of the +new government was directed specially to this branch of +employment.</p> + +<p>As soon as Leucon ascended the throne he released +the Athenians from the thirtieth, which they had hitherto +paid as an export duty on grain. By this liberal measure +the exportation of it increased enormously, and the +Cimmerian or Panticapæan peninsula became the granary +of Greece, and merchants flocked for grain to Theodosia +and Panticapæum, where they also bought woollen cloths, +furs, and the salted fish which still forms one of the +staples of Southern Russia. The imports are little spoken +of in history, but it is evident from the late excavations +at Kertch that they must have consisted of articles of +luxury.</p> + +<p>The Bosphorians, then, no doubt received in return +for their productions all the manufactured articles which +luxury and riches had introduced into usage at Athens, +and it is probably to the artists of Greece that are due +the magnificent works of art which are admired in the +Museums of Kertch and Petersburg, which prove that +the agricultural colonists of the Crimea were not behind +their kinsmen of the brilliant metropolis of Athens in +their love for the arts and the refinements of civilised +life. Materials for building must also have formed an important +part of the imports. There is no trace of white +marble in the Crimea, nor on the northern shores of +the Black Sea, although immense quantities of it are +found in the excavations at Kertch, and there is every +reason to believe that the enormous pieces of sculpture +which were employed there in the public and private +buildings were brought ready worked from the quarries +of Greece. Notwithstanding the dangerous neighbourhood +of the Sarmatians, the kingdom of the Bosphorus +enjoyed perfect tranquillity for more than three hundred +years, and, thanks to a policy as firm as it was intelligent, +it increased in riches and prosperity up to the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">[174]</span>moment when the conquest of Greece by the Romans +upset all the commercial relations of the East.</p> + +<p>At this epoch the Bosphorians attacked by the +Scythians, and too feeble to resist them, threw themselves +into the arms of Mithridates, who made their +state a province of Pontus, and gave it as an appanage +to his son Macharés.</p> + +<p>After the defeat and death of her implacable enemy, +Rome preserved to the traitor Pharnáces the crown of +the Bosphorus; but the sovereignty of the new prince +was only nominal, and the successors of the son of +Mithridates, without power, and despoiled of their possessions +on the Asiatic side of the Bosphorus, depended +on the caprice of the Roman emperors.</p> + +<p>In the sixty-second year of our era the Alans ravaged +the country, and attacked the Tauri even in their +mountains. They devastated the country, and utterly +destroyed Theodosia, which offered them some resistance. +They continued masters of the country, without changing +their vagabond life, till they were conquered by the Goths +in the middle of the second century.⁠<a id="FNanchor_150" href="#Footnote_150" class="fnanchor">[150]</a> The Goths, although +they have undeservedly gained a bad reputation in Europe, +were the only people who brought the germs of peace +and civilization to this much-disputed peninsula; and +they kept possession of it longer than any other people, +for the remnant of them, and its name of Gothia, remained +to it more than a thousand years—till nearly the +end of the sixteenth century. They mixed intimately +with the vanquished people, founded many colonies in +the vast plains situated to the north of the mountains, +and quickly gave themselves up to their taste for a +sedentary and agricultural life. Then there began for +the Crimea a new period of tranquillity, which might +also have been one of agricultural prosperity; but, unfortunately, +Greece, conquered by the Romans, was at +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">[175]</span>this period rapidly falling, and Rome, become the capital +of the world, was supplied with grain by Egypt, Sicily, +and Africa. The Crimea, notwithstanding its efforts, +could not rise from the obscurity to which it was condemned +by the great political events which signalized +the first century of the Christian era. In the midst of +the first invasions of the barbarians, the little republic +of Kherson, protected by its remote and inaccessible +situation, preserved its independence. In the reign of +the Emperor Diocletian, the Khersonites, who possessed +nearly all the high country, had centered in themselves +the commerce which existed between the Crimea and +some parts of the shores of the Black Sea, and their +republic was the most powerful state in the Crimea, +until a war broke out between them and the Sarmatians, +who had seized the kingdom of the Bosphorus, in which +they were defeated. The struggle between the rival +nations at the Bosphorus lasted nearly a century, until +the Sarmatians were driven out, and the Bosphorians +again enjoyed some years of liberty and internal prosperity.</p> + +<p>This peace, however, was of short duration, and like +a calm before a terrible tempest. After a few years, the +Huns poured down from the interior of Asia, and at +first occupied the Asiatic side of the Bosphorus; then, +crossing the Sea of Azof, they annihilated for ever the +ancient kingdom of the Milesians, <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 375. The numerous +colonies of the Goths, united with the Alans, +were overcome, and all their agricultural establishments +were reduced to ruins. Protected by their western +position, the Khersonians alone escaped.</p> + +<p>Fortunately for the Goths of the Crimea, the Huns +only passed through the country, for they were attracted +to the banks of the Dniestr and the Danube by the great +events which were there taking place, after the death of +Ermanrich the Ostrogoth, which had just removed the +only obstacle to their progress. The Goths of the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">[176]</span>Crimea, who had yielded to the torrent and retired to the +mountains, again spread themselves over the country. +After the death of Attila the Huns again appeared, and +this time Kherson was threatened, and implored the +assistance of the Greek emperor. Justinian hastened to +accede to their demand, and, being also friendly to the +Goths, built long walls to protect their country against +the nomades of the Steppes, and two fortresses, Aloushton +and Gorzubita (Alouchta and Oursouf), on the +southern coast of the Crimea. He built no towns or +fortresses to the north of the mountains, because the +Goths did not like to be shut up within walls, but to +live freely in the open country.</p> + +<p>They had at this time the reputation of being excellent +warriors, laborious husbandmen, and the most hospitable +of mankind towards strangers. They then occupied both +sides of the Cimmerian Bosphorus, and, becoming converts +to Christianity, they sent four deputies to Constantinople +to ask the emperor to send them a bishop in the place of +their autistes, who had died.⁠<a id="FNanchor_151" href="#Footnote_151" class="fnanchor">[151]</a></p> + +<p>Near the end of the seventh century, <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 679, the +Crimea was invaded by the Khazars, whose hordes at +first accompanied the Huns, and afterwards established +themselves in Lithuania (Bersilia), and constituted a +kingdom independent even of Attila. The apparition of +these new conquerors, already masters of a vast territory, +made such a sensation at Constantinople, that the sovereigns +of the East sought their alliance, and the court +of Byzantium even asked in marriage the daughter of +the Khakan, as the chief of the nation was called, for +the son of the Emperor Leo.</p> + +<p>The forebodings of the imperial government about the +Khazars were quickly realized, and in the short space of +150 years, this people, who had given their name to the +peninsula of the Crimea, founded a vast monarchy, the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">[177]</span>limits of which reached in Europe to the Danube, and in +Asia to the foot of the Caucasus, while even the Caspian +was known in the middle ages as the Sea of the Khazars.</p> + +<p>After the Khazars, whose fall was in part hastened by +the attacks of the Russians, and who then disappeared +completely from history, the Petchenegues, or Patzinates, +their conquerors, who are constantly mentioned in the +annals of Constantinople and the early Russian history, +succeeded to their dominions, with the exception of +Kherson, which was incorporated in the empire of Constantinople. +Under the rule of this people, who also +came from Asia, the commerce and manufactures of the +Crimea revived,—its relations with Constantinople increased, +and its ports furnished to the merchants of +the Greeks, purple, fine stuffs, embroidered cloths, ermines, +and leopard skins, furs of all kinds, pepper and fine +spices, which the Petchenegues bought on the south of +the Kuban, and in the Trans-Caucasian countries, which +extend as far as the Cyrus and the Araxes. Thus +recommenced for this unhappy country, which had been +so often devastated, the new era of a prosperity, which it +had not enjoyed for several centuries. The empire of the +Petchenegues lasted for about 150 years, and then they +had to deplore similar calamities to those which they +had inflicted on the Khazars. Attacked by the Comans, +whom the extension of the Mongol power in Asia had +expelled from their territory, they were vanquished in +the struggle which ensued, and forced to retire into Asia. +The Comans, a warlike people, took possession of the +Crimea, and made Soldaya (Soudak) their capital. They +had, however, hardly consolidated their power, when they +were obliged to yield to other conquerors, and seek a +refuge in more western countries.</p> + +<p>With the expulsion of the Comans ceased all those +temporary invasions, which for ten centuries desolated +the Crimea. To all these different hordes, of whom +the greater number have left no trace but their name, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">[178]</span>there succeeded two remarkable nations. One of these, +the conqueror of Asia, was just founding the most +gigantic empire of the middle ages; and the other, +issuing from a merchant city of Italy, was destined to +make Khazaria the centre and the point of junction of +the commercial relations between Europe and Asia. In +1226 took place the memorable invasion of the Mongol +Tatars, a notice of which has been already given, and +from that moment the establishment of peace and security +was sufficient to develope the great natural resources +which this celebrated country possessed. Soldaya, taken +from the Comans by the Tatars, and given back to the +Christians, quickly became the most important port on the +Black Sea, and a principal station in the commercial +route between Europe and Asia. Soldaya, however, had +but a short duration, and another people, as intelligent, +and active as the Greeks, and endowed with a still +bolder mercantile instinct, was, at this epoch, destined to +enjoy a greater commercial grandeur than any since the +time when the Milesians founded their first colonies +on the Cimmerian Bosphorus. Already masters of the +important factories at Constantinople, the Genoese had +long been able to appreciate the position of the Black +Sea, and the immense resources which it placed at the +disposition of enterprising men, who might there centralize +the relations of Europe with Russia, Persia and +the Indies.</p> + +<p>The rivality which then existed between them and the +Venetians accelerated the execution of their projects, +and in 1280, after having acquired, partly by stratagem +and partly by force, the territory of ancient Theodosia, +they laid the foundation of the celebrated Kaffa, which +secured to the republic the empire of the Black Sea and +the exclusive command of its commerce. With the Genoese, +the Crimea saw revived one of the most brilliant +epochs of its history. Kaffa, by its size, its population, +and its opulence, became the rival of Constantinople, and +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">[179]</span>soon its consuls of Cerco (Kertch), Soldaya (Soudak), +and Cembalo (Balaclava), rendered themselves masters of +all the southern coast of the Crimea. At a later period, +they gained, beyond the peninsula, other conquests, not +less important. The galleys of the republic penetrated +into the Sea of Azof, and Tana, situated at the mouth of +the Don, was taken from the Tatars; a fortress was +erected at the mouth of the Dniestr, in Modern Bessarabia, +and numerous factories rose in Colchis and the +shore of the Caucasus, while the imperial town of Trebizonde +itself was obliged to allow the establishment +there of one of the largest factories of the republic in the +Black Sea. The Genoese colonies thus became a general +entrepôt for the rich productions of Russia, Asia Minor, +Persia, and the Indies, and during more than two centuries +monopolising to their profit all mercantile exchanges +between Europe and Asia, they presented a wonderful +spectacle of prosperity and riches. The term of +all this glory at last arrived. In 1453 the standard of +Mahomet was displayed on the dome of St. Sophia, and +the relations of the Crimea with the Mediterranean were +broken. The destruction of the Genoese establishments +became inevitable, and the republic itself, despairing +of preserving, decided upon abandoning them +to the bank of St. George on the 15th November, +1453. This cession, by politically detaching the colonies +from the metropolis, naturally led to fatal results. A +general discouragement took place in the colonies, each +man thought only of himself, and the consular government, +formerly so remarkable for its integrity and virtue, +instead of making friends of the Tatars to defend them +from the Porte, completely alienated them by their want +of good faith, and by selling their assistance for gold to +the various parties who at that time were desolating the +Crimea. So many faults were followed by a fatal catastrophe. +On the 6th of June, 1473, Kaffa was obliged +to surrender at discretion to the Turks, and some months +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">[180]</span>later, all the points occupied by the Genoese fell successively +into the power of the Ottomans. After the disaster +of the Genoese colonies, the great lines of communication +with the Trans-Caucasian countries, the shores of +the Caspian Sea, and those down the Volga, the Don, and +the Kuban, deprived of their support, were broken up, +and all commercial relations with Central Asia were momentarily +suspended. The Venetians, who had obtained +from the Turks the right of navigating the Black Sea, +on the condition of paying 10,000 ducats a-year, endeavoured +without success to take the place of their rivals. +They were in their turn expelled, the passage of the +Bosphorus was interdicted to the nations of the West, +and the Ottomans, with the Greeks of the Archipelago, +subjects of the Porte, had alone the right of navigating +the Black Sea and the Sea of Azof. The commerce of +the East then found for itself new débouchés by way of +Smyrna, and the discovery of Vasco de Gama produced +a complete revolution in the trade.</p> + +<p>A slight sketch of the Crimea when it formed the +seat of government of the khans of Little Tatary has +already been given, and during all that period the Black +Sea was unfrequented by the European nations. The +English, however, always had the nominal right of +navigating it; there are some vestiges of our having +had a footing there in the days of Queen Elizabeth or +James I., and when we ceased to frequent it is not ascertained. +In the treaty made in 1675 between England +and Turkey by Sir John Finch, there is an express article +giving a general permission of ingress and egress into +the Black Sea, “to enable English merchants and all +under their banner to go by the way of the Tanais into +Moscovia, and also to and from Persia, and to traffic by +land and by sea through all their confines.” There is +even a provision for the protection of English vessels +should they be forced by stress of weather into Kaffa.⁠<a id="FNanchor_152" href="#Footnote_152" class="fnanchor">[152]</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">[181]</span></p> + +<p>This permission, however, remained a dead letter until +the beginning of the present century, when our right to +navigate the Black Sea having been claimed afresh and +allowed, an active trade sprung up, which has been yearly +increasing in importance.</p> + +<p>It might naturally be expected, after so many different +nations had occupied the Crimea, that its population +would be of a very mixed character, and such indeed is +the case. It is not, however, in the plains, which are +inhabited chiefly by Nogai Tatars of late date, nor in +any of the towns, that the remnants of the ancient inhabitants +of the country are to be sought. The mountains +are in every country the refuge of the oppressed, +and it is in the mountains of the Crimea, among the +so-called Tatars, who are, however, a very different race +from those of the plains, that a people is to be found of +very mixed origin.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">[182]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII.<br> +<span class="smaller">BALACLAVA AND VALLEY OF BAIDAR.</span></h2> + +<p>Balaclava—Karl Ritter’s views of the importance of the Black Sea in very +early times—Homer’s account of Balaclava—The Cembalo of the Genoese—Tatar +occupation of it—Arnaouts—Tchorgouna—Mackenzie’s Farm—Valley +of Baidar—Manners of the Tatars—Woronzof road.</p> + +</div> + +<p>Balaclava is now a busy scene; the little bay is crowded +with transports; thousands of our countrymen disembark +here to exercise their perilous profession, and as many +re-embark, poor wounded soldiers, shattered in constitution, +or with the loss of limbs, but henceforth immortal +heroes, whose deeds will be the theme of the historian +and the poet, whose future welfare will be a subject of +anxious solicitude to their country, and who henceforth, +however humble their rank, in whatever country they +visit, will be marked men; marked for honour, and +distinction, and respect, from all who admire chivalrous +boldness, and that still rarer quality, calm unimpassioned +endurance. Sevastopol is the grandest theatre of events +that has yet been seen. The audience, so to speak, is +the largest, and, for the first time, really comprehends +the whole world. Even the wars of Napoleon were +a subject of little interest in China, or Australia, or +California; but each swaying to and fro of the mighty +combatants at Sevastopol interests literally the whole +globe, and that interest is doubled by the speed with +which the news is carried, and the increased knowledge +which all nations now possess of each other.</p> + +<p>When I visited Balaclava before the present war, +nothing could be more quiet than this little port, and +a few Greeks sauntering about, or exercising their +peddling occupations in the village bazar, were the only +persons to be met with. Yet even then, like most out-of-the-way +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">[183]</span>places in the world, there were some representatives +of the British nation to be found, and I was +asked to go and visit a crew of shipwrecked English +sailors in the lazaretto, who had been saved with difficulty +on the rocks at the entrance of the harbour. The +ship had struck; the poor fellows were thrown on a +ledge of the cliffs, where they remained for nearly a day +and a night before they could be rescued; yet when they +were brought in at last, exhausted, and at death’s door, +nothing could induce them to touch the hot brandy that +was brought them, lest they should break their pledge +as teetotalers. It was impossible not to admire in them +that British firmness of purpose, which was the same +quality which showed itself in the defence of Inkerman, +however mistaken in this application of it.</p> + +<p>Balaclava is the only bay on the southern coast +resembling those about Sevastopol, where the land rises +suddenly on each side, and the water is so deep that +the largest ships may anchor close to the shore. On +approaching it from the East, the geological formation is +seen at once to change in its vicinity; the summits of +the rocks are still, like the rest of the Tauric chain, +calcareous; but they have been changed by violent +action into red, blue, and grey marbles, below which +reappears the coarse red pudding-stone of the Tchatyr-Dagh +mountain, while a great rent, which opens on +the sea, and was called the Valley of the Devil (Shaitan +Déréh), shows a black or yellowish schist. I will here +quote the words in which Dubois describes his arrival on +this singular spot: “Each step,” he says, “in approaching +Balaclava is an enigma to me, such an inconceivable +disorder reigns among these masses of pudding-stone +with enormous pebbles, which alternate with layers of +marble and sandstone; and the marble finishes this +strange series, which seems like a world turned topsy-turvy. +When arrived at the top of the sterile mountain +that overhangs Balaclava, I cry out with astonishment, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">[184]</span>What are these white antique towers perched on +the top of rocks descending so rapidly to the water? +What is this brilliant lake shut in by the steep mountains? +And that red promontory reflected in the waves +of the sea? Can this be Balaclava? Nothing but ruins +are visible, where then is the town? Contemplating +with admiration this romantic scene, I descended the +mountain, looking continually for the town, of which I +saw no vestige. My guide at last directed me suddenly +to the left, and like magic, I found myself in Balaclava, +which, placed on the narrow strip of land between the +mountain with the ruins and the tranquil bay, is not +seen till it is entered.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_153" href="#Footnote_153" class="fnanchor">[153]</a></p> + +<p>Like many other places in the Crimea, Balaclava has +a very ancient history. Our first notice of it is in the +dim twilight of archaic times. We have the high authority +of Karl Ritter for supposing that it is the port of the +Læstrigons mentioned in the Odyssey; and the extreme +accuracy of Homer’s description of it, as will be presently +more fully shown, seems to make Ritter’s supposition +extremely probable. But before entering into the +particular identification of Balaclava, I will shortly state +what Ritter’s views are as to the part which the shores +of the Black Sea played in very early times.⁠<a id="FNanchor_154" href="#Footnote_154" class="fnanchor">[154]</a> He has +undertaken to prove, from the most ancient monuments +which are offered to us by ancient geography, archæology, +mythology, architecture, and religious systems, that +colonies of Indian priests, having departed with the +ancient worship of Buddha from the centre of Asia, came +directly or indirectly, before the historic times of Greece, +to establish themselves on the banks of the Phasis, +around the Euxine Sea, in Thrace, on the Ister, and in +many countries of Western Europe, and even in Greece; +that these colonies exercised a remarkable religious +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">[185]</span>influence, and that these facts are proved, not only from +the relations of the Asiatics, but principally from the +study of the most ancient fragments of the historians +of Greece and Asia Minor. We in Europe, receiving +our lights from Greece, are habituated to adopt all +the illusions of the national pride of the Greeks; and, +according to them, Greece was the focus of all light, +whence science, and civilization, and religion had their +origin. But in looking back to their myths, in reading +Homer, and the history of the Argonauts, and +of Phrixus and Helle, and others, it would seem that the +Greeks were always civilized by those whom they called +barbarians. The king and the people who received the +Argonauts, the Tyrians, the Trojans, were all superior +in civilization to the armies of adventurers, who, like the +Normans of the middle ages, came to plunder them, in +violating the laws of hospitality. All the ancient poets +and historians seem to have chosen the Black Sea for the +theatre of the exploits of their heroes. All their relations +look towards it as the point whence civilization and wealth +proceeded. Up to our days the wanderings of Ulysses, +in the 10th, 11th, and 12th Books of the Odyssey, were +supposed to be on the shores of Italy and Sicily. There +were sought the Læstrigons, the Cyclops, and Scylla and +Charybdis; but this is certainly wrong, and the poet +wished to make Ulysses wander on that inhospitable +shore, which appeared to him at the extremity of the +world. The moment that Ulysses reaches the coast of the +Læstrigons, we must recognize ourselves as on the shores +of the Black Sea. Their country can be no other than +the barbarous Crimea, and he evidently called the Tauri +the Læstrigons, from the Greek “lêstês,” meaning pirate +or brigand.</p> + +<p>After leaving them, Ulysses was driven on a low coast, +the island of Æa, where the enchantress Circe reigned, +the sister of Æetes. This was evidently Colchis or +Mingrelia, which may be easily recognised by the broad +river (the modern Rion) which received the fleet of +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">[186]</span>Ulysses, the vast forests which covered its banks, and +the palace hidden in the trees, which exactly represents +the Nikolakévi of our days. The wine there is as tempting +as ever, the honey as fresh, and the women still pass +their time in embroidery as in the time of Homer. From +the beauty of the country and its inhabitants it is still +the land of enchantment.</p> + +<p>That there may be no mistake about the position of +Æa, here the poet places the palace of Aurora in which +take place the songs and dances of the Hours, and +where the sun renews its birth. After leaving Colchis +Circe sends Ulysses to consult the oracle of the infernal +gods, and when the hero has crossed the empire of +Neptune, which he thinks the end of the world, he finds +a coast of easy access, shaded with high poplars and +sterile willows, where are the habitations of the Cimmerians +covered with thick clouds and black obscurity.</p> + +<p>The Cimmerians, we know from later authors, lived at +Kertch and in the island of Taman, at the extremity of +the Black Sea, which to Ulysses appeared the end of the +kingdom of Neptune. There he is described as finding +one of the entrances to the infernal regions, and there +to this moment exist the springs of black and burning +naphtha, which roll their stinking waters like the Cocytus +and the Acheron; and there also are the mud volcanoes, +belching forth a mixture of fire and water, which have +altered the form of all the country round.</p> + +<p>Then Ulysses returns to Circe, and starts for Ithaca, +and leaves the Black Sea by passing through Scylla and +Charybdis, which closed the entrance with their rocks surrounded +by whirlpools. These are the islands of the “blue +Symplegades,” familiar to all who have passed from Constantinople +to the Crimea, standing at the entrance of +the Bosphorus; and Homer cannot mean the straits of +Messina, because he says that the only ship which had +passed these straits was the Argo, when it went to +Colchis on the expedition for the golden fleece.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">[187]</span></p> + +<p>Thus it seems almost beyond a doubt that the shores +of the Black Sea were the mysterious regions where +some of the scenes of Homer were laid, and in parts of +which in the very earliest times, as in Colchis, were +settled highly civilized communities. Let us now observe +Homer’s description of Balaclava, as Pope has +translated it:—</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">“Within a long recess a bay there lies</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Edged round with cliffs, high pointing to the skies.</div> + <div class="verse indent0">The jutting shores, that swell on either side,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Contract its mouth, and break the rushing tide.</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Our eager sailors seize the fair retreat,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">And bound within the port their crowded fleet;</div> + <div class="verse indent0">For here retired the sinking billows sleep,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">And smiling calmness silvered o’er the deep.</div> + <div class="verse indent0">I only in the bay refused to moor,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">And fixed without my hawsers to the shore:</div> + <div class="verse indent0">From thence we climbed a point, whose airy brow</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Commands the prospect of the plains below;</div> + <div class="verse indent0">No tracks of beasts, or signs of men, we found,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">But smoky volumes rolling from the ground.”</div> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse right"><i>Od.</i>, b. 10, v. 101.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>It is impossible to give a truer or clearer picture of +Balaclava than that which was thus drawn by old +Homer nearly three thousand years ago. The two high +rocks which advance into the bosom of the waves, and +seem approaching to embrace one another, are there, +and only leave a narrow passage turned towards the +south, which barely allows two vessels to cross one another. +Its width is eight hundred feet and its greatest depth +one hundred fathoms, and the water of the bay looks +very black. When the narrow passage is passed, the +port enlarges to a width of twelve hundred feet, and its +depth goes on diminishing from ninety to six fathoms, +its entire length being nearly a mile.</p> + +<p>This bay is a phenomenon in geology, deeply encased +as it is at its entrance in rocks of calcareous marble and +pudding-stone, and finishing in a black schist, which +opens on a basin of chalk.</p> + +<p>Wherever Ulysses landed, whether on the right hand +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">[188]</span>or the left, terrible rocks border the shore; and after +scaling them, he could only see, as we do now, an unfruitful +rocky soil, with no plants but a few juniper trees, +and no trace of the labour, either of men or oxen. The +smoke could alone show him the town of the Læstrigons +hidden in the rocks.</p> + +<p>Homer then continues:—</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">“Two with our herald thither we command</div> + <div class="verse indent0">With speed to learn what men possessed the land.</div> + <div class="verse indent0">They went, and kept the wheels’ smooth beaten road,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Which to the city drew the mountain wood.</div> + <div class="verse indent0">When, lo! they met beside a crystal spring</div> + <div class="verse indent0">The daughter of Antiphates the king;</div> + <div class="verse indent0">She to Artacia’s silver streams came down</div> + <div class="verse indent0">(Artacia’s streams alone supply the town):</div> + <div class="verse indent0">The damsel they approach, and ask what race</div> + <div class="verse indent0">The people were? Who monarch of the place?</div> + <div class="verse indent0">With joy the maid the unwary strangers heard,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">And showed them where the royal dome appeared.</div> + <div class="verse indent0">They went, but as they entering saw the queen,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Of size enormous, and terrific mien,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Not yielding to some bulky mountain’s height,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">A sudden horror struck their aching sight.</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Swift at her call her husband scoured away,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">To wreak his hunger on the destined prey.</div> + <div class="verse indent0">One for his food the raging glutton slew,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">But two rushed out, and to the navy flew.</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Balked of his prey, the yelling monster flies</div> + <div class="verse indent0">And fills the city with his hideous cries:</div> + <div class="verse indent0">A ghastly band of giants hear the roar,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">And pouring down the mountains crowd the shore.</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Fragments they rend from off the craggy brow</div> + <div class="verse indent0">And dash the ruins on the ships below!</div> + <div class="verse indent0">The crackling vessels burst; hoarse groans arise,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">And mingled horrors echo to the skies:</div> + <div class="verse indent0">The men like fish they stuck upon the flood,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">And crammed their filthy throats with human blood!”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>The herald and the two companions whom Ulysses +sent, whether they went to the right or the left, must +have come out on the chalky valley of Balaclava, where +the people, as is done to this day, export the spoils of +the forests on the neighbouring mountains, while the +environs of Balaclava are quite naked. By following +this road they arrived at the extremity of the port, where +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">[189]</span>is still the only spring of water, or, as it was then called, +the fountain of the nymph Artacia, which was free to +all the citizens. The younger daughter of Antiphates, +the King of the Læstrigons, showed them the lofty gates +of a palace which touched heaven, which stood no doubt +where now are the ruins of the fortress of Balaclava. +This was the palace of her father, which had been built +by Lamus, an ancient King of the Læstrigons.</p> + +<p>The savage Antiphates, faithful to the character which +the ancients always attributed to the Tauri, seized one +of the ambassadors to devour him, while the other two +fled away. Meanwhile the alarm had been given in the +town; the people had seen the fleet of Ulysses enter, and +they rushed to it from all parts.</p> + +<p>Balaclava was called the port of Symbols by the +Greeks, and this name was corrupted into Cembalo by +the Genoese, and the place was taken by them from the +Greek dukes of the Crimea in 1365, and they then built +the fortress which now exists, and by their enterprise +greatly increased the commerce of the port. In 1433, +the Greeks, who had remained at Cembalo, having conspired, +drove out the Genoese, and replaced the town +and castle in the hands of a noble Greek, called Alexis, +the lord of Theodori (Inkerman). He was driven out +in the following year by Charles Somellin, who was +sent from Genoa with a fleet of twenty vessels, further +augmented in passing through the Greek islands, so +that he arrived with 6000 men.</p> + +<p>In 1475 Balaclava experienced the fate of Soudak, +and was taken by the Turks, who gave it up uninjured +to the Tatars, by whom it was held for several centuries, +till they were driven out by its present inhabitants, the +Arnaout Greeks, in 1780.</p> + +<p>When Catherine II. took the Crimea, the Tatars +were still a powerful people, with a strong nationality. +The object of Catherine was to break this up, and to +prepare the country for the future habitation of the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">[190]</span>great Slave people. She, therefore, encouraged as many +of the inhabitants of the Crimea, as she could influence, +to emigrate, and appealing to the religious sentiments of +the Greeks, and their hereditary hatred of the Turks, +she called in Greek soldiers to assist her in expelling +the Tatars that were refractory.</p> + +<p>A regiment of Albanians was raised, chiefly from the +Greeks who had been in the Russian service in the +Archipelago, and they were first called Arnaouts at +Balaclava. The Tatars having emigrated, or been dispersed, +this town, together with the surrounding country, +extending to the banks of the Bouiouk Ouzéne, including +the villages of Kadikói, Karáni, Kámara, and Alsou +(after removing the rest of the Tatar families to other +places), was given to the Albanians as a settlement.⁠<a id="FNanchor_155" href="#Footnote_155" class="fnanchor">[155]</a> A +few years before the breaking out of the present war they +numbered 600 fighting men, and each colonist was liable +to be called out for four months of active service, and had +the other eight at his disposal for the cultivation of his +lands. Each soldier had twenty-eight roubles yearly pay +(about 4<i>l.</i> 10<i>s.</i>), and found his own equipment.</p> + +<p>The town of Balaclava has probably received its +modern name from the strong Greek castle of Pallakium,⁠<a id="FNanchor_156" href="#Footnote_156" class="fnanchor">[156]</a> +which stood here, although some suppose it to have been +taken from “Bella clava,” or “the beautiful port,” a +derivation which every traveller would willingly concede +as probable. It is mentioned by one Italian traveller of +the seventeenth century under the name of Baluchlacca, +and at that time it was inhabited by Turks, Greeks, and +Armenians. “Its unrivalled beauty and security,” he +says, “tempted him to stay there several days, and at +that time its fine Genoese fortifications were entire.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_157" href="#Footnote_157" class="fnanchor">[157]</a> +This old fortress, like all the strong places of the Genoese +and Greeks in the peninsula, is erected on inaccessible +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">[191]</span>rocks, close to the mouth of the harbour, on the adjoining +eastern hill, and is fortified with high walls and +towers.</p> + +<p>When Clarke visited this magnificent fortress, the +arms of Genoa were still upon the walls. “The mountain +on the north-east side,” he says, “is covered with its +mouldering towers, and the rock itself has been excavated, +so as to exhibit stately magazines and chambers, +the sides of which were lined with coloured stucco. It +is surprising,” he continues, “that the inhabitants of +Balaclava do not use these caves, for they are very +habitable, and the stucco is still in the highest preservation. +We entered one, which was a spacious oblong +chamber, lined throughout with stucco, and somewhat +resembling the famous <i>piscina mirabile</i>, near the supposed +villa of Lucullus at Baiæ. We could form no conjecture +for what purpose this place was intended, except as a +granary or storeroom; it bore no marks of any aqueous +deposit on its sides, and was at the same time dry, and +in perfect preservation; it could not, therefore, have +served as a reservoir for water.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_158" href="#Footnote_158" class="fnanchor">[158]</a> Might not some use be +made of these dry caves for the stores of our army, if +they be not situated at too high an elevation?</p> + +<p>The port of Balaclava is frequented by fish of passage, +especially by mackerel, by the <i>mugil cephalus</i>, in great +numbers, and also by the red mullet, a most delicate +fish, whether eaten in a fresh or pickled state, which is +also caught in the lakes of the interior. The mackerels +become as tender and savoury as herrings, after being +kept twelve months in brine.⁠<a id="FNanchor_159" href="#Footnote_159" class="fnanchor">[159]</a> The fishermen, when +our army arrived at Balaclava, came with their nets to +Lord Raglan, and offered, if they were allowed protection, +to supply our army with fish, as the season was +just commencing, but, from some mistake, their offer +was neglected.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">[192]</span></p> + +<p>By the shortest road, Tchorgouna is about four miles +from Balaclava, and occupies a romantic situation, in a +gradually contracting valley, through which the Tchornaya +Retchka discharges itself into the bay of Sevastopol. +Here is, or was, a lofty octagonal tower, which dated +probably from the time of the Genoese, and placed half +way between Balaclava and Mangoup, was intended to +keep open the communication between them, when +Mangoup was an important fortress. At four miles +from Tchorgouna, in a north-east direction, is the +“<i>Muilnaya gora</i>,” or Soap-hill of the Russians, which is +literally burrowed with pits for extracting the fuller’s-earth, +which is found under chalky marl, at a depth of +about forty feet. The soap-hill is a gentle elevation, +in a broad tract of level country, about six miles wide, +at the foot of the steep mountain called Mackenzie’s +Farm. It received this name, because Admiral Mackenzie, +who was commander of the fleet at Sevastopol, +towards the end of the last century, established a farm +on the summit of this mountain, for the erection of +which a considerable portion of the woods was granted +to him, but subsequently repurchased by the Crown for +the use of the navy. The Tatar name for the mountain +is Kok-agatch, from the numerous white beech trees +which once covered it. The oak, Christ’s thorn, and +cornel-tree also grew here, and of the latter the long +pipes were made, in such request among the Turks. +In spring the ground is covered with large-flowered +primroses, bearing white, and yellow, and pale violet +blossoms. Veronicas, euphorbias, hyacinths, broad pionies, +asphodels, and yellow irises, also deck the ground +in spring, and the clematis, wild vine, and wild rose +may be found among the shrubs in the neighbourhood +of Inkerman.⁠<a id="FNanchor_160" href="#Footnote_160" class="fnanchor">[160]</a></p> + +<p>On leaving Balaclava for the southern coast, the traveller +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">[193]</span>regains the high road, before it enters the celebrated +valley of Baidar, which was much praised by the +first travellers who wrote after the occupation of the +Crimea by the Russians, even before its real beauties were +fully known.</p> + +<p>The valley is rather more than ten miles in length +and six in breadth; so beautifully cultivated, that the +eye roams over meadows, woods, and rich corn-fields, +enclosed and intersected by green hedges and garden +plantations. The villages are neat, and the inhabitants +healthy. It is protected on every side from the winds +that blow with great fury on the northern slopes of the +mountains, and is irrigated by clear streams, that fall +imperceptibly through the fields. The mode of enclosure, +and the manner of cultivation, are like those of our own +country, and there is much to remind the traveller of +the vales of Kent and Surrey. The mountains, as well +as the plain, were formerly thick set with oak, wild +pear, crab, and cornelian cherry trees, which shaded the +road, and kept off the scorching rays of the sun, but all +these have now disappeared.</p> + +<p>The domestic habits of the Tatars are very simple, +and resemble those of other Oriental nations, except that +they have been to a certain degree modified by contact +with the Russians. When a stranger, says Clarke, arrives +at a Tatar house, they conduct him to the apartment destined +for the men, and present him with a bason, water, +and a clean napkin, to wash his hands. They then place +before him whatever their dwelling affords, of curd, cream, +honey in the comb, poached eggs, roasted fowls, and +fruit. After the meal is over, the bason and water are +brought in as before, because all the Tatars, like the +Turks and other Oriental nations, eat with their fingers, +and use no forks. Then, if in the house of a rich Tatar, +a long pipe is presented, of cherry-wood, which grows in +the mountains, and with amber or ivory. After this, +carpets and cushions are laid for the guests, that they +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">[194]</span>may repose. All the houses of the Tatars, even the +cottages of the poor, are extremely clean, being often +white-washed. The floor is generally of earth, but +smooth, firm, dry, and covered with mats and carpets. +The meanest Tatar possesses a humble dwelling, one for +himself and his guest, and the other for his women. +They do not allow their most intimate friends to enter +the place allotted for the female part of the family. +With so much cleanliness, it is surprising to find the +itch prevalent. It is also difficult to escape venomous +insects and vermin. The tarantula, the scorpion, cockroach, +lice, bugs, fleas, flies, and ants, are more or less +to be met with everywhere, but, with proper precautions, +the traveller need not be much incommoded by them.</p> + +<p>A favourite beverage of sour milk, mixed with water, +the yaourt of the Turks, is found in request with the +Tatars, as among the Laplanders. They all shave their +heads, both young and old, and wear in their houses a +sort of scull-cap, over which, in winter, is placed a kind +of helmet of wool, and in summer a turban. Their legs +in winter are swathed in cloth bandages, like those worn +throughout Russia, and their feet are covered by a kind +of sandal. In summer both legs and feet are naked. +Their shirts, like those of Turkey, are wide and loose +at the sleeves, hanging down below the ends of their +fingers. If they have occasion to use their hands, either +to eat or work, they cast back the sleeve of the shirt +upon the shoulder, and leave the arm bare. The jacket +or waistcoat is generally of silk or cotton, and the +trousers being made very large, full, and loose, though +bound tight below the knee, fall over in thick folds on +the calf of the leg.</p> + +<p>They have no chairs in their houses, and a little short +stool, about three inches high, is used for supporting a +tray during their meals. This stool is often ornamented, +either by carved work or inlaid mother-of-pearl. During +the summer months the chief delight of the men consists +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">[195]</span>in the open air, sleeping at night either beneath the +shed before the door, or under the shade of the fine +spreading trees which they cultivate near their houses. +In the principal part of a Tatar dwelling there is a particular +part which bears the name of Sopha. This is a +platform raised twelve inches from the floor, occupying +the entire side of the apartment, not for the purpose of +a seat, but as a place for their household chests, the +<i>dii domestici</i>, and heaps of carpets, mats, cushions, and +clothes. The same custom may be observed in the tents +of the Kalmucks.</p> + +<p>In some things the Tatars display a taste for finery. +Their pillows are covered with coloured linen, and the +napkins for their frequent ablutions, which hang upon +their walls, are embroidered and fringed.</p> + +<p>If one of their guests falls asleep, although but for a +few minutes, and by accident, during the day, they bring +him water to wash himself as soon as they perceive he +is awake. In their diet they make great use of honey, +and their mode of keeping and taking bees accords with +the normal simplicity of their lives. From the trunks +of young trees, about six inches in diameter, they form +cylinders, by scooping out almost all except the bark, +and then closing their extremities with plaster or mud, +they place them horizontally, piled one upon another, +in the gardens for hives. They often open these cylinders +to give their guests fresh honey, and the bees are +detached merely by being held over a piece of burning +paper, without any aid of sulphur. The honey of the +Crimea is of a very superior quality; the bees, as in +Greece, feeding on blossoms of the wild thyme of the +mountains, and such flowers as the garden spontaneously +affords. Every Tatar cottage has its garden, in the +cultivation of which the owner finds his principal amusement. +Vegetation is so rapid, that, in two years, vines +not only shoot up so as to form a shade before the +doors, but are actually laden with fruit. They delight +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">[196]</span>to have their houses as it were buried in foliage. These, +consisting only of one story, with low flat roofs, beneath +trees which spread numerous branches quite over them, +constitute villages, which, at a distance, are only known +by the tufted grove in which they lie concealed. When +the traveller arrives, not a building is to be seen; it is +only after passing between the trees, and beneath their +branches, that he begins to perceive the cottages overshadowed +by an exuberant vegetation of the walnut, the +mulberry, the vine, the fig, the olive, the pomegranate, +the peach, the apricot, the plum, the cherry, and the +tall black poplar; all of which, intermingling their +clustering produce, form the most beautiful and fragrant +canopies that can be imagined.⁠<a id="FNanchor_161" href="#Footnote_161" class="fnanchor">[161]</a></p> + +<p>Through this beautiful valley, now devastated by contending +armies, the high road, called the Woronzof +road, leads past the villages of Miskomia and Arnoutka, +to reach the southern coast, and crosses the mountain +barrier, which shuts out the valley from the sea by the +pass of Phoros, which, till the road was made, was only +accessible by stone stairs cut in the rock, perilous alike +to man and beast.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">[197]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII.<br> +<span class="smaller">THE SOUTHERN COAST, AS FAR AS ALOUCHTA.</span></h2> + +<p>Pass of Phoros—First view of the Southern Coast—The climate—Valley +of Laspi—Mount Aia, or Cape Saritch—Modern Laspi—Phoros to +Kíkineis—Land slips—Liméne—Singular appearance of Tatars—Aloupka—Prince +Woronzof’s palace—Gardens—Luxuriant vegetation +Craters—Account of Prince Woronzof—Miskhor—Koureis, seat of +Princess Galitzin—Madame de Krudener and Comtesse La Mothe—Gaspra—Mount +A’ithodor—Imperial Oriánda—Ouchansóu—Yalta—The +mountain pass to Baktchéserai—Marsánda—Cyclopean remains—Magaratch—Nikita—Botanical +gardens—St. Daniel—Oursouf—Ancient +castle of Justinian—Cyclopean remains—Mount Aioudágh, the ancient +Kriumetôpon Prom—Village of Partheníte—Great and Little Lambat—The +Chaos—Numberless ancient remains—The pass of Mount Castéle—The +descent to Alouchta.</p> + +</div> + +<p>From the top of the pass of Phoros, over which a good +macadamised road has been made, the traveller enjoys +his first glimpse of the celebrated southern coast of the +Crimea.</p> + +<p>The sea lies at his feet at the distance of a mile, and +the high precipitous mountains, which rise in an amphitheatre +on his left hand, recede a short distance +from the coast, and leave a narrow margin of fertile +country, with a climate like that of Greece or Italy. +The glittering haze of the blue sea, the balmy air, the +lofty mountains, with clear outline drawn against a +cloudless sky, and softened by the delicate tints of a +southern atmosphere, are natural phenomena of which +no description can give an idea, but which once seen +enrich the mind with a new stock of images. To a +traveller who like myself had just left the shores of +Greece, this beautiful region seemed like a continuation +of the same scenery. I felt pleasure at the view stretched +out before me, but not that astonishment which many +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">[198]</span>travellers from the north have expressed. The country +from here to Alouchta is, however, quite an exceptional +region, and although I think the coast of Italy about +Amalfi, the south of Sicily, Corfu, or the bay of Corinth, +offer spots still more striking and beautiful, there is +nevertheless a great charm in the wildness and richness +of the Crimean coast.</p> + +<p>We cannot be astonished at the Russians themselves +being much struck with it, for after a weary journey +over the flat steppes from Petersburg or Moscow, the +total change which it presents to the gloomy and monotonous +aspect of their own country must make it seem +to them like a land of enchantment. The temperament +of the Russians also, like that of all the Slavonic +race, is highly poetical, and it is no wonder that they +should be strongly affected by their first glimpse of a +southern land—that they flock to the only spot in their +empire (except the Caucasus) where they can feel the +genial warmth and admire the beauties of the Mediterranean +region, or that they covet a larger share of those +countries where such charms can always be enjoyed.</p> + +<p>The climate of the southern coast is completely different +from that of every other part of the Crimea. To the +north of the mountains, even as far as Balaclava and the +valley of Baidar, there is always a severe winter, and the +ground, as we too well know, is covered with snow. But +when once the pass of Phoros is crossed, the climate +entirely changes. No snow ever falls on the sea region, +but a perpetual spring reigns there. Thus our poor +soldiers, during this lamentable winter, have been within +a few miles of a genial climate, where they would have +wanted no warm clothing and no huts. The call +of duty, the necessity of guarding the trenches and +watching Sevastopol, has kept them at a tantalizing +distance from it. It may indeed be a matter of doubt, +whether, if our army had left Sevastopol in November, and +then entered into winter quarters on the southern coast, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">[199]</span>we should not have been as far advanced towards taking +the place as we now are. Its capture depends upon +beating the army in the field; and if the bivouac on the +Chersonese could have been avoided, we should now have +a complete army of veterans, instead of the skeleton +regiments which survive. Unfortunately also the mountains +jut out to the sea between Balaclava and the +southern coast, thus preventing any communication with +it, except through the Valley of Baidar. Were this +not the case, perhaps some warm spot might have been +occupied, where at least the sick and convalescent might +have regained their health and strength.</p> + +<p>From Phoros there runs an excellent macadamised +road all the way along the coast for forty miles to +Alouchta, which was made by Mr. Hunt, an English +gentleman, who came over to superintend the building +of the palace of Prince Woronzof, at Aloupka. On descending +from the pass of Phoros, the road leads to the +left, but before we follow it we will visit one beautiful +site to the right, the furthest on the southern coast +before the mountains reach the sea. This secluded +nook, being out of the high road, is seldom visited, although +it was a favourite spot in early Greek times.⁠<a id="FNanchor_162" href="#Footnote_162" class="fnanchor">[162]</a></p> + +<p>The sheltered little valley of Laspi has been created +by an igneous agency, which has detached Mount Ilia +from the principal Tauric chain, to which it is united +by a ridge of schist and sandstone, about six hundred feet +broad. On the top of this ridge arise at intervals about a +dozen enormous aiguilles, forty or fifty feet high, which +look as if, like Stonehenge, they belonged to some gigantic +work of man. Here, however, a close inspection shows +them to be natural, as the strata of the neighbouring mountains +are vertical, and these are débris of rocks of similar +formation, that were raised up in this way at the time of +the convulsion which tore away Mount Ilia.⁠<a id="FNanchor_163" href="#Footnote_163" class="fnanchor">[163]</a> All the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">[200]</span>way from Phoros to Laspi, the ground, although a +labyrinth of trees and verdure, is covered by vast blocks +of porphyry, and in some places there are jets of it rising +to the height of a thousand feet.</p> + +<p>The ancient village of Laspi was on the side of +the valley, high up on the connecting ridge, touching +the aiguilles, and its inhabitants thus enjoyed a +magnificent view over the valley and the sea, and far +away along the coast on the other side of the bay, which +is terminated by the promontory of Mount Aia. Just +below the village are the ruins of a church of the early +Christian times, surrounded by a cemetery in which are +tombs in the shape of long sarcophagi, with a square +tower at the head, entered by a small door, which is +finished above in a triangle. Over this a cross is +sculptured, and some attribute, as a pastoral staff, or a +Tatar hatchet with two edges, a pick-axe, a spur, a +plough, or a table,⁠<a id="FNanchor_164" href="#Footnote_164" class="fnanchor">[164]</a> emblematic of the occupation of those +who sleep below. These tombs belonged to the Greeks, +who inhabited many places in this part of the Crimea;⁠<a id="FNanchor_165" href="#Footnote_165" class="fnanchor">[165]</a> +but there are no inscriptions remaining here, except one +of the late date of 1772. Around the church of the +cemetery are the ruins of houses and esplanades, with +allées of fruit-trees now become wild, among which one +observer counted not less than five thousand plum-trees.</p> + +<p>The village of Laspi, true to the ancient Greek traditions, +according to which they placed their temples on +elevated sites, whence the majesty of the gods might be +recognised from all parts, had on the summit of Mount +Ilia a church which might be recognised from the vast +plains of the sea around it, dedicated to St. Elias, and +still a favourite place of pilgrimage. From the top of +the ridge it is easily approached by a winding path +across the mossy turf, on each side of which are the +ruins of houses. The church, now a ruin, occupied +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">[201]</span>the highest point of the mountain, and near it is a +sacred cavern, vaulted with the stone of Inkerman, of +which the church itself was built. A sculptured cross +marks this as a Christian construction, and a warm +damp air that escapes from it is the cause of the superstition +attributing to it miraculous powers for the recovery +of health. A sheer precipice is in front, and the +view from it splendid.⁠<a id="FNanchor_166" href="#Footnote_166" class="fnanchor">[166]</a></p> + +<p>From ancient Laspi the road descends through a fine +wooded valley to modern Laspi, an estate belonging to +General Potier,⁠<a id="FNanchor_167" href="#Footnote_167" class="fnanchor">[167]</a> and one of the most beautiful along the +southern coast. It is placed in the centre of the amphitheatre +of mountains, which terminate on each side +respectively in Mount Ilia and Mount Aia; the view all +around is delicious, and the sea advances to the port of +Laspi, which is commodious and safe for the exportation +of the timber of the surrounding forests. The valley in +ancient times was thickly peopled, and the ruins of seven +villages have already been discovered. In the month of +February there was no frost, the yellow crocuses were in +full flower, and, with the exception of two rainy days, +the weather was constantly beautiful. Mr. Rouvier, +the father-in-law of General Potier, introduced the vine +here, and brought his plants from Malaga.⁠<a id="FNanchor_168" href="#Footnote_168" class="fnanchor">[168]</a> On the +summit of Mount Aia there are the remains of an ancient +fortress, and beyond the mountain, between it and +Balaclava, is another little valley, filled with ruins, but +now uninhabited.</p> + +<p>Returning to the high road at Phoros we travel to +Kíkineis, over twenty versts of a road comparatively +uninteresting, since it is bounded on the side of the +mountains by a regular precipice of Jurassic limestone, +from five hundred to eight hundred feet high, which, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">[202]</span>having as an understratum a crumbling schist, is continually +falling down in huge masses, which sometimes +bury whole villages.⁠<a id="FNanchor_169" href="#Footnote_169" class="fnanchor">[169]</a> Pallas observes that the Tatar +mountaineers of the three villages of Kíkineis, Liméne, +and Simëis, have a strange physiognomy, different from +that of all the other inhabitants of Crim Tatary. Faces +of uncommon length, as well as arched noses exceedingly +long, and a high head compressed with a view to render +them unusually flat, all contribute to produce diversified +caricatures, so that the greater part of these persons +have distorted countenances, and the least deformed +resemble the figures of Satyrs. There was an ancient +habit of the Genoese that may perhaps account for their +peculiarities. They had adopted from their predecessors, +the Moors, the custom of compressing the heads of the +new-born infants about the temples, so that perhaps +these villagers, with their singular faces, are the remaining +descendants of the ancient Genoese who inhabited +the Crimea, and, notwithstanding the lapse of time, have +preserved their extraordinary visages. It is farther remarkable +that the hair and beards of these mountaineers +are almost uniformly light reddish or even flaxen; a circumstance +seldom occurring in the Crimea. It is certain +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">[203]</span>all the inhabitants who at present occupy the villages +situated on the southern coast, though regarded as +Tatars, are nevertheless the offspring of other nations, +who have either landed here or have been driven thither +from the interior, and who were strangers to the later +race, but especially to that of the Mongols; hence the +original natives of Crim Tatary consider them as aliens, +and point them out by the contemptible name of Tat.⁠<a id="FNanchor_170" href="#Footnote_170" class="fnanchor">[170]</a></p> + +<p>From Kíkineis to Aloupka is twelve versts, or about +eight miles, and between them lie Liméne and Simëis, +with very ancient olive-groves and splendid fig-trees, and +country houses occupying each favourable spot.⁠<a id="FNanchor_171" href="#Footnote_171" class="fnanchor">[171]</a> Liméne +was one of the most important fortresses along the coast, +placed on a high, steep rock, only approachable by one +path, and defended by a strong wall, the construction of +which the Tatars attributed to the Genoese.</p> + +<p>Liméne is about three English miles from Kíkineis, +and here the traces of a violent volcanic action are apparent. +The whole space, from the top of the mountains +to the sea below, is covered with stupendous blocks of +stone thrown pell-mell one upon another, some even +half-buried in the sea, whence only their tops are visible +beaten by the waves; one of the largest of these erratic +blocks is called Pánea, and upon it are the ruins of +an ancient castle. The agents of all these convulsions +are to be seen in two jets of porphyry, which, piercing +through the schists underlying the limestone, have struck +against the stupendous walls of the limestone itself, +which forms the flat table-land or yaila of the mountains +above. In one place the yaila is broken, and through +the limestone there appears forced up the schists and the +porphyry mixed together in a paste, which proves that +they were in a liquified state when the jets arose.⁠<a id="FNanchor_172" href="#Footnote_172" class="fnanchor">[172]</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">[204]</span></p> + +<p>Passing on now a few miles further through the same +kind of scenery we come to Aloupka, the seat of Prince +Woronzof, where he has built a magnificent palace on +a spot where the rocks approach very near to the sea, and +are tossed about with great violence. The promontory +of Aithídor is seen to the East jutting out into the sea, +and giving a curve to the coast, which adds greatly to its +beauty; while immediately behind the palace rises Mount +Ai Petri, or Mount St. Peter, to a height of nearly four +thousand feet.⁠<a id="FNanchor_173" href="#Footnote_173" class="fnanchor">[173]</a></p> + +<p>The strata of schist, from the promontory to the +mountain, may be seen rising in a great arch up to +about thirteen hundred feet above the level of the sea, +heaved up by the volcanic rocks which are seen beneath, +and bearing on its stupendous span the limestone +aiguilles which form the mountain.</p> + +<p>The palace of Aloupka is built after the design of +Mr. Blore, the English architect, in the Moorish style, +and was at first intended to be a small villa, which afterwards +grew to be a vast palace. The whole exterior is +faced with a green granite, which is extremely difficult +to cut, but takes a beautiful polish. In consequence of +the immense labour required to work it, the green sandstone +from Nikita and Oursouf, which is soft and of the +same colour, has been used for the less important parts +of the buildings. The palace stands at the height of +about one hundred and fifty-five feet above the level of +the sea, and the gardens descend to the shore. Behind +it the mountains rise at once precipitously, so that there +is no room for the stables, which were intended to have +been built on the other side of the public road running +close behind the palace. The gardens and the park +extend to the east of it, where the view is more open, in +the direction of Miskhor, and here cascades, and fountains, +and lawns, and shady thickets succeed one another. The +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">[205]</span>vegetation is most luxuriant, and the trees grow to an +enormous size. M. de Castelnau measured three walnut +trees, which were respectively sixteen, eighteen, and +twenty-one feet in circumference, and an olive tree, at four +feet from the ground, measured eleven feet round, and +several vines from two to three feet.⁠<a id="FNanchor_174" href="#Footnote_174" class="fnanchor">[174]</a> There are also +two remarkable cypresses, said to have been planted by +Prince Potemkin, when the Empress Catherine visited +the Crimea in 1787. In the midst of all this vegetation +vast masses of granite rock are seen lying about, in some +places piled into grottoes, or bordering the edges of a +beautiful little lake, fed by the purest streams, and +inhabited by a number of trout. Behind the garden the +visitor is led to a very different scene, which is the solution +of the whole enigma of the appearance of the surrounding +country. Here is a large hollow basin, filled +with masses of granite of every conceivable shape, both +angular and rounded, forming the crater of a volcano, +while around rise the perpendicular walls of schist, +through which the fiery agent forced its way. There is +a second crater like this near the village of Aloupka, and +both have a depression on the south side, next the sea. +The explanation of these phenomena appears to be, +that the granite formed a solid bed, which, by a violent +commotion from underneath it, was broken and forced +up to the point of eruption, and some of the blocks +rolling down over the ground as far as the sea-shore, are +scattered over the garden, and give to it so picturesque +an appearance.</p> + +<p>Such is the character of this singular spot, which has +been chosen by the venerable Prince Woronzof as his +favourite residence, and in which he hoped to spend the +declining years of his life. No man in Russia holds so +high a position in public estimation as Prince Woronzof, +who is valued equally by the Emperor and the people. +He was born at Petersburg, but educated in England, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">[206]</span>where his father was for a long time ambassador, and +afterwards lived till his death as a private individual. +His son, the present Prince Michael Woronzof, remained +here till he was sixteen years old, when he entered the +military service, and from an early age has held high appointments +in the service of his country. When Russia +was pressed for money, at the commencement of the +revolutionary wars, father and son placed a considerable +portion of their immense fortunes at the disposal of the +late Emperor Alexander, and materially assisted in relieving +his financial difficulties. At the age of twenty the +son was “<i>chef d’état-major</i>” to General Tiziánof when +Georgia was taken, and the Russian army narrowly escaped +annihilation before Erivan, by cutting their way during +the night through the Persian force which surrounded +them. He greatly distinguished himself in the wars of +Napoleon, and commanded a division of 12,000 men +at the battle of Borodino, in which he was severely +wounded, and had the whole of his division cut to +pieces, so that I have heard that the next morning a +serjeant-major was left in command of the survivors, all +the officers having been either killed or wounded.⁠<a id="FNanchor_175" href="#Footnote_175" class="fnanchor">[175]</a> He +commanded the Russian cavalry at the battle of Leipsic, +and offered so obstinate a resistance to Napoleon himself +at the battle of Craon, in the campaign of 1814, as to +elicit from the emperor the flattering observation, “Voilà +le bois dont on fait des maréchaux.” He subsequently +commanded the Russian army of occupation in France +after the peace of 1815, and when, on leaving, many +of his officers, seduced by the temptations of that +delightful country, had contracted debts, and left the +country without paying, he, in order to save the honour +of the Russian name, ordered all the bills to be brought +to him, paid them out of his own pocket, and burnt the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">[207]</span>whole of them. For the last twenty-five years he has +been Governor-general of New Russia, and governor of +Bessarabia, and in 1844 was made Lieutenant⁠<a id="FNanchor_176" href="#Footnote_176" class="fnanchor">[176]</a> of the +Emperor in the Caucasian provinces, commander-in-chief +of the army of the Caucasus,⁠<a id="FNanchor_177" href="#Footnote_177" class="fnanchor">[177]</a> and admiral of the +Caspian Sea, so that he held the supreme command over +all the country from Poland to Persia.</p> + +<p>Since his assumption of the reins of government in the +Caucasus, the whole aspect of the country has changed. +Towns have been built, roads made, peculation checked, +honourable feelings stimulated in the officers, and the condition +of the private soldiers greatly improved. The natives +have been raised to a level with the Russians, and all +have been alike treated with respect and urbanity. He displayed +administrative abilities of the highest order, and +possessed the rare quality of securing the affection and +raising the tone of all around him. The soldiers admired +him for his calm intrepidity, and loved him for his never-failing +generosity and kindness, and the officers feared him +for his inflexible justice. Those who hated the Russian +name made an exception in his favour, and the chivalrous +Georgians would have died to serve him; in short, I +never yet have met an individual in whom the fundamental +virtues of courage, prudence, generosity, and +magnanimity were enhanced by such acute sagacity, such +delicate refinement of sentiment, such simplicity of +manners, and a modesty which when it survives the trial +of power is the surest sign of a superior mind.</p> + +<p>A German poet once observed to me that although the +general average of them was low, the most perfect women +he had ever seen for charms both physical and mental +were Russian women, and in the same way, although the +character of the men is often chequered by various failings, +we sometimes find among them wise men like Prince +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">[208]</span>Woronzof, whom it is no sin to covet for our own country. +Prince Woronzof, although a true Russian patriot, has +always been a great admirer of England, the country of +his education, and he is understood to have been much +opposed to the present war between Russia and England, +believing that the two countries might long have pursued +their glorious careers without clashing. Intemperate +pride in the ruling power on one side, and lamentable +incompetence on the other, have brought about a struggle +which skill and firmness would probably have averted; and +the French and English have lately visited as enemies +the halls of Aloupka, where in years gone by so many +of their countrymen have found the heartiest welcome.</p> + +<p>At two or three miles from Aloupka is Miskhor, the +seat of the late General Leon Narishkin, a celebrated +beau, who followed the prevailing fashion of having a +villa on the southern coast, and a vineyard of six hundred +acres, which produces a wine something like hock. +Adjoining it is the estate of the Princess Galitzin, called +Koureis, one of the earliest formed upon the coast. +Princess Galitzin was one of a celebrated trio of ladies +who, under the reign of the impressionable Emperor +Alexander, first exercised a great influence at the Court, +and then, turning from the world to heaven, endeavoured +to form a religious society for the immediate conversion of +the whole world to Christ, which they thought had been +too long delayed. The poor surrounded their doors in +crowds at Petersburg, for they were very charitable of +alms for the body as well as the soul, and their influence +rose so rapidly, that the ministers grew frightened lest +the Emperor himself should join them. He was therefore +induced to sign the order for their banishment to +the Crimea, a sentence which they accepted with joy as a +mission from heaven to evangelize the Tatars.</p> + +<p>The other two ladies were the celebrated Madame +de Krudener and a mysterious personage who went under +the name of the Countess Guacher.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">[209]</span></p> + +<p>After their arrival in the Crimea, the police soon put +an end to all their efforts at conversion, and Madame de +Krudener died within a year, worn out by her strong +religious feelings, which were not permitted to exercise +themselves. The Princess Galitzin renounced the russet +conventual dress which she had adopted, and the mystic +principles of Madame de Krudener, to return to the +free Voltairian ideas in which she had been brought +up. Endowed with a masculine intellect, a prodigious +memory, wonderful powers of conversation, once the admiration +and fear of Paris and Petersburg, and possessing an +immense fortune, she made herself the centre of a little +court of <i>beaux esprits</i> at Koureis, and lived there till her +death in 1839. Her daughter married the Baron de +Berckheim, and is a permanent resident on the coast. +The third of the trio, the Countess Guacher, gave up her +dress as a nun and her religious enthusiasm very soon +after her arrival, and lived at a romantic cottage on the +wild sea-shore, perfectly secluded, and only seen occasionally +in her gallops along the beach. Both she and +Princess Galitzin adopted a kind of male attire suited +to their independent mode of life. When she died, +after a few years, it was discovered that she was the +Countess de la Mothe, who was publicly whipped and +branded on the Place de la Grève as an accomplice in +the scandalous affair of the diamond necklace of Marie +Antoinette.⁠<a id="FNanchor_178" href="#Footnote_178" class="fnanchor">[178]</a></p> + +<p>At each moment from this spot the coast widens, and +leaves a greater space between the overhanging mountains +and the sea. Around the little village of Gaspra +the ground undulates prettily, and every spot is cultivated, +and covered with rich woods, orchards, vineyards, +and gardens, in the midst of which peep out villas +and country houses. It resembles a view in the neighbourhood +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">[210]</span>of Naples. On the top of a hill not far from +the road and near some old ruined fortresses is an ancient +monument we should little expect to find in Crim Tatary, +namely, rocks piled up exactly like the Celtic remains of +Brittany and Cornwall.⁠<a id="FNanchor_179" href="#Footnote_179" class="fnanchor">[179]</a></p> + +<p>Beyond Gaspra the road winds inwards in order to +pass the high limestone strata of the promontory of +Aithodor. A wild path of two miles leads from the +road to the summit of the promontory, in the midst of +oriental juniper-trees and ruins at every step. On the +top are five columns of white marble, and the remains of +an ancient monastery, which probably occupies the site +of some ancient Greek temple, placed like that at Sunium. +Beyond it is Mourgoudoú or Oriánda de Witt, the palace +of Count de Witt, built on a terrace nine hundred feet +above the sea, and forming a fantastic assemblage of +buildings in a mixed oriental Gothic and Greek style. +Around it is a kind of natural park, in which splendid +trees grow on the broken ground interspersed with +enormous masses of rock at the foot of the precipice of +Mount Megábi, and here the arbutus and juniper-tree +grow to an enormous size.</p> + +<p>The width of the plain is here nearly four miles, and +Mount Megábi rises in the midst of it, and close to the +sea-shore is the spot chosen by the Emperor Alexander +to build a retreat, which he called Oriánda. In the +midst of the picturesque chaos peculiar to the coast, he +formed an English garden, and planted a vineyard and +olive-grounds near the modest dwelling-house. The late +emperor, however, erected here a splendid palace, having +the disposition of an old Greek house, and richly ornamented +with wall-painting. The celebrated Schinkel +was the architect, and a beautiful work has been published +upon it at Berlin. Its low situation on the sea-shore, +with high cliffs and tall trees overshadowing it, render it +gloomy, but suited to the health and taste of the Empress +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">[211]</span>Dowager of Russia, who has spent here several winters. +In the grounds are shown two celebrated fig-trees seventy +feet high. Here the Emperor Alexander intended to retire, +surrounded by his friends, to whom he meant to allot +estates near his own. His sudden death put an end to +these projects, and Marshal Diébitch, who afterwards +commanded in the Turkish and Polish wars, was the only +one who had already received a property of about one +hundred acres adjoining the emperor’s garden. Just where +the two estates meet is a precipitous hill, with many +traces of a settlement of the ancient Tauri, whose acropolis +occupied its summit. At a mile from Oriánda is +the little Greek village of Livadia, which now belongs to +Count Leon Potócki, and near it is the castle of Outchansoú, +in a gloomy gorge of the mountains, which was used +by the Turks as a prison, for which it was well suited.</p> + +<p>About three miles further on is the port of Yalta, +which is quite a new town, in an admirable position, +whence in time of peace steamers ply regularly to and +from Odessa. Its proximity to the finest scenery of the +coast, a good port, and a charming situation, make +Yalta the great rendezvous of the tourists, who flock in +great numbers to the Crimea during the summer season. +The quay then presents an animated scene, and small +craft from all parts lie at anchor in the little bay. +Nothing then can be more pleasing than the effect of +the white town placed at the extremity of the bay, surrounded +by rich scenery, with the high crests of the +hills behind, also covered with verdure. The elegant +buildings, the handsome hotels, and the general appearance +of the population, all announce it as a town favoured +by the rich and pleasure-seeking. In fact Yalta depends +entirely upon tourists, who fill the hotels for several +months, and rich people who live in its neighbourhood. +There is here a custom-house and a garrison. +The valley of Yalta is very beautiful, and there is +nothing on the whole coast more grand than to look +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">[212]</span>down upon it in descending the hill from Magaratch, +stretched out in a noble amphitheatre at the foot of the +precipices of the Tauric chain.</p> + +<p>Mount Megábi is then in front, with the village and +vineyards of Aoutka at its foot; and Oriánda and Cape +Aithodor may be seen behind it. On the right looking +down upon Yalta, a great promontory of the Tauric chain, +called Mount Yoprákl, about four thousand feet high, +divides the valley into two parts, and at its foot is the +little village of Derekoi, hidden by the trees. The right +branch of the valley is called Ai Vassili; and a village +whence it takes its name is situated at the foot of Mount +Lapata.⁠<a id="FNanchor_180" href="#Footnote_180" class="fnanchor">[180]</a> To judge by the steep rough aspect of this +mountain one would not imagine that down its sides is +one of the principal roads leading from Baktchéserai to +the coast. The road as far as Ai Vassili follows the +course of a rivulet, and the surrounding country has the +appearance of a natural English park, with magnificent +trees and cascades. At Ai Vassili the gardens are filled +with date plum trees, ash, turpentine trees, figs, and +walnuts. Around the village and above it are seen the +sandstone and the schists, and the oak and the elm cover +the ground, but at the height of one thousand feet the +limestone is reached, and the Tauric pine takes the place +of other trees, and grows to a great size. It lasts over +the first layers of the limestone for about seven hundred +feet, and is succeeded by the beech and wich elm.</p> + +<p>Above these is the naked summit of the mountain, and +then on passing a narrow gorge in the rocks, the traveller +emerges on one of the mountain plains, called Yailas. +As far as the crest of the mountain, the sunny landscape +of the valley of Yalta in all its beauty is spread out, with +a glorious expanse of sea beyond it shining through a +warm and clear atmosphere. Upon the Yaila everything +becomes changed in a moment, and to the warm rays of +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">[213]</span>the sun succeed a cold damp air and the thick icy fog +of a northern region. To mark the road across it, lest +travellers should lose their way, heaps of stones are +placed at distances of twenty yards, as far as the woods on +the northern slope which extend nearly to Baktchéserai.</p> + +<p>But to return to Yalta. The road on leaving the +town ascends a hill, and on the left are some Cyclopean +remains, the stones of which have been partly removed +to build the new pier at Yalta. At the top of the hill +is the church of Marsánda, which has been rebuilt by +Prince Woronzof, in the Doric style, on the ruins of an +ancient chapel famous for its spring of water, which +bubbled forth beneath the altar. The spring still follows +its ancient course undisturbed, and escapes from the +church by an arch in the wall, and here the weary +traveller may refresh himself with a cool draught, and +rest under the fine trees which surround the church, +among which is one of the largest and most venerable +oaks on the whole southern coast. Near it is the village +of Magaratch, which the crown has divided among a +number of wealthy colonists, who have planted vineyards +and built houses, and form an agreeable little society of +their own.</p> + +<p>About three miles further on is Nikita, where are +the Imperial botanical gardens, a vast establishment for +experiments on acclimatation and practical studies on the +plants and trees which might be profitably introduced +into the Crimea.⁠<a id="FNanchor_181" href="#Footnote_181" class="fnanchor">[181]</a> Here on the public road may be +observed distinctly the three formations of which the +Tauric chain is composed, and which have been raised up +by volcanic action. First the schists from the sea to the +road, then the sandstone, and above that all the strata of +the jurassic limestone.⁠<a id="FNanchor_182" href="#Footnote_182" class="fnanchor">[182]</a></p> + +<p>After passing Cape Nikita and the mountain of St. +Daniel, which belongs to Prince Woronzof, we enter +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">[214]</span>the valley of Ourzouf, the Gorzubita of ancient times, +where the emperor Justinian built a castle, the walls +and towers of which still crown an immense rock on +one side of the valley. The part built by Justinian +is easily distinguished from a second system of defence +round it, which appears to be Genoese, on the walls +of which Pallas saw embrasures for cannon which have +since disappeared. The country here is still extremely +rich, and the view from the ruins magnificent. Enormous +walnut trees, fig-trees, and poplars, form labyrinths of +verdure, and here is situated the retreat which the Duke +de Richelieu, the second founder of Odessa, created for +himself among the wild Tatar population, when as yet +there was no road along the coast. This was the first of +the modern Russian attempts at colonisation on the coast, +and the Duke bought this estate in 1817, with rights +upon the village of Ourzouf for 120<i>l.</i> Up to 1825, this +and Kutchuk Lambat and Nikita were the only European +establishments in this now fashionable locality.</p> + +<p>A mole and a tower are still visible defending the little +bay of Ourzouf. The eastern side of it is formed by the +mountain of Aioudágh which juts out into the sea to the +height of about 1800 feet, presenting a precipice on the +side of Ourzouf, and only to be ascended from the village +of Partheníte, on the opposite side. On the summit are +the remains of an ancient castle, the walls of which are +composed of enormous blocks of stone without cement. +The fortifications are in a large semicircle, the diameter +wall of which is about seven hundred feet in length, and +the thickness of the walls about five feet. Where the +wall can be approached from the land thirteen towers +defend it, but on the side of the precipice there are none.</p> + +<p>In looking at the style of this construction, it is +impossible to recognise in it a work of the Byzantine +Greeks, or the Genoese, who always used lime and mortar, +as may be seen in the ruins of Alouchta, Ourzouf, Soudak, +Theodosia, and Balaclava. These ruins are built like +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">[215]</span>those at little Castéle, Demir Kapou, and other of +the most ancient remains in the Crimea. They resemble +the Cyclopean walls of Kimmericum (Opouk), +and the Tumuli of the Gold Mountain near Kertch, and +Dubois attributes them to the Tauri, and the Tauro-Scythians.⁠<a id="FNanchor_183" href="#Footnote_183" class="fnanchor">[183]</a></p> + +<p>This little fortress has not been inhabited since 1475, +that is to say, since the destruction of the Genoese power +in the Crimea, but there is no reason to think that it +was ever inhabited by the Genoese or the Greeks. +There is no trace of temple or other edifice within it, +and the only remains of such are to be found immediately +on arriving at the top of the mountain, where, nestled +among some large trees, rise the ruins of a monastery dedicated +to St. Constantine and St. Helen. It immediately +overlooked the village of Partheníte; and Dubois, who +imagines that it occupied the site of the ancient temple +of the Tauric Diana, thinks that this would be a most +interesting place to commence some excavations. He +believes that, while the temple at Cape St. George +in the Chersonese was also dedicated to the goddess, +this one of Aioudágh was the particular temple where +Iphigenia exercised her cruel mission; that it was here +that Orestes and Pylades appeared to her; hence the +bodies of the victims were precipitated from the top of +the rock into the sea below; hence she gazed over the +wide horizon, and watched for the vessels of her victims.⁠<a id="FNanchor_184" href="#Footnote_184" class="fnanchor">[184]</a></p> + +<p>There has been much discussion as to the cape which +was really the Kriumetôpon, or “ram face,” promontory +at which Iphigenia arrived.⁠<a id="FNanchor_185" href="#Footnote_185" class="fnanchor">[185]</a> Some have placed it at Ai +Petri near Aloupka, others at Mount Ilia near Laspi, +others at Aithodor; but Clarke, Heber, Mouravief Apostol, +Koeppen, and Dubois, consider it to apply to the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">[216]</span>Aioudágh.⁠<a id="FNanchor_186" href="#Footnote_186" class="fnanchor">[186]</a> Its position is very distinctly indicated by Strabo +where he says, “far along the Tauric coast there detaches +itself into the sea a promontory, which looks towards +Paphlagonia and the city of Amastris, and this is called +Kriumetôpon. Opposite to it corresponds Cape Carambis +in Paphlagonia, and they divide the Euxine Sea into +two parts.” “At Kriumetôpon,” says Scymnus,⁠<a id="FNanchor_187" href="#Footnote_187" class="fnanchor">[187]</a> “arrived +Iphigenia, when she disappeared from Aulis. The Tauri +abound here, and their numerous tribes lead a wandering +life in the mountains. Barbarians by their cruelties +and murders, they adore a divinity which resembles them +in its impious crimes.” An additional reason for believing +this to have been the place alluded to by the ancients is +the fact that the Tatar village at the foot of the promontory +is still called Partheníte, or the village of the Virgin. +Partheníte is situated in a beautiful valley, and a sandy +beach enables the inhabitants still, as in the Homeric +times, to draw their barks up on the land. Two little +streams irrigate the orchards and fields, in which are +cultivated flax and the best flavoured tobacco along +the whole coast. Here is a celebrated walnut-tree of +enormous size, surrounded by benches, under the shade +of which the Prince de Ligne wrote the letter to the +Empress Catherine, describing to her his astonishment +at the extraordinary beauty of the southern coast.</p> + +<p>Pursuing our road we come to the two Lambats, +Bouiouk and Kutchuk (great and little). The word +Lambat is the old Greek name of the place, and means +the town of the Lamps (Lampadôn). The Little Lambat +is now a village on the shore of the bay, defended +from the East by the promontory Plaka, and there is in +it a good anchorage. Between the two Lambats the +ground is covered with ruins of every age, from the most +early at the Great Lambat to the most recent on the +sea-shore. It is called Halmites by Arrian, and this +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">[217]</span>name may have its origin in the Greek word to leap, as +rough ground on which one is obliged to leap, and it may +also have some connexion with the river Alma, which +rises on the other side of the Tauric chain exactly opposite +the plateau on which Great Lambat is situated.⁠<a id="FNanchor_188" href="#Footnote_188" class="fnanchor">[188]</a></p> + +<p>After passing Cape Plaka, between Great Lambat and the +sea-shore is one of the most extraordinary spectacles that +can be witnessed.⁠<a id="FNanchor_189" href="#Footnote_189" class="fnanchor">[189]</a> There suddenly appears a place which +is called, by the moderns the Chaos, and by the Tatars +Sunenkáia. It is a vast assemblage of enormous masses +of rock, as large as houses, and as high as towers, composed +of fetid black limestone, thrown together in confusion and +sometimes leaning against one another, somewhat in the +same way as at the Trossachs in Scotland. In one place +they look like aiguilles or pyramids, in another place +like the enormous ruins of some Cyclopean edifice, while +further on they have the wild and broken appearance of +the moraine of a glacier.⁠<a id="FNanchor_190" href="#Footnote_190" class="fnanchor">[190]</a> The shumac, the walnut, the +wild vine, and many different kinds of thorns grow in +the deep crevices, and push their roots down to the +water that filters below. Numbers of these blocks also +have fallen into the sea, and form a chain on which the +waves vent their fury. The Chaos lasts for about half a +mile along the sea-shore, and is terminated by the black +porphyry of Cape Plaka. This great amphitheatre of +confusion goes on widening for a mile and a half inland, +up to Great Lambat, and on crossing the high road, and +going up towards the mountains, a new Chaos is met with, +composed of blocks of ophitic granite instead of the limestone. +From the highest point of the mountain all +through the Chaos down to the sea-shore the ground is +covered with ancient ruins, and the place was evidently +chosen by the barbarous population of ancient times, as +one secure from attack on account of the difficult nature +of the country.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_218">[218]</span></p> + +<p>Above the second Chaos may be observed the solution +of the whole scene. There is the enormous mouth of a +crater, whence these vast fragments, broken in the bosom +of the earth, have been vomited forth. The limestone, +situated upon the ophitone, was rolled down to the sea-shore, +while the ophitone itself appears only at the mouth +of the crater, or near it, in a disturbed state. The schist +and the grey limestone, whose beds were broken by +the eruption of the ophitone, have been turned into red +marble at the points of contact with it, which shows it to +have been erupted in a heated state. The best situation +for observing these interesting phenomena, is Mount +Aithodor, or the hill of St. Theodore,⁠<a id="FNanchor_191" href="#Footnote_191" class="fnanchor">[191]</a> so called from the +ruins of a Greek church on the summit. Hence may be +contemplated, as a whole, the mighty agency by which +the Tauric chain, which towers above us, has been raised +up, and the igneous domes of Kastele, Ouraga, and +Aithodor itself are perceived as the immense levers which +have raised up Mount Babougan, and the plains surrounding +it, for several thousand feet.</p> + +<p>At a place called Karabagh, near Bouiouk Lambat, +is the country-house of M. Peter de Koeppen, whose +valuable works on the statistics and geography of Russia +are well known.</p> + +<p>Further on, Mount Kastele completely bars all passage +along the coast, and the road is carried through a defile +between it and the main chain, which the Tatars call +Demir Kapou, or the gate of iron, and, according to their +usual system, the Tauri had here established one of +their fortresses, in the narrowest part of the gorge, to +defend their settlements at Lambat.</p> + +<p>Three walls formed the enceinte; two, about two hundred +paces long, run from the perpendicular flanks of Mount +Kastele, and meet a third nearly at right angles on the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">[219]</span>opposite side of the valley.⁠<a id="FNanchor_192" href="#Footnote_192" class="fnanchor">[192]</a> They are composed of great +blocks of granite piled one on the other without cement, +and sometimes as much as six feet in thickness and in +height, and the interior forms a narrow enclosure, in +which are the remains of some rude edifices. Everything +here shows the infancy of art, and recalls the Cyclopean +constructions of Greece, or even the Gaulish camps of +France and Switzerland.</p> + +<p>On the eastern side of the Kastele, the only remains +of the Greeks or Genoese, are the foundations of a little +edifice outside the fort in the midst of some trees looking +towards Alouchta. The Tauri are probably the builders +of a second fortress much more considerable than the +first, and occupying a part of the summit of the mountain. +A wall, constructed without cement, here runs from +north to south from one precipice to another, and encloses +numerous traces⁠<a id="FNanchor_193" href="#Footnote_193" class="fnanchor">[193]</a> of habitations, and fragments of pottery. +The traveller, after passing the gorge, soon finds himself +at the top of the descent leading to Alouchta, with the +town placed on the opposite side of the valley, which +here widens out again considerably, presenting its usual +features of wildness and Asiatic luxuriance. Here ends +the really fine scenery of the southern coast, which extends +over a distance of about forty miles from Phoros to +Alouchta.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">[220]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIV">CHAPTER XIV.<br> +<span class="smaller">THE EASTERN COAST AND SOUDAK.</span></h2> + +<p>Alouchta—The Eastern and Western Coast—Oulou Ouzéne, the property of +Mrs. Lang—Mdlle. Jacquemart—The Bay of Soudak—Ruins of the triple +fortress—The Kiz Koullé, or Girl’s Tower—Ancient Soldaya—Its history—Remains—Vandalism +of the Russians—Ruined barracks—The Crimean +Wine Company—The wines of the Crimea—Prices of land in the Crimea—Road +to Theodosia—Tatar hospitality—Koktebel.</p> + +</div> + +<p>Alouchta⁠<a id="FNanchor_194" href="#Footnote_194" class="fnanchor">[194]</a> is beautifully placed on the sloping side of a +gentle elevation, near the sea-shore, and the cultivation +of the vine has made here rapid progress. Its situation, +in a wide and fertile valley, at nearly the centre of the +southern coast, must always have rendered it an important +place, although the only mention of it in ancient times +is with reference to the castle built here by Justinian, the +remains of which are to be seen on a little hill near the +sea-shore. The ancient town of Alouchta was built in +front of the fort on the right bank of the river Oulou +Ouzéne, but the place is now deserted and covered with the +wild vine and tamarisk. Some remains may still be discovered +of houses and of several Greek churches placed +on the most elevated positions. The churches are nearly +as large as those of Kherson; and in the principal one +a semicircular apse shows that either a bishop or at least +a priest of high rank presided over the clergy attached +to it. Alouchta is the limit between the eastern and +western coast, which are great rivals for public favour. +There can, however, be no doubt that in remarkable +scenery and romantic beauty the western coast has greatly +the advantage. The igneous jets of ophitic granite do +not come further east than Alouchta; and while the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_221">[221]</span>granite domes of Kastele, Aioudágh, and Liméne form +promontories and bays, and sublime variations of scenery, +the eastern coast is a monotonous repetition of narrow +ravines, covered with meagre vegetation, of the wich elm +(the commonest tree in the Crimea), the turpentine-tree, +and the oriental juniper, some specimens of which measure +as much as a foot and a half in diameter.</p> + +<p>A ride of eight miles along a sterile and desert shore +of the eastern coast brings the traveller to the valley of +another river, called Oulou Ouzéne, the property of Mrs. +Lang, who has planted vineyards and orchards, and converted +it into one of the most agreeable residences +along the coast. Some miles further on is the bay of +Soudak, and the residence of an eccentric French lady, +Mdlle. Jacquemart, who, having originally gone to +Russia as a governess, and then, by her brilliant conversation +and wit having gained a great reputation in +the highest circles, both in Petersburg and Vienna, +suddenly renounced the world, and retired to solitude on +the shores of the Crimea. Marshal Marmont, in his +works, tells a romantic tale about a rejected and despairing +lover, who in a paroxysm of fury attempted her life; +but according to Mdlle. Jacquemart’s own account the +story differs wonderfully from the unpoetic truth, which +was, that a Greek, whom she had never seen before, +brutally attacked and nearly murdered her, as she was +returning home one evening to her solitary dwelling.⁠<a id="FNanchor_195" href="#Footnote_195" class="fnanchor">[195]</a></p> + +<p>The view of the bay of Soudak, on approaching it +from the west, is very striking. Its shores present a +charming rural prospect; and the valley which leads down +to the water is entirely occupied with orchards and vineyards. +Near the extremity of the bay, on the right, the +rocks jut out boldly, and the fortifications of the old +Genoese town crown the heights. Soudak, as will presently +be more fully explained, was in ancient times a very important +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_222">[222]</span>place, and its beautiful position attracted here +the population of a town even in time of the ancient +Greeks. The Russians, since they have possessed it, +have done much injury to the ancient remains; but even +the ruins of the fortress and citadel, which alone have +been spared, possess great interest. The traveller threading +his way among the vineyards may approach the +pyramidal rock, on which is built the three stages of the +vast and carefully-constructed fortress, which once protected +the surrounding city of Soldaya,⁠<a id="FNanchor_196" href="#Footnote_196" class="fnanchor">[196]</a> as Soudak was +anciently called. The rock is inaccessible on the side of +the sea, but may easily be approached from the interior +of the valley, where it opens on a broad terrace, defended +by an immense rampart, flanked by ten towers.</p> + +<p>The entrance-gate is defended by an exterior work; +and in front of it, where a German colony has lately been +planted, there formerly stood the Genoese part of the +town of Soldaya. Between the colony and the gate is a +beautiful fountain, of ancient workmanship, the water of +which formerly supplied the fortress; and above it is +placed a bas-relief, which has been brought from the +ruins, of St. George killing the Dragon, and the scutcheon +of the Doge Adorno. Over the gate is an inscription, +declaring it to have been built in the year 1385, when +the noble and puissant lord, James Gorsevi, was the +consul and castellan of Soldaya.</p> + +<p>On entering the gate the traveller stands within the +lower fortress, and finds the ground covered with ruins. +Here are the immense brick cisterns which contained +enough water to supply the garrison for several years; +and the aqueducts of earthen tubes, which conducted the +rain-water from the rocks above are still visible. Near +them are the remains of some Genoese houses in the Gothic +style, with dates and scutcheons; the only ones which +escaped destruction when the Russians occupied the place.</p> + +<p>Here are also the most uninteresting remains of the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">[223]</span>huge Russian barracks, to construct which, the beautiful +architectural erections of the Genoese were destroyed. +These barracks were built by Prince Potemkin after the +conquest of the Crimea, when he entertained an idea, +which was afterwards abandoned, of making Soldaya the +Russian capital of the peninsula.</p> + +<p>Beyond the ruins of the barracks, in the north-east +corner of the platform, where the rock overhangs the sea +with a sheer precipice, is a curious edifice, which bears +traces of many styles of architecture. It must have been +originally built as a mosque, because it does not look +east and west, like a Christian church, but north and +south, with the altar, formerly the <i>maharab</i> of the +mosque, turned in the direction of Mecca.⁠<a id="FNanchor_197" href="#Footnote_197" class="fnanchor">[197]</a> It was +probably raised by the Tatars, when, in a moment of +fanaticism, they drove the Greek Christians from Soudak +in the beginning of the fourteenth century, as the +arrangement of the parts and the style of the ornaments +are of an earlier date than the Turkish occupation. +In 1323, on the demand of Pope John XXII., +Soldaya was restored to the Greek Christians; and it +was from them that the Genoese captured it in 1365, +when the Greek churches were turned into Catholic ones. +In 1575 Soudak was taken by the Ottomans, and all +the churches were again turned into mosques; and thus +they remained till, on the conquest of the Crimea by the +Russians, the mosques were once more devoted to the +Greek form of Christianity. Thus this church has undergone +no less than five changes of religious destination, +having first been built as a Tatar-Mongol mosque, then +converted into a Greek Christian church, then changed to a +Latin Catholic church, then once more a mosque, and being +at the present day, for the second time, a Greek church.⁠<a id="FNanchor_198" href="#Footnote_198" class="fnanchor">[198]</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">[224]</span></p> + +<p>A steep path leads from near the church to the middle +fortress, called Katara Koullé, built in a ledge of the +precipitous rock, with the sea chafing round its base. +The principal tower is constructed in the noble style of +the fifteenth century.</p> + +<p>A narrow path along the edge of the precipice leads to +the third and highest fortress, called the Kiz Koullé +(The Girl’s Tower), which is the real acropolis on the +summit of the rock, and consists of a simple square +tower, placed like the eyrie of an eagle, commanding a +view of the expanse of the sea, the whole of the fortifications, +the recesses of the valley, and the circuit of the +ancient town of Soudak, in which the smallest details +may be observed.</p> + +<p>The eye also follows the windings of the coast as far +as Kastele and Aiondagh, and wanders over the terraces +of the Tauric chain that rise one above another, while +turning round and looking inland, the traveller sees the +Swiss colony which has replaced the Scythians, Greeks, +Komans, Genoese, and Turks, and occupies the entrance +of the beautiful gulf of verdure which stretches inland in +the midst of the dark grey rocks.</p> + +<p>As early as the eighth century, Soldaya, or Sougdai, +the origin of which goes back to the remotest times, was +the seat of a bishop, and although then depending on the +empire of the East, had its own sovereign princes. Four +hundred years later the Komans, an Asiatic people, +driven from its seats in Asia towards the West by the +hordes of Zingis Khan, arrived in the Crimea, and were +the precursors of the terrible invasion of the Mongols, +which occurred soon afterwards. The arrival of the +Komans in their flight was fatal to the Greek establishments +in the Crimea, and the princes of Soldaya were +exterminated, and the conquerors seized on their capital.</p> + +<p>The Tatars soon followed, and the Komans, after thirty +years’ possession, were obliged to abandon the Crimea, +and seek an asylum in the more western countries of Thrace.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_225">[225]</span></p> + +<p>Under the Tatar domination the Greeks re-entered +Soldaya, which again became a Christian city, and the +most important port in the peninsula. Although it was +certainly tributary to the Tatars, it had a bishop, and +governed itself.</p> + +<p>In the beginning of the fourteenth century, when the +Tatars of Kiptchak adopted the Mahometan religion, +Musselman fanaticism predominated for a moment in the +Crimea, and the Christians, driven from Soldaya, saw all +their churches converted into mosques. But it is a +remarkable fact, that the remonstrance of the Pope +John XXII. was sufficient in 1323 to procure from +Usbek Khan the restitution of the city to the Christians, +and the restoration of their ancient privileges.</p> + +<p>Thirty years had hardly elapsed when a new revolution, +arising from intestine discord, annihilated in Soldaya +the Greek power. On the 18th June, 1365, the +Genoese, already masters of Kaffa for nearly a century, +incorporated in their dominions the ancient capital of the +Komans. It was then that these bold merchants, to +secure the possession of the fertile country of Soudak +and to defend it from the Tatars, constructed on the most +inaccessible part of the rock commanding the entrance to +the town the formidable fortress with three stages, that +has been mentioned, crowned by the gigantic Maiden +Tower (Kiz Koullé), whence sentinels were ever on the +alert to watch over the port, the sea, and the neighbouring +country.</p> + +<p>The Genoese remained undisturbed possessors of their +castle for more than a century; but after the taking of +Constantinople by Mahomet II., and the immediate destruction +of Kaffa, the capital of their colonies in the +Crimea, the last hour arrived for unfortunate Soldaya. +In 1475 the Turks besieged the place,—the resistance +was long and obstinate, and famine alone achieved the +triumph of the besiegers over the valour and heroism of +the garrison. With the Genoese possession terminated +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_226">[226]</span>the glory and prosperity of Soldaya, which had lasted for +so many centuries. The population of the town was +expelled and dispersed; the port, once so animated, became +desert, and grass grew in the streets, formerly +trodden by the elegant Greeks of Byzantium, the victorious +Komans, and the proud citizens of Genoa. To +all these various populations, so rich or so powerful, succeeded +a feeble Turkish garrison, which witnessed during +three centuries with indifference the degradation and +solitude of one of the most ancient and famous cities on +the shores of the Black Sea.</p> + +<p>In 1781 the imperial eagle of the Czar floated on the +towers of Soldaya, and then began, for the monuments of +the Genoese colony, that destruction which everywhere +characterizes the conquests of Russia. All the public +and private buildings, which Pallas in his first voyage +had so much admired for their beautiful architecture, +disappeared, and their precious remains were used by the +Muscovite Vandals to build huge barracks, which were +utterly useless, and which now form themselves the most +uninteresting of ruins. At this day Soldaya, utterly +effaced from the list of towns and fortresses, does not +possess even a guard to watch over its walls and magnificent +towers with their proud inscriptions. Each year +new mutilations take place, and soon there will remain +none of the tablets of marble, with elegant arabesques, +which adorn each tower and gateway, retracing their +origin and history. Certainly the absence of all Russian +authorities is the only thing that can preserve the Genoese +castle from utter destruction.</p> + +<p>Unfortunately the government seems now to wish for +its preservation, and no doubt the remains of Soldaya +will be threatened with entire destruction the moment +an employé, having nothing to live upon but his wretched +pay, becomes officially invested with the right of protecting +them from the ravages of time and men.</p> + +<p>The best view of the valley of Soudak and the surrounding +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">[227]</span>country is from the monastery of St. George, +placed on a high mountain, a projection from which runs +into the sea, and forms the eastern side of the bay. +There are few eminences in the Crimea that offer so +vast and varied a landscape. Every detail of the valley +is visible; and the vast fortress is below, a pyramid of +ruins, without a living soul near them, except a stray +traveller, or the children from the neighbouring German +colony, who make it their play-ground. The coast is +visible far beyond Alouchta; and in the interior of the +country the dark and barren mountains are thrown pell-mell; +while among them penetrates, in pleasing contrast, +the bright green valley of Soudak. Here the dark foliage +of the fruit-trees and the tall poplars is mixed with the +pale green of the vineyards; and white houses are dotted +about, each in their own domain. Although there is a +considerable population, there is no town at modern +Soudak; and the only spots where a few houses are placed +together is near the church, where a Greek has built a +hotel.</p> + +<p>Near here, also, are the vast establishments of the wine +company of the Crimea, and the house of their manager, +M. Larguier, a French gentleman. As the wine company +have chosen Soudak as their head-quarters, and the +wine of this neighbourhood has always been famous, +this will, perhaps, be a proper place to say a few words +upon the cultivation of the vine in the Crimea.⁠<a id="FNanchor_199" href="#Footnote_199" class="fnanchor">[199]</a> The +Crimean wine company has been established to make +known the different kinds of Crimean wines in the markets +of the world, and to facilitate the sale of them. The +production of wine has received an immense development +in the Crimea since the beginning of the present century, +and especially since Prince Woronzof has been governor-general +of New Russia; but a great difficulty has always +been found in disposing of the produce.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">[228]</span></p> + +<p>In all times, the Crimea has exported wine into +Southern Russia. Bronevski,⁠<a id="FNanchor_200" href="#Footnote_200" class="fnanchor">[200]</a> in the middle of the sixteenth +century, says that Soudak had large vineyards +which gave the best wine in the Crimea. De la Motraye, +in 1711, speaks of a wine of Soudak, which did not differ +from Burgundy in colour, and was not inferior to it in +taste. He also mentions a wine of Katche (Katchik) +which sparkled in the glass like Burgundy or Champagne, +and was sold at a farthing a bottle. At a later period, +Peyssonel, in 1762, speaks of the wines of the Crimea, +and praises their excellence and abundance. They were +white, light, and wholesome; and the wine of Soudak +was the only one that was strong. The best qualities +then came from Soudak and the banks of the Belbek, +the Alma, and the Katcha. The price was about a +penny a quart for the best wine of Soudak, and the +Cossacks of the Ukraine and the Zaporogues bought a +large quantity every year.</p> + +<p>The wines of the Crimea could not, however, compete +with those of France or Greece, and they were consumed +only among the people; while the rich classes, accustomed +to the wines of Sauterne, Bordeaux, Hungary, +and the Rhine, despised the productions of Soudak or +the Katcha, where the vine, cultivated after the Greek +or Tatar method, at the best, produced only a feeble +aqueous beverage, without body, and impossible to keep. +The wines of the Crimea, therefore, had no reputation; +the mode of making them was defective; and it was +necessary that there should be a complete revolution in +the whole system of culture and manufacture before the +vines of this country could enter into competition with +those of foreign ones.</p> + +<p>A number of proprietors in the Crimea resolutely +undertook this task, and, with Prince Woronzof at their +head, spared neither money nor encouragement of every +kind. They procured from Spain and France, and the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_229">[229]</span>Rhine, plants from the most celebrated vineyards; and +Prince Woronzof collected 200 sorts, in small quantities, +at Aloupka, for experiments. They also brought over +good vine-dressers, and consulted the best works on the +subject. The most suitable lands on the coast were +carefully prepared and covered with fine plantations. +Experienced persons were brought over to teach the art +of treating the wines; vast cellars were built and fitted up +with immense vases; in short, neither trouble nor expense +were spared to perfect the qualities of the wine. The enterprise, +however, still failed, because the rich continued +to drink Bordeaux and Burgundy, and the common consumers +the cheap wine of Soudak and the Katcha; so +that the bad old kinds of Crimean wines still found a +market, and the good remained unsold in the cellars of +the proprietors. As a remedy, the Crimean wine company +was established, with a considerable capital, managed +by M. Larguier, to buy the choice wines of the proprietors, +and to place itself in relation with the principal +towns of Russia; to make known by their travellers the +best sorts of Crimean wines; and to have dépôts in the +towns; and try, by every means, to remove the prejudices +against them. This was the more necessary, as +the common wine-merchants, by adulteration, continually +depreciated them in the public estimation. The greater +part of the weak wines of Soudak and the Katcha, which +they bought cheap at the time of the vintage, and carried +immediately to their cellars at Moscow, and elsewhere, +were mixed with all kinds of substances, and lost their +reputation as soon as tasted: the pure wine was nowhere +procurable.</p> + +<p>The head-quarters of the company were fixed at Soudak, +and cellars and an office were established at Simpherópol. +The commencement was difficult, as relations had to be +established; and only inferior sorts could at first be +bought with any chance of obtaining a profit. As the +proprietors had been at great expense, they asked an +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_230">[230]</span>enormous price for the good wines; and, besides this, +their quality could never be depended upon, on account +of the newness of the vineyards, and the consequently +uncertain and variable flavour of the grapes.</p> + +<p>The ancient culture of the vine by the Greeks and +Tatars, who looked only to quantity, was carried on +entirely on the flat grounds in the bottom of valleys, +which were easy to irrigate. The valley of Soudak, which +runs in nearly two miles from the sea to Taraktache, +was adapted for this cultivation; and no doubt the vine +was planted here in the early Greek times, when Athenæon +flourished where Soudak was afterwards founded. +At Alouchta, also, there was then much wine made, as +is evident from the immense quantity of amphoræ found +there.</p> + +<p>The other vineyards of the Crimea were on the +Katcha, the Belbek, and the Alma; where the clayey +or limestone soil was favourable, and the valleys easy to +irrigate. The climate however was inferior to Soudak, +and so were the wines, with the exception of some parts +of the valley of the Belbek near the sea. The vine is +buried each winter in these valleys; and its culture must +be very ancient, as wine-presses are found cut in the +living rock in the grottoes of Katchi Kalene.</p> + +<p>Such were the ancient vineyards of the Crimea.</p> + +<p>The new vineyards extend all along the southern coast +from a place near Kertch to Laspi. One of the first plantations +was that of Laspi. M. Rouvier entered into an engagement +with the government to introduce merino sheep, +and plant with vines a certain extent of ground which +should be given him; and, bringing his plants from Malaga, +his wine retains some qualities of the original. In 1826, +Prince Woronzof began the first vineyard of Ai Daniel. +The Princess Galitzin began at the same time; and the +example once set, vineyards quickly sprung up all along +the coast; and already, in 1834, 2,000,000 of vines had +been planted.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_231">[231]</span></p> + +<p>The climate of the coast is very like that of Provence. +The winters are mild, the spring early, the summer hot +and stormy, and the autumns long. In winter the thermometer +seldom falls below 6° or 7° Réaumur. The soil is +generally a black decomposed schist, mixed with limestone, +and forms into a grey clay, more or less stony, +very compact, and in dry weather impossible to work, so +that it can only be broken up in winter, when softened +by the rain. The vines are planted in terraces, and in +winter have plenty of water from springs, which disappear +in the dry time of the year. The grapes are +retarded by this cause, and by the great heats of the +coast, so that their development is checked till the rains +of September, and then, being gathered very late, the +fine quality of the wine is injured. Alouchta is the only +place that never suffers from drought.</p> + +<p>From wherever the plants come, they all, after a certain +time, have a tendency to the strong qualities of the Spanish +wines. In a new plantation, when the first grapes appear, +they give a wine like that of the country from which +they have been transplanted; but scarcely two more years +pass before there is a change; and from year to year the +difference becomes greater, till at the end of ten years +there is no longer Burgundy or Bordeaux, but a particular +sort of wine, far less delicate and strong.</p> + +<p>The vineyards of Prince Woronzof at the Ai Daniel, +and those of the Baron of Berckheim at the same place, +where the plants have been kept totally distinct, give the +results that have been mentioned. In the other vineyards +the plants are much mixed, and Gros Bourgogne, +and Pincan Fleuri, Rissling, Bordeaux, and Kakour, +are all mixed together. The last plant, of uncertain +origin, is said to give a very good flavour, and a bouquet +which would make it sought even in Europe, as it differs +greatly from all known wines. Here is planted also a +certain quantity of Aleatico, and some ancient Crimean +plants from the Katcha. The grape which loses the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_232">[232]</span>most of its primitive qualities by the change of climate +is the Rissling from the banks of the Rhine. It has +been particularly grown in the valley of Alouchta, where +a schistous soil, mixed with calcareous particles and the +detritus of sandstone, lighter, and less exposed to drought +than the rest of the coast, would seem to recall the qualities +of its primitive soil. At Miskhor also, Mr. Leon +Narishkin planted, in 1834, a vineyard of Rissling, which +produced a good wine, of a fine taste, but without the +exquisite qualities of Rhine wine.</p> + +<p>Everything then proves that the wines of the coast of +the Crimea are still in a state of transition, and cannot +have a fixed reputation for some time to come. Then +alone can the wines of the Crimea be spoken of as a class, +and their place will probably be between the fine wines +of the north and the strong wines of Spain. The +Crimea has so many different climates, and soils, and +situations, that if the stony lands of the coast will not +give the qualities desired, they may be found elsewhere. +Long experience has shown that the soil and climate +of the Heracleotic Chersonese is as favourable to the cultivation +of the vine as that of the coast of the Crimea, +for already in ancient times this peninsula had vineyards +and cellars and amphoræ. This fact is, besides, proved +by an inscription found in 1794 in the ruins of Kherson, +stating that the people had voted a crown of ivy to +Agazikletos, “who had made the cultivation of the vine +to flourish in the country;”⁠<a id="FNanchor_201" href="#Footnote_201" class="fnanchor">[201]</a> so that this cultivation +was a branch of the industry and commerce of the Khersonians.</p> + +<p>Mr. Bardac, captain of the port of Sevastopol in 1803, +again introduced the vine on the soil of the Chersonese, +where the flocks of sheep and goats of the Tatars had +extirpated it. He planted with vines from Smyrna some +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_233">[233]</span>land near Sevastopol, on the ravine running into South +Bay, and the successful results encouraged other proprietors. +In 1834 a wine was made at least equal to any +other in the Crimea, and this may perhaps be accounted +for by the nature of the soil, which is a detritus of +limestone, mixed with cinders and volcanic remains, the +whole reposing on the rock as a subsoil.</p> + +<p>I will now give some account of the prices of land in +the Crimea. At the beginning of the present century +the coast-lands were worth nothing, and persons were able +to buy large tracts for a trifling sum, which they afterwards +sold for fifty times their value. The Duc de Richelieu +bought in 1817, for 140<i>l.</i>, the estate of Oursouf, and +laid out upon it about 800<i>l.</i> In 1834 the Prince Woronzof, +who had become the proprietor, retained 200 acres, +and resold the house and the remaining 80 acres for +4000<i>l.</i> The estate of Khanime, containing 160 acres, +was bought by M. Poniatowski for 240<i>l.</i>, and was valued +in 1834 at upwards of 3000<i>l.</i> The lands fit for the vine +in the valley of Alouchta, which were first sold at 15<i>s.</i> +and 1<i>l.</i> an acre, now cost 30<i>l.</i> or 40<i>l.</i>, and this is about +the average price along the coast. The valuation of +the new vineyards that have been planted can be only +approximative, as no proprietors of them are inclined to +sell. The valuation of a vineyard is made according to +the number of plants it contains, and not according to +the extent of the ground it covers. The number of plants +varies considerably according to the nature of the soil, +and there are generally 12,000 plants an acre in the +heavy land, and 17,000 in the light land.</p> + +<p>There were vineyards sold in 1842 at 600<i>l.</i> an acre, +and afterwards at as much as 1000<i>l.</i> an acre, while on the +gravelly soil they were not worth more than 80<i>l.</i> an +acre.</p> + +<p>In 1834 the Crimea possessed in new and ancient +plantations 7,100,000 plants, distributed as follows:—</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_234">[234]</span></p> + +<table> + <tr> + <th></th> + <th>Vines.</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>South-east Coast of the Crimea</td> + <td class="tdr">1,600,000</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Soudak, &c.</td> + <td class="tdr">2,000,000</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Valley of the Katcha</td> + <td class="tdr">2,000,000</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><span class="ditto">”</span> Alma</td> + <td class="tdr">500,000</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><span class="ditto">”</span> Belbek</td> + <td class="tdr">500,000</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>German colonies.</td> + <td class="tdr">500,000</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>Since that time the number of vineyards has enormously +increased, but I have not been able to procure +any details upon the subject.</p> + +<p>The road from Soldaya to Theodosia is very mountainous, +and the country thinly peopled. The great +calcareous chain of mountains here recede from the sea, +and are barely covered with a meagre vegetation, and +only a few Tatar villages occupy the low valleys. Completely +abandoned by the aristocracy, with impracticable +roads, and none of the luxurious habitations which fashion +has raised about Yalta, the shore between Alouchta and +Theodosia is rarely visited by tourists, and only occasionally +explored by some scientific traveller.</p> + +<p>Although the coasts of Soudak are abandoned by the +Russian nobles, although there are there no Italian villas, +or Gothic mansions built in porphyry, there is instead a +hearty welcome to the traveller and real Oriental hospitality. +Far from the centres of civilization which the +Russians have raised in the Crimea in the last twenty +years, the Tatars of these regions have preserved intact +the traditions of the past, and all the remarkable traits of +their primitive character. In every village the traveller, +especially if he be not a Russian, is received with the +most affectionate care. Everywhere the best house, the +most beautiful cushions and carpets, are placed at his +disposal, and he is installed in a good apartment with +coffee and a tchibouk, in a way which can be appreciated +only by those who know the inconveniences as well as +pleasures of travelling in the East. At Toklouk, Kouz, +and Otouz, the Tatar dwellings, with their flat roofs, are +raised against the hills which border the valley, and by +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_235">[235]</span>this arrangement the inhabitants communicate generally +by the terraces of their houses. Nothing can be more +picturesque than the appearance of these terraces of an +evening: at that moment the whole population, men, +women, and children, are on the alert, and desert their +dark chambers, where they seek a refuge against the sun +during the heat of the day, to install themselves on the +roofs of the houses.</p> + +<p>The most agreeable animation succeeds the silence of +the day, loud conversations are heard on all sides, and a +very picturesque effect is produced by the various groups, +who, still employed in household occupations, thus enjoy +the coolness of the evening.</p> + +<p>At Koktebel, a little village situated on the borders +of the sea, about twenty miles from Soudak, near the +sombre Cape Karadagh, are the really mountainous parts +of the Crimea. Beyond it the country possesses no +features of picturesque beauty; vast plains gradually succeed +to the hills, and at a distance the Steppes, which +form all the northern part of the peninsula, extend to +the east of Theodosia as far as the Cimmerian Bosphorus. +On all the line from Soudak to Theodosia there is no +ancient monument or ruin; and the nature of the coast, +sometimes abrupt, sometimes open and undefended, +appears little favourable for the foundations of a town, +or the establishment of either a military or commercial +port.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_236">[236]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XV">CHAPTER XV.<br> +<span class="smaller">FROM ALOUCHTA TO SIMPHERÓPOL, KARASOUBAZAR, ESKI KRIM, AND THEODOSIA.</span></h2> + +<p>Valley of Alouchta—Obelisk—Valley of the Angar—Tavshan Bazar—Fortified +Gorge—Yenisála, a Greek Colony—Aian and the source of the +Salghír—Ascent of the Tchatyr-Dagh—Yaila—Snow reservoirs—From +Tchafki to Simpherópol—Excursion up valley of Little Salghír to caves of +Kisilkoba—Caverns—Simpherópol to Karasóubazar—The Shireen family—Eski +Krim—Theodosia, or Kaffa—<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 700, Theodosia founded by Milesians—<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> +250, totally destroyed by the Huns—Desert for 1000 years—<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> +1280, Kaffa founded by Genoese on site of Theodosia—Short history +of it—<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 1475, taken by Turks—Its decline—Revival in seventeenth +century—1781, taken by Russians—Description of ruins—Their destruction +by the Russians—Position of Kaffa in commercial point of view—Arabat—The +wall of Asander—The approach to Kertch.</p> + +</div> + +<p>The macadamised road does not extend along the coast +further than Alouchta, and here turns off northwards to +Simpherópol, a distance of about forty miles. It mounts +for the first twelve miles through the rich valley of +Alouchta, till an obelisk marks the highest point, whence +it descends through the cheerful little valley of the Angar, +which runs into the Salghír. Here the Tchatyr-Dagh, +the highest mountain in the Crimea, rises immediately +on the left, and the valley is an enormous rent in the red +pudding stone of which the mountain itself is composed.</p> + +<p>A little further on, a shady spot, called Tavshan Bazar +(the Hare market), serves as a resting-place for carriages +coming from Simpherópol, before they encounter the hilly +part of the journey to the coast, and from Tavshan Bazar +to Simpherópol the road is good and even.</p> + +<p>Two limestone mountains⁠<a id="FNanchor_202" href="#Footnote_202" class="fnanchor">[202]</a> here rise above the road on +the right, and vast blocks which have rolled down from +them nearly fill up the valley of the Angar, and advantage +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_237">[237]</span>has been taken of the narrow passage, called Demirkapou, +or the gates of iron, to erect one of the walls so common +in the Crimea, by which the southern coast was protected +against invasions from the north.</p> + +<p>A little beyond Tavshan Bazar,⁠<a id="FNanchor_203" href="#Footnote_203" class="fnanchor">[203]</a> to the right, is the +village of Yenisála, occupying the bottom of the valley. +This was a Greek village, abandoned in 1778, of which +there only remain now the ruins of a chapel and some +tombs. The inhabitants were induced to remove at the +great emigration which took place five years before +the Russian conquest of the Crimea, and were transferred +to the shores of the Sea of Azof, near Mariopol, +where they founded a new Yenisála. They never, however, +forgot their old abodes, and the present possessor of +the village, M. Grot, has seen old men arrive to visit the +scenes of their youth, and find out among the tangled +bushes their ancient home, which they came once to +revisit before their strength failed them. A little beyond +Yenisála the Angar falls into the Salghír, and the high +road follows the banks of the latter river all the way to +Simpherópol. There are no remains of antiquity, except +an old Tatar palace, called Eski Serai; but the country +around is rich and wooded, with fine poplars and aspens, +and Tatar villages are dotted thickly over it, with tiled +houses and white minarets rising among the trees.</p> + +<p>It is worth while, however, to stop on the high road at +Tchafki and make an excursion to the source of the Salghír +and the summit of the Tchatyr-Dagh. From Tchafki the +ride is short to the little Tatar village of Aian,⁠<a id="FNanchor_204" href="#Footnote_204" class="fnanchor">[204]</a> which is +close to the sources of the Salghír, to visit which the +traveller must descend from the limestone terrace, on +which the village is situated, into the neighbouring +narrow valley, which is a rent in the red marble rocks, +terminating, at a few hundred yards distance, in a great +chasm in the flank of the mountain. There, under an +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_238">[238]</span>enormous rock, surmounted by other broken fragments, +is a large mouth, which vomits forth the Salghír in the +midst of mossy blocks of stone. The wave, scarcely +escaped from its cavern, falls in a cascade over a mass of +marble, and the noise of the waterfall is mingled with the +roaring of the waters in the gulf from which it issues in +the very bowels of the mountain. From a grotto above +it the water may be seen boiling and foaming in the dark +abyss. These subterranean gulfs penetrate into the heart +of the mountain, where they communicate with other +gulfs and abysses, which reach the whole way through +the mountain from near its summit, and, preserving the +snow during the whole year like glaciers, continually feed +the river.</p> + +<p>To mount the Tchatyr-Dagh,⁠<a id="FNanchor_205" href="#Footnote_205" class="fnanchor">[205]</a> on its eastern side, the +first part of the ascent is in the direction of Tchafki, over +the schists, which to a considerable height compose the +western side of the valley of the Angar. Then follows +the red marble, and a very steep ascent, which leads to the +table-land or Yaila of the mountain, four or five miles in +length and two miles broad, and upwards of 4000 feet +above the level of the sea. It is very even and covered +with fine pasture, on which feed numerous flocks of sheep; +but strange to say the strata of black limestone which +compose it are not horizontal, as might have been expected +from its even surface, but vertical, at right angles +to the surface of the earth, and planed off by some agency +which nobody has been able to determine. The heads of +the beds may be seen running east and west, and the +harder strata rise slightly above the others, and have +scarcely any vegetation upon them. There are frequent +slight depressions in the soil, from 40 to 100 feet in +diameter, and about 10 feet deep; but sometimes they +sink into the unfathomable abysses which have been +mentioned as forming reservoirs of snow to supply the +rivers which issue from the Tauric chain. From this +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_239">[239]</span>lower table rises another, 700 or 800 feet high, which +forms the summit of the mountain, offering the magnificent +view I have already described in a former chapter.</p> + +<p>Nothing of interest occurs on the road from Tchafki +to Simpherópol; from which latter place there is an +agreeable excursion up the valley of the Little Salghír, +which runs on the east, parallel to the great river of +the same name.⁠<a id="FNanchor_206" href="#Footnote_206" class="fnanchor">[206]</a> After passing the village of Mamak, +at a short distance from Simpherópol, a vast wall of +porphyry, fifteen miles long, closes the valley to the +east, and extends from Djamatai to Yenisála, which +has been mentioned as being close to the high road to +Alouchta. This wall is the eastern side of the great circular +crater, in the midst of which Mount Tchatyr-Dagh +has been raised up, and along it there are rents, which +form narrow valleys to the east, in many of which villages +are situated. At Terenair is some black schistous +earth, somewhat resembling coal in appearance; but +although it would no more burn than so much granite, +the possessor of it, Mr. Kortchan, always uses his utmost +endeavours to obtain a certificate of its carbonaceous +virtues from geological travellers, that he may enter into +contracts to supply it as coal to the fleet at Sevastopol. +Higher up is the valley of the Kisilkoba, with a +village of the same name at its entrance, and a rivulet +running through it, shaded by high trees. After passing +the village, and following, for a short distance, a +narrow path by the side of the stream, we come to a +very steep ascent among the rocks, where numberless +fragments of pottery mark the spot as once having been +inhabited. Ascending the sombre and narrow glen, we +then arrive at an even terrace, some acres square, covered +with fine trees, and surrounded by high rocks, in which +grottoes have been excavated. It is impossible to conceive +a spot more fitted for a hermitage, where the world +is only seen at a distance through the entrance of the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_240">[240]</span>little valley. At the back of the terrace the stream +bursts forth from subterranean canals, like those under +the Tchatyr-Dagh, and at the time of the melting of +the snows a great body of water issues forth.</p> + +<p>The course of the stream appears to have been several +times changed, for above its present place of exit, there +are two other stages of the empty canals, which form +a series of majestic grottoes. The least elevated, but +the most beautiful, rise above the cascade, with a fine +entrance about twenty feet high, and within them the +ground is found to be sandy, and the cavern descends +into the interior of the mountain. At half its depth +there is a passage of rising ground, which leads into +other canals, of such extent, that a French gentleman, +having taken provisions and lights, walked for a +whole day with the guide, Mambet, without reaching +the extremity.⁠<a id="FNanchor_207" href="#Footnote_207" class="fnanchor">[207]</a> In the lower grotto, at sixty paces from +the entrance, there is a basin of limpid water, and +between the strata of the limestone the Tatars of Karasóubazar +collect a red and yellow clay for the manufacture +of pipe bowls. The upper grottoes are two hundred feet +above the terrace, and the access to them is difficult. +Their entrance is low, but the passage rapidly increases +in height and breadth in a north-east direction. It +then turns towards the north-west, and three more +caverns are passed, covered with white stalactites, which, +by the light of the flambeaux, make a beautiful contrast +with the red rocks around. The length of these caverns, +as far as they are generally followed, is seven hundred +feet, and supposing that the dislocation of the strata, +which formed them, dates from the raising up of the +Jurassic island of the Crimea, fossil bones might perhaps +be found here of great importance.</p> + +<p>At a mile and a half⁠<a id="FNanchor_208" href="#Footnote_208" class="fnanchor">[208]</a> from Kisilkoba is another +gorge, Koutchouk Yankoi, which much resembles the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_241">[241]</span>one I have described, and here ends the valley of the +Salghír, between the foot of the Tchatyr-Dagh and +the heights of the Samarkaia.⁠<a id="FNanchor_209" href="#Footnote_209" class="fnanchor">[209]</a></p> + +<p>We will now return to Simpherópol, and follow the +post-road thence to Theodosia. From Simpherópol +to Karasóubazar the road is very uninteresting, and runs +over a chalky undulating ground with little cultivation +and few trees. Half way is the post station of Konia, +near which are two large tumuli.</p> + +<p>Karasóubazar,⁠<a id="FNanchor_210" href="#Footnote_210" class="fnanchor">[210]</a> or the market of the black water, is +one of the two towns reserved by Catherine II. at the +conquest of the Crimea, for the exclusive occupation of +the Tatars, and it therefore retains a strictly Oriental +character, which has quite disappeared from the towns +inhabited by the Russians.</p> + +<p>The only public edifices of any importance here are +the khans or caravanserais, where merchants rest on +their journeys, and of these there are between twenty and +thirty, not equalling in architectural beauty those of +Georgia and Persia. The largest, called the Tachekhan, +was built in 1656 by Sefir Ghazi Atcheiou, minister of +Mehmet Geray, and is an immense square edifice, presenting +outside only four blank walls, but in the inside +there is a large court occupied with rooms for travellers +and a number of shops. One of the last constructed +khans is that of the Armenians, which contrasts favourably +with the others in point of luxury and comfort. +It is built like one of the covered arcades or the “<i>passages</i>” +of Paris, on a much greater scale, with wider +arcades, lighted by large apertures in its lofty roof. The +shops are ranged on each side, and there is a large passage +or street between them always filled with busy groups. +There are also twenty-two mosques in Karasóubazar, but +none of them remarkable for beauty.</p> + +<p>The Greek church deserves a visit for its originality; +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_242">[242]</span>it is built in the shape of a cross with a dome which +lights the centre. Karasóubazar was in former times +celebrated for its cutlery, and about 1755 it exported to +the Caucasus and Mingrelia as many as 400,000 small +knives or daggers, such as are commonly worn in the +girdle in eastern countries. The cemeteries round the +town are of enormous extent, and from that of the Greeks +there is an admirable view of the town, with its red-tiled +houses, winding streets, and shady gardens.</p> + +<p>Between Karasóubazar and Kertch are situated the +vast domains of the Shireen family, which was the +second in rank in the Crimea after that of the Gerays, +and so powerful that they were almost their rivals. +Their importance dated from the time when a certain +Dangey Bey of this family, in a general revolt, saved +the last scion of the Geray family, who was afterwards +raised to the dignity of khan, and showed his gratitude +to the Shireens by conferring upon them many privileges. +They alone could marry the princesses of the +Geray family, and near Karasóubazar is a mountain, +called by the Russians Shireenskaia Gora, or the Hill of +the Shireens, where they used to hold meetings of their +dependents, when, as was often the case, they disapproved +of the conduct of the khans, and wished to influence +their government. According to one tradition, the +ancestor of this family was the companion in arms of +Zingis Khan, and conquered the Crimea for him, so that +they might be even said to have some claims to the +throne itself.⁠<a id="FNanchor_211" href="#Footnote_211" class="fnanchor">[211]</a></p> + +<p>The only point of interest between Karasóubazar +and Theodosia are the ruins of Eski Krim, which was +the most ancient capital of the Tatars after their conquest +of the Crimea. The date of its foundation is +unknown, but already in 1266 it was the appanage of +Oran Timour. Under the Mongols it was one of the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_243">[243]</span>greatest towns in Asia, and a well-mounted horseman +required half a day to ride round it. It is now almost +deserted, and scarce any traces remain of the great city +where the rich caravans of olden times used to come laden +with all the precious products of Asia. The traces of +the pavements of the streets may be observed in the +fields that now occupy its site. The ruins of five +mosques and large vaulted baths remain; and one Greek +church and one mosque are still used for religious purposes. +The Armenians are the only inhabitants who have +remained here, and they still retain their church and a +convent, dedicated to St. George, on the neighbouring +hill of Karasou, which is the object of numerous pilgrimages. +The best view of the town is from the hill +of Aghermiche, which embraces the whole valley, once +occupied by buildings, and on one side may be traced the +remains of the ancient wall, flanked with towers, which +surrounded the city, and included an enormous cemetery, +in which tombs may still be seen of every variety of +form.</p> + +<p>Near Eski Krim is the post-station of Krinitski, and beyond +it begins the flat uncultivated peninsula of Kertch.⁠<a id="FNanchor_212" href="#Footnote_212" class="fnanchor">[212]</a> +There is now no sign of a tree or a shrub, although +traces exist in some parts of ancient forests, and there is +so great a want of water that the Tatars are obliged to +dig ponds in the soil to water their flocks.</p> + +<p>At fifteen miles from Krinitski is the once famous +town of Theodosia or Kaffa, situated on the shores of the +finest bay on the northern coasts of the Black Sea after +those of Sevastopol.</p> + +<p>Twice have the commercial advantages of this situation +been recognised, and twice has a proud city arisen +on the gentle slopes of this bay. The Milesians, at the +time of their first expedition into the Black Sea, founded +here a flourishing colony, which prospered long in an +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_244">[244]</span>independent state, and was then incorporated into the +kingdom of the Bosphorus. After an existence of 900 +years, from the seventh century before Christ to the +third of our æra, there then intervened a period of ten +centuries, during which the plough passed over the site +of Theodosia, and it is barely mentioned by contemporary +historians. Thus it remained a ruin during the +millennium, from the third to the thirteenth century, +when so many nations in succession made the Crimea +their temporary dwelling-place. Then, in the thirteenth +century, soon after the Tatars had made their first inroad, +there landed on the shores of the Crimea navigators, not +less intelligent and enterprising than the Milesians, and +soon, on the site of the ancient Greek city of Theodosia, +arose Kaffa, the annals of which form undoubtedly one +of the brightest pages in the political and commercial +history of the Black Sea.⁠<a id="FNanchor_213" href="#Footnote_213" class="fnanchor">[213]</a></p> + +<p>In the middle of the thirteenth century, after the +conquest of the Crimea by the Mongols, at the moment +when three powerful republics were disputing the empire +of the seas, the Genoese, landing in the bay of Theodosia, +on the deserted spot, which was then called Kaffa, +obtained from Prince Oran Timour a small territory +on the shore. In 1280 the colony was founded, and +its rise was so rapid, that nine years afterwards it was +enabled, without neglecting its own defence, to send +three galleys to the relief of Tripoli besieged by the +Saracens. The Genoese obtained from the Tatars the +monopoly of wheat and salt, and established themselves at +Kertch (Cerco), Taman (Materca), and Tana at the mouths +of the Don. The foundation of Kaffa increased the hatred +between the Genoese and the Venetians, and in 1295 the +former massacred the latter at Constantinople, and the +next year, in 1296, the Venetians took their revenge, +defeated the Genoese in a great battle on the Bosphorus, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_245">[245]</span>near Constantinople, and, having surprised Kaffa with a +fleet of twenty galleys, utterly destroyed the town. Such +was the energy and vitality of the Italian republics at +that time, however, that the next year the Genoese again +took possession of their territory,—Kaffa arose quickly +from its ruins, and in 1318 Pope John XXII. erected it +into a bishopric. It was then governed by a consul, and +the Podesta, the supreme ruler of all the Genoese establishments +in the Black Sea, resided at Galata.</p> + +<p>In 1343 a war having broken out with the Tatars, +Djanibek Khan, the King of Kiptchak, besieged Kaffa, +and a crusade was preached in its favour by Clement VI. +The Genoese were victorious, but the dangers to which +they had been exposed made them feel the necessity of a +formidable system of fortification. The southern ramparts +and palisades of the town were replaced by high and thick +walls, flanked with towers, and surrounded by a deep +ditch, lined with masonry. These magnificent works, +of which even the traveller at the present day may admire +the admirable execution, were commenced in 1353, by +Godefrey de Zoaglio, and finished in 1386 by Benedict +Grimaldi. The most remarkable tower of the enceinte, +the southern one, which commands the whole town, was +consecrated to the memory of Pope Clement VI., with an +inscription relating to the crusade preached by him at +the moment the Tatars were besieging the colony. The +Genoese probably drew the materials for their fortifications +from the ancient Greek city of Kimmericum, now +Opouk. In 1365 they conquered the Greek colonies of +Cembalo (Balaclava), and Soldaya (Soudak), which were +tributary to the khan of the Tatars, and in 1380 obtained +from him a grant of Gothia, or all the sea-coast between +Balaclava and Soudak, which was inhabited by the Christians.⁠<a id="FNanchor_214" href="#Footnote_214" class="fnanchor">[214]</a> +After that time Kaffa went on increasing in +prosperity, and had commercial relations with the most +distant countries of Asia, and soon, according to its +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_246">[246]</span>historians, it equalled in size and population the capital +of the Greek empire, and surpassed it in trade and wealth.</p> + +<p>The Genoese colony thus arrived, in the middle of the +fifteenth century, at the zenith of its glory and power, +when the capture of Constantinople by Mahomet II. +isolated it from the mother city, and prepared the way +for its entire destruction. On the 1st of June, 1475, four +hundred and eighty-two sail of galleys, commanded by +the grand Admiral Achmet Pasha, appeared before Kaffa, +and some hours afterwards the Genoese town saw its walls +bombarded by the formidable artillery of the Ottomans. +The siege lasted only a short time, and a large portion of +the enceinte, raised at a time when artillery was unknown, +gave way; breaches were multiplied, and on the 6th +of June, 1475, the besieged surrendered at discretion, +after having in vain attempted to obtain a capitulation. +Achmet Pasha entered Kaffa irritated by resistance +and hostile to the Christian name. After taking possession +of the consular palace, he disarmed the population, +levied a large sum of money on the town, and seized half +the property of the inhabitants, as well as all slaves of +both sexes. The Latin Catholics were then embarked +on board the Turkish fleet and carried to Constantinople, +where the Sultan established them by force in the +faubourgs of his new capital, after taking fifteen hundred +of their male children, to incorporate in his guards. Thus +in the space of a few days, after a glorious existence of +two hundred years, was ruined this celebrated city, which +European genius had raised in this remote country, and +which had developed a most important traffic with +Eastern Europe and Asia.</p> + +<p>Kaffa, the ruin of which was followed immediately by +that of Soldaya and Cembalo, was directly united to the +Ottoman Empire, and was not, like the rest of the +Crimea, left as a fief in the hands of the Tatars. During +one hundred and fifty years it had no other importance +than that which it derived from being the seat of a +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_247">[247]</span>Turkish garrison, and a strong military position on the +borders of a Mussulman state, which the Sultans were +always anxious to conquer. In the middle of the seventeenth +century the ancient Genoese city again became +considerable on account of the great commercial and +manufacturing movement which took place at that time +among the Tatars, and which caused it to become once +more an important commercial port of the Black Sea.</p> + +<p>In 1663 Chardin found in the bay of Kaffa more than +400 ships. The town was then called by the Turks +Kutchuk Stamboul (little Constantinople) and had 4000 +houses, and more than 80,000 inhabitants. The prosperity +of Kaffa, however, did not last long. Since the +time of Peter the Great, Russia has been continually +advancing towards the Black Sea, and already in the time +of that monarch, she had pushed her victorious armies to +the Danube. In this progressive march towards the +south, the Crimea especially excited the ambition of the +Tzars, and in the reign of Catherine II., was incorporated +into the Russian Empire.</p> + +<p>Under the Muscovite dominion Kaffa sunk again. It +lost even officially the name under which it had pursued +so glorious a career in modern times, to resume at the +caprice of the Emperor Alexander its ancient Greek +name, and it now does not possess more than 4500 +inhabitants. At Kaffa, as at Soldaya, the erection of +useless barracks was the signal for the destruction of the +ancient Genoese monuments. The revêtements of the +ditches were first carried away, and then, owing to the +indifference of the government, the walls themselves disappeared. +The magnificent towers which defended them +were successively thrown down, and at this day there +only exist three remnants of the remarkable bastion, +christened in honour of Pope Clement VI.</p> + +<p>The Genoese fortifications once destroyed, the vandalism +of the administrative authorities next attacked +the civil monuments. When the Russians took possession +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_248">[248]</span>of the place, two imposing buildings ornamented +the principal square of Kaffa; the great Turkish baths, +an admirable monument of Oriental architecture, and the +ancient episcopal church of the Genoese, an edifice built +in the fourteenth century, and then converted into a +mosque after the Turkish conquest. Under the reign of +Catherine II., it was decided to restore the mosque to the +Christian faith, and it was given to the established Greek +church of Russia. Unfortunately, instead of preserving it +intact, they entertained the fatal idea of decorating it +with a miserable portico in the quasi Doric style, such as is +seen from one end of Russia to the other. The elegant +domes, which surrounded in a graceful manner the principal +part of the building, were then demolished, and the +bases of the new columns were hardly laid, when money +failed, and the government refused to make further advances. +The beautiful mosque, from which the lead +had been torn off, doubtless to be sold for the profit of +the employés, was thus abandoned to the injuries of the +weather and the public, and soon became a perfect ruin.</p> + +<p>In 1833 the civil governor, M. Kasnatcháief, in a most +barbarous and ignorant manner, completed the work of +destruction, by attacking the great baths which had +hitherto remained intact. He asked permission from +Prince Woronzof to enlarge the great square, because it +was too small for a parade ground, and the instant he +obtained it (knowing that he would be stopped when +his intentions were found out), he set about destroying +the mosque and the baths.⁠<a id="FNanchor_215" href="#Footnote_215" class="fnanchor">[215]</a> In the space of a fortnight, +by the aid of the pick-axe and powder, both these admirable +monuments, with which the Genoese and Turkish +occupations had enriched the town, completely disappeared. +In 1840 the great square was filled with their +precious materials, which the local administration were +selling at the price of common stone.</p> + +<p>Of all the splendid edifices of the Genoese colony, only +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_249">[249]</span>two churches have escaped the Russian vandalism; +having been granted to the Catholics and the Armenians, +and preserved by them. For a long time, these two +foreign communities struggled against the indifference +of the government, and endeavoured to obtain assistance +to repair their churches; and having been unsuccessful, +they in a spirited manner restored them at their +own expense.</p> + +<p>If from the interior of the town we cast our eyes to +the environs, the same spectacle of destruction saddens +the view. All the beautiful gardens, and the rich +orchards, which surrounded the town in the time of the +Tatars, have disappeared. One single winter was sufficient +for two Russian regiments to annihilate every trace of +the brilliant cultivation which formerly covered the hills.</p> + +<p>From⁠<a id="FNanchor_216" href="#Footnote_216" class="fnanchor">[216]</a> the fort of the tower of Clement VI. there is a +fine view of the town and the bay. In the midst of the +panorama rises the ancient Genoese citadel, now dismantled, +with its walls threatening to fall down. Before +the citadel, a building, remarkable by its two massive +groups of building, but without any exterior ornament, +is the principal Armenian church, which the emigrants +of that nation constructed when they arrived here under +the protection of the Genoese, after the terrible earthquake +of 1319, which destroyed Anni,⁠<a id="FNanchor_217" href="#Footnote_217" class="fnanchor">[217]</a> and so terrified +one portion of the Armenian nation, that they took refuge +with the Tatars of Kiptchak, in the environs of Astrakhan. +Hence they sent colonies into the Crimea and +established themselves, with the consent of the Genoese, +at Kaffa, Eski Krim, and in the environs of Soudak.</p> + +<p>Before the Russian conquest, in 1713, Peyssonel relates +that the Armenians had twenty-four churches at +Kaffa, and Levasseur de Beauplan, a century earlier, +counted thirty-two.</p> + +<p>The church in question is now converted into a warehouse, +but its interior has preserved the distribution of +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_250">[250]</span>the religious edifices of Armenia—a grand oratory as an +entrance, then a nave, a dome, and a choir with lateral +sacristies. The other Armenian church, which has been +already mentioned, deserves a careful study as a good +and well preserved specimen of Armenian architecture, +and is an exact copy of those still to be seen in Armenia. +The portico is the most ornamental part of the edifice, +and the mouldings and roses are as varied as in Gothic +and Byzantine styles. There are two images of St. +George, the saint in which the Georgians and the +Armenians have so much confidence, and the walls of +the church are covered both inside and outside with +funeral crosses, as in Armenia.⁠<a id="FNanchor_218" href="#Footnote_218" class="fnanchor">[218]</a> In every detail it is +interesting to observe how faithfully the Armenians, in +their distant colonizations, preserved the artistic traditions +of their country.⁠<a id="FNanchor_219" href="#Footnote_219" class="fnanchor">[219]</a></p> + +<p>Hommaire de Hell is not the only traveller who deplores +the vandalism of the Russians. Dubois says, +“that he dare not express his feelings at seeing the +noble works of the Genoese so uselessly ruined.”</p> + +<p>The “mild and amiable” Pallas was a Russian subject, +and dared not express his indignation at the atrocities he +saw perpetrated. When he first visited Theodosia, the +great mosque was complete, with its noble cupola 54 +feet in diameter, surrounded on three sides by eleven +smaller domes. “There were also,” as Pallas says, “two +minarets 96 feet high, furnished with serpentine staircases +leading to the top; <i>though both structures have been +since destroyed</i>.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_220" href="#Footnote_220" class="fnanchor">[220]</a></p> + +<p>Clarke, it appears, was an eye-witness of this last barbarous +proceeding, and describes the painful feelings it +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_251">[251]</span>occasioned to all the civilized persons who beheld it. +“The melancholy devastation,” he says,⁠<a id="FNanchor_221" href="#Footnote_221" class="fnanchor">[221]</a> “while it +draws tears down the cheeks of the Tatars, and extorts +many a sigh from the Anatolian Turks who resort to +Kaffa for commercial purposes, cannot fail to excite the +indignation of every enlightened people. At Kaffa, during +the time we remained, the soldiers were allowed to overthrow +the beautiful mosques, or to convert them into +magazines, to pull down the minarets, to tear up the +public fountains, and to destroy all the public aqueducts, +for the sake of a small quantity of lead, which they were +thereby enabled to obtain.</p> + +<p>“Such is the true nature of Russian protection; such +the sort of alliance which Russians endeavour to form +with every nation weak enough to submit to their power, +or to become their dupe. While these works of destruction +were going on, the officers were amusing themselves +in beholding the mischief. Tall and stately minarets, +whose lofty spires added such grace and dignity to the +town, were daily levelled with the ground, which, besides +their connection with the religious establishments +for whose maintenance the Russian empire had been +pledged, were of no other value to their destroyers than +to supply a few soldiers with bullets, or their officers +with a dram. I was in a Turkish coffeehouse, at Kaffa, +when the principal minaret, one of the ancient and characteristic +monuments of the country, to which the +Russians had been some days employed in fixing ropes +and blocks, came down with such violence that its fall +shook every house in the place. The Turks, seated on +divans, were all smoking, and when such is the case, +an earthquake will scarcely rouse them; nevertheless, +at this flagrant act of impiety and dishonour, they rose, +breathing out deep and bitter curses against the enemies +of their Prophet. Even the Greeks who were present +testified their anger by similar imprecations. One of +them, turning to me, said, with a countenance of contempt +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_252">[252]</span>and indignation, Εκυθαι! Scythians! which I afterwards +found to be a common term of reproach; for though +the Greeks profess the same religion as the Russians, +they detest the latter as cordially as the Turks or Tatars. +The most lamentable part of the injury thus sustained +has been in the destruction of the conduits and public +fountains which conveyed, together with the purest water +from distant mountains, a source of health and comfort +to the people. They first carry off the leaden pipes to +make bullets; they then take down all the marble slabs +and large stones for building materials, which they employ +in the construction of barracks; lastly, they blow +up the channels which convey water, because they say +the water-porters cannot earn a livelihood where there +are public fountains.”</p> + +<p>In spite of all the depredations of the authorities, and +the stupid ignorance of the governor, Kaffa has never +been completely metamorphosed into a Russian town. +Its principal monuments have been demolished, its walls +razed to the ground, its later population expelled, but the +general appearance of the town, the private dwellings, the +streets paved with large flags, all announce a different +people. It is to be hoped the town may long preserve +this picturesque aspect, which resembles that of many +little ports on the shores of the Mediterranean.⁠<a id="FNanchor_222" href="#Footnote_222" class="fnanchor">[222]</a></p> + +<p>There is a museum at Theodosia, which is an ancient +Turkish mosque, with two lions at its entrance, which +were brought from Phanagoria. Whatever ancient Greek +monuments are here have been brought from Kertch, +when Theodosia was the capital of this part of the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_253">[253]</span>Crimea; and among them is a griffin of fine workmanship. +But there are no inscriptions or important monuments +of the ancient Theodosia, which, indeed, Clarke +and others suppose to have been at some distance from +the site of Kaffa.⁠<a id="FNanchor_223" href="#Footnote_223" class="fnanchor">[223]</a> There are, however, many Genoese +inscriptions in the museum, and among them an important +one found on the tower of Pope Clement VI.⁠<a id="FNanchor_224" href="#Footnote_224" class="fnanchor">[224]</a></p> + +<p>The peninsula of Kertch was formerly closed by three +ramparts, which were raised for political reasons to defend +it from dangerous enemies. The most ancient is that +of Asander. It starts from the extremity of the Tauric +chain, and finishes at the sea of Azof, near the commencement +of the tongue of Arabat. The Scythian +slaves of Sindic origin raised it to defend themselves +against their masters when they returned from Asia. +Asander, King of the Bosphorus from 49 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> to 14 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, +renewed it and fortified it with towers as a defence +against the invasions of the Scythians, and it has ever +since borne his name. It may still be traced with the +places for the towers. The rampart of the Golden +Mountain, at a few miles from Kertch, was the primitive +frontier of the kingdom of the Bosphorus and the colony +of Panticapæum. The success of the Leuconides in the +4th century before Christ had carried it beyond the +peninsula of Kertch, by uniting Nymphæum and Theodosia +to the kingdom. Asander fixed it at the rampart +of the Scythian Slaves, and this was for several centuries +its limit. In the mean time the Chersonians replaced +the Scythians as the predominant people in the Crimea, +and they had taken Panticapæum during the absence of +Sauromates V., who had gone to pillage Asia Minor in +the third century after Christ, notwithstanding the army +which the Emperor Constance opposed to him. In order +to re-enter his capital, Sauromates was obliged to give up +his prisoners and booty. His grandson, Sauromates VI., +who reigned <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 302 to 310, wished to avenge himself +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_254">[254]</span>on the Chersonians; he was however beaten by them +near the rampart of Asander, and obliged to swear never +to pass it in arms. Violating his oath, he again appeared +in the field, and consented to terminate the war by a +single combat with Pharnáces, the chief of the Chersonians. +He was killed, and his army, undergoing the +yoke of the conquerors, was obliged to retire half-way +from Theodosia to Kertch, where the Chersonians permitted +the limits of the kingdom to be fixed. Then +was erected the rampart of Akkos, or Cybernicus, which +commences at the salt lake of Itar Altchiek and finishes +at the Sea of Azof. It is very well preserved; the ditch +turned towards the Crimea is still very deep, and the +mounds along the rampart would lead to the belief that +it had been supported by towers. These three ramparts +are almost the only ancient monuments between Theodosia +and Kertch; and the road is most uninteresting and +monotonous, passing through a thinly-peopled steppe, +covered with deserted Tatar villages and vast cemeteries.</p> + +<p>The first station from Theodosia is Porpatche, at 22 +versts distance. The second is Arghin, at 27 versts; and +between these two is passed the rampart of Asander. At +Arghin travellers turn off who wish to visit or to pass +along the Arabat. The third station is Suftanofka, at +28 versts distance, and in this stage the rampart of Akkos +is passed. At this station there are springs and a well, +and here for the first time the horizon is seen crowned +by the tumuli and coral-rag peaks which characterize the +environs of Kertch. Those who go to Simpherópol from +Kertch, and have their own horses with them, may avoid +the détour by Theodosia, and continue their road straight +across the Isthmus to Krinitski. The road then lies +through Ormeil and Karagos, celebrated for its ancient +mosque in the primitive style of Tatar architecture. This +is one of the four most ancient mosques in the Crimea, in +the architecture of which are to be observed only straight +lines or semicircles.⁠<a id="FNanchor_225" href="#Footnote_225" class="fnanchor">[225]</a></p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_255">[255]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XVI">CHAPTER XVI.<br> +<span class="smaller">KERTCH.</span></h2> + +<p>Approach to Kertch—The Cimmerian Bosphorus—Russian Conquest of +Kertch in 1771—Its rise since 1833—Its chance of becoming the emporium +of trade for the Sea of Azof—Russian authorities—Ancient church—Kertch, +the ancient Panticapæum—Acropolis—Arm-chair of Mithridates—Allée +of Tumuli on Theodosian road—The Tumulus a sign of Milesian +occupation—Contents of Tumuli on Theodosian road—Etruscan Vases at +Kertch—Burial-places of the Poor—Tomb of the Pigmies—The Catacombs—The +Tombs of the Kings—The Golden Mountain—The rich +discoveries at Kouloba—Description of the contents of the Tomb—Pillaged +by the people—Probably that of Leucon I., or Paerisádes I.—The +Museum—Myrmékium—Mud Volcanoes—Naphtha Springs—Cape Akboroun—Nymphæum—Herring +fishery—Opouk, the ancient Kimmericum.</p> + +</div> + +<p>After⁠<a id="FNanchor_226" href="#Footnote_226" class="fnanchor">[226]</a> a long journey across an uninterrupted flat +steppe, slight undulations appear above the horizon on +approaching the Cimmerian Bosphorus, and shortly after +this appearance the traveller finds himself in a principal +necropolis of the ancient Milesian city. Immense cones +of earth rise on each side of the road, and ridges of coral +rag lying among these sepulchral monuments, give a +grand aspect to this singular field of death. On arriving +at the extremity of the plateau, the view extends over +the whole Bosphorus. On an evening in summer the +last rays of the setting sun tint the cliffs on the Asiatic side, +and light up the triangular sails of a few fishing boats +lazily floating down the current. The outline of the tumuli +of Phanagoria becomes distinctly traced on the blue sky, +and, as the sheet of water of the straits gradually assumes +the sombre colouring of evening, the shadow of Cape +Akboroun stretches over the water. These fine effects +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_256">[256]</span>of light and shade are visible but for a few moments; the +sun descends with tropical quickness below the horizon, and +the uniform tones of the dark twilight envelop the Bosphorus, +its shores, and the solitary barks upon its waters.</p> + +<p>Descending from the plateau, the traveller enters the +town of Kertch, which is completely Russianized, of new +construction, occupying the site of the ancient Greek +colony of Panticapæum, once the queen city of the Bosphorus. +The straits on which it stands, called the Cimmerian +Bosphorus, leading from the Black Sea to the +Sea of Azof,⁠<a id="FNanchor_227" href="#Footnote_227" class="fnanchor">[227]</a> and separating Europe from Asia, are about +eight miles wide, and in parts so shallow, that they +do not admit vessels drawing more than twelve feet of +water, although in the time of Peter the Great, at the +taking of Azof, corvettes of forty guns could pass through +them. Kertch is a corruption of the name Gherséti, +which the Turks gave to the fortress erected here by the +Genoese, which was called by the geographers of the +fourteenth and fifteenth centuries Bospro, Vospro, and +Pandico. The Russians took possession of Kertch in +1771, and then 500 or 600 huts surrounded the Turkish +fortress, which was circular. This the Russians at first +strengthened, but afterwards abandoned, because it was +completely commanded from behind.</p> + +<p>Yenicáleh, at a few miles distance, was then fortified +for the defence of the straits, and Kertch dwindled away, +until, in 1821, the Emperor Alexander, appreciating its +commercial importance, declared it a port of the empire, +and raised it to the rank of a town, with an independent +municipality.⁠<a id="FNanchor_228" href="#Footnote_228" class="fnanchor">[228]</a> Since that time Kertch has slowly increased, +although it has scarcely now as many inhabitants +as it had during the occupation of the Turks; for Peyssonel +allowed it, in 1787, from 3000 to 4000 souls. It +is now the chief town of a little government, comprising +Yenicáleh and about 13,000 acres of land, which form +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_257">[257]</span>the eastern point of the peninsula; and the whole number +of inhabitants in Kertch and Yenicáleh together is only +2800 souls, living in 680 houses.</p> + +<div class="transnote" id="illus4"> +Transcriber’s Note: The image is clickable for a larger version. +</div> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 12.5em;"> + <a href="images/illus4-full.jpg"><img class="w100" src="images/illus4.jpg" alt=""></a> + <figcaption> + <p>PLAN OF PANTICAPÆUM NOW KERTCH, ANCIENT CAPITAL + OF THE KINGDOM OF THE BOSPHORUS.</p> + <p><i>Published by John Murray Albemarle Sᵗ. 1855.</i> + <i>Ford & West. Lithʳˢ.</i></p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>On the proposition of Prince Woronzof in 1833, the +suggestion which Pallas⁠<a id="FNanchor_229" href="#Footnote_229" class="fnanchor">[229]</a> had made forty years before +was acted upon, and Kertch was declared the place of +general quarantine for the Sea of Azof, and since that +time no vessel has been allowed to pass the straits without +a clean bill of health obtained here. The object of +the Russian government in this measure was to do away +with all quarantine establishments in the Azof, which has +been effected, and to throw into the hands of natives the +carrying trade between the ports of the Azof and Kertch, +which has not been found so easy of accomplishment. +Kertch has not become, as was expected, the emporium +for all the valuable commerce between the Black Sea and +eastern Russia; this still remains in the ports of the Azof; +and Rostof, notwithstanding the difficulty of reaching it +with large vessels, still goes on increasing in importance +far more rapidly than Kertch. Of all the ships that frequent +the Azof, by far the greater number are content +to pass a long quarantine at Kertch, and to ascend the +sea to load, although, if Kertch were the emporium, and +merchants had large stores there, ships might arrive at +the straits, load at once, and be off with their cargoes +without any quarantine at all.⁠<a id="FNanchor_230" href="#Footnote_230" class="fnanchor">[230]</a> In accounting for the +fact that advantage has not been taken of the great privileges +accorded to Kertch, something is doubtless due +to the difficulty of changing any established course of +trade; and merchants who have laid out capital in establishments +at Taganrok and Rostof have, of course, been +unwilling to remove to a new town. There are, however, +real advantages for commerce at the towns of the +Azof, which Kertch does not possess. The trade of that +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_258">[258]</span>sea is almost entirely confined to exports, and the merchants +at the ports on its shores are nearer to the +country which supplies them, and to their agents who +are scattered over it, and with whom they want to maintain +a constant communication, than they would be at +Kertch. At present there is no steam communication in +the Azof, and the means of transit across it must be very +much improved before it will be possible to transfer to +its southern extremity the point of rendezvous between +the internal and external commerce. And, again, if +Kertch should become the emporium of trade, a larger +capital would be required for carrying on business there, +because stocks would be longer on the road, and more +of them would have to be kept in store. The necessity +for a larger capital is a great objection to the change, +because capital is very scarce in Russia, as in all new or +ill-governed countries, so that even that which is required +for the tillage of the ground is supplied by foreigners, as +will afterwards be explained. It is besides doubtful, if +an emporium were established on the Black Sea, whether +Kertch is the most eligible place for it. The merchants +generally are in favour of Theodosia rather than Kertch, +because the anchorage at the former place is better, and +the bay of Theodosia does not freeze in winter, like the +Bosphorus. A glance at the map will also show, that a railway +might be made, or a canal cut across the peninsula of +Kertch, which at Theodosia is only forty miles broad, to +some point between Arabat and Cape Kazantip, where the +Russians landed their stores last autumn for Sevastopol, +and then the difficulties of the navigation of the Bosphorus +would be avoided, the distance shortened, and the +communications would be easier with the western parts +of new Russia.</p> + +<p>Kertch, like all Greek colonies, is charmingly situated. +A hill, called the Arm-chair of Mithridates, on the top +of which the rock is scooped out in a peculiar way, rises +at a short distance from the shore, and gently slopes +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_259">[259]</span>down to the sea. Around this hill was originally built +the old Greek town, and on its sides were once clustered +a variety of Greek temples, crowned on the top by the +acropolis, which in Greek cities was nothing more than +the walls surrounding the sacred spot in which was +placed the tutelary deity, upon the safe custody of which +the security of the town was supposed to depend. The +Turkish fortress below the hill has now been cleared away +to make room for a handsome open square surrounded by +arcades, from which streets are building in all directions.</p> + +<p>I was kindly lodged during my stay here by Mr. +Cattley, the English vice-consul, a son of one of the great +Russian merchants of St. Petersburg, whom I had met +at Sevastopol, and who is now the interpreter to Lord +Raglan in the Crimea.</p> + +<p>The civil Governor was Prince Herkheolídze, of +Georgian extraction; and the military Governor, whose +command extends all down the eastern coast of the Black +Sea, and includes all the fortresses erected against the +Circassians as far as Redout-kalè, was General Budberg, +who had been the aide-de-camp of Marshal Diébitch in +the first Turkish and Polish wars, and who was lately +commissioner to the Emperor in the Principalities.</p> + +<p>General Budberg was exceedingly polite, but would not +allow me a passage to Redout-kalè, down the eastern +coast of the Black Sea, in one of the Government vessels, +which then occasionally plied there, although as soon as +Prince Woronzof came to the Caucasus he made them +start at stated times, and receive passengers at fixed +charges, to the great convenience of travellers and merchants. +During the ten days I staid in Kertch I spent +the time very agreeably in visiting the numberless +ancient remains in the neighbourhood, and profiting by +the kind hospitality of the society there.</p> + +<p>As I was going to visit a country so little known as +the Caucasus, having obtained leave to take the road along +the line of the Kuban, and across the mountains to Tiflis, I +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_260">[260]</span>was anxious to obtain every information in my power, +and met with many officers at Kertch who had served in +various parts of the mountains, and were very obliging +in satisfying my curiosity. General Budberg told me +of the anthracite which is found in large quantities on +the banks of the Don, and which was found to be, +he said, better than coal for the steamers. He had just +been superintending the experiments which two new +English engineers had been making with it, and they +found that a ship could be provided with it for one-third +time longer than with coal, although it required a different +arrangement of some parts of the machinery of the +vessels.</p> + +<p>I met here several educated Russians, of what I may +call the middle classes, and was pleased to find in the unguarded +moments of familiar conversation a tone of sound +good sense in all their remarks, which I believe fairly +represents the general state of feeling through the country.</p> + +<p>Giving generally the fruit of my observations among +many classes of Russians for several years, I believe they +think their government a wise and good one on the whole, +although they are not slow to criticise it in its details. +They believe that an iron hand is necessary to keep the +empire together, and that a great destiny is in store for +it, and as long as progress is made, and the Slavonic name +upheld, it has always seemed to me, and I think my +opinion has been borne out by recent events, that they +would be willing to rally round their Government, and +make every sacrifice required by it.</p> + +<p>Great efforts have been made of late years by the +Government to rouse a national feeling in the people, +and for this reason almost insurmountable obstacles are +placed in the way of Russians either leaving Russia, or +having their children educated abroad. As a general +rule, to which very few exceptions are allowed, no Russian +can be absent from his country between the age of twelve +years old and twenty-five, or the whole time during +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_261">[261]</span>which the character is supposed to be forming; and after +the age of twenty-five a medical certificate is necessary +in order to obtain permission to travel, and a tax of +one hundred silver roubles, or about 16<i>l.</i>, is levied +during each year of absence as the price of a passport. +No Russian can be absent more than five years from his +country without ceasing to be a Russian subject, and +forfeiting all his property. These rules were a good deal +the subject of conversation while I was at Kertch, and +they seemed generally approved of, on the grounds that +young Russians came back with such very absurd notions +after having been to foreign countries, and that, without +understanding what was good in them, they aped everything +that was bad. It was also observed that the revolution +of 1824 originated entirely with the army that had +served in Western Europe, which brought home notions of +freedom that were impracticable in their native country. +A constitution it was said was now impossible in Russia, +and so little was the meaning of the term known by the +people when they called out for it at the revolution of +1824, that they thought “Constitutia”⁠<a id="FNanchor_231" href="#Footnote_231" class="fnanchor">[231]</a> meant the wife +of the Grand Duke Constantine, who resigned his rights +to the throne in favour of the late Emperor Nicholas.</p> + +<p>The church of Kertch, which formerly stood in the +fortress, is a curious specimen of Byzantine architecture, +and the date of its erection engraven on one of its columns, +viz. the year of the world 6225 (757 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>), proves it to be +the oldest Byzantine temple now remaining in the Crimea.</p> + +<p>The plan of the church is that of a cross with very +short transepts, and a cupola rising in the middle, which +lights the centre by eight narrow windows. The cupola +is supported by four short marble columns of the Corinthian +order, and some idea may be formed of the small +dimensions of the church, as the distance between these +columns is only twelve feet.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_262">[262]</span></p> + +<p>The appearance of the whole is mean and gloomy, and +resembles the churches which may be seen in various +parts of Greece. Under the Justinians and their successors, +in the sixth and seventh centuries of the Christian +era, architecture had degenerated, and leaving more and +more the beautiful models of Greece, had changed into a +new style suited to the wants of the Christian ritual, and +therefore continually less like the old Greek edifices. +This new style, which took its origin at Constantinople, +was called the Byzantine style, and all the countries which +bordered on the Black Sea adopted it. The cupola was +necessary for the church service, as its light being shed +on the table of the love feast, or the altar, was considered +emblematic of the divine light descending from +heaven.</p> + +<p>Such was the origin of the Byzantine style, and it was +natural that the Crimea, which was so near Constantinople, +should be greatly influenced by it, and that the +traces of it should be everywhere found throughout the +peninsula. There are the remains of such churches at +Phanagoria and Taman, and the churches of Kherson, +Aithodor, and Aioudágh, in the Crimea, are built in the +same style. There were several in Kertch, the remains +of which may still be seen.</p> + +<p>The marble that was commonly used at this period was +white with large grains, striped with blue bands. Dubois +supposes that there was a quarry of it near Constantinople, +and that it was a great manufactory for church +columns and ornaments, which were exported all round +the Black Sea, because it is in all the principal ports +that traces of churches are found, adorned with this +marble. It is not found in buildings erected before +the foundation of Constantinople, and the two kinds, +then most usual, were the marble of Paros, of which +fragments are found belonging to all ages, and a streaked +marble of blue, or grey, or white, called “cipolino” by +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_263">[263]</span>the Italians, the use of which is confined almost exclusively +to the Bosphorus.⁠<a id="FNanchor_232" href="#Footnote_232" class="fnanchor">[232]</a></p> + +<p>The ancient name of Kertch was Panticapæum,⁠<a id="FNanchor_233" href="#Footnote_233" class="fnanchor">[233]</a> and +it was one of the many Milesian colonies founded in the +Black Sea, in the seventh century before Christ. After +about half a century of independent existence, it became +the centre of a kingdom the political limits of which +varied considerably. In its palmiest days the territory +extended as far north as the Tanais, while to the west it +was bounded on the inland side by the mountains of +Theodosia. This fertile and narrow region was the +granary of Greece, especially of Athens, which drew +annually from it a supply of 400,000 medimni of corn.⁠<a id="FNanchor_234" href="#Footnote_234" class="fnanchor">[234]</a> +Although there are no fine buildings, or even fragments +left standing, as at Athens and Rome, to attest +the ancient magnificence of Panticapæum, heaps of brick +and pottery and the foundations of buildings encumber +the soil for a considerable distance round the Hill of +Mithridates, and show how great was the extent of the +ancient city.</p> + +<p>The acropolis occupied the summit of the Hill of +Mithridates, in shape an irregular polygon, and the +ditches and some parts of the walls, the last in the coarse +limestone of Kertch, may still be traced. The fortified +town touched the acropolis in the form of a long square, +of which the acropolis occupied the south-east angle. The +wall in its circuit enclosed only the summit and the +northern slope of the Hill of Mithridates. The southern +side seems never to have been fortified, although there +are numerous traces of the foundations of buildings.</p> + +<p>It is probable that, in very early times, the bay +advanced much further into the land. Not to speak of +the groups of tumuli which seem to mark the ancient +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_264">[264]</span>limits of the water, the alluvial nature of the soil, its +low level, which is almost that of the sea, and the +absence of all buildings on this space, make it probable +that this ground was formerly covered by the water. +This was the case with all the other bays of the +Bosphorus, and particularly of one to the south of Mount +Mithridates, which formed in ancient times a second port, +but is now covered with a salt-lake, separated from the +sea by a bar of sand, which the waves sometimes overleap +in stormy weather.</p> + +<p>Thus in ancient times the hill of Panticapæum was +bounded on three sides by the sea. The principal +faubourg extended from the mole, the remains of which +are still visible, along the sea-shore to the foot of the +mountain, and as far as the southern port. In the +midst of the immense heaps of ruins which cover the +surrounding country, may be traced the principal streets +which ended at the gates of the town, and among them +one of the most distinct is that leading from the port +to the acropolis, entering it at what seems to have been +its only gate. This is probably the gate that is seen on +the coins of the king, T. J. Reskóuporis, because it is not +placed in the middle of the wall of the polygon, and the +same peculiarity may be observed on the coins. The +street after entering the acropolis, ascended the hill by a +zigzag, until it reached the peak at the top called the +Arm-chair of Mithridates. The base of the peak is +hidden under a mass of ruins, and the whole rock has +been carefully hewn. This is especially the case on the +western side, where a niche is excavated, eight feet wide +with steps leading up to it, and evidently intended +for a statue, and this is the work which has given rise to +the name of the “Arm-chair” of Mithridates. This +“Arm-chair” is evidently only part of an ancient edifice +in which it was included, the form of which may be +traced by the foundations of the walls.</p> + +<p>This edifice had probably a religious destination, as in +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_265">[265]</span>the excavations which M. Scassi made at the foot of the +rock, he discovered a fine torso of a colossal statue of +Cybele in white marble, which forms one of the chief +ornaments of the museum. There are also friezes and +cornices which came from the same spot. The head +of Cybele is found on the coins of some of the kings,⁠<a id="FNanchor_235" href="#Footnote_235" class="fnanchor">[235]</a> +although not on those of the town of Panticapæum, and +Cybele is the same divinity as Astarte, or the Eastern +Venus.</p> + +<p>The interior of the acropolis, which was 200 yards +square, allowed plenty of room for the erection of two +sanctuaries, one to Cybele and the other to Ceres, and +still left space for the lodgings of the priests, and the +garrison, and for a palace for Mithridates the Great, who +came here to die. The acropolis of Athens had not more +available room than that of Panticapæum. The plateau +of the Hill enclosed in the walls of the town was also +ornamented with palaces and perhaps temples, for several +peaks of rock have been sculptured like the Arm-chair +of Mithridates, and the inscriptions and medals of Panticapæum +show that there was the worship of several other +divinities besides Cybele and Ceres.</p> + +<p>There are no signs of aqueducts in the acropolis, but +the lower town was probably supplied with water from +two springs at the bottom of the valley, which now +furnish the two principal fountains of Kertch. One is +within the old fortifications, and has been repaired by +the Turks with the fragments of ancient marbles, on one +of which is an inscription, showing it to have belonged to +a monument which Sauromates III. raised to his father +Mithridates Eupator (<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 162).</p> + +<p>The principal gate of the town was turned towards the +interior of the peninsula in the centre of the western +wall. It led to Nymphæum and Theodosia, and the +place is easily recognized by the interruption of the deep +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_266">[266]</span>ditch which ran along it. At 240 yards from the gate +the road which led to Theodosia reached an allée of +tumuli ranged several rows deep on each side in an +irregular manner, and continuing for two-thirds of a +mile. This long series of tombs seems to date in great +measure from the foundation of the town by the Milesians. +At a later period the dwellings of the dead became +more extended, and occupied the range of hills in continuation +of Mount Mithridates for six or seven miles in +length, and here are found the tombs of the kings. +Tumuli are also found on the other side of the low plain +to the north, where they form three grand groups, the +best known of which is near the modern quarantine. +The gate to the north of the Theodosian gate led to the +Greek city of Dia, near Kamishboroun, and the road +crossed the hill through a gentle dip. Along it were the +tombs of the poorer inhabitants, who buried their urns +and cinders around a coral-rag peak, 245 feet above the +level of the bay.</p> + +<p>Such is a short sketch of the Milesian Panticapæum. +Afterwards, as the bay became filled up, and the low +ground between the mountain and the sea increased, the +population descended and left the old site of the town, +until in the fourth century, soon after Kertch became +converted to Christianity, its Kings disappeared, and +barbarous hordes destroyed all the cities of the Bosphorus. +The population then became very much reduced, +and the Panticapæum of the Eastern empire was a +decayed and unimportant town.</p> + +<p>As soon as there was space enough on the sea-shore, +the inhabitants fortified themselves there; and the +Milesian acropolis, on the summit of the mountain, +with its temples and palaces, has ever since served as a +cemetery. This was proved by the excavations which +were made for building a mortuary chapel for Mr. Stempkovsky, +who wished to be buried on the highest point. +To the depth of eight or ten feet were found broken +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_267">[267]</span>Etruscan pottery, fragments of marble, and building +stones with inscriptions. In the midst of this new soil +were a number of tombs, irregularly placed one on the +other, containing stone coffins made of thin layers of +Kertch limestone, filled simply with bones, which proved +them to be Christian.</p> + +<p>The Greeks never allowed the dead to be placed near +the temples of the Gods, as their contact was considered +pollution. Even close to the Arm-chair of Mithridates +was found a sarcophagus, like those of Inkerman and +Tepekerman, 7½ feet long and 1½ feet broad, and the +eastern end, that of the head, cut in the shape of a +semicircle. The tomb was covered with a great slab, +and approached by five steps cut in the southern side of +the rock. The Arm-chair itself was perhaps the apse +of a little Christian chapel.</p> + +<p>The enormous quantity of tumuli round Kertch form +one of the distinguishing features of the place—many +of them have been opened, and unfortunately without +sufficient care. The tumulus on the shores of the Bosphorus +is essentially Milesian. This is also remarkable +on the Asiatic side, where the towns of the Sindes have +no monuments of this kind, while Phanogoria, Kepos, +and Kimmericum, which are known Milesian colonies, +are surrounded by them. The same is the case on +the European shore where Panticapæum, Myrmékium, +Porthmium, Nymphæum, Milesian towns, are distinguishable +from a distance by the multitude of their tumuli, +while the other Kimmericum, now Opouk, and Kherson, +colonies of Heraclea, and consequently Dorian, have none. +The same is the case with the towns of the Tauri; except +the residence of Skilouros near Simpherópol, which has a +few tumuli near its walls.</p> + +<p>It would be curious to inquire what is the reason of +the tumulus being peculiar to the Ionic race. Does +it arise from their differing with the Dorians in their +religious ideas respecting the dead? and are the same +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_268">[268]</span>facts observable in Greece and other Greek colonies? +Must we go back for an explanation to the origin of the +Greek nation, of the Ionians from the Pelasgians, and of +the Dorians from the Hellenes?</p> + +<p>The group of tumuli near the Theodosian gate⁠<a id="FNanchor_236" href="#Footnote_236" class="fnanchor">[236]</a> are the +most ancient, as is proved both by the nature of the +objects found in them, and by their worn appearance. +Mr. Blaremberg was the first to excavate them in 1824; +and he has left in the museum of Kertch a list of the +articles which he found in four, which had not been previously +opened.</p> + +<p>The head was generally surrounded by leaves of beaten +gold, of which it was the custom to make a crown; and +the following is a list of the articles found in one tomb, +which he calls, without any good reason, that of the +wife of King Eúmeles.</p> + +<p>1. A bust of Isis in terra cotta.</p> + +<p>2. Two doves in terra cotta.</p> + +<p>3. A fragment of a Serapis in plaster.</p> + +<p>4. A fragment of a large necklace in carbonated silver, +finished by two heads of lions.</p> + +<p>5. Ornaments in a vitreous paste imitating glass.</p> + +<p>6. Fragments in oxided iron.</p> + +<p>7. Two medals in bronze of King Eúmeles (died +<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 304), having on one side a head of Apollo, and on +the reverse a Priapus before a branch of myrtle.</p> + +<p>8. A pair of golden bracelets, beautifully worked.</p> + +<p>9. Two golden ear-rings, with small cupids, ornamented +with precious stones.</p> + +<p>10. Two golden rings, with convex green stones.</p> + +<p>11. A golden ring, with an engraved stone of Minerva, +very fine.</p> + +<p>12. A golden pin, with a stone, on which is a butterfly.</p> + +<p>13. A silver pin, with an engraved stone, with a head.</p> + +<p>14. Four chalcedony ear-drops, and some leaves in +beaten gold.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_269">[269]</span></p> + +<p>The tumuli near the quarantine are clearly less ancient +than those on the road to Theodosia. They are less worn +by time, of more colossal dimensions, and their interior +construction, and the objects contained in them, show a +more advanced state of civilisation. These tumuli were +also crossed by a public road, which branched off on the +right to Myrmékium, and on the left to Porthmium. +The greater number contain vaults built of masonry, instead +of excavations in the limestone, and their floor is +on the same level as the ground outside. The arch of +the ceiling is formed by each row of stones projecting +more than the one below, until they almost touch at the +top; and there are several tombs in the same tumulus. +On cutting through one, on the new road to Yenicáleh, +three tombs were found. The two first were those of +men, as was proved by two swords and a lance which +were found in them, and in the third was a skeleton of a +woman, crowned with leaves of golden laurel.</p> + +<p>There were also the following golden ornaments, +which evidently belonged to a lady of high rank. +Ear-rings two inches long; a necklace in filigree an inch +broad, with ornaments below like the points of lances; +two fibulæ, four inches long, worked with beads; a large +bulla, like the fastening of a belt, with a head of Mercury +upon it. Besides these, there were many plates of gold, +which had fallen from the dress, now disappeared, on +which were embossed vine-leaves and bunches of grapes; +pearls of gold, with little tubes, separated by small enameled +flowers, composed necklaces of various patterns. +There were two rings, one very massive, with a stone +having a head upon it, and the other with a stone cut into +the shape of a lion couchant; and there was another representing +two owls. By the side of the body was a gold +coin of Philip of Macedon, a metal mirror, a clay vase +two feet high, and a shallow covered vessel a foot and a +half in diameter. At the same time another discovery +was made by chance; by the side of the third tomb a +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_270">[270]</span>fourth was found, in which were two large Etruscan urns, +and one amphora about the head of the dead, who was +crowned with a crown of golden laurel; with it were two +necklaces, a pair of precious ear-rings, and a coin, all of gold.</p> + +<p>It is interesting to find, on the shores of the Cimmerian +Bosphorus, the same vases which in Italy are +called Etruscan, from the place in which they were first +found. They were soon known, however, not to be peculiar +to Etruria, and Magna Græcia was discovered to be +a still more prolific mine of them. Further researches +established the fact, that wherever Greece had carried +her civilisation and her colonies, these vases were found, +and that there was not a spot within those limits, even +as far as the banks of the Kuban and the Sea of Azof, +which did not possess this kind of pottery, manufactured +on the spot.</p> + +<p>The number of these vases found at Kertch is small, +but many were broken when the tombs were first opened, +and fragments of them are scattered in great quantities +all over the ruins of the town. The late Empress possessed +two at Petersburg. General Potier and Prince +Volkhonsky each had one, and a fourth was sold by +Count de Betencourt for 160<i>l.</i> The Chevalier Gamba, +in his Atlas, gives a drawing of one found at Kertch. +There is a fine series in the museum there, and many +private persons in the Crimea and Odessa possess others.</p> + +<p>The following is a short account of the form and destination +of these vases:—⁠<a id="FNanchor_237" href="#Footnote_237" class="fnanchor">[237]</a></p> + +<p>In the East manners and customs have always remained +in a singular degree unchanged, and this remark +applies to all the objects of exterior life, and even to the +vases. Each form had its particular destination, and, when +manners do not change, forms likewise remain the same.</p> + +<p>The Greeks partook with the East of this stability +and uniformity in their vases. This may be observed +from one end of Greece to the other, and both the fine +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_271">[271]</span>and coarse vases of Italy are precisely on the same model +as those of the Greek islands and Panticapæum.</p> + +<p>They may be divided into two categories—profane and +sacred. First, those for domestic use, or ornaments and +offerings, as the <i>kados</i>, cups, bowls, viols, and lacrymatories; +and secondly, the sacred or funeral vases, which +formed a distinct kind. The latter are always of the shape +of an urn with two handles, more or less large. The forms +of all the vases are Greek, and, with few exceptions, they +are ornamented with designs upon them.</p> + +<p>Of the profane vases, or those for common use, the +<i>kados</i> was that one used for drawing water; and for this +all the people of the East, and the Greeks, had a peculiar +form, varying in different countries according as the +pitcher was carried on the head or the shoulder. Rebecca +carried it on her shoulder when she met the servant of +Abraham near the fountain of Charan.⁠<a id="FNanchor_238" href="#Footnote_238" class="fnanchor">[238]</a></p> + +<p>The Greeks gave to this vase the name of <i>kados</i>; and +with them it had three handles, of which the one in the +middle served to hold it while water was poured out +into smaller vessels, and the other two were to balance +it upon the head. The <i>kados</i> of the Tatars of the Crimea +has two handles, because they carry it on the head, like +the Greeks. The Georgian <i>kados</i> is very broad below, +and has only one handle, being carried on the shoulder. +The Armenians use tinned copper vessels ornamented +with designs.</p> + +<p>The funeral vases, wide below, with narrow necks, nine +to fifteen inches high, are found in the tombs, always +with two handles, and two compositions painted on them, +one on each side, differing both in execution and the style +of the subject. On comparing them with those found in +Italy, they will be seen to be precisely similar, even to +the singular difference in the two compositions which +ornament them. The one is always some scene in private +or public life; and the design is elegant and the execution +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_272">[272]</span>very careful. The other is a coarse sketch, hastily +done in a rough way, and an eternal repetition of the same +personages, with some variations in the pose, the number +of figures, and the emblems which accompany them.</p> + +<p>The personages in the long cloaks are the initiated +during some scene of the mysteries of Ceres Thesmophora, +as may be seen by comparing them with the relief on +the altar of that goddess, found in the acropolis of Panticapæum, +where the whole scene is precisely the same. +These vases placed in the tombs must, therefore, be +regarded as a kind of certificate of baptism, to prove +that the dead had been initiated into such or such a +grade of the mysteries. As the principal object of these +mysteries was to teach, that there was an Almighty +Divinity, punishing vice and recompensing virtue, the +presence of these vases would be a proof of their faith in +this doctrine, by which they hoped to reap eternal happiness +after death. Some of the scenes relate to the +mysteries of Bacchus, as well as Ceres, and the two have +an intimate relation with each other, as they both come +from the mysteries of Isis and Osiris. The essential +elements in the mysteries of Ceres are the ample cloak, +or <i>pallium</i>, without sleeves, descending to the feet, and +was the same as was used in the mysteries of Eleusis. +The initiated, on the vases, have the head bare, and with +some the hair is bound by a narrow white fillet, which +seems worn only by those of superior rank. This fillet +has a little ornament in front, which may be the leaf +<i>persea</i>, or the little serpent <i>knouphis</i>, the good demon +so often seen on the images of Isis and Osiris. The +crown of laurel and myrtle belongs only to an important +personage, perhaps an hierophant. There is also a white +stick held in the right hand, and sometimes the <i>strigillum</i>, +or scraper. There is also an altar in the form of +a truncated pyramid, and a large branch, and sacred +cakes, <i>placenta</i>, oval, round, triangular, or square, placed +in baskets, which were not to be seen by profane eyes. +They were generally marked by one of four mystic signs: +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_273">[273]</span>1st, — or ꖌ; 2nd, +, or ⁜, or + +; 3rd, Ϲ, or Ͽ +4th, ☉ —. These scenes were so completely considered, +merely as a general emblem, that on some vases the +figures can hardly be made out; and the whole care of +the artist was devoted to the scenes of life on the other +side of the vase. The subjects chosen go far to prove +that they were manufactured at Panticapæum, for the +<i>griffin</i>, which was the emblem of Panticapæum, constantly +appears, and various details of Scythian costume. On one +there is a warrior with the Scythian cap; in front the +crest of his horse; behind him the griffin. On another +is a Scythian on horseback, in his costume, covered with +little plates of gold, fighting the griffin. On a third the +griffin follows in a procession by torchlight, and carries +on its back a personage with a sacred emblem. On another +is the history of the Amazons, evidently a Panticapæan +subject; for the Sauromatæ, governed by women, +were in daily contact with the Bosphorians; and the +Amazons on the vase wear a complete Caucasian dress, +the <i>bachelik</i>, or covering for the head, worn still universally +in the Caucasus, of precisely the same form; the +narrow trousers, the Tcherkess coat, the little morocco +shoes, without soles,—in short, the whole Scythian costume +is represented on this vase in the dress of the +Amazons, but elegant and coquette, as it would be, if +adopted by women. In the Hamilton vases of Naples⁠<a id="FNanchor_239" href="#Footnote_239" class="fnanchor">[239]</a> +there is likewise one scene of three Amazons fighting +three griffins, which may, perhaps, have come from the +Bosphorus.</p> + +<p>Three classes of tombs must still be mentioned—those +of the poor, the catacombs, and the tombs of +the kings. On going out of the gate leading to Dia, +along the mountain of Mithridates, there is an eminence, +which a gentleman began to excavate. His labours, +however, seemed to end in the solid rock, below a mass +of amphoræ, which contained the cinders of the poor +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_274">[274]</span>population. At last he remarked a sepulchral slab, and, +lifting it up, found the entrance to a funeral cavern. This +was built with an Egyptian roof,⁠<a id="FNanchor_240" href="#Footnote_240" class="fnanchor">[240]</a> and had been despoiled +of everything precious, but was still most interesting, from +a suite of small pictures drawn on the wall below the commencement +of the roof, about a foot high, representing the +war of the cranes and the pigmies. In one place there +is seen a pigmy, armed with lance and shield, struggling +against a crane; in another place he is overthrown by +his desperate adversary; in another he is attacking him +by the tail, and the crane is turning round to punish +him; in another he is running away, or defending himself +with his hands and feet against the terrible pecks of +his enemy; while another pigmy is wrestling with a +crane, and succeeds in vanquishing it by pressing its +neck. The roof was ornamented with garlands and arabesques +to suit the pictures, and at the end of the cavern +are two peacocks drinking from the same vase,⁠<a id="FNanchor_241" href="#Footnote_241" class="fnanchor">[241]</a> and a +winged genius, with a basket of flowers in his hand, is +over the entrance door. Unfortunately, soon after this +tomb was discovered, it was completely defaced by +visitors.</p> + +<p>The catacombs are among the tumuli on the road to +Theodosia, and are deep excavations 15 or 20 feet deep, +7 or 8 feet long, and 2½ feet broad, and, on descending +and entering by an arched door, large subterranean chambers +are found, cut in the white calcareous clay, with +niches all around for the bodies. Some remains of coffins +are to be found, and the whole is probably a Christian work.</p> + +<p>The last group of tumuli to be mentioned are those +of the kings, at what was called the Golden Mountain. +After following the old road to Theodosia for two +miles, Mount Mithridates is seen to offer a passage across +it by a narrow valley. The mountain rises again directly, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_275">[275]</span>and continues in a north-west direction to the Sea of +Azof. This continuation is called the Golden Mountain. +An enormous tumulus, which rises above the road, where +it passes between the hills, seems to announce a more +powerful race than that which raised the tombs of the +plain. On the crest of the mountain, at 323 feet above +the level of the sea, rises the tumulus, in the form of a +cone, 100 feet high and 150 feet in diameter, different +from those of the neighbourhood, because it is walled +from top to bottom like a Cyclopean monument. It is +cased on its exterior, like the Pyramids, with large blocks +of Kertch stone, cubes of three or four feet, placed without +cement or mortar. This monument, almost unique of +its kind from its size, was a tomb, and from all times had +been the object of a number of mysterious legends. The +Tatar, Turk, and more ancient traditions, spoke of immense +treasures hidden in this tomb, which was known +by the name of Altun Obo, or the Golden Mountain. It +was even added that, on each feast of St. John, a virgin +was seen on the summit of the tumulus, waiting for him +whom she had chosen to share with her the treasures of +the Cyclopean monument. It may be observed that there +is the same style of legend from the north to the south +of Europe, and this of the Golden Mountain is similar +to that, which the Tatars relate of the Kisiltach rock, +the Lithuanians of the golden table buried in the swamps +of Vokroi, and the Rughians of the stone of the Virgin +at Stubenkammer.⁠<a id="FNanchor_242" href="#Footnote_242" class="fnanchor">[242]</a> The tradition existed that there +was an entrance to the tomb, which the Tatars had often +tried to find, without success. It was not until 1832 +that Mr. Kareiche carefully sought for it, and employed +thirty-five men for fifteen days in attacking the tumulus +from the south-west. At last he had the good fortune +to find the entrance to a gallery, by which he penetrated +without obstacle to the centre of the tumulus. +The gallery was constructed of layers of worked stone, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_276">[276]</span>without cement, and was 60 feet long, 10 feet high—taking +in the Egyptian roof, and three or four feet broad. +Arrived at the end, M. Kareiche found himself on the +edge of a precipice which opened before him. He saw +with astonishment that the centre of the tomb was +formed of a circular tower 25 feet high and 20 feet in diameter. +The floor of this construction was 10 feet below +the floor of the gallery, and the vaulted roof was composed +of four rows of advancing stones.</p> + +<p>At length M. Kareiche perceived that he could descend +into the tomb by stones placed at distances in the side, +and was hastening to reap the treasures promised in the +legend, when to his stupefaction he perceived that the +tomb was empty. On the ground was a large square +stone, on which a sarcophagus might have been deposited, +and half way up the wall was a large empty niche. He +searched in vain to penetrate further, supposing that the +tower was only a well to arrive at other hidden caverns: +nothing indicated any passage, or any loose stone, and +it is still an enigma what was the object of this expensive +and magnificent monument, the rival of the pyramids. +The tower is not in the centre of the tumulus, and it is +possible that there may be other interior chambers. The +distance between the interior tower and the exterior +Cyclopean wall is filled with fragments of stone from the +fine quarries in the neighbourhood.⁠<a id="FNanchor_243" href="#Footnote_243" class="fnanchor">[243]</a></p> + +<p>The modern Greek legend made this the tomb of +Mithridates, although it is well known that he was buried +at Sinope, and Souvorof, deceived by this account, is said +to have made a pilgrimage to this tumulus as the tomb +of the great king, and to have knelt and shed tears here.</p> + +<p>This tumulus is placed exactly at the spot where the +two branches of the long rampart meet, which extends +from the Black Sea to the Sea of Azof. It is visible, +extending from the foot of the tumulus to the gorge of +Katerles, which opens in a second range of hills parallel +to the Golden Mountain and Mount Mithridates, and the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_277">[277]</span>peaks above it are covered with ruins. To the south the +rampart is quite effaced, where the road to Theodosia +crosses it, but beyond it its zigzags are seen as far as the +White Cape, where it of course terminates.</p> + +<p>This rampart was probably the ancient boundary of +the territory of Panticapæum, and the primitive kingdom +of the Bosphorus, before the conquest of Nymphæum and +Theodosia, which were added to the kingdom, the first +in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 410, and the second about <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 390.</p> + +<p>Within the rampart, at 150 paces to the east, near +Kertch, there is another monument of the same kind as +the other, but unfinished. It consists of a circular esplanade, +500 paces round and 166 in diameter, with an +exterior covering of Cyclopean masonry, built of worked +stones, 3 feet long and high. There are five layers of these; +but it seems to have been the intention of the builders to +raise a monument like the one before mentioned. Perhaps +a revolution, or the death of the prince who was building +his own monument, like the kings of Egypt, caused the +works to be abandoned. Several ranges of enormous stones +between this and the first monument indicate ancient +walls of houses, and adjoining these are traces of ancient +gardens, while on the slope of the mountain, in the midst +of the ruins near the Khouter Scassi, there is a fine well +in good preservation, cased with wrought stone and full +of water. This seems extraordinary in the midst of a +country now so dry, desert, and devoid of wood; but +proves that in the time of Panticapæum the general +aspect of the land was very different, since country houses +and trees existed where there are now only wild rocks.</p> + +<p>The view from the summit of the hill, and still more +so from the top of the tumulus, is magnificent, and +extends as far as the rock of Opouk, the ancient Kimmericum, +which is 24 miles distant. To the north it +extends over several pretty country houses, situated at +the foot of the mountain. That of M. de Scassi is a real +Italian <i>villa</i>, surrounded by gardens and orchards, where +the proprietor has planted 30,000 plants of vines and +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_278">[278]</span>more than 2000 fruit-trees, which he imported from +France. There is in the park the ash and the elm, and the +red pine of the Caucasus. There are several small tumuli +around; but a detailed description must now be given of +the great discovery of all, which was made by accident.</p> + +<p>There is a spur of the Golden Mountain running south, +called by the Tatars <i>Kouloba</i>,⁠<a id="FNanchor_244" href="#Footnote_244" class="fnanchor">[244]</a> or the hill of cinders, +beyond the ancient rampart, and four miles from Kertch. +Near it is a tumulus 165 feet in diameter, and some +soldiers, carrying away stones from it, discovered an interior +construction. They soon arrived at a vestibule, +6 feet square, turned to the north, covered by an Egyptian +roof of three rows of stones, which they were obliged +to remove in order to penetrate further, because this roof +was supported by beams reduced to dust. At the end of +the vestibule was a door, 8 feet 10 inches high and 5 feet +9 inches wide, closed half way up by large wrought stones, +and above by those of the common size. Large pieces of +wood formed the covering, but the beams were reduced to +dust, and the stones which closed the entrance supported +the upper part, which threatened soon to fall. This difficulty +was soon removed, and two <i>savans</i>, Mr. Dubrux and +Dr. Lang, were commissioned by the governor to enter +alone and take an inventory of the contents. An immense +crowd besieged the approaches, which were guarded by soldiers, +while the commissioners entered the funeral dwelling +of one who had evidently been an important personage.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_279">[279]</span></p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp58" id="tomb-plan" style="max-width: 34.375em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/tomb-plan.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption> + <p>INTERIOR OF ROYAL TOMB OF KOULOBA, NEAR KERTCH.</p> + <p>From Dubois’ Atlas. 1 archine = 28 inches.</p> + <ul> + <li>A. Vestibule.</li> + <li>B. Tomb of king.</li> + <li>C. Bones of the King.</li> + <li>D. Bones of the Queen.</li> + <li>1. Heap of sharp flints.</li> + <li>2. Arms and whip of king.</li> + <li>3. Five statuettes in electrum.</li> + <li>4. Attendant of the king.</li> + <li>5. Bones of a horse, with greaves and helmet.</li> + <li>6. Hundreds of arrow-heads.</li> + <li>7. Two large lances.</li> + <li>8. Queen’s golden vase.</li> + <li>9. <i>Crater</i> in silver.</li> + <li>10. Second crater.</li> + <li>11. Amphoræ, containing wine of Thasos.</li> + <li>12. Bronze vase.</li> + <li>13. Silver-gilt plate.</li> + <li>14. Bronze saucepans, with mutton bones.</li> + </ul> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_280">[280]</span></p> + +<p>The tomb was almost square, measuring 15 feet from +east to west, and 14 feet from north to south, and the +entrance-door was not in the centre of the wall. The +walls were built of hewn stones, each 3 feet long and 2 feet +high. Five rows of stones raised it to 7 feet 8 inches, +and then began the spring of the Egyptian arch, formed +by seven rows of advancing stones, the front row advancing +5 inches and the upper rows 6 or 8 inches, so that at +the top there only remained a space 2 feet square, filled +by a single stone: the tomb was thus 16 feet high. At +10 feet 10 inches above the pavement began the wooden +ceiling, which had fallen, when the beams which supported +it gave way. The floor had a stone pavement, and the +principal place was occupied by a sarcophagus formed of +a case of yew wood, 8 feet 9 inches long and 10 inches +high, and was joined by thick beams, on which the outward +planks were fitted. The side facing the interior of +the tomb was open, and the interior was divided into two +parts by a plank. In one of the compartments, larger +than the other and nearest to the wall, was extended the +body of a man of great stature. The thigh bone was +17½ inches long, and the skull extremely thick. On his +brow were the remains of a <i>mitra</i>, or Persian cap, of +which the top is more narrow than the base. Two plates +of gold ornamented the top and the bottom: the one +below was 1½ inches broad, ornamented with festoons and +griffins, the emblem of Panticapæum, and was of less careful +workmanship than the upper plate, ornamented with +figures, leaves, and arabesques. Around the neck was a +grand necklace in massive gold, of beautiful workmanship, +in the form of an open ring, and twisted like a cord, +with the extremities passing one over the other. At each +end was a Scythian on horseback, and the extremities were +for a distance of 2 inches enameled with blue and green. +Similar ones have frequently been found of copper, and +rarely of any other metal, in the tombs of the north, and, +among others, in those of the ancient Lithuanians.</p> + +<p>The arms were extended on each side of the body, +and on the right arm, above the elbow, was a circle or +bracelet in gold, an inch broad, and adorned with reliefs. +Below the elbows were two other bracelets in electrum,⁠<a id="FNanchor_245" href="#Footnote_245" class="fnanchor">[245]</a> +1½ inches broad. A third pair of open bracelets in fine +gold encircled the wrists, and finished in Persian winged +sphinxes, the claws of which held the thick thread of gold +which served to close the bracelet when it was passed on +the wrist. The workmanship was very fine, and their +thickness about half an inch. At the feet of the king were +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_281">[281]</span>a multitude of little sharp flints piled up. In Scythian +mourning it was a custom to tear the face and the rest of +the body with such instruments, and they were then placed +in the tombs as a mark of grief; some bodies found in +a tumulus near Simpherópol were covered with them. +In the narrower compartment of the sarcophagus were +placed the gods and arms of the king—first there was +his iron sword, the handle of which, covered with leaves +of gold, was adorned with figures of hares and foxes +embossed on the gold. Beside the sword lay the +Tcherkess or Cossack whip (called <i>nogaik</i>), adorned with +a leaf of gold, and above it was the shield in fine +gold. The thickness of the latter was about that of +a five-franc piece, and its shape showed that it was +principally a protection for the shoulder, and fitted to +the arm. It was 8½ inches long and 7½ broad, and +its weight was 1½ lbs. of fine gold. The <i>umbo</i> or +centre of the shield was surrounded by a simple circular +fillet, and one with the egg pattern, leaving an +interval of 3½ lines, on which were chiselled dolphins +and other fishes. The rest of the shield was divided +into twelve compartments by a fillet, and was covered +with masques imitating the head of Medusa, alternating +with faces with pointed beards, and flies and heads of +seahorses.</p> + +<p>The bow and its wooden case⁠<a id="FNanchor_246" href="#Footnote_246" class="fnanchor">[246]</a> were reduced to dust, +and there only remained the plate, in <i>electrum</i>, which +ornamented the quiver. It was adorned with embossed +work, representing a wild goat seized by a tiger, and a +deer attacked in front by the griffin of Panticapæum, and +behind by the lion of Phanagoria. The deer was the +emblem of the town of Diana, which was Kherson. +A seahorse filled the wider part of the plate, and a +masque the other extremity. Above the tail of the +tiger was written the Greek word ΠΟΡΝΑΧΟ, engraven +on the metal. Some suppose this to mean Pharnáces +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_282">[282]</span>the son of Mithridates, whose tomb this may be, but +Dubois considers it the name of the artist, which, under +the more recent form, ΦΑΡΝΑΚΟϹ, frequently recurs +in the inscriptions of Sindika, now Anapa.</p> + +<p>Among these arms was found one boot in bronze, and +the fellow was on the right of the king, opposite the +head. In the same compartment, and near the head of +the king, were found, in the exterior angle, five statuettes +in <i>electrum</i>. One figure represented two Scythians +embracing one another, and tightly holding a horn, +probably filled with hydromel. The horn is like +those which all the statues, or <i>babas</i>, so often found in +one part of Southern Russia, hold with both hands. +Another figure holds a purse in its right hand, and a +strange instrument in the left, and is like a Celtic +Mercury. There was likewise the Scythian Hercules +among these divinities. Their costume recalled the +Slavonic and Tatar dress, and particularly the tunic of +sheepskin, which the Tatars call <i>toun</i> or <i>teretoun</i>, the +Russians <i>touloup</i>, and the Poles <i>kozuch</i>, which was the +Scythian garment found in the most ancient monuments. +The fleece is turned inwards, or the garment +is only edged with fur, and it is found of all lengths, +from the short Tatar tunic, and the Slavonic <i>katskaveika</i>, +to the long sheepskin gown of the Russian peasant. These +different kinds are all visible in the different dresses of +the figures of this tomb, where may be recognized the +real Lithuanian <i>sermedje</i> and the Tcherkess <i>tchok</i>.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp46" id="illus5" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/illus5.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption> + <p>1. Ornament found in the Tomb of Kouloba.</p> + <p>2. Electrum Vase for perfumes, found near the Queen’s + remains. See <a href="#Page_282">page 282</a>.</p> + <p>3. Embossed Work running round the Vase.</p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Thus was arranged the sarcophagus of the king, and +around it, on the pavement, were the objects which +completed the furniture of the tomb, in which nothing +had been forgotten which could contribute to the material +wants of life. At his feet a kind hand had placed +three large cauldrons of molten bronze. Two were oval +or oblong, and one was spherical, and all reposed on a +cylindrical foot, of which the base spread out into three +hooks to fix it on the soil. These three vases had been +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_283">[283]</span>often on the fire and used for cooking; there was a +thick coat of suet still on them, and the interior was +filled with mutton bones.⁠<a id="FNanchor_247" href="#Footnote_247" class="fnanchor">[247]</a></p> + +<p>There was another oblong vase, near the door, filled +in the same manner. After the kitchen of the king +came his provision of wine, and his drinking-cups. The +wine was contained in four clay amphoræ, placed upright +against the wall on the right. On the handle of one +was inscribed ΘΑΣΙ, and below ΑΡΕΤΩΝ, and in the +midst was a fish. These then were filled with wine of +Thasos, which, to judge by the quantity of amphoræ +found in the tombs, bearing this name, was the favourite +kind of wine. Two large <i>crateres</i> were naturally placed +near the amphoræ, because the Scythians always drank +wine mixed with water. The first, the nearest to the door, +was of silver, nearly eighteen inches in diameter, and contained +four drinking cups in silver, two of which were +of beautiful workmanship, particularly the one which +terminates below in the head of a ram. The second +<i>crater</i> in bronze contained also four silver drinking cups, +the largest of which is ornamented with chiseled work +gilt, on which may be recognised the birds and fish of +the Black Sea and the Cimmerian Bosphorus. On the +right is a duck plunging and seizing a fish; under it +swims a <i>labra</i> and a sturgeon, and further on a cormorant +with extended wings is seizing while flying a small fish. +On another is a combat of a wild boar about to yield +under the claws of a lion.</p> + +<p>On the right is a <i>toura</i>⁠<a id="FNanchor_248" href="#Footnote_248" class="fnanchor">[248]</a> of the Caucasus, brought to +the ground by two griffins of Panticapæum. On the +left the deer of Kherson suffers the same fate, being torn +by a lion, while a female leopard, with open mouth, is +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_284">[284]</span>about to seize it by the throat. In the part which the +wild-boar, the deer, and the toura play in the midst of +griffins and lions, there is a manifest design. The lion +of Phanagoria and the griffin of Panticapæum are not +always represented as victorious without intention, while +the deer of Kherson, the toura of the Caucasus, and the +wild-boar of the Kuban, are always vanquished by them.</p> + +<p>Beyond the drinking-cups were the arsenal of the +king, composed of two lances and several bundles of +arrows, laid along the wall. The last had triangular +points in bronze, with three barbs, to prevent their +being drawn out of the flesh, and are similar to those +found in Scythian monuments in Southern Russia. Between +the arrows and the sarcophagus there appeared a +second skeleton, laid on the pavement, and much covered +with earth, but adorned so richly that it was impossible +not to recognise the wife of the king, who thus accompanied +him to his last resting-place. She was laid in the +same direction as the king, and wore on her forehead a +mitre like him, with a plate in electrum terminating it, +which showed a skilful workman. Four women, in Greek +costume, sit in the midst of garlands of <i>lotuses</i>, the stalks +of which form seats and backs. Four masques of lions +formed on each side the means by which the plate was +attached to the mitre. On the bottom the mitre was +bordered by a diadem of gold, adorned all round with +small enameled rosettes. The queen bore on her neck, +like the king, a grand necklace with the ends moveable, +and, instead of horsemen, the extremities were formed of +couchant lions. She had on besides another necklace of +gold filigree, to which were suspended small chains, supporting +little bottles of fine gold. Five medallions of +exquisite workmanship, and different sizes, descended on +her bosom, and they were fastened together by small +chains and bottles. These were enameled blue and +green, like other objects that have been mentioned. The +two largest of these medallions represented Greek +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_285">[285]</span>Minervas, but evidently worked at Panticapæum, because +of the chiseled griffins on the wings of her helmet. +The attributes of Minerva, besides the owl and the +winged Pegasus, are the serpents of Medusa, which +ought to ornament her shield, a winged sphinx like that +on the bracelets of the king, and a row of deer’s heads +on the viser of the helmet. The arabesque which surrounds +the helmet is also enameled.</p> + +<p>At the foot of the skeleton was discovered a magnificent +vase in <i>electrum</i>, resembling in form and size those +in the second <i>crater</i>, which stands on a foot. It probably +contained perfumes, particularly as some of the little +bottles usually called lacrymatories were found, as in the +other tombs. The exquisite chiselings upon it are of the +greatest interest for art and history. (See <a href="#illus5">Plate</a>.) Four +groups of figures succeed each other as episodes in the +same history, in which the personage playing the principal +part reappears three times. In the first group, +beginning from left to right, he is seated, the two hands +and the head leaning on the lance, listening attentively +to the report of a warrior. The king is known by the +royal band round his head, perhaps the very one which +is placed in the tomb. His costume is completely Scythian: +he has the narrow trousers, the boots, and the +<i>tchok</i> which has been described. The warrior who makes +the report is also a Scythian, kneeling before him, dressed +as on the Etruscan vases, and armed with lance and +buckler. Neither the one nor the other has the warlike +quiver; their hair is long, and spread over their shoulders; +but the bearer of the despatch has no diadem; he wears +only the <i>bachelik</i> of the Caucasus, or the Phrygian bonnet, +or rather the Lithuanian bonnet, which has for many +centuries remained the same. The next figure turns its +back to the messenger, and, kneeling on one knee, is +much occupied in bending a bow, which may be that of +the king, for this warrior has his own by his side. They +are preparing for war. This war then takes place; and +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_286">[286]</span>next are depicted the fruits of it, for the king has been +badly wounded. He is recognised in the half sitting, +half kneeling, figure, from whom the Scythian <i>magus</i> is +extracting a tooth from the left side of the jaw. On +examining the skull of the king, deposited in the museum, +it may be seen that the lower jaw presents the marks of +a wound, with a fracture which has carried away several +teeth; for the two large teeth are wanting, and a third, +shorter than the others, has been attacked by a disease +which has made the jaw swell.</p> + +<p>A fourth episode represents the king wounded in the +leg; a warrior is fomenting it with bandages. In this +place the trousers and a part of the <i>tchok</i> are covered +with something that looks like embroidery. These are +the little golden and electrum scales sewn on the garments. +Strabo says that the Aorses, on the banks of +the Tanais, wear gold on their garments.⁠<a id="FNanchor_249" href="#Footnote_249" class="fnanchor">[249]</a> These little +scales are embossed, pierced with holes at the sides to +sew them on, and represent an infinity of subjects. This +tomb furnishes some very rich examples of them.</p> + +<p>On attentively examining the interior when it was +first opened, it was perceived that at the foot of the +walls were heaped up an infinity of these little plates. +The walls showed signs of having had pegs of wood +fixed in them, to which were suspended the rich wardrobe +of these great personages. The clothes had fallen, +and nothing was found but a mass of dust, mixed with +these little plates, which were carefully collected. The +greater number were in the form of triangles or roses, +of different sizes, without any relief; on others were fine +heads of women or divinities, and figures of griffins, lions, +hares, foxes, and other animals. One of them, with +the figure of a woman upon it, proves that if the men +of that period wore the Caucasian dress, the same was +the case with the women, whose long veil or <i>tchadra</i> +seems just the same as that which the Caucasian women +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_287">[287]</span>still wear. The robe is flowing. One of the women +bears in her hand a goblet, and in the other a key. +Another little plate represents two Scythian archers, +back to back, ready to shoot their arrows. Two others +represent Scythian hunters on horseback, pursuing a +hare. In the left hand they hold the reins, and in the +right the javelin.</p> + +<p>By the side of the body of the queen were found two +golden bracelets with bas-reliefs in two ranges, that is +to say, six figures on each bracelet, the breadth of +which is three and half inches. Around the head were +disposed six knives, with handles of ivory, the blades of +which were like surgical instruments. A seventh knife +had a handle of gold, and reliefs upon it. A bronze +mirror, with a handle of gold, ornamented with a griffin +pursuing a deer, in relief, was also one of the objects +which surrounded the queen.</p> + +<p>According to the Scythian customs, the queen must +have been strangled before being placed in the tomb of +her husband; and the same cruel laws required the +presence of the king’s servant. He was found accordingly +stretched across the tomb, along the southern +wall, and round him were many plates of gold. His +helmet and greaves, in silver, very much oxidised, were laid +with the bones of a horse in an excavation two feet square, +which occupied the south-east corner of the tomb. Among +the things which were taken out of the cavern were +several highly-worked pieces of wood, which belonged to +musical instruments, the only thing wanting to complete +the whole establishment. Several of the pieces showed +designs executed with an engraver’s point, of exquisite +workmanship. There was a chariot, a woman holding +a helmet in her hand, a slave with a large bowl giving +drink to a horse, some women seated, and other designs.</p> + +<p>If all the objects which adorned the inside of the tomb +bear the stamp of Scythian ideas and the customs and +usages of that nation, the same cannot be said of the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_288">[288]</span>ornaments and pictures of the sarcophagus of yew wood, +which presents in perfect preservation paintings on +wood, which have resisted upwards of twenty centuries. +These paintings covered the pannels of the sarcophagus. +The principal subject is entirely Greek, and proves that +if they buried a king surrounded by Scythian luxury, +Greek artists were employed at his interment. Two +Victories, mounted on chariots, turned one against the +other, filled the extremity of the picture, of which seven +Greek figures, in different positions, occupied the centre, +three women and four men. A goose and a swan are +mixed with these figures, all represented as very agitated, +running, gesticulating, with expressions of joy, which is +justified by the approach of the two triumphal cars. The +chariots are drawn by four white horses, two of which +are spotted. On the frieze, which surrounded the pannel +above, the artist has represented warriors drawing the +bow.</p> + +<p>When the tomb was opened, the savans deputed for +the purpose were busy in making a plan and putting +down the position of each object which they found. +This occupied the whole day, while two soldiers guarded +the entrance. These gentlemen in the evening thought +their work was finished, but for greater precaution the +sentinels kept at their post, with orders to let no one +pass. The crowd which visited the tomb during the night +from curiosity was so great, that the sentinels could not +keep it back. The people penetrated into the tomb, examined +everything, and then were discovered the little +plates of gold which covered the pavement.</p> + +<p>While they were thus occupied in examining and disputing +about the smallest spoils, some persons perceived +that the tomb resounded as if there was something hollow +underneath. Raising the stones of the hollow square +in the corner, they discovered a second tomb below +much richer than the first, and from this the masses +of gold were drawn which for several years afterwards +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_289">[289]</span>were in circulation at Kertch. There was not a Greek +woman there who did not retain some relic of this +great discovery, especially in the form of ear-rings. It +was said that no less than 120 lbs. weight of gold jewellery +were extracted from these tombs, of which the Government +obtained about 15 lbs., and the rest was dispersed. +In this pillage the people acted in the most barbarous +manner: they tore the objects from one another, and +chopped up the most precious with the hatchet. Such was +the fate of the golden shield of the lower tomb, part of +which the Government bought back piece by piece for the +weight of the gold. On one of the pieces recovered there +is a Greek woman, like a Fury, with her long hair blown +by a tempest, bearing in her hands a lance and torch: +wolves, of which one carries a <i>labrus</i> in its mouth, +surround her and complete the picture of this terrible +divinity. The tomb is probably anterior in date to the +reign of Mithridates, both from the style of the ornaments +and various minor circumstances. The letter 𐅃 +(P) is often repeated on the reliefs, and is written with one +side shorter than the other, a form which quite disappears +before the time of Mithridates the Great. It is so written +on the great vase in electrum, which is of extraordinary +enigmatical shape, representing a deer lying down, while +on its sides are chiselled a griffin, a ram, like the one of +Jupiter Ammon, a lion, and a dog turning its head, all +of which appear on the most ancient medals of Panticapæum. +Again the two medallions of Minerva, with +her attributes, of exquisite workmanship, must have been +made at a time when the kings of the Bosphorus were +proud of their alliance with Athens, and of being citizens +of that city, as were Leucon, Paerisádes I., and Eúmeles. +At a later period the connexion ceased between the +Bosphorus and Athens. There is, besides, no sign of the +influence of Rome in any part of the tomb. Its construction +is very ancient, and the idea of propping the ceiling +with posts is not found in any more recent tombs.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_290">[290]</span></p> + +<p>The Scythian costume also was much in vogue under +the Leuconides, as most of the figures on the vases wear +it. We might indeed expect at that period to find the +Scythian manners and costumes by the side of the Greek +worship. The Scythians who had invaded Central Asia, +destroyed by the stratagem of Cyaxares in 605 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, returned +in small number, hoping to re-enter upon the territory +which they had abandoned on the shores of the +Bosphorus; but they were opposed by the children of their +wives and their slaves, during the long absence of their +husbands. Repulsed on every side, they renounced the +idea of crossing the Cimmerian Bosphorus; and making +the circuit of the Sea of Azof, they thought to force the +rebels in their retreat in the peninsula of Kertch. They +passed the Isthmus of Perecop and the Crimea; but their +slaves were beforehand with them, and raised a rampart +of earth from the Sea of Azof to the Tauric chain. The +Scythians in despair are said to have then had recourse +to their whips, when from old recollections the slaves +ran away, and the Scythians re-entered on the possession +of their domains, which their Sindic slaves cultivated +for them. The Sindes of the peninsula of Kertch were +then the ancient inhabitants of the peninsula and of the +island of Taman, a race mixed with Mæotes and the remains +of the Kimmerian population, while the aristocrats +of the country were the Scythians, who levied tributes +upon them.</p> + +<p>It was among this Sinde people, governed by Scythians, +that the Milesians came to found the colonies +of Panticapæum, Nymphæum, Theodosia, Phanagoria, +Kepos, and others, sixty years after the return of the +Scythians. These colonies depended at first directly on +the metropolis, paying a tribute for their establishment +on foreign soil. Their commerce and industry enriched +them and increased their population, and they then took +up an independent position, and thus Panticapæum was +governed by its proper <i>archianactides</i>, who remained at +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_291">[291]</span>the head of the municipality from 480 to 438 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> But +by the side of those magistrates there existed in the +Bosphorus of Europe, as well as in that of Asia, an indigenous +Scythian or Mætic power, whose ambition it was +to conquer the Greek towns. In 437 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> a certain +Spartocus seized on Panticapæum, and replaced the <i>archianactides</i>. +Not to offend the Greeks, whom a royal title +would have frightened, he called himself <i>archon</i> of the +Bosphorus (<i>i. e.</i> Panticapæum and Phanagoria), while he +took the title of <i>king</i> of the countries which surrounded +the colonies, and which were his patrimony. The colonies +preserved their municipal forms (which resembled the +Swiss municipalities and the imperial towns in Germany) +during 402 years, until Asander took the title of king of +the Bosphorus in 36 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> Under the first Archon and +his successor Seleucus, the rampart of the Golden Mountain +was the limit of the territory of Panticapæum and +Nymphæum; and the latter colony was in the power of +Athens. The treachery of a certain Gelo, the maternal +grandfather of Demosthenes, opened the gates of Nymphæum +to Spartocus II., <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 410, and the Athenians were +dispossessed.⁠<a id="FNanchor_250" href="#Footnote_250" class="fnanchor">[250]</a></p> + +<p>Satyrus I. (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 407), son of Spartocus II., was nevertheless +a great friend of Athens. He increased the kingdom +on the Asiatic side, and, having been killed at the +siege of Theodosia, Strabo says that the tumulus of +Koukóuoba was raised in his honour.</p> + +<p>Leucon I., son of Satyrus (reigned 393-353 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>), was +made a citizen of Athens, and took Theodosia, to which +he left its municipal administration.</p> + +<p>Paerisádes I. (349 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>) son of Leucon, increased the +power of the Bosphorus, by his successful wars in the +Crimea and in Asia; and one part of the Tauric chain +and the valleys of the Caucasus obeyed him. There is +a medal of Kherson, with his effigy on one side and a +Diana on the other, that makes it probable that he also +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_292">[292]</span>took Kherson, although there is no mention of this fact +in history.⁠<a id="FNanchor_251" href="#Footnote_251" class="fnanchor">[251]</a></p> + +<p>Diodorus relates the tragic history of three sons of +Paerisádes—Satyrus, Eúmeles, and Prýtanas—who all +died a violent death. Satyrus, the eldest, trying to +appease the revolt of Eúmeles in Asia, was wounded in +the arm, and died the next night. The body, it is said, +was brought to Panticapæum, and buried with magnificence +in the tomb of his ancestors. Thus we have +mention of a family burial-place.</p> + +<p>Dubois thinks that the king found in the tomb was +either Leucon or Paerisádes I., on account of the allegories +on the reliefs. Unfortunately the contents of the +lower tomb were never investigated, so that the only +thing that can be considered certain is that they belonged +to the dynasty of the Leuconides, from the emblems, the +allegorical scenes, the form of the letters, and the architecture.</p> + +<p>The value and abundance of the remains of antiquity +found at Kertch naturally required a Museum, which has +been built by the government on the Hill of Mithridates. +It is an exact copy of the Temple of Theseus at Athens, +with a flight of steps leading up to it, and has a good +effect overlooking the sea. Situated, as is Kertch, on +the confines of Scythia, the Caucasus, the Sauromatæ, +and other nations little known, it would require a very +experienced antiquarian to arrange the contents of the +museum; but, unfortunately, none such are to be found +there, and its precious contents are thrown pell-mell, +and daily plundered. When Dubois visited the Museum +in 1832, there were three very curious skulls in +it, with remarkably high foreheads, found in a very +ancient tumulus near Yenicáleh, which probably belonged +to the ancient Kimmerians. The only perfect +skull had disappeared a few months afterwards, having +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_293">[293]</span>been sold by the conservator for 100 francs to a stranger, +who fortunately destined it for the museum of Munich, +where it will be preserved.</p> + +<p>The quarantine is about three miles distant from Kertch, +and within its boundary are the ruins of Myrmékium, the +highest part of which is on a little promontory overlooking +the sea. Here, to hoist a flagstaff, some sailors made +a hole in the rock, and were surprised to find the mast +suddenly run down a considerable distance. On examining +the ground they found that there was a tomb underneath, +which had, however, been opened, and nothing +remained in it but a very fine sarcophagus, ornamented +with bas-reliefs, which had been dragged towards the +entrance, and then left mutilated.</p> + +<p>Yenicáleh is at the point of the peninsula, about seven +miles from Kertch to the north-east, and its castle was +built by the Turks to command the passage of the Bosphorus: +it is inhabited by a few Greeks, who are occupied +in the fishery for turbot. Two ranges of hills, with coral-rag +peaks, cross the peninsula of Kertch, and terminate +at the Bosphorus—the one at Yenicáleh, and the other +a little higher up; on one is built the castle of Yenicáleh, +and on the other the lighthouse. Between them +was formerly a bay, which is now a salt lake, closed by a +bar of sand.</p> + +<p>Higher up the valley, ranged in an amphitheatre, +are many different kinds of springs, and the celebrated +mud volcanoes. The springs and the mud volcanoes +have their principal seat in the formations of the foliated +clay and the white chalk; and starting from the west, +near the Khouter Khronevi, the series begins by a sulphurous +spring rising at the foot of a limestone peak, +and the sulphur is seen floating on the water. There +are other springs in the neighbourhood, which seem +to take their origin in the midst of a black, bituminous, +brilliant mud, which when stirred sends forth a strong +smell of hydrogenetted sulphur. The cattle are very +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_294">[294]</span>fond of this water. To the east are pure springs, which +supply the aqueduct of Yenicáleh; and near the lighthouse +are the springs of naphtha and the mud volcanoes. +These have continually been in activity for a very +long period of time. The principal crater, which seems +the patriarch of all this volcanic formation, is a tumulus +completely isolated, of 500 feet in diameter and 35 feet +in height. Its summit presents a depression of 6 feet, +filled by a pond of mud and water, 70 feet long and 35 +feet wide. The mud is grey and thick, and gives out a +strong smell of sulphur and bitumen. Here and there +on the thick mud are liquid spots, whence bubbles of +hydrogen gas rise, of a foot in diameter, and sometimes +they burst into fire, and the volcano is in a blaze. When +this violent commotion happens, the mud flows on all +sides over the borders; but in ordinary times it escapes +in a little steam. Naphtha springs, of 14° temperature, +rise at 150 paces from the crater, in the midst of a fine +black mud, from a stream of water which passes near the +tumulus. They have a very strange appearance, and +seem like the chimneys of the infernal regions, as the +crust of the soil is pierced with black holes surmounted +by little cones, from whence the mud and gas bubble up +together. The whole soil around trembles when walked +upon, and one fears to sink into the bowels of the earth.</p> + +<p>To complete our view of the peninsula of Kertch, I +will now follow the coast line to the south of Kertch +by Nymphæum and Kimmericum to Theodosia.</p> + +<p>At Cape Akboroun, or the white cape, there are +two groups of tumuli. One group has seven of enormous +size. The other extends along a ridge which joins the +southern spur of the Golden Mountain. Near the last +there is a high cliff, with a depression beyond it, which +has the appearance of an immense theatre overlooking +the sea. This was the site of the old quarantine, and +was originally covered with vineyards, whence it received +its old Greek name of Ambeláki, from <i>ampelos</i>, a vine. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_295">[295]</span>There is here a rich mine of phosphated iron, where the +fossils published by M. de Verneuil are found in great +quantities. From the colour of the soil, this cape is +called Kamish Boroun, the blue cape, in opposition to +Ak Boroun, the white cape.</p> + +<p>Between the iron mine and a country house of the +same name as the cape are the ruins of Dia, which occupied +the extreme southern point of the entrance of the +<i>ancient</i> gulf of Nymphæum, now the Lake of Tchourbach, +for the flow of the current of the Bosphorus has +closed the entrance of the gulf, and no less than four +lakes bordered with sand occupy its site. Their formation +is recent, and up to 1830 merchant vessels of Kertch +used to come and winter in the northernmost lake. +Since then a bar of sand has closed the port; for, owing +to the zigzag shape of the Bosphorus, it may be seen that +the long bar of sand, called that of the South, in increasing, +has driven the current to the European coast, and +against the southern point of the bay of Nymphæum, +which presented itself like a spur to catch the sand.</p> + +<p>The ancient town of Nymphæum occupied exactly this +southern point; but to visit it, it is necessary to go +round the gulf, at the end of which is the village of +Tchourbach, and the country-house of M. Gourief. +There is salt on the lake, but its naphthous nature +prevents its being used for salting purposes; and in the +whole peninsula there is only the salt of Tchokrak which +is perfectly pure.</p> + +<p>Following a little rivulet which runs into the lake +of Tchourbach, the rocks increase in height, and an +ancient road leads to the summit of one of them, on +which are the ruins of a large square castle, surrounded +by a wall almost buried under the turf. There was a +deep ditch outside, and there are no tumuli round it, but +many tombs cut in the rock. It is about eight miles +from Kertch, and may be the Tyrictaca of Ptolemy. +Nymphæum is four miles from Tchourbach, and the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_296">[296]</span>road, which appears to be the ancient Greek road, leads +to it amidst coral-rag peaks and a profusion of tumuli.</p> + +<p>On the angle between the ancient gulf and the Bosphorus +was situated the town, built on a kind of platform. +The rampart is easily traced, and the faubourgs +were around the metropolis. There are large masses of +ruins everywhere, and the soil is several feet deep in +broken pottery, much of which is Etruscan. At about +one-third of a mile from the town the tumuli begin, and +encircle it in great numbers; but nothing valuable has +been found here, as at Panticapæum. The excellent port, +of which Strabo speaks, is of course filled up, but three +roads leading down to it from the town may still be seen. +A small colony of Russians is established at the foot of +the Acropolis, on the side of the Bosphorus; and here +are wells of excellent water, which date from the time of +Nymphæum. The colony is employed in the herring +fishery, as masses of these fish come close to the shore: at a +single haul 50,000 have sometimes been caught. In 1833 +the government brought here from Holland a master-salter +to teach the art of salting and curing them. According +to his account the herrings of the Black Sea are not +inferior to those of Holland; but those of Kamish Boroun +are fatter and more delicate than those of the Danube. +The fishery lasts from 15th October to the 15th of +March, and as many as two millions of herrings are +yearly caught here.⁠<a id="FNanchor_252" href="#Footnote_252" class="fnanchor">[252]</a> Very possibly the Greeks also +carried on this commerce, for their mother country drew +from the Bosphorus their largest supplies of salt-fish.</p> + +<p>Nymphæum was founded at the same time as Panticapæum, +and fell into the power of the Athenians in the +time of Pericles. It was betrayed into the hands of the +Bosphorians in <span class="allsmcap">B.C</span>. 410. In the time of Mithridates it +was still a strong place, where he lodged the greater +part of his army which he destined for his grand expedition +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_297">[297]</span>by the Danube and the Alps against the Romans. +Nymphæum afterwards rapidly decayed, and in the time +of Pliny existed only as a name.</p> + +<p>Takil-boroun, the promontory at the entrance of the +Black Sea, where there is the lighthouse, was probably +the site of Akra, another Greek town, mentioned by +Strabo.</p> + +<p>At thirty miles from Kertch, on the coast of the +Black Sea, is Opouk, a Tatar village at the extremity of +the fine roadstead which is defended by Cape Elkenkáleh +from the north and east winds. Here a volcanic effort +has raised the horizontal tertiary limestone of the peninsula +of Kertch, and lifted the fragments to different +heights, without very much disturbing their horizontal +position. The largest is the hill of Opouk, about two-thirds +of a mile long. The surface is raised about fifty +feet above a chaotic mass of rocks below, which descend +like steps to the sea, forming on one side Cape Elkenkáleh, +which closes the western entrance to the bay of Opouk, +and on the other side a similar cape which marks the +entrance of another ancient gulf, now closed by a bar of +sand. Here in very ancient times a numerous population +was established, taking advantage of the strong and +advantageous position, where the rocks advanced like a +magnificent mole between two fine ports. Although the +eastern one is filled up, the western one still affords a safe +and convenient anchorage for vessels of war, which are +here completely sheltered from northern and westerly +winds. At a short distance from the shore are two +rocky islands, called Karavi, and by these the place is +identified as the ancient <i>Kimmericum</i>.⁠<a id="FNanchor_253" href="#Footnote_253" class="fnanchor">[253]</a> Like all the +towns of the peninsula of Kertch, it was almost desert +in the time of Strabo, and at a later period was called +Kibernicus. The south-east extremity of the rock was +the acropolis, cut off from the plain by a wall 200 feet +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_298">[298]</span>long and 9 feet thick. The corner of this wall touched on +a construction of extreme solidity. The walls of it, about +50 feet square and 12 feet thick, and a ditch cut in the +living rock, separated it from the exterior town. There are +ruins and grottoes all around, and there is a block cut into +the form of a pedestal, on which stood the statue of a +divinity. There is likewise a well cut in the rock, and a +great deal of pottery. A great gate communicated from +the acropolis to the town. The most populous part was +that to the south-east, and numberless remains of houses +may here be traced. There were also exterior fortifications, +and a polygonal wall defended the whole of the peninsula +between the bay and the gulf, embracing a space of about +four square miles. Thus there were two castles and two +ports, and probably villas and gardens, within the circuit +of the wall. An excellent fountain of water, which never +fails, is the only thing which interrupts the solitude that +reigns in this vast assemblage of ruins. There is not a +single tumulus to be seen, probably because, as has been +observed, Kimmericum was not a Milesian city. The +Genoese are supposed to have carried away the remains +of Kimmericum, in order to build Caffa.⁠<a id="FNanchor_254" href="#Footnote_254" class="fnanchor">[254]</a> Opouk is +twenty miles from the post station of Arghin.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_299">[299]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XVII">CHAPTER XVII.<br> +<span class="smaller">THE SEA OF AZOF.</span></h2> + +<p>The Sea of Azof—Its extent and boundaries—Its depth continually +diminishes—Its sweet water—Its rivers—Currents—The Straits of +Kertch—The Russian defences of it—The eastern shores—Temróuk-Okhtor—Cape +Obriv—The fishing huts—Bay and new town of Yeisk—Cape +Tchimborsk—Mouths of Don—Bars of the Don—Old town +of Azof—Rostof—Its commercial importance—Shallowness of water in +Gulf of the Don—The Azof frozen in winter—Ruins of ancient Tana—Taganrok +founded by Peter the Great—Its history—Its importance—Mariopol—Cape +Bielo-Serái—Berdiansk—Its foundation—Port is +filling up—Lake Moloshenska—Peninsula of Berútchi—Straits of +Yénitchi.</p> + +</div> + +<p>The Sea of Azof⁠<a id="FNanchor_255" href="#Footnote_255" class="fnanchor">[255]</a> is situated from latitude 45° to 47° and +in longitude 32° to 36°. From the straits of Kertch +to the point of Bielo-Serái at the entrance of the gulf +of the Don, is 90 miles, and from Bielo-Serái, to the +mouths of the Don, is 76 miles, so that the total length +of the Sea of Azof is 166 miles. Its breadth from the +extremity of the Tonka, on the west, to the lagoon +of Beislitz on the east, is 142 miles.</p> + +<p>The north coast of this sea is from 84 to 132 +feet in height, and is generally flat, although in some +parts it is bordered by low hills and reddish cliffs. +Extensive strips of land, bordered by sand banks, have +formed around all the promontories, and, subjected as +they are to the influence of the currents of the +Don, have a tendency to move towards the west. +The east coast of the Sea of Azof is inhabited by the +Tchernomorski Cossacks, and, beginning at Temróuk, it +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_300">[300]</span>is very low, often sandy, and cut up by lagoons and +rushy marshes. There are also on the coast many sand +banks, particularly in the gulf of the Don, which, like +those of the opposite shore, incline towards the west. +The Tonka,⁠<a id="FNanchor_256" href="#Footnote_256" class="fnanchor">[256]</a> a low narrow long peninsula (called also +the “Streolka” or arrow, or the Arabate), forms the west +coast of this sea, which by it is separated from the +<i>Shiváshe</i> or mud sea, an immense lagoon, into which +all the rivers of the western side of the Crimea flow. +The Sea of Azof is bounded on the south by the Crimea +and the peninsula of Taman, on the east by the country +of the Tchernomorski Cossacks, and the Don Cossacks, +on the north by the country of the Don Cossacks and +governments of Ekaterinoslaf and the Tauride, and on +the west by the Tonka. Its greatest depth at present +is 46 feet between the straits of Kertch and the point +of Bielo-Serái, where the passage is narrow, on account of +two vast sand banks. A little further on the depth +diminishes to 26 feet and there are but 8 or 10 feet +water in the greater part of the roadstead of Taganrok. +It extends however southwards beyond the Greek bank, +where there is about 18 or 20 feet of water, and where +most vessels finish taking in their cargoes.</p> + +<p>It has been remarked that from the year 1706 to the +year 1808, the depth of this sea has diminished 3 feet; +and from this latter date to the year 1833, it has again +diminished 3 feet, so that it has lost 6 feet of depth in 127 +years. This diminution in depth is caused by the accumulation +of sand and mud from the Don, and in some +measure likewise by the large quantities of ballast that +are yearly thrown into the sea, by vessels loading in +the roadstead of Taganrok. The sand banks have increased +in extent, and new ones have been formed; +which render the navigation of this sea daily more +difficult and perilous. The bottom is everywhere mud +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_301">[301]</span>and shells, and the water is of a dull yellow colour. +The Don sweetens this sea, and the water of it is used +for the provisioning of ships as far as 20 miles to the +west of Taganrok. Besides the Don, several small rivers +run into it on the north and east coasts, beyond the +lagoon of Temróuk.</p> + +<p>The current is not so rapid in the Sea of Azof as it is +in the straits of Kertch. In the sea it rarely runs beyond +one knot an hour, even with a violent north-east wind, +and with a south wind it runs in an opposite direction. +From the Don to the point of Bielo-Serái, it runs west, +and then divides into two; the largest portion of the +water runs direct for the straits of Kertch, and the other +portion round the north coast, until it meets the waters +of the Shiváshe, and, uniting with them, flows down the +steep shore of the Tonka, and along the coast of the +Crimea to Kertch. During the winter the ice renders +this sea unnavigable, and it is available to shipping only +from the middle of April to the latter end of October. +When a vessel approaches the straits of Kertch, with a +view of passing them from the Black Sea, she steers at +about equal distances between Cape Panaghia on her right, +and Cape Takli Coolári on her left. The latter cape is +crowned with a lighthouse. The distance between the +two capes is about 8 miles, and the depth of the water +55 feet. The course of the vessel is then nearly due +north for about 8 miles, till she reaches Cape Karaboroun, +which is remarkable for several hillocks and +buildings which precede it. Here there is a sandy beach +at a quarter of a mile distance, and 20 feet of water. +About a mile and a half further on is Cape Kamishboroun, +where there is a good anchorage, and a small +lake near it, which has 12 feet water and communicates +with the sea by a channel 5 or 6 feet deep.</p> + +<p>The course of the ship is now nearly due east, and the +narrowest part of the whole straits is approached. In +them the water is 26 feet deep, the passage is very confined, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_302">[302]</span>and ships are obliged to pass near the western +shore. This spot has therefore been chosen for the +defence of the straits, and a battery, called the battery of +Paul, has been placed there. It is a little to the northward +of this narrow passage that thirty-three ships have +been sunk to defend it, in the same mode that has been +adopted at Sevastopol. The ships were only sunk in +May 1854, two months after our declaration of war with +Russia; and while our enormous fleet was inactive in the +Black Sea, this passage was free and undefended, except +by a few hundred invalids, who formed the garrison of +Kertch. Cape Akboroun ends the passage, and immediately +afterwards there opens on the left the snug little +bay of Kertch, around which, as has been related, were +situated the Greek colonies of Nymphæum, Panticapæum, +and Myrmékium. When a vessel has passed Cape Akboroun, +if she wish to continue her course to the Sea of +Azof, without stopping at Kertch, she steers nearly due +east, and having passed in 14 feet water the little town of +Yenicáleh, about six miles from Kertch and further on +the Cape Poritálo, on which there is a lighthouse, the +water deepens to 30 feet, and the muddy expanse of the +Sea of Azof opens before her. It is to be observed that +the very shallow part of the straits does not occur till +after Kertch, which is by far the most important place on +the straits, and which is undefended by any fortifications.</p> + +<p>The shores on both sides of the straits are very thinly +inhabited: on the Asiatic side by the Tchernomorski Cossacks, +the descendants of the famous Zaporogues, who +were transplanted here by Catherine II., and on the +European side by remnants of the broken nation of the +Tatars, and a mixed population of Russians, Greeks, and +Levantines, who only occupy the towns.</p> + +<p>I will now make a periplus of the Sea of Azof, pointing +out the most important places in the desolate countries +that for the most part surround it. Beginning to the east, +we first come to Temróuk, occupied by the Tchernomorski +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_303">[303]</span>Cossacks, which is only a small village, situated on the +border of a lagoon, celebrated for the immense quantities +of fish caught in it. Vessels coming for their +cargoes of fish anchor to the north at the mouth of +the lagoon, in 17 feet water, with a sandy bottom. At +53 miles further up the coast is Okhtor, situated on the +banks of a wide and shallow bay. In its vicinity there +are salt lakes and fisheries. The bay terminates in Cape +Kamishavát,⁠<a id="FNanchor_257" href="#Footnote_257" class="fnanchor">[257]</a> + which is 36½ miles from Bielo-Serái,⁠<a id="FNanchor_258" href="#Footnote_258" class="fnanchor">[258]</a> on the +opposite coast, and 56 miles from Kertch. At 12 miles +further north is Cape Obriv,⁠<a id="FNanchor_259" href="#Footnote_259" class="fnanchor">[259]</a> where there are two extensive +sandbanks jutting out like horns, on the northernmost of +which, that of Dolgoi,⁠<a id="FNanchor_260" href="#Footnote_260" class="fnanchor">[260]</a> there is a beacon. At 9½ miles +hence is seen the lighthouse on Bielo-Serái point, and the +church of Mariopol almost due north.</p> + +<p>Fishing-huts are to be found on nearly all the sandy +points of the Sea of Azof. These buildings are raised on +posts in order to preserve them from being carried away +by the inundations, and seen from a distance they have +an extraordinary appearance as if floating on the water. +Beyond Cape Obriv, the coast runs 19 miles to the east +as far as the mouth of the bay of Yeisk, which is 13 miles +in length from east to west, and 6½ from north to south. +This bay would be one of the very best anchorages in the +sea had it a few feet greater depth; but as it is, the lead +marks only 5 feet, and its entrance is five miles wide and +from 13 to 7 feet deep. This is a populous locality, and the +old town of Yeisk is situated to the south-east, near the +river Yé. A new town was founded here in 1848 by +Prince Woronzof, at Yeisk, on the western sandy point +of the bay; but it will probably not answer the expectations +formed of it, as the sea is so shallow that vessels +cannot approach it, and the produce of the surrounding +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_304">[304]</span>countries is too small to induce commercial men to settle +there, notwithstanding the privileges accorded to it. One +of these privileges is, that merchants settled here do not +pay the personal tax levied on them, which is very heavy. +Merchants in Russia are divided into three guilds, and +the tax on a merchant of the first guild is about 150<i>l.</i> +a-year, and every partner and clerk who has a power of +attorney to act for the firm must pay the tax. By +being the possessor of a house at Yeisk, exemption is +obtained from it. From the mouth of this bay the coast +runs 6¼ miles to the north, and forms Cape Sazanitskoi, +near which are several fisheries. At 17 miles further east +is Cape Tchimborsk, whence it is about 18 miles to +Kagalnik, situated on the southernmost branch of the +Don, called Staroi⁠<a id="FNanchor_261" href="#Footnote_261" class="fnanchor">[261]</a> Don, and at the commencement of its +delta. The whole country between Yeisk and the Don, +and likewise all around Rostof, is cultivated with wheat. +The land is similar to that on the opposite coast, and very +fertile. It bears a crop of wheat once every three years, +and lies fallow for the intermediate time. The inhabitants +are Don Cossacks and Russian proprietors, who +have bought lands and brought down peasants from the +interior of Russia. There are no Calmucks or Nogais +here.</p> + +<p>The Don has several mouths between Kagalnik and +Siniávka, the northernmost point of its delta, which +measures 12 miles across in its widest part. The delta +is uncultivated, and covered with rushes and high reeds, +and the whole forms an immense lake in the month of +June, when the waters rise. The climate of all this +country is very dry, like that of the steppes in general, +and the want of water often occasions severe injury to +the crops. It is not unhealthy, although dysentery prevails +in the hot weather at Rostof, which is to be attributed +to imprudence in eating the melons, cucumbers, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_305">[305]</span>and other fruits, which grow there in wonderful abundance +and perfection. Proceeding from south to north, +the first mouth, called <i>the</i> mouth of the Don, used to be +the principal one, and upon it, at 6 miles inland, is the +town of Azof, which is now only a large village, with +the remains of an old fort. The second mouth is the +Kalántcha; the third the Perevóloki; the fourth the +Kasterna; and the fifth the Donetse,⁠<a id="FNanchor_262" href="#Footnote_262" class="fnanchor">[262]</a> near Siniávka. At +present the only branches available for navigation are +the Kalántcha and the Perevóloki.</p> + +<p>The town of Rostof is placed on the north bank of the +Don, 22½ miles from the sea before the commencement +of the delta. Vessels of low draught can alone proceed +to it, because of the bars at the entrance of the river. +The town of Rostof is one of the most important on the +shores of the Sea of Azof, and a great centre for commercial +dealings with eastern Russia. A full account of +it will be given in the next chapter.</p> + +<p>In May and June the water of the Don rises to a great +height, and the whole country is flooded. It then suddenly +falls, although it is liable at all times to rise again when +the wind blows up the river. This increases the difficulty +of navigation, and a vessel of 100 tons can only +take in a part of her cargo at the mouth of the river. +She is obliged to take in the rest of it gradually, dropping +down the gulf of the Don, followed by lighters. In +this way she sometimes proceeds for 40 miles before +she is completely loaded, and then she must again +unload a part of her cargo at Yenicáleh if she draws +more than 12 or 13 feet of water, in order to pass the +straits. Shipments through the Azof are, therefore, very +expensive. The bed which the waters of the Kalántcha +have formed has 6 and 8 feet in depth at 2½ miles from +the shore, and 9 at the mouth of the river. There are +three successive bars at the entrance of the Don, but +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_306">[306]</span>when these are passed, on nearing Rostof, the river becomes +deep, and continues navigable for many hundred +miles.</p> + +<p>Taganrok is by sea about 8½ miles from the Perevóloki +mouth of the Don, and the water may be said to +average 8 feet. The depth of the water is, however, extremely +variable in all the upper part of the gulf of the +Don, and the common question asked by merchants at +Taganrok and Rostof every morning is as to what is the +depth of the water. South and east winds increase the +depth, and north and west winds diminish it to 2 or 3 +feet, so that with a strong north-east wind, the small bay +to the eastward of Taganrok is sometimes quite dry. The +water also varies much, according to the season of the year. +When the snows have melted in Russia, and the Don becomes +unfrozen, the whole country is one great lake, and +this lasts for a couple of months, during which time the +water is very deep, and vessels of any tonnage can come +up to Rostof. Messrs. Yeames, at their wool washeries +there, which are constructed on low ground, choose this +season to bring the coals⁠<a id="FNanchor_263" href="#Footnote_263" class="fnanchor">[263]</a> necessary for their establishment. +The lighters, when they get to a certain point, +pitch the coals overboard into the water, and when the +river goes down they find them ready for use. Their +houses, being of wood, are uninjured by remaining under +water, and the stoves are rebuilt every year. The sheep +are sheared in May, the wool comes in in June, and is +washed in July and September. The water of the gulf +of the Don is yearly becoming more shallow, one reason +of which is, the quantity of ballast yearly thrown into +it. As the trade is almost entirely an export trade, and +ships come up to Rostof empty, the masters are in the +habit of throwing their ballast overboard when they +receive their cargoes. This is strictly forbidden by the +government; and every vessel is measured at Kertch, +and again at Taganrok, to see that there has been no +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_307">[307]</span>alteration in the lading. A fee, however, to the harbour-master +gets rid of all difficulties; and the constant practice +is to throw the ballast overboard, and it forms nuclei +round which the alluvium of the Don continually accumulates.</p> + +<p>Both the Don and the Volga are frozen up in winter, +and this is the case with the greater part of the Sea of +Azof, which is then used as a means of communication +between the opposite shores, considerably further down +than Cape Obriv. The ice is very irregular, and, while +in some places there are smooth plains many miles long, +in others it is what is called “hummocky,” or raised in +ridges as high as a house. The year before last year there +was a regular mountain-chain of ice for many miles in +length, between Cape Obriv and Yeisk; and an English +vessel which was lost there, whose position was accurately +known, was searched for in vain for many weeks, and at +last only discovered by one of her masts that was seen +sticking out of the ridge of ice.</p> + +<p>Russians never skate, and communication is carried on +by horses and carts, as on the land. At Medvidovka, on +the Donetse mouth, some ancient ruins have been discovered +on the estate of an enterprising gentleman who +has excavated them; and they are supposed to be those of +the ancient city of Tana, which was formerly considered +to have stood near Azof. A commission of antiquaries +has been appointed at Petersburg to investigate the matter, +but their report, I believe, has not yet been received.</p> + +<p>The town of Taganrok is prettily situated on high +ground, on the cape of the same name, and contains +27,000 inhabitants, of whom one-third are Greeks. It +stands in the government of Ekaterinoslaf, and is about +300 miles distant from the town of that name, and 50 +miles from Rostof. It forms, however, with a small +territory round it, a separate government of its own, and +pays in taxes of all kinds a total sum of about 360,000<i>l.</i> +Peter the Great laid the first foundations of it in 1706, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_308">[308]</span>after the capture of Azof, on the spot where there was at +that time a lighthouse. The town was demolished in +1711, according to an article in the disastrous treaty of +the Pruth. It was only rebuilt in 1769, at the commencement +of the war between Russia and the Turks. +The port was then deepened, and the place fortified. +The fortress is constructed on the end of the tongue of +land on which the town is built. The Emperor Alexander +died here in 1824, and his bedroom is kept exactly +as he left it, and is lighted with tapers, and shown to +the public.</p> + +<p>“The port of Taganrok,” says Vsevolovski, “is an absolute +necessity for the Russians, independent of all commercial +considerations, because this is the only means of +procuring the masts,⁠<a id="FNanchor_264" href="#Footnote_264" class="fnanchor">[264]</a> iron, and all stores which come down +the Don and Volga from Russia and Siberia for Kherson, +Nicolaief, Odessa, and Sevastopol. A coal of good quality +is also exported from here, which comes from the sources +of the Kryneka and Severny Donetse, at a distance of +about 80 miles.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_265" href="#Footnote_265" class="fnanchor">[265]</a></p> + +<p>The greatest depth of the basin of Taganrok is 10, 11, +and 18 feet; but all measurements are very uncertain, +and sometimes there is no water at all in the bay, and +vessels stick in the mud for a length of time. At all +the ports of the Sea of Azof the water is too shallow +to admit loaded vessels to approach near the shore, and +cargoes are, therefore, taken in with the aid of lighters in +the manner that has been described. At the extremity of +Cape Taganrok exist the remains of a port, 570 yards +in length and 220 in breadth, constructed by Peter the +Great: it offers at present but 2 feet water. Near this +port, towards the north, a great quay has been constructed +since 1847, ending in a mole resting on piles, +which now forms the east side of Peter the Great’s +port. The water which runs from the rivulet of Sambek, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_309">[309]</span>four miles beyond, into the bay of Taganrok, gives at its +extremity a depth of 7 feet, and sometimes more, during +high water.</p> + +<p>Mariopol is eighty miles from Taganrok, on the +right bank of the river Kalmiousse, and at two miles +from the shore is an anchoring ground, in 15 feet +water, with a muddy bottom. The mouth of the Kalmiousse +forms a port for the lighters, which load and +discharge the vessels in the roads. The port might be +made a few feet deeper, if measures were taken for +dredging the bar which obstructs the mouth of the river, +where the water has only a depth of 3 or 4 feet. Mariopol +is exclusively a Greek town, and was founded for the +Greeks of the Crimea, who were induced to emigrate by +the Russians in 1778, five years before its conquest. +It is difficult to conceive how the Russian Government +could ever have induced them to leave their beautiful +seats for this dreary and comfortless town, or why since +that period they have not made an effort to return +to their old haunts, which they have never ceased to +regret. Commercial considerations probably keep them +at Mariopol, as the town has a good deal of business, +and the wheat exported hence is the finest Russian +wheat that comes to the English market, and bears the +highest price.</p> + +<p>Beyond Mariopol the coast for nearly 10 miles is bold, +until it reaches Cape Bielo-Serái,⁠<a id="FNanchor_266" href="#Footnote_266" class="fnanchor">[266]</a> which forms one side +of the entrance to the Gulf of the Don; there is the +whole way about 14 feet water at one mile distance from +the shore. At Cape Bielo-Serái there are a number of +fishing huts, and previous to arriving at the point, there +is a lighthouse 81 feet above the level of the sea, and +72 feet above the level of the ground. Its light is fixed, +and seen at 14¾ miles distance. At 23 miles south-west +of Cape Bielo-Serái, the river Berda empties itself into +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_310">[310]</span>the sea, but its mouth is barred by a strip of sand +two miles long, called the tongue of Berdiansk, at the +extremity of which, jutting out into the sea, is a lighthouse +85 feet above the level of the sea, with a light +which is seen from minute to minute, and which is +visible at a distance of 15 miles.</p> + +<p>The town of Berdiansk is situated near the right bank +of the Berda, at seven miles from the lighthouse, and +at the foot of the bold table-land which backs it. +It was founded about 1840 by Prince Woronzof, and +has gone on increasing in population and commercial +prosperity. I can find no account of its population, but +its exports were upwards of a million, and its imports +about 7000<i>l.</i>, in the year 1853.⁠<a id="FNanchor_267" href="#Footnote_267" class="fnanchor">[267]</a> This is the port where +there is the best anchorage in the Sea of Azof, and +there are 12 or 14 feet of water at a quarter of a +mile from the landing place. The Bay of Obitochnia +close by, with a river of the same name, is still more +favourable for shipping, but no town has been founded +on its shores. The land, however, gains ground every +day in the roadstead of Berdiansk, which fills up, on +account of the sea winds depositing great quantities of +sand. A jetty, which was constructed some five or +six years ago, is now completely useless, from being +surrounded with sand, and a second, that has been constructed +220 yards in length, will evidently be soon +in the same predicament. The commercial community +of Berdiansk proposes to construct a barrier of 700 or +800 yards to protect it, and at the same time shelter +coasting crafts of low draught. This will be useless, +unless they previously concert means for dredging it, as +the sands will accumulate all round it, and form a lagoon. +At four miles to the south of Berdiansk, a large point +running to the north forms a port which is the resort of +coasters for wintering, where there is shelter from all +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_311">[311]</span>winds, and 7 or 8 feet of water. Shallows extend to the +west and north, and these are increasing, so that in time +this port will become a salt lake, like many others that +are found in the vicinity. Berdiansk is the port of shipment +for the produce of the flourishing German colonies +of the Moloshna, which are not distant from it.</p> + +<p>At 33 miles from the mouth of the Berda, there is a +lagoon, called Lake Moloshenska, into which the waters of +the river Moloshnia Vodi have their issue. Cape Fedotov, +on which several houses and windmills stand, is near +it to the south. Here commences the Isthmus of the +Peninsula of Berútchi, which, intercepted by a small +table-land, detached from the mainland, runs to the +S.S.W. for 12 miles, with a breadth of several yards. The +peninsula of Berútchi, called also the tongue of Yedotov, +turning to the west towards the Tonka, is 11 miles in +length. At three quarters of a mile from the shore of this +isthmus and peninsula, there are 18 feet of water, but +much less towards the extremity of the peninsula opposite +the Tonka. Between Berútchi and Vizariónov is a strong +current running to the east, formed by the waters of the +Shiváshe, which flow into the sea of Azof by the narrow +strait of Yénitchi. This strait is 129 yards wide, and +18 feet deep, but at the entrance there is only 4 feet +water. On its northern shore is the village of Yénitchi, +which is eight miles from Point Berútchi, the last bold +table-land which borders the sea of Azof. There is a very +good roadstead between Berútchi and the Tonka, exposed +only to the S.S.E. wind. The depth between the two +shores at one and two miles is in 18 and 21 feet, muddy +bottom. Behind the peninsula of Berútchi, and commencing +just opposite the straits of Yénitchi, there is a +vast gulf 20 miles long, but of its depth there are no +accounts. At the bottom of the gulf there is a great +lagoon, and on its western shore the Lake of Atsuanai.⁠<a id="FNanchor_268" href="#Footnote_268" class="fnanchor">[268]</a></p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_312">[312]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XVIII">CHAPTER XVIII.<br> +<span class="smaller">ON THE COMMERCE OF THE SEA OF AZOF.</span></h2> + +<p>Rostof, key to commercial system of Eastern Russia—A district of the +Government of Ekaterinoslaf—Its gradual rise since 1835—Articles +of export—Wheat—Linseed—Rye—Military stores sent hence to +Sevastopol, &c.—Salt-fish—Caviare—Tallow—Wool—Iron—Iron +foundries of Lugan—The system of advances on produce—Made through +agents at Pavlosk—Exports paid for, not by imports, but by cash—Political +reasons for high tariff—Attempt to make Kertch the emporium +for the Sea of Azof—Failure of it—Lighters of the Azof—Passage of +exports from the great producing countries of the North—By the Don and +the Volga—Dubofka and Katchálin—Loss to Russia from high tariff—Commercial +and peaceable disposition of Russian people—Advantages of +free trade to them.</p> + +</div> + +<p>Rostof is the key to all the trade of the Sea of Azof and +the south-eastern parts of the Russian empire.⁠<a id="FNanchor_269" href="#Footnote_269" class="fnanchor">[269]</a> It is a +town of about 12,000 inhabitants, composed of Russians, +Cossacks, Armenians, Greeks, and a few foreigners. The +merchants generally have only their offices here, and +live at Taganrok, which is 50 miles distant. They go +to Rostof once or twice a week, and send there the orders +for their purchases. Rostof is the capital of a district +(Uezd) in the government of Ekaterinoslaf, and is the +station of one of the two brigades of the reserve division +of the army of the Caucasus. In the course of last year +these troops were marched away to the Caucasus, and the +town was left undefended, as it appeared in no danger +of being attacked. Rostof has grown up from a small +fishing village to its present importance, solely on account +of its admirable geographical position with respect to +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_313">[313]</span>trade, and so gradual has been its rise, that it would +be difficult to say at what period it was first founded. +It is since the year 1835 that its trade has undergone a +marked yearly increase. Rostof enjoys no special privileges, +and its flourishing state is entirely due to its convenient +site, and to the large amount of foreign capital of +which it is the centre, which has drawn to it the produce +of the interior of the empire, and made it one of the most +important commercial towns.</p> + +<p>As Odessa is the outlet for the produce of the southern +Polish provinces, and from this circumstance derives its +importance, so Rostof is one of the principal débouchés for +the agricultural produce of Great Russia, and consequently +likely to become a place still more flourishing than it is +at present. Great Russia, as the governments around +Moscow are called, is the most thickly peopled and most +productive part of the Russian empire, containing an +industrious and active population, and the principal seats +of agriculture and manufactures. It formerly sent its +produce almost entirely to the Baltic for exportation, but +of late years there has been a tendency in growers to +avail themselves of the great arteries of the Don and the +Volga, and shipments from the Azof and the other ports +of southern Russia have consequently much increased.</p> + +<p>Rostof from its situation may also compete with the +North of Russia for a portion of the Asiatic trade, for it +has a nearly complete water communication with the +Caspian, and has likewise constant dealings with the +northern parts of the Caucasus. Its great importance, +however, arises from the fact that it stands at the point +of communication between the widely extended river +system of Great Russia and the Southern Seas.</p> + +<p>The ports of the Azof are Taganrok, which is so intimately +connected with Rostof, Mariopol, Berdiansk, and +the nominal port of Yeisk. There is no import trade of any +importance carried on in any of them, because of the high +duties of the Russian tariff. The total amount of the imports +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_314">[314]</span>at all the ports of the Sea of Azof was only 300,000<i>l.</i> +for the year 1853, while the exports exceeded 3,350,000<i>l.</i>⁠<a id="FNanchor_270" href="#Footnote_270" class="fnanchor">[270]</a> +The imports consisted wholly of articles of luxury chiefly +the produce of the Levant, such as fruits, oil, and wines, +and the largest item was Greek wines, of which there was +a demand for no less than 600,000 gallons. There can +be no doubt that the imports are checked by the high +tariff, for the exports have more than trebled in the last +four years from 1850 to 1854, having increased from +1,100,000<i>l.</i> to 3,350,000<i>l.</i>, while the imports in the same +time have only increased 40,000<i>l.</i> It is true that the same +population which finds it more convenient to export their +produce by the Azof, may have the same reason for receiving +their imports by Petersburg, and such to a certain +extent is the case, for while the whole exports⁠<a id="FNanchor_271" href="#Footnote_271" class="fnanchor">[271]</a> from all +Russia amounted in the year 1852 to nearly 18,000,000<i>l.</i>, +the imports in the same year were upwards of 16,000,000<i>l.</i>, +so that the sum which had to be paid in cash was about +1,800,000<i>l.</i>, and on looking to the tables of the imports +and exports of bullion, it appears that in the year 1852 +there was imported in gold and silver 1,988,000<i>l.</i>⁠<a id="FNanchor_272" href="#Footnote_272" class="fnanchor">[272]</a></p> + +<p>The principal articles of exportation from the Azof +are wheat,⁠<a id="FNanchor_273" href="#Footnote_273" class="fnanchor">[273]</a> linseed, rye, wool, tallow, iron, and military +stores. The stock of wheat, under ordinary circumstances, +is comparatively small, as the vessels which +carry it abroad reach the shipping port about the time +when the chief supplies from the interior, either by +water or by land, arrive. The wheat shipped from Rostof +may be classed as follows:—First, the wheat from the +country of the Line, that is, the districts occupied by the +Line and Tchernomorski Cossacks, which are situated to +the northward of the Terek and Kuban rivers, between +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_315">[315]</span>the territory of the Don Cossacks and Circassia, and the +Black and Caspian seas. Secondly, the wheat that is +grown on the lands watered by the Don, which is superior +to the former in quality and condition. Thirdly, the +Volga wheat, which is with justice preferred to the Don +and Line wheats, and is chiefly grown by the wealthy +German colonies situated on both banks of the Volga +and its tributary rivers northwards of Saratof. The bulk +of the wheat shipped from the port of Taganrok consists +of hard wheat which is principally consumed in the Mediterranean, +where it is used for the manufacture of maccaroni, +but a small quantity is imported into this country.</p> + +<p>Hard wheat requires a virgin soil, and this accounts for +its being in Europe almost entirely grown in the south of +Russia.⁠<a id="FNanchor_274" href="#Footnote_274" class="fnanchor">[274]</a> It is remarkable for its bright yellow colour, +heavy weight and hard grain. Of late years the proprietors, +whose estates are situated in the vicinity of Taganrok, +have directed their attention to the growth of soft wheat, +and their crops have yielded a wheat whose quality has +been found quite equal to that of Mariopol and Berdiansk. +It is worthy of notice that in some districts, if the same +wheat be sown for three or four consecutive years, it +gradually loses its original character, and finally turns +into hard wheat. The wheat, whilst in this state of +transition, bearing at the same time the character both +of hard and soft wheat, is called by the Russians, +“Pererodka” (from the verb <i>perachadit</i>, to go over). +The wheat shipped from Mariopol and Berdiansk is +grown in the immediate vicinity of those towns by the +German and Greek colonists, and likewise by the +Russians. It is of a reddish colour, weighing on an +average from 60 to 63 lbs. per bushel English, and commands +a higher price than either the hard wheat of +Taganrok, or the soft Polish that is shipped from Odessa. +Most of it was formerly shipped to the Mediterranean, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_316">[316]</span>but of late years the English millers have learnt to +appreciate the peculiar qualities it possesses, which +principally consist in the strength of the flour it produces, +and since 1851 and 1852 large quantities have +been imported into this country.</p> + +<p>The linseed, which is shipped from Rostof, is grown +throughout those districts that are watered by the Don +and the Volga, as far as the point where, making a bend +in their course, these two rivers approach for a short +space, within 45 miles of each other. The linseed plant +is cultivated by proprietors, as well as by the peasantry. +The plant is of a coarse kind, and the fibre is thrown +away as useless;⁠<a id="FNanchor_275" href="#Footnote_275" class="fnanchor">[275]</a> but many good authorities consider, +as the demand for flax is so great in Europe, that the +stalk of the plant might be turned to account at least for +the coarser kinds of linen.</p> + +<p>Rye is grown over the whole country principally for +home consumption in the shape either of flour or brandy. +Russian brandy, “Vodka,” is extremely strong, measuring +about 30°, which is nearly equal to common spirits of +wine.⁠<a id="FNanchor_276" href="#Footnote_276" class="fnanchor">[276]</a> A small quantity of rye has been lately exported +to Holland, for the manufacture of Schiedam. The +Government are the chief purchasers for the rye brought +to Rostof for exportation. They contract for it in the +shape of flour, which comes down the river packed in +mat bags, of which 500,000 or 600,000 Tchetwerts⁠<a id="FNanchor_277" href="#Footnote_277" class="fnanchor">[277]</a> are +yearly received, and shipped from Rostof to the Crimea, +and the coasts of Circassia. It is ground by windmills, +and watermills high up in Great Russia.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_317">[317]</span></p> + +<p>Besides the rye flour, munitions of war, such as anchors, +chains, cables, shells, shot, cannon, and ironware of every +description, are shipped hence for Sevastopol and other +places. The ammunition stores of metallic composition +come firstly from Lugan, at the confluence of that tributary +of the Don called the Donetse,⁠<a id="FNanchor_278" href="#Footnote_278" class="fnanchor">[278]</a> and the river Lugan +about 100 miles from Rostof. Here are iron-works, and +a cannon foundry belonging to the crown, which in the +time of Dr. Clarke were all under the direction of an +Englishman named Gascoigne, formerly superintendent +of the Carron works in Scotland, whose improvements he +betrayed to the Russian Government. “From thence,” +says Dr. Clarke, “the Emperor’s artillery passes by water +to the Black Sea. Mr. Gascoigne found excellent coal +at Lugan, in consequence of which discovery, as well +as its convenient situation for water carriage, the foundry +was there established.” Probably some of the finer articles +required for military use come from Toola, which is +the Birmingham of Russia, and famous for its guns and +pistols, and many articles are now supplied from some +parts of Siberia.</p> + +<p>The exports of wool from the Sea of Azof have not +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_318">[318]</span>kept pace with the large increase which has taken +place in other articles of export. The amount exported +in 1853 was 5,196,708 lbs., being a decrease of nearly 2 +millions of lbs. on the quantity exported in 1852, and an +increase on that of the preceding years, the average +exports of which seem to have been about 4 millions of lbs. +The decrease may be ascribed to the great competition +offered in the western markets by the shipments made +from Australia, and by the increasing home consumption +in Russia. In the trade carried on by caravans through +Siberia, between Russia and China,⁠<a id="FNanchor_279" href="#Footnote_279" class="fnanchor">[279]</a> cloth is the chief +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_319">[319]</span>article of barter, and the prices of the wool in the grease +are less influenced by those which the exporter, guided +by the state of the London market, is able to pay, than +by the greater or lesser demand for Russian cloths at +home and in China. There is little or none of the wool +shipped in its original greasy state. It is either brook-washed +previous to the sheep being clipped, which is +accomplished by driving them through a stream, or hand-washed +in warm and then rinsed in cold water. This +latter operation, which cleanses the wool much more +effectually than the former, is generally managed by the +foreign merchants themselves, who for that object have +large wash-houses established at Rostof and Kherson. +The Merino fleeces require particular care, for previous +to their being washed they have to be assorted according +to the fineness of the hair. This process requires some +skill and considerable experience, as a parcel of wool +seldom consists of less than five or six assortments.</p> + +<p>The common Russian sheep, which is raised as well by +the rich landed proprietor as by the poorest serf, requires +little care. Its wool is of a long staple, coarse and wiry, +and at all times finds a ready demand in the English +market, where it is particularly well suited for purposes +where a long stapled wool is the chief requisite. The +best wool of this kind is produced in the Cossack +territories, and goes in the trade under the denomination +of Donskoy. The Tatar broad-tailed sheep is generally +of a brown greyish colour, and is found in all the steppes +inhabited by the Nogais Tatars, Kalmuks, Khirgiz, and +other eastern tribes. It produces a wool of considerably +less value than Donskoy, which is used by the natives +in the manufacture of coarse cloths and carpets. The +Merino sheep was introduced into the south of Russia +about forty years ago. The climate is not altogether +favourable for the growth of fine wool, and the losses +incurred during and after long and severe winters are +great. The quality of the wool is generally good, and +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_320">[320]</span>there are flocks which produce an article equal in texture +and fineness to the best Silesian wool. The Merino sheep +are spread all over the country, but are principally to be +found in New Russia, and in the government of Saratof +and others adjoining it. They require considerable care, +and as the rearing of them is attended with great expenses +they are only to be found on the lands of the German +colonists and of wealthy Russian proprietors. The Merino +sheep of South Russia is a descendant of the Saxon breed +originally introduced into this country, which it still +closely resembles. The Valachian sheep, otherwise called +Zigay, has been successfully crossed with the Merinos, +and the breed thus produced, which has retained much of +the character of the Spanish sheep, generally goes under +the name of Metis or Schlonsky.</p> + +<p>The quantity of fine wool produced in Russia has +not, I believe, increased of late years. Some five or +six years ago, in the governments of Ekaterinoslaf +and Kharkof, it was estimated that upwards of one-third +of the Merino sheep reared in those governments +had perished through disease and want of fodder. On +the whole the proprietor of Merino sheep is exposed +to greater risks and losses than those incurred in any +other branch of husbandry. Cases often occur, when, in +the course of a few days, the toil of many years is irrecoverably +lost. A late spring, with frosty nights in +April, is sometimes the cause of the greatest mischief; +the fodder collected during the autumn proving insufficient +for the maintenance of the sheep, and the frost +killing the lambs the moment they are dropped by their +mother. Most of the flocks are under the care of a +German shepherd, and on many estates no expense has +been spared in introducing in the management of the +sheep every possible amelioration. Amongst the finest +flocks in the south of Russia is that belonging to Don +Baguer, the Spanish Consul-General at Odessa, and his +brother, an establishment which dates from about the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_321">[321]</span>year 1839, and numbering lately 15,000 head of Merino +sheep. In 1844 he shipped a cargo of rams to the +Sultan, some of which were of the value of 40<i>l.</i>, which +presents a great contrast to the common price of sheep +in Southern Russia, which is from 4<i>s.</i> to 6<i>s.</i> a-head. In +well-managed flocks a regular register is kept of the rams +and ewes and of the quality of their offsprings. Every +sheep is branded with a number in the ear, and it is the +art of the shepherd to take care that the breed is so +mixed as to keep one uniform average in the wool and +raise the standard. The lambing time is in April, shortly +after the sheep quit the sheepfolds, in which they are +sheltered during the winter.</p> + +<p>The exports of tallow from the Sea of Azof in the year +1853 amounted to 35,926 cwt. In the south-east part of +Russia the principal melting establishments are at Bachmut, +Slavansk, and the neighbouring towns. In the early +part of the spring the melters proceed to the various cattle +fairs held in the governments of Ekaterinoslaf, Kharkof, +the Tauride, and the lands of the Cossacks, to effect their +purchases. After they have collected the quantity of cattle +which their means allow them, their next care is to select +and rent tracts of land on either side of the Sea of Azof +for them to feed upon. Considerable experience is required +in the selection of the pasturage grounds, for the +profit which the melter derives, after his cattle have been +converted into tallow, depends less on the price paid for +them and the price he receives for the tallow, than on +the fat state of the cattle and the amount of tallow which +they consequently yield. Thus, in years of drought, when +the cattle can but barely subsist on a scanty vegetation, +and hundreds perish through want of water, the tallow-dealer +incurs losses against which it is impossible to guard. +In the beginning of September the herds of cattle quit their +summer pasturages, and are slowly driven towards the +melting stations, where the process of slaughtering and +melting generally commences about the 10th of October.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_322">[322]</span></p> + +<p>The animal, after being killed and stripped of its hide, +and after the head and the legs (at the knees) have been +cut off and the inside taken out, is then divided into four +parts, which are thrown into the cauldron. With the +exception of two strips of flesh taken from off each side +of the spine, the whole of the meat is converted into +tallow. The bones are crushed, and a small quantity of +fine tallow is collected from the marrow contained within +them. Old sheep, especially of the Merino breed, whose +wool deteriorates after they have reached their fourth or +fifth year, are likewise converted into tallow, which may be +valued at about 1<i>l.</i> less per ton than that produced from +cattle. The average price of tallow on the spot is 25<i>l.</i> +to 28<i>l.</i> per ton. There is a large home consumption for +hides, and of late years very few have been shipped +abroad, although the export duty has been considerably +reduced. Oxen being found more valuable when used +for draught, cows are principally used in the manufacture +of tallow. Some twenty years ago there was hardly any +tallow shipped from the Azof; all that was produced in +the districts surrounding it being sent to the fairs +which are held at Belgorod, where it was bought up by +the Petersburg dealers, who sent it over land to the North.</p> + +<p>The cattle in the South of Russia are of the same +breed which is found in Bulgaria and the Danubian Principalities, +of a uniform white-greyish colour, long horned +and with large bones. The German colonists have imported +cattle from their own country, and their cows are +found, especially for dairy purposes, much superior to +those of Russia. A Russian cow costs about 9 or +10 R. = about 1<i>l.</i> 10<i>s.</i>; a German cow from 20 to +25 R. = from 3<i>l.</i> to 4<i>l.</i> In the South of Russia no cheese +or butter is made beyond what is required for the wants +of the inhabitants, but a considerable quantity of salt-butter +is brought down the Volga and the Don from +Siberia, and is shipped to Turkey and the Greek Archipelago.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_323">[323]</span></p> + +<p>Formerly wheat was the only article of importance +shipped at Rostof for a foreign market. Linseed, wool, +and tallow were first introduced as articles of export by +the house of Messrs. William Yeames and Co., the +only English merchants on the shores of the Sea of +Azof.</p> + +<p>The exports of Russia consist almost wholly of articles +of raw produce, which are raised by the assistance of +foreign capital. Of the whole exports of the empire, +which of late years have reached a total of nearly 18 +millions sterling, about 7 millions are yearly sent from this +country as an advance upon goods that are to be delivered +afterwards. Thus upwards of one-third of the price of the +whole exports is paid from three to nine months before +the merchant receives his goods.⁠<a id="FNanchor_280" href="#Footnote_280" class="fnanchor">[280]</a> This system is necessary +because there is a great dearth of capital in Russia; +and if money were not advanced to her beforehand by +foreigners, she would not be able to pay the expense of +raising and forwarding so large a quantity of agricultural +produce as she at present exports. From the difficulty +of communication in Russia, and the great distances +that have to be traversed, the expense of carriage frequently +forms a more considerable item in the price of +the article at the port of shipment than the original +cost paid to the producer. Thus a quarter of wheat +which costs at Rostof in store 22<i>s.</i>, its average price in +ordinary years, has been bought of the grower of the +wheat for about 10<i>s.</i> The expense of carriage has +amounted to about 8<i>s.</i>, so that about 4<i>s.</i> per quarter +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_324">[324]</span>remains to the exporter as interest on his money, remuneration +for his labour, and other incidental charges.</p> + +<p>Russia is a poor country; she has not had time and +opportunity to lay up, as we have done, a vast amount +of money, always seeking for employment in all parts of +the world. With a rich soil and an industrious population, +she has numberless opportunities of laying out +money so as to bring in large profits, as is proved by the +current rate of interest, which is about 12 per cent.⁠<a id="FNanchor_281" href="#Footnote_281" class="fnanchor">[281]</a></p> + +<p>Most of the purchases of Russian produce are made on +contract during the autumn and winter months, when +two-thirds, three-fourths, and sometimes even more, of +the total amount is paid for in advance in hard cash. +The foreign merchant established on the shores of the +Sea of Azof reimburses himself for the produce he has +shipped abroad by emitting bills at three months’ date; +and as the import trade, as has been shown, is comparatively +insignificant, and hitherto no banks have been +established, he is obliged to send his bills for negotiation +either to St. Petersburg or to Odessa. From thence the +proceeds are remitted to him by post either in gold or +silver. The commission and brokerage on the negotiation +of the bills, and the insurance and postage on the +transmission of the money, amount to about 1 per cent. +Most of the bills drawn at Taganrok are negotiated at St. +Petersburg, because the exchange there is generally more +favourable than at Odessa. It frequently occurs that a +whole month elapses from the time the bill is advised +until the money which it has realised is received. The +heavy stamp-duties now charged on bills are a serious if +not an insurmountable obstacle to any improvement in +the transaction of money operations.</p> + +<p>Merchants now deal directly with the producers, through +the agency of confidential clerks settled in various parts +in the interior of the country. Pavlosk, on the Don, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_325">[325]</span>about 400 miles from Rostof, is the principal station for +these agents. The great house of Ralli⁠<a id="FNanchor_282" href="#Footnote_282" class="fnanchor">[282]</a> has, besides their +establishment at Pavlosk, a complete network of agencies +over all the country situated to the east of Moscow, +where such of the linseed and wheat as is shipped at +St. Petersburg is chiefly produced.</p> + +<p>I have now given a list of the principal articles of +export from the Sea of Azof, and endeavoured to explain +the manner in which so large an amount of agricultural +produce is raised in so poor a country. The imports, as +I have said, are kept out not because the population are +unwilling to receive them, but solely by the high duties +of the Russian tariff. These were reduced in 1850, but +not low enough to create any sensible benefit. M. Tegoborski, +in his answer to M. Léon Faucher, at once admits +this fact, and says that the finances of the state would +undoubtedly profit by a different policy. The reason for +not relaxing the tariff is probably political. The manufacturers, +whose trade has been created by protection, +would undoubtedly cry out at any change, but the more +powerful body of the consumers would be favourable to +it, so that the Government would have little to fear from +the hostility of the public feeling. It would have, however, +a decidedly liberal political tendency. It would be +impossible to admit foreign goods in large quantities and +at the same time prevent a greater intercourse with foreigners, +who would be chiefly the inhabitants of Western Europe. +These would bring with them their own ideas, the +results of unfettered reason, for which the natives of +Russia, of all people in the world the most unprejudiced, +feel a natural yearning. The Russian Government is too +wise not to see that it would be impossible for it to keep +up its present system under such altered circumstances; +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_326">[326]</span>and therefore, although it admits the beneficial effects +of larger foreign importations so far as an increase of +wealth is concerned, yet, considering as indispensable +the maintenance of its present military system, it is +obliged consistently to refuse free trade.</p> + +<p>The Don and the Volga are both frozen every year +from about the beginning of December to the middle of +March. When the navigation is no longer possible, very +little produce arrives at Rostof, and the average quantity +brought down by the sledges is insignificant, owing to +the general unsteadiness of the weather. As the shallowness +of the water makes the navigation of the Sea of Azof +very difficult (by the Greeks and Romans it was called +a marsh, and not a sea),⁠<a id="FNanchor_283" href="#Footnote_283" class="fnanchor">[283]</a> it has naturally been felt that +the emporium of goods for exportation should be at some +place to which large ships can have access, after the difficulties +of its navigation in coming from the interior of +Russia have been passed. This led to the establishment +of the quarantine at Kertch, as has been explained in a +former chapter. It was thought that goods would be +brought at leisure down the Azof by lighters, and that +stores would be erected there, as they have been at Odessa, +for the raw staple articles of exportation. For reasons +that have been detailed, this expectation was not realized; +and while in the year 1852 no less than 1606⁠<a id="FNanchor_284" href="#Footnote_284" class="fnanchor">[284]</a> vessels +with an average tonnage of about 250 tons passed the +Straits of Kertch, and entered the Azof to take in their +cargoes at some of its ports, a very small number stopped +to be loaded at Kertch. As ships are obliged to stand +out so far from the shore at the ports of the Azof, +receiving their cargoes by degrees, and cannot be fully +laden till they have passed the Straits of Kertch below +Yenicáleh, there is a great employment of lighters in +the Azof, which are manned chiefly by Cossacks of the +Don and Little Russians. They are an inferior description +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_327">[327]</span>of craft, and the rates they charge vary extremely +according to the season.⁠<a id="FNanchor_285" href="#Footnote_285" class="fnanchor">[285]</a></p> + +<p>In years when an unusually large amount of trade has +been carried on, great inconvenience has been felt from +the inadequate means of conveyance by water. The +delays also in the arrival of the lighters, which sometimes +take six weeks to come down the Azof, cause a great +waste of time and capital. A plan has often been set on +foot for having steam-tugs on the Azof, which would +cause a great saving in time and expense, and might +easily be effected, because the anthracite mines are very +near Rostof. The failure of this and other beneficial +projects must be attributed to the extreme scarcity of +capital, and the languor attending all efforts at improvement +under the restrictive regulations necessary in a +despotic monarchy.</p> + +<p>Such are a few remarks on the passage of goods +down the Sea of Azof from the great producing countries +of the north. The way in which they reach Rostof +from the interior is by the noble river of the Don, +which rolls its full tide of waters through the governments +of Toola, Tambof, Orel, Woroneje, and the vast +and fertile territory of the Don Cossacks. Toola is only +about 150 miles to the south of Moscow, and there is +therefore water communication with all the seas of the +world within a short distance of the capital of Great +Russia.⁠<a id="FNanchor_286" href="#Footnote_286" class="fnanchor">[286]</a> But this is not the only river that feeds the +commerce of Rostof. At about 125 miles from the +mouth of the Don, by two happy bends in their course, +the Volga and the Don approach within 45 miles of +each other, and thus goods can be transported from the +former to the latter river, and another vast circle of fertile +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_328">[328]</span>regions can be drained of their produce for the southern +market. As the Don runs through some of the most +productive governments of Great Russia, so the Volga⁠<a id="FNanchor_287" href="#Footnote_287" class="fnanchor">[287]</a> +sweeps in a larger circle to the north and east, and rising +in the ancient government of Tver, becomes navigable at +about an equal distance from Moscow as the Don, describes +a quarter of a circle round the town, and then, bending +northwards into the government of Jaroslav, passes +through Kostroma and Nijni Novgorod. At this celebrated +place of Oriental traffic it effects its junction with +the Oka, another artery of Great Russia, and then rolling +its increased volume directly eastward to Kazan, the Tatar +capital, it there changes its course to the south till it +nearly meets the Don. The two rivers run for a short +distance parallel to one another, till, suddenly diverging +at right angles, the one falls into the Azof and the other +into the Caspian Sea. At the point where the rivers +nearly meet, Dubofka on the Volga is about 45 miles +from Katchálin on the Don, and vast quantities of merchandise +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_329">[329]</span>are yearly carried across by bullock-carts from +one river to the other. The importance of their junction +of course fixed the attention of Peter the Great, and it +was one of his projects which he did not live to execute. +The canal he ordered has never been dug; and thus one +link is wanting in this magnificent system of river communication. +If it were made, a great saving to merchants +in time and money would be effected, and commerce +proportionately increased.⁠<a id="FNanchor_289" href="#Footnote_289" class="fnanchor">[289]</a></p> + +<p>From this short review of the countries which naturally +depend upon Rostof as their port, and from the great +lines of water communications which meet under its +walls, it would appear that its commerce, although it has +greatly increased, is not a twentieth part of what it +ought to be, and that it is capable of an indefinite extension. +The 40,000,000 of Slavonians round Moscow, +which form the real heart and strength of the Russian +Empire, send through it now a continually increasing +portion of the produce of their labour, and would, if they +could, receive through it innumerable articles which +can be more advantageously produced in more civilised +countries than their own. If free trade were allowed, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_330">[330]</span>this natural interchange would go on rapidly increasing +to the benefit of both parties. At present the exports are +great, but the Russian does not get nearly his full share of +profit, owing to the necessity he is under of receiving to a +considerable extent money instead of goods in payment. +With this hard cash which he receives, for which Europe +would gladly substitute manufactured goods, he is obliged +to buy these latter articles made by his own countrymen +of bad quality and high price. Thus a considerable +amount of Russian labour and capital, which are so scarce +in proportion to the opportunities for employing them, are +consumed less profitably than they might be, in manufacturing +these commodities, instead of developing the +dormant resources of a most fertile soil.⁠<a id="FNanchor_290" href="#Footnote_290" class="fnanchor">[290]</a> Still in the face +of all these checks to a natural system of exchange, agricultural +production has greatly increased of late years, and +the beneficial effects of the change in our navigation laws, +and the abolition of the duties on corn, have been very +distinctly felt. English capital flows willingly to Russia, +and, while there is the greatest difficulty in getting a few +hundred thousand pounds for India, millions find their +way to Russia, so that I was informed by the late General +Duplat, who was for many years our Consul-General at +Warsaw, that two years ago he had officially conveyed the +offer of capitalists in London to the Russian Government +to lay out 12,000,000<i>l.</i> for the construction of railways in +Russia upon very moderate terms. The whole of the exports +of Russia are raw produce, consisting of articles of +first necessity in Europe, of which she can never send us +too much. Her people are essentially agricultural and +commercial, and not a martial race, as is generally supposed. +It is a mistaken notion to suppose that the Russians +are a military or warlike nation. To the eyes of +Europe their military despotic government, with its +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_331">[331]</span>grasping tendency to increase its territories by conquest, +has given them a character which they do not deserve. The +serfs and the lower classes are forced by the conscription +into the ranks of the army, which experience has taught +them to consider as the hardest fate they can meet +with. Of the higher classes of society few devote themselves +from taste to the military profession, but in order +to maintain their station in the nobility, and to preserve +its privileges to themselves and their heirs, they +are obliged to serve the state for a certain number +of years, until they obtain at least a subordinate rank, +such as that of lieutenant. Thus among the officers +possessed of landed property or independent fortunes, it +is not surprising that there are many who view with +disgust any event, such as war, which obliges them to +remain in the army longer than they otherwise would +have done. Kept in the ranks against their inclination, +it is natural that on the field of battle when facing the +enemy they are not moved by the same martial and +stirring spirit which animates the officers of other armies.</p> + +<p>It is not intended by these remarks to impeach the +bravery of the Russian officers and soldiers, which would +be absurd in the face of their former conduct in the +French wars, and recently of their gallant defence of +Sevastopol, but to account for their want of success when +made to face in the open field the soldiers of two free +nations.</p> + +<p>The Russian merchant conducts his commercial operations +with intelligence, and amongst them are some, who, +without being able either to read or write, transact with +singular ability and success an amount of business which, +in more civilised countries, would require an experienced +manager, assisted by a staff of experienced clerks.⁠<a id="FNanchor_291" href="#Footnote_291" class="fnanchor">[291]</a> There +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_332">[332]</span>is, likewise, no lack of enterprise in him; but the restrictive +laws of the country, the obstacles placed in the way +of intercourse with foreign lands, and the prohibitory +duties charged on imports, prevent this spirit of enterprise +from developing itself to its full extent. In no +country do I believe would the effects of free trade be +so rapidly felt, and tend more to ameliorate the physical +and moral condition of the people.</p> + +<p>All customs, all prohibitions, are drawbacks on the +free or natural system of trade between nations; and +it might even be contended that manufactures would be +far more likely to spring up in Russia under such a +system, than under the protective system now in force. +If free trade were established, at first, undoubtedly, the +Russians would buy foreign manufactures, but the price +of all articles of consumption except the common necessaries +of life would be immensely reduced, and an +improved style of living would be possible among all +classes. The agriculturists would get more for their produce, +and be able to let us have it on cheaper terms; manufactures +in our countries and agriculture in theirs would +be much stimulated; roads would be made, the desert tracts +cultivated; the population would be raised both morally +and physically, and wealth gradually accumulated; until +at first the coarser and then the finer manufactures were +attempted in the natural progress of events, and with +undoubted success. The Russian people, patient, laborious, +admirable workmen, have nothing to fear from +foreign competition. I have said elsewhere, that English +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_333">[333]</span>masters find them inaccurate; but this I believe to proceed +from no natural incapacity for accuracy, but from +their not understanding the use of their work, from their +want of general education, and the little inducement and +encouragement that exist for improving their condition +in their degraded social position.</p> + +<p class="mt2">It appears, then, from what I have said in this chapter, +that the commerce of the Sea of Azof is rapidly increasing +in importance; that the countries surrounding it are rich +and, as yet, undeveloped; and that, from the fine system +of river communication which reaches the sea at Rostof, +it is constantly drawing towards it for shipment a +larger portion of the productions of Great Russia. There +cannot be a doubt that, when peace is restored, a great +impetus will be given to its trade; that it will benefit by +the increased movement that will probably take place on +all the shores of the Black Sea; and, should the Russian +Government wisely change its military policy, and allow +its stout-hearted and enterprising subjects to pursue their +natural industrious bent, capital and population will flock +to the south, and Rostof and Kertch will rival the Tana +and Panticapæum of ancient days. No restrictions will +then be placed on those who wish to come and learn in +Europe; no passports will be refused to enterprising +young Russians who wish, in France or England, to gain +that knowledge of the arts and sciences which is impossible +in their own country; and no vulgar and ignorant +censors will be placed at the gates of the empire to keep +out books as the most dangerous enemies of the existing +system, because the most valuable of them treat of truth +and liberty. Russia will allow the fraternisation of her +people with us, and admit the imports of more civilised +countries as the surest way to increase her own commerce, +and by these means she, as well as Turkey, will +be really admitted into the European federation. Can it +be said that she has been one of us as yet, when she has +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_334">[334]</span>isolated her people, and kept gigantic armies hovering +in what we may call with Ritter her territory of European +Asia, to menace poor down-stricken, corrupted +Germany on one, and the Asiatic nations on the +other side? If she will really, once for all, fix the +limits of her empire, and give up her menacing attitude +and aggressive tendencies, she will not require +a million of bayonets in time of peace; and we ought +not to believe that she has changed her policy unless +she consents to reduce her armies. This we know that +on former occasions she has positively refused to do; let +her be obliged to diminish them when peace shall be +made, as the best guarantee for its future maintenance. +If the peace party in England really wish for peace, they +ought to urge this point, which will be far more useful +than motions for the reduction of our own forces. For +how can we safely reduce, with the enormous standing +armies on the Continent, and how can the continental +Powers reduce their forces, with a million of men always +hovering over them, and ready to fall upon them without +notice? Russia has said by her ambassadors that her +position is exceptional, and for that reason she cannot +reduce like other powers. Why is her position exceptional? +This she has not condescended to tell us. Her +people is the most peaceable in the world, and the troops +cannot be wanted to coerce them. Indeed, it is notorious +that there are hardly any troops in Great Russia, +the most thickly peopled and important part of the +empire. There is only one infantry corps stationed at +Moscow out of ten corps which compose the whole army. +Where are the rest of her forces stationed? There where +she expects to make conquests. They are distributed +fan-shape round the European edge of the Russian +empire, from the Baltic to the Black Sea, that they +may overawe Germany, and advance to support one +another in any move upon Turkey; while 170,000 +men are kept in the Caucasus to root out the principles +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_335">[335]</span>of liberty and extend Asiatic conquests.⁠<a id="FNanchor_292" href="#Footnote_292" class="fnanchor">[292]</a> Can +any man believe that 400,000 men are kept in Poland +merely to coerce the shattered, prostrate form of that +unfortunate kingdom? Is there not a sufficient guarantee +for Russian possession of it in the share which Austria +and Prussia accepted of the spoil? When Austria and +Prussia offered to reduce their armies, and Russia refused +to reduce hers, was it because she wanted so large a +force for self-defence? This was evidently impossible; +and the army in Poland was required, not to prevent +a rising of the Poles, but to support a Russian influence +in Germany which has been most detrimental to the +best interests of that country. If we wish, then, for +permanent peace, the Russian army ought surely to be +reduced, and who would benefit more by this measure +than the inhabitants of Russia themselves? See how +they hate the army; look at the miseries which the conscription +entails upon them; observe how large a portion +of the resources of the empire is wasted to support it, +and think if those millions of capital created yearly by +human labour were laid out in permanent improvements +instead of being unproductively consumed, how great +would be the increase to Russia in wealth and intelligence! +There is, I believe, no good result from war +which may not better be brought about by peace; but, +as we are engaged in this tremendous contest, let us hope, +when peace shall at length be made, and perhaps the last +great knot in human affairs resolved which prevents the +even progress of the world to its destined termination, +that as many nations will be freed as are able to enjoy a +rational liberty, and that peace may be secured on such +a basis, with such guarantees for its continuance, that +future difficulties may be resolved by some form of +national arbitration.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_336">[336]</span></p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_337">[337]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="APPENDIX">APPENDIX.</h2> + +</div> + +<h3 id="APPENDIX_A">(A.)<br> +LIST OF THE RUSSIAN NAVAL FORCE IN THE BLACK SEA IN JANUARY, 1853.</h3> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 9.375em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/line2.jpg" alt=""> +</figure> + +<table class="borders"> + <tr> + <th>Names of Ships.</th> + <th>No. of Guns.</th> + <th>When Laid Down.</th> + <th>When Launched.</th> + <th colspan="2">Observations.</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>⁠<a id="FNanchor_293" href="#Footnote_293" class="fnanchor">[293]</a>Silistria</td> + <td class="tdr">84</td> + <td>Dec. 1833</td> + <td>Nov. 1835</td> + <td class="br0">}</td> + <td rowspan="2">Unmanned, not being fit for service.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Sultan Mahmoud</td> + <td class="tdr">84</td> + <td>Feb. 1835</td> + <td>Oct. 1836</td> + <td class="br0">}</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>⁠<a href="#Footnote_293" class="fnanchor">[293]</a>Tri Svetiteli</td> + <td class="tdr">120</td> + <td>Dec. 1835</td> + <td>Aug. 1838</td> + <td class="br0">{</td> + <td rowspan="2">Docked for repairs in 1852.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Tri Hezarhef</td> + <td class="tdr">84</td> + <td>Nov. 1836</td> + <td><span class="ditto2">”</span> <span class="ditto2">”</span></td> + <td class="br0">{</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Gabriel</td> + <td class="tdr">84</td> + <td>Aug. 1838</td> + <td>Nov. 1839</td> + <td class="br0">}</td> + <td rowspan="13">All ships of the line are built at Nicolaief.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Selafael</td> + <td class="tdr">84</td> + <td><span class="ditto2">”</span> <span class="ditto2">”</span></td> + <td>July 1840</td> + <td class="br0">}</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>⁠<a href="#Footnote_293" class="fnanchor">[293]</a>Uriel</td> + <td class="tdr">84</td> + <td><span class="ditto2">”</span> <span class="ditto2">”</span></td> + <td>Oct. <span class="ditto2">”</span></td> + <td class="br0">}</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Twelve Apostles</td> + <td class="tdr">120</td> + <td>Oct. <span class="ditto2">”</span></td> + <td>June 1841</td> + <td class="br0">}</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Varna</td> + <td class="tdr">84</td> + <td><span class="ditto2">”</span> <span class="ditto2">”</span></td> + <td>July 1842</td> + <td class="br0">}</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>⁠<a href="#Footnote_293" class="fnanchor">[293]</a>Yagudil</td> + <td class="tdr">84</td> + <td>Sept. 1839</td> + <td>Sept. 1843</td> + <td class="br0">}</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>⁠<a href="#Footnote_293" class="fnanchor">[293]</a>Rostislaf</td> + <td class="tdr">84</td> + <td>May 1843</td> + <td>Nov. <span class="ditto2">”</span></td> + <td class="br0">}</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Sviatolaf</td> + <td class="tdr">84</td> + <td><span class="ditto2">”</span> <span class="ditto2">”</span></td> + <td><span class="ditto2">”</span> 1845</td> + <td class="br0">}</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Hvabri</td> + <td class="tdr">84</td> + <td>June 1841</td> + <td>July 1847</td> + <td class="br0">}</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Tchesnie</td> + <td class="tdr">84</td> + <td>July 1842</td> + <td>Oct. 1849</td> + <td class="br0">}</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Paris</td> + <td class="tdr">120</td> + <td><span class="ditto2">”</span> 1847</td> + <td><span class="ditto2">”</span> <span class="ditto2">”</span></td> + <td class="br0">}</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Grand Duke Constantine</td> + <td class="tdr">120</td> + <td>May 1850</td> + <td>Sept. 1852</td> + <td class="br0">}</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Empress Maria</td> + <td class="tdr">84</td> + <td>Oct. 1849</td> + <td>On the stocks</td> + <td class="br0">}</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Bosphorus</td> + <td class="tdr">120</td> + <td>Sept. 1852</td> + <td>Ditto.</td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td>Screw steamer; engines ordered in England.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>——</td> + <td class="tdr">120</td> + <td></td> + <td></td> + <td class="br0">}</td> + <td rowspan="2">To be laid down during the year.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>——</td> + <td class="tdr">120</td> + <td></td> + <td></td> + <td class="br0">}</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="6" class="tdc2"><span class="smcap">Frigates.</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Flora</td> + <td class="tdr">44</td> + <td>Nov. 1837</td> + <td>Sept. 1839</td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td>Built in Nicolaief.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Messembria</td> + <td class="tdr">60</td> + <td>Oct. 1838</td> + <td>Oct. 1840</td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td>Ditto.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>⁠<a href="#Footnote_293" class="fnanchor">[293]</a>Sizopoli</td> + <td class="tdr">54</td> + <td><span class="ditto2">”</span> <span class="ditto2">”</span></td> + <td class="nw">March 1841</td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td>Built in Sevastopol; docked in 1852 for thorough repair.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Medea</td> + <td class="tdr">60</td> + <td>July 1840</td> + <td>Sept. 1843</td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td>Built in Nicolaief.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Kagul</td> + <td class="tdr">44</td> + <td>Oct. <span class="ditto2">”</span></td> + <td><span class="ditto2">”</span> <span class="ditto2">”</span></td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td>Ditto.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Kovarna</td> + <td class="tdr">52</td> + <td>March 1841</td> + <td><span class="ditto2">”</span> 1845</td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td>Built in Sevastopol.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>⁠<a href="#Footnote_293" class="fnanchor">[293]</a>Kulefehi</td> + <td class="tdr">60</td> + <td><span class="ditto2">”</span> 1844</td> + <td><span class="ditto2">”</span> 1847</td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td>Built in Nicolaief.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="6" class="tdc2"><span class="smcap">Corvettes.</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Raylades</td> + <td class="tdr">20</td> + <td>Oct 1838</td> + <td>June 1840</td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td>Built in Nicolaief.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Andromache</td> + <td class="tdr">18</td> + <td>June 1840</td> + <td>July 1841</td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td>Ditto.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Calypso</td> + <td class="tdr">18</td> + <td><span class="ditto2">”</span> 1841</td> + <td>Sept. 1845</td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td>Ditto.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Orestes</td> + <td class="tdr">18</td> + <td>Dec. 1845</td> + <td>Oct. 1846</td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td>Ditto.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Ariadne</td> + <td class="tdr">20</td> + <td>Jan. 1847</td> + <td>Aug. 1853</td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td>Sevastopol.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_338">[338]</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="6" class="tdc2"><span class="smcap">Brigs.</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Mercury</td> + <td class="tdr">18</td> + <td>Jan. 1819</td> + <td>May 1820</td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Argonaut</td> + <td class="tdr">12</td> + <td>Feb. 1837</td> + <td>Sept. 1837</td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td>Sevastopol.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Temistocles</td> + <td class="tdr">16</td> + <td>Oct. 1838</td> + <td>Nov. 1839</td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td>Nicolaief.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Perseus</td> + <td class="tdr">18</td> + <td>June 1839</td> + <td>June 1840</td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td>Ditto.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Endymion</td> + <td class="tdr">12</td> + <td>Sept. 1839</td> + <td>Nov. <span class="ditto2">”</span></td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td>Ditto.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Nearchus</td> + <td class="tdr">12</td> + <td><span class="ditto2">”</span> <span class="ditto2">”</span></td> + <td><span class="ditto2">”</span> <span class="ditto2">”</span></td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td>Ditto.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Euroas</td> + <td class="tdr">16</td> + <td>June 1840</td> + <td>July 1842</td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td>Ditto.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Ptolemy</td> + <td class="tdr">18</td> + <td>July 1842</td> + <td>Sept. 1845</td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td>Ditto.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Theseus</td> + <td class="tdr">18</td> + <td><span class="ditto2">”</span> <span class="ditto2">”</span></td> + <td><span class="ditto2">”</span> <span class="ditto2">”</span></td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td>Ditto.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Achilles</td> + <td class="tdr">16</td> + <td colspan="4">From the Baltic.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Orpheus</td> + <td class="tdr">16</td> + <td>Dec. 1842</td> + <td>Sept. 1845</td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td>Sevastopol.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Jason</td> + <td class="tdr">12</td> + <td>Jan. 1847</td> + <td>Oct. 1850</td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td>Ditto.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="6" class="tdc2"><span class="smcap">Schooners.</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Gonetz</td> + <td class="tdr">16</td> + <td>Sept. 1834</td> + <td>March 1835</td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td>In Nicolaief.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Latoshka</td> + <td class="tdr">16</td> + <td>Feb. 1837</td> + <td>June 1838</td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td>Ditto.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Smelaya</td> + <td class="tdr">16</td> + <td>Oct. 1838</td> + <td>May 1839</td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td>Sevastopol.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Drotig</td> + <td class="tdr">16</td> + <td>Nov. 1837</td> + <td>June 1839</td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td>Nicolaief.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Zabiaka</td> + <td class="tdr">16</td> + <td>Oct. 1838</td> + <td>Aug. <span class="ditto2">”</span></td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td>Ditto.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Urcilaya</td> + <td class="tdr">8</td> + <td class="nw">March 1844</td> + <td>Sept. 1845</td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td>Ditto.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Skulchwaya</td> + <td class="tdr">8</td> + <td><span class="ditto2">”</span> <span class="ditto2">”</span></td> + <td><span class="ditto2">”</span> <span class="ditto2">”</span></td> + <td class="br0">}</td> + <td rowspan="2">Built in Nicolaief.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Opil</td> + <td class="tdr">16</td> + <td>Oct. 1849</td> + <td><span class="ditto2">”</span> 1852</td> + <td class="br0">}</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Soudjuk Kalé</td> + <td class="tdr">10</td> + <td colspan="4">Formerly Vixen, taken in 1837.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="6" class="tdc2"><span class="smcap">Cutters.</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Struya</td> + <td class="tdr">12</td> + <td>Sept. 1834</td> + <td>July 1835</td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td>Built in Nicolaief.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Lutch</td> + <td class="tdr">12</td> + <td><span class="ditto2">”</span> <span class="ditto2">”</span></td> + <td><span class="ditto2">”</span> <span class="ditto2">”</span></td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td>Ditto.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Legki</td> + <td class="tdr">12</td> + <td><span class="ditto2">”</span> <span class="ditto2">”</span></td> + <td>Sept. <span class="ditto2">”</span></td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td>Ditto.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Nerok</td> + <td class="tdr">10</td> + <td>Oct. 1838</td> + <td>July 1839</td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td>Sevastopol.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Skori</td> + <td class="tdr">12</td> + <td>March 1844</td> + <td>Sept. 1845</td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td>Nicolaief.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Pospeshnoy</td> + <td class="tdr">10</td> + <td><span class="ditto2">”</span> <span class="ditto2">”</span></td> + <td><span class="ditto2">”</span> <span class="ditto2">”</span></td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td>Ditto.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Provornoy</td> + <td class="tdr">10</td> + <td><span class="ditto2">”</span> <span class="ditto2">”</span></td> + <td><span class="ditto2">”</span> <span class="ditto2">”</span></td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td>Ditto.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="6" class="tdc2"><span class="smcap">Yachts.</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Strela</td> + <td class="tdr">10</td> + <td>Sept. 1834</td> + <td>April 1835</td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td>Built in Nicolaief.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Oriánda</td> + <td class="tdr">10</td> + <td>July 1836</td> + <td>May 1837</td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td>Ditto.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="6" class="tdc2"><span class="smcap">Bombard.</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Peroun</td> + <td class="tdr">—</td> + <td>June 1839</td> + <td>July 1842</td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td>Built in Nicolaief.</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_339">[339]</span></p> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Steamers.</span></p> + +<table class="borders"> + <tr> + <th>Names of Steamers.</th> + <th>Horse Power.</th> + <th colspan="5">Observations.</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Wladimir</td> + <td class="tdr">400</td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td></td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td colspan="2">From England in 1848.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Bessarabia</td> + <td class="tdr">260</td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td></td> + <td class="br0">}</td> + <td colspan="2" rowspan="5">From England in 1843.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Gromonosetz</td> + <td class="tdr">260</td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td></td> + <td class="br0">}</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Crimea</td> + <td class="tdr">260</td> + <td class="br0">}</td> + <td rowspan="3">Line steamers between Odessa and Constantinople.</td> + <td class="br0">}</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Odessa</td> + <td class="tdr">260</td> + <td class="br0">}</td> + <td class="br0">}</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Chersonesus</td> + <td class="tdr">260</td> + <td class="br0">}</td> + <td class="br0">}</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Elbrus</td> + <td class="tdr">250</td> + <td class="br0">{</td> + <td rowspan="3">Line steamers between Odessa, Crimea, and Soukhoum Kalé.</td> + <td class="br0">{</td> + <td colspan="2" rowspan="2">From England in 1848.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Yenikale</td> + <td class="tdr">180</td> + <td class="br0">{</td> + <td class="br0">{</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Taman</td> + <td class="tdr">180</td> + <td class="br0">{</td> + <td class="br0">{</td> + <td colspan="2">Ditto in 1849.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Bayetz</td> + <td class="tdr">136</td> + <td class="br0">}</td> + <td rowspan="4">Employed on the coast of Circassia and for the + forts on the coast.</td> + <td class="br0">}</td> + <td colspan="2" rowspan="3" class="nw">From England in 1839.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Mogutchi</td> + <td class="tdr">136</td> + <td class="br0">}</td> + <td class="br0">}</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Molodela</td> + <td class="tdr">136</td> + <td class="br0">}</td> + <td class="br0">}</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Cholchis</td> + <td class="tdr">120</td> + <td class="br0">}</td> + <td class="br0">}</td> + <td colspan="2">Ditto in 1837.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Grozni</td> + <td class="tdr">120</td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td></td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td colspan="2" class="nw">Built in Nicolaief, 1842.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="nw">Sevenain Zvezon</td> + <td class="tdr">120</td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td></td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td colspan="2">Ditto, in 1834.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Peter the Great</td> + <td class="tdr">100</td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td></td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td colspan="2">From England in 1834.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Andi</td> + <td class="tdr">100</td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td></td> + <td class="br0">}</td> + <td colspan="2" rowspan="2">From England in 1845. Packet boats.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Dargo</td> + <td class="tdr">100</td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td></td> + <td class="br0">}</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Danube</td> + <td class="tdr">100</td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td></td> + <td class="br0">{</td> + <td colspan="2" rowspan="2">From England in 1851. River boats.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Pruth</td> + <td class="tdr">100</td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td></td> + <td>{</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Berdeansk</td> + <td class="tdr">90</td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td></td> + <td class="br0">}</td> + <td colspan="2" rowspan="2">From England in 1845. Packet boats.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Taganrog</td> + <td class="tdr">90</td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td></td> + <td class="br0">}</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Inkerman</td> + <td class="tdr">90</td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td></td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td colspan="2">From England in 1838.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Molni</td> + <td class="tdr">80</td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td></td> + <td class="br0">}</td> + <td rowspan="4" class="br0">Built in Nicolaief. Tug boats.</td> + <td class="nw">{ 1840.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Meteor</td> + <td class="tdr">60</td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td></td> + <td class="br0">}</td> + <td class="nw">{ 1838.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Ordinaretr</td> + <td class="tdr">60</td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td></td> + <td class="br0">}</td> + <td class="nw">{ 1847.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Skromni</td> + <td class="tdr">40</td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td></td> + <td class="br0">}</td> + <td class="nw">{ 1842.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Argonaut</td> + <td class="tdr">40</td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td></td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td colspan="2">From England in 1851.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Vogin (Warrior)</td> + <td class="tdr">250</td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td></td> + <td class="br0">}</td> + <td colspan="2" rowspan="2">Now building in the Thames; screw steamers.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Vitiaz (Hero)</td> + <td class="tdr">250</td> + <td class="br0"></td> + <td></td> + <td class="br0">}</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Gun-Boats.</span></p> + +<p>Twenty-eight gun-boats built between 1841 and 1852 for service in the Danube.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Transports.</span></p> + +<p>Thirty vessels, measuring 10,627 tons, built from 1837 to 1852.</p> + +<p class="mt2 smaller">The Empress Maria, 84 guns, was launched on the 21st of May, but will not be rigged +for some months.</p> + +<p class="smaller">The Bosphorus, 120 guns, has not been advanced since the day her keel was laid +down, nor are the slips made for the two other three-deckers that are to be commenced +this year.</p> + +<p class="smaller">There is no timber grown near Nicolaief; it comes down the Dniepr, and is employed +in its green state.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_340">[340]</span></p> + +<h3 id="APPENDIX_B">(B.)<br> +FIELD MARSHAL COUNT ALEXANDER VASSILIAVITCH SUVÓROF’S DISCOURSE UNDER THE +TRIGGER.⁠<a id="FNanchor_294" href="#Footnote_294" class="fnanchor">[294]</a></h3> + +<p class="center smaller">BEING</p> + +<p class="hanging">A SERIES OF INSTRUCTIONS DRAWN BY HIMSELF, FOR THE USE OF THE ARMY UNDER +HIS COMMAND, AFTER THE TURKISH WAR; AND SINCE TRANSMITTED BY ORDER OF +THE RUSSIAN GOVERNMENT TO EVERY REGIMENT IN THE SERVICE. IT IS COMMONLY +CALLED SUVÓROF’S CATECHISM.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 9.375em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/line2.jpg" alt=""> +</figure> + +<p class="center">(<i>The General is supposed to be inspecting the Line and addressing the Troops.</i>)</p> + +<p>Heels close! Knees straight! A soldier must stand like a +dart! I see the fourth—the fifth I don’t see. A soldier’s step is +an archine⁠<a id="FNanchor_295" href="#Footnote_295" class="fnanchor">[295]</a>—in wheeling, an archine and a half. Keep your +distance well!</p> + +<p>Soldiers, join elbows in front! First rank three steps from the +second—in marching, two!</p> + +<p>Give the drum room!</p> + +<p>Keep your ball three days: it may happen for a whole campaign +when lead⁠<a id="FNanchor_296" href="#Footnote_296" class="fnanchor">[296]</a> cannot be had!</p> + +<p>Fire seldom—but fire sure!</p> + +<p>Push hard with the bayonet! The ball will lose its way—the +bayonet never! The ball is a fool—the bayonet a hero! Stab +once: and off with the Turk from the bayonet! Even when he’s +dead you may get a scratch from his sabre.</p> + +<p>If the sabre is near your neck, dodge back one step, and push +on again. Stab the second! Stab the third! A hero will stab +half-a-dozen.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_341">[341]</span></p> + +<p>Be sure your ball’s in your gun! If three attack you, stab the +first, fire on the second, and bayonet the third! This seldom +happens.</p> + +<p>In the attack there is no time to load again. When you fire, +take aim at their guts; and fire about twenty balls. Buy lead +from your economy⁠<a id="FNanchor_297" href="#Footnote_297" class="fnanchor">[297]</a>—it costs little! We fire sure—we lose not +one ball in thirty; in the light artillery and heavy artillery not +one in ten.</p> + +<p>If you see the match upon a gun, run up to it instantly—the ball +will fly over your head—the guns are yours—the people are yours! +Down with ’em upon the spot! pursue ’em, stab ’em! To the remainder +give quarter—it’s a sin to kill without reason; they are men +like you. Die for the honour of the Virgin Mary—for your mother⁠<a id="FNanchor_298" href="#Footnote_298" class="fnanchor">[298]</a>—for +all the royal family! The Church prays for those that die; +and those who survive have honour and reward. Offend not the +peaceable inhabitant! he gives us meat and drink—the soldier is +not a robber. Booty is a holy thing! If you take a camp, it is all +yours! If you take a fortress, it is all yours! At Ismael, besides +other things, the soldiers shared gold and silver by handsful, +and so in other places; but, without order, never go to booty!</p> + +<p class="mt2">A battle on the field has three modes of attack.</p> + +<p class="center">1st. <i>On the Wing</i></p> + +<p class="noindent">Which is weakest. If a wing is covered by wood, it is nothing; +a soldier will get through. Through a morass, it is more difficult. +Through a river you cannot run. All kind of intrenchment +you may jump over.</p> + +<p class="center">2nd. <i>The Attack in the Centre</i></p> + +<p class="noindent">Is not profitable—except for cavalry, to cut them in pieces—or +else they’ll crush you.</p> + +<p class="center">3rd. <i>The Attack behind</i></p> + +<p class="noindent">Is very good, only for a small corps to get round. Heavy battle +in the field, against regular troops. In squares, against Turks, +and not in columns. It may happen against Turks, that a square +of 500 men will be compelled to force its way through a troop of +6000 or 7000, with the help of small squares on the flank. In +such a case, it will extend in a column. But till now we had no +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_342">[342]</span>need of it. There are the God-forgetting, windy, light-headed +Frenchmen—if it should ever happen to us to march against them, +we must beat them in columns.</p> + +<p class="center"><i>The Battle, upon Intrenchments in the Field.</i></p> + +<p>The ditch is not deep—the rampart is not high—Down in the +ditch! Jump over the wall! Work with your bayonet! Stab! +Drive! Take them prisoners! Be sure to cut off the cavalry, if +any are at hand! At Prague the infantry cut off the cavalry; +and there were three-fold, and more, intrenchments, and a whole +fortress; therefore, we attacked in columns.</p> + +<p class="center"><i>The Storm.</i>⁠<a id="FNanchor_299" href="#Footnote_299" class="fnanchor">[299]</a></p> + +<p>Break down the fence! Throw wattles over the holes! Run +as fast as you can! Jump over the palisades! Cast your faggots +(into the ditch)! Leap into the ditch! Lay on your ladders! +Scour the columns! Fire at their heads! Fly over the walls! +Stab them on the ramparts! Draw out your line! Put a guard +on the powder-cellars! Open one of the gates! The cavalry +will enter on the enemy! Turn his guns against him! Fire down +the streets! Fire briskly! There’s no time to run after them! +When the order is given, enter the town! Kill every enemy in +the streets! Let the cavalry hack them! Enter no houses! +Storm them in the open places where they are gathering! Take +possession of the open places! Put a capital guard! Instantly +put picquets to the gates, to the powder-cellars, and to the magazines! +When the enemy has surrendered, give him quarter! +When the inner wall is occupied, go to plunder!</p> + +<p class="mt2">There are three military talents.</p> + +<p class="center">1st. <i>The Coup d’Œil.</i></p> + +<p>How to place a camp. How to march. Where to attack, to +chase, and to beat the enemy.</p> + +<p class="center">2nd. <i>Swiftness.</i></p> + +<p>The field-artillery must march half or a whole verst in front, +on the rising ground, that it may not impede the march of the +columns. When the column arrives, it will find its place again. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_343">[343]</span>Down hill, and on even ground, let it go in a trot. Soldiers +march in files, or four abreast, on account of narrow roads, streets, +narrow bridges, and narrow passes, through marshy and swampy +places; and only when ready for attack draw up in platoons, to +shorten the rear. When you march four abreast, leave a space +between the companies. Never slacken your pace! Walk on! +Play! Sing your songs! Beat the drum! When you have +broken off ten versts⁠<a id="FNanchor_300" href="#Footnote_300" class="fnanchor">[300]</a> the first company cast off their load, and lie +down. After them the second company; and so forth, one after +the other. But the first never wait for the rest! A line in columns +will, on the march, always draw out. At four abreast, it will draw +out one and a half more than its length. At two abreast, it will +draw out double. A line one verst in length will draw out two. +Two versts will draw out four; so the first companies would have +to wait for the others half-an-hour, to no purpose. After the first +ten versts, an hour’s rest. The first division that arrived (upon +the coming of the second) takes up its baggage, and moves forward +ten or fifteen paces; and if it passes through defiles on the march, +fifteen or twenty paces. And in this manner division after division, +that the hindmost may get rest. The second ten versts, +another hour’s rest, or more. If the third distance is less than +ten versts, halve it, and rest three-quarters, half, or a quarter of +an hour, that the children⁠<a id="FNanchor_301" href="#Footnote_301" class="fnanchor">[301]</a> may soon get to their kettles. So +much for infantry.</p> + +<p>The cavalry marches before. They alight from their horses +and rest a short time, and march more than ten versts in one +stage, that the horses may rest in the camp. The kettle-waggons +and the tent-waggons go on before. When the brothers⁠<a href="#Footnote_301" class="fnanchor">[301]</a> arrive +the kettle is ready. The master of the mess instantly serves out +the kettle. For breakfast four hours’ rest, and six or eight hours +at night, according as the road proves. When you draw near the +enemy, the kettle-waggons remain with the tent-waggons, and +wood must be prepared beforehand.</p> + +<p>By this manner of marching soldiers suffer no fatigue. The +enemy does not expect us; he reckons us at least a hundred versts +distance, and when we come from far, two hundred, or three +hundred, or more. We fall all at once upon him, like snow on the +head. His head turns. Attack instantly with whatever arrives,⁠<a id="FNanchor_302" href="#Footnote_302" class="fnanchor">[302]</a>—with +what God sends. The cavalry instantly fall to work, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_344">[344]</span>hack and slash! Stab and drive! Cut them off! Don’t give +them a moment’s rest!</p> + +<p class="center">3rd. <i>Energy.</i></p> + +<p>One leg strengthens the other! One hand fortifies the other! +By firing many men are killed! The enemy has also hands, but +he knows not the Russian bayonet (alluding to the Turks)! Draw +out the line immediately; and instantly attack with cold arms (the +bayonet). If there is not time to draw out in line, attack, from the +defile, the infantry with the bayonet; and the cavalry will be at +hand. If there be a defile for a verst, and cartridges over your +head, the guns will be yours! Commonly the cavalry makes the +first attack, and the infantry follows. In general, cavalry must +attack like infantry, except in swampy ground; and there they +must lead their horses by the bridle. Cossacks will go through +anything. When the battle is gained, the cavalry pursue and +hack the enemy, and the infantry are not to remain behind. In +two files there is strength: in three files, strength and a half.⁠<a id="FNanchor_303" href="#Footnote_303" class="fnanchor">[303]</a> +The first tears, the second throws down, and the third perfects the +work.</p> + +<p class="center"><i>Rules for Diet.</i></p> + +<p>Have a dread of the hospital! German physic stinks from afar, +is good for nothing, and rather hurtful. A Russian soldier is not +used to it. Messmates know where to find roots, herbs, and pismires. +A soldier is inestimable. Take care of your health! +Scour the stomach when it is foul! Hunger is the best medicine! +He who neglects his men—if an officer, arrest; if a sub-officer, +lashes;⁠<a id="FNanchor_304" href="#Footnote_304" class="fnanchor">[304]</a> and to the private, lashes, if he neglects himself. If loose +bowels want food, at sunset a little gruel and bread. For costive +bowels, some purging plant in warm water, or the liquorice-root. +Remember, gentlemen, the field physic of Doctor Bellypotski.⁠<a id="FNanchor_305" href="#Footnote_305" class="fnanchor">[305]</a> +In hot fevers eat nothing, even for twelve days,⁠<a id="FNanchor_306" href="#Footnote_306" class="fnanchor">[306]</a> and drink your +soldier’s quas⁠<a id="FNanchor_307" href="#Footnote_307" class="fnanchor">[307]</a>—that’s a soldier’s physic. In intermitting fevers +neither eat nor drink. It’s only a punishment for neglect if death +ensues. In hospitals, the first day the bed seems soft; the +second comes French soup; and the third the brother is laid in +his coffin, and they draw him away! One dies, and ten companions +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_345">[345]</span>around him inhale his expiring breath. In camp, the sick +and feeble are kept in huts, and not in villages: there the air is +purer. Even without an hospital you must not stint your money +for medicine, if it can be bought; nor even for other necessaries. +But all this is frivolous: we know how to preserve ourselves. +Where one dies in a hundred with others, we lose not one in +five hundred in the course of a month. For the healthy, drink, +air, and food; for the sick, air, drink, and food. Brothers, the +enemy trembles for you! But there is another enemy, greater +than the hospital,—the damned “<i>I don’t know</i>.”⁠<a id="FNanchor_308" href="#Footnote_308" class="fnanchor">[308]</a> <i>From the +half-confessing, the guessing, lying, deceitful, the palavering, equivocation, +squeamishness, and nonsense of</i> “<i>Don’t know</i>,” many +disasters originate. Stammering, hackering,⁠<a id="FNanchor_309" href="#Footnote_309" class="fnanchor">[309]</a> and so forth; it’s +shameful to relate! A soldier should be sound, brave, firm, +decisive, true, honourable! Pray to God! from Him come +victory and miracles! God conducts us! God is our general! +For the “<i>I don’t know</i>” an officer is put in the guard; a staff-officer +is served with an arrest at home. Instruction is <i>light</i>! Not +instruction is <i>darkness</i>! The work fears its master.⁠<a id="FNanchor_310" href="#Footnote_310" class="fnanchor">[310]</a> If a peasant +knows not how to plough, the corn will not grow! One wise man +is worth three fools! and even three are little, give six! and even +six are little, give ten!⁠<a id="FNanchor_311" href="#Footnote_311" class="fnanchor">[311]</a> One clever fellow will beat them all, +overthrow them, and take them prisoners!</p> + +<p>In the last campaign the enemy lost 75,000 well counted men—perhaps +not much less than 100,000. He fought desperately +and artfully, and we lost not a full thousand.⁠<a id="FNanchor_312" href="#Footnote_312" class="fnanchor">[312]</a> There, brethren, +you behold the effect of military instruction.</p> + +<p>Gentlemen, officers, what a triumph!</p> + +<p class="mt2">N.B. This translation has been rendered perfectly literal, so +that effect is often sacrificed to a strict attention to the real signification +of the words, instead of introducing parallel phrases.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_346">[346]</span></p> + +<h3 id="APPENDIX_C">(C.)<br> +ON THE TIMBER TRADE OF NORTHERN AND SOUTHERN RUSSIA.⁠<a id="FNanchor_313" href="#Footnote_313" class="fnanchor">[313]</a></h3> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 9.375em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/line2.jpg" alt=""> +</figure> + +<p>Most people will acknowledge it to be a matter of some difficulty +to turn the habitual course of trade into any new channel. For a +century the forests of Lithuania exported by the Duna from Riga +timber, and more especially masts; supplying thereby all the +dockyards of Europe. The value of this branch of commerce +amounted to about 2,000,000 roubles per annum. Each piece of +timber passed through the hands of two sorters, who are an incorporated +body, and are responsible, by their oath, for the quality of +the article. These qualities varying in different countries, the +merchants are in the habit of sending their orders to the principal +sorters, naming the quantity and the quality which they require. +These men then despatch a cutter to the spot, to select and appropriate +the timber according to the orders which they receive; and +the timber so selected is inspected afresh at Riga previous to +shipment. This sorting or surveying is a joint-stock affair, the +profits upon which go to a general fund, and are divided at the +end of the year. There are two modes of bargaining with the +wood-growers: either by purchasing of them a certain number of +trees, chosen by a competent judge, or by taking an entire wood +on lease, with the right of felling such trees as may from time to +time suit the lessee; in which latter case the price is regulated +according to the quantity of timber removed, charging so much +for masts and so much for planks. The time for felling the trees +is in the months of October and November; and although it +would be better to postpone it until the sap shall have left the +trees, yet, at a further period of the season, the snow would render +the woods almost inaccessible: and it is necessary to avail one’s +self of the drawing or sledging, just in time to bring away the +timber already cut. Nevertheless, the felling sometimes continues +until the month of January, or even February. Despite the care +of the surveyor, 10 per cent. may reasonably be deducted from the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_347">[347]</span>original cost of timber on account of the occasional felling of trees +that are objectionable; which are left on the land. It is commonly +understood that masts of this description shall be left to the +land-owner, and that no more shall be paid for than are taken +away. The timber intended for Riga is all lopped and trimmed +on the spot; and upon the breaking up of the ice in the Dniepr +or in the Beresina (near to which rivers the greater part of the +woods are situated) the timber is launched, in order afterwards +that it may be sent down the Duna to Riga. It is only from the +nearest forests that timber can be delivered at Riga in the same +year in which it is felled; for with reference to the more distant, a +second land-carriage betwixt the Dniepr and the Duna becomes +indispensable. It often happens that, the time to complete the +squaring of the timber during the first winter being insufficient, +advantage is taken of the delay caused by the frost, in the breaking +up of the ice of the Duna, to complete it. By this means the +timber arrives at Riga in the fine season, and is fit for immediate +shipment.</p> + +<p>The thinning of the forests of Lithuania has compelled the +fellers to move gradually farther and farther southward. Even +now but few maiden forests are to be found near the river in the +government of Minsk; and the supplies of timber are now chiefly +furnished by the government of Tchérnigof and of Kief. The +timber trade must, therefore, necessarily be driven into the hands +of the Southern Russians. In lieu of transporting the timber, as +before, against the current of the Dniepr, and of a long journey +over land, it is now abandoned to the stream, and thus floats +rapidly down to Kherson, where it arrives between May 15 and +July 1.</p> + +<p>The masts and bulks are commonly fastened together in rafts +of 100 pieces each, and are managed by four or five men. +Planks and staves are conveyed by means of large barks, manned +with fifteen or sixteen men. The expense of water-carriage is +about 25 roubles each for large masts. The vessels that are without +decks cost as much as 1200 roubles; those that are decked +are worth double this sum; but owing to their inability to reascend +the river, are usually sold at Kherson for a few hundred +roubles each. The merchants of Odessa have not as yet directed +much of their attention to the timber trade; either because grain +chiefly occupies their attention, or because of the want of proper +experience on the part of the speculators; the first purchases of +masts at Kherson, for the arsenals at Toulon and at Carthagena, +proved disastrous in their results. Nevertheless, as Odessa possesses +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_348">[348]</span>some very rich houses, with whom it is become almost a +point of duty to open fresh outlets to the commerce of the country, +and since bad harvests have obliged other houses to direct their +capital to articles till then almost unknown, the timber trade at +Kherson has progressed very rapidly. In 1833 the value of the +timber and wood exported from that place amounted to 1,000,000 +roubles, or nearly 180,000<i>l.</i> In 1834 many ships loaded with +masts and staves for France and Spain. The great saving effected +in the charges of transportation to ports of shipment, as well as +on freights, will render it impossible for the trade of Riga, henceforward, +to compete with that of the Black Sea, in supplying the +south of Europe, where the consumption (of staves more particularly) +is very great. <i>Kherson is able to obtain timber from the +very same forests which supply Riga, at from 20 to 30 per cent. +cheaper</i>, owing to the loss of interest on the capital employed, +six months being the intermediate time of its arrival at Kherson, +whilst the passage to Riga occupies at least twenty months. +Besides, on landing the timber from the Dniepr, it remains a long +time exposed to the air before being again launched in the Duna, +which cannot fail to injure it. A sorter, or surveyor, from Riga, +is already established at Kherson, for the purpose of placing the +timber trade on the same footing as in the former city. He is +accompanied by twelve Lithuanian labourers, practised in the +trimming of masts, which are prepared on the spot where they +are felled. A skilful workman will not be able to trim a large +mast in less than a week. Excepting pine planks, which are +sawn in the town, all other sorts of timber are sent to Kherson +ready trimmed. The largest masts shipped hence are not more +than about 20 palms in diameter, and about 85 feet in length. +Those of larger dimensions, being purchased chiefly for Holland, +are sent of course to Riga, but there is no doubt of the possibility +of conveying them to Kherson with as much facility as to the +former place. Even the smaller masts, which are all very cheap, +are very superior in quality to, and much more durable than, those +of Moldavia, Tuscany, and the Adriatic. The Oak, on the contrary, +like that of Moldavia, is too soft for ship-building; nevertheless +for staves it is certainly superior to that of the Romagna. +These staves are cut from six to eight feet in length, and six +inches broad, by two and a half to three inches thick. They are +sold in lots of sixty, called shocks, the cost of one of which shocks, +at Kherson, of six feet, was, in 1834, about 37 roubles. They +can, however, be had of all dimensions, by apprising the seller +beforehand in the months of August and September.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_349">[349]</span></p> + +<p>In addition to the timber destined for ship-building, wood of +almost every shape is brought from the greatest part of Southern +Russia for building, and for other purposes. This trade is in the +hands of speculators from Kherson, and is carried on at places +where the timber is felled; it is only the timber intended for +foreign shipment, and certain sorts, that would find but a very +limited sale at home, that are ordered beforehand. Igren and +Kakhóvka, the one above, the other below, the cataracts of the +Dniepr, are important places for the trade in wood. At these places, +the carmen of the environs, who fetch fish and salt from the ports +of the Sea of Azof, load the wood that has come down the Dniepr; +in this manner it comes to the same price as that which is brought +down the Volga and the Don in small quantities. But it is +probable that, in time, the oak of Kasan, which now supplies the +shipyards of the North, will be obtainable by this last-mentioned +route. The forests, with which the mountains of the Crimea are +covered, furnish to the shipyard of Sevastopol excellent building +timber and much firewood; Odessa, in particular, which procures +it from the north of Bessarabia, likewise consumes a great deal of +it; still, as a great part of this latter province is entirely stripped +of wood, it is under the necessity of supplying itself from Moldavia, +especially from the district of Kiatra, which is very woody, and +which exports wood also to Constantinople. Bessarabia derives +from thence only firewood; but building-timber, masts, planks, and +staves, are sent down the Seret (a river which separates Moldavia +from Wallachia), and find a vent at Galatz, whence they are sent +off in great rafts to Constantinople; and, before the Sultan prohibited +it, these articles were sent from thence into Egypt. In +1832 the value of these exports amounted to more than 500,000 +francs. The masts of Moldavia are of a very inferior quality +compared with those of Russia; but many vessels buy them at +Constantinople, because they are so very cheap. Neither is the +oak for ship-building so hard as that of Bulgaria, which, on this +account, is generally preferred. In general, a great quantity of +timber is imported from Bulgaria into Ismail and into Reni, as, +for the last five years, that article has not been burthened with any +duty, and it forms one of the most important branches of commerce +at both places. Roumelia likewise exports a considerable quantity +of timber, especially staves, from the port of Bourgas.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_350">[350]</span></p> + +<h3 id="APPENDIX_D">(D.)<br> +COMMERCE OF PORTS OF CRIMEA, 1852.⁠<a id="FNanchor_314" href="#Footnote_314" class="fnanchor">[314]</a></h3> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 9.375em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/line2.jpg" alt=""> +</figure> + +<h4>I. <span class="smcap">Port of Eupatoria.</span></h4> + +<p>There was imported into this port in 1852—</p> + +<table> + <tr> + <td>Goods</td> + <td class="tdr">132,902</td> + <td>S. R.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Coin</td> + <td class="tdr">2,240</td> + <td>S. R.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">Total</td> + <td class="tdr total">135,142</td> + <td>S. R.</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>Exports—</p> + +<table> + <tr> + <td>Russian produce</td> + <td class="tdr">266,719</td> + <td>S. R.,</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="noindent">and no coin.</p> + +<p>31 foreign vessels entered the port of Eupatoria.</p> + +<p>The coasting trade presented the following numbers:—Arrivals, +189—of which, 1 from Petersburg. Departures, 188—of which, +5 for Petersburg.</p> + +<h4>II. <span class="smcap">Akméshed.</span>—III. <span class="smcap">Sevastopol.</span>—IV. <span class="smcap">Balaclava.</span>—V. <span class="smcap">Yalta.</span></h4> + +<p>These four ports have only a coasting trade.</p> + +<table class="borders"> + <tr> + <th rowspan="2"></th> + <th colspan="2">Number of Coasters.</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <th>Arrivals.</th> + <th>Departures.</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Akméshed</td> + <td class="tdr">5</td> + <td class="tdr">5</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Sevastopol</td> + <td class="tdr">452</td> + <td class="tdr">466</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Balaclava</td> + <td class="tdr">7</td> + <td class="tdr">10</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Yalta</td> + <td class="tdr">66</td> + <td class="tdr">62</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>Besides, steamers anchored 49 times in the port of Yalta.</p> + +<p>The coasters brought and discharged in these four ports, besides +provisions for the state, goods of the following value:—</p> + +<table class="borders"> + <tr> + <th></th> + <th>Brought.</th> + <th>Took away.</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td></td> + <td class="tdc">S. R.</td> + <td class="tdc">S. R.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Akméshed</td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr">3,883</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Sevastopol</td> + <td class="tdr">1,051,451</td> + <td class="tdr">107,793</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Balaclava</td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr">749</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Yalta</td> + <td class="tdr">137,408</td> + <td class="tdr">130,315</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_351">[351]</span></p> + +<h4>VI. <span class="smcap">Theodosia.</span></h4> + +<p>The imports into the port of Theodosia in 1852 were—</p> + +<table> + <tr> + <td>Goods</td> + <td class="tdr">137,822</td> + <td>S. R.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Coin</td> + <td class="tdr">10,841</td> + <td>S. R.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">Total</td> + <td class="tdr total">144,663</td> + <td>S. R.</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>Exports—</p> + +<table> + <tr> + <td>Goods</td> + <td class="tdr">57,237</td> + <td>S. R.</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<table class="borders"> + <tr> + <th></th> + <th>Arrivals.</th> + <th>Departures.</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Foreign vessels</td> + <td class="tdr">97</td> + <td class="tdr">14</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Coasters</td> + <td class="tdr">144</td> + <td class="tdr">229</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>The coasters brought goods, 150,823 S. R.; and loaded to a +value of 96,862 S. R.</p> + +<h4>VII. <span class="smcap">Kertch.</span></h4> + +<table> + <tr> + <td>1852:</td> + <td>Foreign Imports</td> + <td>Goods</td> + <td class="tdr">40,395</td> + <td>S. R.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td></td> + <td></td> + <td>Coin</td> + <td class="tdr">2,900</td> + <td>S. R.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td></td> + <td></td> + <td class="tdr">Total</td> + <td class="tdr total">43,275</td> + <td>S. R.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td></td> + <td>Exports</td> + <td></td> + <td class="tdr">41,386</td> + <td>S. R.</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="noindent">and no coin.</p> + +<p>113 foreign vessels arrived, and 73 left: of these 113 arrivals, +52, after passing quarantine at Kertch, entered the Sea of Azof. +The coasting trade had 1111 arrivals, and 1094 departures.</p> + +<p>The coasters brought, in 1852—goods, 834,671 S. R., besides +stores to the account of the state. They loaded goods 359,418 S. R.; +of salt from the Lakes of Kertch, 1,464,140 poods were sent +from the Lakes of Kertch to the ports of the Sea of Azof; 91,435 +poods to the Black Sea; and 74,775 poods to Petersburg:—total, +1,630,360 poods; which makes 911,445 poods more than in 1851, +and 576,020 poods more than in 1850. This is the largest exportation +of salt that has ever been made; for even in 1837 the +exports only reached 1,431,975 poods.</p> + +<p>The reduction of the excise, and the permission to pay for it in +the ports of the Sea of Azof, are the causes of this increase in the +export of salt to the interior of the empire.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_352">[352]</span></p> + +<h4><i>Résumé.</i></h4> + +<p>It results, from the accounts given above, that the commerce of +the Crimea was more important in 1852 than in 1851. The reason +was the good harvest of 1852. The export of its production was +on a larger scale, and consequently the import was larger; more +cottons and mixed Turkish silks were imported into Theodosia; +more fruits and tobacco to Eupatoria; more coal to Kertch. The +export of wheat and other grains was also larger; also of walnut-wood +from Theodosia, and more linseed and wool, and tallow and +butter, from Eupatoria. The increase in commercial affairs, of +course, occasioned activity in the shipping.</p> + +<p class="mt2">The coasting trade, always more important in the Crimean +ports than foreign commerce, has continued slowly to improve, as +may be seen from the following tables for 1851 and 1852.</p> + +<h4>I. <span class="smcap">Foreign Commerce.</span></h4> + +<table class="borders"> + <tr> + <th rowspan="3"></th> + <th colspan="4">Value of Goods.</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <th colspan="2">Importations.</th> + <th colspan="2">Exportations.</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <th>1851.</th> + <th>1852.</th> + <th>1851.</th> + <th>1852.</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Eupatoria</td> + <td class="tdr">119,289</td> + <td class="tdr">132,902</td> + <td class="tdr">126,070</td> + <td class="tdr">266,719</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Balaclava</td> + <td class="tdr">648</td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Theodosia</td> + <td class="tdr">94,832</td> + <td class="tdr">133,822</td> + <td class="tdr">44,933</td> + <td class="tdr">57,237</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Kertch</td> + <td class="tdr">35,353</td> + <td class="tdr">40,395</td> + <td class="tdr">21,677</td> + <td class="tdr">41,386</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">Total</td> + <td class="tdr total">250,122</td> + <td class="tdr total">307,119</td> + <td class="tdr total">192,689</td> + <td class="tdr total">365,342</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>Less coin was imported in 1852 than in 1851; it was 15,981 S. R. +More was exported.</p> + +<table class="borders"> + <tr> + <th rowspan="3"></th> + <th colspan="4">Navigation.</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <th colspan="2">Arrivals.</th> + <th colspan="2">Departures.</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <th>1851.</th> + <th>1852.</th> + <th>1851.</th> + <th>1852.</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Eupatoria</td> + <td class="tdr">22</td> + <td class="tdr">30</td> + <td class="tdr">14</td> + <td class="tdr">31</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Balaclava</td> + <td class="tdr">3</td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Theodosia</td> + <td class="tdr">56</td> + <td class="tdr">97</td> + <td class="tdr">10</td> + <td class="tdr">14</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Kertch</td> + <td class="tdr">108</td> + <td class="tdr">113</td> + <td class="tdr">64</td> + <td class="tdr">73</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">Total</td> + <td class="tdr total">189</td> + <td class="tdr total">240</td> + <td class="tdr total">88</td> + <td class="tdr total">108</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_353">[353]</span></p> + +<h4>II. <span class="smcap">Coasting Trade.</span></h4> + +<table class="borders"> + <tr> + <th rowspan="3"></th> + <th colspan="4">Value of Merchandise.</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <th colspan="2">Importations.</th> + <th colspan="2">Exportations.</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <th>1851.</th> + <th>1852.</th> + <th>1851.</th> + <th>1852.</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Akméshed</td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr">380</td> + <td class="tdr">3,883</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Eupatoria</td> + <td class="tdr">243,097</td> + <td class="tdr">116,878</td> + <td class="tdr">199,799</td> + <td class="tdr">262,410</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Sevastopol</td> + <td class="tdr">757,920</td> + <td class="tdr">1,051,451</td> + <td class="tdr">143,522</td> + <td class="tdr">107,793</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Balaclava</td> + <td class="tdr">4,162</td> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdr">2,190</td> + <td class="tdr">749</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Yalta</td> + <td class="tdr">177,290</td> + <td class="tdr">137,408</td> + <td class="tdr">85,153</td> + <td class="tdr">130,315</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Theodosia</td> + <td class="tdr">94,832</td> + <td class="tdr">150,823</td> + <td class="tdr">44,933</td> + <td class="tdr">96,862</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Kertch</td> + <td class="tdr">877,285</td> + <td class="tdr">834,671</td> + <td class="tdr">266,378</td> + <td class="tdr">359,419</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">Total</td> + <td class="tdr total">2,154,586</td> + <td class="tdr total">2,291,231</td> + <td class="tdr total">742,355</td> + <td class="tdr total">961,431</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<table class="borders"> + <tr> + <th rowspan="2"></th> + <th colspan="2">Departures.</th> + <th colspan="2">Arrivals.</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <th>1851.</th> + <th>1852.</th> + <th>1851.</th> + <th>1852.</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Akméshed</td> + <td class="tdr">2</td> + <td class="tdr">5</td> + <td class="tdr">1</td> + <td class="tdr">5</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Eupatoria</td> + <td class="tdr">195</td> + <td class="tdr">188</td> + <td class="tdr">187</td> + <td class="tdr">189</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Sevastopol</td> + <td class="tdr">463</td> + <td class="tdr">466</td> + <td class="tdr">483</td> + <td class="tdr">452</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Balaclava</td> + <td class="tdr">15</td> + <td class="tdr">10</td> + <td class="tdr">12</td> + <td class="tdr">7</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Yalta</td> + <td class="tdr">84</td> + <td class="tdr">62</td> + <td class="tdr">96</td> + <td class="tdr">66</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Theodosia</td> + <td class="tdr">247</td> + <td class="tdr">229</td> + <td class="tdr">201</td> + <td class="tdr">144</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Kertch</td> + <td class="tdr">1,038</td> + <td class="tdr">1,094</td> + <td class="tdr">1,053</td> + <td class="tdr">1,111</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">Total</td> + <td class="tdr total">2,044</td> + <td class="tdr total">2,054</td> + <td class="tdr total">2,033</td> + <td class="tdr total">1,974</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_354">[354]</span></p> + +<h3 id="APPENDIX_E">(E.)<br> +ADVANTAGES LIKELY TO ACCRUE TO THE TRADE OF THE DANUBE FROM THE +ESTABLISHMENT OF A FREE PORT AT THE ST. GEORGE’S MOUTH OF THE RIVER.</h3> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 9.375em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/line2.jpg" alt=""> +</figure> + +<p>The subject of the opening of the Danube is so intimately +connected with the countries about which I have written, that I +think it will be interesting to the public to read the following +memorandum which has just been sent home by Mr. Cunningham, +the English Consul at Galatz, and a merchant at that port.</p> + +<h4>MEMORANDUM.</h4> + +<p>As the navigation of the Danube forms one of the Four +Points to be settled between the Allies and Russia, there can be +little doubt that the present war will not terminate without the +navigation of that river being placed on a clear, secure, and lasting +footing, and such as to encourage the investment of capital in +mercantile enterprises in the vicinity of this river. Further, that +those nations interested in the trade and navigation of the river +will adopt proper means not only to remove all material impediments +to the navigation in the first instance, but also that they +will provide a permanent fund, by a tax on vessels frequenting the +river or otherwise, to keep the channels in the best state for the +security and despatch of shipping; and will further make such +arrangements as shall appear most conducive to the extension of +the trade of the countries situate along its banks.</p> + +<p>No one measure would conduce more to the facility of the trade +and navigation of the river, to the prosperity of the countries on +the Lower Danube, and to the extension of their agriculture, than +the formation of a free port at the mouth of the river Danube.</p> + +<p>In order to understand the advantages which a free port at the +mouth of the Danube would confer on the trade of the river, it is +necessary to state how it is carried on at present, and the difficulties +it has to contend with, particularly in the export trade in +grain.</p> + +<p>All the grain of Wallachia is exported from Ibraila.</p> + +<p>All the grain of Moldavia is exported from Galatz.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_355">[355]</span></p> + +<p>All the grain of Bulgaria which goes out by the Danube is exported +from Matchin.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p class="smaller hanging"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—In spring, when the water in the Danube is high, some small +sea-going vessels go up to Silistria to load Bulgarian wheat, +and to Giurgevo to load Wallachian wheat.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>All the grain of Bessarabia which goes out by the Danube is +shipped from Reni and Ismail.</p> + +<p>The grain, the produce of one of these provinces, cannot be +brought to any other province, not even for shipment, but the vessel +must go to the port where the grain is in order to receive it.</p> + +<p>This state of things causes much trouble, inconvenience, and +expense to the merchant, as the merchant residing in one of the +towns mentioned (generally in Galatz) may be shipping grain +from all these ports at one time, without being able to ascertain +the quality or condition of the grain he is shipping at any port +excepting at the place where he resides. It is also inconvenient +and expensive to shipmasters, who must first call at Galatz for +orders, and may afterwards be sent to any of the ports mentioned.</p> + +<p>Galatz and Ibraila are called free ports by their respective +governments, but most improperly so: first, grain and tallow cannot +be brought from Wallachia into Galatz, nor from Moldavia +into Ibraila; the importation of these two articles into Moldavia or +Wallachia from any quarter whatever, even for exportation, is +prohibited. It follows therefore that the grain of Turkey cannot +be warehoused in Galatz or Ibraila for exportation. As grain +forms nine-tenths of the export trade of the Danube, it follows +that the name of Free Port is altogether illusory.</p> + +<p>Excepting the above two articles, and salt, all other articles +may be brought into Galatz and Ibraila, and exported without +payment of duty, provided the following forms be observed. On +introducing the article it must be declared for exportation, and it +must not be sold. If sold, the buyer must pay duty on exporting +the article. But it must be observed that all articles the production +of Moldavia and Wallachia are brought into Galatz and +Ibraila respectively by land without payment of duty, and the +duty is only paid on being exported by water from the so-called +free port.</p> + +<p>It is scarcely necessary to add that as in Turkey and Russia +there is no pretension to a free port, the duty on all articles sent +into either of these countries would have to be paid on entering, +and again on being exported. The introduction of grain into +Russia is prohibited.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_356">[356]</span></p> + +<p>It must be evident that it would be very advantageous to the +export trade of the Danube, which is at present almost entirely +confined to grain, to have some one point where the grain from +all the different shipping ports could be brought forward in river +craft, and there loaded on board of sea-going vessels. This can +only be effected by having a free port established. But this free +port would be equally advantageous for imports, which, being +brought to one place, could be more conveniently sent forward to +their various ports of destination along the Danube.</p> + +<p>As steam power for river navigation has such an evident advantage +over sailing vessels, it is quite behind the age to take sailing +vessels 100 miles up a river for cargo, when the cargo can be +brought down more easily and economically to the mouth of the +river by steam; it is therefore apparent that, in seeking to establish +<i>a free port on the Danube for the first time</i>, it ought to be +placed as near as possible to the sea. For this reason the free +port should be placed either at the Sulina mouth or at the St. +George’s mouth. As, however, Sulina consists only of a narrow +strip of land between the river and a marsh, and as that strip is +subject to be overflowed, Sulina is not suited for the site of a town. +At the St. George’s mouth, on the right bank of the river, the land +is high and well suited for the erection of a town, therefore the +free port should in preference be placed there. It is probable +that, on application being made, the Turkish Government would +grant the rights of a free port to the whole of the island Ruselm +formed by the Danube, the branch called Donnawitza, the lake +Ramsim, and the sea. Even on the left bank, on the island of St. +George, the ground is much higher than at Sulina. At the outset +the St. George’s mouth presents a difficulty in comparison to that of +Sulina, namely, whereas the Sulina mouth has only a single bar of +about 150 yards broad, the St. George’s mouth has banks extending +out fully a mile; <i>but, as the entrance into the St. George’s has never +been carefully surveyed</i>, it is not known whether a channel may +not extend all the way out, which only requires to be marked out +by buoys; but in every case there can be no doubt that a channel +could be opened up and kept open, at an expense which would fall +very light on the number of vessels likely to enter it, in comparison +to the heavy lighterage which they have hitherto had to pay at +Sulina. The St. George’s branch is much finer than the Sulina; +it discharges at least ten times more water than the Sulina does, +and this should render it easy to make a deeper channel than at +Sulina; it is much broader, and therefore would afford more +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_357">[357]</span>accommodation for shipping. It may be asked why, when the St. +George presents so many advantages over the Sulina, no attempt +has been made to render these advantages available? but when it +is considered that Russia only held the left bank of this branch, +while Turkey held the right bank, whereas Russia held both sides +of the Sulina branch, it is evident that it was for the advantage of +Russia to keep the St. George closed, and thus have the whole +trade of the Danube under her control.</p> + +<p>To show precisely the disadvantage of having to ascend the +river with sailing vessels to receive cargo, it may be stated that +sailing vessels seldom arrive from Sulina at Galatz in less +than fourteen days, and not unfrequently they take a month +to come up. Again, in going down, what between putting part +of their cargo into lighters in order to go over the shoals +in the river, and what by grounding and getting the vessel off +again, three weeks or a month are frequently consumed between +Galatz and Sulina. But the best proof is in the rates of freight, +as a vessel, obtaining 12<i>s.</i> per quarter from Galatz to England, +would take cargo from the mouth of the Danube to England for +8<i>s.</i> per quarter.</p> + +<p>No doubt a vessel might save much time by being towed up the +river by a steamer; but there would always be danger of the vessel +grounding, and part of the cargo would always have to be put into +lighters. The steamer could bring down four times more grain in +proper barges than the vessel could carry, and in less time.</p> + +<p>The uncertain political position of the Danube, and the difficulties +and delays caused by quarantines, have hitherto prevented +steam navigation from taking any considerable extension in that +river; in fact, there have not yet been any steamers exclusively for +the trade of the Principalities and Bulgaria. The steam navigation +on the Lower Danube at the commencement of the present +war with Russia was as follows:—The Imperial Royal Danube +Steam Navigation Company of Vienna despatch a steamer weekly +from Vienna to Galatz, and <i>vice versâ</i>. A steamer went weekly +both up and down between Galatz and Turno Severin, on the +Wallachian side of the river; and a steamer weekly between +Galatz and Skella Cladova, on the Turkish side of the river. +Besides these steamers, this Company had occasionally tugsteamers +between this place and Calafat; and within the last four +years it has had a number of iron barges, called <i>shlepfs</i>, on the +Lower Danube, to be towed by steamers, for the conveyance of +grain and other merchandise. The Austrian Lloyd’s Steam Company +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_358">[358]</span>of Trieste had steamers performing six voyages monthly +between Galatz and Constantinople: this Company also kept a +steamer plying between Galatz and Ibraila. The Russians had a +steamer performing two voyages monthly between Galatz and +Odessa.</p> + +<p>When, however, the trade and navigation of the Danube shall +have been placed on a satisfactory and permanent footing, there can +be little doubt that the companies having steamers on the Danube +will increase their number, so as to meet the requirements of trade; +or, should such not be the case, other companies will be established, +as capital cannot be long wanting for an investment which +offers at once security and good returns.</p> + +<p>Until the war between Russia and Turkey in 1828, grain and +tallow from the Principalities could only be sent to Constantinople. +Certain Turkish commissioners came yearly to the provinces and +purchased grain, fixing their own price for it, and that price was +so low as not to be remunerative to the cultivator. Consequently, +very little grain was then grown in the Principalities, and it was +harvested and brought to market in a most careless manner, having +a great deal of earth and dirt mixed with it, and the quality was +very bad.</p> + +<p>By the Treaty of Adrianople, the Russians gave free trade to the +Principalities and the cultivation of grain was extended. So soon +as the exportation of grain from the Principalities began to take +a certain extension, the Russian Government perceived the double +error it had committed, and endeavoured to correct it: this +double error was, first, the trade of the Principalities was increased, +and the attention of Europe was thereby called to them; secondly, +the grain exported from the Principalities came into competition +and lowered the price of the grain of the Russian ports on the +Black Sea. For this end the Russians prevented the establishment +of a general entrepôt on the Danube; they imposed vexatious +quarantine regulations on shipping and merchandise; and they +prevented the removing of banks and shoals and other impediments +to the navigation of the river.</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding all these discouragements and impediments, +the exportation of Moldavia and Wallachia by Galatz and Ibraila +down the Danube in the year 1852 had reached the following +quantities:—</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_359">[359]</span></p> + +<table class="borders"> + <tr> + <th></th> + <th>Galatz.</th> + <th>Ibraila.</th> + <th>Total.</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td></td> + <td class="tdc smaller">Quarters.</td> + <td class="tdc smaller">Quarters.</td> + <td class="tdc smaller">Quarters.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Wheat</td> + <td class="tdr">187,555</td> + <td class="tdr">343,584</td> + <td class="tdr">531,139</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Indian Corn</td> + <td class="tdr">329,279</td> + <td class="tdr">725,259</td> + <td class="tdr">1,054,538</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Rye</td> + <td class="tdr">96,900</td> + <td class="tdr">1,296</td> + <td class="tdr">98,196</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Barley</td> + <td class="tdr">468</td> + <td class="tdr">80,278</td> + <td class="tdr">80,746</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Millet</td> + <td class="tdr">—</td> + <td class="tdr">5,180</td> + <td class="tdr">5,180</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">Total</td> + <td class="tdr total">614,202</td> + <td class="tdr total">1,155,597</td> + <td class="tdr total">1,769,799</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>The exportation of grain from Turkey, and consequently from +Bulgaria, was prohibited until the year 1839, when the exportation +was allowed by the treaty of commerce made between +Turkey and England in that year. The exportation of grain from +Bulgaria by the Danube has made very little progress hitherto, +and not more than 200,000 quarters of grain of all sorts have +been exported by the Danube in any one year.</p> + +<p>There are many reasons no doubt for this want of progress; +among which are, the improper interference of the Turkish +Government, which has already forbidden the exportation of grain +four different times, under pretext that there was a scarcity of +grain in Turkey; the interference of pashas and other Turks in +authority, who are always endeavouring to have a monopoly of the +grain trade of their districts; also the insufficient protection of +the cultivators. But another reason, and which had great influence, +was the want of a proper place for shipping on board of sea-going +vessels, as there is no place on the Turkish side of the Danube +with suitable warehouses, and Turkish grain was not allowed to be +warehoused in Wallachia or Moldavia.</p> + +<p>Little doubt can be entertained, that inquiry will be made into +the causes which prevent the extension of agriculture in Turkey +for the purpose of removing them, and that, in consequence, the +exportation of grain from Bulgaria will increase rapidly.</p> + +<p>Grain of Bessarabia is exported from Reni and Ismail on the +Danube, but by far the larger portion of the produce of that +province goes to Odessa for shipment, being attracted to that +place by the lower rate of freights which prevails there than on +the Danube. Were the freights from the Danube reduced to the +same rates as those from Odessa, there can be little doubt that +nearly the whole of the grain produced in Bessarabia would be +brought to the Danube for shipment. The quantity of grain +exported from Ismail is larger than what is exported from Reni; +in the year 1852 the quantity exported from these two ports may +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_360">[360]</span>have amounted, to 400,000 quarters. It is proper to observe, +that although Ismail is situate on the Kilia branch of the Danube, +yet the vessels at present frequenting that port enter and go out +by the Sulina branch, and would consequently go by the St. George’s +were it rendered more commodious.</p> + +<p>From what has been stated it results that the quantity of grain +exported from the Danube in 1852 was:—</p> + +<table> + <tr> + <th></th> + <th>Imperial Quarters.</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>From Galatz</td> + <td class="tdr">614,202</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><span class="ditto">”</span> Ibraila</td> + <td class="tdr">1,155,597</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><span class="ditto">”</span> Bulgaria (about)</td> + <td class="tdr">200,000</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><span class="ditto">”</span> Bessarabia</td> + <td class="tdr">400,000</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td></td> + <td class="tdr total">2,369,799</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>But the production of Moldavia and Wallachia goes on increasing +at the rate of about five per cent. yearly, and should this free port be +obtained, a further impetus will be given to the exportation by the +reduction of freights. For the same reason it may be expected +that the exportation of Bessarabia by the Danube will be greatly +increased, as produce, in place of being carried to Odessa, will be +brought to the Danube for shipment. Then as regards Bulgaria, +taking into account internal impediments to cultivation, which may +be expected to be removed, and facilities to exportation and lower +freights, it cannot be doubted that the production and exportation +of grain from Bulgaria will increase very rapidly. For these +reasons it may safely be reckoned, that ten years after the +establishment of peace, and a convenient free port near the mouth +of the Danube, the following quantities of grain will be exported +from the Danube:—</p> + +<table> + <tr> + <th></th> + <th>Imperial Quarters.</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>From Wallachia</td> + <td class="tdr">2,000,000</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><span class="ditto">”</span> Moldavia</td> + <td class="tdr">1,000,000</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><span class="ditto">”</span> Bulgaria</td> + <td class="tdr">1,500,000</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><span class="ditto">”</span> Bessarabia</td> + <td class="tdr">1,000,000</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td></td> + <td class="tdr total">5,500,000</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>Regarding the present manner of bringing forward grain for +shipment on board of sea-going vessels, it is to be observed that +all the grain shipped from Galatz comes forward to that place by +land. Of that shipped from Ibraila, not over one-fifth comes +forward by land; the rest is brought down the Danube by river +craft, called <i>kerlatze</i>, from Calafat, Islas, Giurgevo, Calarrach, +&c. Latterly, the Vienna Danube Steam Navigation Company +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_361">[361]</span>has occasionally brought down grain from Upper Wallachia in +shlepfs or iron barges. Of the grain shipped from Bulgaria, a portion +is shipped from Silistria by small vessels, which go up to that +place in spring when the water is high; the remainder is brought +down, by kerlatze, from Widdin, Sistove, Rustchuk, &c., to +Matchin, for shipment. At Matchin some warehouses have lately +been built. The grain shipped from Bessarabia is all brought forward +to Reni and Ismail by land.</p> + +<p>The rate of freight, by kerlatze, from Calafat to Ibraila, in the +course of the last four years, has ranged from P. 60-P. 120 of +the G. S. per 1000 okes, equal per quarter to 2<i>s.</i> 2<i>d.</i> to 4<i>s.</i> 3<i>d.</i>; +but P. 80 per 1000 okes may be taken as the usual freight, or +per quarter 2<i>s.</i> 10<i>d.</i>, for conveyance the distance of 300 miles +English. The freight charged by the Austrian Danube Steam +Company for conveying grain in iron barges, towed by steamers +from Calafat to Ibraila, varies according to the season and demand, +but may be taken on an average at 30 kreutzers per 100 +funti, 4<i>s.</i> per imperial quarter. The kerlatze, or river craft, perform +a voyage from Ibraila up to Calafat, empty and back with a +cargo of grain, in about two months. A steamer towing shlepfs +can perform the same voyage in ten days.</p> + +<p>The freight from Galatz to England may be taken as 50 per +cent. higher than the freight from Odessa to England; thus, +when freight from Odessa is 7<i>s.</i> per quarter, the freight from +Galatz is 10<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i>: these are low freights. But were there a port +at the St. George’s mouth, the freight from thence to England +could never be more than from Odessa, but would probably be +10 per cent. less. Thus allowing 1<i>s.</i> or 1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> per quarter for +freight from Galatz to St. George, there would be a saving, when +freights were low, of at least 2<i>s.</i>, and when freights were high +5<i>s.</i> to 6<i>s.</i> per quarter, in favour of bringing grain to the ships, in +place of sending the ships to the grain.</p> + +<p>There would also be a great saving on the Insurance, and in +the time of sending the merchandise to market.</p> + +<p class="right"><span class="smcap">Charles Cunningham.</span></p> + +<p class="mt2"><i>Galatz, April 4, 1855.</i></p> + +<p class="titlepage smaller">LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET,<br> +AND CHARING CROSS.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="transnote" id="illus6"> +Transcriber’s Note: The image is clickable for a larger version. +</div> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> + <a href="images/illus6-full.jpg"><img class="w100" src="images/illus6.jpg" alt=""></a> + <figcaption> + <p>THE CRIMEA, WITH THE NORTHERN SHORES OF THE BLACK SEA + AND SEA OF AZOV.</p> + <p><i>Published by John Murray Albemarle Sᵗ. February 1855.</i> + <i>Ford & West. Lithʳˢ.</i></p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="footnotes"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="FOOTNOTES">FOOTNOTES</h2> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> Voyage autour du Caucase, par Frédéric Dubois de Montpereux. 6 vols. +with an Atlas. Paris, 1839.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">[2]</a> Études sur les Forces Productives de Russie, par M. L. de Tegoborski, +Conseiller Privé et Membre du Conseil de l’Empire de Russie. 3 vols. Paris, +1852-54.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">[3]</a> Les Steppes de la Mer Caspienne, le Caucase, la Crimée, et la Russie +Méridionale. 3 vols., with an Atlas. Paris, 1845.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">[4]</a> This was the strength of the army in 1846, when I left it.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="label">[5]</a> I do not reckon as a war the short period of misunderstanding with them +in the reign of the Emperor Paul.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="label">[6]</a> He was a Mussulman, but all the rest of his family are Christians.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7" class="label">[7]</a> As this is a point of some importance, I think it right to state that my +authority for this statement is Mr. Carruthers, late Consul, and Mr. Lander, +late a merchant, at Taganrok.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8" class="label">[8]</a> This name appears for the first +time in Theophanes, page 316. He +says, “Justinian remembering the +plot against him of the Chersonites, the +Bosphorians, and the inhabitants of +the other Klimata.” Some authors +supposed it to refer to the southern +coast, but Dubois applies it to the +northern slopes of the Tauric chain (the +same country which was called Doru +by the earlier writers), principally +from the following passage in Constantine +Porphyrogenitus:—“One part +of the nation of the Patzinakes is found +next to the Chersonites, of whom they +are the carriers. They always treat +them well, as it would be easy for +them to ravage and destroy Cherson +and the Klimata.” He adds, “From +Cherson to the Bosphorus are the +castles of the Klimata.” Dubois, Voyage +autour du Caucase, chez les +Tcherkess Abkhazes, en Calchide, +en Georgie, en Arménie, en Crimée: +ouvrage qui a remporté le prix de la +Société de Géographie de Paris, 1838: +vol. v. p. 5.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9" class="label">[9]</a> That is, passing through Bereslaf; +for, by going straight from Perecop +to Kherson by Adeski, it is +only 332 miles, but this road is not +always practicable, on account of the +difficulty of crossing the Dniepr.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_10" href="#FNanchor_10" class="label">[10]</a> Its old Russian name was Belaio +Veja, and it was called Kiz Kerman, or +the Girl’s Castle, by the Tatars (Vsevolovski, +Dict. Hist. Géog. de la Russie).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_11" href="#FNanchor_11" class="label">[11]</a> The following is the account +Herodotus gives of this river:—“The +fourth is the river Borysthenes, which +is the largest of these after the Ister, +and, in my opinion, the most productive, +not only of the Scythian +rivers, but of all others, except the +Egyptian Nile; for to this it is impossible +to compare any other river, +but of the rest the Borysthenes is the +most productive. It affords the most +excellent and valuable pasture for +cattle, and fish of the highest excellence +and in great quantities; +it is most sweet to drink; it flows +pure in the midst of turbid rivers; +the sown land near it is of the best +quality; and the herbage, where the +land is not sown, is very tall; at its +mouth abundance of salt is crystallized +spontaneously; and it produces large +whales, without any spiral bones, +which they call Antacæi, fit for salting, +and many other things that +deserve admiration. The Borysthenes +continues flowing near the sea, and +the Hypanis mingles with it, discharging +itself into the same morass.” +Lib. 4.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_12" href="#FNanchor_12" class="label">[12]</a> About 1801 the English, French, +Dutch, and Prussians obtained permission +for their mercantile navy to +pass the Bosphorus.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_13" href="#FNanchor_13" class="label">[13]</a> 1791.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_14" href="#FNanchor_14" class="label">[14]</a> 877 miles from Moscow, and 1362 +miles from St. Petersburg.—Lyell.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_15" href="#FNanchor_15" class="label">[15]</a> Castelnau.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_16" href="#FNanchor_16" class="label">[16]</a> Strange to say, stores are always +scanty here, perhaps because many +kinds deteriorate by keeping. Even +timber is wanting for ship-building, +and is used green, and never seasoned. +A part of the ‘Twelve Apostles’ was +rotten when she was launched.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_17" href="#FNanchor_17" class="label">[17]</a> This fact is noticed by Herodotus.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_18" href="#FNanchor_18" class="label">[18]</a> Lyell’s Travels.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_19" href="#FNanchor_19" class="label">[19]</a> There used to be many governor-generals +in Russia, and there is still +one for the Ukraine, which comprehends +the governments of Kharkow, +Tchérnigof, and Pultava.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_20" href="#FNanchor_20" class="label">[20]</a> See Hist. of the Precopian Tatars, +London, 1693; also Peyssonel, +Commerce de la Mer Noire, in which +there is a Dissertation on the Tatars, +from information gained among them +by the author, who was French consul +at Baktchéserai, the capital of the +khan in 1773. The Tatars first appeared +in Crimea in 1226.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_21" href="#FNanchor_21" class="label">[21]</a> Fletcher’s Hist. of Poland, p. 69 and 70.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_22" href="#FNanchor_22" class="label">[22]</a> Tanquam nidulo aliquo affixi.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_23" href="#FNanchor_23" class="label">[23]</a> See Fletcher’s History of Poland, +p. 68, from which this account is +taken. The original authorities are +Chevalier’s work on the Cossack war, +published 1663, and the Relazione +di Polonia in the Harleian Collection.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_24" href="#FNanchor_24" class="label">[24]</a> From “Tchorny,” black, and +“Moré,” the sea, in Russian.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_25" href="#FNanchor_25" class="label">[25]</a> From about <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 1560-1783.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_26" href="#FNanchor_26" class="label">[26]</a> The country between the Dniestr +and the Pruth, called Bessarabia, used +to be an integral portion of Moldavia, +and is still inhabited by Moldavians. +It was torn from Turkey and given +up to Russia in 1812, by the treaty +of Bucharest, which was concluded by +Sir Stratford Canning, then a very +young man, who rose into notice from +his services on this occasion.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_27" href="#FNanchor_27" class="label">[27]</a> See ‘Études sur les Forces productives +de la Russie,’ par M. de +Tegoborski, Membre du Conseil de +l’Empire de Russie. Paris, 1852. +Vol. i. p. 33.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_28" href="#FNanchor_28" class="label">[28]</a> “Step” is a Russian word. +The following is the account of +the Steppes taken from Von Hammer’s +History of the Ottoman Empire:—“These +Steppes are called by +Oriental geographers ‘the fields of +Hëihat:’ they extend from east to +west from the banks of the Aksou +(river Bug) and the Ouron (river +Dniepr) to those of the Ten (river +Don) and the Tel (river Wolga); +northward as far as Astrakhan, and +southward as far as the banks of the +Kuban (river Hypanis): situated between +the Caspian and Black Seas, +they cover a superficies of 1000 parasangs +(one parasang is about four +miles). These immense Steppes, which +Timour, in marching against Tóktamish, +traversed in 180 days, are +covered in winter with snow as high +as the grass in summer, and are +inhabited by the Nogais and Kalmouks.” +Vol. ii. p. 109.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_29" href="#FNanchor_29" class="label">[29]</a> Hylè means “wood” in Greek.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_30" href="#FNanchor_30" class="label">[30]</a> Tegoborski, vol. i. pp. 34-36.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_31" href="#FNanchor_31" class="label">[31]</a> Geology of Russia in Europe, by Sir Roderick Murchison, vol. i. p. 559.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_32" href="#FNanchor_32" class="label">[32]</a> Well known in the English markets +under the name of “the country +of the Line.” The production has +much decreased of late years, owing +to so many of the Cossacks being employed +for warlike purposes.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_33" href="#FNanchor_33" class="label">[33]</a> This account is taken from a +paper by M. Teetzmann, steward of +the estates of the Duke of Anhalt-Köthen, +near Bereslaf. See Tegoborski, +vol. i. p. 38.</p> + +<p>M. Teetzmann says, that on his +domain, in the 10 years from 1832 to +1841, rye and wheat produced on the +average 6 times, barley 7 times, and +millet 23 times the amount sown. In +this time there were some years when +the rye gave 16 times, wheat and +barley 15 times, and millet 64 times +the amount sown; but there was also +one year when the crops entirely +failed, and others when they did not +give more than the amount sown. +This was in a country which M. T. +ranks among the “Eternal Steppes.”</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_34" href="#FNanchor_34" class="label">[34]</a> The post-carts are found at every +post station throughout European +Russia, from Archangel to the banks +of Erasas, on the borders of Persia, +and are called “pavosk,” or “telega,” +or “pereclodnoi;” they are very low, +have a seat for the driver in front, and +will, with difficulty, hold two persons +inside: they have no springs and no +seat, and the traveller sits on his +luggage. In this way, couriers and +officers perform journeys of 1000 and +2000 miles without stopping, except +to change at each station. I have +myself performed a journey of 1200 +miles from Tiflis to Odessa in this +manner, and have frequently known +Russians to have travelled 12,000 to +13,000 miles within the year.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_35" href="#FNanchor_35" class="label">[35]</a> “It would be tedious to notice +on every occasion the extraordinary +number of tumuli which appear +during the whole route (<i>i. e.</i> from +Kasankaia to Tcherkask): I wish the +reader only to keep in mind the +curious fact of their being everywhere +in view.”—Clarke’s Travels, part i. +p. 254.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_36" href="#FNanchor_36" class="label">[36]</a> Mus citillus of Buffon.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_37" href="#FNanchor_37" class="label">[37]</a> See Clarke’s Travels, part i. ch. 12. +Recently rewards have been offered +for the destruction of the suslics on +account of the great injury they do to +the crops and fields. They make the +steppe very dangerous for riding.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_38" href="#FNanchor_38" class="label">[38]</a> Nat. Hist., cap. 26.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_39" href="#FNanchor_39" class="label">[39]</a> This name is said to be derived +either from Horus and Kapou (and it +would then mean the gate of Horus +or the frontier), or from the Tatar +word “Or,” or “Ore,” meaning fire. +Von Hammer.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_40" href="#FNanchor_40" class="label">[40]</a> In the name of Beresin is preserved +the ancient name of the isle +Boristhenis, which, like the island of +Leuké, at the mouth of the Ister, was +devoted to the races in honour of +Achilles; and the “Kil” in Kilboroún +probably comes from Achilles, +the sovereign of Pontus, although the +Tatars explain the word as meaning +a promontory as fine as a “hair,” +since “Kil” means hair in their language.—Page +362.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_41" href="#FNanchor_41" class="label">[41]</a> Von Hammer, Hist. de l’Empire Ottomane, vol. xiv. p. 360-364.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_42" href="#FNanchor_42" class="label">[42]</a> The whole account of the coasts +and soundings is taken from the +‘Pilot of the Black Sea and the +Azof,’ by M. Taitbout de Marigny. +Constantinople, 1850.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_43" href="#FNanchor_43" class="label">[43]</a> P. 60.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_44" href="#FNanchor_44" class="label">[44]</a> P. 51.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_45" href="#FNanchor_45" class="label">[45]</a> P. 53, 54.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_46" href="#FNanchor_46" class="label">[46]</a> Gloubok means “deep” in Russian.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_47" href="#FNanchor_47" class="label">[47]</a> For a further account, see <a href="#CHAPTER_VI">Chap. VI.</a></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_48" href="#FNanchor_48" class="label">[48]</a> This was in about the year 1838. See H. de Hell.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_49" href="#FNanchor_49" class="label">[49]</a> Crimea was divided into 48 kadilics.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_50" href="#FNanchor_50" class="label">[50]</a> Peyssonel, de la Commerce de la Mer Noire, vol. i. p. 252.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_51" href="#FNanchor_51" class="label">[51]</a> Dubois, vol. v. p. 390.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_52" href="#FNanchor_52" class="label">[52]</a> One verst, equal to about three-quarters of an English mile; 108 Russian +versts = 1 degree; 69 English miles = 1 degree.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_53" href="#FNanchor_53" class="label">[53]</a> De la Motraye, 3 vols. fol. illustrated +by Hogarth: vol. ii. p. 42. +The temperature of the water is 10° +Réaumur, 54° Fahrenheit. See R. P. +Koeppen, uber 130, Tauriens Quellen, +p. 13. See Dubois, vol. vi. p. 325.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_54" href="#FNanchor_54" class="label">[54]</a> The following is the translation +of the Tatar inscription on this +fountain:—“Glory to God most +High! the face of Baktchéserai is +made glad by the beneficent care of +glorious Prince Geray Khan. With +a prodigal hand he has satisfied the +thirst of his country, and he will +spread other blessings if God lends +him his assistance.</p> + +<p>“By care and trouble he has opened +this excellent spring of water. If +there exist such another fountain, let +it come! We have seen the towns of +Cham (Damascus) and Bagdad, but +nowhere have we seen such a fountain. +The author of this inscription is called +Cheiki. If any man, fainting from +thirst, reads these words across the +water which escapes trickling from +the slender pipe, what do they tell +him? Come: drink this limpid water +that flows from the purest of springs; +it gives health!”</p> + +<p>The last three words, when reduced +into figures, give the date 1176 (<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> +1762).—Dubois, vol. vi. p. 328.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_55" href="#FNanchor_55" class="label">[55]</a> See Dubois, vol. vi. p. 331.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_56" href="#FNanchor_56" class="label">[56]</a> He was poisoned in <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 1769.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_57" href="#FNanchor_57" class="label">[57]</a> Hommaire de Hell, Travels in the Steppes of the Caspian, p. 360, +English edition.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_58" href="#FNanchor_58" class="label">[58]</a> Dubois (Voyage du), vol. vi. p. 337.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_59" href="#FNanchor_59" class="label">[59]</a> The population of Tchoufout Kaleh +in 1830 was composed of 492 +men and 617 women, altogether 1109 +Jewish inhabitants. P. de Koeffen, +Baktchéserai zur Zeit der Cholera, +1830.—See Dubois, vol. vi. p. 340. +Hommaire de Hell says, in 1842, +they were gradually leaving, to settle +in Baktchéserai: p. 364.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_60" href="#FNanchor_60" class="label">[60]</a> Henderson, p. 314.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_61" href="#FNanchor_61" class="label">[61]</a> Also Hothinger, Albringrus, Triglandius, +and others. See Henderson.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_62" href="#FNanchor_62" class="label">[62]</a> The name Karaim comes from +the Hebrew word “Kara,” Scripture. +They are also frequently called “Bene +Mukra,” sons of the text, and “Baala +Mikra,” masters or possessors of the +text. Henderson’s ‘Biblical Res. in +Russia,’ p. 316.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_63" href="#FNanchor_63" class="label">[63]</a> She died <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 1437-38—year of the Hedgra, 841.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_64" href="#FNanchor_64" class="label">[64]</a> The name “Tchoufout” applied +to the Jews, is said by Pallas to be +derived from “Cifutti,” which was a +term of reproach applied to them at +Genoa. There are many Genoese +words in the Tatar language.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_65" href="#FNanchor_65" class="label">[65]</a> Kirkor is first mentioned by +Abulfeda (1341), under the name of +Kerkri, and he says it was then +inhabited by the As. Kerkor was +probably the capital of the Khans of +Crimea from about 1400 to 1480 +<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>—Dubois’ Voyage, &c., vol. vi. p. +343.</p> + +<p>In 1396 “the Khan of Kirkel” is +found fighting on the banks of the +Don, against Vitort, Grand Duke of +Lithuania. Pallas and Clarke think +the Genoese possessed this place, as +well as Mangoup and Eski Crim, but +Dubois doubts this fact.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_66" href="#FNanchor_66" class="label">[66]</a> The question as to who built the +crypts is fully discussed in Dubois, +vol. vi.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_67" href="#FNanchor_67" class="label">[67]</a> Dubois, vol. vi. p. 347.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_68" href="#FNanchor_68" class="label">[68]</a> Whenever the Russians say Tatars +and Kalmucks, the ethnologists +I have chiefly followed say Turks +and Mongols.</p> + +<p>“Ethnologically viewed, the ‘Tatars’ +or ‘Tartars’ were a tribe nearly +allied to the Mongols in race, who +dwelt near the lake Bougir, to the +eastward of Mongoliei. They were +among the first of the Mongol conquests, +and they took afterwards so +conspicuous a place in the army of +Zingis Khan that their name became +synonymous with that of the Mongols. +Their proper name was Tatars. It +was said to have been changed into +Tartars in consequence of an expression +of St. Louis, who, when the +devastations of Zingis Khan were +heard of with horror in Western +Europe, is reported to have exclaimed, +‘Let this heavenly consolation, O +Virgin Mother, sustain us if they +come, that either we will drive the +Tartars, as we call them, back to their +Tartarean (infernal) seats, whence +they have sprung, or they shall raise +us all to heaven.’”—<i>Dr. Smith’s Note, +Gibbon</i>, vol. iii., p. 294.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_69" href="#FNanchor_69" class="label">[69]</a> Or the Great Khan.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_70" href="#FNanchor_70" class="label">[70]</a> Karamsin, vol. v. p. 83.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_71" href="#FNanchor_71" class="label">[71]</a> Tóktamish was descended from +Touschi, son of Zingis Khan, the +Mongol hero. Tamerlane was a Turk, +but claimed to be descended by the +females from Zingis Khan. He was +born 1335; d. 1405.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_72" href="#FNanchor_72" class="label">[72]</a> After being four times khan, he died in 1704.—<i>Von Hammer’s Genealogical +Tables.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_73" href="#FNanchor_73" class="label">[73]</a> Discourse on the Precopian Tatars. London, 1693, <i>passim</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_74" href="#FNanchor_74" class="label">[74]</a> Travels in the Steppes of the Caspian: see p. 369, English edition.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_75" href="#FNanchor_75" class="label">[75]</a> Douvankoi means the Valley of +Prayer (see ‘Pallas’s Travels’).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_76" href="#FNanchor_76" class="label">[76]</a> This is the name of the fort +and suburb on the north side of the +bay of Sevastopol. “Sievarna” +means northern in Russian.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_77" href="#FNanchor_77" class="label">[77]</a> ‘Pallas’s Voyage,’ ii. 46, in Dubois.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_78" href="#FNanchor_78" class="label">[78]</a> ‘Pallas’s Voyage:’ see Dubois, +vol. vi. p. 26.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_79" href="#FNanchor_79" class="label">[79]</a> Sevastopol, or Sebastopolis, is +composed of two Greek words, “Sebastos” +meaning Augustus, and +“polis” a city; and it was the +name of a Greek city of the Lower +Empire on the eastern coast of the +Black Sea in Abkhazia.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_80" href="#FNanchor_80" class="label">[80]</a> The ancient Greek city of Kherson +was close to Sevastopol, but in +the time of the Empress Catherine it +was supposed to have stood near the +mouth of the Dniepr, and the new +city she founded there was therefore +called by that name.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_81" href="#FNanchor_81" class="label">[81]</a> Clarke, in 1800, ii., page 98; +Reuilly in 1803; Castelnau in 1817; +Montandon in 1833.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_82" href="#FNanchor_82" class="label">[82]</a> The wooden telegraph thus carries messages from Sevastopol to Odessa, +whence there is the electric telegraph to Petersburg.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_83" href="#FNanchor_83" class="label">[83]</a> In 1834 there were 1500 working with the chain, without counting the +other prisoners.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_84" href="#FNanchor_84" class="label">[84]</a> “Black rivulet” in English. +Large reservoirs were formed at a +distance in the mountains to supply +the canal, but they gave way. The +river was insufficient, and a steam +engine was lately erected to pump +sea water into the docks.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_85" href="#FNanchor_85" class="label">[85]</a> This is taking the paper rouble +at the same value as the franc, but +it is really rather more.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_86" href="#FNanchor_86" class="label">[86]</a> It is but justice to Col. Upton, +who is now no more, to observe, +notwithstanding the reports lately +circulated about certain faults in the +early part of his life, that he enjoyed +a good reputation among his own +countrymen in Russia, and was considered +a honest and faithful servant +of his employer, while he has left +monuments of his talents of which +we may be proud.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_87" href="#FNanchor_87" class="label">[87]</a> Naval Gunnery, 4th ed., p. 619.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_88" href="#FNanchor_88" class="label">[88]</a> Toola, besides the Government, +has many private establishments, and +is considered as the Birmingham of +Russia.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_89" href="#FNanchor_89" class="label">[89]</a> For all these details see Tanski, +Tableau du Système Militaire de la +Russie. Paris, 1833, p. 295-7.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_90" href="#FNanchor_90" class="label">[90]</a> For many years all the harbours of the Crimea were shut to commerce +on the plea of there being no quarantines.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_91" href="#FNanchor_91" class="label">[91]</a> He writes in 1852.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_92" href="#FNanchor_92" class="label">[92]</a> Haxthausen, Études sur la Russie, vol. iii. p. 477-479.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_93" href="#FNanchor_93" class="label">[93]</a> ‘Histoire de la Russie,’ tom. ii. +p. 624, par Mons. Chopin, Paris, +1838. This gentleman was for many +years an employé in Russia.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_94" href="#FNanchor_94" class="label">[94]</a> The first part of this chapter is +based upon Haxthausen, vol. iii.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_95" href="#FNanchor_95" class="label">[95]</a> Will of Peter the Great, transmitted +by the Chevalier d’Eon, French +Ambassador at Petersburg, to his court +in 1757, and soon after made public. +See ‘Geschichte Peters des Grossen,’ +by Peters, published at Leipsic.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_96" href="#FNanchor_96" class="label">[96]</a> <i>Equipage</i> is the French for “crew.”</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_97" href="#FNanchor_97" class="label">[97]</a> See <a href="#APPENDIX_C">Appendix C.</a>, on the Timber Trade.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_98" href="#FNanchor_98" class="label">[98]</a> Hommaire de Hell, vol. ii. p. 383, French edition.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_99" href="#FNanchor_99" class="label">[99]</a> See <a href="#APPENDIX_A">App. (A)</a>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_100" href="#FNanchor_100" class="label">[100]</a> See Sir H. Douglas’s ‘Naval +Gunnery,’ from which I have borrowed +all this account of the Paixhans system, +p. 289-291.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_101" href="#FNanchor_101" class="label">[101]</a> This chapter is based upon the +account of the Russian army by M. +Haxthausen, and a great portion of it +is borrowed from him. He had access +to Russian official records.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_102" href="#FNanchor_102" class="label">[102]</a> M. Tegoborski, the mouthpiece +of the Government of St. Petersburg, +states that the estimate of the regular +army alone in 1854 was from 800,000 +to 900,000 men, and that it may be +raised to 1,250,000 men in 1855. +‘Revue des Deux Mondes,’ Nov. 15, +1854, p. 802.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_103" href="#FNanchor_103" class="label">[103]</a> Haxthausen, vol. iii. p. 335.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_104" href="#FNanchor_104" class="label">[104]</a> See his will, which has been often published.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_105" href="#FNanchor_105" class="label">[105]</a> Haxthausen, vol. iii. p. 331.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_106" href="#FNanchor_106" class="label">[106]</a> Nestor was a monk of Kieff, and ceased to write about <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> + 1016.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_107" href="#FNanchor_107" class="label">[107]</a> Chroniques de Nestor, French translation, c. 3, p. 54.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_108" href="#FNanchor_108" class="label">[108]</a> Haxthausen, vol. iii. p. 348.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_109" href="#FNanchor_109" class="label">[109]</a> Haxthausen, vol. iii. p. 340.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_110" href="#FNanchor_110" class="label">[110]</a> “The bankers of Berlin in 1853 +refused the 5 per cent. Russian loan +at 83, with a bonus of 17 per 100 on +the nominal capital. For the last +twenty years Russia has been borrowing, +to cover the deficit left in her +budget by her enormous military +preparations.”—Léon Faucher, ‘Revue +des Deux Mondes,’ Nov. 15, 1854, +p. 809.</p> + +<p>The position of Russia is well described +by M. Léon Faucher:—“How +can the riches of a country be spoken +of, which is still on so many sides a +desert to clear and people? There +are scarcely 11 inhabitants to the +square kilomètre (⅔rds of a mile). +The average of life is only 20 years +(less than half that of the inhabitants +of London, which is 43), and this +presents very precarious resources for +recruiting immense armies. The +middle classes in Russia are scarcely +born; the nobles are in debt; the +peasants are reduced to a state of +serfdom, or live in a kind of communism +which is the actual practice +of the most immoral and barbarous +theories; manufacturing industry is +an artificial creation by high protective +tariffs; agriculture, with the exception +of the kingdom of Poland, is +in a rude and patriarchal state. The +forests, the steppes, and the marshes +occupy ⅚ths of the empire; and +can it be supposed that a soil thus +badly prepared can furnish the means +of successfully resisting the powers +of the West, who have in abundance +what Russia has a dearth of, or will +soon have a dearth of, namely, men +and money.”—Id. p. 318. These are +home truths, and we have only to +thank our late rulers that Russia is +not already so far reduced as to be +obliged to accept any terms that we +chose to impose upon her.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_111" href="#FNanchor_111" class="label">[111]</a> I believe Count Radetski has also received this decoration since his +Italian campaigns.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_112" href="#FNanchor_112" class="label">[112]</a> Perhaps the light division of +cavalry of reserve and its light artillery +(24 light pieces) should be +considered quite independent of this +second corps.—Haxthausen, vol. iii. +p. 287.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_113" href="#FNanchor_113" class="label">[113]</a> I have already mentioned the +diminution in the quantity of linseed +and wheat brought into the English +market from “the Line country,” in +consequence of the demands upon the +Cossacks for men.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_114" href="#FNanchor_114" class="label">[114]</a> “Sotni” comes from the Russian +word sto—a hundred; “sot nic” +means a captain.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_115" href="#FNanchor_115" class="label">[115]</a> If M. Haxthausen estimates so +highly these Caucasian auxiliaries, if +they could be brought to aid the +Russians, why have we not long ago +arrayed them against their natural +enemies?</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_116" href="#FNanchor_116" class="label">[116]</a> See Haxthausen, vol. iii. p. 458.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_117" href="#FNanchor_117" class="label">[117]</a> Haxth. vol. iii. p. 460.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_118" href="#FNanchor_118" class="label">[118]</a> Napoleon’s opinion of the Cossacks +was not high. In the celebrated +29th bulletin of the Grand Army, he +says of these gentry, “Even the Cossacks +became formidable—that contemptible +cavalry that, under ordinary +circumstances, could not have penetrated +a company of Voltigeurs.” I +quote from memory.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_119" href="#FNanchor_119" class="label">[119]</a> Haxth. vol. iii. p. 301.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_120" href="#FNanchor_120" class="label">[120]</a> <i>First Levy.</i>—9 battalions of +grenadiers, 3 battalions of carbineers, +86 battalions of infantry of the line, +36 battalions of chasseurs of the line, +and 134 battalions of infantry; 52 +squadrons, and 24 batteries of infantry; +representing a total of 98,000 +men, and 192 cannons.</p> + +<p><i>Second Levy.</i>—12 battalions of the +guard, 12 battalions of the grenadiers +and the carbineers; 72 battalions of +infantry of the line, and the chasseurs; +<i>in toto</i>, 96 battalions of infantry, 62 +squadrons, 24 batteries of infantry, +11 batteries of cavalry, and 2½ battalions +of sappers: presenting in round +numbers 115,000 men and 280 cannons.—See +Haxthausen, vol. iii. ch. +on the Russian army.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_121" href="#FNanchor_121" class="label">[121]</a> See ‘Kreutz Zeitung,’ Feb. 1, +1855, a Prussian newspaper, generally +considered to have good information +on Russian subjects. This paper +also states, that, exclusive of the corps +of the Caucasus and two divisions of +the fifth and sixth corps detached in +Asia, the Russian active forces now +amount to 607 battalions, 562 squadrons, +and 1712 field-pieces, which on +paper represents 637,000 infantry, +95,000 cavalry, and 42,000 artillery; +and that no more than 10 per cent. +is to be deducted for non-effectives. +This would give a total of nearly +700,000 men.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_122" href="#FNanchor_122" class="label">[122]</a> For this Chapter see Dubois, vol. vi.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_123" href="#FNanchor_123" class="label">[123]</a> This name is derived from <i>In</i> and <i>kerman</i>, a castle.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_124" href="#FNanchor_124" class="label">[124]</a> Dubois, vol. vi. p. 264.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_125" href="#FNanchor_125" class="label">[125]</a> Dubois, vol. vi. p. 266. Some +say Keffe Kil means “froth earth.” +Clarke says that it is from this earth +that the famous meerschaum (froth +of the sea) pipes are made.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_126" href="#FNanchor_126" class="label">[126]</a> The date of the earliest tomb of +the Karaim Jews at Mangoup is the +year of the world 5034 (<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 1274). +P. de Koeppen Sbornik, p. 29.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_127" href="#FNanchor_127" class="label">[127]</a> Dubois, vol. v. p. 19.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_128" href="#FNanchor_128" class="label">[128]</a> Hommaire de Hell.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_129" href="#FNanchor_129" class="label">[129]</a> As measured by Clarke. See Travels.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_130" href="#FNanchor_130" class="label">[130]</a> A French guard is now placed to protect it.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_131" href="#FNanchor_131" class="label">[131]</a> After <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 30.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_132" href="#FNanchor_132" class="label">[132]</a> Sauromates V., <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 282.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_133" href="#FNanchor_133" class="label">[133]</a> Rurik is a common name of Scandinavian +heroes.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_134" href="#FNanchor_134" class="label">[134]</a> The title of Tzar, says Karamsin, +was used in Russia as early as the +reign of Ysiaslaf II. and Dmétri Donskoi +(1363-1389). This word is not +an abridgment of the Latin Cæsar, as +some learned men have supposed. +It is an ancient Eastern name, which +became known to the Russians through +the Slavonic translation of the Bible, +and was given by them first to the +Emperor of the East and then to the +khans of the Tatars. It signifies in +Persian “a throne,” “the supreme +authority,” and is observed in the +names of the kings of Assyria and +Babylonia, as in Phala<i>ssar</i>, Nabona<i>ssar</i>. +John III. (1462-1472), was +the first grand prince who took the +title of Tzar in writing to foreign +powers, and in his public acts he gave +to his empire the name of “White +Russia,” that is to say, great or ancient, +according to the acceptation of +this word in Oriental languages.—<i>Karamsin</i>, +vi. 438.</p> + +<p>In one of the chronicles of Novgorod +it is said that Vladimir assumed the title +of Tzar, 978. “Sic unus (Vladimir) +serum Russiæ politus, auxit se titulo +Tzaris et magni ducis atque autocratoris +Russorum, sedemque ducatus +Novogordiensis Kioviam transtulit.”—M.S. +quoted in the notes to French +translation of Nestor.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_135" href="#FNanchor_135" class="label">[135]</a> Nestor.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_136" href="#FNanchor_136" class="label">[136]</a> Clarke says that he obtained +some copper coins of Vladimir in the +Chersonese with a V upon them, probably +marking the era of his baptism.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_137" href="#FNanchor_137" class="label">[137]</a> Nestor, French translation, viii. +133.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_138" href="#FNanchor_138" class="label">[138]</a> Dubois, vol. vi. p. 147. M. F. +Adelung, die Korsüncher Thüren in +der Cathedral Kirche zur heilg. +Sophia in Novgorod. Berlin, 1823.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_139" href="#FNanchor_139" class="label">[139]</a> Karamsin, Histoire de Russie, +vol. v. p. 16.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_140" href="#FNanchor_140" class="label">[140]</a> Bronovius, Desc. Tartariæ, pp. 258-261.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_141" href="#FNanchor_141" class="label">[141]</a> A plan of these is given by Clarke in a vignette.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_142" href="#FNanchor_142" class="label">[142]</a> B. iv.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_143" href="#FNanchor_143" class="label">[143]</a> St. George is the principal patron +saint of Russia, and the ancient arms +of Moskow, when it was an independent +principality, were this saint +mounted on a white horse on a red +field. When Moscow became the +capital of the Grand Princes of Russia +they adopted these arms. The vanquished +dragon was added in 1380, +after the victory of Koulikof, gained +by Dmétri Donskoi over the Tatars. +Ivan IV. in adopting in 1580 the +double-headed eagle of the Greeks did +not on that account renounce the +horseman and the dragon, and the +Russian eagle is charged in the heart +with the scutcheon of Koulikof.</p> + +<p>The ancient sovereigns of Russia, +after embracing Christianity, took for +their arms three circles in a triangle. +In one of the circles was an inscription +about the Trinity, in another the +name of the prince to whom the letter +was addressed, and in the third the +titles of the Grand Prince.—Notes to +French translation of Nestor, p. 71; +Strahlemberg, Description de l’Empire +Russe, vol. i. p. 240. Amst. 1757.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_144" href="#FNanchor_144" class="label">[144]</a> Dubois, vol. vi. p. 194.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_145" href="#FNanchor_145" class="label">[145]</a> Dubois, vol. vi. p. 201.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_146" href="#FNanchor_146" class="label">[146]</a> See St. Simon, Mémoires de l’Arménie.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_147" href="#FNanchor_147" class="label">[147]</a> For all this account of the crypts see Dubois, vol. vi. p. 314-319.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_148" href="#FNanchor_148" class="label">[148]</a> Toira in Assyrian means a mountain, +a chain of mountains; <i>Tyrou</i> +in Chaldean; <i>Tourou</i> in Syrian. +With the Turk races <i>Tau</i> means a +mountain, a round or high building, a +rampart; and <i>or</i> a façade. In Greek +<i>oros</i> means a mountain. See Dubois, +vol. vi. p. 12.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_149" href="#FNanchor_149" class="label">[149]</a> The remainder of this chapter is abstracted from Hommaire de Hell, vol. +ii. ch. 19.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_150" href="#FNanchor_150" class="label">[150]</a> See Dubois, vol. vi. p. 222.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_151" href="#FNanchor_151" class="label">[151]</a> The history of the Goths in the +Crimea, an obscure but interesting subject, +has been investigated in a recent +German work, which I have not seen.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_152" href="#FNanchor_152" class="label">[152]</a> Clarke’s Travels, vol. i. App. 3.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_153" href="#FNanchor_153" class="label">[153]</a> Dubois, vol. vi. p. 110. A great part of the following account of Balaclava +is translated from this author.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_154" href="#FNanchor_154" class="label">[154]</a> K. Ritter, die Vorhalle Europäischer Völkergeschichten vor Herodotus, +um den Kaucasus und an den Gestaden des Pontus. Berlin, 1820, p. 8. A +very curious and interesting work, although considered too speculative by some +scholars.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_155" href="#FNanchor_155" class="label">[155]</a> Pallas, vol. ii. p. 131.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_156" href="#FNanchor_156" class="label">[156]</a> Ibid., vol. ii. p. 130; see also +Strabo.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_157" href="#FNanchor_157" class="label">[157]</a> MS. Travels of Nicholas Barti, +of Lucca, into Tatary, Circassia, and +Mingrelia, from 1632-1639.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_158" href="#FNanchor_158" class="label">[158]</a> Clarke’s Travels, vol. i. p. 507.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_159" href="#FNanchor_159" class="label">[159]</a> Pallas, vol. ii. p. 132-3.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_160" href="#FNanchor_160" class="label">[160]</a> Pallas, vol. ii. p. 89-99.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_161" href="#FNanchor_161" class="label">[161]</a> This account of the valley of Baidar +and the Tatars and their dwellings +is borrowed from Clarke, vol. ii. p. +514-520. The manners of the Tatars +are the same as those of other nations +of Western Asia; and this account has +been inserted, because, although written +a long time ago, it is still believed +to give a faithful picture of them.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_162" href="#FNanchor_162" class="label">[162]</a> Dubois, vol. vi. p. 92.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_163" href="#FNanchor_163" class="label">[163]</a> Dubois, vol. vi. p. 93.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_164" href="#FNanchor_164" class="label">[164]</a> P. de Koeppen, Krimskii Sbornik, p. 23, quoted in Dubois.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_165" href="#FNanchor_165" class="label">[165]</a> As, for instance, Mangoup, Biassala, Katchikalene, Mangouche, and Lec.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_166" href="#FNanchor_166" class="label">[166]</a> Cape Saritch is the name of the +sailors for Mount Aia.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_167" href="#FNanchor_167" class="label">[167]</a> General Potier was one of, I think, +eight engineer officers lent by Napoleon +after the peace of Tilsit, to form +the Russian engineers on the French +model, and to establish an École Polytechnique.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_168" href="#FNanchor_168" class="label">[168]</a> Dubois, vol. vi. p. 97.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_169" href="#FNanchor_169" class="label">[169]</a> The village of Kutchuk Koi, four +versts from Kíkineis, was buried in +February, 1786. The following is the +account of this catastrophe from Professor +Pallas’s work, written shortly +after the event:—“On the 10th of +February, 1786, the surface of the +earth about the deep glens before +mentioned, and in another still further +to the eastward, began to burst, +and to exhibit rocks or clefts; so that, +on the same day, the brook which +had hitherto turned two small mills, +constructed by the native Tatars, entirely +disappeared. Two days afterwards, +the soil having become entirely +disengaged, and the frightened inhabitants +of the adjacent village +having removed their cattle, carried +off their effects, and abandoned their +habitations, the whole tract between +the hollows above described, from the +lofty bank of rocks by the sea-shore, +fell in about midnight with a dreadful +noise; and this sinking continued till +the 28th of February, so as to occasion +a terrific abyss from ten to twenty +fathoms deep, in which only a large +parallel ridge of hard rock and two +smaller crests remained projecting +at the bottom. The ground thus +fallen extends about a mile and a half +in length, and six hundred yards in +breadth. In proportion as one part +of the steep declivity was detached +from the rock, the whole mass pressed +downwards, and the strand was removed +further into the sea to a distance +of from one hundred to two +hundred yards.”—Pallas’s Travels, +vol. ii. p. 142.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_170" href="#FNanchor_170" class="label">[170]</a> Pallas’s Travels, vol. ii. p. 150. +It is a pity Professor Pallas has given +no specimen of the language of these +people. By the original inhabitants +of the Crimea, I suppose he means the +Tatar population, who arrived in the +Crimea with Batou Khan.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_171" href="#FNanchor_171" class="label">[171]</a> Dubois, vol. vi. p. 85.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_172" href="#FNanchor_172" class="label">[172]</a> Dubois, vol. vi. p. 82.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_173" href="#FNanchor_173" class="label">[173]</a> It was measured trigonometrically by Mr. Chatillon, and found to be +3798 pieds de roi.—Dubois, vol. vi. p. 77.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_174" href="#FNanchor_174" class="label">[174]</a> Castelnau, Hist. de la Nouvelle Russie, quoted by Dubois, vol. vi. p. 81.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_175" href="#FNanchor_175" class="label">[175]</a> The Russian loss at Borodino in +killed and wounded was—generals, 30; +officers, 1,600; men, 42,000.—<i>MS. +Memoir.</i></p> + +<p>The French loss was—generals, 40; +officers, 1,800; men, 52,000, as shown +by the papers of Marshal Berthier, +subsequently taken at Wilna.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_176" href="#FNanchor_176" class="label">[176]</a> “Namesnik” in Russian—a very high office, seldom conferred. The holder +of it corresponds directly with the Emperor, and not through the Ministry.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_177" href="#FNanchor_177" class="label">[177]</a> The army of the Caucasus in 1847 was about 170,000 men.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_178" href="#FNanchor_178" class="label">[178]</a> The history of these three ladies +is admirably told by the graceful and +vigorous pen of Madame de Hell, in +the chapter entitled ‘Trois femmes +célèbres.’ It is worth reading in the +original French, as all the charm of +the writing is lost in the published +English translation.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_179" href="#FNanchor_179" class="label">[179]</a> Dubois, vol. vi. p. 73.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_180" href="#FNanchor_180" class="label">[180]</a> Dubois, vol. vi. p. 59.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_181" href="#FNanchor_181" class="label">[181]</a> The E. India Company have a similar +establishment on the Neilgherry +Mountains in the South of India.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_182" href="#FNanchor_182" class="label">[182]</a> Dubois, vol. vi. p. 55.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_183" href="#FNanchor_183" class="label">[183]</a> Dubois, vol. vi. p. 24.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_184" href="#FNanchor_184" class="label">[184]</a> Dubois, vol. vi. p. 26.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_185" href="#FNanchor_185" class="label">[185]</a> The early writers on the coast +of the Crimea are Herodotus, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 469; +Scymnus of Chio, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 100; Strabo, +<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 29; Arrian, <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 110; Ptolemy, +<i>A.D.</i> 211; Procopius, <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 550. The +anonymous Periplus translates into +prose the verses of Scymnus.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_186" href="#FNanchor_186" class="label">[186]</a> Dubois, vol. vi. p. 9.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_187" href="#FNanchor_187" class="label">[187]</a> Scymnus of Chio, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 100. See Hudson, Geo. Min.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_188" href="#FNanchor_188" class="label">[188]</a> Dubois, vol. vi. p. 7.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_189" href="#FNanchor_189" class="label">[189]</a> Dubois, vol. v. p. 450.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_190" href="#FNanchor_190" class="label">[190]</a> Dubois, vol. v. p. 451.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_191" href="#FNanchor_191" class="label">[191]</a> Ai for “agio,” holy, in Greek; and “thodor,” corruption of “Theodoro.” +Thus, “Ai Petri” for St. Peter.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_192" href="#FNanchor_192" class="label">[192]</a> Dubois, vol. v. p. 455.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_193" href="#FNanchor_193" class="label">[193]</a> Dubois, vol. v. p. 446.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_194" href="#FNanchor_194" class="label">[194]</a> Dubois, vol. v. p. 429.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_195" href="#FNanchor_195" class="label">[195]</a> See H. de Hell, vol. ii. p. 484.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_196" href="#FNanchor_196" class="label">[196]</a> Dubois, vol. v. p. 350-360.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_197" href="#FNanchor_197" class="label">[197]</a> Maharab is a kind of pulpit, generally +in stone-work, on which the +“imam” or “mollah” stands in every +mosque, and it is always turned in the +direction of Mecca: thus in Africa it +would look towards the east, in India +towards the west, and in the Crimea +nearly due south.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_198" href="#FNanchor_198" class="label">[198]</a> See Dubois, vol. v. p. 355-358.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_199" href="#FNanchor_199" class="label">[199]</a> The following account of the vines of the Crimea and the prices of land +is translated from Dubois, vol. v. p. 330-350.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_200" href="#FNanchor_200" class="label">[200]</a> Bronovius, Desc. Tartariæ.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_201" href="#FNanchor_201" class="label">[201]</a> ‘Recueil de quelques antiquités trouvées sur les bords de la Mer Noire, par +L. D. Waxel,’ No. 4, Clarke, Voyage, p. 117. It is now in the Museum of +Nikolaief.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_202" href="#FNanchor_202" class="label">[202]</a> Mount Simeonkaia and Mount Kisilkaia.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_203" href="#FNanchor_203" class="label">[203]</a> Dubois, vol. v. p. 413.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_204" href="#FNanchor_204" class="label">[204]</a> Aian is a contraction for Agio Joannes, or St. John. Dubois, vol. v. p. 417.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_205" href="#FNanchor_205" class="label">[205]</a> Dubois, vol. v. p. 418.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_206" href="#FNanchor_206" class="label">[206]</a> Dubois, vol. v. p. 407.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_207" href="#FNanchor_207" class="label">[207]</a> Dubois, vol. v. p. 411.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_208" href="#FNanchor_208" class="label">[208]</a> Ibid., vol. v. p. 412.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_209" href="#FNanchor_209" class="label">[209]</a> Dubois, vol. v. p. 412.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_210" href="#FNanchor_210" class="label">[210]</a> Id. p. 375.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_211" href="#FNanchor_211" class="label">[211]</a> Pallas, vol. ii. p. 271, 387; Peyssonel, Commerce de la Mer Noire, vol. ii. +p. 269; Dubois, vol. i. p. 271.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_212" href="#FNanchor_212" class="label">[212]</a> Dubois, vol. v. p. 280.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_213" href="#FNanchor_213" class="label">[213]</a> From this point the greater part of the rest of this chapter is translated +from H. de Hell’s work. Vol. ii. ch. 18.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_214" href="#FNanchor_214" class="label">[214]</a> Dubois, vol. v. p. 284.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_215" href="#FNanchor_215" class="label">[215]</a> See Dubois, vol. v. p. 293.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_216" href="#FNanchor_216" class="label">[216]</a> Dubois, vol. v. p. 287.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_217" href="#FNanchor_217" class="label">[217]</a> A celebrated Armenian city in the Pashalic of Kars.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_218" href="#FNanchor_218" class="label">[218]</a> Dubois, vol. v. p. 296.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_219" href="#FNanchor_219" class="label">[219]</a> One ancient Armenian church +exists at Zvainiets, near the Dneistr, +in Podolia; the interior walls are +hewn stone, covered with carving of +very fine execution. This little church +dates from the end of the 15th century. +At Jaslovitz in Gallicia, the +seat of the famous Polish family of +Konietzpolski, is the residence of +the Armenian bishop of that place. +The indignities heaped upon them +afterwards obliged the Armenians to +quit that town, and they retired to +Leopol or Lemberg, whose riches and +importance date from that time. Dubois, +vol. v. p. 297, note.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_220" href="#FNanchor_220" class="label">[220]</a> He gives a picture of it in his work.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_221" href="#FNanchor_221" class="label">[221]</a> Clarke’s Travels, vol. i. p. 446.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_222" href="#FNanchor_222" class="label">[222]</a> The Russians took this town in +1771, and restored it at the peace of +Kainardji, in 1774. Chahin Geray, +the reigning Khan, then transferred +here the seat of government, till he was +forced to yield up his country to Catherine +in 1784; he then passed into +Russia, and at last was strangled at +Rhodes in 1787. He lived like an +European, had a European cook, ate +all kinds of meat, and his servants wore +a livery. He drove in his carriage instead +of riding, and hid his beard under +a black silk cravat—a daring thing for +a Mussulman at that epoch. He had a +corps of 200 Cossacks, dressed in a red +and black uniform, under the command +of an English officer.—See ‘Essai +Hist. sur la Mer Noire,’ by a very intelligent +French merchant of Kherson. +Paris, 1805.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_223" href="#FNanchor_223" class="label">[223]</a> See Clarke, vol. i. p. 451, note, for authorities in support of this opinion.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_224" href="#FNanchor_224" class="label">[224]</a> Dubois, vol. v. p. 218.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_225" href="#FNanchor_225" class="label">[225]</a> Dubois, vol. v. p. 242.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_226" href="#FNanchor_226" class="label">[226]</a> Hommaire de Hell, Vol. ii. p. 505.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_227" href="#FNanchor_227" class="label">[227]</a> Dubois, vol. v. p. 104.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_228" href="#FNanchor_228" class="label">[228]</a> Id. p. 108.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_229" href="#FNanchor_229" class="label">[229]</a> Pallas. Voyages dans les Gouvernements Méridionaux, vol. ii. p. 298.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_230" href="#FNanchor_230" class="label">[230]</a> The quarantine here is probably only a political measure to keep away +foreigners.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_231" href="#FNanchor_231" class="label">[231]</a> The last “t” is pronounced like a “tz,” and the word as if written +“Constitutzia.”</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_232" href="#FNanchor_232" class="label">[232]</a> Dubois, Voyage, vol. v. p. 113-117.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_233" href="#FNanchor_233" class="label">[233]</a> The remainder of this chapter is abstracted from Dubois’ detailed account, +vol. v. p. 113-239.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_234" href="#FNanchor_234" class="label">[234]</a> Smith’s Geog. Dict., Art. ‘Bosphorus.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_235" href="#FNanchor_235" class="label">[235]</a> Reskóuporis I., Mithridates III. and his wife Ghepaipyris, and T. J. Reskóuporis.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_236" href="#FNanchor_236" class="label">[236]</a> Dubois, vol. v. p. 137.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_237" href="#FNanchor_237" class="label">[237]</a> Dubois, vol. v. p. 151-184.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_238" href="#FNanchor_238" class="label">[238]</a> See Genesis, chap. 24.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_239" href="#FNanchor_239" class="label">[239]</a> See Sir W. Hamilton’s collection of Etruscan Vases, Naples, about 1766.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_240" href="#FNanchor_240" class="label">[240]</a> A roof in which the stores go on projecting in layers till they nearly meet +at the top.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_241" href="#FNanchor_241" class="label">[241]</a> The peacock is supposed to have been brought from India by the companions +of Alexander the Great, and in the wild state is not known west of +India.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_242" href="#FNanchor_242" class="label">[242]</a> I found, curious to say, a somewhat +similar tradition prevailing near +Chingleput, in Southern India. There +the entrance was said to be guarded +by two gigantic wasps.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_243" href="#FNanchor_243" class="label">[243]</a> Dubois, vol. v. p. 89.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_244" href="#FNanchor_244" class="label">[244]</a> Dubois, vol. v. p. 194-288.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_245" href="#FNanchor_245" class="label">[245]</a> Electrum is a mixture of gold and silver.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_246" href="#FNanchor_246" class="label">[246]</a> For bows and arrows together, called oistiodoche.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_247" href="#FNanchor_247" class="label">[247]</a> Boiled mutton is a common dish +in Persia. An immense cauldron of +it is made about midday in the villages +in some parts of Persia, and persons +sending may buy a portion. I have +sometimes bought some in travelling, +but found it indigestible on account of +the fat sheep’s tails boiled up with it.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_248" href="#FNanchor_248" class="label">[248]</a> The <i>toura</i> is an animal in the +Caucasus like a wild bull, with enormous +horns, and a very thick skull, +as it throws itself down precipices on +its head. It is the favourite game of +the Mingrelian and Ossete princes.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_249" href="#FNanchor_249" class="label">[249]</a> Strabo, lib. xi. p. 486.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_250" href="#FNanchor_250" class="label">[250]</a> Dubois, vol. v. p. 223.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_251" href="#FNanchor_251" class="label">[251]</a> This medal is among those published by Sestini.—Musée Chaudoir, tab. i., +figs. 5 and 6. Consult Dubois, vol. v. p. 225.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_252" href="#FNanchor_252" class="label">[252]</a> Hagemeister, Com., see p. 147.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_253" href="#FNanchor_253" class="label">[253]</a> See Scymnus of Chio, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 100.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_254" href="#FNanchor_254" class="label">[254]</a> Meleti and Sanson, geographers +of the 17th century, say that Caffa was +built of material from Tousla, which +is now the name of a village near +Opouk, and, according to Chardin, +means salt-works. Krimskii Sbornik, +p. 106; Carte du Voyage de Chardin, +en 1672; Dubois, vol. v. p. 263.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_255" href="#FNanchor_255" class="label">[255]</a> Nearly the whole of this chapter +is taken from the Pilot of the Black +Sea and the Sea of Azof, by the late +M. Taitbout de Marigny, who for many +years employed his time in exploring +these seas in his yacht. A 3rd edition +of his little work was printed in +English with Maps, at Constantinople, +1850.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_256" href="#FNanchor_256" class="label">[256]</a> Tonka means “narrow.”</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_257" href="#FNanchor_257" class="label">[257]</a> <i>Kamish</i> means “a reed” in Russian.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_258" href="#FNanchor_258" class="label">[258]</a> <i>Bielo</i> means “white” in Russian, and <i>serái</i> “a palace” in Tatar.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_259" href="#FNanchor_259" class="label">[259]</a> <i>Obriv</i> means “a cliff” in Russian.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_260" href="#FNanchor_260" class="label">[260]</a> <i>Dolgoi</i> means “long” in Russian.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_261" href="#FNanchor_261" class="label">[261]</a> <i>Staroi</i> means old in Russia.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_262" href="#FNanchor_262" class="label">[262]</a> It is sometimes called “Mertvoi Donetse.” Mertvoi means “dead” +in Russian.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_263" href="#FNanchor_263" class="label">[263]</a> All the coals used are Russian coals, which come down the river.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_264" href="#FNanchor_264" class="label">[264]</a> No masts are, however, shipped from Taganrok.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_265" href="#FNanchor_265" class="label">[265]</a> Dictionnaire Géograph. Historique de l’Empire Russe. 1823. Art. Taganrok.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_266" href="#FNanchor_266" class="label">[266]</a> Cape Bielo-Serái is called Cape Bilestav by the Greeks and Italians.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_267" href="#FNanchor_267" class="label">[267]</a> See Blue Book, p. 73. The exact numbers are, 1853, Imports, S. R. 48,110; +Exports, S. R. 6,243,774.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_268" href="#FNanchor_268" class="label">[268]</a> See <a href="#APPENDIX">Appendix</a>, on the country between Yénitchi and Perecop.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_269" href="#FNanchor_269" class="label">[269]</a> Rostof is not mentioned as one +of the principal towns of Russia in the +Russian Government Tables of Population, +&c., translated and published this +year by the Board of Trade (Statistical +Tables relating to Foreign Countries, +Part I., 1855); I believe, however, +that I am correct in the importance +which I attribute to it.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_270" href="#FNanchor_270" class="label">[270]</a> See Blue Book, Stat. Tables of Foreign Countries, 1855, Part I., p. 70-72.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_271" href="#FNanchor_271" class="label">[271]</a> Blue Book, p. 29.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_272" href="#FNanchor_272" class="label">[272]</a> Id. id.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_273" href="#FNanchor_273" class="label">[273]</a></p> + +<table> + <tr> + <td><i>Wheat.</i>—Quarters</td> + <td class="tdr">72</td> + <td class="tdc">=</td> + <td>Tchetwerts</td> + <td class="tdr">100</td> + <td>of ten poods weight each.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><i>Linseed.</i>—Quarters</td> + <td class="tdr">83</td> + <td class="tdc">=</td> + <td>Tchetwerts</td> + <td class="tdr">100</td> + <td class="tdc">ditto</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr> + <td>1 pood</td> + <td class="tdc">=</td> + <td>40 lbs. Russian</td> + <td class="tdc">=</td> + <td>36 lbs. English.</td> + </tr> +</table> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_274" href="#FNanchor_274" class="label">[274]</a> There is a small portion grown in the Danubian Principalities and in +Italy, but of an inferior quality.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_275" href="#FNanchor_275" class="label">[275]</a> This is also the case with Indian +linseed.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_276" href="#FNanchor_276" class="label">[276]</a> That is when manufactured, but +not when it is sold to the public, after +having passed through the excise. The +excise is farmed in Russia according to +governments, and is let by auction for +short terms of years. Mr. Tegoborski +states, that last autumn (1854) the +farms were relet, and that there was no +diminution in the biddings, on account +of the war. It has been for some time +in contemplation to do away with the +farming of the excise, and to introduce +a system somewhat similar to our +own.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_277" href="#FNanchor_277" class="label">[277]</a> This word has the same meaning +in Russian, as “quarter” in English, +<i>Tchetwert</i> being derived from <i>Tchetíri</i>, +four.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_278" href="#FNanchor_278" class="label">[278]</a> Dr. Clarke makes also the following +observations on the name of this +river, which, being of considerable +size, runs through the Government of +Kharkof, and meets the Don at some +distance above Tcherkask, and from +which the Greeks, he thinks, took the +name of Tanais, which they applied +to the Don. He says, “I must request +the reader to suppose himself +entering the mouth of the Don, and +proceeding up the river to the distance +of about 99 miles, above its embouchures, +and rather more than 46 above +the town of Tcherkask. He would here +find the Danaetz falling into the Don, +by two mouths, separated from each +other by a distance of 10 or 12 miles. +But the people here have, from +time immemorial, entertained a notion +that it leaves the Don again before it +reaches the sea, and, taking a north-westerly +direction, falls into the +Palus Mæotis, to the north of all the +other mouths of the Don, of which it +is, in fact, one. This northernmost +mouth of the Don, on account of the +river whose waters its channel is supposed +peculiarly to contain, is called +Danaetz, and to express either its +sluggish current, or its exit into the +sea, <i>Dead Danaetz</i>. The Greeks, +steering from the Crimea towards the +mouth of the Don, and, as their custom +was, keeping close to the shore, entered +first this northernmost mouth of the +river. It bore then, as it does now, +the name of <i>Danaetz</i>, <i>Idanaetz</i>, or +<i>Tanaetz</i>, whence the word <i>Tanais</i> +would be easily derived.”—Clarke, i. +257. It must be remarked, however, +that a gentleman from Taganrok informs +me that the word is distinctly +pronounced <i>Donetz</i>, as the Germans +write it.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_279" href="#FNanchor_279" class="label">[279]</a> The importation of Russian woollens +into China must be very large to +supply the extensive demand which +exists for them in the north and centre +of China. The thick heavy kinds, +which the Chinese call “hala,” after +the Russian name for wrappers or outside +coverings, which are often made +from cloths of this description, are +chiefly in request, and are much used +for cloaks and travelling dresses: those +of red and green hues are much esteemed, +on account of the superior +depth and brightness of the Russian +colours. These cloths are from 20 to +30 yards long, and from 62 to 64 +inches broad. Belgian and Saxon +cloths are also received through Russia. +Small parcels of Russian woollens +are brought to Canton, where they +enter into competition with English +goods, to the disadvantage of the latter. +Russian blue cloth may be bought at +2½ dollars per yard, and in the interior +it is a dollar cheaper: other kinds, +except scarlet, are cheaper. The +Chinese could not sell at these prices, +unless they obtained them at rates +even lower than the cost of production; +and there is little doubt that the Russians +part with them at a loss, but are +eventually remunerated by the high +profits they are able to realise on teas. +Kiachta and Mae-mae-Chin are the +well known towns on the Russian and +Chinese borders respectively, where +the trade between the two countries +is carried on. It is purely a barter +trade; no money is allowed by the +Chinese to pass. The measure of +value is bricks of tea, averaging about +3 lbs. in weight; and the chief staple +of exchange on the side of the Russians +is cloth. Tea is the principal article +given by the Chinese, of which it is +calculated that 18,000,000 lbs., of +the value of 5,300,000 dollars, are +taken by the Russians. The Russians +have of late begun to ship teas from +the eastern part of China, and taking +in the tea sent through Europe, they +receive about 2,000,000 lbs. by water; +so that their total consumption may +be put at about 20 millions of lbs., +and is rapidly increasing. It is a disputed +point whether the Russian +caravan tea is the same kind as that +we drink, or whether its undoubtedly +superior quality arises from the land +journey. Mr. Parkes thinks that the +tea is the same, but Mr. Hill was told +at Kiachta that it came from different +provinces. (Hill’s ‘Siberia,’ vol. i. +1854.) Kiachta is 4000 miles from +Moscow, and 1000 from Pekin. The +cost of transport of tea from Kiachta +to Moscow is computed at 40<i>l.</i> a ton, +or 4¼<i>d.</i> per lb.; Chinese transport is +3¼<i>d.</i> per lb.; total cost of transport +per lb., 7½<i>d.</i>; cost of water transport +from China to Russia, 2½<i>d.</i> Price of +best tea in Russia, 2<i>l.</i> 2<i>s.</i> per lb., which +appears enormous to us in England.—(See +Parkes’ Rep., Journal of R. Geog. +Soc., vol. xxiv. p. 306.) The Russian +estimate of the value of the cloth exported +to China is about 400,000<i>l.</i>, and +total exports to China, 850,177<i>l.</i>—See +Blue Book, p. 57.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_280" href="#FNanchor_280" class="label">[280]</a> The time of year for advancing the +money varies considerably, according +to the nature of the goods, the place +of production, and the class of people +from whom they are bought. For the +goods, consisting principally of linseed +and wheat, purchased on the Volga, +the Don, and its tributaries, most of +the money is advanced as early as +September on produce to arrive the +next year in June. On tallow to be +delivered in April the advances are +generally made in the winter, and on +that to be delivered in October the advances +are made in April and May. +For such of the fine wools as are purchased +on the estates of the producers, +the advances are made about +January or February, and sometimes +the greatest portion of them is purchased +for ready money at the fairs.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_281" href="#FNanchor_281" class="label">[281]</a> The rate of interest in South +Russia varies from 8 to 14 per cent. +At Galatz and Ibrail money may be +safely laid out at from 15 to 18 per cent.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_282" href="#FNanchor_282" class="label">[282]</a> The Greek consul-general in +London, M. Ralli, is the head and +founder of this house of Ralli Brothers, +who have branch establishments in +all the great towns in Europe and +Asia as far as the eastern limits of +the Persian empire. They have recently +opened a branch house in +Calcutta, where other Greeks have now +established themselves.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_283" href="#FNanchor_283" class="label">[283]</a> “Limné Mœoticé” in Greek, “Palus Mæotis” in Latin.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_284" href="#FNanchor_284" class="label">[284]</a> The total tonnage was 393,096 tons.—Blue Book, p. 27.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_285" href="#FNanchor_285" class="label">[285]</a></p> + +<table> + <tr> + <th></th> + <th>Assign. Robles.</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Per Tchetwert, for wheat</td> + <td>1 0c. to 1 50c., or 10<i>d.</i> to 15<i>d.</i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Rostof to Taganrok</td> + <td>0 50c. to 1 50c., or 5<i>d.</i> to 15<i>d.</i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Taganrok to Kertch</td> + <td>1 0c. to 5 0c., or 10<i>d.</i> to 4<i>s.</i> 2<i>d.</i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>From Katchálin to Rostof</td> + <td>1, or 10<i>d.</i></td> + </tr> +</table> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_286" href="#FNanchor_286" class="label">[286]</a> I am not certain of the exact place at which the Don becomes navigable.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_287" href="#FNanchor_287" class="label">[287]</a> The Volga was called Rhao by +the ancients; the Tatars called it +<i>Idél</i>, <i>Adel</i>, or <i>Edel</i>, which signified +<i>abundance</i>, <i>generosity</i>, <i>riches</i>. The +name of Volga, or Wolga, has the +same origin as Boulgar or Bulgarian, +and this name was given to the river +because the early seats of the Bulgarians +were situated on its banks before +they moved to their present country +on the south bank of the Danube. It +rises in the district of Ostachof, in the +government of Tver. Its course to +the mouth of the Kama is from west +to east, and thence it runs to the +south into the Caspian Sea. It passes +through the governments of Tver, +Jaroslav, Kostroma, Nijni Novgorod, +Kazan, Simbirsk, Saratof, and Astrakhan, +and throws itself into the +sea by 70 mouths, forming a multitude +of islands. Its course is about +2500 miles (4000 versts) long. It +passes several important towns, such +as Tver, Ouglitch, Romanof, Jaroslav, +Kostroma, Balakhna, Nijni Novgorod, +Kousmodemiansk, Tcheboksar, Kazan, +Simbirsk, Syzran, Saratof, Tsaritzine, +and Astrakhan. It waters fertile +regions, and is ornamented on its +lower course with fine forests. Its +principal navigation begins at Tver. +The Volga has the advantage of +having no cataracts, or any dangerous +passage; but its depth gradually +diminishes from time to time, so as +to give reason to fear that it may become +unnavigable even for vessels of +a moderate size. At the beginning +of the eighteenth century the salt +vessels of Siberia could carry from +130,000 to 150,000 poods⁠<a id="FNanchor_288" href="#Footnote_288" class="fnanchor">[288]</a> of salt; +now they cannot carry more than +90,000 poods. Fish is most abundant +in it; the principal kinds are the +beluga, sturgeon, biella ryba, sterlet, +&c.—Vsevolovski, <i>Dict. Géog. +Hist. de l’Empire Russe</i>, art. ‘Volga.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_288" href="#FNanchor_288" class="label">[288]</a> One pood = about 40 lbs. English.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_289" href="#FNanchor_289" class="label">[289]</a> The project of uniting the Volga +and the Don, so as to complete the +communication between the Baltic, +Black, and Caspian Seas, is very +ancient. Seleucus Nicanor, then Selim +II., and afterwards Peter the +Great, undertook the execution of it, +and, if it has not yet been effected, +the delay must be attributed to other +circumstances than to the difficulty +of the enterprise. If the Tlavlia, +which falls into the Don, and the +Kamitchiaka, which falls into the +Volga, were rendered navigable, the +distance necessary to unite these two +mighty streams would only be 3 miles. +The difficulty which Peter the Great +encountered was, that the level of the +Don was higher than that of the Volga +by a distance which the academician +Lovitz found to be 300 feet. The +celebrated Pallas then suggested a +junction below the Tlavlia, where the +Don, making an angle, approaches +the Volga within 50 versts (about 35 +miles), and the ground is a bed of +sandstone easy to work. They might +also be joined by a canal from the +Karpovka, on the left bank of the +Don, and the Sarpa, a tributary of +the Volga; and this would be easy, +because of deep ravines and valleys +near a convenient point of junction.</p> + +<p>Peter the Great, however, united +the Voroneje, which falls into the +Don, with the Niaza, by a canal; +and as the last river flows into the +Racovna, the Racovna into the Oka, +and the Oka into the Volga, it is +possible to navigate from Moscow +into the Oka, and thence into the +Don.—Vsevolovski, <i>Dict. Hist. de +l’Empire Russe</i>, art. ‘Don.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_290" href="#FNanchor_290" class="label">[290]</a> In spite of the protection afforded +by all but prohibitory duties, and the +great expense incurred by the nation to +support a fictitious system, the manufacturers +of Russia are always in a +depressed state, and do not gain by +this state of things, although their +countrymen lose.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_291" href="#FNanchor_291" class="label">[291]</a> This is confirmed by Tegoborski. +“The thing,” he says, “which struck +me the most during my short stay at +Nijni Novgorod in 1852 was the simplicity, +and I might almost say the +apparent carelessness, with which commercial +affairs were ordinarily carried +on without the agency of brokers +(courtiers). Considering that there +were sales to the amount of 10,000,000<i>l.</i> +in the short space of three or four +weeks, I was surprised to see the Exchange +almost always deserted. Many +important affairs were concluded without +any formality, on the simple word +of the parties, in the cafés and restaurants. +This method of conducting +business is generally in use in Russia, +and constitutes a characteristic trait +of our commerce. Few persons are +aware that at Moscow there is much +more business done at the restaurant +of the Troitsk (troitski troetir) than +at the Exchange. Sometimes, no +doubt, a merchant becomes embarrassed +and unable to fulfil his engagements, +but it is rare that any +man of tolerable credit frees himself +in regular bad faith from a bargain +concluded without the formalities +which would render it legally binding.”—<i>Études</i>, +vol. iii., p. 287.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_292" href="#FNanchor_292" class="label">[292]</a> This was the number of the +corps of the Caucasus when I left the +country in 1846, and it was afterwards, +I believe, increased.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_293" href="#FNanchor_293" class="label">[293]</a> Sunk on the 24th of September, 1854, at the entrance of the port of Sevastopol.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_294" href="#FNanchor_294" class="label">[294]</a> Published in the Appendices to +Dr. Clarke’s Travels.—A discourse +under the trigger is the harangue +made by a general to his troops when +the line is drawn out and the soldiers +rest their pieces.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_295" href="#FNanchor_295" class="label">[295]</a> The Russian archine is 28 inches.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_296" href="#FNanchor_296" class="label">[296]</a> The Russian soldiers buy their +own lead.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_297" href="#FNanchor_297" class="label">[297]</a> The treasury of the mess.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_298" href="#FNanchor_298" class="label">[298]</a> The name given by the Russians to the empress.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_299" href="#FNanchor_299" class="label">[299]</a> It is impossible in this translation, +consistently with fidelity, to +preserve the brevity and energy of +the original Russian.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_300" href="#FNanchor_300" class="label">[300]</a> This is a Russian mode of expression. +To proceed ten versts, they +say, To break off ten.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_301" href="#FNanchor_301" class="label">[301]</a> Children and brothers: appellations +given by Suvórof to his troops.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_302" href="#FNanchor_302" class="label">[302]</a> Whatever arrives. Suvórof began +the attack as soon as the colours +arrived, even if he had but half a +regiment advanced.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_303" href="#FNanchor_303" class="label">[303]</a> Strength and a half. A common +mode of expression in Russia. Suvórof +aimed at the style and language +of the common soldiers, which rendered +his composition often obscure.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_304" href="#FNanchor_304" class="label">[304]</a> Lashes: the literal translation +is sticks.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_305" href="#FNanchor_305" class="label">[305]</a> Professor Pallas supposed this to +have been a manual of medicine, published +for the use of the army.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_306" href="#FNanchor_306" class="label">[306]</a> Here he endeavours to counteract +a Russian prejudice, that is favourable +to immoderate eating during +fevers.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_307" href="#FNanchor_307" class="label">[307]</a> A sour beverage, made of fermented +flour and water.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_308" href="#FNanchor_308" class="label">[308]</a> Suvórof had so great an aversion +to any person saying “I don’t know,” +in answer to his questions, that he +became almost mad with passion. +His officers and soldiers were so well +aware of this singularity, that they +would hazard any answer instantly, +accurate or not, rather than venture +to incur his displeasure by professing +ignorance.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_309" href="#FNanchor_309" class="label">[309]</a> The words here are some of them +not to be translated, and seem to be +the coinage of his own fancy. The +Russians themselves cannot affix an +explication to them.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_310" href="#FNanchor_310" class="label">[310]</a> A Russian proverb.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_311" href="#FNanchor_311" class="label">[311]</a> Here Suvórof is a little in his +favourite character of the buffoon. +He generally closed his harangues by +endeavouring to excite laughter among +his troops; and this mode of forming +a climax is a peculiar characteristic +of the conversation of the Russian +boors. In this manner:—“And not +only of the boors, but of the gentry; +and not only of the gentry, but the +nobles; and not only of the nobles, +but the emperors.”</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_312" href="#FNanchor_312" class="label">[312]</a> A slight exaggeration of Suvórof’s.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_313" href="#FNanchor_313" class="label">[313]</a> From Hagemeister’s Report on the Commerce of New Russia. London, +1836, p. 120.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_314" href="#FNanchor_314" class="label">[314]</a> Trade and Navigation of the Crimea for 1852, from the ‘Journal de St. +Pétersbourg.’</p></div> + +</div> + +<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 77506 ***</div> +</body> +</html> diff --git a/77506-h/images/cover.jpg b/77506-h/images/cover.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..bc531f5 --- /dev/null +++ b/77506-h/images/cover.jpg diff --git a/77506-h/images/illus1.jpg b/77506-h/images/illus1.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..af321ad --- /dev/null +++ b/77506-h/images/illus1.jpg diff --git a/77506-h/images/illus2-full.jpg b/77506-h/images/illus2-full.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..1293ced --- /dev/null +++ b/77506-h/images/illus2-full.jpg diff --git a/77506-h/images/illus2.jpg b/77506-h/images/illus2.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a01f066 --- /dev/null +++ b/77506-h/images/illus2.jpg diff --git a/77506-h/images/illus3-full.jpg b/77506-h/images/illus3-full.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..330e2c7 --- /dev/null +++ b/77506-h/images/illus3-full.jpg diff --git a/77506-h/images/illus3.jpg b/77506-h/images/illus3.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..8a2f731 --- /dev/null +++ b/77506-h/images/illus3.jpg diff --git a/77506-h/images/illus4-full.jpg b/77506-h/images/illus4-full.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..9133e4d --- /dev/null +++ b/77506-h/images/illus4-full.jpg diff --git a/77506-h/images/illus4.jpg b/77506-h/images/illus4.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..009c696 --- /dev/null +++ b/77506-h/images/illus4.jpg diff --git a/77506-h/images/illus5.jpg b/77506-h/images/illus5.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..645f7f0 --- /dev/null +++ b/77506-h/images/illus5.jpg diff --git a/77506-h/images/illus6-full.jpg b/77506-h/images/illus6-full.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..1e40bba --- /dev/null +++ b/77506-h/images/illus6-full.jpg diff --git a/77506-h/images/illus6.jpg b/77506-h/images/illus6.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..80baf72 --- /dev/null +++ b/77506-h/images/illus6.jpg diff --git a/77506-h/images/line1.jpg b/77506-h/images/line1.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a5e3d48 --- /dev/null +++ b/77506-h/images/line1.jpg diff --git a/77506-h/images/line2.jpg b/77506-h/images/line2.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..24c0415 --- /dev/null +++ b/77506-h/images/line2.jpg diff --git a/77506-h/images/tomb-plan.jpg b/77506-h/images/tomb-plan.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..3d1dfae --- /dev/null +++ b/77506-h/images/tomb-plan.jpg |
